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University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Rood Ann Arbor, Michigan 46106 A Xerox Education Company I t 72-30,027 PETERJOHN, Richard Carl, 1934AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PERCEPTUAL ORIENTATIONS OF EFFECTIVE PRINCIPALS AS IDENTIFIED BY EDUCATION ASSOCIATION LEADERS IN SELECTED MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1972 Education, administration U n iv e rs ity M icro film s, A XEROX C om pany , A n n A rb o r, M ich ig an AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PERCEPTUAL ORIENTATIONS OF EFFECTIVE PRINCIPALS AS IDENTIFIED BV EDUCATION ASSOCIATION LEADERS IN SELECTED MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS By Richard C. Peterjohn A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1972 PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may indistinct print. Filmed as University Microfilms, have received. A Xerox Education Company ABSTRACT AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PERCEPTUAL ORIENTATIONS OF EFFECTIVE PRINCIPALS AS IDENTIFIED BY EDUCATION ASSOCIATION LEADERS IN SELECTED MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS By Richard C. Peterjohn The primary purpose of this study was to investi­ gate the perceptual characteristics of effective princi­ pals, as identified by teacher education association leaders. The secondary purpose was to contrast and compare the perceptual characteristics of effective principals with those of principals not identified as effective. The basis for this study was the work of Arthur W. Combs and his associates at the University of Florida. Combs has conducted research concerning what he calls the "helping professions" (teachers, counselors, nurses), establishing that effective helpers share certain positive, confident perceptions about themselves, other people, their jobs, and the world in general. Combs' studies, in turn, can be traced to the development of perceptual psychology, which assumes that behavior is the result of the behaver's perceptions— of himself, of his situation, and of other people— that any Richard C. Peterjohn behavior which is not consistent with one's deepest beliefs is perceived by others as unauthentic. Thirty-six Michigan public school principals, eighteen of whom were identified by teacher education association leaders as effective and eighteen selected at random from those not identified as effective, were inter­ viewed. They included males and females in urban and sub­ urban, elementary and secondary positions. The interviews, carefully structured to elicit responses which would reveal perceptions, were taped and then evaluated by three trained judges. A modification of Arthur Combs' Perceptual Char­ acteristic Scale served as a basis for judging. This scale designates eleven perceptions which seem to be common among effective individuals in a helping relationship. The data were analyzed to see whether or not the perceptions of principals identified as effective differed from those of principals not identified as effective, and whether the effective principals as a group shared a common set of perceptions. A one-way analysis of variance revealed that there is a difference between the perceptions of principals identified as effective and those not identified as effec­ tive. The analysis of data revealed no significant differ­ ence in perceptual characteristics of effective principals whether they were male or female, were elementary or secondary principals, or employed in urban or suburban Richard C. Peterjohn school districts. Thus it might appear that effective principals as a group share a set of common perceptions. The effective principals perceived other people as generally capable, friendly, trustworthy, and worthy and themselves as capable and possessing strong self concepts. They seemed more concerned with people than with t h i n g s , and viewed their purposes as freeing and facilitating rather than controlling and coercing. Analysis of one variable, the educational level of the participating principals, revealed that the effective principals had a higher level of education. The data appears to indicate implications for several groups of individuals, five in particular: school principals, school teachers and counselors, school personnel who are involved in hiring, college professors and administrators in preparatory programs for administra­ tors, and researchers in the fields of administration, perceptual psychology, and the helping professions. The results of this study imply that college prep­ aration programs for school administrators should be con­ cerned with developing affective as well as cognitive competencies, with the understanding that both are essential to success as an educational leader. Assuming that positive perceptions people hold about themselves, others, their jobs, and the world in general are related to effective leadership seems to suggest that the affective aspect of administrator Richard C. Peterjohn preparation programs should be emphasized to a greater degree than is generally true at the present time. This preparation might well include experiences in encounter groups, communi­ cation, decision making, sensitivity training, interpersonal relationships, and curriculum change or process. More effective methods need to be developed to measure both affective and cognitive competencies and to indicate where pre-service and in-service administrative leaders need growth experiences. DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this study to my parents who have made all this possible by giving me life and valuing education. This is also dedicated to my wife, Elspeth, and my two children, David and Kristen, for their everpresent faith, encouragement, love, and goodwill. I would hope also that this study adds a little bit of understanding and knowledge for all people, young and old, who are concerned about helping other people. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In appreciation for the time and effort given to me during the writing of this dissertation, I would like to thank my committee consisting of Dr. Collier, Dr. Durr, Dr. Alam, and Dr. Faunce. I would like to give special consideration to my major advisor, Dr. Collier, for all his encouragement and help and many hours he has given of him­ self. All of these men have been very understanding, friendly, and approachable at all times. I would like to recognize Dr. Splete and Dr. Brady for their personal interest, encouragement, and support. I would also like to recognize Mr. Ward and Dr. Hagar for assisting me in scoring and tabulating of data. The Michigan State University Educational Research Department has been very helpful and available at all times. I want to thank the participating school systems and the participating principals that are part of this study. Last, but not least, the constant awareness, help­ ful consideration and kindness of my wife and my two children. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION.............................................. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF T A B L E S ........................................ ii iii vi Chapter I . INTRODUCTION II. III. IV. .................................. 1 Purpose of the Study ............. Assumptions................................. Hypotheses ................................. Definition of Terms ....................... Scope and L i m i t a t i o n s .................... Overview.................................... 5 5 6 7 8 8 REVIEW OF LITERATURE........................... 10 DESIGN AND PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY 29 . . . . Introduction .............................. The S a m p l e ................................. Effective Group ........................... Comparison Group ........................... Collection of D a t a ....................... Analyzing D a t a .............................. The Modified Perceptual Characteristics S cale................................. J u d g i n g ................................. The Hypotheses.......................... The O b s e r v a t i o n ....................... S u m m a r y .................................... 40 41 43 44 44 ANALYSIS OF THE D A T A ........................... 46 Introduction Terminology................................. Analysis of the D a t a ....................... Hypothesis 1 ........................... Hypothesis 2 ........................... 46 46 47 47 51 iv 29 29 30 32 32 39 Chapter Page Hypothesis 3 ........................... Hypothesis 4 ....................... Education as aVa r i a b l e.................. S u m m a r y .................................... V.SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS . . . 55 59 59 69 71 S u m m a r y .................................... Conclusions....................... Implications of theS t u d y ................... 71 74 78 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................... 83 APPENDICES.............................................. 87 v LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Page With respect to their general perceptual orien­ tations, good principals will be more likely to (1) be sensitive and concerned about others than insensitive and unconcerned, and (2) per­ ceive in terms of people than in terms of things ........................................... 48 With respect to their perceptions of other people, good principals will perceive others as (3) able rather than unable, (4) dependable rather than undependable, and (5) worthy rather than unworthy.................................... 48 With respect to their perceptions of self, good principals will (6) perceive themselves as friendly rather than unfriendly, (7) perceive themselves as identified with people rather than apart from people, (8) be confident and see themselves as capable rather than unable to cope with problems, and (9) perceive themselves as self-revealing rather than self-concealing . 49 With respect to purposes, good principals will perceive their purposes as (10) freeing rather than controlling, and (11) facilitating rather than non-facilitating ........................... 50 5. Mean scores for total characteristics 50 6. With respect to their general perceptual orien­ tations, good principals will be more likely to (12) be sensitive and concerned about others than insensitive and unconcerned, and (13) per­ ceive in terms of people than in terms of things . . . . .............................. 52 With respect to their perceptions of other people, good principals will perceive others as (14) able rather than unable, (15) dependable rather than undependable, and (16) worthy rather than unworthy * . .................... 52 2. 3. 4. 7. vi 1-11 . Table 8. 9. Page With respect to their perceptions of self, good principals will (17) perceive themselves as friendly rather than unfriendly, (18) perceive themselves as identified with people rather than apart from people, (19) be confident and see themselves as capable rather than unable to cope with problems, and (20) perceive themselves as self-revealing rather than self-concealing . 53 With respect to purposes, good principals will perceive their purposes as (21) freeing rather than controlling, and (22) facilitating rather than non-facilitating ........................... 54 10. Mean scores for total characteristics 12-22. . 54 11. With respect to their general perceptual orien­ tations, good principals will be more likely to (2 3) be sensitive and concerned about others than insensitive and unconcerned, and (24) per­ ceive in terms of people than in terms of t h i n g s ........................................... 56 With respect to their perceptions of other people, good principals will perceive others as (25) able rather than unable, (26) dependable rather than undependable, and (27) worthy rather than u n w o r t h y ........................... 56 With respect to their perceptions of self, good principals will (28) perceive themselves as friendly rather than unfriendly, (29) perceive themselves as identified with people rather than apart from people, (30) be confident and see themselves as capable rather than unable to cope with problems, and (31) perceive them­ selves as self-revealing rather than selfconcealing........................................ 57 With respect to purposes, good principals will perceive their purposes as (32) freeing rather than controlling, and (33) facilitating rather than non-facilitating ........................... 58 Mean scores for total characteristics 23-33. 58 12. 13. 14. 15. * i VII . Table 16. 17. Page With respect to their general perceptual orien­ tations , good principals will be more likely to (34) be sensitive and concerned about others than insensitive and unconcerned, and (35) p e r ­ ceive in terms of people than in terms of t h i n g s ........................................... 60 With respect to their perceptions of other people, good principals will perceive others as (36) able rather than unable, (37) dependable rather than undependable, and (38) worthy rather than u n w o r t h y ........................... 60 18. With respect to their perceptions of self, good principals will (39) perceive themselves as friendly rather than unfriendly, (40) perceive themselves as identified with people rather than apart from people, (41) be confident and see themselves as capable rather than unable to cope with problems, and (42) perceive them­ selves as self-revealing rather than self61 concealing.................................... 19. With respect to purposes, good principals will perceive their purposes as (43) freeing rather than controlling, and (44) facilitating rather than non-facilitating .......................... 62 20. Mean scores for total characteristics 34-44. 21. Comparing the educational level of the princi­ pals identified as effective with the random g r o u p ............................. 63 Comparing the educational level of the effec­ tive principals in urban and suburban schools . 64 Comparing the educational level of effective male elementary principals with that of effec­ tive female elementary principals ............. 64 22. 23. 24. . Comparing the educational level of effective principals at the elementary and secondary l e v e l ........................................ 25. Perceptual areas of behavioral incidents. 26. Effective principals 27. Randomly selected group . 65 . .......................... * ....................... _§■ v m • 62 67 93 94 CHAPTER I I N TR O D U C T I O N Anyone who has taught for any length of time is aware that some principals are more effective than others in creating a climate that facilitates reaching and learn­ ing. Many programs for the training of administrators place emphasis on the cognitive approach. But necessary as a certain amount of this approach may be, success in such a program is no guarantee of success as a principal. The principal is called upon to handle many situations in which awareness of specific facts and methods is useful, even necessary. Ultimately, however, his job consists of help­ ing his staff members, their responsibilities. students, and community carry out In this aspect of his work, he deals with human behavior and interpersonal relationships. Many studies (those by Combs, for example) have shown that individual behavior is largely a result of one's perceptions at a given moment. Behavior is, therefore, likely to be unpredictable, and it defies absolute classifying and cate­ gorizing. As a result, the principal cannot learn ahead of time how best to handle every situation he will face. Studies have also indicated that success in areas involving human behavior and relationships depends less on knowledge 1 2 of facts and the use of certain methods than on an aware­ ness of the nature of behavior, that of oneself as well as others, and an open, confident approach to relationships. Fiedler found that therapists, regardless of their effectiveness in helping others, knew what a good helping relationship should consist of even though in practice they might not have followed such beliefs.1 In a similar study, * Combs found the same thing to be true of teachers. They all seemed to know the kind of relationship they should have had with their students even though not all were successful in establishing such relationships. Almost without exception, the attempt to distinguish between effective and ineffective persons in such a relationship on the basis of their overt behavior has proved most disappointing. In the same way, success in the part of the principal's job involving relationships is a matter not so much of knowing facts and methods as of seeing oneself and others in ways that produce a helpful relationship. The method by which a principal believes a problem can be solved seems to be less important than the way in which he sees himself, the other individuals involved, and the problem. And knowing how an effective principal ought to behave, how he ought 1F . E. Fiedler, "The Concept of an Ideal Thera­ peutic Relationship," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XIV (1950), 239-245. 2 Arthur W. Combs, Florida Studies in the Helping Professions (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1969), p. 26. 3 to think if he is to be an effective helper, is not the same as being that kind of principal. Measuring how much a principal knows about the various aspects of his job, the problems he is likely to encounter, and the methods by which they may be solved would be a large but fairly straightforward task. But since this kind of knowledge does not necessarily produce effective leadership, such measurement seems fruitless. Instead, what does seem worthwhile is a close look at the perceptual characteristics of the effective principal. How does he perceive himself; how does he perceive others; how does he perceive the world? And do these perceptions lead to help­ ful or unhelpful relationships? Such a measurement is less objective than one which deals with specific facts and is more difficult to make, but the results could provide in­ sight into the role of the principal and might suggest ways in which training for administration could be improved. A review of the literature concerning the role of expectations in student achievement indicates that the most influential reference groups in terms of expected school behavior are parents, peer groups, and teachers. If one person is in a position to influence all three of these groups, it is the principal or educational leader. One of his primary duties is to create a climate among community, staff, and students where learning or achievement can most readily take place. To do this, he must develop satisfactory 4 relationships with parents, teachers, and students. To have positive results which affect the whole school commu­ nity, these relationships must be ''good" or "helpful*' relationships. The research documented and interpreted by Arthur Combs in his Florida Studies in the Helping Pro­ fessions seems to indicate that those individuals who are most effective in the helping professions teaching, nursing, the ministry) ing at themselves and others. 3 (counseling, share certain ways of lookCombs suggests that these same perceptions may be found among those who are successful in other relationships, for example, parent to child, man to worker. fore­ One of the "helping professionals" not included in Comb's study is the school principal. In view of the tremendous potential influence of the principal, a study of the perceptions of principals who are exerting a positive influence should be useful to various groups: 1. Practicing principals, as they work with teachers, students, and parents in performing their function. 2. All members of school staffs, since they work with people and are considered helping pro­ fessionals . 3. College professors, as they develop preparation programs for teachers, counselors, and particu­ larly administrators. ^Ib i d . , pp. 72-75. 5 4. Researchers in the field of human relations psychology, and the helping professions, as they develop hypotheses for further research. Framing such a study in terms of Combs *s work seems a logcal way to begin. Purpose of the Study The primary purpose of this study was to investi­ gate the perceptual characteristics of effective elementary and secondary principals, as identified by teachers, who are key leaders in local education associations, in selected Michigan school districts. The secondary purpose was to contrast and compare the perceptual characteristics of effective principals with those principals not identified as effective. As sumptions Basic to this investigation was the assumption that principals are important at both the elementary and secondary school levels in creating a climate conducive to learning. It was assumed that the principal's job consists largely of helping staff members, students, and community fulfil their educational responsibilities. This concept of school admin­ istration as a helping profession, in the sense that Combs uses the term, is recognized by other authorities. The effective administrator . . . is he who challenges teachers and parents to develop into leaders by inspir­ ing and leading them to participate in planning and executing activities within a school. Furthermore, the effective administrator is one who is himself continually 6 inspired and guided into participating as one of the group by the leadership which emerges from teachers, parents, and students. The administrative leader must be able to deal with people. The good administrator is a student of human relations. He is keenly aware that the most important thing about people is their attitude toward others. . . . The good administrator acts toward all person with complete respect, even when he does not agree with their philosophy. He deals with all people with courtesy and 5 integrity and convinces them that their opinions matter. Regardless of size or complexity of total operation, administrators exist primarily as a means of facilitat­ ing the instructional program. To judge them otherwise ^ would be distorting the objectives of American education. Since teachers are in day to day contact with students and work closely with principals, it was assumed that their selections of effective principals are valid and that the perceptical characteristics of these principals are worthy of investigation. Hypotheses 1. There is no difference between the perceptual characteristics of principals identified by teachers as effective and the perceptual char­ acteristics of principals not identified by teachers as effective. 4 J. Wilmer Menge and Roland C. Faunce, Working Together for Better Schools (New York: American Book Company, 1953), p. 48. 5Ibid., p. 50. Collier, Houston, Schmatz, and Walsh, Teaching in the Modern Elementary School (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1967) , p"I 82. 7 2. There is no difference between the perceptual characteristics of effective urban elementary and secondary principals and the perceptual characteristics of effective suburban ele­ mentary and secondary principals. 3. There is no difference between the perceptual characteristics of effective male elementary principals and the perceptual characteristics of effective female elementary principals. 4. There is no difference between the perceptual characteristics of effective urban and suburban elementary principals and the perceptual char­ acteristics of effective urban and suburban secondary principals. Definition of Terms Perceptual Characteristics: One *s general frame of reference, his way of seeing others as well as himself, and the purposes behind his behavior in general. Effective Principals: Those selected by key leaders of local teacher education associations. Principal: Any person practicing under the title of principal at one of the two levels of education included in the s t u d y . Secondary L e v e l : high schools, and Includes high schools, junior middle schools Elementary Lev e l : (grades 7-12 or 6-12). Schools including grades kindergarten through five or kindergarten through six. Teachers (who identify effective principals): Key leaders of local teacher education associations. 8 Scope and Limitations This study was purposely limited in its scope. Rather than investigating perceptual characteristics of all principals, this study was designed to focus on the recognized effective principals and their perceptual char­ acteristics. It was recognized that students, parents, and administrators have their perceptions of principals, and that these perceptions would be of value; however, this study was designed to focus on principals who are seen by teachers as effective helpers. This study was confined to four selected school districts in Michigan in order to permit detailed, in-depth study of the identified principals and to control the scope of the study. Other limitations of the study are found in the analysis procedures. The ''self" as instrument (described in detail in Chapter III) and inference techniques are still fairly new and under some criticism; however, the work that has been done by these methods appears promis­ ing, and difficult problems and questions concerning human behavior are being investigated by these somewhat subjec­ tive means. Overview A frame of reference for the entire study has been developed in Chapter I. Included were the introduction, statement of problem, basic assumptions underlying the 9 study, general research hypotheses, scope and limitations of the study, and definitions of important terms. In Chapter II, a review of the related literature is presented. This includes the development of perceptual psychology, the concept of the helping relationship, and the implications of these ideas for principals. The design of the study and the procedures followed in the use of the research technique are reported in Chapter III. This chapter includes sources of data, the research instrument, development of interview questions and observation guidelines, and the treatment of data. The reporting and analysis of data are described in Chapter IV. In Chapter V, a summary of the study, conclusions, and implications for further research are presented. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE In view of the tremendous influence of our schools, it seems essential to determine as specifically as pos­ sible the qualities which make for effective leadership in the schools. The studies conducted by Combs concerning the helping professions are an excellent place to begin thinking about the subject and to consider ways of observ­ ing and drawing conclusions about effective principals. Combs states: While the various forms of the helping professions differ with respect to their purposes, clientele, and techniques, nevertheless, they are basically alike in the psychology through which they operate. It seemed to us that the crux of the problem of ’’helping" lay not in some mysterious special tech­ nique. Rather the various helping professions seem really to be expressions of a kind of basic "good" human interrelationship. That is to say, these professions appear to represent the concentration and crystallization of the best we know about human interrelationships for the sake of the person or persons to be helped.2However, the roots of Combs's studies and of similar dis­ cussions of the helping professions can be traced to the development of what is known as perceptual psychology, the notion that any behavior is the result of the combination *Combs, op. c l t ., p. 70. 10 11 of the behaver's perceptions— of himself, of his situation, and of others— at the time. This view of human behavior, which is highly individualized and is concerned with some­ thing more than simply stimulus and response, has been termed humanistic. Two major theorists of the movement give us clues to its direction in their emphasis on the individual in seeking answers to behavior. Abraham Maslow describes what he terms the "self-actualizing" individual and the behaviors which lead to self actualization. Self actualiza tion occurs through full and spontaneous involvement in experiences and is an ongoing process, resulting from daily choices, rather than something which occurs once, drama­ tically, and is thus accomplished for a lifetime. It re­ quires an awareness of self and a willingness to act upon one's individuality and accept the responsibility for o n e ’s acts. It demands honesty, with and about oneself as well as others. It assumes the ability and will to see other persons as individuals of worth, to look at others, "under the aspect of eternity." The self-actualizing indi­ vidual, Maslow notes, is invariably one who gives himself to something outside himself, "some calling or vocation, in the priestly sense." 2 Nature Abraham H. Maslow, The Farther Reaches of Human (New Y o r k : The Viking P r e s s , 1970), pp. 41-53. 12 Carl Rogers speaks of the "fully-functioning" individual, who feels strong, sure of himself, and in com­ plete control. He is singleminded, able to withstand opposition, spontaneous and expressive. To the observer, this individual looks reliable, dependable, and trust­ worthy .^ Hamachek has more recently differentiated among three theories of man by summarizing that . . . existentialism focuses on man's existence; phenomenology is concerned about man's here and now perceptions of his existence, and humanistic psychology studies the personal meaning man assigns to his perceptions of his existence.^ The present study, although primarily related to phenome­ nological or perceptual psychology, implies a humanistic approach to the helping relation. The famous demonstrations in perception by Adelbert Ames at Honover Institute were major advances and clarified some basic principles concerning perceptions: 1. What is perceived is not what exists, but what one believes exists. 2. What is perceived is what we have learned to perceive as a result of our past opportunities and experiences.5 3 Carl R. Rogers, On Becoming a Person (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1961). 4 Donald E. Hamachek, Encounters with the Self (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1966), p^ 48. 5 Arthur W. Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual Behavior: A Perceptual Approach to Behavior (New Y o r k : Harper and Row, 1959), pp. 84, 65. 13 Men like Dewey, Kelley, and Combs were impressed and in­ fluenced by Ames's work. Dewey states in a letter to Ames: I think your work is by far the most important work done in the psychological-philosophical field during this century— I am tempted to say the only really important work.® Kelley particularly, having visited and observed Ames's experiments, saw the possibility of relating the principles clarified by Ames to human behavior. Kelley says that "in order to be effective social bei n g s , we have to approach the other p e r s o n ’s point of view.” 7 Snygg and Combs also pursued this line of thought, which has come to be known as perceptual psychology. Fundamental to perceptual psy­ chology, therefore, is the belief that the individual point of view is crucial in determining behavior. Equally fundamental is the notion that ideas or theories which run counter to an individual's perceptual organization, however well-tried or clearly proven they may be, will be ineffective or useless for that individual. Ultimately, behavior must be consistent with beliefs. Purkey says that Dissonance results when we take action which is in­ compatible with the beliefs we hold about ourselves and others. As general assumptions, we can say that if a poten­ tially new concept of himself appears to the g Hadley Cantril, The Morning Notes of Adelbert Ames, Jr., with Correspondence with~John Dewey (New Bruns­ wick : Rutgers University Press, i960), pp. 530-231. 7 Early C. Kelley, Education for What is Real (New Y o r k : Harper and Brothers^ 1947), p. S 5 . 14 individual to be consistent with and relevant to the concepts already present in his systematized view of himself, it is accepted and assimilated easily. If the concept appears to have no rela­ tion or relevance to that system, it is generally ignored. And if it is inconsistent and uncongenial with the system, it is likely to be rejected or distorted.® Both of these beliefs are significant in discussion of the helping professions. In attempts to be helping p er­ sons , people generally use one of two approaches. They observe and analyze behavior in terms of what they see as helpers, or they try to view behavior in terms of how the behaver perceives himself in relation to his environment. This latter approach is based on perceptual or phenomeno­ logical psychology. Combs says that "behavior is a function of the perceptual field of the behaver at the instant of action." 9 Kilpatrick says, We act not in terms of what "is" but in terms of a prognosis of what "will be" at the projected point in time at which we expect our act to take effect on whatever it is we are dealing with, whether an object, a person, or a long range aspiration we are trying to achieve. Bruner declares, The prediction of behavior, particularly complex behavior, is cripplingly incomplete without an account of the perceptual field of the predictee. g W. W. Purkey, Self-Concept and School Achievement (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice H a l l , 1^70), p. 11. g Combs and Srjygg, op. c i t . , p. 20. ^ F r a n k l i n P. Kilpatrick, Explorations in Transactional Psychology (New York: New York University Press, 1961), p. 3?6. 15 And so many of the controlling principles of b e ­ havior manifest themselves in changes in the p e r ­ ceptual field.il According to Hamachek, A fundamental thesis of the perceptual point of view is that behavior is influenced not only by the accumulation of our past and current experiences, but even more importantly it is influenced by the personal meanings we attach to our perceptions of those experiences. By and large, people tend to behave in a manner which is consistent with what they believe to be true. In this sense, seeing is not only believing; seeing is behaving. A fact is not what is; a fact is what one believes to be t r u e . 12 Purkey complies, The world of the self may appear to the outsider to be subjective and hypothetical, but to the experienc­ ing individual it has the feeling of absolute real­ ity .I3 Behavior is, therefore, an expression of one's attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and values. Moustakas views the acceptance of this theory of human behavior as a matter of honesty. Honesty implies a willingness to assert what one sees and a fastidious allegiance to what one p e r ­ ceives .1^ ^ B r u n e r and Krick, Perceptions and Personality (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1^49-50) , v~. 12 13 14 Hamachek, o p . c i t ., pp. 32, 38. Purkey, op. c i t ., p. 13. C. E. Moustakas, "Honesty, Idiocy, and M a n i p u ­ lation," in Readings in Humanistic Psychology, ed. by A. J. Sutich and M. A. Vich (New York: The Free Press, 1969), p. 27. 16 To ignore individual perceptions and rely upon objectivity is to ignore what is r e a l . Forms of things have no absolute reality. Their truth lies in our personality. The meaning of experience comes from individual, personal percep­ tion. These meanings constitute a pattern which is reality for the person. . . . It is upon these perceptions of what is real that people base their actions and decisions.i5 Behaviors which are consistent with values, beliefs, and perceptions tend to make one honest, authentic, and free. People are then able to be themselves and fulfill all their potential in life. In contrast, people who verbalize beliefs, values, or perceptions which are inconsistent with their behavior, or vice versa, feel themselves to be hypocrits, unauthentic and constricted, always on guard; and they relate or come across to others in the same manner. Authentic behavior seems crucial to good helping relation­ ships and personal fulfillment, and it allows others to be authentic and fosters their personal growth. As Moustakas says, To live in terms of the persons we are is the only way to health and self-fulfillment. Being authentic permits us to establish a personal identity and fosters genuine human relations. . . . persons can serve the growing individual through genuine presence, by being sources of life 15 C. £. Moustakas, Self pp. 277-278. (New York: Harper, 1956), ^ C l a r k Moustakas, The Authentic Teacher: tivity and Awareness in the Classroom (Cambridge: A"I Doyle Publishing Company, 196