IN F O R M A T IO N T O USERS This dissertation was produced from a m icrofilm copy o f the original document. W hile the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The follow ing explanation o f techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s,k". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s} or section, they are spliced into the film along w ith adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you com plete continuity. 2. When m ark, copy image. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part o f the material being p h o to g ra p h e d the photographer follow ed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper le ft hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from le ft to right in equal sections w ith a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. T h e m ajority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding o f the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by w riting the Order Departm ent, giving the catalog number, title , author and specific pages you wish reproduced. an image on the film is obliterated w ith a large round black it is an indication th at the photographer suspected that the may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred Y o u w ill find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. University M icrofilm s 300 North Z * * b Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 40100 A Xorox Education Company I I 72-29,995 MacLEOD, Malcolm Dean, 1938FIELD-TESTING A PLANNING MODEL FOR SOCIAL ACTION PROGRAMS IN FIVE RURAL-BASED MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1972 Education, administration U n iv e rs ity M icro film s, A XEROX C om pany , A n n A rb o r, M ic h ig a n THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FIELD-TESTING A PLANNING MODEL FOR SOCIAL ACTION PROGRAMS IN FIVE RURAL-BASED MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES By Malcolm Dean MacLeod A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1972 PLEASE NOTE; Some p a g e s may h a v e in distin ct Filmed as U niversity M icrofilm s, print. received. A X e r o x E d u c a t i o n Company ABSTRACT FIELD-TESTING A PLANNING MODEL FOR SOCIAL ACTION PROGRAMS IN FIVE RURAL-BASED MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES By Malcolm Dean MacLeod This descriptive study emerged from the need for more predictable and definitive outcomes in social action programs. To fulfill this need, social action programs are just beginning to be influenced by the new emphasis on planning techniques. The study is an attempt to investi­ gate : (1) the designing, field-testing, and developing of a planning model for implementing social action programs; (2) the nature of involvement of administrators, teachers, students, agency personnel, and citizens who participated in the planning; and (3) the usefulness of Management by Objectives (MBO) as a planning technique for social action programs. Malcolm Dean MacLeod Management: by Objectives was viewed as a potential aid in assisting relatively unsophisticated per­ sonnel , who had a limited amount of in-service and pre-service training, in producing definitive outcomes. The data for this study was obtained through an indepth analysis of the social action programs offered through five rural-based Michigan community colleges. Preliminary to making the actual visits to the community colleges in the sample, a planning model was d e ­ signed by using the planning literature. From this plan­ ning model an interview guide was developed and pilot tested. The procedures used to investigate the areas of study included: 1. Periodic meetings with the community services directors and the project coordinators from each of the five colleges to set objectives. 2. Three workshops held at Michigan State University with the project coordinators from each of the five colleges. Major conclusions of the study included: 1. A planning model can be developed and used in order to determine more predictable outcomes in social action programs of a similar nature. Malcolm D e m MacLeod A planning team in each service area of a social action program should be identified and trained prior to the development of a social action p r o ­ gram. This planning team should receive extensive and intensive training in selected planning t ech­ niques . In social action programs, important concept. involvement is the most All who would be influenced b y a plan should be identified prior to the d e ­ velopment of that plan. Those persons influenced by a plan should be involved in that p l a n . Administrators were more involved in all phases of the planning process than were teachers, dents, agency personnel or citizens. stu­ If program planning is to have long-range positive effects, more teachers, students, agency personnel, and citizens must actively participate in all phases of program planning and d e v e l o p m e n t . Administrative involvement in planning influences the planning process of social action programs through their leadership roles, priorities, a tti­ tudes, and financial support. Teacher and student involvement in planning positively influences the planning process of Malcolm Dean MacLeod social action programs through their functions as resource p e r so ns . Agency personnel and citizen involvement in plan­ ning positively influences the planning process of social action programs by establishing com­ munication links throughout the college service area. The psychological commitment to planning is not the formal act of being involved in planning* but the attitude about that involvement. If a person is involved in planning activities that he de­ sires to be in, and if that involvement fulfills his expectations and n e e d s , then he may feel a psychological commitment to planning. When certain conditions are present in the ad­ ministrators, related respondents and the plan­ ning environment, then the planning process for social action programs is enhanced. Management by Objectives (MBO) was not an effec­ tive planning technique for relatively unsophis­ ticated personnel who had a limited amount of in-service and pre-service training. Relatively unsophisticated personnel did not produce reason­ ably definitive outcomes in developing programs as a result of setting objectives. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my appreciation to those people who provided their time and support for the completion of this thesis. Particular gratitude goes to two outstand­ ing leaders and sensitive human beings; D r s . Max R. Raines and Gunder A. Myran. To Dr. Raines, committee chairman, special grati­ tude is given for his friendship, creativity, and sensi­ tivity. And the same gratitude is given to Dr. Myran, committee member, for his friendship, tinual faith in me. support, and con­ His support and faith is reflected in the proverb he gave to me: "What of the promises I made to myself to lay groundwork beneath all of my d r ea ms ." Appreciation also is given to the other members of the committee, Drs. Vandel C. Johnson and John H. Useem. The friendship, warmth, and aid from Ms. Joan Maurer, secretary, also helped in times of crisis. Special gratitude is expressed to Ms. Martha Vlahos, girlfriend, who helped with the final editing, and who endured "dissertation distractions" throughout this past year. Hopefully, though, her aid and patience will be a contribution to our future. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF T A B L E S ...................................... ix LIST OF F I G U R E S ..................................... x Chapter I. THE P R O B L E M .............................. Introduction 1 ............................... X Launching of Project RITE .............. Staffing of Project R I T E .......... 5 The P u r p o s e ........................... 8 Planning Model ........................ Nature of Involvement of R e s p o n d e n t s ....................... Management by Objectives (MBO) . . . Underlying Assumptions of the S t u d y .............................. II. 7 9 10 10 11 P r o c e d u r e s ........................... Limitations of the S t u d y ............. D e f i n i t i o n s .......................... Organization of the S t u d y ......... 12 13 14 18 REVIEW OF THE L I T E R A T U R E ............. 19 Introduction ............................... Definition of Planning ................. Planning Process ........................ Planning Steps ........................... 19 19 23 24 Step I: Recognition of Need . . . . Step II: Setting of Objectives . . . Step III: Assessment of Resources . 24 24 25 . Chapter Page Step IV: Determining and Evaluating Alternative Courses of Action . . . Step V: D e c i s i o n - M a k i n g ............. Step VI: Formulating Derivative P l a n s ................................. Step VII: E v a l u a t i o n ................. Management Techniques 26 27 .................... 27 ............. Operations Research (OR) Planning-Programming-Budgeting System ( P P B S ) ....................... Program Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT) .................... Manpower Assessment .................... Systems Analysis ....................... Limitations to Systems Approach: Systems Analysis, PERT, PPBS, Manpower Assessment ................. Management by Objectives (MBO). . . . 27 Summary of M B O ........................... 42 Involvement of Respondents in P l a n n i n g .............................. 43 Selection of Respondents III. 25 26 28 30 31 33 36 37 ................. 45 Community College President . . . . Community Services Director . . . . Project Coordinator .................... Teachers and Students ................. Agencies and Advisory Groups . . . . Citizens .............................. 45 47 49 50 53 54 S u m m a r y ..................................... 54 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION The Sample . . . . . . 58 ................. 58 Development of the Interview Guide . Selection of Community Colleges . . . Implementation of Management by Objectives ( M B O ) .................... 60 61 v 62 Chapter Page Data Gathering . .. ................... . . 63 Arrangements for Visits to C o l l e g e s ..................................... 64 Administration of the Interview . . . . 65 Organization of D a t a ........................... 65 IV. ANALYSIS OF D A T A .................................. 66 Planning Model .................... 66 Step I: S t a g i n g .............................. Step II: Establishing Goals and Setting Objectives ................. Step III: Making the Decision . . . . Step IV: Implementing Programs . . . . Step V: E v a l u a t i n g ........................... Introduction 70 71 72 73 74 .............................. 74 SECTION I: Involvement of Respondents in ....................... the Planning Process 76 P r e s i d e n t s ..................................... 76 Step I: S t a g i n g .............................. 76 Step II: Establishing Goals and Setting Objectives .................... 79 Step III: Making D e c i s i o n s ................. 61 Step IV: I m p l e m e n t i n g .................... 6 3 Step V: E v a l u a t i n g ........................... 83 S u m m a r y .........................................84 Community Services Directors . . . . . 85 Step I : Staging . 85 Step II: Establishing Goals and .................... 87 Setting Objectives Step III: Making D e c i s i o n s ................. 68 Step IV: I m p l e m e n t i n g ........................ 89 Step V: E v a l u a t i n g ........................... 90 S u m m a r y .........................................91 vi Page Chapter Project Coordinators ........................ 92 Step I : S t a g i n g ........................... Step II: Establishing Goals and .................... Setting Objectives Step I I I : Making D e c i s i o n s .............. Step IV: I m p l e m e n t i n g .................... Step V: E v a l u a t i n g ........................ S u m m a r y ...................................... 92 94 94 96 97 97 ........................ 98 Teachers and Students Step I: S t a g i n g ........................... Step II: Establishing Goals and Setting Objectives ....................... Step III: Making D e c i s i o n s .............. Step IV: I m p l e m e n t i n g .................... Step V: E v a l u a t i n g ........................ S u m m a r y ........................................ Agency Personnel and Citizens ............. Step I: S t a g i n g ........................... Step II: Establishing Goals and Setting Objectives .................... Step III: Making D e c i s i o n s .............. Step IV: I m p l e m e n t i n g .................... Step V: E v a l u a t i n g ........................ S u m m a r y ...................................... SECTION II: Involvement of Administrative Respondents and Related Respondents in the planning Process .......................... The Planning T e a m .............................. Concept of I n v o l v e m e n t ....................... Administrative Attitudes ....................... Communication Links .......................... Related Respondents .......................... Psychological Involvement in P l a n n i n g ..................................... Conditions for Planning ....................... S u m m a r y ........................................ The Flow C h a r t ................................. 99 100 100 101 101 102 102 102 102 105 106 107 107 108 108 109 109 110 Ill 112 113 114 114 Chapter Page SECTION Ills Evaluation of O b j e c t i v e s .................................. 115 Delimitations on Goals and O b j e c t i v e s ............................... S u m m a r y ...................................... 123 134 S u m m a r y ......................................... 135 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION OF C O N ­ CLUSIONS, SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER R E S E A R C H ...................................... 136 Summary of the P r o b l e m .................... Summary of Data C o l l e c t i o n ................. Findings of the S t u d y .................... C o n c l u s i o n s .................................. Discussion of Conclusions ................. Suggestions for Further Research . . . . 136 137 138 144 147 151 B I B L I O G R A P H Y ......................................... 153 V. APPENDICES Appendix A. B. Interview Guide for Community Services Planning ........................ Final M o d e l — Flow Chart viii .................... 160 Pocket LIST OP TABLES Table IV.1. Page Per cent of Respondents' Primary and Secondary Involvement in Each Planning S t e p ........................... 75 IV. 2. Routine Objectives ............. 117 IV.3. Problem-Solving Objectives ............. 118 IV. 4. Innovative Objectives IV.5. Personal Objectives . ....................... 119 120 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1. Planning M o d e l ....................... 10 IV.1. Changes for the Development of a New Planning Model .................... 68 IV. 2. Revised M o d e l ....................... 70 I V .3. Classifying of Five Presidents* Leader­ ship S t y l e s 77 IV.4. Communication L i n k a g e s ............. IV.5. Final Model--Flow Chart x ............. Ill Pocket CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction This study emerged from the need for more p redict­ able and definitive outcomes in social action programs. The Brooking Institution, an independent, non-partisan re­ search institution, conducted an evaluation of "war on poverty" programs. These programs are financed through the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO). The programs that were evaluated for their planning and evaluation skills in­ cluded the following: America Head Start, Volunteers in Service to (VISTA), Neighborhood Youth Corp, Job Corp, Work Experience and Training, Adult Education, Migrant Worker, plus those additional programs developed by Community A c ­ tion Programs (CAP). The Brooking Institution evaluation of O E O 1s ability to plan and evaluate social action p r o ­ grams s h o w s : . so far as comprehensive planning is concerned the impact has been minimal or nil. . . . If the plans had little or no impact, wh a t about program evaluation? Here again the impact was blunted . . . hard e v a lu a­ tion results are not yet available for a single p ro ­ gram; there is no program that can be rigorously proven to be bad or good (36:139). 1 2 O E O 1s need for program ideas was so great that a statutory instruction was given to the OEO director " * . . to call on any other federal agencies for informa­ tion and 'other materials* ... to assist in achieving the aims of the Economic Opportunity Act" (47:149). Clearly, there is a need for models that could be used as a basis for planning and evaluating these social action programs. One CAP agency in Michigan was reportedly so poorly planned that other agencies would not cooperate with it (34). This agency has had five directors within the past few years. The OEO was considering closing the agency; however, a decision was made to hire one more director. This writer interviewed the new CAP director. In this interview the new CAP director labeled the reason for the agency's previous failures: "little or no planning." He stated: . . . our agency was in danger of being closed because the past directors had no concept of how to plan* I had to go in and re-organize the entire agency. . . . Other agencies would not work with us because of our bad reputation. . . . We [his staff] need training in how to plan and examples of how planning can be done (34) . He went on to say that other social agencies have many similar planning and evaluation difficulties. The planning techniques currently being used in business have been recently applied to educational systems. Now these same techniques are just beginning to be applied 3 to social action programs. An Eight-State Project entitled "Designing Education for the Future," supported by the U.S. Office of Education, contains studies from business, industry, education, and social science. These studies showed that social action programs were beginning to be in­ fluenced by the new emphasis on planning, and that social action programs need the planning skills of business if the social institutions were to meet the demands of c o n ­ temporary society. An opportunity to examine the nature of planning in social action programs emerged when an announcement was received on March, 1971 by the author and Director of Pro­ ject RITE, Dr. Gunder A. M y r a n , Michigan State University, that a grant of $65,722, under Title I of the Higher Edu­ cation Act of 1965, had been made to a consortium of five rural—based Michigan community colleges (Gogebic Community College, Montcalm Community College, Mid-Michigan Community College, Southwestern Community College, West Shore C o m ­ munity College). university, Michigan State University, a land-grant functioned as the coordinating institution. The five consortium colleges served the following Michigan counties: Gogebic: Gogebic County Mid-Michigan: Clare and Gladwin County Intermediate District Montcalm: Montcalm County, Intermediate District Southwestern: Cass County, Lower Van Buren County West Shore: Mason County, Manistee County, MearsCrystal School District 4 The project was entitled Project RITE volve, Teach, Evaluate). (Reach, In­ Project RITE was operated by the community services division of each of the five rural—based Michigan community colleges. A central purpose of Project RITE was to have a positive impact upon the lives of the rural poor in each of the above five community college service a r e a s . The basic objectives of Project RITE volve, Teach, 1. Evaluate) (Reach, In­ were as follows: In each community college service area, to REACH adults, and particularly those from low-income and minority groups. 2. In each community college service area, to INVOLVE community college faculty, community agencies, and citizens in efforts to enhance educational serv­ ices to low-income community groups. 3. In each community college service area, to TEACH adults new attitudes and skills. 4. In each community college service area, to EVALUATE existing area services for the poor and to initiate long-range planning of the future service structure. 5. To capitalize on the advantages of the consortium relationship by sharing, through periodic meetings and other forms of communication between the 5 various staffs, successes, failures, ideas, and problems involved in the development of the pro­ posed programs. Launching of Project RITE Project RITE officially began on July 1, 1971, and was funded through June, 1972. During this first year of operation, Project RITE has demonstrated a wide range and variety of social action accomplishments. For clarity, some examples of these accomplishments were categorized below using the acronym RITE (Reach, Involve, Teach, Evaluate): Reach: Establishment of target group advisory committees, use of speakers* bureaus, use of college entertainment groups, development of directories of resources which describe services available to lowincome groups, door-to-door contacts in low-income areas, indirect contacts through agencies serving the poor, and neighborhood meetings in low-income areas to discuss problems and possible response of the community college, radio and newspaper publicity. Involve: Establishing of inter-agency councils made up of representatives of all community agencies serving low-income groups, obtaining use of facilities in community for use by low-income groups, family night activities in area churches which merge social and 6 educational activities, obtaining baby-sitting serv­ ices through cooperation with other agencies, sponsor­ ing a "wives day on campus" to get mothers involved, sponsoring a day camp for low-income children which incorporated instruction for mothers on meal planning and preparation and other areas of home economics, establishing of a human resources council designed to bring together community leaders to focus on community problems in a systematic way, and meetings of community leaders to discuss the potential role of Project RITE. Teach: Some of the programs offered through day camps, public forms, counseling and classes at the community college include: (1) Basic Foundations of Society, a course on social issues; (2) Fundamentals of Bookkeeping for the low-income family; and (3) A Senior Citizens Consumer Education Series, including home economics, shopping, and budgeting. ferings include: Other o f ­ (4) Child Care to improve inter­ family relationships; (5) Day Care Center to provide babysitting for low-income working mothers; (6) Senior Citizens Call Board, a center for reassurance and safety; (7) Typing, a course to improve basic typing skills; and (8) Housing Educational Programs for o c ­ cupants of low-income public housing units. 7 Evaluate: Evaluation was a continuing and integral part of the project and was part of a long-range insti­ tutional program with each college. In the past six months of operation, to evaluate thoroughly existing area services for the poor and to initiate long-range planning of these future service structures was not feasible. A basis upon which evaluation could be made was needed first. Therefore, a more valuable approach during the first six months was to select and design a management technique that w o u ld serve as a basis for the evaluation of programs in each college service area. Through the use of a selected management tech­ nique, Management by Objectives, evaluation was made of each of the objectives that were written by each college project coordinator. The usefulness of Man ag e­ ment by Objectives as a planning technique was analyzed. Staffing of Project RITE The following personnel were hired to work directly with the project at Michigan State University: Personnel Project D i r e c t o r : Dr. Gunder A. Myran, Associate P r o f e s s o r , Administration and Higher Education, and Associate Director, Kellogg Community Services Leadership Program at Michigan State University. Associate D i r e c t o r : Mr. Dean MacLeod, Associate D i r e c t o r , Project RITE. 8 The following project coordinators were hired at each of the five community colleges to work directly with the project: Mr. Mr. Ms. Ms. Mr. James F e n t r Gogebic Community College James Stange, Mid-Michigan Community College Marilyn Cooper, Montcalm Community College Yvonne Lawson, Southwestern Michigan College Wayne Van House, West Shore Community College The following administrators from each of the five community colleges devoted a portion of their time to the project: Mr. Howard Bernson, Director of Community Services, Montcalm Community College Mr. Wesley Muth, Director of Community Services, Southwestern Michigan College Dr. Wally Hamrick, Dean of Students, West Shore Community College Mr. Thomas Trousdell, Director of Governmental Projects, Gogebic Community College Mr. Thomas Nyquist, Dean of Instruction and Special Project Director, Mid-Michigan Community College In addition, the following personnel were involved: Dr. Max R. Raines, Professor of Administration and Higher Education and Director, Kellogg Community Services Leadership Program, Michigan State Univer­ sity Mr. Eugene W. Gillaspy, President, Mid-Michigan C o m ­ munity College Dr. John Eaton, President, West Shore Community College Dr. James Perry, President, Gogebic Community College Dr. Russell Owen, President, Southwestern Michigan College Dr. Clifford B e d o r e , President, Montcalm Community College Other personnel were used depending on the need and the areas of expertise of those persons available. The Purpose This descriptive study was concerned with the plan­ ning processes of social action programs in five 9 rural-based community colleges in Michigan. purposes of the study were: The specific (1) to design, field-test and develop a planning model for implementing social action programs; (2) to examine the nature of involvement of a d ­ ministrators, teachers, students, agency personnel, and citizens who participated in the planning, and (3) to ex­ plore the usefulness of Management by Objectives (MBO) as a planning technique for social action programs. Manage­ ment by Objectives was viewed as a potential aid in assist­ ing relatively unsophisticated personnel, who had a limited amount of in-service and pre-service training, in pro­ ducing definitive outcomes. This study was completed during the six-month period, July 1, 1971, through Decem­ ber 31, 1971. Planning Model Through an indepth study of the planning litera­ ture, seven steps in the planning process were identified and served as a foundation for the designing of a planning model for this study. in Figure 1.1. These steps appear in diagram form Each of these steps is defined in detail in Chapter II. The opportunity to field-test this model emerged from the funding of Project RITE Evaluate) in March, 1971. (Reach, Involve, Teach, Similar to other social action programs, a primary objective of RITE was to discover ways to work with the rural poor in helping them to meet their 10 (1) Assessment of Need , (2 > Setting of Objectives (7) Evaluation <3) Assessment of Future Resources (6) Formulation of Derivative Plans (4) Determining and Evaluating Courses of Action (5) Decision­ making Figure i.l.— Planning Model. many needs. It was believed that Project RITE was similar to other social action programs and would afford an e xcel­ lent opportunity to field-test a planning model. Nature of Involvement of Respondents The planning steps identified in Figure I.l were viewed as essential to an adequate planning process for social action programs of this type. Within the planning process were functionaries who, by the nature of their in­ volvement in the planning steps had influence on planning. This portion of the study investigated the nature of the involvement of these functionaries. Management by Objectives (MBO) MBO was an integral part of the planning process as developed here. Objectives were defined and used as 11 guides for develo ing programs in each of the college com­ munity services social action programs. The general defi­ nition of Management by Objectives is "a process whereby the superior and subordinate managers of an organization jointly identify its common goals, define each individual's major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of him and used these measures as guides for o p ­ erating the unit and assessing the contribution of its members (3:55-56). Based on this definition, each of the college's social action programs was designed using the Management by Objectives' planning system. tives The Project RITE objec­ (which appear in the Introduction of this chapter) served as the foundation upon which each of the consortium member's objectives was based. The consortium members who set objectives were: (1) the director and the associate director of Project RITE, and (2) the project coordinators at each of the five community colleges who were hired to work directly with Project RITE. Underlying Assumptions of the StuAy 1. A field-tested planning model will have implica­ tions for other social action programs of a similar nature. 2. The planning process is definable as well as se­ quential, and units within each planning step are also definable and sequential. These units can be used in classifying behavior and subsequently in determining if there is a developmental sequence of behavior in implementing social action programs. If the setting of objectives can facilitate p r o ­ gram development, then these objectives will have implications for other social action programs. Procedures Briefly, the procedures used to investigate the were: Informal meetings during the first six-month period with the community services directors and the p r o ­ ject coordinators in each of the five community col­ leges to discuss the planning process of the project. Formal meetings with the community services d i r e c ­ tors and the project coordinators in each of the five community colleges to set objectives. The associate director of Project RITE met with the project coordinators to jointly identify o b j e c ­ tives and define each coordinator's primary area of responsibility. In the process of setting o b ­ jectives, each part of the process was broken down into four areas: (a) Routine Objectives, (b) Problem-Solving Objectives, Objectives, and (c) innovative (d) Personal Objectives. Objec­ tives were continually revised and updated through periodic meetings with the associate director and the project coordinators. Objectives were eval­ uated to assess the usefulness of Management by Objectives as a planning technique. Three workshops held at Michigan State University with the community services directors and the project coordinators. A series of structured interviews with the pr esi­ dents, community services directors, project coordi­ nators, teachers, students, agency personnel, and citizens at each of the five community colleges. A formal interview w ith a Management by Objectives expert. A formal meeting with model cities planning experts. Limitations of the Study This study is limited in the following ways: The source of information was limited to five rural-based community colleges in Michigan. Thus, the generalizability of this study was limited to colleges of similar nature. The sample was limited by a non-random and poten­ tially biased selection of respondents. The re­ spondents were selected by the project coordinators at each college. 14 3. The reporting of activities was the stated pe r ­ ceptions of the people interviewed. No attempt was made to verify their perceptions. 4. The project coordinator helped to set the o b jec­ tives for Project RITE; they also evaluated their own objectives. 5. The writer was the associate director of Project RITE. of There may have been a desire on the part respondents to please the writer. This desire to please the associate director could have p re ­ disposed their responses. 6. It was not the primary purpose of this study to compare colleges. Differences among the respond­ ents in each college were not considered to be significant. Definitions Planning; An intellectual, rational, dec is io n­ making process of setting objectives, goals and policies for future tivity commitment, including risk-taking, some crea­ and innovation for the purpose of achieving agreed- upon objectives. 15 Planning P r o c e s s : The systematic process of making future decisions in order to achieve the goals of an e d u ­ cational program. Comprehensive P l a n n i n g : Planning where all facets of an activity are considered and integrated over time (short- or long-range pl a n n i n g ) . Short-Range P l a n n i n g : and selecting objectives, The method of identifying usually for a period of two years. Long-Range P l a n n i n g : and selecting objectives, The method of identifying usually for a period of more than two years, but generally not more than five years. Goals; Broad statements of purpose. Goals are often ideal and include value judgments. Objectives: Specific purposes stated in operational terms which can be behaviorally translated into action and evalua t io n. Project C o o r d i n a t o r : A unique position in the community services division of a community college whose functions include coordination with the college admi ni s­ tration and staff, community agencies, and citizens for the purpose of having a positive impact on the rural poor in a representative service a r e a . 16 Community S e r v i c e s : The action programs of the community college, undertaken independently or in coopera­ tion with other community groups and agencies, which direct the educational resources of the college toward serving individual, group, and community needs Management by O b j e c t i v e s : (32:15). A process whereby the superior and the subordinate managers of an organization jointly identify its common goals, define each individual's major areas of responsibility in terms of the results ex­ pected of him and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of its members (52:55-56). Social Action P r o g r a m : Social action program for the purpose of this study is defined a s : (1) a program involving minority people, the poor, the unemployed or the underemployed; (2) a planned innovation, not a change that occurred naturally; (3) a program with goals which include producing observable behavioral changes in skills or atti­ tudes or values; (4) a program having an impact on the community, in­ volving at least 100 persons or more on a voluntary basis in the community college; and 17 (5) a program judged successful by the practitioner (14:10). Primary Involvement: A respondent reporting that he was an active participant in a planning step. Secondary I nvolvement: A respondent reporting that he was a passive participant in a planning step. Routine O b j e c t i v e s ; A repetitive, commonplace but necessary goal to which an effort is directed. Problem-Solving O b j e c t i v e s : A performance m o d i ­ fication which leads to the correction of a discrepancy or deficiency in the level of current performance. Innovative O b j e c t i v e s : A new approach which may lead to improved or expanded results. Personal O b j e c t i v e s : An individual effort which leads toward improvement of professional or managerial skills and the enhancement of career growth Directive: (55). An individual who is characterized as insisting on being the focus of authority and control. Permissive: An individual who is characterized as permitting others to have options and who do not insist on being the focus of authority and control. 18 Respondents: All forty-seven Individuals who were interviewed for the purposes of this study. Administrative Respondents: The fifteen individ­ uals interviewed who function in an administrative capacity at any one of the five community colleges in this study. These fifteen individuals include and were limited to five college presidents, five community service directors, and five project coordinators. Related Respondents: The thirty-two individuals interviewed who do not function in an administrative capacity at any one of the five community colleges in this study. These thirty-two individuals include and were limited to thirteen teachers and students and nineteen agency personnel and citizens. Organization of the Study Chapter II was devoted to a review of literature, that includes publications and research studies relevant to this dissertation. Chapter III describes the procedures used to pre­ pare and conduct interviews. Chapter IV analyzes the data related to the basic questions of the study. Chapter V presents a summary of the study, con­ clusions, discussion of conclusions, and suggestions for further research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction This study reviews the literature that r e ­ lates to the areas of investigation in this study: (1) the definition of planning, the planning process, and the development of steps in planning; (2) management techniques; (3) the involvement of respondents in planning. Since there is very little done in social action programs in regard to planninq, this review focuses on related studies in business and social action programs in c o m­ munity college, community services programs. Definition of Planning Planning can be defined in many ways. Planning varies from a spontaneous desire to accomplish some simple task to a highly integrated, specialized and regulated system of controls for the purpose of accomplishing specific or multiple objectives. philosophy, Further, i . e . , an attitude, 19 it may be as broad as a a way of life or a continuous 20 process which begins with objectives, defines strategies, policies, and detailed plans to achieve them. Warren (10) states that planning is essentially "a process of preparing for the commitment of resources in the most economical fashion and, by preparing, or allowing this commitment to be made faster and less disruptively" (10:21). Drucker (41) defines planning as " . . . tinuous process of making present entrapreneurial the c o n ­ (risk- taking) decisions systematically and with the best possible knowledge of their futurity, organizing systematically the efforts needed to carry out thes decisions, and measuring the results of these decisions against the expectations through organized, systematic feedback" (41:10). Many agree that planning was futuristic and in­ volved a decision-making process. Steiner (19) states ". . . planning deals with futurity not only in the sense of considering distant implications of current actions but also in providing the basis, the framework, or umbrella for making current decisions.” Stated another way, "Fundament­ ally, all planning is concerned with the future . . . p l a n ­ ning deals with the futurity of present decisions" Chamberlain (19:9). (19) sees planning arise when dealing with a "stream of time." In addition, this "stream of time" involves dealing with commitments made over that time stream. Schaives (19:9) believes . . planning is thinking ahead about the consequences of your actions b e ­ fore you make them . . . planning deals with the future." 21 In education, Maxcy (2) cites what he considers to be a most concise definition by Anderson and Bowman (30:4) "that planning is the process of preparing a set of decisions for future action." Similarly, Novaick (19) views the decision-making aspect of planning as "the selection of alternatives from a wide array of possibilities," (19:11) and Goetz (3) states that planning is "fundamentally choosing" (3:2). Broadly defined, "Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who is to do it . . . (4:71). LeBreton three characteristics: (7) states that there must be "First, Second, it must involve action. it must involve the future. Third, there is an ele­ ment of personal or organizational identification or causation" (7:71). Stewart sees the definition of planning as encompassing not only "actionable plans" but also the processes, timing, subject matter, and purpose of a function. Planning, too, covers a dimension of time Davis (19:7). (15) points out the following elements as a definition of planning. of the factors, He sees a plan as specifications forces, effects and relationships that enter into the solution of a problem. Further, it is a basis for achievement of objectives, plus the evidence of management's thinking. Also, involves a degree of futurity the planning function always (15:43). 22 Additional definitions show planning broadly d e ­ fined as "controlling the nature and direction of change" <8:136), and Hardwick and Landuyt (9) view planning as "gameraanship" or the employment of strategy in the pursuit of goals. Their view places value on creativity, tion, and imaginative thought innova­ (9:188-89). In education, Morphett and Ryan (42) define plan­ ning as follows: . . . a process of attempting to determine appropriate qoals and objectives, obtaining and analyzing pertinent information that will bring into focus present and emerging problems and needs, and obtaining agreement on steps and procedures that are designed to meet those needs so the objectives can be attained (42:xiii). And Sartor (6), in a related study of planning practices in student personnel, synthesizes a definition of planning for his study as follows: Planning is the preparing sets of decisions for guiding change and growth within the organization; it provides the basis for rational decision-making. It involves a commitment, it is futuristic, and must include activities which are both creative and innovative (6:31). A definition of planning for this study would appear to include the following elements: Planning is an intellectual, rational, decision-making process of setting objectives, goals and policies for future commitment. It is purposeful action d e ­ signed to anticipate change and growth. it includes risk-taking, some creativity and Innovation for the purpose or achieving agreed-upon objectives. 23 Planning Process Education Planning is a process that consists of a number of planning steps. Maxcy (2) defines this education planning process as "the future-oriented, decision-making procedure to achieve the goals of the education program" (2:7). Sartor (6) states it as, organizational needs, objectives, "A Process whereby future and courses of action have been systematically ascertained from identified alter­ natives, integrated and programmed" (6:22). Other defi­ nitional elements include the ability to work with people (17:58) and the ability for rational decision-making. The definition connotes a future and goal-oriented decision­ making process whose purpose is to fulfill specified organ­ izational objectives. Part and parcel of the process are specific steps that make up the planning process. This literature review indicates a wide variety of planning steps. When detailed, planning steps may number as many as 14 steps or number as few as 4 steps. dition, In ad­ steps in planning may be connected with relatively large or small programs, but essentially the same steps may be followed in any thorough planning (4:94). This would hold true whether the planning process were business, industry (economic planning) education, or social action programs (21:1). For the purpose of this study the primary planning steps are presented. 24 Planning Steps Step I ; of Need Recognition This step is considered to be the starting point in planning. Davis (1951) Authors identify this step by various titles. lists it as, "Recognition of the problem and determination of differences involved"; Friedman defines it as, "Surveying total program resources to d i s ­ cover where the main effort is required"; O'Donnell (1967) (1964) state this step as, tunity"; McFarland "Being aware of oppor­ (1970) defines it as, present conditions"; Hansen (1967): problems"; and LeBreton and Henning Koontz and "Evaluation of "Identification of (1961) see this as "Becoming aware of a possible need for formulating the plan." This step, states Koontz and O'Donnell (1964), includes a preliminary look at possible future opportun­ ities and the ability to see them clearly and completely. It provides the opportunity to ascertain strengths and weaknesses and to set realistic objectives. Step II: Setting of Objectively The 2nd step in planning is to set objectives for the organization or program. LeBreton and Henning (1970), Hueferer Koontz and O'Donnell (1961), Steiner (1964), (1963) , Sartor (1967), Raines and Myran (1970), et a l . , state this as an essential step in the planning process. 25 Objectives indicate what is to be done (4:94-99) (7:4), where the emphasis will be placed, what will provide the common direction by which the merits of alternative p ro ­ grams are weighed, are resolved and which conflicts between programs (11:18-20). Step III: Assessment of Resourcei Koontz and O'Donnell (1961), Davis (1951), an important step. (1964) , LeBreton and Henning and McFarland (1970) identify this as Assessment of Resources includes fore­ casting and the use of available policies and plans. It looks at the future setting in which a plan takes p l a c e — the environment of plans. Assessment of Resources is an important part of planning education programs, particularly social action programs, where it is necessary to identify community resources and community needs (20:30). Step IV: Determining and Evaluating Alternative Courses or Action This step is a search for alternative plans, particularly those plans which are not readily apparent. Often an alternative plan proves to be the best. (1951), Koontz and O'Donnell (1961), Steiner Hansen Davis (1964), LeBreton and Henning (1963), Sartor (1970), Huefuer (1967), and Raines and Myran (1969) an essential step in the planning process. (1967), state this as 26 Once alternative plans have been identified, is necessary to evaluate them (4:97). it Evaluation of a l ­ ternative plans weighs the various factors of the plans and evaluates them in v iew of goals. McFarland (1970), Hansen Steiner (1967), Steiner (1967), (1969), view evaluating courses of action as important, and it is in­ cluded here as a part of determining alternative courses of action. At this p o i n t — when there are multiple factors — methodologies, research and computer use are often a p ­ plied to help decision-making. Step V : Decision-Making It is at this point that a plan is adopted. is the key decision-making step. and O'Donnell Sartor (1964), Steiner (1970), Hansen Davis (1951), Koontz (1963), Steiner (1967), Friedman This (1969), (1967), et a l ., state this is a key step in the planning process. Stejo VI: Formulating Derivative Plans With the decision made, derivative plans must be constructed to support the basic plan (19:318-19) (6:42). (4:98-99) (7:4) It is at this point where consider­ ation is given to hiring and training of additional p e r­ sonnel, the acquisition of facilities, advertising. scheduling, and Managers must plan here to make the basic plan a reality. 27 Step VII: Evaluation While Steiner (1969) believes that an effective program needs "continuous surveillance" to assure that a plan's objectives are being carried out, he, like Koontz and O'Donnell (1964), sees evaluation as a part of m a n a g e ­ ment techniques. tool; however, in planning. Evaluation is primarily a management evaluation is considered a necessary step Robinson (6:46) and HcAbec (6:46) regard evaluation as an important planning step. Management Techniques There are emerginq management techniques which can be applied to education and to social action programs. These techniques help supply information and data needed for decision-making; in addition, they help analyze the relationship of the many variables that may have a bearing on the outcome of the decision process. include Operations Research Budgeting System Technique These techniques (OR), Planning-Programming- (PPBS), Program Evaluation and Review (PERT), Manpower Assessment, and Management by Objectives (MBO). Systems Analysis, Each of these is discussed in turn. Operations Research (OR) Operations Research is considered to be the m ost refined and extensive of the planning techniques. Started 28 in Great Britain and applied to radar problems, the tech­ nique was quickly adopted by various countries and used at governmental and industrial levels. The techniques associated w it h OR have much impact on business, and more recently education. industry, Its special characteristics include looking at all problems in a total perspective. Attention is given to identifying interactions between v a r ­ ious sub-units of organizations as well as between the p r o ­ cesses in the organization. a team of specialists. Secondly, OR is conducted by OR researchers believe that no one discipline contains the answers for a complex problem. Therefore, a variety of experts participate in defining problems and designing solutions. Thirdly, OR experts believe that systems cannot be controlled in their original environment. For this reason OR is represented through mathematical equations. reality To do this means simulating (the e nv ironment). methodology, Fourthly, as a part of the OR involves the implementation of results and, thus, OR researchers must work closely with the organization managers (27:273-74). Planning-ProgrammingBudgeting System (PPBS) Influenced by the Department of Defense, and as an offshoot of Operations Research, PPBS is being adopted in many state governments, and is beginning to be used in several school districts. President Johnson decided in 29 1965 to require governmental agencies to institute and use PPBS. Culbertson (27) points out P P B S ’s growing use not only in state planning, but also shows that new o r g a n ­ izations are being created to encourage planning tech­ niques for state governments. PPBS, when implemented properly, is designed to help top management with d e ­ cisions. PPBS provides for more concrete and specific data, for concrete objectives, for systematically analyzed objectives and programs for review, and for thoroughly evaluated costs of programs. than partial cost estimates, PPBS indicates total rather presents prospective costs and accomplishments of programs, and reviews objectives, and program analysis on a year-round basis Hartley (27:275-76). (37) discusses some of the limitations of PPBS. He notes that there are many articles written on the sub­ ject that discuss implementation of the program but these articles lack critical appraisal. There is confusion over terminology, problems in adopting models, measurement of the unmeasurable, shortage of trained personnel, sistance to planned change. the limitations cited. and re­ These criticisms were some of Culbertson (27) warns that PPBS emphasizes: . . . precise measures of output. There is a tendency for planners . . . to be influenced more by economic measures simply because other measures of values (e.g., human dignity) are extremely d i f f i ­ cult to achieve (27:279). 30 Program Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT) Koontz and O'Donnell (4) describe PERT as d e ­ veloped by the Special Projects Office of the United States Navy. It was formally applied to the planning and control of the Polaris Weapon System and helped to expe­ dite that program. PERT is well-received by the armed services and adopted by major contractors and subcontrac­ tors in armament and space programs (4:682-83). gaining popularity in private industry. PERT is McFarland (8) states that PERT involves identifying all key activities in a project, devision the sequence of activities and arranging a flow diagram, and assigning duration times for the performance of each phase of work. PERT uses time as a common denominator to reflect three basics in work projects: (1) time; (2) use of resources; and formance specifications (8:278). (3) per­ PERT is a systems ap­ proach and is designed to involve all members in the planning process. Koontz and O'Donnell and weaknesses of PERT. (4) point out the strengths P E R T fs advantages include forcing managers to plan since it is difficult to make a timeevent analysis without planning; forcing planning all down the line, since each manager must be responsible for planning his own event; concentrating attention on critical elements that may need correction; making pos­ sible a kind of forward-looking control— a delay will 31 affect succeeding events; PERT's network system with its subsystems makes possible aiming of reports and pressure for action at the right spot and level in the organization structure at the right time (4:684-85). PERT is not useful, due to the importance of time, when a program is nebulous; it is not practical for routine planning of recurring events; and its major dis­ advantage is its emphasis on time and not cost. time and cost have a close relationship. Often That is, the PERT network had to be complete enough to reflect cost; and in a complex project there are often too many variables to find a way to indicate cost. PERT is no final answer. gerial effectiveness, While PERT helped m a n a ­ it could not do the planning. It merely helped to force it. Manpower Assessment Culbertson (27) notes that one management tech­ nique is to do educational planning based upon Manpower requirements. Generally, economists and some recent educators with training as economists use this method. Many nations— Greece, approach. Italy, Portugal, etc.,— use this Conducted in cooperation with various coun­ tries, the Manpower effort is to force "the future occu­ pational structure of the economy, and to plan the 32 educational systems so as to provide the requisite numbers of personnel with the qualifications which that structure demands" (27:277). Parnes (33) sees the relationship of Manpower assessment to education as involving an e s t i ­ mation of the required additions to the labor force during the planning period and deciding for each occupational category what the educational qualifications are. the need is known, it is possible to calculate enrollment, teacher requirements, (33:55). and educational plant and equipment Anderson and Bowman limitations. Once (30), however, warn of its Some limitations include the basic question: "Is manpower production the most important function of the education system?" Other concerns include: while medicine is often used as an example of forecastinq, medicine requires a long training period. periods are not necessarily typical. Long training The demand for doctors is generally unaffected by changing production technologies. Another criticism is that few manpower planners actually claim a high degree of accuracy in their forecasts (30:22-23). Culbertson (27) warns that e d u ­ cation planning, based on manpower requirements, would see education as a means of attaining economic and social goals. He states that "The full development of the unique talents of individuals . . . would be considered only incidentally" Culbertson is not convinced (27:280). that economic and social goals should form the basis of educational decision-making. 33 Systems Analysis Systems Analysis is increasingly becoming adopted by education. Maxcy (2) points out that "systems analysis is a tool for the educational planner or the school ad­ ministrator allowing him to view parts of his school system as they relate to the total operation of the edu­ cational program" (2:27). Systems Analysis can make a significant contribution to education, boards, particularly school superintendents and the school staffs as they at­ tempt to deal with the many complex interrelationships of their organization. Johnson and Miller (38), borrowing from other authorities, discuss several definitions of Systems Analysis. In one, they define it as "a set of elements organized to satisfy a definable user requirement." In another they define it as ". . . the structure or organ­ ization of an orderly whole, clearly showing the inter­ relationship of the parts to each other and to the whole itself." They conclude that several generally agreed upon definitions include the concepts of structure, whole, the relationship of parts to each other, and parts to a whole; that is, ". . . that encompasses the simultaneous con­ sideration of all elements necessary to maintain system integrity" (38:207-8). conceptually simple. They add that systems Analysis is It attempts to adopt science to the field of the social sciences. 34 The focus of the systems concept is model building. The idea of systems Analysis is to derive precision in structure and terminoloqy and force the manager toward clearer understanding of problems* A model is built to simulate the "real" thing, although at times this is diffi­ cult, perhaps impossible. Bush (39) tems approach: ments, lists four essential stapes in the sys­ (1) identification of needs and require­ (2) ideation of systems concepts, a system feasibility, and model system. (3) evaluation of (4) definition of a baseline or In the first step, an inventory of needed educational requirements is conducted, relative to present and future. Secondly, a series of systems concepts are postulated, compared with one another, and a determination is made to see if there is appropriate technological capa­ city to affect their development. Thirdly, in this step, definition and specifications in quantitative terms of all functions that this system must perform are made. period of intelligence gathering and organizing. It is a Fourthly, when step three is completed, specific concepts are iso­ lated. Those that seem more promising and appropriate can be subject to testing and simulation to decide whether or not to implement them. of a model system Pfeiffer At this point there is a selection (39:226-30). (23) divides the systems approach into the following general elements: (1) design for action. 35 (2) seeking alternatives, and (3) evaluation. step is identifying what it is to be done jectives) First, this (defining o b ­ in operational terms, and criteria are selected to measure how well the objectives are being met. Secondly, this step is identifying different methods for meeting each objective, and this step is an active, creative phase where alternatives are combined in different ways for a possible plan. Thirdly, this step is where evaluation is done in qualitative and quantitative terms. tinuing and repetitive process This step is a con­ (23:4-6). Again a key ele­ ment in systems analysis is continual refinement of the model and the testing of how far the model is off from reality. The model must be readjusted continually as new and relevant data effects its validity. (39) points out, Although as Bush ". . . it is somewhat disheartening to note that rarely, if ever, does one find two or more authors who will agree either on terminology or on tech­ nique" (39:225), the general application Systems Analysis is similar Bush (39), Pfeiffer (procedures) of (cf., Johnson and Miller (38), (23). The systems approach has not proven to be a cureall for education. Miller There are limitations. Johnson and (38), while believing that systems can be important to education, note that of alchemy" doctors. . . chemistry had its period (38:207) and medicine had its era of witch They agree with Culbertson (27) that in the 36 present systems approach there are problems with the handling of information. Many decisions have to be made by individuals responding to values to which precise terms cannot be applied and for which there is no accurate in­ formation (38:207). Perhaps the greatest criticism has to do with the fact that most of the system approaches in e d ­ ucation have ignored the full development of the talents of each individual. The information system has not been devised to handle these variables. Limitations to Systems A p p r o a c h : Systems Analysis, PERT, PPBS^ Manpower Assessment General limitations to the systems approach, which includes PERT, (1) (2) (3) (4) P P B S , and Manpower, include: These techniques cannot make decisions nor can they make judgments on the part of decision­ makers . . . the decision-makers . , . will need to be responsive to values not encompassed by the planning technique; . . . since the various techniques in value highly rational procedures efficiency may tend to be the values which is more forceful in shaping choices . I ^ - . the techniques to be employed require specific measures of o u t p u t . In education, it is w e 11-known that we are only beginning to note progress in achieving precise output measures . . . it is not easy to define edu­ cation goals with sufficient precision to make accurate measurements of output possible . . . . . . the new planning techniques represent a special way of thinking and a vigorous approach to problem solving. The techniques have their roots in such disciplines as economics and m a t h e ­ matics . . . they should not be viewed as simplistic procedures which will produce incon­ testable conclusions. Rather, they require a highly disciplined way of thinking and the courage to examine assumptions ana to respect empirical d a t a . 37 (5) . . , education based on the manpower require­ ments emphasizes the instrumental aspects of education . . . the full development of the unique talents o T individuals . . I would "5e considered only incidentally . . . fundamental educational goals I ^ could be neglected ; . . (277279-80) ------------ a------- Management by Objectives Odiorne (MBO) (MBO) (52) states that Management by Objectives is not a complex system. The idea of MBO is to simplify and add meaning to masses of information. He cites as evidence for this all the jargon from the many techniques, e.g., operations research, PERT, P P B S , etc. It is difficult to make sense out of all this material without a system that classifies and shows input and out­ put effects of these terms. A first requirement of MBO is that it simplify. Moore (5 3) describes MBO " . . . as a managerial method whereby the superior and the subordinate managers in an organization identify major areas of responsibility in which the man will work, set some standards for good— or bad— performance and the measurement of results against those standards" (53:1). Odiorne (52) defines MBO " . . as a process whereby the superior and the subordinate managers of an organization jointly identify its common goals, define each individual's major areas of responsi­ bility in terms of the results expected of him, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assess­ ing the contribution of each of its members" (52:55-56). 38 MBO has as its objective the ". . . maximization of human wants, desires, and aspirations by formulating objectives, defining limitations, providing guidance, developing a scheme of activities, performance of activities" (50:1). and supervising the MBO also is geared toward the accomplishment of specific goals. The idea is to provide for the maintenance and orderly growth of an organization so that everyone involved knows what is e x ­ pected and what is actually achieved. In this way, both the individual worker and the organization are successful. This is accomplished by giving responsible leaders in the organization specific assignments to be accomplished; their individual progress is dependent upon the way in which they carry out these responsibilities. achievement of leaders, charisma is stressed. Further, the ability and rather than just the leaders' More specifically, MBO provides the followincx rationale: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) a means of measuring the contribution of m a n a ­ gerial and professional personnel' it enhances the possibility of obtaining co or d i ­ nated effort and teamwork without eliminating personal risk-taking; it provides solutions to key problems of defining the major areas of responsibility for each person in the organization including joint or shared responsibility; its processes are geared to achieving the results desired, both for the organization as a whole and for the individual contributors; it eliminates the need for people to change their personalities and there is no need to evaluate personalities of individuals; 39 (6) (7) (8) (9) it provides a means of determining each manager's span of c o n t r o l ; it aids in employee evaluation; it offers an aid to questions of administrative s a l a r i e s ; and it aids in identifying potential for advancement (52:55) Goal-setting is a major part of the MBO idea. A part of the goal— setting process includes: (1) statements from each of the workers of routine matter, (2) provisions for problem solving, and (3) innovative and creative projects, (4) personal growth and development goals Then each of these qoals (51:17). (jobs) must be broken down into specific behavioral tasks and written into behavioral language. Each supervisor needs to be coqnizant of routine work in order to evaluate and estimate all facets of the operation so that in deciding on work distribution, duties must be spelled out. routine These statements then help for orderly clustering of duties to allow for their e ffec­ tive performance. Connellan (54) shows that it is necessary that the manager and his subordinate agree on what is expected in terms of goals. There should be a statement of c ondi­ tions when a high level of performance has been attained. Developed jointly by the supervisor and incumbent the statement should meet the following criteria: a. b. Fix accountability and responsibility in writinq Expected results should be attainable and expressed in terms of quantity, quality, time­ liness, and cost 40 c. d. e. f. Cover only significant factors which really matter and are within the control of the incumbent Enable measurement by the incumbent and by the supervisor Establish priorities Use continuously in communication of what is expected, what is being accomplished in terms of results, and how improvement can be attained (54:1). MBO has been incorporated into the management of several community colleges. Connellan (54) in an article, "Management by Objectives in Community Colleges," points out that MBO has gained attention in business and in­ dustrial organizations, has been adopted by a number of insurance companies, utilities, banks, and more recently, hsopitals, churches, and schools. He points out that the traditional approach in community colleges has been the line item budget approach: inputs, activities, outputs. Yet seldom have goals been set at the beginning against which to measure success or failure. essential goal-setting step. MBO adds this This goal-setting is impor­ tant due to the many misunderstandings (discovered by a number of matched interviews) between boss and subordinate. Through what Likert calls "linking pins" (from Dean to Department Head to Instructor, e t c . ) , MBO provides the important link of translating organizational goals into specific objectives. Community colleges have three needs— stability, self-correction and growth. MBO is able to provide 41 flexibility in the manaqement of a community college by havinq a different type of objective for each organ­ izational need. 1. 2. 3. Its advantages, therefore, are several: It reduces the amount of paper work necessary to maintain such a system by distilling the communication process. It provides the administration with control over the factors necessary to maintain a stable organization . . . providing . . . freedom to work on creative ideas. It takes into account the nature of different jobs with differing amounts of emphasis on maintaining organizational stability, providing for self-correction activities or initiating growth (54:1-17), He urges further that community colleges should be able to find some of the same results by utilizing such a system. One community college, William Rainey Harper, Chicago, has implemented the MBO System. Robert E. Lahti System, Its President, (55), reports the success of the MBO including its strengths and weaknesses. Of 37 administrators, department heads, etc., who reported how MBO affected their job, 14 said it helped them plan and keep on target: 10 said it helped them understand how their goals fit into the total institutional plan; and 5 felt it a frustrating experience, quantify educational results. i.e., they couldn't Eight others commented that it helps one manage others more effectively, provides for personal development, promotes problem-solving atmos­ phere, and allows one to evaluate one's own progress. 42 Sixteen felt the strengths of MBO were measured by agreed upon objectives, 12 said it helps one keep on target; 7 said it brings about understanding of the relationship between goals set throughout the organization. Two other administrators stated that it exposes new theories of management and encourages independence. Seven stated its weaknesses as lack of authority to carry out objectives; 6 said it susceptible to being used positively; 6 others said that setting objectives is too time-consuming; and 5 believe that it tends to promote rigidity and narrowness in plans. centered Other weaknesses of MBO include (1) too industry- (can't quantify results in education); (2) if goals don't mesh in an organization, then bottlenecks re­ sult; (3) final objectives that are set have no relationship to the original objectives; (4) achievement of objectives shouldn't be the only measure of a job; (5) the atmosphere for setting objectives is too cold and impersonal; and routine responsibilities are de-emphasized (6) (55:1-3). Summary of MBO MBO is a simple planninq technique. In a counseling­ like relationship, the superior and the subordinate identify common goals of a program and agree on specific objectives to be accomplished by each person. tinually revised. These objectives are con­ At the end of the program, these objectives are used to assess the contribution of each member. In MBO 43 the employee's individuality is recognized, for personnel are evaluated on what they accomplish and not who they are. The employee is able to see his own progress and can be rewarded on the basis of that progress. A key word in HBO is accountability. MBO has been tested successfully in several com­ munity colleges, including community services programs that offer social action programs. MBO is considered by community college administrators, community services p e r ­ sonnel, and, more recently, by social action personnel, to be an important and effective innovative management technique. It was selected, therefore, as the management technique for Project RITE. Involvement of Respondents in Planning A model for planning was designed for social action programs. This model will be tested through Project RITE. The field test of the planning model is to include interviews with college and community respondents. These respondents are in a position to appraise and influence the effective­ ness or the ineffectiveness of the planning process since many respondents are involved with the planning of programs through Project RITE. literature in two ways: This section, therefore, reviews the (1) the importance of the involve­ ment of respondents in planning, and (2) the reasons for the selection of specific respondents for the field interviews. 44 If planning is to be effective, then all who are to be influenced by the plan must be involved with that plan. Maxcy (2) points out that those responsible for executing comprehensive plans should be qiven responsi­ bilities for the proposing of the plans. He indicates that participatory planninq involving those affected by the planning has a number of benefits. Such involvement reduces the ambiguity of directions and dysfunctional policies as well as the alienation, apathy, dislike, and ambivalent feelings that result from noninvolvement in the development of programs. Included in the planninq process are those who would be involved in the decision (2: 23-24) . In a related field, Sartor (6) who has looked ex ­ tensively at the planning literature for student personnel, arrived at a similar conclusion. Since: a. the ability of the individual leader to handle complex situations and to recognize all alternatives open to him is naturally "bounded" by his environment and experiences; b. the level of direct control the leader in student personnel can effectively exert over those affected by his decisions is limited; 45 c. the leader's decisions are effective extent they to the take with those affected by them; and d. significant involvement in the decision-making process has an educative effect, effective planning and the rationality of the decisions made are increased when those affected by the plans are involved. fcf. Getzels, 1958; March and Simon, 1958; Hollander, 1964; Greggs, 1957; Kelley and Thibaut, 1954) Selection of Respondents Community College President The community college president is in a key p o s i ­ tion and as such can determine if a program will be initiated, and the extent, direction, of programs related to that college. and/or implementation Consequently, he is involved in the planning process of the community services programs. It is clear that the president has duties that range from that of the center of authority on the campus to a leading figure in the community. He is the key c o l­ lege leader. How he uses his authority is crucial. He may p r o ­ vide for an open or closed channel of communication and innovation, which directly effects the type and amount of planning and innovation. Further, it is clear that persons both on and off the campus will follow his leadership lack of i t ) . (or 46 Bernthal oriented systems, (65) points out that in modern, taskthe president can't be all things such as decision-maker, director and controllor, and inspirational leader. Rather, p r ob le m- so lv er , the president's task includes realistically assessing environmental forces or constraints, articulating the or g a n i z a t i o n ’s mission, vying for and securing resources for the functions of the organization, providing internal coordination, communication, conflict resolution, and representing the organization to its constituency. His leadership style is characterized as neither authoritarian nor democratic, adaptive. but as flexible and He must correctly assess the forces in himself, in the organization, and in the larger environment; he must then respond appropriately to these factors in each situa­ tion. He is neither a strong nor a weak administrator, but an integral part of a complex social system, in which his primary mission is to integrate productively both human and n o n —human resources into an organization working toward a common goal. In addition, Shuford (66) feels the administrator must clarify the beliefs that direct his decisions, c on ­ sider alternate beliefs and their possible effects on his decisions, and unify his total belief structure by c o n ­ sidering the effects of his behavior. His position must be clear to faculty and students so that all may agree on 47 goals. A mode r n administrator, more facilitator than authoritarian, m ust follow the advice of his staff and constituency in setting up democratic, policies, rules, and procedures. jointly-developed Their combined influence will help the institution find its own identity, decide its role in the total educational effort, quality and variety of its programs, activities to be augmented, constraints. and determine the curtailed, will, thus, decide its own direction, choose the or discarded. It free from external A sound management information system will permit better long-range planning, avoid most emergencies, and allow regular review for instructional improvement. Faculty, students, and administrators must all agree on the planning process and purpose, professionally recognized and encouraged, to soften resistance to the drastic changes that will follow. If the junior college is to help man fashion a creative environment, all must be involved in making the learning process successful. Community Services Director Like the college president, the community services director is in a leader role and he is in the focus for all planning activities in community services. Around him evolves the success or failure of program ideas. In a national study Harlacher (57), who has as his purpose to identify objectives of community services programs, lists critical incidents that are effective or 48 ineffective in achieving these objectives. He determines the critical requirements for effective programs of com­ munity services. He discovered, through a check list of critical requirements, that three critical requirement categories correspond with the administrative process of planning and are the administrative tasks of the community services director. These three critical requirements in­ cluded providing effective planning and research, coordinat­ ing services with other community groups and tailoring services to specific needs and interests. He explains that planning a community services program involves the selection of objectives and the formu­ lation of policies and procedures. He recognizes that leadership plays an important role in planning through proper delegation and that planning does not function in a vacuum, i.e., planning involves other levels of organization. Plan­ ning is further viewed as an intellectual process, the con­ scious determination of a course of action and bases deci­ sions on purposes, facts, and considered estimates. ning and control of administration are inseparable Plan­ (57:70). Evaluation also was an important critical requirement. While Harlacher's study has importance in that it does indicate n e e d , it says little about how planning is done. Within the space of a paragraph he "forces" to­ gether the following: critical responsibilities, selection of objectives, the leadership role, a definition of planning and the relationship between planning and control. 49 Yet, each is a subject for study. valuable to know, And while that is it tells little of how to go about the planning process. A point is made, however, that Harlacher recognizes the need for effective planning and community services directors need to be aware of where and how to focus their efforts. To re-emphasize the point, the key person in planning community services programs is the community services director. He is central to the p l a n ­ ning p r o c e s s . Project Coordinator This position is the key position in Project RITE and the project coordinator represents a departure from traditional staffing patterns in the community college. In each community college, a project coordinator has been selected from the local community to serve as a project coordinator. This person was selected on his/her de mon­ strated sensitivity and expertise in working with these groups. The locus of operation of this person is the community, although he will necessarily spend some time within the college as well. Some responsibilities of the project coordinator are: 1. Contacts with low-income and working-class fami­ lies, both indirectly through working with other agencies such as the local community action pro­ grams, and directly through such techniques as door-to-door visits, to inform them of available 50 programs, to assess their educational needs, to provide occupational and educational counseling, and to recruit students for pending educational activities in the area. 2. Development of educational activities for lowincome and working-class families. 3. Facilitation of coordination between the community college and other community agencies, and between all community agencies. 4. Inform the community college of the educational needs of the clientele to be served, and work with the college staff in making curricular modifications. 5. Coordinate in-service training programs of the staff of the community college and of the com­ munity agencies. 6. The project coordinator is central to Project RITE. What he plans for the project, and then the way in which he organizes to carry out and evaluate those plans, is key to the success or failure of the project. Teachers and Students While there is little in the community services literature that discusses the involvement of the teachers 51 and students in planning, it is generally recognized that as a group both groups do have an influence on planning. The teachers1 recent trend toward collective bargaining and the increased teachers demands for wage, benefits, etc. attest to their influence on planning. While the literature does show that some of the college's teachers have almost total college control, other colleges report that their teacher organizations are still weak. The implications for community services are sev­ eral. First of all, strong teacher-controlled organ­ izations can work against the ideals of the community services program. That is, when teachers demand payment for each minute of their time, offer courses to the public. it is often impossible to The courses become too ex­ pensive to offer to the public» therefore, the course cannot be offered. The public cannot afford to pay for the skills that they may need. It is particularly hard on the low-income person since his finances are limited. Secondly, a feeling of non-cooperation can develop between the teacher and community services personnel. If the teacher views the community services personnel as "just another administrator" who wants to take advantage of the teacher's time, then a dichotomy results between the teachers and the community services personnel. Community services programs are built on cooperation, and any pro­ gram needs "live-wires, " enthusiastic teachers who see 52 their responsibilities extending beyond the 8 i00-5:00 day. Community services personnel need to be sensitive to the teacher's time and needs. Thirdly, if cooperation with teachers is established and if teachers are a part of the planning of social action programs, then teachers can feel a part of the total program. Mutual cooperation may result and planning improve. Similar to the teachers' movement, collective bargaining the student campus revolts attest to the new student movement for recognition and control. presently, report the journals, "control” through violence etc.), While there is a move away from (as in Berkeley, Kent State, the remnants of the student movement remain. universities and colleges, students, Many and lately community college are pressing for increased representation on faculty councils, visory committees, administrative councils, and boards. demands are not met, community a d ­ Some believe that if these that there will be a return to the violence of the past few years. Then, it is believed, there will be a total revolution. Literature shows that there is increased repre­ sentation of students on these committees, and that their presence and inputs to the educational pro c es s— and directly to the planning process— is valuable and neces­ sary. "If students are influenced by the plans that are to be made," states one director, "then they should be a 53 part of the group that will make the decisions." This involvement by students is particularly important since many of the students (many who are older than 25) not only attend the community college programs for additional education but are also a workinq member of the immediate community. "To separate the student at the college from his role as a citizen in the community is ludicrous," reports one community services director. Students need to be involved in planning that influences their lives. Agencies and Advisory Groups Shaw and Cummiskey (67) point out that community colleges should be prepared to share an increasing re­ sponsibility with local leaders in providing services to their communities. Such an attitude would help to elicit acceptance and support from the people in the district for the college and, in turn, more of the college's resources would be available to help in the solving of community problems. Aqencies and advisory committees which are actively involved in the planninq and decision-making processes, help to fulfill the need for two-way communi­ cation between the college and community. focusing on community opinion, One study, indicated that an assoc­ iation exists between informed individuals and a positive opinion toward the college. Closer college-community r e ­ lations play an important role in makinq the college a true "community" college. 54 Citizens It is felt that the effective program of community services is built upon a solid foundation of citizen participation. maintenance, Citizens can participate in the planning, and evaluation of the program, and the c o l ­ lege, recognizing that it must be of the community, not just in it, participates in community life and (61:16} . Citizen participation enlists the efforts of groups, organizations, special committees, and citizens in the improvement of the educational proqrams of the college and the community as a whole. Communication can be established with units of government— county, city, village, t ownship— as well as state and federal agencies and other community college districts, ing districts. especially a d j o i n ­ At the same time, communication could be established with all industry, business, service, professional, and social organizations within the entire c o m ­ munity college area. This communication would determine the needs, capabilities and desires of the citizens. In this way, college-citizen interaction is achieved. Summary This review presented an assessment of three areas: (1) the definition of planninq, process, and steps in planning: and the planninq (2) management techniques: (3) the involvement of respondents in planninq 55 Based upon an in-depth review of the planning literature, the following statements can be made. These statements serve as a summary for Chapter II and they also serve as a basis for the direction that will be taken in Chapter HI* Design of the Study. These statements are as follows: I. While planning nay be defined in many ways, and depending upon that which needs to be planned and for what purpose a plan is needed, there are basic planning elements that constitute a defi­ nition of planning. to business, This definition is applicable to education, and to social action program planning. (1958); Steiner [cf.: (1969); Warren (1964); Drucker Steiner (1963); Maxcy (1969); Anderson and Bowmen Henning Davis (1961); Koont 2 and O'Donnell (1951); McFarland Landuyt (1964): LeBreton and (1964); (1970); Hardwick and (1966); Morphett and Ryan (1967); Sartor (1970) . ] II. Specific planning steps in the planning process for community services can be identified. followed logically and purposefully, If these steps contribute to successful planninq of social action programs. [cf.: Davis (1967); Koontz and O'Donnell (1951); Friedman (1964); McFarland 56 (1970); LeBreton and Henning (1963); Hueferer III. (1961); Steiner (1967); Raines and Myran (1970).] There are a variety of management techniques that are available for utilization. These techniques aid in planning and provide a basis for purpose and direction for planninq and decision-makinq. While Systems Analysis and Management by Objec­ tives are most often used for program development in education. Management by Objectives appears to be the most adaptable to developing a comprehen­ sive, long-range and enduring social action pro­ gram in the community college. (1967); Hartley (1964); Parnes Miller Lahti IV, Culbertson (1969); Koontz and O'Donnell (1964); Maxcy (1969); Bush Odiorne [cf.: (1969); Johnson and (1969); Pfeiffer (1965); Moore (1968); (1971); Connellan (1971); (1971).] A plan must be comprehensive. Since any one individual cannot be aware of all factors that influence a plan nor the elements needed for decision-makinq, the effectiveness of planning and rationality of decision-makinq is increased when those who are directly influenced by a plan are involved as a part of the planning and 57 decision-making process. Maxcy V. (1969); Myran [cf.: Sartor (1970); (1970).2 Respondents influence the planning and decision­ making process through position of responsibility, position of authority, and endorsement. Mathew (1971); Sechler (1971); Heilbron [cf.: (1970); Hartnett (1970); Collins (1969); Stokes (1959); Bernthal (1969); Shuford (1969); Raines (1969); Harlacher (1967).J As related to Project RITE, the following college respondents should be in­ volved with the planning: college presidents, community services directors, project coordi­ nators, selected teachers and students (Myran, 1972). In communities there are important re­ lated respondents in agencies and on advisory boards and committees consisting of lay persons who influence the planning and decision-making process. [cf.: Harlacher Cummiskey (1970); Myran (1971); Shaw and (1971); Sartor (1970).] CHAPTER III METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION The Sample This study is descriptive in nature. The basis of the investigation is an in-depth analysis of community services social action programs in five rural-based Michigan community colleges. The sample was purposefully selected to include those in the consortium known as Project RITE. Those colleges in the consortium known as Project RITE include: Gogebic Community College Ironwood, Michigan Mid-Michigan Community College Harrison, Michigan Montcalm Community College Sidney, Michigan Southwestern Community College Dowagic, Michigan West Shore Community College Scottville, Michigan Each college was visited. The duration of each visit was from one to two days, depending on the number of re­ spondents to be interviewed. Those interviewed were: Community College Presidents: Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Mr. James Perry Clifford Bedore John Eaton Russell Owen Eugene Gillaspie 58 59 Community Services Directors: Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Dr. Howard Wesley Thomas Thomas Walley Bernson Muth Trousdell Nyquist Hamrick Project Coordinators: Mr. Mr. Mr. Ms . Ms . James Fent Wayne Van House James Stange Marilyn Cooper Yvonne Lawson Agency Personnel: Mr. Ms. Mr. Mr. Mr. Ms. Ms. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. John C z ub a j , Director, CAP Dorothy Wilson, Counselor, Social Services Hart, Director, Department of Social Services Richard Bauman, Chairman, Human Resources Council George Lupanoff, Director, Human Resources Council Murray, Director, Department of Social Services Pat Akihiro, County Health Nurse John Ruggles, Director, CAP Kenneth Dennis, Counselor Kennedy Duncan, Director, CAP Rudy Landretti, Area Representative M. Walley Bennett, Director, Social Services Lee Tugon, Director, CAP Dean Raven, County Extension Agent Citizens: Judge Chuck Simon, Probate Court Ms. Leila Cabana, President, Senior Citizens Mr. Dean Raven, Chairman, Board of Trustees Ms. Sandy Bloomsberg, Member, Human Resources Council Rev. N e m e e , Member, Human Resources Council Teachers; Mr. Mr. Ms. Ms. Ms. Mr. Hank Radtke, Apprenticeship Coordinator Mike Parsons Nancy Matulis Potter, School Nurse Eileen Olson David Stenzel 60 Students: Ms. Mr. Ms. Mr. Mr. Ms. Ms. Dorothy Wallace, Housewife— Student Ron Arnett, student Dousey, Housewife— Student Mike Wood, Student Henry Atherton, Student Joan Smandra, Housewife--Student Eve Atkinson, Housewife--Student Development of the Interview Guide After a review of the literature, and after consult­ ing with a doctoral committee member and professors in the College of Education, Michigan State University, an inter­ view guide was developed to help obtain the data for this s t u d y .1 When the preliminary interview guide was prepared, it was carefully reviewed by a committee member and by the committee chairman. Five interns in the Kellogg Community Services Leadership Program, Michigan State University, many of whom are community services directors, met as a group, evaluated the guide, and made recommendations for change. Further criticisms were solicited regarding the interview guide from a community services director at Lake Michigan Community College and from a dean of student per­ sonnel at West Shore Community College (who wrote his dis­ sertation in the area of community services). Before the field interviews began, trial interviews were held with a member of the doctoral committee, a ^See Appendices. 61 former president of a community college who is now a Professor of Education at Michigan State University, a graduate assistant in the Kellogg Community Services Leadership Program, a former community schools director, and a state department career-education administrator. As a result of these trial interviews, it was discovered that for the formal interview logical and sequential questions that still allowed for freedom to explore individual p e r ­ ceptions and insights held by respondents were most e f ­ fective. made, All suggestions were considered, changes were and the final interview guide was developed. The finalized guide included questions related to the three basic areas of investigation of this study (see A pp e n d i c e s ) . Selection of Community Colleges Community services is becoming a major thrust in community college programming. The rural community c o l ­ leges named here, quite similarly to the general pattern of growth in the community colleges across the country, are beginning to focus on community services as a program area. Each of these rural-based colleges is in the beginning stages of developing a community services program. Mont­ calm and Southwestern have been initiating programs in the past two years; West Shore, Mid-Michigan, presently initiating programs. and Gogebic are Each of the five colleges in this sample was purposefully selected for its rural 62 location and its desire to serve the rural population within its representative county through social action programs. Implementation of Management by Objectives (MBOl A Project RITE workshop was held in August, 1971. At this workshop management techniques were discussed. A decision was reached to use MBO as the planning technique for the project. MBO was implemented into Project RITE in two ways: {1) through three workshops held throughout the planning period, and (2) through periodic meetings with the d i r e c ­ tors of community services and the project coordinators. The first workshop in August, 1971 was used to decide on MBO as the management technique; the second workshop in October, 1971 was used to revise objectives; and the third workshop in February, 1972 was used to evaluate objectives. Period meetings were held throughout the planning process to set objectives. The associate director met with each of the five community services directors and project c o ­ ordinators and agreed on objectives to be accomplished by each project coordinator. under four areas: (3) Innovative, Objectives were classified (1) Routine, {4) Creative. (2) Problem-Solving, These objectives, subject to periodic revisions, were to serve as a foundation for 63 the accomplishments of each project coordinator's social action program. Data Gathering The following procedures were used for the gather­ ing of d a t a : 1. Three workshops were held at Michigan State Univer­ sity with the project coordinators. These work­ shops focused on the setting of objectives and the planning process for Project RITE. During these workshops, objectives were selected, revised, and evaluated. 2. Periodic meetings were held with the directors of community services and the project coordinators to set objectives. These meetings focused on setting objectives with the project coordinators for Pro­ ject RITE. Meetings were conducted at the commu­ nity college campuses and at Michigan State Univer­ sity. Meetings were held approximately twice per month through the period July, 1971 through November, 3. 1971. A formal interview was held by the author with a Management by Objectives expert in December, to review project objectives. 1971 64 4. A formal meeting was held by the author with plan­ ning experts from model cities in March, 1972, to review model building techniques. Arrangements for Visits to Colleges Formal arrangements were made to visit each campus on a scheduled basis. Each interview was conducted during the month of December by a one- or two-day visit to the college campuses. To arrange for this visit, the first contact was made by telephone to the community services directors to familiarize them with the study and to schedule a formal interview. The second contact with each college was made by letter. A letter was sent to the college president, com­ munity services director and the project coordinator. letter contained: the study, (a) a re-explanation of the purpose of (b) a verification of the time and location for the formal interview, and guide. The (c) a copy of the interview A final contact was made by telephone several days before the scheduled interview to ascertain location and time of the interview. A final workshop was held at Michigan State Univer sity at the end of the data collection period, December 1971. The entire planning process of Project RITE was reviewed at this time. 65 Administration of the Interview The interview followed formats of the interview guide so as to limit personal bias; yet an informal atmo­ sphere was maintained to allow for exploration of individ­ ual perceptions and insights of respondents. views were recorded in two ways: the interviewer, and All inter­ (1) notes were taken by (2) each session was taped for fur­ ther review and recording. Organization of Data The presentation and analysis of data is ordered by the areas of investigation to which this study is a d ­ dressed: (1) the designing, field-testing and developing of a planning model for implementing social action program^ (2) the nature of involvement of administrators, teachers, students, agency personnel and citizens who participated in the planning; and (3) the evaluation of Management by Objectives as a management technique by a comparative analysis between five project coordinators' evaluations of objectives and by an expert's evaluation of the project coordinators' objectives. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the data from three basic areas of investigation: (1) the designing, field-testing, and developing of a planning model for im­ plementing social action programs; volvement of administrators, personnel, and (2) the nature of in­ teachers, students, agency and citizens who participated in the planning; (3) to explore the usefulness of Management by Ob­ jectives (MBO) as a planning technique for social action programs. MBO was viewed as a positive aid in assisting relatively unsophisticated p e r s o n n e l , who had a limited amount of in-service and pre-service training, in p ro ­ ducing definitive outcomes. The respondents are not identified in the analysis of the data. Rather, the perceptions of all respondents are categorized for all colleges. Planning Model As explained in Chapter I, page 9, an attempt was made to design a planning model. An indepth study of the planning literature showed that seven steps in the 66 67 planning process could be identified. These seven steps constituted the planning and decision-making process of this social action program. (1) Assessment of Needs, The seven steps were: (2) Setting of Objectives, (3) Assessment of Resources, (4) Determining and Eval­ uating Alternative Courses of Action, (5) Decision-Making, (6) Formulating Derivative Plans, (7) Evaluation. and Although the original model above provided a logi­ cal approach to planning and decision-making, the actual field-testing of this model revealed that the behavior of the respondents did not fit into the design of the seven steps in the original planning model. In an attempt to discover what "in-reality” the planning steps were, data were re-analyzed. In addition, the the project co or d i ­ nators identified some of the activities in planning that they developed in the designing of their social action programs. An analysis was done to see how these activi­ ties might be a part of a planning step. A list of a c t i v ­ ities was collated, analyzed, and synthesized into five planning steps. It should be strongly noted that in the design of the five planning steps, "intuitive judgments" were made about the meaning of the data as it related to the design of the planning model. through: "Intuitive judgments" were made (1) an analysis of what each respondent said he did at each planning step, and (2) an analysis of what each respondent did at each planning step. The intuitive Seven Pluming Steps to: Examples of Categorised Activities: AlHStMnt of 1. Gather cowuiity data 2. Road coMunity studies and canaua 3. Davalop comunity raaourcaa 4. Contact agancy paraonnal II Sotting of Objectives 1. 2. 3. 4. idantify goal* of tht collaga Raviaw purposes of the collaga with administrators Sat objactivaa (MBO) with th* aaaociata diractor Review proposal objectives III Asse*»ent of Resources 1. 2. Dacida on facilitias Contact media IV Determining and Evaluating Courses of Action 1. 2. Decision-making VI Formulating De­ rivative Plan* VII Evaluation Five Planning Steps: Staging II Establishing Goals and Setting Objectives Raviaw collaga policies Raviaw all elements of a program III Making Decisions Dacida on which progrant to offer Heat with aministrators and agancy personnel to offer programs Make decisions about programs Gat the programs underway Develop final programs Implement the programs Provide program publicity, facilities Evaluate class activities Self-evaluation Evaluate the entire project Figure IV.1— Changes for tha Development of a New Planning Model. IV Implementing Evaluating ON a) 69 judgments may have inadvertently left some gaps between the data and the final planning model. For comparative purposes, the seven planning steps in the original planning model are identified in Figure IV.1. To the right of the seven steps are the examples of the activities identified by the project coordinators. To the right of the activities are the five planning steps that emerged from an analysis of this data. These five steps form the foundation of the new planning model. Figure IV.1 represents these basic changes in the design of the new planning model. The titles of some of the planning steps were changed. In Step I , Assessment of Needs was renamed S ta gi ng ; in Step I I , Setting of Objectives was renamed Establishing Goals and Setting Object iv es ; in Step V , Decision-Making was renamed Making D e c i s i o n s ; in Step V I , Formulating Derivative Plans was renamed Implementing r and Step V U t Evaluation was renamed E v a l ua ti n g. These titles more clearly describe the activities that took place in these s t e p s . A categorization of activities showed that the activities in Step I I I , Assessment of R e s o u r c e s , were carried out in Step I V , I mp lementing, in the new planning model, and that the activities in Step I V , Determining and Evaluating Alternative Courses of Action were carried out in Step I I I , Making Decisions in the new planning model. 70 The revised model includes the following five steps which are presented in diagram form below: Step I Staging ^ Step II ^ Step III ^ Step IV Establishing Making Implementing Goals and Decisions Setting ________ Feedback Objectives ^ ± Step V Evaluating Figure IV.2.— Revised Model. The data showed that these five steps represent the general planning process for this social action pro­ gram. When followed purposefully, these steps appeared to provide the framework for logical and orderly planning and decision-making. Each step in the model is listed below. It was discovered that under each of these steps, sub-steps were contained. A rationale is given for each sub-step. It is strongly noted that the five steps and sub-steps below are those steps that have been identified as a result of an investigation of this data. No assumption is made that these steps and sub-steps represent the planning process of other social action programs. Step I: Staging Sub-step A: Statement of the College's and Project’s Purpose Rationale: A statement of purpose or philosophy provides a foundation upon which a total pro­ gram can be built. In this social action pro­ gram, the objectives written for the Title I grant provide this foundation. In addition, the social action program objectives need to complement the objectives of the college. Sub-step B: Description of the College and the College Community Rationale: The college must know its own c h a ra c­ teristics before the college can begin to serve its community. In order for the college to serve the community, the college must be able to describe its community and community needs. Step II: Establishing Goals and Setting Objectives Sub-step A: Statement of Broad Goals of Each Program for the Project Rationale: These statements provide the foundation upon which specific programs within the total project can be built. These are generally broad statements of what the project wants to accomplish. Sub-step B: Major Strengths of the College and the Community Rationale: Once the strengths of the college and the community are identified, these strengths can become springboards from which programs that fulfill community needs can be launched. 72 Sub-step C: Major Weaknesses of the College and the Community Rationale: Identifying the weaknesses of the col­ lege and the community is as important as identifying the strengths. Where possible, weaknesses can be turned into strengths through positive program action. Insurmountable weak­ nesses can be avoided. Sub-step D: Statement of Concrete Objectives for Each Program in the Project Rationale: These statements are commitments to accountability on the parts of each person in the project. While they may serve as a guide to decision-making and while they help to guide the project toward its goals, they are more than this. Objectives serve as a commit­ ment on the part of personnel to produce re ­ sults . Step III: Making the Decision Sub-step A: Tentative Program Determination Rationale; This sub-step begins the final decision-making process. Here, close attention is given to each program and the programs that appear to best meet the objectives of the pro­ ject are tentatively identified. 73 Sub-step B: "" Acceptance of Tentative Program Objectives from College Administrators and App ro priate Non-Administrators of the College Rationale: Before a final decision is made about which programs are to be accepted, a final check is necessary to assure that the program objectives established are mutually agreed upon by college administrators and appropriate non-college administrators. Necessary re­ visions of objectives are made. Program determination is made. Step I V : Implementing Programs Sub-step A: Design Strategies to Achieve Goals Rationale; At this point, specific action steps are taken to carry out the goals of the p r o­ ject- Personnel needs are determined; facili­ ties need to be located and developed; supple­ mentary services have to be secured; and materials have to be ordered; supplies and the media should be contacted for publicity of programs. Step V: Evaluating Sub-step A: Reviewing and Revising of Plans Rationale: The reviewing and revising of plans was an on-going part of the planning process. If a change in plans was made, change had to be made. then that Flexibility was a necessary part of the program process. 74 Programs were periodically reviewed by the ad ministrative staff in each service area. Sub-step B: Consultant Use Rationale: Only a few expert consultants were used for evaluation purposes. Costs were prohibitive in this social action program. However , use of consultants can be very b e n e ­ ficial during specific critical stages of a planning process. Periodic use of consultants helped to keep the project "on-target." Introduction Based upon the data gathered for this investigation, the foregoing discussion has attempted to provide the foun­ dation upon which this social action program was constructed. The discussion now turns to the nature of involve­ ment of the respondents in each of the five steps of the planning process. Since the purpose of this study is to analyze the nature of their involvement and not the extent of their involvement, statements are kept general. It is emphasized that the following planning steps are not mutually exclusive. Rather, these steps represent a logical and orderly process of the development of this social action program. Table IV.1 shows the per cent of respondents who reported primary or secondary involvement in each of the planning steps. T U L E IV. 1 Par cant of Raapendantt1 Prinary and Secondary Involv*«*nt in Each Planning Stap latablithing Go*It Staging * I ■tapondanU • 5 Praaidanta Pratidanu 5 Cotamnity Sarviaaa Oirtctort Coaaunlty Sarviaaa Diractori 5 Projaet Coordinator! Projaet Coordinatora 11 19 15 1 2 1 2 4 1 Taachart and Studanta 1 Taachart and studanta 12 •gancy Paraonntl and Citiiena 6 agancy Partonnal and Cltliana 13 Total Utiniatra* tiva Raapondtata 10 5 11 Total Ralatad Raapondanta 7 IS 47 R a ito iaaolwMBt. 4 60.0 40.0 •0.0 40.0 •0.0 20.0 -76 99.24 31.6 •a. 4 66.6 13.3 21.8 70.1 and Satting Cbjaetivaa 9 2 3 3 2 5 0 3 10 7 12 10 5 10 23 % 40.0 60.0 60.0 40.0 100.00 ^ . . Dacialout ^ 2 3 1 4 4 1 s 2.3 97.7 36.7 63.3 66.6 11 0 19 7 33.3 63.3 40.0 60.0 20.0 •0.0 •0.0 20.0 2 ■ 31.2 1 1 2 30 1.5 94.5 H 100.0 laplananting IV 1 1 4 2 3 4 1 1 13 2 17 6 # 20.0 80.0 40.0 60.0 •0.0 20.0 .76 99.24 10.5 63-4 3 6.2 93,8 3 2 4 1 2 11 2 17 29 100.0 63.4 4 3.3 91,7 38 Sacondary Primary 40.0 Sacondary 30.0 Priaary 20.0 Sacondary 1.5 Priaary 93.5 Sacondary 10.5 Priaary •9.5 Sacondary 46.6 • Priaary 60.0 7 46.6 8 \ N 4 39.5 7 46.6 Evaluating V 63.4 12.5 •7,5 -J U1 76 Table I V .1 is used for the analysis of data. That is, the analysis of this data follows the general design of Table IV.1. In Section I, an analysis is made of the nature of involvement of each respondent group across (horizon­ tally) each of the five steps in the planning process. In Section II, an analysis is done of the total involvement of administrative respondents and related respondents down (vertically) each of the five steps in the planning process. SECTION I : Involvement of Respondents in the Planning Process Presidents Step I: Staging Primary.--Most presidents' be managerial. leaders. involvement appeared to All five presidents were the institutional As leaders, most of the presidents took the re­ sponsibility of initiating the project into the college. To do this involved reviewing the college and project goals, "selling" the project idea to the trustees, and then delegating, where possible, the authority and/or the responsibilities of the project to other administrators. In addition to the above involvement, the data showed a difference in the leadership styles among all five college presidents. Analysis revealed that presidents tended to be either directive or permissive. To represent this difference in leadership styles, Figure I V .3 was con­ structed. Figure IV.3 classifies those presidents who were more likely to be directive and those presidents who were More Likely s to be Directive More ^ Likely be Permissive Classifi­ cation of Presidents X Alwavs focus of authority and control X Often is focus of authority and control X Sometimes is focus of authority and control: sometimes permits others to have options X Often permits others to have options ) Always permits others to have option Figure IV.3.— Classifying of Five Presidents' Leadership Styles. Key: X = President 78 more likely to be permissive. analysis, For the purposes of this "directive" refers to those individuals who are characterized as insisting on being the focus of authority and control. "Permissive" refers to those individuals who are characterized as permitting others to have options and who do not insist on being the focus of authority and control. The purpose in Figure I V .3 is not to determine what is a good or bad leadership style nor to imply that there is a complete dichotomy between presidents who were identi­ fied as directive or permissive. Administrative styles were not always mutually exclusive. Rather, the purpose of Figure I V .3 and the following analysis is to show that there was a tendency of presidents in this study to be either directive or permissive in their leadership styles. As shown in Figure I V. 3, two presidents tended to be directive while three presidents tended to be p e rm is ­ sive. One president's comment serves as a summary of this directive attitude: I am primarily responsible for what happens at this college. For the most part I want to be involved in decisions . . . generally I make most of the important decisions. Directive presidents seemed to be highly ordered and c o n ­ cerned with "production." They tended to talk about p r o ­ ducing credit courses that would generate monies for the college. It seemed that directive presidents tended not to delegate much authority, they insisted on being informed 79 about all activities and tried to be aware of all that went on in the college* Secondary.— Three presidents who felt their role was secondary appeared to have a more permissive leader­ ship style. Their focus was not primarily oriented toward the accomplishment of tasks (output) as it was toward work­ ing toward inter-personal relationships. To an extent, they were counselor-presidents. They seemed to differ from the directive presi­ dents in that they focused on the person and process more than on the product; they seemed to view the college as a "happy family" rather than a "production line," and they appeared to have more awareness and sensitivity of the needs of the low-income person than did the directive presidents. The permissive presidents were more inclined to talk about non-credit courses that would benefit the low-income person rather than credit courses that would financially benefit the college. Permissive presidents appeared relaxed, more pas­ sive than active, and concerned with individual growth. They appeared to risk delegating responsibility and author­ ity more than directive presidents Step II: Establishing Goals and Setting objectives Primary.— The two presidents who seemed more direc­ tive appeared inclined to give a lower priority to the 80 project. While they insisted on reviewing the goals and objectives of the project with trustees and while they worked with the project coordinators in setting objectives, the project, per s e , was worth only a limited amount of their time. While priority setting was necessary, the directive presidents appeared not to be convinced that the goals and objectives of the project had any real value beyond the additional money that it brought to the college. As an example, several comments appeared to miss the pur­ pose of the project. Two typical comments were: " . . . we need to help those poor people to be better citizens," and " . . . there is no reason that poor people can't get a job if they really wanted to." Secondary.--The three permissive presidents re­ ported support for the social action programs' goals and objectives. priority. To these presidents, the program had a higher They tended to spend more time discussing the program in administrative staff meetings, "selling" and informing the trustees of the program, and working closely with the project coordinator and the community services director to assure that the objectives of the program would serve the needs of the college and the community. The three permissive presidents did not appear to feel that the setting of objectives was important per s e . They tended to react against the "formality" of the ob­ jectives. Considerable time, therefore, was spent by some presidents going step-by-step through each objective. 81 All five presidents in this study expressed some of the following concerns: (1) difficulties with interpreting the goals and o b ­ jectives of the project to the trustees; (2) concern on the part of the trustees that the goals and objectives of the project were a duplication of other agencies; (3) concern that the project personnel would have to associate w ith other social agencies that were then in disrepute; £4) concern on the part of the administration that a statement of goals would limit their operations; and (5) a tendency to believe that educational goals and objectives can't be written in performance terms. Step III: Making Decisions P r i m ar y.--Both directive presidents insisted on being involved in decision-making. Directive presidents wanted to review most of the programs related to the p r o ­ ject and insisted that they be consulted before any major decisions were made. They insisted on being a part of the following kinds of d e c i s i o n s : 1. Programs that might cause community disunity (e.g., sensitivity training). 82 2, Programs where new personnel might be hired or fired or where additional costs might occur. 3. Programs that might create disunity or reaction from faculty members. Secondary.— The three permissive presidents dele­ gated much authority to the community services director or to the project coordinator. commented: One permissive president "The community services director and the pro­ ject coordinator are the experts." While the above comment was typical of permissive presidents, there was, however, a discrepancy among presi­ dents who delegated authority to "the experts." In most cases the community services director and the project co­ ordinator almost always sought the president's advice on major issues. The point is that while the three permissive presidents were delegating decision-making, final decisions were still referred back to them. The difference between the directive and the per­ missive presidents in terms of decision-making seemed to be one of administrative style. The directive presidents would announce their authority and demand that their staff recognize their authority; the permissive presidents let their staffs feel that the staff was making decisions but "trained" them to seek the president's advice on important 83 issues. The outcomes were similar; the decision-making styles varied. Step IV: Implementing P r i m ar y.--Four presidents were not primarily in­ volved in the implementation of programs. To a large degree, they delegated the authority for hiring, firing, or orienting new personnel to other administrators. Secondary.--All five presidents seemed to be "overseers." They wanted to be kept informed of unusual demands on college facilities, budget, or personnel. As "overseers" all presidents tended to place the activities they considered important in different areas. While one was concerned about the use of facilities, another was concerned about costs. All five were concerned about the hiring or firing of personnel. To some degree, presidents used the project for public relations. Two presidents visited the low-income classes and had pictures taken with some of the students as "proof" that the college was serving all of the co m ­ munity. Three presidents made positive statements about the project, and these statements were released to the community media. Step V : Evaluating P r im ar y.--No presidents reported primary involve­ ment with evaluation. In general, presidents felt that evaluation should be done by those directly involved with 84 the project. Therefore, presidents delegated evaluation to other administrators. Secondary.— All presidents were secondarily in­ volved with evaluation. They viewed evaluation as an o n ­ going process and considered evaluation an essential part of the project. One administrator's comment serves as a summary of this attitude: important. "I consider evaluation very I insist that my staff do periodic evaluation and keep me informed of the results." Few presidents, however, appeared to be aware of the extent or kind of evaluation that was being done. Presidents had different administrative styles. These styles tended toward either directive oriented) or permissive (business- (counselor-oriented) while the president's functions appeared similar (e.g., reviewing the goals of the project with trustees, assigning and delegating authority), differed. the president's modus operandi The two directive presidents tended to place a priority on the project since it generated monies and public relations for the college; the three permissive presidents appeared to place higher priority on the project as a program that fills the needs of low-income persons. There was some tendency for directive presidents to view the objectives as "restrictive." These presidents would review the objectives thoroughly. While the permissive 85 presidents also seemed to be concerned about the o b j e c ­ tives being too restrictive, rather than review the o b ­ jectives, they appeared to ignore the objectives. Di rec­ tive presidents appeared to focus decision-making on h i m ­ self; permissive presidents seemed to focus d e c i s i o n ­ making on his administrative staff. Four presidents were not directly involved in the implementation of programs. All presidents seemed to be aware of the value of e v a lu a­ tion but none were directly involved in evaluation* Community Services Directors Step I: Staging P r i m a r y .--Three community services directors r e ­ ported that they, along with their presidents, were in a leadership role. This study showed a wide variety of leadership roles. Different roles appeared to vary according to titles. While the title "community services director" is used for the purposes of this study, only two individuals in this study had the official title of community services director. Others had several titles. One was a "director of governmental projects" and another was a "dean of instruction." While all directors appeared to have a certain pattern of responsibility, several directors tended to spend a large amount of time seeking funds for the co l ­ lege. To a large degree, their job was the "life blood" for the continuation of the community services programs. 86 They kept the programs alive. One director commented: * . . . as long as I can keep monies coming into the col­ lege , we can continue our programs." To an extent, these directors were not directly involved in the development of project programs. Yet they appeared highly knowledge­ able of the community. Often they were the ones to whom the presidents would turn to for information and to whom the project coordinators would turn to for ideas and direction. One director seemed to be highly activity-oriented and directly involved with the project. Much of his in­ volvement consisted of generating new programs. He seemed to spend a good deal of time making personal contacts with community agencies, attending meetings, ideas for new activities. and gathering He appeared to be highly e ne r­ getic, activity- rather than outcome-oriented, and personal- rather than planning-oriented. Another director appeared more management-directed. He tended to spend more time in his office, he tended to delegate more, and he tended to be planning- rather than activity-oriented. He appeared friendly,somewhat aloof, but competent. All directors appeared to be the "legitimizers" of the project activities. That is, they often decided if a program should be offered, did not make final decisions. although many claimed they It was observed that all 87 directors had a degree of awareness and sensitivity of the college and community's needs. Secondary.— A word that serves to describe the secondary involvement of all community services directors is "middlemen." ministrators, the community. They function as middlemen between a d ­ faculty, staff, and between the college and They interpret the policies and practices of the college and the community services programs. As middlemen the following generalizations are made regarding their involvement in this study: 1. They have an ability to deal with ambiguity. 2. They are risk-takers. 3. To a large degree, they have highly-developed communication skills. They often must establish personal contacts throughout the college district. 4. They are knowledgeable of the community. As leaders they are called upon to use their exper­ tise in working with community needs. Step H i Establishing Goals and Setting Objectives Primary.— Three directors appeared to favor the objective-setting process. It was recognized that with­ out the support of the community services director, the objective-setting process could not work. 88 Secondary.--Two directors did not appear to strongly support the objective-setting process. As such, they did not work closely with the project coordinator. In all cases there appeared to be a correlation between the degree of support and interest that the com­ munity services director gave to the project coordinator in the objective-setting process and the commitment that the project coordinator made to the objective-setting process. The objective-setting process is discussed further in Section III of this chapter. Step III: Making Decisions Primary.--One community services director stated that he was the primary decision-maker. While he did not insist that all decisions be made by him, he did want to be involved in major decisions. It appeared to the writer, however, that all directors were involved with making decisions, and whether stated or not, the directors strongly influenced the final source behind final deci­ sions . Secondary.— Four directors reported that they delegated decision-making to project coordinators. It should be noted, however, that most decisions were joint decisions involving the directors, the project coordi­ nators, and sometimes the presidents. It is strongly suggested that even though the directors delegated decision-making, they strongly influenced the final 89 decision. Some of the underlying factors for delegating, how ev e r, seemed to include: (1) a desire on the part of the directors not to appear authoritarian; (2) a desire to alleviate some of their own work load; (3) a general feeling of confidence in the decisions of the project coordinator; (4) a belief that the priorities of the project were not as important as other priorities; (5) a recognition that the president, rather than the community services director, would make the final decisions on important matters. All directors insisted on being part of the decision-making process. Some only wanted to be notified of what was going to be due; other directors spent many hours discussing and debating final decisions. lieved that making decisions was difficult. director said, All b e ­ As one "You make one decision and you know some­ body won't like it so you just take that chancel" Step IV: Implementing P rimary.— All directors were involved to a degree in the administrative details of program implementation. 90 All considered this step difficult due to the many details. Similar to the presidents, the directors involve­ ment with personnel varied. One director felt the hiring and firing of personnel was his responsibility. gated orientation and training. He de l e ­ Another delegated the entire personnel process to the project coordinator. The firing of personnel was stated to be a joint decision among presidents, community services directors, and p ro ­ ject coordinators. S e c o n da r y.— One director stated that when a pro­ gram is implemented, expert." ing. "You have to be a communication Three other directors expressed this same feel­ Much of their time and effort was spent informing others of what a new program is, contacting agencies to explain new programs, orienting new personnel, administrative or trustee approval, seeking and working with the project coordinator to help him carry out tasks. "Perhaps the most important skill of all," explained one director, "is the ability to explain clearly what the purpose of my programs or projects are." Step V: Evaluating P r i m a r y .--All directors considered evaluation highly important. Three directors shared evaluation re­ sponsibilities with the project coordinator. evaluation done was twofold: The kind of (1) evaluation of classes 91 (through the use of questionnaires), and (2) oral (informal) evaluation of the project coordinator's prog­ ress. While no extensive evaluation was evident, there was some tendency for those who had engaged in some eval­ uation to: (1) have a better understanding of the needs of the low-income students; and (2) know how and what changes should be made to meet the low-income students' needs. Three directors felt that after the project co­ ordinators had been evaluated, the coordinators had a clearer understanding of their role in the project. Secondary.--All directors did some form of in­ formal evaluation. The directors' involvement, however, was to delegate evaluation to the project coordinator. In those instances where evaluation was delegated, there was little evidence that evaluation was being done. Summary Community services directors have a primary leader­ ship role. Their leadership roles varied. Two directors tended to be fund-raisers, one tended to be an activitygenerator, two tended to be business managers. their roles were mutually exclusive. None of All directors seemed to be "middlemen," with the ability to deal with ambiguity, take risks, communicate well, and were knowledgeable of 92 their community. To a large degree, they were "legiti- mizers" of the project's programs. Three supported the writing of objectives; were not sure of the value of writing objectives. two All wanted to be a part of decision-making, but did not say they made final decisions. however, There was some indication, that they strongly influence final decisions. All were involved in handling details for program imple­ mentation. All recognized the importance of communication with the community. evaluation, All recognized the importance of although little formal or informal evaluation was done. Project Coordinators Step I ; Staging P r i m a r y .— The project coordinator was the "com­ munity catalyst." This person was selected from the local service area and had demonstrated sensitivity and expertise in working with low-income groups. Three coordinators focuses his/her efforts on the community. The other two coordinators tended to spend a large extent of their time at the college attending to administrative details. coordinators All functioned as liaisons between the college and the community. Their community involvement at this step varied. All recognized the importance of making direct contacts 93 with community persons, especially the low-income. Three coordinators were better prepared to do this than others. A difference in the backgrounds of the coordinators a p ­ peared to be an important variable. Three coordinators who were from low-income families themselves appeared not to have as much difficulty working directly with low-income groups as did the two coordinators who were from middleclass backgrounds. All project coordinators placed a high value on personal contacts with agency personnel. One project c o ­ ordinator summarized: Establishing was the most contact. In and see them personal contacts with social agencies important thing I did. I mean personal my community people expect you to come personally. . . . Personal contacts generated new ideas, support for the project, and public relations for the college. All project coordinators reported responsibility for surveying community needs. survey varied. Their ability to do this One project coordinator had extensive e x ­ perience in survey work. This coordinator appeared to have a "feel" for what data was important. Another c o ­ ordinator, with little community development background, had trouble identifying target areas to serve in the c o m ­ munity. The amount and kinds of background experiences appeared to be an important variable. S e c o n d a r y .— Additional contacts were established at workshops, joining organizations, and speaking 94 engagements. In these ways, the project coordinators met key community persons. Step II; Establishing Goals and Setting Objectives Comment: In the beginning of the project, general goals were established that served as guidelines for the project objectives. Objectives are analyzed in detail in S e c t i o n III, Management Step III: Making Decisions by Objectives. P r i m a r y .--Four project coordinators considered themselves decision-makers for programs related to the project. The level of autonomy to make decisions varied. Three project coordinators appeared to have high autonomy; two had low autonomy. The level of autonomy appeared to reflect the re ­ lationship that the project coordinator had with the presi­ dent and the community services director. In colleges where the project coordinator had high autonomy these tendencies appeared: 1. Little contact with the president or the community services director for program approval unless an unusual program was to be offered. 2. Previous training or experience in administration work. 95 3. A close personal relationship and support from the president and the community services director. 4. The coordinator took responsibility for d e c i s i o n ­ making rather than waiting for it to be delegated. In those colleges where the project coordinator appeared to have less autonomy, the following tendencies appeared: 1. Continual checking with the community services director by the project coordinator for approval of programs. 2. The project coordinators had less administrative training and administrative background. 3. The project coordinators had more of a working rather than a personal relationship with the community services director or the college p resi­ dent . 4. The project coordinators had more contact with advisory committees for program approval. Secondary -— Coordinators who had high decision­ making autonomy appeared to have a stronger concern for the impact of that decision on the college and the c om ­ munity than did those coordinators who had less dec is io n­ making autonomy. 96 Step IV: Implementing Primary*— All project coordinators considered themselves implementors. They were the ones that made the "delivery system" function. In this sense, all project coordinators had to attend to the details of providing such services as facilities, transportation, and b aby­ sitting. One project coordinator's statement seems to sum up their involvement: I do the "leg work" for the community services direc­ tor . . . like contacting agency people, teachers, custodial staff. . . . I also attend the first meeting or two of a new program just to see that all goes well. Three project coordinators were involved with budget decisions and hiring of faculty. The three co­ ordinators with high autonomy appeared to work more with both budget and personnel decisions; the two coordinators with low autonomy generally left budget and personnel de­ cisions to the community services director or the presi­ dent . Secondary.— Two project coordinators reported establishing joint in-service training programs with agency personnel. Agency cooperation was reported to be highly desirable. The three project coordinators who b e ­ gan cooperative training programs early in the planning process appeared to have developed the following condi­ tions, whereas the two who did not develop cooperative programs early in the planning process did not develop these conditions: 97 (1 ) better communication with agency personnel; (2 ) an "acceptance" into the community as a viable socially concerned person; and (3) more sophisticated programs that meet the needs of the community. Step V: Evaluating Comment; Both formal and informal evaluations were made by project coordinators. made of classes. Formal evaluation was This evaluation involved personal inter­ views and questionnaires distributed to the students. In­ formal evaluation was made of the project coordinators by discussions with teachers, some students, administrators, and agency personnel. In those programs where class evaluations were done the project coordinators appeared to have a better understanding of the needs of the low-income students than when no evaluation was done. When the project coordinator himself was evaluated by others (an administrator), the project coordinator seemed to have a clearer understanding of his job. While the evidence suggests that evaluation had a positive effect on the planning process, the amount of evaluation done was limited. Summary Project coordinators function as "community catalysts." Their primary focus is on the development of 98 the community, although much effort is spent with a d ­ ministrative details. To a large degree, all project coordinators function as liaisons between the college and the community. All coordinators were involved in setting objectives for their own programs. All considered them­ selves decision-makers when it came to project-related programs. Decision-making varied with the amount of autonomy they had. All coordinators were program imple­ mentors; they made the "delivery system" function. All coordinators do the "leg work" necessary to implement programs, and they all are involved in some form of formal evaluation of the project's programs. All coordi­ nators have had some informal evaluation done of their work. Evaluation appeared to be a positive element in the planning process; however, evaluation at present is limited. Teachers and Students Comment: analyzed jointly. any step. III and V. Teacher and student involvement are Students had no primary involvement at There was limited student involvement in Steps In Step III, two students sat on low-income advisory committees; in Step V some filled out class questionnaires. It appeared that students were not contacted to be a part of the project until programs were decided. this sense, the planning may have been in error. More In 99 students could have been involved in the early stages of planning since they are the ones most directly affected by the planning. Step I : Staging Primary.--Faculty felt that they were an important function of the planning process for the project. six faculty were involved as resource persons for the ad­ ministration. These teachers lent their experiences to the development of educational programs of the project, and were involved in identifying the kinds of programs that could be offered in the project. Two of the six teachers were involved with the data gathering in the early stages of the planning process. Attitudes among teachers about being involved in the planning process varied. the project: One teacher commented about "This is what our college community needed." Another teacher said, " . . . I have doubts about low- income students coming to campus to pass the courses." . . . they won't be able The point seemed to be that teacher attitudes about the project were crucial to positive pro­ gram development and planning. Secondary.— Two interested teachers attended com­ munity inter-agency council meetings, helped the adminis­ tration with the planning of classes, and actively sup­ ported the project in the community. 100 Step II; Establishing Goals and Setting Objectives C o m m en t: Teachers did not generally tend to be­ come involved with setting goals or objectives for the project. However, three did set objectives with agency personnel in jointly-sponsored programs. An attempt ap ­ peared to be made to interface the objectives of the class with those of objectives of the agency and the project. It was strongly noted that those three teachers who set objectives had more positive feedback from students about the success of the teachers' classes than those teachers who did not set objectives. Teachers who set objectives seemed to feel that setting objectives helped to give their teaching direc­ tion. These three teachers expressed a positive attitude about the objective-setting process. Step I I I : Making Decisions Comment: Five teachers reported no involvement in decision-making. Teachers tended to turn to the ad ­ ministration for decision-making related to the project. The administration generally made decisions about what would be taught and who would be taught. One college, however, was an exception. lege had a powerful faculty organization. This col­ The faculty organization insisted on being kept informed of new pro­ grams, new personnel or changes in the curriculum. 101 Further, if programs were to be successful, the involve­ ment of teacher organization in the decision-making process was imperative. Step IV: Implementing Comment; Three teachers had teaching experience and special training in working with low-income students. To a greater degree, these teachers seemed more aware of the needs of the low-income students and more sensitive to the low-income student than were teachers who had lit­ tle or no background or training. The increased a w a r e ­ ness and sensitivity on the part of the teachers who had previous experience implies the desirability of in-service training programs for teachers. Step V : Evaluating Comment: Few teachers did little formal eval ua ­ tion of their classes. In those cases where teachers did conduct class evaluation, there appeared to be: (1 ) concern on the part of the teachers for the progress of the low-income student; (2 ) increased knowledge and understanding on the part of the teacher of the needs of the low-income student; (3) a willingness on the part of the teachers to change teaching techniques to meet the needs of the low-income students. 102 Students were seldom involved in any phase of the planning process. Teachers were involved as resource persons in the planning of the project as well as in the planning of programs. Attitudes of teachers about their involvement in planning varied from strong support to concern. Teachers were not involved in setting objec­ tives for the project; tives. some teachers did set class o b jec­ Teachers who set objectives seemed to be more organized than did teachers who did not set objectives. Teachers seemed to look toward the administration for decisions related to the project. One notable exception was a college with a strong faculty organization. Pre­ vious experience or training appeared to help teachers to be more aware and sensitive to the needs of the low-income students. Few teachers did formal evaluation of their classes. Agency Personnel and Citizens Comment: In the rural communities in this study, many agency personnel and citizens work jointly in social action programs. For this reason, they are analyzed as one group. Step I : Staging Comment: Agency personnel and citizens' involve­ m ent was primarily helping to establish communication 103 lines with businesses and professional and social organ­ izations within each college's service area. The es­ tablishing of communication links appeared to provide a valuable service to program planning and development. Communication links helped to provide for positive com­ munication between community groups and the college by stimulating new ideas for project improvement, by identi­ fying new data sources, by identifying new resources, and by serving as a support system for the project. Agency personnel identified both formal and in­ formal council structures. Informal councils had no by-laws, business agenda, or official chairman. Formal councils did have by-laws, business agendas and an elected chairman. In general, the councils consisted of local col­ lege and agency personnel. did not. One formal council, however, This council included primarily businessmen, housewives, and doctors. Since it appeared that councils had an influence on the planning of this social action program, some observations were made of the persons who sit on these councils. It appeared that councils consisting primarily of agency personnel were more capable of responding to planning than a council consisting primarily of general community citizens. Reasons for this observation include: 104 1. Agency personnel had the motivation to serve a common goal--community development. Since it was their job to serve the community, they had the motivation to accomplish tasks. On the other hand, general community citizens seemed to have a more narrow, self-motivated goal. At times, this goal included power or self-angrandizement. 2. Agency personnel had the available knowledge of the community and the skill and resources to accomplish tasks. Community citizens had to gain this knowledge plus depend on others agency personnel) 3. (generally to accomplish tasks. Community citizens often had full-time jobs. Since their job took the major portion of their time and energy, the amount of time and energy citizens could devote to community projects was limited. 4. As a result of background experience and training, agency personnel seemed to have more awareness and sensitivity to the needs of the community. Community citizens were in need of training to become more aware and sensitive to community needs. At the time of this study, few training programs for citizens had been offered. 105 Step II: Establishing Goals and Setting Objectives Comment: Three agency personnel were involved in setting objectives with teachers in jointly-sponsored programs. Two agency personnel were hesitant to work with teachers. These agency personnel believed that the classroom was the teacher's domain. In those cases where agency personnel did set objectives with teachers, the teachers did not appear possessive of their classrooms or believe that the agency personnel were interfering. Three teachers seemed to like the idea of setting objectives since, as one teacher commented, " . . . setting objectives helped to give me direction." Step III: Making Decisions Comment; Agency personnel and citizens had a minor role in decision-making. Agency personnel reported that only on limited occasions, unless a program was jointly sponsored, did the community services director or the project coordinator involve the agency personnel in decision-making. An exception to this was one community services director who had a close working relationship with the director, Department of Social Services. At this college, the community services director and the director. 106 Department of Social Services often conferred about a new program before the program was offered to the community. Step I V : Implementing C o m m en t: Agency personnel were generally not in­ volved in program implementation. A notable exception was those agencies that had established a joint in-service training with the college. In-service training programs were designed because it was apparent that some teachers and agency personnel had difficulty relating to low-income persons. In those colleges where joint in-service train­ ing programs were offered, the following conditions seemed to e x i s t : (1 ) a positive working relationship between the col­ lege and agency personnel; (2 ) an understanding of and empathy for each other's problems in developing social action programs; (3) a mutual concern for serving the rural poor; and (4) a willingness and desire to plan cooperatively. The conditions above did not appear to exist to the same degree in colleges that had no joint in-service training programs. 107 Step V: Evaluating C omment: As noted in Step V, Teachers, three agency personnel and teachers set joint objectives. In limited cases, agency personnel helped to evaluate the accomplishment of those objectives at the end of a class session. The nature of that involvement included interviews with low-income students, and discussions with teachers of the progress that students had made. The results of the interviews and discussions were used to change courses to meet the needs of the students. The specific changes or the effects of these changes are not known. Summary Agency personnel and citizens helped the college to establish communication links throughout the community. It appeared that councils that consisted primarily of agency personnel tended to be more conducive to planning than did councils consisting primarily of community per­ sons. Agency personnel had different opinions about work­ ing with teachers to set objectives. Agency personnel and citizen involvement were considered important in the stag­ ing phase of planning, but, in general, other planning steps was limited. involvement in the 108 SECTION II: Involvement of Administrative Respondents and Related Respondents in the Planning Process Using Table IV.1 the foregoing section has been an analysis of each respondent group's involvement across (horizontally) each of the five planning steps. Using Table IV.1 the focus now shifts to an analysis of the total involvement of administrative respondents and the total involvement of related respondents down (vertically) each of the planning steps. Since this analysis is of total involvement, no attempt to distinguish primary or secondary involvement is made. Further, there is no attempt to distinguish dif­ ferences among colleges or individuals. comments made are kept general. Therefore, the Further, these comments are intended to serve as a summary of total involvement for administrative respondents and related respondents in all steps of the planning process. The Planning Team A general analysis of the respondents' involve­ ment in the planning process shows the formation and development of a planning team in each service area. This planning team, consisting of relatively unsophisti­ cated persons in planning techniques, included the assoc­ iate director of Project RITE, administrators, agency personnel, faculty, students, and citizens. This team 109 represented areas of education, business, governmental agencies, law, and low-income citizens. Although no service area team had identical re­ sponsibilities, the planning team's general functions appear to include the following: ject's purposes, (3) (1 ) defining the p r o­ (2 ) identifying the college's purposes, gathering information, each service area, (4) identifying the needs of (5) establishing goals and setting o b ­ jectives for each program, (6 ) determining alternative modes for the goals and objectives identified, (7) re­ viewing the delimitations on the programs identified, (8 ) establishing the process by which the program objec­ tives could be attained, (9) making decisions about which programs would be offered, grams, and (1 0 ) helping to implement pro­ (1 1 ) aiding with the evaluation of program off er in gs . Concept of Involvement In this study the concept of involvement was strongly realized. Involvement appeared to have different shades of meaning to different respondents. Administrative Attitudes Administrative in the p l a n n i n g mented that he process is: attitudes varied. about One involving others administrator com­ 110 . . . very careful who I select to be mittee, if I have a committee at all. people involved in making a decision, ficult it is to get anything done. I form planning committees unless it is necessary. . * . on any com­ The more the more dif­ don't generally absolutely On the other hand, another administrator complained: There is little planning here. I suggested at one administrative meeting that we at least tell each other what our plans are so that we won't be dupli­ cating efforts. We should also be thinking about what we want for the future of our college. This means planning; this means involving the community. . . . I got no response. . . . Differences between these two administrator's attitudes about involving others in planning is apparent. Underlying this difference seems to be an attitude about the ability of other administrators or community persons to make positive decisions. That is, do other adminis­ trators or community citizens have the capacity and judg­ ments to make positive decisions that will move the col­ lege and the project toward its goals? Implicit in the above question is whether or not a college or a project has goals and objectives and is, therefore, capable of communicating these goals to others. Communication Links Administrators expressed the belief that communi­ cation links both within the college and in the community were essential if planning was to be effective. Adminis­ trators had different methods of establishing communication linkages within their service areas. Although these Ill methods varied, the following simple diagram is repre­ sentative of these l i n k a g e s : Key: f _ _ Board 4 Informal Linkages President f_______^ Formal Linkages Faculty Advisory Committee Community Services Director, Project Coordinator Low-Income f - -> Committee (including <---- > low-income s* s t u d e n t s ) -A s Community Services Advisory Council k ✓ / Community Citi zens Figure IV.4.— Communication Linkages. Administrators emphasized the importance of keep­ ing planning participants informed and supportive of the colleges and the project's policies and practices. One administrator emphasized: If you don't work closely with planning groups [ad­ visory co mm i tt ee s] , you can get into hot water. They [advisory committees] may begin to believe that they run the college unless you give them direction right from the start. Related Respondents Reactions by related respondents to their involve­ ment varied. Non-administrative respondents expressed a 112 fundamental concern for the development of the programs through Project RITE. They contributed their expertise by offering to help develop the kinds of programs needed, and by working closely with the administrators to develop these programs. Generally, related respondents did not see themselves as objective-setters, decision-makers, or implementors, nor did they attempt to involve themselves with the educational problems of the rural poor. Rather, they functioned as resource persons for the planning and development of the project and help to communicate support to the community and refer students to the p r o je ct ’s pro­ grams . Psychological Involvement in Planning While it appeared that related respondents sup­ ported the project, some seemed not to be psychologically committed to the planning of the project’s programs. teacher, One for example, commented: I wanted to be involved more with the over-all plan­ ning. Unless I am, I feel that I'm teaching in a vacuum and d o n ’t understand what I'm supposed to teach since I d o n ’t know what my students need. Yet, administrators believed that they did involve teachers and agency personnel in planning. The point is that even though a person is included in planning, he may not feel psychologically involved in planning. It appeared that it is not the formal act of being involved but rather the attitude about that involvement that is important. 113 The underlying principle that seemed to emerge is that if one is involved in those planning activities that he d e ­ sires to be in and if that involvement fulfills his expec­ tations, then he may feel psychologically committed to planning. As one agency director candidly put it: one likes to be just a 'warm b o d y . ' "No I like to feel that I'm helping the college, but I want something for myself also. " Conditions for Planning A review of the data indicated an essential el e ­ ment for good planning is the conditions under which p l a n ­ ning takes place. It was recognized that planning was en ­ couraged by most administrators while others did not. Generally, the tone of the planning environment appeared to be set by the college presidents and by the community services directors, roles. since they have the primary leadership Those administrators who encouraged planning tended to have the following conditions in their colleges while those who did not encourage planning did not: 1. Administrators and teachers appeared to be better able to define the goals of the college. 2. The climate appeared to be "open" and democratic rather than "closed" and authoritarian. 114 3. There appeared to be some kind of formal or in­ formal channels of communication between adminis­ trators and faculty, staff, and community persons. 4. The administrative staff actively sought the a d ­ vice of faculty, staff, and community persons. A general analysis of the administrative and re­ lated respondents showed that a planning team was formed in each service area, that the concept of involvement was highly important yet had different meanings to the d i f ­ ferent respondents. Administrative attitudes about the planning process varied and administrators recognized the importance of communication links within the college and the community. Related respondents generally functioned as resource persons for the project. Yet some seemed not psychologically committed to the planning of the project. An essential element of good planning is the conditions under which good planning takes place. These conditions appear to be present in the administration, the related respondents, and the planning environment. The Flow Chart The flow chart is the final stage in the develop­ ment of the planning model. The flow chart is a summation of the disjointed programs and activities in each of the 115 five service areas. This flow chart is an attempt to summarize the entire planning process investigated in this study. This model attempts to organize and to reflect: (1 ) the logical sequence of events in the planning and development of Project RITE and (2) the over-all plan that was used for implementing the programs of services in each service area (see model in back-cover pocket), S E C T I O N III: Evaluation of Objectives To evaluate the use of Management by Objectives as a planning technique, the investigation in this section is addressed to an evaluation of 100 performance objec­ tives developed and operationalized by five project co­ ordinators. In a formal, taped interview, each of five project coordinators rated all his own performance ob­ jectives on a scale from 1-5 4=good, 5=superior). (l=poor, 2=fair, 3=average, Each project coordinator gave reasons why he rated his objectives as he did. group of objectives, rated good 100 From this performance objectives that were (4) and superior (5) by the project coordi­ nators were selected for evaluation by a Management by Objectives expert. The Management by Objectives expert, Dr. Mike Moore, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, Michigan State University, rated these objectives on the 116 same 1-5 scale. He gave reasons why he rated these o b ­ jectives as he did. In addition, a workshop was held with the project coordinators in which Dr. Moore discussed his evaluation of the objectives. His comments were recorded, analyzed, and used as a part of the analysis of objec­ tives in this study. The following, therefore, is a comparative a n a l y ­ sis between five project coordinators1 evaluation of their objectives and an expert’s evaluation of the pro­ ject coordinators' objectives. For the purpose of this analysis Tables IV.2-IV.5 are used. Selected objectives appear in Tables IV.2-IV.5 categorized into the four areas below: 1. Routine: A repetitive, commonplace, but neces­ sary, goal to which an effort is directed. 2. Problem-Solving: A performance modification which leads to the correction of a discrepancy or deficiency in the level of current performance. 3. Innovative: A new and different approach which may lead to improved or expanded results. 4. Personal: An individual effort which leads toward improvement of professional or managerial skills and the enhancement of career growth (55). Table IV.2 Routine Objectives Expert's Criteria (1) Mutual Commitment (2) Clear Project Coordinator's Criteria Examples (1) (2) Clear 1. 2. (3) Realistic (3) Realistic 1. 2. (4) OutcomeOriented (4) OutcomeOriented (5) Specific (5) Specific 1. 2. 1. 2. (6) Contains Indicators (6) Gather resource materials (e.g., census) for community analysis. Gather reading materials about community. This will help me to better understand my community. Budqet: Work with the Dean of Instruction to seek addi­ tional funds for the college. Establish regular contact with community agencies and organ­ izations. This objective will be accomplished through personal contact. . . . Agency Involvement: This objective will be achieved by meetwith and planning programs with agency personnel. Establish regular contact with the Community Services Direc­ tor to inform him of the progress being made in Project RITE. Work with the community services secretary to orient her to Project RITE. Publish a Project RITE Newsletter for the senior citizens Table IV.3 Problem-Solving Objectives Expert1s Criteria (1) Mutual Commitment (2) Clear Project Coordinator's Criteria Examples (1) (2) Clear 1. 2. (3) Realistic (3) Realistic 1. 2♦ (4) OutcomeOriented (5) Specific (6 ) Initiate a mailing list for a Directory of Resources. This objective will be completed when public and private agen­ cies have been personally contacted. Initiate classes for the low-income. This objective will be accomplished when needs of the low-income are determined. (41 (5) Specific 1. 2. Contains Indicators Develop an advisory committee. This objective will be accom­ plished by desiqninq a mailing list of key community people. Begin publicity. This objective will be accomplished when personal contact is made with the community media. (6 ) Counseling: This objective will be accomplished when the Director of Community Services appoints a professional coun­ selor for vocational counseling. Provide in-service training next semester (winter, 1971-72) for the board members. This objective will be accom­ plished when four out of the six board members participate in the non-credit course, entitled Table IV,4 Innovative Objectives Expert's Criteria Project Coordinator1s Criteria (1) Mutual Commitment (1) (2) Clear (2) (3) Realistic (3) Realistic Examples 1 . Develop a senior citizens' telephone reassurance program. 119 2. This objective will be accomplished when a list of inter­ ested senior citizens is developed. Develop an area GED testing center at the community college. ] This will be accomplished when there is no charge to the participants. (4) OutcomeOriented (4) OutcomeOriented 1 . Make the college a clearing house for community information. (5) Specific (5) Specific 1 . Work with area senior citizens to develop a travel club. (6 ) Contains Indicators (6 ) 2. 2. Begin by contacting community agencies. Develop long-range goals for the community services programs. Develop a resource file of volunteer helpers to aid in solving the transportation need. Table IV.5 Personal Objectives Expert's Criteria (1) Mutual Commitment (2) Clear Project Coordinator* s Criteria Examples (1) (2) Clear 1. 2. (3) Realistic (3) Realistic 1. 2. (4) OutcomeOriented (4) OutcomeOriented 1. 2. (5) Specific (5) Specific 1. 2. (6) Contains Indicators (6) Develop a good working relationship with the president and the Community Services Director. Attend professional workshops and agency meetings that are believed to be of value to me. Attend conferences at Michigan State University on community services proqrams. Be punctual at all meetings. Be able to identify and know community leaders on a personal basis. Do this to help increase my working effectiveness in the community. Become involved in college in-service programs. Do this to increase my understanding of the community. Increase my professional competency. This will be accomplished when I attend the Michigan State workshop in August, 1972. Inform my wife of my work to make her feel more a part of my job. Plan to do this each Sunday. 121 For comparative purposes, the expert's reasons for why he rated the objectives as he did appear in Tables IV.2-IV.5 to the left of the project coordinator's reasons. No purpose would be served in this analysis by listing all 100 objectives or by dividing these 100 o b ­ jectives into criterion. That is, a good objective should contain all the criteria identified in Tables IV. 2IV.5. Therefore, examples only. specific objectives were selected as No assumption is made that the objectives used as examples in Tables IV.2-IV.5 are well-written o b ­ jectives. Other objectives are used as examples through­ out this analysis for purposes of clarity. Tables IV.2-IV.5 presents the comparison between the project coordinator and the expert. ference is apparent. One general d i f ­ The expert has identified six specific criteria which he considers to form the founda­ tion of all good objectives. listed in Tables IV.2-IV.5. These six criteria are The project coordinators, on the other hand, have identified different criteria for good objectives in each one of the four areas. Routine, (4) outcome-oriented, Solving, and they identified: and (2) clear, under Problem- (2) clear, (5) specific; under Innovative, (3) realistic, (3) realistic, (5) specific; they have identified: (4) outcome-oriented, Under (3) realistic, they have identified: and and under Personal they have identified: (5) specific; (2) clear. 122 (3) realistic, and (5) specific. Each one of these areas will be analyzed in turn to compare the differences in criteria between the expert and the project coordinators. As shown in Tables IV.2-IV.5, no project c o or di ­ nator identified an objective as good because it served as the basis for a mutual commitment. A mutual c o mm it ­ ment is an agreement between the project coordinator and his superior. The expert felt, however, that a mutual commitment is the essential element in objective setting. Nothing can be managed unless a mutual commitment between the superior and the subordinate is made. This study showed that the basis of the success­ ful use of Management by Objectives was based on the ability of the project coordinators to get a mutual c o m ­ mitment from the community services director. Most community services directors were willing to make this commitment. There was a tendency, however, for some directors to avoid making a commitment to the p r o ­ ject coordinator or to forget that a commitment had been made. When this happened, it was necessary for the p r o ­ ject coordinators to try to move the community services director toward a commitment situation. Since all the project coordinators initiated the Management by Objectives idea, to move the community serv­ ices director toward a commitment situation involved generally the following strategy: 123 1. Scheduling a time that was convenient, private, and comfortable to discuss the objectives. 2. Asking the community services director tc help think through the objectives to see if there are changes that need to be made. 3. Asking the community services director to critique the objectives and help to set limitations. 4. Asking the community services director if he will agree that these are the objectives that need to be accompli shed. 5. Asking the community services director for his= commitment to help the project coordinator meet the agreed-upon objectives. Delimitations on Goals and Objectives The data showed that difficulties in obtaining a mutual commitment from the community services director arose when the community services director: (1) changed or ignored the objectives, i.e., he broke the commitment; (2) did not or could not properly coach the project coordinator in setting realistic objectives; (3) was not or did not remain interested in the project coordinator's work; 124 (4) did not reward the project coordinator for c om ­ pleted objectives; or (5) did not or would not change objectives (be flexible) when it was apparent that objectives should be changed. All project coordinators tended to have some kind of difficulty in obtaining a mutual commitment from their community services director. To that degree, the o b ­ jectives were negatively affected. Other delimitations were noted. In general, the presidents and the community services directors reviewed the project coordinators' project coordinator. goals and objectives with the When objectives were set for the development of programs, the presidents and/or the c om ­ munity services director in most colleges reviewed these programs with the project coordinator in terms of m a n ­ power, costs, transportation, facilities, and college- community policies, customs, or habits. Clear objectives are objectives which are clearly written. stand. They are objectives that are easy to un der­ The data shows that the project coordinator, for the most part, wrote Clear, Routine, Problem-Solving, and Personal objectives. Tables IV.2-IV.5 provide e x ­ amples of these Clear objectives. The expert felt that there were some ob j ectives— particularly Innovative— that 125 were not clear. Several representative examples of un­ clear, or vague. Innovative objectives are as follows: 1. Encourage low-income adults to enroll in college for further education if they have the ability. When scholarship funds are available for lowincome . 2. Senior citizen project will be considered ac­ complished when a council on aging, AARP, and RITE complete plans for consumer education programs. There was a general agreement between the expert and the project coordinator that most Routine, ProblemSolving, Innovative, and Personal objectives were realis­ tic. That is, the objectives the project coordinator wrote were considered good, because they were objectives that could be attained. Some unrealistic, unimportant and perhaps trivial objectives were written. Some notable examples follow: 1. Be punctual at all meetings. 2. Contact MSU on a regular basis (first Wednesday of each m o n t h) . There was some tendency for project coordinators to write "low-ordern objectives as shown in the above example. These "low-order" objectives identify actions that should be a normal part of meeting a broader 126 objective. Low-order objectives, as noted above, are in danger of becoming trivial. The expert suggested that "high order" or broader objectives be written. High order objectives are objectives that are realistic enough to be attained and yet objectives) (if Problem-Solving or innovative the objective is challenging enough to help the individual stretch somewhat to fulfill the objective. The way in which an objective is met is not of primary importance (it matters little, for example, if a person is punctual at all meetings or if Michigan State Univer­ sity is contacted on a regular ba s i s ) . What is of impor­ tance is that an objective is^ met. As shown in Tables IV.2-IV.5, project coordi­ nators stated that certain Routine and Innovative objec­ tives were good because these objectives produced certain outcomes. The project coordinator did not state that Problem-Solving or Personal objectives were good because these objectives produced outcomes. A tives study of the e x p e r t ' s in a l l c a t e g o r i e s Innovative, tendency Personal) for m o s t o f ject c o o r d i n a t o r e v a l u a t i o n of (R out ine , showed that th e o b j e c ­ Problem-Solving, there was th e o b j e c t i v e s a strong written by to b e a c t i v i t y - o r i e n t e d rather th e p r o ­ than outcome-oriented objectives. Generally, these activity-oriented objectives can be classified into the four categories as follows: 127 Routine Objectives 1. (examples): Contacts with key college and community persons for information 2. Writing of evaluation and budget reports 3. Review of budgets and funds 4. Obtaining necessary publicity for programs Problem-Solving Objectives 1. (examples): Discovering ways to provide services or programs for the rural poor 2. Designing publicity vehicles to reach the rural poor 3. Designing in-service training or special programs for teachers and agency personnel Innovative Objectives 1. (examples): Developing long-range planning for community services 2. Designing special needs programs for the low-income 3. Initiating, designing, and activating ad­ visory councils and/or low-income committees 128 Personal Objectives (examples): 1. Attending special conferences or workshops 2. Designing programs for job and selfimprovement 3. Improve family relationships While the accomplishment of these activityoriented objectives may have value to the project coordi­ nator, the expert felt that the objectives should be directed more toward outcomes or results rather than toward a c t i v i t y . Much activity may prove impossible to state in specific terms, whereas results of activities can be stated in specific terms. Both the project coordinators and the expert felt that many of the objectives written could be c o n ­ sidered good, because they were specific. That is, as represented in Tables IV.2-IV.5, many of the objectives tended to identify a particular person, place, or action. Further study between the project coordinator and the expert's evaluation of the objectives revealed some e x ­ ceptions. For purposes of comparison, several examples of objectives that are considered not specific, that is, objectives that are too broad are listed below: Examples: 1. Explore ways to overcome community apathy. This will be accomplished when techniques 129 are explored community. to find ways to involve the Examples of ways to overcome community apathy might include: in-service training, publicity, "sensitivity sessions," and consultant use. 2. Work closely with Head Start to formulate concepts and other activities. While the project coordinator behind the above objectives to be important, the expert felt that in the first objective examples apathy ways. of ways to overcome community should be limited to only one or possibly two The second objective should identify which "con­ cepts" and which "activities." A primary difference between the project coordi­ n a t o r ’s evaluation of their objectives and the e x p e r t ’s evaluation of the objectives is the use of specific indi­ cators. As presented in Tables IV.2-XV.5, no project coordinator identified an objective as good because it used indicators. The expert, on the other hand, stated that any objective to be complete has to have specific indicators attached to it. A further analysis of all of the 100 objectives in this study showed a very strong tendency for many objectives not to contain indicators. A good objective, according to the expert, must have specific indicators attached to it. Indicators can: 130 1. include how much, 2. include quality, 3. include cost, 4. include human aspects, 5. 1, 2, 3, and 4 are meaningful only if time re­ quirements are noted. The following objectives that were written by the project coordinator and do not contain indicators are compared with objectives that do contain indicators. Objective 1. Contains no Indicators: Attend professional workshops and meetings that are believed to be of value to me as an educator and more specifically as a project coordinator. This objective will be accomplished by attending workshops and seminars. Objective 2. Indicators: Contains Attend professional workshops and meetings that are believed to be of value to me as an educator and more specifically as a project coordinator. This objective will be accomplished when I attend at least two of the three Project RITE workshops at Michigan State U ni ve rs it y. 131 Objective 1 contains no indicators; Objective 2 contains How M u c h . A further comparison between the project coordi­ nator and the expert’s evaluation of objectives noted d if ­ ferences in objectives that contained time requirements. An investigation of the objectives in this study showed that no project coordinator considered the time require­ ment as essential for writing a good objective. The expert believed that the time element needed to be included in each objective. An example of an objective containing no time element and an example of an objective containing a specific time element follows: Objective 1. Element: No Time Proposal Writing: This objective will complished when proposals are Dean of be submitted ac­ to the Instruction on a regular b a s i s . Objective 2. Time Element Included: Proposal Writing: This objective will be ac­ complished when proposals are submitted to the Dean of Instruction at least two weeks prior to the proposal deadline date, March 1 5 . The expert felt that the time element would "force" the project coordinator to be accountable for accomplish­ ing a given task on time. In the first objective "on a 132 regular basis" has little meaning. The second objective, however, committed the project coordinator to havinq the proposal to the Dean of Instruction at a set time. The time element helps to move the program forward. Further additional analysis of the objectives that were evaluated by the project coordinator and the expert revealed two additional areas of differences not identified in Tables IV.2-IV.5. These additional areas are: (1) identifying a range of performance where possible, and (2) identifying objectives that have definite priorities. Many of the objectives written by the project co­ ordinator strongly tended to identify performance. Some examples of these objectives follow: 1. Establish regular contact with various community agencies and organizations. 2. Work with area senior citizens to develop a newsletter. A differentiation between performance objectives and management objectives was necessary. Project coordi­ nators tended to believe they were to perform activities and, therefore, wrote these activities into their objec­ tives. The expert felt that the project coordinators were. 133 to a large degree, managers of activities and it was the outcomes of these activities, rather than the performance of these activities, that were important. Therefore, the expert's analyses questioned this strong tendency to identify performance. What resulted, he felt, was a long list of activity-oriented objectives. The key phrase is "a range of performance." It was sug­ gested that many of the activity-oriented objectives could be collated under several objectives that would include the entire "range of performances" rather than each activity to be accomplished. A study of the sample objectives showed that project coordinators tended not to write objectives that had definite priorities. A few examples of objectives that tended to identify priorities are as follows: Objective 1 : Low-income families: Contact low-income families before low-income families call in for referral. Obj ective 2 : Agency involvement: This objective will be achieved after coordinating and developing a list of available resources. The expert suggested that objectives should c o n ­ tain definite priorities when it is necessary to complete 134 one task before beginning another. These priorities should be made clear in the objective. An analysis was done of a comparison between five project coordinators' evaluations of their objectives and an expert’s evaluation of the project coordinators' o b ­ jectives. Tables IV.2-IV.5 were used for this comparison. The expert identified six specific criteria which he con­ sidered to form the foundation of good objectives. The project coordinator identified different criteria for each area (Routine, Problem-Solving, Innovative, Personal). These criteria were compared and analyzed. Results of this analysis indicate that there was a difference in the project coordinator’s and the expert's understanding of the importance of mutual commitments. Further analysis showed that most objectives were clearly written, that most objectives were realistic, that most objectives strongly tended to be activity-oriented rather than outcome-oriented, that most objectives were specific, and that most objectives did not contain indicators or time requirements. Further additional analysis of the o b ­ jectives revealed that objectives strongly tended to iden­ tify a limited, rather than entire, range of performance and that objectives had few priorities attached to them. 135 Summary In this chapter the data collected from periodic meetings with directors of community services, project coordinators, planning experts, planning workshops, and forty-nine interviews was presented. analysis was done of the designing, development of a planning model, A descriptive field-testing, and the nature of involvement of respondents in each step of the planning process, and a comparative analysis between five project co or di na t or s’ evaluation of their performance objectives and an expert's evaluation of the project coordinators' jectives. Chapter V. performance o b ­ The results of this analysis are presented in CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION OF CONCLUSIONS, SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH The purposes of this chapter are to present a sum­ mary of the problem, methodology, and findings, to discuss the conclusions of the study, and to offer suggestions for further research* Summary of the Problem This descriptive study emerged from the need for more predictable and definitive outcomes in social action programs* To fulfill this need, social action programs are just beginning to be influenced by the new emphasis on planning techniques. The study is an attempt to investi­ gate : (1) the designing, field-testing, and developing of a planning model for implementing social action programs; (2) the nature of involvement of administrators, teachers, students, agency personnel, and citizens who participated in the planning; and 136 137 (3) the usefulness of Management by Objectives (MBO) as a planning technique for social action programs. Management by Objectives was viewed as a potential aid in assisting relatively unsophisticated per­ sonnel, who had a limited amount of in-service and pre-service training, in producing definitive outcomes. Summary of Data Collection The data for this study was obtained through an indepth analysis of the social action programs offered through five rural-based Michigan community colleges. Preliminary to making the actual visits to the community colleges in the sample, a planning model was d e ­ signed by using the planning literature. From this plan­ ning model an interview guide was developed and pilot tested. The procedures used to investigate the areas of study included: 1. Periodic meetings with the community services directors and the project coordinators from each of the five colleges to set objectives. 2. Three workshops held at Michigan State University with the project coordinators from each of the five colleges. 138 3. Formal structured interviews with forty-seven re­ spondents, including community college presidents, community services directors, project coordinators, teachers, 4. students, agency personnel and citizens. A formal interview with a Management by Objectives expert. 5. Meetings with model cities planning experts. Efforts were made to conduct logical and sequential interviews yet allow for freedom to explore individual p e r ­ ceptions and insights held by respondents. Findings of the Study The findings of the study are summarized below: 1. Definable and sequential steps and sub-steps in the planning process can be identified. ning model could be designed, A pl a n ­ field-tested, and developed. 2. A planning team was formed in each one of the service areas. This planning team was formed as a result of some limited a priori long-range p l a n ­ ning and as a result of immediate program needs in each service area. 3. No other concept than involvement was more strongly realized. Planning was more effective when all those who were to be influenced by a plan were involved with that plan. Presidents had the primary institutional leader­ ship role. As leaders, they determined if a social action program would be initiated into the college, the value to be placed on the social action program and the amount of planning effort given to carry out the social action program. Presidents set priorities on the value of the social action program in terms of: and effort devoted to the program, (a) their time (b) the amount of money a program could bring into the college, and/or (c) the amount and kinds of services a p r o ­ gram could offer the college community. Presidents were generally administrative supporters of the social action program's goals and o bjec­ tives; they were the final decision-making author­ ities involving college-community or personnel problems; mentation, they were "overseers" of program imple­ and they encouraged evaluation. President's leadership styles ranged from di rec­ tive to permissive. Their styles and attitudes toward planning influenced the conditions for planning. 140 8. Community services directors have a primary leader­ ship role in the college. As leaders, their roles included fund-seekers, activity generators, mana­ gers, and "legitimizers." Often they are "middle­ men" between the administration, faculty, staff and students, and between the college and the com­ munity. As "middlemen," directors had an ability to deal with ambiguity; they are risk-takers; they have highly-developed communication skills; and they are knowledgeable of the community. 9. Community services directors generally were sup­ portive of the goals and objectives of the project. They did not overtly make decisions, but they often covertly made decisions. Directors handled a d ­ ministrative details of program implementation; they generally delegated hiring and training of personnel but were involved in firing personnel. They encouraged evaluation. The director's atti­ tude toward planning influenced the conditions for planning. 10. Project coordinators were involved in all planning steps. They were liaisons between the college and the community, although their emphasis on community development and administration varied. They had a variety of backgrounds that influenced their ability 141 to plan with low-income persons. They had high autonomy to make normal program decisions but were not involved in final decisions involving collegecommunity or personnel problems. Coordinators were program implementators and evaluators. 11. The project coordinators' ability to establish and maintain personal contacts with administrative and agency personnel enhanced the planning process. 12. Student involvement in any stage of the planning process was almost non-existent. 13. Teachers' limited. involvement in the planning process was Teachers served as resource persons for the administration/ and they helped identify and develop programs. Teachers were generally favor­ able about setting objectives for their classes, but differed in their attitudes toward planning. 14. Agency personnel and citizens' ning was limited. involvement in plan­ Agency personnel and citizens helped to strengthen communication links between the college and the community, which enhanced the planning process. 15. When the following conditions were present in ad­ ministrators, related respondents, and the environ­ ment, the planning process was enhanced: 142 When the administration had: (a) faith that other persons have the capacity and judgment to make positive decisions that will move the college and social action program toward its goals; (b) d e ­ veloped effective communication links between the faculty, staff, and community; (c) kept planning participants informed and supportive of the col­ leges' policies and practices; (d) those citizens who the colleges or social action programs identi­ fied as in need of service (e.g., low-income) directly involved with planning and decision­ making; (e) recognized that philosophy of the col­ lege and the objectives of the social action program were best accomplished when the administration d e ­ signs its organizational structure to allow for and respond to feedback from its community; (f) recognized that no organization or social action program will function as effectively over the long run unless it has the support of its con­ stituents; (g) recognized that there are many ways to plan to successfully reach the goals of the college and a social action program; (h) the a bil­ ity of an administrator to recognize the difference between responsibility and authority and his abil­ ity to determine whether he intends to delegate authority and/or responsibility to a planning committee. 143 Where the related respondents had developed: (a) an understanding and acceptance of the com­ munity college and the social action p r o g r a m ’s philosophy and objectives; (b) an awareness and sensitivity to the special needs of the lowincome; (c) a willingness to serve as a resource person for planning without attempting to dictate administrative policy; (d) a willingness and ability to become psychologically committed to the decision-making activities; (e) the desire to help the college and the social action program reach its goals, yet gain something for himself as a result of having participated in planning; (f) a willingness to share ideas and speak out on important issues; (g) a willingness to oppose overt or covert "dictates"; (h) a willingness to share and take responsibility for leadership. When the college has developed: (a) a clear defi­ nition of the col le ge ’s and the project's goals and objectives; (b) an "open" rather than "closed" atmosphere where personnel can make suggestions without fear or embarrassment; (c) clearly defined and available formal or informal channels of com­ munication; (d) continual support and encourage­ ment for those personnel who do attempt to plan; (e) a commitment of resources toward a planning e f fo rt . The Flow Chart. reflects: A model can be constructed that (a) the logical sequence of events in the development of a social action program, and (b) the over-a11 plan that was used for implement­ ing programs of service. A model can help to determine more predictable outcomes in social action programs. When the project coordinator was unable to obtain a mutual commitment from his community services director, the writing of objectives was negatively affected. Relatively unsophisticated personnel coordinators) (project in planning techniques, using Management by Objectives, wrote objectives that were clear, realistic, and specific. They wrote objectives that were activity-oriented and objec­ tives that did not contain indicators or time re­ quirements. They wrote objectives that often identified a limited range of activity and had a limited range of priorities attached to them. Conclusions A planning model can be developed and used in order to determine more predictable outcomes in social action programs. 145 2. A planning team in each service area of a social action program should be identified and trained prior to the development of a social action pro­ gram. This planning team should receive extensive and intensive training in selected planning tech­ niques . 3. In social action programs, important concept. involvement is the most All who would be influenced by a plan should be identified prior to the d e ­ velopment of that plan. Those persons influenced by a plan should be involved in that plan. 4. Administrators were more involved in all phases of the planning process than were teachers, stu­ dents, agency personnel or citizens. If program planning is to have long-range positive effects, more teachers, students, agency personnel, and citizens must actively participate in all phases of program planning and development. 5. Administrative involvement in planning influences the planning process of social action programs through their leadership roles, priorities, atti­ tudes, and financial support. 6. Teacher tively and student involvement influences the in p l a n n i n g p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s of posi­ social 146 action programs through their functions as r e ­ source p e r s on s. 7. Agency personnel and citizen involvement in p lan­ ning positively influences the planning process of social action programs by establishing c o m ­ munication links throughout the college service area. 8. The psychological commitment to planning is not the formal act of being involved in planning, but the attitude about that involvement. If a person is involved in planning activities that he d e ­ sires to be in, and if that involvement fulfills his expectations and needs, then he may feel a psychological commitment to planning. 9. When certain conditions are present in the a d ­ ministrators, related respondents and the plan­ ning environment, then the planning process for social action programs is enhanced. 10. Management by Objectives (MBO) was not an effec­ tive planning technique for relatively unsophis­ ticated personnel who had a limited amount of in-service and pre-service training. Relatively unsophisticated personnel did not produce reason­ ably definitive outcomes in developing programs as a result of setting objectives. 147 Discussion of Conclusions What emerges from this study are the essential— but partial— elements of "programmed involvement" for a social action program. volvement" include: The elements of "programmed in­ (1) the development of a planning model that summarized the entire planning process, and (2) the nature of involvement of participants in the planning process. The following discussion critiques the elements of programmed involvement that appear as con­ clusions in this study. While it is possible to develop a model that summarized the steps through which all social action pro­ grams in this study progressed, to apply the model to any social action program would fail to recognize the unique­ ness of that social action program. The point is that the model is to serve only as one approach to a planning process. The model may be adapted {where appropriate) to the local needs of other social action programs. A planning team was identified in the early stages of this social action program. This planning team consisted of the directors of the project at Michigan State University and the community services directors and the project coordinators from each of the consortium col­ leges. After two in-service planning workshops, the community services directors and project coordinators returned to their respective colleges and identified 148 college and community individuals to help with the p l a n ­ ning of programs for the social action program. approach to planning was disjointed at best. This A more formal approach for identifying and training personnel early in the planning stages is needed. Involvement was identified as the most important concept. This concept was occasionally violated. involvement of those teachers, The students, agency personnel, and citizens who were influenced by the planning of p ro ­ grams was limited. Little attempt was made, except in isolated cases where low-income advisory committees were formed, to involve those persons influenced by a plan in that plan. It is clear that where a greater number of teachers, students, agency personnel and/or citizens are involved with planning, the planning process is enhanced. For this reason it is suggested that every effort be made to consider the extent of a plan early in the planning stages and to seek out, identify, and involve those p e r ­ sons who would be influenced by that plan. Some respondents had not made a psychological commitment to the planning effort. Limited attempts had been made to involve a respondent in a planning activity of his desires. In-depth interviews, workshops, and/or seminars should be held prior to a respondent's commit­ ment to be involved in the planning effort of a social action program. Every effort should be made to secure a 149 psychological commitment from participants before they become a part of the planning effort. When certain conditions were present in the ad ­ ministrators, related respondents, and the planning en ­ vironment, then the planning process is enhanced. While no college had all of these conditions present simul­ taneously, each college had some of these conditions present at various times. The conditions as presented are a total picture across all colleges of what seemed to aid the planning process. A valuable contribution to the planning effort would be to identify these and ad­ ditional conditions conducive to good planning. A formal training program could be directed toward learning how to create these conditions within the planning en­ vironment of a social action program. Management by Objectives did not prove to be an ineffective planning technique per s e . MBO could have been effective had relatively unsophisticated personnel had more extensive and intensive training in setting of objectives. Three or four intensive one- or two-day work­ shops spaced throughout the planning period would have clarified the criteria necessary for the writing of good objectives. At these workshops, an MBO planning expert and the community services directors and project coordi­ nators would be present. Special emphasis would be 150 placed on the necessity for obtaining a mutual c o m m i t ­ ment between the community services director and project coordinator. Emphasis should also be placed on the writing of performance objectives that contain indicators, time requirements, a wider range of activities, p r i o r i ­ ties, and objectives that are outcome-oriented. The project coordinator's job is different from most jobs that fall under the general MBO framework. Project coordinators have many activities operating c o n ­ currently. For this reason, M B O — (1) Routine, the four general areas of (2) Problem-Solving, (4) Pe r so na l— would be changed to: (2) Dynamic Regular,^ and (3) Innovative, Cl) Regular Routine, (3) Personal. Routine and Personal objectives are written using the criteria for good objective writing. Regular objectives, To write Dynamic the project coordinator would write down each activity in a time frame. A time frame identi­ fies when an activity begins and when an activity ends. The project coordinator should be able to discuss his commitments to each milestone in terms of: of services, deadlines, {2) quality of services, {4) personnel issues, and (1) scope (3) schedule(5) cost and budget. Once all activities are written into a time frame, the Dr. Mike Moore, Project RITE Workshop, Michigan State University, February 24, 1972. At this workshop. Dr. Moore discussed the use of Dynamic Regular objectives for personnel in social action programs. 151 outcomes expected for each activity are identified. Each activity, and the outcomes expected, are listed in order of priority. If a new activity is introduced, it is evaluated in terms of outcomes and given a priority rating. A notebook would be kept of each activity in order of priority. Behind each activity would be a budget of the exact or estimated cost of that activity. Suggestions for Further Research Based on the analysis of data in this study, the following areas are suggested as worthy of further r e ­ search : 1. A comparative study of other community services social action programs using the similar planning criteria would help to test the conclusions of this s t u d y . 2. An application of the planning model and the use of Management by Objectives from this study to other community services social action programs to test the validity and utility of the model and the value of setting objectives would be of int er e st . 3. A study of the conditions necessary to enhance the planning process would be of importance for improved planning. The development of a series of training programs on planning techniques and the setting of objec­ tives for social action programs in cooperation with other agencies (e.g., community action) would be of value and interest. It could be a basis for increased cooperation and planning. A study of the attitudes of community college presidents toward planning and their willingness to be involved in planning. This study could serve as the basis for the development of plan­ ning trends. The development of a planning handbook that would be developed for social action practitioners would be of value. This handbook could contain simple, practical models for program development plus general planning hints. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Steiner, George A. Top Management Planning. The MacMillan C o ., 1969. London: "Dimensions of the Educational 2 . Maxcy, Horace P . , Jr. Process: A Study of Educational Planning Processes in Selected Michigan School Districts." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. 3. Goetz, Billy E. Management Planning and Control. New Y o r k : McGraw-Hill Book C o ., Inc., 1949. 4. Koontz, Harold, and O'Donnell, Cyril. Principles of Management. New York: McGraw-Hill Book C o . , Inc., 1964. 5. Ogilvie, William K . , and Raines, Max R . , eds. Perspec­ tives on the Community-Junior College. New Y o r k : Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971. 6. Sartor, Lawrence Carl. "A Study of Program Planning Practices in Student Personnel Administration." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970. 7. LeBreton, Preston P., and Henning, Dale A. Planning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961. 8. McFarland, Dalton E. Management: Principles and Practices. London! The MacMillan C o . , 1970. 9. Hardwick, C. T . , and Landuyt, B. F. Administration Strategy. 2nd ed. Cincinnati, O h i o : Southwestern Publishing Co., 1966. 10. Ewing, David W. Long-Range Planning for Management. New Y o r k : Harper and Row Publishers, 1964. 153 154 11. Huefner, Robert P. "Strategies and Procedures in State and Local Planning." Designing Education for the Future. Vol. Ill: Planning and Effecting Needed changes in Education. Edited by Edgar L. Morphet and Charles O. R y an . New York: Citation Press, 1967. "Prospective Economic Developments," 1 2 . Colm, Gerhard. Designing Education for the Future. Vol. is Prospective Changes in Society by 1980. Edited by Edgar L. Morphet and Charles O. R y a n . New Y o r k : Citation Press, 1967. 13. Morphet, Edgar L . , and Jessel, David L. Designing Education for the Future. Vol. VI: Planning for E l e c t i v e Utilization of Technology Tn Education. New York: Citation Press, 1964. 14. Balster, Robert E. "An Exploratory Study of Strategies and Tactics used to Introduce Planned Innovations in Selected Community Services Programs." Un­ published Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971. 15. Davis, Ralph Currier. The Fundamentals of Top Manage­ m e n t . New Y o r k : Harper and Row, 1931. 16. Barnard, Chester I. The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1766. 17. Fagol, Henri. "General Features of a Good Plan of Action." Long-Range Planning for Management. Edited by David W. Ewing. New Y o r k : Harper and R o w , 1964. 18. Hansen, Kenneth H. "Planning for Changes in Educa­ tion." Designing Education for the Future. Vol. Ill: Planning and Effecting Needed Changes in Education^ Edited by Edgar iTT Morphet and Charles O. Ryan. New York: Citation Press, 1961. 19. Steiner, George A., ed. M anagerial Long-Range Plan­ n i n g . New Y o r k : McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., T5YT. 2 0 . Raines, Max R . , and Myram, Gunder. "Community Serv­ ices: A University-Community Approach." A report to the Kellogg Community Services Leader­ ship Program. Junior College Journal, X X XX I, No. 2 {October, 1970), 41-49. 155 21. Lecht, Leonard A. "Strategic Variables in Planning." Designing Education for the Future. Vol. Ill: Planning and Effecting Needed Changes in Educa­ tion . Edited by Edgar L. MorpheV and C h a r l e s 0. Ryan. New York: Citation Press, 1967. 22. Friedman, John. "The Institutional Context." Action Under Planning: The Guidance of Economic Develop­ m en t . Edited by Bertram M. Grass-. New Y o r k : McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1967. 23. Pfeiffer, John. New Look at Education: Systems Analysis in Our Schools and Colleges. New Y o r k : The Odyssey Press, 1968. 24. Drucker, Peter F. The Effective Executive. York: Harper and R o w , 1966. 25. Arggris, Chris. Executive Leadership. Harper and Row"J 1963. 26. Howsam, Robert B. "Effecting Needed Changes in Edu­ cation. " Designing Education for the Future. Vol. Ill: Planning and Effecting Needed Changes in Education-! Edited by Edgar L. Morphet and (Charles 0. Ryan. New York: Citation Press, 1967. 27. Culbertson, Jack. "State Planning for Education." Designing Education for the Future. Vol. Ill: Planning and Effecting Needed Changes in Edu­ cation. Edited by Edgar L. Morphet and Charles O. Ryan. New York: Citation Press, 1967. 28. Arggis, Chris. "Individual Actualization in Complex Organizations." Organizations and Human Behavior: Focus on Schools. Edited by Fred D. Carver and Thomas J . Sergiovanni. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 19 69. 29. Goodland, John I. "The Educational Program to 1980 and Beyond." Designing Education for the Future. Vol. II: Implications for Education of Prospec­ tive Changes in Society- Edited by Edgar L. Morphet and Charles O. Ryan. New York: Citation Press, 1967. 30. Anderson, C. Arnold, and Bowman, Mary Jean. "Theoret­ ical Considerations in Education Planning." Education Planning. Edited by Don A d a m s . New Y o r k : Syracuse University Press, 1964. New New York: 156 31. A d a m s , Don, ed. Educational Planning. Syracuse University Press, 1964. New York: 32. M y r a n , Gunder A. "Community Services Perceptions of the National Council on Community Services." Research and Report Series, No. 3. East Lansing, M i c h . : Michigan State University, Kellogg Community Services Program, January, 1971. 33. Parnes, Herbert S. "Assessing the Educational Needs of a Nation." Educational Planning, Edited by Don Adams. New Y o r k : Syracuse University, 1964. 34. Tugon, Lee, Director, Community Action Program. An interview by the author on December 19, 1971, at West Shore Community College. 35. Leviton, Sar A. "Programs in Aid of the Poor." Poverty in A m e r i c a . Edited by Louis A. Ferman, Joyce L. Kornbluh, and Alan H o h e r . Ann A r b o r , Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1969. 36. Kershaw, Joseph A. Government Against Poverty. Washington, D.C.l The Brookings Institution, 1970. 37. Hartley, Harry J. "Limitations of Systems Analysis." Phi Delta Kappan, I, No. 9 (May, 1969), 519. 38. Johnson, Donald W . , and Miller, Donald R. "A System Approach to Planning for the Utilization of Technology in Education." Designing Education for the Future. Vol. XI: Planning for Effective Utilization o T Technology in Education. Edited by Edgar L. Morphet and David L. Jesser. New York: Citation Press, 1969. 39. Bush, William R. "Systems Analysis: A Method for Logical Decision-Making." Designing Education for the Future. Vol. VI: Planning'for Effective Utilization o£ Technology in Education^ Edited by Edgar L. Morphet and David L. Jesser. New York: Citation Press, 1969. 40. Wilholms, Fred T. "The Planning of Planning." Design­ ing Education for the F u t ur e. V o l . V I : Planning Tor Effective tjtilization o f Technology in Edu­ cation . Edited by Edgar L. Morphet ana D a v i d L . Jesser. New York: Citation Press, 1969. 157 41. Drucker, Peter F. "Long-Range Planning Means RiskTaking." Long-Range Planning for Management. Edited by David W. Ewing. New York: Harper and R o w , 1958. 42. Morphet, Edgar L . , and Ryan, Charles o., eds. De­ signing Education for the Future. Vol. Ill: Prospective Changes in Society by 1980. New York: Citation Press, 1967. 43. Etzioni, Amitai. Modern Organizations. Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964. 44. Taylor, Frederick. Harper, 1911. 45. Blau, Peter M. , and Scott, Richard. tions: A Comparative Approach. Chandler Publishing Co., 1964. 46. Abbott, Max G. "Hierarchical Impediments to Innova­ tion in Educational Organization." Organizations and Human Behavior: Focus on Schools. Edited by Fred D. Carver and Thomas J. Sergzovanni. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1969. 47. Gross, Betram M. "The Scientific Approach to Adminis­ tration." Behavioral Science and Educational Administration. Edited by Daniel E. Griffiths. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Edu­ cation, 1964. 48. Raines, Max R. "Projected Competencies for Community Services Leaders in the 1970's." East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1969. 49. McGregor, Douglas M. "The Human side of Enterprise." Management Review, ’X X XX VI , No. 11 (November, 1957}, 1-28.------ 50. Hayward, Beresford. "The Implemented Education Plan." Educational Planning. Edited by Don Adams. New Y o r k : Syracuse University Press, 1964. 51. Odiorne, George. "What is Management?" University of Utah, 1970. 52. _____ . Management by Objectives. New Y o r k : Pitman Publishing Corp., 1965. Englewood Scientific Management. New York: Formal Organiza­ San Francisco: Provo, Utah: 158 53. Moore, Michael L. "Management by Objectives." Managing Tomorrow's Community Colleges. Conference held at Michigan State University on July 14-16, 1971. 54 . Connellan, Thomas K. "The Goal-Setting Process." Managing Tomorrow*s Community Colleges. Conference held at Michigan State University on July 14-16, 1971 55. Lahti, Robert E. Managing Tomorrow's Community C o l l eg es . Conference held at Michigan State University on July 14-16, 1971. 56. Myran, Gunder A. "Planning for Community Services." Notes from discussions at the seminar on Community Services for Alabama Community Junior Colleges, May 7-8, 1970. 57. Harlacher, Ervin L. "Effective Junior College P r o ­ grams of Community Services: Rationale, Guide­ lines, Practices." Los Angeles, Calif.: Junior College Leadership Program, No. 10, September, 1967. 58. Distasio, Patrick J . , and Greenberg, Barry. "Com­ munity Services: A Center for Community Develop­ ment." Educational Abstract, No. 3. Washington, D . C . : American Association of Junior Colleges, 1969. 59 . Myran, Gunder A. "Community Services: Outside the Open D o o r ." Perspectives on the CommunityJunior College-! Edited by william K. Ogilvie and Max R. Raines. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts, 1971. 60. Sechler, Robert E. "Board Expectations of Junior Col­ lege Staff and Administration." Perspectives on the Community-Junior C o l le ge . Edited by william IT Ogilvie and Max R. Raines. New York: AppletonCentury-Crofts, 1971. 61. Harlacher, Ervin L. "New Directions in Community Services." Perspectives on the Community-Junior Col le g e. Edited by William K. Ogilvie and Max R. R a in es . New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971. 62. Gibb, Jack R. "Dynamics of Leadership." Organiza­ tions and Human Behavior: Focus on S c h oo l s. Edited by Fred D. Carver and Thomas J. Sergiovanni. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1969. 159 63. Mathews, Fred L. "The Role of the Community College Trustee," Perspectives on the Community-Junior College. Edited by William K. Ogilvie and M a x R . Raines. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971. 64. Stokes, Harold W. The American College President. New York: Harper and Brothers, l§5!i. 65. Bernthal, Wilmar F. "Organizational Leadership: Some Conceptual M o d e l s ." Paper presented at the Mountain-Plains Institute for New Presidents of Community Colleges, Scottsdale, Arizona, May 5, 1969. Educational Abstract. 66. Shuford, David F. "A Position Paper for the Junior College Administrator." Educational Abstract, 1969. 67. Cummiskey, J. Kenneth. "Community Involvement: A Leadership Responsibility for Community Services." Edited by Nathan C. Shaw. Community Services Working Paper No. 5, Mobilizing College and Com­ munity Resources. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges, February, 1970. "Planning Comprehensive Pro­ 6 8 . Larson, Howard B . , ed. grams for Large Rural Community College Districts." Title III, Developing Institutions Project, Curriculum Development, U.S. Office of Education, May, 1970. 69. Moore, Mike. Project RITE Workshop, Michigan State University, February 24, 1972. APPENDICES APPENDIX A INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR COMMUNITY SERVICES PLANNING APPENDIX A INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR COMMUNITY SERVICES PLANNING Areas I. II. Planning Process: Involvement of President, Community Services Director, Community Liaison Specialist, Agency Personnel, Advisory Committee Members, citi­ zens, teachers, students, etc. Evaluation of Objectives; Community Liaison Special­ ist, Human Resources Council Director. This interview is concerned with the planning of Project RITE during its five to six month "launch­ ing" period; i.e., with the developmental planning process. The three areas of the Interview Guide in­ clude questions related to planning development, steps in planning, involvement in planning, evaluation of objectives, and college-community relationships. Definition of Planning Process: The future oriented, systematic, decision making procedures that are used to determine and achieve goals and objectives of a program. Steps in Planning for R I T E ; (1) Assessment of Needs, (2) Setting of Objectives, (3) Assessment of Resources, (4) Determining and Evaluating Alternative Courses of Action, (5) Decision Making, (6) Formulating Deriva­ tive Plans, (7) Evaluation. 160 161 I. Planning Process: A. B. Interview all For the past five or six months you have had some involvement in the planning process for Project RITE. Would you explain (in chronological order by month) what you did in order to plan. That is, what procedures did you go through as your part of the planning process for RITE? 1. As you look consider to used? back on this process, what do you be the most effective procedures 2. Why was it effective? 3. As you look back on this process, what do you consider to be the most ineffective procedures used? 4. Why was it ineffective? 5. If you could change this process, how would you change it? That is, what is it that you would do differently? On the front page is an outline of steps in plan­ ning . 1. In which of these steps were you primarily involved? 2. In what specific way(s) were you involved? 3. In which of these steps were you secondarily involved? 4. In what specific way(s) were you secondarily involved? 162 II. Evaluation of Objectives: Interview with Community Liaison Specialist, Human Resources Council Director. A. In the process of planning, specific objectives were developed. L e t ’s look at each one of these objectives now. Would you please rate each objective on a scale of 1 to 5. 1 Poor 2 Fair 3 Average 4 Good 5 Superior B. As we look at this same objective, can you give two reasons why you rated that objective as you did? C. If you could re-write this objective now, how would you change it? D. On the front page is an outline of steps in planning. 1. How might this objective fit primarily into one of the planning steps? 2. How might this objective fit secondarily into one of the planning steps? APPENDIX B FINAL MODEL— FLOW CHART (Pocket) t STAGING EXAMPLES 5a 5b 5c ID E N T IF IC A T IO N OF COLLEGE d e f in it io n PROJECT OF COLLEGE IN IT IA T IO N ft PROJECT PURPOSE NEEDS P R O JEC T C O O R D IN A T O R H IR E D IN EACH AND C O M M U N IT Y , “T V , T A R G E T P O P U L A T IO N S (C E N S U S DATA, REPORTS, C O M M U N IT Y S T U D IE S , SOCIOECONOMIC SU R VEYS) 5d 5e 5f SURVEY OF COLLEGE S C O M M U N IT Y NEEDS (use expertise of administration, faculty, studants, agen personnel, low-income advisory committees, citizens] XAMPLES: i£> RURAL D ISAD VA N TAG ED L O W - IN C O M E RURAL JS> ADULTS DISADVANTAGED A D U L TS M I N O R IT Y IN S T I T U T I O N A L RACE A T T A IN M E N T OF PROGRAM O B JE C ­ TIV E S T E N T A T IV E *©■ PROGRAM DETERMINATION A D M IN IS T R A T I V E (P R E S ID E N T , C O M M U N IT Y S E R ­ C O O P E R A T IV E PROGRAM V IC E S O IR E C T O R ) APPRO VA L OF PR O G R A M S DEVELOPMENT ( A G E N C IE S , COS M U N I T Y SCHOOl L O W - IN C O M E C O M M IT T E E APPROVAL OF PROGRAMS iM D E T E R M IN A T IO N : C O M M ITTM EN T TO A C C O U N TA B ILIT Y ► IM PLEM EN TIN G EXAMPLES: L O C A T E ANO OEVELOP F A C IL IT IE S DEVELOP SUPPLEM ENTARY S E R V IC E S ( L I B R A R Y , T R A N S P O R T A T IO N , B A B Y S IT T IN G ) OPERATIVE ■GRAM___________ ELOPMENT E N C IE S , C O M ­ I T Y SCHOOLS) D E T E R M IN E E M P L O Y ­ M EN T NEEDS ( H IR IN G , T R A I N IN G , F A C U L T Y , SEC R ET A R ­ IAL HELP, A R E A R E P R E S E N T A T IV E S ) PROGRAMS B E G IN C O N T A C T M E O IA F O R PRO G RAM P U B L IC IT Y E V A L U A T IO N PROGRAM PI ( IN T E R V IE W S E V A L U A T I O N OF PRO G RAM S IN EACH S E R V IC E A R E A E V A L U A T IO N A O V IS O R Y C A G E N C IE S , i O R D E R S U P P L IE S AN D M A T E R IA L S NOVEMBER, 1971 — A P R I L , 1972 AP R IL, I EVALUATING ► L 1 T IE S PLEMENTARY BRARY, DON, E V A L U A T I O N BY PROGRAM P A R T IC IP A N T S (IN T E R V IE W S , Q U E S T IO N N A IR E S ) > E V A L U A T IO N OF P R O G R A M S IN E A C H S E R V IC E A R E A :o i a F O R J B L IC 1 T Y E V A L U A T IO N OF T O T A L C O N S O R T IU M E F F O R T ( S T E P II MAKE R E S U L T S OF P L A N N I N G A V A IL A B L E M E A S U R E ACCOM P L IS H M E N T S A G A IN S T O B J E C T IV E S ) T O O T H E R S O C IA L A C TIO N PROGRAMS E V A L U A T IO N BY C O N S U L T A N T S , A O V IS O R Y C O U N C I L S , A G E N C IE S , A D M IN IS T R A T IO N L IE S ALS Dean M acLeod March, 1972 A P R IL , 1972 - J U N E , 1 9 7 2 ►I