IN F O R M A T IO N TO USERS

This dissertation was produced fro m a m ic ro film copy o f the original docum ent.
W hile the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this
docum ent have been used, the q u a lity is heavily dependent upon th e q u a lity of
the original subm itted.
T h e fo llo w in g exp lan ation o f techniques is provided to help
m arkings or patterns w hich may appear on this reproduction.
1.

you

understand

T h e sign or "ta rg e t" fo r pages apparently lacking fro m th e docum ent
photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the
missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into th e film along w ith
adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cu ttin g th ru an image and
duplicating adjacent pages to insure you com plete c o n tin u ity .

2.

W hen an image on th e film is o b literated w ith a large round black
m ark, it is an indication th a t the photographer suspected that the
co p y

may

have m oved during exposure and thus cause a blurred

image. You w ill fin d a good image of the page in th e adjacent fram e.
3.

W hen a m ap, draw ing or chart, etc., was part o f the m aterial being
p h o to g ra p h e d the photographer fo llo w ed a d e fin ite m ethod in
"sectioning" the m aterial. It is custom ary to begin photoing at the
upper left hand corner o f a large sheet and to c o n tin u e photoing fro m
le ft to right in equal sections w ith a small overlap. If necessary,
sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and
co n tin u in g on un til com plete.

4.

T h e m a jo rity of users indicate th at the textu al c o n ten t is of greatest
value, however, a som ew hat higher q u a lity rep ro d u ctio n could be
m ade from "photographs" if essential to the understanding o f the
dissertation. Silver prints o f "photographs" m ay be ordered at
ad d itio n al charge by w ritin g th e O rder D ep artm e n t, giving the catalog
num ber, title , author and specific pages you wish reproduced.

University Microfilms
300 North Z eeb Road
Ann Arbor. Michigan 48106
A Xerox Education Company

L

I

7 2 30,015
-

MUELLER, Delbert Walter, 1927A GUIDE FOR CURRICULUM EVALUATION:
A DESCRIPTIVE
STUDY OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EARTH
SCIENCE CURRICULUM PROJECT FOR THE CARMAN SCHOOL
DISTRICT, FLINT, MICHIGAN, 1970-1971.
Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1972
Education, curriculum development

U n iv e rs ity M ic ro film s , A XEROX C o m p a n y , A n n A rb o r, M ic h ig a n

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED

A GUIDE FOR CURRICULUM

EVALUATION:

A D E S C R I P T I V E S T U D Y OF T H E I M P L E M E N T A T I O N OF
THE EARTH S C I E N C E CURRICULUM PROJECT FOR THE
C A R M A N S C H O O L DISTRICT, FLINT, M I C H I G A N ,
1970-197 I

By
Delbert Walter Mueller

A THESIS

S u b m i t t e d to
M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
for the d e g r e e of
DOCTOR

OF

PHILOSOPHY

Department of Elementary and

1972

Special Education

PLEASE

Some

NOTE:

pages

may

i n d i st in e t
Filmed

University

as

Microfilms,

have

print.
received.

A

Xerox

Education

Company

ABSTRACT
A G U I D E FOR C U R R I C U L U M EVALUATION:
A D E S C R I P T I V E S T U D Y OF T H E I M P L E M E N T A T I O N OF
TH E E A R T H S C I E N C E C U R R I C U L U M P ROJECT FO R T H E
C A R M A N S C H O O L D I S T R I C T , FLINT, MICHIGAN,
1970-1971
By
Delbert Walter Mueller

T H E PROBLEM
Educators,

working

in local areas h a v e long s ear c h e d

for p r a c t i c a l p r o c e s s e s and u s e f u l
in a n t i c i p a t i n g consequences,

techniques

to assist them

i s o l a t i n g problems,

a s s e s s i n g c han g e s w h e n i m p l e m e n t i n g
T h e p u r p o s e of this study w a s

curricular

and

innovations.

to d e v e l o p a set of p r o ­

ce dur es w h i c h c o u l d serve as a g u i d e to local school
d i s t r i c t p e r s o n n e l as they a t t e m p t e d
ne w c u r r i c u l a r programs.

to assess

This g u i d e was

v e r s a t i l e for a d a p t a t i o n by m o s t

the impact of

to b e s u f f i c i e n t l y

sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s over a

v a r i e t y of sc h o o l subjects.
W h i l e this

study a t t e m p t e d to p r e s e n t a pl an u s e f u l

m e a s u r i n g o u t c o m e s over

a v a r i e t y of n ew curricula,

fo cus ed a t t e n t i o n on a single c u r r i c u l u m
pa r t i c u l a r s c h o o l system:
Science Curriculum
District,

Flint,

Pr oj e c t

Mic hi g a n .

it

i n t r o d u c t i o n in a

the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the Earth
(ESCP)

for

in the C a r m a n Sch ool

Delbert Walter Mueller
T H E ST UDY
E v a l u a t i o n o f E S C P w a s d i v i d e d into
on e u s e d three p r e - and post-tests,

and A c h i e v e m e n t of

an d three v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d

s t ude nt' s sex,

g r a d e p o i n t ave r a g e

p r ev i o u s year,

a nd t e a c h e r - c l a s s r o o m differences,

strengths
tion.

Part

A t t i t u d e T o w a r d Science,

A c h i e v e m e n t of S c i e n c e Process Skills,
Earth S c i e n c e Knowledge,

two parts.

to

in s c i e n c e from the

and w e a k n e s s d u r i n g the first year of

Part two u sed d e s c r i p t i v e i n s t r u m e n t s

to identify

implementa­

to d i a g n o s t i c a l l y

d e t e r m i n e w h y s uch d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d an d s u g g e s t p o s s i b l e
r e m e d i a l action.
in the studyj

T h e f ollo win g survey i n s t r u m e n t s w e r e use d

T e a c h e r - l o g s , S c i e n c e Pro c e s s R a t i n g Scale,

T e a c h e r and S t u d e n t Questionnaires,

a nd A c a d e m i c B a c k g r o u n d

of Teachers.
FI N D I N G S
A n a l y s i s of stu d e n t scores from
sh o w e d s i g n i f i c a n t gains

in a c h i e v e m e n t of sci e n c e pr o c e s s

skills a nd earth s c i e n c e knowledge,
a t t i t u d e to ward science.
av er a g e

the fall and s p r i n g tests

a nd a d e t e r i o r a t i o n of

St uden ts w i t h a h i g h g r a d e point

in s c i e n c e d u r i n g the p r e v i o u s year s h o w e d g r e a t e r

gains than low G P A stu den ts w hen c o n s i d e r i n g earth s c i e n c e
kn owl e d g e .

Students

in classes w h e r e

teachers h a d st ron g

earth s c i e n c e b a c k g r o u n d s a l s o sh o w e d g r e a t e r g a i n s
edge.

in k n o w l ­

D e t e r i o r a t i o n of a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s c i e n c e a p p e a r e d to

b e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to o v e r e m p h a s i s of t e x t b o o k t e a c h i n g and
li mit ed u se of l a b o r a t o r y sessions,

as w e l l as an ina bility

D e l b e r t Wa l t e r M u e l l e r
on the p art of teachers

to e f f e c t i v e l y i n s t r u c t w i t h i n a

m a t e r i a l - c e n t e r e d i nq u i r y ap pro ach

to learning,

SE T OF PRO CED U R E S T O G U I D E FU T U R E E V A L U A T I O N S
F a c u l t y should c o l l e c t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e the following:
a.

Id ent ify areas

that m a n i f e s t o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r ­

is tics of the p r o g r a m to b e evaluated,
b-

Id ent ify c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

that are m o s t useful

for

d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b e t w e e n students,
c.

I d e n t i f y kinds of
survey

inf o r m a t i o n to b e g a t h e r e d t h r o u g h

instruments,

w i t h p r i o r i t y g i v e n those that

h e l p the e v a l u a t o r d e c i d e w h y c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n c e s
e x i s t e d and h o w

i m p r o ve men ts

could be made.

PLAN FOR A C T I O N
In or d e r

to f a c i l i t a t e p l a n n i n g for a c u r r i c u l u m e v a l u a ­

tion as d e s c r i b e d

in this study,

the f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e

is

suggested:
1- I d e n t i f y the d i s c i p l i n e to b e evaluated.
2. S e l e c t areas of in ter est w h i c h b e s t d e m o n s t r a t e o u t ­
standing

.h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the c u r r i c u l u m program.

3. C h o o s e v a r i a b l e s w h i c h

appear

to s h o w p r o m i s e as

i d e n ti fie rs of s pec ifi c pro ble ms

and s t r e n g t h s w i t h i n

areas of interest.
4. D e v e l o p a t e s t pro g r a m r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the a b o v e
conditions.

Delbert Walter Mueller
5. P r e p a r e m e a s u r e s to b e used in each o f the areas of
interest.
6. List the k i n d s of informat ion

that m i g h t b e h e l p f u l

to d i a g n o s t i c a l l y int erp ret r e s u l t of the test p r o ­
gram .
7. D e v e l o p the va rious k i n d s of s u r v e y ins tru men ts
n e c e s s a r y for g a t h e r i n g

the r e q u i r e d i nfo rma tio n

listed under point six.
8. A d m i n i s t e r the test and s urvey in s t r u m e n t s ac cor d i n g
to an a greed calendar.
9. R e c o r d and a n a l y z e r esults

from the tests.

10. T a b u l a t e and a n a l y z e results

from the su r v e y

instruments.
11.

In ter p r e t re sults

from the tests w i t h the aid of

the s urvey instruments.
12.

Present r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

for change.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T h e w r i t e r w i s h e s to exp ress his a p p r e c i a t i o n to the
m a n y p e o p l e w h o gav e of their time, talents, efforts, and
support.
To Dr. S h i r l e y A. Brehtn, C h a i r m a n of the G u i d a n c e C o m ­
mittee, w h o s e f r i e n d s h i p and cou nse l w as d e m o n s t r a t e d in
p o s i t i v e g u i d a n c e an d c o n s t r u c t i v e a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g the
entire d o c t o r a l program.
To Dr. Gl e n n Berkheimer, Dr. M a n f r e d Engelmann, and
Dr. W i l l i a m A. M e h r e n s for their interest in m e as an
individual.
To G e o f f r e y Y a g e r
this data.

for h is a s s i s t a n c e in th e analysis of

To my children; Christine, for h er c o n c e r n w h i l e
at ten d i n g college; Paul, for his a s s i s t a n c e w i t h the paper
route; Lois, for the d e l i c i o u s dinners; Susan, for h e l p i n g
w i t h di s h e s and cleaning.
Finally, to m y wife, Dorleen, for her love and e n c o u r a g e ­
m e n t as ty pif ied in the m a n y h o u r s of typing g i v e n to this
document.
A special s t a t e m e n t of thanks is e x p r e s s e d to God,
g u i d a n c e and su pport m a d e all of this possible.

whose

T A B L E OF CO NTE N T S
CHAPTER
I.

XI*

Page
THE P R O B L E M

*

1

C u r r i c u l a and C u l t u r e ........................
N e ed and P u r p o s e of S t u d y ...................
S t a t e m e n t of the P r o b l e m ...................
B a c k g r o u n d of the S t u d y ......................
D i s c u s s i o n of V a r i a b l e s ......................
Q u e s t i o n s to b e A n s w e r e d ...................
D e f i n i t i o n of T e r m s ..........................
L i m i t a t i o n s of the S t u d y ...................
O r g a n i z a t i o n of the T h e s i s .................

1
3
12
13
14
18
19
20
21

R E V I E W OF L I T E R A T U R E R E L A T E D TO S C I E N C E
C U R R I C U L U M D E V E L O P M E N T ......................

22

Hi st o r y of C u r r i c u l u m T h o u g h t and P r a c t i c e
L e a r n i n g T h e o r y ...............................
T r a n s f e r of L e a r n i n g ........................
T h e D e v e l o p m e n t of S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l a . . .
D e v e l o p i n g a T h e o r y for S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m
I m p r o v e m e n t ...............................
H i s t o r y of E a r t h S c i e n c e
..........
B a c k g r o u n d to Ear th S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m
Pr oject ( E S C P ) .............................
A D i s c u s s i o n of C u r r i c u l u m Evaluat ion . . .
R e v i e w of L i t e r a t u r e R e l a t e d to E S C P . . .
The Psychological Corporation Study . .
C h a m p l i n and H a s s a r d S t u d y ..............
Pauli, Larson, and V a n d e n A v o n d S t u d y .
O t h e r S t u d i e s R e l a t e d to E S C P
Su rveys R e l a t e d to E S C P .................
S u m m a r y of S tudies
. . . . .
Th e S c i e n c e P r o c e s s e s ........................
S c i e n c e — A Proc ess A p p r o a c h ............
Th e B a s i c S c i e n c e P r o c e s s e s ............
Th e I n t e g r a t e d S c i e n t i f i c P r o c e s s e s . .
S u m m a r y ....................................

iii

22
26
31
37
46
52
57
64
70
70
73
76
78
81
83
86
86
87
89
90

T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S — C o n t i n u e d
CHAPTER
III.

Page
F E A T U R E S OF T H E S T U D Y

. .

92

D e s i g n of the S t u d y ..........................
S o m e G e n e r a l C o m p o n e n t s A f f e c t i n g the
C a r m a n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t ...................
P o p u l a t i o n ..................................
S e l e c t i o n of T e x t b o o k s ...................
S e l e c t i o n of C l a s s e s .....................
D e s c r i p t i o n of C l a s s r o o m s ..............
E x p e r i m e n t a l and D e s c r i p t i v e P h a s e s of
S t u d y ........................ * ............
E x p e r i m e n t a l P h a s e — D i s c u s s i o n of
I n s t r u m e n t s ........................
104
E x p e r i m e n t a l P h a s e — D e s i g n of S t u d y
..
E x p e r i m e n t a l P h a s e — A n a l y s i s of Data.
.
D e s c r i p t i v e P h a s e — D i s c u s s i o n of
I n s t r u m e n t s ........................
118
Descriptive Phase— Analysis of Data . .
S u m m a r y ....................................
121
IV.

A N A L Y S I S OF D A T A A N D R E S U L T S ...............
E x p e r i m e n t a l P h a s e — A n a l y s i s and R e s u l t s
of D a t a ................................
R e p o r t of D e s c r i p t i v e I n f o r m a t i o n .....
T e a c h e r L o g s ...........................
En d of Y e a r E v a l u a t i o n of P r o c e s s
S k i l l s T a u g h t w i t h E S C P ..........
En d of Y e a r E v a l u a t i o n of ESCP, 19701971, by the C a r m a n T e a c h e r s . . . .
S t u d e n t E v a l u a t i o n of E S C P ..........
S u m m a r y ....................................

V.

S L M M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S I O N S ...................

98
98
99
100
101
10 3
112
116
121

123
123
137
13 8
142
147
154
156
15 7

R e v i e w o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n .................
157
E x p e r i m e n t a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n ..........
15 8
Experimental Investigation— Conclusions
D e s c r i p t i v e I n v e s t i g a t i o n ..............
D e s c r i p t i v e I n v e s t i g a t i o n — C o n c lu sio ns.
D i s c u s s i o n of the C a r m a n S t u d y as a G u i d e
for C u r r i c u l u m E v a l u a t i o n ..............
A Se t of P r o c e d u r e s to G uid e F u t u r e E v a l u ­
a t i o n s ........................
. . . . . .
Pl an for A c t i o n ......................
170

iv

92

161
162
163
167
170

T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S — C o n t i n u e d
CHAP'T’r r

Page
Pe rso nal I m p r e s s i o n s ...................
. .
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s to the C a r m a n S cho ol
District .
Problems for F u r t h e r Inv est iga tio n. . . .

175
178
180

B I B L I O G R A P H Y ..............................................

184

APPENDICES
A.

I n v e s t i g a t i n g th e E a r t h O u t l i n e of Contents.

193

B.

R e s u l t s of T wo S t u d e n t S u r v e y s C o n d u c t e d b y
the ESCP N a t i o n a l St a f f for t he Y e a r s 1967
and 1968 .........................................

197

C.

A t t i t u d e T o w a r d S c i e n c e ............

200

D.

Sc i e n c e Pr o c e s s M e a s u r e for J u n i o r
High
School S t u d e n t s ............................

206

ESCP A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t ......................

22 9

. ESCP C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l T e s t ............

242

E.
p

G.

Teacher L o g s ...............................

252

H.

End of Y e a r E v a l u a t i o n o f Pr ocess Skills
Ta u g h t w i t h E S C P ..........................

259

End of Y e a r E v a l u a t i o n of ESCP, 1970-1971,
by the C a r m a n T e a c h e r s ...................

261

J.

A c a d e m i c B a c k g r o u n d ........................

268

K.

St udent E v a l u a t i o n of ESCP, C a r m a n D i s t r i c t
1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 ...................................

270

R e s p o n s e s to S t u d e n t E v a l u a t i o n of
ESCP
1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 ...................................

272

T wo T r a c k M o d e l P r o p o s e d as C a r m a n S c i e n c e
S e q u e n c e for Ju n i o r H i g h S c h o o l .........

2 77

I.

L.
M.
N.

Ra w Da ta from Pre- and Post-tests: A t t i t u d e
T o w a r d Science, A c h i e v e m e n t of S c i e n c e P r o ­
cesses, an d A c h i e v e m e n t of S c i e n c e K n o w l e d g e
Ca r m a n S c h o o l District, Flint, M i c h i g a n ,
1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 ...................................
279
v

LIST OF TAB LES
TABLE
1-1
2.1

Page
T h e S c i e n c e Processes, S c i e n c e — A Process
A p p r o a c h ...........................................
. . . . . . .

60

S e l e c t i o n of S t u d e n t s - - E S C P E v a l u a t i o n P r o ­
g r a m E n d - o f - Y e a r Report, 1964-1965 ............

69

M e a n G a i n F r o m P r e - T o s k II to P o s t - T o s k II
W h e n A d j u s t e d for A b i l i t y ......................

71

2.4

R e s u l t of E SCP C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l ............

72

2.5

M e a n and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n of Scores on t h e
C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l for E i g h t h - G r a d e S t u d e n t s

74

R e s u l t s of T O S K I I — C h a m p l i n an d H a s s a r d
S t u d y ..............................................

75

2.7

R e s u l t s of E S C P C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l

75

2.8

C o m p a r i s o n of T o s k Sc ore s--Paull, Larson, a n d
V a n d e n A v o n d S t u d y ...............................

2.2
2.3

2.6

2.9
3.1

M a j o r Concepts of Earth Science

17

. . . . .

C o m p a r i s o n of P o s t - T o s k Scores B e t w e e n E SCP
S t u d e n t s and C o l l e g e S t u d e n t s ....................

77
77

D i s t r i b u t i o n of C l a s s e s U s e d in E S C P E v a l u a ­
tion, Ca r m a n Sch o o l District, Flint, M i c h i g a n ,
1 970 - 1 9 7 1 ....................................

102

3.2

A p p r a i s a l of E S C P A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t ............

Ill

3.3

P a r t i a l A n a l y s i s of ES CP C o m p r e h e n s i v e Final,
Carman, 1 9 7 1 ...............................

112

D i s t r i b u t i o n of C a r m a n S t u d e n t s W h o R e s p o n d e d
to A l l Six T e s t i n g S i t u a t i o n s S h o w i n g G r a d e
P o i n t A v e r a g e and Sex as D e t e r m i n e d by
S e v e n t h Y ear S c i e n c e G r a d e ......................

113

3.4

vi

L I S T OF T A B L E S - - C o n t i n u e d
TABLE
3.5

Page
M a t r i x S h o w i n g De s i g n for H y p o t h e s i s One
T h r o u g h F i v e ......................................

114

S u m m a r y of M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f D i f f e r e n t
Sc ores W h e n C o n s i d e r i n g Pre- and P o s t - t e s t
Sc o r e s for S t u d e n t s on t h e M e a s u r e s :
Atti­
t u d e T o w a r d Science, S c i e n c e P roc ess Skills,
and E SCP A c h i e v e m e n t as R e l a t e d to O v e r a l l
C h a n g e ............................................. .

12 5

M e a n s and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s for M u l t i ­
v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s of Covaria nce . ..............

126

I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n M a t r i x for M u l t i v a r i a t e
A n a l y s i s of C o v a r i a n c e ..........................

126

Least S q u a r e E s t i m a t e s A d j u s t e d for Cov a r i a t e s — E f f e c t T i m e s V a r i a b l e s ...................

127

S t a n d a r d E r r o r s of A d j u s t e d E s t i m a t e s —
E ff e c t s T i m e s V a r i a b l e s ........................

129

S t a t i s t i c s for M u l t i p l e C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i ­
cients.
..........................

129

E q u a t i o n for R e g r e s s i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s — I n d e ­
pendent Times Dependent Variables . . . . . .

130

4.8

Regression Equations

131

4.9

Summary of M u l t i v a r i a t e Analysis of C o v a r i ­
a n c e w h e n C o n s i d e r i n g P re- and P o s t - t e s t
S c o r e s for S t u d e n t s on th e M e a s u r e s :
Atti­
tu de T o w a r d Science, S c i e n c e P rocess Skills,
an d ESCP A c h i e v e m e n t as R e l a t e d to G r a d e
Point A v e r a g e in S c i e n c e From the P r e v i o u s
Y e a r ..............

4. 1

4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4. 6
4.7

for A d j u s t e d Scores.

. .

132

4.10 S u m m a r y o f M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f C o v a r i ­
an ce w h e n C o n s i d e r i n g Pre- and P o s t - t e s t
Scores for S t u d e n t s on M e a s u r e s :
Attitude
T o w a r d Science, S c i e n c e Process Skills, and
ES CP A c h i e v e m e n t
as R e l a t e d to Classes. . . .

134

4 . 1 1 F - R a t i o and P r o b a b i l i t y for I n t e r a c t i o n
H y p o t h e s i s .........................................

136

vii

LIST OF T A B L E S - - C o n t i n u e d
TABLE
4.12

Page
C o m p a r i s o n of 1 970 -19 71 C a r m a n School D i s t r i c t
ES CP Stu den ts M e a n and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n w i t h
t h e 1964-1965 N a t i o n a l ESC P E i g h t h - G r a d e
S t u d e n t Sa m p l e as D e t e r m i n e d b y th e C o m p r e ­
h e n s i v e F i n a l ......................................

136

R e s p o n s e s to S u r v e y I n s t r u m e n t s b y C a r m a n
Sc h o o l D i s t r i c t ES CP T e a c h e r s and/or Their
S t u d e n t s D u r i n g 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 ........................

137

4.14

L i s t i n g of E S C P T e a c h e r s S u b m i t t i n g Logs

. . .

138

4.15

P er c e n t of T o t a l Cla ss T i m e U s e d for L a b o r a ­
tory I n v e s t i g a t i o n s and F ilm P r e s e n t a t i o n s
D u r i n g the 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 Lo g g i n g Periods at C a r m a n

140

S t u d e n t A t t i t u d e T o w a r d S c i e n c e D u r i n g the
1970-1971 L o g g i n g P e r i o d s ........................

140

C o m p a r i s o n of A v e r a g e St ud e n t A t t i t u d e B e t w e e n
L a b o r a t o r y I n v e s t i g a t i o n s and O t h e r C l a s s r o o m
Routines, U s i n g I n f o r m a t i o n F r o m Logs. . . . .

142

R a t i n g of ’'Exposure” to Eac h of the T h i r t e e n
Pr oce s s e s by C l a s s r o o m W h e n S u m m e d Ac r o s s A l l
L a b o r a t o r y S e s s i o n s U s i n g T ea c h e r Logs . . . .

143

E n d of Y e a r S u m m a r y of S c i e n c e Process R a t i n g s
for the 1 970 -19 71 S ch o o l Y e a r W h e n Su m m e d
A c r o s s T e a c h e r s ....................................

145

B i o g r a p h y of C a r m a n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t ESCP
T e a c h e r ' s A c a d e m i c and T e a c h i n g Experience,
1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 ..........................

152

C o m p a r i s o n o f T e a c h e r s and C l a s s e s for 19701971 C a r m a n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t E S C P S t u d e n t E v a l u ­
at i o n S a m p l e and 1964-1965 E S C P T r i a l E v a l u a ­
t i o n S a m p l e .........................................

153

4.13

4.16
4.17

4.18

4.19

4.20

4. 21

viii

CHAPTER I
T H E PROBLEM
Curricula an d Culture
Education,

in its b r o a d e s t sense,

social p r o c e s s by w h i c h
beliefs,

However,

to the entire

individ ual s a c q u i r e the ways,

an d s tan dards of society.

professes

refers

What

a school

is and

to teach is sh a p e d by these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
the school

is a l s o an a g e n c y

in the s o c i a l system.

for a f f e c t i n g change

W h i l e the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e d u c a ­

tion and s oci e t y is i m p o r t a n t d u r i n g s t a b l e times,

it assumes

pr ofo und i mpo rt a n c e d u r i n g periods of s ocial change.

It then

becomes th e task of the te ach ing p r o f e s s i o n to k e e p s chool
curricula

current,

and w h e n desirable,

to shape the e d u c a ­

tional p r o g r a m in such a w a y as to i n f l u e n c e the form and
d i r e c t i o n o f the s o c i e t y ' s de velopment.
Each

society is c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t he p r o b l e m of

immature m e m b e r s

into its culture.

po tential exprie nce s

T o this end a s e q u e n c e of

is set u p in the schools.

e x p e ri enc es m a y b e r e f e r r e d to as curricul um.
lum,

then,

is an o u t g r o w t h of culture,

e n v i r o n m e n t which h e h i m s e l f has made.

1

inducting

Thi s

set of

Th e c u r r i c u ­

that p a r t o f ma n's

2

Smith,

Stanley,

and S h o r e s 1 p l a c e e l e m e n t s of a c u l t u r e

in to three categories*
versal*;

T h e first of t h e s e is c a l l e d u n i ­

those aspects that a re u n i v e r s a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d

a m o n g the a d u l t population.
food,

clothing,

language,

These may

moral

i n v o l v e k ind s o f

and r e l i g i o u s standards,

p o l i t i c a l and ec ono mic bel i e f s .
So me e l e m e n t s may be f o u n d among o n l y part o f the adult
population.

T h e s e are ca l l e d specialties.

They c o n s i s t

p r i n c i p a l l y of v o c a t i o n a l cal lin gs d e m a n d i n g
k n o w l e d g e s an d skills,
va rious

and p o s i t i o n i n g of

t ech nic al

i n d i v i dua ls

into

social classes.

F i n a l l y t h e r e are t h o s e cultural elements,

alternatives,

that embrace all the ways of o b t a i n i n g r e s u l t s w h i c h d e p a r t
from g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t e c h n i q u e s and procedures.
r e p r e s e n t those elements a b o u t w h i c h an
ci se choice.

They

individual c an e x e r ­

A l t e r n a t i v e s m a y enter a c u l t u r e by w a y of

in ven t i o n from w i t h i n or d i f f u s i o n from without.
W h e n a c u l t u r e is q u i t e stable,
erally rather

few,

and if accepted,

u n i v e r s a l s or the specialties.
effected.

On the other hand,

alternatives are g e n ­
ar e a b s o r b e d b y e ither the

Thus the school is l itt le
when a society's

a s s o c i a t i o n s are b r e a k i n g down,

fundamental

w h e n t h e r e is vast s c i e n t i f i c

and t e c h n o l o g i c a l ch ang e b r i n g i n g a bou t an i n c r e a s e d r a t i o of
altarnatives,

the d ema nds m a d e upon t he school b e c o m e

AO t h a n e l B. Smith, W i l l i a m O. Stanley, and J. H a r l a n
Shores, F u n d a m e n t a l C u r r i c u l u m D e v e l o p m e n t
(Yonkers-on
Hudson, N ew York:
W o r l d B o o k Company, 1950), pp. 6-8.

3

c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y m o r e taxing,
fraught w i t h social,
During
were rooted

and fa ilure to m e e t them m a y b e

economic,

and p o l i t i c a l disaster.

the early p e r i o d of A m e r i c a n
in self-sufficient,

history, its p eop le

i sol ate d communities,

ac ter ize d b y n e i g h b c r 1 7 nes a nd in tim ate ass ociations.
the last o n e - h u n d r e d years,

however,

char­
During

this w a y of life has

be en r a p i d l y d i s a p p e a r i n g lar g e l y as the r e s u l t of a d v a n c e ­
m e n t in s c i e n c e and technology.
One of t he chief c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of m o d e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n
is its e xpa nding c o n q u e s t of nature.
M o d e r n m a n is
e x p l o r i n g and s u b d u i n g n a t u r e c e a s e l e s s l y and s u c c e s s ­
fully,
unc ove rin g new k n o w l e d g e a nd
c r e a t i n g new t e c h ­
niques an d m a c h i n e s at an a c c e l e r a t i n g pace.
H e has
also d i s c o v e r e d the m e t h o d of d i s c o v e r y ... so that h e
need not dep end upo n ch a n c e d i s c o v e r i e s and inventions,
bu t can d e l i b e r a t e l y b r i n g t h e m about.
As the m e t h o d
of d i s c o v e r y is d e l i b e r a t e l y a p p l i e d to nature, new
knowledge, p r o f e s s i o n a l i n f o r mat ion and techniques,
m e c h a n i c a l inventions, and c o m m e r c i a l gad g e t s of all
d e s c r i p t i o n s a c c u m u l a t e at an a c c e l e r a t i n g r a t e . ...
It is not surprising, therefore, that s t u d e n t s of
h i s t o r y agree that the p r e s e n t p h a s e of social e v o l u t i o n
is m a r k e d b y s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s u n ­
e q u a l e d in r e c o r d e d h i s t o r y . 2
Such changes,
the c u r r i c u l a
science,

m u s t of n e c e s s i t y

in their schools.

force e d u c a t o r s to r e v i e w

A ll programs,

including

m u s t b e e v a l u a t e d for their c o n t r i b u t i o n to b u i l d i n g

a new s y n t h e s i s

of the v a r i o u s c u l t u r a l elements.

N e e d and P u r p o s e of S t u d y
D u r i n g re c e n t y e a r s
were conducted

2Smith,

e x c i t i n g a nd c h a l l e n g i n g e x p e r i m e n t s

in an a t t e m p t to d e v e l o p n ew s c i e n c e curricula.

o p . c i t ., pp.

27-28.

4

Th e s e efforts
of K-12
wa s

see m e d d e s t i n e d to ch a n g e the total s t r u c t u r e

science.

M u l t i p l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s d i c t a t e d that change

inevitable.
Th e c h i l d r e n today live in a n e w w o r l d of science, and
it's g e t t i n g ’n e w e r ’ e very day; there a re new d i s c o v e r ­
ies, new medicines, new w a y s of d o i n g things, new k i n d s
of jobs.
O n e has the i m p r e s s i o n that w e are living in
a v e r y d y n a m i c time of h i s t o r y . 3
An e x a m i n a t i o n of

figures on e m p l o y m e n t an d on career

choices of h i g h school and c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s over the past
fifty ye a r s s h o w e d that d e v e l o p m e n t of and i nte res t
ha d grown to a g r e a t e x t e n t . 4

in sc i e n c e

Our c i v i l i z a t i o n p r o d u c e d new

k n o w l e d g e faster than it c ould b e either c o m m u n i c a t e d or c o n ­
sumed.

T h e r e w a s m o r e to any o ne a s p e c t of s c i e n c e than a

single p erson c o u l d learn in a lifetime.
H o w (then) can a ... sc h o o l c u r r i c u l u m be d e s i g n e d that
is up-to-date, w h e r e the a m o u n t of s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e
d o u b l e s in the time it takes a c h i l d to p r o g r e s s from
k i n d e r g a r t e n to high school?
W h a t k i n d of i n s t r u c t i o n
is n e e d e d for today's children, w h o b e f o r e m i d d l e age
wi ll h a v e a ccess to eight times as m u c h k n o w l e d g e as
there is c u r r e n t l y ? 5
Th e

"explosion of s c i e n c e k n o w l e d g e " w a s

adding m o r e and m o r e de tails

not si mpl y

to a s t a b l e b a s i c outline.

R e s e a r c h wa s c o n s t a n t l y r e e x a m i n i n g b a s i c definitions,
assumptions,

principles,

and rel ati ons hip .

This r e s e a r c h

3Paul D. H u r d and James J. Gallagher, N e w D i r e c t i o n s in
E l e m e n t a r y S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g (Belmont, C a l i for nia :
Wadsworth
P u b l i s h i n g Company, Inc., 1968), p. 2.
4R a l p h W. Tyler, "Forces R e d i r e c t i n g S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g , "
T h e S c i e n c e T e a c h e r , XX IX
(October, 1962), p. 23.
5H u r d and Gallagher,

loc. cit.

5

fr equ ent ly r e q u i r e d a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the b a s i c

ideas as

w e l l as a d d i t i o n of d e t a i l s . 6
In v i e w of t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s c ert a i n p e r t i n e n t q u e s ­
tions n eeded to b e a-»ked.
Si n c e the c h i l d is in c l a s s for o n l y a r e l a t i v e l y
short time period, wh at sh o u l d w e c h o o s e to teach from
all the s c i e n c e that is known?
H o w s h o u l d it b e taught
and under w h a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n d i tio ns?
H o w e v e r one
looks at th e s e questions, it bec ome s a p p a r e n t that the
tr a d i t ion al ... school s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l a are s e l d o m
a d e q u a t e in c o n c e p t or p u r p o s e to h e l p c h i l d r e n m e e t
the d emands of our m o d e r n s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n o l o g i c a l industrial society.
W i t h o u t new a p p r o a c h e s to ...
sc ience teaching, w e run the d anger o f h a v i n g c hil d r e n
b e c o m e s t r a n g e r s w i t h i n their own c u l t u r e . 7
It wa s

this need

for n ew a p p r o a c h e s

that r e q u i r e d e d u c a t o r s
c u r r e n t l y in use,
approaches

for

However,

to c o n s t a n t l y r e e v a l u a t e p r o g r a m s

and w h e n advisable,

to s e e k new c u r r i c u l a r

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w i t h i n the s c h o o l program.
c u r r i c u l u m s e l e c t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w a s

fr aught w i t h ce rt a i n hazzards.
social,

economic,

M a n y r e l a t e d facets of the

and e d u c a t i o n a l

e n t e r p r i s e ne eded

considered when choosing particular modes
attitudes,

to s c i e n c e tea c h i n g

skills,

for a d v a n c i n g

and con t e n t u nde rst and ing s.

m i s c a l c u l a t i o n or i n s u f f i c i e n t research,

If,

well

6Tyler,

op.

considera­

i n v e s t m e n t and a c a d e m i c quality,

as st u d e n t and p a r e n t resentment,

s o u r c e s of concern.

through

a p r o g r a m p r o v e d to

b e other than b e n e f i c i a l to the target population,
tions such as fin anc ial

to be

often became major

It then b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y

c i t ., pp.

7Hu rd and Gallagher,

23-24.
loc. cit.

for the

as

6

educati ona l c o m m u n i t y to again r e e v a l u a t e

its efforts and

p r o v i d e p ro p e r c o r r e c t i v e mea sures.
Another
ation.

concern r e l a t e d to the k i n d and focus of e v a l u ­

In the past m u c h c u r r i c u l u m eva lua t i o n h as

"consi ste d

of u n s y s t e m a t i c ju dgm ent s of the g o o d n e s s of s o m e t h i n g b y
authors,

publishers,

teachers,

parents,

school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s or principals,

sc hool boards,

lay committees,

and p r o ­

fessors of e d u c a t i o n and of s u b j e c t m a t t e r . " 8
M o r e r e c e n t l y t h e r e has b e e n

increasing c o n c e r n that

such d e c i s i o n s sh o u l d be b a s e d on a v a r i e t y o f r e s e a r c h
m e a s u r e s p r o d u c i n g t h e b e s t e v i d e n c e that can b e m a d e a v a i l ­
able.

In the past c u r r i c u l u m r e s e a r c h has r a r e l y s e r v e d as

a basis

for ch anging education.

T h e p r i m e c o n s u m e r s of t hes e

efforts h a v e be en o t h e r researchers.
little i mpa ct at the local

level.

This l o g i c a l l y has h a d

The m a j o r d i r e c t i o n of

local e v a l u a t i o n r e s e a r c h n e e d e d to b e a p p l i e d r ather

than

basic.
A c c o r d i n g to S c r i v e n 9 e v a l u a t i o n m a y b e c l a s s i f i e d as
fo rma tiv e or summative.

Formative evaluation purports

assist d u r i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w m a t e r i a l s
w h i l e s u m m a t i v e is c o n c e r n e d w i t h

to

and methods,

the per i o d a f t e r

the

BH u l d a Grobman, E v a l u a t i o n A c t i v i t i e s o f C u r r i c u l u m
Projects;
A S t a r t i n g Point (Chicago:
R a n d M c N a l l y and
Company, 1968), p. 1.
®M ich ael Scriven, "The M e t h o d o l o g y of E v a l u a t i o n , " as
found in R a l p h W. Tyler, R o b e r t Gagne, an d M i c h a e l Scriven,
P e r s p e c t i v e s of C u r r i c u l u m E v a l u a t i o n , A E R A M o n o g r a p h Se r i e s
on C u r r i c u l u m Evaluation, No. 1 (Chicago:
R a n d M c N a l l y and
Company, 1967), pp. 39-83.

7

m a t e r i a l s a re completed.

T h e p urp ose of t he latter m a y b e

to c om p a r e r e s u l t s w i t h t h o s e o f o t h e r curricula,
at the p r o g r a m and see h o w it is eff ect ing
tion.

The

or to look

the target p o p u l a ­

focus o f t e n shifts to data n e e d e d for r e v i s i n g

and s u p p l e m e n t i n g m a t e r i a l s

to m e e t s p e c i f i c needs w i t h i n

the local community.
In the past m u c h of the s umm a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n w o r k has
be en don e b y ou t s i d e

investigators.

However,

the s cho ol

could not a f f o r d to d e p e n d ent irely on o u t s i d e st udi es
h e l p in tho se areas

in w h i c h

it needed i n f o r m a t i o n .

for

Curricu­

lum p roj ect s g e n e r a l l y f o c u s e d their e v a l u a t i o n on the
m a t e r i a l s themselves;
the sense of accuracy,
tent of

the authors.

a n c e of

the stu den ts

w h e t h e r new skills,

on w h e t h e r

the m a t e r i a l s w e r e v a l i d in

as w e l l as,

in i m p l e m e n t i n g t he in­

T h u s e val ua t i o n

lo o k e d at the

perform­

in some national s a m p l e to a s c e r t a i n

attitudes,

and b e h a v i o r s h ad b e e n attained.

As a r e s u l t p r o j e c t s r e m a i n e d largely u n i n f o r m e d a b o u t w h a t
wa s h a p p e n i n g to their m a t e r i a l s after b o o k s w e r e s o l d . 10
Given the above,
ment,

plus the m i l l i o n s spent on m a t e r i a l s d e v e l o p ­

it s e e m e d ne ces sar y to ask q u e s t i o n s and m a k e o b s e r v a ­

tions r e l a t i v e to w h a t h a p p e n e d in the l ocal school
after a

district

new c u r r i c u l u m p r o j e c t was adopted.

G r o b m a n 11 c o n t e n d e d that w h i l e m a n y m a j o r c u r r i c u l u m
pr oj e c t s w e r e p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e and c e r t a i n l y their

1°i h i d ., p.
lxGrobman,

29.
on

c i t ., p. 30.

8

d e v e l o p e r s w e r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t the u s e of their materials,
they h a d not m a d e s u f f i c i e n t e ffort to i n v e s t i g a t e this
aspect of their work.

She stated:

Th ey h a v e not f u l f i l l e d their m a n d a t e to i mpr ove e d u ­
ca t i o n in their r e s p e c t i v e s u b j e c t areas if th ey h a v e
m a d e itryjrovement p o s s i b l e b u t s u c h i m p r o vem ent is not
effected.
T h e e x i s t e n c e of b e t t e r m a t e r i a l s is o n l y
part of the job.
R e p o r t i n g that stu den ts in e x p e r i ­
m e n t a l c l a s s r o o m s p er f o r m in a n o t e w o r t h y m a n n e r is not
enough*
D a t a on sales of m a t e r i a l s are i n d i c a t i v e of
adoption, b u t do not indicate th e reasons for adoption,
w h o tends to a d o p t the materials, wh eth er the c h a n g e in
m a t e r i a l s p e r s i s t s or is temporary, w h a t appear to b e
the s i g n i f i c a n t factors in such adoptions, a nd w h e t h e r
a d o p t i o n of m a t e r i a l s r esults in the intended c hanges
in t e a c h i n g and learning.
W i t h o u t such information,
the e v a l u a t i o n is i n c o m p l e t e . 12
A s s u m i n g the n eed for m o r e c o m p l e t e evaluation,
q u e s t i o n still ar o s e as to h o w this s h o u l d be done,
should a ccept r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

to these q u e s t i o n s w as o f f e r e d w h e n

ca tio nal A s s o c i a t i o n r e c o m m e n d e d tha t
ments

and who

for e v a l u a t i o n after the m a t e r i a l

has b b e n p u r c h a s e d b y the local s chool district.
answer

the

One

the N a t i o n a l E d u ­

"procedures a n d i nst ru­

for e v a l u a t i n g p u p i l p r o g r e s s m u s t be s p e c i f i c a l l y

geared to the sc hoo l's goals and to th e cu rri c u l u m s e q u e n c e
in use in the s c h o o l . " 13
Th e N E A further s t a t e d that sch o o l systems s h o u l d c o n ­
sider c u r r i c u l u m e v a l u a t i o n an int egral part of the school
program.

12I b i d ., p.

30.

13S c h o o l s for the S i x t i e s . A r e p o r t of the P r o j e c t on
I n s t r u c t i o n N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n (New York:
M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k Company, Inc., 1963), p. 68.

9

School systems should a l l o c a t e an a p p r o p r i a t e p r o p o r t i o n
of their annual o p e r a t i n g b u d g e t s — not less than one
p e r c e n t — for the s u p p o r t of research, e xpe rim entation,
and innovation.
A d e q u a t e time sh o u l d b e p r o v i d e d for
each s taf f m e m b e r to p a r t i c i p a t e in c u r r i c u l u m planning,
research, evaluation, and o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s d e s i g n e d to
improve the in str u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m . 14
However,

the N E A a d m i t t e d that a d e q u a t e m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u ­

ments w e r e not c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e for such evaluation.
w a r n e d aga i n s t a t t e mp tin g

T hey

to e v a l u a t e the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of

patterns of o r g a n i z a t i o n u s i n g t r a d i t i o n a l meth ods .

They en­

co ura ged the d e v e l o p m e n t of new instru men ts a p p r o p r i a t e for
m e a s u r i n g the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the new o r g a n i z a t i o n a l pa tte r n s
of i n s t r u c t i o n . 15
In November,

1956,

a g r a n t to p r o d u c e m a t e r i a l s

for a

new hig h school ph ysi cs c o u r s e m a r k e d the b e g i n n i n g of the
Na tio nal S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n ' s
gram.

In the f ift ee n years

c o u r s e con t e n t i m p r o v e m e n t p r o ­

that h a v e e l a p s e d s i n c e the o r i g ­

inal grant the NSF has c o n t r i b u t e d m o r e than $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0
su pport m a j o r

c u r r i c u l u m p r o j e c t p r i m a r i l y in sc i e n c e and

m a the mat ics .

S e v e r a l p r i v a t e organizations,

the U nited St a t e s O f f i c e of Education,
for similar purposes.

14 I b i d ., p.
15I b i d . , pp.

an d m o r e recently,

h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d funds

T h o u s a n d ^ and per hap s millions,

m a n - h o u r s h a v e b e e n in ves ted

to

of

in these e f f o r t s . 16

22.
68-69.

16W a y n e W. Welch, “Th e N e e d for E v a l u a t i n g N a t i o n a l
C u r r i c u l u m Projects," Phi D e l t a K a p p a n , XLIX, No. 9 {May
1968), p. 530.

10

Of

the for ty- six

by Lockard
ation.

(1968), 17

science c u r r i c u l u m pro jec ts r e p o r t e d
t h i r t y - f i v e i n d i c a t e d some form of e v a l u ­

Since these studies w e r e g e n e r a l l y c a r r i e d out on a

n a t i o n a l scale,
ditions .

few ef for ts w e r e m a d e to look at local c o n ­

National programs,

d i s t r i c t curricular problems,
local assessment.
nature,

w i t h their lack of a t t e n t i o n to
e m p h a s i z e d need for a careful,

C u r r i c u l u m p l a n n i n g must,

by

its ver y

ultimately b e a school and d i s t r i c t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

T h e NEA c o n c u r r e d that:
L o c a l school f a c u l t i e s s h o u l d h a v e the f reedom and
a u t h o r i t y to m a k e d eci sio ns a b o u t w h a t to t e a c h — w i t h i n
st a t e and local r e q u i r e m e n t s — an d h o w to teach.
Final
instructional d e c i s i o n s s h o u l d b e m a d e by th e teacher,
ta k i n g into c o n s i d e r a t i o n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s from a p p r o ­
p r i a t e local, state, and n a t i o n a l groups r e p r e s e n t i n g
th e teaching profession, a c a d e m i c scholars, and the
p u b l i c . 10
Therefore,

each s c h o o l

and weaknesses,

system s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e

its s t r e n g t h s

s p e c u l a t e i n t e l l i g e n t l y about the p o s s i b l e

c o n s e q u e n c e s of u s i n g a current c u r r i c u l u m development,
plan for careful e v a l u a t i o n of t he p r o j e c t w h e n
into the school.

While

and

introduced

the local c o m m u n i t y m u s t a d d r e s s

it­

self to questions r e l a t i n g to s p o n s o r s h i p and d e v e l o p m e n t of
the p r o g r a m considered,

q ues tio ns r e l a t i n g to a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s

17J. David L o c k a r d (editor). S i x t h Re p o r t of t he I n t e r ­
n a t i o n a l C l e a r i n g h o u s e on Sc ien ce a nd M a t h e m a t i c s C u r r i c u l a
D e v e l o p m e n t s (College Park:
U n i v e r s i t y of Maryland, 1968).
1aSchools

for th e S i x t i e s , o p . c i t ., p.

17.

11

for the t arget p o p u l a t i o n a nd a d a p t a b i l i t y w i t h i n the tot al
cu rri c u l u m m u s t take precedence.
One,

therefore,

needs

to d e t e r m i n e the p roper d i r e c t i o n

and m o d e of e d u c a t i o n a l travel b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g the journey.
A n s w e r s m u s t b e s ought for q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g
w e l l as,

n a t i o n a l goals and object ive s.

as

A school d i s t r i c t

needs to b e a p p r a i s e d of the m o r e s and v a l u e s
the h earts of c o m m u n i t y ' s citizenry.

to local,

imb edd ed

into

T he a d m i n i s t r a t i o n m u s t

ca ref ull y c o n s i d e r future skills and l e a r n i n g s n e c e s s a r y
c o m m u n i t y growth.

F a c u l t y m u s t ad d r e s s

i tself

for

to le ar n i n g

theory as it rel a t e s

to e f f e c t i v e changes

in attitudes,

skills,

and underst and ing s.

O n l y a fte r car efu l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the

above cr ite ria can the e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t h o p e to k n o w
w h e r e the s t u d e n t p r e s e n t l y
and ho w it e xpe cts

is,

where

it intends to lead him,

to s u c c e s s f u l l y b r i n g a b o u t the d e s i r e d

changes.
However,

m a n y school d i s t r i c t s

in itiate such an evaluation

cou ld not b e e x p e c t e d

study or. their own.

to

Even m o r e

d i f f i c u l t w o u l d b e a p r o p o s i t i o n that new d e s i g n s b e c o n ­
s t r u c t e d for a s s e s s m e n t of e a c h s e p a r a t e subject.

Therefore,

it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t to this w r i t e r t hat t h e r e w a s a n e e d
d e v e l o p m e n t of e v a l u a t i o n gu i d e s

for local use.

for

Construction

of a single g u i d e for e v a l u a t i o n w h i c h w o u l d b e a d a p t a b l e
o v e r a v a r i e t y of c u r r i c u l u m p r o g r a m s m i g h t p r o v e to b e m o s t
useful.

It b e c a m e the o b j e c t i v e o f this r e s e a r c h to d e v e l o p

su ch a guide.

12

Previous

s tudies

f ocu sed a t t e n t i o n

that c o n s i d e r e d local c o n d i t i o n s u su a l l y

to o n e p a r t i c u l a r

s i d e r a t i o n for b r o a d e r

application.

c u r r i c u l u m w i t h no c o n ­
Sin ce this i n v e s t i g a t i o n

wa s e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h o s e studies d e s i g n e d to
d e v e l o p an e v a l u a t i o n g u i d e a p p l i c a b l e to a v a r i e t y of school
curricu lar programs,
Center

(ERIC)

was

the E duc a t i o n R e s o u r c e s I n f o r m a t i o n

consulted.

A sear ch of the l i t e r a t u r e from

1966-1971 s h o w e d no s tudies d e s i g n e d to p r o d u c e a s i m p l e
s t a t em ent of p r o c e d u r e s a p p l i c a b l e to the t y p i c a l school d i s ­
trict level.
St a t e m e n t of the Problem
Educators,

w o r k i n g at the local level h a v e long sea rc h e d

for a si m p l e y et

tho rou gh fo rmula to assist t h e m in the task

of a n t i c i p a t i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s w h e n
change.

imp l e m e n t i n g c u r r i c u l a r

T h e y h a v e s ought useful tech ni q u e s

to h e l p them i s o ­

late p r o b l e m s and as sess ch ang es d e r i v e d from the new programs.
It t h e r e f o r e b e c a m e the e x p r e s s e d p u r p o s e of this stu dy
to d e v e l o p a set of p r o c e d u r e s w h i c h could s e r v e as a g-uide
to local s ch o o l d i s t r i c t s as they a t t e m p t e d to a ssess the
impact of new c urr ic u l a r

programs.

This gu i d e wa s to b e s u f ­

fi cie ntl y v e r s a t i l e for a d a p t a t i o n b y m o s t school d i s t r i c t s
over a v a r i e t y of school subjects.
W h i l e this study a t t e m p t e d to p res ent a pla n u s e f u l for
m e a s u r i n g o u t c o m e s over a v a r i e t y of new curricula,
a t t e n t i o n to a si n g l e c u r r i c u l u m
school system:

introduction

it fo cused

in a pa rti cul ar

the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the Earth Sc i e n c e

13

Cu r r i c u l u m P roject in t he Carman,

Sc hoo l District,

Flint,

Michigan.
B a c k g r o u n d of the St udy
In the summer of 1967 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
School District,

Flint,

Michigan,

and M a t h e m a t i c s T e a c h i n g Center,
(MSU) , East Lansing,

Michigan,

from the C a r m a n

r e q u e s t e d that the S c i e n c e
Michigan

State University

a s s i s t them in s e l e c t i n g and

im ple men tin g s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l a for g r a d e levels K-12 .

This

c o o p e r ati ve v e n t u r e d e v e l o p e d into a three p a r t program.
Part one w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h e l e m e n t a r y sc ience
w i t h junior h i g h

(7-9),

(K- 6), two

and three w i t h senior h i g h

(10-12).

It was a g r e e d that e l e m e n t a r y s c i e n c e s hould r e c e i v e priority.
S c i e n c e — A Process A p p r o a c h

( S A P A ) 19 wa s ch ose n as the e l e m e n ­

tary pro g r a m to b e i m p l e m e n t e d at levels K-2
1968.

Subsequent grade

in the fall of

levels w o u l d b e added each year

until

the c u r r i c u l u m was complete.
T h a t aspect of the total p r o g r a m w h i c h r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y
to this s t u d y was

i d e n t i f i e d under p art two.

ei ght een m o n t h e ffort b e g i n n i n g

It w a s an

in the summer of 1970,

s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d to a s s i s t in s e l e c t i o n of an earth
sc ience c u r r i c u l u m for

eighth g r a d e students of the District,

and to p r o v i d e r e - t r a i n i n g

for te ach ers

a d e q u a t e l y t each the program.

to e n a b l e them to

T h e earth s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l u m

19S c i e n c e — A P r o c e s s A p p r o a c h . A n e l e m e n t a r y school
sc ience p r o g r a m d e v e l o p e d b y the C o m m i s s i o n on S c i e n c e E d u c a ­
tion of the A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n for the A d v a n c e m e n t of Science.
Pr odu ced c o m m e r c i a l l y b y X e r o x Corp., N. Y.

14

chosen w as the E arth S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m
B e g i n n i n g in September,

1970,

Pr oje ct

( E S C P ) . 20

a follow-up program with

re gul ar visits wa s a r r a n g e d w i t h the C a r m a n earth s c i e n c e
teachers.

O p p o r t u n i t i e s w e r e g r a n t e d for d i s c u s s i o n and

pl ann ing of lessons,
equipment,

s p e c i a l a s s i s t a n c e w i t h content problems,

i n s t r u c t i o n a l aids,

and testing.

Discussion of Variables
As stated above,

the p a r t i c i p a n t s o f the 1970 summer

in stitute h a d e s t a b l i s h e d as their m a j o r goal

the s e l e c t i o n

and p l a c e m e n t of an earth s c i e n c e p r o g r a m for the C a r m a n
District.

Subsequently

ministration,

the participants,

as we ll as th e a d ­

s h o w e d a d e s i r e to d e v e l o p an e v a l u a t i o n p r o ­

cedure for the a d o p t e d e i g h t h - g r a d e e a r t h sc ien ce p r o g r a m
du r i n g

its first year of implem ent ati on.

A m a j o r c o n c e r n e x p r e s s e d rel a t e d
of th e program.

E S C P w as a rather

to the g r a d e pl ace m e n t

s o p h i s t i c a t e d a p p r o a c h to

t e a c h i n g earth s c i e n c e and m i g h t p o s s i b l y b e b ett er
m e n t e d at a h i g h e r

level.

imple­

Perhaps a two track junior high

school p rog ram w i t h ESCP inc l u d e d in the s e q u e n c e d e s i g n e d
for hi gh a c h i e v e r s w o u l d b e warranted.
Another

co nc e r n

i n v o l v e d changes w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g sex.

So me e vid enc e h a d b e e n g a t h e r e d to s u g g e s t that m a l e s
be t t e r

than fe mal es

in s c i e n c e p r o g r a m s

(Chapter II,

p er f o r m
page

73).

20Earth S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t . A s e c o n d a r y earth
s c i e n c e p r o g r a m d e v e l o p e d b y the A m e r i c a n G e o l o g i c a l I n s t i ­
tute.
P r o d u c e d c o m m e r c i a l l y by H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n Company,
Boston.

15

A third q u e s t i o n c o n s i d e r e d t e a c h e r variables.

Certain

studies s h o w e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n teacher a n d / o r
ing a ppr oac hes and s tu d e n t suc ces s

(Chapter II,

teach­

pages 7 8

and 79).
It was

decided

that an a t t e m p t to e v a l u a t e ESCP w i t h

Carman g r a d e eight s t u d e n t s c o u l d b e s t
use of m e a s u r e s
ac h i e v eme nt

in s tu d e n t a t t i t u d e to war d science,

in s c i e n c e process skills,

as wel l as thr oug h t he use of sur v e y
a textbook,

b e d e t e r m i n e d through

and s c i e n c e knowledge,

instruments.

It t h e r e f o r e al l o w e d for m a n i p u l a t i o n of m a ­

terials and i n v e s t i g a t i o n by the learner.

It has
to

E S C P used

b u t e m p h a s i z e d the l a b o r a t o r y - i n q u i r y a p p r o a c h

to teaching.

independ ent

st ude nt

It e n c o u r a g e d

inquiry and a d e g r e e of o pen ended research.
b e e n t h e o r i z e d by m a n y e duc ato rs

le arn ing w h i c h

i n v o l v e d the learner d i r e c t l y w i t h i n v e s t i ­

ga t i o n w o u l d g e n e r a t e enthusiasm,
toward the subject,

that an a pproach

r a i s e a t t i t u d e levels

and g e n e r a l l y p r o d u c e a happier,

congenial c l a s s r o o m s i t u a t i o n . 21

Thu s

more

it could b e a r g u e d

that a s c i e n c e c l a s s r o o m in w h i c h c h i l d r e n w e r e m a n i p u l a t i n g
objects,

a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s and a t t e m p t i n g to find ans wer s

th rou gh their own i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w o u l d

tend to p r o d u c e s t u ­

dents w i t h a p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s science.
therefore,

p r o p o s e d t hat att it u d e s

It was,

sh o u l d im prove as a re s u l t

21W i l l i a m Kessen, "Statement o f P urposes a nd O b j e c t i v e s
of S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n in the E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l , " J o u r n a l of
R e s e a r c h in S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g . II, I s s u e 1 (1964), p. 4.

16

of an a c t i v i t y - o r i e n t e d classroom.
o b s e r v a t i o n of w h e t h e r

O f r e l a t e d i n t e r e s t was

a t t i t u d e l ev e l s c h a n g e d as ins tru cto rs

c h a n g e d teaching approaches.
As students s e e k an swe rs to q u e s t i o n s
tion

they need to u s e ce rta in p rocess

skills.

c o n c e i v e numerous lists of such processes.
b e c o m e a part of th e school d i s t r i c t ' s

through i n v e s t i g a ­
O n e co uld

S i n c e S A P A had

s cie n c e s e q u e n c e K-6,

it see m e d a p p r o p r i a t e to r e l a t e these f u t u r e inc omi ng c o m p e ­
te nci es

to the p r e s e n t earth sc i e n c e program.

T h e thi rteen

p r o c e s s e s as t a u g h t in SA PA are l i s t e d in T a b l e l . l . 22
Th e s e skills a r e used by b o t h s c i e n t i s t an d n o n - s c i e n t i s t .
It is hel d that all

indivi dua ls sh o u l d h a v e a w o r k i n g acq uaint-

a n c e w i t h these t h i r t e e n processes,

b e h e layman or scientist.

I n t e r e s t was t h e r e f o r e focused on s t u d e n t c h a n g e over the se
processes.
Th e end p r o d u c t of s c i e nt ifi c i n v e s t i g a t i o n
in f o r m ati on w h i c h

leads

is o r g a n i z e d

to u n d e r s t a n d i n g and e n c o u r a g e s p r e ­

d i c t i o n and further

investigation.

e m p h a s i z e content.

W h i l e it w as true that a t t i t u d e s and p r o ­

c e s s e s are imp ort ant c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
can not be d e n i e d
major

E S C P w a s d e s i g n e d to

in a s c i e n c e program,

it

that the pr odu ct of s c i e n c e m u s t r e c e i v e

c ons ideration.

One could arg ue that p r o d u c t b e c o m e s

i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t as c h i l d r e n p r o c e e d e d to h i g h e r g r a d e

22Am e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n for the A d v a n c e m e n t of Science,
S c i e n c e — A P ro c e s s Approach, C o m m e n t a r y for T e a c h e r s
(New York:
X e r o x Corporation, 1970), p. 10.
23Kessen,

l o c . cit.

2 3

17

T A B L E 1.1*
TH E S C I E N C E PROCESSES,

S C I E N C E — A PROCESS A P P R O A C H

Eight B a s i c Pro ces ses
Observing
Using s p a c a / t i m e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
Classifying
Using n umb ers
Measuring
Communicating
Predicting
Inferring
Five I n t e g r a t e d P roc ess es
Formulating hypotheses
Defining operationally
C o n t r o l l i n g v a r i abl es
I n t e r p r e t i n g data
Exper im en t i n g

+

A m o r e c o m p l e t e t rea tme nt o f t h e s e pro ces ses
Ch apt er II, pages 86 to 90.

levels.

T h e r e is p r e v a l e n t o p i n i o n

is found in

that r e c o g n i z e s the p r i m ­

ac y of p r o c e s s during the p r i m a r y and i n t e r m e d i a t e grade
levels and th e pri mac y of c o n t e n t d u r i n g hi ghe r g r a d e l e v e l s . 24
It was t h e r e f o r e of

interest to o b s e r v e s t u d e n t ch a n g e in c o n ­

tent understanding.
As st a t e d previously,

e v a l u a t i o n of ESCP at the Car man

Sc h o o l D i s t r i c t was d e s i g n e d as a g u i d e to test t he h y p o t h e s i s

24R o b e r t M. Gagne, "The L e a r n i n g R e q u i r e m e n t s for I n q u i r y , "
J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h in S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g , I, I s s u e 2 (1963), p.
152 .

18

that a s i n g l e e v a l u a t i o n t e c h n i q u e c o u l d be d e v e l o p e d w h i c h
would incorporate

into its bod y t h o s e m a j o r f act ors n e c e s s a r y

for a d a p t a t i o n b y m a n y s chool d i s t r i c t s over
school subjects.

In o r d e r

a v a r i e t y of

to f a c i l i t a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

this plan the s t u d y a d d r e s s e d i tself to sev era l s p e c i f i c c o n ­
cerns.

Questions a n s w e r e d a re p r e s e n t e d in o r d e r of tr eat m e n t

and do not imply a h i e r a r c h i a l sequence.
Q u e s t i o n s to be A n s w e r e d
Qu est ion s r e l a t i n g to E S C P at C a r m a n School District:
1. W h a t sp eci al p r o b l e m s

faced th e C a r m a n D i s t r i c t d u r ­

ing the e v a l u a t i o n year?
2. Di d students
science,

sh ow i m p r o v e m e n t

in a t t i t u d e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s c i e n c e pr oce ss

to w a r d
skills,

and s c i e n c e k n o w l e d g e ?
3. H o w did s e v e n t h - y e a r g r a d e p o i n t ave r a g e in s c i e n c e
r e l a t e to c h a n g e as i n d i c a t e d b y t h e s e three
me asu r e s ?
4. H o w did sex r e l a t e to c h a n g e s

as i n d i c a t e d b y

the

a b o v e cri ter ia?
5. W a s

there a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n c l a s s r o o m s as d e ­

te rm i n e d b y t he a b o v e c rit eri a?
6. H o w di d e i g h t h - g r a d e s c i e n c e s t u d e n t s at C a r m a n S cho ol
D i s t r i c t c o m p a r e to a n a t i o n a l s a m p l e t a k e n for the
ye ar

1964-1965?

7. W h a t p e r c e n t of c l a s s t i m e w a s u s e d for l a b o r a t o r y
investigations?

19

8- W a s

there a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s tu d e n t a t t i t u d e

t o w a r d s c i e n c e a n d teaching a ppr oach?
9. T o w h a t d e g r e e d i d ESCP e m p h a s i z e i n d i v i d u a l l y the
pr o c e s s e s of s c i e n c e and h o w di d this c o r r e l a t e w i t h
E S C P obj ect ive s?
10. W h a t

i n f o r m a t i o n was

found r e l a t i v e to ESCP as the

e i g h t h - g r a d e s c i e n c e program?
11. H o w di d the t e a c h e r - c l a s s r o o m v a r i a b l e

effect l e a r n ­

ing?
12. W h a t r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for i m p r o v e m e n t of ESCP w e r e
p r e s e n t e d to th e C arman S c h o o l D i s t r i c t ?
Qu est ion r e l a t i n g to the d e v e l o p m e n t of a m o d e l e v a l u a t i o n
instrument:
13. H o w was

the E S C P study at the Ca r m a n School D i s t r i c t

em plo yed as a g u i d e for other

c u r r i c u l u m ev a l u a t i o n ?

D e f i n i t i o n of T erm s
1. Curriculum:

A set of m a t e r i a l s or p l a n n e d e x p e r i e n c e s

d e s i g n e d to a c c o m p l i s h c e r t a i n st a t e d or i m p l i e d o b ­
jectives.

In p a r t i cul ar a d i s c i p l i n e or s u b j e c t area;

such as b i o l o g y or mathematics,

also a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n e

a r e a such as earth science o r social science.
2. Ne w cu r r i c u l a r program:

A set of cla ssr oom m a t e r i a l s

for stu dents and teacher w h i c h h a v e s tated aims a n d
go a l s d i f f e r e n t

from w h a t h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d t r a d i ­

tional c u r r i c u l a and w h i c h p r o p o s e teaching a p p r o a c h e s
unu s u a l to t h a t

tra di t i o n a l l y espoused.

20

3. Evalu ati on:

I n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d for the p u r p o s e

of m a k i n g decisions,

in p a r t i c u l a r the c o l l e c t i o n

an d u se o f i n f o r mat ion c o n c e r n i n g c h a n g e s
behavior

in pupil

to m a k e d e c i s i o n s a bout an ed u c a t i o n a l

program.
4. Set o f procedures:

A s e q u e n c e of p l a n n e d steps

form­

ing a c o u r s e of a ction to be f o l l o w e d w h e n evaluat ing
n curriculum.
5. Guide:

A n orderly,

curriculum.

s y s t e m a t i c plan

The m a n n e r

for a s s e s s i n g

or m o d e of procedure.

L i m i t ati ons of the Study
1. The study was
School District,

limited to ESCP as ta u g h t

Flint,

Michigan,

and inf ere n c e s

in the Carman
to a larger

populati on a r e co nfi ne d to s e l e c t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n s

that

closely r e s e m b l e the Carman S chool District.
2. W h i l e

there are se v e r a l

s t u d e n t e d u c a t i o n a l goals

that p e r t a i n to the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of ESCP as an i n n o v a t i v e
teaching approach,

this study w a s

lim ite d to those ef fects

w h i c h p e r t a i n e d to att itu de t o w a r d science,
science processes,

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

and c o m p e t e n c e in earth s c i e n c e knowledge.

3. E v a l u a t i o n w as c o n f i n e d e n t i r e l y to seven,
g r a d e s c i e n c e classr oom s
school year

t e a c h i n g ESCP d u r i n g

in o n e school district.

eighth-

the 1 970 -1971

No a t t e m p t w a s m a d e to

compare p u p i l c han ges as m e a s u r e d in this s t u d y w i t h pupils
not p a r t i c i p a t i n g

in ESCP d u r i n g 1970-1971.

21

4. Th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s also li mited
ation of s c i e n c e a t t i t u d e s

in that no e v a l u ­

such as o p e n - m i n d e d n e s s and

curiosi ty w a s c o n t e m p l a t e d or c a r r i e d out.
5. Th e s e l e c t i o n of the student as the u n i t of ana lysis
re duc ed the v a l i d i t y of this study si n c e t h e r e nec e s s a r i l y
was

i n t e r act ion b e t w e e n s t u d e n t s w i t h i n each classroom.

O r g a n i z a t i o n of the T h e s i s
Th e n eed an d p u r p o s e of the study,
background,

d i s c u s s i o n o f variables,

d e f i n i t i o n of terms,
Chapter

I.

s t a t e m e n t of problem,

q u e s t i o n s to b e answered,

an d limitatio ns w e r e p r e s e n t e d in

C h a p t e r II w a s d i v i d e d into four parts.

one h i s t o r i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t

In part

in c urricular

thought and p r a c t i c e le adin g to a d i s c u s s i o n of ESCP w e r e
presented.

Part two p r e s e n t e d a d i s c u s s i o n o f cu rri cul um

evaluation.

A r e v i e w of

o f f e r e d in part three.

li ter atu re r e l a t i v e
The

to ESCP was

fourth par t w a s r e s e r v e d for a

d i s c u s s i o n of s c i e n c e pr o c e s s

skills.

The d e s i g n of the

an aly tic al and d e s c r i p t i v e ph ase s of this stu dy w e r e p r e ­
sented in C h a p t e r

III.

C hapter

and an alysis of the data.
recommendations
in Cha pte r V.

for further

IV c o n t a i n e d the re sults

C o n c l u s i o n s of this study and
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w e r e r epo r t e d

CHAPTER

II

R E V I E W OF L I T E R A T U R E R E L A T E D TO S C I E N C E
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
St udi es p r e s e n t e d in this c h a p t e r h a v e b e e n divided
into four parts.

Part o ne d e a l s d i r e c t l y w i t h a review o f

curriculum devel opm ent .

Subjects

curriculum t hou ght and practice,
curricula,

a theory

t r e a t e d ar e the h i s t o r y of
the d e v e l o p m e n t of sc ien ce

for s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l u m development,

history of earth science,

a

and b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r mat ion to

Earth S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m Proj ect

(ESCP)-

Part two p res ent s a d i s c u s s i o n of c u r r i c u l u m e val ua­
tion.

A r e v i e w of li ter atu re r e l a t e d

part three.

to ESCP

is d e v e l o p e d

in

Part four pre sen ts d i s c u s s i o n and d efi nit ion of

the t h i r t e e n sci e n c e p roc ess s k i l l s as e m p l o y e d
A Process A p p r o a c h

in S c i e n c e - -

( SAP A)„

History of C u r r i c u l u m T h o u g h t a n d Pra ct i c e
I n nov a t o r s of the past d e c a d e h a d a t t e m p t e d to solve
d i ffi cul t p r o b l e m s of c u r r i c u l u m p l a n n i n g and de v e l o p m e n t
with little a t t e n t i o n to the h i s t o r i c a l d i m e n s i o n s of th ese
problems.1

K l i e b a r d 2 m a i n t a i n e d t hat this a h i s t o r i c a l s t a n c e

1A r n o A. Bellack, "History of C u r r i c u l u m T h o u g h t a nd
P r a c t i c e , " R e v i e w of E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h . XXXIX, No. 3 (1969),
p. 283.
2H e r b e r t Kliebard, "The C u r r i c u l u m F i e l d in R e t r o s p e c t , "
T e c h no log y an d the C u r r i c u l u m (New York:
Teachers College
Press, 1968a), p. 96.
22

23

re sul ted in a tendency for curriculum r e f o r m e r s

to r e p e a t

the r a l l y i n g cries and s lo g a n s of f o r m e r days and l e f t

each

ge n e r a t i o n to discover a n e w the p e r s i s t e n t and p e r p l e x i n g
problems t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d the field.

However,

i n t e r e s t in

the c o n t r i b u t i o n s that h i s t o r y m i g h t m a k e to the s t u d y of
curriculum h a d begun to develop.
Pe rhaps

the first m a j o r

c o n t r i b u t i o n to c u r r i c u l u m

d e v e l o p m e n t w a s the s t u d y re por ted b y t h e Co mmi t t e e of T e n
1892 w h e n

it attempted

in

to establish an o r g a n i z e d c u r r i c u l u m

for the s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s . 3

The r e p o r t this c o m m i t t e e p r e ­

sented e f f e c t e d cu r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t w e l l

into th e t w e n ­

tieth century.
T h e e m e r g e n c e of c u r r i c u l u m as a f i e l d of p r o f e s s i o n a l
work and st u d y during th e twentieth c e n t u r y was e x p l o r e d by
Seguel,

Caswell,

and Kliebard.

aspects of d eve lo p i n g
the turn of

S e g u e l 4 examined c e r t a i n

tho u g h t about c u r r i c u l u m p r o b l e m s

the ce ntu ry to the late 1 9 3 0 's.

from

She c o n c l u d e d

that this p e r i o d could b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y four p e r s i s t e n t
interests on the part of the emerging g r o u p of sp ecialists:
(1)

the n a t u r e of knowledge,

process,

(3)

the p r o f e s s i o n a l status of

c u r r i c u l u m making,
cu r r i c u l u m

{2) the n a t u r e of the k n o w i n g

and

(4)

procedures

the new s p e c i a l t y of

for int r o d u c i n g new

insights into educatio nal p r a c t i c e on a b r o a d scale.

3N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n Association, R e p o r t on the C o m m i t t e e
of Ten on S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l Studies (Washington, D.C.:
G.P.O.,
1893).
4M a r y Lo u i s e Seguel, Th e C u r r i c u l u m Field, Its F o r m a t i v e
Ye ars (New York:
T e a c h e r s Co lle ge Press, 1966).

24

C a s w e l l 5 i d e n t i f i e d th r e e continuing,

central

concerns

of cu rri c u l u m s p e c i a l i s t s d u r i n g the 1920's and 1 9 3 0 * s:
(1)

as sur ing sound s e q u e n c e or c o n t i n u i t y in curriculum,

(2)

es t a b l i s h i n g c o n s i s t e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n gen e r a l

goals of e d u c a t i o n and s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s that g u i d e t e a c h ­
ing,

and

(3) d e s i g n i n g c u r r i c u l a t hat provide a r e a s o n a b l e

ba l a n c e of emp has is a mon g the v a r i o u s areas of study.
K l i e b a r d 6 saw the p r e d o m i n a n t
a "social e f f i c i e n c y . "

Th e key

i n f l u e n c e of th e 1 9 2 0 's

idea w a s that s c h o o l

subjects

w e r e to be judged by the c r i t e r i o n of social ut ili ty.
movement
(1)

This

i n c o r p o r a t e d two c l o s e l y r e l a t e d dichotom ies :

the d i c h o t o m y of s chool s u b j e c t — the a cad emi c a n d the

practical,

and

(2)

the d i c h o t o m y o f school p o p u l a t i o n — co l l e g e

p r e p a r a t o r y and n o n - c o l l e g e pr epa rat ory .
F o s h a y 7 s u m m a r i z e d the events d i s c u s s e d a b o v e w h e n he
id ent i f i e d the 1890
curriculum,

to 1930 p e r i o d as the subject

and the pe r i o d

from 1930

c ent e r e d

to 1950 as the child -in -

s o cie ty or the c h i l d - c e n t e r e d cu rriculum.
E m e r g e n c e of t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s b r o u g h t a b o u t ch ange o f an e v o l u ­
tionary an d r e v o l u t i o n a r y nature.

In iti al l e a d e r s h i p and

5H. I>. Caswell, "Bn erg e n c e of th e C u r r i c u l u m as a Field
of P r o f e s s i o n a l W o r k and S t u d y , " Pr ece d e n t s and P r o m i s e s in
the C u r r i c u l u m F i e l d (New York:
T e a c h e r s Col leg e Press, 1966),
pp. 1-11.
6Kliebard,

op. p i t . , p.

75.

7A r t h u r W. Foshay, " Cha nging I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f E l e m e n ­
tary C u r r i c u l u m , " T h e A m e r i c a n S c h o o l J o u r n a l , T h i r t e e n t h
Y e a r b o o k of the J o h n D e w e y Soc i e t y (New York:
H a r p e r and
Brothers, 1953), p. 17.

25

funding c a m e from s our ces o u t s i d e the e d u c a t i o n a l
ment.

establish­

T h e m o v e m e n t to ok on a n a t i o n a l i s t i c character.

Goodlad 0

listed six m a j o r

r eform m o v e m e n t :

forces

(1) W o r l d W ar

i n f l u e n c i n g this cur r i c u l u m -

II a nd

its i m m e d i a t e a f t e r -

m a t h r e v e a l e d e x t e n s i v e m a t h e m a t i c a l a nd sci ent ifi c
a m ong h i g h school gradua tes ?

(2) th e c o l d war and the shock

of S p u t n i k focused n a t i o n a l p r i o r i t i e s
ciplines?
(4)

(3)

interest

illiteracy

toward s u b j e c t d i s ­

in c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n mu shr oom ed;

new cul tural va l u e s m e r g e d s t r e s s i n g uncertainty,

bility,

and c u l t i v a t i o n of rationality;

(5)

ad apti-

the k n o w l e d g e

e x p l o s i o n ruled o ut t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s to c u r r i c u l u m
planning?

and

(6)

there e m e r g e d a g r o w i n g p r e o c c u p a t i o n for

s t r u c t u r e s and s t r a t e g i e s of the s u b j e c t fields.
Goodlad

described

the m o v e m e n t o f

the 1950's and 1 9 6 0 ' s

as a s u b j e c t - c e n t e r e d c u r r i c u l u m d eve l o p m e n t .

T he ends and

m e a n s of sc hoo lin g w e r e d e r i v e d from the nature o f m a n ' s
o r g a n i z e d bodies of k n o w le dge .
by a c a d e m i c specialist.
like t h e s e scholars.
child"

of

the p rev iou s

T h e c u r r i c u l u m w a s pl an n e d

Students w e r e e n c o u r a g e d to think

The word

"s tructure" r e p l a c e d

"the w h o l e

era.

It w o u l d appear at first g l a n c e that the cy c l e h a d been
co mpl ete d.

It w o u l d seem that the m o v e m e n t w h i c h b e g a n w i t h

s u b j e c t - c e n t e r e d curriculum,
riculum,

a d v a n c e d to c h i l d - c e n t e r e d c u r ­

and now has r e t r e a t e d to s u b j e c t - c e n t e r e d again.

eJ o h n I. Goodlad,
"The C u r r i c u l u m , " R a t i o n a l P lan n i n g
in C u r r i c u l u m an d I n s t r u c t i o n (Washington, D . C . : N a t i o n a l
E d u c a t i o n Association, C ent er of S t u d y for Education, 1967),
pp. 5-10.

26

As wil l b e s h o w n later

in the ch a p t e r

this

is o n l y pa r t l y

true.
L e arn in g T h e o r y
To b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d the d i f f e r e n c e s

that s e p a r a t e the

s u b j e c t - c e n t e r e d c u r r i c u l u m of th e first q u a r t e r c en t u r y
from this t hir d q u a r t e r cen t u r y o n e n e e d e d to exa mine c e r t a i n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l e a r n i n g theory.
All t h e o r i e s o f lea r n i n g r est on a c o n c e p t of m a n and
behavior.
H i s t o r i c a l l y the re h a v e b e e n e s s e n t i a l l y two
c o n c e p t s of man.
On e p o s t u l a t e s a m i n d e ndowed w i t h
c e r t a i n c a p a b i l i t i e s - - s u c h f acu l t i e s as reasoning, r e ­
memberin g, imagining, w h i c h g r o w w i t h exercise.
The
s e c o n d c o n c e p t p o s t u l a t e s that m a n is an e nergy s y s t e m —
a s y s t e m of d y n a m i c f o r c e s — a t t e m p t i n g to m a i n t a i n a
b a l a n c e or an e q u a l i b r i u m in r e s p o n s e to other e ner gy
s y ste ms w i t h w h i c h h e interacts t hrough h i s sen se organs.
This e n e r g y s ystem e n c o m pa sse s h is e n t i r e being? it
includes h is r e s p o n s e s to stimuli, h is motivation, f e e l ­
ings, and r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s . 9
T h e first c on c e p t of m a n p r o d u c e d a l e a r n i n g t h e o r y o f t e n
re fer red to as
psychology.

the theory of m e n t a l d i s c i p l i n e or fa cu l t y

It held that the m i n d

the attributes,

or faculties,

i n h e r e n t l y c o n t a i n e d all

a nd that

the ta sk of e d u c a t i o n

wa s to b r i n g them forth by the e x e r c i s e of a c q u i r i n g k n o w l ­
e d g e . 10

A n o u t g r o w t h of this th e o r y w a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of

the serial and the s a l t a t o r y theories.
The serial theory postulated that mental abilities ap­
pear in s eri al order, and d e v e l o p on e after ano t h e r as
the c h i l d m a t u r e s .
The s a l t a t o r y th e o r y states that

9H i l d a Taba, C u r r i c u l u m De vel opm ent , T h e o r y and P r a c ­
tice (New York:
Harcourt, B r a c e a n d World, Inc., 1962),
p. 79.
1°ltoid., p. 80.

27

the d e v e l o p m e n t of m e n t a l a bil iti es is r e l a t i v e l y r a p i d
an d is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s u d d e n and r e l a t i v e l y a b r u p t
(saltatory) c h a n g e s - ...
T a k e n together, they m a i n t a i n
that c e r t a i n m e n t a l processes, such as m e m o r y an d o b s e r v a ­
tion, b e g i n their d e v e l o p m e n t early in life, d e v e l o p
rapidly, a nd a p p r o a c h a m a x i m u m b e f o r e o t h e r m e n t a l
traits appearReasoning, a m o r e c o m p l e x ability, d e ­
ve lops l a t e r . 11
T h e early sc h o o l y e a r s w e r e t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r e d p r e ­
li min ary for later,

more

int e l l e c t u a l

dr i l l w e r e i m p o r t a n t at all levels
value.

learning-

P r a c t i c e and

for their d i s c i p l i n a r y

T r a n s f e r w a s ass umed a u t o m a t i c a nd u n i v e r s a l . 12

This c o n c e p t r ei g n e d s u p r e m e in the U n i t e d S tat es until
the end of the century.

As l ate as 1892

th e r e w e r e three p r i m a r y w ays
(1)

the study of

it w a s b e l i e v e d that

for d e v e l o p i n g the mind:

languages was r e c o m m e n d e d for c u l t i v a t i n g

po wer s of d i s c rim ina tio n;

(2)

the study of m a t h e m a t i c s

s t r e n g t h e n e d the logical fac ult y b y r e a s o n i n g
point;

and

(3)

from p o i n t to

the study of h i s t o r y was p r o m o t e d to r i p e n the

p r o c e s s of j u d g m e n t . 13
A sec o n d c o n c e p t of m a n h a d p rod uce d at
th eories of l e a r n i n g and b eha v i o r .
a s s o c i a t i o n i s t or b e h a v i o r e s t

least two m o r e

The f i r s t of these,

theory,

a s s u m e d m a n to b e a

1XA P r o g r a m for T e a c h i n g S c i e n c e , N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y
t h e Study of Education, T h i r t y - f i r s t Yearbook, Part I
(Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1932), p. 4.
12Taba,

the

for

loc. cit.

13R e p o r t on the C o m m i t t e e o f Ten on S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l
S t u d i e s , o p . c i t ., p. 168.

28

c o l l e c t i o n of r esp ons es

to specific stimuli.

S h u l m a n 14

d e s c r i b e d the e p i s t e m o l o g y o f this p h i l o s o p h y as o n e in w h i c h
the ch ild b e g a n as a b l a n k slate.

Human development was

d e s c r i b e d as the c u m u l a t i v e e ffect of experience.
le arn ed w a s

the function o f

upon this b l a n k slate.

the imprint that e x p e r i e n c e m a d e

L e a r n i n g w as

a d d i t i v e l y and connectively;

t h e r e f o r e t h o u g h t of

what w a s le arn ed w a s s o m e t h i n g

that wa s a d d e d and c o n n e c t e d to w h a t w a s
Th is

What was

l earned before.

t heory p r o m o t e d le ar n i n g b y trial and error,

c o n d i t i o n i n g took p r e c e d e n c e over the h i g h e r m e n t a l

functions.

M o t i v e s w e r e c o n t r o l l e d from w i t h o u t by conditioning,
and punishm ent .
l i m i t e d . 1 5 ^ 16

Practice was

and

reward,

important and t r a n s f e r w a s

S k i n n e r , 17 a leading p r o p o n e n t of this theory,

b e l i e v e d that a sci enc e o f b e h a v i o r n e e d e d to b e b u i l t o n l y
on w h a t w a s observable.

H e w o u l d j ot c o n s i d e r such u n o b s e r v ­

able b e h a v i o r s as purpose,

thought,

A n o t h e r set of theories,

and insight.

common in c u r r e n t literature,

h a d b e e n r e f e r r e d to v a r i o u s l y as g e n e t i c p s y c h o l o g y and

u Lee S. Shulman, "Psychology, " M a t h e m a t i c s E d u c a t i o n ,
S i x t y - n i n t h Y e a r b o o k of th e N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y for th e Stu dy of
E d u c a t i o n (Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1970), p. 45.
15M o r r i s L. Biggs, L e a r n i n g T h e o r i e s for T e a c h e r s
(New York:
Harper a n d Row, 1964), pp. 55, 79-81, 258-259.
I6E r n e s t R. Hilgard, T heo rie s of L e a r n i n g (New York:
A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t , Inc., 1948), pp. 15-47.
17B . F. Skinner, S c i e n c e and H u m a n B e h a v i o r
Th e M a c m i l l a n Company, 1953), pp. 87-90.

(New York:

29

field t h e o r i e s . 13 W h i l e differing,

t h e s e t h e o r i e s h e l d to

a co mmon a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c ogn iti ve p r o c e s s e s — insight,
intelligence,

and o r g a n i z a t i o n — w e r e

istics of h u m a n response,

fundamental character­

pres ent in even the s i m p l e s t p e r ­

c e p t i o n s o f the environment.

T a b a 19 further e x p l a i n e d this

point of v i e w b y s t a t i n g that h u m a n actions a r e m a r k e d by
q u a l i t y of

i n t e l l i g e n c e and c a p a c i t y to p e r c e i v e and create

re lat i o n s h i p s .

Man,

as an a d a p t i v e creature,

o r g a n i z e d each

s u b s e q u e n t r e s p o n s e in light of h i s prior experi enc e.

In

each p e r c e p t i o n th e o b j e c t or event w a s seen differently,
b e c a u s e the c o g n i t i v e str uct ure h a d b e e n r e o r g a n i z e d by each
prior percept ion .

T h e r e f o r e m a n w a s not p a s s i v e

in the face

of e x t e r n a l st imu li b u t be c a m e an ac t i v e a g e n t w h o created
hi s ow n

"phenomenal" world.

For man,

learning w a s e sse nti all y

an a c t i v e p ro ces s of s ele cti ng a nd organizing.
B r u n e r 20 e x e m p l i f i e d one a s p e c t of t hes e theories.
Bruner l e a r n i n g

i n v o l v e d an int ern al process.

wa s a c q u i s i t i o n of ne w information.
tion.

H e r e the l earner

some m a t c h b e t w e e n
in his mind.

F i r s t there

Then followed

transforma­

took this new i n f o r m a t i o n and found

it and models,

This total

For

templates,

or

ideas already

information was now reorganized.

1BT om C. Venable, Ph il o s o p h i c a l F o u n d a t i o n of the C u r r i c u l u m (Chicago:
R a n d M c N a l l y and Company, 1967), pp. 76-84.
lsTaba,

op.

c i t . , pp.

80-81.

20J e r o m e S. Bruner, The P r o c e s s of E d u c a t i o n
R a n d o m House, 1960), pp. 48, 49.

(New York:

30

ordered,

reassembled,

a n d reevaluated.

a c c e p t e d new knowledge,
analyzed,

organized,

put it t o g e t h e r w i t h the old,

assembled,

totality of k n o w l e d g e possessed.
to m e a n th at r a r e l y w a s
side the l e a r n e r .

W h e n l e a r n i n g one
then

a nd e v a l u a t e d the n e w
S h u l m a n 21 i n t e r p r e t e d this

som eth ing d i s c o v e r e d that w a s o u t ­

I n s t e a d this d i s c o v e r y inv olv ed the

internal r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r e v i o u s l y k n o w n ideas
to e s t a b l i s h a b e t t e r
ties of an encounter

in order

fit bet w e e n t h o s e ideas and r e g u l a r i ­
to w h i c h the l e a r n e r h a d to a c c o m m o ­

date.
No single p e r s o n has better

e p i t o m i z e s the p r e s e n t

state of gen etic p s y c h o l o g y than h a s J e a n Piaget.
has a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f

P i a g e t 22

to learning t h e o r y as it r e l a t e s

d i r e c t l y to c u r r i c u l u m i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w h e n he e n c o u r a g e d
schools

to a llo w c h i l d r e n to do their own learning.

chided the schools b y
effective.

suggesting th at w h a t they d o

H e has
is in­

O n e d o e s n ' t further u n d e r s t a n d i n g in a child by

simply t alking

to him.

G o od p e d o g o g y m u s t involve p r e s e n t i n g the c h i l d wi th
s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h he h i m s e l f experi men ts in the
b r o a d e s t sense of the t e r m — t r y i n g things o u t to see
w h a t happens, m a n i p u l a t i n g things, m a n i p u l a t i n g symbols,
p o s i n g q u e s t i o n s and seeking his ow n answers, r e c o n c i l ­
ing w h a t h e finds at one time w i t h wha t h e f i n d s at

21 Le e S. Shulman, " P s y c hol ogi cal C o n t r o v e r s i e s in the
T e a c h i n g of S c i e n c e and M a t h e m a t i c s , " T h e S c i e n c e T e a c h e r ,
XXXV (September, 1968), p. 35.
2 2 E leanor Duckworth, "Piaget R e d i s c o v e r e d , " J o u r n a l of
R e s e a r c h in S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g . II, I s s u e 3 (1964), p. 172.

31

another, and c o m p a r i n g his
children-23
A c c o r d i n g to Piaget,
where structures

findings w i t h

those of o t h e r

"teaching m e a n s c r e a t i n g s i t u a t i o n s

can b e discovered;

it d o e s no t me an t r a n s ­

m i t t i n g s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h may b e a s s i m i l a t e d as nothing o t h e r
than t h e v e r b a l
Transfer

level.*'24

of L e a r n i n g

B i g g e 25 d e f i n e d t ran sfer of l ear nin g as that w h i c h
occurred

"when a p e r s o n ' s

learning

in one s i t u a t i o n i n f l u e n c e s

hi s l e a r n i n g and p e r f o r m a n c e in other s i t u a t i o n s . "

The

t h e o r i e s p r e s e n t e d in the p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n g e n e r a t e d thr ee
p r i n c i p l e ideas of h o w tra nsfe r of lea rni ng t o o k place.
T h e first t h e o r y p r e s e n t e d an idea t h a t transfer r e s u l t e d
a u t o m a t i c a l l y from the study of cer tai n subjects.
science,

language,

an d h i s t o r y fell

into t his

Th is t h e o r y r e m a i n e d a l i v e for m a n y years.

2 3I b i d ., pp.

172,

c a t e g o r y . 2 6 * 27

G r i s w o l d 20

p r o p o s e d t he study of liberal arts as a m e a n s
i n t e l l e c t u a l and s p i r i t u a l p o w e r s

M ath ema tic s,

(1954)

for d e v e l o p i n g

in men.

173.

24 I b i d . , a d i r e c t q u o t e from Piaget,

p.

174.

25M o r r i s L- Bigge, L e a r n i n g T h e o r i e s for Te achers
(New York;
H a r p e r a nd Row, 1964), p. 243.
2 6 I b i d ., pp.

249-254.

2 7R e p o r t on t he C o m m i t t e e of Ten o n S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l
S t u d i e s , o p . c i t ., p. 168.
aeA. W. Griswold,
H a r p e r 1s (July, 1954),

"What W e D o n ’t K n o w W i l l H u r t U s , "
pp. 76-82.

32

F o l l o w i n g the turn o f the c ent ury t h e c on c e p t of u n ­
l i m i t e d t r a n s f e r wa s c h a l l e n g e d by T h o r n d i k e and o t h e r s . 29
T h e y showed t h a t

i m p r ove men t

r a r e l y b r o u g h t about equal
no matter h o w

similar.

fer was p o s s i b l e only

in a s i n g l e m e n t a l

i m p r o v eme nt

Further

function

in any other

function,

s tud ies s u g g e s t e d t h a t t r a n s ­

if t h e r e w e r e i den t i c a l e l e m e n t s

in

t h e content i n v o l v e d or in the p r o c e s s of t r a i n i n g . 30
D u r i n g later pe rio ds oth er r e s e a r c h e r s

s u b s t a n t i a t e d the b e ­

lief that g a i n s on m e n t a l tests could no t be a t t r i b u t e d to
a s ing le s u b j e c t and school subjects,
c i p l i n a r y value.
fer,

as such,

T h e s e an d other s t u d i e s c h a l l e n g i n g

i n f l u e n c e d e duc ati on tremendo usl y.

subjects,

h a d no d i s ­

The more abstract

s u c h as Latin a n d ancient history,

a n d p r a c t i c a l subjects w e r e i n t r o d u c e d

trans­

w e r e eliminated,

in whi ch k n o w l e d g e

a n d skill w e r e off ere d as ne ar to the co nte xt in w h i c h they
w e r e to b e u s e d as p o s s i b l e . 31
T a b a 32 r e p o r t e d that ce rtain
served.

C e r t a i n types of

a fairly s t r o n g transfer,

inconsistencies w e r e ob­

learning s u c h as a t t i t u d e s

showed

w h i l e areas such as a r i t h m e t i c

2 9E . L. T h o r n d i k e a n d R. S. Woodwo rth , "The I n f l u e n c e
o f I m p r o v e m e n t in One M e n t a l F u n c t i o n U p o n the E f f e c i e n c y of
O t h e r F u n c t i o n s , " P s y c h o l o g i c R e v i e w , V I I I (1901), pp. 247-261,
384-395, 5 53-564.
A.

3°E. L. Thorndike, T h e P r i n c i p l e s o f T e a c h i n g
G. Seiler, 1906), p. 244.

(New York:

3ID o r o t h y M. Fraser, C u r r e n t C u r r i c u l u m S t u d i e s in
A c a d e m i c S u b j e c t s (Washington, D.C.:
N ati o n a l E d u c a t i o n
As sociation, June, 1962), p. 1.
32Taba,

ojd. c i t ., pp.

125,

126.

33

sk i l l s sho wed very l i t t l e transfer.

These inconsistencies

g e n e r a t e d a t h i r d t h e o r y of transfer.

It s t a t e d t hat

t r a n s f e r o c c u r r e d n ot b y m e a n s of s p e c i f i c

i d e n t i c a l elepnents,

bu t t h r o u g h g e n e r a l i z a t i o n either of t h e c o n t e n t or of the
methods

e m p l o y e d in l e a r n i n g the content.

J u d d 33 d e m o n s t r a t e d that p r a c t i c e c o m b i n e d w i t h c o n c e p t
u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r o d u c e d m o r e e f f e c t i v e tra nsf er

tha n p r a c t i c e

alone.

able to u s e

H e r e a c h e d t he c o n c l u s i o n t hat on e wa s

s o m e t h i n g lea r n e d in a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n

in a n o t h e r s i t u a t i o n

if h e was c a p a b l e of d i s c e r n i n g whfet p r i n c i p l e s w e r e

involved.

S h u l m a n 34 c o n c u r r e d that w h e n m o r e a t t e n t i o n was paid
to p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l y i n g sp ecif ic p r o c e s s e s or g e n e r a l i z a ­
tions c o m b i n i n g o t h e r w i s e u n r e l a t e d facts,

t r a n s f e r wa s m o r e

a s s u r e d and l e a r n i n g m o r e s t i m u l a t i n g and p r o d u c tiv e.
h e l d that tr ans fer b e c a m e g r e a t e r w h e n w h a t w a s
r e n d e r e d m e a n i n g f u l to t he learner;

He

lea rne d was

that it a r t i c u l a t e d

c l e a r l y w i t h w h a t the l ear ner a l r e a d y knew,

a n d w a s m a d e to

fit into hi s o r g a n i z a t i o n or s t r u c t u r e of kno wle dge .
S h u l m a n 35 f u r t h e r

stated that the m o s t s t a b l e objects

of i n s t r u c t i o n concepts,

principles,

and g e n e r a l strategies,

sh o u l d b e c o m e a m a t r i x or n e t w o r k into w h i c h

facts w e r e

3 3C . H. Judd, "The R e l a t i o n of S p e c i a l T r a i n i n g to
G e n e r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e , " E d u c a t i o n a l R e v i e w , X X X V I (1908),
28-42.

pp.

34L e e S. Shulman, "Elements of a C o g n i t i v e P s y c h o l o g y of
I n s t r u c t i o n for H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n , " J o u r n a l of M e d i c a l E d u c a ­
t i o n , ILV, No. 11 (November, 1970), p. 95.
35 I b i d .. p.

96.

34

embedded.

W h e n facts w e r e h u n g on a c o n c e p t u a l scaffolding,

the l i k e l i h o o d of

for get t i n g w a s less a n d the p o s s i b i l i t y of

t r a n s f e r increased.

However,

to o p t i m i z e transfe r

p r i n c i p l e s m u s t b e p r a c t i c e d well,

these

in a w i d e v a r i e t y of

conditions.
T a b s 3 6 c o n c l u d e d that t r a n s f e r took p l a c e o n l y if t her e
wa s s ome aid b o t h

in a b s t r a c t i n g an d a p p l y i n g the p r i n c i p l e

and d e v e l o p i n g the m e t h o d and th e

"set"

for d o i n g so.

She

s u g g e s t e d that c u r r i c u l u m ne e d e d t o b e o r g a n i z e d so that
the p r i n c i p l e s of a s ubj ect s t a n d out.
"programmed''

C o n t e n t sh o u l d b e

in a m a n n e r w h i c h e n a b l e d a stu d e n t to d i s c o v e r

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and i n c o r p o r a t e t h e m into h i s thinking.
T h e r e w a s al so e v i d e n c e to s up p o r t B r u n e r ' s 37 b e l i e f
that p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h the s t u d e n t h i m s e l f d i s c o v e r e d w e r e
u n d e r s t o o d m o r e clearly,

r e t a i n e d longer,

and m o r e ea sil y

retr i e v a b l e .
In summary,

then,

this a r g u m e n t m a i n t a i n e d that t he mai n

r o a d to a d e q u a t e t ran sfe r

lay w i t h the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of f u n d a ­

m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s or concepts.
To u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g as a specific i n s t a n c e of a
m o r e g e n e r a l c a s e — w h i c h is w h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g a f u n d a ­
m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e or s t r u c t u r e m e a n s — is to h a v e le arned
not o nly a sp eci fic th ing b u t also a m o d e l for u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g ot her things like it that o n e m a y e n c o u n t e r . 38

36Taba,

0£.

c i t ., pp.

125-126.

37J e r o m e S. Bruner, "The A c t of D i s c o v e r y , " H a r v a r d
E d u c a t i o n a l R e v i e w , XXXI, No. 1 (1961), pp. 21-32.
3eBruner,

T h e Process o f E d u c a t i o n , o p . c i t ., p.

25.

35

Parker a n d R u b i n 39 p r e s e n t e d a p r o p o s i t i o n that
"p rocess— th e cl ust er of d i v e r s e p r o c e d u r e s w h i c h s u r r o u n d
t h e a c q u i s i t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e was

...

the

h i g h e s t form of c o n t e n t and the m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e b a s e for
c u r r i c u l u m c h a n g e . " 40

Th ey ar gue d t h a t s i n c e w e k n e w

little

a b o u t h o w p e o p l e learn,

and that they l e a r n in d i f f e r e n t w a y s

and at d i f f e r e n t rates,

c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of p r o c e s s as the

life b l o o d o f c o n t e n t p r e s e n t e d a p o i n t of v i e w in w h i c h
p roc ess a nd c o n t e n t w o u l d not rem a i n a d i c h o t o m y . 4 1
Cr oss -ap p l i c a t i o n ,

a t e r m u s e d to p r o p o s e an i n s t r u c ­

t ional g a m b i t w h i c h w o u l d c i r c u m v e n t
o r d i n a r y c o n c e p t of transfer,
in the e d u c a t i o n a l process.

t h e l i m i t a tio ns o f the

w o u l d r e c e i v e first p r i o r i t y
The l ear ner w o u l d be g i v e n m o r e

than a m e r e exposure.
He m u s t g r a s p the n a t u r e of the p r o c e s s and h o w h e got
it; h e m u s t k n o w w h e r e it has b e e n u sed in th e p a s t and
g r a s p w h e r e it m i g h t b e u s e d in t h e future; a nd h e m u s t
k n o w h o w to use it in div e r s e contexts, to m o d i f y it as
c i r c u m s t a n c e s demand, to fit it to his purposes, and to
assess its r e s u l t s . 42
This p o s i t i o n s tated t h a t it w a s d e s i r a b l e for the learner
to b e s c h o o l e d in w h a t m i g h t b e c a l l e d t h e c o g n i t i v e art of
transfe r w h i c h

should h a v e p r i o r i t y

in the s c h e m e of the

3 9T h e m a j o r pa rt of the f oll owi ng p r e s e n t a t i o n is taken
from Cecil J. P ark er and L o u i s J. Rubin, Process A s C o n t e n t
(Chicago:
R a n d M c N a l l y an d Company, 1966).
4 °I b i d ., p.

1.

4 1l b i d .. p.

2.

42 I b i d ., p.

13.

36

s c h o o l . 43

Such a s t a t e m e n t w a s

in gen era l a g r e e m e n t w ith

t h e o r i e s w h i c h f a v o r e d e x p o s i n g the s tudent to the st ruc tur e
of a subject,

a nd s a w c o n s i d e r a b l e m e r i t in p r o p o s a l s for

d i s c o v e r y learning,

b o t h as a l e a r n e d p rocess

an d as an

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s c h e m e . 44
S h u l m a n 45

e l a b o r a t e d on t he m e r i t s of d i s c o v e r y w h e n

h e s t a t e d that the p r o b a b i l i t y of e ffe c t i v e t r a n s f e r

i n­

c r e a s e d w h e n l e a r n i n g c o n d i t i o n s s imu l a t e d an a c t u a l a p p l i c a ­
ti on setting,

and w h e n it was so st ruc tur ed tha t the learner

w a s called upon to d i s c o v e r a p r i n c i p l e for him s e l f .
For the student, this m e a n s r e l i n q u i s h m e n t of h abits of
passivity, d o c i l e learning, and d e p e n d e n c e on teacher
and textbook, in favor o f an act ive l e a r n i n g in w h i c h
lecture and t ext boo k c e a s e to b e a u t h o r i t a t i v e sources
of in f o r m a t i o n to be le ar n e d and b e c o m e m a t e r i a l s to b e
dissected, analyzed.
For, in one form or another, the
m a t e r i a l s of such a c l a s s r o o m are not s t a t e m e n t s of
truth bu t r e p o r t s of inquiry.
Hence, the stu dent's
at ten tio n is not on s o m e t h i n g said bu t o n so met hin g done.
T h e oral a nd w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d h i m still,
inevitably, a r e sayings.
Bu t the s t u d e n t ' s att ent ion is
not on s t a t e m e n t s as s t a t e m e n t s — w o r d s a n d a sse rt i o n s to
b e l e a r n e d - - b u t on w h a t t h e w o r d s and a s s e r t i o n s are
about:
the tho ught and t h e actions of a s c i e n t i s t w h i c h
h a v e gone into m a k i n g of a pi e c e of s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h . 46
Th e task,

therefore,

which confronted the curriculum

w o r k e r involved t h e f o l l owi ng

43 I b i d .. p.

four steps:

13.

44 I b i d ., p. 47.
4 5 Shulman, "Elements of a C o g n i t i v e P s y c h o l o g y , "
o p . c i t ., p. 96.
46Joseph J. S c h w a b and Paul F. Brandwein, "The T e a c h i n g
o f S c i e n c e as I n q u i r y , " T h e T e a c h i n g of S c i e n c e (Cambridge,
Massachusetts:
H o w a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1962), pp. 65-66.

37

1. A r e t o o l i n g of su bject m a t t e r to i llu str ate
b a s e structure, a n d to insu re that k n o w l e d g e w h i c h
generates knowledge takes priority over knowledge whi c h
does not?
2. an e x a m i n a t i o n of the w o r k i n g m e t h o d s of t h e
i n t e l l e c t u a l pra cti tio ner , the biologist, the historian,
the p o l i t i c a l scientist, for the s i g n i f i c a n t p r o c e s s e s
of their craft, a n d t h e u s e of t h e s e p r o c e s s e s in our
c l a s s r o o m instruction:
3. the u t i l i z a t i o n of the e v i d e n c e g a t h e r e d from
a p e n e t r a t i n g study o f p e o p l e d o i n g things, as they g o
ab o u t the bus i n e s s o f life, in r e o r d e r i n g the c urr icu lum ;
and
4. a d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t to sc h o o l t h e child in c o n d i ­
tions for c r o s s - a p p l i c a t i o n of the p r o c e s s e s he h a s
m a s t e r e d — the wa ys an d jneans of p u t t i n g them to g o o d u s e
elsewhere.4 7
T h e D e v e l o p m e n t of S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l a
Xn o r d e r

to u n d e r s t a n d the r e v o l u t i o n

that led to t o d a y ' s

c o n c e p t of s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n it was e s s e n t i a l
events

l eading up to th e p r e s e n t situation.

to trace t h e
Fro m the e a r l y

c o l o n i a l d ays until t he m i d - e i g h t e e n t h century,

v i r t u a l l y no

science was

What little

inc lud ed in the school c u r r i cul um.

sc i e n c e w as ta u g h t b e g a n a t the u n i v e r s i t y
sized s u r v e y i n g and n a t u r a l history.
the a c a d e m y

in the m i d d l e an d

level and e m p h a ­

W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of

late 1 7 0 0 's,

s c i e n c e w as b r o u g h t

into th e s e c o n d a r y schools.

T h e a cad e m i e s d e v e l o p e d

college preparatory schools

in w h i c h s c i e n c e courses

si z e d physics,

earth science,

the p u b l i c school a r o u n d

and astronomy.

into
empha­

The a d v e n t o f

1820 caused l i t t l e change.

High

sc hools w e r e m a i n l y p r e p a r a t o r y schools for c o l l e g e b o u n d
students

in s e a r c h of a profession.

4 7 Parker

and Rubins,

pp. pit.,

T h e c o l l e g e faculty

p. 48.

38

d o m i n a t e d the hi gh s c h o o l s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l u m t h r o u g h d e v e l o p ­
m e n t of te xtb ook s a n d s t a n d a r d e n t r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s . 48

Not

until the po st- c i v i l W a r p e r i o d did l abo ra t o r y e x p e r i m e n t a ­
tion b e c o m e a part of h i g h

school i n s t r u c t i o n . 49

T h e t heo ry of f a c u l t y psychology,
during

which was predominant

the latter p a r t of th e n i n e t e e n t h century,

increased

the p o p u l a r i t y of s c i e n c e in e d u c a t i o n circles s i n c e
he ld t hat the mind,

like a muscle,

c o n s t a n t u se and r i g o r o u s

it w a s

c o u l d b e i m p r o v e d through

training.

S c i e n c e was

championed

as an e x c e l l e n t c o u r s e for tr ain ing the m i n d a nd so c o n ­
si der ed par t of a g e n e r a l

e d u c a t i o n . 50

T h e d o m i n a n t goals o f any e l e m e n t a r y school s c i e n c e prior
to 1860 w e r e to t r a n s m i t factual k n o w l e d g e and to s h o w the
p r e s e n c e of God in n a t u r e . 51

A b o u t this time t he P e s t a l o z -

zian m e t h o d w i t h e mph asi s on ob j e c t

tea chi ng r e c e i v e d nearly

u n i v e r s a l a c c e p t a n c e in this country.

Krusi s i g h t e d the

f o l l o w i n g e xcerpt as t y p i c a l of o b j e c t teaching:
... to place o b j e c t s b e f o r e the (children) in w h i c h they
ar e interested, an d w h i c h te nd to c u l t i v a t e th eir p r e ­
c e p t i v e faculties; and, at t he s a m e time, lea d th em to

4 aA H a l f C e n t u r y of Sq ien ce and M a t h e m a t i c s T e a c h i n g
(Oak Park, Illinois:
C e n t r a l A s s o c i a t i o n of S c i e n c e and
M a t h e m a t i c s Teachers, Inc., 1950), p. 92.
4 9 Eu g e n e C. Lee,
(Belmont, California:
1967), p. 1.

N e w D e v e l o p m e n t in S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g
W a d s w o r t h P u b l i s h i n g Company, Inc.,

5 °I b i d . , p. 92.
51R o n a l d D. A n d e r s o n and others. D e v e l o p i n g C h i l d r e n ' s
T h i n k i n g T h r o u g h S c i e n c e (Englewood Cliffs, New J er s e y :
P r e n t i c e Hall, Inc., 1970), p. 17.

39

n a m e the object, to d e s c r i b e its parts, and to s t a t e
the r e l a t i o n of t h e s e parts.
Thus, l a n g u a g e a lso is
cultivated; and from the o b s e r v a t i o n o f a si n g l e object,
th e p upi l is led to c o m p a r e it w i t h other, and t he first
steps of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n are t a k e n . ...
T h e s e lessons are
d e s i g n e d s p e c i a l l y to c u l t i v a t e the p e r c e p t i v e faculty
... they m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d fun dam ent al. ...
Object
L e s s o n s in form lead d i r e c t l y to Drawing, Writing, and
Ge ometry; in sound and form to Language, i ncl u d i n g
Reading, Speaking, and Spelling; in p l a c e to Geography;
and in animals, plants, minerals, etc. ... to N a t u r a l
H i s t o r y .5 2
However,

this emp has is w a s again g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d w i t h

a n a t u r e study m ove men t.

L i k e o b j e c t study,

nat u r e s t u d y was

b a s e d o n the p r i n c i p l e s of faculty p s y c h o l o g y a nd on the
a l l e d g e d se r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t of traits.
R a n g e r s t a t e d that
structional process

"the aim of n a t u r e study as an i n ­

is to put the c h i l d in s y m p a t h y w i t h h i s

s u r r o u n d i n g s — w i t h h is o wn

l i f e . ...

m u c h to r i g h t civic and m o r a l
to G o d ' s

cre atures....

t h r e e f o l d environment,

N a t u r e study c o n t r i b u t e s

training.

It inspires k i n d n e s s

It tends to a d a p t t h e c h i l d to his
nature,

man,

A s e q u e n c e of s c i e n c e courses
w a s e s t a b l i s h e d in 1892,

G o d . " 53
for the s e c o n d a r y sc hoo l

w h e n the C o m m i t t e e of T en p r o p o s e d

th e f o l l o w i n g s e q u e n c e o f c ourses

for the s e c o n d a r y school:

Fr eshman:
Phy sic al G e o g r a p h y
Sophomore:
B iol ogy
J u n i o r : Physics
Senior:
C h e m i s t r y . 54

52H e r m a n Krusi, Pesta loz zi:
His Life, W o r k and I n f l u e n c e
(Cincinnati:
Wilson, H i n k l e and Company, 1875), pp. 162-164.
53W a l t e r E. Ranger, "The Na t u r e S t u d y M o v e m e n t , "
Education, X X I V (April 1904), p. 502.
54Ha ns O. Andersen, R e a d i n g s in S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n for the
S e c o n d a r y Sc h o o l (New York:
T h e M a c m i l l a n Company, 196®), p.
276.

40

W i t h the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e junior h i g h

school in the

e a r l y 1900 *s s c i e n c e ed uca t i o n b e c a m e m o r e p r a c t i c a l a n d less
formalized.

B e c a u s e o f the e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g e n r o l l m e n t s an

e f f o r t was m a d e to p r o v i d e a m o r e general b a c k g r o u n d in
science,

particularly

for those w h o s e formal e d u c a t i o n t e r m ­

i n a t e d w ith h i g h s c h o o l or e a r l i e r . 55

Goals w e r e sh ifted from

a t t e n t i o n to p r o f i c i e n c y in s u b j e c t ma t t e r
h a p p y and e f f e c t i v e citizens.

This

to d e v e l o p m e n t of

shift w a s d e m o n s t r a t e d

b y a listing of s e v e n car din al p r i n c i p l e s of e d u c a t i o n

for

secondary schools:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

h e a l t h f u l living,
w o r t h y h o m e membership,
w o r t h y u s e of leisure time,
c omm and o f j udg me n t a l processes,
v o c a t i o n a l effectiveness,
earnest citizenship, and
e thical charact er. 6

In 1920 s c i e n c e teaching w a s

i n t e r pre ted in light of

t h e s e aims so as to c o n t r i b u t e to the c a r d i n a l aims rather
t h a n r e p r o d u c e in t he m i n d s of the st udents o r g a n i z e d k n o w l ­
e d g e of the s p e c i f i c s c i e n c e s . 57
t h i n k i n g in th e h i g h

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e of this new

school c u r r i c u l u m was r e p l a c e m e n t of

physical geography with general

s cie nce at the ninth g rad e

55Ijee, o p . c i t ., p. 2.
5 6C o m m i s s i o n o n the R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of S e c o n d a r y E d u c a ­
tion, “C a r d i n a l P r i n c i p l e s of S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n , " B u l l e t i n
o f the Un ite d S t a t e s Bu r e a u of E d u c a t i o n (Washington:
N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n Association, No. 35, 1918).
57C o m m i s s i o n o n the R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of S e c o n d a r y E d u c a ­
tion, "Report of t h e S u b c o m m i t t e e in the T e a c h i n g of S c i e n c e , "
No. 36 (1920).

41

l e v e l -5 0
(In 1927) a thesis w a s w r i t t e n at C o l u m b i a (University)
w h i c h c a m e at a t ime w h e n the s i t u a t i o n w a s r i p e for
change.
It r e p r e s e n t e d the m o s t p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n
in p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n and w a s to have, perhaps, the
m o s t f a r - r e a c h i n g i n f l u e n c e of e l e m e n t a r y s c i e n c e of
any s i n g l e e vent in th e h i s t o r y of the f i e l d . 59
Th is work,

w h i c h b e c a m e a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i n g factor to a

d e v e l o p m e n t of social u t i l i t y an d a c h i l d - c e n t e r e d i n t e r p r e ­
ta t i o n of s c i e n c e edu cat ion was t he w o r k of Ge r a l d C r a i g . 60
Hi s re sea rch d e t e r m i n e d a s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l u m
t a r y school.

T h e p rod uct s of this study,

for the e l e m e n ­

later e m b o d i e d in

a series of e i g h t t e x t b ook s for t h e e l e m e n t a r y s chool m a r k e d
the rise of a t r u e ge neral

science c u r r i c u l u m for the

s c h o o l s .61
Th e T h i r t y - f i r s t Y e a r b o o k 62 further r e l a t e d aims of
s c i e n c e in the e l e m e n t a r y sch ool s

(grades 1-6)

juniol h i g h sc hools and the senior h i g h

to t h o s e in

school.

The curricu­

lum pr ovi d e d for a c o n t in uou s d e v e l o p m e n t o f b o t h p h y s i c a l
and b i o l o g i c a l co nce pts t h r o u g h t he first t w e l v e grades.

5 eHa ns O. Anderson,

©£.

c i t ., p.

278.

59H e r b e r t A. Smith, "H i s t o r i c a l B a c k g r o u n d of E l e m e n t a r y
S c i e n c e , " J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h in S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g . Issue 3
(1963), pp. 200-205, 233.
®° Gerald S. Craig, "Certain T e c h n i q u e s Used in D e v e l o p i n g
a C o u r s e o f S t u d y in S c i e n c e for t he H o r a c e M a n n E l e m e n t a r y
School" (New York:
Bu r e a u of Publication, T e a c h e r s College,
C o l u m b i a University, 1927).
61G e r a l d S. C r a i g and others.
I —V I I I (Boston:
G inn and Company,

S c i e n c e for Y o u . B o o k
1932).

62A P r o g r a m for T e a c h i n g S c i e n c e , o p . c i t .

42

1947 saw the p u b l i c a t i o n o f S c i e n c e in American. S c h o o l s .6 a
This

issue w a s d e s i g n e d to e m p h a s i z e the i m p o r t a n c e o f s c i e n ­

tific knowledge during World War

II,

and to po int up the

i m p a c t of s c i e n c e on future society.

The w r i t e r s o u t l i n e d

th e ba sic areas of e l e m e n t a r y s c i e n c e and s u m m a r i z e d the p a t ­
terns of s e c o n d a r y school s c i e n c e teaching.

Of

in ter est w a s

an attempt to c a t e g o r i z e t he o b j e c t i v e s o f s c i e n c e t e a c h i n g
into functi ona l information,
an d d e v e l o p m e n t a l

skills,

concepts,

attitudes,

and u nde rs t a n d i n g s ;

interests,

and a p p r e c i ­

at i o n s .
Th e F i f t y - n i n t h Y e a r b o o k of the N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y for the
S t u d y of E d u c a t i o n was i n d i c a t i v e of the p r e s e n t state of
s c i e n c e t e a c h i n g . 6*
sc i e n c e education.

It a d v o c a t e d a g e n u i n e r e v o l u t i o n
Both the c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o ach es

in

to

s ci e n c e t eac hin g and the t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t ma t t e r ar eas w e r e
s u b j e c t to r e v i s i o n or w e r e discarded.
co n t r i but ing

to t he revisions,

p o r t a n t were;

Of

the m a n y

factors

probably the three most

im­

the cha nge in p h i l o s o p h y of s c i e n c e education,

th e w i l l i n g n e s s of s cie nt i s t s a n d ed uca tor s to pool their
talents,

and n e w sources of m o n e y . 65

63S c i e n c e in A m e r i c a n S c h o o l s , N a t i o n a l Soc iet y for the
S t u d y of Education, F o r t y - s i x t h Yearbook, Part I (Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1947).
64R e t h i n k i n g S ci e n c e E d u c a t i o n , N a t i o n a l Soc i e t y for the
St u d y of Education, F i f t y - n i n t h Yearbook, Part I (Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1947).
® sLee,

ojd .

c i t ., p. 3.

43

Th e r e f o r m m o v e m e n t w h i c h b e g a n in t he m i d - 1 9 5 0 ' s
achieved

f r u i t i o n in t h e f o r m of the " a l p h a b e t soup" h i g h

school a n d elementary c o u r s e s such as BSCS,
Sc i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m S t u d y ; PSSC,
C o m m i t t e e ; ESCP,

Bio log ica l

P hys ica l S c i e n c e Study

Earth S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t ; SCIS,

Science Curriculum Improvement Stu d y ; A A A S :

SAPA; A m e r i c a n

Association

Science--A

for the A d v a n c e m e n t of Science:

Process A p p r o a c h ; and a h o s t of others.
W h e r e a s previous t e x t s and m a t e r i a l s w e r e w r i t t e n b y
educators, the new c u r r i c u l a r p a c k a g e s w e r e d e v e l o p e d
b y w r i t i n g teams in w h i c h p r a c t i c i n g scienti sts p l a y e d
a d o m i n a n t role.
T h e content was n o t sim ply updated;
it w a s reorgani zed a r o u n d the b a s i c con cep ts of i n q u i r y
an d structure.
S t u d e n t s wer e e n g a g e d in la bora t o r y w o r k wh i c h w a s
g e n e r a l l y i n v e s t i g a t i v e rather t h a n ve rif i c a t i o n a l .
T h e y w e r e to infer f r o m their own d a t a rather than
m e m o r i z e a rhetoric of conclusions.
T h e y wer e to s t u d y
the r e a s o n i n g of s c i e n t i s t s in the e v o l u t i o n of s c i e n ­
t i f i c concepts r a t h e r than commit to m e m o r y the a s s o c i ­
a t e d n a m e s and dates.
T he p r o c e s s e s a nd not just t h e
p r o d u c t s of s c i e n c e w e r e e m p h a s i z e d . 56
T h e s c i e n c e course w a s

to r e p r e s e n t g e n u i n e s c i e n c e as

seen b y t h e practicing s c i e n t i s t today,

a n d b e given u n i t y b y

a few o v e r a r c h i n g themes.
During

1962 and 1963

t he National S c i e n c e Tea c h e r s

A s s o c i a t i o n prepared a l i s t of sfsven c o n c e p t u a l s che mes
five

"major

items in t he p r o c e s s e s of s c i e n c e "

and

p r o p o r t e d to

guide f u t u r e curriculum efforts.
S e v e n M a j o r C o n c e p t u a l Schemes:

66T h o m a s R. Tanner, "The Science C u r r i c u l u m :
Unfinished
B u s i n e s s for an U n f i n i s h e d Country," Phi D e l t a K a p p a n , L, No.
7 (March 1970), p. 353.

44

I. A l l m a t t e r is composed of units called fundamental
particles; u n d e r certain conditio ns t h e s e particles
can be t r a n s f o r m e d into e n e r g y and v i c e versa.
II.

M a t t e r e x i s t s in the f o r m of units w h i c h can be
cl ass ifi ed in h i e r a r c h i e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l levels.

III. The b e h a v i o r o f matter in th e universe c a n be
de scr ibe d o n a s t a t i s t i c a l basis.
IV.

V.

VI.

Units of m a t t e r interact.
T h e bases o f all o rdi nar y
in ter act ion s a r e electromagnetic, gravitat ion al, a n d
nuclear forces.
All i n t e r a c t i n g units o f m a t t e r tend t o w a r d equi­
librium s t a t e s in w h i c h t h e energy c o n t e n t (enthalpy)
is a m i n i m u m and the e n e r g y d i s t r i b u t i o n (entropy) is
m o s t random.
In the p r o c e s s of a t t a i n i n g equilibrium,
energy t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s or m a t t e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s or
m a t t e r - e n e r g y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s occur.
Nevertheless,
the sum of e n e r g y and m a t t e r in the u n i v e r s e remains
constant.
One of t h e forms of e n e r g y is the m o t i o n of units o f
matter.
S u c h mo t i o n is r e s p o n s i b l e for h e a t and
t e m p e r a t u r e a n d for the s t a t e s of m a t t e r :
solid,
liquid, a nd gaseous.

VII. A l l m a t t e r e xis ts in t i m e a n d space, a n d since i n t e r ­
actions o c c u r among its units, matter is subject in
some d e g r e e to changes w i t h time.
S u c h changes m a y
occur at v a r i o u s rates a n d in various patterns.
F ive Major Items

in the P r o c e s s of Science:

I. Science p r o c e e d s on the assumption, b a s e d on c e n t u r ­
ies of experience, th at t h e universe is not^cap ricious.
II.

S c i e nti fic k n o w l e d g e is b a s e d on o b s e r v a t i o n s of
samples o f m a t t e r that a r e ac ces sib le to public
i n v e s t i g a t i o n in c o n t r a s t to purely p r i v a t e in spe c­
tion.

III.

S cie nce p r o c e e d s in a p i e c e m e a l manner, even though
it also a i m s at a c h i e v i n g a systema tic an d c o m p r e ­
h e nsi ve u n d e r s t a n d i n g of v a r i o u s s e c t o r s or aspects
of nature.

IV. Science is not, and w i l l pro bab ly n e v e r be, a fin­
ished enterprise, and t h e r e remains v e r y m u c h m o r e
to b e d i s c o v e r e d about h o w things in t h e univers e
b e h a v e a n d h o w they are interrelated.

V. M e a s u r e m e n t is an i m p o r t a n t feature of m o s t b ran c h e s
of m o d e r n s c i e n c e b e c a u s e the f o r m u l a t i o n as w e l l as
the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of laws a r e f a c i l i t a t e d th r o u g h
the d e v e l o p m e n t of q u a n t i t a t i v e d i s t i n c t i o n s . 67
T h e s e concerns w e r e r e - e n f o r c e d b y the i s s u a n c e of sc ience
goals as e x p r e s s e d

in the N STA p o s i t i o n s t a t e m e n t on School

S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n for the 7 0 * s .68
gested set of c o n c e p t u a l schemes

These,

then,

and processes

wer e a sug­
int end ed to

p e r m e a t e the e n t i r e sci ence e x p e r i e n c e of s t u d e n t s
their school

lives.

thr oug h o u t

It was not r e c o m m e n d e d that o n e accept

them b l i n d l y as t he only w o r t h w h i l e co nce ptu al schemes.
Glass,

r e f e r r i n g to these schemes,

stated

"they m a y

indeed

su p p l y an a d m i r a b l e basis for th e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the study
of physics,

and p o s s i b l y also of c h e m i s t r y - - a l t h o u g h h e r e I

b e g i n to h ave s o m e doubt;

but as a bas is

study of the b i o l o g i c a l sciences
ar e pos iti v e l y h a r m f u l . " * 9
w h o pre par ed the statements,

for o r g a n i z i n g the

they are not h e l p f u l — they

In rebuttal,

S h a m o s , o n e of those

a c c u s e d Glass,

a biolo gis t,

of

"d isc ipl ina ry b i a s . " 70

67Th e o r v Into A c t i o n ... in S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m D e v e l o p ­
m e n t , (Washington, D.C.:
National Science Teachers Associa­
tion, 1964), pp. 20, 21.
6BSchool S c i e n c e Edu ca t i o n for the 7 0 ' s (Washington,
N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e T e a c h e r s Association, 1970).

D.C

69B entley Glass, "Theory into A c t i o n - - A Critique, *' The
S c i e n c e T e a c h e r , X X X I I (May, 1965), p. 29.
70M. H. Shamos, "The R o l e of M a j o r C o n c e p t u a l Sc hem es in
S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n , " T h e S c i e n c e T e a c h e r , XXXIII, No. 1 (1966)
pp. 27-30.

46

D e v e l o p i n g a Theory for S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m
Improvement
S c i e n c e c u r r i c u l a are not p e r m a n e n t n or s h o u l d they
n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e a long life.
They are c o n s t a n t l y d i s ­
r u p t e d b y a c h a n g i n g society, by their o w n inadequacies,
an d b y new d e v e l o p m e n t s w i t h i n the d i s c i p l i n e s they
r e p r e s e n t .71
W h e n the s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m of t h e fifties w a s
examined,

it was f o u n d m o s t p r e s s u r e s

came fro m scientists.

P r a c t i c a l l y none of t h e s e p r o f e s s i o n a l s was of

the o p i n i o n

that the p r e - 1 9 6 0 s c i e n c e c o u r s e s w e r e the v e r y b e s t that
could b e devised.

T h e y c r i t i c i z e d p r e v i o u s p r a c t i c e as r e p a i r

of c u r r i c u l u m b r e a k d o w n s b y c o r r e c t i n g the i s o l a t e d defects.
Thus c r i t i c s of the sc h o o l s w h o s e t rai nin g w a s

in sci e n c e

b e c a m e t he e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h e r s of the n e w curricula.
S i n c e the new s c i e n c e p h i l o s o p h e r w as a s p e c i a l i s t in
his

field,

an emp hasis w as p l a c e d on t e a c h i n g of s c i e n c e

high s c h o o l as a r e f l e c t i o n of
scientists.

its na t u r e as

This w a s o n e of the rea s o n s

it w a s k n o w n

in
to

the r e f o r m m o v e m e n t

was l a b e l e d a “d i s c i p l i n e - c e n t e r e d approach."
O n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a d i s c i p l i n e is the co n c e p t u a l
s t r u c t u r e i d e n t i f y i n g the k n o w l e d g e of w h i c h it is c o m ­
posed.
D i s c i p l i n e s a l s o h a v e p a r t i c u l a r m o d e s of
inquiry, s pecial w a y s of g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and p r o ­
c e s s i n g it into data.
T h e s e inq uiry p r o c e s s e s are n o t
e x a c t l y the same for al l sciences....
T h e sc i e n t i s t ' s
p o i n t of view on c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t is q u i t e clear:
a h i g h school c o u r s e s h o u l d b e a m i r r o r i m a g e of a
s c i e n c e discipline, w i t h r e g a r d to b o t h its c o n c e p t u a l
s t r u c t u r e and its p a t t e r n of i n q u i r y . 72

7l P a u l D e H a r t Hurd,
School S c i e n c e (Chicago:
7 2I b i d ., p.

16.

N e w D i r e c t i o n s in T e a c h i n g S e c o n d a r y
R a n d M c N a l l y Company, 1969), p. 12.

47

Hill,

w h e n w r i t i n g about e l e m e n t a r y science,

stated

that:
T h e pur p o s e of l e a r n i n g is to a s s i s t b o y s and gi rls to
b u i l d skills and con cep ts w h i c h w i l l en able the m to
co pe m o r e e f f e c t u a l l y this year, this month, this d a y
of their lives w i t h objects, forces, and events w h i c h
c o m p r i s e their environment.
The science skills—
observation, m e a s u rem ent , c las sification, inference,
a n d so o n — can b e t r a n s l a t e d into i m m e d i a t e b e h a v i o r
b y t he child as h e a t t e m p t s to u n d e r s t a n d the p h e n o m e n a
o f s cience e n c o u n t e r e d in h i s e n v i r o n m e n t - 73
T h o s e involved
question,

in c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m w e r e faced w i t h

"What does

the

it take to p r o v i d e a v a l i d p i c t u r e of

s c i e n c e that m i g h t h a v e la s t i n g p u r p o s e for the learner?**
Part of the answer w a s

supplied b y considering

ti ve s i d e of science.

This i n c l u d e d

sc he m e s

mental

the g r e a t c o n c e p t u a l

of s c i e n c e as r e l a t e d to knowledge,

generalizations which
inform ati on

the s u b s t a n ­

"those m a j o r

appear to b e best s u i t e d to the e n v i r o n ­

i n p u t at the p r e s e n t t ime and w h i c h seem

to h a v e the g r e a t e s t pow er of a s s i m i l a t i o n of i ncoming i n f o r ­
mation."74
s c h e m e is:

A m o r e d e f i n i t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n for co nce ptu al
Conceptual

schemes a r e s t r u c t u r a l systems

in

s c i e n c e that a c c o m m o d a t e a g r e a t m a n y c onc ept s or p r o c e s s e s
in an o r g a n i z e d m a n n e r A m a j o r p a r t of the c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m e r ' s p o s i t i o n c o n ­
s i s t e d o f h a v i n g y o u n g p e o p l e u n d e r s t a n d the co n c e p t u a l
c o m p o n e n t s of the v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s of science.

73K a t h e r i n e E. Hill, "Sc i e n c e for C h i l d r e n — Why?"
S c i e n c e a n d C h i l d r e n , III, No. 8 (May, 1966), p. 11.
74J. W. G e o r g e Ivany, " P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s p e c t s of S t r u c t u r e
o f Sci en c e , " S c i e n c e T e a c h e r , XXXIII, No. 5 (May, 1966), p. 37.

48

T he v e r y n a t u r e of a d i s c i p l i n e is that it is an
o r g a n i z a t i o n of knowledge, a nd its s i g n i f i c a n t concepts,
principles, c o n c e p t u a l schemes, l a w s and the ori es can
b e i d e n t i f i e d . 75
A n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of the n e w s c i e n c e w a s
m e n t around t h e

" str uc t u r e of science."

its d e v e l o p ­

Structure referred

to the c o n c e p t u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e and in q u i r y
p r o c es ses

that g a v e r i s e to it.

K n o w l e d g e h a s a structure, a hiera rch y, in w h i c h some
of w h a t is k n o w n is m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t th an the rest....
The task of the c u r r i c u l u m m a k e r ... is to g i v e the
student a g r a s p of this u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e so that
he m a y b e s a v e d from ... clutter.
Th e s t r u c t u r e of k n o w l e d g e can a i d in the c o n s t r u c t i o n
of a c u r r i c u l u m b e c a u s e it can g u i d e t he o r g a n i z a t i o n
of k n o w l e d g e for l e a r n i n g . 77
W h e n a s u f f i c i e n t number of c o n n e c t i o n s h a v e b e e n e s ­
t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n conc ept s and r e a l i t y and among d i f ­
ferent concepts, w e h a v e a c u r r i c u l u m structure.
The
we b of c o n c e p t s and co n n e c t i o n s m u s t fit into some
kind of c o h e r e n t p a t t e r n . 78
The task w a s o n e of c o n v e r t i n g the m o r e p o w e r f u l

ideas

of science into o p t i m a l units of i n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h a b e g i n n e r
co u l d learn a n d w h i c h at t he sa me t i m e w e r e m e a n i n g f u l units
in terms of science.

7 5Hurd,

ojD. cit.,

B run er s u g g e s t e d Chat

"we s h o u l d cut

p. 38.

76J e r o m e S. Bruner, "Liberal E d u c a t i o n for A l l Y o u t h s , "
Th e S ci e n c e T e a c h e r , XXXII, No. 8 (November, 1965), p. 20.
77R o n a l d J. Raven, "Toward a P h i l o s o p h i c a l B asi s for
Selecting Science Curriculum C o n t e n t , " Science Education,
LIV, No. 2 (1970), p. 97.
7 8I b i d .. p.

103.

49

d o w n d r a s t i c a l l y on the c o v e r a g e in wh at w e

t e a c h to any o n e

c h i l d and c o n c e n t r a t e i nstead u p o n a m u l t i p l e ch o i c e to a
few b a s i c

ideas,

attitudes,

and skills

in o r d e r

that w e k e e p

a l i v e a s u s t a i n e d s a t i s f a c t i o n in mastery.'179
On e m e a n s

for i mpl e m e n t i n g this idea w a s

to s elect a

small nu mber o f signific ant c o n c e p t u a l schemes,
g i v e c o h e r e n c e and unity to a course,
po rting c o n c e p t s

u se these to

an d t h e n se lect s u p ­

for each of th e schemes.

T h e con cepts

se lec ted for t e a c h i n g w ere t h o s e w i t h the g r e a t e s t po ten t i a l
for e x p l a i n i n g an d inferring.
therefore,

T h e new s c i e n c e courses,

r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n c e p t u a l system w i t h a p r e d e s i g n e d

se t of s e q u e n t i a l

learning m a t e r i a l s

ser v i n g to g ive a logical

an d c o h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e to th e c o u r s e in terms of a particular
s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e . 00
Equally

important to t h e c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m e r s was the

m e t h o d i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

science.

cesses g i v i n g r i s e

to the c o n c e p t s of

b y w h i c h they w e r e

corroborated.

T h e s e w e r e the p r o ­
sci e n c e and the m e a n s

Th e p r o c e s s e s of inquiry h e l p usto l e a r n h o w the k n o w l ­
edge o f sc i e n c e is obtained.
Its p a r a m e t e r s and p r o b ­
abilities, and w h a t it m e a n s t o d a y . ...
F or each of thei
sc ien ces t h e r e are m e t h o d s of inquiry a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n
by w h i c h the field is organized, d i s c o v e r i e s made,
p r o b l e m s attacked, and t he a c c u m u l a t e d k n o w l e d g e b r o u g h t
into o r d e r through m o d e l s an d theories.
In c o n s i d e r i n g
su b j e c t m a t t e r for s c i e n c e courses it is e sse nti al to
c h o o s e t opics that e x e m p l i f y s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d s of
in qui ry a nd allow the e x e r c i s e of them....
The inquiry
skills b e s t su ited for t e a c h i n g s g i e n c e are those w h i c h

79Bruner,
80Hurd,

"Liberal E d u c a t i o n for A l l Y o u t h s , "

op.

cit.,

pp.

72,

73.

loc. cit.

50

are g e n e r a l i z a b l e and w i d e l y
ing and p r o b l e m s o l v i n g . 61
Gagne h e l d tha t pr oces ses
of

th e education

a p p l i c a b l e for b o t h l e a r n ­

s h o u l d be ta u g h t at all le v e l s

end eav or si n c e the y w e r e so i m p o r t a n t

for

an a d u l t h u m a n to h a v e even if h e never s t u d i e d m u c h science
in

a formal w a y . 02

be

learned as a bstractions,

with

content.

H e d e c l a r e d t h a t such p r o c e s s e s could not
b u t m u s t b e l e a r n e d as one

deals

A s G a g n e looked at t he s p e c t r u m of science

e d u c a t i o n from k i n d e r g a r t e n

t hro u g h tw elf th grade,

h e stated:

... it is p e r f e c t l y e v i d e n t th at it [curriculum] m u s t
contain m o r e and m o r e h i g h o r g a n i z e d s u b s t a n c e as it
goes along.
... ho wever o n e d ecides to b e g i n the l e a r n ­
ing of science, there comes a t i m e d u r i n g t h e s e gr ade s
wh en on e w a n t s t he students to learn in s o m e detail the
or gan ize d t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s of the sciences,
physics, chemistry, biology, e t c . , or at least some p o r ­
tions of t h e m . 03
G a g n e held that

“s y s t e m a t i c

'content*

learning"

s hould b e g i n

at se ven th g r a d e . 84
At k i n s t a t e d that p r o c e s s e s a re best l e a r n e d in a v a r i e t y
of pur pos efu l c o n t e x t

in w h i c h t he learner

b r o a d e r c o g n i t i v e goals.

8 l Ibid.,

pp.

39,

is a i m i n g toward

He c o n c l u d e d that th e b e s t wa y to

40.

e2Robert M. Gagne^ "Process in S c i e n c e for the E l e m e n t a r y
G r a d e s , " R e p r i n t from the p r o c e e d i n g of the S i x t e e n t h A n n u a l
C o n v e n t i o n of th e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e T e a c h e r s Association,
Washington, D.C., E l e m e n t a r y E d u c a t i o n for the S e v e n t i e s ,
e d i t e d by W i l l i a m W. Joyce, R o b e r t Oana, and W. R o b e r t H o u s t o n
(New York:
Holt, R i n e h a r t and Winston, Inc., 1970), p. 169.
83 I b i d .. p.

167.

04 I b i d .. p.

169.

51

teach p r o c e s s skills w a s not to aim at th em directly,
rather

but

to u s e the p r o c e s s e s o f s c i e n c e w h i l e s e e k i n g to

build p r i n c i p l e s of s c i e n c e c o n t e n t . 85
H u r d , 86 w h i l e t h i n k i n g of the p r o c e s s e s of s c i e n c e as
compone nts of c o n c e p t u a l

schemes,

s t a t e d that this m e a n t

there w e r e ce rta in s k i l l s and values w h i c h u n d e r g i r d the
sc ien t i f i c e n t e r p r i s e r e g a r d l e s s of t he discipline.
b e l i e v e d sci enc e c o u l d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from other
in s chool m o r e b y its m e t h o d o l o g i e s
He c o n c l u d e d that it w a s
worthy,

He
subjects

t h a n its s u b j e c t matter.

just as feasible,

and p o s s i b l y m o r e

to c o n s t r u c t t h e cu rri cul um h i e r a r c h y a r o u n d

pr oce sse s tha n u p o n a p a t t e r n of concept.
cepts an d p r o c e s s e s go h a n d in h a n d

However,

inquiry
as c o n ­

it w o u l d b e p e d o g o g i c a l l y

sound to pl an the s y s t e m a t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n of the c u r r i c u l u m
ar ound b o t h .
In such a c u r r i c u l a r st ruc tur e o n e w o u l d u n d e r t a k e a
major

e f f o r t to d e v e l o p a con cep tua l

interdependence repre­

senting a v a l i d p i c t u r e of the d i s c i p l i n e

involved.

Con c e p t s

and p r o c e s s e s w o u l d e x i s t as part o f a r e f e r e n c e p a t t e r n and
c o nce p t u a l scheme,

so an iirfeegr a ted w e b w o u l d d e v e l o p in

which any fr agment of knowledge,

or

skill,

had r e l e v a n c e to

the total design.

85J. M y r o n Atkin, " ’P r o c e s s 1 in S c i e n c e Ed ucation."
R e p r i n t from the p r o c e e d i n g s of the S i x t e e n t h A n n u a l C o n v e n ­
tion o f th e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e T e a c h e r s Associ ati on, Washington,
D. C., E l e m e n t a r y E d u c a t i o n for the S e v e n t i e s , o p . c i t ., p.
164.
eeHurd,

o p . c i t ., pp.

78,

79.

52

H u r d d e s c r i b e d c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s to the use of

con­

c e p t u a l schemes in c u r r i c u l u m d eve lop men t.
1. T h e y r e p r e s e n t e d the m a j o r l ong- ter m goals of i n s t r u c ­
tion and h e l p e d p r o v i d e t he v e r t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of
the curriculum;
2. A student's u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a c o n c e p t u a l s c h e m e w o u l d
increase as h e a d v a n c e d from o n e s c i e n c e to a n o t h e r ;
3. C o n c e p t i o n a l s chemes p r o v i d e d an e x c e l l e n t c r i t e r i a
for s e l e c t i o n o f c o n c e p t s a nd inquiry skills;
4. C o n c e p t u a l sch e m e s p r o v i d e d a f r a m ew ork and m a p for
ef fec tiv e s c i e n c e te achi ng b u t did not p r e s c r i b e the
path;
5. C onc ept ual s ch e m e s r e p r e s e n t e d the m o s t s t a b l e unit of
sc ien tif ic knowl edg e; and
6. They h a d a c u m u l a t i v e quality,
w i t h new d i s c o v e r i e s . 8

taking on a d d e d m e a n i n g

H i s t o r y of Earth S c i e n c e
Earth sc ience t o d a y is e x p e r i e n c i n g a g r o w t h u n m a t c h e d
b y any of the o t h e r sci enc es ta u g h t in the s e c o n d a r y
schools of the nation.
This g r o w t h ha s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d
pr ima r i l y to d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n of st udents w i t h g e n e r a l
s c i e n c e in t he junior and sen ior h igh schools.
This d i s ­
satisfaction, in turn, is t r a c e d to im pro ved e l e m e n t a r y
sc ien ce c u r r i c u l a w h i c h m a k e n i n t h gr a d e g e n e r a l science
seem r e d u n d a n t to the student.
N a t i o n wide, th e incre ase
in earth s c i e n c e has g e n e r a l l y b e e n at the e x p e n s e of
se con d a r y g e n e r a l s c i e n c e . 88
Th e first p u b l i c h i g h school of the nation,
in B o s t o n in 1821,
youths

g a v e as its a v o w e d p u r p o s e

established

(to)

"qualify

to fill u s e f u l l y a nd r e s p e c t f u l l y m a n y of t h o s e stations.

ffTHurd,

op.

cit.,

pp.

89,

90.

8eJ ames R. Orgren, "Earth Science:
T h e n and Now,"
J o u r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n . XVII, No. 5 (December,
p. 179.

1969),

53

b o t h p u b l i c and private,
Th e U n i t e d States,

in w h i c h h e m a y be p l a c e d . 1'89

in those early y e a r s as a n e w nation,

just b e g i n n i n g to feel the initial
ambitions.

It wa s natural,

frontiers,

for a n a t i o n wi th a d v a n c i n g

and a s t r o n o m e r s w e r e

for l e a r n i n g theory,

geographers,

i n c l u d e d in the c u r r i c u l a . 90

Since this wa s the p e r i o d in w h i c h
the b a s i s

impact of n a t i o n goals and

that s u b j e c t s useful to surveyors,

geologists,

was

"mental d i s c i p l i n e "

formed

s u b j e c t s we re a l s o c ho s e n on

the b a s i s of their c o n t r i b u t i o n to im po s i n g such discipline.
D u r i n g the latter

1800's the l a b o r a t o r y m e t h o d b e g a n to

ga in a c c e p t a n c e as the o n l y proper w a y
Si nce f i e l d studies,
never c a u g h t on,

as a l a b o r a t o r y m e t h o d for h i g h schools,

g e o l o g y and a s t r o n o m y w ere set

c a t e g o r y of lecture subjects.
became

to teach science.

into the

T h e i r r e p l a c e m e n t b y physics

i n e v i t a b l e . 91

However,

p h y s i c a l g e o g r aph y h a d b een e s t a b l i s h e d in the

ninth g r a d e c u r r i c u l u m and r e m a i n e d as part of the r e c o m m e n d a ­
tion of the C o m m i t t e e of T e n . 92

V a r i o u s a tte mpt s w e r e m a d e

to c h a n g e the p rev iou s c onc ept of p h y s i c a l g e o g r a p h y as

89J o h n Elbert Stout, The D e v e l o p m e n t of H i g h School C u r ­
ricula in the N o r t h - C e n t r a l States from 186 0-1 918 (Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of Chi c a g o Press, 1921), p. 322.
9°Orgren,
9lStout,

o p . c i t ., p.
0 £.

cit.,

p.

180.
161.

92R e p o r t of th e C o m m i t t e e o f T e n on S e c o n d a r y School
Studies, o p . cit.

54

"place" or

"sailor geo gra phy "

to a casual s t u d y . 9 3 '94

The

C o m m i t t e e of T e n ga ve this k i n d of p h y s i c a l g e o g r a p h y its
p r e s t i g e o u s s u p p o r t . 95

T e a c h e r s of that era w e r e too w e a k

in t he sciences to teach the ne w c u r r i c u l u m as designed,

and

so, b y 1910 g e o g r a p h y h a d d e g e n e r a t e d to n o t h i n g m o r e tha n
m e m o r i z a t i o n of a d i f f e r e n t kind;

land forms rather than

places.
R e c o g n i t i o n of the w o r k o f p e w e y 9 6 * 97 an d o t h e r s

fo c u s e d

a t t e n t i o n of c u r r i c u l u m b u i l d e r s on the s c h o o l ' s r e s p o n s i ­
b i l i t y to d e v e l o p the power of critical t h i n k i n g and not
m e r e l y memory.

In s c i e n c e this wa s i n t e r p r e t e d as less e m p h a ­

sis on w hat w a s

to b e le arned and m o r e s t r e s s on h ow o n e

a c h i e v e d s c i e n t i f i c knowledge.

Physical g e o g r a p h y s t o o d

in

an e spe cia lly v u l n e r a b l e p o s i t i o n due to its gr a d e p l a c e m e n t
a n d its i ntr ins ic w e a k n ess es.

A general s c i e n c e was p r o m o t e d

as an ideal i n t r o d u c t i o n to h i g h school science.
to ex ami ne to p i c s
sciences.

in biology,

chemistry,

It p r o m i s e d

p h y s i c s - - a l l the

It p r o m i s e d to b e m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the m e t h o d

93Zonia Bober, "The S c o p e of G e o g r a p h y , " J our nal of
G e o g r a p h y . IV (1905), pp. 386-396.
94R. H. Whitbeck, "Thirty Years of G e o g r a p h y in the
U n i t e d States, " J o u r n a l of G e o g r a p h y . XX, No. 4 (1921), p.
124.
95 I b i d .. p.

124.

96John Dewey,
M a c m il lan , 1938).

E x p e r i e n c e and E d u c a t i o n

(London:

97Ar t h u r G. Wirth, J o h n D e w e y as E d u c a t o r
J o h n W i l e y and Sons, Inc., 1966), pp. 72-87.

Collier -

(New York:

55

of sc i e n c e and p l a c e m u c h
to b e m e m o r i z e d . 98

less a t t e n t i o n to lists of facts

T h e m o v e m e n t ca u g h t on and g a i n e d p r o m i ­

n e n c e as the ninth g r a d e s c i e n c e o f f e r i n g
schools

in the n a t i o n ' s h i g h

t hro ugh the first h a l f of the t w e n t i e t h century.

T h e tu rni ng p o i n t

in th e r e v i v a l of earth s ci e n c e b e g a n

in 1949 w h e n the N ew Y o r k D e p a r t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n
an ea rth sci enc e c o u r s e for g i f t e d students.

This

w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d to c o m p e n s a t e for

inagurated
course,

in div idu al

d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h r e s p e c t to st ude nt s c i e n c e int er e s t s and
aptitudes,

p ro v e d so s u c c e s s f u l

that the plan w a s soon a d o p t e d

b y s cho ols t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e . "

T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of an

earth sci e n c e co u r s e in P e n n s y l v a n i a m a r k e d the b e g i n n i n g of
w i d e s p r e a d exp ans ion of such courses ac ross
H e l l e r 101 st a t e d that d e c i s i o n s

the n a t i o n . 100

to include earth

sci enc e

in the c u r r i c u l u m h a d b e e n b a s e d on three p r i m a r y c o n s i d e r a ­
tions:

(1) W i t h the ad v e n t of the s p a c e age,

i m p o r t a n t that all f u t u r e c iti zen s

it was d e e m e d

i n c r e a s e their u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f th e earth on w h i c h t h e y lived and the r e a l m of s p a c e to
which

their lives w o u l d b e i n c r e a s i n g l y oriented.

(2) W i t h

t h e i n c r e a s e in s c i e n c e t e a c h i n g in the e l e m e n t a r y grades

98Whitbeck,

ojd.

c i t . , p.

it

182.

" W i l l i a m H. M a t t h e w s III, "Cu rre nt Status of E a r t h
S c i e n c e in S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s , " J o u r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a ­
t i o n . XII, No. 2 (June, 1964), p. 60.
100 I b i d .. p. 60.
101R o b e r t L. Heller, "The Earth S ci e n c e C u r r i c u l u m
Project, '* J o u r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n , XII, No. 2 (June,
1964), p. 65.

56

should b e c o m e p o s s i b l e to c o m p l e t e g e n e r a l s cie nce w o r k
grades se ven a n d eight.
tr ained geologists,
raphers,

(3) W i t h t he g r o w i n g n e e d for well-

m e t e r o l o g i s t s , astronomers,

A n a n a l y s i s of t r a d i t i o n a l c o u r s e s

in s e c o n d a r y

school.

in p h y s i c a l and

h i s t o r i c a l g e o l o g y s howed two m a j o r weakness es:

(1)

These

e m p h a s i z e d the d e s c r i p t i v e and t a x o n o m i c a s p e c t s of

subject m a t t e r and g e n e r a l l y
principles,
(2)

and o c e a n o g ­

it w as v i t a l to i n t r o d u c e these fields to p o t e nt ial

future s c i e n t i s t s w h i l e they w e r e still

courses

in

f a i l e d to e m p h a s i z e concepts,

and the c h a l l e n g e of u n s o l v e d problems;

there was a g eneral

provocative exercises

and

fa ilure to p r e s e n t s t i m u l a t i n g and

for the

l a b o r a t o r y . 102

H e l l e r 103 st a t e d a further o b s e r v a t i o n that r e l a t e d to
u t i l i z a t i o n of e a r t h sci enc e in the curriculum.
In the p r o c e s s of r e d i s c o v e r i n g t he s eco nda ry school,
biologists, chemists, and p h y s i c i s t s also d i s c o v e r e d
e a r t h s c i e n c e . ...
S c i e n t i s t s and ed uca tor s r e c o g n i z e d
... that earth s c i e n c e c o u l d s e r v e m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y
to d e m o n s t r a t e the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of all science.
N a m o w i t z 104
oceanography,

sh o w e d "how chemistry,

astronomy,

physics,

and meteorology were

climatology,

i n t e g r a t e d by

102Roy J. Chalmer, ’'Let's T e a c h G e o l o g y as the S c i e n c e
of the E a r t h , " Jou r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n , XIV, No. 1
(January, 1964), p. 48.
103Heller,

"ESCP,* l o c . c i t .

104S a m u e l N. Namowitz, "The T r a d i t i o n a l A p p r o a c h to Earth
Science," J o u r n a l o f G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n . XVI, No. 5
(December, 1968), p. 172.

57

th e concept of earth science.

“Earth s c i e n c e is by any

a p p r o a c h i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y , e lse it w o u l d not be earth
s c i e n c e ."
H o l m e s 105

r e g a r d e d the g e o l o g i c s cie nce s as the area

t h r o u g h w h i c h the other p h y s i c a l sciences c o u l d m o s t e f f e c ­
ti v e l y serve the social sciences,

the arts,

an d the h u m a n ­

ities .
B a c k g r o u n d to E a r t h Sc ience Cu r r i c u l u m
P r o j e c t (ESCP)
C o n f r o n t e d w i t h the a l m o s t e x p l o s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t of
ea rth science as a sec on d a r y s chool s c i e n c e course,
A m e r i c a n G e o l o g i c a l Institute,
mittee,

decided,

in 1958,

through

the

its E d u c a t i o n a l C o m ­

that up-to-date resource materials

h a d to be d e v e l o p e d for use

in these c o u r s e s . 106

s i d e r a b l e e d i t o r i a l revision,

After con­

G e o l o g y and E a r t h S c i e n c e

S o u r c e b o o k for E l e m e n t a r y an d S e c o n d a r y Sc h o o l s was

pub­

li s h e d in 1 9 6 2 . 107
Advisability
w a s also seen.

for d e v e l o p m e n t of an e n t i r e l y ne w p r o g r a m

N e e d was g e n e r a t e d by surveys

d i c t e d a rapid gr o w t h
b e t w e e n 1962 and 1970.

that p r e ­

in ear th science c ourse o f f e r i n g s
It w a s

e sti mat ed that the num ber of

105C h a u n c e y D. Holmes, “G e o l o g y and L i b e r a l E ducation,'1
J o u r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n , XVII, No. 4 (October, 1969),
p. 144.
106"History of ESCP," E S C P N e w s l e t t e r . N L - 1
p.

(1963),

2.

107Robert L. Heller, G e o l o g y and E a r t h S c i e n c e S o u r c e ­
b o o k for E l e m e n t a r y and S e c o n d a r y Sc hools (New York:
Holt,
R i n e h a r t and Winston, Inc., 1962).

58

students
190,000

e n r o l l e d in an e a r t h science c o u r s e w o u l d grow from
in 1962-1963 to as m u c h as 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 by 1 9 7 0 . 100

A p r o p o s a l to i n i t i a t e a major c o u r s e - c o n t e n t i m p r o v e m e n t
program w a s

a p p r o v e d by t h e Ex ecu tiv e C o m m i t t e e of the A m e r i ­

can G e o l o g i c a l

Institute

(AGI)

N a tio nal S c i e n c e Founda tion .
phase of th e project,
Project

(ESCP),

in 1962 a n d su bmi tte d to t h e
Funds to s u p p o r t the initial

c a l l e d the Earth S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m

wer e g r a n t e d by the F o u n d a t i o n

in 1 9 6 3 . 109

T h e p r o j e c t h a d its h e a d q u a r t e r s at the U n i v e r s i t y of
Colorado,

Boulder,

R o b e r t L.

Heller,

Colorado,
on l e a v e

and was u n d e r

the d i r e c t i o n of

from the U n i v e r s i t y of Min nes ota ,

Duluth.
Th e a u t h o r s 110 h e l d t h a t there was no dis tin ct d i s c i p l i n e
k n o w n as e a r t h science,

b u t rather,

t h e r e w e r e a number of

fields of s c i e n c e that h a d c o m e to focus o n p a r t i cul ar as p e c t s
of the n a t u r a l earth,

its processes,

a nd

T h e y s t a t e d tha t des pit e specialization,

its environments.
m a n y threads,

in s ubj ect m a t t e r and m e t h o d of investigation,
bind the s e v e r a l
the earth

itself.

fields together.

both

continued to

The c e m e n t i n g agent was

U s i n g th e seven c o n c e p t u a l schemes

10eR o b e r t C. Stevenson, "’The E art h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m
Project, Its Organization, Objectives, a n d P h i l o s o p h y , "
T h e S c i e n c e T e a c h e r , XXXI, No. 2 (1964), p. 21.
109R o b e r t L. Heller,
o p . c i t . , p . 64.

"Ea rth S cie nce C u r r i c u l u m Pjroject, "

110E a r t h Science C u r r i c u l u m Project, T e a c h e r 's G u i d e - I n v e s t i q a t i n g the E a r t h , Pa rt 1 and 2 (Boston:
Houghton
M i f f l i n Company, 1967), p. 3.

59

p r e p a r e d by the N a t i o n a l Sc ien ce T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n
as a guide,

(1966)111

t he C o m m i t t e e pre sen ted a d i a g r a m p i c t u r i n g a

c o n t i n u u m of b a s i c c o n c e p t s and p r i n c i p l e s that e n c o m p a s s e d
t h e entire r e a l m of s c i e n c e . ( S e e

T a b l e 2-1,

Th e first ve r s i o n w i t h a s tudent text,
an d t e a c h e r ' s gu ide w a s

com ple ted

p a g e 60).

l a b o r a t o r y manual,

in t h e summer of

1964 during

an eight w e e k w r i t i n g c o n f e r e n c e by f o r t y - o n e earth s c i e nt ist s
(astronomers,

geologists,

oc ean ographers,

p h y s i c a l geographers,

sc ien ce educators,

m ete or o l o g i s t s ,

a n d soil s c i e n t i s t s ) ,

an d secondary s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . 113

l i mi n a r y m a t e r i a l s w e r e
rooms,

geophysicists,

field tested

The pre­

in over 400 t r i a l c l a s s ­

e v a l u a t e d and r e v i s e d twice d u r i n g the two y e a r

1964-1965.

In the s p r i n g of 1967 th e

first c o m m e r c i a l ve rsion

of E S C P 's I n v e s t i g a t i n g the Earth b e c a m e available.

This

v e r s i o n p r e s e n t e d a s t u d e n t text an d l a b o r a t o r y m a n u a l
b i n e d into a single volume,

p eriod

com­

and a two v o l u m e tea che r g u i d e

wi th u n i t an d final t e s t s . 114
This
inquiry,
d a t a . 115

e x p e r i e n c e o r i e n t a t e d s c i e n c e course e m p h a s i z e d
discovery,

and

in ter p r e t a t i o n of s t u d e n t - o b t a i n e d

S t r e s s e d t h r o u g h o u t the m a t e r i a l s were the

lllS e e page 44
Schemes.
113ESCP,

for

listing of S e v e n Major C o n c e p t u a l

T e a c h e r ’s Guide,

op.

c i t . , p. 2.

113E a r t h Sc i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m Project, I n v e s t i g a t i n g the
E a r t h , T e x t (Boston:
H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n Company, 1967}.
114ESCP,

T e a c h e r 1s G u i d e , o p . c i t .

115 I b i d . , p. 3.

60
T A B L E 2 .1
M A J O R C O N C E P T S OF E A R T H SCIENCE

%

i
3

MOTION

VCtOOT'?

/
%X\
s %
'

T h e inner c i r c l e of this dia g r a m shows that m a j o r c oncepts
o f earth s c i e n c e re l a t e to matter, energy, forces, motion,
space, and time.
T h e s e c o n d circle e mbr ace s the pr inc ipl es
r e l a t e d to ea ch of the concepts.
On the rim of the di a g r a m
ap p e a r the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s d er i v e d from the p r i n c i p l e s in
t h e s econd circle.
T he g o a l of I nve s t i g a t i n g the E a r t h is
to hel p the s t u d e n t at t a i n some u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s e c o n ­
cepts, principles, and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s .

61

i m p o r t a n c e of time,

the i ncom p l e t e n e s s of evidence,

fi cul tie s of e x p e r i m e n t a l ver ification,
s p e c u l a t i v e and t e n t a t i v e con clusions,

the d i f ­

the n e c e s s i t y for
and u n s o l v e d problems

in earth s c i e n c e . 116
Th e ge neral o b j e c t i v e as it r e l a t e d to this

study was

th e d e v e l o p m e n t of u p - t o-d ate t e a c h i n g r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s
us e in s e c o n d a r y school earth s c i e n c e p r o g r a m s . 117
el ements

Th e m a j o r

in the f r a m e w o r k of th e f i n a l ver s i o n w e r e the

h y d r o l o g i c a l cycle and the p e t r o g e n i c cycle.
an i n t e r f a c e w as
cycle.

for

T h e concept of

the prelude to t h e theme of t h e h y d r o l o g i c

In the r o c k cycle stu dent s w e r e taught t h a t a w i d e

r a n g e of pr oce sse s a r e at w o r k . 110
The writers

incorporated i nto

this f r a m e w o r k the f o l l o w ­

ing b a s i c themes as unifying t hreads:
Be h a v i o r a l T h e m e s
(1) S c i e n c e as inquiry.
E x p e r i m e n t a t i o n a n d intuition
are i m p o r t a n t in the e a r t h science, b u t o b s e r v a t i o n
of n a t u r e is the true b a s i s of all k n o w l e d g e .
(2) C o m p r e h e n s i o n of scale.
E a r t h s c i e n t i s t s m ust think
to scale, al tho ugh i l l u s t r a t i o n s of n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a
u s u a l l y in vol ve e n l a r g e m e n t s or red uct ion .
(3) Prediction.
Prediction of future events, processes,
an d r e l a t i o n s h i p s is a g o a l of mo st s c i e n t i f i c
inquiries.

116R obert L. Heller, "The E a r t h Sc ience C u r r i c u l u m
P r o j e c t — A R e p o r t of Progress, ** J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h in S c i e n c e
T e a c h i n g , II, Issue 4 (December, 1964), p. 330.
NL-1
No.

1 1 7 "Object ive s an d P h i l o s o p h y of E S C P , " E S C P N e w s l e t t e r .
(October, 1963), p. 5.
llsR i c h a r d S. Lewis, "ESCP M o v e s Ahead,"
2 (September, 1964), p. 16.

G e o t i m e s . IX,

62

C o n c e p t u a l Themes
(4)
(5)

(6)
(7)
(8)

(9)

U n i v e r s a l i t y o f change.
T h e earth is a d y n a m i c
planet; n o t h i n g about it is static, n o t h i n g really
endures.
F l o w as energy.
U n i v e r s a l i t y of c h a n g e in earth
m a t e r i a l s is a c o n s e q u e n c e o f the r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
energy, an d the 'running down' of the e n e r g y level
of the system.
A d a p t a t i o n to e n v i r o n m e n t a l change.
T h e go al is
equilibrium, a s t a t e of b a l a n c e b e t w e e n o p p o s i n g
forces in an environment.
C o n s e r v a t i o n o f ma ss and energy.
T h e p r o c e s s e s and
changes o b s e r v a b l e on the e a r t h obey a ll the ba sic
laws of the p h y s i c a l universe.
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f components and their r e l a t i o n s h i p s
in space and time.
U n d e r s t a n d i n g any a s p e c t of the
ea r t h re qui res c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the p h y s i c a l and
ch emical n a t u r e of the c o m p o n e n t s and t h e i r r e l a ­
tionships in s p a c e and time.
Uni for mit a r i a n i s m .
The p a s t can be i n t e r p r e t e d only
if o ne u n d e r s t a n d s the present.

H i s t o r i c a l Th eme
(10)

Presentation.
P r e s e n t a t i o n of p r i n c i p l e s and c o n ­
cepts should r e f l e c t the h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of
e a r t h s c i e n c e . 1 1 9 '120

B e h a v i o r a l sc hem es

(1),

major p r o c e s s schemes a n d

(2),

and

(4) t h r o u g h

(3) w e r e c o n s i d e r e d the
(9)

the m a j o r

subject

matter s c h e m e s . 121
T h e 5 94 page s t u d e n t text was o r g a n i z e d
units a n d twenty-six chapters.
contents

is shown in A p p e n d i x A,

As s t a t e d previously,

A d e t a i l e d l i s t i n g of the
page

la bor a t o r y

193.
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s we re

include d in the b o d y o f the student text.
grouped

into three categories:

into four ma jor

Investigations were

(1) T h o s e in w h i c h t he s t u d e n t

119Heller, "The E a r t h Science C u r r i c u l u m Pro ject,"
o p . c i t ., p. 67.
iaoESCP,

T eac her s G u i d e , o p . c i t ., pp.

13lHurd,

op.

c i t . , pp.

79,

85.

3, 4.

63

i n v e s t i g a t e d p r o c e s s e s or m a t e r i a l s of t he na tural w o r l d
di rec t l y ?
st u d e n t

(2)

t h o s e o f a m o r e ab str act n a t u r e in w h i c h the

i n v e s t i g a t e d na t u r a l m a t e r i a l s a nd processes

the u s e of l a b o r a t o r y e q u i p m e n t and instruments;

an d

th rou gh
(3)

those

in w h i c h he e m p l o y e d m o d u l e s and/or d a t a that w e r e p r o v i d e d
by t h e t e a c h e r . 122
T h e T e a c h e r 's G u i d e e m p h a s i z e d t he n e e d for l a b o r a t o r y
t i m e in w h i c h s t u d e n t s w o r k t oge t h e r in small g roups c o l l e c t i n g
data,

a n a l y z i n g results,

inferring.

Major

interpreting

it,

p r e d i c t i n g and

stress wa s given for a d e q u a t e l a b o r a t o r y

e q u i p m e n t as w ell as nee d to visit t h e f i e l d for o n - t h e - s p o t
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .12 3
As a c o n v e n i e n c e for teachers,

l a b o r a t o r y kits w e r e

d e v e l o p e d for m a n y of the investigations.

A v a r i e t y of e n ­

r i c h m e n t m a t e r i a l s such as a R e f e r e n c e S e r i e s , F i e l d G u i d e
S e r i e s , pamphlets,

and a u d i o visual aids w e r e m a d e a v a i l a b l e

to s u p p l e m e n t the c o u r s e . 124

122ESCP,

T e a c h e r ' s G u i d e , o p . c i t . , p. 6.

123Shirley A. Brehm, "General C o n t e n t of the E a r t h
S c i e n c e Program a nd W h e r e Xt Fits into the C u r r i c u l u m , "
m i m e o g r a p h e d w o r k i n g paper p r e p a r e d for E art h S c i e n c e C o m m i t ­
tee, E a r t h S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n in M i c h i g a n (Michigan S t a t e
University, January, 1971), p. 7.
124For listings an d s o u r c e see:
o p . c i t .. pp. 343, 344.

ESCP,

T e a c h e r 1s G u i d e ,

64

A Discussion of Curriculum Evaluation
C u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p e r s a n d e d u c a t o r s are t e m p t e d to dee m p h a s i z e e v a l u a t i o n b e c a u s e of t h e complex a n d s o m e ­
times i l l - d ef ine d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l problems present.
To
do so is a t ragic m i s t a k e indeed.
If tight m e t h o d o l o g y
is impossible, in a g i v e n instance, it does not fo l l o w
that e v a l u a t i o n a t t e m p t s sho uld b e v irt ual ly a bandoned.
E v a l u a t i o n is a s e c o n d a r y a c t i v i t y in the d e v e l o p m e n t
of curricula, bu t still on e w h i c h needs to r e c e i v e a
m a j o r share of a t t e n t i o n ... st a k e s are h i g h . 125
S t u f f l e b e a m d e f i n e d e v a l u a t i o n as
lineating,

obtaining,

"the process of d e ­

an d p r o v i d i n g u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n for

ju dgi ng d e c i s i o n a l t e r n a t i v e s . " 126

W i l e y presented a nar rower

focus w h e n h e stated t h a t " e v a l u a t i o n co nsi sts of t h e c o l l e c ­
t i o n an d use of i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g changes

in p u p i l

b e h a v i o r to m a k e d e c i s i o n s a bout an e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m . " 127
M e h r e n s 128

ide nti f i e d two k i n d s of

evaluation w h e n c o n ­

s i d e r i n g t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s — c u r r i c u l u m e v a l u a t i o n and
st ude nt evaluation.

Th e b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n b etween t h e s e two

w a s th e d e c i s i o n s w h i c h w e r e to be m a d e .

Curriculum

evalua­

t i o n w as c o n s i d e r a b l y bro a d e r than s t u d e n t evaluation.

125J. S t a n l e y Ahmann, "Aspects of C u r r i c u l u m E val uat ion :
A Syn ops i s , " as found in R a l p h W. Tyler, Robert M. Gagne, and
M i c h a e l Scriven, P e r s p e c t i v e s of C u r r i c u l u m E v a l u a t i o n .
o p . c i t ., p. 89.
126D a n i e l L
S t u f f l e b e a m et a l ., Ed u c a t i o n a l E v a l u a t i o n
and D e c i s i o n M a k i n g (Bloomington, Indiana:
Phi D e l t a Kappan,
I n c . , 1971), p. xxv.
127M. C. Wittrock,
I n s t r u c t i o n (New York:
1970), p. 261.

and D a v i d E. Wiley, E v a l u a t i o n of
Holt, R i n e h a r t a nd Winston, I n c . ,

128P r o m a p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w w i t h W i l l i a m A. M e h r e n s ,
P r o f e s s o r o f Education, M i c h i g a n S t a t e University, E a s t
Lansing, Mic hig an, March, 1972.

65

When

c o n s i der ing s t u d e n t p r o g r e s s

c e r n e d wi th s t u d e n t evaluation.

toward goals o n e was c o n ­
Curriculum evaluation

r e l a t e d to such t h i n g s as w h y t h e students g o a l s were,
w e r e not,

achieved;

or

the e v a l u a t i o n of the g o a l s themselves;

t h e nee d to b e p a r t i c u l a r l y a l e r t to u n i n t e n d e d outcomes;
the

impact the c u r r i c u l u m has o n others than t h e students;

o b t a i n i n g m e a s u r e s o f cost ef fec tiv ene ss;
A d i s c u s s i o n o f cur ric u l u m
o n t h e que sti on o f

an d others.

eva lua tio n m i g h t w e l l center

choice of strategies.

A common distinc­

t i o n usually s e p a r a t e s e v a l u a t i o n goals from e v a l u a t i o n roles.
Goals

ar6 a t t e m p t s

t o answer c e r t a i n types of q u e s t i o n s w i t h

r e g a r d to e d u c a t i o n a l
cern

instruments.

T h e s e q u e s t i o n s m ay c o n ­

the degree to w h i c h one i n s t r u c t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t p e r ­

forms better t h a n another,

or h o w w e l l

it p e r f o r m s w i t h r e g a r d

to spe ci f i e d cri teria.
Ev alu ati on r o l e s are q u i t e variable.
to c o n t rib ute to t h e process of

The role might be

t he d e v e l o p m e n t of a c u r r i c u ­

lum or to the s e l f - i m p r o v e m e n t o f a teacher;

or

it m i g h t b e

a i m e d at the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e over-all q u a l i t y of an
instructional

i n s t r u m e n t . 119

Perhaps t he b e s t way to e x a m i n e and i l l u s t r a t e e v a l u a t i o n
roles

is t hro ugh

further s ubd ivi sio n.

As s t a t e d

in Chapter

S c r i v e n 130 c a t e g o r i z e d c u r r i c u l u m eva lua t i o n r o l e s as f o r m a ­
t i v e and summative.

129Ahmann,
13°Scriven,
39 - 8 3 .

as
as

F o r m a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n p r o v i d e d a means

found in T y l e r et a l . , op.
found in T y l e r

et al.,

op.

c i t . , p. 87.
cit.,

pp.

I,

66

o f o b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n that c o u l d be u s e d
c o u r s e d u r i n g its develop men t.

It took p l a c e at an int er­

m e d i a t e stage of d e v e l o p m e n t an d p e r m i t t e d
t o b e made.

to im pro ve the

intelligent changes

D e f i c i e n c i e s and s t r e n g t h s o f the

v e r s i o n s wer e identified,

i n t e r me dia te

a n d a p p r o p r i a t e a d j u s t m e n t s made.

Su mma tiv e e v a l u a t i o n p r o v i d e d a b a s i s
c u r r i c u l u m a d o p t i o n a nd e f f e c t i v e use.

for dec is i o n s

about

Devisions were made

w i t h regard to r e p l a c e m e n t o f o n e c u r r i c u l u m b y another and
a c c e p t a n c e or r e j e c t i o n of suc h el eme nts as textbooks,
of study,

course

and the like.

S c r i v e n 131 a l s o d e s c r i b e d two b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t a p ­
p r o a c h e s to b o t h
first

f o r m a t i v e and s u m m a t i v e e v a l ua tio n.

involved an a p p r a i s a l of the i n s t r u c t i o n a l

i t s e l f - - t h e content,
etc.

H e called

goals,

m a t e r i a l s use,

it int ri n s i c evaluation.

u s u a l l y not o p e r a t i o n a l l y o r i e n ta ted .

It

instrument

t e a c h i n g approaches,
The

c rit eri a w e r e

T h e s e c o n d approach

p r o c e e d e d to e x a m i n e the e f f e c t of the t e a c h i n g
t h e pupil,

The

i n s t r ume nt on

and it u s u a l l y s p e c i f i e d t h e s e r a t h e r o p e r a t i o n a l l y .

involved an a p p r a i s a l of d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n p r e - and

post-tests,

b e t w e e n e x p e r i m e n t a l a nd c o n t r o l groups,

a number of c r i t i c a l parameters.

This

latter

etc.,

on

a s p e c t was

c a l l e d pay-off evaluation.
It a p p e a r e d that

intrinsic evaluation involved much s u b ­

j e c t i v e judgmen t w h i l e p a y - o f f e v a l u a t i o n t e n d e d to be m o r e
ob jec tiv e.

Th e tw o a p p r o a c h e s c o n s i d e r e d d i f f e r e n t types of

d a t a and their l i m i t a t i o n s a n d a d v a nta ges w e r e no t the same.

1 3 1I b i d . , pp.

53-54.

67

At least
pr ogr ess
1.

four s pe cifi c m e a n s of e v a l u a t i n g student

in th e n e w pro gra ms h a v e been u s e d

in the past:

O b s e r v a t i o n s of wh e t h e r o r not the s t u d e n t s

the m a t e r i a l w a s
fully?

for w h o m

intended a p p e a r e d to be p r o g r e s s i n g s u c c e s s ­

2. b o t h c a u s u a l and s y s t e m a t i c q u e s t i o n i n g of s t u d e n t s

involved

in the programs;

3.

per iod ic e x a m i n a t i o n of s t u d e n t s

b y tests d e s i g n e d to cover the new material;
tive tes ting of students

and 4,

compara­

in t h e new and o l d p rograms w i t h

t r a d it ion al an d sp eci all y d e s i g n e d tests.

13 2

E v a l u a t i o n m u s t o f n e c e s s i t y be an o n - g o i n g process.
Th e job is not

fi nis hed w h e n t h e program

is published.

Those

w h o p u r c h a s e th e m a t e r i a l s n e e d to assess its effects o n a
long-term b a s i s w i t h the local population.
level w h e r e c u r r i c u l a r p r o g r a m s succeed or

It is at th e l o c a l
fail.

A h m a n n s u m m a r i z e d the c o n c e r n of r e s p o n s i b l e c u r r i c u l u m
evaluators w h e n h e stated:
Al l e v a l u a t i o n is relative, perhaps to a larger d e g r e e
than th e u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d w i s h to ackno wle dge .
Rather
than e m p h a s i z i n g the s e a r c h for one 'final decision'
w i t h r e s p e c t to a c u r r i c u l u m we should, perhaps, c o n c e n ­
trate m o r e h e a v i l y on t he 'try-out' t y p e of study w h e r e
m e a s u r e m e n t s o p h i s t i c a t i o n is less significant.
For the
time being, the local s c h o o l off icial s h o u l d pay less
a t t e n t i o n to ’u n i v e r s a l ’ summative e v a l u a t i o n and m o r e
a t t e n t i o n to 'local' s u m m a t i v e evaluat ion .
Good e v a l u a ­
tion of his c urr icu lum can take pl a c e on 'home ground'
in spite of its m a n y u n i q u e — and p r o b a b l y u n m e a s u r e d —
factors.
T h e s e are w o r t h y studies i n d e e d . 133

132J o h n I. Goodlad, R e n a t a V a n S toephasius, and M.
F r a n c i s Klein, T h e C h a n g i n g S c h o o l C u r r i c u l u m (New York:
F u n d for the A d v a n c e m e n t of Education, 1966), pp. 98-99.
133Ahraann,

as isund in T y l e r et al. , o p . c i t ., p.

The

89.

68

R e v i e w o f L i t e r a t u r e R e l a t e d to E S C P
S i n c e the first i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s p r o d u c e d by E S C P
w e r e i n t r o d u c e d into classrooms,

t e n m a j o r r e s e a r c h studies

and s e v e r a l surveys w e r e conducted.
w i t h s t u d e n t achievement,

Six of th e s tud ies dealt

two w e r e analysis of t h e content,

and two d i s c u s s e d t e x t b o o k readability.
reported.

Tw o d e a l t w i t h

Four s u r v e y s w e r e

st udent q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ;

su r v e y of g r a d e p l a c e m e n t for ea r t h science,

o ne w i t h a

a n d the latter

wa s a te acher qu est i o n n a i r e .
The psychological Corporation S t u d y .
tional m a t e r i a l s p r o d u c e d for E S C P w e r e
s e c o n d a r y school c l a s s r o o m s d u r i n g

The

fi r s t i n s t r u c ­

i n t r o d u c e d into

the fall of 1964.

These

p r e l i m i n a r y m a t e r i a l s w e r e o f f i c i a l l y t ested b y t he P s y c h o ­
lo gic al C o r p o r a t i o n d u r i n g the 1964-1965
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 6,500 E S C P students

school y e a r . 134

in h i g h s c h o o l s and junior

h i g h schools p a r t i c i p a t e d in the first year
In a d d i t i o n 2,500 s t u d e n t s
cl ass es w e r e

included

evaluation.

in c o n v e n t i o n a l e a r t h s c i e n c e

in the s t u d y as a comparison,

or control

group.
Th e b a s i c de s i g n of the study included:
1.

C o m p a r i s o n of the e n d - o f - c o u r s e earth s c i e n c e a c h i e v e ­
m e n t level of ESC P and c o n t r o l classes.

2.

C o m p a r i s o n of students' (both ESCP a n d control)
under­
s t a n d i n g of s ci e n c e p r i n c i p l e s an d m e t h o d s at the
b e g i n n i n g a nd end of the sc h o o l y e a r .

134E a r t h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t E v a l u a t i o n Pr ogram
E n d - o f - Y e a r Re p o r t (New York:
T h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l Corporation,
October, 1965).

69

3.

C o m p a r i s o n o f s c i e n c e k n o w l e d g e and ESCP a c h i e v e ­
m e n t among g r a d e levels b e t w e e n b o y s and g i r l s . 135

C a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n w a s given to s t u d e n t a c a d e m i c ability
and p r e v i o u s science knowledge .
from g r a d e s 3 th rou gh

12.

w e r e in the 9th grade.
s t udents b y gr a d e
and sex,

T h e ESCP s t u d e n t s r ang ed

All s t u d e n t s

in the c o n t r o l group

Test scores w e r e st udi es

(three grade g rou pi n g s :

8,

9,

for ESCP
a n d 10-12)

an d the c o n t r o l group by sex.

T a b l e 2.2

shows

the selection o f students c h o s e n for

the e xperiment.

TABLE 2.2*
S E L E C T I O N OF S T U D E N T S — ESCP E V A L U A T I O N P R O G R A M
E N D - O F - Y E A R REPORT, 1964-1965

Experiment Group
Female
Male

Grade
8

711

699

9

1950

1587

10-12

365

230

C o n t r o l G r oup
Male
Female

1247

896

*

ESCP E v a l u a t i o n P r o g r a m E n d - o f -Ye ar Report,

After

op.

cit.,

tests w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d r a w scores w e r e

to h o l d c o n s t a n t any d i f f e r e n c e s w h i c h existed

adj usted

in ac ad e m i c

ab ility or prior s c i e n c e k n o w l e d g e to pr o v i d e a b e t t e r

13 5 I b i d ., p.

1.

p. 2.

70

e s t i m a t i o n of t he effects of th e c u r r i c u l u m . 136
ning of the sch o o l years,

Tests

(DAT)

(NA)

(VR)

and

tests f r o m the D i f f e r e n t i a l A p t i t u d e

p u b l i s h e d by the P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o r p o rat ion .

These measures were

followed b y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of P a r t I and

II of a Test of S c i e n c e K n o w l e d g e
s p e c i f i c a l l y for

(TOSK), tests d e s i g n e d

this ESCP e v a l u a t i o n program.

T O S K I was

c o n s t r u c t e d to m e a s u r e k n o w l e d g e of b a s i c fa ctu al
tion

the b e g i n ­

all s t u d e n t s in E S C P a n d control

c l a s s e s w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d the V e r b a l R e a s o n i n g
Numerical Ability

At

from all a r e a s of g eneral

science.

informa­

T O S K II w a s de si g n e d

to m e a s u r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s a n d me thods.
A t th e end of the school year.

P a r t II of the T e s t o f Science

K n o w l e d g e was r e a d m i n i s t e r e d in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h th e ESCP
C o m p r e h e n s i v e Final,
ma nual.

a test i n c l u d e d in the ESCP t eac her 's

The E S C P F i n a l p r o v i d e d c o m p a r i s o n s

b e t w e e n the ESCP an d control groups,
(TOSK II)

for a c h i e v e m e n t

w h i l e the s c i e n c e test

p r o v i d e d th e b e g i n n i n g an d e n d - o f -ye ar m e a s u r e s

of u n d e r s t a n d i n g of science,

a n d b o t h tests p r o v i d e d g rad e

an d sex c o m p a r i s o n s . 137
F i n d i n g s of the S tud y
1.

Both ESC P a nd control g r o u p

students w e r e a b o u t ten

to fif t e e n p e r c e n t i l e points a b o v e nat ion al no r m s

in m e a n

a c a d e m i c abi lit y w h e n co mpared to nat ion al s t u d e n t sa mples as

13 6I b i d ., p.

2.

13 7 I b i d ., p . 1.

71

measured by D A T

(VR)

and D A T

(n r ) .

Spe cif ica lly ,

the m e a n of

n i n t h grade s t u d e n t s was at the s i x t y - f i f t h percentile,
g r a d e eight m e a n at the s e v e n t i e t h percentile,

the

and the m e a n

for grade t e n through t w e l v e was at the s i x t y - f i f t h p e r c e n ­
tile. 138
2. All g r o u p s h a d a g r e a t e r sci e n c e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a t the
en d of the y ear

than at the b e g i n n i n g as m e a s u r e d b y T O S K I I . 139

3. The n int h grade E S C P e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p ha d a g r e a t e r
in cre ase in s c i e n c e k n o w l e d g e d u r i n g t he y e a r than d i d the
n i n t h gra de co n t r o l g r o u p w h e n m e a s u r e d at

the

.001 level.

T a b l e 2.3 s h o w s the r e s u l t s of the T O S K II tests.

T A B L E 2.3*
M E A N G A I N FROM P R E - T O S K II TO P O S T - T O S K II
W H E N A D J U S T E D FOR A B I L I T Y

Grade

E x p e r i m e n t a l G r oup
8
9
10-12

Control Group
9

Boys

4 .57

5 .18

4 .28

3 .44

Girls

4.36

4.46

4.94

3 .53

Average

4.47

4 „82

4 .88

3 .49

*

E S C P E v a l u a t i o n Program E n d - o f - Y e a r Report,

1 3 8I b i d ., p . 2.
13 9I b i d . , p.

16.

p p . c i t . , p.

16

72

S i n c e T O S K II wa s
achievement,

not d e s i g n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y to test E SCP

this d i f f e r e n c e r e p r e s e n t e d a d e f i n i t e a d v a n t a g e

for the ESC P group.

However,

o ne n e e d e d to temper

this d i f ­

f e r e n c e w i t h the r e s e a r c h e r s 1 w a r n i n g t h a t sy ste m a t i c b i a s
such as better

tea che rs

and labora tor y f aci li t i e s

for the

E S C P g r o u p m a y h a v e i n f l u e n c e d the r e s u l t s . 140
4.

Of m a j o r

interest w a s the c o m p a r i s o n of a c h i e v e m e n t

b e t w e e n the e x p e r i m e n t a l ni n t h grade an d the control n i n t h
g r a d e g r o u p s on t he ES CP C o m p r e h e n s i v e Final.
d i s c u s s e d b e l o w wa s b a s e d u pon the m e a n
a c a d e m i c ability level.
m e n t a l g r o u p m e a n was
g r o u p m e a n at the

.001

Th e c o m p a r i s o n

scores a d j u s t e d for

T a b l e 2.4 sh o w e d t h a t the e x p e r i ­

significantly higher

than the c ontrol

level.u 1

T A B L E 2.4*
R E S U L T OF ESCP C O M P R E H E N S I V E F I N A L

Nu mber of
st udents

Mean

St a n d a r d
Deviation

E x p e r i m e n t a l Gr oup

3537

27 .46

6.48

Control Group

2170

23 .29

4. 88

D i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n M e a n s = 4.17
*

E S C P E v a l u a t i o n P r o g r a m En d - o f - Y e a r R e p o r t , o p . c i t ., p. 2.

140 I b i d .. p. 4.
1 4 1l b i d ., p.

5o

73

W h e n the c o m p a r i s o n was m a d e w i t h

an a d d i t i o n a l a d j u s t ­

m e n t for prior s c i e n c e k n o w l e d g e t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p still
o u t p e r f o r m e d the con t r o l group,

T h e a utho rs a g a i n

the reader by s tat ing a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n pu p i l s

cau tioned
in the

C o m p r e h e n s i v e Final w a s not s u r p r i s i n g since t h e e x a m i n a t i o n
wa s w r i t t e n to test a c h i e v e m e n t of E S C P s t u d e n t s . 142
5 . Boys

c o n s i s t e n t l y h a d gre a t e r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of

s c i e n c e an d g r e a t e r e a r t h s c i e n c e a c h i e v e m e n t t h a n di d girls.
Th e lar ges t d i f f e r e n c e o c c u r r e d at g r a d e n i n e . 143
6. As g r a d e level
twelve,

students

i n c r e a s e d from eight to t e n through

in the hi g h e r g r a d e s h a d m o r e s c i e n c e k n o w l ­

edge a nd ea rth s c i e n c e a c h i e v e m e n t

t h a n did t h o s e

in grades

b e l o w them.
7.

E S C P ninth g r a d e r s m a d e t h e g r e a t e s t s c o r e gains,

w h i l e the c o n t r o l g r o u p sh o w e d least for all g r o u p s

t e s t e d . 144

Of s i g n i f i c a n c e to this study w e r e the r e s u l t s

for ei g h t h

g r a d e s t u d e n t s on the C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l

(see T a b l e 2.5,

page

74) .
C h a m p l i n and H a s s a r d S t u d y .

C h a m p l i n and Hassard,

s t r u c t o r s at L e x i n g t o n H i g h School,

Lexington,

in­

Massachusetts,

c o n d u c t e d a similar s t u d y the f o l l o w i n g y e a r . 145

L exi ngt on

14 2 i b i d , . p. 5.
143 I b i d ., p. 7.
144R o b e r t F. Champlin, "A R e v i e w of R e s e a r c h R e l a t e d to
ESCP," J o u r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n . XVIII, No. 1
(January 1970), pp. 31-39.
145R o b e r t F. C h a m p l i n and J o h n R u s s e l l Ha ssa rd, "A C o m ­
p a r a t i v e S t u d y of Tw o E a r t h S c i e n c e Courses" (unpublished
M a s t e r ' s di ssertation, B o s t o n University, 1966).

74

TA B L E 2 5 *
M E A N AND S T A N D A R D D E V I A T I O N OF SC ORES O N T H E
C O M P R E H E N S I V E F I N A L FOR E I G H T H - G R A D E ST UD E N T S

Mean

Standard Deviation

Male

2 7 .94

8.63

Female

26 28

7 .76

★
E a r t h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m Proiect E v a l u a t i o n P r o g r a m E n d - o f Y e a r Report, op. cit,, p . 11,

ha d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n

i n c l u d e d in o n e of the f i f t e e n trial

centers b y the n a t i o n a l

c o m m i t t e e d e v e l o p i n g t h e s e new

ma t er ials,
T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p use d E S C P m a t e r i a l s
the c o n t r o l group s t u d i e d
had b e e n
(N=94)

e s t a b l ish ed
The

class t i m e
involved

(N=84)

while

from an earth s c i e n c e co u r s e that

in the sc h o o l

five y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y

latter g r o u p spent ab out

fifty p e r c e n t of their

in l a b o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n s w h i l e t h e E S C P g r o u p w a s

in lab ora t o r y

investigations seventy-five percent

of the time.

A t e s t i n g s c h e d u l e was

the 1964-1965

nat ion al

i n i t i a t e d that

fo ll o w e d

trial period.

W h e n scores w e r e c o m p a r e d for th e pre- and p o s t - T O S K II,
the E S C P g r o u p s h o w e d a g ain of 7.3 5 w h i l e th e c o n v e n t i o n a l
g r o u p d e m o n s t r a t e d an
groups

im p r o v e m e n t of 7.57.

s h o w e d a s i g n i f i c a n t gain,

Even though both

th e p o s t - T O S K II i n d i c a t e d

a significant difference

in favor of th e c o n v e n t i o n a l g r o u p

w h e n m e a s u r e d at the

level of p r o b a b i l i t y

05

{30.68 and 33.03).

75

T A B L E 2.6*
R E S U L T S OF TOSK II — C H A M P L I N A N D H A S S A R D S T U D Y

Pr e

ESCP
Post

Gain

Pre

Mean

23 .33

30. 68

7 o35

25.46

33.03

S .D.

7 .36

8.37

7.23

6.56

*Champlin and Hassard,

op.

cit.,

pp.

15

Conventional
Post
Gain
7 .57

and 21.

A n i n t e r e s t i n g c o n t r a s t wa s o b s e r v e d w hen the E S C P C o m p r e ­
h e n s i v e F i n a l r esu lts w e r e compared.

This measure

indicated

a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in favor of t h e ESCP g r o u p at the
probability

.01

level.

T A B L E 2.7*
R E S U L T S OF E S C P C O M P R E H E N S I V E F INA L

ESCP

Conventional

Mean

30.63

26.15

S.D.

7. 56

6. 31

*Champlin an d Hassard,

op.

c i t . , p.

21.

Th e a b o v e evidence s e e m e d to r e p o r t no c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e
for either program.
a d v a n t a g e for

W h i l e t h e T O S K IX m e a s u r e

th e control group,

i n d i c a t e d an

the C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l

76

d e m o n s t r a t e d an a dva nta ge for the E SCP group.
observation was

T h i s latter

e spe cia ll y o p e n to q u e s t i o n w h e n on e c o n ­

s i dered that t h e C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l was w r i t t e n s p e c i f i c a l l y
for E S C P students.

It could

l ogi cal ly h ave b e e n exp ect ed that

such a test w o u l d favor E SCP students.
Pauli,
Pauli,

Larson,

Larson,

and V a n d e n A v o n d S t u d y .

A r e c e n t study by

and V a n d e n A v o n d 146 at tem p t e d to ev alu ate the

p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t of se con d a r y s chool earth s c i e n c e e duc a t i o n
on student a c h i e v e m e n t

in c o l l e g e g eology courses.

in ninth g r a d e ge ne r a l science,

e a r t h science,

pre- and p o s t - t e s t e d w i t h T O S K I a nd I I .

St ude n t s

and ESCP w e r e

Bo th E S C P and the

n o n - E S C P earth s c i e n c e w e r e e l e c t i v e courses w h i l e general
s c ience wa s c o n s i d e r e d a r e m e d i a l program.

T he

same tests

w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d to a gr o u p of p r e - g e o l o g y c o l l e g e students
an d g e o l o g y g r a d u a t e students

for purposes of c o m p a r i s o n . 147

T h e study s u g g e s t e d that E SCP was a b e t t e r

co u r s e than

g e ner al s c i e n c e or n on- ESC P earth sc ience for s t r e n g t h e n i n g
sc ience b a c k g r o u n d s of s tud ents

in sec ond ary schools.

Although

students e n t e r i n g the d i f f e r e n t courses had v a r i a b l e sci e n c e
backgrounds

and T O S K m e a n s w e r e d i f f e r e n t for each class,

improve men t in s cores wa s m o s t d r a m a t i c

for E S C P s t u d e n t s -

1 4 SR. A. Pauli, A. C. Larson, an d R i c h a r d V e n d e n Avond,
"Predicting the Effect of E S C P on I n t r o du cto ry C o l l e g e G e o l o g y
C o u r s e , " J o u r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n , XXVII, No. 2 (1969),
pp. 47-53.
147Champlin,

ojd .

cit.,

p. 34.

77

T A B L E 2.8*
C O M P A R I S O N O F T O S K S C O R E S — PAULL,
AND VANDEN AVOND STUDY

General Science

LARSON,

Non-ESCP

E SCP

Pre-TOSK Mean

60.4

67 .9

70.0

Post-TOSK Mean

64.1

7 1.8

83.0

3.7

3 .9

13.0

Gain
*

Pauli et a l . , pp.

cit.,

p. 51.

In all cases i m p r o v e m e n t in the t o t a l T O S K score w a s
d i s t r i b u t e d quite e q u a l l y b e t w e e n i m p r o v e m e n t
(factual)

and T O S K II

(principles).

W h e n r es u l t s w e r e c o m ­

pared to s tud ent s e n t e r i n g col leg e geology,
E S C P s t u d e n t s w i t h h i g h school biology,
still a h e a d of them w e r e
c o llege students'

in T O S K I

it was found tha t

physics,

and c h e m i s t r y

al ready c l o s e to t he p r e - g e o l o g y

s c i e n c e a bili ty

level.

T A B L E 2.9*
C O M P A R I S O N OF P O S T - T O S K S CORES B E T W E E N ESCP
S T UD E N T S A N D C O L L E G E S T U D E N T S

ESCP
Mean

Pre-Geology
C o l l e g e Stu dents

83.0

*Paull e t a l . , op.

90 .2
c i t .,

p. 50.

Geology Graduate
St udents
101.4

78

A

c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n p r e - g e o l o g y college s t u d e n t scores

and t h o s e a t t a i n e d b y e leven h i g h a b i l i t y ESCP s t u d e n t s sh o w e d
that th e latter's

p o s t - T O S K m e a n s c o r e of 94.8 r a n k e d f a v o r ­

ably w i t h m e a n score of 90.2 for t h e
A

former.

final c o n s i d e r a t i o n r e l e v a n t to this p a p e r

study r e l a t i n g to t e a c h e r quality.
considered,

W h e n two t e a c h e r s w e r e

the first w i t h a b i o l o g y o r i e n t a t e d background,

two ye a r s o f t e a c h i n g
and the s e c o n d w i t h

exp eri e n c e o f w h i c h one w a s w i t h ESCP,

f i f t e e n years

and a m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e
students

inv olv ed a

experience,

in earth sc ien ce,

two w i t h ESCP,

the f irs t tea ch e r ' s

s co r e d a m e a n of 77.1 on p o s t - T O S K w h i l e a score of

82.9 w a s r e c o r d e d for th e latter.

E v e n though no

s i g n i f i c a n c e was r e p o r t e d the a u t h o r s

sta t i s t i c a l

su gge ste d t hat this

con­

firmed a co m m o n o b s e r v a t i o n that s t u d e n t s wh o s t u d i e d under
well q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s w o u l d b e b e t t e r p r e p a r e d

for c ol l e g e

ge olo gy t h a n those w h o did n o t . 146
Other
du c t e d

Studies R e l a t e d to E S C P .

Shirner and S a r g e n t c o n ­

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the e f f e c t s o f teacher variable.

S h i r n e r 149

found t h a t a student h a v i n g a d i r e c t tea c h e r w i t h

t r a d i t i o n a l t e a c h i n g b e l i e f s had an a d v a n t a g e in a n o n - E S C P
course.

On the o t h e r hand,

a s t u d e n t wi th an i n d i r e c t t eacher

wi th n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l t eaching b e l i e f s had an a d v a n t a g e

14 e Paull et al^ , op.

c i t ., p.

in an

52.

149S i l a s Shirner, "A C o m p a r i s o n of S t u d e n t O u t c o m e s in
V a r i o u s E a r t h S c i e n c e C ourses T a u g h t b y S e v e n t e e n Iowa
Teachers, A Paper P r e s e n t e d at t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n for
R e s e a r c h in S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g C o n f e r e n c e (Chicago, 1968).

79

E S C P course a n d w a s at a d i s a d v a n t a g e in a n o n - E S C P course.
N o n - E S C P s t u d e n t s h a v i n g a d i r e c t and t r a d i t i o n a l teacher
s cored s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher t h a n ES CP s t u d e n t s w h o had
d i r e c t and t r a d i t i o n a l teachers.
that m a t c h i n g th e right t ea c h e r

This

s u g g e s t e d to Shirner

to the r i g h t c u r r i c u l u m w a s

ex tre m e l y important.
S a r g e n t 150

c ond uct ed a s t u d y in w h i c h h e

compared ESCP

students of p e r m i s s i v e t e a c h e r s w i t h s t u d e n t s of a u t h o r i ­
t a r i a n teachers.

The f indi ngs

indicated that

st udent a c h i e v e ­

m e n t w as not s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d to these t wo va ria ble s.
However,

w h e n S a r g e n t c o m p a r e d students of t e a c h e r s w i t h

th irt een to t w e n t y semester h o u r s
h a d zero to t w e l v e hours he

in e d u c a t i o n to those w h o

fo u n d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

f a v o r i n g the former.
M o o n e y 151

f o u n d that E S C P could r e p l a c e a h alf year

earth s c i e n c e - h a l f year p h y s i c s course and p r o d u c e the same
achievement.
Two c o n t e n t analysis s t u d i e s we re r e p o r t e d .
investi gat ed h o w

S o n n i e r 152

the c o n c e p t u a l content in c o l l e g e level

lsoEarl A l v i n Sargent, "A S t u d y to D e t e r m i n e C e r t a i n
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Earth S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t T e a c h e r s
a n d Students in P erm is s i v e and A u t h o r i t a r i a n C l a s s r o o m s W h i c h
L e a d to G r e a t e r A c a d e m i c A c h i e v e m e n t in T h e s e Students"
(Ann Arbor, M i c h i g a n ;
U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o fi lms , 1966).
151E. W
Mo o n e y , "The E a r t h Sci enc e C u r r i c u l u m Pro j e c t
for Ninth G r a d e , " Pilot S t u d i e s (Richmond, V irg i n i a :
Division
o f E d u c a t i o n a l Research, S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t of Education, 1968).
152I s a d o r e L. Sonnier, "A Study of the Nu m b e r of S e l e c t e d
Ideas in A s t r o n o m y Fo u n d in E a r t h Sc ien ce C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t
M a t e r i a l s B e i n g T a u g h t in C o l l e g e and U n i v e r s i t y C o u r s e s ”
(Ann Arbor, M i c h i g a n :
U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f ilm s, 1966).

80

a s t r o n o m y co urses c o m p a r e d w i t h c o n c ept ual
ES CP a s t r o n o m y unit.

co nte nt

in the

Hi s s t u d y s h o w e d that the co n t e n t of

formal c o l l e g e a s t r o n o m y c ourses p r e s e n t e d s u f f i c i e n t s u b ­
ject m a t t e r b a c k g r o u n d
S m i t h lb3

for e a r t h s c i e n c e teachers.

selected

"The U n i v e r s e a nd Its Or ig i n "

from

th e p r e l i m i n a r y v e r s i o n of the ESCP text for his st udy
b e c a u s e it s eemed to i nvolve a great m a n y concepts.
analysis,

w h i l e subjective,

Smith's

was b o t h d e t a i l e d an d thoughtful.

H e c o n c l u d e d that the unit c o n t a i n e d a h e a v y e x p l i c i t con c e p t
load and a m u c h gre ate r
that it was

im pli cit c onc ept load.

He stated

"almost c e r t a i n l y p r o j e c t i n g a level of s o p h i s t i ­

ca t i o n to junior h i g h school stu den ts w h i c h e x t r e m e l y

few of

t h e m w o u l d possess,
Smith al so r e p o r t e d that the m a t e r i a l was n ot co nc e p t oriented,

b u t d e s c r i p t i v e an d n a r r a t i v e

s o p h i s t i c a t e d level.

in sty le at a ra t h e r

He c o n c l u d e d that the m a t e r i a l was not

w e l l organized,

lacked con cep t continuity,

tic background,

and h a d s u r p r i s i n g omissions.

K l i n e 155 r e p o r t e d the r e a d i n g
v e r s i o n to b e q u i t e variable,

assumed unrealis­

level of th e p r e l i m i n a r y

ranging

from se ve n t h g r a d e to

153H e r b e r t A. Smith, "An A n a l y s i s of a T y p i c a l I n s t r u c ­
tional Unit in Jun ior H i g h Sc h o o l S c i e n c e to D e t e r m i n e the
E x p l i c i t and I m p l i c i t C o n c e p t L o a d i n g Involved" (Ann Arbor,
Michigan:
U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o fil ms, 1968).
154 I b i d ., p.

6,

155 L ore n Kline, " E i g h t h - g r a d e E a r t h S c i e n c e - T e x t b o o k
R e a d a b i l i t y and other F a c t o r s W h i c h C o u l d I n f l u e n c e the
Su c c e s s of the E i g h t h - g r a d e S c i e n c e Co u r s e in T e x a s Public
Schools" (Ann Arbor, M i c h i g a n :
U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s , 1966).

81

college,

w i t h an a v e r a g e

level of e l e v e n t h to tw elfth grade.

He o b s e r v e d that the re a d i n g level o f the s ec o n d e x p e r i m e n t a l
ed ition of I n v e s t i g a t i n g the E a r t h w a s re duc ed to a nin thtenth g r a d e level.
O u t u b 156 also r e p o r t e d the 1967 t e x t to h a v e a r e a d i n g
level of 7.5 w h i c h

i n d i c a t e d the t e x t b o o k s u i t a b l e for g r a d e s

nine or ten.

H e further

too d i f f i c u l t

for g r a d e nine,

w i t h the m a t h e m a t i c s

stated th at the m a t h e m a t i c s w as not
but r e c o m m e n d e d c o o p e r a t i o n

teachers to i s o l a t e and t e a c h tho se

m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o c e s s e s n e c e s s a r y for ESCP.
S u r v e y s R e l a t e d to E S C P .
sults of a s urv ey in w h i c h

M a t t h e w s 157 p u b l i s h e d the r e ­

the question,

earth s c i e n c e be taught?" w as asked.
earth s c i e n c e courses w e r e off e r e d
twelve,

"At w h a t

level s h o u l d

He found t h a t a l t h o u g h

in grades s e v e n t hrough

it w as c o m m o n l y agreed that n i n t h g r a d e was best.

M a t t h e w s r e p o r t e d that s cience e d u c a t o r s o f f e r e d the f o l l o w ­
ing r e a s o n s

for t e a c h i n g earth s c i e n c e in g r a d e nine:

1. M o s t of the m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d in the old "general
science" co u r s e is n ow b e i n g taught in the lower
grades.
T h e r e is a d i s t i n c t n eed for a somewh at
m o r e a d v a n c e d sci ence c o u r s e for the n i n t h gra de
student.
2. A provocative, p r o p e r l y p r e s e n t e d earth science
co u r s e can i n t r o d u c e the s t u d e n t to the b a s i c m e t h o d s
of s c i e n t i f i c inquiry and investigation.

156M u s a Y. Outub, "The O b j e c t i v e s of the E a r t h S c i e n c e
C u r r i c u l u m Project; A n E v a l u a t i o n of T h e i r A c h i e v e m e n t "
(Ann Arbor, M i c h i g a n :
University Microfilms, 196 § ) .
157W i l l i a m H. M a t t h e w s III, "Cur r e n t S t a t u s of E a r t h
Sc i e n c e Pro grams in S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s , " ESCP N e w s l e t t e r ,
NL-2 (January, 1964), p. 2.

82

3. The t y p i c a l ninth gr a d e r has a c q u i r e d the re a d i n g
ab ili ty n e c e s s a r y to c o m p r e h e n d b a s i c earth s c i e n c e
concepts a n d to m a s t e r the r e q u i r e d vocabulary.
4. Earth s c i e n c e is th e ideal m e d i u m for i llu str ati ng
the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of the v a r i o u s b a s i c sciences
in the s t u d y of the e a r t h and space.
T w o stu dent su rveys w e r e c o n d u c t e d b y the ESCP staff in
1967 and 1 9 6 8 . 1 5 B '159

(Appendix B,

pa ge 197.)

T h e data s u g g e s t e d c e r t a i n a g r e e m e n t s as w e l l as d i s ­
agreements.

W h i l e s tud ent s

i n d i c a t e d a p r e f e r e n c e for

a s t r o n o m y in 1967,

the y c h a n g e d to a p r e f e r e n c e for m e t e o ­

r o l o g y and g e o l o g y

in 1968.

B o t h groups i n d i c a t e d some d e ­

s i r a b i l i t y for pal e o n t o l o g y .
p r e f e r e n c e for l a b o r a t o r y
w h i l e the 1968 s u r v e y
investigations.
more

laboratory.

T h e 1967 s urv ey s howed a

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e l a t i n g to m a p p i n g

i ndi cate d a p r e f e r e n c e to the "messy"

S t u d e n t s g e n e r a l l y r e q u e s t e d the same or
Generally

s i d e r e d acceptable,

laboratory reports were con­

m a t h e m a t i c s b a c k g r o u n d was

an d study t i m e w a s equal to that in other
i n t e r e s t to note that

in 1967

subjects.

It w a s of

the g r e a t m a j o r i t y e x p r e s s e d

th ey w o u l d r e c o m m e n d this c o u r s e to a friend.
s t u d e n t s h o p e d to a t t e n d c o l l e g e b e t w e e n
f i f t y pe rcent

sufficient,

While most

t h i r t y - f i v e and

i n d i c a t e d a p r e f e r e n c e for a sci e n c e major.

1 5 8 "Students C o m p l e t e ESC P Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , "
le t t e r , NL-13 (February, 1967), pp. 11, 12.
15 9"Students Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , "
(October, 1968), p. 3.

ESCP N e w s ­

E S C P N e w s l e t t e r . NL-17

83

A s u r v e y of t e a c h e r s u s i n g E S C P wa s c o n d u c t e d in
1 9 6 8 . 160

Of the 45 9 r e t u r n e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s 3 89 tea chers

in dic ate d they w e r e u s i n g I n v e s t i g a t i n g the E a r t h as their
p r i m a r y text.

T w o - t h i r d s of t h o s e su rve yed s h o w e d a m a s t e r ' s

level of a c a d e m i c achie vem ent .

B i o l o g y and g e o l o g y w e r e

listed as the d i s c i p l i n e s of g r e a t e s t strength.

The a v e r a g e

t e ach ing e x p e r i e n c e w a s b e t w e e n ni ne and ten y e a r s of w h i c h
an a ve r a g e of two y e a r s ha d b e e n spent t e a c h i n g
F o r t y p e r c e n t of th e teachers
to b e t w e n t y - f i v e or

less.

i n d i c a t e d a v e r a g e class size

E i g h t y - t w o p e r c e n t of the

teachers h a d class p e r i o d s b e t w e e n
mi n u t e s

in length.

f o r t y - f i v e a n d fif ty- fiv e

T h r e e - f o u r t h s of all t e a c h e r s

e x c e l l e n t to s a t i s f a c t o r y facilities.
the tea che rs w e r e t e a c h i n g cha pte rs
at the time of the A p r i l
m o r e cha pte rs
on e or m o r e

earth science.

at t h a t

invest iga tio ns.

a r r a n g e d the order of

Over o n e - t h i r d of

s ix t e e n t h r o u g h e i g h t e e n

15th survey.

time.

indicated

F ew ha d o m i t t e d six or

S e v e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t ha d o m i t t e d
O n l y si xteen p e r c e n t ha d r e ­

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s or c h a p t e r s

in any

si g n i f i c a n t way.
S u m m a r y of S tudies
A search

for s t u d i e s r e l a t e d to ESCP s h o w e d that ten

r e s e a r c h st udi es a nd se ver al q u e s t i o n n a i r e s h a d b e e n produced.
Th e ten r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s a nd four s urve ys w e r e r e p o r t e d in
this review.

Six of th e r e s e a r c h studies w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h

1 6 0 "Teacher Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , " E S C P N e w s l e t t e r . NL-17
(October, 1968), p. 6.

84

student: achievement.

F i v e m a d e c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n st udents

studyin g E S C P a nd s t u d e n t s s t u d y i n g s o m e o t h e r
or earth s c i e n c e - p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e course.
t h os e by the P s y c h o l o g i c a l Corporation,
Larson, and V a n d e n Avond,

earth s c i e n c e

T h r e e studies,

S h i r n e r 1s, and Pauli,

o b s e r v e d s i g n i f i c a n t ac h i e v e m e n t

d i f f e r e n c e fa vor ing E S C P students.

T w o studies,

C h a m p l i n a nd H a s s a r d and one b y Mooney,

one by

o b s e r v e d no s i g n i f i ­

cant a c h i e v e m e n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l
groups.
Th e two studies that c o m p a r e d E S C P d i r e c t l y to t r a d i ­
tional earth s c i e n c e c our s e s w e r e T h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o r p o r a ­
tion S t u d y an d the C h a m p l i n and H a s s a r d Study.

The former

r e p o r t e d a cautiou s d i f f e r e n c e in favor o f t h e ESC P groups,
w h i l e the

latter r e p o r t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s u s i n g a

smaller sample.
Th e st udies b y S c h i r n e r and S a r g e n t d e a l t w i t h tea che r
variables.

S arg e n t ' s

findings s h o w e d a c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n

st udent a c h i e v e m e n t a nd teacher b a c k g r o u n d
ed uca t i o n courses.

S h i r n e r 's fin ding s

in p r o f e s s i o n a l

indicated a correla­

tion b e t w e e n te ach e r * s values and ve r b a l behavior,
dent achievement.

B oth studies

and s t u ­

ind ica ted that the c o m b i n a t i o n

of the r i g h t c u r r i c u l u m w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e teacher wa s an
important factor in i n f l u e n c i n g s t u d e n t outcomes.
Pauli c o n c l u d e d t h a t E S C P was
improving s c i e n t i f i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g s

an e f f e c t i v e pro gra m for
and a b i l i t i e s

He s u g g e s t e d that t e a c h e r a c a d e m i c p r e p a r a t i o n was

in students.
imp ortant

85

for st u d e n t outcomes.

M o o n e y found t h a t ESCP could a d e q u a t e l y

re p l a c e a one yea r c o u r s e e m p h a siz ing e a r t h s cience a n d
physics.
Tw o studies

e x a m i n e d Unit IV "The E a r t h and th e Universe"

from the trial edition.

Sonnier d e t e r m i n e d that c o l l e g e

a s t r o n o m y courses p r o v i d e d adequate b a c k g r o u n d for t e a c h e r s
of ESCP and that the m o r e
ha d in h i s background,

formal a s t r o n o m y courses a tea c h e r

the m o r e i n d e p e n d e n t he b e c a m e

ing new a s t r o n o m y knowle dge .

Smith c o n c l u d e d that t h e re a d i n g

c o m p r e h e n s i o n level a n d s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of
b o t h too d i f f i c u l t

in g a i n ­

for the Junior h i g h

information were

s chool student.

T h e studies of K l i n e and Qutub i n d i c a t e d that t h e reading
level of th e 1967
grade s t u d e n t s .

text w a s s a t i s f a c t o r y

for ninth or

tenth

M a t t h e w reported a s u r v e y s u g g e s t i n g n i n t h

gr ade as the b e s t level for i m p l e m e n t i n g ESCP.
Th e re sults of two student s u r v e y s w e r e reported.
dents r e s p o n d e d to q u e s t i o n s r ela t i n g

Stu­

to s ele ction o f topics

in the t e x t b o o k w h i c h w e r e easiest a n d m o r e interesting,
we ll as,

t h o s e inv est iga tio ns

e njoyed m o s t .

Other

as

informa­

tion r e l a t e d to l a b o r a t o r y reports,

mathematics

study time,

" w o u l d you r e c o m m e n d this

r eport card grades,

and

in science,

c o urs e to a friend?"
T h e t eac her s u r v e y revealed a h i g h
ESCP teachers.
experience,

Other

cri teria for g o o d

class size,

very adequate.
m a n y tea c h e r s

class time,

and

academic l e v e l

for

teaching s u c h as
facilities s e e m e d

It was o f interest t o n o t e that e ven t h o u g h
found the text too e x t e n s i v e for t o t a l coverage.

86

few o mi t t e d chapters,

w h i l e m a n y o m i t t e d investigations,

and

few a t t e m p t e d to r e a r r a n g e t h e co u r s e of study.
T h e S ci e n c e P r o c e s s e s
It has b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t sci ent i f i c k n o w l e d g e do u b l e s
from the time a c h i l d ad van ces
s c h o o l . 161
r a p i d rate
tists,

from k i n d e r g a r t e n to h i g h

S i n c e this k n o w l e d g e is a c c u m u l a t i n g at su ch a
it is

im pos sib le for any human,

to ke ep up-to-date.

Certainly

i ncl udi ng s c i e n ­

it is b e y o n d t he scope

of the e d u c a t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e to teach c h i l d r e n all t h e r e is
to k n o w about s c i e n c e . 162
On e s t r a t e g y that has r e c e i v e d i n c r e a s i n g e mph asi s this
past decade,

is a n attempt to e q u i p the c h i l d w i t h s k i l l s he

can use to find solutions to s c i e n t i f i c as w e l l as r e l a t e d
p r o b l e m s he m a y

en counter

in t h e future.

S c i e n c e — A P roc ess A p p r o a c h ^ 163
its m a j o r o b j e c t i v e s

(SAPA)

s e t as o n e of

the g o a l of eq uip pin g each c h i l d w i t h

c o m p e t e n c e in t h e proces ses of

science.

These processes

p r o v i d e the c h i l d w i t h an a b i l i t y to d e f i n e and s o l v e p r o b ­
lems.

S inc e t he child will b e

living in a s o c i e t y

increasingly

161Paul D e H a r t H u r d and J a m e s Jo s e p h Gallagher, N e w
D i r e c t i o n s in E l e m e n t a r y S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g (Belmont, California:
W a d s w o r t h P u b l i s h i n g Company, Inc., 1968), p. 2.
162James T. Robinson, T h e N a t u r e of S c i e n c e a n d Sci e n c e
T e a c h i n g (Belmont, California:
W a d s w o r t h P u b l i s h i n g Company,
Inc., 1968), pp. 6-9.
163S c i e n c e — A Process Appr oac h:
C o m m e n t a r y for T e a c h e r s ,
A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n for the A d v a n c e m e n t of S c i e n c e (New York:
X e r o x Corp., 1970), p. 11.

87

i n f l u e n c e d b y s c i e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l progress,

h e needs

skills n e c e s s a r y to e x e r c i s e g o o d j u d g m e n t as an a d u l t in
this society.
T h e C a r m a n Sc h o o l District,

Flint, M ich igan,

adopted

S c i e n c e — A P rocess A p p r o a c h as its e l e m e n t a r y s c i e n c e c u r r i ­
culum

(K-6)

beginning

k i nde r g a r t e n ,

one,

fal l 1968.

a nd two,

S A P A wa s

i n t r o d u c e d into

and p l a n s w e r e m a d e to co nti n u e

th e p r o g r a m b y a dding a g r a d e each y e a r until all gr ades w e r e
included.

S i n c e SA PA h a d b e c o m e a p a r t of the C a r m a n District,

it was d e e m e d a d v i s a b l e to consider t h e t h i r t e e n p r o c e s s e s of
S c i e n c e — A Pro ces s A p p r o a c h as th e c r i t e r i a for j u d g m e n t of
capability

in this study.

Th e B a s i c S ci e n c e P r o c e s s e s 164
1. O bs erv ing .
science,
objects
2.
skills

uses

th e m o s t b a s i c pr o c e s s of

the five s enses to o b t a i n

i n f o r mat ion about

a nd events.
Using Space/Time Relationships.

This p r o c e s s d e v e l o p s

in t he d e s c r i p t i o n of s p a c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and their

change w i t h time.
motion,

Observing,

I n c l u d e d are s t u d i e s of shapes,

symmetry,

an d r a t e of change.

3. C las sif yin g.

Classifying

is the p rocess u s e d to i m ­

po se o r d e r on c o l l e c t i o n s of o b j e c t s

a n d events.

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m s follow t h r e e i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i ­
ples:

They

are d e s i g n e d to b e useful;

164 I b i d ., pp.

33-125 .

they are arbitrary;

88

a n d a n y g r o u p s of o b j e c t s or events can b e c l a s s i f i e d in m o r e
than o n e way.
4.

Usi ng Numbers.

The

i n c l u s i o n of this p r o c e s s

is s ome wh at u n i q u e b e c a u s e it is u s u a l l y
mathematics

curriculum.

included only

in a

It is i n c l u d e d h e r e to h e l p stu d e n t s

r e a l i z e that the a b i l i t y to us e n u m b e r s
m e n t a l p roc ess of science;
to u s e n u m b e r s

in S A P A

is a b a s i c and f u n d a ­

and to g i v e p upils a n o p p o r t u n i t y

in f ind ing ans w e r s to s c i e n t i f i c q u e s t i o n s

in

real pr o b l e m situations.
5. M e a s u r i n g .

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d to u s i n g n u m b e r s

p r o c e s s of m e a s u r i n g .

M o d e r n s c i e n c e p r o g r a m s e m p h a s i z e the

us e of m e t r i c m e a s u r e m e n t .
linear,

area,

volume,

wo r d s ,

diagrams,

The s t u d e n t b e c o m e s

weight,

6 . C omm un i c a t i n g .
h u m a n endeavors.

is the

mass,

competent

in

and h e a t m e a s u r e m e n t s .

Communicating

is a p r o c e s s of all

In s c i e n c e it m a y b e w i t h o ral a n d w r i t t e n
graphs,

maps,

m a t h e m a t i c a l equations,

and

va rious k i n d s of vi sual de mon s t r a t i o n s .
7.

Predicting.

A p r e d i c t i o n is a s p e c i f i c

w h a t future o b s e r v a t i o n s w i l l be.
ti on of na tu r a l p h e n o m e n a has
u n i v e r s e is not capricious.
physical relationships

for ecast of

Lon g a nd c o n t i n u e d o b s e r v a ­

led m a n to c o n c l u d e that the
O n e t h e r e f o r e p r e d i c t s that the

i n f e r r e d w i l l c o n t i n u e to a p p l y

in

th e future.
8 . Inferring.
an d logical

" N o t h i n g is m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l to clear

t h o u g h t th an t he a b i l i t y to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

o b s e r v a t i o n an d i n f e r e n c e . ...

A n o b s e r v a t i o n is an e x p e r i e n c e

89

that, is o b t a i n e d th r o u g h o n e of the senses.

An

inference

is an e x p l a n a t i o n o f an o b s e r v a t i o n . " 165
The Integrated Scientific Processes166
T h e b a s i c p r o c e s s e s p r o v i d e a fo und a t i o n for the i n t e ­
g r a t e d processes.

Integrated processes

in v o l v e o n e or se ver al

of the b a s i c p r o c e s s e s

in their d evelopment.

s h ow n that on e or m o r e

i n t e g r a t e d pro ces ses u n i t e w i t h t h e

b a s i c pro ce s s e s to d e v e l o p a m o r e complex
1. C o n t r o l l i n g Variables.
t i fic i n v e s t i g a t i o n on e m u s t
variabl es.

It m a y al so b e

i n t e g r a t e d process.

When proceeding with scien­

i n t e n t l y s c r u t e n i z e all p o s s i b l e

O nly w h e n all v a r i a b l e s h a v e b e e n

i d e n t i f i e d and

c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d can one speak w i t h a u t h o r i t y about r e ­
sults.

T h r e e k i n d s of v a r i a b l e s a r e u s u a l l y

constant,
2.

ma nip ula tiv e,

and responding.

I n t e r p r e t i n g Data.

into three areas.

I n t e r p r e t i n g data c a n b e d i v i d e d

On e part is p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h d a t a

to m a k e inferences,

predictions,

a nd h y p o t he ses .

pa rt deals b a s i c a l l y w i t h d e v e l o p i n g skills
s t a t i s t i c a l m e a s u r e s of c e n t r a l t e n d e n c y
and variation

identified:

(range) .

Another

in th e us e of

(mean a n d medium)

The t h i r d part d e v e l o p s sk i l l s

in the

us e of probability.
3.

F o r m u l a t i n g Hypoth ese s.

a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t hat

165 I b i d . . p.
16 6I b i d . , pp.

S A P A d ef i n e s a h y p o t h e s i s as

includes all o bjects or

117.
129-176.

e v e n t s of the

90

sa me class.

H y p o t h e s e s m a y b e f o r m u l a t e d on t he b a s i s of

o b s e r v a t i o n or inference.
4. D e f i n i n g O per ati ona lly.

O p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s can

b e c o n s i d e r e d from t he s t a n d p o i n t of us e and formulation.
T h e i r use is fo und w h e n tes t i n g h y p o t h e s e s or in fer e n c e s and
their

formulation

in the c o n s t r u c t i o n of them.

P hys i c a l

s c i e n t i s t st a t e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s in the s e n s e of
"what y o u do and w h a t y o u o b s e r v e . "
5. E x p e r i m e n t i n g .

This final p r o c e s s e n c o m p a s s e s all

the b a s i c an d i n t e g r a t e d processes.
Summary
T h e r e v i e w of

lit era t u r e w a s d i v i d e d into

four parts.

Part o n e d e a l t d i r e c t l y w i t h a r e v i e w of c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p ­
ment.

S u b j e c t s t r e a t e d w e r e the h i s t o r y of c u r r i c u l u m t h o u g h t

and practice,

the d e v e l o p m e n t of s c i e n c e curricula,

science curriculum
and b a c k g r o u n d

development,

a t h e o r y of

a h i s t o r y of e a r t h science,

i n f o r m a t i o n to E a r t h Sci e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t

(E SCP ).
The r e v i e w of l i t e r a t u r e tha t r e l a t e d to a h i s t o r i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e of s c i e n c e ed uca tio n i n d i c a t e d t h a t m u c h of w h a t
is c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e and n o v e l today h a d its roots
ea rlier times.
identified
curriculum,

in

T h r e e p eri ods of c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t w e r e

in t w e n t i e t h ce ntu ry literature:
1890-1930;

subject-centered

c h i l d - c e n t e r e d curriculum,

a nd a s e c o n d s u b j e c t - c e n t e r e d curriculum,
on s t r u c t u r e of the discipline,

1950-1970.

1930-1950;

b u t w i t h emphasis
When

t racing

the

91

d e v e l o p m e n t o f s cie nce c u r r i c u l a sin ce 1800 a p r o g r e s s i o n o f
m o v e m e n t such as o b j e c t teaching,
learned discipline,

n a t u r e study,

s c i e n c e for h a p p y living,

s cie nce as a

and science as

a st ruc t u r a l d i s c i p l i n e c o u l d b e included.
Of p a r t i c u l a r

i m p o r t a n c e to this study w a s

the r e c o g n i ­

t i o n of p r o c e s s as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the s c i e n c e structure.
Process,

as w e l l as product,

of science,

the v e r b a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e asp ect

g ave rise to a p e r c e p t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a l l e d

" s tru c t u r e of science."

S t r u c t u r e g a v e r i s e to selection of

a small n u m b e r of s i g n i f i c a n t c o n c e p t u a l s c h e m e s w h i c h w e r e
then used to g i v e unity to the subject,

and f rom w h i c h s u p ­

p o r t i n g c o n c e p t s and p r o c e s s e s w e r e hung.
Th is study foc use d o n a p a r t i c u l a r
program,

i n n o v a t i v e science

the Earth S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m Project.

ESCP had

e x p e r i e n c e d p h e n o m e n a l g r o w t h s i n c e its c o n c e p t i o n in 1962.
It p r e s e n t e d a m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n e a p p r o a c h to s t u d y of the
earth.

It p r e s e n t e d a s t u d e n t e x p e r i e n c e - o r i e n t e d ap proach

w h i c h e m p h a s i z e d inquiry,

discovery,

a nd i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

s t u d e n t - o b t a i n e d data.
A d i s c u s s i o n of c u r r i c u l u m e v a l u a t i o n f o r m e d part two
of the study.

A re v i e w of l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to ESCP w as

d e v e l o p e d in part three.

Studies

possibly b e a better program

s u g g e s t e d t h a t ESCP m i g h t

for t e a c h i n g e a r t h science,

but

teacher and /or s t u d e n t v a r i a b l e s w e r e an e q u a l l y s i g n i fic ant
factor to b e considered.
Part four p r e s e n t e d a b r i e f d e f i n i t i o n of t h e thi rteen
processes

i n c l u d e d in S c i e n c e — A P r o c e s s A p p r o a c h .

C H A P T E R III
F E A T U R E S OF T H E STU DY
D e s i g n of t he S t u d y
As s t a t e d in Ch a p e r I,

the p u r p o s e o f this study

w a s to d e v e l o p a set of p r o c e d u r e s to s e r v e as a g u i d e for
m e a s u r i n g th e impact of c u r r i c u l u m implementation,
w o u l d b e a d a p t a b l e by m o s t sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s
subjects.

T h e wr i t e r

which

for ma ny s c h o o l

i ntends that this g u i d e b e s u f f i c i e n t l y

c o m p r e h e n s i v e to p r e s e n t an a d e q u a t e p i c t u r e of how a n e w
c u r r i c u l u m a f f e p t e d the s t u d e n t body,

a n d y e t be s i m p l e

e n o u g h so it c o u l d be u t i l i z e d by a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w h o s e
chief m a n p o w e r

for e v a l u a t i o n was

that o f tea che rs and

c u r r i c u l u m director.
W h e n p l a n n i n g this s t u d y c o n s i d e r a t i o n w as

first g i v e n

to an a p p r o a c h in w h i c h c o n t r o l groups w i t h m u l t i p l e t r e a t ­
m e n t s over s e v e r a l p o p u l a t i o n s w o u l d b e utilized.

S u c h an

e v a l u a t i o n t e c h n i q u e a s s u m e d th at newly i m p l e m e n t e d c u r r i c u ­
lum and former c u r r i c u l u m h a d
therefore identical measures
populations.

the same s t a t e d goals a n d
could b e a d m i n i s t e r e d to t h e two

It further a s s u m e d that t h e p o p u l a t i o n w i t h

the

hi g h e r s c o r e co uld be j u d g e d as h a v i n g t h e b e t t e r cu rri cul um.
C e r t a i n l y the y m i g h t b e d iff ere nt.

92

How eve r,

it w o u l d b e

93

e x t r e m e l y h a z a r d o u s to ju d g e one c u r r i c u l u m b e t t e r t h a n
an oth er

from s u c h evidence.

C o m p a r i s o n of s e v e r a l of t h e

ne w p rograms w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l c u r r i c u l u m q u i c k l y d e m o n s t r a t e d
this.

These innovative programs presented drastically d i f ­

ferent g o a l s than former

curricula.

T h e r e f o r e the c o n c e p t

of b e t t e r a p p e a r e d to b e

i n a p p r o p r i a t e u s i n g these criteria.

O n e r ather ne e d e d to s e a r c h the l i t e r a t u r e for o p i n i o n s of
w h a t experts c o n s i d e r e d p r e f e r r e d aims of a d i s c i p l i n e area.
O n e then n e e d e d to c h o o s e a p ro g r a m that p u r p o r t e d to h i g h ­
light these p r e f e r r e d goals,

and test to se e how suc h a p r o ­

gram was a c t u a l l y a f f e c t i n g the st u d e n t population.
It t h e r e f o r e b e c a m e the m a j o r
at te m p t such a set of procedures,
the g u i d e c o u l d b e u t i l i z e d b y
at the local school d i s t r i c t
As s t a t e d in C h a p t e r

thr u s t o f this stu dy to
w i t h the e x p e c t a t i o n tha t

future c u r r i c u l u m e v a l u a t o r s

level.

I th e s e l e c t i o n o f the s t u d e n t as

t h e unit of a n a l y s i s —r e d u c e d the v a l i d i t y of this s t u d y s inc e
t h e r e n e c e s s a r i l y was
each classroom.
d i d not a l l o w
analysis.

interaction between students wi t h i n

C o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n the C a r m a n Sc h o o l D i s t r i c t

indivi dua l c l a s s r o o m s to b e c o m e the u n i t for

It should also b e st a t e d that a m a j o r c o n c e r n

in

this study w a s to look at in div i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s t u ­
dents.

U s i n g the c l a s s r o o m as the unit o f a n a l y s i s w o u l d not

h a v e a l l o w e d this k i n d of investigation.
D e v e l o p m e n t of the g u i d e c o v e r e d t h r e e gen eral stages.
1.

In or de r to d e t e r m i n e h o w the c u r r i c u l u m m i g h t a f f e c t

th e tar g e t population,

v a r i o u s areas w i t h i n the s u b j e c t

94

d i s c i p l i n e w e r e a n a l y z e d as p o s s i b l e r e g i o n s

for evaluation.

S e l e c t i o n o f i n t e r e s t area s w a s d e p e n d e n t u p o n m a j o r c h a r ­
a c t e r i s t i c s o f the c u r r i c u l u m program.
a r eas w e r e chosen,

O n c e the i nte r e s t

m e a s u r e s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d for a d m i n i s t r a ­

t i o n to the students.

Whenever

possible,

prepared measures

w h i c h w e r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e an d c o m m o n l y k n o w n w e r e used.
C a r m a n t e a c h e r s r e p o r t e d their p r e v i o u s
program produced negative attitudes

earth s c i e n c e

in students.

ESCP was

p r o p o s e d as a c u r r i c u l u m t h a t w o u l d g e n e r a t e stu d e n t enthusiasm,
r a i s e a t t i t u d e levels t o w a r d the subject,

a nd g e n e r a l l y p r o ­

d u c e a happier, m o r e c o n g e n i a l c l a s sr oom situation.

A te st of

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s c i e n c e wa s

ch o s e n to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r

h y p o t h e s i s a p p e a r e d valid.

V a r i o u s a t t i t u d e s cales w e r e s u r ­

veyed.

this

A s c a l e d e v e l o p e d for m e a s u r i n g a t t i t u d e t o w a r d any

s u b j e c t was u s e d since it a p p e a r e d s u f f i c i e n t l y s i m p l e for
junior high s t u d e n t s and y e t d e m o n s t r a t e d a h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y
(Chapter III,

p age s

104 to

106).

Th e last d e c a d e has s e e n an i n c r e a s i n g
s c i e n c e as process.

in ter est

Th e e m e r g e n c e of p r o c e s s

in

as an int e g r a l

p a r t of s c i e n c e w as m a r k e d as on e of th e o u t s t a n d i n g d e v e l o p ­
m e n t s of this

latter h a l f century.

In l ine w i t h this trend,

E S C P has a l s o e m p h a s i z e d t h e processes,
p r o d u c t s of s c i e n t i f i c e n d e a v o r
was

as w e l l as the

(Chapter IX,

pa ge

61 ) .

It

further n o t e d that S c i e n c e — A P r o c e s s A p p r o a c h h a d b e e n

i n t r o d u c e d as t h e K-6 p r o g r a m w i t h i n the C a r m a n S ch o o l District.
In v i s w of t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s a m e a s u r e of s t u d e n t a c h i e v e m e n t
in sci enc e p r o c e s s skills w a s

c o n s i d e r e d vital.

95

T O S K I and II
u s e as m e a s u r e s

(Chapter

II,

for t e s t i n g a c h i e v e m e n t in process

N e i t h e r m e a s u r e qualified.
tu al

page 71) w e r e c o n s i d e r e d for

information

skills.

T O S K I m e a s u r e d ge n e r a l b a s i c

in all a r e a s of g e n e r a l

fac­

sc ience an d T O S K II

m e a s u r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of b o t h s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p a l s and
methods.
ment.

It w a s t h e r e f o r e d e c i d e d to c o n s t r u c t a ne w i n s t r u ­

This w r i t e r

t h e r e f o r e c h o s e to a d a p t from two ad ult

m e a s u r e s and o n e e l e m e n t a r y m e a s u r e of pro ces s tha t w e r e
available

(Chapter III,

pages

As s t a t e d previously,

106 to 108).

E S C P listfed as part of

its ov era ll

o b j e c t i v e s the d e v e l o p m e n t of o r g a n i z e d s c i e n t i f i c
(Chapter II,

pages

61 to 62).

Te ac h e r

s t u d e n t s was m e a s u r e d l a r g e l y on this
1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 s c h o o l year.

in f o r m a t i o n

evaluation of Carman
c r i t e r i o n d u r i n g the

O b j e c t i v e s as e x p r e s s e d b y C a r m a n

t e a c h e r s r e f l e c t e d content as a m a j o r concern.

It w a s c o n ­

s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y that a m e a s u r e of c o n t e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e
i n c l u d e d in th e study.
Four m e a s u r e s of v e r b a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e w e r e a v a i l a b l e for
u s e in this p a r t of the study:
Final

(Chapter

(Chapter III,

III,
page

pa ge
109).

111),
As

T O S K I an d II,

a Comprehensive

and F i v e Unit A c h i e v e m e n t Tests

stated before,

this w r i t e r

a t t e m p t e d to u s e m a t e r i a l s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e and c o m m o n l y
known.

T O S K I a n d II d i d not fit this descript ion .

They also

f a i l e d to m e e t t h o s e s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s n e e d e d for a test
of u n d e r s t a n d i n g of earth s c i e n c e concepts.

S i n c e the latter

t w o i ns t r u m e n t s w e r e i n c l u d e d in the te ach er g u i d e t hey

96

r e c e i v e d preference.

T h e E S C F C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l w as s p e c i ­

fically d e s i g n e d as a p o s t - t e a t .
w o u l d b e suspect.

Its u s e as a fall pr e- t e s t

T h e F i v e Units A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t s w e r e c h o s e n

since it a p p e a r e d they w o u l d serve w e l l as a p o o l
q u est ion s
ment.

from w h i c h

c o u l d b e s e l e c t e d for a s i n g l e a c h i e v e m e n t

instru­

T h i s m e a s u r e w o u l d d i s c r i m i n a t e w e l l y e t c o u l d be used

as b o t h a pr e- a n d post-test.
It w a s of int e r e s t to this inv e s t i g a t o r to c o m p a r e the
C a r m a n students*

a c h i e v e m e n t w i t h s o m e standard.

A nat i o n a l

sample t a k e n in 1964-1965 b y the P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o r p o r a t i o n
(Chapter II,

p ages 68 to 73)

p r o v i d e d such an op p o r t u n i t y .

A t this tim e the C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l m e n t i o n e d a b o v e was used.
T h e r e f o r e th e C o m p r e h e n s i v e Final u s e d b y this g r o u p was
a d m i n i s t e r e d to the C a r m a n st ude nts
2.

at the end of the year.

T h e second s t a g e r e q u i r e d s e l e c t i o n of v a r i a b l e s

be built

into the test design.

T h o s e we re s e l e c t e d w h i c h

showed p r o m i s e as ind ica tor s of s t r e n g t h s and w e a k n e s s amo ng
the s t u d e n t body.
ESCP
Ho wev er

is an i n n o v a t i v e a p p r o a c h to te ach ing e a r t h science.

the ESCP t r e a t m e n t of s u b j e c t ma t t e r

s o p h i s t i c a t e d level of u n d e r sta ndi ng.
behaviors

is at a ra the r

I n d i v i d u a l e nte r i n g

s e e m e d a p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n t variable.

Ca r m a n D i s t r i c t h a d no records of achievement,
I.Q.

for their students,

average

S i n c e the

attitude,

or

it wa s d e c i d e d to us e g r a d e poi nt

in s c i e n c e from the p r e v i o u s year as a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

v a r i a b l e for this e n t e r i n g b eha vio r.

to

97

An other c o n s i d e r a t i o n r e l a t e d to sex.

Th e P s y c h o l o g i c a l

T e s t i n g C o r p o r a t i o n stu dy s u g g e s t e d h i g h e r p e r f o r m a n c e for
boys

than for g i r l s

(Chapter II,

page

).

Carman teachers

r e g a r d e d sex as a p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e w i t h i n t hei r
s t u d e n t populat ion .

It was

t h e r e f o r e d e c i d e d that sex d i f f e r ­

ences should b e considered.
Studies b y
76 to

79)

ing style,

Pauli,

Shirner,

and S a r g e n t

(Chapter II,

s u g g e s t e d the t e a c h e r v a r i a b l e as important.
experience,

p o s s i b l e factors.

pages
Teach­

and a c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d w e r e l i s t e d as

It was t h e r e f o r e of i n t e r e s t to d e t e r m i n e

if e v i d e n c e c o u l d b e o b t a i n e d to i n d i c a t e t e a c h e r d i f f e r e n c e s
as factors a f f e c t i n g st udent c h a n g e in t h e C a r m a n S c h o o l
Distr ict.
3.

T he l a s t stage was d e s i g n e d to i n t e r p r e t test r e s u l t s

in a d i a g n o s t i c manner.

A

list of ki n d s

of

in f o r m a t i o n tha t

m i g h t b e u s e f u l to h e l p d i a g n o s e the r e s u l t s w as developed.
Various survey

instrume nts w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d to gather t h e

r e q u i r e d information.
Since t h e teacher v a r i a b l e m i g h t b e a f f e c t e d by s u c h
factors as t e a c h i n g approach,
ground,

experience,

and a cad emi c b a c k ­

i n s t r ume nts w e r e d e s i g n e d to g a t h e r p r o b a b l e s i g n i f i ­

cant data.

This

inv e s t i g a t o r was

l i m i t e d to the a m o u n t of

t i m e he c o u l d s p e n d in d i r e c t c l a s s r o o m o b s e rv ati on.
fore,

There­

i n s t r u men ts w e r e d e s i g n e d to h e l p i n t e r p r e t d a i l y

cl ass r o o m routine.

S inc e p r o c e s s e s are an

imp or t a n t p a r t of

a n i n q u i r y - o r i e n t a t e d s c i e n c e pr o g r a m e v i d e n c e was g a t h e r e d

98

to as s e s s

ex pos ure to t h e s e processes.

Other r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a ­

ti on w as s o l i c i t e d t h r o u g h the u s e o f e n d - o f-y ear q u e s t i o n n a i r e s .
Some G e n e r a l C o m p o n e n t s A f f e c t i n g the
Carman School District
T h e C a r m a n School District,
classed,

Flint, M i c h i g a n wa s a m i d d l e

p r i n c i p a l l y b l u e collared,

white community lying w i t h ­

in the b o u n d a r i e s of th e F l i n t S c h o o l District.

Major

indus­

tries w i t h i n the area g e n e r a l l y r e l a t e d to a u t o m o b i l e p r o d u c ­
tion.
D u r i n g the p r e v i o u s

s chool ye ar

the junior h i g h p o p u l a t i o n

ha d b e e n h o u s e d in t h r e e w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d buildi ngs .

A major

m i l l a g e p r o p o s a l was d e f e a t e d b y the c o n s t i t u e n t s of the
D i s t r i c t five w e e k s pr i o r to o p e n i n g of classes

in 1970.

This r e d u c t i o n of funds f orced the D i s t r i c t to c los e its
junior h i g h school b u i l d i n g s and m o v e
schools.

into the two s enior h i g h

T h e two h i g h sc hool s w i l l b e coded Y and Z d u r i n g

the r e m a i n d e r of this report.
s c h e d u l e s w i t h grades

T h e s e w e r e put on hal f day

ten th rough tw e l v e m e e t i n g in the m o r n ­

ing a nd g r a d e s seven thr o u g h n i n e m e e t i n g d u r i n g the afternoon.
An additional problem
requirements

faced the D i s t r i c t w h e n b u d g e t

forced th e r e l e a s e of a l m o s t on e h u n d r e d teachers,

k i n d e r g a r t e n thr oug h g r a d e twelve.
w a s b a s e d u pon teacher seniority,

D e t e r m i n a t i o n for d i s m i s s a l
r e s u l t i n g in some t e a c h e r s

b e i n g a s k e d to instruct in d i s c i p l i n e s for w h i c h

they w e r e

n o t e f f e c t i v e l y trained.
Population.
Sc h o o l District,

T h e ei g h t h g r a d e st ude nts of the C a r m a n
1970-1971,

w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d in the Earth

99

Science Curriculum

Pro jec t

tion for this study.
students

(ESCP)

program,

f or m e d t h e p o p u l a ­

T h e group c o n s i s t e d o f a t o t a l of 634

in 23 c lasses under t he d i r e c t i o n of s e v e n teachers.

Th e s u b - p o p u l a t i o n

from which s a m p l e s for a n a l y s i s w e r e

chosen c o n s i s t e d o f 194 students u n d e r the d i r e c t i o n of five
teachers.

E i g h t y - f o u r students w e r e se lec ted for analysis on

three m e a s u r e s across time,

and 17 9 stu den ts p a r t i c i p a t e d in

an a n a l y s i s on a s i n g l e post-measure.
of t h e s e samples

is f o u n d on pages

S e l e c t i o n of T e x t b o o k s .
Pr oject

(ESCP)

A further d i s c u s s i o n

112 to

114 a nd page

116.

The Earth Science Curriculum

was d e v e l o p e d by t h e A m e r i c a n G e o l o g i c a l I n s t i ­

tute to fa cil ita te lea rning of e a r t h sci enc e at th e junior
h i g h level.

P roj ect m a t e r i a l s

i n c l u d e d a t e a c h i n g package

c o n s i s t i n g of m a n i p u l a t i v e apparatus,

visual aids,

v a r i o u s models.

i n t e gra ted w i t h the

textbook.

These materials wer e

and

I n v e s t i g a t i n g the E a r t h , 1 to form a t e a c h i n g unit

in w h i c h l abo ra t o r y

inv es t i g a t i o n s w e r e r e l a t e d to textual

presentation.
E a c h earth s c i e n c e teacher at schools Y and Z ha d s u f ­
fi cient copies of In ves t i g a t i n g the Earth for c l a s s r o o m use
only.

Two C arm an t e a c h e r s also h a d su ffi c i e n t copies of

M o d e r n Ea r t h S c i e n c e 3 for c l a s s r o o m use.

W h i l e t h e s e two

1I n v e s t i g a t i n g the E a r t h , o p . c i t .
aW i l l i a m L. R a m s e y and R a y m o n d A. Burckley,
S c i e n c e (New York:
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,

Modern Earth
Inc., 1965).

100

se r i e s

could b e c o n s i d e r e d b a s i c texts,

it s h o u l d b e u n d e r ­

s t o o d tha t s t u d e n t s u s e d them as c l a s s r o o m r e f e r e n c e s to
s u p p l e m e n t l e c t u r e and d emon str ati ons ,

an d to a i d i n v e s t i g a ­

tions .
S e l e c t i o n of C l a s s e s .
in t w o buildi ngs .
in t h e study.

E i g h t p e r s o n s t a u g h t earth s c i e n c e

F i v e t e a c h e r s w e r e ch o s e n to p a r t i c i p a t e

T h r e e of the five h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d in an ea rth

s c i e n c e summer w o r k s h o p at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y d u r i n g
th e su mme r of 1970 and h a d prior
science.

O n e of t h e s e three h a d p i l o t e d ESCP d u r i n g the

p r e v i o u s year.
workshop.
work

e x p e r i e n c e t e a c h i n g earth

T w o of the five d i d not p a r t i c i p a t e

O n e h a d prior

in earth science.

p i l o t e d the program,

in the

e x p e r i e n c e and wa s d o i n g g r a d u a t e
Thi s teacher,

and the t e a c h e r w h o h a d

elected to u se M o d e r n E a r t h S c i e n c e as

th e m a j o r stu dent r e f e r e n c e and I n v e s t i g a t i n q the E a r t h as
su ppl eme nta l.

Laboratory experiences were generally chosen

from I n v e s t i g a t i n g the E a r t h to e n a b l e the s t u d e n t s to use
t h e c l a s s r o o m ESC P kits.
T h e fifth tea cher h a d no p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h ear th
science,

b u t was s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e she h a d t a u g h t b i o l o g y the

tw o p r e v i o u s ye ars
were omitted

and h e l d a m a s t e r ' s degree.

from t h e study,

one because he was

s t r u c t o r t r a n s f e r r e d to e a r t h science,

T h r e e tea c h e r s
a music

i n­

a n o t h e r b e c a u s e it wa s

o r i g i n a l l y p l a n n e d that he w o u l d a s s i s t on a p a r t - t i m e basis,
an d t he e ighth s i n c e h e p r e f e r r e d not to t e a c h u s i n g ESCP.
F r o m the r e m a i n i n g tw e n t y E S C P c las ses s e v e n w e r e c h o s e n
to p a r t i c i p a t e in t he study.

O n e class wa s s e l e c t e d from each

101

of the t e a c h e r s u s i n g M o d e r n E a r t h S c i e n c e an d the r e m a i n i n g
five c l a s s e s

from I n v e s t i g a t i n g th e E a r t h .

s e l e c t e d from Y and three from Z.

F o u r c las ses w e r e

This d e c i s i o n was b a s e d

upon a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t u d e n t s b e t w e e n the
two build ing s,
experience,

a c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d of teachers,

n umber of classes

teaching

t a u g h t and b a s i c t e x t b o o k used.

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e s e v e n cla sse s w a s a r b i t r a r y w i t h i n
the limits

stated above.

N o a t t e m p t wa s m a d e to select

classes b a s e d upon st ud e n t a b i l i t y or te ach er

performance.

A s c h e d u l e that e n c o m p a s s e d the total sc h o o l day was u sed as
th e criterion.
students

T a b l e 3.1 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of th e 194

in the s e v e n classes

i n c l u d e d in th e sample.

Th e Gat es M a c G i n i t i e R e a d i n g Tests and t he O t i s Qui ckSc ori ng M e n t a l A b i l i t y Tests w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d to all classes
in the sam p l e d u r i n g February,
in r e a d i n g and I.Q.

1971 to a s s e s s

Student responses

indicated a mean

vocabulary reading

level of 8.0 a nd a m e a n

ing level of 7.5.

Th e m e a n I.Q.

D e s c r i p t i o n of C l a s s r o o m s .
portable

comprehension read­

for the g r o u p was

105.

C l a s s r o o m s A an d B w e r e

" t r a i l e r - h o u s e " u n i t s p l a c e d w i t h i n close p r o x i m i t y

to the m a i n b uil ding.
sink or w a t e r
laboratory

T h e s e sma ll

t e a c h i n g units p r o v i d e d no

s u p p l y a nd h a d no tables

investigations.

for g r o u p w o r k or

A n o f f i c e d e s k near the front of

th e r o o m served as th e t eacher desk.
minimal.

s t u d e n t levels

C h a l k b o a r d s p a c e was

102

T A B L E 3 .1
D I S T R I B U T I O N O F C L A S S E S USED IN E S C P E V A L U A T I O N
CA B R A N SC H O O L DISTRICT, FLINT, MICHIGAN,
19 70-1971

H i a h School Y

H i uh Sch o o l Z
Room

A
Fi rst
Hour

B

C

D

Ci
x**

Di

25

29

C

A
M*
23#

Second
Hour

B
M
23

Third
Hour

1

Home
Room
Fourth
Ho ur

Fifth
Hour

c2

E

I

1

32

34
Da
1
28

Note:

C a p i t a l letters A t h r o u g h E i n d i c a t e t eacher and
classrooms
Ci, C 2 s a m e teacher
Di, D 2 sa me teacher
*M ind ica tes M o d e r n E a r t h S c i e n c e
**1 in dic ate s I n v e s t i g a t i n g the E a r t h
^ n u m e r a l ind icates s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t
A v e r a g e class t i m e — 42 m i n u t e s
A v e r a g e class s i z e — 27.7

103

C l a s s r o o m C was a s e v e n t y - f i v e student,
lecture hall.

t hea ter type,

L a b o r a t o r y s e s s i o n s for this c l a s s r o o m w e r e

h e l d in a w e l l - e q u i p p e d h i g h school c h e m i s t r y l a b o r a t o r y
across the hallway.
T h e f our th classroom,
chairs.

D, h o u s e d e i g h t w o r k t a b l e s w i t h

A te aching l a b o r a t o r y table w i t h sink w a s

loc a t e d

at the f r o n t of the room an d a p r e p a r a t o r y a l c o v e lay a d j a ­
cent to it.

T h e fifth classroom,

E, w a s

similar

to D, b u t

h a d no t e a c h i n g l abo rat ory table.
E a c h c l a s s r o o m was p r o v i d e d w i t h its own set of ESCP
k i t m a t e r i a l s and texts.
for reference,

E a c h ro om w as

to h a v e h a d texts

a lt hou gh t h e s e p r o v e d to b e inadequate.

E x p e r i m e n t a l and D e s c r i p t i v e Phases
of St udy
This

investigation

involved two d i s t i n c t p h a s e s .

Par t

on e of the e x p e r i m e n t a l ph ase r e q u i r e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of preand p o s t - t e s t s
ment.

to d e t e r m i n e student c h a n g e f o l l o w i n g t r e a t ­

V a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d to s tud ent s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y in

science,

s t u d e n t ' s sex,

an d t e a c h e r - c l a s s r o o m d i f f e r e n c e s

w e r e c o n s i d e r e d on three m e a s u r e s over time.

Part two of the

e x p e r i m e n t a l ph ase used a si n g l e i nst ru m e n t d u r i n g th e last
w e e k of school.
T h e s e c o n d phase e m p l o y e d the use o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s and
teacher-logs.

This d e s c r i p t i v e p h a s e a t t e m p t e d to s u r v e y

text c o n t e n t covered,
p r oce ss skills,

te ach er reactions,

teacher background,

an aly sis of s c i e n c e

an d stu dent r eactions.

104

E x p e r i m e n t a l P h a s e - - D i s c u s s i o n of I n s t r u m e n t s .
A u g u s t 1970,

Late in

t he i n v e s t i g a t o r m e t w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p e r s o n ­

nel to d iscuss t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of e v a l u a t i o n tec hni que s
for e i g h t h - g r a d e E S C P students.

A subsequent meeting which

in clu ded ESCP t e a c h i n g p e r s o n n e l s u g g e s t e d a t e n t a t i v e c alendar
for testing.

T h e fo llo win g m e a s u r e s w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d as pre-

an d p o s t - t e s t d u r i n g the research:
1. A t t i t u d e T o w a r d Science,
2.

Process M e a s u r e for J u n i o r H i g h S c h o o l Students,

and

3. E S C P A c h i e v e m e n t Test.
A t t i t u d e T o w a r d Science.

T o a s c e r t a i n s t u d e n t a tti t u d e

t o w a r d sc ie n c e t he wr i t e r a d a p t e d a g e n e r a l i z e d m a s t e r
d e v e l o p e d b y S i l a n c e and Remnters.3

This s c a l e w a s d e s i g n e d

to m e a s u r e a t t i t u d e t oward an y s c h o o l s u b j e c t
page 200).

scale

(Appendix C,

It w a s b a s e d on the p r e m i s e t hat v a l i d me asu rem ent ,

on a s i n g l e scale,

could b e m a d e of a t t i t u d e s

t o w a r d any l arg e

class of o b j e c t s .
Th e scale v a l u e s m a d e use of the T h u r s t o n e 4 equala p pea ri ng- i nte rva ls w h e r e b y an e l e v e n point

s c a l e ex ten d e d

from c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n t to c o m p l e t e d i s a g r e e m e n t . 5

However,

3H. H- Remitters and N. L. Gage, E d u c a t i o n M e a s u r e m e n t a n d
E v a l u a t i o n (New York:
H arper and Brothers, 1954), p. 437.
4 Louis L. T h u r s t o n e and E r n e s t J. Chave, T h e M e a s u r e m e n t
of A t t i t u d e s (Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1929),
p. 96.
sM a r v i n E. S h a w and J a c h M. Wright, S c a l e s for M e a s u r e ­
m e n t o f A t t i t u d e s (New York:
M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k Company, 1967),
p. 293.

105

the s c a l e d i f f e r e d from that of T h u r s t o n e ' s

in t h a t a random

order o f s t a t e m e n t s w a s not used.

the sta tem ent s

Instead,

a p p e a r e d in a d e s c e n d i n g a r r a n g e m e n t from h i g h l y

favorable

to h i g h l y unfavorable.
Tw o e q u i v a l e n t s c a l e forms w e r e produced.

Ea ch form

wa s a v a i l a b l e as a f o r t y- fiv e or s e v e n t e e n item scale.

The

investig ato r c h o s e to use o n e form of f o r t y- fiv e items for
both

the p r e — an d p ost -t e s t s s i n c e S h a w 6 c o n s i d e r e d these

forms m o r e r e l i a b l e t h a n the s horter forms.

It w as not c o n ­

s i d e r e d b e n e f i c i a l to use e q u i v a l e n t forms s i n c e th e time
span b e t w e e n p r e — and p o s t — tests was ove r s e v e n m o n t h s long,
and stu dents d i d n ot see the r e s u l t s of either measure.
Reliabilities
ing courses:
English,

.68

for the s c a l e were^ r e p o r t e d for the f o l l o w ­

biology,

.81

( N - 2 6 0 ) ; chemistry,

(N-705); mathem atic s,

.74

.71

(N-579).7

(N- 7 7 1 ) ;
Bol ton

(193 8 ) 0 v a l i d a t e d this s cale u s i n g cr ite rio n g r o u p s m e a s u r e d
for

interest a n d values.

Strunk

(1957)9 a d v a n c e d some e v i ­

d e n c e of c o n c u r r e n t v a l i d i t y w h e n h e o b t a i n e d a c o r r e l a t i o n of
.39 b e t w e e n this s c a l e and scores of 130 s u b j e c t s on a g r a p h i c
r a t i n g scale of e x p r e s s i o n of

6I b i d ., p.

294.

7 I b i d ., p.

294.

interest

in a p s y c h o l o g y course.

aE. B. Bolton, "The M e a s u r e m e n t of A t t i t u d e s Tow ard
M a t h e m a t i c s , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g r a m s , L (1938), pp. 155-182.
90. Strunk, Jr., " Attitude T o w a r d P s y c h o l o g y as a F a c t o r
in t he J u d g m e n t o f R e a d a b i l i t y o f a P s y c h o l o g y T e x t b o o k , "
P r o c . , W. Va.
A c a d e m y of Science. X X I X (1957-1958), pp. 175179.

106

Th e n a m e of the a t t i t u d e object,
w a s p l a c e d at th e top o f the scale.

in this c a s e science,
Adaptation was

limited

to c h a n g i n g c e r t a i n w o r d s or ph ras es to b e m o r e s u i t a b l e
for junior h i g h students.
The s t u d e n t r e s p o n d e d b y p l a c i n g a check m a r k
to each s t a t e m e n t w i t h w h i c h h e agreed,
each w i t h w h i c h h e disagreed,
for w h i c h h e w as uncertain.

a cross

and q u e s t i o n m a r k

(x)

(/) next
next to

(?) b y each

S c o r i n g was a c c o m p l i s h e d b y

d e t e r m i n i n g the m e d i a n of the sc a l e values e n d o r s e d b y the
respondent.
T h e P r o c e s s M e a s u r e for Ju n i o r H i g h School Students.
This m e a s u r e

(Appendix D,

pag e 206)

v e s t ig ato r u sing p o r t i o n s o f
m e n t a r y T e a c h e r s , " 10

w a s ada pte d b y

"Science Process T e s t

t he in­
for E l e ­

"Scien ce P r o c e s s M e a s u r e for Teache rs, "

F o r m s A a nd B , 11 " I n d i v idu al C o m p e t e n c y M e a s u r e s , " 13 and
q u e s t i o n s d e v e l o p e d b y t he writer.
Te n q u e s t i o n s w e r e ada p t e d from th e "Science Process
Te st for E l e m e n t a r y Teachers."'

T h i s u n p u b l i s h e d t e s t was a

forty item m u l t i p l e c h o i c e test d e s i g n e d to m e a s u r e process
skills s u c h as those e m p h a s i z e d in S c i e n c e - - A P r o c e s s A p p r o a c h .

10E v a n A. Sweetzer, "Science Pro ces s Test for E l e m e n t a r y
T e a c he rs" (3rd Edition) raicmeographed (East Lansing, Michigan:
S c i e n c e - M a t h e m a t i c s T e a c h i n g Center, M i c h i g a n S t a t e University,
1968).
11S c i e n c e Process M e a s u r e for T e a c h e r s , F o r m s A and B
(Washington, D.C.:
A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n for t h e A d v a n c e m e n t
of Science, 1967).
12U n p u b l i s h e d tests d e v e l o p e d b y D arr el W. F y f f e and
R i c h a r d R o b i s o n (East Lansing, M i c h i g a n :
M i c h i g a n Sta te
University, 1970).

107

S w e e t z e r r e p o r t e d an item a n a l y s i s
e n c e d t e a c h e r s . 13
cient

for two g r o u p s of e x p e r i ­

T he K u d e r R i c h a r d s o n r e l i a b i l i t y coeffit-

for t he first g r o u p o f f o r t y - n i n e was 0.65.

The

r e l i a b i l i t y for t he s e c o n d g r o u p of o ne h u n d r e d t h i r t e e n w a s
0 .76.
" S c i e n c e P roc ess M e a s u r e for Tea chers" w a s an i n s t r u ­
m e n t d e s i g n e d to e v a l u a t e t e a c h e r s w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d
S c i e n c e — A P rocess A p p r o a c h wo rks hop s.

in

It a t t e m p t e d to

m e a s u r e t e a c h e r ' s a b i l i t y to u n d e r s t a n d the e i g h t b a s i c
p r o c e s s e s d e f i n e d in th e p r o g r a m . 14
from th e u s u a l e v a l u a t i o n s i n c e

This i n s t r u m e n t d i f f e r e d

it r e q u i r e d the r e s p o n d e n t

to a c t u a l l y w o r k t h r o u g h e xamp les of p r o c e s s e s r a t h e r than
s i m p l y i n d i c a t e a c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e to a m u l t i p l e choice.
It wa s

t h e r e f o r e a s s u m e d such a m e a s u r e w o u l d d i s p l a y a truer

d i m e n s i o n of the t e a c h e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the processes.
A m a j o r p o r t i o n of the

investigator's

instrument was adapted

from t h e s e tests.
Th e
Ch ild ren "

"Sc ien ce Pro ces s M e a s u r e for E l e m e n t a r y School
w as d e v e l o p e d b y two d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t s as an a t t e m p t

to c r e a t e m u l t i p l e c h o i c e test q u e s t i o n s

for the i n t e g r a t e d

13S t e v e n M. Barnes, "The R e a c t i o n s of S e l e c t e d E l e m e n t a r y
T e a c h e r s to the T r a i n i n g for a nd I m p l e m e n t a t i o n of S c i e n c e
C u r r i c u l u m I m p r o v e m e n t S t u d y in S e l e c t e d S c h o o l s in M i c h i g a n "
(u npu bli she d Ph.D. dissertation. C o l l e g e o f Education,
M i c h i g a n S t a t e University, 1969), p. 56.
14A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t he t h i r t e e n p r o c e s s e s
fo u n d in C h a p t e r II, pages 86 to 90.

is

108

science processes

as d e f i n e d b y S c i e n c e — A

Process A p p r o a c h .15

T h e s e q u e s t i o n s w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d to e l o n e n t a r y c h i l d r e n
from the g r e a t e r

Lansing, M ich iga n,

d i f f i c u l t y an d di s c r i m i n a t i o n .

area,

This

the w r i t e r w h e n s e l e c t i n g q u e s t i o n s
Th e w r i t e r ' s

pr oc e s s measure,

information was used by
for the C a r m a n students.

a p a r t i a l c o m p i l a t i o n of

parts of th e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d tests,
s t r o n g e s t a sp e c t s

a nd a n a l y z e d for

from each of them.

a t t e m p t e d to s oli c i t the
It was d e c i d e d to c o n ­

struct a nd a d m i n i s t e r a si n g l e form o f the m e a s u r e b e c a u s e of
the t i m e lapse b e t w e e n
.87 and

.78 wa s

tests.

A r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t of

e s t a b l i s h e d for the pre- and p o s t - t e s t s

r e s p e c t i v e l y u s i n g t he fo llo w i n g
m s r

-

formula:

m s rc

msr

r
MSr
MS-,_

=r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t
=m e a n s q u a r e subject s
=m e a n s q u a r e i n t e r a c t i o n
test i t e m s .1 6

C o n t e n t v a l i d i t y wa s
s e n t i n g m e a s u r e to Dr.
Services,

b e t w e e n s u b j e c t s and

e s t a b l i s h e d as s a t i s f a c t o r y b y p r e ­

C l a r e n c e Nelson,

M i c h i g a n S t a t e University,

D i r e c t o r of E v a l u a t i o n

for examination.

15B a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d from Dr. G l e n B e r k h e i m e r ,
M i c h i g a n S t a t e University, Eas t Lansing, M i c h i g a n , in an i n t e r ­
v i e w October, 1971.
16C- J. Hoyt, "Test R e l i a b i l i t y E s t i m a t e d b y A n a l y s i s of
V a r i a n c e , " P s v c h o m e t r i k a . VI I (1941), pp. 153-160, as found in
W i l l i a m A. M e h r e n s and R o b e r t L. Ebel, P r i n c i p l e s of E d u c a ­
t i o n a l and P s y c h o l o g i c a l M e a s u r e m e n t (Chicago:
Rand McNally
an d Company, 1967), p. 111.

109

E S C P A c h i e v e m e n t Test.
choice,

ES CP A c h i e v e m e n t te st

d e v e l o p e d b y the inv e s t i g a t o r
Tests"

A sev e n t y question,
(Appendix E,

multiple

p a g e 229)

was

from th e five "Unit A c h i e v e m e n t

lo cat ed in the ESCP T e a c h e r 's G u i d e .17

These measures

w e r e d e v e l o p e d for u s e at th e end of each t e a c h i n g un it o f
I n v e s t i g a t i n g the Ea r t h b y t he P s y c h o l o g i c a l T e s t i n g C o r p o r a ­
tion,

N e w Jersey.

Each m e a sure consisted of between

se ven an d s e v e n t y - o n e m u l t i p l e c h o i c e questions.
in t e r p r e t the st ude nts answers,
analysis,

forty-

To h e l p

e ach item i n c l u d e d a r e s p o n s e

s how ing a "p" v a l u e i n d i c a t i n g d i f f i c u l t y a nd an

"r" v a l u e ind ica tin g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

In this paper

fi culty w a s stated in p e r c e n t of r e s p o n d e n t s

item d i f ­

indicating

co rrect answers.
T h e au thors of I n v e s t i g a t i n g the Earth,
s u g g e s t e d that as a "general r ule of thumb"
nating at a level of

Teacher's Guide
items d i s c r i m i ­

.30 or lower s h o u l d u s u a l l y be replaced.

T h e r e f o r e any items w i t h a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e v e l of
less w e r e e l i m i n a t e d from the tests.

.30 or

T h e f i v e u nit t e s t s w e r e

o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d to b e a d m i n i s t e r e d i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g
t e a c h i n g o f a unit.
fall a nd spring.

C a r m a n D i s t r i c t s tud ent s w e r e t e s t e d

in

T h e fall p r e - t e s t was g i v e n b e f o r e t r e a t ­

m e n t and the s p r i n g p o s t - t e s t after a c o m p l e t e d year of t r e a t ­
ment.

Thi s m e a n t that in the p r e - t e s t all q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e d

to m a t e r i a l s tu d i e d m o n t h s before.

Concern

17T e a c h e r ' s G u i d e , o p . c i t .. pp.

for

345-381.

item d i f f i c u l t y

110

t h e r e f o r e b e c a m e important.

If items w e r e too d i f f i c u l t

v a l i d i t y w o u l d b e affected.

It w a s t h e r e f o r e d e e m e d a d v i s ­

a b l e that no i tem b e c hos en w i t h a d i f f i c u l t y level less
than

.50.

Al l q u e s t i o n s w i t h a d i f f i c u l t y level of less

than

.50 w e r e eliminated.
A fte r a c a r e f u l ana lys is o f the text.

Investigating the

E a r t h , and the r e m a i n i n g items in the five u n i t tests,
s e l e c t i o n w as m a d e of q u e s t i o n s
A c h i e v e m e n t Test.

to b e

inc lud ed

selection.

in the ESCP

Items w e r e c ho s e n so each s e c t i o n of the

s t u d e n t text r e c e i v e d equal r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
s e c t i o n items of

a

W i t h i n each

least d i f f i c u l t y r e c e i v e d p r e f e r e n c e for

C a r e wa s taken that no q u e s t i o n p a r a l l e l e d o the r

items in c o n t e n t me as ure d.

W h e n this d id o ccur the next

least d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n w a s chosen.
selected with a difficulty

One

item n e e d e d to b e

level of less tha n

-50 b e c a u s e

e n o u g h s a t i s f a c t o r y q u e s t i o n s w e r e not included.

Two

items

w e r e e l i m i n a t e d e v e n t hough th e "p" v a l u e w a s h i g h e s t b e ­
ca u s e in the o p i n i o n of this

inv e s t i g a t o r t h e y w e r e too

ambiguous.
O n e m i g h t w e l l q u e s t i o n the a d v i s a b i l i t y of u s i n g the
least d i f f i c u l t

items since t h e y m a y

tend to ask for

t i o n of a lower

level of u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

informa­

The a uthor w e i g h e d

th is p o i n t of v i e w and c o n c l u d e d that d i f f i c u l t y wa s o f a
more

i mme dia te c o n c e r n b e c a u s e d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n s w o u l d

probably be nothing mor e than multi p l e

"guess" q u e s t i o n s

t h e r e f o r e r e d u c e any d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e t w e e n students.

and

Ill

T a b l e 3.2 s h o w s a partial a p p r a i s a l of the ESCP A c h i e v e ­
m e n t T e s t f o l l o w i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of bo th t h e pre- a nd p o s t ­
te st to 34 s t u d e n t s .

T A B L E 3.2
A P P R A I S A L OF E S C P A C H I E V Q 1 E N T T E S T

Pre
K u d e r R i c h a r d s o n R e l i a b i l i t y No.

.7806

.8671

3. 840 6

3.8343

20

S t a n d a r d error of m e a s u r e m e n t

Post

Mean

item d i f f i c u l t y

61

57

Mean

item d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

28

37

ES CP C o m p r e h e n s i v e Final.

Thi s m e a s u r e was d e v e l o p e d by

the P s y c h o l o g i c a l T e s t i n g C o r p o r a t i o n as the final e x a m i n a t i o n
for E S C P

(Appendix F,

page 242)-

It was s i m i l a r

A c h i e v e m e n t T e s t d e s c r i b e d above,

for it a t t e m p t e d to sample

s t u d e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g s over the e n t i r e year.
us ed as w r i t t e n b y

to the ESCP

T h e m e a s u r e was

t he P s y c h o l o g i c a l T e s t i n g Co rpo rat ion .

It

w a s c h o s e n as p a r t o f the e v a l u a t i o n b e c a u s e d a t a of student
r e s u l t s wa s a v a i l a b l e for c o m p a r i s o n from a n a t i o n a l s a m p l e
t a k e n in 1964-196S
b y this

(Chapter II,

p a g e 73).

It w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d

i n v e s t i g a t o r to the s e v e n sam ple C a r m a n c l a s s e s d u r i n g

th e final w e e k of t h e s chool year,

1970-1971.

T a b l e 3.3 shows

a p a r t i a l a n a l y s i s o f the f i n a l after a d m i n i s t r a t i o n to 179
students.

112

T A B L E 3.3
P A R T I A L A N A L Y S I S OF E S C P C O M P R E H E N S I V E FINAL,

K u d e r R i c h a r d s o n R e l i a b i l i t y No.

CARMAN,

20

.6181
3 .1514

S t a n d a r d error of m e a s u r e m e n t
Mean

item d i f f i c u l t y

69

Mean

item d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

24

E x p e r i m e n t a l P h a s e — D e s i g n of S t u d y .

T h e first thr ee

tests w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d d u r i n g c o n s e c u t i v e w e e k s
1970 and M a y

1971.

1971

in October,

T h i s w r i t e r s u p e r v i s e d the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

of th e tests to a s s u r e u n i f o r m m e a s u r i n g for all c lasses w h e n ­
ever possible.

A f t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the p r e - a nd p o s t - t e s t s

a c o u n t w a s m a d e of stu den ts who h a d r e s p o n d e d to all six
t e s t i n g situations.
ly.

E a c h c l a s s r o o m was

considered individual­

The students in each c l a s s r o o m w e r e d i v i d e d into two

gr o u p s b a s e d u p o n t he pr evio us y e a r ’s sc ience g r a d e as follows:
h i g h G P A — A, B,

students;

low G P A — C or

lower students.

T h e s e two groups w e r e then further r e c l a s s i f i e d b y d i v i d i n g
each

into subgroups b a s e d upon sex.

T a b l e 3.4,

Four groups,

w e r e i d e n ti fie d for e a c h c l a s s r o o m

h i g h female,

low male,

as shown in

(high - male,

low f e m a l e ) .

Xt w a s o b s e r v e d from T a b l e 3. 4 that the la r g e s t
able

for th ese s u b c l a s s e s w a s thre^.

numbering greater

S tud ent s

"N" a v a i l ­

from s ubc las ses

than three w e r e ch o s e n u s i n g a t a b l e of

113

T A B L E 3.4
DISTRIBUTION OP CARMAN STUDENTS WHO RESPONDED TO A LL
SIX T E S T I N G SI T U A T I O N S S H O W I N G G R A D E P O I N T A V E R A G E
A N D SE X AS D E T E R M I N E D B Y S E V E N T H Y E A R
SCIENCE GRADE

Classroom

High GPA

Male

Female

Low GPA

Male

Female

A

8

5

3

6

3

3

B

9

3

6

6

3

3

Ci

7

3

4

8

4

4

c2

11

8

3

15

11

4

Di

10

6

4

11

5

6

Da

10

4

6

11

3

8

E

10

4

6

13

8

5

ra n d o m numbers.

Thus

each s u b c l a s s h a d th r e e r e s p o n d e n t s and

each c l a s s r o o m t w e l v e r e s p o n d e n t s p r o d u c i n g a s a m p l e of eightyfour student s

for analysis.

T a b l e 3.5

shows th e d e s i g n for

analysis of h y p o t h e s e s o ne t h r o u g h five.
Th e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n

identified

in C h a p t e r

I of this study

wa s to m e a s u r e success of E S C P in th e C a r m a n Sc h o o l D i s t r i c t
through use of three m e a s u r e s
science.
(3)

showing

(1)

attitude toward

(2) a t t a i n m e n t o f s c i e n c e p r o c e s s skills,

in cre ase d k n o w l e d g e of s c i e n c e content.

and

One general

h y p o t h e s i s w a s p r o p o s e d for thi s part of the study.
1. T h e r e w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o m p o s i t e prean d p o s t - t e s t scores

for the t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s

TABLE 3.5
MATRIX SHOWING DESIGN FOR HYPOTHESIS ONE THROUGH FIVE

Classroom

Grade point
average from
seventh-grade
science

Attitude
Sex

Pie
Male

Ri R 2 R 3

Female

R 4 R 5 Rf

High
A
Male

m

*
Low
Female
*
•
•

E

•
•

*

Process

Achievement

Student

Rio R 11 R 12
•
*
•

Post

Pre

Post

Pre

Post

115

m e a s u r i n g s t u d e n t a t t i t u d e t oward science,
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s c i e n c e p r o c e s s skills,

student

and s t u d e n t

a c h i e v e m e n t of s c i e n c e knowledge.
Questions had been raised regarding relative difficulty
of E S C P at g r a d e e igh t level.

F a c u l t y and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

s h o w e d con c e r n w h e t h e r all e i g h t h - g r a d e studen ts ha d s u f f i ­
c i e n t e nte rin g b e h a v i o r s
ESCP.

to sh ow s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s w h e n u sin g

A third a nd fourth q u e s t i o n i d e n t i f i e d in Ch a p t e r

1

a t t e m p t e d to m e a s u r e g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e in s c i e n c e from the
p r e v i o u s y e a r and sex as e f f e c t i v e p r e d i c t o r s o f change.
H y p o t h e s i s two an d three spoke to this purpose.
2.

Th e r e w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o m p o s i t e
and p o s t - t e s t scores

for the three

in s t r u m e n t s

ing s t u d e n t a t t i t u d e t o w a r d science,
st anding of s c i e n c e p r o c e s s

skills,

pre measur­

student u n d e r ­
and stu den t

a c h i e v e m e n t o f s ci e n c e k n o w l e d g e as d e t e r m i n e d b y
grade p o i n t a v e r a g e
3.

There will be

in s c i e n c e from th e p r e v i o u s year.

no d i f f e r e n c e s

and p o s t - t e s t s cores

for

between composite

the three i n s t r u m e n t s

as

d e t e r m i n e d b y sex.
Tw o c l a s s r o o m s u s e d M o d e r n E a r t h S c i e n c e as the b a s i c
referenc e.

T e a c h e r s v a r i e d g r e a t l y as to e x p e r i e n c e and

a c a d e m i c p rep ara tio n.

C l a s s r o o m e n r o l l m e n t and f a c i l i t i e s

d i f f e r e d co nsi der abl y.
a n c e b e t w e e n classroo ms.
it s e l f to this concern.

A fifth question considered p e r f o r m ­
Th e fol lo w i n g h y p o t h e s i s a d d r e s s e d

pre

116

4. T h e r e w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o m p o s i t e prean d p o s t - t e s t scores for t h e s e t h r e e m e a s u r e s as
d e t e r m i n e d b y classroom.
A

fifth h y p o t h e s i s w a s te s t e d to d e t e r m i n e any i n t e r a c ­

tions b e t w e e n v a r i a b l e s s t a t e d

in h y p o t h e s e s two,

three,

and

four.
5. T h e r e w i l l b e n o int e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n g r a d e po int
average,

sex,

and c l a s s r o o m s

as

i n d i c a t e d b y the

th ree me asures.
T h e sixth q u e s t i o n a t t e m p t e d to c o m p a r e th e Ca r m a n S c h o o l
D i s t r i c t E SCP s t u d e n t s w i t h a n a t i o n a l
1965.

Al l s t u d e n t s

sample t a k e n in 1964-

from the s e v e n s a m p l e c l a s s e s w e r e to

p a r t i c i p a t e in this

part of the study.

a d d r e s s e d itself to

this purpose.

6. T h e r e w i l l b e no

Hypothesis

six

d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the C a r m a n S c h o o l

D i s t r i c t e i g h t h - g r a d e E SCP st ude nts and e ighthg r ad ers

from a n a t i o n a l no rm as d e t e r m i n e d b y the

C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l d u r i n g the 1 964 -1965

ESCP trial

period.
E x p e r i m e n t a l P h a s e — A n a l y s i s of D a t a .
c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g t he e x p e r i m e n t a l phase,
two s t a t i s t i c a l treatments.

To a n a l y z e da ta

the w r i t e r s e l e c t e d

T h e s e t r e a t m e n t s c l a r i f i e d some

a s p e c t s of th e s t u d y and t e s t e d the h y p o t h e s e s
ou s l y in this chapter.

stated pr e v i ­

H y p o t h e s e s w e r e r e j e c t e d w h e n the

v a l u e o f an F - t e s t e x c e e d e d th e

.05 c o n f i d e n c e level.

A m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s of d i f f e r e n t s c o r e s
us ed to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r

(MANODS)

any s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s o c c u r r e d

was

117

across a t t i t u d e t o w a r d science,

s c i e n c e p r o c e s s skills,

sc i e n c e k n o w l e d g e w h e n t a k e n together.

and

T h e p u r p o s e of this

test w a s t o r eveal if s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s had o c c u r r e d du r i n g
the ES CP program.

S i n c e c ou r s e o b j e c t i v e s r e l a t e d to t hes e

three a s p e c t s o f s t u d e n t behavior,

s i g n i f i c a n t g ain s

three m i g h t s uggest a s u c c e s s f u l program.

in all

In addition,

u n i v a r i a t e analysis of e a c h of the m e a s u r e s c o u l d su g g e s t
»^pects of str en g t h s a n d weakne sse s.
the v a l i d i t y of this a n a l y s i s was

A b a s i c l i m i t a t i o n to

an a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the

test-retest reliability

for each i n s t r u m e n t was

T o the d e g r e e that this

a s s u m p t i o n w as m e t the a n a l y s i s was

valid.

Th is

analysis w a s b e s t s u i t e d for i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

h y p o t h e s i s o n e as s t a t e d on pag e

113 of this chapter.

A m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s of c o v a r i a n c e
selected

(MANCOVA)

was

for use in a n a l y z i n g the da ta r e l e v a n t to t e s t i n g

hypotheses
through

equal to one.

two,

116.

three,

The a b o v e

four,

and five as st a t e d on pages

115

limitat ion s s t a t e d for M A N O D S w e r e

not a p p l i c a b l e to M A N C O V A .

It s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d for

initial d i f f e r e n c e s o n p r e - t e s t scores b e t w e e n g r o u p s on the
three m e a s u r e s .

Thus,

t he a d j u s t e d s cores

a n aly sis r e f l e c t e d o n l y d i f f e r e n c e s
not a c c o u n t a b l e to d i f f e r e n c e s

employed

in the

in the final g r o u p m e a n s

in th e

initial g r o u p means.

M A N C O V A n ot o nly p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d

in t e s t i n g for

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s s u b j e c t e d to th e s ame
treatments,

but w h e t h e r

there w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n s as well.

118

Th e p u r p o s e of this test,

then, wa s

such as g r a d e p o i n t a ver age fron

to r e v e a l if f a c t o r s

the p r e v i o u s y e a r 1s s c i e n c e

class and/or sex w o u l d s u c c e s s f u l l y pr e d i c t d if f e r e n c e s
st ude nts a cross t he t h r e e m easu r e s ,
knowledge,

as w e l l as,

attitude,

process,

among
and

d e t e r m i n e if d i f f e r e n c e s existed b e ­

tw e e n classrooms.
Scores r e l a t e d to h y p o t h e s i s

six w e r e a n a l y z e d by c o m ­

paring the C a r m a n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t st ude nt m e a n w i t h the
n a t i o n a l sample m e a n

from 1964-1965.

D e s c r i p t i v e P h a s e — D i s c u s s i o n of I n s t r u m e n t s .

On e t e c h ­

n i q u e f r e q u ent ly e m p l o y e d for g a t h e r i n g v i t a l d e s c r i p t i v e
i n f o rm ati on about c u r r i c u l a w as
tionnaires.

the use o f sur vey s and q u e s ­

F i v e instru men ts w e r e d e s i g n e d b y the i n v e s t i g a t o r

for this purpose:

Teacher-log,

T e a c h e r Que stionnaire,

S c i e n c e P r o c e s s Rating Scale,

A c a d e m i c Background,

an d Student Q u e s ­

tionnaire.
Teacher- log .

To b ett er a s c e r t a i n t he o bje cti ves a n d c o n ­

tent of ESCP at C a r m a n S chool District,

th e fa cu l t y was a s k e d

to s u p p l y i n f o r m a t i o n to d a i l y q u e s t i o n n a i r e s r ega rdi ng
m a t e r i a l c o v e r e d d u r i n g three sep a r a t e f o u r - w e e k i n t e r v a l s In N o v e m b e r , 1970,

a m e m o w as

sent to all E S C P faculty

inform­

ing them of this o b l i g a t i o n

(Appendix G,

p a g e 252).

Th e one p a g e d a i l y log

(Appendix G,

p a g e 254) was d e ­

s i g n e d to m e a s u r e e x p o s u r e to t e x t b o o k c o n t e n t and l a b o r a t o r y
skills,

and e v a l u a t e s tudent attitude.

c a t i o n of the

To

facilitate i d e n t i f i ­

l a b o r a t o r y s kills d e f i n i t i o n s of the t h i r t e e n

119

sc i e n c e p r o c e s s e s as p r o p o s e d in S c i e n c e — A Process A p p r o a c h
(Appendix G,
sheets.

p a g e 255)

were

included w i t h e a c h set of log

T h r e e r e c o r d i n g peri ods w e r e sug ges ted :

November

16,

J a n u a r y 11,
M a r c h 1,

1970 t h r o u g h December

11,

1971 t h r o u g h Febr u a r y 5,

1971 t h r o u g h M a r c h 26,

D u r i n g e ac h of t h e s e

1971,

and

1971.

four week p e r i o d s

asked to r e c o r d a b r i e f d a i l y summary of
1. g e n e r a l objective(s)

1970

r e s p o nde nts w e r e

the following:

for the day,

2. pa ges r e f e r r e d to in the text,
3.

type o f t e a c h i n g approach(es)

4.

t i m e a f f o r d e d the teaching a p p r o a c h (e s ) ,

5.

(if a l a b o r a t o r y

exercise)

used,

a r a t i n g of

to any of t he t h i r t e e n science p r o c e s s

"exposure"
skills

a p p l i c a b l e for th e day,
6.

a s t a t e m e n t of results,

7. a r a t i n g of students'

and

attitude t o w a r d

science for

that class period.
S c i e n c e p r o c e s s r a t i n g scale.
(Appendix H,

page

25 9) w a s

A second questionnaire

aimed e x c l u s i v e l y at the t h i r t e e n

pr oce sse s as d e f i n e d by S c i e n c e — A P r o c e s s A p p r o a c h .
w e r e a s k e d to d e t e r m i n e "am oun t of ex pos ure "
p r o c e s s e s o v e r t he t o t a l school year.

Teachers

on each of

the

E x p o s u r e was d e f i n e d

as a c o m p o s i t e of t i m e and emphasis g i v e n to each p r o c e s s
du r i n g th e l a b o r a t o r y experiences.
to rat e ea ch p r o c e s s

T e a c h e r s we re i n s t r u c t e d

u s i n g a scale of o n e t h r o u g h three;

120

on e

i n d i c a t i n g low exposure,

h i g h exposure.
process

t w o — a v e r a g e exposure,

Teachers were further

a nd t h r e e —

i n s t r u c t e d to w e i g h each

in such a m a n n e r that a r a t i n g of two b e f o r c e d as

average.
This

Thus the t o t a l of all r a t i n g s
scale,

together with ratings

to ry r e p o r t s of the
which ESCP

e qu a l e d twenty-six.
i n c l u d e d in th e la b o r a ­

"Teacher L o g , " s u g g e s t e d the d e g r e e to

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s p r o v i d e d o p p o r t u n i t y for

students to

w o r k w i t h the t h i r t e e n pr oce sse s as d e s c r i b e d b y S c i e n c e —
A Process A p p r o a c h .
Teacher questionnaire.

A r e p o r t s u m m a r i z i n g the first

y e a r ’s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n was s u b m i t t e d by the ESCP f a c u l t y
May,

1971

(Appendix

I,

page 261).

T e a c h e r s w e r e a s k e d to c o m ­

m e n t o n q ues tio ns r e l a t e d to textbook,

laboratory,

students,

te ach er

ties,

difficulty,

c ontent covered,

a nd present ob ser vat ion s,

improve men t.

Thus,

to e v a l u a t e p r o g r e s s

in

schedule,

time,

facili­

that c o u l d lead to c o u r s e

the q u e s t i o n n a i r e o f f e r e d an o p p o r t u n i t y
and s ubmit c r i t i c i s m s and suggestions.

Academic background.

T e a c h e r s s u b m i t t e d a s u m m a r y li st­

ing o f a c a d e m i c e m p h a s i s and t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e

(Appendix J,

p a g e 268).
S t u d e n t qu est i o n n a i r e .

A q u e s t i o n n a i r e a t t e m p t i n g to

s u r v e y s tud ent r e a c t i o n to c e r t a i n asp ect s of E S C P wa s s u b ­
m i t t e d as part of t h e spring t e s t i n g s e q u e n c e
p a g e 270).

Areas

investigated

v a l u e o f l abo ra t o r y
as w e l l as,

i n c l u d e d t e x t b o o k difficulty,

experiences,

suggestions

(Appendix K,

s t u d e n t likes and dislikes,

for improvement.

S t u d e n t s w e r e asked

121

to c o m p a r e last y e a r s s c i e n c e w i t h E S C P as to difficulty,
enjoyment,

r e p o r t c a r d grade,

an d d e c i d e if the y w o u l d r e c o m ­

m e n d E SC P to a friend.
D e s c r i p t i v e P h a s e — A n a l y s i s of D a t a .

D u r i n g the summer

of 1971 all d e s c r i p t i v e m e a s u r e s w e r e tabulated.
of t e a c h e r - l o g s w e r e prepared.
w e r e compared.

T e a c h e r and s t u d e n t r e a c t i o n s

W h e n c o n s i d e r e d applicable,

w e r e d e t e r m i n e d to a s s i s t

Sum mar ies

p e r c e n t ratings

evaluation.

Su m m a r y
Th is

i n v e s t i g a t i o n i nvo lve d an e x p e r i m e n t a l a nd a d e s c r i p ­

tive phase.

Part one o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a s e r e q u i r e d

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h r e e sets of p r e - an d p o s t - t e s t s
areas of s t u d e n t a t t i t u d e t oward science,
ence p r o c e s s

skills,

in the

a c h i e v e m e n t of s c i ­

an d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s c i e n c e knowledge.

V a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d to p r e v i o u s
b y re p o r t c ard grades

s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y as m e a s u r e d

in s e v e n t h y e a r

science,

sex,

and t e a c h e r -

cl ass roo m d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e considered.
H y p o t h e s i s one as s t a t e d in C h a p t e r III w as
a m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s of d i f f e r e n t scores.
t h rou gh f ive as stated

in Ch apter

tested through

H y p o t h e s e s two

III u t i l i z e d a m u l t i v a r i a t e

analysis of covariance.
H y p o t h e s e s w e r e r e j e c t e d w h e n th e v a l u e of an F - t e s t
ex cee ded t h e

.05 c o n f i d e n c e level.

Part two of this

first p h a s e c o m p a r e d the C a r m a n Sc h o o l

D i s t r i c t s t u d e n t s w i t h a n a t i o n a l s a m p l e on an e n d - o f - y e a r

122

c o m p r e h e n s i o n final.

Hypothesis

six as s t a t e d in this chapter

r e l a t e d to this comparison.
T h e d e s c r i p t i v e pha se e m p l o y e d th e u s e of
instruments.
materials

A

teacher

covered,

five sur vey

log p r e s e n t e d a d a i l y r eport of

a p p r o a c h e s used,

and a t t i t u d e s observed.

T e a c h e r s r a t e d e a c h of t h i r t e e n s c i e n c e p r o c e s s skills w i t h
r e g a r d to c l a s s r o o m emphasis.
to tea che rs

A n e n d - o f —y e a r q u e s t i o n n a i r e

and s tud ent s a t t e m p t e d to sol i c i t

c r i t i c i s m of t h e program.

constructive

T e a c h e r s s u b m i t t e d a summary of

their a cad emi c b a c k g r o u n d and t e a c h i n g experiences.

C H A P T E R IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS
The p u r p o s e of this c h a p t e r
o b t a i n e d from the i n s t r u m e n t s

is t o p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s

used t o co llect s t u d e n t data

as d e s c r i b e d

in the e x p e r i m e n t a l an d d e s c r i p t i v e p h a s e s of

Chapter

as we ll as,

III,

an a n a l y s i s of the six h y p o t h e s e s .

D i s c u s s i o n o f the three pre - and post-tests.
Science,
Project

S c i e n c e Process Skills,
(ESCP)

are presented

A c h i e v e m e n t Test,
first.

Q u est ionnaire,
Background,

E a r t h Sci e n c e C u r r i c u l u m
an d E S C P C o m p r e h e n s i v e Final

P r e s e n t e d next

tion from th e five s urvey

A t t i t u d e Toward

is the f e e d b a c k

instruments.

i nf o r m a ­

Te acher Logs,

Teacher

E v a l u a t i o n of S c i e n c e P r o c e s s Skills,

Teacher

and S tudent Q u e s t i o n n a i r e .

Experimental
o f Data

P h a s e — A n a l y s i s and R e s u l t s

Th e f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s r e f e r r e d to o v e r a l l c h a n g e s as
m e a s u r e d b y stu den t a t t i t u d e to w a r d science,
science process
Hoi:

skills,

aptitude

in

and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s c i e n c e content.

T h e r e will b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o m p o s i t e
pr e- and p o s t - t e s t s cores for the t h r e e m e a s u r e s
A t t i t u d e T o w a r d Science, S c i e n c e P r o c e s s Skills,
a n d ESCP A c h i e v e m e n t Test.

T h e r e s u l t s of the m u l t i v a r i a t e an aly sis of d i f f e r e n c e
scores o n t h e s e data p r o d u c e d an F r a t i o of 3 2 . 1 5 2 0 w i t h a

123

124

p r o b a b i l i t y of less t h a n

.0001.

As

s t a t e d in C h a p t e r

III all

h y p o t h e s e s w e r e r e j e c t e d w h e n the v a l u e o f an F - t e s t e xce e d e d
the

.05 c o n f i d e n c e level.

rejected

(see T a b l e 4.1,

T h e r e f o r e the null h y p o t h e s i s was
page 125).

Post h o c ana ly sis s u g g e s t e d t h r e e u n i v a r i a t e tests.
Hou :

T h e r e w i l l b e no c h a n g e in at tit ude t o w a r d s c i e n c e
as m e a s u r e d b y the pr e- an d p o s t - t e s t scores.

H o u :

Th e r e w i l l b e no c h a n g e in a bi l i t y to p e r f o r m
sc ien ce p r o c e s s ski lls as m e a s u r e d b y the pre- a n d
p o s t - t e s t scores.

Ho i 3 :

T h e r e w i l l b e no c h a n g e in a c h i e v e m e n t of s c i e n c e
co ntent as m e a s u r e d b y t he pre- and p o s t - t e s t
scores.

E x a m i n a t i o n of T a b l e 4.1 s h o w s a p r o b a b i l i t y o f
hypothesis H o u *

0.0001

for H o u ,

all h y p o t h e s e s w e r e rejected.
scores

{Table 4.2)

A

.0118 for

a nd 0 . 0 0 0 1 for H o i 3 .

Thus

f u r t h e r a nal ysi s of test

shows an o v e r a l l n e g a t i v e c h a n g e

for a t t i ­

t u d e and an o verall p o s i t i v e c h a n g e for process a n d a c h i e v e ­
ment .
H y p o t h e s e s two,

three,

four,

an d five w e r e a n a l y z e d

us i n g a M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s of C o v a r i a n c e

(MANCOVA).

By w a y of i n t r o d u c t i o n to M A N C O V A the m o s t t r a d i t i o n a l
st ati s t i c s w e r e i ncl ude d
4,2,

p a g e 126,

in T a b l e s 4.2 t h r o u g h 4.5.

gave the m e a n s a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n for

tests tw o t h r o u g h five e m p l o y e d in th e study.
p a g e 126,
tests.

T abl e

T a b l e 4.1,

p r o v i d e d an i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x of t h e s e same

T a b l e 4.4,

p a g e 127,

s h o w e d the least s q u a r e e s t i ­

m a t e s a d j u s t e d for c o v a r i a t e s — e f f e c t times var iab les .

TABLE 4.1
SUMMARY OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT SCORES WHEN CONSIDERING PREAND POST-TEST SCORES FOR STUDENTS ON THE MEASURES: ATTITUDE TOWARD
SCIENCE, SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS, AND ESCP ACHIEVEMENT AS
RELATED TO OVERALL CHANGE

Mean Square
Between
Multivariate Teat

Mean Square
Within

Probability

Degrees 6f Freedom— for hypothesis, 3; for error, 54

All Measures

32.1520
Degrees of Freedom— for hypotheses,

0.0001*

1; for error, 56

Attitude Toward Science

1683.0476

248.2024

6.7809

Science Process Skills

4983.4405

67.8214

73.4788

0.0001*

861.4405

30.8095

27.9602

0.0001*

ESCP Achievement

* Significant at the 0.0001 level of probability
** Significant at the 0.05 level of probability

0.0118**

125

Univariate Tests

F Test

126

T A B L E 4.2
M E A N S A N D S T A N D A R D D E V I A T I O N S FOR M U L T I V A R I A T E
A N A L Y S I S OF C O V A R I A N C E

Attitude
Post
Pre

Pre

P r oce ss
Post

Achievement
Pre
Post

Means

73.190

68.714

28.298

36.000

27.119

30.322

S.D.

16.911

20.216

9.572

9.249

6 .010

7.066

T A B L E 4.3
I N T E R C O R R E L A T I O N M A T R I X FOR M U L T I V A R I A T E
A N A L Y S I S OF C O V A R I A N C E

Attitude
Pre
P ost

Pr e

Pr o c e s s
Post

Achievement
Post
Pre

Pre Att

1.000

Pst A t t

0.653

1.000

Pre Pro

0 . 121

0 .289

1. 000

Pst

Pro

0 .115

0 .307

0 .618

1.000

Pre A c h

0 .088

0 .203

0 .494

0.607

1.000

Pst A c h

0. 153

0 .260

0 . 376

0.560

0 .650

127

T A B L E 4.4
L E A S T SQUARE E S T I M A T E S A D J U S T E D F O R C O V A R I A T E S —
E F F E C T TIMES V A R I A B L E S

Variable
Te ste d
GPA

M
“ high'
M

Sex

, - M
,
male
female

Po st*
Attitude

Post*
P rocess

-8 .09 8 1 7 1

-0.786591

3.953555

-4 .69 8 2 7 1

-0.436245

0.300773

-2.167714

-0.386254

-3.025261

-7.193531

-1.299864

- 6 .147973

5 . 82 1 5 0 9

-3 .615002

-4.824734

1.806661

1. 507906

-9.581579

-3.472009

0 .38 1 9 6 7

-2. 159742

-8.368285

2. 149103

-5.238041

0. 000000

0.000000

0.000000

Pos t*
Achievement

Class
A

M

B

M

Ci

M

C2

M

Dl

M

E

M

d

2

M

C i
C 2

c 3
C4

c 5

c6
C?

- M
- M
- M
- M
- M
- M

c 7
C 7

c 7
C7

C 7

c7

###

*A11 v a r i a b l e s a d j u s t e d for covariatea.
# G P A = G r a d e point a v e r a g e in s c i e n c e from the p r e v i o u s
year.
##M = M e a n score for group.
###ci t h r o u g h C 7 refer to c las sr o o m s A t h r o u g h E respect ive ly.

128

T a b l e 4.5,

p a g e 129,

sh o w s

t he standard errors of a d j u s t e d

e s t i m a t e s — eff e c t s times variables.
W h e n a n a l y z i n g w i t h MAN COVA,

the first st ep w as

to d e ­

t e rmine if th e c ova ri a t e s w e r e in a n y w a y r e l a t e d to d e p e n d e n t
v a ria ble s

(pre-test r e l a t e d to p o s t - t e s t ) .

This t est was

p e r f o r m e d b y a Chi S q u a r e for test of h y p o t h e s i s of no a s s o c i ­
ation b e t w e e n d e p e n d e n t a n d

indepen den t v a r i a b l e s

It was fo u n d that the r e l a t i o n was
0.0001 of probability.

(covariates).

in d e e d s i g n i f i c a n t at the

T h e s i g n i fic ant r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

co var i a t e s a n d i n d i vid ual d e p e n d e n t m e a s u r e s

indicated m u l t i ­

ple c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s as shown in T a b l e 4.6.
T h e r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n s that y i e l d e d the m u l t i p l e c o r r e ­
lation c o e f f i c i e n t s w e r e

l o c a t e d in T a b l e 4.7,

p a g e 130.

Gi ven t h e s e r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n s the a d j u s t e d scores
in M A N C O V A t o o k the form o f the eq uat ion s

emp l o y e d

in T a b l e 4.8,

page

131.
Hoa:

T h e r e will b e n o d i f f e ren ces b e t w e e n c o m p o s i t e
s cores of the t h r e e measures. A t t i t u d e T o w a r d
Science, S c i e n c e Process Skills, and E SCP A c h i e v e ­
ment, as d e t e r m i n e d b y g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e in
sc i e n c e from t h e previous year.

A n a l y s i s of the te s t s

(Table 4.9,

p a g e 132)

F - rat io of 3 .8540 and a p r o b a b i l i t y of 0.0145;

s h o w e d an

t h e r e f o r e the

null h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d .
Post h o c analysis
Ho a x :

s u g g e s t e d t h r e e u n i v a r i a t e hy p o t h e s i s .

T h e r e w i l l b e n o change b e t w e e n pre- and p o s t ­
te st scores for att itu de t o w a r d s c i e n c e as
d e t e r m i n e d b y stu d e n t g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e in
s c i e n c e from t h e previous year.

129

T A B L E 4.5
S T A N D A R D ERRORS O F A D J U S T E D E S T I M A T E S —
EFFECTS TIMES VARIABLES

Variable
Tested
GPA^
Sex

M high

Post
Attitude

Post
Pr ocess

Post
Achievement

4. 26213

1.895 24

1.54311

3.50176

1. 5 5 713

1.26782

6. 32293

2.81167

2.28923

6. 6 3 7 1 4

2.95134

2. 4 0 2 9 9

6.23805

2.77387

2.25850

6.52394

2. 90100

2.36200

6. 2 4 3 8 0

2.77643

2.26058

7.37232

3.27825

2.66916

0.00000

0. 0 0 0 0 0

0 . 00000

-

\ale

female

Cl ass
A

M

B

M

Ci M

C l
C 2

C3

- M„ ###
C 7
M
M

c7
c7

- M
C 7
C4
Di Mrcs - M
c7
M
E M
c7
c6
Da M
c?
c 2

M

# G P A = Gra de p o i n t av erage in sc ien ce from th e previous
year.
# ^ 4 — M e a n s c o r e for group.
# # # c i t hro u g h c 7 r e f e r to c l a s s r o o m s A t h r o u g h E re spectively.
T A B L E 4.6
STATISTICS FOR MULTIPLE CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS

Variable
Post Attitude
P o s t Pr ocess
Post Achievement

Multiple Correlation Coefficient
0.6882
0.7090
0. 6 5 9 7

TABLE 4.7
EQUATION FOR REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS— INDEPENDENT TIMES DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Post-test

Pre-test
Attitude

A
—
Y - Y

General Formula

Achievement

Process

Bi.i(X - X)

Bi.a (X - X)

+

B i .a (X - X)

A

Attitude

Y - 45.001 =

.748(X-73.190)

+

.391(X-28.298)

+

.191(X-27.119)

Process

Y - 45.001 =

.016(X-73.190)

+

.403{X-28.298)

+

.613(X-27.119)

Achievement

Y - 45.001 =

.138(X-73.190)

+

.047(X-28.298)

+

.719(X-27.119)

s*

Y indicates estimated score for individual on post test.
Y indicates mean score over all post-tests.
B indicates regression coefficient.
X indicates individual score on pre-test.
X indicates mean score on pre-test.

TABLE 4.8
REGRESSION EQUATIONS FOR ADJUSTED SCORES

Post-test

Pre-test
Attitude

Process

Achievement
IXi

Y'

=

Y. .
JO

B i .z (X2 .-X2 .)

Attitude

Y'

=

Ylj - .748 ( X ^ -73.190) -

.391(X2^-28.2 98) - .191(X3j -27.119)

Process

Y*
=

Y2j

=

Y3j

Achievement

Y'

- .oiecx^^.^o)

Bi.3 (X3j

»

General Formula

-

.403{X .-28.290)- .613(X3j -27.119)
23

- .138(X..-73.190) Jo

.047 (X9 .-28.290)- .719(X3j -27.119)
*3

Y' = indicates individually adjusted scores on post-test.
X

= mean score on pre-tests.

B

- regression coefficient.

Y^. indicates individual scores on post-test.
X.. indicates individual scores on pre-test, where i - 1,3
*3 j - 1,84 (the individual's number).

(indicating test number);

TABLE 4.9
SIMMARY OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE WHEN CONSIDERING PRE- AND
POST-TEST SCORES FOR STUDENTS ON THE MEASURES: ATTITUDE TOWARD
SCIENCE, SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS, AND ESCP ACHIEVEMENT AS
RELATED TO GRADE POINT AVERAGE IN SCIENCE FROM THE
PREVIOUS YEAR

Mean Square
Between
Multivariate Test

Mean Square
Within

Attitude Toward Science
Science Process Skills
ESCP Achievement

Probability

Degrees of Freedom - for hypothesis, 3; for error, 51
3.8540

All Measures
Univariate Tests

F Test

Degrees of Freedom - for hypothesis,

0.0145*
1; for error, 53

820.6322

227,3152

3.6101

0.0629

7.7422

44.9473

0.1722

0.6798

195.5916

29.7968

6,5642

0.0133*

♦Significant at the 0.05 level of probability.

133

Hoa2 :

T h e r e w i l l b e no change b e t w e e n pre- and postbest scores for science p r o c e s s ski lls as
d e t e r m i n e d b y student g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e in
s c i e n c e from t h e pr evious year.

Hoa

T h e r e will b e no c hange b e t w e e n pre- a nd p o s t ­
test scores for a c h i e v e m e n t in s c i e n c e u n d e r ­
standings as d e t e r m i n e d b y s t u d e n t g r a d e p oin t
a v e r a g e in s c i e n c e from the p r e v i o u s year.

3

:

E x a m i n a t i o n of T a b l e 4 . 9 shows a p r o b a b i l i t y of 0 . 0 6 2 9
for h y p o t h e s i s H 0
Thus th e d a t a
Ho 2 3

2 1

, 0 . 6 7 98 for H 0

failed to r e j e c t H 0

2 2

21

* a n d 0.0133

, and H 0

2 2

for H 0

2 3

.

, b u t di d r e j e c t

*

Ho3 :

T h e r e will b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o m p o s i t e
scores on the t h r e e measures. A t t i t u d e T o w a r d
Science, S c i e n c e Process Skills, and ES CP A c h i e v e ­
m e n t Test as d e t e r m i n e d b y sex.

A n a l y s i s of this h y p o t h e s i s s h o w e d an F - r a t i o of 0 . 6 3 2 1
and a p r o b a b i l i t y of 0.5 977 and t h e r e f o r e

failed to r e j e c t

at the r e q u i r e d level of probability.
H0

4

:

T h e r e w ill be no d i f f e r e n c e s on c o m p o s i t e scores
o f the three measures. A t t i t u d e T o w a r d Science,
S c i e n c e P r o c e s s Skills, and E S C P A c h i e v e m e n t
T e s t w h e n c o m p a r i n g classes.

A n a l y s i s of this d a t a

(Table 4.10,

F - r a t i o o f 1.9510 and a p r o b a b i l i t y of
hypothesis

p age 134)
.0162;

shows an

therefore,

four was rejected.

Post h o c c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the d a t a s u g g e s t e d three
u n i v a r i a t e h ypotheses.
H0

4 1

:

T h e r e wi ll b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c l a s s r o o m s
w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g the m e a s u r e A t t i t u d e T o w a r d
Science.

H0

4 2

:

T h e r e will b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c l a s s r o o m s
w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g the m e a s u r e S c i e n c e Pr oce ss
Skills.

TABLE 4.10
SUMMARY OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE WHEN CONSIDERING PRE- AND POST­
TEST SCORES FOR STUDENTS ON MEASURES: ATTITUDE TOWARD SCIENCE, SCIENCE
PROCESS SKILLS, AND ESCP ACHIEVEMENT AS RELATED TO CLASSES

Mean Square
Between
Multivariate Teat

Mean Square
Within

Degrees of Freedom— for hypothesis,

18; for error,

144.7351
0.0162^
53

315,6017

227.3152

1.3884

0.2365

Science Process Skills

38.2358

44.9473

0,8507

0.5370

ESCP Achievement

98.5218

29.7968

3.3065

0.0078^

if

Significant at the 0.05 level of probability.
Significant at the 0.01 level of probability.

134

Degrees of Freedom— for hypotheses, 6; for error,

Attitude Toward Science

##

Probability

1.9510

All Measures
Univariate Tests

F Test

135

Ho«3 :

There will he no differences between classrooms
w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g the m e a s u r e ESCP A c h i e v e m e n t .

E x a m i n a t i o n of T a b l e 4.10
for H 0
data
wa s

4

i$ 0.5370

for H 0

4 2

f a i l e d to reject H 0

shows a p r o b a b i l i t y of 0.2365

, and 0.007 8 for H 0

4 1

4

3.

Thus

the

a n d H o 43 b u t d id reject H o 4 3 .

It

i n t e r e s t i n g to no te that h y p o t h e s e s r e f e r r i n g to a t t i t u d e

an d p r o c e s s e s w e r e the one s no t rejected,

w h i l e th e h y p o t h e ­

sis r e f e r r i n g to a c h i e v e m e n t w as a g a i n rejected.
T a b l e s 4.4 and 4.5

s h o w the l e a s t

justed for c o v a r i a t e s an d the s t a n d a r d
estimates.

Of pa rti c u l a r

A n a l y s i s of this d a t a

an o r d e r i n g of scores for cl assr oom s
ES CP a c h i e v e m e n t as follows:
5

:

f act ors as i n d i c a t e d

for

and C 2

s h o w s F- rat ios a n d p r o b ­

in T a b l e 4.11.

failed to r e j e c t at the r e q u i r e d

level of probability.
It w a s

c o n s i d e r e d of

interest to c o m p a r e the C a r m a n

Sc h o o l D i s t r i c t s tudents w i t h scores
taken

C 1( E, B,

show

T h e r e wi ll b e no i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n g r a d e point
average, sex, and c l a s s r o o m s as d e m o n s t r a t e d by
th e t hree m e a s u r e s .

In e ach case the da ta
0.05

f r o m high to l ow

D 2 , Dj., A,

A n a n a l y s i s of this h y p o t h e s i s
ability

errors of a d j u s t e d

interest w e r e readings r e l a t e d to

a c h i e v e m e n t b e t w e e n classr oom s.

H0

square estimates ad­

in 19 64- 196 5 as r e p o r t e d

t h r o u g h 72.
Hoe:

Hypothesis

f r o m a nat i o n a l

in C h a p t e r

six spoke to t h i s

sample

II, pa ges 68
concern.

T h e r e w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n C a r m a n School
D i s t r i c t e i g h t h - g r a d e E S C P s tud ents a n d e i g h t h
g r a d e r s from a n a t i o n a l n o r m as d e t e r m i n e d b y the
C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l d u r i n g the 1964-1965 E S C P
tr ial period.

D a t a r e l e v a n t to this h y p o t h e s i s

is stated in T a b l e 4.12.

136

T A B L E 4.11
F - R A T I O A N D P R O B A B I L I T Y FOR I N T E R A C T I O N H Y P O T H E S I S

Interaction

F-ratio

Probability

Sex and G P A

1.3023

0.2838

Sex and C l a s s e s

1.6168

0. 0 9 1 3

G P A and Cla s s e s

1.6679

0.0516

Sex,

1.5150

0.0 940

Cl ass es a n d G P A

T A B L E 4.12
C O M P A R I S O N OF 197 0-1 971 C A R M A N S C H O O L D I S T R I C T E S C P
ST UDE NTS M E A N A N D S T A N D A R D D E V I A T I O N W I T H T H E
1964-1965 N A T I O N A L E S C P E I G H T H - G R A D E
S T U D E N T S A M P L E AS D E T E R M I N E D BY
THE C O M P R E H E N S I V E F I N A L

Group

Standard
Deviation

Mean

N u m b e r of
Respondents

Carman

5.10

15.69

179

National Sample

8.19

27 .11

1410

137

O b s e r v a t i o n of the dat a shows the n a t i o n a l s am p l e to
h a v e a t t a i n e d a m e a n of 11.42 p oints h i g h e r than th e C a r m a n
Sc h o o l D i s t r i c t students.

A s t a t i s t i c a l a nal ysi s of this

difference was performed using a Z-test
b e t w e e n the m e a n s of samples.
sc o r e of 2.50,
0.05

level.

for the d i f f e r e n c e

The r e s u l t s

in dicated a Z

i n d i c a t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e at the

T h u s h y p o t h e s i s six w a s rejected.

R e p o r t of D e s c r i p t i v e I n f o r m a t i o n
A l l E S C P faculty m e m b e r s at th e C a r m a n School D i s t r i c t
w e r e in vited to p a r t i c i p a t e in the 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 surveys.
T a b l e 4.13

i n d i c a t e d r e s p o n s e s to the in s t r u m e n t s by the

te ach ers a nd/ or

their students.

TA B L E 4.13
RE S P O N S E S TO S U R V E Y I N S T R UME NTS BY C A R M A N SCH O O L D I S T R I C T
ESCP T E A C H E R S A N D / O R T H E I R S TUD ENT S D U R I N G 1 970 -1971

Te ach er

En d of Year E n d of Y e a r
Teacher
Te ac h i n g
R a t i n g of
Teacher Evaluation
Sc ienc e
Back­
Lo g
of ESCP
Pro cesses
ground
X

B#
C
D
E
F*
G*
------- A.

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

Student
Evalua­
t i o n of
ESCP
X
X
X
X
X

-------

X Indic ate s response.
# Te acher B d i d not submit a T e a c h e r Log.
* S tud ent s from T e a c h e r s F a n d G d i d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in the
pre- and p o s t - t e s t s t u d e n t evaluation.

138

Teacher

Logs.

L o g s w e r e s u b m i t t e d by four of the five

teachers

in the ESCP s t u d e n t sample-

included

in this sa m p l e also s u b m i t t e d logs.

teachers,
mitted

d a t e s covered,

O n e ESCP te a c h e r no t
A l i s t i n g of

and number of f o u r - w e e k logs s u b ­

is s h o w n in T a b l e 4.14.

T A B L E 4-14
LI ST I N G OF E S C P T EAC HER S S U B M I T T I N G LOGS

Teacher

Number o f
Logs
Submitted

Dates Covered

A*

2

N O V - 16, 1 9 7 0 -Dec. 15, 1970
J a n . 1 2 , 1 9 7 1 - F e b . 1 1 . 1971

C

3

Jan. 18,
Feb. 15,
M a r . 15,

D

3

Nov.
Jan.
Mar.

1 1
1 1
1

E

3

Nov.
Jan.
Feb.

16, 1970-Dec - 14, 1970
8 . 1971
1 1 . 1 9 7 1-Feb.
2 2 , 1971-Mar.
19, 1971

F

2

Jan.
Mar .

1 9 7 1 - F e b . 1 2 , 1971
1971-Mar. 1 2 , 1971
1 9 7 1 —A p r . 19, 1971

. 1 9 7 0 - D e c . 1 1 , 1970
. 1 9 7 1 - F e b . 5, 1971
. 1971-Mar - 26, 1971

4,
3,

1 9 7 1-Jan. 29, 1971
1 9 7 1 - A p r . 6 , 1971

★

Class A u s e d M o d e r n E a r t h S c i e n c e as the b a s i c text.

Five,
week

forty-two m i n u t e class p e r i o d s w e r e a l l o w e d per

for e a r t h science.

Classes w e r e r e p o r t e d as l a b o r a t o r y

sessions,

o r regular c l a s s se ssi ons

stration,

discussion,

i n c l u d i n g lecture,

film presentation,

demon­

and study time.

13 9

T h e a u t h o r s of ESC P e n c o u r a g e d a m p l e ti me for l a b o r a t o r y
investigations.

A t le a s t two and as m a n y

sessions per w e e k w e r e r e c o m m e n d e d . 1
tions w e r e

in clu ded in th e text.

as four

Sixty-six

The a u t h o r s

laboratory

investiga­

expected a

n ormal l a b o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n to o c c u p y f o r t y - f i v e mi nutes.
Carman School District teachers
atory ses sio ns n e c e s s a r y

f r e q u e n t l y r e p o r t e d two l a b o r ­

for a s ingle exercise.

H a s s a r d ,2 r e p o r t i n g on the e x p e r i m e n t a l
ESCP in 1965-1966,

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of

st a t e d tha t a p p r o x i m a t e l y s e v e n t y - f i v e

pe rcent of cla ss time w a s
T a b l e 4.15

C h a m p l i n and

spent in l a b o r a t o r y situation.

shows a t a b u l a t i o n of the p e r c e n t of class

time

used for l a b o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and film p r e s e n t a t i o n s
d u r i n g the l o g g i n g pe r i o d s
Ea ch d a y the

in Ca r m a n E S C P classrooms.

log r e q u e s t e d

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d science.

i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g st u d e n t

Responses w e r e indicated by check­

ing o n e o f five attitudes:

v e r y enthusiastic,

moderately

enthusiastic,

a v e r a g e e n t h u s i a s m and interest,

moderately

uninterested,

and very unintere ste d.

A b r e a k d o w n of stu den t

a tti tud es d u r i n g the l o g g i n g p eriods w a s t a b u l a t e d b y this
r e s e a r c h e r u s i n g a scale o f one t h r o u g h five,

w h e r e five

indicated v e r y e n t h u s i a s t i c and one i n d i c a t e d very u n i n ­
terested.

p.

1 1

C l a s s r o o m a v e r a g e s are p r e s e n t e d

1I n v e s t i g a t i n g t he Earth.
.
2C h a m p l i n and Hassard,

in T a b l e 4.16.

Teacher's G u i d e , o p . c i t . ,

o p . c i t ., p.

5.

140

TABLE 4.15
PERCENT O F T O T A L CLASS T I M E U S E D FOR L A B O R A T O R Y
I N V E S T I G A T I O N S A N D FIIM P R E S E N T A T I O N S D U R I N G
TH E 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 L O G G I N G P E R I O D S AT C A R M A N

Teacher

Log

Log 2

1

A

47 .3

(52.6) *

31.5

C

26.3

(36.8)

42.1

D

29.4

(47.0)

E

29.4

F

Average
for Logs

Log 3

(57.

(44.7)

23.8

(42.8)

30.5

(45.7)

26.3

38.8

(61.1)

31 .4

(44.4)

1 0 .0

16.6

18.

45 .0

40 .0

42 .5

*
Parentheses denote percentages
s e n t a t i o n s t a k e n together.

8

)

39.0

for

1

laborato ry and film pre-

T A B L E 4 . 16
ST U D E N T A T T I T U D E T O W A R D S C I E N C E D U R I N G T H E
1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 L O G G I N G PERIODS

Teacher

Lo g 1

Log 2

A

3 .4

2 .9

C

3.8

4.3

3

.6

3.9

D

3.3

3.6

3.4

3.5

E

2.6

2.5

2.4

2.5

4.0

4.3

4.1

F

A v e r a g e a t t i t u d e for c las ses A f C,
A v e r a g e a t t i t u d e for classes A, C,
S c a l e ratings:
5 - - h i g h to 1— -low.

Log 3

Average Attitude
3.2

D,
D,

E-;— 3.3
E, F--3.4

141

It w o u l d a p p e a r that m o a t t e a c h e r s tended to r a t e their
students attitudes

sl igh tly ab o v e average.

4 . 1 6 w e r e compared.

W h e n the t h i r t e e n

T a b l e s 4.15

ind ivi d u a l

and

l ogging

p e r i o d s w e r e r ank o r d e r e d using t h e S pea rma n R a n k - o r d e r
C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t a c o r r e l a t i o n of 0.91 w a s
A

established. 3

c o r r e l a t i o n of 0 . 6 0 w a s d e t e r m i n e d b e t w e e n a v e r a g e

labora­

t o r y time and a v e r a g e class a t t i t u d e using the s a m e c o r r e l a ­
t i o n coefficient.
T h ree t e a c h e r s used films to s u p p l e m e n t t h e i r p r e s e n t a ­
tions,

Teacher

"C"

p r e s e n t e d o v e r on e film per w e e k during

t h e logging periods.

R e p o r t e d a t t i t u d e s du r i n g t h e s e sessions

were generally higher

than other r e g u l a r class

It was h y p o t h e s i z e d that S t u d e n t attitudes
would

improve w i t h e x p o s u r e to ESCP.

e x a m i n e d for t r e n d s
l o g g i n g periods.
from this data.
ment,

sessions.
t o w a r d sci e n c e

Table 4 . 1 6 w a s again

in student a t t i t u d e s du ring

in d i v i d u a l

E v i d e n c e of a d e f i n i t e trend d i d not appear
W h i l e two c l a s s r o o m s

three s u g g e s t e d some d e c l i n e

s ugg e s t e d m i n o r

imp r o v e ­

in a tti tud e -

St ude nt a t t i t u d e s w e r e then s e p a r a t e l y t a b u l a t e d for
laboratory sessions
th is data is f o u n d

and reg ula r c l a s s

sessions.

A r epo rt of

in T a b l e 4.17.

O b s e r v a t i o n o f T a b l e 4.17 r e v e a l e d a c o n s i s t e n t l y hig her
a t t i t u d e for l a b o r a t o r y sessions t h a n for r e g u l a r

cla ss r o o m

sessions.

3 N. M. D o w n i e and N. W. Heath, B a s i c S t a t i s t i c a l M e t h o d s
(3rd Edition, N e w York:
Har per a n d Row, 1970), p. 122.

142

T A B L E 4.17
C O M P A R I S O N OF A V E R A G E S T U D E N T A T T I T U D E B E T W E E N L A B O R A T O R Y
I N V E S T I G A T I O N S A N D O T H E R C L A S S R O O M ROUTINES,
US I N G I N F O R M A T I O N FROM LOGS

Laboratory
Investigations

Teacher

Other Classroom
Routines

A

3.9

2.7

C

4.5

3 .6

D

4.4

3 .1

E

2.7

2.4

F

4.5

3.8

S c a l e rating:

5 — h i g h to l--low.

O n e of the s ta t e d p u r p o s e s of this s t u d y was
s t u d e n t a p t i t u d e of s c i e n c e p r o c e s s skills.

to m e a s u r e

An attempt was

m a d e to rat e the d e g r e e to w h i c h s t u d e n t s w e r e e x p o s e d to
le arn ing a c t i v i t i e s

for each of the t h i r t e e n p r o c e s s e s w h i l e

p a r t i c i p a t i n g in l a b o r a t o r y
e a c h of the p r o c e s s e s on

in ves tig atio ns.

"exposure"

part o f their log reports.

to l e a r n i n g t h e ski ll as

A s c a l e of o n e t hr o u g h t h r e e was

e m p l o y e d w h e r e o n e i n d i c a t e d low exposure;
posure;

and three,

t i o n of r a t i n g s

Teachers rated

h i g h exposure.

two,

average e x ­

Table 4.18 showed a tabula­

for each c l a s s r o o m w h e n su m m e d a c r o s s all

l a b o r a t o r y sessions.
E n d of Y e a r E v a l u a t i o n of Pr o c e s s S k i l l s T a u g h t w i t h
ESCP.

Near the e n d of the sc h o o l term t e a c h e r s w e r e

again

143

T A B L E 4.18
R A T I N G OF "EXPOSURE" TO E A C H OF THE T H I R T E E N PRO CES SES
BY C L A S S R O O M W H E N S I M M E D ACROSS A L L tiABORATORY
S ESS ION S U S I N G TE ACH ER L O G S

Process

A

Observation'
Classification

12

Average
Rating by
Teachers
A, C ,D, E

Average
Ra t i n g b y
Teachers
A , C (D , E , F
{All Logs)

D

E

F

35 # 46

51

20

26

38. 0

35

14

23

0

13

12 .3

12 .4

C

.6

Time/Space
Relationships

9

14

26

3

15

13 .0

13 .4

U s i n g Numbers

7

23

19

15

11

16.0

15 .0

Communicating

18

21

24

15

0

19.5

15 .6

Measuring

21

45

27

15

23

27 .0

26

I nferr ing

16

35

38

9

18

24.0

23 .2

Predicting

0

37

24

5

5

16 .5

14. 2

Formulating
Hypotheses

6

29

33

0

2

17 .0

14 .0

Making
Operational
D e f initions

0

38

25

5

2

17 .0

14 .0

Controlling
Variables

8

36

28

13

2

21.3

17 .4

20

38

36

9

7

25 .8

2 2 .0

6

35

21

2

7

16.0

14.2

Interpreting
Data
Experimenting
M

.2

T o t a l of the i n d i vi dua l r a t i n g s for t h e s p e c i f i e d p r o c e s s as
l i s t e d in e a c h lab or a t o r y log report w h e n summed a c r o s s the
t o t a l number o f lab ora t o r y sessions t a u g h t b y that teacher.

144

as k e d to r a t e each of
"exposure"

th e thirteen p r o c e s s e s on s t u d e n t

to l e a r n i n g th e processes;

of the t o t a l school y e a r .

It w a s o f

this time as a summary
interest to this

investi

gator to d e t e r m i n e if suc h data c o u l d b e g a t h e r e d at the
end of t h e school y e a r rather than r e q u e s t t e a c h e r s to s ubmit
such i n f o r m a t i o n on a d a y - t o - d a y ba s i s .

T e a c h e r s w e r e in­

formed t h a t a total r a t i n g value o f 26 ha d to m a t e r i a l i z e
over t he t hirteen pro ces s e s .
v a l u e o f two for "e xpo sur e"

This

f o c u s e d an a v e r a g e point

on the t h i r t e e n pr oce sse s.

T a b l e 4 . 1 9 shows th e t a b u l a t i o n of r a t i n g s w h e n s u m m e d across
teachers.
W h e n the two c o l u m n s listed in T a b l e 4.19 w e r e arrange d
in o r d e r of rank a c o e f f i c i e n t of 0 . 8 9 w as d e t e r m i n e d again
using t h e Spearman R a n k order c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . 4
S p e a r m a n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f fic ien ts b e t w e e n ra tings
the t e a c h e r
re p o r t

logs

(Table 4.18)

(Table 4.19)

and t h o s e

pa t e d
A,

Whe n considering

logs and a l s o p a r t i c i ­

in the pre- a nd pos t-t est s t u d e n t e v a l u a t i o n

C, D,

listed in

in the e n d - o f - y e a r

w e r e also es tab lis hed .

on ly t h o s e teachers w h o b o t h s u b m i t t e d

The

(Teachers

and E ) , a c o r r e l a t i o n of 0 . 6 2 w as re por t e d .

It

w o u l d ap p e a r that t h e s e two m e t h o d s o f g a t h e r i n g s imilar da ta
on processes,

the log,

a n d year e nd ratings,

common.

4 D o w n i e and Heath,

loc.

cit.

h a d s ome thi ng

in

145

T A B L E 4,19
E N D O P Y E A R S I M M A R Y O F SCI E N C E P R O C E S S RA TIN GS F O R THE
19 70- 197 1 S C H O O L Y E A R W H E N S t M M E D ACROSS T E A C H E R S

Pr ocess
Observation

Sum of R a t i n g s - Teachers A,C,D,E
11

Sum of R a t i n g s —
T e a c h e r s A , B , C #D,E, F, G
(All T e a c h e r
20

Cl assif i cation

7

14

Time/Space
R e l a t ionships

6

10

Using N u m b e r s

9

15

11

16

Measuring

8

15

Inferring

8

14

Predicting

8

14

Formulating
Hypotheses

6

11

Making
Operational
Definitions

6

11

Controlling
Variables

6

9

10

17

8

16

Communicating

Interpreting
Data
Experimenting

146

D a t a u nde r
D,

the heading,

A v e r a g e R a t i n g — T e a c h e r s A,

C,

E, F from T a b l e 4 . 1 8 a n d under t h e h e a d i n g Sum o f R a t i n g s —

T eac her s A,

B,

C, D,

The T e a c h e r - l o g

E,

F,

G from T a b l e 4.19 w e r e compared.

(Table 4.18)

r e p o r t e d the f o l l o w i n g p r o c es ses

as r e c e i v i n g a ve r a g e or s tron ger emphasis:
Observing

Interpreting Data

U s i n g Numbers

Measuring

Controlling Variables

Predicting

Inferring

Communicating

Experimenting

Da ta fro m the e n d - o f - y e a r e v a l u a t i o n of p r o c e s s skills
ta ught w ith E S C P

(Table 4.19)

lis ted the f o l l o w i n g p r o c e s s e s

as re cei v i n g a v e r a g e or st ron ger emphasis:
Observing

Experimenting

In fer r i n g

Interpreting
Da ta

U s i n g Nu mbe rs

Predicting

Communicating

Measuring

Classifying

C o m p a r i s o n of t h e s e two lists s ugg ested th e f oll o w i n g
pr ocesses as r e c e i v i n g g r e a t e s t e m p h a s i s du r i n g t h e school
year:
Observing

Inferring

Experimenting

Measuring

Communicating

Predicting

Interpreting
Da ta

U s i n g Numbers

T h e aut hor s of ESCP l i s t e d as b e h a v i o r a l themes,
threads such as experi men tat ion ,
as the base,
II,

page 61) .

intuition,

c o m p r e h e n s i o n of scale,

unifying

with observation

and p r e d i c t i o n

(Chapter

147

W h e n th e finalized l i s t of process r e c e i v i n g the g r e a t e s t
e m p h a s i s w a s m a t c h e d w i t h the list of b e h a v i o r a l t hemes

the

f o llo win g p i c t u r e emerged:
Behavioral Themes

Processes R e c e i v i n g
Greatest E m p h a s i s

S c i e n c e as inquiry:
Experimentation

Experimenting

I n tuition

Inferring

O b s e r v a t i o n as b a s e

Ob ser v i n g

Interpreting
Data
Communicating

C o m p r e h e n s i o n of scale

Measuring
Using N u m b e r s

Pr e d i c t i o n

It w o u l d ap p e a r

Predicting

that

"exposure"

to the p r o c e s s e s did c o r r e l a t e

q u i t e w e l l w i t h the b e h a v i o r a l themes as e xpr ess ed by t h e
au tho rs of ESCP.
En d o f Year E v a l u a t i o n of ESCP,
b v th e C a r m a n Te achers

1970-1971.

The end of year e v a l u a t i o n was s u b m i t t e d to all E S C P
teachers.

Replies

to the th irt y - t w o q u e s t i o n i n s t rum ent w e r e

t a b u l a t e d and ana lyz ed b y thi s

investigator.

Us i n g a five point s c a l e ranging

from

"very easy"

to

"much too d i f f i c u l t , " all t e a c h e r s c o n s i d e r e d the r e a d i n g
level of their texts as diffic ult .
for either textbook.

T h e r e w e r e no d i f f e r e n c e s

148

W h e n teachers,

u s i n g the same scale,

th e c o n c e p t s p r e s e n t e d in the course,

w ere a s k e d to rate

t h o s e using M o d e r n

E a r t h S c i e n c e c o n s i d e r e d concept p r e s e n t a t i o n s a t i s f a c t o r y
w h i l e four of the f i v e employing I n v e s t i g a t i n g t he E a r t h
c o n s i d e r e d c oncept p r e s e n t a t i o n as difficult.
R e p o r t s of class t i m e used for

l a b o r a t o r y v a r i e d from

20 to 60 percent w i t h an average of 39 percent.

These observa­

tions w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l y higher t han r e p o r t s of 18 to 43 p e r ­
cent w i t h an a v e r a g e of 32.3 percent
lo ggi ng periods.

e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g the

It w o u l d appear t h a t teachers t e n d e d to

o v e r - s u b s c r i b e w h e n q u e s t i o n e d at th e end of the year.
A c o m p a r i s o n of

laboratory time b e t w e e n the f i r s t two

and last two m o n t h s o f school s h o w e d a slight d e c l i n e
46 to 41 percent.

Similar comparisons

a d e c l i n e from 3 3 . 1 to 29.5 percent.
r e p o r t e d any ov e r a l l

from the logs

from
showed

O n l y on e t e a c h e r

in cre ase in l a b o r a t o r y time o n either

the log or y e a r - e n d report.
F i v e teachers

fel t that in f u t u r e y e a r s m o r e t i m e should

b e a l l o t e d to in ves tigations.
te acher

I n a d e q u a t e f aci li t i e s

and

i n e x p e r i e n c e w i t h an a c t i v i t y o r i e n t a t e d p r o g r a m w e r e

li sted as reasons

for

limited l a b o r a t o r y time.

W h e n stu dents w e r e r a t e d on a f i v e point s c a l e for o v e r ­
all a t t i t u d e t o w a r d science,

scores v a r i e d from m o d e r a t e l y

e n t h u s i a s t i c to s o m e w h a t u n i n t e r e s t e d w i t h m o s t r a t i n g s as
average enthusiasm and

interest.

and end of year attitudes,

When

c omp a r i n g b e g i n n i n g

four t e a c h e r s

felt t hat a n im p r o v e ­

m e n t h a d taken p l a c e w h i l e two r e p o r t e d a d e c l i n e

in

149

enthusiasm.
students

Tw o of t h o s e r e p o r t i n g

i m p r o v e m e n t d i d not h a v e

in the E S C P e v a l u a t i o n classes.

T h o s e te ach ers h a v i n g s t u d e n t s
rooms w e r e asked to c o m p a r e their

in the s e v e n s ample c l a s s ­

"ex per ime nta l"

other cla s s e s t a u g h t w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g attitude,
in pro c e s s

skills,

achievement

and a c h i e v e m e n t of sci e n c e knowledge.

S i n c e o n l y m i n o r d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e not ed
classes

cl a s s e s w i t h

it w a s

assumed these

to b e fairly r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the t o t a l p opu lat ion .

T h e h a l f - d a y s c h e d u l e h i n d e r e d i n s t r u c t i o n for s o m e
te ach ers and was a h e l p to others.
li ttl e d i f f e r e n c e to th e program.

Overall

it s e e m e d to m a k e

T h e r e w as

s o m e m e n t i o n of

w e a r i n e s s d u r i n g the l att er p art of th e d ay and also s ome
in dic a t i o n that the s c h e d u l e r e d u c e d st udent p r o g r e s s

in

late afternoon.
A g r e e m e n t could n o t b e e s t a b l i s h e d a b o u t w he t h e r g i r l s
or boys

enj o y e d m o r e s ucc ess w i t h ESCP.

T h r e e of the s e v e n teach ers

felt that E S C P could b e

taught m o r e s u c c e s s f u l l y at n i n t h or other g r a d e level.
Text d i f f i c u l t y and us e of ES CP as a r e p l a c e m e n t

for n i n t h -

g r a d e g e n e r a l s c i e n c e w e r e listed as r e a s o n s

change.

for

T h o s e d i s a g r e e i n g felt the ESCP w a s a go od p r e p a r a t i o n for
h i g h s c h o o l and s o m e a c t i v i t i e s w e r e too

"childish"

for

ninth-graders.
Six t e a c h e r s
k e p t ne xt year.
a concern.

felt that the b a s i c E S C P p r o g r a m s h o u l d b e
However,

t e x t b o o k s and f a c i l i t i e s w e r e still

T h e r e s e e m e d to b e a g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t that

150

t e a c h e r s should b e al low ed t i m e at the b e g i n n i n g of the
sc h o o l term to se t o b j e c t i v e s a n d plan a s e q u e n c e of c on t e n t
a n d in ves t i g a t i o n s to b e t r e a t e d du r i n g the year.
Amount of textbook content covered varied greatly
r o o m to room.

A s m u c h as 7 5 % a n d as little as 3 3 % of the

text material was

taught.

in ite ly reported,

m o s t t eac hers

of the book.

However,

W h i l e no pa tte rn c o u l d b e d e f ­

o f the text."

tended to f o l l o w the s equ e n c e

single e x c e p t i o n s

o n e or two c h a p t e r s to g r e a t l y

U nit IV,

from

"sk ipping over

M o s t classes h a d

“E a r t h ' s E n v i r o n m e n t

i n c l u d e d ski pping

little or no e x p o s u r e to

in Space,"

p i e c e m e a l c o v e r a g e of Unit III,

large sec ti o n s

and s e v e r a l had

"Earth's B i o g r a p h y . "

L a b o r a t o r y act ivi t i e s g e n e r a l l y f oll owe d tho se in the
text.

Stu den ts

e x p o s e d to M o d e r n E a r t h S c i e n c e te n d e d to

h a v e m o r e t e a c h e r - p r e p a r e d l a b o r a t o r y investig ati ons .
S e v e r a l tea che rs r e p o r t e d a d d i t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d to
s p ace travel,

ecology,

e x t e n s i v e use of

rocks a n d fossils,

and

films.

O n e tea che r r e p o r t e d s e r i o u s
d e g r e e that the

f i e l d trips,

student a p a t h y to such a

last two m o n t h s w e r e spent w i t h

ized s tud ent s t u d y groups.

T e n stu dy units w e r e s e l e c t e d

from the latter c hap ter s of t h e text.
t h e y w i s h e d to study.

individual­

They w e r e

Students

allowed to w o r k

chose th ose
in groups.

T h i s c o o p e r a t i v e effort i m p r o v e d interest in s c i e n c e for
most students.

151

T e a c h e r s w e r e a s k e d to suggest a t o p i c of s t u d y they
felt c o u l d h a v e b e e n eliminated.
select top ics w h i c h

T h e y w e r e also a s k e d to

they and/or the s t u d e n t s

and w h i c h the y and/or the students

en jo y e d m o s t

e n j o y e d least.

Topics

listed as e n j o y e d m o s t b y the te ach er w e r e u su a l l y re ported
as e n j o y e d m o s t b y the students.

No r e l a t i o n s h i p s of inter-

est w e r e f o u n d w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g a top ic to b e o m i t t e d and
topic e n j o y e d least b y the students.

P e r h a p s p l e a s a n t things

are m o r e ea s i l y r e m e m b e r e d than unpleas ant .
c o m m e n t e d that t h e r e was

O n e t ea c h e r

a dir e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

p r e p a r a t i o n and e n j o y m e n t by students.
M o s t teachers

felt they h a d s u f f i c i e n t ma ter i a l s ,

but

i n s u f f i c i e n t t e x t b o o k s a nd la b o r a t o r y m a t e r i a l s r e m a i n e d a
p r obl em w i t h on e or two.

Sev eral c o m m e n t s r e l a t e d to the

poor c o n s t r u c t i o n of c e r t a i n ESCP ki t m a t e r i a l s .
generally

Te ac h e r s

felt a d e q u a t e p r e p a r a t i o n t i m e w a s provided.

T e a c h e r s and C l a s s r o o m s .

T a b l e 4.2 0

listed the a c a d e m i c

and t e a c h i n g b a c k g r o u n d of six E SCP teachers.
m e m b e r h a d taught m u s i c

T h e seventh

education p r e v i o u s to his

encounter

w i t h e a r t h science.
T a b l e 4 . 2 1 shows

a com par i s o n of t e a c h e r s a n d classes

at C a r m a n w i t h t e a c h e r s and classes
1965 E S C P t r i a l e v a l u a t i o n p e r i o d . 5

inc lud ed in th e 1964N a t i o n a l t r i a l period

te ach ers g e n e r a l l y h a d m o r e t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e tha n C arman

5 " C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of ESCP T e a c h e r s and Sc hools,"
E S C P N e w s l e t t e r , N L - 8 (July, 1965), p. 8 .

TABLE 4.20
BIOGRAPHY OF CARMAN SCHOOL DISTRICT ESCP TEACHER'S ACADEMIC AND TEACHING
EXPERIENCE, 1970-1971

Semester Hours
Bio Sci Phy Sci Ear Sci
Teacher

Gr

Un

A

8

2

40

B

34

26

29

C

37

D

12

Gr

17

7

2

24

E

4

F^

22

Un

4

10

Gr
24

Chemistry

6

4

18

3

Not included in sample classrooms

MSU
Teach
Summer
Exp
Master1s Wksp
Teach in
Degree
1970
Exp
Science

Teach
Exp
in
Ear Sci

5

5

4

Biology
General
Science
Conservaftion

3

3

3

Biology

Guidance Yes
and
Counsel­
ing

4

4

4

General
Science

Science

11

11

8

Social
Studies

Audio
Visual
Education

6

2

1

18

18

1

Yes

Yes

Chemistry Geography Yes
Geography
Social
Studies

152

Un

Under­
graduate
major

TABLE 4.21
COMPARISON OF TEACHERS AND CLASSES FOR 1970-1971 CARMAN SCHOOL DISTRICT ESCP
STUDENT EVALUATION SAMPLE AND 1964-1965 ESCP TRIAL EVALUATION SAMPLE

Carman Sample
High
Mean
Low

Earth Science Teaching Experience
Total Science Credits

(semester hours)

Credits Earned in Earth Science (semestet
hours)

Highest Degree Earned

18

4.8

2

34

8

0

8

4.0

1

12

2

0

112

62.0

16

103

33

6

24

CO
•

Total Teaching Experience

Trial Sample
High
Mean
Low

94

24

3

M.A.
4

B.A.
1

0

None
0

M.A.
42

B.A.
39

None
1

A — Unlimited; B— Satisfactory; C— Minimal; D — l
Unsatisfactory
Laboratory Facilities

Average Class Size

A

B

C

2

2

0

High
34

Mean
27.7

D
3

A
12

Low
23

High
39

B
42

C
22

Mean
30

D
6
Low
10

154

Sc h o o l D i s t r i c t teachers,

however,

m o r e ex per i e n c e in earth science.

the C a r m a n

fa culty had

Inversely,

t h e Carman

fa culty ha d m o r e t o t a l science c r e d i t s w h i l e t h e trial t e a c h e r s
h a d m o r e earth s c i e n c e credits.

F i v e of the six Carman

t e a c h e r s h e l d m a s t e r ' s degrees w h i l e f i f t y - o n e p erc ent of
trial teachers h e l d

the ad van ced degree.

It s h o u l d b e n o t e d

that no Ca r m a n t e a c h e r s h eld a m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e

in earth s c i e n c e

and thr ee of the d e g r e e s w e r e in n o n - s c i e n c e areas.
Four of the s e v e n Car man c l a s s e s m e t in r o o m s with
facilities r a t e d s a t i s f a c t o r y or better.
w e r e q u i t e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y since no

T h r e e of the r o o m s

l abo rat ory

tables with

sinks w e r e a v a i l a b l e and two r o o m s h ad n o t h i n g m o r e than
desks

for use w i t h

investigations.

Two-thirds

of the trial

cl a s s r o o m s w e r e r a t e d as s a t i s f a c t o r y or b e t t e r w i t h only
about eight p e r c e n t of the rooms c o n s i d e r e d u nsat i s f a c t o r y .
A v e r a g e cla ss r o o m s i z e s sli ght ly fav ore d the C a r m a n School
District.
St udent E v a l u a t i o n of E S C P .

Stu dents

f r o m th e ESCP

s a m p l e classes w e r e a s k e d to r e s p o n d to a q u e s t i o n n a i r e in
an a t t e m p t to le a r n so met h i n g of their o p i n i o n s
course.

Responses

regarding t h e

to the q u e s t i o n n a i r e w e r e r e p o r t e d in

A p p e n d i x L, p age 272.
Ev en though t e a c h e r s c o n s i d e r e d the tex t as d iff icu lt
over h a l f of the s t u d e n t s di d not feel it w a s

t o o hard.

W h i l e 70% of t he t e a c h e r s c o n s i d e r e d concept p r e s e n t a t i o n as
d i f f i c u l t 67 % of th e

students d i d not feel

i d e a s taught in

155

c l a a s w e r e 'too hard.

Teachers

and s t u d e n t s g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d

th at m o r e time s h o u l d b e s p e n t w i t h l a b o r a t o r y
O v e r h a l f of the stu den ts

inv est igations.

felt l a b o r a t o r y p e r i o d s w e r e

m o r e w o r t h w h i l e than other class sessions.
F i f t y p e r c e n t of the s t u d e n t s

felt e i g h t h - g r a d e s c i e n c e

was h a r d e r t han s e v e n t h - g r a d e science,

w h i l e 43 p e r c e n t s a i d

they e nj o y e d ESCP m o r e t h a n s e v e n t h - g r a d e .
w e r e si milar

for the two years.

Of particular

int ere st w e r e r e s p o n s e s to the question,

"Would y o u r e c o m m e n d ESCP to a friend?"
to t h i s

R e p o r t card g r a d e s

It w a s s u r p r i s i n g

i n v e s ti gat or that onl y 2 2 per c e n t stated,

“N o , " w h e n

e v i d e n c e from a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e s used w i t h the s a m p l e s t u d e n t
groups

in dic a t e d a d e c l i n i n g enthusiasm.

W h e n s tud ent s w e r e a s k e d w h a t they
science,

l i k e d b e s t abo ut

7 5% of the re p l i e s r e l a t e d to s t u d e n t a c t i v i t y -

o r i e n t a t e d experi enc es.

O v e r h a l f r e s p o n d e d d i r e c t l y to m o r e

l a b o r a t o r y sessions.
Those experiences

least enj o y e d by s t u d e n t s h a d a

d i r e c t b e a r i n g on t r a d i t i o n a l c l a s s r o o m t e a c h i n g techni que s.
A l m o s t 7 5% of the s tud ent s

ind ica ted s t u d y i n g from t e x t b o o k s

an d t he tests that f o l l o w e d as least enjoyable.
M o s t studen ts

felt that ESCP could b e

i m p r o v e d if m o r e

e m p h a s i s was p l a c e d on a c t i v i t y - o r i e n t a t e d c la s s e s and less
on t e x t b o o k teaching.

A b o u t 4 8 p e r c e n t of th e st ude nts

for a c t i v i t i e s an d films,

spoke

and a b o u t 30 p e r c e n t aga i n s t t e x t ­

book teaching when asked how science could b e

improved.

156

Summary
Th e p u r p o s e of this c ha p t e r w a s to p r e s e n t res ult s o b ­
ta i n e d from i n s t r ume nts u s e d to c o l l e c t s t u d e n t data as
d e s c r i b e d in C ha p t e r
hypotheses.

III,

as w e l l as,

an a n a l y s i s of six

R e s e a r c h w a s c o n d u c t e d as p a r t of an e x p e r i m e n ­

tal and d e s c r i p t i v e

inquiry.

Fi ve h y p o t h e s e s w e r e t e s t e d on a m a t r i x

in w h i c h i n t e r ­

est areas r e l a t e d to s t u d e n t a t t i t u d e to w a r d science,
of s c i e n c e p r o c e s s

skills,

aptitude

and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of science

k n o w l e d g e w e r e c r o s s e d w i t h s t u d e n t ’s sex,
in s c i e n c e from the p r e v i o u s year,

g r a d e point a v e r a g e

and classroom.

A sixth

hypothesis compared student content understanding with a
n a t i o n a l nor m e s t a b l i s h e d in 1964-1965.
Descriptive
five survey

i n f o r m a t i o n w a s r e p o r t e d and a n a l y z e d from

instruments:

T e a c h e r Logs,

E v a l u a t i o n of S c i e n c e P r o c e s s Skills,
a S t u d e n t Q ues tio nna ire .

T ea c h e r

Questionnaire,

T e a c h e r Background,

and

CHAPTER V
StMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d a b r i e f r e v i e w of the study,
including

its purpose,

design,

m a t i o n g a t h e r e d from survey
co nta ine d
Chapter

in this

h y p o t h e s e s tested,

instruments.

and i n f o r ­

The conclusions

chapter w e r e b a s e d u pon d a t a p r e s e n t e d in

IV.

D i s c u s s i o n of this s t u d y as a g u i d e for c u r r i c u l u m e v a l u ­
ation,

concerns

sions are a l s o

for f u t u r e evaluations,
included.

an d p e r s o n a l

Recommendations

School D i s t r i c t and p r o b l e m s

for further

impres­

to the C a r m a n
investigation con­

clude the chapter.
R e v i e w of Investicration
Th e p u r p o s e of this
cedures

s t u d y was

to d e v e l o p a set o f p r o ­

t hat could g u i d e a local school d i s t r i c t as it

at t e m p t e d to assess the i m p a c t of new c u r r i c u l a r programs.
In p a r t i c u l a r

this study a t t e m p t e d to e v a l u a t e the E a r t h

Sc ience C u r r i c u l u m P r o g r a m

(ESCP)

during

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w i t h e i g h t h gr a d e s t u d e n t s
Sc hool District,
In o r d e r

its first y e a r of
in the C a r m a n

Flint, M i c h i g a n .

to i n v e s t i g a t e this p r o g r a m t h e wr i t e r

ducted a t wo part s t u d y at Flint, M i c h i g a n .

157

The

con­

first part

158

c o n s i s t e d of two phases.

Phase on e of the e x p e r i m e n t a l study

r e q u i r e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f pre- a n d p o s t - t e s t s to d e t e r m i n e
student c h a n g e fo llowing treatment.

V a r i a b l e s r e l a t i n g to

st udent s c h o l a s t i c ab ili ty as d e t e r m i n e d b y g r a d e p o i n t
av erage in s c i e n c e from the p r e v i o u s y e a r

(GPA), sex,

t e a c h e r - c l a s s r o o m d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e conside red .
th e e x p e r i m e n t a l

and

P h a s e two of

study used a s i n g l e i n s t r u m e n t d u r i n g the

last w e e k of school.
T h e s e c o n d part e m p l o y e d th e use of q u e s t i o n n a i r e s and
teacher-logs.

This d e s c r i p t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a t t e m p t e d to

survey text c o n t e n t covered,
tions,

t e a c h i n g met hod s,

a n a l y s i s of s c i e n c e p r o c e s s skills,

teacher reac­

t ea c h e r background,

and stu den t reactions.
Experimental Investigation.

Beginning

in August,

1970,

this w r i t e r m e t w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and t e a c h i n g p e r s o n n e l
of the C a r m a n School D i s t r i c t to p l a n the evaluati on.

Five

ESCP t eac her s and seven E S C P cla sse s w e r e c h o s e n to form the
sa mple for this study.

The following three measures were

p r e p a r e d for a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as pr e- a nd p o s t - t e s t s w i t h

the

sample classes:
1. A t t i t u d e T o w a r d S c i e n c e
2. S c i e n c e Process M e a s u r e
Students, and

for J u n i o r H i g h Sc h o o l

3. E S C P A c h i e v e m e n t Test.
The A t t i t u d e T o w a r d S c i e n c e m e a s u r e w as d e s i g n e d to
a s c e rt ain an y cha n g e in s t u d e n t a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s c i e n c e after
ex p e r i e n c i n g o n e year of ESCP.

T h e Process M e a s u r e a t t e m p t e d

15 9

to d e m o n s t r a t e c h a n g e

in student a b i l i t y to use the thi r t e e n

s c i e n c e pro cess s k i l l s as d e f i n e d b y S c i e n c e — A Process
Approach1

(SAPA)

(Chapter II,

A c h i e v e m e n t Test,

a

pages

listing of tes t

five "Unit A c h i e v e m e n t Tests"

86

to 90).

T h e ESCP

items s e l e c t e d from the

l o c a t e d in the E S C P T e a c h e r 1s

G u i d e . 2 a tte m p t e d to m e a s u r e c h a n g e s

in s t u d e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g

of s c i e n c e knowledge.
Te sts w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d d u r i n g c o n s e c u t i v e w e e k s
October,

1970,

and May,

1971.

in

A to t a l of e i g h t y - f o u r s tud e n t s

w a s c h o s e n as th e s a m p l e for analysis.

Students

in each class

w e r e d i v i d e d into t w o groups b a s e d u p o n the p r e v i o u s yea r's
s c i e n c e g r a d e as follows:
lower

students.

Thus

ide nti fie d as high-male,

female.

B students;

T h e s e two grou ps w e r e

s u b g r o u p s bafeed u p o n sex.
were

h i g h — A,

l o w — C or

further d i v i d e d into

for each class

high-f ema le,

four sub groups

l o w —male,

low-

A m a t r i x s h o w i n g the d e s i g n for part o n e of the

e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a s e is located in T a b l e 3.5,

p a g e 114.

F i v e h y p o t h e s e s w e r e d e s i g n e d for p hase o n e of the ESC P
e v a l u a t i o n at Carman.
v a l u e o f an F - t e s t

All h y p o t h e s e s w e r e r e j e c t e d w h e n the

e xceeded the

.05 c o n f i d e n c e level.

The

first h y p o th esi s r e f e r r e d to o v e r a l l c hange as m e a s u r e d b y
s t u d e n t a tti tud e t o w a r d science,
skills,

aptitude

in s c i e n c e process

and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s c i e n c e content.

1 Science—

A P r o c e s s A p p r o a c h , loc.

2E S C P T e a c h e r ’s Guide,

loc. cit.

cit.

160

Hoi:

T h e r e w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o m p o s i t e
pre- a n d p e a t - t e s t s c o r e s for the t h r e e m e a s u r e s
A t t i t u d e T o w a r d Science, Sc ience P r o c e s s Skills,
and ESCP achievement.

T h e h y p o t h e s i s was rejected.

Further

n i f i c a n t change on al l measures,
attitudes,

analysis

s h o w e d sig­

w i t h a n e g a t i v e c h a n g e for

and a p o s i t i v e c hange for process s k i l l s and

a c h i e v e m e n t of s c i e n c e knowledge.
H y p o t h e s i s two,
v a r i a b l e s GPA,
Ho2:

sex,

three,

four,

a nd five r e l a t e d to the

and teacher-classroom differences.

There w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e s on the c o m p o s i t e
scores for the three i n s t r um ent s m e a s u r i n g
attitude, p roc ess skills, and a c h i e v e m e n t of
sc i e n c e k n o w l e d g e as d e t e r m i n e d b y g r a d e point
a v erage in s cie nce from the pre vio us y e a r (GPA).

H y p o t h e s i s two was rejected.

F u r t h e r analysis

for a h y p o t h e s i s of no change in a t t i t u d e or
as d e t e r m i n e d by GPA,

s h o w e d support

in p ro c e s s skills

b u t did r e j e c t a null h y p o t h e s i s for

ch a n g e in a c h i e v e m e n t of sci enc e k n o w l e d g e as d e t e r m i n e d by
GPA.
H0

3

:

T h e r e w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c o m p o s i t e
scores o n t h e three m e a s u r e s attitude, process
skills, a n d a c h i e v e m e n t of s cience k n o w l e d g e as
d e t e r m i n e d b y sex.

T h e h y p o t h e s i s was n o t rejected.
Ho*:

Hypothesis

T her e w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e s on c o m p o s i t e scores
of the t h r e e m e a s u r e s attitude, p r o c e s s skills,
and a c h i e v e m e n t w h e n c o m p a r i n g classes.
four w a s rejected.

F u r t h e r a nal y s i s

s h o w e d su pport

for a h y p o t h e s i s of n o c hange in a t t i t u d e and p r o c e s s skills
as d e t e r m i n e d by classes,

but d i d r e j e c t a n u l l h y p o t h e s i s

for c h a n g e in a c h i e v e m e n t of s c i e n c e k n o w l e d g e as d e t e r m i n e d
by c l a s s e s .

161

HOs:

T h e r e w i l l b e no i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n GPA, sex,
an d c l a s s e s as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y the t h r e e measures.

Th e h y p o t h e s i s w as not rejected.
Phase two of the e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y r e q u i r e d the a d m i n i s ­
tr ation of an ESCP C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l to all s t u d e n t s
seven cl ass es du r i n g the last w e e k o f school.

in t h e

These results

w e r e c o m p a r e d w i t h th o s e from a s a m p l e of e i g h t h - g r a d e s t u ­
dents t a k e n d u r i n g the national
Hypothesis
Hoe:

Hypothesis

t ria l period,

1964-1965.

six r e l a t e d to this a s p e c t of the study.
T h e r e w i l l b e no d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n C a r m a n
e i g h t h - g r a d e r s from a n a t i o n a l n o r m as d e t e r m i n e d
b y the C o m p r e h e n s i v e F i n a l a d m i n i s t e r e d d uri ng
th e 19 64-1965 ESCP t r i a l period.
six was rejected.

C a r m a n students s c o r e d lower

th an th e n a t i o n a l norm.
Experimental Investigation— Conclusions.
te sting of th e h y p o t h e s e s held

for

In vie w o f the

this part of t he study,

the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s 'were drawn:
1. T h e r e w e r e si g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s d uring t h e 1970-19 71
ESCP sc hool year that r elated to e a r t h science.

St udents

ge n e r a l l y h e l d less p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s tow ard s c i e n c e near
th e end of the sc h o o l year than w e r e h e l d at t h e b e g i n n i n g of
the school year.
im p r o v eme nt

In spite of this

in b o t h a c h i e v e m e n t

att itu de s t u d e n t s s h o w e d

in sc ience p r o c e s s skills

and a c h i e v e m e n t o f s c i e n c e k n o w l e d g e .
2.

S t u d e n t s w i t h a higher g r a d e point a v e r a g e in s c i e n c e

du r i n g the p r e v i o u s school year d i d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r
a c h i e v e m e n t of s c i e n c e k n o w l e d g e t h a n those w i t h

in

a lower GPA-

162

No d i f f e r e n c e s c o u l d b e a s c e r t a i n e d for a t t i t u d e s o r a c h i e v e ­
ment

in p r o c e s s skills w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g GPA.
3. T h e r e w e r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s o b s e r v a b l e

any of the three areas,

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d science,

in s c i e n c e p r o c e s s skills,

in

achievement

a nd a c h i e v e m e n t of s c i e n c e k n o w l ­

edge as d e t e r m i n e d by sex.

This conclusion was also sup­

p o r t e d b y te acher ob ser vat ion .
4.

Classes,

determining
ment

classroom,

and te a c h e r w e r e i m p o r t a n t w h e n

success in e a r t h s c i e n c e as m e a s u r e d b y a c h i e v e ­

in s ci e n c e knowled ge.

A ran k o r d e r i n g of the seven

cl asses s h o w e d that D 2 , Di,

and A c o m p r i s e d t h o s e listed in

the upper one-half.
5. C o m b i n a t i o n s of t he three v a r i a b l e s GPA,

sex,

and

classes sh o w e d no i n t e r a c t i o n s a f f e c t i n g the o u t c o m e of the
test results.
6

. C a r m a n st ude nts

showed a significantly

edge level of ES CP u n d e r s t a n d i n g s
sa m p l e from 1964-1965.

lower k n o w l ­

tha n d i d the n a t i o n a l

Interpretation of these conclusions

is l i m i t e d b y c o n d i t i o n s as s t a t e d in C h a p t e r I,
Descriptive Investigation.
si g n e d b y this

investigator

Five

pa ge

2C^and 21.

instruments were d e ­

for g a t h e r i n g d e s c r i p t i v e

information.
T e a c h er- log .

T h e t e a c h e r - l o g w a s p r e p a r e d for te ac h e r s

as a d a i l y r e v i e w o f m a t e r i a l covered,
a t t i t u d e s observed.

E a c h teacher w a s

d a i l y logs for p e r i o d s of

four w e e k s

a p p r o a c h e s used,

and

as k e d to p r e p a r e t h r e e
each.

163

E n d - o f - y e a r s c i e n c e p r o c e s s r a t i n g scale.

Teachers

ra t e d the t h i r t e e n sc i e n c e p r o c e s s e s as d e f i n e d b y S A P A o n
"exposure"

to the students.

E x p o s u r e w as d e s c r i b e d as a

c o m b i n a t i o n of time an d em pha sis to a p a r t i c u l a r process.
E n d - o f - y e a r te acher q u e s t i o n n a i r e .

Teachers completed

a d e t a i l e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e w h i c h o f f e r e d an o p p o r t u n i t y to
e v a l u a t e p r o g r e s s and of f e r c r i t i c i s m s and suggestions.
A c a d e m i c backgr oun d.

Teachers submitted a summary

list­

ing of a c a d e m i c e m p h a s i s and t e a c h i n g experiences.
S t u d e n t qu est i o n n a i r e .

A q u e s t i o n n a i r e a t t e m p t i n g to

su rvey st ude nts r e a c t i o n to cer tai n as pects of E S C P wa s s u b ­
m i t t e d as p art of the sp r i n g t e s t i n g sequence.
Descriptive Investigation— Conclusions.
time.

Five,

Laboratory

f ort y-t wo m i n u t e class periods w e r e a l l o w e d per

w e e k for ea r t h science.

The aut h o r s of ESCP s u g g e s t e d that

at least fifty p er c e n t of this time b e d e v o t e d to l a b o r a t o r y
o r i e n t e d experiences.
the e n d - of -ye ar

R e p o r t s from the teacher

teacher

evaluations

i ndi cat ed

from b e t w e e n

32 to 3 9 % of class t i m e w as use d for l abo ra t o r y
tions.

logs and

investiga­

L a b o r a t o r y t ime d e c l i n e d s l i g h t l y as the y e a r

progres sed .

However,

te ach ers

lotted to i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

felt m o r e time s h o u l d b e a l ­

in future years.

A t t i t u d e to w a r d science.

Student attitudes wer e g e n ­

er a l l y c l a s s i f i e d as a v e r a g e for e n t h u s i a s m a nd interest.
No d e f i n i t e e v i d e n c e c o u l d b e o b t a i n e d from t e a c h e r s

to i n d i ­

c a t e a n o v e r a l l d e t e r i o r a t i o n of a t t i t u d e s even th o u g h the

164

pre- and p o s t - a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e d e m o n s t r a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a ­
t i ve changes.
O n l y 2 2 % of the st ude nts stated,

"No"

"Would y o u r e c o m m e n d ESC P to a friend?"
th at a t t i t u d e s

to the question,

It m a y in dic a t e

for s c i e n c e w e r e s t i l l f a v o r a b l e d e s p i t e the

a p p a r e n t decline.
Of s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e was t he o b s e r v a t i o n that c o n ­
sistently higher attitudes were associated with laboratory
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and c o n s i s t e n t l y
a t ed w i t h ot h e r
strations,

lower at tit ude s w e r e a s s o c i ­

classroom routines

reading,

and testing-

such as lecture,
Teachers who

demon­

interspersed

lectures w i t h a u d i o - v i s u a l m a t e r i a l s also e x p e r i e n c e d st ron g e r
p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d science.

It w o u l d appear

that

w h i l e t h e r e w a s a st r o n g p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e to w a r d s c i e n c e
d e m o n s t r a t e d w h e n st ude nts p a r t i c i p a t e d
a u d i o - v i s u a l experiences,

in l a b o r a t o r y or

this a d v a n t a g e di d not s h o w s t r o n g

tr ans fer to o t h e r k i n d s of c l a s s r o o m experiences.

Student

e n t h u s i a s m s e e m e d to v a c i l a t e a c c o r d i n g to th e k i n d of l e a r n ­
ing e x p e r i e n c e offered.
S t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d that s t u d y i n g from te xtb ook s

and the

tests t h a t f o l l o w e d w e r e the least e n j o y a b l e class e x p e r i ­
ences.

T h e r e a p p e a r e d to b e a s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

te xt b o o k w i t h

tr a d i t i o n a l teaching,

and d i s l i k e for science.

M o s t students

felt that E S C P c o u l d be i m p r o v e d if m o r e e m p h a ­

sis wa s p l a c e d on stu d e n t a c t i v i t y - o r i e n t a t e d class s ess i o n s
and less on t e x t b o o k teaching.

Activities other

than t hos e

165

r e l a t e d to usual t e x t b o o k m a t e r i a l s we re c o n s i d e r e d m o r e e n j o y ­
a b l e and m o r e w o r t h while.
th e v a l u e of s t u d e n t

T e a c h e r s w o u l d d o w e l l to w e i g h

e n t h u s i a s m a n d in ter est as it r e l a t e d

to d e s i r e d learnings.
Student

"exposure*'

to s c i e n c e p r o c e a .1 skills.

The thir­

t e e n p r o c e s s e s as d e f i n e d by S A P A w e r e u sed to m e a s u r e s t u d e n t
a c h i e v e m e n t of s c i e n c e p ro c e s s skills.
to d e t e r m i n e h o w w e l l c l a s s r o o m

It w a s of interes t

"exposure"

to t h e s e p r o c e s s e s

c o r r e l a t e d w i t h b e h a v i o r a l th e m e s as e x p r e s s e d b y ESCP.
A s u m m a r y c o m p a r i s o n o f the p r o c e s s e s r e c e i v i n g a v e r a g e or
stronger

emp has is

in the C a r m a n E S C P classes w i t h

b e h a v i o r a l themes as d i s c u s s e d

in Cha pter

II,

the ES CP

p a g e 61,

sug­

g e s t e d that they did c o r r e l a t e q u i t e well.
T e x t and g r a d e level.
Carman.

No class c o m p l e t e d all of the m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d

e i t h e r text.

in

C o n t e n t c o v e r e d v a r i e d from as m u c h as 3/4 to

as lit t l e as 1/3.

T e a c h e r s r e g a r d e d the r e a d i n g level of

b o t h texts as difficult,
th at

T wo texts w e r e u s e d w i t h E SCP at

but s t u d e n t s g e n e r a l l y e x p r e s s e d

it was not too hard.

T he text. M o d e r n E a r t h S c i e n c e , was

t h o u g h t to p r e s e n t con cep ts

in a m o r e e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d

m a n n e r than I n v e s t i g a t i n g the E a r t h , the t e x t d e s i g n e d for
ESCP.

T he j u d g m e n t of the C a r m a n faculty a n d students p a r ­

t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d fin din gs
p a g e 80)

from K l i n e and Q u t u b

w h e n t h e y r e p o r t e d t h e text,

(Chapter

II,

I n v e s t i g a t i n g the

E a r t h , s u i t a b l e for ninth or t e n t h g r a d e l e v e l T h r e e of the s e v e n t e a c h e r s

felt E SCP c o u l d b e t a u g h t

m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y at ninth g r a d e level.

T h i s p o i n t of v i e w

166

w a s s u p p o r t e d in M a t t h e w * s n a t i o n a l sur vey w h i c h s t a t e d that
te ach ers c o m m o n l y a g r e e d n i n t h g r a d e w a s b e s t for e a r t h
science

{Chapter XI,

Te ach er

pag e 81).

and classrooms.

felt no gre at

Teachers

and stu dents g e n e r a l l y

loss to st ud e n t l e a r n i n g as a r e s u l t of be ing

forced to use the senior h i g h s c h o o l on a half d a y a f t e r n o o n
schedule.

A c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n E S C P t eac her s and c l a s s e s at

C a r m a n and t hos e inc lud ed in the 1964-1965
pe r i o d fav ore d trial t eac hers
in earth science.

trial e v a l u a t i o n

in the area of ear n e d c re d i t s

T r i a l cl assr o o m s w e r e al so f a v o r e d over

C a r m a n c l a s sro oms w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g l a b o r a t o r y f acilities.
As n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y

in Cha p t e r V,

there w as

a difference

in a c h i e v e m e n t of sci e n c e k n o w l e d g e a t t r i b u t a b l e to classes.
A n an aly sis of the d ata on Ta b l e 4.4,
D 2 , Di,

page

127 s h o w e d classes

and A as c o m p r i s i n g the upper 50 p e r c e n t i l e o f r e ­

po r t e d scores.

C l a s s r o o m 15 was r a t e d as a room w i t h s a t i s ­

factory facilit ies

and c l a s s r o o m A as u n s a t i s f a c t o r y .

Teacher D reported

18 a c a d e m i c h o u r s

in earth s c i e n c e and 8

y e a r s e x p e r i e n c e t e a c h i n g e a r t h science.
24 ho urs

in e a r t h sc ien ce and four y e a r s e x p e r i e n c e teachi ng

earth science.
year,

Teacher A reported

Since te ach er A h a d p i l o t e d E S C P the pr evious

he w as the only m e m b e r of the f acu lty w i t h E S C P t e a c h ­

ing experience.
1970 summer

In addition,

both

i n d i vi dua ls a t t e n d e d the

earth s c i e n c e w o r k s h o p h e l d at M i c h i g a n St ate

U n i v e r s i t y for C a r m a n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t teachers.
data

From

this

it a p p e a r e d that teacher e x p e r i e n c e and t r a i n i n g did

167

become important

factors

for p r e d i c t i n g stu dent s ucc ess t o w a r d

a c h i e v e m e n t o f earth s c i e n c e knowledge.
D i s c u s s i o n of the Ca r m a n S t u d y as a G u i d e
for C u r r i c u l u m E v a l u a t i o n
Th e E a r t h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P roject at C a r m a n Sc h o o l
D i s t r i c t p r e s e n t e d a s a t i s f a c t o r y s e t t i n g in w h i c h to d e v e l o p
a n d test a g u i d e for c u r r i c u l u m evaluation.
w a s such t h a t

it was

w i t h i n the study,
m e a s u rem ent .

imp oss i b l e to d e s i g n a c on t r o l gro up

and o n l y one t rea tme nt was a v a i l a b l e for

Use of c o n t r o l groups and m u l t i p l e tr eat m e n t s

w i t h i n small p o p u l a t i o n s
impossible.

is frequently e ither u n d e s i r a b l e or

A v o i d i n g the p r e s e n c e of c o n f o u n d i n g v ari a b l e s

in a small s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n
p r ese nce

T he s i t u a t i o n

is e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t and their

in iti ate s ser iou s problems w h i c h o f t e n render dat a

useless s i n c e there a p p e a r s to b e no w a y in w h i c h to i n t e r ­
p r e t the results.
It t h e r e f o r e b e c a m e app arent to this
an approach

inv e s t i g a t o r that

to c u r r i c u l u m ev alu a t i o n w o u l d n e e d to b e d e ­

ve l o p e d w h i c h w o u l d no t r e q u i r e th e use of either c ontrol
groups or m u l t i p l e t r e a t m e n t s across s eve ral groups.

Loc al

school d i s t r i c t s w o u l d d e s i r e such a s i m p l i f i e d e v a l u a t i o n
if it could

i d e n t i f y c u r r i c u l u m problems,

h i g h l i g h t strengths,

and suggest re a s o n s why t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s existed.
T h e C a r m a n School D i s t r i c t e v a l u a t i o n u t i l i z e d students,
faculty,

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e personnel,

an d c u r r i c u l u m specialists.

As pec ts o f th e study i ncl ude d e x p e r i m e n t a l and d e s c r i p t i v e
analyses.

T h e guide di d not u t i l i z e a c o n t r o l g r o u p or e m p l o y

168

se v e r a l treatments,

b u t r a t h e r c o n s i d e r e d t h r e e v a r i a b l e s and

t h r e e m e a s u r e m e n t s across o n e treatment.
Th e t h r e e m e a s u r e m e n t s r e f l e c t e d t h o s e e d u c a t i o n a l g oal s
c o n s i d e r e d m o s t relevant.

Science had often been associated

w i t h poor s t u d e n t attitudes.

Students generally depicted

s c i e n c e as too h a r d a nd un inte r e s t i n g .
stated t hat a t t i t u d e s w o u l d

It had b e e n fr e q u e n t l y

imp rov e w h e n the ne w c u r r i c u l a r

sc ience m a t e r i a l s c a m e into co m m o n use.
cu rri c u l a r p r o g r a m

it was s u p p o s e d that s t u d e n t a t t i t u d e s

w o u l d i m p r o v e after treatment.
tude was d e e m e d

S i n c e E SCP w as a new

T h e r e f o r e a m e a s u r e of a t t i ­

important.

Th e last d e c a d e h a d s e e n an i n c r e a s i n g
sc ien ce as process.

M o d e r n p r o g r a m s at all

sized the i m p o r t a n c e of the p r o c e s s e s
and u n d e r st and ing .

int ere st in
levels had e m p h a ­

to s c i e n t i f i c

lit e r a c y

T he e m e r g e n c e of sci e n c e as p r o c e s s was

m a r k e d as one of the o u t s t a n d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s of this latter
h a l f century.

It w a s t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r e d vi tal that a m e a s u r e

o f a c h i e v e m e n t in p roc ess

skills b e included.

T h e p r o d u c t s o f the s c i e n t i f i c
a c c e p t e d as vi t a l knowledg e.

en dea vor h a d long b e e n

A to tal e v a l u a t i o n of E S C P at

Ca r m a n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t w i t h o u t a m e a s u r e o f pr o d u c t w o u l d
have been

incomplete.

T h e r e f o r e such a m e a s u r e wa s

T h u s the c u r r i c u l u m w a s

included.

e x a m i n e d to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h of

its a spe c t s a p p e a r e d m o s t u s e f u l

for a nal ysis.

Instruments

w e r e th en d e s i g n e d to e v a l u a t e t h o s e asp e c t s o f s t u d e n t b e ­
ha v i o r d e e m e d m o s t

i mpo r t a n t to the s u b j e c t area.

Variables

169

were selected which showed promise

in a s s i s t i n g the e v a l u a t o r

to d e t e r m i n e p a r t i c u l a r s t r e n g t h s or w e a k n e s s e s w i t h i n t h e
population.
In o r d e r

to d e v e l o p a m o r e c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e of the c u r ­

r ic u l u m to h e a s s e s s e d d e s c r i p t i v e

i n s t r ume nts w e r e designed.

Th ese i n s t r u m e n t s a l l o w e d for s u b j e c t i v e e x p r e s s i o n by s t u ­
dent and fac ult y an d w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d to h e l p i n v e s t i g a t e
reasons

for any cha nges as i n d i c a t e d b y the p re- and p o s t ­

tests .
Teacher

logs p r e s e n t e d an o p p o r t u n i t y to gather d a y - t o -

day i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h o u t

the n e c e s s i t y of f r e q u e n t and p e r ­

si stent c l a s s r o o m vi s i t s by the investigator.

They provided

a feeling for the k i n d of a t m o s p h e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f each
classroom.
Academic

i n f o r m a t i o n from t eac her s p r o v i d e d an i m m e d i a t e

a s s e s s m e n t of s tre ngt hs w i t h i n the d iscipline.

T ea c h e r and

s t udent q u e s t i o n n a i r e s o f f e r e d d ata p a r t i c u l a r to the s u b ­
ject area b e i n g a s s e s s e d and r e a c t i o n s of t h o s e m o s t c l o s e l y
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the area.
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f p r e - and p o s t - t e s t s a p p e a r e d to b e an
effective means
behavior.

for g a t h e r i n g s i g n i f i c a n t d a t a on stu d e n t

T h e careful

s e l e c t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t of t hese

m e a s u r e m e n t cr ite ria s e r v e d to s h o w gen e r a l areas of s t r e n g t h
and w e a k n e s s .
b e of v i t a l

The c h o i c e o f a p p r o p r i a t e v a r i a b l e s p r o v e d to

i m p o r t a n c e w h e n i d e n t i f y i n g s p e c i f i c problems,

as w e l l as p o i n t i n g ou t areas of strength.

W h e n such s tro ng

170

p o i n t s h ad b e e n

identified,

s u g g e s t e d reasons
were

the su r v e y

for the strength.

frequently

W h e n a r e a s of w e a k n e s s

i d e n tif ied t h e survey i n s t r u m e n t s

recommendations

i n s t r u men ts

frequently suggested

for r e m e d i a l measures.

Th us an e v a l u a t i o n g u i d e w a s d e v e l o p e d

in w h i c h s e v e r a l

m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e u s e d over a s i n g l e t r e a t m e n t w i t h i n o n e
populat ion .
interest.

Pre- an d p o s t - t e s t s

C a r e f u l l y se lec ted v a r i a b l e s

a t e d w i t h i n each area.
reasons

i d e n t i f i e d b r o a d areas of

F i n a l l y survey

fu rth er d i f f e r e n t i ­
i n s t r u men ts d e t e r m i n e d

for c h a n g e s and s u g g e s t e d fut ure action.

A S et of P roc ed u r e s
Evaluations

to G u i d e F u t u r e

T h e i n t e r e s t e d faculty s h o u l d c o l l e c t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e
the following:
a.

Identify a reas that b e s t m a n i f e s t o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r ­
acteristics

an d h i g h l i g h t the p r o g r a m as u n i q u e

from

that f o r m e r l y used.
b.

Id ent ify c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

that promis-e to b e m o s t

useful for d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b e t w e e n students.
c.

Id ent ify k i n d s of
survey

i n f o r m a t i o n to b e g a t h e r e d t h r o u g h

instruments,

w i t h p r i o r i t y g i v e n t h o s e that

p r o m i s e to h e l p the eva lua tor d e c i d e why c e r t a i n
differences

ex ist ed and h o w i m p r o v e m e n t s c o u l d b e

enacted.
Pl an for A c t i o n .

In order

to f a c i l i t a t e p l a n n i n g

c u r r i c u l u m e v a l u a t i o n as d e s c r i b e d in this
o u t l i n e is suggested.

study,

for a

th e fol low ing

171

1- I d e n t i f y the d i s c i p l i n e to b e evaluated.

The dis­

c i p l i n e w o u l d n o r m a l l y b e c o n s i d e r e d a d i s c r e t e s u b j e c t area
s u c h as science,
However,

mathem ati cs,

s o c i a l studies,

or reading.

it m a y be that i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y stu die s s u c h as

ea rth science;

or an e l e m e n t a r y m a t h e m a t i c s - s c i e n c e ,

s t u d i e s - s c i e n c e c o m b i n a t i o n m a y b e of concern.
na t i o n s are a c c e p t a b l e if areas of
b e l o w can b e

social

S uch c o m b i ­

i nte res t as d e s c r i b e d

i den ti f i e d as c o m m o n to the m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n e .

2. S e l e c t areas of

interest w h i c h b e s t d e m o n s t r a t e o u t ­

s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the c u r r i c u l a r program.

One

s h o u l d c o n s i d e r d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n th e n ew p r o g r a m and tha t
p r e v i o u s l y used.
as st a t e d b y

O n e s h o u l d also c o n s i d e r s p e c i a l emphas es

the au tho rs o f the n e w program.

p u r p o s e of the e v a l u a t i o n
its

implementation,

lated to local

is to a s s e s s

s eek i n g s t r e n g t h s

S i n c e th e m a j o r

the ne w p r o g r a m d u r i n g
and w e a k n e s s e s as r e ­

school d i s t r i c t needs,

these

int ere st areas

sh o u l d r e f l e c t the g o a l s of th e p r o g r a m as s e e n b y the local
school district.
A r e a s of
lectual

in terest m i g h t

skills,

s t r u c t u r e of the s ubj e c t area,

v e r b a l i z e d knowledge,
m o t o r skills,

in clude the following:

co mpr ehension,

p r o b l e m solving,

w o r k meaning,

and a t t i t u d e toward t he subject,

creativity,

appreciation

as r e l a t e d to c er t a i n a s p e c t s w i t h i n the subject,
s u c h as o p e n - m i n d e d n e s s

intel­

or co nce p t s

and curiosity.

3. C h o o s e v a r i a b l e s w h i c h ap p e a r to s h o w p r o m i s e as
i d e n t i f i e r s of s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s a n d s t r e n g t h s w i t h i n the

172

areas o f interest.

S u c h va ria b l e s m i g h t r e l a t e to student

or t e a c h e r - c l a s s r o o m differences.
p o s s i b l e va ria ble s

It is n e c e s s a r y to list

an d predict h o w their use m i g h t show d i f ­

f e r e n t i a t i o n a m o n g the student body.
b e g i v e n to the f o l l o w i n g list:

C o n s i d e r a t i o n should

E n t e r i n g b e h a v i o r s as

i d e n t i f i e d b y g r a d e p o i n t average,

or I.Q.,

achievement,

and a p t i t u d e tests;

factors,

race,

socio-economic

u s ed at pre vio us g r a d e levels;
e x p e r i e n c e of teachers,

and pr ograms

a l s o academic b a c k g r o u n d and

as w e l l as di f f e r e n c e s

as rel ated to

c l a s s r o o m e q u i p m e n t a nd organiza tio n.
4. D e v e l o p a t e s t i n g p r o g r a m design r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of
the a b o v e conditions.

The m a t r i x design of the te sting p r o ­

g r am m u s t c o n s i d e r all s i g n i f i c a n t

indepe nde nt a nd dep en d e n t

v a r i a b l e s and b e c o n s t r u c t e d to a l l o w for a n a l y t i c a l
p r e t a t i o n of results.

in ter ­

A s s i s t a n c e from a r e s e a r c h consul tan t

m a y b e required.
5.
areas o f

P repare or s e l e c t m e a s u r e s
interest.

to b e us ed

It is r e c o m m e n d e d that m a c h i n e scored

test b e u s e d w h e n p o s s i b l e to r e d u c e the w o r k
evaluator.

in each of the

load for the

It w o u l d b e a d v i s a b l e that w h e n m e a s u r e s are

s e l e c t e d to test the various c u r r i c u l a r areas,
given those measures

that can b e a d a p tab le as p a r t of the

r e g u l a r c o u r s e evaluation.

S t u d e n t s should r e a l i z e that t h e y

w i l l b e i n d i v i d u a l l y e val uat ed o n th e b a s i s of
to t h e s e m e a s u r e s

priority be

their r e s p o n s e s

(exceptions w o u l d be a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e s as

us ed in this s t u d y ) .

This s h o u l d e nco ura ge s t u d e n t s to do

173

their b e s t a n d t h e r e f o r e p r e s e n t a m o r e a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e of
change

(see p r o b l e m s

for further investigation,

p a g e 180).

6. L ist the k i n d s o f i n f o r mat ion t h a t m i g h t b e h e l p f u l
to d i a g n o s t i c a l l y

int er p r e t r esults o f the te sti ng program.

Th e p u r p o s e o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l p h a s e of e v a l u a t i o n as r e ­
f erred to u n d e r points

two thr ough f i v e w a s to id en t i f y

sp eci fic a reas of s t r e n g t h and w e a k n e s s as r e l a t e d to i m p l e ­
m e n t a t i o n w i t h i n the p a r t i c u l a r

s chool setting.

The purpose

of the d e s c r i p t i v e p h a s e as r e f e r r e d to under po i n t s six and
seven is to d i g n o s t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e w h y s u c h s tre ngt hs and
weaknesses

exist.

T h e r e f o r e it is n e c e s s a r y to a n t i c i p a t e

possible differences which might become manifest
of the t e s t i n g program,

as a res ult

and co mpile a list of k i n d s of

infor­

m a t i o n w h i c h could s u g g e s t reasons w h y t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s
exist.

Th e

list should att emp t to i n c l u d e all p o s s i b l e

re aso ns

for o utc ome s

from the pre- an d post-tests.

7. D e v e l o p the v a r i o u s kinds of s u r v e y i n s t r um ent s n e c e s ­
sary for g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n under p o i n t six.
m e n t s w i l l t e n d to b e
considerations

include:

en d - o f - y e a r summaries,
books,

subjective

in nature.

teacher logs,

The

instru­

Po ss i b l e

c l a s s r o o m observations,

r a t i n g s of classrooms,

equipment,

text­

and teachers.

8. A d m i n i s t e r the t est and s u r v e y i n s t r u m e n t s a c c o r d i n g
to an a g r e e d calendar.
studied.

T i m i n g of the t e s t i n g pro g r a m m u s t b e

P r e - and p o s t - t e s t s should b e a d m i n i s t e r e d as part

of a p r e d e t e r m i n e d sequence.

S t u d e n t s w h o are u n a b l e to s u b ­

m i t to the tests on th e s p e c i f i e d d a y s h o u l d b e g i v e n

174

o p p o r t u n i t y to
October

"make up"

the test to r e d u c e s a m p l e attrition.

is s a t i s f a c t o r y

for the pre-test s,

b u t the

m i d d l e or late M a y could p r o v e to b e l ate for the p o s t - t e s t s
s i n c e m a n y sc h o o l clo sin g a c t i v i t i e s m a y c a u s e s c h e d u l i n g
conflicts.

However,

if t e s t m e a s u r e s c a n b e c h o s e n w h i c h

are a d a p t a b l e as part of the r egu lar c o u r s e e v a l u a t i o n the
p r obl em of p o s t - t e s t t i m i n g w i l l b e g r e a t l y reduced.
9.

R e c o r d and an aly ze res u l t s

from t he tests.

University

te sti ng s e r v i c e s m a y be o f h e l p at this point.
10. T a b u l a t e and a n a l y z e re s u l t s

from th e su r v e y i n s t r u ­

ments .
11.

I n t e r p r e t results

su rvey instruments.

from the tests w i t h the aid of the

S t r e n g t h s and w e a k n e s s e s are to be

identified and diagnostically

interpreted.

analysis sh o u l d

O n e needs to d e t e r m i n e a c t i o n

then follow.

A prognostic

w h i c h w i l l s e r v e to r e - e n f o r c e those a s p e c t s of the p r o g r a m
that p r o v e d a d e q u a t e and s u g g e s t r e m e d i a l c h a n g e to c o r r e c t
those areas w h i c h showed w eakn e s s .

T h e ev alu a t o r w i l l p r o b a b l y

find it n e c e s s a r y to c onsult r e s e a r c h s p e c i a l i s t s
w i t h this a s p e c t of the evaluation,
four and nine-

to a s s i s t

as w e l l as w i t h p oin ts

M o s t state u n i v e r s i t i e s p r o v i d e such r e s e a r c h

c o u n s e l i n g services.
12.

P r e s e n t r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for change.

tion r e s e a r c h w a s

intern all y d i r e c t e d b y

If the e v a l u a ­

faculty,

the r e p o r t

sh o u l d b e p r e s e n t e d first to the fac ulty and se c o n d to a d m i n ­
istration a n d board.

E v a l u a t i o n i n i t i a t e d b y the a d m i n i s t r a ­

tion sh o u l d b e r e p o r t e d b a c k

to the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,

the n to

175

the faculty,

and f i n a l l y to the board.

An externally directed

s t u d y w o u l d be r e p o r t e d first to p a r t i e s

e x t e r n a l to the local

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t a n d then to admi nis tra tio n,

faculty,

and

board.
Personal Impressions
W h i l e d e v e l o p i n g this e v a l u a t i o n g u i d e c e r t a i n i m p r e s ­
sions w e r e r e c e i v e d w h i c h this w r i t e r

considered

an y sc h o o l system a n t i c i p a t i n g a d o p t i o n and
a ne w c urr ic u l u m program.
sc hoo ls
cu l t y

im por t a n t to

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of

As this wr i t e r w o r k e d w i t h the

it b e c a m e e vid e n t that t e a c h e r s g e n e r a l l y ha d d i f f i ­

i d e n tif yin g an d ada pti ng to the r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t

t e a c h i n g p h i l o s o p h y e spo use d in t he c u r r i c u l u m program.
T e a c h e r s w h o ha d b e e n out in t he field for s e v e r a l y ear s
quently

found the a p p r o a c h q u i t e

Th e teacher,

for example,

fre­

foreign.

t a u g h t the textbook,

using

l e c t u r e and d e m o n s t r a t i o n as th e p r i m e v e h i c l e for d i s p e n s i n g
information.

Th us w h a t

should h a v e b e e n s t u d e n t

ti on o f t e n be c a m e t eac her d emo n s t r a t i o n .

What

investiga­

little l a b o r a ­

tory experi enc es w e r e off ere d u s u a l l y served to ve rif y
previously

identified understandings

"cookbook"

exercises.

and co uld b e t erm ed

T he c o n c e p t of u s i n g l a b o r a t o r y

in­

v e s t i g a t i o n s as a w a y of d i s c o v e r i n g n ew i n f o r m a t i o n s e e m e d a
remote

idea.

O b s e r v a t i o n s such as t h e s e s u g g e s t e d that w h e n

e x p e r i e n c e d t e a c h e r s w e r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h an i n n o v a t i v e
e d u c a t i o n program t h e y a t t e m p t e d t o force the n e w m a t e r i a l s
to fit their p r e v i o u s concepts of h o w best

to teach.

Lac k of

176

g o o d in ten t i o n s wa s not n e c e s s a r i l y the p r o b l e m .

A teacher

di d not i n s t r u c t as the c u r r i c u l u m pro g r a m i n t e n d e d s imp ly
b e c a u s e h e d i d not k n o w h o w to do
sufficient.

it.

To b e t o l d h o w w as n o t

T r a n s m i t t i n g ideas w h i c h w e r e a s s i m i l a t e d a t

n o t h i n g m o r e than the ver b a l level wa s seldom useful.
T h e n e w pr ogr ams
to t e a c h i n g w h i c h wa s

pr omo ted a d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h
far r e m o v e d

from the t r a d i t ion al.

St ude nts w e r e to b e e n c o u r a g e d to w o r k as c l o s e l y w i t h
real w o r l d as possible.

the

The a p p r o a c h r e q u i r e d a d i f f e r e n t

c l a s s r o o m a t m o s p h e r e th an u s u a l l y e n v i s i o n e d b y t he public.
T h e c l a s s r o o m w as to b e c o m e a b e e h i v e of p u r p o s e f u l endeav or
in w h i c h c h i l d r e n w o r k e d d i r e c t l y w i t h ph ysic al objects.
Th e e n v i r o n m e n t e n c o u r a g e d s t u d e n t s

to "try t h i n g s out."

Th ey w e r e d i r e c t e d to handle, m a n i p ul ate ,
to ask q u e s t i o n s an d pr o p o s e solutions.
m e n t to test hypotheses,

a n d do.

They were

T h e y w e r e to e x p e r i ­

and a c c e p t or re j e c t them;

b e c a u s e of text or teacher,

b u t on the basis of

not

their own

observations.
T h e r e f o r e the teacherfe ro le w a s to b e c h a n g e d ;
enlarged.

His m a j o r c o n c e r n w a s not to lecture,

ings and questions,
b e a "teller"
an d organizer.

or e v a l u a t e recall.

h e also b e c a m e a listener,

guide,

a n d interpret results.

a c t i v i t y b e c a m e the ce n t e r of interest.

counselor,
as k questions,

N o w th e ch ild's

T he t e a c h e r w a s

pl a c e d in th e p o s i t i o n of a s u p p o r t i n g role;
the student.

as s i g n r e a d ­

W h i l e h e m i g h t still

He h e l p e d the st u d e n t observe,

d e s i g n experiments,

it was

s u p p o r t i n g to

177

T e a c h e r s w h o h a d b e e n u s e d to o p e r a t i n g as a central
classroom

figure and d i s p e n s e r of k n o w l e d g e o f t e n h a d d i f f i ­

culty a d j u s t i n g to this new role.
t e a c h e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n of his

If left to c h a n c e the

job r e m a i n e d m u c h the same even

th o u g h ne w m a t e r i a l s w e r e b r o u g h t in a n d p l a c e d a b o u t the
room.

L e c t u r e a nd d e m o n s t r a t i o n s till dominated.

Stu dents

w e r e s t i l l t he p a s s i v e r e c i p i e n t s o f teacher dispen sat ion s,
r e c o r d i n g i n f o r m ati on t o be d i g e s t e d and r e g u r g i t a t e d at the
proper time.

The m a j o r

thrust of th e s e programs,

s t a n d i n g t h r o u g h inquiry,
an d t h e r e f o r e never
It h a d bee n

under­

w a s n e v e r r e c o g n i z e d b y the t eacher

implemented.

fa i r l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d that t he ne w c u r r i ­

cular p r o g r a m s w e r e

i mpr o v e m e n t s over older m a t e r i a l s .

Tet

so o f t e n th ey failed to p r o d u c e the e x p e c t e d r e s u l t s b e c a u s e
the t e a c h i n g p h i l o s o p h y b u i l t

into th e pro gra m h a d not b e e n

a c c e p t e d or u n d e r s t o o d b y the c l a s s r o o m teacher.
b e c a m e ve ry o b v i o u s to this wr i t e r

that the m o s t

It t h e r e f o r e
i m p o rt ant

c o n c e r n r e l a t i n g to a d o p t i o n of n e w cu rric u l a r p r o g r a m s w a s
that of tea che r o r i e n t a t i o n and training.

T his m e a n t that o n e

or two days o f i n t r o d u c t o r y w o r k s h o p w o u l d n o t b e sufficient.
A m p l e time h a d to b e a l l o w e d so t e a c h e r s co u l d w o r k their w a y
into t h e m aterials,
to do.

just as their

s t u d e n t s w o u l d b e ex pec t e d

The ir w o r k s h o p c l a s s r o o m h a d to b e c o m e a b e e h i v e of

p u r p o s e f u l endeavor,
th em s e l v e s . "

where teachers

T h e y n e e d e d to handle,

"tried t hings o u t for
manipula te,

an d do.

T h e y n e e d e d to ask q u e s t i o n s and p r o p o s e solutions.
n e e d e d to e x p e r i m e n t a n d t est their hypotheses,

They

and learn to

178

a c c e p t or r e j e c t them,

n ot b e c a u s e of b o o k or instructor,

on t he b a s i s of their ow n obs er v a t i o n s .
preparation,

one

but

O n l y after su ch

in w h i c h the teacher b e g a n to le arn b y doing,

w o u l d h e feel c o n f i d e n t

to a l l o w s t u d e n t s to do th e same.

R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s to the C a r m a n School
District
In vi ew of the f ind ing s r e p o r t e d in Ch apter

IV the f o l l o w ­

ing r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s are presented.
1. G r a d e p l a c e m e n t

for ESC P s h o u l d b e reconsi der ed.

S i n c e the v e r t i c a l s c i e n c e cu rric u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t h a s not
been

f i n a l i z e d for junior and senior h i g h students

C a r m a n S c h o o l District,

in the

th e p o s s i b i l i t y of s h i f t i n g E S C P to

g r a d e n ine s h o u l d b e studied.
2.
level,

In the e v e n t t h a t ES CP remains

a t t he ei g h t h gra de

it is r e c o m m e n d e d that c o n s i d e r a t i o n b e g i v e n to r e v i s ­

ing the two track p r o g r a m

(Appendix M,

I n t e r m e d i a t e S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m Study

p a g e 27 7)

so tha t

(ISCS £1 and III)

the s u g g e s t e d p a t h for t he s econd track.
m e n d e d that s t u d e n t s w h o r a t e in the lower

become

It is f u r t h e r r e c o m ­
"grade p o i n t ave rag e

in s c i e n c e from the p r e v i o u s year" b e e n c o u r a g e d to fol low
t h e ISCS track.
3.

In th e event t h a t either e a r t h s c i e n c e is j u d g e d b e s t

at the e i g h t h g r a d e level or

is c h a n g e d to a d i f f e r e n t

level

o p p o r t u n i t y for an i n s e r v i c e w o r k s h o p s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d in
w h i c h earth s c i e n c e t e a c h e r s
ob jectives,

can p r e s c r i b e priorities,

e s t a b l i s h m eth ods ,

and s e l e c t m a t e r i a l s

d efi ne

for the

179

year.

Such a w o r k s h o p w o u l d a l l o w the fa cul ty to pl an a

s e q u e n c e of con t e n t a nd i n v e s t i g a t i o n s to b e treated.
4.

S h i r n e r 1 a nd S a r g e n t ' s 2 stu die s s t r o n g l y s ugg e s t that

the c o m b i n a t i o n of the r i g h t c u r r i c u l u m w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e
teacher
come.

is an im por t a n t

factor

in i n f l u e n c i n g st u d e n t o u t ­

O b s e r v a t i o n of the te ach ers b y this w r i t e r

suggest

vast d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h re g a r d to p e r s o n a l i t y an d m e t h o d of
teaching.

C a r m a n School D i s t r i c t t e a c h e r s c h o s e to ac c e p t a

d r a m a t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t k i n d of earth sci e n c e pr og r a m w i t h o u t
re g a r d to ind ivi d u a l t e a c h i n g m a n n e r i s m s .
o f this

i nv e s t i g a t o r

that so me t e a c h e r s

i d e n ti fyi ng w i t h the n ew approach.
m e n d e d th at w i t h

It is th e o p i n i o n

found d i f f i c u l t y

T h e r e f o r e it is r e c o m ­

f uture i n t r o d u c t i o n of any n e w c u r r i c u l a r

p r ogram p r o v i s i o n s b e m a d e

for n e c e s s a r y

i nse rvi ce t r a i n i n g

to a d e q u a t e l y a c q u a i n t t e a c h e r s w i t h t he goals,
m a t e r i a l s of the p r o g r a m „
h o w w e l l prepared,

me tho ds,

and

An e d u c a t i o n a l program,

no m a t t e r

ca n b e o n l y p a r t i a l l y e f f e c t i v e

if t e a c h ­

ers are not t r a i n e d t o u se it as d e s i g n e d or a re i n c a p a b l e
o f a d a p t i n g the p a r t i c u l a r t e a c h i n g s t y l e required.
5.

It is also recommended,

tha t

quately acquainted with a particular

if after b e c o m i n g a d e ­
e d u c a t i o n a l package,

S h i r n e r , "A C o m p a r i s o n of S t u d e n t O u t c o m e s in V a r i o u s
E a r t h S c i e n c e C o u r s e s T a u g h t b y S e v e n t e e n Iowa T e a c h e r s , "
loc. c i t .
2Sargent, "A S t u d y to D e t e r m i n e C e r t a i n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of E a r t h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t T e a c h e r s and S t u d e n t s in
P e r m i s s i v e and A u t h o r i t a r i a n C l a s s r o o m s w h i c h L ead to Gre a t e r
A c a d e m i c A c h i e v e m e n t in t h e s e S t u d e n t s , " l o c . cit.

180

a teacher

feels u n a b l e to a d a p t

the m a t e r i a l s

to h i s

teaching style and cannot effectively adapt his
materials,

that the

that

instruction.

It is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t E S C P b e t a u g h t

student
7.

s t y l e to the

tea c h e r b e a l l o w e d t o s e l e c t o t h e r

m a t e r i a l s to h e l p h i m w i t h c o u r s e
6.

personal

in suc h a w a y

investigations ha v e highest priority.

It is a l s o r e c o m m e n d e d

t i m e b e d e v o t e d to

laboratory

th at at l e a s t 6 0 % o f c l a s s
investigations

and audio-visual

presentations.
8.

It is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s

be made aware of
sc ien c e .

t h e n e e d to

and administrators

improve student attitudes

In s u p p o r t o f th is r e c o g n i t i o n e v e r y

toward

effort should

b e m a d e to d e v e l o p m o r e s t u d e n t o r i e n t a t e d c l a s s r o o m a c t i v i ­
ties.

Attitudes

involved,

se em to b e

improved when students

w h i l e at t h e s a m e t i m e a t t i t u d e s

enthusiastic when

seem

become

to b e

less

t h e t e x t b o o k a n d the t e a c h e r d o m i n a t e the

learning experience.
Problems

for F u r t h e r

Investigation

The data gathered
dents
for

and t e a c h e r s

fu rth er

in t h i s

over

within a typical
One

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g a t h e r i n g of d a t a

classroom situation

is ne v e r q u i t e

is r e f l e c t e d b y
the pre-test

t he e v a l u a t i o n p e r i o d s u g g e s t e d are as

investigation.

O n e of t h e p r o b l e m s

re s u l t s .

s t u d y an d o b s e r v a t i o n of s t u ­

t e s t scores.

is g i v e n

is r e l i a b i l i t y of test

certain how well
This

student behavior

is p a r t i c u l a r l y

in t h e fa ll w h i l e s t u d e n t s

true when

appear

f res h

181

a nd e n e r g e t i c an d the p o s t - t e s t

is g i v e n in t he s pring w h e n

s t u d e n t s h a v e b e c o m e m o r e apathetic.

Most

s chools e t i l l u s e

gr a d e s as a m a j o r m o t i v a t i n g force for a c a d e m i c
It is

achievement.

in such schools w h e r e this q u e s t i o n of test sco re

reliability becomes a major
s c o r e r e f l e c t his

concern.

the s t u d ent 's

ab ili ty w h e n the s t u d e n t a p p a r e n t l y has

n o t h i n g to gai n or lose after
recommended that

Does

filling o ut a test?

It is

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s b e c o n d u c t e d to e s t a b l i s h

m o r e acceptable techniques

for

s e a r c h studies w h e n o p e r a t i n g

imp rov ing r e l i a b i l i t y of r e ­
in p u b l i c sc h o o l settings.

No i n s t ru men ts s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d for us e w i t h

junior

h i g h students w e r e found for d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a t t i t u d e s or
achievement

in pro ces s sk i l l s at the ti me of this study.

T h e r e f o r e the i nv e s t i g a t o r a d a p t e d from m e a s u r e s no t n e c e s ­
sa r i l y su i t e d to the p a r t i c u l a r needs of the study.
a b l e r e s e a r c h is n eeded

Consider­

for d e v e l o p m e n t o f tests s p e c i f i c a l l y

w r i t t e n for sch o o l c h i l d r e n at all g r a d e levels.
Variables

for ana lys is w i t h i n the m o d e l w e r e q u i t e

li mited since t h e test s c h o o l d i s t r i c t h a d no p r e v i o u s t e s t i n g
p r o g r a m in th e areas of aptitude,
Additional study

or achievement.

is n e e d e d to d e t e r m i n e e f f e c t s w h e n o the r

v a r i a b l e s s u c h as I.Q.,
factors,

intelligence,

and pr evi ous

achievement,

race,

socio-economic

e l e m e n t a r y sc i e n c e p r o g r a m s

s i d e r e d for inc lus ion in th e r e s e a r c h m a t r i x .

are c o n ­

In this w a y

e v i d e n c e can b e g a t h e r e d to further t e s t the o v e r a l l h y p o t h e ­
sis of this study.

182

W h i l e th e r e seemed to b e a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d on time d e v o t e d to l a b o r a t o r y sessions#
st ude nt a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d science,

and

"ex pos ure to pro c e s s

skills" w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g tea che r logs and t eac her e n d - o f - y e a r
reports#

it a p p e a r e d that the g a t h e r i n g of such d a t a usi ng

e n d - o f -ye ar r e p o r t s was
judgment.
year

Yet

pro ne to c o n s i d e r a b l e s u b j e c t i v e

it can b e a r g u e d that u t i l i z a t i o n of end - o f -

re ports w o u l d

and evaluator.

s implify da ta g a t h e r i n g for b o t h

teacher

T h e r e f o r e m o r e r e s e a r c h is r e c o m m e n d e d to

d e v e l o p r e l i a b l e e n d - o f -ye ar d a t a g a t h e r i n g p r o c e d u r e s u sef ul
for diagnostic,

evaluative,

and p r o g n o s t i c

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

th e school program.
Teacher differences present a major
c u r r i c u l u m e v a l u a t i o n at the local

level.

co nc e r n w h e n p lan n i n g
M a n y q u e s t i o n s of

b o t h a p r a g m a t i c and p h i l o s o p h i c a l n a t u r e w a r r a n t c o n s i d e r a ­
tion.

T e a c h e r s ’ g e n e r a l l y are no t e n t h u s i a s t i c w h e n e v a l u a ­

ti on o f c u r r i c u l u m sug ges t j u d g m e n t o f their a b i l i t y as
instructors.

Yet differences between classrooms are appro­

p r i a t e and u s e f u l variables.
Will teachers

i n i t i a t e e v a l u a t i o n s w h e n there is a p o s ­

s i b i l i t y that res u l t s w i l l b e
their a bil iti es
evaluation be

as e duc ato rs?

i n t e r p r e t e d in r e l a t i o n s h i p to
C an a nd s h o u l d c u r r i c u l u m

i n t e r p r e t e d as te ach er a c c o u n t a b i l i t y ?

H o w can a d m i n i s t r a t o r s d eal w i t h c u r r i c u l u m
w i t h o u t a p p e a r i n g to t h r e a t e n f ac u l t y p o s i t i o n s ?

evaluation

183

H o w do es an i n v e s t i g a t o r d e s i g n a c u r r i c u l u m e v a l u a t i o n
tha t l o o k s at all i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of the p r o g r a m w i t h o u t
i n f r i n g i n g u p o n faculty r ights?

T h e s e and o t h e r q u e s t i o n s

r e l a t e d to teacher a c c o u n t a b i l i t y r equ i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e
future study.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books
A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n for the A d v a n c e m e n t o f Science, S c i e n c e —
A Process A p p r o a c h . C o m m e n t a r y for T e a c h e r s . N e w York:
X e r o x Corporation, 1970.
Anderson, Hans O.
R e a d i n g s in S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n for the
S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l . N ew York:
The M a c m i l l a n Company,
1969.
Anderson, R o n a l d D . ; DeVito, Alfred, et al.
Developing
C h i l d r e n * s T h i n k i n g T h r o u g h S c i e n c e . E n g l e w o o d cliffs.
N e w Jersey:
P r e n t i c e Hall, Inc., 1970.
Bigge, M o r r i s L . L e a r n i n g T h e o r i e s
Ha rpe r and Row, 1964.
Bruner, J e r o m e S.
R a n d o m House,

for T e a c h e r s .

The P roc ess of E d u c a t i o n .
1960.

N e w York:

Ne w York:

C e n t r a l A s s o c i a t i o n of S c i e n c e and M a t h e m a t i c s Teachers, Inc.
A Half C e n t u r y of S c i e n c e and M a t h e m a t i c s T e a c h i n g .
O a k Park, Illinois:
1950.
Craig, G e r a l d S., et al^
S c i e n c e for Y o u .
Boston:
G i n n and Company, 193 2.
Dewey, John.
E x p e r i e n c e and E d u c a t i o n .
Ma cmi l l a n , 1938.

Book I-VIII.

London:

Collier-

Downie, N. M. an d H e a t h N. W.
Basic Statistical M e t h o d s .
Ne w York:
H arper and Row, 1970.
E a r t h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m Project.
I n v e s t i g a t i n g the E a r t h .
Boston:
H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n Company, 1967.
__________. T e a c h e r ' s G u i d e - - I n v e s t i g a t i n g th e E a r t h . Par t 1
an d 2.
Boston:
H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n Company, 1967.
Fraser, D o r o t h y M.
C u r r e n t C u r r i c u l u m Stud ies in A c a d e m i c
Subjects.
Washington, D.C.:
National Education
A s s o c iat ion , J u n e 1962.

184

185

Goodlad, Jo hn I.; Stoephasius, R e n a t a Von; Klein, M. Francis.
T h e C h a n g i n g C u r r i c u l u m (New York:
T he F u n d for the
A d v a n c e m e n t o f A m e r i c a n Education, 1966).
Grobman, Hulda.
E v a l u a t i o n A c t i v i t i e s of C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t s :
A S t a r t i n g P o i n t . Chicago:
R a n d M c N a l l y and Company,
1968.
Heller, R o b e r t L.
G e o l o g y an d E a r t h Sci enc e S o u r c e b o o k for
E l e m e n t a r y a nd S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s . New Y ork:
Holt R i n e ­
hart and Wi nst on, Inc., 1962.
Helgard, E r n e s t R.
T heories o f L e a r n i n g .
Century-Crofts. Inc., 1968.
Hurd,

N e w York:

Appleton-

Paul DeHart.
Ne w D i r e c t i o n s in T e a c h i n g S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l
S c i e n c e . Chicago:
R a n d M c N a l l y Company, 1969.

_________ , and Gallagher, J ames J.
New D i r e c t i o n s in E l e m e n t a r y
Sc ience T e a c h i n g . Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Pub­
lishing Company, Inc., 1968.
J o h n De wey Society.
The A m e r i c a n School B o a r d J o u r n a l .
T h i r t e e n t h Yearbook, N e w York:
Harper and Brothers,
1953.
Joyce, W i l l i a m W.; Oana, Robert; a nd Houston,
E l e m e n t a r y E d u c a t i o n for t he S e v e n t i e s .
R i n e h a r t an d Winston, Inc., 1970.
Krusi, Hermann.
Cincinnati:
Lee,

R o b e r t W.
N e w York:

Holt,

Pestalozzi, His Life. Work, a n d I n f l u e n c e .
Wilson, H i n k l e and Company, 1875.

Eugene C.
N e w D e v e l o p m e n t s in S ci e n c e T e a c h i n g .
Belmont, Californ ia:
W a d s w o r t h P u b l i s h i n g Company,
1967.

Inc.,

Lockard, D a v i d J. (editor)
S i x t h R eport o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l
C l e a r i n g h o u s e on S c i e n c e a n d M a t h e m a t i c s C u r r i c u l a
D e v e l o p m e n t s . Co l l e g e Park:
U n i v e r s i t y of Maryland,
1968.
M e h r e n s , W i l l i a m A. and Ebal, R o b e r t L.
P r i n c i p l e s of E d u c a ­
tional a n d P s y c h o l o g i c a l M e a s u r e m e n t . Chicago:
Rand
M c N a l l y a n d Company, 1967.
N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A ss o c i a t i o n .
R e p o r t on th e C o m m i t t e e of
Ten on S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l S t u d i e s . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . :
G.P.O., 1893.
_________ . S c h o o l s o f the Sixties, Report o f t h e Project on
I n s t r u c t i o n . N e w York:
M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k Company, Inc.,
1963.

186

National Science Teachers Association.
T h e o r y into A c t i o n
. . . in S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m D e v e l o p m e n t . Washington, D.C.:
N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e T e a c h e r s As so c i a t i o n , 1964.
N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y for the Study of Education, T h i r t y - f i r s t
Yearbook, Part 1.
A P r o g r a m for T e a c h i n g S c i e n c e .
Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1932.
_________ .
F i f t y - n i n t h Yearbook, Part 1.
Chicago, U n i v e r s i t y
of C h i c a g o Press,
1947.
Rethinking Science E d u c a t i o n .
_________ .
F o r t y - s i x t h Yearbook, P a r t 1.
S c i e n c e in A m e r i c a n
S c h o o l s . Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1947.
_________ .
S i x t y - n i n t h Yearbook, M a t h e m a t i c s E d u c a t i o n .
Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1953.
Parker, C e c i l J. and Rubin, L o u i s J.
Pr oce ss as C o n t e n t .
Chicago:
Ran d M c N a l l y a nd Company, 1966.
P e r s p e c t i v e s o f C u r r i c u l u m E v a l u a t i o n . AERA.
Monograph
S e r i e s on C u r r i c u l u m Evalua tio n, No. 1 (Chicago:
Rand
M c N a l l y a nd Company, 1967).
Ramsey, W i l l i a m L. and Burckley, R a y m o n d A.
Modern Earth
S c i e n c e . Ne w York:
Holt, R i n e h a r t a n d Winston, Inc.,
1965 .
Remmers, H. H. and Gage, N.
E v a l u a t i o n . New York:

L.
E d u c a t i o n M e a s u r e m e n t an d
H a r p e r and Brothers, 1954.

Robinson, Ja mes F.
The N a t u r e of S c i e n c e and S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g .
Belmont, California:
W a d s w o r t h P u b l i s h i n g Company, Inc.,
1968.
Schwab, J o s e p h J. and Brandwein, Paul F.
S c i e n c e . Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s :
Press, 1962.

T h e T e a c h i n g of
Howard University

Sequel, M a r y Louise.
T he C u r r i c u l u m Field, Its F o r m a t i v e
Y e a r s . N ew York:
T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e Press, 1966.
Shaw, M a r v i n E. a nd Wright, J a c k M.
S cales for M e a s u r e m e n t
o f A t t i t u d e s . N e w York:
M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k Company, 1967.
Skinner, B. F,
S c i e n c e and H u m a n B e h a v i o r .
M a c m i l l a n Company, 1953.

N e w York:

The

Smith, O t h a n e l B.j Stanley, W i l l i a m O.,- an d Shores, J. Harlan.
Fundamental Curriculum D e v e l o p m e n t . Yonkders-on-Hudson,
N e w York:
W o r l d Book Company, 1950.

187

Stout, J o h n Elbert.
T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f H i g h School C u r r i c u l a
i n .t h e N o r t h - C e n t r a l States from 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 1 8 . Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1921.
Taba,

H ilda.
C u r r i c u l u m Development, T h e o r y a nd P r a c t i c e .
N e w York:
H a r c o u r t B r a c e and World, Inc., 1967.

Thorndike,
A. G.

E. L.
T h e P r i n c i p l e s of T e a c h i n g .
Seiler, 1906.

N e w York:

Thurstone, Louis L. a nd Chave, E r n e s t J.
Th e M e a s u r e m e n t of
A t t i t u d e s . Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1929.
Venable, T o m C.
P h i l o s o p h i c a l F o u n d a t i o n of the C u r r i c u l u m .
Chicago:
Rand M c N a l l y and Company, 1967.
Wirth, A r t h u r G.
J o h n D e w e y as E d u c a t o r .
W i l e y and Sons, Inc., 1966.

New York:

John

J o u r n a l s and B u l l e t i n s
Bellack, A r n o A.
" H i s t o r y of C u r r i c u l u m T h o u g h t and Practice."
R e v i e w of E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , XXXIX, No. 3 (L 969 ),
28 3- 2 9 2 .
Bober, Zonia.
"The S c o p e of Ge o g r a p h y . "
IV {1905), 386-396.
Bolton, E. B.
matics."

J o u r n a l of Geography,

"The M e a s u r e m e n t of A t t i t u d e s T o w a r d M a t h e ­
P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g r a m s . L (1938), 155-182.

Bruner, J e r o m e S.
"The A c t of D i s c o v e r y . "
Harvard Educa­
t i o n a l R e v i e w . XXXI, No. 1 (1961), 21-32.
Bruner, J e r o m e S.
" L i b e r a l E d u c a t i o n for A l l Youths."
T h e S c i e n c e T e a c h e r , XXXII, No. 8 (November 1965),

19-21.

Caswell, H. L.
" E m e r g e n c e of the C u r r i c u l u m as a F i e l d of
P r o f e s s i o n a l W o r k an d Study."
P r e c e d e n t s an d Pr om i s e s
in t h e C u r r i c u l u m F i e l d (New York:
Teachers College
Press, 1966), 1-11.
Chalmer, R o y J.
"Let's Te a c h G e o l o g y as the S c i e n c e of the
Earth."
Jou rna l o f G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n , XIV, No. 1
(J anu ary 1964), 47-5 0.
Champlin, R o b e r t F.
"A R e v i e w of R e s e a r c h R e l a t e d to ESCP."
J o u r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n . XVIII, No. 1 (January
1970), 31-39.

188

"C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of E S C P T eac her s and Sc hools."
l e t t e r , NL-8 (July, 1965), 8.

ESCP news­

C o m m i s s i o n o f the R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of S e c o n d a r y Education,
"C ardinal Pri nci ple s of S e c o n d a r y Ed u c a t i o n . "
Bulletin
of the Uni ted St ate s Bur e a u of Education, No. 35.
Washing ton , D.C.:
N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n As so c i a t i o n , 1918.
Craig, G e r a l d S.
"C ert ain T e c h n i q u e s Us ed in D e v e l o p i n g a
C o u r s e o f Study in S c i e n c e for the H o r a c e M a n n E l e m e n t a r y
Sc hool."
N e w York:
B ur e a u of Publication, T e a c h e r s
College, C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y (1927).
Duckworth, Eleanor.
" Pia get R e d i s c o v e r e d . "
Journal of
R e s e a r c h in S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g , II, Issue 3 (1964), 172175.
Gagne, R o b e r t M.
"The L e a r n i n g R e q u i r e m e n t s for Inquiry."
J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h in Science T e a c h i n g , I, I s s u e 2
(1963), 144-153.
Glass, Bentley.
"Theory into A c t i o n — A Cr iti q u e . "
The
S c i e n c e T e a c h e r . X X X V I (May, 1965), 29-30, 82-83.
Goodlad, J o h n I.
"The C u r r i c u l u m . "
R a t i o n a l P l a n n i n g in
C u r r i c u l u m and I n s t r u c t i o n . W a s h i ngt on, D.C.:
National
E d u c a t i o n Ass o c i a t i o n , Center of S t u d y for E d u c a t i o n
(1967), 5-30.
Grisivold, A. W.
"What W e D o n ' t K n o w W i l l H u r t Us."
(July, 1954), 76-82.

Harper* s

Heller, R o b e r t L.
"The E a r t h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m Project."
J o u r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n , XII, No. 2 (June,
1964), 64-68.
Heller, R o b e r t L.
"The E a r t h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t - A R e p o r t of P r o g r e s s . "
J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h in S c i e n c e
Teaching. II, I s s u e 4 (December, 1964), 330-334.
Hill,

K a t h e r i n e E.
C h i l d r e n , III,

" S c i e n c e for C h i l d r e n — Why?"
No. 8 (May, 1966), 11-12.

S c i e n c e and

Holmes, C h a u n c e y D.
" G e o l o g y and L i b e r a l Edu c a t i o n . "
J o u r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n . XVII, No. 4 (October,
1969), 142-144.
Ivany, J. W. George.
" P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s p e c t s of S t r u c t u r e of
Science."
S c i e n c e T e a c h e r . XX XII I, No. 5 (May, 1966),
36-37.
Judd,

C. H.
"The R e l a t i o n of S p e c i a l T r a i n i n g to Gen e r a l
I n t e l lig enc e."
E d u c a t i o n a l R e v i e w , X X X V I (1908), 28-42.

189

Kessen, W i l l i a m .
" Sta te m e n t of P u r p o s e s and O b j e c t i v e s of
S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n in the E l e m e n t a r y School."
Journal
of R e s e a r c h in S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g , II, I s s u e 1 (1964),
3-6.
Kliebard, Herbert.
"The C u r r i c u l u m F i e l d in R e t r o s p e c t . "
T e c h n o l o g y and th e C u r r i c u l u m . N e w York:
Teachers
C o l l e g e Press (1968a), 69-84.
Lewis, R i c h a r d S.
"ESCP M o v e s A h e a d . "
(September, 1964), 16-18.

Geotimes,

IX,

No.

2

Ma tth ews , W i l l i a m H.
"Current S t a t u s of E art h S c i e n c e in
S e c o n d a r y Schools."
Journal of Geological E d u c a t i o n .
XII, No. 2 (June, 1964), 60, 63.
Ma tth ews , W i l l i a m H.
"Current S t a t u s of E a r t h S c i e n c e P r o ­
gr a m s in S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s ."
E S C P N e w s l e t t e r , NL-2
(January, 1964), 1-3.
Mooney, E. W.
"The E a r t h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t for
N i n t h G r a d e . " P i l o t S t u d i e s . Richmond, V i r g i n i a ;
D i v i s i o n of E d u c a t i o n a l Research, Sta te D e p a r t m e n t of
E d u c a t i o n (1968).
Namowitz, Sa m u e l N.
"The T r a d i t i o n a l A p p r o a c h to E a r t h
Science."
J o u r n a l of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n . XVI, No.
(December, 1968), 170-172.
"O b j e c t i v e s and P h i l o s o p h y of E S C P . "
(October, 1963), 5.

5

ESCP N e w s l e t t e r , NL-1

Orgren, J a m e s R.
"Earth Science:
T h e n and Now."
Journal
of G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n . XVII, No. 5 (December, 1969),
179-183.
Pauli, R. A.; Larson, A. C.? and V a n d e n Avond, Richard.
" P r e d i c t i n g the E f f e c t of E S C P on I n t r o d u c t o r y C o l l e g e
G e o l o g y C our ses."
Journal o f G e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n .
XXVII, NO. 2 (1969), 47-53.
Ranger, W a l t e r E.
X X I V (April,

"The Nature S t u d y M o v e m e n t . "
1904), 501-503.

Education,

Raven, R o n a l d J.
"To w a r d a P h i l o s o p h i c a l B a s i s for S e l e c t ­
ing S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m C o n t e n t . " S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n .
LIV, No. 2 (1970), 97-103.
Shamos, M. H.
"The R o l e of M a j o r C o n c e p t u a l S c h e m e s in
S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n . " T he S c i e n c e T e a c h e r , XX XIII, No.
(1966), 27-30.

1

190

Shulman, L ee S.
"co gni tive Learning a n d t he E d u c a t i o n a l
Pr ocess."
J ou r n a l o f M e d i c a l Educati on. XLV, No. 11
(November, 1970), 90-99.
Shulman, Lee S.
" P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o n t r o v e r s i e s in t h e T e a c h ­
ing of S c i e n c e and M a t h e m a t i c s . "
The Science T e a c h e r ,
X X X V (September, 1968), 34-38.
Smith, H e r b e r t A.
" H i s t or ica l B a c k g r o u n d of E l e m e n t a r y
S c i e n c e . " J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h in S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g , 1,
I s s u e 3 (1963), 200-205, 233.
Stevenson, R o b e r t C.
"The Earth S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m Project,
Its Org anization, Objectives, an d P h i l o s o p h y . " The
S c i e n c e T e a c h e r , XXXI, No. 2 (1964), 21-23.
"Students C o m p l e t e ESCP Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . "
NL-13 (February, 1967), 11-12.
"Student Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . "
1968), 3.

ESCP N e w s l e t t e r ,

ESCP N e w s l e t t e r , NL-17

(October,

Strunk, 0. Jr.
“A t t i t u d e T o w a r d P s y c h o l o g y as a F a c t o r in
th e J u d g m e n t of R e a d a b i l i t y of a P s y c h o l o g y Textbook. *'
Proc. W. Va. A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e , X X I X (1957-1958), 175179.
Tanner, T h o m a s R.
"The S c i e n c e Curric ulu m:
Unfinished
B u s i n e s s for an U n f i n i s h e d Cou ntr y."
Phi D e l t a K a p p a n .
LI, No. 7 (March, 1970), 353-357.
"Teacher Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . "
1968), 6.

E SCP N e w s l e t t e r , NL-17

(October,

Thorndike, E. L. and Wo odw ort h, R. S.
"The I n f l u e n c e of
I m p r o v e m e n t in O n e M e n t a l F u n c t i o n Up on t he E f f i c i e n c y
of O t h e r Fu n c t i o n s . "
P s y c h o l o g i c a l Review, V I I I (1901),
247-261, 384-395, 553-564.
Tyler, R a l p h W.
"Forces R e d i r e c t i n g S c i e n c e T e a c h i n g . "
Th e S c i e n c e T e a c h e r , X X I X (October, 1962), 22-25.
Welch, W a y n e W.
Projects."
530-532.

"The N e e d for E v a l u a t i n g N a t i o n a l Cu rri cul um
Phi D e l t a K a p p a n , XLIX, No. 9 (May, 1968),

Whitbeck, R. H.
"Thirty Y e a r s of G e o g r a p h y in th e Un ite d
St ate s."
J o u r n a l of G e o g r a p h y , XX, No. 4 (1921), 121128.

191

Diasertations
Barnes, S t e v e n M.
"The R e a c t i o n s o f S e l e c t e d El e m e n t a r y
T e a c h e r s to the T r a i n i n g for and I m p l e m e n t a t i o n of
S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m I m p r o ve men t Study in S e l e c t e d S c h o o l s
in M i c h i g a n . "
U n p u b l i s h e d Ph.D. Disse rta tio n, M i c h i g a n
S t a t e University, East Lansing, M ich iga n, 1969.
Champlin, R o b e r t E. a n d Hassard, J ohn Russell.
"A C o m p a r a ­
t i v e S t u d y of T w o S c i e n c e Course s."
Unpublished Master's
Thesis, Boston University, 1966.
Kline, Loren.
"Eighth-Grade Earth Science-Textbook R e a d ­
a b i l i t y and o the r F a c t o r s W h i c h C oul d I n f l u e n c e the
S u c c e s s of E i g h t h - G r a d e S c i e n c e C o u r s e s in Texas P u b l i c
Schools."
A n n Arbor, M i c h i g a n :
U n i v e r s i t y M ic r o f i l m s ,
1966Qutub, M u s a Y.
"The O b j e c t i v e s of the E a r t h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u ­
lum Project:
A n E v a l u a t i o n o f Their A c h i e v e m e n t . "
A n n Arbor, M i c h i g a n :
U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s , 1969.
Sargent, E a r l Alvin.
"A Study to D e t e r m i n e C e r t a i n C h a r a c t e r ­
i stics o f ;E a r t h S ci e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t T e a c h e r s and
S t u d e n t s in P e r m i s s i v e a nd A u t h o r i t a r i a n C l a s s r o o m s
W h i c h Lead to G re a t e r A c a d e m i c A c h i e v e m e n t in T h e s e
Students."
A n n Arbor, M i c h i g a n :
U n i v e r s i t y Mi c r o f i l m s ,
1966 .
Smith, H e r b e r t A.
"An A n a l y s i s of a T y p i c a l I n s t r u c t i o n a l
U n i t in J u n i o r H i g h S c i e n c e to D e t e r m i n e the E x p l i c i t
an d I mplicit L o a d i n g I n v o l v e d . " A n n Arbor, M i c h i g a n :
U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s , 1968.
Sonnier, I s a d o r e L.
"A Study o f th e Nu mbe r of S e l e c t e d
I d e a s in A s t r o n o m y Fo und in Ea r t h S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m
P r o j e c t M a t e r i a l s Bei ng T a u g h t in C o l l e g e and U n i v e r s i t y
Courses."
A n n Arbor, M i c h i g a n :
University Microfilms,
1966.

Other Resources
Brchr"., S h i r l e y A.
"G ene ral C o n t e n t of the E a r t h S c i e n c e
C u r r i c u l u m P r o g r a m and W h e r e It Fits i nto the C u r r i c u l u m . "
A m i m e o g r a p h e d pa p e r p r e p a r e d for E a r t h Sc i e n c e Committee,
E a r t h S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n in Mi c h i g a n :
Michigan State
University, January, 1971.
E a rth S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m P r o j e c t E v a l u a t i o n Program. E n d - o f Y e a r R e p o r t . N e w York:
T h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l Corporation,
Oc tob er, 1965.

192

S c i e n c e Process M e a s u r e for T e a c h e r s . F o r m s A a n d B.
Wa shington, D.C.:
A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n for the A d v a n c e ­
m e n t of Science, 1967.
Shirner, Silas.
"A C o m p a r i s o n of St u d e n t O u t c o m e s in V a r i o u s
Ea r t h S c i e n c e Cou r s e s T a u g h t b y S e v e n t e e n Iowa Te ach ers ."
A paper p r e s e n t e d at the N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n for R e s e a r c h
in S cience T e a c h i n g Conference, Chicago, 1968.
Sweetzer, E van A.
"Science P roc ess Te st for E l e m e n t a r y
Teachers, T h i r d E d i t i o n . " S c i e n c e - M a t h e n a t i c s T e a c h i n g
Center:
M i c h i g a n S t a t e University, 1968.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
INVESTIGATING THE EARTH
O U T L I N E OF C O N T E N T S

193

194

O U T L I N E OF C O N T E N T S — I N V E S T I G A T I N G THE E A R T H
U N I T I— T H E D Y N A M I C E A R T H
C h a pter

I

The C h a n g i n g Earth
E v i d e n c e of C h a n g e
P r e d i c t i o n and Patt e r n s of C h a n g e
Earth C h a n g e s and M a n

Ch a pter 2

Earth M a t e r i a l s
From P l a n e t to A t o m
Atoms and M o l e c u l e s in E a r t h M a t e r i a l s
A b u n d a n c e of the Elem e n t s

Chapter

Earth M e a s u r e m e n t
D e t e r m i n i n g the S h a p e of the E a r t h
M e a s u r i n g the Earth

3

C h a pter 4

Earth M o t i o n s
The M a n y M o t i o n s of the Earth
Effects o f E a r t h M o t i o n

C h a pter 5

Fields and Forces
Fields, M o t i o n s , and Forces
The G r a v i t a t i o n a l F i e l d of the E a r t h
The M a g n e t i c F i e l d of the E a r t h

Ch apter

Energy F l o w
Energy and C h a n g e
The E a r t h ' s So u r c e of Energy

6

U N I T II— E A R T H CYCLES
Chapter

7

Energy a n d A i r M o t i o n s
Solar R a d i a t i o n and t h e Earth
The A t m o s p h e r e in M o t i o n

C h a pter 8

Water in the Air
The W a t e r C y c l e
Clouds and R a i n
Masses, Fronts, and C y c l o n e s

C h apter

Wa t e r s of the Land
M o i s t u r e I n c o m e and S t o r a g e
Moisture Outgo
The L o c a l W a t e r B u d g e t

9

195

C h apter

10

W a t e r in the Sea
The O c e a n in the W a t e r C y c l e
The Sea in M o t i o n

Ch apter

11

Energy, Moisture, and c l i m a t e
Patterns of Energy a n d M o i s t u r e
l a t i t u d i n a l P a t t e r n s are M o d i f i e d
World Climatic Patterns

C h a p t e r 12

The L a n d W e a r s A w a y
W e a t h e r i n g - - T h e R e s p o n s e of R o c k s to a
New Environment
M a t u r e S o i l s — A F u r t h e r R e s p o n s e to E n v i r o n ­
ment
E r o s i o n — A R e s p o n s e of W e a t h e r i n g Pr o d u c t s
to G r a v i t y

Ch apter

13

S e d i m e n t s in the Sea
M a r i n e Sediments
The C o n t i n e n t a l M a r g i n s

Chapter

14

M o u n t a i n s from the Sea
E v i d e n c e for G e o s y n c l i n e s
Patterns of Crustal M o v e m e n t

Chapter

15

Rocks Within Mountains
C h a n g e s in S o l i d R o c k
R o c k s T h a t F o r m from M o l t e n M a t e r i a l
C o m p l e t i o n of the R o c k C y c l e

C h a p t e r 16

I nte r i o r of the E a r t h
S t u d y i n g the Earth's Interior
Mountain Building Theories

UNIT III— BARTH'S BIOGRAPHY
Chapter

17

T i m e and Its M e a s u r e m e n t
How is T i m e M e a s u r e d
G e o l o g i c Clocks
T he G e o l o g i c T i m e S c a l e

Chapter

18

The R e c o r d in the R o c k s
L o o k i n g at Rocks
P u t t i n g t h e Pieces T o g e t h e r

Chapter

19

L i f e — P r e s e n t a n d Past
Life T o d a y
Life o f t h e Past
Evolution— Changing Life
T he P a r a d e of L i f e

196

C h apter

20

Chapter 21

D e v e l o p m e n t of a C o n t i n e n t
E a r l y H i s t o r y of N o r t h A m e r i c a
Later H i s t o r y of N o r t h A m e r i c a
The G r e a t Ice A g e
E v o l u t i o n of La n d s c a p e s
Proce s s e s that S h a p e the Land
La n d s c a p e in P e r s p e c t i v e

UNIT IV— E A R T H ' S E N V I R O N M E N T

IN SPACE

C h apter

22

The M o o n ;
A Nat u r a l S a t e l l i t e
Lunar L a n d s c a p e s
T h e M o o n as a S a t e l l i t e
Lunar R e s e a r c h

Chapter

23

T h e Solar System
M o t i o n s of the Planets
The Sun's F a m i l y
O r i g i n o f the Solar S y s t e m

C h apter 24

Stars as Ot h e r Suns
M e a s u r i n g the A m o u n t of R a d i a t i o n
M e a s u r i n g the D i r e c t i o n of R a d i a t i o n
M e a s u r i n g the Q u a l i t y of R a d i a t i o n

C h a p t e r 25

Ste l l a r E v o l u t i o n and Galax i e s
Steller E v o l u t i o n
W e Live in a G a l a x y
Our G a l a x y A m o n g Its N e i g h b o r s

C h ap t e r 26

The
qe and Its O r i g i n
Gen e r a l Pic t u r e of the Univ e r s e
Relativity
Origins

APPENDIX B
R ESULTS OF T W O STUDENT S U R V E Y S C O N D U C T E D
BY T H E E S C P N A T I O N A L S T A F F FOR THE Y E A R S
1967 AND 1968

197

198

S L M M A R Y OF R E S U L T S OF T W O S T U D E N T S U R V E Y S C O N D U C T E D
BY T H E E S C P N A T I O N A L STAFF F O R T H E Y E A R
1967-1968

1967 S u r v e y
435 r e s p o n s e s
sex and ability
divided

1968 S u r v e y
228 r e s p o n s e s
sex:
b o y s — 115, g i r l s — 113
ability:
h i g h — 77
a v e r a g e — 85
l o w — 66

ev e n l y

Easiest chapter

to r e a d and u n d e r s t a n d
C h a p t e r I- T h e C h a n g i n g E a r t h
f o l l o w e d by:
Chap. 1 2 -- T h e Land W e a r s Away
Chap.
4 — Earth M o tions
Chap.
6 — En e r g y F l o w
Chap.
9— W a t e r s of the Land

M o s t i n t e r e s t i n g chapter
E a r t h ' s E n v i r o n m e n t in S p a c e
f o l l o w e d by:
R e c o r d of L i f e

Chap. 8— W a t e r in the A i r
followed by:
Chap. 1 2 — T h e Land W e a r s A w a y
Chap. 1 3 — S e d i m e n t s in the Sea
Chap. 1 4 — M o u n t a i n s f r o m the
Sea
Chap. 1 9 — L i f e — P r e s e n t and
Past

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s enjoyed m o s t
T h o s e r e l a t e d to m a p p i n g
and T h e F o o t p r i n t P u z 2 le

9-3: M o v e m e n t o f W a t e r in E a r t h
10-6: I n v e s t i g a t i n g Cur r e n t
5-1: T e m p e r a t u r e Fields
13-4: Inv. D e n s i t y C u r r e n t s
12-6: Inv. F a c t o r s of S t r e a m E r o s i o n
12-7: Inv. S t r e a m A c t i o n
6-2: Inv. F l o w and C h a n g e in
Energy

N u m ber of days per w e e k o f l a b o r a t o r y p r e f e r r e d
2-3 days
less time

80%
8%

2-3
days
4 days
5 days
0 days

3 7%
14%
6%
1%

199

W r i t i n g up l a b o r a t o r y r e p o r t s w a s not too d i f f i c u l t
80%

84%

M a t h e m a t i c s b a c k g r o u n d was

sufficient

60%

84%

D i d not need m o r e study t i m e t h a n
75%

for other

sub j e c t s

26%

H o m e w o r k was b e n e f i c i a l to u n d e r s t a n d i n g
25%

82%

G r a d e s were t h e same as in o t h e r courses
58%
h i g h ability:

higher g r a d e — 35%
lower g r a d e —
5%

average a b i l i t y :

higher g r a d e — 25%
lower g r a d e —
14%

low a b i l i t y :

higher g r a d e — 11%
lower g r a d e - - 3 6 %

W o u l d you r e c o m m e n d this c o u r s e to a friend
80%
Pl an to a t t e n d college
80%
Plan to m a j o r

87%

in science

50%

35%

APPENDIX C
A T T I T U D E T O W A R D SCIENCE

200

201

ATTITUDE TOWARD SCIENCE

Please

indicate your

in this booklet.
program

in your

to t h e items.

feelings

t o w a r d each of the s t a t e m e n t s

It w i l l h e l p us to i m p r o v e the s c i e n c e
school.

Our

T h e r e are no r i g h t or w r o n g

interest

answers

is in your o p i n i o n only.

F o l l o w the d i r e c t i o n s on the first p a g e of the b o o k l e t .
A s e p a r a t e r e s p o n s e sheet is provided.
mark

( >/)

after

Simply place a check

e a c h number c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the s e n t e n c e s

w i t h w h i c h y o u agree;

a cross

(X ) after

each nu m b e r

s p o n d i n g to s t a t e m e n t s w i t h w h i c h you disagree;
mark

(?)

corre­

or a q u e s t i o n

after n u m b e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to s t a t e m e n t s w i t h w h i c h

y o u a r e undecided.
Y o u r r e s p o n s e s to items in the b o o k l e t w i l l

in NO w a y a f f e c t

y o u r g r a d e in any co u r s e y o u are t a k i n g — so BE HONEST.

Note:

Please place your

name on the r e s p o n s e sheet.

T h a n k y o u for h e l p i n g us.

202

A T T I T U D E M E A S U R E S H O W I N G SCALE V A L U E S

A T T I T U D E T O W A R D SCI E N C E

(Scale
values)

P l e a s e r e a d each o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s carefully.
Put a c h e c k m a r k (v ) if y o u ag r e e w i t h the statement.
Put a cross (X ) if y o u d i s a g r e e w i t h the s t a t e m e n t
If y o u s i m p l y cannot d e c i d e about a et&tem e n t , y o u m a y
p l a c e a q u e s t i o n m a r k ( ? ) b e s i d e it.

10.3

1. No m a t t e r w h a t happens,

s c i e n c e al w a y s

comes

10.2

2.

I w o u l d rather s t u d y s c i e n c e than eat.

9.8

3.

I love to study science.

9.7

4. S c i e n c e is of g r e a t value.

9.6

5. S c i e n c e has a v e r y g r e a t a t t r a c t i o n

9.4

6.

9.2

7. S c i e n c e

9.1

8. S c i e n c e d e v e l o p s g o o d r e a s o n i n g ability.

9.0

9. S c i e n c e is v e r y practical.

first.

for me.

I r e a l l y e n j o y science.
is p r o f i t a b l e to e v e r y b o d y w h o takes

it.

8.9

10. A n y s t u d e n t w h o takes s c i e n c e is b o u n d to b e helped.

8.8

11.

8.7

12. S c i e n c e

8.5

13.

8.4

14. All of our g r e a t m e n s t u d i e d science.

8.3

15.

8.1

16. A l l lessons and all m e t h o d s used in sci e n c e are
clear and definite.

7.9

17. S c i e n c e

7.7

18.

I am w i l l i n g to s p e n d m y

7.6

19.

S c i e n c e is not r e c e i v i n g e n o u g h a t t e n t i o n in
p u b l i c schools.

7.3

20.

S c i e n c e s a v e s time.

S c i e n c e t e a c h e s m e to b e accurate.
is u s e f u l in all aspects of life.

S c i e n c e is a g o o d subject.

Science

is important

in peop l e ' s

lives.

is O.K.
t i m e s t u d y i n g science.

continued

203

(Scale
values)
6.8

21.

S c i e n c e is not a bore.

6.5

22.

S c i e n c e is a good pastime.

6.1

23.

I d o n ' t b e l i e v e s c i e n c e w i l l d o a n y b o d y any harm.

5.8

24.

I am c a r e l e s s in m y a t t i t u d e to w a r d science, b u t I
w o u l d n o t like to see this a t t i t u d e b e c o m e general.

5.5

25.

I h a v e n ’t any d e f i n i t e like or d i s l i k e

for science.

4.7

26.

S c i e n c e w i l l b e n e f i t o n l y the b r i g h t e r

students.

3.6

27. M y par e n t s never had science;
it.

3.5

28.

3.4

29. A v e r a g e s t u d e n t s never t a k e s c i e n c e in senio r h i g h
school; so it should b e r e m o v e d from schools.

3.3

30. T h e m i n d s of students are not k e p t a c t i v e
science.

3.1

31.

I am not

2.9

32.

S c i e n c e does not t e a c h y o u to think.

2.8

33.

S c i e n c e is v e r y dry.

2.6

34.

so I see no m e r i t in

I c o u l d do v e r y w e l l w i t h o u t science.

in

i n t e r e s t e d in science.

S c i e n c e rem i n d s m e of the saying,
about n o t h i n g . "

"A lot o f fuss

2.5

35. 1 h a v e no d e s i r e for science.

2.4

36. I have seen no v a l u e

2.2

37. I w o u l d not ad v i s e any o n e to t a k e science.

2.1

38. S c i e n c e

1.6

39. S c i e n c e is a w a s t e of time.

in science.

is b a s e d o n *'f o g g y ” ideas.

1.5

40.

It is a p u n i s h m e n t for a n y b o d y to t a k e science.

1.3

41.

S c i e n c e is d i s l i k e d b y all students.
continued

204

(Scale
values)
1.0

42 .

0 .8

43 .

0.7

44.

0.6

45 . 1 h a t e science.

205

NAME
RESPONSE SHEET FOR
ATTITUDE TOWARD SCIENCE

21
22
23..
24.,

1 .______

25.

2.

26.

3 .______

27.

4 ._______

28..

5 .______

29..

6 .______
7 .______
8 ._____

9.______
10.______

30..
3U.
32..
33.
34..

11.______
12.______

35..

13 .______

36..

14 .______

37..

1 5 ._______

38..

16 .______

39..
40..

17..

18..
19,.
20.

41-.
42..
43..
44..
45.

APPENDIX D
S C I E N C E P R O C E S S M E A S U R E F O R JU N I O R
H I G H SC H O O L S T U D E N T S

206

207

SCIENCE PROCESS MEASURE
for
Junior High School Students

Please complete each of the problems to the best
of your ability. Answer those questions you find
easier first) then return to the harder problems

Do NOT write on these question pages
Place your name and all answers on the response
sheets provided.
A supply bag has been provided.
It contains a
ruler and two sets of objects.
You will need
these supplies for questions 5, 6, 7, 8, 12* 13* 14,

Thank you for doing your best

208

SCIENCE PROCESS MEASURE
The eighth science class planted a mixture
of several different kinds of seeds.
The graph
pictured below shows the number of seeds that
sprouted over a period of nine days.

to
9
number
of
seeds

that
sprouted

I

I I I I I 3 1! 1 I
o

1.

2.

i

days after planting
On the response sheet Indicate the number of the
day or days on which more seeds sprouted than on
the second day.
On the response sheet indicate the number of the
day or days on which fewer seeds sprouted than
on the fQVrth <*ay.
The drawing below is a picture of a number line.

3.

O n the response sheet indicate the position of 3.

4.

On the response sheet indicate the position of *2

209

5.

Remove the contents from the container marked ( X ) *
You will find this container in the supply bag.
Empty the contents and examine them carefully.
We will choose the raisin for this problem.
On the response sheet write words that name
observable properties of this raisin.
Your description should be complete enough so
some other person, who does not know which object
we have picked, can select the raisin as the
object described by you.
When you are finished, replace the objects to the
supply bag.

6.

Remove the contents from the container marked (
2).
Also remove the ruler.
Empty the contents and
examine them carefully.
This time we will select
the Wrigley*s gum. On the response sheet describe
this object as completely as you can. Be sure
to use your ruler and the metrlc system for
measurement.
When you are finished, replace the objects to the
supply bag.
Here is a table of data collected during an
experiment to see how long it took a white rat
to travel a maze during a six day trial period.

DAY
t v m
W > D

TIPW

*****
**•
9o
40
*o

am
7.

Construct a bar graph on your response sheet which
illustrates these data.
Be sure to label the axes,
(that is, be sure to write what each part of your
graph is describing).

210

8.

Remove the ruler from your supply bag. On your
response sheet indicate the length of this rectangle,
Write your answer to the nearest millimeter.

9.

On your response sheet list all patterns which are
symmetrical.
(that is, can be divided into equal
parts).
X

0

X

A

(2 )

(1 )

(3)

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

<*)

X

X

X

X

X
(5)

10. A text book states that the distance from planet
(X) to its nearest moon is 6.61 X 10* kilometers.
On your response sheet indicate which of the
following numerals represents 6.61 X 10* .
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

.0061
6.610
66,100
661,000
none of these

11. A candle goes out when a quart Jar is placed
over it. See drawing below.

On your response sheet indicate which of the
following we can conclude from this Information.
(1) oxygen is required for burning
(2) the air was all used up
(3) the candle no longer has enough of something
to continue burning
(4) candles burn oxygen
(5) both (I) and (4)

211

You will need the map pictured below and your ruler
for the next three questions.
Remember to write
all answers on the response sheet.

1 lew od

C snt

I

res

le

3

9

4

9

*

7

*

roilrood
Ccolst

i

i—

o

io

I— I
aft

«o

I

i

ctfcu

•»

12. On this map, 1 cm represents how many kilometers?
13. Locate Centerville using the coordinates
and 1,2,3, ...

A tB (C, ...

14. A farmer lives 10 km from Forestvllle and at the
intersection of a numeral and a letter.
If that
is all the Information we have, what possible
locations could his farm have? Mark these locations
with x's on the map on the response sheet. Be
sure to mark *11 correct responses.

212

V

W

X

Y

Z

© ED E3 ©
15. The drawing showa five buttons.
these buttons into two groups.
pictured below.

You are to divide
See the boxes

ALL BUTTONS
(a)

1—

- ‘" 1
(b)

If buttons V and Y are placed into box (b), which
buttons should be placed into box (a)? Choose
your answer from the list below and write it on
the response sheet.

(1) W

(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

W, X
W,X,Z
all of the buttons should be placed into box (b)
there will be one button left over

16. On the next page are drawings of eight means of
transportation.
Examine them carefully. Name
three characteristic differences of these vehicles
that you might use to classify them into groups.
AM example of such a characteristic could bei
land travel vs. water travel.
On your response sheet list three more characteristics.

®
mi
mill

ETZ

214

17. A diagram for a two-stage classification plan
is drawn on the response sheet.
Fill in the
blanks so you can divide the vehicles from
problem 16 In two groups at the stage one level.
Complete the diagram by classifying the objects s
again at the stage two level.
Write the names of your characteristics on the
lines provided (they may or may not be the same
characteristics used in problem 16).
Write the correct capital letters on the lines
provided.
Problem 18 refers to the graph pictured below.
Volume of Gas Given Off Each Minute by a Yeast
Culture Grown at Different Temperatures

45
40
35
Milliliters
of gas
given off
each minute
by culture
of yeast

3()

25
20

15
10
5
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60
o

70

80

90

100

Temperature in C

18. On your response sheet indicate the number of
milliliters of gas you predict would be given off
each minute if the culture of yeast were grown at
46 C.

215

Definition* An Inference is something you think
is true because of what you observe.
Examplei Observation - you look out the window
and see leaves on a tree moving.
Inference - there is a wind today.
19. Look at the picture of the tree. Which of the
following statements are observations and which
are inferences* if any? Ehcircle your answer
on the response sheet.
(a) The tree in the picture has no leaves on it.
(b) The drawing shows the tree during the fall
of the year.
(c) The tree is intended to look as if it were not
alive.
(d) The tree in the picture is not symmetrical.

216

A klckball Is 0.5 meter around (circumference).
From the pitcher*a mound to homeplate is ten meters.
When a student rolls the ball on the ground» it
takes two seconds for the ball to roll from the
pitcher's mound to homeplate.
20. What is the average speed of the ball in units
of distance per unit of time?
21. What is the average speed of the ball in number
of revolutions per unit of time?

Deflnltloni A variable is a condition that changes.
22. The eighth grade science class was investigating
the problem of swinging pendulums.
Four pendulums
are pictured below.
Pendulum (A) and (C) each have
a five gram washer tied to a string.
Pendulums
(B) and (D) have ten gram washers tied to strings.
Pendulum (A) was tested and it was found to swing
back and forth twenty-five times in thirty seconds.
When pendulum (C) was tested there were forty
swings in thirty seconds.

What is the variable between (A) and (C) that is
being tested1? On your response sheet indicate
the answer from the list below.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

weight of washers
length of strings
both weight and length
the difference in number of swings
the amount of time

217

Items 2 3 - 2 6 are concerned with the following
chemical test on powdersi Place answers on response
sheet.
it o u t n
LIQUID

1

|

baking soda

POWDER
unknown

corn starch
no reaction

vinegar

bubbled

bubbled

unknown

bubbled

bubbled
turned purpi <
turned purp' e

iodine
solution

no reaction

turned purple

turned purple
..... I

23. What happened when the Iodine solution was mixed
with starch?
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

It bubbled
it turned purple
it bubbled and turned purple
it showed no reaction
none of the above

24. From the results indicated on the chart, one can
conclude thati
(1) baking soda
(2) the unknown
(3) baking soda
(4) the unknown
(5) the unknown

and the unknown are the same substance
contains some baking soda
contains some of the unknown substance
contains no baking soda
contains no corn starch

25. One can conclude from these chemical test thati
(1) the unknown liquid contains no vinegar
(2) the unknown liquid contains no iodine
(3) vinegar and the unknown are thesameliquid
(4) the iodine solution and
the unknown are the
same liquid
(5) the unknown liquid contains some vinegar and
some iodine
26. In this investigation which of the following
could be considered the variable?
(1) baking soda
(2) all three of the liquids
(3) the unknown powder and corn starch
(4) the unknown powder and the unknown liquid
(5) none of these

218

Deflnltloni An operational definition explains
what something is by telling what it does.
27. The best operational definition for the area of
this paper is*
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

how many one-inch blocks will fill it
how large itls
how many one-inch squares will cover its surface
both (1; and (2)
both (1) and (3)

2a. Mr. Henry's class was studying science when the
word porosltv appeared* Mr. Henry prepared two
demonstrations to help the students understand
the word. The demonstrations were as follows*
A. Took a quart Jar filled with marbles and poured
one cup of sand over the marbles to allow the sand
to sift downward.
B. Took a quart Jar filled with sand and added
one pint of water. The water filtered downward
into the sand.
Probably the best operational definition of the
word porosltv would bei
(1) the amount of solid you add to a loosely
packed solid without changing the volume
(2) the amount of liquid or solid that can occupy
the spaces between liquid or solid particles
without changelng the volume
(3) the amount of liquid that can be added to
a solid without changing the volume
(4) the amount of liquid or solid that can be
added to a loosely packed solid without
changing the volume

29, An experiment usually involves the following
process skill or skills■
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

observing
controlling variables
making operational definitions
none of the above
involves (1)( (2), and (3)

219

Itenia 30 end 31 are concerned with a* experiment
on behavior in mealworms. (a mealworm la the larva
of a beetle) In this investigation a Q-tip was
used.
(a Q-tip Is a small stick with a bit of
cotton firmly attached to the end)
In the experiment a Q-tip saturated with water
was thrust near a mealworm. The mealworm backed up.
30. The hypothesis which was best tested in the above
experiment 1st
(1) mealworms are sensitive to water
(2) mealworms can see objects moving toward them
(3) mealworms are sensitive (or will react) to
a Q-tip saturated with water
(4) mealworms fear moving objects
(5) none of the above hypotheses are correct
31, There is most Justification for saying thati
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

mealworms always respond to water
the mealworm could see an object moving toward It
the mealworm responded to moist approaching cotton
mealworms do not like to be disturbed
mealworms will respond to anything new brought
into their environment

32, For which of the following situations would you
be most justified to set up an experiment?
(1) determine the number of students wearing glasses
\n the classroom
(2) determine the number of flashlight bulbs one
flashlight battery can light
(3) identify the observable properties of a
Monarch butterfly
(4) when given a handful of small rocks» you are
asked to arrange the rocks into three separate
groups
(5) determining which of six shapes are symmetrical

220

n

q

Q

Q

0

.

33. The above drawing shows five copper rods. You
will notice that the rods differ In length*
diameter, and whether they are hollow (rods B & D ) ,
or solid (rods A, C, E) .
Suppose you roll these rods down an Inclined
plane (a slanted surface).
You are testing to
determine If there Is any difference In the
amount of time It takes for a solid and a
hollow rod to reach the bottom of the inclined
plane.
Which two rods would you use In your experiment?
(1) A & B

(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

B &
A &
D &
C &

C
D
E
D

34. Jean watches a bull fight and states that bulls
charge red objects. To test that idea she should
use a bull andi
(1) red objects and objects of other colors
placed about the ring, but no matador.
(2) a matador standing and holding various
colored objects for a short time
(3) a moving matador waving a cape that is red
on one side and green on the other
(4) a moving matador waving several capes of
many different colors for a short time each.
35. A girl removed a lid from a jar by prying with
the blade of a table knife.
From that operation
you might say a knife is a
(1) sterling silver object with one sharp edge
and a decorated handle
(2) stainless steel object about eight Inches
long with a thin blade
(3) metal object that can be used as a lever
to open Jars
(4) form of an Inclined plane that reduces the
force needed to cut

221

RESPONSE SHEET FOR
SCIENCE PROCESS MEASURE
for
Junior High School Students

Write your name
HERE___________

All answers are to be written on these pages

222

RESPONSE SHEET FOR SCIENCE PROCESS MEASURE
1 . _____________________________________________

2 .__________________________
3.________________________________
4 .______ _________________________

5.

223

7.

tl.i

.ft;
1-t

«-*+

*•_
9._

10 .
11.

224

12.____________________________
1 3 .____________________________________

14. Write the x's on the map

A

oo

»
e

He

S
T

milrottd
I

*

Scale*.

t

4

6

*

**

O

IO

SO

to

40

Ki low l t n
15 .

9

225

Characteristic

17.

A.B,C,D.E,F,G, and H
(all drawings)
Characteristic

Characteristic
Drawlngs

Characterlst .c Characterlst c Characterlst!
Drawings

Drawings

Drawings

Character!st
Drawings

i
.

18._____________________ mllllletars per minute
19. Circle the correct answer
inference
(a) observation

neither

(b)

observation

inference

neither

(c)

observation

inference

neither

<d)

observation

inference

neither

20.
21 .
22.

226

23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33..
34..
35.

227

W E I G H T I N G OF R E S P O N S E S T O S C I E N C E PR O C E S S M E A S U R E F O R JU NIO R
H I G H S C H O O L STUDENT S

Process
Measured

Pr ob l e m
Nu mbe r
in T e s t

Ob s ervat io n

Space/Time
Relationship s

Classifica­
ti on

Using
Numbers
Communication

Pr e d i c t i o n

Score
Po int s
Allowed

Acceptable Responses

5

4

6

2

9

4

20
21

1
1

15
16

2
1

17

3

3
4
10

2
2
2

id en t i f y letter B
i d e n t i f y letter E
r e s p o n s e (4)

1

1

2

1

7

4

all r e s p o n s e s c o r r e c t l y
i d e n t i f i e d (4,5,6)
all r e s p o n s e s c o r r e c t l y
i d e n t i f i e d (1,2,3,7,8,9)
1 point horizontal axis identi­
fied
1 p o i n t ve rti cal a x i s i d e n t i ­
fied
1 p o i n t g r a p h a c c u r a t e l y drawn
1 p o i n t d r e w bar g r a p h

12
13
14

1
1
2

18

o n e p o i n t each c o r r e c t o b ­
s e r v a t i o n u p to four co rre ct
observations
o n e p o i n t each c o r r e c t o b ­
s e r v a t i o n up to two c o r r e c t
ob ser vat ion s, m e a s u r e m e n t
r e s p o n s e s not i n c l u d e d
o n e p o i n t for each s y m m e t r y
i d e n t i f i e d (1,2,4,5)
5 M / s ec
10 r e v / s e c or 20 r e v / 2 sec
r e s p o n s e (3)
m u s t list c o r r e c t l y two
properties
1 p o i n t first s t a g e
1 p o i n t each part of s e c o n d
st age

r e s p o n s e (10)
r e s p o n s e D-2
1 p o i n t for each s et o f two
responses correctly identified
(D4, C5, 06, E5)
r e s p o n s e 33, 32 or 34 o n e po int
continued

228

11
19

2
4

r e s p o n s e (3)
1 p o i n t for e a c h cor rec t
response,
a. o b s e r v a t i o n
b. i nfe ren ce
c. i nfe ren ce
d. observation.

6

4

6

2

2 p o i n t a c c u r a t e r e s p o n s e for
length
1 point approximate response
2 p o i n t a c c u r a t e r e s p o n s e for
width
1 point approximate response
2 points accurate response
9.8 cm
1 point approximate response

30
31
34

2
2
2

Defining
Operationally

27
28
35

2
2
2

3

Controlling
Variables

22
26
33

2
2
2

2
2

3

Interpreting
Data

23
24
25

2
2
2

2
2
5

Experimenting

29
32

3
3

5
2

Inference

Measurement.

Formulating
Hypotheses

response

(3)

3
1
4
3

APPENDIX E
ESCP ACHIEVEMENT TEST

229

230

ESCP ACHIEVEMENT TEST
Please answer each of the following questions
to the best of your ability.
Do NOT write one these question pages.
Directions for using the Michigan State
University answer sheet*
Write your name on the line
following "YOUR NAME."
When your teacher tells you to begin,
o p e n
the booklet and start the test.
All responses are to be indicated on
the Michigan State University answer
sheer.
This is how you will indicate your
answer - Read the question and
select the correct answer. Now choose
one of the boxes on the answer sheet
following the number of your problem.
Box 1 = a, box 2 ~ b, box 3 = c , box 4 - d.
You will never use box 5,
Ch o o s e the box that corresponds to
your answer and shade it in.
Continue with the next problem.
Thank you for doing your best

231

ESCP ACHIEVEMENT TEST
1. What is the
a. Coriolis
b. pressure
c. humidity
d. rotation

immediate cause of the wind?
effect
differences
differences
of the earth

2. Which of the following would change if a piece of granite
were moved to a different planet?
a . its mas s
b.

its v o l u m e

c. its weight
d. its density
3. The entrance of water into the soil is called
a. porosity
b. capillarity
c. infiltration
d. permeability
4. Which of the following major physical features has the
LEAST influence on climates of North America?
a. the Gulf of Mexico
b. the western mountain ranges
c. the Mississippi River system
d. the three main air-mass streams
5. What is granite?
a. a common mineral that makes up a large part of the crust
b. an igneous rock type that is a major constituent of lavas
c. a common igneous rock that cooled relatively slowly
and is made up mostly of feldspar and quartz
cl. a common igneous rock that cooled at the surface and is
composed mostly of feldspar and pyroxene
6. The moon has little or no atmosphere because
a. plants never existed on the moon
b. its gravitational field is too weak tohold anatmosphere
c. the gravity field of the earth attracted thegases
from
the moon
d. high temperat.ures from solar radiation caused the gases
to escape
7. At a given instant, about what percentage of the earth
is illuminated by the sun?
a. 23
b . 30
c. 67
d. 100

232

8. A location on a large continent has much colder winters
and warmer summers than ocean locations at the same
latitude partly because
a. the subtropical high keeps the air dry
b. the air masses do not originate over the oceans
c. warm ocean currents keep ocean locations warm
d. the transparency and circulation of water make it
slow to heat and cool
The order of scale within the universe is best represented
in which of the following?
a, earth, sun, solar system, stars, galaxies
b, sun, galaxies, earth, stars, solar system
c, sun, earth,solar system, galaxies, stars
d, galaxies, sun, earth, solar system, stars
10. Temperatures generally decrease toward the poles because
a. air movement is generally toward the equator
b. cold polar air masses prevent surface heating of
t he land
e, cold surfaces do not absorb solar energy as readily
as warm
ct. loss solar energy per unit area falls on the earth’s
surface toward the poles
11, There is a greater concentration of water vapor in the
atmosphere in the summer than in the winter because in
summer there is
a. greater air density
b. more frequent thunderstorms
c. stronger flow of air from the ocean
d. higher rate of evapotranspiration
12. When air is cooled to a temperature at which it can
hold no more moisture, it is said to be at the
a. dew point
b, e v a p o r a t i o n l e v e l
e. freezing temperature
d. adiabatic temperature
13, The texture of an igneous rock gives information regarding
the
a, rate at which the rock cooled
b, chemical composition of the rock
c, origin of material from which the rock formed
d, number of times the rock has been through the
rock cycle

233

14. Mow do effects of physical weathering differ most
fundamentally from those of chemical weathering?
a. chemical weathering changes the composition of
particles whereas physical weathering does not
b. chemical weathering changes the size of particles
whereas physical weathering does not
c. physical weathering changes the composition of
particles whereas chemical weathering does not
d. physical weathering changes the size of particles
whereas chemical weathering does not
15. The displacement of the spectral lines of a galaxy toward
the long wave length (red end) indicates that the galaxy is
a. exploding
L. contracting
c. approaching the earth
d, moving away from the earth
16. Which of the following statements BEST describes landscape
evolution?
a. it occurs during Ice Ages only
b. it occurs only on young landscapes
c. it occurs whenever climate changes or crustal
movements occur
d. it is constantly occurring in response to natural
processes
17.

How does the astronomer study the gas between the stars?
a, by observing supernovas
b. by observing nuclear fusion in the gaseous cloud
r. by collecting samples with interstellar space probes
d. by examining the spectrum of radiation from distant
stars which pass through the gas

18. Which of the following processes gives off rather than
uses energy?
a. melting of ice
b. heating of water
c. freezing of water
d. evaporation of water
19. Which of the following is the best evidence of crustal
movement ?
a. a lava flow
b. a buried soil profile
c. tilted sedimentary rocks
d. sediments below sea level

234

20. The fossil record shows changes from primitive to more
advanced forms of life and thus provides support for
the theory of
a. evolution
b. relativity
c. superposition
d. uniformltarlanlsni
21. A rock with a high percentage of open spaces has high
a. porosity
b. base flow
c. capillarity
d. permeability
22. Although quartz is made up of SiO. tetrahedrons, its
chemical formula, SiO« » can be explained by
a. impurities in the mineral
b, the sharing of oxygen atoms
excess oxygen in the tetrahedrons
d. different charges on the silicon atom
23. Which of the following is evidence that the earth's crust
has undergone great changes during its history?
a. the constant pounding of ocean waves on the coastlines
b. the occurrence of a large number of earthquakes
c. the continued flowing of vast amounts of river
water into the sea
d. the presence of marine fossils in the rocks making
up high mountains
24. 3 X 10^ equals
a. 30
b. 300
c. 3000
d. 30,000
25. Which of the following field quantities requires a
direction as a part of its complete description?
a. force
b. density
c.

teniperafurc

d . air pressure
26.

How floes the rate at which heat is absorbed and
radiated on black surfaces compare to the rate on
light surfaces?
a. it is faster
b. it is slower
c. it is the same
d. it is either slower or faster depending upon
the temperature

235

27. Geologic time la divided into "chapters" on the basis of
a, erosional surfaces
b, the fossil record
c. the amount of rock deformation
d. the thickness of sedimentary beds
28. The light year is a unit of
a. time
b. velocity
c. distance
d. acceleration
20. Runoff and erosion would probably be greatest on a
land area that is
a. sloping and contour plowed
b. sloping and barren of vegetation
c. gently sloping and covered with grass
d. flat-lying and lightly covered with vegetation
30.

There is evidence that Mars has drastic daily changes
in temperature.
Such changes can best be explained by
a. a thin atmosphere
b. its distance from the sun
c. fluctuations in solar radiation
d. reflection of heat by the atmosphere

31. What characteristic of metamorphic rock provides a
cluc that they were formed deep within theearth's
crust?
a. the absence of elements commonly found on theearth's
surface
b. they frequently include bits of material from the
earth's core
c. the minerals are those that form under high temperature
and pressure
d. they have marked bedding, a characteristic not
developed at a shallow depth
32. What element is most common in the earth's crust?
a.

oxygen

b. silicon
c. hydrogen
d. a l u m i n u m
33.

Which of the following is evidence of multiple glaciations?
a. ancient forests covered by glacial till
b. river valleys buried deeply in glacial till
c. striations on bedrock buried by glacial till
d. glacial till overlying soils developed on glacial till

2 16

34. What happens to most of the water which falls as rain?
a. It recharges the soll-molster deficit
b. it becomes runoff and moves to the oceans
c. it is stored in the soil as capillary water
d. it is returned to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration
35. What is needed to determine the moon's distance from
earth by the surveyor's method?
a. the displacement of lunar specral lines on a spectrograph
b. two points on earth of unknown distance and two sides
of the triangle
c. a sight on the moon to measure its angular diameter
from one place on earth
d. a base line of known distance between two observers
on earth and two angles of the triangle
36. Why are scientists so uncertain about processes going
on at the crust-mantle interface?
a. all the evidence is indirect
b. S waves do not penetrate the crust
c. most earthquakes originate in the mantle
d. only a few holes have been drilled into the crust
37. About what percent of the earth's surface area is
covered by ocean?
a. 20
b. 40
c. 70
d. 90
38. An
a.
b.
c.
d.

echo sounder may be used to determine the
depth of the mantle
areas of crustal activity
topography of the ocean floor
density of water at the lower regions of the ocean

39. Tf the lowest temperature reading at a station on a
g i v e n day was 5*C and the highest reading in the
a f t e r n o o n was 15°C, the daily mean temperature would be
a. r C
b. 5* C
c . 10° C
d. 20° C
40. What is the first Indication that a distant earthquake
has occurred?
a. an atmospheric wave
b. a Pwave inthe interior
c. a tidalwave in the ocean
d. a surface wave on the land

237

41. In a model of the earth with a diameter of 20 cm, about
how far would man's deepest penetration of the crust extendi
a. 0.025 cm
b . 2.5 cm
c . 7,6 cm
d . 15cm
42. Which of the following supports the hypothesis that the
earth's outer core is fluid?
a. it transmits radio waves
b. it does not transmit shear waves
c. it Is the source of volcanic materials
d. it transmits shear waves faster than compresslonal waves
43. Whar causes a compass needle to point north?
a. gravity
b. magnetism
c. electricity
d. nuclear energy
44. Which of the following can form in the shortest length
of time?
a ..a volcano
b. a coral reef
c. a soil profile
d. a mountain range
45.

humid climate is one in which
a. precipitation exceeds potential evapotranspiration
b. more than 5 cm of precipitation falls during the driest
months
c. more than 10 cm of precipitation falls during the
driest month
d. more than 50 cm of precipitation falls in an average year
A

46. A star with a great mass tends to have a short life
because it
a. becomes a supernova
b. consumes its fuel rapidly
c. has a core of heavy elements
d. collapses to form a white dwarf
47. The half-life of
4 is 5,700 years. What proportionof
the original C
would be loft after 11,400 years?
a. u
b. ‘2
c. 3/4
d. 7/8

238

4S.

G i v e n o n l y the d i s t a n c e of a planet
the f o l l o w i n g can be com puted?
a. its mass
b. its o r b i t a l period
c. its s u r f a c e g r a v i t y
d. its period of r o t a t i o n

from the sun, w hic h of

49.

T he fact that a d e g r e e of l a t i t u d e is longer at the poles
than at t h e e q u a t o r p r o v e s that
a. l a t i t u d e lines a r e parallel
b. m e r i d i a n s are not parallel
c. the e a r t h is not a perfect s p h e r e
d. the n o r t h star is n ot d i r e c t l y o v e r the n o r t h pole

50.

W hy is the surface o f the land i r r e g u l a r d e s p i t e active
g r a d a t i o n since the b e g i n n i n g of the earth?
a. g r a d a t i o n is sl ow and i n e f f i c i e n t
b. parts o f the crust hav e b e e n u p l i f t e d
c. g r a d a t i o n does not red u c e e l e v a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e s
d. the d e p o s i t i o n of sediment r e - e l e v a t e s the contin ent s

51 , What is t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p be twe en m o l e c u l a r m o t i o n and
remperature?
a. the f a s t e r m o l e c u l e s move, the h i g h e r the te m p e r a t u r e
b. the s l o w e r m o l e c u l e s move, the h i g h e r the t e m p e r a t u r e
c. high t e m p e r a t u r e s result w h e n m o l e c u l e s m o v e in one d i r e c t i o n
d. high t e m p e r a t u r e s result w h e n m o l e c u l e s m o v e in
opposing directions
52.

Of what i m p o r t a n c e to the h y d r o l o g i c cycle a r e the tiny
particles of dust f o u n d e v e r y w h e r e in the a t m o s p h e r e ?
a. they aid in the p r o c e s s e s of c o n d e n s a t i o n a n d p r e c i p i t a t i o n
b. they i n c r e a s e the a m o u n t of e v a p o r a t i o n t h a t takes pl ace
c. they i n c r e a s e the am o u n t of w a t e r the a t m o s p h e r e
can hold
d. they a r e the s o u r c e of most of the d i s s o l v e d salt in
the sea

53.

W h i c h was a m o u n t a i n r a n g e folded t owards
Pa leo zoi c?

the end of the

a. the Sierra Nevada
b.
c.
d.
54.

the R o c k y m o u n t a i n s
the A p p a l a c h i a n s m o u n t a i n s
the C a n a d i a n S hie ld

O ne p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n d i c a t o r of a n c i e n t
i s the
a. r a d i o a c t i v i t y of the d eposits
b. t h i c k n e s s of s e d i m e n t a r y layers
c. f o l d i n g of s e d i m a n t a r y layers
d. typ e a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o s s i l s

climates

239

55, What la the Milky Way?
a.
b.
c.

a
a

cloud of hot g a s
cl uster of s t a r s

s u r r o u n d i n g the e a r t h
that is o n e of m a n y in ou r g a l a x y

an immense rotating system of many billion stars
d. a cloud of hot Interstellar gas that la the birth*
place of new stars
56, W a r m a i r tends to r i s e t hrough c ooler a i r b e c a u s e
a, it weighs less
b. it is less dense

r, heat transfer decreases
d. a convection cell la set up

D | o l e i
57.

What

is the y o u n g e s t

rock shown?

55,

W h i c h of Lhe f o l l o w i n g sequences c o r r e c t l y r e p r e s e n t s
rock u n i t s from o l d e s t to y o u n g e s t ?

59.

If th e a l t i t u d e of P olaris is 47 degrees,
o b s e r v e r ' s lat itude?
a. 0 d e g r e e s
b. 25 d e g r e e s N
c. 43 d e g r e e s N
d. 47 d egr ees N

w hat

is the

the

240

60.

W h i c h of the f o l l o w i n g ia a n e x a m p l e of o n e - w a y change?
a. th e h y d r o l o g i c cy cle
b. the h i s t o r y of a p i e c e of rock
c. the e v o l u t i o n of a n i m a l life
d. the m o v e m e n t of w a t e r by the a t m o s p h e r e

61.

If the d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n crests o f i n c o m i n g w a v e s is 200 m
and the t i m e b e t w e e n e a c h p a s s i n g crest is 20 seconds,
h o w fast a r e the se w a v e s tr avel ing ?
wave velocity a.
b.
o.
d.

w a v e length
pertod--------

0.1 m / s e c
5 m/sec
10 m / s e c
4,000 m / s e c

62. W h i c h of the f o l l o w i n g pairs is m o s t u s e f u l i n d e t e r m i n i n g
a rock's or i g i n ?
a. c o l o r and shape
b. size and w eight
c. d e n s i t y and h a r d n e s s
d. c o m p o s i t i o n and t e x t u r e
63.

Th e d e n s i t y of a n ob j e c t of a g i v e n v o l u m e is d e t e r m i n e d
by its
a. s ize
b. mass
c. s h a p e
d. w e i g h t

64.

W hat is the u l t i m a t e s o u r c e of e n e r g y for the b i o l o g i c
re a 1 m ?
a. pl ant s
b. th e sun
c. th e soil
d. p h o t o s y n t h e s i s

63.

W h i c h of the f o l l o w i n g mi neral c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is NOT
det ormi. ned by the w a y the atoms a r e a r r a n g e d ?
a. shape
b. co lor
c. h a r d n e s s
d. the w ay it b r e a k s

66.

Wha t is the c a u s e of the e a r t h ' s sea s o n s ?
a. its e l l i p t i c a l
o r b i t and v a r y i n g speed
of r e v o l u t i o n
b. its g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e
f r o m the s u n d u r i n g w i n t e r
tha n
su mme r
c. i n c l i n a t i o n of its a xis of r o t a t i o n to the p l a n e of
its orbit
d. v a r i a t i o n in the a mo u n t of en e r g y g i v e n off by the sun

241

67. For rocks c o n t a i n i n g fossils, w h i c h of the f o l l o w i n g
would p r o b a b l y be t h e old e s t ?
a. birds
b. t r i l o b i t e s
c. h o r s e t eet h
d. d i n o s a u r bones
68.

If a s t r o n o m e r s on e a r t h n o t e that a c e r t a i n d i s t a n t
g a l a x y is a p p a r e n t l y r e c e d i n g f r o m the Milk y W a y galaxy,
what c o n c l u s i o n m ay b e d r a w n ?
a. o n l y o u r g a l a x y is m o v i n g
b. o n l y t h e d i s t a n t g a l a x y is m o v i n g
c. b o t h g a l a x i e s a r e m o v i n g
d. e i t h e r o r b oth g a l a x i e s m a y be m o v i n g

69.

A sw i m m e r or a shi p w ill float h i g h e r in s e a w a t e r than
in f r e s h w a t e r b e c a u s e the
a. d e n s i t y of seawater is greater

b. density of seawater Is usually less
c. a m o u n t of h y d r o g e n i n s e a w a t e r is g r e a t e r
d. t h e r m o c l i n e is n e a r e r the s u r f a c e in s e a w a t e r

70. If the so lar sy s t e m f o r m e d f r o m the h y d r o g e n - f i l l e d
clouds of c os m i c dust, wha t c o n c l u s i o n wo u l d be most
logical c o n c e r n i n g o t h e r p l a n e t a r y systems?
a. they wou ld be v e r y rare
b. they w oul d all be a b o u t the same age
c. they w oul d all be about the same size
d. they wo uld be c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t the u n i v e r s e

APPENDIX F
ES CP COM P R E M E N S I V E F I N A L T E S T

242

24 *
ESCP COMPREHENSIVE FINAL TEST

1.

Temperatures generally decrease toward the poles becauet
1. cold polar air masses prevent surface heating.
2.
the earth's axis Is not perpendicular to Its orbital plane.
3. cold surfaces do not absorb solar energy as readily as wa rm surfaces.
4.
less solar energy per unit area falls on the surface toward the poles.

2.

What factor determines the potential evapotranspI ration of any area?
1. Soil porosity
2.
Annual precipitation
3.
Availability of water
4.
Availability of energy

3.

In the "concentrlc-sbelI" model of the eart h , what happens to the shell
density from the earth's core outward7
1.
It increases
2.
It decreases
3.
It remains the same
4. It decreases to a point and then increases

4.

The conclusion that large areas of the present continents have been covered
by the sea during long periods of geologic time Is best supported by evidence
found In
1.
the fossil record.
2.
radioactive dating.
3.
study of coastline features.
4.
relative uplift of modern coastal areas.

5.

The
1.
2.
3.
4.

rate of flow of water through a rock Is determined by the
types of minerals which make up the rock.
total amount of space between mineral grains.
number of connected pore spaces and their size.
position of the rock with respect to the water table.

6.

The
1.
2.
3.
4.

major way through which moisture Is returned to the ocean Is by means of
ground w a t e r .
gravity water.
surface runoff.
continental air masses.

7*

Which of the following Interfaces would be easiest to Identify?
1. Galaxies-intergalactic space
2. Atmosphere-InterpIanetary space
3> Atmosphere-hydrosphere at 0* C
4. Atmosphere-hydrosphere at 100* C

8.

What Is the single most Important factor controlling the life history
of a star?
1. Mass
2.
SI ze
3. Dens Ity
4. Temperature

244

9.

Landscape evolution is best described as occurring
1. only on young landscapes.
2. only during periods of maximum rainfall.
3* only when climate changes or crustal movements occur.
4. constantly In response to natural agents and processes.

10.

The
1.
2.
3.
4.

fundamental difference between the continental and oceanic crusts Is in
elevation.
structure.
thickness.
compos 111on.

11.

The best evidence that not all of the solar radiation reaching the earth
Is tost by reradiatfon may be found in
1. fossI Is.
2.
volcanoes.
3.
coat deposits.
4.
ocean currents.

12.

The presence of wave-cut terraces 30m above present sea level would
most likely Indicate that
1.
the land mass has risen.
2.
tides were higher in thepast.
3.
storm waves were higher fnthe
past.
4.
either land or sea levelhas undergone change.

13>

What fundamental assumption is made by geologists when they interpret
the geologic record found in the rocks?
1. The temperature of the earth was much higher when the earth
was first formed
2. The composition of the atmosphere and oceans has not changed
significantly with time
3.
Chemical and physical processes took place during geologic history
that do not take place today
4.
Features found in rocks were produced by the same processes which
are producing those features today

14.

How does the amount of water that escapes from the sol I through vegetation
compare with the amount carried away by rivers In the United States?
1. The amount in each case is about the same
2. The amount carried by rivers is at least 100 times greater
3. The amount that escapes through vegetation Is greater
4. The amount that escapes through vegetation Is insignificant

15.

Which earth process would be increased If there were a slight increase
In solar energy received by the earth?
1. E rosI on
2.
Inf 11tration
3• EvapotranspI rat Ion
4. Mountain building

245

16.

If the solar system were reduced to the size of a pinhead* how big
would our galaxy be on the same scale?
1. About the size of a goIfball
2. About the size of an automobi le
3. About 30m across
A. About 320^n across

17*

A mass of fragmented rock will weather faster than a solid mass of the
same weight and chemical composition because
1. surface area is increased.
2.
the volume of the material is increased.
3. molecular structure is altered bycrushing.
the inner structure of the material Is exposed.

18.

Which of the following conclusions in earth science Is based on limited
data with heavy dependence on assumptions and Inference?
1. The density of the earth Is 5-5 gm/cm 3
2. The half life of
Is A.51 x 10* years
3* The solar system Is about 5 x 10* years old
A. The earth Is tilted 23 1/2 degrees to the ecliptic plane

19.

Which of the following best summarizes the reasons why the ancients
did not arrive at the correct nature of the solar system?
1. Newton's laws were not known and good telescopes were not available
2. Kepler's laws were not known and ancient mathematics was Inadequate
3.
They viewed the system from within and the earth seemed to be at rest
A . The sun was not known to be a star and the spectroscope was not
aval lable.

20.

Which of the following does NOT support the statement that the seasons
are due to elllptlcity of the ea r t h ’s orbit?
1. The sun's energy output remains essentially constant
2. The sun's rays are essentially parallel when they reach the earth
3. The earth's axis of rotation is perpendicular to Its orbital plane
A.
Summer In the Northern Hemisphere occurs at the same time as
winter in the Southern Hemisphere

21.

Which of the following Is the best statement of uni form!tarlanism
(s impli ci ty)?
1.
The fundamental laws of nature do not change with time
2.
The earth and all its features are undergoing constant change
3. Although earth processes produce change, their intensity
Isconstant
A. The surface of the earth is gradually being reduced
to a level plain

22.

What two factors control the magnitude of a star?
1. Size and color
2. Luminosity and distance
3. Age and location In the galaxy
A. Apparent brightness and distance

246

23.

If the earth's mass remained the same but its diameter were reduced to
one-half of its present size, what would be the effect on the earth's
atmosphere?
1.
It would expand and escape into space
2.
It would contain more oxygen and less nitrogen
3.
It would decrease In density and in water vapor content
4.
It would increase In density and decrease in volume
Question 2 k

is based on the following Information and graph.

The melting point of a substance at various pressures was determined
and plotted on a graph as shown.
•
• **

LA

o

z

.

5
-J I
I
V

] i:

/#vcee/»SiMo
paessufKa

-

%

*

2k.

Which of the f o l l m i n g conclusions can be made with these data7
1. Pressure increases with temperature
2. Pressure Is dependent on temperature
3. Melting point Increases with pressure
Melting point Is directly proportional to pressure

25.

The statement "the earth's core is composed chiefly of iron," is best
described as
1. A fact.
2. an inference.
3. an assumption.
k.
an observation.

26.

One
1.
2.
3.
.

of the major problems in the study of the origin of life Is that
organisms, once developed, modify their environment.
radioactive decay destroyed part of the record of life.
the variation within a species is too complicated for study.
too nwch time has passed for us to reconstruct what happened.

247

27*

The
1.
2.
3.
4.

most constant environment In the oceans Is found on the
abyssal sea floor.
mid-ocean ridge.
continental slope.
continental shelf.

Questions 28 and 29 are based on the following diagram.

In which area would the potential energy of the stream be the highest?
2.
3.
4.

C
D
E

29.

In which area would the kinetic energy of the stream be at a maximum?
1. A
2. B
3- C
4. E

30.

The sediments most likely to be deposited on the deep ocean floor are
those carried by
1. waves
2. glaciers
3.
fast streams
4.
turbidity currents

31.

Which of the earth's characteristics Is LEAST
next billion years?
1. The earth's orbit
2. Height of mountains
3. Seawater composition
4. Atmospheric composition

likely to change in the

248

Questions 32-3** ere based on the following Information and table.
Four students determined the boiling point of pure water by bolting
5 beakers of water at sea level.
The determinations were made during
the same class period with following results in *C.

Trial

1
2
3
4
5

Ave rage
reading
Spread

Student
A

Student
B

Student
C

Student
D

101
99
102
98
100

100
99
100
98
98

104.5
97-5
101,5
100,0
101.0

105.15
102.85
102.25
97.95
101.80

100
4

99
2

100.9
7.0

102.00
7.20

32.

Which student obtained the most accurate results?
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. 0

33*

Which student obtained the most precise results?
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D

34.

The differences In the results obtained by the four students are most
likely due to variations in the
1. atmospheric pressure within the room.
2. boiling point of pure water
atsea
level.
3- accuracy with which thethermometers were read.
4. recording of the temperature to the nearest 0 . 0 1*C

35-

A lake that stays at one level Is considered to be in a state of
1. static equilibrium.
2. dynamic equilibrium.
3. climatic stability.
4. climatic instability.

249
36.

What Is the result of a decrease in the kinetic energy of a stream?
1. Down-cutting will decrease
2. Turbulent flow will develop
3* .Suspended material will increase
4. Dissolved material will increase

37.

The two factors most responsible for the general shape of the earth are
mass and
1. densi ty.
2. rotation.
3.
revolution.
4. precession.

38.

Which o f .the following is the LEAST likely to destroy the identity of
the minerals in a rock?
1. He 11 ing
2. Crushing
3. Weathering
4. Dissolving

39.

40.

The physical and chemical stabilities of silicate minerals
explained on the basis of
1. mineral density and color.
2. their chemical composition and color.
3> oxygen-sharing between siITcon-oxygen tetrahedrons.
4. the number of s !1tcon-oxygen tetrahedrons in a mineral

can be

grain.

Which fo the following factors can be changed without varying the
amount of energy received from the sun?
1. Mass of the sun
2. Diameter of the sun
3> Distance from earth to sun
4. Speed of rotation of the sun
Question 4l Is based on the following diagram.

-2 5 0 0 04

"

41.

Which location
which location
1. A-greatest
2.
B-greatest
3.
C-greatest
4.
D-greatest

would probably
would probably
and C-least
and A-least
and D-least
and B-least

have the greatest annual
rainfall and
have the leastannualrainfall?

^

250

42.

Which of these earth processes would be the first to cease If no
solar energy reached the earth?
1. Voleanism
2. Weathering
3.
InfI 11rat ion
4. Precipitation

43.

In the spectrogram of a star, the shift of spectral lines toward
the red is interpreted to mean that
1. the object Is composed of unusual atoms.
2. astronomical bodies are moving away from the earth.
3. the different kind of radiation Is produced by distant stars.
4.
light from stars travels more slowly than light from the sun.

44.

The refraction of waves as they pass from one material
Is caused by a change in
1. veloci ty.
2.
thickness.
3.
transparency.
4.
reflectivity,

45.

What are the major causes of ocean currents?
1. Wind and differences In density
2. Variations in turbidity and depth
3. Differences in temperature and latitude
4. Changes In salinity and oxygen content.

to another

Questions 46 and 47 are based on the following diagram

46.

If X and V revolve about point d, then the mass of X must be
1.
less than the mass of Y.
2. equal to the mass of Y.
3. three times as great as the mass of Y
4. nine times as great as the mass of Y.

47.

If X and Y have equal masses and the same amount of material
atmospheres then the atmospheric pressure on Y would be
1. 1/16 as great as that on X
2.
1/4 as great as that on X
3. equal to that on X
4. greater than that on X

in their

251

48.

What generally happens to the flow of ice when a glacier begins
to recede?
t.
The ice stops moving
2 . The ice moves s ideways
3>
The ice continues to move forward
4.
The ice reverses its direction of movement

49.

Which of the following releases the greatest amount of energy?
1. A hurricane
2.
A solar flare
3*
A major earthquake
4.
An explosive volcanic eruption

50.

The
1.
2.
3.
4.

development of mature soil is a good example of
gradation
modern farming
adjustment of earth materials to their environment
conservation of energy at the lithosphere-atmospheric interface.

51*

The
the
and
1.
2.
3.
4.

reason the oceans contain very little silicon or alumin: m, whereas
crust contains large amounts of these elements. Is that silicon
aluminum are
more abundant in river water than in seawater
not transported to the sea in large amounts.
decomposed by chemical weathering on the land,
not as soluble in water as the other abundant elements.

APPENDIX G
T E A C H E R LOGS

252

253

November 6, 1970
Memo to Carman ESCP teachers
From D e ! Mueller

This memo is a request for your assistance in the evaluation
of the ESCP as implemented at Carman.
1 believe you have been informed by Dr. Brehm regarding
the 883 ~ 3 credit course offered as independent study
through MSU.
The following is an attempt to inform you regarding
the organization and implementation of the course:
To better ascertain the objectives and content of ESCP at Carman,
you will be asked to supply information to daily questionnaires
regarding material covered during THREE separate FOUR WEEK
1ntervaIs.
The three suggested log periods are:
November 16, 1970 through December 11, 1970
January II, 1971 through February 5, 1971
March I, 1971 through March 26, 1971
During each of these four week periods you will be asked
to keep a brief daily log of your
a. general objectives for the day
b. pages referred to in the text
c. time devoted to this particular lesson approach
d. if lab exercise - the process(es) emphasized
e. brief statement of results, and
f. indication of students attitude toward science
This is in no way intended to be a lesson plan.
However,
we feel, and hope you agree, that it will help you to
focus daily emphasis for your class, and help us to better
understand the program as used in the Carman District,
f say this, because as you know, each teacher focuses
on certain aspects of the program; some following closely
to the text, others selecting portions felt more applicable,
and others augmenting with supplementary materials.
There
will be no attempt to evaluate the teacher.
The present
intent is to pool all reports Into a general picture of
what received greater emphasis and what recieved less emphasis
at Carman.
We want to be able to say, "Based on the sample r. .
reports, these are the things we tried to do at Carman.'

254

November 6, 1970
Memo to Carmen ESCP teachers

Page 2

We wit I use this Information to help us determine If
the materials allowed us to do thejob the way we wanted
It to be done.
The completion of the questionnaires will constitute the
major part of the requirements for the Independent study.
We may find It necessary to ask for some additional
Information, but It Is felt this will not entail any
major effort on your part.

It may be that you are not Interested In the three credits
offered with 683. We would still appreciate your coopera­
tion by providing feedback through the dally record logs.
We hope you will be able to participate.
Beyond this I can only say, "Thank you for efforts above
the call of duty."
If you have questions, Dick Cooper or myself are at your
service.
If necessary I will be glad to meet with you
personally.

Sincerely,

Delbert Hue) ler
81 OB Cherry Lane
E. Lansing, Ml I18823
Phone (517) 355-81k9

255

TEACHER NAME

CLASS HOUR

DATE

LESSON TITLE
CONCEPT TAUGHT
TYPE OF LESSON
Lecture, demonstration , and/or discussion

number of minutes

Pages In text: From

to

Inv the Earth ; From

to

Hod Ear Scl

Laboratory lesson

number of minutes
to
1nv the Earth; from

to

Hod Ear Set

Pages in text: From

If other sources were used, please indicate type of lesson, book,
and pages
Additional comments
IF YOUR LESSON WAS A LAB EXLRCISE - to which of these AAAS Processes
were the chi Idren exposed?
Indicate ALL you believe applicable.
USE THIS SCALE to Indicate emphasis given to each process taught:
3. strongly emphasized
2,
moderately emphasized
I.
slightly emphasized
obscrvotlon
d e s s If 1cation
using time/space relationships
using numbers
communt cation
measuri ng
inferri ng
predi ct Ing
formulating hypothesis
making onerational definitions
controlling and manipulating variables
Interpreting data
experl men t ing
General comments on hew it all worked out

Please RANK your students on ATTITUDE TOWARD SCIENCE for today's class.
very enthusiastic; _____ moderately enthusiastic;
average enthusiasm and interest
somewhat ur;:r.teres t e d ; _____ very uninterested.
(use reverse side for additional comments)

256
DEFINITIONS FOR THE THIRTEEN AAAS PROCESSES

OBSERVATION - any or several of the senses; sight, touch, hearing
taste, smell are used.
Observation includes IDENTIFICATION
OF PROPERTIES, le., shape, color, weight, density, texture, etc.
Example: discussion of minerals involves identification of
properties - shape, fracture, texture, specific gravity, etc.
CLASSIFICATION - using observable properties to separate materials
into groups.
Example: classifying rocks os sedementory, metamorphic, and
igneous; dividing all matter into over 100 elements using the
periodic table.
USING TIME/SPACE RELATIONSHIPS - involves location in space and
time; symmetry, motion and speed, vectors, km/hr, mi/hr,
relative motion and position, planetary and satellite motion, etc.
Example:

relative motion of earth and moon, or earth and sun.

USING NUMBERS - involves use of positive and negative numbers, exponents,
scientific notation, number line, degrees, formulas, - mathematics
as applied to science.
Example: expressing a certain wave length using scientific
notation.
COMMUNICATING - involves preparing data sheets, tables, graphs,
histograms, etc.
Example: student graphs temperature changes over a period of time.
MEASURING - involves use of METRIC system.
Example; student measures rainfall in cm; student measures
weight of two equal volumes in grams.
INFERRING - an inference is something you think is true because of
what you observe.
Example: Observation - you look out the window and see leaves
on a tree moving.
Inference - there is a wind today.
Observation - a trilobite is found in Devonian rock.
Inference - the trilobite is **00,000,000 years old.

257

page 2 DEFINITIONS FOR THE THIRTEEN AAAS PROCESSES

PREDICTING ~ this is a special kind of Inference.
An Inference
derived from Interpolation or extrapolation from a table of
data or from a graph Is called a prediction.
Example: Using data showing the mean temperature for the first
day of each month the student can predict the temperature that
existed for the fifteenth day of each month.
(interpolation)
Using data of relative position of the big dipper over past
years the scientist can predict the position of the big
dipper 100,000 years from now.
(extrapolation)

The following are called integrated processes for they Involve
the Integration of one or more processes.
FORMULATING HYPOTHESES - a hypothesis is a general statement that
includes all objects or events of the same class.
It could
be an explanation in which case it is a generalization of
an Inference.
It could be a generalization about observations Chalk Is a poor conductor of electricity;
Chalk Is a poor conductor of heat;
The hypothesis could be: all poor conductors of
electricity are poor conductors of heat.
The process may Include constructing or testing hypothesis.
MAKING OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS - An operational definition explains
what something is by what it does.
Non operational definition: Oxygen is an element composed of
atoms having atomic number 8 and atomic weight 16.
Operational definition: Oxygen Is a gas that causes a glowing
splint to burst into flame (what you observe) when the splint
is placed (what you do) into a container of the gas.
CONTROLLING AND MANIPULATING VARIABLES - a variable is a condition
that changes.
Remember the TV ad - the only condition that
was different between the two cars was the kind of gasoline.
Since car A went farther than car 6 before running out of g a s ,
car A*s gas must be better.
In this experiment the kind of
gasoline was the variable considered.
When experimenting we try
to keep all conditions the same except for one condition * the
variable to be tested.

258

page 3 DEFINITIONS FOR THE THIRTEEN AAAS PROCESSES

INTERPRETING DATA - This refers to ability to get information
from tables, charts, graphs, maps, plctograms, etc.
It Involves the ability to "read" such Information and
state what It means.
EXPERIMENTING - Is the process that encompasses all the basic
and Integrated processes.
It begins with observations
that suggest questions.
A hypothesis MAY be formulated.
A test is then constructed to answer the question,
variables to be controlled are Identified, operational
data are collected and Interpreted, The original
hypothesis, If made, may be tentatively accepted or
modi fled.

APPENDIX H
E ND OF Y E A R E V A L U A T I O N OF PRO C E S S
SKILLS T A U G H T W I T H E S C P

259

260

Name
END OF YEAR EVALUATION OF PROCESS SKILLS TAUGHT WITH ESCP
Please rate each of the thirteen processes using as your criteria,
EXPOSURE to the process.
Exposure is defined as a composite of time and emphasis given to
each process during the laboratory experiences.
tf you feel there
was a large degree of time and emphasis given to developing the process,
observation, give observation a high rating (3).
If you feel there
was little time and emphasis given to this process, rate it low (1).
If you feel, that when comparing observation exposure with the other
twelve processes, there was an average amount, rate it average (2).
Rating scale

3.
2.
I.

strong exposure
average exposure
low exposure

Assign numbers in such a way that the total score will equal 26,
You may need to re-evaluate the ratings, adjusting some to reach
a total of 26.
It is most important that a total of 26 be found.
observing
_____ class ify ing
using time/space relationships
_____ using numbers
_____ communicat ing
_____ measuring
_____ inferring
_____ p red ic t ing

formulating hypotheses
making operational definitions
controlling and manipulating variables
interpreting data
exper imenting

26 - total

APPENDIX I
END OF Y E A R E V A L U A T I O N OF ESCP, 1970-1971,
BY T H E C A R M A N T E A C H E R S

261

262

END Or YEAR EVALUATION OF ESCP 1970-197)
CARMAN TEACHERS
Pleas*evaluate ESCP as you experienced It.
questions apply ONLY as they relate to your
class(es).

f t TH|

The First nine
ESCP experimental

Name oF text
).

How would you rate the reeding level of the text?

f*uch too difficult
setlSfactory
2.

d lff Icult
easy

How would you rate the concepts presented in the course?
mueh too difficult
sot Isfactory

9.

__ 20

easy

very easy

AO

60

100

BO

About what percent of the total class 11ma was devoted to
direct laboratory experiences during the first two months
of schoolT

0
5*

d lFflcult

About what percent of the total class time was devoted to
direct laboratory experiences over the entire year?

0
b.

very easy

20 ___ bO

60

80

100

About adiat percent of the total class 11me was devoted to
direct laboratory experiences during the last two months of
schoolt

0 __20 __b0

60

Op

*00

Comments

6.

Do you feel more time should be devoted to direct laboratory
experiences In the future?

Why or why not?

263
-

7.

2-

How would you rate the children's overall attitude toward science
for the entire year?
very enthusiastic
average enthusiasm and

moderately enthusiastic
interest

somewhat uninterested
8.

very uninterested

How would you rate the children's attitude toward science during
the first two months of the school year?
very enthusiastic

moderate Iy enthusiastic

average enthusiasm and interest
somewhat uninterested
9 .

very uninterested

How would you rate the children's
thelast two months of the school
very enthusiastic

attitude toward science during
year?

moderate Iy enthusiastic

average enthusiasm and interest
somewhat uninterested

very uninterested

How would you rate the experimental group(s) you taught with
the other ESCP classes you taught this year or - - 10.

attitude?

experimental group much more enthusiastic
e xperimental group moderately more enthusiastic
both groups about the same
experimental group much less interested

11.

achievement
experimental group
in process
skills?______ ___ experimental group

much higher achievement
moderately higher achievement

both groups about the same
experimental group

somewhat lower achievement

experimental group

much lower achievement

264

-312.

achievement
of science
knowledge

experimental group much higher achievement
e xperI mental group moderately higher achievement
both groups about the same
e xperimental group somewhat lower achievement
e xperimentaI group much lower achievement

13.

How did the half-day schedule and the use of the high school
effect progress of the STUDENTS?
greatly improved progress

moderately

made little difference

somewhat reduced progress

improved

g reatly reduced progress
14.

Please explain any differences.

15.

How did the half-day schedule and use of the high school effect
YOUR TEACHING?
greatly improved my teaching
moderate Iy improved my teaching
made little difference
somewhat hindered my teaching
g reatly hindered my teaching

16,

Please explain any differences.

26s
-<♦17.

Generally speaking* did you find that girls or boys experienced
more success wi th ESCP7
g irls
boys
Please explain;____________________________________________________

18.

Do you think ESCP would be more successfully taught at ninth grade
level rather than eighth?
ninth

eighth

o ther grade level

Please explain;______________________________________________________

19*

Assuming costs are no major factor and administration agrees* would
you advise the same basic program next year?
yes

20.

no

Why or why not?

Assuming that ESCP will be taught next year* what specifically do
you feel could be done to improve the course?

feel free to add additional comments on back

266

-521.

Did you cover all the material
all

22.

3A

___ 1/2

In the text?
\/k

If you did not cover all the material in the text, do you
think this should be a major concern WHEN USING ESCP?
Exp lain:_____________________________________________________

23.

WiI 1 you attempt to cover the whole book next year?
yes

no

2k.

If you had to eliminate one unit from study next year, which
wouId It be ?

25.

Which un it did the children seem to enjoy most?

26.

Which un it did you enjoy most?

27.

Which un 11 did you enjoy

26.

Which uni t did the children seem to enjoy

29.

Did you have sufficient materials to assist you in your teaching?
yes

30.

no

least?

Ieast7

If no, please explain:

Did you generally have sufficient time to prepare your lessons?
yes

no

If no, please explain:

267
-631.

This may be difficult, but do the best you can.
Please try to
summarize the content covered during the past year. This may
be done by simply stating, "We covered pages 1*312," if that
is what you did.
Perhaps you "jumped" around.
Then indicate
only those pages covered, not those "jumped" over.
If you had
activities not included in the text, would you list them with
a brief explanation.

32,

Try to indicate all laboratory experiences given.
If they were
all those included in the above report - please state, " A M
laboratory experiences found in pages listed above,"
If some
were skipped, please indicate.
If others were added, please
indi cate.

THANKS LOADS I

APPENDIX J
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND

268

269

CARMAN ESCP TEACHERS

Please list course hours you have re Ia tad to science.

■IQLOCY SCI

PHYSICAL SCI
(Physics, Chew.)

EARTH SCI

UKOEftSMDUATE

GRADUATE

Wiet

m s

your teaching Major In undergraduate school?

Do you hold a Master's degree?
If yes, In what area?
List any special programs In which you Mere a participant that era
related to your teaching of ESCP.
Hew many

years-of teaching experience?

Haw many

years of teaching experience In all science areas?

How esny

years of teaching experience In earth science?

Hay 19, 1971

APPENDIX K
S T U D E N T E V A L U A T I O N OF E S C P
C A R M A N D I S T R I C T 1970-1971

270

271
STUDENT EVALUATION OF ESCP - CARMAN DISTRICT 1970-1971
Please answer the following questions about the ESCP science program
you had this year.
Be honest.
Do NOT sign your name.
1.

Was the text book too hard?

_yes

_n o

2.

Were the ideas taught in class too hard?

_yes

no

3.

Should more time have been spent in
laboratory exercises?

yes

no

k.

Do you feel you learned more valuable
information in laboratory experiences
or in regular class sessions?

_1 aboratory
d o n 1t know
class sessions

5.

Compare 8th grade science with 7th
grade science as to how DIFFICULT they
were for you.

8th harder
jabout the same
~7th harder

6.

Compare 8th grade science with 7th
grade science as to how you ENJOYED
each.

enjoyed 8 more
_about the same
"enjoyed 7 more

7.

Compare 8th grade science with 7th
grade science as to your report card
GRADES.

8th higher
~about the same
~7th higher

8.

If next year, the students have a
choice between ESCP and another
science program, will you advise a
seventh grade FRIEND to take ESCP
rather than the other science course?

advise take
"ESCP
d o n 't know
_advise take
other course

9.

What did you like best about science this year7

10.

What did you like least about science this year?

11.

How do you think science could be improved?

APPENDIX L
R E S P O N S E S TO S T U D E N T E V A L U A T I O N
OF ESCP 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1

272

RESPONSES TO
STUDENT EVALUATION OF ESCP— CARMAN DISTRICT, 1970-1971

Yes

Total
Responses

No Reply

No

3 (2)

105 (57)

184

7 (4)

126 (68)

184

1. Was the textbook too hard?
76(41)*
2. Were the ideas taught too hard?
51 (28)

3. Should more time have been spent in laboratory exercises?
4 (2)

49 (17)

184

4. Do you feel you learned more valuable information in laboratory experiences or in
regular class sessions?
Laboratory
109 (59)

Don't know
47 (26)

Class sessions
18 (15)

184

5. Compare eighth-grade science with seventh-grade science as to how difficult they
were for you.
Eighth harder
91 (50)

About the same
68 (37)

Seventh harder
24 (13)

183

2 73

131 (71)

6. Compare eighth-grade science with seventh-grade science as to how you enjoyed
each.
Enjoyed eighth
more
79 (43)

About the same
50 (27)

Enjoyed seventh
more
54 (30)

183

7. Compare eighth-grade science with seventh-grade science as to your report card
grades.
Eighth higher
48 (26)

About the same
65 (36)

Seventh higher
69 (38)

182

8. If next year, the students have a choice between ESCP and another science program,
will you advise a seventh-grade friend to take ESCP rather than the other science
course?

69 (38)

Don't know
74 (40)

Advise take other
course
39 (22)

Parentheses indicate percent of response.
continued

274

Advise take

182

275

9. W h a t d i d y o u like b e s t a b o u t s c i e n c e this year?
N ame*

Laboratory experiences
W o r k i n g in gr oups
L a b o r a t o r y re ports
F i e l d trips
W o r k i n g w i t h i n t e r e s t groups
Teacher
Class movies
D i s c u s s ions
Oceanography
Geology
Evolution
Space

Percent

Number of
Respondents
108
3
9
16
8
9
6
4
3
3
3
2

59

^
74

J

9

* R e s p o nses are not g i v e n w h e n t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e respondent.

10. W h a t did y o u like least a b o u t science this y e a r ?
S t u d y i n g from t e x t b o o k
A c t i v i t i e s from t e x t b o o k
Tests
Teacher
Geology
C l a s s rep o r t s
Laboratory exercises
L a b o r a t o r y reports
Ecology
Weather
Astronomy
M a t h e m a t i c s in s c i e n c e
Lectures
D i s c u s s ions
Student behavior

58
12
34
8
6
6
5
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2

r

1

)

38

32

18

continued

276

11.

H o w do y o u t h i n k s c i e n c e c o u l d b e

M o r e l abora t o r y e x p e r i e n c e s
M o r e field trips and o u t d o o r
activities
L e s s emphasis on the text
A b e t t e r text
L e t s t udents ch o o s e a r e a for study
M o r e d i s c u s s i o n time
F e w e r tests
B e t t e r w r i t t e n tests
M o r e t extbooks per c l a s s
L e s s emphasis on l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i ­
ences
M o r e meaningful laboratory experi­
ences
M o r e time for science c l a s s
M o r e group work
F e w e r students per c l a s s
M o r e class m o v i e s
F e w e r exercises from text
M o r e class reports
L e s s l ectu r i n g
F e w e r labora t o r y s e s s i o n s
D i f f e r e n t teacher

improved?
57
30
24
17
10
7
7
6
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

[
f
'
^
^

}

31
47
__

16
13
9

APPENDIX M
T WO T R A C K M O D E L P R O P O S E D AS C A R M A N S C I E N C E
S E Q U E N C E FOR J U N I O R H I G H S C H O O L

277

278

T W O - T R A C K M O D E L — PROPOSED C A R M A N SCHOOLS'
S E Q U E N C E FOR J U N I O R H I G H SCHOOL

SCIENCE

K

V

£ c i e n c e - - A Process A p p r o a c h

{adopted 1968)

7th L i f e Sci e n c e
P i l o t 1970-71

IMB

8th E S C P 3
w i l l i m plement
1970-1971

ISCS II
Pilot 1971-1972?

9th I P S 4
established

LIFE S C I E N C E
A
BSCS
or
B
other
Pilot
1971-1972?

H e a v y a r rows i n d i c a t e m a j o r s e q u e n c e
S i n g l e line arrows indicate p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s
1IMB

I n t e r a c t i o n of M a n and the B i o s p h e r e

2ISCS I n t e r m e d i a t e S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m S t u d y
3E S C P Earth S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m Pro j e c t
4 IPS

&

ISCS^I

I n t r o d u c t o r y Physical S c i e n c e

5BSCS B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m S t u d y

ESCP
will implement
1970-

ISCS III
Pilot
197 1 - 1 9 7 2 ?

APPENDIX N
R A W D A T A FROM PRE- A N D P O S T - T E S T S : A T T I T U D E TOWAR D
SCIENCE, A C H I E V E M E N T OF S C I E N C E PROCESSES,
A N D A C H I E V E M E N T OF S C I E N C E K N O W L E D G E
C A R M A N S C H O O L DISTRICT, FLINT, M I C H I G A N
1970-1971

279

280

R A W D A T A FROM PRE- A N D POST-TESTS:
A T T I T U D E T O W A R D SCIENCE,
A C H I E V E M E N T OF S C I E N C E PROCESSES, AND A C H I E V E M E N T O K
SCIENCE K N O W L E D G E
C A R M A N S C H O O L DISTRICT, FLINT, M I C H I G A N
1970-1971

Sex

GPA

M
M
M
M
M
M
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
M

H
H
H
L
L
L
H
H
H
L
L
L
H
H
H
L
L
L
H
H
H
L
L
L
H
H
H
L
L
L
H
H
H
L
L
L
H
H
H

Student

Room

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
C 1
c

1

C
c
c

C
c
c
c
c
c
c

C 2

c 2
c

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

Attitude
Pre
Post
85
85
74
86
83
58
83
77
79
86
81
46
79
82
87
83
87
69
71
77
S3
33
26
83
81
83
86
86
85
76
61
60
78
29
88
84
73
84
85

82
85
86
75
77
55
84
56
86
84
34
26
87
88
83
60
68
86
63
79
61
79
35
83
87
79
86
87
83
75
61
84
79
27
83
84
71
89
83

Process
Pre
Post
39
32
29
27
29
19
23
16
48
27
19
19
28
22
25
11
18
22
45
33
18
21
27
26
36
25
48
21
24
42
22
25
35
26
26
15
29
51
12

43
52
34
33
40
27
47
34
58
35
±6
20
27
33
33
31
25
24
41
29
45
28
33
30
50
35
55
31
24
39
26
34
31
26
26
25
40
53
26

Knowledge
Post
Pre
35
37
34
25
28
16
49
36
37
26
20
15
21
24
42
16
21
18
28
24
19
20
36
21
44
29
51
33
24
36
28
24
33
22
18
14
26
39
27

33
48
38
26
30
12
56
41
54
27
16
17
26
31
38
21
21
13
30
24
22
22
28
29
46
28
43
32
28
38
27
24
38
26
27
25
24
22
22

continued

281

Sex

GPA

M
M
M
F
F
F
F

L
L
L
H
H
H
L
L
L
H
H
H

F
F
M

M
M

M
M
M
F

F
F
F

F
F
M

M
M
M
M
M

F

H
L
b
L
H

D 2

1
L
L
H
H

H
H
L
L

b
H
H

F
F

H
L
L
b
H
H

F
M
M

M
M
M

H
L

F
F
F

b
b
H
H
H

F
F
F

L
b

M

C
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c

D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

F
F

Student

Room

L

1
1

D 2
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84

Attitude
Post
Pre
72
81
84
87
84
61
79
85
47
73
84
87
80
85
34
58
87
83
84
81
55
78
83
88
84
85
68
67
29
84
83
47
30
68
78
47
81
57
61
87
86
85
65
29
85

44
68
78
83
83
48
57
85
75
26
91
87
58
79
58
58
79
81
81
79
33
34
29
82
82
87
83
78
28
87
83
77
57
25
54
25
86
34
72
88
77
30
77
36
79

Process
Pre
Post
09
37
44
24
33
26
27
08
12
32
33
45
18
24
26
37
42
36
27
23
08
22
27
32
36
44
23
30
46
39
19
34
24
31
32
26
40
22
32
35
34
23
19
29
47

27
38
50
35
51
31
33
26
23
20

42
57
24
39
36
45
50
40
33
28
44
28
36
48
42
54
21
45
56
37
35
37
40
30
46
36
40
35
43
39
31
25
33
21
45

K n o w led a e
Post
Pre
19
20
31
30
28
23
21
24
24
27
38
47
20
30
28
29
32
31
23
23
21
27
33
37
26
37
24
39
40
37
26
25
25
14
16
22
19
22
21
26
22
27
15
18
25

15
25
34
27
32
34
16
20
21
27
51
51
30
34
37
37
47
36
22
19
18
27
51
49
38
49
27
42
42
49
30
22
27
25
34
22
18
32
24
31
34
24
17
24
13

Sex:
M — male, F — female? GPA:
G r a d e point a v e r a g e in s c i e n c e
f r o m the p r e v i o u s year:
H — high, A or B; L — low, C or lower.
Room:
s t u d e n t classroom, Ci and C 2 same teacher, D* and Dj
s a m e teacher.