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73-20,375
MATTRAN, Kenneth Joseph, 1935A STUDY OF PROGRAMS OF ENGLISH FOR ADULT
SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS
IN THE STATE OF MICHIGAN.
Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1973
Education, adult

U niversity Microfilms, A XEROX C o m p an y , A nn A rbor, M ichigan

A STUDY OF PROGRAMS OF ENGLISH FOR ADULT SPEAKERS
OF OTHER LANGUAGES IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN THE STATE
OF MICHIGAN

By

Kenneth J o s e p h M a ttra n

A T h e s is

S u b m itte d t o
M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
In p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts
f o r th e d eg ree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
The G ra d u a te S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n
D epartm ent of A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and H igh er E d u c a tio n
1973

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF PROGRAMS OF ENGLISH FOR ADULT SPEAKERS
OF OTHER LANGUAGES IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN THE STATE
OF MICHIGAN

By

Kenneth J o s e p h M a ttr a n

Documented, com prehensive i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e rn in g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n
o f and c la s s ro o m p r a c t i c e s i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n program s o f E n g lis h f o r
s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s has n e v e r been re c o rd e d d e s p i t e th e f a c t
t h a t such program s have been an im p o r ta n t component o f a d u l t e d u c a t i o n
f o r more th a n a c e n t u r y .

N e ith e r h a s t h e r e been any a tt e m p t t o d e t e r ­

mine w h e th e r and t o what e x t e n t th e p r o f e s s i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e of t e a c h i n g
E n g lis h t o S p e a k e rs o f O ther Languages h a s i n f l u e n c e d t h e s e p ro g ra m s.
T h is s tu d y h a s a tte m p te d t o p r o v i d e su c h in f o r m a ti o n a s m ight be u s e ­
f u l to a d u l t e d u c a t o r s and c o l l e g i a t e b a se d p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n th e f i e l d
of E n g lis h a s a Second Language.
Through a s u r v e y conducted i n t h e S t a t e o f M ichigan o f a d m in is ­
t r a t o r s and t e a c h e r s in v o lv e d w ith p u b l i c s c h o o l a d u l t e d u c a ti o n p r o ­
grams h a v in g c l a s s e s s p e c i f i c a l l y and e x c l u s i v e l y d e sig n e d f o r t h e
tea ch in g of E n g lish to speakers of o th e r lan g u ag es, a d e s c r ip tio n of

Kenneth J o s e p h M a ttra n
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and c lassroom p r a c t i c e s h a s emerged.
A d m i n i s t r a t o r s were q u e r i e d v i a a m ailed q u e s t i o n n a i r e a b o u t
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e i r p ro g ra m s .

T eachers w ere a s k e d t o

p r o v id e s p e c i f i c t h e o r e t i c a l and m e th o d o lo g ic a l i n f o r m a t i o n s u r r o u n d in g
c la s s r o o m p r a c t i c e s v ia a b i - p a r t i t e in s tr u m e n t which i n c l u d e d a u d io ­
ta p e d d e m o n s tr a ti o n s of E n g lis h la n g u a g e te a c h in g m e th o d s.

T h is i n ­

s tr u m e n t was a d m in is te r e d d i r e c t l y w ith th e a s s i s t a n c e o f P r o j e c t
ENABEL p e r s o n n e l .
The d a t a have been t a b u l a t e d and a n a ly z e d in r e l a t i o n t o two
la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , t h e o r e t i c a l / m e t h o d o l o g i c a l models - t h e modern
g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d O ral Approach and th e o l d e r l e s s v i s i b l e D i r e c t
Method.

I n a d d i t i o n to a c o m p re h e n siv e d e s c r i p t i o n o f p ro g ram s and

p r a c t i c e s , t h e s e m ajor f i n d i n g s h a v e emerged from t h e s t u d y :

1)

T h i r t y p e r c e n t o f th e prog ram s h a v in g c l a s s e s of E n g l i s h f o r s p e a k e rs
of o t h e r lan g u a g es do n o t p r a c t i c e p r o f i c i e n c y g r o u p i n g .

N e i th e r

t h e l o c a t i o n nor the s i z e o f t h e programs a p p e a rs t o i n f l u e n c e
t h i s c o n d itio n .
2)

In a l l b u t one o f th e p ro g ra m s , s t u d e n t s a r e a d m itte d t o c l a s s e s
a t any tim e d u r in g th e s c h o o l y e a r d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t most p ro ­
gram s o p e r a t e on a s e m e s te r o r term b a s i s .

1)

S p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g i n th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lish to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r
la n g u a g e s i s n o t r e q u i r e d o f t e a c h e r s by any o f t h e r e s p o n d i n g
p ro g ra m s , and most program s do n o t p ro v id e p r o f e s s i o n a l s u p p o r t
i n t h e form o f s p e c i a l i s t s t o a s s i s t t e a c h e r s .

Kenneth J o s e p h M a ttra n
A)

Most t e a c h e r s have had some s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g i n t h e t e a c h i n g

of

E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s of o t h e r la n g u a g e s a n d /o r a l l i e d f i e l d s ;
how ever, t h e m a j o r i t y have had m in im al ex p o su re t o s u c h t r a i n i n g
w h ile o n l y two p o s s e s s d e g r e e s w i t h m ajor em phasis i n t h e f i e l d .
5)

A ll r e s p o n d in g te a c h e r s p u r s u e t h i s a c t i v i t y on a p a r t - t i m e b a s i s .

6)

The r e s p o n d i n g programs o p e r a t e u n d e r e le v e n s e p a r a t e t i t l e s ,
t h e m ost p o p u l a r o f which i s " E n g l i s h f o r th e F o re ig n B orn".
Only f i v e program s u se " E n g li s h a s a Second Language" a s a t i t l e ,
w h ile t h e r e s t employ n o m e n c la tu re im p ly in g e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s
f o r n o n - n a t i v e born p e o p le .

7)

Language t e a c h i n g methods from two t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s , th e
O ral A pproach and th e D i r e c t M ethod, a r e w idely em ployed.

In

a d d i t i o n , and t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e , t e a c h e r s employ n o n - s y s te m a t ic
and g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t l o n m eth o d o lo g y .

The v i s i b i l i t y o f th e l a t t e r

i s v e ry low i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r m ethods.
8)

A n a ly s is o f th e d a ta has r e v e a l e d t h a t a s i t u a t i o n o f methodo­
l o g i c a l e c l e c t i c i s m o b t a i n s among t e a c h e r s .

T hat i s , o f th e two

p red o m in an t a p p ro a ch e s to t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s of
o t h e r l a n g u a g e s , n e i t h e r a p p e a r s t o be fa v o re d .

I n s t e a d , te a c h e r s

choose f r e e l y among th e m ethods o f th e two a p p ro a c h e s and no p a t ­
t e r n o f s e l e c t i o n o f one method i n f a v o r of a n o th e r h a s emerged
from t h e d a t a .

Acknowledgements
So many p e o p le have c o n t r i b u t e d t o th e f i n a l r e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s
g o a l t h a t i t would be im p o s s i b l e t o acknowledge them a l l .

For a l l t h e

seem ing l o n e l i n e s s s u r r o u n d in g t h e t a s k of c o n d u c tin g and r e p o r t i n g an
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s u c h as t h i s , one n e ed s only t o lo o k b a ck o v e r t h e y e a r s
to u n d e rs ta n d t h a t he was n o t , in f a c t , a lo n e ; t h a t w ith o u t th e su p p o rt
of f r i e n d s , t e a c h e r s , and som etim es even th o se who seemed n o t to have
w ished him w e l l , he could n o t have succeed ed i n m e e tin g h i s o b j e c t i v e .
To t h o s e whom I do not m en tio n h e r e , my humble th a n k s a r e o f f e r e d .
I w ish to th a n k Mrs. L a u r i e T r u f a n t f o r h e r t y p i n g and p r o o f r e a d in g
of th e v a rio u s p re lim in a ry d r a f t s o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

Her a b i l i t y to

t r a n s l a t e my h a n d w r it t e n m a n u s c r i p ts i n t o r e a d a b l e ty p e d copy d e s e r v e s
s p e c ia l re c o g n itio n .
S p e c i a l th a n k s a re a l s o e x te n d e d t o R ichard Sm ith and M artha Smyrda
of P r o j e c t ENADEL who d e l i v e r e d and c o l l e c t e d th e r e s e a r c h i n s t r u m e n t s .
T h e ir h e lp and t h e h e lp o f o t h e r ENABEL p e r s o n n e l , o f f e r e d a t a c r i t i c a l
moment, c o n t r i b u t e d s i n g u l a r l y to th e co m p letio n of t h i s s t u d y .
I owe a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o P r o f e s s o r Ted Ward f o r h i s s u g g e s t i o n s
l e a d i n g t o th e o v e r a l l improvement o f th e q u a l i t y o f t h e s t u d y ; to
P r o f e s s o r Van Jo h n so n f o r h i s c o n tin u o u s en co u rag em en t; and t o P r o f e s s o r
Shigeo Imamura f o r hiB f r i e n d s h i p and h i s h e l p , w i t h o u t which 1 c o u ld
n o t have begun my d o c t o r a l p rogram .
P r o f e s s o r R u s s e l l J . K l e l s , my com m ittee c h airm a n and a d v i s o r ,
ta u g h t me how t o become a s c h o l a r .
I c a n n o t thank him enough.

ii

Russ i s a v e ry s p e c i a l human b e in g .

F i n a l l y , I w i l l n e v e r be a b le t o r e p a y ray w i f e , P a t , and my s o n s ,
Kevin and Dan, f o r t h e i r p a t i e n t s u p p o r t and q u i e t u n d e r s t a n d i n g —
but I w ill t r y .

KJM
E a s t L an sin g , M ichigan
F e b ru a ry 9 , 1973

H i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I :

THE PROBLEM

In tro d u c tio n

1

S ta te m e n t o f t h e Problem

3

P urpo se o f t h e S tudy

6

B a sic A ssum ptions

8

L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study

9

D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms

CHAPTER I I :

10

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND/LITERATURE REVIEW

The P r o f e s s i o n o f T eaching E n g lis h to S p e a k e rs o f
O th e r Language

13

E n g li s h a s a Second Language in A dult E d u ca tio n
Program s

22

CHAPTER I I I .

PROCEDURES

In tro d u c tio n

31

I n s tr u m e n ts

32

A d m in is tr a to r s 'Q u e stio n n a ire

33

T e a c h e rs' Q u e stio n n aire

35

P o p u la tio n
P ro c e d u re s f o r G a th e r in g t h e

44
D ata

iv

47

V

A n aly zing t h e D a ta

49

The O ra l Approach Model
The D i r e c t Method Model

50
^

Summary o f C h a p te r I I I

CHAPTER IV:

57
62

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

In tro d u c tio n

64

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and O r g a n iz a t i o n o f Programs
o f E n g lis h f o r A d u lt S p e a k e rs o f o t h e r Languages
i n M ichigan P u b l i c S c h o o ls

65

L o c a t i o n s o f Program s

65

E n ro llm e n t D ata

69

G ro uping

69

C la s s S iz e

74

O r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e School C alen d ar

75

Weekly I n s t r u c t i o n a l Time

76

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Load o f T each ers

77

Teacher P re p a ra tio n :

R equired and A c tu a l 78

P r o f e s s i o n a l S u p p o rt f o r T eachers

86

Summary o f D ata C o n c ern in g I d e n t i f i c a t i o n
and O r g a n i z a t i o n o f Program s o f E n g lish f o r
A dult S p e a k e rs o f O th e r Languages in Michigan
P u b lic S c h o o ls

87

C lassroom P r a c t i c e s o f a S e l e c te d Group o f
T e a c h e rs o f E n g li s h t o A d u lt S p eak ers o f
O ther Languages i n M ichigan P u b l i c Schools

88

In tro d u c tio n

88

Vi

I n s tr u c tio n a l M aterials

90

Language T ea ch in g Approaches and M ethods
Employed by T e a c h e rs o f E n g li s h t o A d u lt
S p e a k e r s o f O th e r Languages in M ichigan
P u b l i c S c h o o ls

93

Program N o m e n clatu re

142

Summary o f C h a p te r IV

143

CHAPTER V:

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The Problem

145

P ro c e d u re s

147

F in d in g s

149

C o n c lu s io n s

151

Recommendations

153

B ib lio g r a p h y

157

APPENDICES
A.

INSTRUMENTS

164

B.

TESOL STATEMENT ON QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS
OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES

182

C. SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING
MODELS
D.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TEXTS EMPLOYED BY TEACHERS
OF ENGLISH TO ADULT SPEAKERS OF OTHER LAN­
GUAGES IN MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

194

198

LIST OF TABLES

Page

T ab le
1.

Communities i n M ichig an i n v h ic h C l a s s e s in
E n g lis h f o r A d u lt S p e a k e rs o f O th e r Languages
a r e O f f e r e d th r o u g h t h e P u b l i c S c h o o ls ,
T each ers Employed, and S tu d e n t E n ro llm en t

67

P r o f i c i e n c y G ro up ing P r a c t i c e s o f R e p o rtin g
Programs D i s t r i b u t e d by Numbers o f S tu d e n ts
E n r o lle d i n Program s

71

Methods Employed by T e a c h e rs t o D eterm ine
E n g lis h S p e a k in g P r o f i c i e n c y f o r P u rposes
o f S tu d e n t P lacem en t

73

O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e School Year i n Responding
Programs o f E n g li s h t o A d u lt S p e a k ers of
O th e r L anguages i n M ichigan P u b l i c Schools

75

Weekly I n s t r u c t i o n a l Hours as R eported by
T each ers

76

6.

Number o f C l a s s e s Taught by Responding T e a c h e rs

77

7.

Minimal Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s R equ ired o f T e a c h e rs o f
E n g lis h t o A d u lt S p e a k e rs o f O th e r Languages
in M ichigan P u b l i c S c h o o ls , L i s t e d N u m e ric a lly
by Program

79

Academic C r e d i t s Earned i n Both L i n g u i s t i c s
and T ea ch in g E n g l i s h t o S p e a k ers o f O ther
L anguages, D i s t r i b u t e d by T ea ch e rs

83

C r e d i t s Earned by Responding T e a c h e rs in E i t h e r
TESOL o r L i n g u i s t i c s (Not in c lu d e d i n p r e v i o u s
ta b le s)

84

P a r t i c i p a t i o n o f R esponding T e a c h e rs in
Workshops a n d / o r I n s t i t u t e s D esigned S p e c i f i c ­
a l l y to T r a i n T e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h t o S p e a k ers
o f O th e r Languages

86

A u d io -V isu a l M a t e r i a l Employed by T e a c h e rs o f
E n g lish t o A d u lt S p e a k e rs o f O ther Languages
in M ichigan P u b l i c S c h o o ls , D i s t r i b u t i o n by
C ategory

92

2.

3.

4.

5.

8.

9*

10.

11.

v li

viii

12.

13.

1A.

15.
16.

17.

T e a c h e rs P r a c t i c i n g G ram m atical D is c u s a io n a s
an I n s t r u c t i o n a l Method» D i s t r i b u t e d by
I n s t r u c t i o n a l L evel

133

O r g a n iz a t i o n o f C o n ten t A ccording t o P a r t i c u l a r
Language D i f f i c u l t i e s , D i s t r i b u t i o n by
I n s t r u c t i o n a l L e v e ls

13A

Use o f t h e S t u d e n t 's N a tiv e Language i n
I n s t r u c t i o n , D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response by
I n s t r u c t i o n a l L evel

136

I n t r o d u c t i o n o f Reading and W r itin g i n t o
th e B e ginning L ev el C urriculu m

138

Sequence o f
T a r g e t Word
R esponse o f
and W r i t in g

139

P r e s e n t a t i o n o f S k i l l s i n L e a r n in g a
o r E x p re s s io n : D i s t r i b u t i o n o f
21 R espondents Who Teach R eading
a t S t a r t o f a Course

T i t l e s Under Which C la s s e s o f E n g lis h f o r
S p e a k e rs o f O ther Languages a r e O f f e re d in
M ichigan P u b lic Schoo ls

1A2

LIST OF FIGURES

F ig u r e

Page

1 th ro u g h 4 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Combined Responses
o f a l l S e l e c te d T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Modes, C l a s s i f i e d by Language
T e a c h in g Approach

96

5 th r o u g h 8. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Combined Responses of
a l l B eginning L evel T e a c h e rs to Aduio-Taped
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Modes, C l a s s i f i e d by Language
T e a c h in g Approach

99

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.
15.

16.
17.

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f B eginning Level
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Taped P a t t e r n P r a c t i c e
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

101

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f B eginning Level
T e a c h e r s to Audio-Taped Gouln S e r i e s
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

101

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f B eginning Level
T e a c h e r s t o Aduio-Taped Minimal P a i r
P r o n u n c i a t io n D r i l l

103

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f B eginning Level
T e a c h e r s to Audio-Taped S in g le Sound
P r o n u n c i a t io n D r i l l

103

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f B eginning Level
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Taped P r a c t i c e in Reading
Aloud from T e x ts Follow ing a T eacher Model

105

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f B eginning Level
T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped D ialogue D r i l l

106

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f B eginning Level
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Taped C horal Reading
P r a c t i c e w ith o u t T each er Model

107

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f B eginning Level
T e a c h e r s to Audio-Taped S p e l l i n g T e s t

108

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f B eginning Level
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Taped F re e D is c u s s io n
E x e r c is e

109

ix

X

18 th ro u g h 21 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Combined Responses
o f A l l I n t e r m e d i a t e L evel T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Modes, C l a s s i f i e d by Language
T e a c h in g Approach
22.

23.

24.

25 .

26 .

27.

28.

29.

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f I n t e r m e d i a t e Level
T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped P a t t e r n P r a c t i c e
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

112

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f I n t e r m e d i a t e Level
T e a c h e r s to Aduio-Taped Gouln S e r i e s I n s t r u c ­
t i o n a l Mode

112

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f I n t e r m e d i a t e Level
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Taped Minimal P a i r D r i l l
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

114

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f I n t e r m e d i a t e Level
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Taped S i n g l e Sound D r i l l
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

114

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f I n t e r m e d i a t e Level
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Toped D ia lo g u e D r i l l
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

115

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f I n t e r m e d i a t e Level
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Taped C h o ra l R eading w ith
T e a c h e r Model I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

115

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f I n t e r m e d i a t e Level
T e a c h e r s to Audio-Taped S p e l l i n g T e s t
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

117

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f I n t e r m e d i a t e Level
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Taped F re e D is c u s s io n
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

117

30 th ro u g h 33. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Combined Responses
o f a l l Advanced L evel T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Modes, C l a s s i f i e d by Language
T e a c h in g Approach
34.

111

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f Advanced Level
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Taped P a t t e r n P r a c t i c e
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

119

120

xi

35.

36.

37.

38.
39.

40 .

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f Advanced L e v e l
T e a c h e r s t o Audio~Taped Gouin S e r i e s
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

120

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f Advanced L ev e l
T e a c h e r s t o Audio-Taped Minimal P a i r D r i l l
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

121

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f Advanced L ev e l
T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped S i n g l e Sound
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

121

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f Advanced L evel
T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped D ia lo g u e D r i l l

122

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f Advanced L ev e l
T e a c h e r s t o C h o ra l R eading w ith T eacher Model
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

123

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f Advanced L evel
T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped F r e e D is c u s s io n
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

124

41 t h r o u g h 44. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Combined R esponses
o f A l l Mixed P r o f i c i e n c y L evel T e a c h e rs to
A udio-Taped I n s t r u c t i o n a l Modes, C l a s s i f i e d
by Approach
45.

46.

47.

127

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f Mixed P r o f i c ie n c y
L e v e l T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped D ialogue D r i l l
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

128

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f Mixed P r o f i c i e n c y
L evel T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped S in g le Sound
P r o n u n c i a t io n D r i l l

129

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Response o f Mixed P r o f i c i e n c y
L ev el T e a c h e rs t o Audio-Taped F ree D is c u s s io n
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

130

CHAPTER I

THE PR0BLQ1

In tro d u c tio n

In r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e F e d e r a l governm ent, re s p o n d in g to m yriad
p r e s s u r e s fro m p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s and an I n t e r e s t e d c i t i z e n r y , has
encouraged t h e developm ent and e x p an sio n o f e d u c a t i o n a l program s
fo r e d u c a t i o n a l l y d is a d v a n ta g e d a d u l t s and o u t - o f - s c h o o l y o u th .

P ro ­

grams such a s t h o s e c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r t h e Manpower Development and
1

2

T r a i n i n g Act o f 1962 , t h e Economic O p p o r t u n i t i e s Act of 1964 , th e
3
Model C i t i e s Program s and more have in c lu d e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l components
d e s ig n e d to a s s i s t u n d e re d u c a te d a d u l t s in t h e i r q u e s t fo r s o c i a l
p a r i t y not o n l y i n th e a r e a s o f employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s , b u t a l s o
in s u c h v i t a l a r e a s a s l i t e r a c y and l i f e - c o p i n g s k i l l s .
P e rh a p s th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t l e g i s l a t i o n - c e r t a i n l y t h e most
s i g n i f i c a n t i n th e c o n te x t o f t h i s s tu d y - e n a c te d on b e h o lf o f th e
e d u c a t i o n a l l y d is a d v a n ta g e d a d u l t p o p u la tio n o f the U nited S t a t e s has been
4
the A d u lt E d u c a tio n Act o f 1966 . T h is law h a s p ro v id ed c o n t i n u i n g a n n u a l
g r a n t s to t h e s t a t e s in s u p p o r t o f program s o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n b a s i c l i t e r a c y ,

1.

P L -8 7 -4 1 5 , T i t l e IIR

2.

PL-88-452

J.

PL-89-754

4.

P L -9 1 -2 3 0 , T i t l e I I I .
1

2

c o m p u ta tio n a l s k i l l s , l i f e c o p in g s k i l l s , and E n g li s h la n g u a g e f o r th o s e
a d u l t s who do n o t sp e a k th e la n g u a g e .
M oreover, t h e Act i n c l u d e s a s e c t i o n (309b, 309c) whereby funds
can be a p p r o p r i a t e d e a c h y e a r f o r s p e c i a l d e m o n s tr a tio n p r o j e c t s and
teach er tr a in in g p r o je c ts .

At p r e s e n t , t h e U n ite d S t a t e s O f f i c e o f

E d u ca tio n s p o n s o r s a n a ti o n w i d e program i n A dult E d u ca tio n S t a f f D e v e l­
opment in t h e te n r e g i o n s o f th e c o u n tr y .

T his p ro g ram , funded f o r a

t h r e e - y e a r p e r i o d b e g in n in g i n J u l y , 1972, has a s i t s p rim a ry o b j e c t i v e
t h e perm anent e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f i n t r a - r e g l o n a l com prehensive sy ste m s f o r
t h e p r e - s e r v i c e and i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g o f a d u l t e d u c a to r s a t a l l l e v e l s
o f commitment, i n c l u d i n g a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t e a c h e r s , c o u n s e l o r s , and p a r a p ro fe ssio n a ls.
In t h e t h r e e y e a r s p r e c e e d i n g th e summer o f 1972, t h e O f f i c e o f
E d u c a tio n funded an e x p e r i m e n t a l i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g program i n Region V,
P r o j e c t ENABEL, t h e E x te r n Network o f A d u lt B a s ic E d u ca tio n L e a d e r s ,* h e a d q u a r te r e d a t M ich igan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

T h is program was d e sig n e d

t o d e v e lo p a c o re o f a d u l t e d u c a t i o n p e r s o n n e l who c o u ld f u n c t i o n a s
t r a i n e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n a d u l t e d u c a tio n program s th ro u g h o u t th e
R egion.
L ike most a d u l t e d u c a t i o n t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g program s funded u n der
th e A dult E d u c a tio n A c t, P r o j e c t ENABEL in c lu d e d a component d e v o te d to
th e t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s o f E n g li s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s , and

1 . O f f i c e o f E d u c a tio n G ra n t #OEG-Q-70-4476 ( 3 2 3 ) , A d u lt E d u ca tio n
A c t, S e c ti o n 309c.

3

i t was th e w r i t e r ' s In vo lv em ent w i t h th e P r o j e c t a s an E n g lis h as a
second lan g u a g e c o n s u l t a n t which a c c o u n te d i n l a r g e measure f o r the im p le ­
m e n ta tio n o f t h i s s t u d y in th e form p r e s e n t e d in t h e s e p a g es.
The w r i t e r had had a lo n g te rm p r o f e s s i o n a l commitment t o the
t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h t o s p e k a e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s p r i o r to h i s i n v o l v e ­
ment w ith P r o j e c t ENABEL, and had been p a r t i c u l a r l y concerned w ith t h i s
a c t i v i t y a s a component o f t h e a d u l t e d u c a ti o n m i l i e u i n s p i t e o f o n l y
m a rg in a l e x p e r i e n c e in a d u l t e d u c a t i o n .

I t was a d e s i r e to move from

o b s e r v e r t o p a r t i c i p a n t t h a t m o tiv a te d th e w r i t e r t o se ek knowledge o f the
t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h a s a second lan g u a g e a s i t was p r a c t i c e d i n a d u l t
e d u c a tio n program s t h a t le d u l t i m a t e l y t o t h i s s t u d y .
I t was P r o j e c t ENABEL, w ith i t s involvem ent w ith th e te a c h in g o f
E n g lis h as a second la n g u a g e , which r e v e a l e d , in p a r t , many o f the i n a d e ­
q u a c i e s in o u r knowledge o f t h i s a c t i v i t y t h a t h e lp e d t o shape the f i n a l
d e s ig n fo r t h e s t u d y and p r o v id e d a v e h i c l e th ro u g h which a v i a b l e i n ­
v e s t i g a t i o n c o u ld be c o n d u c te d .
S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem
In th e S t a t e o f M ichigan t h e r e a r e ro u g h ly 3,000 n o n -E n g lish
s p e a k in g a d u l t s e n r o l l e d in E n g lis h c l a s s e s in a d u l t e d u c a ti o n program s.
These s t u d e n t s a r e t a u g h t by 186 t e a c h e r s , v e ry few o f whom a p p e a r t o
have been t r a i n e d

in th e f i e l d .

P r i o r t o t h i s s t u d y , l i t t l e was known

a b o u t th e s e r v i c e s o f f e r e d t o t h i s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e c o n s t i t u e n c y , w h e th e r
and t o what e x t e n t t h e s e s e r v i c e s can be im proved, and what o p p o r t u n i t i e s
e x is t for f u r th e r re s e a rc h .
The problem a d d r e s s e d in t h i s s t u d y , t h e r e f o r e , a r i s e s from a l a c k

o f In fo rm a tio n a b o u t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s i n th e t e a c h in g o f
E n glish t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n program s.
For more t h a n a c e n t u r y , a d u l t e d u c a t i o n p rogram s s u p p o r te d by
p u b lic f u n d s have I n c lu d e d c l a s s e s i n t h e E n g li s h la n g u a g e f o r nonE ng lish s p e a k in g a d u l t s .
e t y of s e t t i n g s .

Such c l a s s e s h a v e been o f f e r e d w i t h i n a v a r i ­

In t h e 1 9 th and e a r l y 2 0 th c e n t u r i e s , th e y were a

m ajor component o f th e A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n p ro g ram s f o r t h e f o r e i g n b o rn .
More r e c e n t l y t h e y s e r v e b o th f o r e i g n b o rn and n a t i v e n o n -E n g lis h s p e a k e r s .
Y e t, d a t a d e s c r i p t i v e o f p r a c t i c e s i n su c h c l a s s e s have n o t been c o l l e c t e d
in any s y s t e m a t i c f a s h i o n by c i t h e r a d u l t e d u c a ti o n s p e c i a l i s t s or s p e c i a l ­
i s t s in t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .
Most i n f o r m a tio n s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n c e r n i n g a d u l t e d u c a t i o n c l a s s e s
in E n g lis h for s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s h a s a p p e a re d in t h e form o f
s u g g e s t i o n s a b o u t such t e a c h i n g a s d i s t r i b u t e d by a l o c a l a d u l t e d u c a tio n
agency t o t e a c h e r s a s s i g n e d t o c l a s s e s i n t h e s u b j e c t , o r a s may a p p e a r
in p u b l i c a t i o n s c o n c e rn e d w ith t h i s a c t i v i t y . *

Sometimes t h e s u g g e s tio n s

*See fo r exam ple:
S a ra h H all Goodwin, "Spoken E n g l i s h f o r S p a n ish S peaking M igrant
Farm W o rk e rs," TESOL Q u a r t e r l y I ( D e c ., 1 9 6 7 ), pp. 4 - 9 .
P a t r i c i a H efferm an C a b r e r a , A Handbook f o r T e a c h e rs o f E n g lish t o
N on -E n g lish S p e a k in g A d u l t s , (W a sh in g to n , D. C. C e n te r f o r A pplied
L i n g u i s t i c s ) , 1969.
S t a n l e y L cvenson, " T e a c h in g E n g l i s h a s a Second Language to A d u lts The A u d io -L in g u a l A p p r o a c h ," On T e a c h in g E n g li s h to S p e a k e rs o f O th e r
L an g u ag es, ed. by V i r g i n i a F. A l l e n , ( N a t i o n a l C o u n c il o f T ea ch e rs o f
E n g l i s h ) , 1965, p p . 9 3 - 9 4 .
T e a c h in g E n g l i s h a s a Second L an g u ag e: A d u lt B a s ic E d u catio n T e a c h e rs
Guide ( A u s t i n , T e x a s : T ex a s E d u c a ti o n A g e n cy ), 1969.
T e a c h in g E n g l i s h a s a Second L anguage t o A d u l t s : A Handbook f o r T e a c h e r s ,
S t a t e o f New J e r s e y D epartm ent o f E d u c a ti o n , D i v i s i o n o f V o c a tio n a l E d u c a ti o n ,
Bureau o f Adult and C o n tin u in g E d u c a t i o n , 1971.

5

have r e f l e c t e d sound a p p l i c a t i o n s o£ l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y u n d e r l y i n g t h e
d i s c i p l i n e o f t e a c h i n g E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s ; o f t e n ,
how ever, t h e s u g g e s t i o n s have a p p ea re d ingenuous o r s u p e r f i c i a l when viewed
in th e l i g h t o f c u r r e n t l y a c c e p te d th e o r y and p r a c t i c e .
Even more s o p h i s t i c a t e d t r e a t m e n t s o f w hat sh o u ld o r c o u ld be
done in a d u l t e d u c a tio n program s, even th o s e p r o f f e r e d by r e c o g n iz e d
e x p e r t s in th e f i e l d o f E n g lish a s a second o r f o r e i g n la n g u a g e ,^ h a v e
seemed somewhat im p ru d e n t, inasmuch a s th ey have seemed n o t t o be p r o ­
ceed ed by c a r e f u l d e s c r i p t i o n s and a n a l y s e s o f th e s t a t e o f t h e a c t i v i t y
of t e a c h i n g E n g lis h to sp e a k e rs o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n p ro ­
gram s, o r , i f th e y have been so p r e c e e d e d , su c h d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e n o t r e ­
c o rd e d in th e l i t e r a t u r e . ' 1
A nother a s p e c t o f th e problem h a s c o n cern ed th e d e g re e o f i n f l u e n c e ,
i f a n y , t h a t modern t h e o r i s t s and p a r c t l t i o n e r s in th e p r o f e s s i o n a l d i s ­
c i p l i n e o f t e a c h i n g E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s h a v e had,
d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , on a p p ro a c h e s employed by p r a c t i t i o n e r s in a d u l t
e d u c a ti o n program s.

T hat i s t o s a y , th e l i t e r a t u r e r e c o r d s v e r y l i t t l e

in th e way o f d e s c r i p t i o n o f e i t h e r methods o r m a t e r i a l s on t h e one hand,
o r tc o c h e r p r e p a r a t i o n on th e o t h e r .

Academic program s u s u a l l y demand

m a s te ry o f a c o rp u s o f in fo r m a tio n w ith th e s c i e n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c s h a v in g
dominance and f u r t h e r i n c l u d i n g t r a i n i n g in p sy c h o lo g y o f lan g u ag e l e a r n i n g ,
a n th r o p o lo g y , methods and m a t e r i a l s , among o t h e r s .

W hether an d to w hat

1. See: Dennis R. P r e s t o n , " E n g lis h as a Second Language i n Adult B a sic
E d u c a tio n P ro g ra m ," TESOL Q u a r te r ly 5 , ( S e p t . , 1971) p p . 18 1-19 6, e . g . , in
which he s u g g e s t s c u rric u lu m s t r a t e g i e s b a se d l a r g e l y on u n s u b s t a n t i a t e d
s t u d e n t / t e a c h e r o b j e c t i o n s t o c e r t a i n lan g u a g e t e a c h i n g m eth o d s.

6

e x t e n t t e a c h e r s in a d u l t e d u c a tio n program s have had su c h t r a i n i n g o r a re
r e q u i r e d to have such t r a i n i n g i s r e l a t i v e l y unknown in t h e sense t h a t no
such I n f o r m a t io n a p p e a rs i n th e l i t e r a t u r e o f a d u l t e d u c a tio n o r t h e
l i t e r a t u r e o f th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .

Purpose o f th e Study
I t h a s been the p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y t o , i n some s m a l l way, shed
d e s c r i p t i v e l i g h t on o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and p e d a g o g ic a l p r a c t i c e s in t h e t e a c h i n g
o f E n g li s h to s p e k a e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s a s th ey a rc m a n ife s te d i n
p u b l i c s c h o o l a d u l t e d u c a ti o n program s in th e S t a t e of M ichigan.

To accom­

p l i s h t h i s , answ ers t o th e f o l lo w in g q u e s t i o n s w ere s o u g h t :

1)

U nder what t i t l e s a r e c l a s s e s i n E n g lis h fo r s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s
tau g h t?

2)

How a r e c l a s s e s i n A dult E d u c a tio n Programs o r g a n iz e d to e f f e c t the
l e a r n i n g o f E n g lish by s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r languages?

3)

What i d e n t i f i a b l e a p p ro a c h e s a r e employed in th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h
to s p e a k e r s of o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n A d u lt E ducation Programs?

A)

What t h e o r e t i c a l - m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p ro a c h , I f any, p re d o m in a te s in the
t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r languages i n Adult B a s i c
E d u c a tio n Programs?

3)

Wh.it a r e t h e minimal q u a l i f i c a t i o n s r e q u ir e d o f t e a c h e r s of E n g li s h t o
s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r lan g u a g es In A dult E d u c a tio n Program s, and d o those
r e q u i r e m e n t s ap p ro ach th e m inim al q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r te a c h e r s o u t l i n e d

7

in t h e TESOL*" s t a t e m e n t on " Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h
a s a Second Language"?
6)

Does th e a c t u a l p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n or i n —B ervice t r a i n i n g o f
t e a c h e r s o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s g e n e r a l l y i n c l u d e
s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g in t h e te a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r
la n g u a g e s , o r t r a i n i n g i n a l l i e d f i e l d s such a s l i n g u i s t i c s ?

7)

What p r o f e s s i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r t e a c h e r s o f E n g li s h to s p e a k e r s o f
o t h e r la n g u a g e s e x i s t s i n a d u l t e d u c a ti o n s i t u a t i o n s w here t e a c h e r s
have n o t been t r a i n e d f o r t h i s a c t i v i t y ?

8)

In l i g h t o f c u r r e n t l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y and a c c e p te d p r a c t i c e w i t h i n
th e p r o f e s s i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e o f t e a c h i n g E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r
la n g u a g e s , what recom m endations f o r improvement a re w a r r a n te d ?
The f i r s t sev en o f t h e fo r e g o in g q u e s t i o n s r e q u i r e d t h e g a t h e r i n g

and a n a l y s i s o f s p e c i f i c d a t a a b o u t program s u nder s tu d y .

The p ro c e d u r e s

f o r c o l l e c t i n g and a n a l y z i n g th e d a t a a r e d e t a i l e d in C h a p te r I I I , and
t h e d a t a a r c r e p o r t e d and a n a ly z e d i n C h a p te r IV.

Q u e stio n number e i g h t

c o n c e rn in g recom m endations h as r e q u i r e d two s t e p s :

F i r s t , a review o f

b oth th e o r y and a c c e p te d p r a c t i c e a s r e p o r t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e and o u t ­
l i n e d i n C hapter 11, d e t a i l e d In C h a p te r 1X1; th e n a com parison o f t h e
d a ta as a n a ly z e d in r e l a t i o n to t h e m odels d e f in e d from t h e l i t e r a t u r e and
th e developm ent o f c o n c l u s i o n s and reco m m endation s.

These c o n c l u s i o n s

and recom m endations a re p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p te r V.

1. Acronym f o r T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h to S peakers o f O ther L angu ages, a
p ro fe ssio n a l o rg an iz atio n .

8

B a s ic A ssum ptiona
T h ere have been t h r e e p r i n c i p a l a s s u m p tio n s u n d e r l y i n g t h i s s t u d y ,
th e m ost im p o r ta n t o f which c o n c e r n s th e p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e t e a c h i n g
o f E n g li s h t o

s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .

I t i s assum ed t h a t t h e t e a c h i n g

o f E n g li s h t o

s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i s a p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t i v i t y r e ­

q u i r i n g o f I t s p r a c t i t i o n e r s m a s te r y o f a c o rp u s o f knowledge dom in ated
by t h e s c i e n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c s and i n c l u d i n g a n t h r o p o l o g y , p sy c h o lo g y ,
m ethods and m a t e r i a l s .

( I t i s acknow ledged t h a t w i t h i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e

o f l i n g u i s t i c s t h e r e e x i s t s an im p o r ta n t dichotom y b etw een two m a jo r
th e o r e tic a l sc h o o ls, tra n s fo rm a tio n a l v ersu s s t r u c tu r a l l i n g u i s t i c s ,
w h e re in th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l i s t s s e r i o u s l y q u e s t i o n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l founda­
t i o n s o f th e s t r u c t u r a l i s t s c h o o l , th e dom inant i n f l u e n c e on p r e s e n t
la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m e th o d o lo g y .^

N o n e t h e l e s s , t h i s s t u d y i s b a s e d upon

a c c e p t a n c e o f e x i s t i n g e m p i r i c a l d a t a which s u p p o r t s t h e e f f i c a c y o f th e
s t r u c t u r a l l y b a sed o r a l a p p r o a c h .)
A second a ssu m p tio n i s t h a t t h e o r a l a p p ro a c h t o lan g u a g e t e a c h i n g
i s s u p e r i o r in e f f e c t i v e n e s s t o any o t h e r a p p ro a c h f o r any group o f
l e a r n e r s , and t h e o r a l a p p ro a c h can be e f f e c t i v e l y m o d if ie d t o s u i t
any age g ro u p , e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l , o r la n g u a g e b a ck g ro u n d .
A t h i r d a ssu m p tio n i s t h a t t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g l i s h t o a d u l t s p e a k e r s
o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s un der any t i t l e such a s A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n , E n g l i s h f o r
th e F o r e ig n Born, o r l i t e r a c y e d u c a t i o n i s a s p e c i a l a c t i v i t y f o r s p e c i a l
l e a r n e r s , r e q u i r i n g s p e c i a l i z e d i n s t r u c t o r s and i n s t r u c t i o n .

1. F o r a f a i r l y th o ro u g h t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s dichotom y from a t r a n s f o r m a ­
t i o n a l i s t p o i n t o f view s e e : K a r l Conrad D i l l e r , G e n e r a ti v e Grammar,
S t r u c t u r a l L i n g u i s t i c s and Language T e a c h in g , (Rowley, M a ss.: Newbury
House, 1 9 7 2 ).

9

L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study
A number o f Im p o r ta n t l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h r e q u i r e a r t i c u ­
l a t i o n a t t h i s p o i n t I n o r d e r t h a t th e f i n d i n g s do n o t become m i s i n t e r ­
p rete d o r o v e rg e n c r a llz e d .
The m ost o b v io u s l i m i t a t i o n I s a g e o g r a p h i c a l one:

th e s tu d y i s

c o n fin e d to a d u l t e d u c a t i o n program s h a v in g c l a s s e s in E n g lis h f o r s p e a k e r s
o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n th e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n .

The f i n d i n g s , t h e r e f o r e ,

may n o t be t h e same a s th o se which m ight emerge from s tu d y in g program s
in o t h e r r e g i o n s o r s t a t e s whose n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k in g p o p u l a t i o n s o r
a d u l t e d u c a t i o n program s may d i f f e r from M i c h ig a n 's in s i g n i f i c a n t ways.
R e la te d t o th e f o r e g o i n g i s th e f a c t t h a t t h i s s tu d y i s c o n fin e d
to c o u rs e s and p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n th o se c o u r s e s and has i n no way a tte m p te d
to a n a ly z e t h e t o t a l c o n s t i t u e n c i e s , e x i s t i n g o r p o t e n t i a l , f o r such c l a s s e s .
To do so would have been beyond th e r e s o u r c e s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h .

While

the need f o r dem ographic s t u d i e s d e s c r i b i n g th e n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k in g a d u l t
p o p u la tio n i n M ichigan and e ls e w h e re i s acknow ledged, th e p o p u l a t i o n was
taken a s a g iv e n and t h i s r e s e a r c h has d e a l t o n ly w ith th e E n g lis h lan g u ag e
i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e r v i c e s o f f e r e d t o them.
The f i n a l l i m i t a t i o n has t o do w ith th e r e l a t i v e l y sm a ll number o f
t e a c h e r s from whom in f o r m a ti o n was s o l i c i t e d .

A p r e l i m i n a r y s u rv e y o f

a d u lt b a s i c e d u c a ti o n program s produced a r o s t e r o f one hundred and
e i g h t y - s i x t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r lan g u a g es in M ich ig an ,
twenty o f whom t a u g h t c l a s s e s i n which b o t h n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e r s and
s p e a k e r s o f E n g lis h w ere e n r o l l e d .

T h is f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t e d a l l o f the

p r a c t i c i n g t e a c h e r s o f th e s u b j e c t in t h e s t a t e .

45.6 p e r c e n t o f t h e s e

10

t e a c h e r s w ere s e l e c t e d and c o n t a c t e d f o r th e s t u d y , e x c l u d in g 54.4 p e r ­
cent .

D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
1.

N o n - c o l l e g i a t e , Non-academ ic A dult S p e a k e rs o f O th e r Language:
A p e r s o n , im m igrant o r n a t i v e b o r n , 16 y e a r s o f age o r o l d e r , whose
n a ti v e la n g u a g e i s o t h e r t h a n E n g l i s h ; and who i s n o t e n r o l l e d i n
any academ ic program in any c o l l e g i a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s .

2.

E n g lish a s a Second L anguage, E n g li s h as a F o re ig n Language:
In t h i s s t u d y , t h e s e term s a r c synonymous w i t h th e term " E n g lis h f o r
s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s " and a r c o c c a s i o n a l l y used in th e t e x t .

The s t u d y r e p r e s e n t s an e f f o r t t o c l o s e t h e gap t h a t has e x i s t e d b e ­
tween the h i g h l y p r o f e s s i o n a l i z e d f i e l d o f t e a c h i n g E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s of
o t h e r la n g u a g e s and t h e

f i e l d o f a d u lt e d u c a tio n .

The s t u d y , th ro u g h an a n a l y s i s o f d a t a g a th e r e d from t e a c h e r s and
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s in M ichigan p u b l i c s c h o o l a d u l t e d u c a ti o n pro gram s, h a s
p ro v id e d a f a i r l y c l e a r d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n and conduct o f
c l a s s e s , from which e m p i r i c a l s u p p o r t f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g pro gram s,
m a t e r i a l s d e v e lo p m e n t, and f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a f f e c t i n g a d u l t e d u c a tio n
program s in E n g lis h f o r

s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s can be drown.

It

lias a ls o d e r i v e d recom m endations upon t h e d e s c r i p t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f
p r a c t i c e and a com parison w ith a c c e p te d t h e o r y .
M oreover, w h ile t h e s tu d y h a s been r e s t r i c t e d to a l i m i t e d g eo g ra p h ­
i c a l a r e a , i t a p p e a rs t o be t h e f i r s t o f i t s t y p e t o be u n d e rta k e n and ,

11

th u s c o u ld p r o v id e a model f o r s i m i l a r I n v e s t i g a t i o n s In o t h e r s t a t e s o r
r e g i o n s o f t h e c o u n tr y .
The rem a in in g c h a p t e r s o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n r e c o r d th e p r o c e d u r e s
f o r c o n d u c tin g th e r e s e a r c h and a r t i c u l a t e th e f i n d i n g s a s f o l lo w s :
C h a p te r I I d e t a i l s th e h i s t o r i c a l background from which th e s tu d y I s
draw n.

Through a rev ie w o f th e r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e o f

a d u l t e d u c a tio n and th e p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t i v i t y o f t e a c h i n g E n g lish
to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s , a p i c t u r e em erges o f two s e p a r a t e
groups which have had, i n th e c a s e o f E n g lis h a s a second
la n g u a g e , complem entary e d u c a t i o n a l g o a ls b u t have f a i l e d to
c o o r d i n a t e e f f o r t s toward m ee tin g t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s .
C h a p te r I I I d e s c r i b e s th e p r o c e d u r e s used f o r g a t h e r i n g d a t e f o r th e stud y
and p o p u l a t i o n from whom th e d a t a were s o u g h t .

The i n s t r u m e n t s

employed f o r th e stu d y a r e e x p la in e d in d e t a i l and t h e o r e t i c a l /
m e th o d o lo g ic a l models o f two lan g u a g e t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h e s a re
sy n th e size d .

The m odels a r e th e b a s e s upon which com parisons

a r e made betw een a c t u a l c la s s ro o m p r a c t i c e s i n th e t e a c h i n g of
E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s and t h e p r i n c i p l e s and
p r a c t i c e s e x p l i c a t e d in t h e m o dels.
C h a p te r IV o r g a n i z e s th e d a t a and a n a l y z e s i t so t h a t a co m prehensive d es­
c r i p t i o n o f t h e te a c h i n g o f E n g lis h to a d u l t s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r
la n g u a g e s i n M ichigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s e m e rg es.

The d e s c r i p t i o n

c o n s i d e r s how th e s u b j e c t i s b e in g t a u g h t ; by whom i t i s b e in g
t a u g h t , and w i t h i n what k in d o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t t i n g i t i s
b e in g t a u g h t .

12

C h a p te r V summarizes th e s t u d y and c o n c l u s i o n s s u g g e s te d by th e d a ta a r e
drawn.

I m p l i c a t i o n s g e n e r a t e d by t h e d a ta a r e s e t down in

term s o f p o s s i b l e areaB f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , program im prove­
ment and t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g .

The l a t t e r two a r e a s a r e based l a r g e l y

upon th e lan guag e t e a c h i n g models p r e s e n t e d i n C h apter I I I .

CHAPTER I I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND/LITERATURE REVIEW

The P r o f e s s i o n o f T ea ch in g E n g lis h to S peakers o f O ther L ang uages.

In 1945, w ith t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of F r i e s ’ c l a s s i c work on th e l i n ­
g u i s t i c o r o r a l a p p ro a c h t o t h e te a c h in g o f E n g li s h a s a second o r f o r ­
e ig n la n g u a g e , ^ th e modern f o u n d a tio n s o f th e p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l t y o f
t e a c h i n g E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s were l a i d .

A c t u a l l y , th e

t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s had been p r a c t i c e d f o r
some tim e , c e n t u r i e s p r o b a b l y , b e fo r e t h a t e v e n t :

However,

. . . T h e p r i n c i p l e s and p ro c e d u r e s which he [ F r i e s ] a d ­
v o c a t e d , and th e m a t e r i a l s and te c h n iq u e s which w ere
d e v elo p ed and r e f i n e d by h i s c o l l e a g u e s a t th e U n iv e r ­
s i t y o f M ichigan hav e come to be w id e ly a c c e p te d and
i m i t a t e d a s th e s o u n d e s t approach t o lan g u ag e t e a c h i n g
now a v a i l a b l e . T here I s l i t t l e d ou bt t h a t F r i e s ' w ork,
and t h a t o f h i s s u c c e s s o r s , h a s done more to r e v o l u ­
t i o n i z e th e p r o c e d u r e s f o r te a c h in g f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s
th an any o t h e r s i n g l e i n f l u e n c e . 2
P r i o r t o 1945, v u r i o u s a p p ro a c h e s to t e a c h i n g E n g lis h and o t h e r f o r ­
e ig n la n g u a g e s e x i s t e d in t h i s c o u n tr y , none o f which c o uld be c o n s i d e r e d
e f f e c t i v e in th e developm ent o f f u l l communication s k i l l s , b e ca u se t h e
g o a ls o f such p r o c e d u r e s were u s u a l l y q u i t e l i m i t e d , I n c l u d i n g , e s p e c i a l l y

1. C h a r le s C. F r i e s , T e a c h in g and L earnin g E n g li s h a s a F o r e ig n L anguage.
(Ann A rb o r: U n i v e r s i t y of M ichigan P r e s s , 1 9 4 5 ).
2 . C h a r le s T. S c o t t , "The O ra l Approach:
p . 1. (Mimeographed)
13

R e t r o s p e c t and P r o s p e c t , " 1965,

14

In t h e c ase o f f o r e i g n language i n s t r u c t i o n , v e ry l i t t l e more th a n r e ­
q u i r i n g th e s t u d e n t to d e m o n s tra te an a b i l i t y to r e a d th e f o r e i g n
la n g u a g e w ith s u f f i c i e n t f a c i l i t y t o t r a n s l a t e t h e f o r e i g n la n g u a g e i n t o
th e n a t i v e la n g u a g e .^

F o re ig n lan g u a g e t e a c h e r s w ere r e q u i r e d , o f c o u r s e ,

to be a b le to r e a d th e lan guages t h a t th e y t a u g h t , and th ey w ere f u r t h e r
r e q u i r e d to have competence in e x p l i c a t i n g th e g ra m m a tic a l r u l e s o f th e
lang u ag es•

A l s o , depending on t h e i r academ ic l e v e l , t e a c h e r s o f modern

f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s needed to be p r e p a r e d t o d i s c o u r s e on th e l i t e r a t u r e o f
2
th e la n g u a g e s , p r e f e r a b l y In th e n a t i v e lang uage o f th e s t u d e n t s .
T h is method or a pproach to f o r e i g n lang uage t e a c h i n g , known a s
th e " g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n a p p r o a c h ," i s b a se d l a r g e l y on th e a p p l i c a t i o n
o f G reek and L a t i n Language t e a c h i n g m ethodology t o th e t e a c h i n g o f
modern f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s ,

3

and i s s t i l l i n wide u s e i n f o r e i g n langu age

c u r r i c u l a in s c h o o l s and c o l l e g i a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n th e U n ited S t a t e s .
In th e e a r l y 1 9 0 0 's , an a p p ro a c h to t h e t e a c h i n g o f modern
f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s known a s the " D i r e c t Method" was Im ported i n t o th e
U n ited S t a t e s from E urope, and was a d o p te d by a " . . . s u b s t a n t i a l m in o r i t y
of te a c h e rs ." ^

U n d e rly in g th e D i r e c t Method was t h e a ssum ptio n t h a t

l e a r n i n g a se co n d lan guag e i s I d e n t i c a l t o l e a r n i n g th e f i r s t . 3

The

m ajor a d v an tag e o f th e D i r e c t M ethod, a c c o r d in g t o Lado, was i t s em phasis

York:

^R obert L ado, Language T e a c h in g :
McGraw-Hill, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 3 - 6 .
2

A S c i e n t i f i c Approach.

(New

John P. Hughes, L i n g u i s t i c s and Language T e a c h in g , (New York:
Random House, 1968 ), p . 120.
3Ib id .
S b i d . . p . 120.
5
Lado, Language T e a c h in g , p . 5.

15

on spoken la n g u a g e o v e r w r i t t e n .

Under t h i s a p p ro a c h , s t u d e n t s of

a f o r e i g n la n g u a g e w ere b ro u g h t i n t o d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h th e spoken
la n g u a g e th ro u g h p r a c t i c a l l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n s i n w hich th e y were
e x p e c te d t o i n f e r th e m eanings o f u t t e r a n c e s from th e i n s t r u c t o r ' s
d r a m a t i z a t i o n s o r exam ples, v e ry much a s a c h i l d a c q u i r e s l i n g u i s t i c
s k i l l througli e x p o su re to random language e x p e r i e n c e s .

The fu n d a ­

m en tal sh o rtc o m in g o f th e D i r e c t Method, a c c o r d i n g t o modern t h e o r ­
i s t s , Is th at
. . . T h e p sy c h o lo g y o f l e a r n i n g a second la n g u a g e d i f f e r s
from t h e f i r s t .
The c h i l d i s fo r c e d to l e a r n t h e f i r s t
la n g u a g e b e c a u s e he h a s no o t h e r way to e x p r e s s h i s w a n ts .
In l e a r n i n g a second la n g u a g e , t h i s co m p u lsio n i s l a r g e l y
m is s i n g s i n c e t h e s t u d e n t knows he can communicate
th ro u g h h i s f i r s t lan g u a g e when n e c e s s a r y . F u rth e r m o r e ,
th ro u g h t h e f i r s t la n g u a g e t h e c h i l d ' s mind can be th o u g h t
o f a s a t a b u l a raB a where th e p a t t e r n s become im p r e s s e d ,
w hereas w ith t h e second la n g u a g e , th e h a b i t p a t t e r n s o f
th e f i r s t language a r e a lr e a d y t h e r e , and t h e secon d l a n ­
guage i s p e r c e iv e d th ro u g h th e h a b i t c h a n n e ls o f th e n a t i v e
to n g u u . 1
Because o f th e D i r e c t M ethod's demands t h a t th e t e a c h e r s
have n l
have u lm ost n a t i v e a b i l i t y i n th e f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s th e y t a u g h t ,
and b e ca u se t e a c h e r s f e l t t h a t th e g o a ls of t h i s la n g a u g e t e a c h ­
in g reform were e x c e s s i v e and u n a t t a i n a b l e , th e D i r e c t Method n e v e r
g a in e d a s t r o n g f o o t h o ld In t h e U nited S t a t e s , and i t was ab an ­
doned by s c h o o l and c o l l e g e langu age program s i n t h e mid 1 9 2 0 's . ^
I t a p p u a r s , how ever, t h a t t h e D i r e c t Method has s u r v i v e d in th e

*Lndo, Language T e a c h in g , pp. 5 -6 .
2

W illiam F ra n c e s Mackey, Language T each in g A n a l y s i s . (London:
Longmans, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 148-49.

16

U n ited S t a t e s in a t l e a s t two c o n t e x t s :

t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h

to n o n - c o l l e g i a t e a d u l t s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s and In c e r ­
t a i n p r o p r i e t a r y f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s c h o o l s . ^
World War I I and th e U n ite d S t a t e s ' m a s siv e in v o lv e m en t in
Europe and A s ia fo rc e d sw eeping c h a n g e s on th e th e n e x i s t i n g p r a c ­
t i c e s in lan g u a g e pedagogy.

Because many A m ericans

hid t o be t r a i n e d

f o r t o t a l comm unication i n f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s , some o f which were
c o m p le te ly unknown i n t h i s c o u n t r y , and b e c a u s e t h e t e a c h i n g o f even
w ell-known la n g u a g e s was i n e f f e c t i v e f o r t h e p u rp o se o f t o t a l com­
m u n ic a tio n , new and e f f i c i e n t t e a c h i n g m e th o d o lo g ie s needed t o be
d e v e lo p e d .

I t was d e te r m in e d t h a t t h e b e s t s o u rc e t o c o n s u l t f o r

t h e d ev elop m en t o f t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l y unknown
2
la n g u a g e s was th e f i e l d o f d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s .
R e c o g n iz in g ,
a s th e e a r l i e r D i r e c t Method a d v o c a te s d i d , th e prim acy o f spoken
ov er w r i t t e n la n g u a g e , t h e d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t s d e v elo p ed an ap­
proach t o la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g w hich r e q u i r e d l e a r n e r s t o I m i t a t e and
memorize c e r t a i n b a s i c s e n t e n c e s o f a la n g u a g e , s e n te n c e p a t t e r n s
a s i t w e re , a s t h e s e s e n t e n c e s w ere pronounced by a n a t i v e s p e a k e r
o f th e la n g u a g e u nd er s t u d y .

3

W hile s i m i l a r i n many s u p e r f i c i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s to t h e D i r -

^ T h is w i l l be examined i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l in s u b s e q u e n t s e c ­
t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e D i r e c t Method and a d u l t e d u c a ti o n p ro g ram s.
2
S c o t t , "The O ral A p p r o a c h . . . , " p . 4 .
3
Leonard B lo o m fie ld , O u t l i n e G uide f o r th e P r a c t i c a l Study
o f F o re ig n L angu ages, ( B a ltim o r e : The L i n g u i s t i c S o c ie ty o f AmerTen, 1942).

17

e c t Method, th e newer a p p ro a c h went much d e e p e r , i n c l u d i n g con­
t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s o f b o th t h e t a r g e t la n g u a g e and t h e l e a r n e r s '
n a t i v e la n g u a g e .

Such c o n t r a s t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s e n a b le d t e a c h e r s

to p r e d i c t t h e a r e a s o f s e v e r e s t d i f f i c u l t y in l e a r n i n g t h e gram­
m a t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s o f th e new la n g u a g e — t h e I n t e r f e r e n c e o f th e
n a t i v e upon t h e t a r g e t lan guag e a l l u d e d to e a r l i e r .

Along w ith

c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s , th e p o w e rfu l id e a o f p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e was
dev elo ped and r e f i n e d .

P a t t e r n p r a c t i c e I n v o lv e s I n t e n s i v e o r a l

d r i l l on th e s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n s o f a lan g u a g e so t h a t th e l e a r n e r
I n t e r n a l i z e s th e l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n s a s lang uage h a b i t s and l e a r n s
to u s e them a u t o m a t i c a l l y w i t h no i n t e r v e n i n g p r o c e s s o f m en tal
tra n s la tio n .^
Due l a r g e l y to t h e c o n t i n u i n g in v o lv e m en t and i n f l u e n c e o f
t h e U n ited S t a t e s in w orld a f f a i r s a f t e r World War I I , t h e E n g lis h
lan g u ag e became i n c r e a s i n g l y im p o r ta n t i n th e c o n d u ct o f i n t e r n a ­
t i o n a l m a t t e r s , and i t became n e c e s s a r y to t r a i n t e a c h e r s s p e c i f i c ­
a l l y t o t e a c h E n g lis h a s a f o r e i g n la n g u a g e .

I n i t i a l l y , t h i s work

was u n d e rta k e n by Dr. F r i e s who, in 1940, founded t h e E n g lis h Lan­
guage I n s t i t u t e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M ichigan, w h ic h , i n c i d e n t a l ­
l y , o f f e r e d t h e f i r s t g r a d u a te d e g re e i n th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h
to s p e a k e r s

o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .

The I n s t i t u t e ' s i n i t i a l e f f o r t s

were d i r e c t e d toward " . . . t e a c h e r s and p r o s p e c t i v e t e a c h e r s from o t h e r
la n d s ."

2

Such t e a c h e r s w ere r e q u i r e d t o ta k e t r a i n i n g i n l i n g u i s -

model f o r th e o r a l a p p ro a c h i s developed l a t e r .
^H arold B. A l l e n , "The P ro s Have I t , " TESOL Q u a r t e r l y I I ,
(J u n e , 1 9 6 8 ), p . 115.

18

t i c s , c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s , la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m ethodology, a n t h r o ­
p o lo g y , and p sy c h o lo g y o f la n g u a g e l e a r n i n g .
A lso , s i n c e World War I I and c o n t i n u i n g t o th e p r e s e n t , t h e r e
have been l a r g e numbers o f s t u d e n t s from a b ro a d coming t o t h e U n ite d
S t a t e s f o r academ ic t r a i n i n g .

O f t e n , th e s e s t u d e n t s need t o d e v e lo p

E n g lis h langu age s k i l l s o r improve on th e s k i l l s th ey a l r e a d y p o s s e s s
p r i o r t o p r o c e e d in g w ith t h e i r academ ic p ro g ra m s; c o n s e q u e n tly , Eng­
l i s h lan guag e program s f o r t h e s e s t u d e n t s h a v e m u l t i p l i e d so t h a t i n
1969, t h e r e were 299 c o l l e g i a t e l e v e l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r i n g i n s t r u c ­
t i o n i n th e E n g lis h lan g u ag e to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s l i s t e d
in a s u rv e y c o nd ucted by th e I n s t i t u t e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a ti o n .^
These i n s t i t u t i o n s r e q u i r e th e s e r v i c e s o f t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l t o te a c h
E n g lis h to t h e i r n o n -E n g lis h s p e a k in g c l i e n t e l e , as do th e v a r i o u s
i n s t i t u t i o n s and a g e n c i e s a b ro a d t h a t a r e eng ag ed in th e t e a c h i n g o f
E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .

T h u s, d e g re e program s i n th e

f i e l d a r e o f f e r e d i n a t o t a l o f t h i r t y - e i g h t c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s
i n th e U n ited S t a t e s a t b o th t h e g r a d u a te and u n d e rg ra d u a te l e v e l s a s
f o l lo w s :
D o c to ra l l e v e l ......................9
M a ste rs l e v e l ......................37
B a c h e lo rs l e v e l ................... 6

^ I n s t i t u t e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a tio n , E n g lis h Language and
O r i e n t a t i o n Program s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , (New York: I n s t i t u t e f o r
I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a tio n , 1 969).
2

I b i d . , pp. 9 8 -1 1 6 . The new MA in TESOL program a t M ichigan
S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i s in c lu d e d in t h e l i s t i n g a b o v e , bu t i t was in a u g ­
u r a t e d a f t e r th e c o m p le tio n o f t h e c i t e d s u r v e y .

2

19

The academ ic developm ent o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n o f t e a c h i n g Eng­
l i s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s h a s been accompanied by th e ap ­
p e a ra n c e and g row th o f a g e n c ie s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s d e sig n e d to s e rv e
th e p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l t y .

O r g a n iz a t i o n s such a s th e Speech Asso­

c i a t i o n o f A m erica, th e Modern Language A s s o c i a t i o n , The N a tio n a l
C ou ncil o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g li s h , and t h e N a t io n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r
F o re ig n S tu d e n t A f f a i r s have a l l c r e a t e d and m a in ta in e d i n t e r e s t
groups i n th e t e a c h i n g of E n g li s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s
and have p u b l is h e d a r t i c l e s c o n c e rn in g t h e f i e l d i n t h e i r v a r i o u s
p u b lic a tio n s.
The Modern Language A s s o c i a t i o n , u n d e r a Ford F o u n d a tio n
g r a n t i n 1969, e s t a b l i s h e d t h e C e n te r f o r A p p lied L i n g u i s t i c s , the
p r i n c i p a l f u n c t i o n o f which
. . . w a s to be t h a t o f an i n f o r m a l , i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y o r i e n t e d
c l e a r i n g h o u s e and c o o r d i n a t i n g body i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
l i n g u i s t i c s t o p r a c t i c a l lan g u a g e p ro b le m s, w ith th e te a c h ­
in g o f E n g li s h a s a seco nd o r f o r e i g n lan g u ag e a s one o f
i t s m ajor a r e a s of i n t e r e s t . 1
O u ts ta n d in g among t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e C e n te r f o r A p p lie d L in­
g u i s t i c s t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s
was i t s c o m p i l a t io n and p u b l i c a t i o n o f a co m p reh en sive b i b l i o g r a p h y
o f th e d i s c i p l i n e .

2

S l r a r p i O h a n c s s ia n , "TESOL Today - A View from th e C e n t e r , "
TESOL Q u a r t e r l y I I I , ( J u n e , 1 9 6 9 ), p . 133. (The C e n te r f o r A pplied
L i n g u i s t i c s I n c o r p o r a t e d i n d e p e n d e n tly i n 1 9 6 4 .)
2
S i r a r p i O h a n e s sia n , R e fe re n c e L i s t o f M a t e r i a l s f o r E n g lis h
a s a Second L an g u ag e, (W ashington, D. C .: C e n te r f o r A p p lie d L in­
g u i s t i c s , 1964).
S i r a r p i O h a n e s s ia n , e t . a l . . R e fe re n c e L i s t o f M a t e r i a l s f o r
E n g lis h a s a Second Language, P a r t I I , (W ashington, D. C .: C e n te r
f o r A p p lie d L i n g u i s t i c s , 1 9 6 6 ),

20

The f i r s t o r g a n i z a t i o n d e v o te d e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e t e a c h i n g
o f E n g li s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s was t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f
T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h a s a Second Language (ATESL), founded i n 1961
a s an a f f i l i a t e o f t h e N a t io n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r F o re ig n S tu d e n t
A ffa irs .

T h is o r g a n i z a t i o n was and i s p r i m a r i l y c on cern ed w ith th e

t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s on American cam puses, and
i t has a s e c o n d a r y , though i m p o r t a n t , i n t e r e s t i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f
E n g lis h a b ro a d .

In 1967, ATESL, a lo n g w ith th e p a r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

formed t h e Commission on I n t e n s i v e E n g li s h Programs (CIEP) which
h a s begun to f u n c t i o n a s a s t a n d a r d s e t t i n g agency fo r E n g lis h p r o ­
grams a t American c o l l e g i a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s . ^
U n t i l 1964, th e a fo re m e n tio n e d a s s o c i a t i o n s had a s t h e i r main
c o n c e rn t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h to c o l l e g e l e v e l f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s
and th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h a b r o a d .

2

R e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n had

been g iv e n to p ro b lem s in t e a c h i n g E n g li s h t o d o m e s tic n o n -E n g lis h
s p e a k e r s , b u t i n 1964, th e f o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n s combined t h e i r E n g lish
a s a seco nd lang uag e I n t e r e s t groups and sp o n so red th e f i r s t n a t i o n ­
a l c o n fe r e n c e on th e T each in g o f E n g li s h t o S p e a k e rs o f O th e r Languages
a t T uscon, A riz o n a .

At t h i s c o n f e r e n c e , i s s u e s c o n c e rn in g th e t e a c h ­

in g o f E n g li s h t o d o m estic s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s w ere s q u a r e l y
fa c e d f o r th e f i r s t tim e by t h e p r o f e s s i o n .

^Shigeo Imarouru, f i r s t chairm an o f CIEP, p e r s o n e l i n t e r v i e w ,
J u l y , 1971.
2

W illia m F. N o r r i s , " T ea ch in g E n g li s h as a Second Language:
A Survey o f 1969. A P r o j e c t i o n f o r 1 9 7 0 ," C e n te r f o r A p p lie d L in ­
g u i s t i c s , 1970, p . 8 .

21

I n 1965, a t San D ie g o , C a l i f o r n i a , a seco n d such c o n fe r e n c e
was h e l d , sp o n so red by t h e same o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

In 1966, a t New York,

a t h i r d c o n fe re n c e was h e ld a t which t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n o f
T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h t o S p e a k e rs o f O th e r Languages (TESOL) was founded
as
. . . a n in d e p e n d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n d e s t i n e d to b r i n g t o g e t h e r
p e rm a n en tly th o s e s c h o o l and c o l l e g e t e a c h e r s I n t e r e s t e d In
th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s . 1
The TESOL a s s o c i a t i o n now p u b l i s h e s a q u a r t e r l y j o u r n a l d e v o te d
to t h e e n t i r e sp ectru m o f te a c h i n g E n g lis h t o n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e r s
d o m e s tic and f o r e i g n , and t o th e p ro b lem s o f n a t i v e s p e a k e r s o f n o n ­
sta n d ard d i a l e c t s .

The a s s o c i a t i o n s p o n s o r s a n a t i o n a l c o n fe r e n c e

a n n u a l l y a t which p rob lem s o f b l - l l n g u a l e d u c a t i o n , a d u l t e d u c a t i o n ,
and m ig r a n t e d u c a tio n a s w e l l a s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e rn s o f th e
d i s c ip l i n e a re ad d ressed .

However, c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c c o n c e rn s su c h as

a d u l t e d u c a ti o n have r e c e i v e d o n ly m in o r a t t e n t i o n a t c o n f e r e n c e s
and i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e TESOL o r g a n i z a t i o n a t t h e tim e o f t h i s
w ritin g .
From th e f o r e g o i n g , i t can be c o n clu d ed t h a t th e t e a c h i n g o f
E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i s a p r o f e s s i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e
. . . r e q u i r i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g and com petence in
l i n g u i s t i c s and i n methods and m a t e r i a l s . ^
However, i t i s a p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l t y t h a t seems t o have f a i l e d t o

^James R. S q u ir e , On T eaching E n g lis h t o S p e a k e rs o f O ther
L an g u ag es, (W ashington, D. C .: TESOL, 1967 ), i n t h e p r e f a c e .
2
H a ro ld B. A l l e n , "C h a lle n g e t o t h e P r o f e s s i o n , " TESOL
Q u a r t e r l y I , ( J u n e , 1 9 6 7 ), p . 6 .

22

i n f l u e n c e t o any g r e a t d e g re e t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h t o n o n c o l l e g l a t e a d u l t s i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s .

T h is v i l l be examined

n e x t.

E n g lis h a s a Second Language i n A d u lt E d u c a tio n P rog ram s.

In t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , c o v e r in g a p e r i o d from a p p ro x im a te ly
th e b e g in n in g o f World War I I to t h e p r e s e n t , th e grow th and d e v e lo p ­
ment o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l t y o f t e a c h i n g E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s
o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s was d i s c u s s e d p r i n c i p a l l y i n i t s c o l l e g i a t e s e t ­
tin g s.

T h is s e c t i o n w i l l d e a l w ith t h e same a c t i v i t y a s i t h a s been p r a c ­

t i c e d s i n c e World War I in program s c o n d u c te d f o r n o n - c o l l e g i a t e
a d u l t s , m o s t ly im m ig ra n ts.

T h is a c t i v i t y , i n i t s n o n - c o l l e g i a t e s e t ­

t i n g , was commonly In c lu d e d a s a component o f program s o f f e r e d u n d e r
t h e commonly used t i t l e

"A m eric an iza tio n ."

A c co rd in g to Knowles,

. . . t h e developm ent o f d i s t i n c t i v e and m a ssiv e program s
o f A m e r ic a n iz a tio n f o r th e f o r e i g n b o m d id n o t o c c u r
. . . u n t i l s h o r t l y b e f o r e th e U n ited S t a t e s e n t e r e d WWI.l
The m i g r a t i o n from a b ro a d t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s a v e ra g e d a b o u t
a m i l l i o n p e r s o n s a n n u a l ly i n th e t e n y e a r s o r so p r e c e e d in g t h e
f i r s t w orld w ar.

2

Because o f th e l a r g e number o f new a r r i v a l s from

o t h e r l a n d s , and t h e s u b s e q u e n t need t o a s s i m i l a t e them i n t o t h e i r
new s o c i e t y , th e F e d e r a l Im m ig ratio n and N a t u r a l i z a t i o n S e r v ic e e n -

■nalcolm S. Knowles, The A d u lt E d u c a tio n Movement i n t h e
U n ite d S t a t e s , (New York: H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W in sto n , 1 9 6 2 ), p . S3.
2
Henry B. H azard , " E d u c a tio n o f th e A d u lt F o r e ig n Bom f o r
C i t i z e n s h i p , " Handbook o f A d u lt E d u c a tio n in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , (New
York: I n s t i t u t e o f A d u lt E d u c a ti o n , 1 9 4 8 ), p . 51.

23

c o u ra g ed p u b l i c s c h o o l s a c r o s s t h e c o u n tr y t o e s t a b l i s h c l a s s e s In
A m e r i c a n i z a t io n .^

T hat i s n o t t o say t h a t s i m i l a r program s were n o t

in e x i s t e n c e p r i o r t o t h a t p e r i o d o f m a s s iv e im m ig r a tio n , o r p r i o r
t o th e cam paign o f t h e Bureau o f N a t u r a l i z a t i o n a s i t was Chen c a l l e d .
The s t a t e s o f M aryland, New Y ork, Rhode I s l a n d , and C a l i f o r n i a , f o r
exam ple, have been o f f e r i n g c l a s s e s i n e d u c a ti o n o f t h e f o r e i g n born
f o r w e l l o v e r a c e n t u r y — two o r t h r e e d e c a d e s b e f o r e th e g r e a t
waves o f Im m ig ratio n i n th e e a r l y 1 9 0 0 's .

2

A m e r ic a n iz a tio n program s w e re , and s t i l l a r e i n some p l a c e s ,
c o n c e rn e d w ith th e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f th e im m ig ran t i n t o American s o ­
c i e t y th ro u g h i n s t r u c t i o n in t h e E n g lis h la n g u a g e , American h i s t o r y ,
and c i v i c s so t h a t th e Im m igrant m igh t become a f u n c t i o n i n g c i t i z e n
o f t h e R e p u b lic .

S tim u la te d by law s w hich r e q u i r e d an im m igrant to

d e m o n s tr a te h i s a b i l i t y in th e E n g li s h la n g u a g e and h i s knowledge
o f i n s t i t u t i o n s o f American Government i n o r d e r t o q u a l i f y f o r c i t i ­
z e n s h i p , th e N a t u r a l i z a t i o n S e r v i c e , s i n c e 1918, h a s b e en v e ry a c ­
t i v e i n p r o v i d i n g f r e e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s f o r c l a s s e s , in fo rm in g
a l i e n s o f t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c l a s s e s , and p r o v i d i n g A m e ric a n iz a tio n
program s w i t h th e names o f n a t u r a l i z a t i o n c a n d i d a t e s f o r r e c r u i t i n g
3
p urposes.
The N a t u r a l i z a t i o n Program had been so a c t i v e in p ro m o tin g

^ lla z u rd , " E d u c a tio n of th e F o r e ig n B o rn ," p . 53.
2
A n g e lic a W. C a ss, "Fundam ental and L i t e r a c y E d u c a tio n f o r
N a tiv e and F o re ig n Born A d u l t s , " i n Handbook o f A d u lt E d u ca tio n i n
t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , e d . by Malcolm S. Knowles, (W ashington, D. C .:
A d ult E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia t io n o f t h e USA, I 9 6 0 ) , p . 455.
3
H a za rd , " E d u c a tio n o f th e F o r e ig n B o rn ," p . 56.

24

A m e ric a n iz a tio n c l a s s e s t h a t
. . . b y th e end o f World War I , th e e d u c a ti o n o f t h e f o r ­
e ig n b o m had become t h e dom inant a c t i v i t y o f t h e pub­
l i c e v e n in g s c h o o l s .
T hroughout the two d e c a d e s f o l lo w in g t h e w a r, A m e ric a n iz a tio n
program s rem ained an i m p o r t a n t , i f n o t d o m in a n t, a c t i v i t y i n even­
in g p u b l i c s c h o o ls d e s p i t e th e s h a r p r e d u c t i o n o f new a r r i v a l s from
a b ro a d c au se d by the im p le m e n ta tio n o f im m ig ratio n q u o t a s .

While t h e

l i t e r a t u r e i s hazy a s r e g a r d s t h i s p e r i o d and beyond i n term s o f t h e
e x t e n t o f a c t i v i t i e s and th e numbers o f p e o p le s e r v e d , i t n o n e t h e l e s s ,
a p p e a r s s a f e t o say t h a t A m e r i c a n i z a t io n - t y p e c l a s s e s w ere w id e s p re a d ,
and t h a t t h e te a c h in g o f E n g lis h was a p rim a ry component o f th e p r o gram s.

2

One c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o n o n - c o l l e g i a t e
a d u l t s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n program s c o ndu cted by v a r ­
io u s a d u l t e d u c a tio n a g e n c i e s i s t h a t u n t i l v e ry r e c e n t l y , and th en
w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f a s m a ll m i n o r i t y o f c a s e s , th e t e a c h i n g o f Eng­
l i s h t o s p e a k e r s of o t h e r la n g u a g e s h a s been p a r t o f a l a r g e r p ro ­
gram h a v in g some goal o t h e r th a n th e l e a r n i n g o f E n g li s h .

T h is i s n o t

s t a t e d to d e n i g r a t e t h e p r a c t i c e , b u t i t seems t o s u g g e s t th e p o s s i b l e
e x i s t e n c e o f a gap betw een a d u l t e d u c a t o r s and c o l l e g e and u n i v e r ­
s i t y based p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a p p ro a c h e s t o th e t e a c h i n g

^Knowles, The A d u lt E d u ca tio n Movement i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , p . 55.
2
H azard, "The E d u c a tio n o f A d u lt F o re ig n B o rn ," p . 5 5. Hazard
l i s t s t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f A m e ric a n iz a tio n program s a s f o l l o w s :
1. S u f f i c i e n t f a m i l i a r i t y w ith w r i t t e n and spoken E n g l i s h . . .
2. G e n e ra l knowledge o f g o v e r n m e n t...
3. U n d e rs ta n d in g and f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e b a s i c d u t i e s and re s p o n ­
s i b i l i t i e s of c itiz e n s h ip .

25

of E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r lan guages*
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f a d u l t educa­
t i o n s e v e r a l c h a n g e s i n t h e te rm in o lo g y o f program s em bracin g t h e
te a c h i n g o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s .

In p u b l i c a t i o n s

o f r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e term " A m e r ic a n iz a tio n " h a s f a l l e n i n t o d i s u s e .
For exam ple, t h e r e i s o n ly one Indexed r e f e r e n c e t o t h e term i n t h e
most r e c e n t e d i t i o n o f t h e Handbook o f A dult E d u c a tio n and no c r o s s re fe re n c e s .^

The 1960 e d i t i o n a l s o h a s o n ly o n e , b u t t h e r e a r e s e v ­

e r a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s t o " fu n d a m e n ta l e d u c a t i o n " and " f o r e i g n b o rn
2
e d u c a tio n ."
The 1968 e d i t i o n c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s th e term t o " c i t i z e n s h ip " and " f o r e i g n b o rn " b o th o f which have r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e l i s t i n g s .
The p o i n t o f t h i s exam ple i s t h a t i n an e x a m in a tio n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e
o f a d u l t e d u c a t i o n , one m ust s e e k o u t key w ords f o r t h e t e a c h i n g o f
E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s t h a t a r e d i f f e r e n t from t h e
words u se d by p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e f i e l d , and words w hich d e n o te a c ­
t i v i t i e s t h a t h a v e t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h a s j u s t one component.
W hile t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f a d u l t e d u c a ti o n d o e s n o t o f f e r much
in d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e E n g lis h t e a c h i n g a c t i v i t i e s c o n d u c te d by t h e
programs u nder s t u d y , I t does make i t v e r y c l e a r t h a t su c h a c t i v i t i e s
have o c c u p ie d an i m p o r ta n t p l a c e i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n , and t h a t t h e
t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s c o n t i n u e s to d a y
b u t w ith a much lo w e r v i s i b i l i t y th a n i n t h e p a s t .

^R obert M. S m ith, e t . a l . , e d s . , Handbook o f A d u lt E d u c a ti o n ,
(New York: The M acM illan Company, 1 9 7 0 ), p . 5 8 0 .
^Malcolm S. Know les, e d . , Handbook o f A d u lt E d u c a tio n i n t h e
U n ite d S t a t e s . (W ashington , 0 . C .: A d u lt E d u c a tio n A s s o c i a t i o n o f
th e USA, 1 9 6 0 ), p p . 6 0 6 , 611.
3
Mary S. E ly , e d . . Handbook o f A du lt E d u c a tio n i n t h e U n ited
S t a t e s . (New York: I n s t i t u t e o f A d u lt E d u c a ti o n , 1 9 6 8 ), p p . 5 3 1 ,5 3 6 ,5 3 7 .

26

The low v i s i b i l i t y o f th e a c t i v i t y i s documented i n a s tu d y
o f u d u l t e d u c a ti o n a c t i v i t i e s in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s sp o n so re d by th e
C a rn e g ie C o r p o r a tio n i n w hich J o h n s to n e and R iv e r a c o n clu d ed t h a t
t h e r e w ere
. . . n o t enough p e r s o n s found t o be s t u d y i n g [A m eric an i­
z a t i o n a n d /o r E n g li s h la n g u a g e ] f o r n a t i o n a l e s t i m a t e s
t o be m a d e .l
The

a u t h o r s r e c o g n iz e d t h a t t h e r e w ere some " im m ig ra n ts " s t u d y i n g th e

E n g li s h la n g u a g e , b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t i n th e m a s s iv e q u a n t i t i e s which
once dom in ated p u b l i c s c h o o l a d u lt e d u c a t i o n .

The s t u d y s a y s n o t h in g

a b o u t t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g l i s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s in any
b r o a d e r se n s e w hich would in c lu d e n o n -lm m lg r a n t, n o n - c o l l e g i a t e a d u l t s .
F a i l u r e t o i n c l u d e th e l a t t e r group i n t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s p ro b a b ly
f o r c e d J o h n s to n e and R iv e r a to draw su ch a c o n c l u s i o n , and t h e l a t t e r
group w o u ld , p e r f o r c e , be e x clu d ed i n an i n v e s t i g a t i o n which concen­
t r a t e d on program s o f A m e ric a n iz a tio n o r e d u c a t i o n o f t h e f o r e i g n b o rn .
T h a t i s n o t to s a y , how ever, t h a t E n g lis h i s n o t b e in g t a u g h t
to l a r g e number o f s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s in l a r g e numbers o f
a d u l t e d u c a t i o n program s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s .

I t i s j u s t t h a t th e a c ­

t i v i t y i s b e in g c a l l e d som ethin g o t h e r than A m e ric a n iz a tio n o r e d u c a tio n
o f th e f o r e i g n b o rn o r E n g li s h as a second la n g u a g e i n most q u a r t e r s .
In r e c o g n i t i o n , b e l a t e d p e r h a p s , o f th e f a c t t h a t , i n a d d i t i o n
t o th e f o r e i g n b o r n , t h e r e a r e m i l l i o n s o f n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k in g a d u l t s

1. John W. C. J o h n s to n e and Ramon W. R i v e r a , V o l u n t e e r s f o r L e a r n i n g .
A Study o f t h e E d u c a ti o n a l P u r s u i t s o f American A d u l t s , (C h ic a g o :
A id in e P u b l i s h i n g , 1 9 6 5 ), p . 47.

27

who a r e n a t i v e b o m c i t i z e n s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , * - C o n g re s s , th ro u g h
2
a v a r i e t y o f l e g i s l a t i o n , h as e n co u rag e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f program s
which in c lu d e com ponents d e v o te d to th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o a d u l t
s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s , and t h i s component seems t o be most com­
monly in c lu d e d u nder t h e r u b r i c o f a d u l t b a s i c e d u c a t i o n .

In f a c t , th e

t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o a d u l t s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s a p p e a rs t o be
embraced by th e a d u l t b a s i c e d u c a ti o n t i t l e to day a s i t was f o r m e r ly
subsumed i n th e term " A m e r ic a n iz a tio n " i n th e r e c e n t and d i s t a n t p a s t .
However, n e i t h e r o f t h e term s i s d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e ty p e s o f la n g u a g e
l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s p r o v id e d f o r n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k in g a d u l t s , and th e
l i t e r a t u r e o f f e r s o n ly s u p e r f i c i a l r e f e r e n c e s to la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
m e th o d o lo g ie s w i t h th e m ost p e r s i s t e n t r e f e r e n c e s made t o t h e a p p ro a ch
c a l l e d th e D i r e c t Method.
C a ss, a s q u o ted e a r l i e r , s t a t e d t h a t v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e D i r e c t
Method o f f o r e i g n lan g u a g e t e a c h i n g were employed i n A m e ric a n iz a tio n
c l a s s e s when th e y were a t t h e i r peak o f s e r v i c e t o n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k in g
a d u lts.

T here i s l i t t l e e m p i r i c a l s u p p o r t f o r t h i s ; o n ly c o n j e c t u r e

drawn from th e m a t e r i a l s d i s t r i b u t e d by t h e Im m ig ratio n and N a t u r a l i z a ­
t i o n S e r v ic e t o th e program s and s t a t e m e n t s o f a few a d u l t e d u c a t o r s
such a s C ass, who a s s e r t s :

^Testimony b e f o r e t h e House G e n era l Sub-Committee on E d u c a tio n , 1967.
^MDTA; A dult E d u ca tio n Act o f 1966 ( T i t l e I I I , ESEA a s am ended), e . g .

28

E x p e rie n c e h a s shown t h a t th e m ost s u c c e s s f u l m ethods
i n te a c h in g t h e f o r e i g n b o rn a r e t h o s e w hich employ th e
d i r e c t m ethod.* (Em phasis h e r s . )
In an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e Chicago Board o f E d u c a tio n Am eri2
c a n i z a t i o n Program, t h i s w r i t e r l e a r n e d t h a t i n h i s t o r i c a l as w e ll
a s p r e s e n t day c o n t e x t s , th e D i r e c t Method was t h e a p p ro a c h most
f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o by t h e p e r s o n n e l In v o lv e d i n th e E n g li s h
c l a s s e s o f th e Program .

In r e a l i t y , ho w ev er, a c t u a l t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s

v a r i e d w id e ly from c l a s s to c l a s s w ith some a p p ro a c h e s l o o s e l y a p ­
p r o x im a tin g th e D i r e c t Method w h i l e o t h e r a p p ro a c h e s were n o t i d e n t i ­
f i a b l e u n d e r any g e n e r a l l y re c o g n iz e d a p p e l a t i o n .
G e n e r a l l y , th e D i r e c t Method, w ith a l l o f th e v a r i o u s p e r ­
m u t a t i o n s a ll u d e d t o b u t seldom made e x p l i c i t i n th e l i t e r a t u r e o f
a d u l t e d u c a t i o n , h a s a p p a r e n t l y been w id e ly a c c e p te d th ro u g h o u t m ost
o f th e h i s t o r y o f p ro g ram s o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s

3

even lo n g a f t e r th e em ergence o f th e l i n g u i s t i c o r o r a l a p p ro a c h and
t h e c o n c o m ita n t d ev elop m en t o f a s e p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e i n t h e t e a c h i n g
o f E n g lis h to s p e a k e rs o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s .

In l a t e r l i t e r a t u r e , how4
e v e r , an o c c a s i o n a l r e f e r e n c e i s made t o t h e o r a l a p p ro a c h .

^ A n g elica W. C a s s , A dult E lem en tary E d u c a ti o n , (New York:
Noble and Noble, 1 9 5 6 ), p . 158.
2

Kenneth J . M a t tr a n , "A d ult ESL Program s in C h ic a g o ," TESOL
Q u a r t e r l y I I I . (D e c ., 1 9 6 9 ), p p . 341-48.
3
C a s s , "Fundam ental L i t e r a c y , " p. 462.
^ I b i d . , p. 462.

A lso s e e :

A l l e n , TENES, p . -59.

29

A n other a r e a where t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f a d u l t e d u c a ti o n rem a in s
vague i s in t h e a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y t r a i n i n g
In t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s , r e q u i r e d o f
t e a c h e r s in a d u l t e d u c a ti o n p ro g ra m s.

A n a t i o n a l s u r v e y c o n d u c te d in

1964, s p o n s o re d by t h e n a t i o n a l C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g li s h and th e
U. S. O f f i c e o f E d u c a tio n ,* r e v e a l e d t h a t r e l a t i v e l y few o f th e r e ­
s p o n d in g " a d u l t s c h o o l s " r e q u i r e d o f t h e i r t e a c h e r s any p r o f e s s i o n a l
t r a i n i n g in th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h a s a second la n g u a g e .

However, t h i s

s u rv e y i s d i f f i c u l t t o g e n e r a l i z e from b e c a u se t h e r e w ere r e l a t i v e l y
few r e s p o n s e s from a d u l t s c h o o l s , and P r o f e s s o r A l l e n , t h e d i r e c t o r o f
t h e s u r v e y , commented on th e d i f f i c u l t y o f even o b t a i n i n g l i s t s o f a d u l t
2
s c h o o ls t o c o n t a c t f o r th e s t u d y .
The p a p e r c i t e d e a r l i e r c o n c e rn in g th e A m e r ic a n iz a tio n Program
3
o f th e Chicago Board o f E d u c a tio n a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t no s p e c i f i c t r a i n ­
in g in t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h a s a second la n g u a g e was r e q u i r e d o f
t e a c h e r s i n th e Program .

The o n ly c r e d e n t i a l beyond th e B a c h e lo r s d e g re e

t h a t was r e q u i r e d o f t e a c h e r s was found t o be a l o c a l l y g r a n t e d t e a c h i n g
c e r t i f i c a t e f o r which f i f t e e n h o u rs o f c r e d i t i n p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n
i s th e minimum r e q u i r e m e n t.

The r e s p e c t i n which t h i s program h a s been

h e ld i s i m p l i c i t in P r o f e s s o r Roger W. A x f o r d 's t r i b u t e t o H elen Graham

*Harold B. A l l e n , TENES; A S urvey o f t h e T ea ch in g o f E n g li s h to
N o n-E nglish S p e a k e rs i n th e U . S . , (Champaign: NCTE, 1 9 6 6 ), p . 30.
^ I b l d . , pp. 4, 6 .
^ M a ttr a n , "A d ult ESI. i n C h ic a g o ."

30

Lynch i n which he r e f e r s t o h e r s te w a r d s h ip o f t h e C hicago A m erican i­
z a t i o n Program .*
In g e n e ra l* l i t t l e h as been done o u t s i d e o f th e TENES Survey
to d e s c r i b e th e s t a t e o f th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r
la n g u a g e s a s a component o f a d u l t e d u c a ti o n program s on e i t h e r t h e
p a r t o f a d u l t e d u c a t o r s o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s in th e d i s c i p l i n e .

T h at i s

n o t t o say t h a t an aw areness o f th e n e ed f o r such d e s c r i p t i o n h a s
e sc a p e d th e two g r o u p s .

N o rris * f o r example* h a s r e a l i z e d t h a t

t o s u p p ly [knowledge o f p r e s e n t manpower and t r a i n i n g
r e s o u r c e s and f u t u r e d o m e s tic n e e d s ] such e s s e n t i a l d a ta
a s co m prehensive s u r v e y s a r e needed t o i d e n t i f y t h e na­
t i o n ' s E n g lis h a s a second la n g u a g e t e a c h e r s and a d m in is­
t r a t o r s * t h e i r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r th e j o b s th e y do* un­
f u l f i l l e d and p o t e n t i a l manpower n e e d s . . . ^
A dult e d u c a t o r s su ch a s K r e ltlo w have l i s t e d t h e " n o n -E n g lis h
sp e a k in g a d u l t " a s one o f t h e im p o r ta n t r e s e a r c h c o n c e rn s t h a t t h e
f i e l d o f a d u l t e d u c a ti o n n e e d s t o a d d r e s s .

3

T h is s tu d y p ro p o se s t o

speak t o t h e s e c o n c e r n s .

*Roger W. Axford* Adult E d u c a tio n ;
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Textbook* 1969)* p. 30.
2

3

The Open D oor. (S c r a n to n :

N o rris * "T each in g E n g lis h a s a Second Language*" p . 36.

Burton W. K reltlow * " R e sea rch and T h e o r y ," Handbook of A d u lt
E d u c a tio n , e d . by R obert M. Smith* e t . a l . * (New York: The MacMillan
Company* 1970)* p . 141,

CHAPTER I I I

PROCEDURES

In tro d u c tio n
The p u rp o s e o f t h i s s tu d y was to o b t a i n b a s e l i n e d a t a a s t o t h e
manner In w hich th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lish t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s
I s o r g a n iz e d and c o n d u c te d I n p u b l i c s c h o o l a d u l t e d u c a t i o n program s in
M ichigan.

To a c h ie v e t h a t p u rp o s e , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o c o l l e c t in fo rm a ­

t i o n on a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r a c t i c e s such a s program o r g a n i z a t i o n , e n ro llm e n t
p r o c e d u r e s , t e a c h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and p r o f e s s i o n a l s u p p o r t ; and c la s s ro o m
p r a c t i c e s , i n c l u d i n g m ethods and m a t e r i a l s .
The l o g i c a l s o u r c e s from which such i n f o r m a ti o n co u ld be g a th e r e d
were th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f p u b l i c s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n p ro g ram s h a v in g E n g lis h
a s a second la n g u a g e com ponents and t h e t e a c h e r s o f E n g li s h a s a second
language employed i n t h o s e prog ram s.

T hese two s o u r c e s c o u l d , t h e n , be

c a l l e d upon t o resp o n d t o i n q u i r i e s d e s ig n e d t o e l i c i t s p e c i f i c d a t a
w i t h in the work p a r a m e te r s o f e ac h o f t h e i n f o r m a ti o n s o u r c e s .

T hus,

s e p a r a t e d a t a g a t h e r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s were p r e p a r e d , one f o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
and one f o r t e a c h e r s , f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e g roup s in th e
sta te .
The d a t a g a t h e r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s were d i s t r i b u t e d and c o l l e c t e d
u t i l i z i n g t h e s t a t e w i d e p e r s o n n e l r e s o u r c e s o f P r o j e c t ENABEL.

Having

such a netw ork a v a i l a b l e f a c i l i t a t e d th e d a t a g a t h e r i n g p r o c e s s b e c a u se
o f two v ery I m p o rta n t r e a s o n s .

F i r s t , ENABEL p e r s o n n e l were p r o f o u n d ly

i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i n f o r m a ti o n t h a t t h i s s t u d y i n te n d e d t o p ro d u c e a n d ,

31

32

s e c o n d , t h e ENABEL n e tw o rk p ro v id e d an e f f i c i e n t d e l i v e r y system f o r
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e I n s t r u m e n t s w h i l e , a t t h e same tim e , I t p ro v id e d
a c o l l e c t i o n sy stem f o r t h e i r r e t r i e v a l .

In stru m en ts
I t was d e c id e d t h a t th e m ost f e a s i b l e method o f g a t h e r i n g d a t a f o r
t h e s t u d y would be a m a ile d q u e s t i o n n a i r e p r o c e d u re whereby two r e s p o n d e n t
g ro u p s would be a sk ed t o re sp o n d to s p e c i f i c I n q u i r i e s w i t h i n th e fram e­
work o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a r e a s o f work.

T hus, two q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were

d e s i g n e d , one f o r c o m p le tio n by a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , th e o t h e r f o r c o m p le tio n
by c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were d e s ig n e d t o e l i c i t f a c t u a l in f o r m a ti o n
c o n c e rn in g s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f t h e e i g h t q u e s t i o n s w hich a r e a d d re s s e d
In t h i s s t u d y .

The i n q u i r i e s made o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w ere concerned

w ith g a t h e r i n g d a t a a b o u t th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e p ro g ra m s, p r o f e s s i o n a l
s u p p o r t f o r p ro g ram s, and r e q u i r e d t e a c h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s .

The In fo rm a ­

t i o n s o l i c i t e d from t e a c h e r s had to do w ith i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s and
m ethods, p r e - s e r v i c e and i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g and c e r t a i n c la ssro o m o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n a l phenomena.
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were p r e - t e s t e d in J u l y , 1971 w i t h a group o f
p a r t i c i p a n t s a t t e n d i n g a summer workshop s p o n s o re d by P r o j e c t ENABEL.

Re­

v i s i o n s were made f o llo w in g t h i s t e s t and th e y were t e s t e d a g a in in Novem­
b e r o f 1971 w ith th e a s s i s t a n c e o f th e d i r e c t o r and s t a f f o f th e E n g lis h
Language I n s t i t u t e a t th e C e n t r a l YMCA Community C o lle g e i n C hicago.

As

33

a r e s u l t o f t h e second p r e - t e s t , a d d i t i o n a l r e f i n e m e n ts w ere e f f e c t e d .
In March, 1972 f u r t h e r a d ju s tm e n t s i n p r o c e d u r e s f o r g a t h e r i n g
d a t a from t h e t e a c h e r s w ere s u g g e s te d by t h e w r i t e r ' s g u id a n c e co m m ittee
and th e s u g g e s te d a l t e r a t i o n s were made, and th e r e s u l t i n g p r o c e d u r e s were
t e s t e d w ith a group o f g r a d u a t e t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t s a t t h e E n g lish Language
C e n te r o f M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

The in s t r u m e n t s w ere approved and

were employed in th e form a p p e a rin g i n Appendix A, " I n s t r u m e n t s . "

A d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' Q u e s tio n n a ir e
The a d m i n i s t r a t o r s were asked t o su p p ly i n f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g
t i t l e s o f c l a s s e s in E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s , e n r o l l m e n t s ,
s t r u c tu r e o f th e school c a le n d a r, c r e d e n t i a l s req u ire d o f te a c h e rs o f
E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s , and i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g and o t h e r
p r o f e s s i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r th iB component o f t h e i r p rogram s.
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was b r i e f and r e q u i r e d v e ry l i t t l e o f t h e r e s p o n ­
d e n t s ' tim e t o c o m p le te .

I t c o n s i s t e d o f o n ly e le v e n i t e m s , th e f i n a l

ite m s e e k in g o p in io n on what a c t i v i t i e s each r e s p o n d in g a d m i n i s t r a t o r
would l i k e to s e e in a u g u r a te d t o improve th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lish to
s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s a t h i s I n s t i t u t i o n .

Each o f t h e o t h e r t e n

q u e s t i o n s ^ r e l a t e d to th e q u e s t i o n s posed i n C h a p te r I a s f o llo w s :

Item 2 on th e I n s t r u m e n t , "At how many s e p a r a t e l o c a t i o n s u n d e r your
j u r i s d i c t i o n a r e c l a s s e s In E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s o f f e r e d ? "
was a c t u a l l y a throwaway, b u t I t was what Good d e s c r i b e s a s a q u e s t i o n which
would be e x p e c te d by th e r e s p o n d e n t . I t s e rv e d no use i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f
th e d a t a . See C a r t e r V. Good, E s s e n t i a l s o f E d u ca tio n R e se a rc h (New York:
A p p le to n , C entu ry C r o f t s , 1 9 6 6 ), p . 222.

34

A.

"Under w hat t i t l e s a r e c l a s s e s i n E n g li s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n ­
guages o f f e r e d ? "
The f i r s t q u e s t io n on t h e i n s t r u m e n t a s k s d i r e c t l y f o r t h i s in fo r m a ­

tio n .

B.

"How a r e such programs o r g a n i z e d to e f f e c t th e l e a r n i n g o f E n g l i s h ?"
Item 3 , "What i s t h i s y e a r ' s t o t a l e n r o llm e n t i n t h e s e c l a s s e s i n

your s c h o o l d i s t r i c t ? " and Item 6 , "What i s th e maximum p e r m i s s i b l e e n ­
r o llm e n t p e r c l a s s 7 " combine t o g i v e c l a s s s i z e d a t a , a c t u a l and p o t e n t i a l .
F u rth e rm o r e , by t o t a l l i n g t h e r e s p o n s e s o f a l l in f o r m a n ts t o Item 3 , i n ­
t e r e s t i n g , i f n o t e s s e n t i a l , background in f o r m a ti o n was p r o v i d e d .
Item 4 , "How a r e c l a s s e s f o r n o n - E n g li s h s p e a k e rs s t r u c t u r e d
a c c o r d in g t o t h e s c h o o l c a l e n d a r ? " , Item 5 , "When a r e e n r o l l m e n t s i n t o
c l a s s e s a c c e p t e d ? " and Item 7, "Are your c l a s s e s in E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s
o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s o f f e r e d a t d i s c r e e t l e v e l s such a s b e g i n n i n g , I n t e r ­
m e d ia te , and advanced?" w ere d e s ig n e d t o e l i c i t c r u c i a l d a t a t h a t would
d e s c r i b e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t in w hich te a c h i n g t a k e s p l a c e and
p r o v id e a b a s i s f o r c o n c l u s i o n s and recom m endations.

C.

"What a r e th e m inim al r e q u i r e m e n ts o f c la ss ro o m t e a c h e r s in th e p r o ­
gram s, and do t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n ts a p p ro a c h th e m inim al q u a l i f i c a t i o n s
f o r t e a c h e r s o u t l i n e d i n t h e TESOL s t a t e m e n t on 'Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f
T e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h a s a Second L ang uage1? 11
Item 8 , "Whnt a r c th e m inim al p r o f e s s i o n a l c r e d e n t i a l s r e q u i r e d

f o r t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s in y o u r program ?"
sp e a k s d i r e c t l y t o th e f i r s t and e m p i r i c a l p o r t i o n o f t h i s q u e s t i o n , and

35

e l i c i t s t h e b a s i c e v id e n c e r e q u i r e d f o r making t h e judgem ent posed in
t h e second p o r t i o n o f i t .

D.

"What p r o f e s s i o n a l s u p p o r t i s made a v a i l a b l e In s i t u a t i o n s w here t e a c h e r s
a r e n o t t r a i n e d f o r t h i s a c t i v i t y ? '1
Item 9 , " I s t h e r e a s p e c i a l i s t i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s

o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n a c o n s u l t a n t c a p a c i t y i n your program ?" and Item 1 0 ,
" I f y e s , i n d i c a t e th e p e r s o n 's s t a t u s ( f u l l - t i m e , p a r t - t i m e , o c c a s i o n a l ) . "
speak t o t h e q u e s t i o n and p r o v id e one p o r t i o n o f th e a n sw e r; f u r t h e r i n f o r ­
m ation on t h i s t o p i c was g le a n e d from t h e t e a c h e r s by t h e I n s t r u m e n t admin­
i s t e r e d t o them.

T ea ch e rs' Q u estio n n aire
The i n s t r u m e n t t o w hich th e t e a c h e r s were a sked t o re sp o n d was b i ­
p a r t i t e i n form , c o n s i s t i n g o f a t w e n t y - t h r e e ite m q u e s t i o n - a n d - c l o s e d form -answ er q u e s t i o n n a i r e and a tw e lv e ite m a u d io ta p e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
sam ples o f E n g lis h lan g u a g e t e a c h i n g m odels w i t h a c o rr e s p o n d in g answ er
s h e e t f o r r e c o r d i n g t e a c h e r r e s p o n s e s c o n c e rn in g fre q u e n c y o f employment
o f each o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes.

The i n s t r u m e n t was d e s ig n e d t o

e l i c i t f a i r l y l a r g e amounts o f d a t a and r e q u i r e d a p p r o x im a te ly f o r t y f i v e m in u te s of t h e i n f o r m a n t s ' tim e t o c o m p le te .
U n lik e th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s e n t t o a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t h e t e a c h e r s '
i n s t r u m e n t was d e s ig n e d t o p r e s e r v e t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' anonym ity i n o r d e r
t o r e n d e r th e i n s t r u m e n t n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g a n d , t h u s , h e lp t o I n s u r e v a l i ­
d ity of responses.

36

Q u e s tio n s c o n c e rn in g b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a su c h a s a g e , s e x , e t c . ,
were o m it t e d s i n c e i t was d e c id e d t h a t such i n f o r m a ti o n would s e r v e no
f u n c t i o n u s e f u l i n a c h i e v i n g t h e p u rp o se o f t h e s t u d y .

No c a u s a l o r

c o r r e l a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s o f t e a c h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s had been h y p o t h e s iz e d ;
t h u s , a l l q u e s t i o n n a i r e ite m s w ere d i r e c t e d t o th e e l i c i t i n g o f f a c t u a l
in f o r m a tio n which would be d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e program s u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
As i n t h e i n s t r u m e n t p r e s e n t e d t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t h e ite m s
on t h e t e a c h e r s ' q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e l a t e d to a s p e c t s o f t h e e i g h t q u e s t i o n s
o u t l i n e d in t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r .

Some o f t h e s e ite m s were n o t c r u c i a l

to t h e s tu d y and were i n c l u d e d b e c a u se i t was assumed t h a t c e r t a i n q u e s­
t i o n s would be e x p e c te d by th e r e s p o n d e n ts o r s e r v e d th e f u n c t i o n o r o r i e n ­
t i n g t h e r e s p o n d e n ts t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t . ^

Item 1 :

T hese ite m s a r e :

"What o f f i c i a l t i t l e s a r e used t o d e s c r i b e c l a s s e s i n E n g lis h
f o r s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n y o u r I n s t i t u t i o n ? "

T h is

was used a s an o r i e n t a t i o n q u e s t i o n , b u t i t a l s o s e rv e d a s an
e x t e r n a l check o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' r e s p o n s e s t o th e same
ite m .
Item 8 :

"Which o f t h e f o llo w in g a r e u sed a s t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s ?

(News­

p a p e r s , m a g a z in e s, n o v e l s / s h o r t s t o r i e s ) " and Item 9 , "Do you
use t e a c h e r made i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s ? " a r e ite m s o f m a rg in a l

^Good, E s s e n t i a l s o f E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a r c h , pp . 222-223.

37

i n t e r e s t , u s e f u l o n ly I f o b s e r v a t i o n s c o u ld be made o f th e
t e a c h e r s ' s t r a t e g i e s o f employment o f su c h m a t e r i a l s .

Such

d e t a i l e d o b s e r v a t i o n c o u ld n o t h a v e been a c c o m p lish e d w i t h in
th e framework o f th e s t u d y .
Item 14: "What o t h e r la n g u a g e s do you s p e a k ? " I s i r r e l e v a n t to the
stu d y b u t c o u ld be assum ed t o be an e x p e c te d q u e s t i o n on an
I n s tr u m e n t o f t h i s n a t u r e .

The same a ssu m p tio n i s made f o r

Item 2 2 , "How lo n g have you b e en I n v o lv e d i n t h e te a c h in g o f
E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s ? "

The rem a in in g ite m s were d e s ig n e d t o p r o v id e i n f o r m a t i o n on th e
m ajor r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s a s f o l lo w s :

A.

"What i d e n t i f i a b l e a p p ro a c h e s a re employed in t h e t e a c h i n g of E n g l i s h
t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s in p u b l i c s c h o o l A dult E d u ca tio n p r o ­
g ram s?11
T h is was t h e c e n t r a l and m ost complex o f th e q u e s t i o n s posed f o r

stu d y and r e q u i r e s numerous i t e m s in th e i n s t r u m e n t , d e s i g n e d to e l i c i t
d a ta t o answer i t .
Ite m 11, "Do you e v e r d i s c u s s p o i n t s o f grammar w ith y o u r c l a s s ? "
and Ite m 15, "Assuming t h a t you spoke th e lan g u a g e o f y o u r s t u d e n t s , and
ussum lng t h a t you c o u ld be f a i r t o a l l o f y our s t u d e n t s , would you e v e r
use t h e i r n a t i v e la n g u a g e t o e x p l a i n a word o r g ra m m a tic a l p o i n t? "

A

p o s i t i v e re s p o n s e t o e i t h e r o f t h e s e ite m s would i n d i c a t e t h a t the r e s p o n ­
d e n t f a i l s to embrace two o f t h e p r i n c i p a l t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s u n d e r -

38

l y i n g t h e D i r e c t M ethod,^ and m ig h t d e m o n s tr a te e i t h e r an i g n o r a n c e o r
r e j e c t i o n o f th e t h e o r y .

On th e o t h e r h a n d , a n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e m ig h t

i n d i c a t e a c c e p ta n c e o f th e th e o r y o r sim p ly r e f l e c t h a b i t s t h a t t h e
in f o r m a n ts had a d o p te d f o r no p a r t i c u l a r r e a s o n .

N e i t h e r o f th e ite m s

r e l a t e s i n any way to t h e th e o r y u n d e r l y i n g th e O ra l Approach.
Item 1 2 , "Which o f t h e f o l l o w i n g , ( D i f f i c u l t y o f v o c a b u l a r y ,
D i f f i c u l t y o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n , D i f f i c u l t y o f g ra m m a tic a l s t r u c t u r e s )
r e c e i v e s PRIMARY c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n o r g a n i z i n g a s e r i e s o f l e s s o n s ? " .
S e l e c t i o n o f v o c a b u la r y a n d / o r p r o n u n c i a t i o n would be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
th e D i r e c t Method, w h ile s e l e c t i o n o f g ra m m a tic a l p o i n t s would be con­
s i s t e n t w i t h th e O ra l A pproach, b o th a n a ly z e d in m e th o d o lo g ic a l te r m s .
Item 1 6 , 16 .1 and 1 6 .2 were answ ered o n ly by t h e t e a c h e r s o f
b e g in n in g l e v e l c l a s s e s , t h e o n ly l e v e l a t which t h e q u e s t i o n s have a
m e a n in g fu l a p p l i c a t i o n .
Item 16, "Do you u s u a l l y t e a c h r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g s k i l l s from th e
s t a r t o f t h e c o u rs e ?

(y e s o r n o ) " and Item 1 6 .1 , " I f y e s , how a r e t h e s e

s k i l l s g e n e r a lly p resen te d ?

( O r a l/ A u r a l th e n r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g , r e a d i n g

and w r i t i n g th en O r a l / A u r a l ) " and Item 1 6 . 2 , " I f t h e answ er i s n o ,
ro u g h ly how many h o u rs o f o r a l / a u r a l i n s t r u c t i o n t a k e p l a c e b e f o r e s t u ­
d e n ts a r e I n tr o d u c e d to r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g ? " were d e s ig n e d t o e l i c i t
in f o r m a ti o n r e g a r d i n g a fu n d am e n ta l p r o p o s i t i o n u n d e r l y i n g t h e O ral
A pproach.

An a f f i r m a t i v e re s p o n s e would i n d i c a t e ig n o ra n c e o r r e j e c t i o n

*See ’’Model o f t h e D i r e c t M ethod" b e g in n in g on page 58 o f t h i s C h a p te r.

39

o f a p r i n c i p a l t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e O ra l Approach and a m etho­
d o l o g i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h t h e D i r e c t M ethod, u n l e s s t h e re s p o n d e n t i n ­
d i c a t e d i n Ite m 1 6 .1 t h a t th e w r i t t e n e x p r e s s i o n p re c e e d e d t h e o r a l /
a u r a l i n s t r u c t i o n , In which c a s e t h e r e s p o n d e n t may be assumed to u se
n e i t h e r o f t h e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d lan g u a g e t e a c h i n g m ethods i n a d e l i b e r ­
a t e and c o n s i s t e n t m anner.

A n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e t o Item 16 i m p l i e s con­

s i s t e n c y w i t h a fu n d am e n ta l t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n o f th e O r a l Approach,
w h ile Item 1 6 .2 t r e a t s a m e th o d o lo g ic a l a s p e c t o f t h e O ra l Approach f o r
which no e m p i r i c a l l y s u p p o r t a b l e i d e a l e x i s t s , b u t which a i d s in th e
a n a l y s i s o f t h e re s p o n s e in te rm s o f t h e d e g re e t o which t h e re s p o n d e n t
em braces t h e p r i n c i p l e .

That i s t o s a y , a v e ry s h o r t p e r i o d o f o r a l /

a u r a l I n s t r u c t i o n b e f o r e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g c o uld v e ry
w e l l be i n t e r p r e t e d a s c o n t r a r y t o O ra l Approach t h e o r y .
F u r t h e r and more d e t a i l e d d a t a r e l e v a n t to t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t io n
above were so u g h t th r o u g h t h e a u d io t a p e p o r t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t .

T h is

p o r t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f tw e lv e sa m p le s o f E n g lis h lan g u a g e t e a c h i n g i n s t r u c ­
t i o n modes w hich were r e c o rd e d i n a c t u a l c la s s ro o m s i t u a t i o n s .

Of t h e

tw e lv e modes, t h r e e had been s e l e c t e d a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e th e o r y
o f t h e O ra l A pproach, t h r e e o f t h e th e o r y o f th e D i r e c t Method, t h r e e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f no r e c o g n i z a b l e th e o r y b a se d la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h ,^ and t h r e e o f a g r a m a a r - t r a n s l a t l o n a p p ro a c h .

Each I n s t r u c t i o n a l mode was

^These t h r e e a c t i v i t i e s , w h i l e o u t s i d e th e p a r a m e te r s o f any c l e a r l y
d e f i n e d a p p ro a c h t o f o r e i g n la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g , may be q u i t e s u i t a b l e
u n d e r c e r t a i n c ir c u m s ta n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e t h i r d exam ple o f t h e s e t which
p o rtra y s a d isc u ssio n a c t iv i t y .

40

o f a p p r o x im a te ly n i n e t y seconds d u r a t i o n and t h e In fo rm a n ts w ere asked
t o respo nd a s t o w h e th e r o r n o t t h e y used a s i m i l a r method o f t e n , oc­
c a s io n a lly but re g u la rly , o c c a sio n a lly , or r a r e ly .

The i n s t r u c t i o n a l

modes r e c o r d e d on th e a u d io ta p e w e re :

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

1: An example o f a p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e d r i l l o f th e
fiv e phases v a rie ty :

i.e .

(a ) frame s e n t e n c e ,

(b) t e a c h e r c u e , ( c ) s t u d e n t re s p o n s e t a r g e t
p a tte r n , (d) tea ch e r c o rr e c tio n - re in fo rc e m e n t,
(e ) s t u d e n t c o r r e c t i o n - r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

2: Minimal p a i r d r i l l .
w ith t e a c h e r model.

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

Phonemes i n m inim al c o n t r a s t
R e p e titio n d r i l l .

3: D ialo gue d r i l l w ith t e a c h e r model e m p h a sizin g
g ra m m a tic a l p a t t e r n s i n c o n t r o l l e d communica­
tio n s itu a tio n .

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

4: Gouin S e r i e s method w i t h t e a c h e r m odel.

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

5: P r o n u n c i a t i o n p r a c t i c e o f d i f f i c u l t sounds n o t i n
phonemic c o n t r a s t .

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

6: S tu d e n ts r e a d i n g a lo u d from t e x t s w ith t e a c h e r m odel.

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

7: S tu d e n ts r e a d i n g a lo u d from t e x t s w i t h o u t t e a c h e r
model.

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

8: S p e l l i n g t e s t s w ith t e a c h e r p ro n o u n cin g words
f o r s t u d e n t s to w r i t e .

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode

9: T each er l e a d i n g a f r e e d i s c u s s i o n o r q u e s t i o n and
answer s e s s i o n .

41

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode 10:

O r a l t r a n s l a t i o n from f o r e i g n la n g u a g e (S p a n ish
on t a p e ) t o E n g lish *

T eacher p ro v id es e x p re s­

s i o n In f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e , s t u d e n t t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
E n g lish .
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode 11:

Same a s above b u t t r a n s l a t i o n p r o c e e d s from
E n g li s h i n t o t h e f o r e i g n la n g u a g e .

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Mode 12:

T r a n s l a t i o n o f a g ra m m a tic a l p o i n t from E n g li s h
i n t o t h e f o r e i g n la n g u a g e .

The above p o r t i o n o f t h e I n s tr u m e n t v a s a l s o employed to h e lp i n
d e te rm in a tio n o f th e r e s e a rc h q u e s tio n :

B.

“What t h e o r e t i c a l - m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p ro a c h , i f a n y , p re d o m in a te s in
t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n a d u l t
e d u c a t i o n p ro g ra m s? 1'
Ite m s 11, 1 2 , 16, 1 6 .1 and 1 6 .2 p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d p ro v id e d

d a t a on predo m inance in a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o i d e n t i f y i n g
a p p ro a c h e s a n d / o r m eth ods.
Ite m 13 , “What i s y o u r n a t i v e la n g u a g e ? " m ig h t seem t o be a th ro w ­
away q u e s t i o n , b u t i t i s n o t .

The o r a l a p p ro a c h u s u a l l y demands a n a t i v e

o r n e a r n a t i v e s p e a k e r t o f u n c t i o n a s a model w h i l e th e D i r e c t Method
p r e f e r s , b u t makes no demands f o r , a n a t i v e m o d el.

However, th e f a c t t h a t

a D i r e c t Method c l a s s n e e d s t o be co n d u cted s o l e l y i n t h e t a r g e t la n g u a g e
would i n d i c a t e t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r n e a r n a t i v e a b i l i t y In t h e t e a c h e r .
e i t h e r c a s e , th e q u e s t i o n i s a t a m e th o d o lo g ic a l l e v e l a s opposed t o a

In

t h e o r e t i c a l o n e .*

C.

"How a r e such program s o r g a n i z e d t o e f f e c t t h e l e a r n i n g o f E n g lis h
by s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s ? "
In a d d i t i o n to t h e ite m s p r e s e n t e d on t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' q u e s­

t i o n n a i r e , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f a more s p e c i f i c n a t u r e were a d d r e s s e d
to t h e t e a c h e r s c o n c e rn in g t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n .

Item s 1 and 2 , p r e ­

v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d , were m a r g in a l in im p o rta n c e t o t h e q u e s t i o n , w h ile
Item s 3, 3 . 1 , 4 , 5 , 6 , and 7 combined w ith r e s p o n s e s from a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,
were u sed t o examine o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e le m e n ts o f th e program s u n d e r i n v e s ­
tig a tio n .
Item 2 , "How many c l a s s e s do you t e a c h a t p r e s e n t ? " and Item 4 ,
"How many s t u d e n t s a r e e n r o l l e d i n e a c h o f y o u r c l a s s e s ? " s e rv e d t h e p u r ­
pose o f d e te r m i n i n g a c t u a l c l a s s s i z e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i d e a l c l a s s
s i z e a s d e te rm in e d by th e r e s p o n s e s to th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' I n s t r u m e n t .
Item 3 , "On what b a s i s a r e s t u d e n t s p la c e d i n t o s p e c i f i c c l a s s e s ?
( E n g li s h la n g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y , n a t i v e la n g u a g e , n e i t h e r o f th e tw o )"
and Item 4 , " I f c l a s s e s a r e b a sed on E n g lis h lan g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y , how
i s t h a t p r o f i c i e n c y d e te r m in e d ? " spoke t o th e m a t t e r o f s t u d e n t p lac em en t
(o r l a c k o f i t ) and m ethods used t o d e te r m in e p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s .

The

ite m s a l s o h e lp e d to a s c e r t a i n th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l e v e l s ta u g h t by th e

* l t i s commonly a c c e p te d t h a t n a t i v e o r n e a r n a t i v e a b i l i t y i n E n g lis h
i s e s s e n t i a l in p r o v i d i n g an a c c u r a t e sp e ec h model f o r t h e n o n - E n g lis h
s p e a k in g s t u d e n t . The p r a c t i c e i n some q u a r t e r s o f h i r i n g a n o n - n a t i v e
s p e a k e r w i t h E n g lis h la n g u a g e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f h i s own t o overcome m ight
h i n d e r r a t h e r th an h e lp th e s t u d e n t s , t h e empathy o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l n o t ­
w i t h s t a n d i n g . T here i s no e m p i r i c a l s u p p o r t f o r t h i s p o s i t i o n , b u t i t i s
a p o p u l a r one among ESL p r a c t i t i o n e r s .

43

s e l e c t e d I n fo r m a n ts and t h e r a t i o o f mixed p r o f i c i e n c y c l a s s e s t o tho se
b a sed on some form o f a b i l i t y g ro u p in g .
Item 5 , "How many h o u rs p e r week does e ac h c l a s s m e e t? " i s s e l f e x p l a n a t o r y a n d , a lt h o u g h th e I n f o r m a tio n i s n o t c r u c i a l , th e r e s p o n s e s
h e lp e d t o c o m p lete th e p i c t u r e o f t h e f o r m a tio n o f c l a s s e s .
Item 6 , "How many langu age b a ckgro und s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n a l l
yo ur c l a s s e s ? " , w h ile n o t p r o v i d in g p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n ,
s e rv e d a s a p i v o t a l p o i n t a g a i n s t which i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e rn in g t e a c h e r
methods co u ld be examined i f n e c e s s a r y .

F o r exam ple, i f t h e r e w ere high

numbers o f r e s p o n s e s f a v o r i n g t r a n s l a t i o n m ethodology and c o rr e s p o n d in g ly
h ig h numbers o f h e t e r o l i n g u i s t i c c l a s s e s , a flaw i n th e i n s t r u c t i o n could
be r e v e a l e d .

A n oth er f u n c t i o n o f th e ite m w as, o f c o u r s e , t o l e a r n from

th e r e s p o n s e s th e n a t u r e o f th e c l a s s e s i n term s o f t h e i r h o m o li n g u i s t ic
o r h e t e r o l i n g u i s t i c m ake-up.
Item 7, " P l e a s e l i s t th e p u b lis h e d t e x t s u se d i n y o u r c l a s s e s . " ,
p r o v id e d a f a i r l y com prehensive b i b l i o g r a p h y o f t e x t m a t e r i a l s , p r e s e n t l y
in use a t e a c h l e v e l o f i n s t r u c t i o n .
Item 10, "What k i n d s o f a u d i o - v i s u a l a i d s do you r e g u l a r l y u se ? "
c o u ld w e l l be c o n s i d e r e d a throw away b e c a u s e such i n f o r m a t i o n , u n le s s
d e t a i l e d th ro u g h d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n t e l l B v e r y l i t t l e a b o u t m ethodology.
However, th e r e s p o n s e s g iv e some u s e f u l d a t a a b o u t th e t y p e s o f A/V a id s
a v a i l a b l e f o r c la s s ro o m i n s t r u c t i o n .

D.

"Does t h e a c t u a l p r e p a r a t i o n o r i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s o f
E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s g e n e r a l l y i n c l u d e s p e c i f i c

44

t r a i n i n g i n th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s
o r t r a i n i n g in a l l i e d f i e l d s su c h a s l i n g u i s t i c s ? 1*
Ite m s 17, 18, 19, and 20 s e e k t o l e a r n t h e d e g re e s h e l d , r e l e v a n t
c o a r s e work t a k e n , t e a c h i n g c r e d e n t i a l s h e l d , and i n s t i t u t e s and workshops
c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h to s p e a k e r s of o t h e r la n g u a g e s a t ­
te n d e d by th e re s p o n d in g t e a c h e r s .

Item 20 , c o n c e rn in g w o rk sh o p s, would

a l s o be a n a ly z e d in te rm s o f th e p r o f e s s i o n a l s u p p o rt a v a i l a b l e t o t h e s e
te a c h e rs.
Item 20, "Are you aw are o f t h e TESOL o r g a n i z a t i o n ? " i s asked to
d e te r m in e w h e th e r o r n o t t h e t e a c h e r s know o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e p r o ­
f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and i t s s e r v i c e s .

Item 2 1 , "Are you a member?",

p r o v i d e s an i n d i c a t i o n o f w h e th er t h e s e s e r v i c e s a r e b e in g used by th e
te a c h e rs.
The f i n a l ite m s on t h e i n s t r u m e n t (23 and an o p t i o n a l r e q u e s t f o r
s u g g e s t i o n s on t r a i n i n g and o t h e r s e r v i c e s t o t e a c h e r s ) spoke t o no
s p e c if ic re se a rc h q u e stio n .
title

Item 23 asked th e t e a c h e r t o i d e n t i f y by

t h e a p p ro a c h he o r sh e u s e d .

I t was o f no p a r t i c u l a r v a lu e to th e

s t u d y , e x c e p t a s a p o s s i b l e means o f com paring t e a c h e r r e s p o n s e s t o t h e
q u e s t i o n w ith what th ey a c t u a l l y d i d i n c l a s s , a s d e te rm in e d by o t h e r
responses.

P o p u la tio n
As i n d i c a t e d in th e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , " I n s t r u m e n t s , " i n f o r m a tio n
was s o l i c i t e d from two s e p a r a t e b u t r e l a t e d p o p u l a t i o n s i n th e S t a t e o f
M ic h ig a n .

The f i r s t g ro u p c o n s i s t e d o f p e r s o n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e admin­

i s t r a t i o n o f a d u l t e d u c a t i o n prog ram s i n p u b l i c s c h o o ls t h r o u g h o u t th e
sta te .

T h is p o p u l a t i o n was l a t e r re d u c e d t o i n c l u d e o n ly th o s e a d m in is -

45

t r a t o r s o f a d u l t e d u c a ti o n program s h a v in g c l a s s e s s p e c i f i c a l l y d e sig n e d
t o t e a c h E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .

T h is r e d u c t i o n was

e f f e c t e d th ro u g h e l i m i n a t i n g a l l program s which d id n o t o f f e r c l a s s e s
In E n g li s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s and a l l program s which com**
b ln ed n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e r s w ith n a t i v e s p e a k e r s o f E n g lis h i n t o th e same
c la ss o r c la ss e s.^
The method employed i n d e te r m in in g t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
who would be q u e r i e d f o r t h e s tu d y In v o lv e d th e u se o f a v e ry b r i e f q u es­
t i o n n a i r e which was m a ile d t o th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f s e v e n t y - e i g h t A d ult
E d u c a tio n prog ram s.

The s e v e n t y - e i g h t who were i n i t i a l l y c o n ta c t e d f o r

th e s t u d y were drawn from a l i s t o f one hundred and t e n a d u l t e d u c a tio n
program s i n th e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n .

With t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f Dr. Jo sep h

T. Hudson, C o o r d i n a t o r , A d u lt E d u c a tio n and Community S e r v ic e P rogram s,
M ichigan D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n , who p ro v id e d th e i n i t i a l l i s t o f one
hundred and t e n , and R ic h a rd J . S m ith, A s s o c ia t e D i r e c t o r o f P r o j e c t ENABEL,
who, a l o n g w ith t h e members o f t h e ENABEL s t a f f , a id e d in th e s e l e c t i o n
o f a d u l t e d u c a ti o n program s most l i k e l y o r m a r g i n a l l y l i k e l y t o have nonE n g lis h s p e a k in g c o n s t i t u e n c i e s , a p r e l i m i n a r y m a i l in g was p r e p a re d and
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w ere s e n t t o th e s e v e n t y - e i g h t a d u l t e d u c a ti o n a d m i n i s t r a ­
t o r s on J a n u a ry 31, 1972.
T h is m a i l in g y i e l d e d a r e t u r n o f e i g h t y - s i x p e r c e n t , o r s i x t y seven r e s p o n s e s .

The n o n - r e s p o n d in g e le v e n were l a t e r c o n ta c t e d by phone

and i t was a s c e r t a i n e d t h a t program s i n E n g lis h f o r s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r
la n g u a g e s were n o t o f f e r e d .

Of t h e s i x t y - s e v e n r e s p o n d e n t s , f o r t y - t h r e e

^ T h is p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n r e c e i v e s comment i n C h a p te r V.

46

had n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e r s e n r o l l e d i n c l a s s e s , but i n t e n o f t h e s e p ro ­
grams i t was s u b s e q u e n tly l e a r n e d t h a t n o n -E n g lis h s p e a k e r s w ere I n t e g r a t e d
i n t o th e g e n e r a l a d u l t e d u c a tio n c u r r i c u lu m .
T h i s , t h e n , l e f t t h i r t y - t h r e e a d u l t e d u c a tio n prog ram s which o f f e r e d
c l a s s e s e s p e c i a l l y d e s ig n e d t o t e a c h E n g lis h to n o n - E n g lis h sp e a k in g
a d u lts.

The a d m i n i s t r a t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s e p r o ­

grams form one group from whom i n f o r m a ti o n r e g a r d i n g c l a s s e s i n E n g lis h t o
s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s was s o u g h t.
The i n s tr u m e n t u se d to e s t a b l i s h t h e fo r e g o in g l i s t o f in f o r m a n ts
a l s o f u n c t i o n e d a s a v e h i c l e th ro u g h which t h e number and names o f a d u l t
e d u c a ti o n t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s was a s c e r ­
ta in e d .

Each a d m i n i s t r a t o r was a sked t o s u p p ly th e names o f c la ss ro o m

i n s t r u c t o r s in h i s program s i n c l u d i n g a component o f E n g lis h f o r s p e a k e r s
o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .

One hundred and e i g h t y - s i x names were th u s o b ta in e d

from t h e f o r t y - t h r e e p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s .

Twenty o f t h e s e from t e n p ro ­

grams w ere e li m in a te d from th e p o p u l a t i o n due to t h e f a c t t h a t th e y t a u g h t
c l a s s e s i n which E n g lis h s p e a k e r s and n o n -E n g lis h s p e a k e r s were c o m b in ed .*■
The re m a in in g one hundred and s i x t y - s i x t e a c h e r s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e second
p o p u l a t i o n from which e i g h t y - f i v e t e a c h e r s w ere s e l e c t e d a s i n f o r m a n ts .
To sum m arize, d a t a were o b ta in e d and used from two p o p u l a t i o n s :
1)

A d m i n is tr a t o r s o f t h i r t y o f th e t h i r t y - t h r e e A d u lt E d u catio n program s
in th e S t a t e of M ichigan w h ic h , i n e a r l y 1972, had c o u rs e o f f e r i n g s
i n E n g li s h , s p e c i f i c a l l y and e x c l u s i v e l y f o r s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s ;
and

^ U h lle i t would b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o s t u d y combined c l a s s e s , i t i s f e l t
t h a t such a s i t u a t i o n i s w orthy o f s e p a r a t e a t t e n t i o n , and i t i s n o t
w i t h i n t h e purview o f t h i s s t u d y .

47

2)

E i g h t y - f i v e c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r s o f E n g li s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s
s e l e c t e d by P r o j e c t ENABEL p e r s o n n e l from t w e n t y - f i v e o f th o s e
A d u lt E d u c a tio n p ro g ra m s.

P ro c e d u re s f o r G a th e rin g Data
Many o f t h e s t e p s ta k e n t o c o l l e c t t h e d a t a f o r t h i s d e s c r i p t i v e
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s tu d y have been o u t l i n e d i n t h e im m e d ia te ly p r e c e e d l n g
s e c tio n of t h i s c h a p te r.

However, i t seems a p p r o p r i a t e t o r e i t e r a t e

and expand t h o s e s t e p s a t t h i s p o i n t .
F i r s t , a p r e l i m i n a r y r e q u e s t f o r i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e rn in g c l a s s o f f e r ­
i n g s i n E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s was s e n t on J a n u a r y
31, 1972 t o A d u lt E d u c a tio n A d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n th e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n .

T h is

p r e l i m i n a r y I n s t r u m e n t a sk ed w h e th e r th e ABE program s c o n t a c t e d had such
c o u rs e o f f e r i n g s , a n d , i f s o , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w ere a sk ed t o s u p p ly th e
names o f th e t e a c h e r s o f such pro gram s.

T h is c e n s u s was s u c c e s s f u l in

i d e n t i f y i n g a l l o f t h e A d u lt B a s ic E d u c a tio n program s w ith c l a s s e s in
E n g lis h f o r s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n t h e S t a t e . *

The r e s p o n s e to

s e v e n t y - e i g h t r e q u e s t s may be summarized a s f o l l o w s :
A.

Number o f I n s tr u m e n ts s e n t ........................................... 78

B* T o t a l number o f R e sp o n se s ...................................... 67
C.

Number o f program s h a v ing no c l a s s e s

fo r non-

E n g lis h s p e a k e r s (from c e n s u s ) ......................... 24
D.

Number o f program s w ith n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e r s
e n r o l l e d ........................................................

^■Verified by P r o j e c t ENABEL.

43

48

E.

Number o f t e a c h e r s employed a s t e a c h e r s o f
E n g lish to sp e ak e rs o f o th e r la n g u a g e s .

186

The e le v e n n o n -re s p o n d in g program s w ere i d e n t i f i e d by ENABEL s t a f f a t
t h e tim e o f t h e s u r v e y a s n o t h a v in g c l a s s e s i n E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f
o t h e r la n g u a g e s , and no f o llo w - u p t o t h i s m a i l i n g was n e c e s s a r y .
The n e x t p h a se o f t h e d a t a g a t h e r i n g p r o c e d u r e In v o lv e d s e n d in g
t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f t h e program s re s p o n d in g to
th e f i r s t re q u e s t f o r in fo rm a tio n .

A c o v e r l e t t e r was p r e p a r e d and t h e

q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w ere m a ile d on March 9 , 1972 t o t h e 43 re s p o n d e n ts
who i n d i c a t e d th e y had c l a s s e s i n E n g li s h f o r n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e r s .

The

r e s p o n s e t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was a s f o l l o w s :
A.

T o t a l number o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s m a i l e d .................... 43

B.

T o t a l number o f r e s p o n s e s ............... .............................40

C.

Number of u s a b l e r e s p o n s e s . . . . .................................. 301

No fo llo w - u p was deemed n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e o f t h e r e s p o n s e s o b t a i n e d .
The f i n a l p h a s e o f t h e d a t a g a t h e r i n g p r o c e d u r e was somewhat more
complex due t o t h e n a t u r e o f th e r e s e a r c h i n s t r u m e n t , tim e p r e s s u r e ,
and economic f a c t o r s .

I t had o r i g i n a l l y been p la n n e d t o m a il a p a p e r

and p e n c i l q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o a l l o f t h e t e a c h e r s o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s
o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i d e n t i f i e d by t h e f i r s t and secon d m a i l i n g s .

How­

e v e r , a m ajo r a l t e r a t i o n i n t h e form o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t was d e c id e d upon

^ T h is m a i l in g r e v e a l e d t h a t te n o f t h e r e s p o n d e n ts o r i g i n a l l y c la im in g
t o have c l a s s e s i n E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s a c t u a l l y combined
n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e r s and n a t i v e s p e a k e r s i n t o t h e same c l a s s e s and were n o t
In c lu d e d i n th e s t u d y . The one n o n - re s p o n d e n t was l a t e r i d e n t i f i e d
th ro u g h t h e t e a c h e r s ' s u rv e y a s h a v in g s p e c i f i c c l a s s e s f o r n o n - E n g lis h
s p e a k e r s . Two o t h e r s d id n o t resp o n d t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' s u rv e y b u t
c la im e d o r i g i n a l l y t o have su c h c l a s s e s ; t h e s e w ere c o r r o b o r a t e d by th e
t e a c h e r s ' s u r v e y . A t o t a l o f t h i r t y - t h r e e program s w ere t h u s I d e n t i f i e d .

49

to make i t more e x t e r n a l l y c r e d i b l e th a n i t had b e e n , and s i n c e t h i s
change In vo lv ed t h e u s e o f a u d io ta p e c a s s e t t e s r e q u i r i n g f a i r l y e l a b ­
o r a t e t e c h n iq u e s o f d e l i v e r y and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a t t e m p t i n g t o r e a c h a l l
o f t h e p o t e n t i a l in f o r m a n ts would have b een f a r too c o s t l y , and would
have r e q u i r e d more tim e th a n th e r a p i d l y c l o s i n g s c h o o l y e a r would a llo w .
C o n se q u e n tly , a p la n was d e v is e d f o r d e l i v e r i n g p a c k e ts c o n t a i n i n g
one a u d io ta p e c a s s e t t e i n c l u d i n g tw e lv e exam ples of lan g u a g e t e a c h in g
i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes, accompanied by q u e s t i o n n a i r e forms s u f f i c i e n t in
q u a n t i t y f o r c o m p le tio n by a l l of th e t a r g e t i n s t r u c t o r s .

These p a c k e ts

were p r e p a re d and s e n t by m a ll on A p r i l 1, 1972 t o i n d i v i d u a l s in each
o f th e programs where c l a s s e s i n E n g lis h f o r s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r lan g u a g es
were o f f e r e d .

These i n d i v i d u a l s , t e a c h e r s a n d /o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , who

had been in v o lv e d a s p a r t i c i p a n t s in P r o j e c t ENABEL and who had been
i d e n t i f i e d by t h e a s s o c i a t e d i r e c t o r o f t h e P r o j e c t , were asked to
asse m b le t e a c h e r s a t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e lo c a tio n s^ - and a d m i n i s t e r th e
q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o them.

T h is p r o c e d u re produced r e s p o n s e s from e i g h t y - f i v e

te a c h e r s ^ in t w e n t y - f i v e d i f f e r e n t program s - one h a l f of a l l such known
t e a c h e r s and s e v e n t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f a l l program s o f f e r i n g c l a s s e s in
E n g lis h t o s p e a k e rs o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .

A nalyzing t h e Data
The d a t a , w ith th e e x c e p tio n of d a t a c o n c e rn in g t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h ,
a r e t r e a t e d in C h a p te r IV i n sim p le fre q u e n c y t a b l e s from which g e n e r­
a l i z e d d e s c r i p t i o n s w i l l be drawn.

^The l e t t e r and i n s t r u c t i o n s s e n t a r e in c lu d e d i n Appendix A.
A c t u a l l y , t h e r e were 97 r e s p o n s e s , b u t tw e lv e were n o t i n c l u d e d .
Ten o f th o s e were o n ly h a lf - c o m p l e t e d and two were from t e a c h e r a i d e s .

50

The d a t a c o n c e rn in g a p p ro a c h a r e a n a ly z e d i n r e l a t i o n t o two
la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h m o d e ls, t h e O ra l Approach and t h e D i r e c t Method.
T hat i s , r e s p o n s e s to q u e s t i o n n a i r e ite m s c o n c e r n i n g a p p ro a c h , and r e s p o n s e s
t o th e au d io t a p e p o r t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t a r e examined t o d e te r m in e
w h ether o r n o t th ey conform t o a s p e c t s o f e i t h e r of t h e two m o d e ls, and
th e d e g re e o f c o n fo rm ity w hich o b t a i n s (a) among a l l in f o r m a n ts and
(b) w i t h i n t h e p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s o f t h e c l a s s e s t a u g h t by th e i n f o r m a n t s .
In c a s e s w here r e s p o n s e s conform n e i t h e r t o one o r t o th e o t h e r ( t h e
a u d io ta p e p o r t i o n a llo w s f o r r e s p o n s e s to a t r a n s l a t i o n a p p ro a c h and
a " n o n - a p p r o a c h " ) , th e r e s p o n s e s a r e a n a ly z e d a s t o t h e i r a c c e p t a b i l i t y
a s a c t i v i t i e s a n c i l l a r y o r c o m p lim e n ta ry to e i t h e r o r b o th o f t h e m od els.
A s y n t h e s i s o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l / m e t h o d o l o g i c a l lan g u a g e te a c h i n g m odels
f o llo w s :
The O ra l A p proach :

Modern t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r

la n g u a g e s h a s i t s r o o t s i n t h e t h e o r i e s of l i n g u i s t i c s and p sy c h o lo g y ;
s p e c i f i c a l l y in s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t i c s and b e h a v o r i a l p s y c h o l o g y .1

That

i s n o t to s a y t h a t o t h e r t h e o r i s t s , l i n g u i s t i c and p s y c h o l o g i c a l , have
n o t q u e s t io n e d th e t h e o r i e s u n d e r l y i n g c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s .

T ran sfo rm atio n al

gram m arians su c h a s Chomsky^ and C a r r o l l ^ h ave s e r i o u s l y c h a l le n g e d th o s e

H f ilg a M. R i v e r s , "From S k i l l A c q u i s i t i o n to Language C o n t r o l , "
TKSOL Q u a r t e r l y 3 (March, 1 9 6 9 ), p p . 3-12.
^Noum Chomsky, "A Review o f B. F . S k i n n e r 's V erbal B e h a v i o r ,"
The S t r u c t u r e o f Language: R eadings in th e P h ilo s o p h y o f L anguage,
e d s . J . Fodor and J . K a tz , (Englewood C l i f f s :
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1 9 6 4 ).
pp. 547-48.
3John B. C a r r o l l , " R e se a rc h i n F o r e ig n Language T e a c h in g : The L a s t
F iv e Y e a r s ," R e p o rts on t h e Working Com m ittees o f t h e 1966 N o r t h e a s t
C on feren ce on th e T ea ch in g o f F o r e ig n L an g u a g es, e d . by R o b e rt G. Mead,
(M lnasha, W I b c . : George B anta Company, I n c . , 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 1 2 -5 8 . C a r r o l l
more r e c e n t l y h as n o te d t h a t t h e two t h e o r i e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m u tu a lly

t h e o r i e s , and t h e i r q u e s t i o n s and t h e q u e s t i o n s o f many o t h e r s s i n c e have
r e s u l t e d i n a t h e o r e t i c a l dichotom y am ounting a lm o s t t o a sc h is m betw een
t h e s t r u c t u r a l l s t / b e h a v l o r l s t and t r a n s f o r m a t l o n a l i s t / c o g n i t i v i s t s c h o o l s
o f la n g u a g e l e a r n i n g .

However, i t i s n o t t h e p u rp o s e o f t h i s s t u d y t o

p re s e n t a l l s id e s of th e p re s e n t t h e o r e t i c a l c o n tro v e rsy ; i t i s r a t h e r ,
t o p r e s e n t a model b a se d on c u r r e n t l y a c c e p t a b l e p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n th e
p r o f e s s i o n o f t e a c h i n g E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n g u g a g e s , and t o u se
i t a s one model f o r d e s c r i p t i o n o f p r a c t i c e s i n a d u l t e d u c a ti o n program s
and a s a p rim a ry b a s i s f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f p r a c t i c e s .
The o r a l a p p ro a c h model i s drawn l a r g e l y from t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s t /
b e h a v i o r l s t t h e o r i e s w id e ly employed i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h t o
s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s , and upon w hich t h e o r a l a p p ro a c h i s b a s e d .
The p o s i t i o n o f a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s t s c h o o l a s t h e b a s i s f o r
recom m endations and c o n c l u s i o n s i s ta k e n i n t h i s p a p e r b e c a u s e , a c c o r d in g
to Ney:
. . . i t would a p p e a r t h a t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l gram m arians
employed i n la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g have b a s i c a l l y u t i t l i z e d
t h e o r a l a p p ro a c h o r t h e a u d i o - l i n g u a l h a b i t th e o r y
w i t h o n ly a few m o d i f i c a t i o n s , r e g a r d l e s s o f what t h e
le a d in g t h e o r e ti c ia n s in th e f i e l d o f tra n s fo rm a tio n a l
l i n g u i s t i c s have sa id .^M oreover, e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s s u c h a s t h o s e c o n d u cted by S c h e r e r and
W erthlem er^ and J a n e W. T o rre y ^ among o t h e r s have p r e s e n t e d e v id e n c e

e x c l u s i v e i n a la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g s i t u a t i o n . S e e : Jo h n B. C a r r o l l , " C u rre n t
I s s u e s i n P s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s and Second Language T e a c h i n g ," TESOL Q u a r t e r l y 5
( J u n e , 1 9 7 1 ), p p . 1 01-1 14.
^James W. Ney, "The O ra l Approach:
XVIII ( J u n e , 1 9 6 8 ), p . 12.

A R e a p p r a i s a l , " Language L e a rn in g

2George A. S c h e r e r and M ic h a e l W e rth ie m e r, A P s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c E xperim ent
i n F o r e ig n Language T e a c h in g . (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill, 1 9 6 4 ).
^ Ja n e W. T o r r e y , "The L e a r n in g o f G ram m atical P a t t e r n s , " The J o u r n a l
o f V e rb a l L e a r n in g and V e rb a l B e h a v io r 3 , 1969, p p . 3 6 0 -6 8 .

52

i n s u p p o r t o f t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e o r a l a pproach o v e r o t h e r , more
t r a d i t i o n a l a p p ro a c h e s , w h ile no e m p i r i c a l d a t a e x i s t s s u p p o r t i n g t h e
p r a c tic a l a p p lic a tio n of tra n s fo rm a tio n a lis t th e o rie s .
In t h e m odel, t h r e e d i v i s i o n s o f te rm in o lo g y s u g g e s te d by Anthony*w i l l be employed.

The term s a r e APPROACH, METHOD and TECHNIQUE, w ith

APPROACH d e a l i n g w ith t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s , METHOD d e a l i n g w ith
t e a c h i n g s t r a t e g i e s , m a t e r i a l s , t e a c h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , and o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s drawn from and c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e t h e o r e t i c a l a p p ro a c h ,
and TECHNIQUE d e a l i n g w ith a c t u a l c la s s ro o m p r a c t i c e s i n harmony w i t h
b o th APPROACH and METHOD.
a r e a m p l i f i e d In t h e m odel.

The b r i e f d e f i n i t i o n s o f APPROACH and METHOD
As f o r TECHNIQUE, i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e

w h e th er te c h n lg u e can be a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d o r e v a l u a t e d s i n c e , a s
Anthony s a y s , "T ech n iq u es depend on t h e t e a c h e r , h i s i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t r y
and on t h e c o m p o s itio n o f t h e c l a s s . B e c a u s e

t h i s a s p e c t o f th e

a p p ro a c h r e q u i r e s s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n from p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n , i t
i s n o t germane to t h e p u rp o se o f t h i s s t u d y .
THE MODEL
Approach - As s t a t e d e a r l i e r , t h e m ost w id e ly a c c e p te d and p r a c t i c e d
a p p ro a c h among p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e t e a c h i n g of E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s
of o t h e r la n g u a g e s i s th e o r a l a p p ro a c h , sometimes c a l l e d t h e l i n g u i s t i c

*Edward M. Anthony, "A pproach, Method and T e c h n iq u e ," T eaching
E n g lis h a s a Second L anguage, ed, by H arold B. A l l e n , (New York:
M cG raw -H ill, 19 65), pp. 93-9 7.
2 I b i d . , p . 96.

53

o r a u d i o - l i n g u a l a p p ro a c h .

The f o llo w in g p r o p o s i t i o n s , i t i s g e n e r a l l y

a c c e p te d , u n d e r l y th e a p p ro a c h :
1.

Language i s used by human b e i n g s f o r th e p u rp o se o f com­
m u n ic a tio n .

2.

A lan g u ag e i s i n t e r n a l l y s y s t e m a t i c and may, t h e r e f o r e , be
s y s te m a tic a lly d e scrib e d .

3.

A lan g u a g e i s a s e t o f h a b i t s and langu age l e a r n i n g i s a
p r o c e s s o f h a b i t f o r m a tio n .

4.

H a b its a r e b e s t le a rn e d th r o u g h c o n d i t i o n i n g .

5.

Language i s p r i m a r i l y an o r a l - a u r a l phenomenon, and a f u l l
and a c c r u a t c d e s c r i p t i o n o f a lan g u a g e m u st b e g in w i t h a
d e s c r i p t i o n o f i t a s i t i s sp o k e n .

6.

L eo rning a language f o r f u l l com m unication i n v o lv e s th e
developm ent o f s k i l l s in f o u r s e p a r a t e a r e a s :

lis te n in g ,

s p e a k in g , r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g .
7.

Since o r a l - a u r a l language i s p r im a r y , o r a l / a u r a l s k i l l B
should b e re a s o n a b ly w e ll m a s te r e d b e f o r e i n s t r u c t i o n in
re a d in g and w r i t i n g i s i n a u g u r a t e d .

8.

Since no two lan g u a g es a r e s t r u c t u r e d e x a c t l y a l i k e , h a b i t s
from t h e f i r s t language o f a n i n d i v i d u a l may i n t e r f e r e w ith
th e a c q u i s i t i o n of second la n g u a g e h a b i t s .

^These p r o p o s i t i o n s a s w e ll a s th e m e th o d o lo g ic a l s t a t e m e n t s which
fo llo w a r e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d a s fu n d am e n ta l t o th e o r a l a p p ro a c h and
a r e s y n t h e s i z e d from numerous w orks, t h e c i t i n g of w hich would be of
l i t t l e p o s i t i v e v a l u e . The c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e model h a s been a s s u r e d
by th e r e s e a r c h e r ' s c o g n a t e a r e a a d v i s o r , and a s e p a r a t e b i b l i o g r a p h y
from which t h e model h a s been drawn a p p e a r s i n Appendix C.

5A

9.

A lan g u ag e i a a p r o d u c t o f t h e c u l t u r e I t a r t i c u l a t e s and
sh o u ld be l e a r n e d In t h e c o n t e x t o f t h a t c u l t u r e .

Method - The term METHOD I n t h i s s t u d y , u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e n o t e d , con­
n o t e s t h e p r o c e d u r a l a s p e c t s of a program o f t e a c h i n g E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s
o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .

Such c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a s i n s t r u c t i o n a l s t r a t e g i e s ,

m a t e r i a l s , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a rr a n g e m e n ts (g ro u p in g e . g . ) , and t e a c h e r
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a r e t r e a t e d u n d e r t h i s h e a d in g .
1.

In stru c tio n a l S tra te g ie s.
1 .1 .

Based i n th e t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h , a program of t e a c h i n g E n g lis h
t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s w i l l a d d r e s s i t s e l f f i r s t t o t h e
developm ent of o r a l / a u r a l s k i l l s , th e n t o r e a d in g and w r i t i n g .
(Not b e in g c o n c e rn e d w ith l i t e r a c y , t h i s s tu d y w i l l n o t d e a l
w i t h r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g beyond t h e i r p o i n t o f i n c l u s i o n i n t o
t h e c u r r ic u lu m i n r e l a t i o n t o o r a l / a u r a l s k i l l s inasmuch a s
modern lan g u a g e t e a c h i n g t h e o r y d o e s n o t embrace t h e s e s k i l l s
i n any s y s t e m a t i c m an n e r.)

1 .2 .

The O ra l Approach demands t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l s and i n s t r u c t i o n
i n a program o f t e a c h i n g E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s of o t h e r la n g u a g e s
be b a se d on l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s of spoken E n g l i s h , i n c l u d i n g
p h o n o lo g y , m orphology and s y n t a x . T hat i s , th e sy s te m of
s i g n i f i c a n t s p e e c h sounds o f a la n g u a g e , t h e system o f word
f o r m a tio n o f a la n g u a g e , and t h e sy stem o f s e n te n c e fo rm a tio n
(word o r d e r ) .

1 .2 .1 .

Phonology
I n s t r u c t i o n in phonology i n c l u d e s p r o n u n c i a t i o n and o r a l d i s c r i ­
m in a tio n p r a c t i c e o f a l l o f th e s e g m e n ta l phonemes o f E n g li s h ,
p r e s e n t e d i n m inim al c o n t r a s t . Such p r a c t i c e s h o u ld o b t a i n
th ro u g h o u t a program i n r e l a t i v e l y sm a ll se g m en ts, e m p h a siz in g ,
i f p o s s i b l e , t h o s e phonemic c o n t r a s t s p r e d i c t a b l y d i f f i c u l t f o r
s p e a k e r s o f c e r t a i n la n g u a g e s ; e . g . , / b / - / v / and / i / - / i y / co n­
t r a s t s f o r s p e a k e r s of S p a n is h . In a d d i t i o n to m inim al p a i r
d r i l l , p r a c t i c e i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f E n g li s h su p ra s e g m e n ta l
phonemes, ( s t r e s s and i n t o n a t i o n ) , a r e p a r t o f phonology i n ­
s t r u c t i o n * No p a r t i c u l a r o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n i s a d v o ca te d
by t h e o r a l a p p ro a c h .

1 .2 .2 .

S yn tax and Morphology
C e n t r a l t o th e o r a l a p p ro a c h i s t h e p o w e rfu l i d e a o f p a t t e r n
p r a c t i c e . P a t t e r n p r a c t i c e i n v o l v e s t h e d r i l l i n g o f s y n t a c t i c and
morphemic p a t t e r n s i n su c h a way a s to e n co u rag e t h e i n t e r n a l i ­
z a tio n of th e p a tt e r n s as h a b i t s .

55

A s y s t e m a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e r e v e a l s t h a t
t h e r e i s a h i e r a r c h y of d i f f i c u l t y i n th e la n g u a g e s t r u c t u r e s
d e te rm in e d by t h e number o f la n g u a g e o p e r a t i o n s ( t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s )
r e q u i r e d t o p ro d u ce th e t a r g e t p a t t e r n . ^ T h u s, p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e
i s o r g a n iz e d t o p ro c e e d from t h e s i m p l e s t t o t h e most d i f f i c u l t
la n g u a g e p a t t e r n s o v e r a c o u rs e o f s t u d y . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of
new p a t t e r n s assum es a m a s te ry o f p r e v io u s p a t t e r n s . P a t t e r n
p r a c t i c e d r i l l s a r e o rg a n iz e d t o a llo w s t u d e n t s t o p e rfo rm
s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f d r i l l s in l e a r n i n g t h e same t a r g e t
p a t t e r n . R e p e t i t i o n , s u b s t i t u t i o n , e x p a n sio n and t r a n s f o r m a ­
t i o n d r i l l s a r e c o n s id e r e d e f f e c t i v e i n p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e and
as many a s p o s s i b l e sh o u ld be employed i n d r i l l i n g a t a r g e t
p a tte rn .
(A n o t e a b o u t v o c a b u la r y i s in o r d e r h e r e . Because o f i t s
em phasis on g ram m atica l s t r u c t u r e , th e o r a l ap p ro a ch seems
t o t r e a t v o c a b u la r y i n s t r u c t i o n r a t h e r c a s u a l l y b e c a u s e ,
most l i k e l y , o f t h e a b se n c e of work l i s t s i n much i n s t r u c ­
t i o n a l m a t e r i a l . However, v o c a b u la ry i s c o n s i d e r e d im p o r t a n t ,
d i f f e r i n g from more t r a d i t i o n a l a p p ro a c h e s i n th e manner in
which i t i s viewed a s a component o f th e c u r r i c u lu m . Some
a p p ro a c h e s view v o c a b u la r y i n s t r u c t i o n a s t h e main o r g a n i ­
z in g e le m e n t o f t h e c u rr ic u lu m ; t h e o r a l a p p ro a c h view s i t
a s i m p o r t a n t , b u t se c o n d a ry in im p o rtan c e t o grammar. Voca­
b u l a r y i s t a u g h t i n th e c o n te x t o f p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e a lo n g
w ith s t r u c t u r a l m eaning. T r a n s l a t i o n o f w ords f o r th e s t u ­
d e n ts i s n o t p r o h i b i t e d ; however i n h e t e r o l i n g u i s t i c g ro u p s ,
t r a n s l a t i o n i s I m p o s s ib le and d i r e c t a s s o c i a t i o n i s an a c ­
c e p t a b l e method o f t e a c h i n g v o c a b u la r y .
1 .2 .3 .

D ia lo g u e s
In a d d i t i o n to p r o n u n c i a t i o n and p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e , d i a l o g u e s
a r e c o n s i d e r e d im p o r ta n t i n a program of E n g li s h a s a Second
Language. D ia lo g u e s can be used t o i n t r o d u c e new p a t t e r n s ,
o r th e y can be employed t o g iv e f u r t h e r p r a c t i c e i n p a t t e r n s
a lre a d y d r i l l e d .
In e i t h e r c a s e , d i a l o g u e s p r o v id e a con­
t e x t i n which t a r g e t p a t t e r n s have com m unicative s e n s e and
h e lp t o b u i l d tow ard f r e e c o n v e r s a t i o n . D ia lo g u e s sh o u ld be
s h o r t and r e l a t i v e l y e asy t o m em orize, and th e y sh o u ld em­
p h a s i z e t h e u se o f t a r g e t p a t t e r n s i n p r a c t i c a l , c o n v e rs a ­
tio n a l s itu a tio n s .

1 .2 .4 .

M a terials
A ll i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s a r e s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f
t h e i r c o n s i s t e n c y w ith t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s of t h e
o r a l a p p ro a c h .

*T his i d e a , i m p l i c i t i n s t r u c t u r a l i s t t h e o r y , h a s been e x p l i c i t l y
d e s c r i b e d in t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l i s t w r i t i n g s .

56

A ll I n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , a s f u l l y a s p o s s i b l e , r e f l e c t
t h e g e n e r a l c u l t u r e of t h e p e o p le o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , and
t h e s u b c u l t u r e , i f p o s s i b l e , o f t h e r e g i o n i n which th e
lea rn er re s id e s .
2.

O rg a n iz a tio n a l C o n sid e ra tio n s .
2 .1 .

P ro fic ie n c y g ro u p in g .
S tu d e n ts a r e g ro u p e d i n c l a s s e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r p r o f i c i e n c y
i n t h e E n g li s h la n g u a g e , ra n g in g from z e r o p r o f i c i e n c y on u p ,
d e te r m in e d by some form of la n g u a g e t e s t i n g .
(For c o l l e g i a t e
n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e r s , t e s t i n g i s u s u a l l y v e r y e l a b o r a t e ;
how ever, no r e l i a b l e t e s t s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r n o n - c o l l e g i a t e
a d u l t s p e a k e r s o f o th e r l a n g u a g e s . )
The l a b e l i n g o f p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s , b e g i n n i n g , i n t e r m e d i a t e ,
and adv an ced i s a w idely used c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system b o th f o r
p la c e m e n t^ and o r g a n i z a t i o n of I n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n t e n t .

2 .2 .

3.

O r g a n i z a t i o n o f C l a s s C o n te n t.
Depending on t h e l e v e l o f i n s t r u c t i o n , e a c h c l a s s p e rio d
o f f e r s p r o p o r t i o n a t e i n s t r u c t i o n i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n and a u r a l
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e s and d i a l o g u e s , w ith p a t t e r n
p r a c t i c e consum ing th e l a r g e s t p o r t i o n o f tim e a t th e lower
l e v e l s o f I n s t r u c t i o n . Reading and w r i t i n g a r e n o t i n t r o ­
duced i n t o t h e c u r r ic u lu m u n t i l s t u d e n t s h a v e had e q u i v a l e n t
o f 75 t o 100 h o u r s o f o r a l / a u r a l w ork. O r a l p r a c t i c e i s n e v e r
abandoned i n an o r a l app ro ach o r i e n t e d p ro g ra m , b u t might
t a k e form s o t h e r th a n th o s e p r e v i o u s l y o u t l i n e d . Free d i s c u s ­
s i o n , g r a m m a tic a l e x p la n a t i o n and f o r e n s i c a c t i v i t i e s a r e
exam ples o f f r e q u e n t l y used a c t i v i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y in more
advanced l e v e l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

Q u a lific a tio n s of I n s tr u c to r s .
3 .1 .

T e a c h e rs o f E n g l i s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s sh o u ld be
t r a i n e d i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n ­
g u a g e s. The t y p e o f t r a i n i n g h a s been o u t l i n e d p r e v i o u s l y
i n g e n e r a l t e r m s ; a more s p e c i f i c s t a t e m e n t on t e a c h e r p r e ­
p a r a t i o n a p p e a r s I n th e a p p e n d ix . When t r a i n e d p e rs o n n e l
a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r c la ssro o m d u t i e s , p e r s o n n e l a r e made
a v a i l a b l e t o s u p e r v i s e t h e c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r s .

* S ee, f o r e x am p le , t h e E n g lish P r o f i c i e n c y C h a r t produced by th e
Commission on I n t e n s i v e E n g l i s h Programs (CIEP) u n d e r th e a u s p i c e s of
t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f T e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h a s a Second Language and t h e
F i e l d S e r v ic e P rogram , (W ash in gto n, D. C .i N a t i o n a l A s s o c ia t io n f o r
F o r e ig n S tu d e n t A f f a i r s ) , 1971.

57

3 .2 .

Each c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r sh o u ld be a n a t i v e s p e a k e r o f E n g lis h
o r a n e a r - n a t i v e s p e a k e r i n o r d e r t o p r e s e n t an a c c u r a t e
l i n g u i s t i c m odel f o r s t u d e n t s ' i m i t a t i o n .

The D i r e c t M ethod;

As s t a t e d e ls e w h e r e i n t h i s s t u d y , t h e D i r e c t Method

o f t e a c h i n g f o r e i g n la n g u a g e e n jo y e d a p e r i o d o f w ide p o p u l a r i t y ,
e s p e c i a l l y i n E urope, In th e e a r l y 1 9 0 0 's .

The p o p u l a r i t y o f t h i s

sy stem o f la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s was n e v e r
w e l l documented by la n g u a g e r e s e a r c h e r s , and i t was assumed t o have
e x p ir e d h e re sometime i n t h e mid 1 9 2 0 's - th e same tim e i t
g r a c e i n E u r o p e .1

f e l l from

T h is i s p r o b a b ly t r u e i n th e c a s e of f o r e i g n la n g u a g e

t e a c h i n g i n c o l l e g e s and h ig h s c h o o l s w here th e D i r e c t Method n e v e r g a in e d
t h e w ide a c c e p ta n c e t h a t i t had i n E urope.

However, no d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e

i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e D i r e c t Method a s t o i t s Im pact on t h e t e a c h i n g of
E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n program s d e s ig n e d f o r new immi­
g r a n t s t o t h e U n ited S t a t e s , o r i n f o r e i g n la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g s i t u a t i o n s
away from c o l l e g i a t e o r s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l a tm o s p h e r e s .

R e ce n t lan g u a g e

t e a c h i n g s t u d i e s have a s c e r t a i n e d t h a t t h e D i r e c t Method h a s p ro b a b ly
s u r v iv e d In a t l e a s t one p r o p r i e t a r y la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g s c h o o l in th e
U n ited S t a t e s , ^ and t h e Method haB q u i t e p o s s i b l y s u r v iv e d i n program s
o f t e a c h i n g E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s s p o n s o re d by a d u l t
e d u c a ti o n o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; th e l i t e r a t u r e o f a d u l t e d u c a ti o n c o n t a i n s many

^W illiam F r a n c i s Mackey, Language T ea ch in g A n a l y s i s . (London:
Longmans, 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 144-151,
^Hughes, " L i n g u i s t i c s and Language T e a c h i n g ," p . 37.

58

r e f e r e n c e s t o th e D i r e c t Method, even i n v e ry r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s , b u t
th* l i t e r a t u r e does n o t o f f e r i n s i g h t i n t o th e b r e a d t h of a p p l i c a t i o n o f
t h i ap p ro a ch o r d e s c r i p t i o n o f i t s u s e .
**

S in c e t h i s s tu d y p ro p o s e s t o d e s c r i b e a c t i v i t i e s i n th e t e a c h i n g
o f i E n g l i s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n a d u l t e d u c a tio n p ro g ra m s,
it! s e e m s a p p r o p r i a t e t o a tte m p t a model o f th e D i r e c t Method s i m i l a r i n
fotrm t o t h e p r e v i o u s model t o a i d in t h e d e s c r i p t i o n .

The m odel,

latrg ely due t o th e a b se n c e o f r e c e n t t h e o r e t i c a l and m e th o d o lo g ic a l works
ini th e a r e a of th e D i r e c t Method, w i l l n o t be us w e l l d e t a i l e d o r docu­
mented us t h e o r a l ap p ro a ch m odel.

R e f e re n c e s to t h e D ir e c t Method in

rec en t p u b lic a tio n s a re u s u a lly h i s t o r i c a l in n a tu r e , d e s c rib in g th e
j

p la c e o f t h e method i n th e e v o l u t i o n o f lang uage t e a c h i n g o r on t h e o t h e r
hand, d i s m i s s i n g i t , a s Brooks d i d , a s no lo n g e r r e l e v a n t .

Brooks s a y s :

At no p o i n t i n t h i s book i s th e d i r e c t method recommended,
a lth o u g h a t o l e r a n t a t t i t u d e i s t a k e n toward t h o s e who
w ish t o u se i t s p r i n c i p l e s , which a r e u n q u e s tio n a b ly
w o rk a b le u n d e r i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s . Under such c o n d i t i o n s ,
t h e m ost s e r i o u s c r i t i c i s m t h a t can be made o f i t i s t h a t
i t i s somewhat u n r e a l i s t i c ( a f t e r a l l , th e s t u d e n t does
know h i s m other la n g u a g e ) and a t t i m e s , i n e f f i c i e n t . . . ^ T here seems t o be n o th in g d e s c r i p t i v e o f th e D i r e c t Method pub­
lis h e d a f t e r th e mid 1 9 3 0 's , w i t h th e b u lk o f m a t e r i a l on th e s u b j e c t
p u b lis h e d between 1880 and 1 9 2 0 ,2 th e p e r i o d s u r r o u n d in g th e h e i g h t
of; th e D i r e c t M eth o d 's p o p u l a r i t y .

T h e r e f o r e , c e r t a i n e le m e n ts con­

ta in e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s model w i l l be a b s e n t from t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n s i n c e

^Nelson B rooks, Language and Language L e a r n in g . (New York:
Brace and W o rld , 1 9 6 0 ), p p. 207-208.
|

2
Mackey, Language T each in g A n a l y s i s , p . 147.

H a r c o u r t,

59

t h i s w r i t e r could f i n d no e m p i r i c a l s t a te m e n t s , s u g g e s t i o n s , o r exam­
p l e s c o n c e rn in g program o r g a n i z a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t e a c h e r q u a l i ­
f i c a t i o n s , t e c h n i q u e s , o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c o n te n t ( e x c e p t f o r m inim al
s u g g e s t i o n s ) , and i n s t r u c t i o n a l tim e.^-

Enough t h e o r e t i c a l and methodo­

l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l was a v a i l a b l e , how ever, to c o n s t r u c t a v i a b l e model
f o r t h e p u rp o se s o f t h i s stu d y .
THE MODEL
Approach - The f o l l o w i n g t h e o r e t i c a l a s s e r t i o n s a r e fu n d am e n ta l to th e
D i r e c t Method:
1.

Language i s used by human b e in g s f o r t h e p u rp o s e of com­
m u n ic a t i o n .

2.

Assuming t h e a b se n c e o f p a th o lo g y , human b e in g s a r e
n a t u r a l l y c a p a b le o f le a r n in g l a n g u a g e .

3.

The p r o c e s s of l e a r n i n g a second o r f o r e i g n lan g u a g e i s
i d e n t i c a l to th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f o n e ' s n a t i v e la n g u a g e .

A.

Speech i s o f p rim a ry im portance i n l e a r n i n g a lan g u a g e;
r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g a r e of se c o n d a ry im p o rta n c e .

5.

P h o n e t i c s i s fu n d a m e n ta l to lan g u a g e s t u d y .

6.

A l l r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l should f i r s t be p r e s e n t e d o r a l l y .

^H arold E. P alm er i n h i s The P r i n c i p l e s o f Language S t u d y , (New York
World Book C o ., 1 9 2 1 ), o f f e r s some o r g a n i z a t i o n a l / a d m i n i s t r a t i v e su g g e s­
t i o n s , and some c la s s r o o m o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t e c h n iq u e s a r e a l s o p ro p o se d .
The fo rm er a r e v e ry l o o s e and do n o t f a l l w i t h i n t h e framework of P a lm e r'
t h e o r e t i c a l a p p ro a c h , w h ile th e l a t t e r , in t h e form o f l e s s o n exam ples,
h arm onize w ith t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l s t a te m e n t and s u g g e s t c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s
o f c la s s ro o m and c o n t e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g p r o f i c i e n c y g ro u p in g .
AI bo , s e e "T eaching E n g li s h as a Second L angu age," i n T ec h n iq u e s f o r
T e a c h e rs of A d u lts V I I I , ( J a n u a r y , 1968), NAPCAE, f o r s i m i l a r D ir e c t
Method s u g g e s t i o n s .

60

7.

The u s e o f th e s t u d e n t ' s n a t i v e lan g u a g e sh o u ld n e v e r
occur.

The s t u d e n t n e ed s t o l e a r n t h e la n g u a g e th r o u g h

d i r e c t a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e la n g u a g e .
8.

Formal i n s t r u c t i o n i n grammar I s u n n e c e s s a r y and i s to
be a v o id e d .

9.

Language i s a p r o d u c t o f c u l t u r e and sh o u ld be t a u g h t in
t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e c u l t u r e which u s e s th e lan g u a g e t o be
learn ed .

Method - T h is

a s p e c t o f th e D i r e c t Method i s

c o m p a r a tiv e ly d i f f i c u l t to

d e sc rib e w ith

p r e c i s i o n p r i m a r i l y b e c a u se o f

t h e l a c k o f r e c e n t l y pub­

l i s h e d m a t e r i a l and t h e p r e s e n t l y low v i s i b i l i t y o f t h e D i r e c t Method
i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and a b ro a d .

However, t h e s o u r c e s c o n s u l t e d f o r

t h i s s t u d y d e a l w ith m e th o d o lo g ic a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , and th e f o llo w in g
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t method c u l l e d from t h a t l i t e r a t u r e would p ro b a b ly
be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a D i r e c t Method program .
1.

In stru c tio n a l S tra te g ie s.
1 .1 .

In a D i r e c t Method c l a s s o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n ­
g u a g e s , E n g li s h i s t h e e x c l u s i v e medium o f I n s t r u c t i o n w hether
th e c la s s i s h e te r o lin g u ls tic o r n o t.

1 .2 .

E x p la n a t i o n s o f t h e g ra m m a tic a l p o i n t s i n a p a r t i c u l a r l e s s o n
are
n e v er o f f e r e d . The s t u d e n t i s
e x p e c te d t o a c q u i r e th e
grammar i n t u i t i v e l y .

1 .3 .

V ocab ulary and grammar a r e t a u g h t th ro u g h d e m o n s tr a ti o n ; t h a t
i s th e m eaning o f a w ord, p h r a s e o r s e n te n c e i s d e m o n s tra te d
by th e t e a c h e r u s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e p ro p s o r a c t i o n s t o a llo w
f o r d i r e c t a s s o c i a t i o n o f th e word o r words w ith t h e i r m eanin gs.

1 .4 .

P r o n u n c i a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l to la n g u a g e l e a r n i n g and i s t a u g h t
t h r o u g h o u t a c o u r s e . New, b e g in n in g l e v e l s t u d e n t s a r e i n t r o ­
duced to t h e p h o n e ti c system o f t h e lan g u a g e p r i o r t o any
lan g u ag e l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t y , and a t th e same tim e a r e t a u g h t

61

a p h o n e ti c a lp h a b e t su c h a s t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t ic Al­
p h a b e t t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e l e a r n i n g o f a c c e p t a b l e p r o n u n c ia ­
t i o n e s p e c i a l l y when new, d i f f i c u l t t o pronounce words a r c
en co u n tered .

2.

1 .5 .

L esson s a r e graded l a r g e l y on t h e b a s i s o f th e d i f f i c u l t y o f
th e v o c a b u la r y to be t a u g h t , moving from c o n c r e t e e a s i l y
d e m o n s tra b le words and l e x i c a l ite m s th ro u g h a b s t r a c t voca­
b u l a r y f o r which some form o f se m a n tic a s s o c i a t i o n w ith p r e ­
v i o u s l y l e a r n e d w ords i s n e c e s s a r y .

1 .6 .

S e l e c t e d m a t e r i a l s r e f l e c t t h e c u l t u r e , b o th g e n e r a l and
im m e d ia te , o f th e n a t i v e s p e a k e r s o f t h e la n g u a g e b e in g s t u ­
d i e s ; in t h i s c a s e , American E n g li s h .

O rg a n iz a tio n a l C o n sid e ra tio n s.
2 .1 .

O rg a n iz a tio n of c la s s c o n te n t.
The u s u a l sequence o f a l e s s o n i n v o lv i n g a t a r g e t word o r
e x p r e s s i o n i s to r e p e a t th e e x p r e s s i o n , d e m o n s tr a tin g i t s
m eaning, s e v e r a l tim e s w ith s t u d e n t s l i s t e n i n g t o t h e
t e a c h e r ' s p r o n u n c i a t i o n , r e p e a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n s e v e r a l more
tim e s w i t h t h e s t u d e n t s I m i t a t i n g t h e t e a c h e r ' s manner o f
s p e a k i n g , l e t th e s t u d e n t s d e m o n s tr a te t h a t th e y have l e a r n e d
th e e x p r e s s i o n and what i t m eans, a l l o w th e s t u d e n t s to s e e
th e e x p r e s s i o n a s i t i s w r i t t e n , th e n l e t th e s t u d e n t s w r i t e
th e e x p r e s s i o n .

2 .1 .1 .

An a l t e r n a t e to t h e above i s th e Gouin S e r i e s o r theme
w hich a ll o w s th e same g e n e r a l p a t t e r n bu t i n v o l v e s b u i l d i n g
a s e r i e s o f e x p r e s s i o n s l e a d i n g t o t h e a ch iev e m e n t of an
announced g o a l . For exam ple: t h e t e a c h e r announces a g o a l
such a s " I open t h e d o o r o f t h i s roo m ." He th e n demon­
s t r a t e s e a c h s t e p in v o lv e d i n t e a c h i n g th e g o a l w i t h s t u d e n t s
im ita tin g h is u tte r a n c e s .*

2 .2 .

Program O r g a n i z a t i o n .
C la s s s e c t i o n o r c la s s ro o m o r g a n i z a t i o n i s b a se d on E n g lis h
la n g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y . S tu d e n ts e n r o l l e d in c l a s s e s t h a t a r e
o r g a n iz e d i n t o p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s o r th e y a r e e n r o l l e d In a
c l a s s o f mixed p r o f i c i e n c y which i s l a t e r d i v id e d i n t o p r o ­
f i c i e n c y g ro u p s .

F r a n c o i s G ouin, T each in g and S tu d y in g L an g u a g es, t r a n s . by .Howard
Swan and V i c t o r B e t i s , (New York: C h a r le s S c r i b n e r 's S o n s ) , 1892,
pp. 12 9 -1 3 3 . The w r i t e r s e e s t h i s a s more o f a t e c h n iq u e ; however,
th e l i t e r a t u r e i n s i s t s on i t b e in g a m ethodology and i s o f t e n c a l l e d
su c h . I n e i t h e r c a s e i t i s c o n s i d e r e d an im p o r ta n t component of t h e
D i r e c t Method.

62

Summary o f C h a p te r I I I

U t i l i z i n g th e s t a t e w i d e n etw ork o f P r o j e c t ENABEL, a d e s ig n f o r
th e c o l l e c t i o n of d a ta c o n c e rn in g t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h to s p e a k e r s o f
o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n p u b l i c s c h o o l a d u l t e d u c a ti o n program s in M ichigan
was d e v e lo p e d and e x e c u te d .
The d e s i g n in c lu d e d t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f two g ro u p s from whom d a t a
c o u ld be o b t a i n e d :

T h i r t y - t h r e e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f a d u l t e d u c a tio n p r o ­

grams which i n . e a r l y 1972 w ere o f f e r i n g c o u r s e s in E n g lis h s p e c i f i c a l l y
and e x c l u s i v e l y f o r s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s , and e i g h t y - f i v e
t e a c h e r s o f s u c h c o u r s e s s e l e c t e d by P r o j e c t ENABEL i n t e r n s from tw e n ty f i v e o f t h o s e a d u l t e d u c a t i o n p ro g ram s.
A n oth er a s p e c t o f t h e d e s i g n was th e dev elo p m en t and t e s t i n g o f
d a t a g a t h e r i n g I n s tr u m e n ts f o r e ac h o f th e g ro u p s .

A q u e s t i o n n a i r e was

d e v elo p ed f o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s which a sk ed f o r d a t a c o n c e rn in g program o r ­
g a n i z a t i o n , p r o f e s s i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r p ro g ram s, and t e a c h e r q u a l i f i c a ­
tio n s .

A n o th e r q u e s t i o n n a i r e which so u g h t d a t a a b o u t i n s t r u c t i o n a l

m a t e r i a l s and m ethods, p r e - s e r v i c e and i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g , and c l a s s ­
room o r g a n i z a t i o n was d e v e lo p e d .

T h is l a t t e r i n s t r u m e n t was b i - p a r t i t e ,

c o n t a i n i n g a p a p e r and p e n c i l q u e s t i o n n a i r e and c lo s e d - f o r m -a n s w e r
s e c t i o n and a s e c t i o n w hich asked t e a c h e r s t o resp o n d to a u d io - t a p e d
exam ples o f langu age t e a c h i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes in term s of th e f r e ­
quency w ith which th e t e a c h e r s employed th e modes in t h e i r c la s s r o o m s .
These in s t r u m e n t s w ere d e s ig n e d t o e l i c i t f a c t u a l d a tu d e s c r i p t i v e
of t h e program s and c la s s ro o m a c t i v i t i e s .

The c o l l e c t e d d a t a w ere t o be

63

a n a ly z e d a c c o rd in g t o t h e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f program m atic and
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l ite m s on one hand, and a c c o r d i n g t o th e co n co rd an c e o r
la c k o f i t , o f t h e o r e t i c a l / m e t h o d o l o g i c a l ite m s w ith e i t h e r o r b o t h of
two la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m odels on t h e o t h e r .

Models o f t h e o r a l a p p ro a c h

and th e D i r e c t Method have been d e v e lo p e d t o a i d i n t h e a n a l y s i s .

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

In tro d u c tio n
I t I s t h e p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p t e r c l e a r l y t o p r e s e n t a g e n e r a l i z e d
d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n of program s o f E n g lis h f o r a d u l t s p e a k e r s
o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n M ichigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s , and to d e s c r i b e th e
t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n t h o s e prog ram s.
In o r d e r t o e f f e c t t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n , d a t a hav e been e x t r a c t e d from
t h e r e s e a r c h i n s t r u m e n t s and o rg a n iz e d around t h e two m ajo r c o n s i d e r a ­
t i o n s i m p l i c i t i n t h e e i g h t r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s s e t down i n C h a p te r 1
and e x p la in e d i n C h a p te r I I I .

These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s c o n c e rn s p e c i f i c

a s p e c t s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f such program s and o f th e c la s s ro o m p r a c ­
t i c e s o f a s e l e c t e d group o f t e a c h e r s o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r
lan g u ag es.
The d a t a a r e t r e a t e d d e s c r i p t i v e l y em ploying fre q u e n c y d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n s some o f which a r e d i s p l a y e d i n T a b le s w h i l e o t h e r s , which r e q u i r e
more g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , a r e d i s p l a y e d i n fre q u e n c y h i s t o g r a m s .

The

l a t t e r a r e used i n t r e a t i n g t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t e a c h e r s t o t h e a u d io - t a p e d
i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes, w h ile t h e fo rm er a r e used t o d i s p l a y d a t a e x t r a c t e d
from th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' q u e s t i o n n a i r e and t h e p a p er and p e n c i l p o r t i o n
o f th e t e a c h e r s ' q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
In some i n s t a n c e s , d a t a a r e t r e a t e d g e n e r a l l y ; i . e . . d u t a a r c
p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e s o r g r a p h s which r e f l e c t t h e t o t a l number o f i n f o r ­
64

65

m ants In e ac h group o f e i t h e r t e a c h e r s o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

In o th er

c a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y in d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e c la s s ro o m p r a c t i c e s of r e s p o n ­
d in g t e a c h e r s , th e d a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d f i r s t by t o t a l group r e s p o n s e ,
and t h e n , r e s p o n s e s a r e s e p a r a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o l e v e l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n o f
t h e re s p o n d in g t e a c h e r s .

T h is d i v i s i o n i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t h a t

a n a l y s i s o f ap p ro a ch and method can r e l i a b l y be r e l a t e d t o th e la n g u a g e
t e a c h i n g m o d e ls.

D i v i s i o n by v a r i a b l e s o t h e r th a n i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e v e l s

was n o t c o n s i d e r e d p o s s i b l e due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t s used
w hich p r e s e r v e d th e t e a c h e r s ' an o n y m ity .

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and O r g a n iz a t i o n o f Program s o f E n g lis h f o r A dult S p e a k e rs
Of O th e r Languages i n M ichigan P u b lic S c h o o ls
T h is s e c t i o n of t h e c h a p t e r i s a d d r e s s e d t o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and
o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l phenomena s u r r o u n d i n g program s i n E n g li s h f o r a d u l t
s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n M ic h ig a n .

The d e s c r i p t i o n which em erges

f o r a n a l y s i s o f d a ta e x t r a c t e d from t h e two p o p u l a t i o n s from which i n ­
f o r m a tio n h a s been s e l e c t e d p r o v id e s i n s i g h t i n t o th e manner by which
non—E n g lis h s p e a k in g a d u l t s a re e n r o l l e d i n t o c l a s s e s and p la c e d i n t o
i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e v e l s ; w h e re and when c l a s s e s a r e o f f e r e d t o s t u d e n t s ;
and r e q u i r e d and a c t u a l t e a c h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s .

L o c a tio n o f Programs
Programs i n E n g lish f o r a d u l t s p e a k e r s of o t h e r la n g u a g e s a r e l o c a t e d
i n t h i r t y - t h r e e Michigan com m unities a s i d e n t i f i e d by r e s p o n s e s of a d ­
m in is tr a to r s to p relim in a ry i n q u ir i e s .

As would n o rm a lly be e x p e c te d ,

t h e program s a r e overw helm ingly c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e s o u t h e r n h a l f o f

66

t h e Lower P e n i n s u l a , m o stly i n t h e l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n c e n t e r s o f t h e
s t a t e , w h ile o n ly one program c an be I d e n t i f i e d i n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t
of th e s t a t e . *

T h a t i s n o t t o sa y t h a t E n g lis h i s n o t b e ing t a u g h t in

some way to n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k in g a d u l t s i n t h e n o r t h ; b u t , w i t h t h e
e x c e p t i o n o f one community, no c l a s s e s h a v e been i d e n t i f i e d a s b e in g
o r g a n iz e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r su ch p e o p le .
T a b le 1 shows which com m unities have su c h p ro g ra m s.

TABLE 1
COMMUNITIES IN MICHIGAN IN WHICH CLASSES IN ENGLISH FOR ADULT SPEAKERS OF
OTHER LANGUAGES ARE OFFERED THROUGH THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS, TEACHERS EMPLOYED
AND STUDENT ENROLLMENT

Community

S e p a r a t e L o c a tio n s
Where C l a s s e s a r e
O ffered

T e a c h e rs
Employed

S tu d e n ts
E n r o lle d
(E s tim a te d )

A lpena

1

2

24

B e r r i e n S p rin g s

1

1

23

C oldw ater

1

1

16

D earborn

2

11

200

79

64

1,400

E u st D e t r o i t

1

5

85

Farm ington

1

1

6

F e r n d a le

3

7

225

F lin t

1

1

15

Grand R apids

4

9

200

D etro it

^Above a l i n e a p p ro x im a te ly 43*30' N. L a t.

67

TABLE 1 ( C o n 't . )
_______ Community

L o ca tio n s_______________Teachers

S tu d e n ts

Gwinn

1

1

1A

Highland Park

3

2

10A

Holland

1

3

63

Holland-West Ottawa

1

2

52

2

MR

5

228

A

NR

Jackson *
Lansing

A

L iv onia *
Mt. Clemens

1

1

AO

Mt. P le a s a n t

1

2

20

Muskegon

3

8

63

Oak Park

1

A

102

P o n tia c HRC

2

2

53

Pont ia c -W a te r£ord

2

2

31

R ochester

1

1

18

Royal Oak

2

A

72

Saginaw

2

5

A7

S o u th £ ield -L ath ro p

1

A

NR

T aylor

1

1

37

Troy

3

5

158

Warren

1

2

A9

2

NR

1

AA

Wayne *
Wyoming

1

68

TABLE 1 ( C o n 't .)
_______ Community_________________ L o ca tio n s_______________ Teachers
Y p s lla n ti
TOTAL
*

S tu d e n ts

3

3

75

129

166

3,474

I d e n t i f i e d by T e a c h e rs' Survey
The l i s t i n g o f programs i n Table 1 i s u s e f u l in e s t a b l i s h i n g th e

s e t t i n g in which E n g lish i s being ta u g h t i n c l a s s e s s p e c i f i c a l l y designed
f o r a d u l t sp e a k e rs of o t h e r languages i n th e S t a t e and t o s p e c if y th e
numbers of te a c h e r s a c c o rd in g to th e communities in which they p r a c t i c e .
The e n ro llm e n t d a t a a r e g r a t u i t o u s i n th e s e n s e t h a t n o t a l l of th e r e ­
sponding a d m i n i s t r a t o r s in c lu d e d e n ro llm e n t f i g u r e s and some of th e
programs were i d e n t i f i e d through th e t e a c h e r s ' survey which did n o t
s e e k e n ro llm e n t d a ta beyond th e classroom a tte n d a n c e o f th e I n d iv id u a l
teacher.

However, th e a tte n d a n c e f i g u r e s i n Table 1 s e r v e to d e m o n stra te

t h a t t h e r e i s a f a i r l y l a r g e p o p u la tio n o f n o n -E n g lish speaking a d u l t s
who ta k e a dvan tag e of th e E n g lish c l a s s e s p rovided un der the A dult Edu­
c a t i o n Act of 1966.
C la s se s i n E n g lish f o r a d u l t sp e a k e rs o f o th e r langu ages a p p e a r, from
t h e d a t a , to be d i s t r i b u t e d w ith in each community i n r e l a t i o n to th e
s i z e of th e p o p u la tio n .

That i s , t h e l a r g e r th e p o p u l a t i o n , th e more

l o c a t i o n s t h e r e a r e where c l a s s e s a r e h e ld .

I t was f e l t t h a t t h i s i n ­

fo rm a tio n would be more v a lu a b le f o r d e s c r i b i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l phenomena
than th e a c t u a l number of c l a s s e s o f f e r e d in th e community due t o the
r e l a t i v e l y u n s t a b l e n a tu r e o f a d u lt b a s ic e d u c a tio n c l a s s e s in g e n e r a l .

A

69

soon t o be p u b lis h e d stu d y by t h e U n iv e r s ity o f Missouri^- r e v e a le d t h a t
th e g e n e r a l l y h ig h a t t r i t i o n r a t e e x ta n t i n a d u l t b a s ic e d u c a tio n programs
f r e q u e n t ly c a u se s th e abandoning o r c o n s o l id a ti o n of c l a s s e s in s p e c i f i c
c o n te n t a re a s th roug hou t the s c h o o l y e a r .

W hile t h i s phenomenon i s

worthy of s e p a r a t e and i n te n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n in i t s own r i g h t , i t i s
beyond th e purview o f t h i s stu d y .
From the d a t a co ncerning s e p a r a t e l o c a t i o n s where c l a s s e s a re
o f f e r e d i t a p p ea rs t h a t most communities in c lu d e d in th e resp o n se make
c l a s s e s r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e to n o n -E n g lish sp e ak in g a d u l t s by having a
number o f d i f f e r e n t s i t e s a v a i l a b l e , and t h i s would seem to be a more
r e l i a b l e f i n d in g than the*number o f c l a s s e s i n s e s s io n a t th e tim e th e
r e s e a r c h was c o n d u c te d , the l a t t e r r e f l e c t i n g an i s o l a t e d p o in t on an
assumedly u n s t a b le continuum.

E nrollm ent Data
I

In re q u e s tin g in fo rm a tio n c o n ce rn in g e n ro llm e n t, a number of item s

such a s language p r o f i c i e n c y g rou ping p r a c t i c e s , c l a s s s i z e s and e n r o l l ­
ment p e rio d s were co n sid ere d r e l e v a n t t o th e d e s c r i p t i v e purposes o f th e
stu d y and, i n some caseB , to th e development o f t h e o r e t i c a l i n s i g h t s
from th e observed p r a c t i c e s .

Grouping
The grouping of s t u d e n ts i n t o c l a s s e s based on language p r o f ic ie n c y
as e s t a b l i s h e d by some form o f e v a l u a t i v e measure i s a g e n e r a lly accepted

^ U n iv e rs ity of M isso u ri - Kansas C ity . N a tio n a l ABE Teacher
T r a in in g S u rvey. R eport to R egional S t a f f Development P r o j e c t
D i r e c t o r s C o nferen ce, Columbus, Ohio, Septem ber, 1972.

70
4

language te a c h in g p r a c t i c e .

The m easures used to make such e v a l u a t i o n

may be q u i te fo rm al, a s in th e c a s e o f a s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t o r b a t t e r y
of t e s t s , o r th ey may be in fo r m a l, a s in th e c a se s o f non-form al i n t e r ­
view s o r s u c c e s s f u l com pletion o f a p r e r e q u i s i t e l e v e l o f s tu d y .
The p r a c t i c e of p r o f i c i e n c y g ro u p in g , however p r o f i c i e n c y i s d e t e r ­
mined, i s a concom itant of both th e language te a c h in g models p re s e n te d
in Chapter I I I as w e ll as the g ra m m a r - tra n s la tio n approach a llu d e d to i n
C hapter I I .

I t i s germane to th e purpose o f t h i s stu d y to l e a r n w hether

and t o what e x t e n t p r o f i c i e n c y g roup ing i s p r a c t i c e d i n programs of
E n g lish fo r a d u l t s p e a k e rs of o t h e r lan guages in Michigan p u b l ic s c h o o ls .
Twenty-one of th e t h i r t y resp o n d in g a d m i n i s t r a t o r s r e p o r te d t h a t
c l a s s e s in t h e i r programs a re o f f e r e d on th e b a s i s o f l e v e l s o f E n g lish
language p r o f i c i e n c y .

Three o f th e a f f i r m a t i v e r e s p o n se s were q u a l i f i e d

to in c lu d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of mixed p r o f i c i e n c y c l a s s s t r u c t u r e s a t some
of t h e l o c a t i o n s w i t h in the p ro v in c e o f th e resp o n d in g a d m i n i s t r a t o r s '
re sp o n sib ility .

Twenty-seven o f th e e i g h t y - f i v e respo nding t e a c h e r s

re p o r te d t h a t they ta u g h t c l a s s e s i n which t h e E n g lish language p r o f i c i e n c y
l e v e l s of t h e i r s t u d e n ts were w id e ly v a r i e d .
To the d e g re e t h a t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of th e t e a c h e r s ' l o c a t i o n was
p o s s i b l e , 1 a l l of th e tw enty-sev en te a c h e r s o f mixed p r o f i c i e n c y c l a s s e s
ta u g h t in programs where grouping was n o t an o f f i c i a l l y s t r u c t u r e d p r a c ­
t i c e , o r , on th e o th e r hand, where b oth forms were r e p o r te d e x t a n t .

^The te a c h e r s were no t s p e c i f i c a l l y asked where th e y t a u g h t , but
p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e l o c a t i o n s o f e ig h ty o f th e e ig h ty - f iv e ,,
responding t e a c h e r s were made p o s s i b l e by e i t h e r r e t u r n a d d re s s e s or
c o ver l e t t e r s in c lu d e d w ith th e completed and r e tu r n e d in s tr u m e n ts .

71

A f u r t h e r exam ination of the resp o n se s from a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and te a c h e r s
re v e a le d no v a r i a b le such a s program s i z e o r geographic l o c a ti o n a f f e c t i n g
p r o f i c i e n c y grouping, p o s i t i v e l y o r n e g a t iv e l y .

For example, the commu­

n i t y o f Farmington, Michigan w ith a re p o r te d enrollm en t o f s i x s tu d e n ts
claim ed t h a t p r o f ic ie n c y grouping was p r a c t i c e d , w hile D e t r o i t re p o rte d
t h a t a ltho ugh grouping was g e n e r a lly p r a c t i c e d , th e re was an i n d e f i n i t e
number of mixed l e v e l c l a s s e s in s e s s i o n .

The l a t t e r was c o rro b o ra te d

i n p a r t by th e t e a c h e r s ' survey as t h r e e of th e tw e n ty -e ig h t resp ond en ts
i d e n t i f i e d a s being from D e tr o it in d ic a te d t h a t they tau g h t c la s s e s of
mixed p r o fic ie n c y l e v e l s .

There was no te a c h e r response which would

have been i d e n t i f i e d a s being from Farm ington.
The p ro f ic ie n c y grouping d a ta a r e summarized in Table 2 acco rd in g
to program s i z e .

TABLE 2
PROFICIENCY GROUPING PRACTICES OF PREPORTING PROGRAMS DISTRIBUTED BY NUMBERS
OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN PROGRAMS
N»30
0 S tu d e n ts T o ta l 0
Programs R eporting Programs R eporting Programs R eporting
E n ro lled
Programs in P ro flc ie n c y Groups No P r o fic ie n c y
Both P r a c t i c e s
_____________ in Category____________________ Groups_________________________________
300+
150-299
50-149
below 50
N/R

1
5
8
14
2

3
3
10

1
4
4

1
1
1

72

As im p lied p r e v io u s ly , th e r e a re a number of methods by which E nglish
lunguage p r o f ic ie n c y can be d eterm ined , and th e s e methods can be c l a s s i f i e d
f o r th e sake of convenience a s e i t h e r form al or in fo rm a l.

Among formal

in s tr u m e n ts , th e two most w idely used a r e th e T est of EnRllsh Language
P ro f ic ie n c y pub lish ed in t h r e e forms by th e U n iv e rs ity o f Michigan
and th e T e s t of E nglish as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), p u b lish ed and
a d m in istere d on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a s i s by th e E d u ca tio n a l T e s tin g S ervice
of P r in c e to n , New J e r s e y .

The Michigan ELP t e s t i s a v a i l a b l e commer­

c i a l l y , w h ile TOEFL i s s e c u re and not a v a i l a b l e to anyone o th e r than
a g en c ie s a u th o riz e d by ETS to a d m in is te r th e exam ination on s p e c if ie d
d a te s.
There a r e many o t h e r in stru m e n ts a v a i l a b l e ; however, w ith o u t excep­
t i o n , such exam inations have been designed f o r th e t e s t i n g of c o l l e g i a t e
l e v e l non -E nglish sp e ak e rs and may n o t , t h e r e f o r e , be r e l i a b l y i n t e r ­
p r e t a b l e f o r n o n - c o l l e g l a t e a d u lt sp e ak e rs of o t h e r languages.
Attem pts have been made to produce s ta n d a rd iz e d t e s t s of E nglish
language p r o f ic ie n c y f o r n o n - c o l l e g i a t e a d u l t s ; ^ however, th e s e a ttem p ts
have l a r g e l y been r e s t r i c t e d to l o c a l e f f o r t s .

As o f t h i s w r i t i n g , no

v a l i d r e l i a b l e in stru m e n t e x i s t s f o r t e s t i n g th e E nglish language pro­
f ic i e n c y l e v e l of n o n - c o l l e g i a te a d u l t speakers of o th e r lan g u a g es, conse­
q u e n tly te a c h e r s must r e l y on a d a p tin g c o l l e g i a t e - t y p e In s tru m e n ts ,
d ev eloping l o c a l in s tr u m e n ts , or employing l e s s form al means of determ ining
t h e i r s t u d e n t s ' language p r o f ic ie n c y f o r placem ent p u rposes.

^Donna I l l y i n , " S t r u c t u r e Placement T e s ts f o r A dults i n E nglish Second Language Programs in C a l i f o r n i a , " TESOL Q u a rte rly IV. (D ec., 1970),
pp. 323-330.

73

In v a ry in g d e g re e s , each o f th e above o p tio n s i s e x e r c is e d by
te a c h e r s in programs o f E ng lish f o r a d u l t sp e a k e rs of o t h e r languages in
Michigan p u b l ic sc h o o ls .

Of th e e i g h t y - f i v e responding t e a c h e r s , f i f t y -

e ig h t a r e employed in programs which group s t u d e n ts a c c o rd in g to E n g lish
language p r o f i c i e n c y and th e s e t e a c h e r s were q u e rie d as t o how pro­
f i c i e n c y was determ ined and placem ent e f f e c t e d .

Four of t h e resp o n d en ts

s t a t e d t h a t t h e "Michigan T e s t" was employed b u t they d id n o t i d e n t i f y
which Michigan T est o r which form.

The ba la n ce o f the t e a c h e r s used

means o th e r th a n com m ercially a v a i l a b l e in s tr u m e n ts ; t h e s e a r e summar­
ized i n Table I I I .

TABLE 3
METHODS EMPLOYED BY TEACHERS TO DETERMINE ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY
FOR PURPOSES OF STUDENT PLACEMENT

Method
Commercially Produced
O b je c tiv e T e s ts
L o c a lly Produced
O b je c tiv e T e s ts
I n te rv ie w
W ritin g Sample
S tu d e n ts D i s c r e t i o n
I n te r v ie w and
W ritin g Sample
Local T e s ts and
In te rv ie w
Local T e s ts , In te rv ie w
and W ritin g Sample
No resp onse

Response by te a c h e r s
Number
4
5
25
0
1
6
9
2
6

(N " 58)

74

Teachers in programs where l o c a l l y produced o b j e c ti v e t e s t s a r e
used £or stu d e n t placem ent were req u e ste d to send c o p ie s of the i n s t r u ­
ments w ith t h e i r completed q u e s t io n n a ir e s .

Two resp o n d en ts did in c lu d e

copieB, however, no a n a l y t i c a l o b se rv a tio n i s p o s s ib l e s in c e th e examin­
a t i o n s were not accompanied by background in fo rm a tio n such as th e r e l i ­
a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s of th e t e s t s .
The balance of th e te a c h e r s who re p o rte d t h a t some form of e v a lu a tio n
of language p r o f ic ie n c y was employed appear to r e l y on th e in te r v ie w
as e i t h e r the s o le d e te rm in e r o r as a component of a m u lt i p le p r o f i c i e n c y
e v a lu a tio n scheme.

C lass Size
While th e re a r e no e m p ir ic a l d a ta a v a i l a b l e to su p p o rt n o tio n s of
what th e optimum s i z e should be f o r c la s s e s of E nglish to speakers of
o th e r languages, and no c o n c lu sio n s a re drawn on the m a tte r in t h i s
s tu d y , a thorough d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e s e t t i n g i n which t h e tea ch in g of
E ng lish to a d u lt sp e ak e rs of o th e r languages i s conducted r e q u i r e s a t ­
t e n t i o n to c la s s s i z e s .

A num erical breakdown fo llo w s:

T o ta l en ro llm ent re p o rte d
Allowable C lass S iz e , average

3,474
20

A ctual C lass S iz e :
Average
Range

19
6-45

Averages by l e v e l of I n s t r u c t i o n :
Beginning
In te rm e d ia te
Advanced
Mixed P r o f ic ie n c y Levels

19
21
20

18

75

As In th e case of th e form ation of mixed p r o f i c i e n c y c l a s s e s , th e r e
i s no v a r i a b l e t h a t can be e x tr a c te d from th e d a ta which appears to
a f f e c t c l a s s s i z e , nor does c l a s s s i z e appear to have any e f f e c t on th e
p r o f ic ie n c y l e v e l com position of th e c l a s s e s .

Both th e l a r g e s t and

s m a lle s t c l a s s e s were p r o f ic ie n c y grouped acco rd in g t o th e te a c h e rs
r e p o r t i n g from the c l a s s e s .

O rg a n iz a tio n of the School Calendar
Of th e t h i r t y resp ond ing a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , tw enty-one o p e ra te programs
on a se m este r b a s is w ith e i g h t communities o f f e r i n g summer c l a s s e s aB
w e ll.

The o th e r responding programs o rg an iz e school c a le n d a rs in

d i f f e r e n t ways as d isp la y e d in Table 4.

TABLE 4
ORGANIZATION OF THE SCHOOL YEAR IN RESPONDING PROGRAMS OF ENGLISH TO
ADULT SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES IN MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

TIME PERIODS
Q u a rte rs
Semesters
F u ll Year

NUMBER OF PROGRAMS
(N - 30)
5
21
4

While th e la r g e m a jo rity of programs d iv id e th e academic year in to
terms of varying d u r a t i o n s , th e re appears to be no i n s t r u c t i o n a l pur­
pose f o r such d i v i s i o n s .

When asked when s tu d e n ts a r e allowed to e n r o l l

i n c l a s s e s , tw enty-nine a d m i n i s t r a t o r s responded t h a t e n ro llm e n ts a re

76

a c c e p te d a t any tim e t h a t c l a s s e s a r e I n s e s s i o n , and only one resp o n se
I n d i c a te d t h a t e n ro llm e n ts a r e acc ep ted a t th e b eginning or c lo s e t o t h e
b e g in n in g o f each term .

Weekly I n s t r u c t i o n a l Time
The average c l a s s of E n g lis h to a d u l t sp e ak e rs of o th e r languages
i n Michigan p u b lic sc h o o ls m eets f o r s i x hours p e r week a c c o rd in g to th e
respo nding t e a c h e r s w ith most te a c h e r s r e p o r t i n g t h a t they conduct
t h e i r c l a s s e s f o r s i x hours o r l e s s each week.

TABLE 5
WEEKLY INSTRUCTIONAL HOURS AS
REPORTED BY TEACHERS
.. .
D i s t r i b u t i o n of Responses (N«85)
Hour, p e r Week_____________________________
Humber
' P e r c e n t " -------- L
2 Hours
3 Hours
4 Hours
5 Hours
6 Hours
More than s i x Hours

7

8.2

18
15
37
8

21.1
17.6
43.5
9.4

The d a ta c o n cern in g i n s t r u c t i o n a l tim e a re complementary to th e de­
s c r i p t i o n o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s in t h e s e programs, and no con­
c l u s i o n s a r e drawn from them s in c e t h e r e i s n o th in g re v e a le d in th e
l i t e r a t u r e which would i n d i c a t e e m p ir ic a l su p p o rt fo r an i d e a l weekly
I n s t r u c t i o n a l tim e p e r io d .

T hat i s n o t t o say t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l tim e

77

i s n o t a f a c t o r i n the development of language c u r r i c u l a ; i t I s j u s t th a t
such a c o n s id e r a tio n i s exp ressed in terms of t o t a l numbers of i n s t r u c ­
t i o n a l h ou rs, b u t w ith in no calendar d i v i s i o n s .

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Load of Teachers
As i s th e c ase w ith most programs supported by fu n d s a ll o c a t e d to
the s t a t e s under th e Adult Education Act of 1966, c l a s s e s in E n glish fo r
a d u lt speakers of o th e r languages in th e S t a te of Michigan a re s t a f f e d
by te a c h e rs whose commitment to the a c t i v i t y i s on a p a r t - t im e b a s i s .
Three of the e i g h t y - f i v e responding te a c h e rs re p o rte d t h a t they tau g h t
more than two c l a s s e s w hile the r e s t tau g h t two o r l e s s .

TABLE 6
NUMBER OF CLASSES TAUGHT BY RESPONDING TEACHERS
Number o f C lasse s Taught

Teachers (N«85)

One C lass

64

Two C lasses

18

More than Two C lasse s

3

The la r g e m a jo r ity o f te a c h e rs of E nglish to a d u lt speakers of
o th e r languages in Michigan p u b lic sc h ools te a c h only one c la s s in the
s u b j e c t , w hile most of th e o th e rs te a c h two c l a s s e s .

T his fin d in g i s not

s i g n i f i c a n t i n i t s e l f , e s p e c i a l l y in th e c o n te x t of c l a s s e s funded under
the Adult E ducation Act of 1966.

However, any c o n clu sio n drawn about

te a c h e r t r a i n i n g coming from t h i s stu d y must n e c e s s a r i l y be tempered by

78

th e £ a c t t h a t te a c h e rs have only a p a r t - t i m e commitment and t h e i r
a t t i t u d e s towards r ig o ro u s t r a i n i n g programs might be a f£ e cte d by
the lim ite d p r o f e s s i o n a l o b l ig a t io n im plied by th e d a ta .

Teacher P r e p a r a t io n :

Required & Actual

This s e c t i o n has th r e e prim ary con cern s:

The minimal q u a l i f i c a t i o n s

re q u ire d o£ te a c h e rs in programs of E n g lish f o r a d u l t sp eak ers of o th e r
languages; th e a c t u a l p r e p a r a t i o n , form al a n d /o r in fo rm a l, of th e s e
te a c h e r s ; and th e p r o f e s s i o n a l su p p o rt to th e te a c h e r s .

Minimal P r o f e s s io n a l Requirements
A d m in is tra to rs were q u e rie d as to th e minimal p r o f e s s i o n a l creden ­
t i a l s r e q u ire d of te a c h e r s of E n g lish to a d u l t sp e ak e rs of o th e r la n ­
guages in t h e i r programs in o rd e r t o d eterm in e w hether and to what
e x te n t th e s e minimal q u a l i f i c a t i o n s approach th e minimal q u a l i f i c a t i o n s
a llu d e d to in Chapters I I and 111 and d e t a i l e d in th e Appendix.1
The resp o n se to th e in q u iry i n t o th e r e q u ir e d c r e d e n t i a l s can be
summarized a s follo w s:
a)

A ll but fo u r of th e responding a d m i n i s t r a t o r s r e q u i r e te a c h e r s to
p o ss e s s a v a lid te a c h in g c e r t i f i c a t e is s u e d by th e Michigan D epart­
ment o f Education*

b)

One a d m i n i s t r a t o r d id not respond.

A ll but one program re q u ire d a t l e a s t a b a c c a la u r e a te degree (a p r e ­
r e q u i s i t e f o r o b ta in in g a te a c h in g c e r t i f i c a t e ) and s i x of th e se

^TESOL, "Statem ent of Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and G u id e lin es f o r P re p a r a tio n
of Teachers o f E nglish to Speakers o f Other Languages in th e United
S t a t e s . " , Ju n e , 1971. (Mimeographed and c i r c u l a t e d to th e Membership
of TESOL.)

79

r e q u ir e d e i t h e r a m ajor or minor In E n g lish .
c)

B ilin g u a lism i s re q u ire d in t h r e e o f th e responding programs.

d)

T ra in in g in th e te a c h in g of re a d in g i s re q u ire d in two of th e r e ­
sponding programs.

TABLE 7
MINIMAL QUALIFICATIONS REQUIRED OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO ADULT SPEAKERS
OF OTHER LANGUAGES IN MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LISTED NUMERICALLY BY PROGRAM
Programs
(N«30)
1.
2.
33.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
16.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

Michigan Teaching
C e r t i f i c a t e ______ Degree
Yes
No minimal Req.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

E n glish Major
o r Minor______ B ilin g u a lism

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
No response

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes

No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
YeB

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

YeB

T rain ing
in Reading

80

In comparing th e d a ta p re s e n te d in T ab le 7 w ith th e TESOL s t a t e ­
ment on q u a l i f i c a t i o n s i t ap p ears t h a t no program r e q u i r e s s p e c i f i c
p r e p a r a t i o n in th e Teaching of E n g lish to sp e a k e rs o f o th e r lan g u ag es,
formal o r in f o r m a l, nor does any program r e q u i r e t r a i n i n g in a p p lie d
lin g u istic s.

Both a re a s a r e l i s t e d in th e TESOL s ta te m e n t as minimal

f o r a p r a c t i t i o n e r of th e a r t , ex p re ssed a s fo llo w s:
Minimal competence i n a p p lie d l i n g u i s t i c s i s d e fin e d as th e
" A b i l i t y to apply t o language te a c h in g an u n d e rs ta n d in g
o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n the sound sy ste m s, form s, s t r u c t u r e s
and le x ic o n of E n g lish and a t l e a s t one f o r e i g n language.
T ogether w ith th e a p p lie d l i n g u i s t i c s re q u ire m e n t, p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a ­
t io n f o r te a c h in g E n g lish t o sp e a k e rs of o t h e r languages r e q u i r e s :
"Knowledge of t h e p r e s e n t day o b j e c t i v e s of t h e te a c h in g of
E n g lish a s a Becond language and an u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e
methods and te c h n iq u e s f o r a t t a i n i n g th e s e o b j e c t i v e s . " 2
Both o f th e fo re g o in g p resuppose v e ry s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g i n phono­
logy, morphology, s y n ta x , c o n t r a s t i v e a n a l y s i s of lan g u ag e, and methods
and m a t e r i a l s .

None o f t h i s t r a i n i n g can be subsumed w ith in th e m ini­

mal q u a l i f i c a t i o n s l i s t e d by th e resp o n d in g a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

So, w hile

te a c h e r s a r e r e q u ir e d t o hold p r o f e s s i o n a l c r e d e n t i a l s , fo r th e most p a r t ,
they do n o t need to have s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g f o r te a c h in g E ng lish to
sp e ak e rs o f o t h e r la n g u a g es.

^TESOL, "S tatem en t on Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . . . " , p . 8 .
2I b i d .

81

A ctual P r o f e s s io n a l P r e p a r a tio n fo r Teaching E n glish to Speakers of
Other Languages of Responding Teachers
While th e p rev io u s s e c t i o n d e a l t w ith r e q u i s i t e o f f i c i a l q u a l i f i ­
c a t i o n s , no d a ta were p re s e n te d which would r e f l e c t th e a c t u a l t r a i n i n g
in te a c h in g E nglish to sp e a k e rs of o t h e r languages experienced by th e
te a c h e r s responding to the s tu d y .

Consequently, te a c h e r s were asked

to d e s c r ib e the t r a i n i n g they had had, form al and in fo rm a l, in o rd e r to
determ ine i f the a c t u a l p r e p a r a tio n o f t e a c h e r s - i n - s e r v i c e rev e ale d
p r e p a r a tio n c o n s i s t e n t w ith g e n e r a lly accepted p r o f e s s i o n a l p r a c t i c e .
An exam ination of th e resp o n ses o f the te a c h e r s s e l e c te d to p a r t i ­
c i p a t e i n t h i s stu d y re v e a le d t h a t in v a ry in g d e g re es a l l but fo u rte e n
resp o n d en ts have had exposure to t r a i n i n g r e le v a n t to th e tea ch in g of
E n glish to sp eak ers o f o th e r languages.

However, such exposure has not

been e x te n s iv e in most c a se s w ith only tw e n ty -fiv e te a c h e r s claim ing
s p e c i f i c form al t r a i n i n g in th e te a c h in g of E nglish to sp eak ers o f o th e r
languages and s i x t e e n of th e s e having earned s i x o r fewer c r e d i t s in
th e d i s c i p l i n e .
Course work in th e te a c h in g of E n g lish to sp e a k e rs o f o th e r l a n ­
guages i s one c o n s t i t u e n t o f a lim ite d range of t r a i n i n g e x p erien c es
which a r e co n sid ere d r e l e v a n t to the p r e p a r a tio n o f te a c h e rs of t h i s a c ­
tiv ity .

The o th e r a re a s a re l i n g u i s t i c s and/or methods of te a c h in g f o r ­

e ig n languages.

While t r a i n i n g in f o r e i g n languages i s o f te n a concom itant

of l i n g u i s t i c s s tu d y , i t i s n ot of i t s e l f considered to be s u f f i c i e n t
p r e p a r a tio n fo r th e te a c h in g of E nglish to sp eak ers of o th e r languages.

82

Formal T ra in in g in R elev an t D i s c i p li n e s
Formal t r a i n i n g , f o r purposes o f d i s c u s s i o n , i s viewed as p r o f e s ­
s i o n a l t r a i n i n g , p r e - s e r v i c e o r i n - s e r v i c e , f o r which academic c r e d i t
has been g r a n te d .

T eachers were re q u e ste d to respond to a number of

q u e s tio n n a ir e items r e l a t i v e to t h e i r formal p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e i r work
as te a c h e rs o f E ng lish to sp eak ers o f o th e r languages.
All b u t s i x o f th e responding e i g h t y - f i v e te a c h e rs were d eg reed . 1
T h irty -se v e n possessed the b a c c a l a u r e a t e , none o f which d e c la re d major
or minor c o n c e n tr a tio n s in l i n g u i s t i c s o r the te a ch in g o f E nglish to
speakers o f o th e r la n g u a g es.

T h i r t y - e i g h t te a c h e r s possessed Masters

degrees (one o th er h e ld a p o s t-m a s te rs s p e c i a l i s t degree) two of whom
had g rad uate majors i n l i n g u i s t i c s w ith emphasis in the tea ch in g of
E nglish to sp e ak e rs o f o th e r lan g u ag es, and one held a f o r e ig n language
major w ith a minor i n tea ch in g of E n g lish to sp eak ers of o th e r la n ­
guages.

These th r e e resp ond en ts were th e only te a c h e r s claim ing ex­

te n s iv e form al t r a i n i n g in th e d i s c i p l i n e .
In a l l , ten te a c h e r s were i d e n t i f i e d as having t r a i n i n g in both
l i n g u i s t i c s and the te a c h in g o f E n g lish to sp e ak e rs of o t h e r languages.
These a re summarized in Table 8 .

1Three gave no resp o n se to th e q u e s tio n about degrees earned.

83

TABLE 8
ACADEMIC CREDITS EARNED IN BOTH LINGUISTICS AND TEACHING ENGLISH TO
SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES, DISTRIBUTED BY TEACHER
T eacher (N - 10)

C r e d its i n L i n g u i s t i c s

C r e d its i n TESOL

A

MA in L i n g u i s t i c s w ith TESOL Emphasis

B

MA i n L i n g u i s t i c s w ith TESOL Emphasis

C

14

15

D

8

4

E

6

6

F

6

2

G

4

4

H

2

4

I

2

4

J

2

2

In a d d i t i o n to the t e n t e a c h e r s who have earned academic c r e d i t in
b o th th e l i n g u i s t i c s f i e l d and th e te a c h in g o f E n g lish to sp e a k e rs of
o t h e r la n g u a g e s, elev en te a c h e r s were i d e n t i f i e d as having e a rn e d fo r­
mal c r e d i t i n th e te a c h in g of E n g lish to sp e a k e rs o f o th e r lan g u a g es,
and twenty-one o t h e r s were i d e n t i f i e d as having experienced form al
t r a i n i n g in l i n g u i s t i c s .
T able 9.

The e x t e n t of t h i s t r a i n i n g i s d is p la y e d in

84

TABLE 9
CREDITS EARNED BY RESPONDING TEACHERS IN EITHER TESOL OR LINGUISTICS
(Not Included In P revio us T ables)

C re d its Earned

TESOL

(N - 11)
0

L in g u i s t i c s (N - 21)
0

Less th an 3

3

0

3 to 6

6

12

7 to 12

1

8

12 to 16

1

1

The t o t a l number o f responding te a c h e r s having t r a i n i n g in the d i s ­
c i p l i n e s con sidered most r e l e v a n t to th e classroom te a ch in g of English
to sp e ak e rs of o th e r languages i s f i f t y - t w o , w ith four a d d i t i o n a l te a c h e r s
having had formal t r a i n i n g i n methods of fo re ig n language te a c h in g .

In

the m a jo r ity of c a s e s , however, the form al t r a i n i n g has n o t been ex­
h a u s tiv e w ith tw e n ty -fiv e te a c h e r s w ith exposure to formal t r a i n i n g and
tw enty -nin e i n s t r u c t o r s w ith no r e l e v a n t formal t r a i n i n g a t a l l .
Although the minimal q u a l i f i c a t i o n s fo r te a c h e r s of E n g lish to
speakers o f o th e r languages a r e expressed n o t i o n a l l y r a t h e r than
q u a l i t a t i v e l y in term s of academic c r e d i t in th e TESOL s ta te m e n t, i t
can be surm ised t h a t only 2 0 .0 p e rc e n t (sev en teen resp o n d en ts) of th e
t o t a l responding group p o ssess formal t r a i n i n g which would p rep a re
them s u f f i c i e n t l y to meet th e minimal c r i t e r i a e x p lic a te d in the TESOL
s ta te m e n t, and nine o f those seventeen resp ond ents claim no formal
t r a i n i n g i n methods and m a t e r i a l s .

Those n in e , however, a s s e r t e d t h a t

85

they h a d , on o c c a sio n , a tte n d e d workshops o r i n s t i t u t e s designed to
provide t r a i n i n g in th e te a c h in g of E ng lish to sp eak ers of o th e r
languages.

Inform al T rain in g
T eachers were q u e rie d a s to whether they had a tte n d e d workshops
an d /o r i n s t i t u t e s designed f o r t r a i n i n g in th e te a c h in g of E nglish to
speakers of o th e r lang uages.

Such a c t i v i t i e s a r e co nsidered in t h i s

study as f a i l i n g i n to th e category o f in form al t r a i n i n g , although aca­
demic c r e d i t i s f r e q u e n tly o f f e r e d to p a r t i c i p a n t s and many e x e r c is e
the o p tio n of a tte n d in g th e s e a c t i v i t i e s fo r c r e d i t .

Seventeen of th e

respon dents involved i n th e study claim ed p a r t i c i p a t i o n a t workshops
where c r e d i t was made a v a i l a b l e ; however, they were n ot asked to i n ­
d i c a t e whether or n o t they e le c te d to p a r t i c i p a t e f o r c r e d i t .

Thus

i t would be imprudent to c o n je c tu r e i f c r e d i t s claim ed by th o se seven­
teen were acq u ired through workshops o r form al course work.
The o v e r a l l respo nse to the q u e s tio n s concerning workshops and
i n s t i t u t e s was poor in th e sense t h a t most te a c h e rs d id not g iv e the
in fo rm a tio n t h a t was re q u e s te d , the l o c a ti o n and d a te s of th e a c t i v i ­
tie s.

T h e re fo re , th e only d a ta t h a t can be r e l i a b l y re p o rte d concern

the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of th e s e l e c te d te a c h e r s in such t r a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s .
These d a ta a r e d isp la y e d in Table 10.

86

TABLE 10

PARTICIPATION OF RESPONDING TEACHERS IN WORKSHOPS AND/OR INSTITUTES
DESIGNED SPECIFICALLY TO TRAIN TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER
LANGUAGES
.85).
Never P a r t i c i p a t e d

25

P a r t i c i p a t e d - C re d it O ffered

17

P a r t i c i p a t e d - No C re d it O ffered

43

A f u r t h e r exam ination of th e respo nses o f the f o r t y - t h r e e te a c h e rs
who p a r t i c i p a t e d in n o n - c r e d it workshops re v e a le d t h a t tw e n ty -fiv e
belonged to the group i d e n t i f i e d as having no formal t r a i n i n g i n the
teach in g of E ng lish to speakers of o th e r languages o r in a l l i e d d i s ­
c ip lin es.

This f a c t i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t of th e t o t a l group of

te a c h e rs who responded to th e survey , only fo u r could be i d e n t i f i e d as
having no exposure to t r a i n i n g in th e te a c h in g of E nglish as a second
language o r r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s .

These f o u r , i n c i d e n t a l l y , re p o r te d

th a t they had never a tte n d e d workshops o r i n s t i t u t e s .

P r o f e s s io n a l Support f o r Teachers
A d m in istra to rs were asked whether p r o f e s s i o n a l support i n th e form
of th e employment of s p e c i a l i s t s in the te a ch in g of English t o speakers
of o th e r languages as s u p e r v is o r s o r c o n s u lta n ts to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
programs was u se d .

Twenty-four responded in the n e g a tiv e w h ile four

87

claimed t h a t such a s p e c i a l i s t was employed on a p a r t time b a s i s , and
one program o c c a s io n a lly used a c o n s u l ta n t.

(One a d m in is tr a to r did

not respond to th e q u e s t io n .)

Summary o f th e Data Concerning I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and O rg an izatio n of Pro­
grams of E n g lish t o Adult L e a rn e rs of O ther Languages i n Michigan P u b lic
Schools
T h ir ty communities in Michigan were i d e n t i f i e d as having p u b lic
sch ool programs w ith c la s s e s o f E nglish e s p e c i a l l y and e x c lu s iv e ly de­
sign ed f o r a d u lt speakers of o t h e r languages w ith an en ro llm ent g r e a t e r
than 3,400 s t u d e n t s .

These programs a r e lo c a te d i n communities d i s ­

t r i b u t e d , f o r th e most p a r t , throughout th e so u th e rn h a l f of th e Lower
P e n in su la of the S t a t e .
The m a jo r ity o f programs o rg a n iz e c l a s s e s around th e E n glish la n ­
guage p r o f ic ie n c y o f t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s t u d e n t s , w hile twelve programs
a llo w th e forming o f c la s s e s w ith no p r o v is io n s made f o r p r o f ic ie n c y
grou ping.

The l a t t e r i s c o n sid ere d to be i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith g e n e r a lly

accep ted p r a c t i c e .
Where p r o f ic ie n c y grouping e x i s t s , th e most common device used to
determ ine s tu d e n t l e v e l i s th e i n te r v ie w , e i t h e r by i t s e l f or in com­
pany w ith some o t h e r form o f e v a l u a t i v e m easure.
The average c l a s s

haB

an en ro llm e n t o f n in e te e n s tu d e n ts w ith in

a range o f s i x to f o r t y - f i v e e n r o l l e e s .

N e ith e r c l a s s s i z e nor the

e x is te n c e o f p r o f ic ie n c y grouping seems t o be a f f e c t e d by any v a r i a b l e
such as geographic l o c a tio n o r community p o p u la tio n .

88

The a v e r a g e c la sB m ee ts f o r s i x h o u rs p e r week w ith m ost program s
d i v i d i n g th e s c h o o l c a l e n d a r i n t o two s e m e s t e r s .

The d i v i s i o n o f t h e

academ ic y e a r a p p e a r s t o s e r v e no i n s t r u c t i o n a l p u rp o se s i n c e a l l b u t
one o f th e r e s p o n d in g program s f o llo w a p o l i c y o f open e n r o l l m e n t .
The g r e a t m a j o r i t y of re s p o n d in g t e a c h e r s a r c employed a s t e a c h e r s
o f E n g lis h t o a d u l t s p e a k e r s of o t h e r la n g u a g e s on a p a r t - t i m e b a s i s .
Only t h r e e o f th e e i g h t y - f i v e t e a c h e r s re s p o n d in g te a c h more th an two
c la s s e s in th e s u b je c t.
T e a c h e rs a r e n o t o f f i c i a l l y r e q u i r e d t o p o s s e s s s p e c i f i c c re d e n ­
t i a l s i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s o r a l ­
l i e d d i s c i p l i n e s su c h a s l i n g u i s t i c s , a lth o u g h o n ly f o u r t e a c h e r s
r e p o r t e d t h a t th e y n e v e r r e c e i v e d su c h t r a i n i n g , e i t h e r f o r m a lly o r
in fo rm a lly .

C lassroom P r a c t i c e s o f a S e l e c te d Group o f T e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h to A d ult
S p e a k e rs o f O th e r L anguages i n M ichigan P u b lic S c h o o ls

In tro d u c tio n
I t i s t h e p u rp o se o f t h i s s e c t i o n to d e s c r i b e th e c la ss ro o m p r a c ­
t i c e s o f t h e re s p o n d in g t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n ­
g u a g es I n o r d e r t o d e te r m in e w h e th er and t o what e x t e n t th o s e p r a c t i c e s
a r e i n consonance w i t h t h e m odels p r e s e n t e d in C h a p te r I I I .
The d a t a have been e x t r a c t e d from th e r e s p o n s e s to b o th th e p a p e r
and p e n c i l and a u d io - t a p e d p o r t i o n s o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e d i s t r i b u t e d
t o t h e t e a c h e r s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e s t u d y .

The d a t a have been

89

t a b u l a t e d , a n a l y z e d , and compared w i t h t h e m odels so t h a t , f i r s t , a
d e s c r i p t io n of p r a c tic e s o b t a i n s , and, th e n , q u e s tio n s su rro u n d in g th e
th e o re tic a l/m e th o d o lo g ic a l a s p e c ts o f th o se p r a c t i c e s a r e reso lv ed in
t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e r e s e a r c h pro blem upon w hich t h i s s tu d y i s b a se d .
Two m ethods of d i s p l a y i n g d a t a a r e employed i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
T a b le s a r e u sed t o d i s p l a y d a t a e x t r a c t e d from t h e p a p e r and p e n c i l
p o r t i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h i n s t r u m e n t , and h i s t o g r a m s o f r e l a t i v e f r e ­
quency a r e u sed f o r d a ta t a k e n from r e s p o n s e s t o t h e a u d i o - t a p e d p o r ­
tio n of th e in stru m e n t.
I n most c a s e s , d a ta a r e d i s t r i b u t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r o f i c i e n c y
l e v e l s o f th e c l a s s e s t a u g h t by t h e r e s p o n d i n g t e a c h e r s s i n c e r e l i a b l e
a n a l y s i s b a se d on th e l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s s e t down i n t h e models r e ­
q u i r e s such d i s t r i b u t i o n .

I n c a s e s w here d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t based

on p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s , t o t a l group r e s p o n s e s a r e p r e s e n t e d and a n a l y z e d .
The d e s i g n a t i o n s used t o d e s c r i b e p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s i n t h i s s t u d y
a r e b e g in n i n g , i n t e r m e d i a t e and a d v a n c e d .

T hese l e v e l s a r c g e n e r a l l y

n o t r i g o r o u s l y i n t e r p r e t a b l e and a r e o f t e n i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d .
However, b ased upon th e " E n g l i s h P r o f i c i e n c y C h a r t" ^ p u b l i s h e d by t h e
N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r F o r e i g n S t u d e n t A f f a i r s , i t i s assumed t h a t
advanced l e v e l s t u d e n t s a r e r e a s o n a b l y c o m f o r t a b l e in t h e i r u se o f t h e
spoken E n g lis h lan g u a g e; i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s t u d e n t s a r e h a l t i n g l y con­
v e r s a n t i n E n g li s h w i t h in a l i m i t e d l e x i c a l and g r a m m a tic a l r a n g e ; and

^The Commission on I n t e n s i v e E n g l i s h Program s u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s
o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n of T e a c h e r s o f E g n li s h a s a Second L anguage. " E n g li s h
P r o f i c i e n c y C h a r t , " W a sh in g to n , D. C .: N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r F o re ig n
S tu d e n t A f f a i r s , 1971.

90

and b e g in n in g l e v e l s t u d e n t s have v i r t u a l l y no E n g li s h lan g u a g e p r o ­
f i c i e n c y , o r , i f th e y h a v e , i t i s so l i m i t e d t h a t t h e y have d i f f i c u l t y
u n d e r s t a n d i n g n a t i v e s p e a k e r s and b e in g u n d e r s to o d by n a t i v e s p e a k e r s .
C l a s s e s o f mixed l e v e l s o f p r o f i c i e n c y i n c l u d e a t l e a s t two o f t h e s e
groups.

I n s tr u c tio n a l M a terials
T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h t o a d u l t s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n M ic h i­
gan P u b l i c S c h o o ls depend upon a w ide ra n g e o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s
t o a s s i s t i n t h e i r work.

P u b lis h e d t e x t s , p u b l is h e d and u n p u b lis h e d

n o n t e x t u a l m a t e r i a l s , and a u d i o - v i s u a l a i d s a r e employed by t e a c h e r s ,
and t h e s e a r e l i s t e d below , s u b m itte d p r i m a r i l y f o r d e s c r i p t i v e p u r ­
p o ses s i n c e a n a l y s i s and com parison w ith o u t d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e
f a s h i o n i n which t h e m a t e r i a l s a r e employed i s unm anageable.
N o n e t h e l e s s , some o b s e r v a t i o n s o f o t h e r th an a d e s c r i p t i v e n a t u r e
a r e p o s s i b l e , and t h e s e a r e i n c lu d e d where a p p r o p r i a t e .

B ib lio g r a p h y o f T extbo oks used by Responding T e a c h e rs
A b i b l i o g r a p h y * assem bled

from t h e t e a c h e r s r e s p o n s e s i n c l u d e s

te x tb o o k s In te n d e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r u se i n c l a s s e s o f E n g lis h f o r s p e a k e r s
o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s a s w e l l a s books n o t so i n t e n d e d .

The l a t t e r a r e

i d e n t i f i e d w ith an a s t e r i s k p la c e d b e f o r e t h e e n t r y in th e b i b l i o g r a p h y .
K o rty -one p e r c e n t o f t h e e n t r i e s a r e so i d e n t i f i e d .

*See Appendix D " B i b li o g r a p h y o f T e x ts Employed by T e a c h e rs o f
E n g lis h t o A du lt S p e a k e rs o f O th e r Languages i n M ichigan P u b l i c S c h o o l s ."

91

O th e r th a n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e a s t e r i s k e d e n t r i e s In th e
b i b l i o g r a p h y a r e n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y i n te n d e d f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n E n g lis h
f o r s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s , no f u r t h e r comment i s a p p r o p r i a t e .
Many t e a c h e r s d id n o t resp o n d t o th e i n q u i r y ; c o n s e q u e n t ly , no r e l i a b l y
a c c u r a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e numbers o f t e a c h e r s u s i n g s p e c i f i c t i t l e s
is p o ss ib le .
W hether o r n o t th e t e x t s d e s i g n a t e d a s n o t d e s ig n e d f o r u se i n a
c l a s s o f E n g li s h f o r n o n -E g n lis h s p e a k e r s a r e b e in g employed i n a
manner c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h e m odels would r e q u i r e d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n .
However, t h e lan g u a g e p ro blem s o f E n g li s h sp e a k in g c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s
do n ot p a r a l l e l t h e problem s o f th e n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e r .

T h erefo re,

i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t th o s e t e x t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e o n es a s t e r i s k e d f o r
b e g in n in g and i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s of i n s t r u c t i o n , can be a d e q u a te ly
a d a p te d t o s u i t t h e lan g u ag e a c q u i s i t i o n needs of s p e a k e rs of o t h e r
la n g u a g e s .

The u s e o f such t e x t s , t h e n , a p p e a rs t o be a d e v i a t i o n from

g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d p r a c t i c e i n th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f
o th e r lan g u ag es.
T e a c h e r s were a l s o a sk e d i f th ey u se d such m a t e r i a l s a s newspa­
p e r s and m a g a z in e s .

Most r e p o r t e d t h a t th e y used t h e s e m a t e r i a l s t o

supplem ent t e x t s .
When asked i f th ey used te a c h e r-m a d e m a t e r i a l s in c l a s s e s , t e n
t e a c h e r s resp o n d ed t h a t th e y d id n o t , w h ile tw e lv e s t a t e d t h a t t e a c h e r made m a t e r i a l s w ere used e x c l u s i v e l y i n t h e i r c l a s s e s .

The b a la n c e

answered t h a t th e y used te a c h e r-m a d e m a t e r i a l s to supplem ent p u b lis h e d
m a te ria ls .

92

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te t h a t 14% o f t h e t e a c h e r s su rv e y e d r e l y
upon t h e i r own d e v i c e s f o r I n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s .
p a t t e r n t o e x p l a i n t h i s phenomenon; t h a t i s ,

T h e r e emerged no

t h e tw e lv e who th u s r e ­

sponded were s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t t h e t e a c h e r group and t h e r e was no
im p o r ta n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t t h e y shared s u c h a s s i m i l a r t r a i n i n g ,
l e v e l s t a u g h t , o r g e o g r a p h ic l o c a t i o n , which m ig h t e x p l a i n t h e i r d e ­
pendence upon t h e i r own m a t e r i a l s .
The f i n a l q u e s t i o n devoted t o th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c l a s s e s d e a l t
w ith a u d io -v is u a l m a te r ia ls .

As w i t h the im m e d ia te ly p r e v i o u s two ite m s ,

t h e i n f o r m a ti o n i s g r a t u i t o u s .

TABLE 11
AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIAL EMPLOYED BY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO ADULT SPEAKERS
OF OTHER LANGUAGES IN MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DISTRIBUTION BY CATEGORY
C a te g o ry o f A/V M a t e r i a l s ___________________________ R espon se
Language L a b o ra to ry

8

Audio Tape R e co rd e r

50

Video Tape R e co rd er

4

F ilm

26

S l i d e s a n d /o r F i l m s t r i p s

29

Phonographs

31

R eading R a tio m e te rs

2

T a c h is to s c o p e s
F l a s h Cards

43

Language M a ste r

4

None A v a i l a b l e

2

93

Language T eaching A pproaches and Methods Employed by T e a c h e r s o f
E n g l i s h to A d u lt S p e a k e rs o f O th e r L anguages I n M ichigan
P u b l i c S c h o o ls
M e th o d o lo g ic a l C o n s i d e r a t io n s
The c o n c e rn of t h i s s e c t i o n i s w i t h t h e I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m ethods u sed i n t h e c la s s ro o m s o f t h e r e s p o n d in g
t e a c h e r s , and t o g e n e r a l i z e t h o s e f i n d i n g s i n o r d e r t o d e te r m i n e i f
any one la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h p re d o m in a te s p r a c t i c e s i n M ichigan
p u b l i c s c h o o l program s o f E n g li s h f o r a d u l t s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .
The d a t a have been e x t r a c t e d l a r g e l y from t h e r e s p o n s e s t o th e
a u d i o - t a p e p o r t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t which d e m o n s tr a te d t h r e e s e t s o f
I n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s r e l a t e d t o s p e c i f i c t h e o r e t i c a l a p p ro a c h e s
and one s e t r e l a t e d t o no t h e o r e t i c a l l y based la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h .
W ith in a l l o f t h e s e t s w ere t h r e e I n s t r u c t i o n a l modes.

With t h e ex­

c e p t i o n o f o n e s e t , e a c h mode was a c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i a b l e c o n s t r u c t of
t h e lan g u ag e t e a c h i n g t h e o r y u n d e r l y i n g th e s e t .

In t h e c a s e o f th e

n o n - s y s t e m a t i c s e t , t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l modes w ere a r b i t r a r i l y s e l e c t e d
and r e p r e s e n t e d a c t i v i t i e s w hich m ig h t be o b se rv e d i n any c l a s s o f Eng­
l i s h f o r s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s , o r even i n any g e n e r a l la n g u a g e
a r t s c la ss .
The a u d i o - t a p e p o r t i o n o f t h e I n s tr u m e n t in c lu d e d one s e t o f t h r e e
o r a l a p p ro a c h m eth o d s, one s e t o f t h r e e D i r e c t Method m e th o d s, one s e t
o f n o n - s y s t e m a t i c m e th o d s, and one s e t o f g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n m ethod s.
(T h ese a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y d e t a i l e d i n C h a p te r 1 1 1 .)

The u s e f u l n e s s of

t h e l a t t e r two s e t s was m a r g i n a l i n t h a t i t would be u n l i k e l y t o f i n d
g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n m eth odo lo gy i n w ide u se i n c l a s s e s o f E n g l i s h to

94

s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s c o n d u cted In t h e U nited S t a t e s ; and t h a t
u se o f t h e n o n - s y s t e m a t i c m ethods would show s i g n i f i c a n c e o n ly to t h e
d e g re e t o w hich th e y were em ployed, i f such employment were i n i n v e r s e
p r o p o r t i o n t o e le m e n ts o f t h e m ethods in t h e th e o ry b a s e d s e t s e s ­
p e c i a l l y a t b e g in n in g and i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l s of I n s t r u c t i o n .
I d e a l l y , e x a m in a tio n o f th e r e s p o n s e s o f t e a c h e r s t o t h e s e a u d io ­
tap e d I n s t r u c t i o n a l modes and r e l a t e d r e s p o n s e s to p a p e r and p e n c i l
ite m s would a llo w f o r th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s on th e b a s i s of
th e lan g u a g e t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h th ey u t i l i z e d .

That i s to s a y , were a

t e a c h e r o f a b e g in n in g l e v e l c l a s s t o re sp o n d t h a t he o r she employed
th e m ethods from t h e o r a l a p p ro a c h s e t t o t h e e x c l u s i o n of m ethods from
th e D i r e c t Method s e t o r g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n s e t , one c o u ld c o n c lu d e
w ith r e a s o n a b l e c e r t i t u d e t h a t t h a t t e a c h e r embraced t h e o r a l a p p ro a ch
on a t l e a s t a m e t h o d o lo g ic a l s t r a t u m .

The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o u ld be

f u r t h e r r e f i n e d from th e r e s p o n s e s t o a number o f o t h e r item s from t h e
in stru m e n t.

The r e v e r s e i s , o f c o u r s e , t r u e i n th e c a s e o f t h e D i r e c t

Method v i s a v i s th e o r a l a p p ro a c h o r g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n a p p ro a c h .
W h ile , i d e a l l y , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n of
t e a c h e r s by a p p ro a c h c a t e g o r y would have been most u s e f u l and r e v e a l i n g ,
no su c h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was p o s s i b l e due t o t h e n a t u r e o f th e t e a c h e r s '
responses.

Only t h r e e o f t h e t o t a l group su rv eyed c o u ld be i d e n t i f i e d

a s p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f th e g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n a p p ro a c h .

In t h e c a s e o f

th e f o r m e r , a l l t h r e e r e s p o n d e n ts had e x t e n s i v e fo rm al t r a i n i n g in
l i n g u i s t i c s and th e t e a c h i n g of E n g lis h t o s p e a k e rs o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s
(se e T a b le 7 ); i n th e l a t t e r c a s e a l l t h r e e t e a c h e r s w ere n a t i v e

95

s p e a k e r s o f S p a n i s h , a l l had c l a s s e s w hich w e re h o m o l i n g u i s t l c a l l y
composed and a l l had m inim al o r no s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g in th e t e a c h i n g
o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .
P e r h a p s , t h e n , t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g of t h i s s tu d y has
been t h a t , w ith th e e x c e p ti o n o f t h e s i x t e a c h e r s j u s t p r e v i o u s l y men­
t i o n e d , t h e r e h a s emerged from t h e d a t a a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e o f m ethodo­
l o g i c a l e c l e c t i c i s m i n th e t e a c h i n g o f E n g l i s h to a d u l t s p e a k e r s o f
o t h e r la n g u a g e s in M ichigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s .

The e c l e c t i c i s m i s con­

c e n t r a t e d l a r g e l y w i t h i n th e m ethods d e m o n s tr a te d un der th e c a t e g o r i e s
o f O r a l Approach and D i r e c t Method w ith a few t e a c h e r s employing m ethods
d e m o n s tr a ti n g t h e c a t e g o r y o f N o n - S y s te m a tic , and few er s t i l l r e s p o n ­
d in g f a v o r a b l y t o g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n m e th o d s .
M oreover, t h e r e a p p e a r t o be no v a r i a b l e s which a f f e c t t h e s i t u a ­
tio n .

T h at i s , t e a c h e r s seem t o choo se f r e e l y among a number o f m ethods

from d i f f e r e n t a p p ro a c h e s i n e q u a l p r o p o r t i o n s w ith no f a c t o r o r s e t
of f a c to r s in flu e n c in g t h e i r c h o ic e .

In o t h e r w ords, a g iv e n t e a c h e r

m ig h t c la im f r e q u e n t u s e of a p a r t i c u l a r m ethod of th e o r a l a p p ro a c h
and a l s o c la im f r e q u e n t u se o f a p a r t i c u l a r method o f th e D i r e c t Method,
even though th e o r y and g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e d i c t a t e t h a t th e
two m ethods a r e m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e .
The t o t a l r e s p o n s e t o a l l o f t h e a u d i o - t a p e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes
r e v e a l s t h a t In th e fre q u e n c y ra n g e o f " o c c a s i o n a l l y " th ro u g h "v e ry
o f t e n " , 74.1 2 o f t h e i n f o r m a n ts resp o n d e d f a v o r a b l y to th e modes r e ­
l a t e d t o t h e D i r e c t Method ( F i g u r e 2 ) , w h i l e 73.32 responded f a v o r a b l y
t o O ra l Approach m ethods ( F ig u r e 1 ) , a d i f f e r e n c e o f l e s s thon one
p e rc e n t.

FIGURES 1 THROUGH A
DISTRIBUTION OF COMBINED RESPONSES OF ALL SELECTED TEACHERS TO AUDIO-TAPED INSTRUCTIONAL MODES
CLASSIFIED BY LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH

FIG. 1

Percentage

of Response

ItC

(N « 255)

w

o

It

FIG. 2

FIG. 3

(N - 255)

(N - 255)

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Degree of Classroom use
ORAL APPROACH

o

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Degree of Classroom use
DIRECT METHOD

it

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FIG. A

Cl

8 *
Cl
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11
Degree of Classroom use
NON-SYSTEMATIC

Degree of Classroom use
GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION

LEGEND fo r degree of Classroom use:
1 =
2 3 =
A=
5 =

Never
Rarely
O ccasionally
O ccasionally but r e g u la r ly
Very o ften

97

O v e r a l l r e s p o n s e t o t h e g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n modes ( F ig u r e 4) was
h i g h ly n e g a t i v e a s was t o be e x p e c te d s i n c e o n ly s i x o f a l l re s p o n d in g
t e a c h e r s had c l a s s e s o f h o m o l i n g u l s t l c c o m p o s itio n .

At t h i s p o i n t , i t

I s a d v i s a b l e t o d i s p o s e o f g r a m m a r - t r a n s la t io n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s i n c e th e
f a v o r a b l e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e a p p ro a c h were so few , and what e v e r c o u ld
be s a i d a b o u t t h e t e a c h e r s who employ such m ethodology has a l r e a d y been
sta te d .
The i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes embraced by t h e "N o n -S y stero atic" (F ig u r e 3)
c a t e g o r y r e c e i v e d an o v e r a l l r e s p o n s e t h a t was s p l i t a lm o st e v e n ly be­
tween t h e f a v o r a b l e ra n g e o f " o c c a s i o n a l l y " th ro u g h " v e r y o f t e n " and th e
n e g a t i v e ra n g e o f " r a r e l y " t o " n e v e r " .

For a r e l i a b l e a n a l y s i s o f th e

N o n -S y stem a tlc m eth o d s, however, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o o b se rv e t h e re s p o n s e
to t h e i n d i v i d u a l modes a s th e y a r e employed a t d i f f e r e n t p r o f i c i e n c y
le v e ls .

Due t o th e n o n - s y s te m a t ic n a t u r e o f t h e s e methods and t h e i r la c k

o f r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith a u n i f i e d la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g t h e o r y , th e i n c o r p o r a t i o n
of t h e r e s p o n s e s i n t o one g rap h i n d i c a t e s n o t h in g o f p a r t i c u l a r s i g ­
n ific a n c e .
The g e n e r a l p i c t u r e j u s t p r e s e n t e d shows t h a t t h e m e th o d o lo g ie s used
by t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h t o a d u l t s p e a k e r s of o t h e r la n g u a g e s in M ichigan
p u b l i c s c h o o l s a r e s e l e c t e d p r i m a r i l y from e le m e n ts o f two t h e o r e t i c a l
m odels - th e O ra l Approach and t h e D i r e c t Method - w h ile a t h i r d nons y s t e m a t i c s e t of m ethods e n jo y s some c la ss ro o m a p p l i c a t i o n .
From t h e p o i n t o f view o f th e p r o f e s s i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e of te a c h i n g
E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i t i s im p o r ta n t t o s e p a r a t e
th e g e n e r a l p i c t u r e i n t o i t s component p a r t s and to compare t h e s e p a r t s

98

w ith e le m e n ts o f t h e lan g u ag e t e a c h i n g m odels f o r d e e p e r a n a l y s i s .
T his a n a l y s i s f o l lo w s a c c o rd in g t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e v e l s o f t h e
s e l e c t e d t e a c h e r s , and t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o i n d i v i d u a l a u d i o - t a p e d i n s t r u c ­
t i o n a l modes.

B e g inn ing Level
T h i r t y - t h r e e o f th e s e l e c t e d t e a c h e r s t a u g h t c l a s s e s o f b e g in n in g
le v e l s tu d e n ts .

I n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o a l l o f th e i n s t r u c ­

t i o n a l modes r e v e a l e d a p i c t u r e v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e fo r e g o in g g e n e r a l
m e th o d o lo g ic a l d e s c r i p t i o n .

T hat i s , b e g in n in g l e v e l t e a c h e r s employ

methods from th e O r a l Approach ( F i g u r e 5) and th e D i r e c t Method (F ig u re
6) i n ro u g h ly e q u a l p r o p o r t i o n s - e i g h t y p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n s e s to the
O ra l Approach m ethods were i n t h e " o c c a s i o n a l " t o " v e ry o f t e n " ra n g e ,
w h ile s e v e n t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n s e s t o D i r e c t Method modes were
in t h e same ra n g e .
E lem ents from th e n o n - s y s te m a t ic a p p ro a c h a r e employed w i t h con­
s i d e r a b l y l e s s f r e q u e n c y th a n e i t h e r th e D i r e c t Method o r O r a l Approach,
b u t , a s p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , t h e s e need t o be examined i n d i v i d u a l l y b e fo re
a n a l y s i s can be made.
Looking a t t h e re s p o n s e to i n d i v i d u a l a u d i o - t a p e d I n s t r u c t i o n a l
modes r e v e a l s much in s u p p o r t of t h e e c l e c t i c n a t u r e o f m e th o d o lo g ic a l
c la s s ro o m a p p l i c a t i o n s .
P a t t e r n p r a c t i c e d r i l l ( F ig u r e 9) and t h e Gouin S e r i e s d r i l l (F ig u re
10) , a r e m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e m ethods i n th e s e n s e t h a t th e fo rm e r i s a
h i g h l y programmed form o f i n s t r u c t i o n t h e g o a l o f which i s i n t e r n a l i z a ­
t i o n o f g ra m m a tic a l s t r u c t u r e p a t t e r n s th ro u g h r e i n f o r c e m e n t , w h i l e th e

FIGURES 5 THROUGH 8
DISTRIBUTION OF COMBINED RESPONSES OF ALL BEGINNING LEVEL TEACHERS TO AUDIO-TAPED
INSTRUCTIONAL MODES, CLASSIFIED BY LANGUAGE TEACHING
APPROACH

FIG. 5

FIG. 6

FIG. 7

FIG. 8

(N 9 99)

(N - 99)

(N 9 99)

(N - 99)

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s
Degree of Classroom use
ORAL APPROACH

Degree of Classroom use
DIRECT METHOD

Degree of Classroom use
NON-SYSTEMATIC

Degree of Classroom use
GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION

LEGEND fo r degree of Classroom use
1 ■
2 *
3 9
A9
5 9

Never
Rarely
O ccasionally
O ccasionally but r e g u la r ly
Very o ften

100

Gouln S e r i e s s t r i v e s p r i m a r i l y t o a c h i e v e l e x i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g th ro u g h
d ir e c t a sso c ia tio n .

P a t t e r n p r a c t i c e i s o r g a n iz e d around a h i e r a r c h y of

d i f f i c u l t y o f g ra m m a tic a l s t r u c t u r e s , w h i l e th e Gouln S e r i e s i s o r g a n ­
iz e d aro u n d d i f f i c u l t y o f v o c a b u l a r y .

D e s p ite t h e wide d i f f e r e n c e b e­

tween t h e two ty p e s o f la n g u a g e l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s , I t a p p e a rs t h a t
most b e g in n in g l e v e l t e a c h e r s employ b o t h m ethods i n s i m i l a r p r o p o r ­
tio n s .
T h a t i s t o s a y , f o r ex am p le, t h a t o f th e t h i r t y - t h r e e b e g in n in g
l e v e l i n s t r u c t o r s , t w e n t y - e i g h t re sp o n d ed t h a t t h e y u se p a t t e r n p r a c ­
t i c e " o c c a s i o n a l l y " th ro u g h " v e r y o f t e n " , and t w e n t y - f o u r respo nded
in t h e same ra n g e f o r t h e Gouln S e r i e s .
tow ard t h e o c c a s i o n a l l e v e l o f f r e q u e n c y .

The mode i n e a c h c a s e le a n e d

101

FIGURE 9

FIGURE 10

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
BEGINNING LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED PATTERN PRACTICE
INSTRUCTIONAL MODE.

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
BEGINNING LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED PATTERN PRACTICE
INSTRUCTIONAL MODE.

(N - 33)

(N = 33)

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D egree o f C lassroo m u se
ORAL APPROACH

L.

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_

Degree*"of C lassro om u se
DIRECT METHOD

LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f C lassroom u se
1
2
3
4
5

■
■
■
■
■

Never
R a re ly
O c casio n ally
O c ca sio n ally bu t r e g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

T h ere w ere two c a s e s o f b e g in n in g l e v e l t e a c h e r s who embraced th e
p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e method t o th e r e j e c t i o n o f t h e Couin S e r i e s method and
t h r e e who employed g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n m ethodology w i t h r e g u l a r i t y r e ­
sp o n d in g t o b o th th e P a t t e r n P r a c t i c e and Gouin S e r i e s i n th e r a r e l y t o
never ran g es.

The b a la n c e o f b e g in n in g l e v e l i n s t r u c t o r s a p p e a re d t o

choose f r e e l y between t h e two m e th o d s.

102

Two f u r t h e r exam ples o f m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e m ethods a r e t h e con­
t r a s t i n g form s o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n d r i l l o f t h e O ra l Approach and t h e
D i r e c t M ethod.
I n t h e O r a l A pproach, t h e phonemes o f E n g lis h a r e t a u g h t i n minimal
c o n tra st.

The g o a l o f such an e x e r c i s e i s n o t th e p r o d u c t i o n of th e

t a r g e t phonemes w ith n a t i v e - s p e a k e r p r e c i s i o n , b u t t h e developm ent of
th e a b i l i t y t o h e a r and p ro d u c e sounds so t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
a r e made.

F o r exam ple, t h e words BIT and BEET d i f f e r o n ly i n t h e i r

r e s p e c t i v e vowel so u n d s , and i t i s t h i s d i f f e r e n c e which i s s i g n i f i c a n t .
The vowel i n th e word BIT p r o v e s d i f f i c u l t f o r most n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e rs
to h e a r and u t t e r , w h ile t h e vowel i n BEET i s n o t .

The l a t t e r vowel

i s o f t e n u t t e r e d by n o n - E n g lis h s p e a k e r s i n p h o n o l o g ic a l e n v iro n m e n ts
where t h e fo rm er would be a p p r o p r i a t e .

T h e r e f o r e , m inim al p a i r e x e r ­

c i s e s a r e d e s ig n e d t o e n c o u ra g e t h e a b i l i t y to d i s t i n g u i s h c o n t r a s t i n g
so u n d s , o r a l l y and a u r a l l y .
P r o n u n c i a t i o n d r i l l i n t h e D i r e c t Method does n o t t r e a t sounds in
c o n t r a s t w i t h each o t h e r , b u t e n c o u ra g e s t h e c o r r e c t p r o d u c t i o n of th e
sounds o f E n g lis h a s th e y o c c u r i n d i v i d u a l l y i n words and a s th e y a re
r e p r e s e n t e d by a l p h a b e t i c a l c h a r a c t e r s .

In o t h e r w o rd s, th e D i r e c t

Method d o e s n o t a t a l l d e a l w ith c o n t r a s t i n g a s p e c t s o f E n g lis h phono­
lo g y .
The re s p o n s e o f t h e b e g in n in g l e v e l t e a c h e r s t o t h e a u d io - t a p e d
i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes o f t h e c o n t r a s t i n g p r o n u n c i a t i o n t e a c h i n g methods
r e v e a l s t h a t t e a c h e r s a r e u s i n g b o th i n ro u g h ly e q u a l p r o p o r t i o n s w ith
th e D i r e c t Method r e c e i v i n g a s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r r e s p o n s e i n th e to p
t h r e e r a n g e s ( F i g u r e s 11 and 1 2 ).

103

FIGURE 11

FIGURE 12

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
BEGINNING LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED MINIMAL PAIR
PRONUNCIATION DRILL.

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
BEGINNING LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED MINIMAL PAIR
PRONUNCIATION DRILL.

fC,

(N - 33)
0CO1
103

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Degree^ o f J Class^ootn u se

-•-( p _Degree
- ■»o f C lussroom
Jf"
u se

ORAL APPROACH

DIRECT METHOD

LEGEND f o r d e g r e e of C lassroom u se
1
2
3
A
5

“
■
■
*
■

Never
R a re ly
O c ca sio n ally
O c c a s i o n a l l y bu t r e g u l a r l y
Very o f t e n

As w i t h p r e v i o u s e x a m p le s, t h e r e i s no e v id e n c e In th e d a t a t h a t
would i n d i c a t e t h a t b e g in n in g l e v e l t e a c h e r s f a v o r one method o v e r the
o t h e r to t h e d e g re e t h a t a c h o ic e o f one form o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n d r i l l
would p r e c l u d e t h e c h o ic e o f th e o p p o sin g form .

104

D ialo gue d r i l l s , a component o f t h e O ral A pp ro ach , and r e a d in g
a lo u d from t e x t s , a component o f t h e D i r e c t Method, f o llo w in g a t e a c h e r
model do n o t c o n t r a s t l i k e t h e p r e v i o u s I n s t r u c t i o n a l modes, and a r e ,
t h u s , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e .

I t i s u n l i k e l y , however,

t h a t a p r o f e s s i o n a l l y t r a i n e d o r a l a p p ro a c h t e a c h e r would employ th e
r e a d in g alou d method t o any g r e a t d e g r e e , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e b e g in n in g
l e v e l where t h e em phasis of t h e O ra l Approach i s on th e developm ent o f
a u r a l / o r a l s k i l l s and n o t on r e a d in g s k i l l s .

A D i r e c t Method t e a c h e r ,

on t h e o t h e r h a n d , would be m ost l i k e l y t o employ th e r e a d i n g a loud
method a t th e b e g in n in g l e v e l s i n c e t h e l e a r n i n g o f r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g
«

s k i l l s a r e em phasized from t h e v e ry b e g in n in g o f I n s t r u c t i o n fo llo w in g
t h e D i r e c t Method.
S e v e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f b e g in n in g l e v e l t e a c h e r s u se t h e r e a d in g
a lo u d i n s t r u c t i o n a l method i n t h e i r c l a s s e s o c c a s i o n a l l y t o v e ry o f t e n ,
w h ile t e n p e r c e n t n e v e r employ t h e p r a c t i c e ( F i g u r e 1 3 ).

T h is re s p o n s e

r o u g h ly p a r a l l e l s th e re s p o n s e t o a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n d i r e c t e d t o th e a t ­
t e n t i o n o f b e g in n in g l e v e l t e a c h e r s w hich i n q u ir e d a s to w h e th e r o r n o t
b e g in n in g l e v e l t e a c h e r s In tr o d u c e d r e a d i n g s k i l l s i n i n s t r u c t i o n from
th e b e g in n in g o f t h e c o u r s e .

A p p ro x im ately s e v e n ty p e r c e n t responded

a f f i r m a t i v e l y t o t h a t i n q u i r y and a p p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty -s e v e n p e r c e n t
respon ded n e g a t i v e l y .

(T hree t e a c h e r s d i d n o t r e s p o n d .)

The sm a ll

v a r i a t i o n between th e two s e t s o f r e s p o n s e s m ight be a c c o u n te d f o r by
th e f a c t t h a t t h e s u rv e y was made l a t e i n th e y e a r , and t h o s e t e a c h e r s
who r e p o r t e d t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n in r e a d i n g was n o t im m e d ia te ly in tr o d u c e d
m ight have begun su c h i n s t r u c t i o n by t h e tim e th e y r e c e i v e d th e q u e s­
tio n n a ire .

105

FIGURE 13

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
BEGINNING LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED PRACTICE IN
READING ALOUD FROM TEXTS
FOLLOWING A TEACHER MODEL

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D egree oE C lassroom u se
DIRECT METHOD

LEGEND f o r d e g r e e o f C lassroom u se
1
2
3
A
5

"
8
8
8
8

Never
R a re ly
O ccasio n ally
O ccasio n ally but r e g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

D ia lo g u e d r i l l s a p p e a r t o be th e s i n g l e most p o p u l a r form o f th e
ta p e d I n s t r u c t i o n a l modes among b e g in n in g l e v e l t e a c h e r s w ith tw e n ty n i n e o f th e t h i r t y - t h r e e r e s p o n d in g in t h e h i g h e r r a n g e s , and more th a n
h a l f o f a l l b e g in n in g l e v e l i n s t r u c t o r s r e p o r t i n g t h a t they u s e d i a l o g u e s
v e ry o f t e n ( F i g u r e 1 4 ).

T h is r e s p o n s e a c c o u n ts f o r t h e s l i g h t o v e r a l l

pred o m in an ce o f O ra l Approach m ethodology a t t h e b e g in n in g l e v e l .

106

FIGURE 14

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
BEGINNING LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED DIALOGUE DRILL

(N * 33)

V.
at n
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■■ ■

Degree oC’ciass'roo m use
ORAL APPROACH

LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f CloBBroom uue
1
2
3
4
5

“ Never
“ R a re ly
■=> O c c a s io n a l
- O c c a s io n a l b u t r e g u l a r l y
“ Very o f t e n

A lthou gh t h e ubove two i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes were n o t c l e a r l y enough
r e l a t e d t o be m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e components o f o p p o sin g lunguuge
t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h e s , th e y a r e Im p o rta n t e le m e n ts o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e

107

a p p r o a c h e s , and I t i s I n t e r e s t i n g t o be a b le t o o b se rv e t h a t both a r e
employed by a m a j o r i t y o f I n s t r u c t o r s a t t h i s l e v e l .
As s t a t e d e a r l i e r , t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l modes embraced by th e term
non<-system atlc a p p ro a c h need to be i n d i v i d u a l l y a n a ly z e d i n r e l a t i o n
t o th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e v e l o f re s p o n d in g t e a c h e r s , s i n c e t h e s e m ethods
a r e c o n s t r u c t s o f no p a r t i c u l a r la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g t h e o r y .
The f i r s t o f t h e s e methods w i t h which t h e b e g in n in g l e v e l t e a c h e r s
w ere c o n f r o n t e d was an example o f c h o r a l r e a d i n g e x e r c i s e s w ith no
model t o f o l l o w .

S e v e n ty - t h r e e p e r c e n t of b e g in n in g l e v e l i n s t r u c t o r s

n e v e r employ t h i s method (F ig u re 15) w h ile a n o t h e r te n p e r c e n t r a r e l y
u se i t .

FIGURE 15
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
BEGINNING LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED CHORAL READING
PRACTICE WITHOUT TEACHER
MODEL
(N - 33)
a i.

LEGEND f o r d e g r e e of C lassroom u se
>44

w

O
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01
O
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p4

1
2
3
4
5

|I

^- I f ——

y »—

Degree** o r C la s s ro o m u s e

“
■
■

Never
R arely
O c c a s io n a lly
O c c a s io n a lly bu t r e g u l a r l y
Very o f t e n

108

Beginning l e v e l s t u d e n t s would n o t be e x p e c te d t o p o s s e s s t h e s k i l l
t o engage In s u c h a p r a c t i c e , e s p e c i a l l y w ith no sp e ec h model t o f o l lo w .
F u rth e rm o re , i n l i g h t o f th e two la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h e s p r e s e n t e d
in C h apter I I I , such an a c t i v i t y would a p p e a r t o be i n a p p r o p r i a t e in th e
lan g u ag e c la s s ro o m .
The n e x t method from th e n o n - s y s t e m a t i c a p p ro a c h t o which t e a c h e r s
w ere asked t o re sp o n d was a s p e l l i n g t e s t .

The r e s p o n s e was n o t p a r t i ­

c u l a r l y r e v e a l i n g ; a b o u t s i x t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f th e t e a c h e r s r a r e l y o r
n e v e r used t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l mode.

But t o u s e o r n o t t o u se such an

e x e r c i s e i s s t r i c t l y a m a t t e r o f t e a c h e r p r e f e r e n c e , and would o n ly be
r e v e a l i n g i n c a s e s w here t e a c h e r s used s p e l l i n g t e s t s t o t h e e x c l u s i o n of
o t h e r , more r e l e v a n t la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m e th o d s, and t h i s a p p e a re d n o t to be
t h e s i t u a t i o n w ith t h i s group o f t e a c h e r s upon an e x a m in a tio n o f t h e com­
p l e t e d i n s t r u m e n t s o f t h o s e who respo nded i n th e h i g h e r fre q u e n c y r a n g e s .

FIGURE 16

tfl

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
BEGINNING LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED SPELLING TEST

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in
i:
4
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Ml
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U i.
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at
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P4

(N - 33)

LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f C lassroom u se
1
2
3
4
5
Degree* o t C lassro o m use

“
**
“
“
**

Never
R a r e ly
O c c a sio n a lly
O ccasio n ally but re g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

109

The f i n a l i n s t r u c t i o n a l mode t h a t was in c l u d e d i n t h e n o n s y s t e m a t i c s e t was an example o f a f r e e d i s c u s s i o n l e d b u t n o t con­
t r o l l e d by t h e t e a c h e r .

A ltho ugh such a method i s n o t I n c lu d e d s p e c i ­

f i c a l l y a s a component o f e i t h e r o f th e la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m o d e ls, i t
i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e an a c c e p t a b l e p r a c t i c e , s i n c e d i s c u s s i o n
e n c o u ra g e s com m unication i n t h e new lan g u a g e and com m unication i s t h e
m ajor g o a l o f la n g u a g e i n s t r u c t i o n .
The r e s p o n s e t o t h i s a c t i v i t y a t th e b e g in n i n g l e v e l o f i n s t r u c t i o n
was u n e x p e c te d ly f a v o r a b l e ( F i g u r e 1 7 ) .

S e v e n ty p e r c e n t o f t e a c h e r s a t

t h i s I n s t r u c t i o n a l l e v e l resp o n d ed i n th e o c c a s i o n a l t o v e ry o f t e n r a n g e .
I t would seem t h a t b e g in n in g l e v e l s t u d e n t s whose c o n t r o l o f t h e E n g lis h
la n g u a g e i s assumed t o be m inim al would n o t b e c a p a b le o f e n g a g in g i n
d i s c u s s i o n w i t h much f a c i l i t y .

However, t h e s u rv e y was ta k e n a f t e r a l ­

most a y e a r o f i n s t r u c t i o n and t h i s must be ta k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n even
though t h e p r a c t i c e seems e x c e s s i v e f o r th e b e g in n i n g l e v e l .

FIGURE 17

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DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
BEGINNING LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED FREE DISCUSSION
EXERCISE

<
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to m
(0

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Ji

o
2i
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<
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Pi

Degree'* or C lassro o m u se

(N - 33)

LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f C lassroom u se
1
2
3
A
5

“
“
■
■

Never
R a re ly
O c casio n ally
O c ca sio n ally bu t r e g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

110

In te rm e d ia te Level
F o u r te e n o f t h e s e l e c t e d e i g h t y - f i v e t e a c h e r s r e p o r t e d t h a t th ey
tau g h t In te rm e d ia te le v e l c la s s e s .

A s y n t h e s i s o f t h e r e s p o n s e s of th e

t o t a l g ro u p t o a l l o f th e a u d io - t a p e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes r e v e a l s t h a t ,
a t th lB l e v e l , t h e O ra l Approach e njo yed a somewhat h ig h e r d e g re e o f
a p p l i c a t i o n t h a n t h e D i r e c t Method when viewed i n r e l a t i o n t o b e g in n in g
l e v e l r e s p o n s e s , w h ile th e o v e r a l l re s p o n s e t o th e two m e th o d o lo g ie s was
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l e r th a n a t t h e b e g in n in g l e v e l .

At th e same tim e , i t

a p p e a r s t h a t i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l i n s t r u c t o r s employ m e th o d o lo g ie s l i s t e d
under t h e n o n - s y s t e m a t i c h e a d in g to a g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e d e g re e th a n t h e i r
c o u n t e r p a r t s a t t h e b e g in n in g l e v e l .

G ra m m a r -tr a n s la tio n m ethodology i s

h a r d l y e v e r u se d by t e a c h e r s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l c l a s s e s .

These i n t e r ­

m e d ia te l e v e l d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e d is p la y e d in F i g u r e s 18 th ro u g h 21.
A lth o u g h i t i s n o t o f p rim a ry im portance t o compare r e s p o n s e s o f
d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e v e l s , i t i s u s e f u l t o do so in o r d e r t o d e t e r ­
mine w h e th e r t h e l e v e l o f i n s t r u c t i o n a p p e a rs to i n f l u e n c e t h e em­
ploym ent o f la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a c t i v i t i e s .

In t h e c a s e o f i n t e r m e d i a t e

l e v e l r e s p o n s e s v i s ji v i s b e g in n in g l e v e l r e s p o n s e s , such an i n f l u e n c e
seems o p e r a t i v e .

T hat i s t o s a y , a d e c l i n e i n r e l a t i v e r e s p o n s e to b oth

th e O r a l Approach and th e D i r e c t Method i s o b s e r v a b l e a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
l e v e l , w h ile on i n c r e a s e o b t a i n s in t h e re s p o n s e t o t h e n o n - s y s te m a tic
i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes.

T h is i s most l i k e l y a c c o u n te d f o r by t h e o b s e rv a ­

t i o n t h a t t h e D i r e c t Method and O r a l Approach m e th o d o lo g ie s r e q u i r e v i g o r ­
ous t e a c h e r c o n t r o l o f o r a l e x e r c i s e s which p r e d i c t a b l y would d im in is h as
s t u d e n t s adv an ced th ro u g h h i g h e r l e v e l s of lan g u ag e i n s t r u c t i o n where

FIGURE 18 THROUGH 21
DISTRIBUTION OF COMBINED RESPONSES OF ALL INTERMEDIATE LEVEL TEACHERS TO AUDIO-TAPED
INSTRUCTIONAL MODES, CLASSIFIED BY LANGUAGE TEACHING
APPROACH
/*<■

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FIG. 21

FIG. 20

FIG. 19

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FIG. 18

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It
‘L.

-4-1

Deer e^‘i o fJ Classrootn use
ORAL APPROACH

Degree*of^Classveon use
DIRECT METHOD

Degree* c t C lassrco r. use
NON-SYSTEMATIC

Degree* of ClassreciT. use
GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION

LEGEND f o r degree of Classroom use
1
2
3
it
5

=
=
=
=
-

Never
Rarely
O ccasionally
O ccasionally but r e g u la rly
Very o ften

112

a c t i v i t i e s w hich would e n c o u ra g e sp o n ta n e o u s u s e o f lan g u a g e o r a c t i ­
v i t i e s more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e w r i t t e n lan g u a g e would o c c u r w ith
g r e a t e r freq u en cy .
An e x a m in a tio n o f t h e r e s p o n s e s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l t e a c h e r s
r e v e a l s t h a t , a s a t t h e b e g in n in g l e v e l , t h e r e s p o n d e n t s c h o o se f r e e l y
among th e m e th o d o lo g ie s w h e th e r o r n o t th e m e th o d o lo g ie s a r e t h e o r e t i ­
c a l l y m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e .

FIGURE 22

FIGURE 23

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL TEACHERS
TO AUDIO-TAPED PATTERN
PRACTICE INSTRUCTIONAL MODE

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL TEACHERS
TO AUDIO-TAPED GOUIN SERIES
INSTRUCTIONAL MODE

n*»

y;r>

(N - 14)

(N - 14)

Percentage

of Response

7.
IU
10
tl

r*

o

V.

it
n

I.o.

n.
V)
01
OS

L»

*v

•14
O

Sl

ft
*'

<u
to
td
44

4#

•u

Dcgvec o f C la ssro o m u se

a

3?'

0)
u

>4
<u

it

04

>L
I- -L—
-4 -4 -1 Degree*’of^C l.asft'l’oom u s e

ORAL APPROACH

DIRECT METHOD

LEGEND f o r d e g r e e o f c la s s ro o m use
1
2
3
4
5

“
“
■
=

Never
R a r e ly
O ccasio n ally
O ccasio n ally but r e g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

113

The r e s p o n s e t o t h e p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e method o f t h e O r a l Approach
( F i g u r e 22) and t h e Gouln S e r i e s (F ig u r e 23) o f t h e D i r e c t Method show
t h a t n e i t h e r o f th e two m odels i s employed w ith a h ig h d e g r e e of
f re q u e n c y w i t h fo u r t e a c h e r s r e s p o n d in g t o t h e p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e mode
a t t h e h i g h e s t two l e v e l s and t h r e e t e a c h e r s re s p o n d in g t o t h e Gouln
S e r i e s mode a t th o s e l e v e l s .

W ith th e e x c e p ti o n o f th e one te a c h e r who

resp o n d ed t h a t he u sed th e p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e v e r y o f t e n , no te a c h e r
ch o se one m ethod t o t h e c l e a r e x c l u s i o n o f t h e o t h e r a t t h e h ig h e r
ranges.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , o f t h e f o u r t e a c h e r s who n e v e r employ t h e

Gouln S e r i e s , two n e v e r employ p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e , w h i l e two u se the
O ra l Approach method o c c a s i o n a l l y .
The o t h e r two c o n t r a s t i n g m e th o d s, m inim al p a i r p r o n u n c ia tio n d r i l l
( F i g u r e 24) and s i n g l e sound p r o n u n c i a t i o n d r i l l ( F ig u r e 2 5 ) , a l s o show
no p a t t e r n o f m utual e x c l u s i v i t y .

Of f o u r t e e n p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e s t o each

o f t h e a u d io - t a p e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes, t h e r e w ere t h r e e r e s p o n s e s i n
th e lo w e s t ra n g e f o r e a c h , and two o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e s came from th e same
te a c h e rs.

T h e re was one c a s e o f a t e a c h e r c h o o sin g th e O r a l Approach

a c t i v i t y t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f t h e D i r e c t Method, w h i l e no t e a c h e r r e ­
sponded v i c e - v e r s a .
The d i a l o g u e d r i l l s o f t h e O ra l Approach a p p e a r not t o have th e
r e l a t i v e p o p u l a r i t y a t th e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l t h a t th e y have a t th e
b e g in n in g l e v e l , a lt h o u g h th ey a r e employed i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s by m ost
te a c h e rs.

( F ig u r e 2 6 ) .

114

FIGURE 24

FIGURE 25

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES OF
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL TEACHERS
TO AUDIO-TAPED MINIMAL PAIR
DRILL INSTRUCTIONAL MODE

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES OF
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL TEACHERS
TO AUDIO-TAPED SINGLE SOUND
INSTRUCTIONAL MODE

i*p

/*•’

(N - 14)

(N - 14)

II

a> >1
«/>
rt
o H
n.
in
<v If

>7.

of

Percentage

of Response

r<i

A'

o 4*
OO
(0
u Jf
a
<u
o
u
«u

t*
TC

•II
*1

Is.

P4

Degree o£J C lassro om u se

Degree o f C lassro o m u se

ORAL APPROACH

DIRECT METHOD

LEGEND £or d e g re e o f C lassroom use
1
2
3
4
5

■
“
■
■
■

Never
R a re ly
O c c a s io n a lly
O c casio n ally b u t r e g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

C h o ra l r e a d i n g from t e x t s f o l lo w in g a speech m odel r e c e i v e d a b out
th e same r e l a t i v e r e s p o n s e a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l ( F ig u r e 27) a s i t
had a t t h e b e g in n in g l e v e l b u t w ith a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e in fre q u e n c y o f
a p p lic a tio n .

115

FIGURE 26

FIGURE 27

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL TEACHERS
TO AUDIO-TAPED DIALOGUE DRILL
INSTRUCTIONAL MODE

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL TEACHERS
TO AUDIO-TAPED CHORAL READING
WITH TEACHER MODEL INSTRUC­
TIONAL MODE
(N - 14)

(N - 14)
7*

<i» u

(/)
t:
o

IA

s *

ru

u

•it

rx
tn
n> if

w
CJ
if
«
•w
0 ft

rc
<u -Sc.
o
01 i t
CO
(0
u *■*

a «

uto Jkc

a
a

a it
»4
a*

a01

(U

P4 ' t .

_ * T
, i* j
D egree o f C lassro o m u se

D egree o r C lassro o m u s e

ORAL APPROACH

DIRECT METHOD

LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f C lassroom u se
1
2
3
4
5

■
**
“
■
■

Never
R a re ly
O c ca sio n ally
O cca sio n ally but r e g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

T here I s n o th in g e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t I n r e p o r t i n g t h e immedi­
a t e l y f o r e g o i n g d a t a ; th e y s e r v e t o c o m p le te t h e p i c t u r e o r t h e u se a t
th e I n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l o f th e two la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h e s upon
which a t t e n t i o n I s fo cu sed i n t h i s s t u d y .

116

Of t h e t h r e e i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes o f th e n o n - s y s te m a t ic a p p ro a c h
t h e r e s p o n s e s o f I n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l I n s t r u c t o r s t o two o f t h e m ethods
w ere I n t e r e s t i n g .
As s t a t e d e a r l i e r , a c t i v i t i e s e n c o u ra g in g sp o n ta n e o u s u s e o f
la n g u a g e o r a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g s k i l l s c o u ld
p r e d i c t a b l y be o b se rv e d t o be employed w ith i n c r e a s e d f re q u e n c y a t
h i g h e r l e v e l s o f lan g u a g e I n s t r u c t i o n due to t h e asaum edly i n c r e a s i n g
la n g u a g e s k i l l o f t h e s t u d e n t s .

T h is was borne o u t by t h e r e s p o n s e s

t o t h e ta p e d f r e e d i s c u s s i o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l mode and th e s p e l l i n g t e s t
i n s t r u c t i o n a l mode.
I n t h e c a s e o f s p e l l i n g t e s t s t e a c h e r s ' r e s p o n s e s were d i v id e d
i n t o t h r e e a lm o st e q u a l modes (F ig u r e 2 8 ) , w i t h , i n round f i g u r e s , s i x t y f i v e p e r c e n t o f th e t e a c h e r s r e s p o n d in g In th e m id d le and h i g h e s t ra n g e s
w h ile t h e r e s t resp ond ed i n t h e lo w e st r a n g e .

T h is d i s t r i b u t i o n con­

t r a s t s s h a r p l y w ith t h e b e g in n in g l e v e l re s p o n s e where f i f t y - e i g h t p e r ­
c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n s e s w ere i n t h e lo w e s t r a n g e , seven p e r c e n t in t h e
n e x t lo w e s t ra n g e and t h e b a la n c e d i s t r i b u t e d e q u a l l y among th e t h r e e
h i g h e r r a n g e s ( F ig u r e 1 6 ).
An I n c r e a s e o f f re q u e n c y o f r e s p o n s e a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l can
a l s o be o b se rv e d i n t h e c a s e o f t h e f r e e d i s c u s s i o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l mode
a lt h o u g h i t I s n o t a s g r e a t an i n c r e a s e a s th e above exam ple.

S e v e n ty -

two p e r c e n t o f th e i n t e r m e d i a t e r e s p o n s e s were i n th e o c c a s i o n a l t o
v e ry o f t e n r a n g e s ( F ig u r e 29) a s opposed t o s i x t y - s i x p e r c e n t in t h e
same r a n g e s a t th e b e g in n in g l e v e l .

However a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l ,

s i x t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n s e was a t th e h i g h e s t two r a n g e s w h ile
t h r i t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e b e g in n in g l e v e l r e s p o n s e was in th o s e r a n g e s .

117

FIGURE 28

FIGURE 29

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL TEACHERS
TO AUDIO-TAPED SPELLING TEST
INSTRUCTIONAL MODE

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL TEACHERS
TO AUDIO-TAPED SAMPLE OF FREE
DISCUSSION INSTRUCTIONAL MODE
(N - 14)

(N - 14)

Percentage

of Response

/tc
n
I.

(U

J.

(A

rt

O A
P.
W
O to

A-

l£

O
*

tv *

oo

/

g(U *
u 3>
<u
CM i f

<r«

. ( J o — L
Degree* o f C la ssro o m u s e

~-t-t

.L .| .

Degree'* o r C la s sro o m u s e

LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f Classroom u s e
1
2
3
4
5

«
*
“
■
■

Never
R a rely
O ccasio n ally
O c c a s io n a lly b u t r e g u l a r l y
Very o f t e n

As f o r t h e c h o r a 1- r e a d i n g - w it h o u t - a - m o d e l I n s t r u c t i o n a l mode,
the r e s p o n s e was m o s tly In t h e lo w e st r a n g e w ith o n ly t h r e e t e a c h e r s
r e p o r t i n g t h a t th e y u s e th e m eth od.

118

Advanced L evel
The e le v e n re s p o n d in g t e a c h e r s o f advanced l e v e l c l a s s e s d i s t r i ­
b u te d t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o th e a u d i o - t a p e d p o r t i o n o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e
i n f a i r l y c l o s e a p p ro x im a tio n t o t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s a t t h e low er i n s t r u c ­
tio n a l le v e ls.

However, th e combined r e s p o n s e s t o t h e t a p e d i n s t r u c ­

t i o n a l modes i n d i c a t e a s l i g h t r e l a t i v e d e c r e a s e from t h e low er l e v e l s
i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f b o th t h e O r a l Approach and t h e D i r e c t Method.
Such a d e c r e a s e c o u ld be a n t i c i p a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e n e e d s o f a d ­
vanced s t u d e n t s f o r more work i n r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g and l e s s a t t e n ­
t i o n t o t h e dev elopm ent of o r a l / a u r a l s k i l l s .
W hile t h e o v e r a l l r e s p o n s e o f advanced l e v e l i n s t r u c t o r s t o t h e
combined O ra l Approach and D i r e c t Method i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes i s d i s ­
t r i b u t e d d i f f e r e n t l y i n term s o f d e g re e o f c la s s ro o m u s e , t h e r e w ere
i d e n t i c a l numbers o f r e s p o n s e s i n t h e t h r e e h ig h e r r a n g e s o f b o th a p ­
p ro a c h e s ( F i g u r e s 30 and 3 1 ).

S ix ty -se v e n p e rc e n t of th e responses

were d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h t h e s e r a n g e s f o r b o th a p p ro a c h e s w i t h t h e O ra l
Approach h a v in g t h e a d v a n ta g e i n t h e h i g h e r two rangeB .
As w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e low er i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e v e l s , advanced
l e v e l t e a c h e r s a p p e a r t o choo se f r e e l y among m ethods from b o th a p p ro a c h e s
w ith no p a t t e r n o f m u tu a l e x c l u s i v i t y em erging from t h e a n a l y s i s .
The n o n - s y s t e m a t i c m e th o d o lo g ie s ( F i g u r e 32) show an o v e r a l l
d e c r e a s e i n f r e q u e n c y o f r e s p o n s e a t t h e advanced l e v e l , du e l a r g e l y
t o th e s m a ll p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e t o s p e l l i n g t e s t s and c h o r a l r e a d i n g i n ­
s t r u c t i o n a l modes.

FIGPRES 30 THROUGH 33
DISTRIBUTION OF COMBINED RESPONSES OF ALL ADVANCED LEVEL TEACHERS TO AUDIO-TAPED INSTRUC­
TIONAL MODES, CLASSIFIED BY LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH

w

FIG. 30

of R esponse

u

ci

Jc

co

n

&

SI
e
C
o
p.
a
01

u

P.

«a

o w

*1
*
ft

-ft

/•
l.l

, 1

,

1 f 1

,

ORAL APPROACH

*

si

u

PS

ca

tM u
o
SI *L
to
« 9£
4J
ts
SI
U 1«
Vi
0)

U4
o

V

SI

*

PS

o
si
CO
<9
S *

to
a
C
Cl
oVt 2*

VI y ;

SI

CU IL,

Degree*of’ classroom use

si
a
c
o
p.
a

2
“

— —f—1— i

i .L m

Degree'of^Classroora use
DIRECT METHOD

119

4:

FIG. 33

FIG. 32

>2

'•i

V

Percentage

FIG. 31

SI

2 *SI

.1

u l > - L i- l.j - L ^. L ^ L

i.

Degree* o f Classroom use
NON-SYSTEMATIC

1 ^

I *

1

Degree'of Classroom use
GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION

LEGEND f o r degree of Classroom use
1
2
3
4
5

=
=
“
*
■

Never
Rarely
O ccasionally
O ccasionally but re g u la r ly
Very often

120

A ll advanced l e v e l I n s t r u c t o r s I n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y n e v e r u sed any of
t h e g r a t m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n n odes ( F ig u re 3 3 ) .
Response a t t h i s l e v e l t o t h e c o n t r a s t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l n o d e s of
P a t t e r n P r a c t i c e and t h e Gouin S e r i e s r e v e a l t h a t t h e O ra l Approach
method (F ig u r e 34) h a s a g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e d e g re e o f a p p l i c a t i o n than
t h e c o n t r a s t i n g D i r e c t Method a c t i v i t y ( F i g u r e 3 5 ).

FIGURE 34

FIGURE 35

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
ADVANCED LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED PATTERN PRACTICE
INSTRUCTIONAL MODE

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
ADVANCED LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED GOUIN SERIES
INSTRUCTIONAL MODE

(N - 11)

IN '

A?

h.
0w1 n
g H
cu
10

(N - 11)

‘i t
<U

in

It

rt

0
o.
in
at

le

01
»M Tt
O -*•
01
00
10

os

Hi
o
v *
oo
(4
w
»v
fS
V
o •n
u
V II.
P4

rt

Of

□

0
14
01
tu

Degree o f J C lassroom u se

,
w
Degree"* o f “ C lassro o m u se

ORAL APPROACH

LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f Classroom use
1
2
3
4
5

■
*
“
«
“

Never
R a rely
O c c a s io n a lly
Ocean t o n a l l y b u t r e g u l a r l y
Very o f t e n

DIRECT METHOD

121

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t t h e se v e n t e a c h e r s who resp o n d ed
i n t h e h i g h e r r a n g e s o f th e p a t t e r n p r a c t i c e i n s t r u c t i o n a l nodes a l s o
resp o n d ed i n th o s e r a n g e s t o th e Gouin S e r i e s mode, b u t i n d i f f e r e n t
d i s t r i b u t i o n s th ro u g h th e r a n g e s .
A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n can be o b se rv e d w ith t h e c o n t r a s t i n g p ro n u n ­
c i a t i o n d r i l l i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes:

e i g h t o f t h e e le v e n r e s p o n d in g a d ­

vanced l e v e l i n s t r u c t o r s who i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y employ m inim al p a i r
d r i l l ( F i g u r e 36) a l s o I n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y employ t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n
d r i l l a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e D i r e c t Method ( F i g u r e 3 7 ).

FIGURE 36

FIGURE 37

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
ADVANCED LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED MINIMAL PAIR
DRILL INSTRUCTIONAL MODE

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
ADVANCED LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED DISCREET SOUND
INSTRUCTIONAL MODE
tir

(N - 11)

!»«'

(N - 11)

Percentage

o£ Response

It
it

Cl
1/5
(5
O
(X
</>
01

U
Hr

<«
>V

(A
•II
o

01 4j
00
id
u Jt

Jw'

n

01
u
ii
01
Pi

.»

It
•t.

Hr

* 1 ,J _ » * s
Degree o f ’ C la s s room u se

— *— — F - I — I —
t
*-■ _i
v 5
D egree o f C lassro o m use

ORAL APPROACH
LEGEND f o r d e g re e of C lassroom u s e
1
2
3
4
5

“
■
*
“

N ever
R a re ly
O cca sio n ally
O c ca sio n ally but re g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

DIRECT METHOD

122

The O ra l Approach I n s t r u c t i o n a l mode a p p e a r s i n t h i s c a s e , t o be
f a v o re d by th e r e s p o n d e n t s i n te rm s o f r e l a t i v e f re q u e n c y o f c la s s ro o m
use.
D ia lo g u e d r i l l s , a component o f t h e O r a l A pproach, d e c l i n e somewhat
in cLassroom u se a t t h i s l e v e l ( F i g u r e 38) i n com parison w i t h o t h e r
l e v e l s and u l s o in r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r O ra l Approach m ethods a t t h i s l e v e l .

FIGURE 38
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
ADVANCED LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED DIALOGUE DRILL
INSTRUCTIONAL MODES
Of

fc.
li

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(0
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a .
10
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ns

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ti
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o
ai
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u
h
«
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l-J

i-y

l - |--- *—

- • —*

D egree o f 3C lassro o m u se
ORAL APPROACH
LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f C lassroom u se
1
2
3
4
5

**
**
»
■
*•

Never
R a re ly
O ccasionally
O c c a sio n a lly but r e g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

123

The number o f i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s e s to t h e a u d i o - t a p e d c h o r a l r e n d i n g - w i t h - te a c h e r - m o d e l a c t i v i t y i n th e t h r e e h i g h e r ra n g e s i s alm ost
th e same a s w ith t h e d ia l o g u e a c t i v i t y .

T h at i s , t h e r e was one more r e ­

sponse In th o s e r a n g e s to t h e r e a d l i n g aloud e x e r c i s e th a n to t h e d ia l o g u e
e x e r c i s e ; how ever, re a d in g a lo u d e n jo y e d a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f c la s s ro o m u s e
( F ig u r e 3 9 ).

FIGURE 39
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
ADVANCED LEVEL TEACHERS TO
CHORAL-READING-WITH-TEACHER
MODEL INSTRUCTIONAL MODE
/»»*

(N - 11)

0>/i1
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I 1—11-I—
t
5
Degree o f C la s s room use
. * .l.

t

DIRECT METHOD
LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f C lassroom use
1
2
3
4
5

■
=
■
■

Never
R arely
O c c a s io n a lly
O c c a s io n a lly b u t r e g u l a r l y
Very o f t e n

124

Ab

s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e r e I s no n e c e s s a r y c o n t r a s t i n g r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p between t h e two im m e d ia te ly f o r e g o in g a c t i v i t i e s .

T h a t i s t o sa y ,

th e y a r e n o t m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e e x e r c i s e s a s , f o r ex am p le, p a t t e r n
p r a c t i c e v e r s u s th e Gouin S e r i e s .

At th e adv an ced l e v e l o f I n s t r u c t i o n

I t would n o t be u n u s u a l t o o b s e r v e a c h o r a l r e a d i n g e x e r c i s e co n d u cted
by a t e a c h e r t r a i n e d i n th e O ra l A pproach.

T h erefo re, th e fa c t t h a t

advanced l e v e l t e a c h e r s ch ose f r e e l y betw een t h e two m ethod s h as no p a r ­
t ic u l a r sig n ific a n c e .
At th e advanced l e v e l o f i n s t r u c t i o n i t a p p e a rs t h a t t h e m ost w idely
a c c e p t e d form o f o r a l / a u r a l i n s t r u c t i o n was f r e e d i s c u s s i o n a s i n d i c a t e d
by t h e r e s p o n s e s o f I n s t r u c t o r s t o th e a u d i o - t a p e d d e m o n s tr a tio n o f th e
e x e r c i s e ( F ig u r e 4 0 ) .

FIGURE 40
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
ADVANCED LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED FREE DISCUSSION
INSTRUCTIONAL MODE

tn
u

01

(N - 11)

J.

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13
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13

LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f C lassroom use

01

<J 11
14
0*
</

nr

Degree o r C lassroom u se

1
2
3
4
5

“
■
«
■
“

Never
R a re ly
O cca sio n ally
O c c a s io n a lly b u t r e g u l a r l y
Very o f t e n

125

A l l b u t one o f t h e re s p o n d in g t e a c h e r s u s e t h i s m ethod and n i n e of
t h e e le v e n u s e i t w i t h a h ig h d e g re e o f f r e q u e n c y .

T h is was n o t an

u n e x p e c te d r e s p o n s e s i n c e advanced l e v e l s t u d e n t s a r e asaum edly p r o ­
f i c i e n t enough i n t h e u s e o f spoken E n g li s h t o engage i n a c t i v i t i e s
which e n c o u ra g e s p o n ta n e o u s com m u n icatio n .

S in c e th e re m a in in g two

e x e r c i s e s embraced by th e n o n - s y s t e m a t i c h e a d in g , s p e l l i n g t e s t s and
c h o r u l - r e a d i n g - w i t h o u t - m o d e l , r e c e i v e d a r e s p o n s e f a l l i n g m o stly i n t o
th e lo w e st ra n g e s w ith o nly one t e a c h e r r e s p o n d in g f a v o r a b l y to b o t h ,
t h e r e seems no p o i n t i n i n c l u d i n g them i n t h i s a n a l y s i s .

Mixed P r o f i c i e n c y L e v e ls
N e i t h e r o f th e two la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m odels p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p te r
111 n or th e g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n a p p ro a c h t o la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g o u t l i n e d
i n C h a p te r I I e n c o u ra g e s th e f o r m a tio n o f c l a s s e s i n w hich s t u d e n t s o f
d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f p r o f i c i e n c y in t h e t a r g e t la n g u a g e a r e p la c e d t o ­
g e t h e r i n th e same c l a s s .

On th e c o n t r a r y , t h e t h r e e la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g

a p p ro a c h e s assume t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n i s o f f e r e d on th e b a s i s o f some form
o f p r o f i c i e n c y g r o u p i n g , however p r o f i c i e n c y i s d e te r m i n e d , and most
la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e d e v e lo p e d on t h i s a s s u m p tio n .
More s i g n i f i c a n t , th o u g h , th an t h e d a t a e x t r a c t e d from t e a c h e r s
o f mixed p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l c l a s s e s c o n c e r n in g c la s s ro o m p r a c t i c e s i s th e
f a c t t h a t 31.7% o r tw e n ty -s e v e n of t h e e i g h t y - f i v e r e s p o n d in g t e a c h e r s
were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r such c l a s s e s .

T h is c o rr e s p o n d s r o u g h ly to th e

30.0% o f program s which o r g a n i z e t h e i r c l a s s e s s o l e l y on t h e mixed p r o ­
f i c i e n c y b a s i s , a lt h o u g h a l l o f th e t e a c h e r s o f mixed l e v e l c l a s s e s c o u ld

126

n o t p o s i t i v e l y b e i d e n t i f i e d a s t o t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e p ro g ram s.
Due t o t h i s im p o r ta n t v a r i a t i o n from language t e a c h i n g t h e o r y and
g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d p r a c t i c e , a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a ta e x t r a c t e d from th e
r e s p o n s e s o f t e a c h e r s o f mixed p r o f i c i e n c y c l a s s e s t o th e a u d i o - t a p e d
p o r t i o n o f th e i n s t r u m e n t c a n n o t p r o f i t a b l y be c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e same
term s a s a n a l y s e s o f p r e v i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e v e l s .

T hat i s t o say t h a t

s i n c e p r i o r a n a l y s e s have assumed a r e l a t i o n s h i p p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e ,
w ith t h e o r e t i c a l / m e t h o d o l o g i c a l lan g u a g e te a c h i n g m o d e ls, and t h a t t h o s e
models i n t u r n assume i n s t r u c t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f la n g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y ,
mixed p r o f i c i e n c y c l a s s e s b e i n g , by n a t u r e , d ish a rm o n io u s w i t h funda­
m e n ta l a s s u m p tio n s , th ey c a n n o t be t r e a t e d a t a s p e c i f i c m e t h o d o l o g ic a l
l e v e l i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith t h o s e m odels.
C o n s e q u e n tly , th e f o l lo w in g d a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d i n term s d e s c r i p t i v e
o f t h e p r a c t i c e s o f mixed p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l t e a c h e r s , b u t n o t i n term s
of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h o s e p r a c t i c e s t o th e la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g models
nor o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f r e s p o n s e s t o d i f f e r e n t
i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes.
In g e n e r a l , i n s t r u c t o r s o f mixed p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l c l a s s e s employ
th e m ethods d e m o n s tra te d f o r them on a u d i o - t a p e , and th e y employ t h e s e
methods i n d e g r e e s t h a t ro u g h ly a p p ro x im a te fre q u e n c y o f u s e a t th e
d isc re e t in s tru c tio n a l le v e ls.

Prom t h e combined r e s p o n s e s o f t h e s e

i n s t r u c t o r s i t can be o b se rv e d t h a t s i x t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n s e
to t h e O r a l Approach methods f e l l i n t o t h e " o c c a s i o n a l l y " th ro u g h " v e ry
o f t e n " r a n g e s ( F ig u r e 4 1 ) , and e i g h t y p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n s e t o th e
D i r e c t Method was i n th o s e r a n g e s a l s o ( F ig u re 4 2 ) .

R espo nses to t h e

FIGURES 41 THROUGH 44
DISTRIBUTION OF COMBINED RESPONSES OF ALL MIXED PROFICIENCY LEVEL TEACHERS TO
AUDIO-TAPED INSTRUCTIONAL MODES, CLASSIFIED BY LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH

FIG. 44

FIG. 43

FIG. 42

FIG. 41

h'

•k

Percentage

of R esponse

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Degree* ofJ Classroom use
ORAL APPROACH

DIRECT METHOD

Degree o Classroom use
NON-SYSTEMATIC

Degree1 of Classroom use
GRAMMAR-TRANSLAT10N

LEGEND f o r degree of Classroom use
1
2
3
4
5

*
»
*
»
*

Never
Rarely
O ccasionally
O ccasionally but r e g u la r ly
Very o f te n

N>

128

a s s o r t e d n o n - s y s t e m a t i c m ethods w ere a lm o s t e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d betw een
t h e lo w e s t two and h i g h e s t t h r e e r a n g e s ( F i g u r e 4 3 ) , a n d , w h ile
g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n m ethodology r e c e i v e d a h i g h e r f a v o r a b l e re s p o n s e
from t h i s g roup t h a n from p r e v i o u s l y a n a l y z e d g r o u p s , t h e r e s p o n s e w as,
n o n e th e le s s , s tr o n g ly n e g a tiv e (F ig u re 4 4 ).
The d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f r e s p o n s e s o f m ixed l e v e l I n s t r u c t o r s t o t h e
I n d i v i d u a l a u d i o - t a p e d I n s t r u c t i o n a l modes o f t h e O ra l Approach and th e
D i r e c t Method w ere r e l a t i v e l y e q u a l t h r o u g h o u t , b u t t h e r e were two
n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n s w hich a c c o u n t f o r t h e a p p a r e n t p redom inance o f t h e
D i r e c t Method a t t h i s l e v e l .
F i r s t , D ia lo g u e D r i l l s , one of t h e O r a l Approach i n s t r u c t i o n a l
modes, r e c e i v e d t h e s t r o n g e s t re s p o n s e i n t h e two lo w e s t r a n g e s o f any
o f t h e O r a l Approach o r D i r e c t Method i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes ( F ig u r e 4 5 ) .

FIGURE 45
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
MIXED PROFICIENCY LEVEL
TEACHERS TO AUDIO-TAPED
DIALOGUE DRILL INSTRUC­
TIONAL MODE
(N - 27)
r«\

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IU

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)
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05

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tu

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ft
A'

LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f C lassroom u se

^

D egree o f J C la s s Jroom u se
ORAL APPROACH

1
2
3
4
5

"
■
“
»

Never
R a r e ly
O ccasio n ally
O ccasio n ally but r e g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

129

S econd, t h e r e s p o n s e of I n s t r u c t o r s a t t h i s l e v e l t o t h e a u d io ta p e d s i n g l e sound p r o n u n c i a t i o n d r i l l , a component o f t h e D ir e c t
Method, was t h e most p o s i t i v e o f any o f th e r e s p o n s e s t o methods o f
e i t h e r o f t h e two a p p ro a c h e s ( F ig u r e 4 6 ) .

FIGURE 46
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
MIXED PROFICIENCY LEVEL
TEACHERS TO AUDIO-TAPED
SINGLE SOUND PRONUNCIATION
DRILL
/* r

(N - 27)

<
uU it
ao
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U1
ai

PS

it
01

to
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.

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ts
01
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4)

it.

Degree o f C lassro o m u se
DIRECT METHOD
LEGEND f o r d e g r e e o f C lassroo m u se
1
2
3
4
5

“
»
■
■

Never
R a re ly
O c c a s io n a lly
O ccasio n ally but r e g u la r ly
Very o f t e n

130

As f o r m eth ods o t h e r th a n t h o s e o f t h e O ra l Approach and th e D i r e c t
Method, t h e r e a r e two o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t c an be made from th e d a t a and
th e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e o f m a r g in a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .
F i r s t , among t h e n o n - s y s t e m a t i c m e th o d s, t e a c h e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
f r e e d i s c u s s i o n was f r e q u e n t l y employed a s an i n s t r u c t i o n a l method by
Llic m a j o r i t y o f t e a c h e r s ( F ig u re 4 7 ) .

FIGURE 47
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF
MIXED PROFICIENCY LEVEL
TEACHERS TO AUDIO-TAPED
FREE DISCUSSION INSTRUC­
TIONAL MODE
(N - 27)
U
w
I.
in

•I < Ci
o *
v*
to

tf

8« *
uYt /*
<U
o«

•*

Degree o t C lassro o m use
"NON-APPROACH"
LEGEND f o r d e g re e o f C lassroom use
1
2
3
4
5

»
**
■
«
■

Never
R a re ly
O ccasio n ally
O ccasio n ally but r e g u la r ly
V ery o f t e n

131

S p e l l i n g t e s t s and c h o r a l - r e a d i n g - w l t h o u t - m o d e l r e c e i v e d sm a ll
p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e w ith t h e l a t t e r employed i n c l a s s by few er th an f i f ­
te e n p e r c e n t o f t h e t e a c h e r s .
The seco n d o b s e r v a t i o n has t o do w ith t h e o v e r a l l r e s p o n s e to
g r a m m a r - t r a n s l a t i o n m etho ds. . W hile few t e a c h e r s a t t h i s l e v e l employ
t h e s e m ethods on a r e g u l a r b a s i s , a c o m p a r a tiv e ly l a r g e r f a v o r a b l e r e ­
spon se t o t h e a p p ro a c h was re c o r d e d a t t h i s l e v e l t h a n a t o t h e r i n s t r u c ­
t i o n a l l e v e l s , y e t none o f t h e t e a c h e r s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e i r c l a s s e s were
h o r o o l i n g u i s t i c a l l y composed.

T h is seems to be q u i t e i r r e g u l a r , bu t

t h e r e i s n o t h in g f u r t h e r i n th e d a t a t o h e lp i n e x p l a i n i n g why t h e p r a c ­
t i c e e x i s t s among t h i s g ro u p o f t e a c h e r s more f r e q u e n t l y th a n any among
p r e v i o u s l y a n a ly z e d g ro u p .

T h e o re tic a l C o n sid e ra tio n s
The p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n of d a t a e x t r a c t e d from t h e r e s p o n s e of
s e l e c t e d t e a c h e r s t o th e a u d i o - t a p e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes was p r i m a r i l y a d d re s s e d t o m e th o d o lo g ic a l phenomena.
T hat i s , e ac h o f t h e ta p e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l m odes, w ith t h e e x c e p ti o n o f
th e t h r e e d e f i n e d a s n o n - s y s t e m a t i c , r e p r e s e n t e d a m e th o d o lo g ic a l con­
s t r u c t o f a p a r t i c u l a r la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g t h e o r e t i c a l a p p ro a c h .
Through an e x a m in a tio n of th e d a t a s u r r o u n d i n g m e th o d o lo g ic a l con­
s i d e r a t i o n s , i t was hoped t h a t , a p o s t e r i o r i , p r e l i m i n a r y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
of th e p rim a ry lan g u ag e t e a c h i n g t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s g o v e rn in g th e t e a c h i n g
o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n M ichigan p u b l i c s c h o o ls
c o u ld have been i n f e r r e d .

No such i n f e r e n c e was p o s s i b l e , n o r was i t

132

p o s s i b l e t o I d e n t i f y w ith c e r t a i n t y , a s i g n i f i c a n t number of I n d i v i d u a l
t e a c h e r s com m itted t o e i t h e r o f th e la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h e s upon
which a n a l y s i s was b a s e d .

The n a t u r e o f t h e r e s p o n s e r e v e a l e d a c o n s i s ­

t e n t p a t t e r n o f e c l e c t i c i s m In t e a c h e r s ' c h o i c e s of lan g u ag e t e a c h i n g
m ethods.
M e th o d o lo g ic a l e c l e c t i c i s m , how ever, d oes n o t n e c e s s a r i l y im ply
th e o re tic a l e c le c tic is m .

Only t h e m ost o r th o d o x , and hence d o g m a tic ,

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e two la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m odels p r e s e n te d i n C h a p te r
111 would p r e c l u d e e n t i r e l y th e a d o p tio n o f m ethods o f opposing a p p ro a c h e s .
I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t a t e a c h e r t r a i n e d , s a y , i n t h e O ral Approach
might f i n d I t c o n v e n ie n t o r e x p e d i e n t t o employ m ethods from c o n t r a s t i n g
or n o n - s y s t e m a t i c a p p r o a c h e s , and t o do so w ith some r e g u l a r i t y .

The

a v a i l a b i l i t y o f m a t e r i a l s , th e c o m p o s itio n o f t h e c l a s s in term s o f
p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s o r s t u d e n t background o r l i n g u i s t i c s b a ck g ro u n d , and
numerous o t h e r v a r i a b l e s c o u ld a f f e c t m e th o d o lo g ic a l c h o ic e .

However,

t h e r e rem ain s e v e r a l fu n d am e n ta l q u e s t i o n s w h ic h , i f an sw ered , would
a llo w t h e o r e t i c a l i n f e r e n c e s .
These q u e s t i o n s c o n c e rn e d I s s u e s such a s w h e th er o r n o t d i s c u s s i o n
of g ram m atica l p o i n t s was p r a c t i c e d i n c l a s s e s , t h e manner i n w hich con­
t e n t was o r g a n i z e d f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n , t h e u se o f t h e n a t i v e la n g u a g e
o f th e s t u d e n t s i n i n s t r u c t i o n and th e tim e o f i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e
c u r r ic u lu m of i n s t r u c t i o n i n r e a d in g and w r i t i n g s k i l l s .

By d i r e c t i n g

q u e s t i o n n a i r e ite m s to t h e s e a r e a s i t was p o s s i b l e t o make th e a n a l y s i s
which To 1 lows.
N e i th e r t h e Oral Approach nor th e D i r e c t Method fa v o r d i s c u s s i o n of

133

gram m atical p o in ts

sb

an i n s t r u c t i o n a l method.

While th e O ral Approach

does not view such i n s t r u c t i o n as a t h e o r e t i c a l v a r i a n c e , th e use o f
gram m atical d is c u s s io n i s d isc o u rag e d .

On th e o th e r hand, th e D i r e c t

Method, w ith i t s emphasis on d i r e c t a s s o c i a t i o n , p re c lu d e s as a m a t t e r
of p r i n c i p l e d is c u s s io n o f gram m atical p o in ts as a method o f i n s t r u c ­
tio n .

TABLE 12
TEACHERS PRACTICING GRAMMATICAL DISCUSSION AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD
DISTRIBUTED BY INSTRUCTIONAL LEVEL
Beginning
N-33
0
X
P ra ctice

31

93.9

Do n o t
P ra ctice

2

6 .0

In te rm e d ia te
N«14
0
X
14

100
.00

Advanced
N -ll
0
X
11

100
.00

Mixed
N-27
#
X

T o ta l
N-85
0
X

26 96.2

82

96.4

3

3.5

1

3 .7

Examining the t o t a l re s p o n se , i t i s obvious t h a t te a c h e r s f a v o r d i s ­
c u s s io n of grammar i n th e c l a s s e s they te a c h , l e v e l n o tw ith sta n d in g *
T h is can mean one of two th in g s :

Teachers r e j e c t the p r i n c i p l e of th e

D ir e c t Method which say s t h a t grammar d is c u s s io n i s to be avoided, o r
th ey a re unaware of th e p r i n c i p l e and proceed w ith gram m atical d is c u s s io n
ns nn assumedly normal language te a c h in g a c t i v i t y .
The respon se from te a c h e rs of beginning l e v e l c l a s s e s i s e s p e c i a l l y
sig n ific a n t.

Other th an th e p o s s i b i l i t y of s tu d e n ts a t t h i s l e v e l

having d i f f i c u l t y i n communicating a n y th in g i n th e t a r g e t language,

t e a c h e r s a p p ea r to be v i o l a t i n g a p r i n c i p l e about which D i r e c t Method
t h e o r i s t s have been adamant; t h a t i s , such t h e o r i s t s i n s i s t t h a t only
d i r e c t a s s o c i a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g i s e f f e c t i v e , e s p e c i a l l y f o r th o s e in th e
e a r l y s t a t e s o f l e a r n i n g a n o th e r la n g u a g e .^
While th e O ral Approach a llo w s e x p la n a tio n and d i s c u s s i o n of
gram m atical p o i n t s , an a f f i r m a t i v e answer t o the in q u ir y does n o t nec­
e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e t h a t te a c h e r s embrace t h e th eo ry u n d e rly in g th e O ral
Approach.

Grammatical d i s c u s s i o n i s c o n sid ere d more a m a t t e r o f te c h ­

n iq u e than o f e i t h e r th e o ry o r method.

The q u e s tio n i s , i n f a c t , en­

t i r e l y devoid o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i n i t s r e l a t i o n to t h e O ral Approach.
A nother i n q u ir y designed t o e x t r a c t in fo rm a tio n about u n d e rly in g
t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t s o f th e two model approaches was a d d re sse d to the

TABLE 13
ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT ACCORDING TO PARTICULAR LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES
DISTRIBUTION BY INSTRUCTIONAL LEVELS
Beginning
N-33
X
f

In te rm e d ia te
N-14
#
X

Advanced
N - ll
9
X

Mixed
N-27
I
X

T o ta l
N-85
#
X

D iffic u lty
15
o f Vocabulary

45.4

6

42.8

5

4 5.4

14

5 1 .8

40

4 7 .0

4

1 2 .1

3

21.4

3

27 .2

6

2 2 .2

16

1 8 .8

Grammatical
S tru c tu re s

11

33 .3

4

28.5

3

27.2

6

22.2

24

2 8.2

No Response

3

P ro n u n c ia tio n

1

Hiackey, Language Teaching A n a ly s is , p. 149.

1

5

o r g a n iz a tio n of c o n te n t.

T hat i a to sa y , what " o rg a n iz in g element"*

re c e iv e s prim ary c o n s id e r a tio n by the te a c h e r s ?
From th e d a ta d isp la y e d i n Table 13, i t i s observ ed th a t th e m a jo r ity
o f te a c h e rs fav or o rg a n iz in g a s e r i e s o f E n g lish language le s so n s around
d i f f i c u l t y of vocabulary w h ile l e s s than a t h i r d fa v o r o rg a n iz a tio n around
gram m atical s t r u c t u r e s .

T h is In d ic a te s t h a t th e te a c h e r s who fa v o r voca­

b u la ry as an o r g a n iz in g elem ent embrace, a t l e a s t t a c i t l y , a p r i n c i p l e of
th e D ire c t Method in which vocabulary a c q u i s i t i o n i s viewed as th e prim ary
t a r g e t of most l e s s o n s , e s p e c i a l l y the e a r l y l e s s o n s . ^

Grammar i s not

Ignored i n th e D ire c t Method by any means, b u t the I n tr o d u c tio n of words
when a s e r i e s of le s s o n s i s o rganized, and th e sequence in which gramma­
t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s a re p re s e n te d i s not n e c e s s a r i l y cum ulative i n th e sense
t h a t a new s t r u c t u r e 1b p re s e n te d from th e framework o f the p re v io u s ly
m astered s t r u c t u r e a s i s th e c a se with th e O ral Approach.
The tw e n ty - e ig h t p e rc e n t of the resp o n d en ts who favor o r g a n iz a tio n
o f le sso n s around th e d i f f i c u l t y of gram m atical s t r u c t u r e s i m p l i c i t l y
embrace a fundam ental p r i n c i p l e of the O ra l Approach which p r e s c r i b e s
t h a t le s s o n s emphasize the o r a l m anip ulatio n of grammatical and s y n t a c t i c
s t r u c t u r e s w ith v o cab ulary a c q u i s i t i o n assuming a s u b o rd in a te r o l e . 3
T his emphasis on th e m astery o f grammatical s t r u c t u r e s tends t o d im in ish
i n g e n e ra l p r o f e s s i o n a l p r a c t i c e as the s tu d e n t p ro g r e s s e s through

*Ralph W. T y le r , Basic P r i n c ip l e s o f Curriculum and I n s t r u c t i o n .
(Chicago: U n iv e rs ity of Chicago P re ss, 1 950), pp. 56-57.
2
3

D i l l e r , G enerative Grammar, pp. 70-71.

See, f o r example, R obert Lado, C h a rle s C. F r i e s , e t . a l , An I n t e n ­
s i v e Course i n E n g lis h , Revised E d itio n . 4 v o l a . . (Ann Arbor: U n iv e r s ity
o f Michigan P r e s s , 1958),

In te r m e d ia te and advanced l e v e l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , where emphasis s h i f t s
t o re a d in g , w r i t i n g , and v o cabu lary b u i ld i n g .

However, t h i s does no t

p re c lu d e o rg a n iz in g le sso n s a t th e advanced l e v e l acco rd in g t o grammat i c a l stru c tu re s.
The p e rc e n ta g e of resp onse i n d i c a t i n g p ro n u n c ia tio n a s th e c h ie f
o rg a n iz in g element i n a s e r i e s of lessonB i s r e l a t i v e l y sm a ll.

However,

w h ile both model approaches s t r o n g l y emphasize p ro n u n c ia tio n , d i f f e r i n g
o n ly in th e manner i n which th e s k i l l i s t a u g h t , n e i t h e r of th e approaches
view s t h i s a s p e c t o f language te a c h in g as an element around which a s e r i e s
o f le s so n s i s to be planned.
T eachers were req u e ste d to respond to a q u e s tio n which asked i f
th e y would e v e r use th e s t u d e n t s ' n a ti v e language to e x p la in a word o r
gram m atical p o in t (ite m 15 on th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ) .

The resp o n se i s r e ­

corded in t h e fo llo w in g t a b l e :

TABLE 14
USE OF THE STUDENTS' NATIVE LANGUAGE IN INSTRUCTION:

DISTRIBUTION OF

RESPONSE BY INSTRUCTIONAL LEVEL
Beginning
N-33
X
#

I n te rm e d ia te
N-14
#
X

Advanced
N -ll
#
X

Mixed
N-27
#
X

T o ta l
N-85
#
X

Would R egu larly

11

33.3

5

35.7

1

9 .0

9

33.3

28

33.3

Would Rarely

20

60.6

7

50.0

9

81.8

17

62.9

51

60.7

2

6 .0

2

14.2

1

9 .0

5

5.9

Would Not
No Response

1

3.7

137

The above f i g u r e s a r e very r e v e a lin g In th e sense t h a t n i n e t y four p e rc e n t o f te a c h e rs surveyed would use th e n a tiv e language of
t h e i r s t u d e n ts i f a ) t h e te a c h e r knew th e language and b ) t h e te a c h e r
could be f a i r to a l l of h i s s t u d e n ts .

Although th e q u e s tio n was sub-

j u n c t i v e l y phrased on th e q u e s tio n n a ir e ! and th e above two q u a l i f i c a ­
t io n s tended t o eq u iv o c ate th e I n q u ir y , such q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a re not
s i g n i f i c a n t when viewed from the t h e o r e t i c a l base o f the D ir e c t Method.
In D ire c t Method th e o ry , th e n a tiv e language o f th e s tu d e n t i s never
to be used.

That i s an a b s o l u te , and i t i s th e most f r e q u e n tly s t r e s s e d

p o in t made i n the l i t e r a t u r e of th e D ire c t Method.

D i l l e r , f o r example,

in h i s r e c e n t work s t a t e s :
E x clusive use of th e fo re ig n ( t a r g e t ) language i n th e c l a s s ­
room i s the most d i s t i n c t i v e and perhaps th e most Im portant
f e a t u r e of th e D ir e c t Method.^
T h e re fo re , even though th e q u e s tio n was put t o th e te a c h e r s i n th e sub­
j u n c t i v e s e n s e , i t ap p ears s a f e to i n f e r t h a t th e g r e a t m a jo r ity of
responding te a c h e r s do n ot endorse t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s in e qua non of
th e D ire c t Method, and, t h u s , do n o t embrace th e D ire c t Method th e o ry .
A recheck of the completed q u e s tio n n a ir e s rev e ale d t h a t only 3 o f
th e s e v e n ty -n in e te a c h e rs who answered a f f i r m a t i v e l y claim ed th e D ire c t
Method as th e approach which they fav o re d .

None of the f i v e who answered

n e g a tiv e ly claimed to be a d h eren ts of the D ir e c t Method, i n c i d e n t a l l y .
The d a ta recorded in Table 14 have no p a r t i c u l a r re le v a n c e to the
O ral Approach in t h a t th e O ral Approach does n o t t r e a t th e q u e stio n as

^ D i l l e r , G enerative Grammar, p . 68.

a t h e o r e t i c a l one.

The u se o f th e n a t i v e language of s tu d e n ts i s n ot

precluded in th e Approach, bu t in h e t e r o l i n g u i s t i c c l a s s e s , i t would
be an uncommon p r a c t i c e .
The fo llo w in g t a b l e d is p la y s resp o n se s to q u e s tio n s asked only
of beginning l e v e l t e a c h e r s .

The q u e s tio n concerned in tr o d u c tio n

i n t o th e c u rricu lu m of rea d in g and w r i t i n g s k i l l s and r e l a t e s to an
im po rtant t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t of the O ral Approach a s w e ll as f u r t h e r
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of D ire c t Method methodology.

The q u e s tio n was d i r e c t e d

only to te a c h e r s of beginning l e v e l c l a s s e s because i t would be in ap p ro ­
p r i a t e fo r o t h e r l e v e l s in which an a b i l i t y to speak th e language w ith
an i n t e l l i g i b l e deg ree of p r o f ic ie n c y i s assumed.

TABLE 15
INTRODUCTION OF READING AND WRITING INTO THE BEGINNING LEVEL CURRICULUM
N « 33

NUMBER
From th e s t a r t of th e c o u rse

PERCENT

21

66.9

A fte r a p e rio d of i n s t r u c t i o n
in o r a l / a u r a l s k i l l s

9

27.2

No Response

3

15.9

The sev en ty p e rc e n t o f th e resp o n d en ts who in d ic a te d t h a t they
began i n s t r u c t i o n i n re a d in g and w r i t i n g from t h e s t a r t of th e course
do n o t fo llo w a b a s ic p r i n c i p l e of th e O ral Approach.

While n ot being

a s s i n g u l a r l y c r u c i a l Co Che t h e o r e t i c a l fo u n d atio n s of Che Oral Ap­
p roach as Che absence o f th e n a c iv e language In t h e classroom I s to
Che Direcc Method, Che concept o f d e la y in g i n s t r u c t i o n i n th e s k i l l s of
r e a d in g and w r i t i n g u n t i l o r a l m astery o f b a s ic i n s t r u c t i o n a l p a t t e r n s
o b t a i n s i s fundam ental.

T h e re fo re , i t ap pears t h a t the m a jo r ity of

b e gin ning l e v e l te a c h e r s do n o t s u b s c r ib e to a m ajor t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t
u n d e rly in g th e Oral Approach.

Coupled w ith th e d a t a in T ab le 13, i t

seems s a f e Co i n f e r Chat th e m a jo r ity o f a l l te a c h e r s surveyed do n o t
s u b s c r ib e to th e t h e o r e t i c a l fo u n d a tio n s of the O ral Approach.
F u rth e r in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g rea d in g and w r i t in g I n s t r u c t i o n was
e x tr a c t e d from th e p o r t io n of th e q u e s tio n n a ir e t o which te a c h e rs o f
beginning l e v e l s t u d e n ts were asked to respond i n o rd er t h a t a d d i t i o n a l
t h e o r e t i c a l in fo rm a tio n concerning th e D ire c t Method could be g lea n ed .
The d a ta were re q u e ste d from Chose te a c h e r s who responded t h a t they
te a c h rea d in g and w r i t i n g from th e s t a r t o f th e c o u rs e , and the purpose
was to le a r n i f they follow ed a p a r t i c u l a r o rd er of p r e s e n t a ti o n of
s k i l l s w ith in a l e s s o n .
TABLE 16
SEQUENCE OF PRESENTATION OF SKILLS IN LEARNING A TARGET WORD OR EXPRES­
SION:

DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE OF 21 RESPONDENTS WHO TEACH READING AND
WRITING AT THE START OF A COURSE

Number

P ercent

O r a l / a u r a l then w r i t t e n e x p re s s io n

13

65.0

W ritte n e x p re ss io n th en o r a l / a u r a l

7

35.0

(One respondent w rote "phonics" a s an answer, th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of which
i s beyond t h i s r e s e a r c h e r 's u n d e rs ta n d in g .)

The m a jo rity of resp o n d en ts t o t h i s ite m follow t h e d i c t a t e s of
th e D ir e c t Method concerning th e optimum manner of te a c h in g a word or
e x p re s s io n .

The Method c a l l s upon the s tu d e n t f i r s t t o pronounce the

word o r e x p r e s s io n t w r i t e i t , th e n read what he has w r i t t e n .

The ba­

lan c e do n o t fo llo w t h i s p rocedure and th u s do not f o llo w D ire c t Me­
thod th e o ry .
There were o th e r te a c h e r s o f beginning l e v e l s t u d e n ts who r e ­
sponded to th e fo reg o in g in q u ir y , but s in c e th e s e te a c h e r s conducted
mixed p ro f ic ie n c y l e v e l c l a s s e s , i t was co n sid ere d in a p p r o p r i a t e to
in c lu d e them in t h i s p o r t io n of t h e surv ey .

The mixed p r o f ic ie n c y

c l a s s , by v i r t u e of i t s com position d e f i e s a n a l y s i s i s th e same terms
a s the preceed in g d is c u s s io n of rea d in g and w r i t i n g .

That i s t o sa y ,

f o r example, a te a c h e r who might a c t i v e l y a c c e p t th e t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s
o f , sa y , th e O ral Approach, might very w e ll begin i n s t r u c t i o n i n re a d ­
ing and w r i t in g a t the v e ry s t a r t of th e c o u rse through the sim ple
n e c e s s i t y of keeping s tu d e n ts occupied u n t i l th e te a c h e r i s a b le p e r­
s o n a lly to a t t e n d to them.

D ire c t Method a d v o c a te s, on the o th e r

hand, might postpone i n s t r u c t i o n in rea d in g and w r i t in g f o r th e same
re a so n .

N o n e th eless, te a c h e r s o f mixed p r o f ic ie n c y c l a s s e s favored

In clu d in g i n s t r u c t i o n in re a d in g and w r i t i n g a t the s t a r t of th e course
in a r a t i o of 74% to 26%, with one te a c h e r no t respo nding .

T h is i s

roughly analogous to th e f i g u r e s analyzed i n the p rec ed in g d i s c u s s io n .
A f i n a l p o in t e x tr a c t e d from the re s p o n se s to th e paper and
p e n c i l p o rtio n o f the t e a c h e r s ' q u e s t io n n a ir e i s t h a t s e v e n ty - f iv e of
the e i g h t y - f i v e te a c h e rs a re n a ti v e sp e ak e rs of E n g lish .

This i s con­

s i s t e n t w ith b o th Oral Approach and D ire c t Method from a n o n - t h e o r e t i c a l

p o in t of view .

Both methods p r e f e r th e s e r v i c e s of a n a t i v e or n e ar

n a ti v e sp e a k e r to fu n c tio n a s a model f o r the s t u d e n t s ' i m i t a t i o n as
I n the O ra l Approach, o r as a f l u e n t enough sp e ak e r of t h e t a r g e t la n ­
guage to be a b le to conduct th e c la s s e n t i r e l y i n th e t a r g e t language
a s in th e D ire c t Method.
I t a p p e a rs , th e n , th a t th e m a jo r ity of te a c h e r s do n o t embrace
e i t h e r o f th e approaches o u tlin e d in Chapter 111 on a t h e o r e t i c a l
le v e l.

Elements of b oth approaches a r e employed in a m ethodological

se n se , b u t the d a ta r e v e a l t h a t the m a jo rity of th e te a c h e rs surveyed
r e j e c t , a t l e a s t i m p l i c i t l y , fundamental t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a ti o n s of
both model language te a c h in g approaches, and r e j e c t th e s e c o n s id e r a tio n s
in s i m il a r p r o p o rtio n s w ith no u n d e rly in g p a t t e r n o f m utual e x c l u s i v i t y .
I t can g e n e r a lly be I n f e r r e d t h a t no c l e a r l y d e fin e d predominance
o f t h e o r e t i c a l p a t t e r n s of te a c h in g E nglish to sp e ak e rs o f o th e r l a n ­
guages a r e rev ealed by the d a t a , and i t would appear t h a t the m a jo r ity
o f te a c h e r s surveyed a re committed to no p a r t i c u l a r language te a c h in g
th eo ry .

The p a t t e r n which emerges from the d a ta i s an e c l e c t i c one

embracing t h e o r e t i c a l concepts from both approaches and r e j e c t i n g th e ­
o r e t i c a l concepts from both approaches as w e ll.
One f i n a l , p a r e n t h e t i c a l p o i n t:

te a c h e rs were asked to i n d i c a t e

from a l i s t o£ n in e language tea ch in g approaches which one b e s t de­
s c rib e d t h e approach they u se d .

The response to t h i s was very s p a r s e ,

and many who did respond in d ic a te d more than one c h o ic e .

Program Nomenclature
The f i n a l s e c t i o n of t h i s a n a ly s is d e a l s v i t h th e t i t l e s under
which c l a s s e s of E n g lish to a d u l t sp e ak e rs of o t h e r languages a re
o ffe re d i n Michigan p u b lic s c h o o ls .

TABLE 17
TITLES UNDER WHICH CLASSES OF ENGLISH TO ADULT SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES
ARE OFFERED IN MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS
(N - 30)
T itle

Number

English f o r the F oreign Born

11

English a s a Second Language

5

Adult B a sic E ducation

A

Other
E n g lis h for New Americans
E n g lis h for Immigrants
E n g lis h fo r Non-Speaking Persons
E ng llph fo r Spanish Surnamed Students
E n g lis h for t h e Non-American Born
"The Man with t h e White H a ir"
No Response

3
1
1
1
1
2

At l e a s t nine t i t l e s a r e employed i n Michigan to a d v e r t i s e c l a s s e s
of E n g lish fo r a d u l t sp eak ers of o th er lan guages.

Some of t h e t i t l e s

imply t h a t c la s s e s a re r e s t r i c t e d to immigrants and could p o s s ib ly
suggest t h a t n a tiv e - b o r n n on-E nglish sp e ak e rs a r e n ot welcome to e n r o l l .

Summary of Chapter XV

The f i r s t s e c t i o n of t h i s ch ap ter d e a l t w ith the I d e n t i f i c a t i o n
and o r g a n i z a t i o n of Michigan p u b lic s c h o o l programs i n th e te a c h in g
of E n g lish t o a d u l t sp e ak e rs o f o th e r lan g u a g es.

The a n a l y s i s id e n ­

t i f i e d programs acco rd in g to th e communities i n which th ey a r e lo c a te d ,
e n ro llm e n t p ro c e d u re s , o rg a n iz a tio n o f the sc h o o l c a le n d a r , and p ro­
f i c i e n c y l e v e l s of s tu d e n ts f o r grouping p u rp o ses.

Moreover, in t h i s

s e c t i o n , a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s re q u ire d fo r
t e a c h e r s in th e programs was d e t a i l e d along w ith a d e s c r i p t i o n of the
a c t u a l p r e p a r a t i o n , form al and in fo rm a l, of t h e s e l e c te d te a c h e r s who
responded to th e s tu d y .
The n ext s e c t i o n add ressed m a t e r i a l s and methods in c lu d in g t e x t s ,
a u d i o / v i s u a l a i d s and supplementary m a t e r i a l s employed by th e r e ­
sponding te a c h e r s o f E n glish t o a d u lt sp e ak e rs o f o th e r langu ages, and
the a c t u a l classroo m p r a c t i c e s of t h a t s e l e c te d group of te a c h e r s .
Data used in th e d e s c r i p t io n of classroom p r a c t i c e s were g a th e red
from t e a c h e r s ' resp o n se s to a u d io -ta p e d d em o n stratio n s o f language
te a c h in g i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes and analyzed in r e l a t i o n t o the two la n ­
guage te a c h in g models p re s e n te d in C hapter I I I of t h i s stu d y .

Thus, a

number of m eth o d o lo g ic al q u e s tio n s were answered in term s of th e f r e ­
quency of a p p l i c a t i o n of c e r t a i n key language te a c h in g methods.
The t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c ts o f the d e s c r i p t i o n were addressed through
a n a l y s i s of d a ta from the p a p e r and p e n c i l p o r t io n of th e t e a c h e r s '

in stru m en t combined w ith the a n a l y s i s of d a te e x tr a c te d from th e
a u d io -ta p e p o r tio n .
The fin d in g s of t h e study a r e included i n th e t e x t of t h i s chap­
t e r and r e s t a t e d in C hapter V where c o n c lu sio n s and recommendations
based on th o se fin d in g s a r e a r t i c u l a t e d .

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The Problem
The problem to which t h i s stu d y has been ad d ressed concerned th e
la c k of r e l i a b l e Inform ation su rroun ding programs d esigned fo r te a c h in g
E n glish t o a d u l t speakers of o th e r languages In Michigan p u b lic s c h o o ls.
A c tu a lly , l i t t l e I s known about t h i s component o f a d u lt e d u ca tio n
programs n a t i o n a l l y due, most l i k e l y , to th e la c k of a t t e n t i o n p aid i t
by t h e o r i s t s and p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n th e f i e l d o f te a c h in g E n g lish as a
second language whose prim ary concern has been w ith th e a r t as I t has
been p r a c t i c e d i n c o l l e g i a t e s e t t i n g s .

Y et, th e a c t i v i t y had been a

v i t a l c o n s t i t u e n t of th e a d u lt e d u c a tio n m i l i e u f o r a lm o st a c e n tu ry
p r i o r to th e emergence of a s c i e n t i f i c a l l y based p r o f e s s i o n a l spe­
c i a l t y in th e te a ch in g o f E nglish t o sp e ak e rs of o t h e r languages.
In r e c e n t y e a r s , moreover, th e f e d e r a l government has enacted le g ­
i s l a t i o n which has provided funds f o r the e s ta b lis h m e n t of e d u c a tio n a l
programs f o r undereducated a d u l t s and out o f school y o u th .

Non-English

speaking a d u l t s have been in clu d ed in the i n t e n t i o n s of th e s e Congres­
s i o n a l a c t i o n s , and c l a s s e s f o r t h i s p o p u la tio n have been o rg an ised so
t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t p ro p o rtio n o f programs p o p u la rly termed "Adult Basic
Education" has been devoted to th e te a c h in g o f E nglish t o a d u lt speakers
of o th e r lan guages.

However, t h e r e has been no r e s e a r c h , p r i o r to t h i s

e f f o r t , which has attem pted to d e s c r i b e th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and pedagogical

145

p r a c t i c e s In p u b lic school a d u lt e d u ca tio n c l a s s e s designed s p e c i f i ­
c a l ly and e s p e c i a l l y f o r n o n -E n g lish speaking a d u l t s .
T h e re fo re , i t has been th e purpose of t h i s study to d e s c r ib e th o se
p r a c t i c e s a s they a r e m anifested i n p u b lic scho ol a d u l t e d u c a tio n pro­
grams in th e S t a te of Michigan through se ek in g r e l i a b l e answers to th e
fo llow ing q u e s tio n s :

1) Under what t i t l e s a re c l a s s e s i n E n g lish fo r sp e ak e rs o f o th e r
languages tau g h t?
2) How a r e c l a s s e s in Adult Education Programs organized to e f f e c t th e
l e a r n i n g of E n g lish by sp e ak e rs of o t h e r languages?
3)

What i d e n t i f i a b l e approaches a r e employed in th e te a ch in g o f E n glish
to sp e ak e rs o f o th e r languages in Adult Education Programs?

4) What t h e o r e tic a l- m e th o d o lo g ic a l approach, i f any, predom inates in
th e te a c h in g o f E n g lish to sp e ak e rs o f o th e r languages i n Adult
B asic Education Programs?
5) What a r e th e minimal q u a l i f i c a t i o n s r e q u ir e d of te a c h e r s o f E nglish
.to sp e ak e rs o f o th e r languages in Adult Education Programs, and do
th o se req u ire m e n ts approach th e minimal q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r te a c h e rs
o u t li n e d in th e TESOL sta te m e n t on " Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s fo r T eachers of
E n g lish as a Second Language"?
6) Does th e a c t u a l p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n or i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g o f
te a c h e r s o f E nglish to sp e ak e rs of o t h e r languages g e n e r a lly in ­
c lu d e s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g in t h e te a c h in g o f E n g lish to sp e ak e rs of
o t h e r lang uages, o r t r a i n i n g i n a l l i e d f i e l d s Buch as l i n g u i s t i c s ?

7)

What p r o f e s s i o n a l support f o r te a c h e rs of E nglish to speakers of
o th e r languages e x i s t s in a d u l t e d u ca tio n s i t u a t i o n s where t e a c h e r s
have n o t been tr a in e d fo r t h i s a c t i v i t y ?

8)

In l i g h t o f c u r r e n t l i n g u i s t i c theory and a ccepted p r a c t ic e w i t h in
th e p r o f e s s i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e of tea ch in g E nglish t o speakers o f o th e r
lan guag es, what recommendations fo r improvement a r e warranted?

Procedures
In o rd e r to c o l l e c t d a ta r e le v a n t to the r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s , a
procedure was designed whereby Inform ation could be s o l i c i t e d from th e
two most a p p r o p r i a te so u rc e s:

a d m in is tr a to r s of p u b l ic school a d u l t

e d u ca tio n programs having c l a s s e s designed f o r te a c h in g English t o
a d u lt speakers of o th e r la n g u a g es, and t h e te a c h e r s o f th ese c l a s s e s .
I t was f i r s t n e c e ssa ry to a s c e r t a i n which programs in Michigan
o f f e r e d such c l a s s e s .

This was accomplished through th e good o f f i c e s

of th e Michigan Department of Education and P r o je c t ENABEL, and t h i r t y th r e e programs having c l a s s e s i n English a s a second language were p o s i ­
t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d through an i n i t i a l survey of a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

The

survey served th e d u a l purpose o f i d e n t i f y i n g programs and i d e n t i f y i n g
te a c h e r s as w e ll.
Two d a ta g a th e r in g in s tru m e n ts , one f o r com pletion by the admin­
i s t r a t o r s and one fo r com pletion by the t e a c h e r s , were designed and
te ste d .

The a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' q u e s tio n n a ire sought in fo rm atio n surrounding

program o r g a n i z a t i o n , minimal te a c h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and p r o f e s s i o n a l

sup port f o r t e a c h e r s of E n g lish t o a d u l t speakers of o th e r langu ages.
The in stru m e n t designed f o r th e c o l l e c t i o n of d a ta from th e
te a c h e r s was b i - p a r t i t e in form, having a normal paper and p e n c i l por­
t io n and a p o r t i o n in which te a c h e r s were asked to respond to audio­
taped d e m o n stra tio n s of E n g lish Language Teaching I n s t r u c t i o n a l Modes.
A fte r l i s t e n i n g t o each d e m o n s tra tio n , te a c h e rs were asked t o i n d i c a t e
whether and to what degree of frequency th ey employed the i n s t r u c t i o n a l
inodes i n t h e i r c l a s s e s .
These in stru m e n ts were s e n t i n t o th e f i e l d v ia th e s t a te w id e n e t ­
work o f P r o j e c t ENABEL whose p e rs o n n e l a d m in istered th e a u d io - ta p e
p o r t io n to e i g h t y - f i v e te a c h e r s from tw e n ty -fiv e d i f f e r e n t communities
which su p p o rte d p u b lic sch ool a d u l t e d u c a tio n programs in th e te a ch in g
of E n g lish t o sp eak ers of o th e r lan g u a g e s.

A d m in istra to rs re c e iv e d

t h e i r q u e s t io n n a ir e d i r e c t l y by m a ll and t h i r t y completed in stru m e n ts
were r e t u r n e d .
The d a ta c o ll e c t e d from th e re tu r n e d In strum ents were ta b u la te d
and analyzed l a r g e l y in r e l a t i o n to two t h e o r e tic a l/m e th o d o lo g ic a l
language te a c h in g models.

The models d e sc rib e d th e Oral Approach to

language te a c h in g and the D ir e c t Method o f language te a c h in g .

The f o r ­

mer h as i t s r o o t s In the modern s c ie n c e o f s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t i c s and
i s g e n e r a lly considered by s p e c i a l i s t s t o be the most e f f e c t i v e ap­
proach to language tea ch in g in e x i s t e n c e .

The l a t t e r approach i s gen­

e r a l l y viewed a s being d a te d and v e ry l i t t l e su pport f o r i t s a p p lic a ­
t io n i s found i n rec en t l i t e r a t u r e .

Findings
From Che a n a l y s i s of th e c o ll e c t e d d a t a , th e s e f in d in g s were made
p o ssib le :

A.

O rg a n iz a tio n a l
1.

T h irty p e rc e n t of p u b lic sc h o o l a d u lt e d u c a tio n programs in
Michigan having c l a s s e s of E n g lish s p e c i f i c a l l y and e x c lu s iv e ly
designed f o r sp e a k e rs of o th e r languages do n o t p r a c t i c e
grouping by l e v e l s o f E ng lish language p r o f i c i e n c y .

N e ith e r

the l o c a t i o n nor th e s i z e o f th e programs appear to In flu e n c e
t h i s la c k of p r o f ic ie n c y grouping among th e s e programs.
2.

In a l l b u t one of th e responding program s, s t u d e n ts a r e ad­
m itte d to c l a s s e s a t any tim e d u rin g th e school y ear d e s p i t e
the f a c t t h a t most programs o p e ra te on a sem ester or term
*

b a sis.
3.

S p e c if ic t r a i n i n g in the te a c h in g of E ng lish to sp e ak e rs o f
o th e r languages i s n o t re q u ir e d of te a c h e r s by any of th e r e ­
sponding programs, and most programs do not p ro v id e p r o f e s ­
s i o n a l su p p o rt in th e form of s p e c i a l i s t s to a s s i s t te a c h e r s
of E n g lish to sp e a k e rs of o t h e r lang uages.

A.

Most te a c h e r s have had some s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g in the te a c h in g
of E n g lish to sp e ak e rs of o t h e r languages an d /o r a l l i e d f i e l d s ;
however, th e m a jo r ity have had minimal exposure to such t r a i n i n g
w h ile only two p o ss e s s g ra d u a te d eg rees w ith m ajor emphasis in
the f i e l d .

ISO
1

5.

A ll responding te a c h e rs o£ E nglish to sp eak ers of o th e r la n ­
guages In Michigan p u b lic school a d u l t e d u c a tio n programs pur­
sue t h i s a c t i v i t y on a p a r t - t im e b a s i s .

6 . The t h i r t y responding programs o p e ra te under eleven s e p a ra te
t i t l e s , th e most popular o f which I s "E nglish fo r th e Foreign
Born".

Only f i v e programs use "E n g lish as a Second Language"

as a t i t l e , w h ile the r e s t employ nom enclature r e l a t e d to
e d u c a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r n o n -n a tiv e born p e o p le .
B.

Classroom P r a c t i c e
1.

Language te a ch in g methods from two t h e o r e t i c a l approaches, th e
Oral Approach and th e D ir e c t Method, a re w idely employed by
th e s e l e c t e d t e a c h e r s .

In a d d itio n and to a lesB er d e g re e,

te a c h e r s employ n o n -sy ste m atic and g ra m m a r-tra n s la tlo n metho­
dology.

The v i s i b i l i t y o f the l a t t e r i s v e ry low in r e l a t i o n

to o t h e r methods.
2.

A nalysis of the d a ta has re v e ale d t h a t a s i t u a t i o n of methodo­
l o g i c a l e c l e c ti c is m o b ta in s among t e a c h e r s .

That i s , of the

two predominant approaches to the te a c h in g of E nglish to
sp eak ers of o th e r lan g u ag es, n e i t h e r appears to be favored by
the t e a c h e r s .

I n s te a d , te a c h e r s choose f r e e l y among the methods

of th e two approaches and no p a t t e r n of s e l e c t i o n of one method
in fav or of a n o th e r has emerged from the d a t a .
One f u r t h e r o b se rv a tio n has been made p o s s ib le from the a n a l y s i s
o f th e d a t a , and i t seems a p p r o p r ia te to in c lu d e i t a t t h i s p o i n t.
A phenomenon of b i-m o d a lity appeared throughout th e d i s t r i b u t i o n s
of resp o n ses to th e a u d io -tap e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l modes, m ostly i n the

responses t o dem o nstrations of n o n -sy s te m a tic language te a c h in g methods.
While t h i s study had n o t been designed t o c arry out t e s t s of s t a t i s t i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e , to ig n o re such a phenomenon would be i r r e s p o n s i b l e .

There­

f o r e , the fre q u e n t o ccu rren ce of bi-m odal d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n d i c a t i n g th e
p o s s i b i l i t y of v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g th e s e d i s t r i b u t i o n s i s c a l l e d to the
a t t e n t i o n o f f u tu re r e s e a r c h e r s who might wish to i n v e s t i g a t e th e phe­
nomenon o r to c o n sid er i t when d e sig n in g resea rch in t h i s a re a o r w ith
t h i s type o f p o p u la tio n .

C onclusions
The d e s c r i p t i o n o f the s t a t e of programs in th e te a c h in g of English
to a d u lt sp eak ers of o th e r languages i n Michigan p u b lic sc h o o ls t h a t
has emerged from t h i s stu d y le a d s to a number of c o n c lu sio n s concerning
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and classroom te a c h in g phenomena.
F i r s t , w hile c l a s s e s a re w idely sp re ad throughout th e s t a t e of
Michigan and a p p a re n tly a c c e s s i b le to s t u d e n t s , accep ted language
tea ch in g p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e s appear t o be v i o l a t e d i n c e r t a i n o r­
g a n iz a t i o n a l a s p e c ts .
The e x is te n c e of c la s s e s o f mixed p r o fic ie n c y l e v e l s in t h i r t y
p e rc e n t of th e programs v i o l a t e s not o n ly the p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r p r o f i ­
cien cy grouping of th e O ral Approach, b u t of the D ir e c t Method as w e ll.
The p r a c t i c e of o rg a n iz in g c l a s s e s in such a manner n e g a tiv e ly a f f e c t s
the c o n ti n u i ty of language te a c h in g in a given c l a s s , and could a ls o
reduce th e amount of i n s t r u c t i o n a l time a v a ila b le to a given Btudent
e n ro lle d i n such a c l a s s .

In e f f e c t , a tea ch e r of a c l a s s which has

152

a t l e a s t two d i s t i n c t p r o f i c i e n c y l e v e l s r e p r e s e n te d i s tea ch in g a t
l e a s t two s e p a r a t e c l a s s e s w ith in th e sane i n s t r u c t i o n a l p e rio d , w ith
each group n e c e s s a r i l y r e q u i r i n g i t s own s e t o f l i n g u i s t i c o b je c tiv e s
and each group r e q u i r i n g i n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d t o I t s s p e c i f i c o b je c ­
tiv e s.

Such a s i t u a t i o n i s u n te n a b le f o r both te a c h e r and s tu d e n t.

Another a re a where v i o l a t i o n o f language te a c h in g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
p r i n c i p l e s i s p o s s ib l e i s th e p r a c t i c e of open en ro llm e n t r e p o r te d by
a l l bu t one o f the responding programs.

Since e f f e c t i v e language

le a r n in g i s assumed to be cum ulative, and th u s r e q u i r e s c o n ti n u i ty of
i n s t r u c t i o n , th e adm ission of new s tu d e n ts i n t o c l a s s e s a t any tim e
d u rin g th e sch o o l y e a r would n e g a tiv e ly a f f e c t m aintenance of such
c o n t i n u i t y , e s p e c i a l l y i f new s tu d e n ts were e n r o lle d i n t o a c l a s s con­
t in u o u s ly , r e q u i r i n g fre q u e n t a d ju stm e n ts in i n s t r u c t i o n to accomodate
them.

However, no firm co n clu sio n can be subm itted i n t h i s m a tte r i n -

as much as th e d a ta do n o t r e v e a l th e deg ree to which open en ro llm e n ts
are p ra c tic e d .
A f i n a l c o n clu sio n concerning o r g a n i z a t i o n a l phenomena I s drawn
from th e f i n d in g s o f th e study in r e l a t i o n to te a c h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n .
According t o the c r i t e r i a of the p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l t y of the te a ch in g
of E n g lish to sp e ak e rs o f o th e r languages a s th o se c r i t e r i a a re s t a t e d
in th e TESOL s ta te m e n t on te a c h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n . I n s t r u c t o r s i n E nglish
to a d u l t sp e ak e rs o f o t h e r languages in Michigan p u b lic schools a r e ,
f o r th e most p a r t , i n s u f f i c i e n t l y p rep ared t o perform t h e i r t a s k .
While most t e a c h e r s have had some form al or Inform al t r a i n i n g i n the
s u b j e c t , th e t r a i n i n g re v e a le d by the d a ta cannot be considered

a d eq u a te to s a t i s f y th e minimal c r i t e r i a l i s t e d in the TESOL s t a t e ­
ment .
In the a r e a of classroom p r a c t i c e s , i t has been found t h a t a gen­
e r a l m ethodological e c e lc ti c is m o b ta in s among te a c h e r s responding to
th e stu d y ,

When viewed in th e l i g h t of th e n a tu re of responses to the

s p e c i f i c i n q u i r i e s concerning methods and t h e o r i e s of language teach in g
alo n g with th e g e n e r a lly low l e v e l of p ro f e s s io n a l p r e p a r a tio n of
t e a c h e r s , i t appears s a f e to conclude t h a t th e m ethodological e c le c ­
t i c i s m rev e ale d by the study i s no t the r e s u l t of s o p h i s t i c a t e d r a t i o ­
c i n a t i o n , b u t , r a t h e r , i t i s a m a n if e s ta tio n of th e o re tic a l-m e th o d o ­
l o g i c a l language te a c h in g n a i v e t e .
A f i n a l c o n clu sio n of a g e n e ra l n a tu re has been made p o s s ib l e by
th e f in d in g s of t h i s stu d y :

I t appears t h a t th e in flu e n c e o f th e lo r e

of t h e p r o fe s s io n o f te a c h in g E ng lish to speak ers of o th e r languages
upon p r a c t i c e s in p u b lic school a d u lt ed u catio n programs i n the S t a te
of Michigan has been minimal.

Evidence in support of t h i s g e n e r a l i z a ­

t i o n has been p e r s i s t e n t throughout the stud y in both o r g a n iz a tio n a l
and pedago gical a s p e c t s , and the few occasions where p r a c t i c e seems
c o n s l s t a n t w ith theory appear g e n e r a lly to be more a c c id e n ta l than
In te n tio n a l.

Recommendations
The follo w in g recommendations, based on the f in d in g s o f the stu d y ,
a re sub m itted under th e assum ption t h a t th e Oral Approach to th e teach in g
of E n g lish to speakers of o th e r languages i s p r e s e n t l y the most e f f e c ­
t i v e language tea ch in g approach e x ta n t and t h a t such an approach can be

adapted to s u i t any English language l e a r n in g c o n s titu e n c y .

However,

i t i s recognized t h a t people have been l e a r n in g o th e r p e o p le 's l a n ­
guages f o r thousands of y e a rs w ithout th e b e n e f it o f th e Oral Approach;
i t i s , t h e r e f o r e , a d v is a b le t h a t the assum ption be l e s s than r i g i d l y
a p p lie d .
The recommendations f a l l i n to th r e e g e n e ra l c a t e g o r i e s :

research,

program improvement and te a c h e r t r a i n i n g .

Recommendations f o r F u rth e r Research
I t i s recommended t h a t e x p erim e n tal re s e a rc h be designed and exe­
cuted in o rd e r to determ ine whether one approach i s more e f f e c t i v e than
a n oth er when a p p lie d to th e c o n s t i t u e n c i e s of Michigan pu b lic schoo l
programs in the te a c h in g of E nglish to a d u l t speakers o f o th e r l a n ­
guages, o r i f the p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n of m eth odo log ical e c l e c ti c is m i s
the most e f f e c t i v e .
I t i s recommended th a t re s e a rc h be c a r r i e d out w ith the u l ti m a t e
purpose of d e v eloping v a lid and r e l i a b l e English language p r o f ic ie n c y
t e s t s f o r n o n - c o l l e g i a te a d u l t sp eak ers o f o th e r lan g u ag es.

Recommendations f o r Program Improvement
I t i s recommended th a t th e t i t l e s under which c l a s s e s in E nglish
fo r a d u l t sp eak ers o f o th e r languages a re o ffe re d be more r e f l e c t i v e
of th e le a rn in g a c t i v i t y .

Moreover, t i t l e s which imply th a t c l a s s e s

a re r e s t r i c t e d to " fo re ig n born" or "imm igrant" p o p u la tio n s should be
avoided in order t h a t n a tiv e American non-English sp e a k e rs m ight not
co n sid e r them selves as being excluded from programs.

155

I t i s recommended t h a t a f u l l - t i m e a c a d e m ic a lly q u a l i f i e d s p e c i a l ­
i s t in t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s be em­
ployed by t h e M ichigan D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n , t o c o o r d i n a t e program
and c u r r i c u lu m developm ent th r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e .
I t i s recommended t h a t th e p r a c t i c e o f th e f o r m a tio n o f c l a s s e s
o f mixed E n g lis h lan g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y be a b an d o n e d .^
I t i s recommended t h a t th e p r a c t i c e o f open e n r o l l m e n t s be a b a n ­
doned and t h a t more term s o f s h o r t e r d u r a t i o n be i n s t i t u t e d so t h a t
s t u d e n t s need n o t w a it to o long b e f o r e a d m is s io n i n t o c l a s s e s can be
e ffe c te d .
I t i s recommended t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f p u b l i c s c h o o l a d u l t edu­
c a t i o n program s h a v in g c l a s s e s i n E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n ­
guages e s t a b l i s h l i n k a g e s w ith E n g li s h a s a second la n g u a g e e x p e r t s
based a t M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M ichigan in
o r d e r t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l s u p p o r t be made a v a i l a b l e to program s a n d ,
p o s s i b l y , t o awaken th e i n t e r e s t o f t h e s e fo r m id a b le r e s o u r c e s i n pub­
l i c s c h o o l a d u l t e d u c a ti o n p ro g ram s.
I t i s recommended t h a t th e m inim al q u a l i f i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e d o f
t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s in p u b l i c sc h o o l
a d u l t e d u c a t i o n program s be a l t e r e d t o i n c l u d e s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g in
th e f i e l d - i d e a l l y , t r a i n i n g w hich m e e ts , th ro u g h e i t h e r fo rm al a c a ­
demic c o u r s e s o r l e s s fo rm a l a p p ro a c h e s t o th e Improvement of

^ I t i s re c o g n iz e d t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e x i g e n c i e s o f t e n p r e c l u d e
a n y th in g b u t mixed c l a s s e s , how ever, th e recom mendation s t a n d s a s a
h ig h ly d e s i r a b l e g o a l.

156

p e rfo rm a n c e , th e m inim al c r i t e r i a l i s t e d i n th e TESOL s t a t e ­
ment on t e a c h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s .
I t i s recommended t h a t f u l l - t i m e p o s i t i o n s , s t a f f e d by p r o f e s ­
s i o n a l l y q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r lan g u a g es
be made a v a i l a b l e w h e rev e r p o s s i b l e .

Recommendations f o r T e a c h e r T r a i n in g
I t i s recommended t h a t an i n t e n s i v e s t a t e w i d e i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g
program be laun ched h a v in g th e u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e of b r i n g i n g a l l i n s e r v i c e t e a c h e r s o f E n g li s h t o a d u l t s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s in
th e s t a t e to p a r i t y w i t h t h e m inim al q u a l i f i c a t i o n s l i s t e d i n th e TESOL
sta te m e n t.
Such a t r a i n i n g p ro g ram , however s t r u c t u r e d in tim e and p la c e and
d u r a t i o n , sh o u ld em phasize E n g lish a s a second languag e th e o r y a s w e ll
as m ethods and m a t e r i a l s ( i n c l u d i n g m a t e r i a l s p r e p a r a t i o n ) .

Also

t r a i n i n g program s must be made e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e and a t t r a c t i v e to
t e a c h e r s whose p a r t - t i m e commitment t o th e a c t i v i t y m ight m i l i t a t e
a g a i n s t t h e i r assum ing t h e burden o f r i g o r o u s t r a i n i n g .

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o s a Second Language, e d i t e d by H aro ld B. A l l e n . New York:
M cG raw -H ill, 1965, 9 3 -9 7 .
C a r r o l l , John B. " R e se a rc h in F o r e ig n Language T e a c h in g : The L a s t
F iv e Y e a r s " , R e p o r ts on t h e Working Com mittees o f t h e 1966
N o r t h e a s t C o n fe re n ce on th e T ea ch in g o f F o re ig n L anguage.
E d ite d by R o b ert G. Mead. M in ask a, W isco n sin : George B anta
Company, I n c . , 1966, 1 2 -5 8 .
C a r t w r i g h t , R ic h a rd and Edward B r i c e . "A d u lt B a sic E d u c a ti o n " , Handbook
o f A d u lt E d u c a ti o n , e d i t e d by R o b e rt M. S m ith , e t . a l . New
York: The M acM illan Company, 1970.
C a ss, A n g e lic a W. "Fundam ental L i t e r a c y E d u c a tio n f o r N a tiv e and F o re ig n
Born A d u l t s " , Handbook f o r A d u lt E d u c a tio n i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s ,
e d i t e d by Malcolm S. Knowles. New York: A du lt E d u ca tio n A sso­
c i a t i o n o f th e USA, 1960.
Chomsky, Noam. "A Review o f B. F . S k i n n e r 's V e rb a l B e h a v io r " , The
S t r u c t u r e o f Longuage R ead ing s i n th e P h ilo s o p h y o f Longuage,
e d i t e d by J . Fodor and J . K a tz. Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n t i c e H a l l , 1964, 5 4 7 -7 8 .
Commission o f I n t e n s i v e E n g lis h P ro g ram s. E n g li s h P r o f i c i e n c y C h a r t ,
W ash in g to n , D. C .: N a t io n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r F o re ig n S tu d e n t
A f f a i r s , 1971.
H azard, Henry B. " E d u c a tio n o f A d u lt F o r e ig n Born f o r C i t i z e n s h i p " ,
Handbook o f A d u lt E d u c a tio n i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , 1948, e d i t e d
by Mary L. E ly . New Y ork: I n s t i t u t e o f A dult E d u c a tio n , 1948,
5 2 -6 0 .
I n s t i t u t e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a tio n . E n g li s h Language and O r i e n t a t i o n
Program s In th e U n ite d S t a t e s . New York: I n s t i t u t e f o r I n t e r ­
n a t i o n a l E d u c a tio n , 1969.
K ric tlo w , Burton W. " R e se a rc h and T h e o ry " , Handbook o f A dult E d u c a ti o n ,
e d i t e d by R o bert M. S m ith , e t . a l . New York: The M acM illan
Company, 1970.
Levenson, S t a n l e y .
"T ea ch in g E n g lis h a s a Second Language to A d u l t s " ,
On T ea ch in g E n g lis h to S p e a k e rs o f O th e r L angu ages, e d i t e d by
V i r g i n i a F . A l l e n . N a t io n a l C o uncil o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g l i s h ,
1965.

162

N o r r i s , W illia m F . T ea ch in g E n g lis h a s a Second Language;
1969. A P r o j e c t i o n f o r 1 9 7 0 . W ashington, D. C .:
A p p lie d L i n g u i s t i c s , 1970.

A Survey o f
C e n te r f o r

S c o t t , C h a r le s C. "The O r a l Approach: R e tr o s p e c t and P r o s p e c t " ,
M adison, W isco n sin : 1965.
(Mimeographed)

REPORTS

S t a t e o f New J e r s e y D epartm ent o f E d u c a ti o n , D i v i s i o n o f V o c a tio n a l
E d u c a tio n , Bureau o f A dult and C o n tin u in g E d u c a tio n , T eaching
E n g lis h a s a Second Language t o A d u l t s . A Handbook f o r T e a c h e r s ,
1971.
T e a c h e rs o f E n g li s h to S p e a k e rs o f o t h e r Languages (TESOL). " S ta te m e n t
o f Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and G u i d e l i n e s f o r P r e p a r a t i o n o f T ea ch e rs
o f E n g li s h to S p e a k e rs o f O th e r Languages in th e U n ite d S t a t e s " ,
J u n e , 1971. (Mimeographed)
Texas E d u c a tio n Agency. "T eachin g E n g l i s h as a F o re ig n Language:
B asic E d u catio n T e a c h e rs G u id e " . A u s ti n , T e x a s, 1969.
U n i v e r s i t y o f M is s o u ri - Kansas C i t y .
S u rv e y , J a n u a r y , 1972.

A dult

ABE N a t io n a l T eacher T r a i n in g

Commission on I n t e n s i v e E n g lis h P ro g ra m s. " E n g lis h P r o f i c i e n c y C h a rt" ,
W ash in g to n , D. C . : N a tio n a l A s s o c ia t io n f o r F o re ig n S tuden t
A f f a i r s , 1971.

PUBLIC DOCUMENTS

Adull E d u c a tio n A c t.

P u b l i c Act 9 1 -2 3 0 .

Economic O p p o r t u n i t i e s A c t .

P u b lic Law 88 -452.

Manpower Development and T r a i n in g A c t.
Model C i t i e s A c t.

P u b lic Law 8 9 -7 5 4 .

P u b l i c Law 87-415.

APPENDIX A

INSTRUMENTS

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY uir tMtmo • uchmum 4mt
m o u n t U M O U A oa

csnn

*

c sn tu

fo r . m t u n a t io n a i.

n o o u iu

J a n u a r y 31* 1972

T h is l e t c e r i s t o r e q u e s t y o u r a s s i s t a n c e i n a s t u d y o f t h e
t e a c h i n g o f E n g l i s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s I n A d u lt
B a sic E d u c a tio n p ro g ra m s. The s t u d y , p a r t o f a d o c t o r a l r e ­
s e a r c h program , I s s u p p o r te d by t h e E n g li s h Language C e n te r
and t h e academ ic program I n c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n , and i t con­
c e r n s c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s I n ABE c l a s s e s i n E n g lis h a s a s e c ­
ond la n g u a g e .
We a r e p r e s e n t l y a t t e m p t i n g t o c o m p ile a m a i l i n g l i s t o f
t e a c h e r s o f E n g li s h to n o n - E n g li s h s p e a k e r s , and would a p p r e e
i a t e y o u r c o m p le tin g th e e n c l o s e d form i n d i c a t i n g t h e names
o f su c h p e r s o n n e l a t y o u r i n s t i t u t i o n . A s e l f a d d r e s s e d e n ­
v e lo p e h a s been e n c l o s e d f o r y o u r c o n v e n ie n c e .
Once t h e l i s t i s c o m p ile d , a b r i e f q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i l l be s e n t
to t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and we w i l l once a g a i n s e e k
your k in d a s s i s t a n c e .
Thank you v e ry much f o r t a k i n g t h e tim e t o h e l p w i t h t h i s
i m p o r ta n t s t u d y . We hope t o have y o u r r e s p o n s e by r e t u r n
m ail.

R uejsell X j ? u . e l s
P r o f e s s o r ^ o f C o n tin u in g E d u c a tio n
Shigeo Imamura
Di
« . . .

-

C e n te r

Kenneth J . M a ttr a n
I n s t r u c t o r , E n g l i s h Language C e n te r
D o c to ra l C a n d id a te , C o n tin u in g E d u c a tio n

164

165

ABE D i r e c t o r
Address

□

T h is program o f f e r s no c l a s s e s in E n g li s h f o r n o n - E n g lis h sp e a k e rs*
The fo llo w in g t e a c h E n g lis h to n o n - E n g li s h s p e a k e r s in t h i s program :

TEACHER'S NAME

SCHOOL ADDRESS

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY bast lahuno • mchjoah ««m
n to u sH

la k o u a c i cxktte

f cam r*

f o r . jn t r r n a t io n a i. f r o q r a m s

F e b ru ary 9 , 1972

The e n c lo s e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n c e rn in g program n i n E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f
o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n a d u l t b a s ic e d u c a t i o n program s i s p a r t o f a d o c t o r a l
stud y s u p p o r te d by t h e E n g lis h Language C e n te r and academ ic pro gram i n
c o n ti n u i n g e d u c a t i o n . T h i s I n s tr u m e n t i s b e in g s e n t to a l l ABE a d m in is ­
t r a t o r s i n M ichigan who responded to a p r e v i o u s r e q u e s t f o r in f o r m a tio n *
A s e p a r a t e q u e s t i o n n a i r e has b e e n p r e p a r e d f o r t e a c h e r s , and w i l l b e
a d m in is te r e d to a s a m p lin g o f s u c h t e a c h e r s a t a l a t e r d a t e .
The p u rp o se o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' q u e s t i o n n a i r e i s t o a s c e r t a i n a n o r ­
g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n t e x t th ro u g h w hich a c t u a l c la s s r o o m p r a c t i c e s can be
ann lyzed and d e s c r i b e d .
He would a p p r e c i a t e y o u r ta k in g a few m in u te s o f y o u r v a l u a b l e tim e t o
com plete th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e and r e t u r n i t i n th e e n c lo s e d e n v e lo p e a t y o u r
e a r l i e s t c o n v e n ie n c e . P r e t e s t s o f t h e form i n d i c a t e d an a v e r a g e tim e o f
twenty m in u te s was r e q u i r e d f o r c o m p le tio n .
R e s u lts o f th e s t u d y sh o u ld be a v a i l a b l e by mid-summer, and w i l l be s e n t
to you i f you no d e s i r e . P le a s e i n d i c a t e su c h d e s i r e by r e t u r n i n g t h i s
l e t t e r w i t h th e c o m p le te d q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
Thank you a g a in f o r y o u r a s 3 i s t a r . e e .

S h ig e o Imamura
D i r e c t o r , E n g lis h Language C e n te r

I'cnnoth J . M uttrail
I n s t r u c t o r , E n g lis h Language C e n te r
Doc‘ - r a l C a n d id a te i n C o n tin u in g E d u c a tio n

166

167

Director's Name
Full Name of School System
Mailing Address __________

1.

Whet offlciel title is used to describe your desses in English
to speakers of other lsnguages?

2*

At how many separate locations under your Jurisdiction ere classes
in English to speakers of other languages offered?

3.

What la this year's total enrollment in these classes in your
school district?

A.

How are classes for non-English speakers structured according to
the school calendar?
______ terms of 10 or 12 w e e k s _______times a year.
‘two semesters.

i
_______ two semesters and summer term.
other.

5.

(Please specify.)

When are enrollments into classes accepted?
_ _ _ _ et any time classes are in session.
______ only at the beginning or close to the beginning of each term.
______ other.

(Please specify.)

168
5.

What la the aaxinua permissible enrollment per class?

7.

Are your classes In English to speakers of other languages
offered at discreet levels such as beginning* intermediate'
and advanced?
________

no
8.

What are the MINIMAL professional credentials roqulrad of
teachers of English to speakers of other languageo In your
program? Please Include certification* degree, major end
minor fields of study* end any other qualifications neces­
sary for employment.

169

9*

la there a specialist in the teaching of English to speakers
of other languages employed In a consultant capacity In your
program?
______ yes
*

______ no
10*

If yast indicate this person's status.
______ full-time
______ part-time
______ occasional consultant on a per diem basis

11.

What types of activities would you like to see inaugurated to
improve the teaching of English to speakers of other languages
in your adult basic education program?

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

b a s t l a m u n o • m ic h io a m

BNOUSH U IW U 4 M CBHTBB • CBNTU SOB IMTUNASIOKAL H O O U U

A p r i l 4 , 1972

The e n c lo s e d p a c k e t o f m a t e r i a l s i s p a r t o f a d o c t o r a l r e s e a r c h s tu d y
sponsored by P r o j e c t ENABEL. We a r e r e q u e s t i n g y o u r a s s i s t a n c e i n
c o l l e c t i n g d a t a f o r t h i s s tu d y which i s c o n ce rn e d w i t h th e t e a c h i n g
of E n g lish t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i n ABE pro gram s i n M ic h ig a n .
I t i s e x p e c te d t h a t s u c h a s t u d y , th r o u g h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g
p r a c t i c e s , w i l l c l e a r l y i d e n t i f y t r a i n i n g n e e d s i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f Eng­
l i s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s a s t h o s e n e ed s a r e p e r c e i v e d th ro u g h
the e x p e r i e n c e s o f a c t u a l i n - s e r v i c e t e a c h e r s i n M ic h ig a n .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , we a r e a s k i n g you to a d m i n i s t e r th e i n s t r u m e n t s t o E n g lis h
as a second la n g u a g e t e a c h e r s in y o u r a r e a . The i n s t r u m e n t i s b i - p a r t l t e ,
c o n s i s t i n g o f a c a s s e t t e r e c o r d i n g /a n s w e r s h e e t p o r t i o n and a fo rm a l
q u e s t i o n n a i r e . The tim e r e q u i r e d f o r c o m p le tio n o f b o th s e c t i o n s o f t h e
In stru m en t i s a p p ro x im a te ly t h i r t y m in u t e s . D e t a i l e d i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r
a d m in istra tio n a rc a tta c h e d .
Once d a t a has been c o l l e c t e d from a l l s o u r c e s , i t w i l l be a n a l y z e d and
p u b lis h e d . R e s u l t s w i l l be c i r c u l a t e d t o a l l c o n c e rn e d by m id-summ er,
1972.
We s i n c e r e l y a p p r e c i a t e y o u r v a l u a b l e h e lp i n t h i s i m p o r t a n t s t u d y .
ce^ely y o u r s , J

'/n/ffls/yrusJ.')
R u W l l . Zl, K l c i s
P ro fe ss o r o f C o n tin u in g E d u c a tio n

Kenneth J . M a ttra n
Doctoral C a n d id a te
Continuing E d u c a tio n

170

ESL/ABE QUESTIONNAIRE

What o f f i c i a l t i t l e s a r e u se d to d e s c r i b e c l a s s e s i n E n g lis h f o r
s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s I n your I n s t i t u t i o n ?
______ E n g li s h f o r t h e F o r e ig n Born
______ A m e r ic a n iz a tio n
_______E n g li s h a s a Second Language
______ O th e r ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y . )
How many c l a s s e s o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s do
you te a c h a t p r e s e n t ?
On what b a s i s a r e s t u d e n t s p la c e d i n t o s p e c i f i c c l a s s e s ?
______ On th e b a s i s o f E n g li s h lan g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y .
______ On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s t u d e n t s ' n a t i v e la n g u a g e .
______ N e i t h e r o f t h e abov e. C la s s e s a r e mixed b o t h in te rm s o f
E n g li s h la n g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y and la n g u a g e b a ck g ro u n d .
3 .1 .

I f c l a s s e s a r e b ased on E n g lis h la n g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y , how
i s t h a t p r o f i c i e n c y d e te rm in e d ?
_______Com m ercially p u b l is h e d o b j e c t i v e t e s t s .
Names o f t e s t s
P u b lish e r

_______L o c a lly produced o b j e c t i v e t e s t s .
_______I n t e r v i e w .
_______W ritin g sam ple.
_______ S t u d e n t s ' d i s c r e t i o n .
_______O th e r. ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y . )

( P l e a s e i n c l u d e s a m p le .)

i

How many s t u d e n t s a r e e n r o l l e d in e ac h c l a s s you te a c h ?
BEGINNING

INTERMEDIATE

ADVANCED

MIXED

172

A .I .

I s t h i s c o n s id e r e d a norm al e n ro llm e n t?
______ yes
______ no ( P l e a s e e x p l a i n . )

How many h o u rs p e r week d o e s each c l a s s meet?

How many d i f f e r e n t la n g u a g e b a ck g ro u n d s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n a l l
o f y ou r c l a s s e s ?
P l e a s e l i s t th e p u b l is h e d t e x t s used i n your c l a s s e s .
A uthor

T itle s

Beg.

In t.

Adv.

Mixed

Which o f th e f o llo w in g a r e u se d a s t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s ?
many a s a p p l i c a b l e .
______ new spapers
ma g a z in e s
______ n o v e ls a n d / o r s h o r t s t o r i e s
_____ o t h e r ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y . )
Do you u se t e a c h e r made i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s ?
______ no
_____ y e s , e x c l u s i v e l y
______ y e s , to su p plem ent p u b l is h e d m a t e r i a l s

Check as

173

10.

What k in d s o f a u d i o / v i s u a l a i d s do you r e g u l a r l y u se ?
many a s a p p l i c a b l e .

Check a s

_______la n g u a g e l a b o r a t o r y
_______a u d io ta p e r e c o r d e r
_______v id e o ta p e r e c o r d e r
_______ f ilm s
_______s l i d e s a n d / o r f i l m s t r i p s
_______phonographs and r e c o r d s
_______r e a d i n g r a t e o m e t e r s
_______ t a c h l s t o s c o p e s
_______ f l a s h c a r d s
_______o t h e r ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y . )

11.

Do you e v e r d i s c u s s p o i n t s o f grammar w ith y o u r c l a s s e s ?
_______yes
_______no
( I f t h e answ er i s n o , why n o t?

12.

(T h is i s o p t i o n a l . ] )

Which o f t h e f o l lo w in g r e c e i v e s PRIMARY c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n o r ­
g a n iz in g a s e r i e s o f l e s s o n s ? P l e a s e check o n ly o n e .
______ d i f f i c u l t y o f v o c a b u la r y
di f f i c u l t y o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n
______ d i f f i c u l t y o f g ra m m a tic a l s t r u c t u r e s

13.

What i s y o u r n a t i v e lan g u a g e?

14.

What o t h e r la n g u a g e s do you sp e ak ?

15.

Assuming t h a t you spok e t h e la n g u a g e s o f y o u r s t u d e n t s , and
assum ing t h a t you c o u ld be f a i r to a l l o f y o u r s t u d e n t s , would
you e v er u s e t h e i r n a t i v e la n g u a g e to e x p l a i n a word o r a
g ram m atica l p o in t?
______ y e s , w ith r e g u l a r i t y
______ y e s , b u t o n ly r a r e l y
no. n o t e v e r

174

THE FOLLOWING QUESTION IS FOR TEACHERS WITH BEGINNING LEVEL STUDENTS.
OTHERS PLEASE PROCEED TO QUESTION NUMBER 17.
16.

Do you u s u a l l y Ceach r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g s k i l l s from t h e s t a r t
o f t h e c o u rs e ?
yes
_______no
1 6 .1 .

I f y e s , how a r e t h e s e s k i l l s g e n e r a l l y p r e s e n t e d ?
_______t h e s t u d e n t l e a r n s to pro noun ce an e x p r e s s i o n o r
e x p r e s s i o n s , th e n l e a r n s t o r e a d and w r i t e th e
e x p re ss io n or e x p re s s io n s .
_______t h e s t u d e n t f i r s t s e e s t h e w r i t t e n e x p r e s s i o n o r
e x p r e s s i o n s , th e n l e a r n s t o p ron oun ce them.
_______o t h e r . ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y . )

1 6 .2 .

I f t h e answ er i s n o , r o u g h ly how many h o u r s o f o r a l / a u r a l
ta k e p l a c e b e f o r e s t u d e n t s a r e i n tr o d u c e d to r e a d i n g and
w ritin g ?

PLEASE PROCEED TO THE NEXT QUESTION.
17.

Which o f t h e f o llo w in g t e a c h i n g c r e d e n t i a l s do you h o ld ?
_______p rim a ry c e r t i f i c a t e
_______e le m e n ta r y c e r t i f i c a t e
s e c o n d a ry c e r t i f i c a t e
_______I have no o f f i c i a l t e a c h i n g c r e d e n t i a l .

18.

What d e g r e e s do you h o ld and i n what m a jo r and m inor f i e l d s ?
Degree

19.

M ajor

Minor

Ilow many c r e d i t s have you e a rn e d i n t h e f o l lo w in g :
C re d its

S u b je c t

________
________
________

Methods o f t e a c h i n g f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s .
L i n g u i s t i c s , (any em p hasis)
Methods o f t e a c h i n g E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s
o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .
F o r e ig n la n g u a g e .

________

175

20.

Have you e v e r a t t e n d e d any I n s t i t u t e s o r w orkshops s p e c i f i c a l l y
d e s ig n e d f o r t h e t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s o f E n g li s h t o s p e a k e r s o f
o t h e r la n g u a g e s ?
______ y e s
no
2 0 .1 .

I f yeBf where?

When7

Was academ ic c r e d i t a v a i l a b l e ?
______ y e s
no
2 0 .2 .

Would you a t t e n d su c h a workshop i f i t w ere e a s i l y a v a i l ­
a b le ?
ye s
no

2 0 .3 .

Would you a t t e n d a u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s i o n c o u r s e i n t h e
t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s i f
one were o f f e r e d i n y o u r a r e a ?
______ y e s
no

21.

Are you aware o f t h e TESOL o r g a n i z a t i o n ?
_______y es
no
2 1 .1 .

Are you a member?
______ y e s
no

22.

How long have you been in v o lv e d i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h to
s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r lan g u a g e s?

176

23.

Which o f t h e fo llo w in g would b e s t d e s c r i b e t h e a p p ro a c h t h a t
you u s e t o t e a c h E n g l i s h to s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s ? Check
o n ly o n e .
_______The B a s ic E n g li s h Method
______ The D i r e c t Method
______ The O r a l Approach
______ The A u d io -L in g u a l Approach
_______The G ra m m a r-T ra n sla tio n Approach
_______The N a t u r a l Method
_______The M im icry-M em orizatlon Method
_______The U n i t Method
The Reading Method
Ot h e r ( P le a s e s p e c i f y . )

WE WOULD APPRECIATE YOUR TAKING SOME ADDITIONAL TIME TO RESPOND TO
THE FOLLOWING QUESTION:
%

What a c t i v i t i e s , t e a c h e r w ork sh o p s, r e s e a r c h , c u r r i c u lu m
de v e lo p m e n t, e t c . , do you f e e l would be h e l p f u l tow ard
im proving t h e t e a c h i n g o f E n g lis h t o s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r
la n g u a g e s i n ABE p rogram s i n g e n e r a l , and i n y o ur c l a s s e s
in p a r t i c u l a r ?

177

INSTRUCTION FOR ADMINISTRATION
OF QUESTIONNAIRE

1.

A ssem ble, i f p o s s i b l e , a s many ESL/ABE t e a c h e r s a s y ou can i n one a r e a .

2.

C a s s e t t e ta p e p o r t i o n .

3.

A.

( A d m in is te r f i r s t . )

2 .1 .

I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r th e i n s t r u m e n t a r e b o th r e c o r d e d and p r i n t e d
and sh o u ld b e e a sy f o r t h e t e a c h e r s t o f o llo w .

2 .2 .

A c a s s e t t e p l a y e r t h a t c a n be h e a rd e a s i l y by a l l s h o u ld be
used.

2 .3 .

P la y t h e t a p e .

2 . A.

C o lle c t te a c h e rs ' responses.

Q u e stio n n aire.

The t a p e w i l l run a b o u t 15 m in u te s .

(ESL/ABE Q u e s t i o n n a i r e )

3 .1 .

D i s t r i b u t e t o t e a c h e r s a f t e r th ey h a v e f i n i s h e d w ith t h e ta p e .

3 .2 .

A verage tim e f o r q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o m p le tio n was a b o u t 1 5 -2 0
m in u te s i n p r e - t e s t s .

3 .3 .

C o l l e c t q u e s t i o n n a i r e s upon c o m p le tio n .

A f te r t h e two p o r t i o n s o f t h e i n q u ir y h a v e been c o m p le te d , c o l l e c t
the i n s t r u m e n t s and r e t u r n them a lo n g w i t h th e c a s s e t t e by A p r i l 15, 1972,
t o : P r o j e c t ENABEL.
.•rsuJuCT ENAHliL
ilCAIM STAVE UNIV
420 ERICKSON HALL
i V.T LANSING. MICH. AHK’Aa

178
AUDIO TAPE QUESTIONNAIRE

You a r e a sk e d Co l i s t e n Co tw e lv e b r i e f sam ples o f t e a c h i n g a c t i v i t i e s
which m ight be found i n an ESL c l a s s * A f t e r each sa m p le , y o u a r e r e q u e s t e d
to resp o n d t o two q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n in g thie sam p le. You w i l l have a p p r o x i ­
m ately one m in u te t o r e s p o n d ; e a c h sam ple w i l l b e a b o u t a m i n u t e ’ s d u r a t i o n .
I n your r e s p o n s e , p l e a s e c o n s i d e r o n ly t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a c t i v i t y and
not t h e number o f s t u d e n t s engaged i n a d r i l l . T h at i s , you sh o u ld n o t be
concerned w h e th e r s t u d e n t s re sp o n d c h o r a l l y o r i n d i v i d u a l l y .
Sample 1 .

Do you e v e r u s e t h i s t e c h n iq u e ?
_______yes
no
l.a .

Sample 2.

Do you e v e r u s e t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
_______ y e s
no
2 .a.

Sample 3,

I f yeB, how o fte n ?
______ v e r y o f t e n
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w i t h r e g u l a r i t y
_______o c c a s i o n a l l y
_______r a r e l y
______ n e v e r

I f y e s , how o f t e n ?
______ v e r y o f t e n
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w i t h r e g u l a r i t y
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y
______ r a r e l y
never

Do you e v e r u s e t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
_______yes
no
3

I f y e s , how o f t e n ?
______ v e r y o f t e n
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w i t h r e g u l a r i t y
_______o c c a s i o n a l l y
_______ r a r e l y
never

179

Sample 4

Do you e v e r u s e t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
_______y e s
no
4 . a*

Sample 5

Do you e v e r u se t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
_______y e s
______ no
S .a .

Sample 6

I f y e s , how o f t e n ?
_______v e ry o f t e n
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w ith r e g u l a r i t y
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y
_______r a r e l y
never

Do you e v e r u se t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
_______yes
no
7 .a.

Sample 8

I f y e s , how o f t e n ?
_______v e ry o f t e n
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w ith r e g u l a r i t y
_______o c c a s i o n a l l y
_______r a r e l y
never

Do you e v e r u se t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
_______yes
no
6 .a.

Sample 7

I f y e s , how o f t e n ?
______ v e r y o f t e n
oc c a s io n a lly b u t w ith r e g u l a r it y
_______o c c a s i o n a l l y
_______r a r e l y
never

I f y e s , how o f t e n ?
_______v e ry o f t e n
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w ith r e g u l a r i t y
_______o c c a s i o n a l l y
_______r a r e l y
never

Do you e v e r u se t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
_______yes
no

180

8*a .

Sample

9.

Do you e v e r u s e t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
ye s
no
9 .a.

Sample 10*

I f y e s , how o f t e n ?
very o fte n
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w ith r e g u l a r i t y
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y
______ r a r e l y
never

Do you e v e r u s e t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
y es
no
1 1 .a .

Sample 12.

I f y e s , how o f t e n ?
______ v e r y o f t e n
o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w ith r e g u l a r i t y
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y
r a re ly
never

Do you e v e r u s e t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
ye s
no
1 0 .a .

Sample 11.

I f y e s , how o f t e n ?
_____ very often
o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w ith r e g u l a r i t y
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y
r a re ly
never

I f y e s , how o f t e n ?
______ v e r y o f t e n
o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w ith r e g u l a r i t y
_______o c c a s i o n a l l y
ra re ly
never

Do you e v e r u s e t h i s te c h n iq u e ?
yes

no

1 2 .a.

,

IE y e s , how o f t e n ?
v e ry o fte n
o c c a s i o n a l l y b u t w ith r e g u l a r i t y
______ o c c a s i o n a l l y
_______r a r e l y
never

APPENDIX B

TESOL STATEMENT ON QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS OF
ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES

182

J u n e 1971
D ear C o lle a g u e :
TESOL h a s a l r e a d y p r e p a r e d a b r i e f s e t o f G u i d e li n e s f o r P r e p a r a t i o n
o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h t o S p e a k e rs o f O th e r L anguages. T h is s h o r t form o f
t h e G u i d e li n e s was p u b l i s h e d in V ol. 4 , Nos. 2 8 3, S e p t/D e c 1970 o f t h e
TESOL N e w s l e t t o r .
As E x e c u tiv e S e c r e t a r y , I am f r e q u e n t l y a sked t o g iv e a more c o m p lete
and e x p l i c i t s ta te m e n t a b o u t what c o n s t i t u t e s a d e q u a te p r e p a r a t i o n f o r
t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h a s a se co n d lan guage and what t h e i r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s
s h o u ld b e .
On A p r i l 2 9 -3 0 , 1971, accom panied
d e n t o f TESOL, I a t t e n d e d a C o n fe re n ce
R eso u rces i n th e E v a lu a tio n o f T e a c h e r
t h e N a t io n a l C oun cil f o r A c c r e d i t a t i o n

by Dr. Dnvid P. H a r r i s , p a s t P r e s i ­
on t h e U t i l i z a t i o n o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a l
E d u c a tio n , which was s p o n s o re d by
o f T e a c h e r E d u ca tio n (NCATE).

I t was made c l e a r a t t h a t c o n fe r e n c e t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o n ce rn e d w ith
t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s in t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s , but which d i d n o t
y e t have g u i d e l i n e s f o r su ch p r e p a r a t i o n , would soon have t o d e v e lo p them.
The n a t u r o and u se o f g u i d e l i n e s was d i s c u s s e d , and i t was c l e a r t h a t in
th e v e ry t i g h t jo b m a rk e t, t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h a s a second la n g u a g e , how­
e v e r w ell t r a i n e d th e y m ig ht b e , were g oing t o have t r o u b l e f i n d i n g j o b s i f
t h e s t a t e a c c r e d i t a t i o n a g e n c ie s d i d n o t have i n t h e i r hands a d e q u a te i n f o r
m otion i n t h e form o f g u i d e l i n e s p r e p a r e d by t h e p r o f e s s i o n i t s e l f upon
which to b a s e t h e i r a c c r e d i t a t i o n o f such t e a c h e r s .
I am p l c a s o d t o announce t h a t , a t t h e r e q u e s t o f th e N a tio n a l A s s o c ia ­
t i o n o f S t a t e D i r e c t o r s o f T e a c h e r E d u c a tio n and C e r t i f i c a t i o n (NASDTEC) I
have s u b m itte d t h e o r i g i n a l b ro a d g u i d e l i n e s which were a d o p te d a t t h e
TESOL G u id e !in c s C o n fe re n ce t o t h e Chairman o f th e NASDTEC S ta n d a r d s Com­
m i t t e e , With s u p p o rt from t h e U.S. O f f i c e o f E d u c a tio n , t h a t com m ittee o f
NASDTEC i s r e v i s i n g a document known a s C i r c u l a r 351, e n t i t l e d Proposed
S ta n d a rd s f o r S t a t o A pproval o f T e a c h e r E d u c a tio n . Thus th e TESOL f i e l d
w i l l be r e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s im p o r ta n t document and I b e l i e v e we have ta k e n
a g i a n t s t e p in t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n .
However, i f wo a r e t o do th e j o b t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r o u r s t r i p l i n g
p r o f e s s i o n , wo must now have a more c om plete s t a t e m e n t . T h e r e f o r e , a s a
tem porary s t e p , I havo ta k e n th e s h o r t form o f th e TESOL G u i d e l i n e s , and,
making g e n e ro u s u se o f t h e F o re ig n Language G u i d e li n e s a s w e ll as t h e Guide
l i n e s f o r t e a c h i n g E n g lis h t o n a t i v e s p e a k e r s , have p re p a re d an expanded
v ersio n f o r your c o n s id e ra tio n .
THIS EXPANDED VERSION OF THE TESOL GUIDELINES IS HERE SUBMITTED FOR
YOUR INFORMATION AND REACTIONS. YOUR COMMENTS AND CRITICISMS ARE MOST
SINCERELY WELCOMED.

183

Depending upon t h e r e c e p t i o n t h a t t h i s t e n t a t i v e fo rm o f th e G u id e ­
l i n e s h as among t h e m em bership, I would v e n t u r e t o su b m it them t o t h e
v a rio u s co m m ittees o f TESOL, i n c l u d i n g t h e E x e c u tiv e Com m ittee, and t o
th e r e g i o n a l a f f i l i a t e s , f o r d i s c u s s i o n and c o n s i d e r a t i o n , hoping t h a t
we can r e a c h a c o n se n s u s by t h e tim e we m eet a g a in a t t h e C onvention in
W ashington.
I t s h o u ld be n o t e d t h a t t h i s t e n t a t i v e s e t o f g u i d e l i n e s h a s n o t
yet been rev ie w ed o r e n d o rs e d by t h e TESOL E x e c u tiv e Com m ittee. Nor do
they r e p r e s e n t any c o n se n s u s i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a s y e t .
In d e e d , t h e c o s t
f o r th e p r e p a r a t i o n and m a i l in g i s b e in g b o rn e by fun ds o t h e r th a n TESOL
funds. They a r e m e re ly t h e a tte m p t o f one i n d i v i d u a l t o s t i m u l a t e demo­
c r a t i c d i s c u s s i o n and r e a c t i o n which w i l l u l t i m a t e l y l e a d t o th e k i n d o f
consensus n e c e s s a r y f o r an im p o r ta n t e n d e a v o r such as t h i s one.
I t sh o u ld a l s o be n o te d t h a t t h e s e a r e n o t g u i d e l i n e s f o r b i l i n g u a l
e d u c a tio n . Depending upon t h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s f o r TESOL,
and depending upon r e a c t i o n s from TESOL members, i t i s hoped t h a t p e r h a p s
a s e p a r a t e s e t o f g u i d e l i n e s f o r b i l i n g u a l e d u c a t i o n , o r even d i f f e r e n t
s e t s f o r d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h a t te r m , m ight be a tt e m p t e d .
P le a s e s h a r e y o u r th o u g h ts w ith me on t h i s im p o r ta n t m a t t e r .
S in c e re ly yours.

Jam es E. A l a t i s
Please a d d re s s r e p l i e s t o :
School o f Languages 8 L i n g u i s t i c s
455 N e v ils B u ild in g
Georgetown U n i v e r s i t y
Washington, D.C, 20007

184

STATEMENT OF QUALIFICATIONS
AND GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF
TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES
IN THE UNITED STATES*

Foreword
A lb e rt M arck w ardt, P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y
T ea ch in g E n g lish a s a se co n d langu age h as been an e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v ­
i t y in t h i s c o u n try f o r more t h a n t h r e e hund red y e a r s .
Only in t h e l a s t
tw e n ty - f iv e has i t become a p r o f e s s i o n , making s y s t e m a t i c a p p l i c a t i o n o f
a c o l l e c t e d body o f knowledge combined w ith l e a r n i n g t h e o r y .
I t s impor­
tance h a s been h e ig h te n e d by t h e c r i t i c a l r o l e o f t h e E n g li s h lang uage i n
the n a t i o n ' s e d u c a ti o n a l p r o c e s s and by t h e u n f o r t u n a t e c ir c u m s ta n c e
t h a t e t h n i c and r a c i a l m i n o r i t i e s have n o t alw ays been w e ll s e r v e d by
classroom p r a c t i c e s d e s i g n e d f o r n a t i v e s p e a k e r s o f E n g l i s h .
The t e a c h o r o f E n g l i s h a s a second lan guag e h as a d i f f i c u l t t a s k .
11c must s e t th e g o a ls o f a c h ie v e m e n t f o r h i s p u p i l s h i g h e r th a n t h o s e o f
h is c o ll e a g u e s in t h e m odem f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s , y e t h e must a d o p t c e r t a i n
o f t h e i r p r a c t i c e s . F o r th o s e whom he t e a c h e s , a w o rk in g command o f En­
g lis h i s an e d u c a ti o n a l c s s o n t i a l , b u t t h i s command m ust be a c q u i r e d
through methods which d i f f e r from t h o s e c u s t o m a r il y em ployed by t h e
te a c h e r o f E n g lish t o n a t i v e s p e a k e r s o f t h e la n g u a g e .
In e s s e n c e , t h i s
c o n s t i t u t e s th e case f o r a s p e c i a l p a t t e r n o f p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t e a c h e r s o f
English a s a second la n g u a g e .
We re c o g n iz e t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t v a r i a t i o n i n e d u c a t i o n a l i n ­
s t i t u t i o n s which p r e p a r e , o r s h o u ld p r e p a r e , such t e a c h e r s , i t i s s c a r c e ­
ly t o t h e p o i n t to work o u t a s e t c u r r ic u lu m o r t o recommend a s e r i e s o f .
course t i t l e s .
I t i s n o t o n l y u s e f u l b u t u r g e n t , h o w e v er, t o fo r m u la te
the p r i n c i p l e s upon w hich such a program o f t e a c h e r p r e p a r a t i o n sh o u ld
r e s t , e s p e c i a l l y a t a tim e when o d u c a tio n th r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n tr y must be
d i v e r s i f i e d in a way w hich w i l l r e c o g n i z e th e e x i s t e n c e o f m u l t i l i n g u a l
and m u l t i c u l t u r a l b e h a v i o r and when t h e E n g lis h la n g u a g e must be viewed
These g u i d e l i n e s a r e d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o a p p ly t o t e a c h e r s o f En­
g lis h t o sp e a k e rs o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s in t h e U nited S t a t e s o f A m erica, t o
a s s i s t a p p r o p r i a t e s t n t o a g e n c i e s and o f f i c i a l s in t h e c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f
such t e a c h e r s , and t o e s t a b l i s h u n ifo rm s t a n d a r d s o f p r e p a r a t i o n which
w ill a s s i s t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a t a l l e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s i n d e v i s i n g p ro g ram s
for t e a c h e r e d u c a tio n i n E n g li s h a s a second la n g u a g e . With s l i g h t modi­
f i c a t i o n , th e y may be a p p l i e d t o t e a c h e r s o f E n g lis h a s a seco n d la n g u a g e
a b r o a d - - i . e . , in o t h e r E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g c o u n t r i e s s u c h a s Canada, G re a t
B r i ta i n , A u s t r a l i a , and New Z e a la n d , a s w e ll a s c o u n t r i e s in w hich En­
g lis h i s n o t th e dom inant la n g u a g e .
(JEA)

185

as a means o f e n a b l i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n e v e r- w id e n in g
s o c ia l g r o u p s .
A c c o rd in g ly , we have s e t f o r t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s which f o llo w in t h e
form o f g e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e s which em phasize p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s , a t t i t u d e s ,
s k i l l s , e x p e r i e n c e , and knowledge r a t h e r th a n c o u r s e s and c r e d i t h o u r s .
The manner o f t h e f o r m u la ti o n owes much t o t h e documents e n t i t l e d G uide­
lin e s f o r t h e P r e p a r a t i o n o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h and G u i d e li n e s f o r
Teacher E d u c a tio n in Modern Foreign L anguages, and l i k e them , r e p r e s e n t s
the c o nsen su s o f a number o f l e a d e r s i n th e f i e l d , drawn from a l l l e v e l s
o f i n s t r u c t i o n and s u p e r v i s i o n , r e p r e s e n t i n g a bro ad range o f e x p e r i e n c e
and p o i n ts o f view .
D e sp ite th e f a c t t h a t t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s a r e i n te n d e d t o be a p p l i c a b l e
to te a c h e r s a t any l e v e l , one c a r d i n a l p r i n c i p l e h a s been r i g i d l y ob­
served t h r o u g h o u t, namely t h a t th e t e a c h e r o f E n g lis h a s a secon d la n gungo sh o u ld have t h e samo g c n o ra l academ ic p r e p a r a t i o n a s t e a c h e r s o f
other s u b j e c t s a t com parable l o v e l s . Thus, i t i s assumed t h a t an e l e ­
mentary s c h o o l t e a c h e r w ith E n g l i s h - a s - a - s c c o n d - l a n g u a g e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
should have a s o l i d p r e p a r a t i o n in t h e lan guage a r t s . The E n g lis h m a jo r
should c o n s t i t u t e t h e c o re o f th e t r a i n i n g o f th e t e a c h e r in t h e se c o n d ­
ary s c h o o l. Those who engage in t e a c h i n g E n g lis h a s a second lan g u ag e t o
ad u lts must have a bro ad background i n l i b e r a l a r t s .
Although t h e r e a r c t h e s e e le m e n ts in t h e i r p r e p a r a t i o n which t e a c h ­
ers o f E n g lis h a s a second lan guag e s h a r e w ith o t h e r s , t h e u n iq u e n e s s o f
t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y must n o t be o v e rlo o k e d , n o r s h o u ld we
forget t h a t th e g u i d e l i n e s s o t f o r t h h e r e a r e d e s ig n e d to p r e p a r e t e a c h ­
ers fo r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t a s k . They a r e n o t g u i d e l i n e s f o r t e a c h e r s o f
English in g e n e r a l . Nor a r e th e y d e s ig n e d f o r t e a c h e r s o f S ta n d a r d En­
g lish as a second d i a l e c t o r f o r t e a c h e r s in b i l i n g u a l s c h o o l s , a lt h o u g h
c le a r ly th e y would have many clc m o n ts i n common w ith t h e
p rep a ratio n o f
such t e a c h e r s .
In t h e i r p r e s e n t form th e y r e p r e s e n t t h e b e s t e f f o r t o f
which th e a u t h o r s wore c a p a b l e , to d e v e lo p t h e o u t l i n e s o f a program b o th
humanely and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y o r i e n t e d tow ard t h e achievem ent o f a h i g h l y
s p e c if ic b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s a s o c i a l l y c r i t i c a l e d u c a t i o n a l g o a l .
2A s e p a r a t e s e t o f g u i d e l i n e s w i l l p r o b a b ly have t o be d e v elo p ed f o r
" b ilin g u a l e d u c a t i o n " o r even s e p a r a t e s e t s f o r d i f f e r e n t d o f i n i t i o n s o f
that term . W illiam P. Mnckey’ s "A Typology o f B i l i n g u a l E d u c a tio n " ( p r e ­
pared fo r a R e se arch C o n fe re n ce on B i l i n g u a l E d u c a tio n u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s
of the Bureau o f R esearch o f t h e U.S. O f f i c e o f E d u c a tio n . Ju n o 1909, and
subsequently p u b l i s h e d in t o t o in Theodore A ndcrsson and M ild re d B o y e r's
Bilingual S c h o o lin g in th e U n ite d S t a t e s , Southw est E d u c a tio n a l D evelop­
ment L a b o ra to ry , A u s t i n . T e x a s . J a n u a r y 1970) p r e s e n t s a b out 250 p o s s i b l e
combinations o f b i l i n g u a l e d u c a t i o n , " r a n g i n g from t h e u n i l i n g u a l e d u c a ­
tion o f b i l i n g u a l c h i l d r e n i n u n i l i n g u a l com m unities t o th e b i l i n g u a l e d ­
ucation o f u n i l i n g u a l c h i l d r e n in b i l i n g u a l c o m m u n itie s ." (JEA)

2

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GUIDELINES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN
ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE3
A. The P r e p a r a t i o n o f

t h e American School T e a c h e r

The p r e p a r a t i o n o f a t e a c h e r i n t h i s c o u n tr y u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s
o f : g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n , c o u r s e s and e x p e r i e n c e s which h e lp him become a
w e l l- e d u c a te d p e r s o n ; academ ic s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , c o u r s e s and e x p e r i e n c e s
which h e l p him become p r o f i c i e n t i n an a r e a o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n ; and p r o ­
f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n , c o u r s e s and e x p e r i e n c e s which h e l p him p r e p a r e him­
s e l f a s an e d u c a t o r .
The s t a te m e n t which f o llo w s p re s u p p o s e s c o m p le tio n o f t h e b a c c a l a u ­
r e a t e d e g re e and i s t h e r e f o r e co n ce rn e d p r i m a r i l y w ith academ ic s p e c i a l i ­
s a t i o n and p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n .
I t i s in te n d e d :
(1) t o d e f i n e t h e
ro le o f
t h e E n g li s h - a s - a - s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r , i . e . , h i s o b j e c t i v e s
and h i s p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s ,
(2) t o s t a t e t h e minimal com petence which
sh o u ld be p r o v id e d by a t r a i n i n g prog ram , and (3) t o c h a r a c t e r i z e such
a program.
B.

O b j e c t iv e s o f t h e E n g lis h -a s -a -S e c o n d -L a n g u a g e
T e a c h e r in American S c h o o ls

The t e a c h e r o f E n g lis h a s a se co n d language i n American s c h o o ls
i s e x p e c te d t o :
1. Develop in s t u d e n t s a p r o g r e s s i v e c o n t r o l o f t h e f o u r language
s k i l l s ( l i s t e n i n g , s p e a k in g , r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g ) .
2. P r e s e n t th e lan guag e a s an e s s e n t i a l c le m e n t o f t h e C u l tu r e o f
E n g lis h - s p e a k in g p e o p le and show how t h a t c u l t u r e i s s i m i l a r t o and d i f ­
f e r e n t from t h a t o f a n o t h e r c u l t u r a l sy ste m r o l a t e d , i f p o s s i b l e , t o t h e
p o p u la tio n w ith which he i s t o work.
3.
P r e s e n t American and E n g lis h l i t e r a t u r e in such a way a s t o
th e s t u d e n t s t o u n d e rs ta n d i t and to a p p r e c i a t e i t s v a l u e s .

b rin g

4.
n iq u e s ,

te c h ­

5.

Make j u d i c i o u s s e l e c t i o n and u se o f a p p ro a c h e s , m ethods,
a i d s , m a t e r i a l , and equipm ent f o r language t e a c h i n g .
C o r r e l a t e h i s t e a c h i n g w ith t h a t in o t h e r a r e a s .

3Dascd upon G u id o lin o s f o r Tonchor E d u ca tio n Programs in Modern F o r­
eign L anguages, p u b l i s h e d in Modern Language J o u r n a l . O c t. 1966; and En­
g l i s h T each er P r e p a r a t i o n S tu d y : G u i d e li n e s f o r tluT P r e p a r a t i o n o f T ea ch ­
e r s o f E n g l i s h , p r i n t e d i n t h e E n g lis h J o u r n a l , S e p t. 1907. E le m e n tary Eng l i s h , O ct. 1967, and C o lle g e E n g l i s h , O c t . 1?67.

3

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6. E v a lu a te t h e p r o g r e s s and d ia g n o s e t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s o f s t u d e n t
performance,
C,

P e r s o n a l Q u a l i t i e s , A t t i t u d e s , S k i l l s , E x p e r ie n c e ,
and knowledge o f t h e jin g lis h -a s -a -S e c o n d -L a n g u a g e
T e a c h e r i n American S c h o o ls

To a c h i e v e t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s , t h e t e a c h e r o f E n g lis h a s a second
language in American s c h o o l s i s e x p e c te d t o ;
1. Have p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s which c o n t r i b u t e t o h i s s u c c e s s a s a
classroom t e a c h e r , i n s u r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g and r e s p e c t f o r h i s s t u d e n t s and
t h e i r c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g , and make him a p e r c e p t i v e and in v o lv e d member o f
his community,
2. D em onstrate p r o f i c i e n c y in spoken and w r i t t e n E n g lis h a t a l e v e l
commensurate w i t h h i s r o l e a s a language m odel. H is command o f t h e l a n ­
guage sh ou ld combine q u a l i t i e s o f a c c u ra c y and f l u e n c y ; h i s e x p e r i e n c e o f
i t should i n c l u d e a wide a c q u a in t a n c e w ith w r i t i n g s i n i t .
3. U n d e rstan d t h e n a t u r e o f la n g u a g e ; t h e f a c t o f languag e v a r i e ­
t i e s —s o c i a l , r e g i o n a l , and f u n c t i o n a l ; t h e s t r u c t u r e and developm ent o f
the E nglish la n g u a g e system s and t h e c u l t u r e o f E n g li s h - s p e a k in g p e o p le .
4. Have had t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f l e a r n i n g a n o t h e r language and a c q u i r ­
ing a knowledge o f i t s s t r u c t u r e , and have a c o n s c i o u s a w a re n e ss o f an­
other c u l t u r a l sy ste m r e l a t e d , i f p o s s i b l e , t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n w i t h which
ho is t o work.
5. Have i n s i g h t i n t o t h e p r o c e s s o f lan guag e a c q u i s i t i o n a s i t con­
cerns f i r s t and s u b s e q u e n t lan g u ag e l e a r n i n g and a s i t v a r i e s a t d i f f e r ­
ent age l e v e l s .
6. Have an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e p r i n c i p l e s o f lan guag e pedagogy and
the dem onstrated a b i l i t y t o a p p ly th o s e p r i n c i p l e s a s needed t o v a r i o u s
classroom s i t u a t i o n s and m a t e r i a l s .
7. Have a com prehension o f th e p r i n c i p l e s , knowledge o f t h e t e c h ­
niques, and t h e a b i l i t y t o i n t e r p r e t t h e r e s u l t s o f s e c o n d -la n g u a g e a s ­
sessment.
8. Have a s o p h i s t i c a t e d aw aren ess and p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e f a c t o r s
which c o n t r i b u t e t o th e l i f e s t y l e s o f v a r i o u s p e o p l e s , and which d e t e r ­
mine both t h e i r u n iq u e n e s s and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n a p l u r a l i s t i c
society.

4

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D.

Minimal O b j e c t i v e s f o r a T e a c h e r E d u c a tio n Program
i n E n g lis h a s a Second Language"7*

The program t o p r e p a r e a b e g in n in g E n g li s h - a s - a - s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e
t e a c h e r m ust p r o v id e him w i t h th e o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e v e lo p :
1. An u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een t h e sound s y s te m s ,
form s, s t r u c t u r e s , and l e x i c o n o f E n g li s h an d o f a t l e a s t one o t h e r l a n ­
guage, and a b i l i t y t o a p p ly t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o E n g l i s h - a s - a - s e c o n d language t e a c h i n g .
2. An a w are n ess o f language a s an e s s e n t i a l e le m e n t o f c u l t u r e and
an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r i n c i p a l ways in w hich th e c u l t u r e o f E n g li s h sp eaking p e o p le d i f f e r s from a n o th e r c u l t u r a l system r e l a t e d , i f p o s s i b l e ,
t o th e p o p u l a t i o n w ith which he i s t o work.
F i r s t - h a n d knowledge o f some
l i t e r a r y m a s t e r p i e c e s and a c q u a in t a n c e w ith t h e g e o g ra p h y , h i s t o r y , a r t ,
s o c i a l c u sto m s , and co n te m p o ra ry c i v i l i z a t i o n o f E n g li s h - s p e a k in g p e o p le
as compared w ith th o s e o f a t l e a s t one o t h e r c u l t u r e .
3. Knowlcdgo o f t h e p r e s e n t - d a y o b j e c t i v e s o f B n g l i s h - a s - a - s e c o n d languago t e a c h i n g , a p p r o p r i a t e t o v a r i o u s e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s and s i t u a ­
t i o n s , and an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e methods and t e c h n iq u e s f o r a t t a i n i n g
th e s e o b j e c t i v e s . Knowledge o f t h e u se o f s p e c i a l i z e d te c h n iq u e s and
e d u c a tio n a l m edia, and o f t h e r e l a t i o n o f E n g l i s h - a s - a - s c c o n d - l a n g u a g e
study t o o t h e r a r e a s o f t h e c u r r i c u lu m . F a m i l i a r i t y w ith and a b i l i t y t o
e v a lu a te t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e o f E n g li s h - a s - a - s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e
te a c h in g .
E.

F e a tu r e s o f a T e a c h e r E d u c a tio n Program
i n E n g lis h a s a Second Language

An i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t se ek s a p p ro v a l o f i t s E n g l i s h - a s - a - s c c o n d languagc t e a c h e r e d u c a ti o n program a c c e p t s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r demon­
s t r a t i n g t h a t i t s program p r o v i d e s s t u d e n t s w ith th e o p p o r t u n i t y t o a c ­
q u ir e th e c o m p e te n cie s named above. The program i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by th e
f o a tu r c s l i s t e d below .
1.
The i n s t i t u t i o n h a s a c l e a r l y f o r m u la te d p o l i c y c o n c e rn in g ad­
m ission t o , r e t e n t i o n i n , and c o m p le tio n o f t h e program . The s ta te m e n t
o f t h i s p o l i c y i n c l u d e s p r e c i s e in f o r m a tio n u b out when and how t o a p p ly
f o r a d m ission t o t h e program and what c r i t e r i a a ro u s e d in s c r e e n i n g ap­
p l i c a n t s ; i t s t a t e s th o m inim al a chievem ent r e q u i r e d f o r s u c c e s s f u l com­
p l e t i o n o f th e program and i t i n d i c a t e s when, how, and by what p r o f e s ­
sio n a l c r i t e r i a s t u d e n t s a r c e l i m i n a t e d from t h e program . A p r i n t e d
statem en t o f t h i s p o l i c y i s a v a i l a b l e t o a l l who r e q u e s t i t .
4Based on t h e "good" l e v e l o f t h e " Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r T e a c h e rs o f
E nglish a s a Second L an g u a g e." See c h a r t b e lo w , p p . 8 - 9 ,

S

189

2. In o r d e r t o p r o v id e c a n d i d a t e s o f v a r i e d b a ck g ro u n d s w ith th e
o p p o rtu n ity t o a c h ie v e a t l e a s t th e l e v e l o f "Good" i n t h e a r e a s o f com­
petence o u t l i n e d i n S e c ti o n D above, t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f f e r s , o r p r o v i d e s
by s p e c i a l a rra n g e m e n t, i n s t r u c t i o n i n :
a.

The m a jo r works o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f E n g li s h - s p e a k in g p e o p le .
T h is i n s t r u c t i o n i s l a r g e l y o r e n t i r e l y i n E n g li s h .

b.

O th e r a s p e c t s o f t h e c u l t u r e and c i v i l i z a t i o n o f E n g l i s h s p e a k in g p e o p le s . Hie i n s t r u c t i o n i n c l u d e s t h e s tu d y o f t h e
g e o g ra p h y , h i s t o r y , and c ontem p orary c i v i l i z a t i o n .

c.

Language a n a l y s i s , i n c l u d i n g a s tu d y o f t h e p hon o lo g y , mor­
p h o lo g y , s y n t a x , and le x ic o n o f E n g li s h , an d com parison o f
t h e s e e le m e n ts w ith t h o s e o f a t l e a s t one o t h e r la n g u a g e .

d.

P r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g a s tu d y o f t h e s o c i a l
f o u n d a t i o n s and th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p u b l i c e d u c a tio n i n
t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , human grow th and d e v elo p m e n t, l e a r n i n g
t h e o r y , and c u r r i c u lu m o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g th e p l a c e
o f E n g li s h a s a seco n d lan guag e i n t h e c u r r i c u lu m .

e.

Methods o f t e a c h i n g E n g lish a s a second la n g u a g e . A s tu d y
o f a p p ro a c h e s t o , m ethods o f , and t e c h n iq u e s t o be u s e d in
t e a c h i n g E n g lis h a s a second la n g u a g e . T h e re i s i n s t r u c ­
t i o n i n t h e u s e o f t h e lan guag e l a b o r a t o r y and o t h e r e d u ­
c a t i o n a l m edia.

3. The i n s t i t u t i o n p r o v i d e s an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s y s t e m a t i c , s u p e r ­
vised o b s e r v a t i o n o f a v a r i e t y o f E n g l i s h - a s - a - s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
s i t u a t i o n s i n c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s o r e le m e n ta r y and se c o n d a ry
schools, a t b e g in n i n g , i n t e r m e d i a t e , and advanced l e v e l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n ,
in classroom and lang uage l a b o r a t o r y .
4. The i n s t i t u t i o n p r o v i d e s s t u d e n t - t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e u n d e r e x ­
p e rt s u p e r v is io n i n which t h e c a n d i d a t e can d e m o n s tr a te h i s a c t u a l o r
p o te n tia l a b i l i t y t o be an E n g l i s h - a s - a - s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r .
5. The i n s t i t u t i o n h a s a s t a f f whose combined com petences a r e s u ­
p e rio r t o th e l e v e l o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o f i c i e n c i e s which a r e t h e o b j e c ­
tiv e s o f th e program . The t e a c h e r s o f t h e methods c o u r s e s and th e c l a s s ­
room te a c h e r s ( c o o p e r a t i n g t e a c h e r s ) who s u p e r v i s e t h e s t u d e n t t e a c h i n g
are ex p erien c ed E n g li s h - a s - a - s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e t o a c h e r s and a r e th e m se lv e s
p r o fic ie n t a t l e a s t a t t h e l e v e l o f "Good" in th e a r e a s o f competence o u t ­
lined in "D" above. In a d d i t i o n , th e c o o p e r a t i n g t e a c h e r s a r e i n t e r e s t e d
in having s t u d e n t t e a c h e r s work u n d e r t h e i r s u p e r v i s i o n .
6. The i n s t i t u t i o n m a i n t a i n s a c u r r ic u lu m l i b r a r y c o n t a i n i n g t h e
m aterials and equipm ent commonly u se d i n t e a c h i n g E n g li s h a s a second

6

190

language In c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s and i n e le m e n ta r y and s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o ls .
7 . In o r d e r t o accommodate a p p l i c a n t s who a r e n o n n a ti v e s p e a k e r s
o f E n g li s h :
a . The i n s t i t u t i o n e v a l u a t e s th e p r e v i o u s la n g u a g e e x p e r i e n c e o f
a l l a p p lic a n ts to th e E n g lish -a s-a -se c o n d -lan g u a g e te a c h e r e d u ca tio n
program th ro u g h t h e u se o f m o d em , p r o f e s s i o n a l l y ap p ro v e d p r o f i c i e n c y
te sts.®
b. In t h e c a s e o f t h o s e a p p l i c a n t s whoso E n g lis h p r o f i c i e n c y i s
no t s u f f i c i e n t t o m eet t h e c r i t e r i a in " C .2 " above, t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f ­
f e r s , o r p r o v i d e s by s p e c i a l a rr a n g e m e n t, i n s t r u c t i o n in t h e f o u r l a n ­
guage s k i l l s ( l i s t e n i n g , s p e a k i n g , r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g ) . T h is i n s t r u c t i o n
in c lu d e s r e g u l a r and e x t e n s i v e e x p o su re t o s e v e r a l v a r i e t i e s o f n a t i v e
speech th ro u g h t e a c h e r s , l e c t u r e r s , n a t i v e in f o r m a n ts , o r m e c h a n i c a l ly
reproduced s p e e c h , and e x p o su re t o s e v e r a l v a r i e t i e s o f w r i t t e n lan g u a g e
through b o o k s, n e w sp a p e rs, m a g a z in e s, docum ents, e t c .
8. A c a n d i d a t e ' s a ch ievem ent in t h e a re a s o f com petence o u t l i n e d
In "D" above i s e v a l u a t e d th r o u g h a p p r o p r i a te , t e s t s , h i s t e a c h i n g s k i l l
i s a p p r a i s e d by e x p e r t s , and t h e r e s u l t s o f th e e v a l u a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l
a re a v a i l a b l e f o r a d v i s i n g him i n h i s c o n ti n u i n g e d u c a t i o n and f o r recom­
mending, l i c e n s i n g , and em ploying him. H is r e a d i n e s s t o t e a c h i s c e r t i ­
f i e d in t h e name o f t h e whole i n s t i t u t i o n . An o f f i c i a l d e s i g n a t e d t o
mako such c e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a b l e t o d e m o n s tra te t h a t he h a s r e c e i v e d i n ­
form ation a b o u t t h e c a n d i d a t e from a l l u n i t s in t h e i n s t i t u t i o n c o n ce rn e d
w ith th e c a n d i d a t e ' s p r e p a r a t i o n .

^Examples o f such p r o f e s s i o n a l l y approved t e s t s a r e t h e T e s t o f En­
g l i s h as a F o re ig n Language (TOEFL), E d u c a tio n a l T e s t i n g S e r v i c e , C o lle g e
Entrance E xam ination Board, and t h e M ichigan P r o f i c i e n c y T e s t , E n g li s h
Language I n s t i t u t e , The U n i v e r s i t y o f M ichigan.

..

—■

— -

Q U A L IF IC A T IO N S

FO R

-

•*•

T E A C » '" 'R S

_
OF

E N G L IS H A S

A

SECO N D

lA N G U A G E T *

Cooroet-r.-®*

Minlnal

Good

Superior

Applied
L in g u istic s

A b i l it y t o apply t o language
teaching an understanding o f
th e d iffe re n c e s i n th e sound
systems, forris, s t r u c t u r e s ,
and le x ic o n o f E nglish and
a t l e a s t one o th e r language.

The *M inim al" l e v e l o f cot*,
petency w ith a d d it i o n a l
knowledge o f th e develop­
ment and p re s e n t c h a ra c te r­
i s t i c s o f E n g lish a s com­
pared w ith a t l e a s t one
o th e r language.

The "good" l e v e l o f competency
w ith a d d it i o n a l knowledge o f
g e n e ra tiv e -tra n s fo rm a tio n a l,
d e s c r i p t iv e , comparative, and
h is to ric a l lin g u istic s.

C ulture
and
C i v il i z a t io n

An awareness o f language as
an e s s e n t i a l element o f cul­
t u r e and an understanding o f
th e p r i n c i p a l ways i n which
th e c u ltu r e o f Englishspeaking people d i f f e r s from
o th e r c u l t u r e s .

The "minimal" l e v e l o f com­
petency w ith f i r s t h a n d knowl­
edge o f sane l i t e r a r y m a s te r­
p iec es and acquaintance w ith
th e geography, h i s t o r y , a r t ,
s o c i a l customs, and contem­
po rary c i v i l i z a t i o n o f En­
g lis h -sp e a k in g people, a s com­
pared w ith th o se o f a t l e a s t
one o th e r c u l t u r e .

An en lig h ten e d understanding o f
English- speaking people and t h e i r
c u l t u r e , such a s i s achieved
through p e rs o n a l c o n ta c t, through
t r a v e l and re sid e n c y i n E n glishspeaking c o u n tr ie s , through study
o f system atic d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e
c u ltu r e o f E nglish-speaking peo­
p l e and through study o f l i t e r a ­
t u r e and t h e a r t s .

P ro fe s s io n a l
P re p a ra tio n

Knowledge o f th e p resen t-d ay
o b je c tiv e s o f t h e teach in g
o f E nglish as a second la n ­
guage and an understanding
o f t h e methods and te c h ­
niques f o r a t t a i n i n g th e s e
o b je c tiv e s .

"Minimal" l e v e l o f competency A m astery o f recognized te a c h hln g methods, evidence o f b re a d th h
p lu s knowledge o f th e u se o f
s p e c ia liz e d tec h n iq u e s, such
and depth o f p r o f e s s io n a l out­
as a u d io v isu a l a i d s , and o f
look, and t h e a b i l i t y t o ex­
t h e r e l a t i o n o f ESL te a c h in g
perim ent w ith and e v a lu a te new
t o o th e r a re a s o f th e c u r r i c ­ methods and te c h n iq u e s.
ulum. A b i l it y t o e v a lu a te
th e p ro fessio n al lit e r a t u r e
o f ESL te a c h in g .

biased on "Qualifications for Secondary School Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages," Appendix B,
as revised in Wilnarth H. Starr, "MLA Foreign language Proficiency Tests for Teachers and Advanced
Students," IMLA (Publications of the Modern language Association of America) Vol. XXXVII, Ho.
Part 2 (Sepz. 1962), pp. 31-37-

k,

And, In the case of teachers who are nonnative speakers or English:

Competence

Hinlr.al

Good

Superior

[A bility t o g e t th e sense o f
L iste n in g
Comprehens ion what an educated n a tiv e speak­
e r o f E n glish says when he i s
making a s p e c i a l e f f o r t t o be
understood and when he i s
speaking on a g e n e ra l and
f a m i li a r s u b j e c t .

A b i l it y t o understand
E nglish c on versation o f
normal tempo, l e c t u r e s , and
news b ro a d c a s ts.

A b i l it y t o follow c lo s e ly
and w ith ease a l l ty pes o f
standard E nglish speech
such a s ra p id o r group con­
v e r s a tio n and m echanically
tr a n s m itte d speech.

Speaking

A b i l it y t o read aloud and t o
t a l k on prepared to p ic s ( e . g . ,
f o r classroom s i t u a t i o n s )
w ithout obvious f a l t e r i n g , and
t o use t h e common E ng lish ex­
p re s sio n s needed f o r g e tt i n g
around i n E nglish-speaking
c o u n tr ie s , speaking w ith a
p ro nu n ciatio n understandable
t o a n a ti v e .

A b i l it y t o t a l k w ith a n a tiv e
speaker o f E nglish without
making g l a r i n g m istakes, and
w ith a command o f E ng lish vo­
cabulary and syntax s u f f i c i ­
e n t t o express one*s thoughts
i n c o n v ersa tio n a t normal
speed w ith reasonably good
p ro n u n cia tio n .

A b i l it y t o speak f l u e n t l y ,
approximating n a tiv e E nglish
speech i n vocabulary, in ­
to n a tio n , and p ro n u n cia tio n .
A b i l it y t o exchange id eas
and t o be a t ease i n s o c i a l
situ a tio n s.

Beading

A b i l it y t o grasp d i r e c t l y
( i . e . w ithout t r a n s l a t i n g ) th e
meaning o f sim ple, nontechni­
c a l , E nglish p ro se , except f o r
an o c c a sio n a l word.

A b i l i t y t o read w ith im­
mediate comprehension En­
g l i s h p ro se and v e rse o f
average d i f f i c u l t y and
mature c o n te n t.

A b i l it y t o rea d almost as
e a s i l y as i n one*s n a tiv e
language, m a te r ia l o f con­
s id e r a b le d i f f i c u l t y .

W riting

A b i l i t y t o w r ite c o r r e c t l y i n
E n glish sentences o r p ara­
graphs such as would, be de­
veloped o r a l l y f o r classroom
s i t u a t i o n s and t o w r ite a
simple d e s c r ip tio n o r message'
w ithout g la r in g e r r o r s .

A b i l i t y t o w r ite c o r r e c tly
i n E n glish a simple " fre e
composition" such as a
l e t t e r , w ith c l a r i t y and
c o rre c tn e ss i n vocabulary,
i dio/i, and syntax.

A b i l it y t o w r ite on a v a r i e t y
o f s u b je c ts w ith id io m a tic
n a tu r a ln e s s , ease o f ex­
p re s s io n , and some fe e lin g
f o r t h e s t y l e o f E n g lish .

APPENDIX C

SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING MODELS

194

ORAL APPROACH
Books
A l l e n , H aro ld B . , e d . T e a c h in g E n g li s h a s a Second Language.
York: M cG raw -H ill, 1964.
B lo o m f ie ld , L ea n ard .
_

.

L anguage.

New Y ork:

New

H o l t , 1933.

O u t l i n e Guide f o r t h e P r a c t i c a l Study o f
F o r e ig n L an g u ag es. B a lt i m o r e : The L i n g u i s t i c S o c ie ty o f
A m erica, 1942.

B rooks, N e lso n . Language and Language L e a r n i n g .
c o u r t , B race and N o r I d , 1960.

New York:

H a r-

. C o r n e l i u s , Edwin T. T e a c h in g E n g l i s h : AP r a c t i c a l
Guide f o r
T e a c h e rs o f E n g lis h a s a F o re ig n L anguage. W ashington, D .C .:
E n g li s h Languages S e r v i c e s , 1970.
F r a n c i s , W. N e lso n . The S t r u c t u r e o f American E n g l i s h .
The Ronald P r e s s , 1958.

New York:

F r i e s , C h a r le s C. T e a c h in g and L e a r n in g E n g lis h
a s a F o re ig n
L anguage. Ann A rb o r: The U n i v e r s i t y o f M ich igan P r e s s , 1945.
__________________ . The S t r u c t u r e o f E n g l i s h .
B race and W orld, 1952.

New York:

H a rco u rt,

C le a so n , H.A. An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o D e s c r i p t i v e L i n g u i s t i c s .
York: M olt, R i n e h a r t and W in sto n , 1961.
_______________. L i n g u i s t i c s and E n g l i s h Grammar.
R i n e h a r t and W in sto n , 1965.

New Y ork:

H o c k e tt, C h a r le s F. A C o urse i n Modern L i n g u i s t i c s .
The M acM illan C o . , 1958.
Hughes, Joh n P. L i n g u i s t i c s and L anguage T e a c h in g .
Random House, 1968.

H o lt,

New Y ork:
New York:

Lado, R o b e r t. L in g u i s t i c s A cro ss C u l t u r e s . Ann A rb o r:
v e r s i t y o f M ichigan P r e s s , 1957.
_______________. Language T e a c h in g :
York: M cG raw -H ill, 1964.

New

The U ni­

A S c i e n t i f i c A pproach.

New

195

M arckw ardt, A l b e r t H . , e d . S t u d i e s In Language and L i n g u i s t i c s I n
Honor o f C h a r le s C. F r i e s . Ann A rbor: The U n i v e r s i t y o f
M ichigan P r e s s , 1964.
R i v e r s , Wilga M. The P s y c h o l o g i s t and The F o re ig n Language T e a c h e r .
C hicago: The U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1964.
S c h e r e r , George A. C. and M ich eal W erth eim er. A P s y c h o l l n g u i s t i c
E xperim ent i n F o r e ig n Language T e a c h in g . New Y ork: McGrawH i l l , 1964.
S t e v i c k , E a r l W. A Workbook i n Language T eachin g w i t h S p e c ia l
R e fe re n c e t o E n g lis h a s a F o re ig n L anguage. New York: Abingdon
P r e s s , 1963.
A r tic le s in Jo u rn a ls
Anthony, Edward M. "A ' T r a d i t i o n a l ' B a s is f o r Language T e a c h i n g ."
TESOL Q u a r t e r l y . IV (March, 1 9 7 0 ), 3 - 1 6 .
Brown, T. G r a n t. " I n D efense o f P a t t e r n P r a c t i c e . "
L e a r n in g . XVIII ( J u n e , 1 9 7 0 ), 191-204.

Language

C a r r o l l , John B. " C u rr e n t I s s u e s i n P s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s and Second
Language L e a r n i n g ." TESOL Q u a r t e r l y . V ( J u n e , 1 9 7 1 ), 1 0 1 -1 4 .
Krohn, R o b e r t.
"The R o le o f L i n g u i s t i c s i n TEFL M e th o d o lo g y ."
Language L e a r n in g ,XX ( J u n e , 1 9 7 0 ), 10 3 -1 0 8 .
Ney, James W. "The O r a l A pproach: A R e - A p p r a i s a l . "
L e a r n in g . XVIII ( J u n e , 1 9 6 8 ), 6 3 -7 4 .

Language

_____________ . " T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l - G e n e r a t i v e T h e a o r ie s o f Language
and th e R ole o f C o n d i ti o n i n g i n Language L e a r n i n g ." Language
L e a r n in g , XX ( J u n e , 1 9 7 0 ), 6 3 -7 4 .
P a u l s t o n , C h r i s t i n a B r a t t . "The S eq uencing o f S t r u c t u r a l P a t t e r n
D r i l l s . " TESOL Q u a r t e r l y . V ( S e p t . , 1 9 7 1 ), 197-2 08.
R iv e r s , Wilga M. "From S k i l l A c q u i s i t i o n t o Language C o n t r o l . "
TESOL Q u a r t e r l y , I I I ( J u n e , 1 9 7 1 ), 3 -1 2 .
S t r c l f f , P aul R. "Some C r i t e r i a f o r th e E v a l u a t i o n o f TESOL P ro g ra m s ."
TESOL Q u a r t e r l y , IV (D e c ., 1 9 7 0 ) , 365 -370.
Wardaugh, R o n ald . "TESOL: C u r r e n t Problem s and C lassroom P r a c t i c e s . "
TESOL Q u a r t e r l y . I l l ( Ju n e , 1 9 6 9 ), 10 5 -1 1 6 .

DIRECT METHOD

B ro o k s, N elson. Language an d Language L e a r n in g .
B race and W o rld , 1960.

New York:

H arco u rt,

G ouin, F r a n c o is . T eaching and S tu d y in g L an g u a g es. T ra n s , by Howard
Swan and V i c t o r B e t i s . London: George P h i l i p and Son, 1892.
Hughes, John P. L i n g u i s t i c s and Language T e a c h in g .
House, 1968.
Lado, R o b e rt. Language T e a c h in g :
McGraw-Hill, I n c . , 1964.
Mackey, W illiam F r a n c i s .
Longmans, 1 9 6 5 .
O e r t e l , H.

New York:

A S c i e n t i f i c A pp ro ach .

Language T eaching A n a l y s i s .

L e c t u r e s on t h e Study o f L anguages.

Palm er, H. E. The P r i n c i p l e s o f Language S tu d y .
Book, 1921.

New York:

S c r i b n e r , 1901.
World

C am bridge:

. T h i s Language L e a rn in g B u s i n e s s .New York:
Book, 1931.
Sweet, Henry. The P r a c t i c a l Study o f Language s .
H o lt & C o ., 1900.

New York:

London:

New York:

. The O ral Method o f T eaching L a n g u a g e s.
H e i f e r , 1929.

Random

New York:

World
Henry

N a tio n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r P u b l i c School A dult E d u c a tio n . "T each in g
E n g lis h a s a Second L a n g u a g e ." T echn iqu es f o r T e a c h e rs o f A d u l t s .
VXII ( J a n u a r y , 1968).

APPENDIX D
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TEXTS EMPLOYED BY TEACHERS
OF ENGLISH TO ADULT SPEAKERS OF OTHER
LANGUAGES IN MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

198

Beginning
B e rn a r d o , Leu U. and D ora F. P e n t e l l . E n g l i s h :
M orristo w n, New J e r s e y : S l l v e r - B u r d e t t , 1966.

Your New Language.

*
Chapman, B. E. and L. S c h u l t z . The Mott B a s ic Language S k i l l s
Program: Word Bank. G a l ie n , M ich ig an : A l l i e d E d u c a tio n C o u n c il, 1966.
D ix so n , R o b e rt J . B e g in n in g L e sso n s i n E n g l i s h .
Regents P u b l i s h i n g C o ., 1969.

New York:

__________________ . E le m e n tary R ead er in E n g li s h w i t h E x e r c i s e s f o r
C o n v e rsatio n and S t u d y . New York: R e g e n ts P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 1957.
New York:

. E n g lis h Language S e r v i c e s .
The M acM illan Company, 1963.

E n g li s h T h is Way.

__________________ . E x e r c i s e s in E n g lis h C o n v e r s a t i o n .
Regents P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1953.

New York:

__________________ . R eg en t* s E n g li s h Workbook. V ol. I .
Regents P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1956.

New Y ork:

F l n o c c h l a r o , Mary. L e a rn in g to Use E n g l i s h .
P u b lis h in g Company, 1969.
H a l l , Eugene J .
Sounds and S y l l a b l e s .
l i s h i n g Company, 1969.

New Y ork:

New York:

R e g en ts

R eg en ts Pub­

M i t c h e l l , E l i z a b e t h G l l l i n a n . B eg in n in g American E n g l i s h .
Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - I I a l l , 1957.
N a tio n a l C o u n c il o f t h e T e a c h e rs o f E n g l i s h . E n g lis h f o r T o d ay .
Vol. 1. W illiam R. S l a g e r , R alph F. R o b l n e t t , B e rn ic e E. L e a ry , e t . a l . ,
eds. New York: M cG raw -H ill, 1962.
*

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