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Film ed as Xerox University Microfilms 300 N o rth Z eeb Road A n n A rbor, M ic h ig a n 48106 73 - 29,798 WESTO N, G r a c e C ar olyn, 1940A CO?tPARATIVi: STU DY O F M I C H I G A N S T A TU i m V E R S l T Y O V E R S E A S S T U D E O T T E A C H E R S A G O M I C H I G A N STATE U N I V E R S I T Y S T A T E S I D E STUDETIT T E A CH E RS WITH R E F E R E N C E TO TH E ATTITITDES O F U’ORLDMIKDITlUFSS A N D OPEN NE SS . Michlfvin S t at e U ni ve r si t y, Ph.D., E du c at io n, teacher t r a i n i n g U n iv e r s it y M ic r o film s , A 1973 C o m p a n y , A n n A rb o r, M ic h ig a n A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY OVERSEAS STUDENT TEACHERS AND MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY STATESIDE STUDENT TEACHERS WITH REFERENCE TO THE ATTITUDES OF WORLDMINDEDNESS AND OPENNESS By Grace C. Weston A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1973 ABSTRACT A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY OVERSEAS STUDENT TEACHERS AND MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY STATESIDE STUDENT TEACHERS WITH REFERENCE TO THE ATTITUDES OF WORLDMINDEDNESS AND OPENNESS By Grace C. Weston Purpose of the Study It was the purpose of this study to investigate attitudes of worldmindedness and openness in student teachers who participated in the Intercultural Student Teaching Program at Michigan State University during the spring quarter, 1971. These attitudes were compared with the attitudes of student teachers who taught in Michigan schools spring quarter, 1971. Since fall 1969, the Michigan State University Student Teaching Office has sponsored student teaching in American-sponsored schools in the British Isles, Mexico, Italy, The Netherlands, and Spain. Student teachers participating in the Project teach, for the most part, American students a curriculum similar to that found in the United States. However, the uniqueness of the Grace C. Weston experience lies in the opportunity it affords student teachers to participate in a culture different from their own. A review of the literature indicated that little research had been done in the area of overseas student teaching. Studies had been done, however, in attitude change as it related to intercultural experiences. When standardized measurement scales were used to assess attitude change in college students who participated in short-term intercultural experiences, no significant changes were evident. Researchers felt that the shortness of the experiences, usually three months, may have been a factor in this lack of change. Further they indicated that attitude change may not take place immediately after an experience but after a period of time has elapsed. Methodology The population of the study consisted of a total of fifty-eight student teachers divided into three groups: (1) an experimental group, made up of twenty student teachers who student taught in The Hague, The Netherlands during spring term, 1971; (2) a control group of nine student teachers who volunteered to student teach overseas but who were not chosen and were assigned to Michigan schools; and (3) a control group of twenty-nine student teachers who did not apply for overseas student teaching and were given Michigan assignments. Grace C. Weston All groups were tested at the beginning of student teaching and retested at the end of student teaching with two measurement instruments. The Worldmlndedness Scale measured the attitude of worldmindedness and the Dogmatism Scale measured the attitude of openness. The validity and reliability of both instruments was established. The Multivariate Analysis of Variance statistical test was used to test the significance of the study's hypotheses. Findings of the Study The Michigan State University Overseas Student Teaching Program of spring, 1971, did not significantly affect the attitudes of worldmindedness and openness as measured by the Worldmindedness Scale and the Dogmatism Scale. The experimental group did not significantly differ from the two control groups in terms of positive change on either of the measurement scales. Elementary majors did not differ from secondary majors in pre-test/post-test scores. Several explanations for these outcomes are possible: (1) the difficulty of measuring attitudes with self-reporting paper and pencil measures; (2) the possibi­ lity that changed attitudes may not be apparent immediately after the experience; and (3) the possibility that the Overseas Student Project, as it has been operating, has not been meeting the goal of providing an experience for student teachers which will bring about intercultural understanding. Grace C. Weston Some major recommendations included in this study were the development of criterion-referenced measurements to measure the specific international objectives of the Michigan State University Overseas Student Teaching Program, the piloting of these criterion-referenced measurements with several overseas student teaching groups, and a feasibility study dealing with the possible develop­ ment of an international teacher education center under the sponsorship of Michigan State University to be located at a foreign site. DEDICATION To my parents, Thomas and Dorothy Weston, their unending encouragement, support, ii for and l ove. ACKNOWLE DGMENT S Many friends and colleagues have encouraged me in this venture. My gratitude goes to all of you. To Dr. George Myers, chairman of the guidance committee, for his encouragement, assistance, and friend­ ship . To Dr. Howard Teitelbauro, for his invaluable help with programming and interpretation of the data. To Dr. Dfcle Alam, Dr. John Phillips, and Dr. Louise Sause, members of my guidance committee, for their initial help when I first began my doctoral program and for their consistent support and interest during those years. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ....................................... Chapter I. NATURE OF THE S T U D Y .......................... 1 Introduction. * Rationale for the Study ................ Background for the Study.................... Need for the Study.......................... Purpose of the S t u d y ....................... H y p o t h e s e s ................................. 1 1 5 8 12 13 Major Hypotheses.......................... Exploratory Hypotheses.................... 13 14 Definitions of Terms ....................... 14 General Student Teaching Terms . . . . Terms Related to the Research of This Study . . . . . . . . . . 15 Scope and Limits of the S t u d y ............. 19 S c o p e .................................... L i m i t s .................................... 19 19 16 Generalizeabi 1 ity of! the Study's C o n c l u s i o n s .......................... A Focus on the Total Student Teaching Experience ................ Difficulty in the Accurate Measurement of Attitudes............. 20 An Overview of the Study.................... 21 iv 20 20 Chapter II. III. IV. Pngp A REVIEW OF THE L I T E R A T U R E ..................... 22 Introduction ................................. Studies Relating to Intercultural Experiences................................. Studies Relating toOpenness.................. Summary............... . ..................... 22 DESIGN OF THE S T U D Y ........................... 61 Introduction ................................. The Population . . . . . . . . . . The Measurements.............................. Worldmindedness Scale ....................... Dogmatism Scale .............................. Hypotheses..................................... 61 61 63 64 65 69 Major H y p o t h e s e s ........................... Exploratory Hypotheses .................... 70 71 Design and A nalysis ........................... S u m m a r y ..................................... 71 72 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA 22 47 57 4 Composition of the S t u d y .................... Statistical Procedures U s e d ............. ... Testing of Statistical Hypotheses ► Worldmindedness as Measured by the Worldmindedness Scale .................... Openness as Measured by the Dogmatism S c a l e ........................................ Presentation and Testing of Research H y p o t h e s e s ................................. Major H y p o t h e s e s ........................... Exploratory Hypotheses .................... SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 74 75 76 85 87 89 89 90 Discussion and Summary....................... V. 74 90 . 95 Sum m a r y ........................................ 95 Major H y p o t h e s e s ....................... ... Exploratory Hypotheses .................... 98 98 v Chapter Page C o n c l u s i o n s .............................. Recommendations for Further Research. . 99 . 104 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................ 107 APPENDICES Appendix A. The Worldmindedness Scale Categorized by Subscales. I 112 B. Worldmindedness Scale Raw S c o r e s ......... 115 C. The Dogmatism Scale Categorized by Subscales. I ^ ....................... 117 D. Dogmatism Scale Raw S c o r e s ................ 122 E. Worldmindedness Scale and Dogmatism S c ale. vi . 124 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1. 1.2. Page Sites# Numbers of Participants, and Co­ ordinators in the Michigan State University Intercultural Student Teacher Program, Fall, 1969-Spring, 1 9 7 1 ................... 7 Comparison of Characteristics of Open- and ................ Closed-System Individuals 18 4.1. Composition of the S t u d y ................... 75 4.2. Cell Means--Worldmindedness 78 4.3. Cell Means— D o g m a t i s m ...................... 79 4.4. Sample Correlation Matrix--Within Cells Worldmindedness............................. 82 Sample Correlation Matrix--Within Cells Dogmatism.................................... 83 Values of the Multivariate Test for Group, Level, and Interaction Effects on Worldmindedness. ............. 86 Values of the Multivariate Test for Group, Level, and Interaction Effects on O p e n n e s s .................................... 88 B-l. Worldmindedness Scale Raw Scores............. 115 D-l. Dogmatism Scale Raw Scores.................... 122 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. vii ................ CHAPTER I NATURE OF THE STUDY Introduction It is the purpose of this study to investigate attitudes of worldmindedness and openness in student teachers who participated in the Intercultural Student Teaching Program at Michigan State University during the spring quarter, 1971, These attitudes are compared with the attitudes of two groups of student teachers who student taught in Michigan schools. The major concern of the study deals with changes in attitudes as a result of the student teaching experience. That is, do student teachers who participate in an intercultural program develop more open and worldminded attitudes than those who do not? Rationale for the Study Teacher education institutions throughout the country are questioning the traditional apprentice/master model of student teaching. Often considered the most relevant of the teacher education c o m p onents, student teaching has undergone radical changes in recent years. 1 2 Much of this change has resulted from the realization among educational leaders that teachers today must be prepared to educate their youngsters to exist in a rapidly changing environment. Just what kinds of skills the successful teacher of today and tomorrow must have is a much-debated issue. Many criteria for successful teachers have been developed but no one list has been considered definitive. However, it has been generally agreed that schools of education can no longer train teachers as if they were going to take positions in static situations. Taylor, in The World As Teacher, promotes the idea that teachers should be educated with a world-view in mind. He says that American schools have done little to promote understanding and acceptance of other cultures both within and without the United States. Since World War II, the concept of the shrinking world has become more valid. Rapid communication and transportation systems have brought nations to each others' doorsteps. Taylor writes, "What­ ever they teach, teachers should be educated in a way calculated to raise the level of their awareness of what is happening to mankind in the world's contemporary circumstances. Like Taylor, Carr is interested in promoting an international view in teacher education. In a recent ^Harold Taylor, The World As Teacher Doubleday Co., Inc., 1970), xi. (New York: 3 address he predicted, "I think we can look forward rather soon to a day when every practicing teacher in the teacher training institutes will have had as an expected, as a normal part of his experience and training at least some experience as a teacher in another country, or some involvement in international education." 2 The world view promoted by people like Carr and Taylor is described in terms of worldmindedness by Sampson and Smith. They define worldmindedness as . . . a value orientation or frame of reference. . . . We identify as highly worldmindcd the individual who favors a world-view of the problems of humanity, whoso primary reference group is mankind rather than American, English, Chinese, etc.-* While Taylor and Carr emphasize a world view as a priority for success in teaching, others, Bills 4 and Freeze teacher trait. 5 for example talk about openness as a desirable Bills writes that 2 William Carr, "Teachers and International Edu­ cation," Reality and Relevance, Twenty-Second Yearbook of the Association of American Colleges for Teacher Education (Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1969), p. 76. ^Donald L. Sampson and Howard P. Smith, "A Scale to Measure World-Minded Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology, XLV (1957), 99. 4 Robert Bills, "The Classroom Teacher, Mental Health, and Learning," Mental Health and Teacher Education, Forty-Sixth Yearbook of the Association of Student Teaching (Dubuque, Iowa: William Brown, 1967), p. 6. 5 Chester Freeze "A Study of Openness as a Factor in Change of Student Teachers" (unpublished Doctor's disser­ tation, University of Alabama, 1963). 4 . . if we could agree at all about what we would like students to gain from teacher education programs including student teaching, it would probably be an openness to the experience of teaching, an openness to its problems and its opportunities, an openness to oneself so that he can bring his experiences to bear on becoming a teacher, and an openness to one's lack of experience so that he is moved to accept new experi­ ence .° Rokeach, in The Open and Closed M i n d , defines openness as the ". receive, . . extent to which the person can evaluate, and act on relevant information received from the outside." 7 Both Bills and Rokeach consider open­ ness to be on a continuum. If the assumption that openness and worldmindedness are two desirable teacher traits is accepted, ways to promote these attitudes must be found and incorporated into g teacher education programs. Phenomenologists like Combs, Kelly, 9 and Snygg 10 say that a person's experiences determine his perceptions. Experiences then must be developed making worldmindedness and openness important £ Bills, op. c i t . , p. 9. Yor k : 7Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind Basic Books, 1960), p. 5^. (New Q Arther Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual B e ­ havior (New York: Basic Books, 1960), p. T T.--------^Earl Kelley, "The Fully Functioning Self," Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming, 1962 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1962), p. 18. ^ C o m b s and Snygg, op. cit. 5 objectives in teacher preparation and these experiences must be studied in order to understand their effects on student teachers. Background for the study Aware of the need to provide programs which give teacher candidates more effective and relevant student teaching experiences, Michigan State University has developed several innovative student teaching programs. During spring term, 1971, five alternate programs were in existence in addition to traditional student teaching.1-1 This thrust at Michigan State University seems in keeping with the National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards recommendation that, Innovation is essential to progress in teacher edu­ cation. Some traditional approaches to solving the problems the profession faces will continue to be effective, but different conditions and the increased maturity of the teaching profession demand new approaches.12 One of the more popular of the "new approaches" at Michigan State University has been the Intercultural Student Teaching Program. This program was begun in the Overseas Student Teaching, Lansing SERL (Second­ ary Education Residency Lansing), TTT (Training Teachers of Teachers), Cluster Program, and Project Re-Fuel (Relevant Experience for Urban Education Leaders). 12 National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, W h o 1s In Charge H ere? (Washington, D.C.: The Commission, 196 3^, p . 4. 6 Call of 1969 and has since operated in several countries as shown in Table 1.1. Coordinator assignments are rotated among Michigan State University student teaching office staff members. Each project is headed by a different Michigan State U n i ­ versity coordinator. His responsibilities include the selection of students participating in the program, orientation of student teachers to the program, and supervision and evaluation of student teachers in the program. In most ways, the coordinator's role is similar to the one he has in Michigan schools. He serves as a liaison between the host school and the university. However, the close contact the coordinator has with his student teachers makes the experience more intense . Prior to the beginning of student teaching, an announcement of the overseas project is sent to all students who have applied to student teach in that given quarter. They are invited to attend an informational meeting and to interview with the project coordinator. most cases, more students apply than are able to go. In Much of the decision as to who is chosen rests with the avail­ ability of spaces in the host school. A cross section of grade levels and subject areas from kindergarten to twelfth grade is generally represented. factor, In addition to this students are selected for their "interest in gaining living experiences in a second culture, their academic and cultural background, and their personality 7 Table 1.1 Sites, Numbers of Participants, and Coordinators in the Michigan State University Intercultural Student Teacher Program, Fall, 1969Winter, 1973 Number of Parti­ cipants Term Site Coordinator 19 Madrid (Spain) Robert Hatfield 1970 25 Guadalajara (Mexico) Robert Arends Winter, 1970 26 Rome (Italy) Charles Jackson Spring, 1970 25 Lakenheath (England) George Myers Fall, 23 Rome (Italy) Judd Field Spring, 19 71 24 The Hague (The Netherlands) John Cragun Fall, 25 Lakenheath (England) Arden Moon Fall, 1969 Winter, 1970 1971 winter, 1972 17 The Hague (The Netherlands) Banks Bradley Spring, 1972 22 Rome (Italy) and William Price 4 Fall, 1972 Winter, 1973 The Hague (The Netherlands) 25 Lakenheath (England) Huge David 18 Rome (Italy) William Force 8 characteristics*"*'* After initial screening, final assignments are made cooperatively by the project co­ ordinator and the personnel of the host school. Jn all but one case, the schools participating in the program have been independent American schools catering to the children of United States citizens. England, however, The project in provided student teaching experience at schools for military dependents. In general, the curricu­ lum of each of these schools consists of classes which would be found in stateside schools. Further, before or after the overseas portion of his assignment, the student spends time in a Michigan State University student teaching center observing and participating in Michigan schools . Because of the variety of sites used and the rotation of coordinators, each of the seven overseas projects has been different. But despite this difference, the outstanding feature of each program has been the opportunity offered student teachers to be exposed to a culture different than their own. Need for the Study It is assumed that this intercultural experience encourages students to understand and appreciate other 13 "Intercultural Student Teaching" (East Lansing, Michigan: Student Teaching Office, Michigan State U n i ­ versity, no d a t e ) , (Mimeographed.) 9 Cultures. A published description of the program states isome expected outcomes: The student teachers hopefully live with families in the host community, taking advantage of the oppor­ tunity to study and participate in a second culture in order to better understand the similarities and differ­ ences in customs, living patterns, and t r a d i t i o ns.^ Informal feedback on the effects of the program indicates that students view the experience as one which broadens their view of people and the world. comments from participants are: Typical "We got away from our cthnocentricity"; "You definitely become more tolerant . . I've become more tolerant of people as a whole"; "It helps your teaching because it opens up all sorts of new ideas . . . and I'm just more excited about life n o w , " ^ Despite this verbal enthusiasm provided by returning student teachers, no systematic research has been conducted to see if students benefit from the program. Aware of the need for study of overseas student teaching, the Michigan State University Student Teaching Office established a Committee to Evaluate Overseas Student Teaching in Septem­ ber, 1970. 15 The Committee specifically cited the need to Tape recorded interview of student teachers who participated in the Rome (1970), Madrid, and Lakenheath student teaching projects (East Lansing, Mich.: Student Teaching Office, Michigan State University, no date). 10 find out what effect the intercultural experience has on student te a c h e r s . ^ Interest in overseas student teaching is growing. Other universities have initiated programs. For example, the University of Alabama has a Latin American student teaching program, 17 Mankato State College sends student teachers to Mexico, 18 and Miami University of Ohio has a program in Europe. 19 National professional meetings are addressing themselves to international student teaching programs. To name just two, the Conference on International Teacher Education was held at Moorhead State College, July 18-22, 1970 20 and the annual meeting of the Association 1.6 "Notes of the Committee to Evaluate Overseas Student Teaching" (East Lansing, Michigan: Student Teaching Office, Michigan State University, 1970). (Photocopy.) 1 7Adolph B . Crew, "A Decade of Student Teaching in Latin America" (University, Alabama: University of Alabama, 1971). (Mimeographed.) lf*Evelyn Hatfield, "Mankato State Goes Inter­ national" (Mankato, Minnesota: Mankato State College, no date). (Mimeographed.) 19 "Miami University Student Teaching m Europe Program" (Oxford, Ohio: Miami University, no date). (Mimeographed.) 20 Program, Conference of International Teacher Education, Moorhead State College, Moorhead, Minnesota, July 18-22, 1970. 11 of Teacher Educators, February 24-27, session on student teaching abroad. 1971, included a 21 Thus, Michigan State University is not alone in its desire to provide international experiences for its teacher candidates. Research into the program at this institution will doubtless prove beneficial to other institutions with similar programs. Wilcox urges further study: We know very little about the impact of a foreign experience upon the behavior of American youth. Perhaps we cannot wait for research results in this difficult affective area before advocating an extension of the practice of organizing overseas clinical experi­ ences. We cannot, however, escape the responsibility for organizing endeavors in both process and product research to run concurrently with our developmental efforts.22 While the maintenance of the overseas student teaching program at Michigan State University does not represent a largo financial commitmcnt— students pay their own way— it does require considerable staff time and effort to plan and carry out the program. Research examining various aspects of the program will help in determining priorities for the future and will provide data which are now lacking. 21 Program, Fifth Annual Meeting of the Association for Teacher Educators, Chicago, Illinois, February 24-27, 1971. 22 John Wilcox, "Developing Overseas Student Teaching Experiences" {Address prepared for the Conference of Inter­ national Teacher Education, Moorhead State College, Moor­ head, Minnesota, July 18-22, 1970). (Mimeographed.) 12 Purpose of the Study It is the purpose of this study to compare chanqes in attitudes of students who student taught at the American International School in The Hague, The Netherlands as part of the Michigan State University Overseas Student Teaching Program with changes in attitudes of certain Michigan State University students who student taught in Michigan during the spring term, 1971. The student teachers working in Michigan schools are categorized into two groups: those who applied to student teach overseas but were not selected and a random sample of all others student teaching in the state. The variables which are a concern of this study are worldmindedness and openness as they are measured by the 23 24 Worldmindedness Scale and the Dogmatism S c a l e . The opportunity to become acquainted with another culture is the distinguishing feature of the overseas program. It may be assumed that the program exists, at least in part, to provide students with an experience that will make them more worldminded and open. 2 5 Hence, this study may bo considered to be an investigation of two features of the project. An alternate way of stating the 2 3Sampson and Smith, op. cit., pp. 99-106. 2 4John Robinson and Phillip Shaver (eds.), Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1^69), pp. 334-347. 25 "Intercultural Student Teaching," op. cit. 13 study's purpose is to raise a general question: Did students who student taught at the ftmcrican International School in The Hague, The Netherlands become more open and worldminded than students who student taught in Michigan schools ? Hypotheses Two sets of hypotheses were developed and explored in this study. First, two major hypotheses regarding changes in attitudes were developed as a result of the rationale presented and the general questions regarding the effects of the overseas program that have been raised. Second, two exploratory hypotheses were developed and examined. They were included in anticipation that this investigation might provide data and stimulation for further inqui r y . To facilitate understanding, both sets of hypothe­ ses are stated in positive forms. In Chapter III, each hypothesis is restated in null form. Major Hypotheses Two major hypotheses are presented regarding changes in attitude among student teachers. 1. Michigan State University students who participated in the Overseas Student Teaching Project, term, sprinq 1971, will exhibit greater change in world­ mindedness, as measured by the Worldmindedness 14 S c a l e , than student teachers who did not partici­ pate in the project. 2. Michigan State University student teachers who participated in the Overseas Student Teaching Project, spring term, 1971, will exhibit greater change in openness, as measured by the Dogmatism S c a l e , than student teachers who did not partici­ pate in the project. Exploratory Hypotheses Two exploratory hypotheses are presented regarding changes in attitudes among student teachers. 1. Elementary majors will differ in worldmindedness, as measured by the Worldmindedness S c a l e , from secondary majors. 2. Elementary majors will differ in openness, as measured by the Dogmatism S c ale, from secondary majors. Definitions of Terms Several meanings may apply to certain of the terms used in this study. Explanations are provided to give meanings as they are used in this study. cations of definitions are provided: teaching terms, and Two classifi­ (1) general student (2) terms specifically related to the research conducted in this study. 15 General Student Teaching Terms Student teacher. A student teacher is a college student who is acquiring practical teaching experience and skill under the guidance of a supervising teacher. 26 To become a student teacher at Michigan State University, a student must have junior or senior standing, be enrolled in the College of Education, have completed 105 term hours of academic credit, and have a 2.0 grade point average 4.0 scale). (on a The student must also have successfully completed certain prerequisite education courses with a 27 2.0 grade point average. Student teaching pro g r a m . Regular or traditional student teaching refers to programs sponsored by the Uni­ versity in cooperation with the public schools whereby a teacher candidate (student teacher) regular teacher in a public school. pation, is assigned to a Observation, partici­ and actual teaching is done by the student teacher under the guidance of an experienced supervising teacher. 2 8 At Michigan State University, most student teaching assign­ ments are for the total school day for a period of 26 Carter Good, Dictionary of Education McGraw Hill Book Co., 1 $*>$) , P . * 3TT.----------- L*XIII (New York: 2 7Michigan State University, University Catalog, (December, 1969), p. 134. 28 Good, op. cit. 16 approximately eleven weeks. Seminars for student teachers are held weekly under the leadership of the University coordinator. Supervising teacher. The supervising teacher is a person employed by the public schools as a regular teacher who is assigned a student teacher. The supervising teacher guides the student teacher in participating, observing, and teaching in the classroom. The supervising teacher working with Michigan State University student teachers has a large role in the evaluation of the student teacher's work. University coordinator. The University coordinator is a person employed by the University to organize, co­ ordinate, and supervise the student teaching program in cooperation with the public schools. The coordinator regularly observes student teachers, confers with student teachers and supervising teachers, and conducts seminars for student teachers and supervising teachers. Terms Related to the Research of this Study Attitude. An attitude is an acquired, or learned, and established tendency to react toward or against some­ thing or somebody. Attitudes are evidenced by either approaching or withdrawing behavior. The object of the reaction becomes either a positive or negative value from the point of view of the person who is reacting. An 17 attitude may be latent, subjective, unexpressed, or it may 29 represent any degree between two extremes. Openness and closedness. The extent to which a person is open or closed in his belief system depends on whether or not he can receive, evaluate, and act on relevant information received from the outside on its own intrinsic merits, unencumbered by irrelevant factors in the situation arising from within the person or from the outside. Examples of irrelevant internal pressures that inter­ fere with the realistic reception of information are unrelated habits, beliefs, and perceptual cues, irrational ego motives, power needs, the need for selfaggrandizement, the need to allay anxiety. Irrelevant external pressures (are) the pressures of reward and punishment arising from external authority30 (see Table 1.2). Worldmindedness. The concept of worldmindedness refers to a value orientation or a frame of reference as opposed to knowledge about or interest in international relations. A person who is worldminded has a world view of the problems of humanity. His primary reference group is mankind rather than any one ethnic group such as American, Chinese, or British. Such a person may or may not have an interest in or knowledge about international 31 affairs. °l°a 29 Henry P. Fairchild (ed.). Dictionary of Soci(New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams^ and C o . , 196 5) , ^Rokeach, op. cit., p. 57. 31 Sampson and Smith, op. cit., p. 99. 18 Table 1.2 Comparison of Characteristics of Open- and Closed-Systen Individuals3 Open-system characteristics Closcd-system characteristics 1. Individual accepts or rejects a belief on the basis of objective structural requirements without regard to arbitrary reinforcements from external authority. 1. Individual accepts or rejects a belief based on irrelevant, internal drives and/or arbitrary reinforcements from external authority. 2. Individual secs the world as a friendly place. 2. Individual sees the world as a threatening place. 3. Individual does not rely on authority in ac­ cepting or rejecting belie f s . 3. Individual has an overrcliance on authority in accepting or rejecting beliefs. 4. Individual does not evaluate others ac­ cording to beliefs held in common. 4. Individual evaluates others according to their agreements or disagree­ ments with his own belief system. 5. Individual values others positively regardless of their beliefs. 5. Individual has difficulty discriminating between and separately evaluating a belief and the person holding the belief. 6. Individual has a balanced conception of past, present, and future in relation to each other. 6. Individual has a narrow future-oriented time perspective. Rokeach, op. cit., pp. 54-70. 19 Scope and Limits of the Study Scope The subjects which are of interest to this study compose three groups: (1) an experimental group of twenty student teachers who student taught in The Hague# The Netherlands during the spring term, 1971; (2) a control group of nine student teachers who volunteered for The Hague program but were not selected and wore instead placed in Michigan student teaching centers; and (3) a second control group of twenty-nine student teachers who did not volunteer for The Hague program--these student teachers were randomly selected from those Michigan State University students who student taught during the spring term, 1971. Limits Three facets of the study limit the conclusions that may be made regarding its results. It may be noted, however, that most educational research contains compro­ mises and the limits outlined here do not render the present study's findings invalid or worthless. 32 32The outline of this study originally called for a research hypothesis regarding the differences in attitude change between male and female participants. Those hypotheses were abandoned because there were not enough male participants to allow for meaningful data analysis. 20 Generalizeability of the s t u d y ’s conclusions. First, it must be emphasized that the present study is only concerned with one overseas student teaching project— that conducted by Michigan State University at the American International School in The Hague, The Netherlands, during the spring term, 1971. It is not feasible, therefore, to generalize the study's findings with any degree of sta­ tistical certainty to other overseas student teaching proj e c t s . A focus on the total student teaching experience. The focus of this study is on the total experience of student teaching and its effect on certain attitudes. There is no attempt in the study to isolate those facets of the student teaching experience that might tend to stimu­ late openness or worldmindedness. Hence, any changes in attitudes can only be attributed to the total experience of student teaching. Difficulty in the accurate measurement of attitudes. Controversy exists among behavioral scientists as to whether paper-and-pencil instruments are capable of precise measurement of attitude changes. Borg, for example, has written that because we ask the subjects of attitude studies to report their feelings and perceptions, we can never be sure if their answers reflect "true" attitudes or if they reflect attitudes the subjects think are correct or 21 proper.^ The data from this study arc from answers solicited from subjects via self-reportinq instruments; it is therefore impossible to be sure of their absolute veracity. An Overview of the Study The first chapter of the study has presented the study's rationale, background, need, purpose, hypotheses, terms, scope, and limits. presented in four chapters. The remainder of the study is Chapter II presents relevant literature regarding the concepts of openness and world­ mindedness, and international education. presents the design of the study. findings of the study. Chapter III Chapter IV presents the Chapter V presents a summary of the study, conclusions, and recommendations for further study. 3 3Walter Borg, Educational Research David McKay C o . , 1963), p . 4 8. (New York: CHAPTER II A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction It is the purpose of Chapter II to examine liter­ ature relating to the present study. As has been stated in Chapter I, prominent educators are urging teacher edu­ cation institutions to offer intercultural experiences to teacher candidates. Such institutions are responding to these requests by initiating laboratory settings abroad. Although this study limits itself to an examination of one intercultura1 student teaching project, an examination of similar studies aids in the interpretation of present findings. Chapter II, is divided into three sections: Studies relating to intercultural experiences, relating to openness, and (1) (2) Studies (3) A summary. Studies Relating to Intercultural Experiences While specific research into intercultural student teaching is limited, researchers have concerned themselves 22 23 with programs which feature intercultural exposure, attempting to discover how such exposure affects the attitudes of participants. Smith, Kafka, Studies by Riecken, T a b a , and Gleason reflect such concerns. addition to the aforementioned, In two studies are examined which deal specifically with student teaching abroad; a survey conducted by the Student Teaching Office at Michigan State University and a study of overseas student teachers conducted by Brady. Rieckon conducted a study, in 1948, of attitude change as it relates to intercultural experiences.^ He evaluated the work camp program of the American Friends Service Committee, attitudes. camp, focusing on changes in personality and Work campers were studied before camp, after and again ten months later. An extensive study drew upon a sample of sixty- three campers from all United States and Mexican work camps during the summer of 1948, and a smaller intensive study concentrated on twenty-nine participants of two of these camps. In the extensive s t udy, the Sentiments Inventory was administered in varying forms three times: before campers left in June, September, 1948; at the end of camp in 1948; and ten months later in June, 1949. i Included in the Inventory were components on ethnocentrism, ^Henry Riecken, The Volunteer Work Camp Addison Wesley Press, 19 55). (Cambridge: 24 authoritarianism, political-economic conservatism, non­ violence, democracy, and social class axioms. The intensive study featured a participant/observer assigned to each of the two work camps. This person administered tests, kept records of camp activities, and held a brief exit inter­ view with each camper. Pre-camp and post-camp testing with several measurement devices took place; The Sentiments Inventory, the Allport Vernon Study of V a l u e s , the Thomatic Apperception T e s t , the Sentence Completion T e s t , and the Guess Who T e s t . Riecken discussed the implications of the collected data in terms of short terms effects and long term effects of the work camp experience: Short Term Effects 1. There were statistically significant changes in a favorable direction between the beginning and the end of camp in the areas of ethnocentrism, author­ itarianism, and democracy. 2. There was suggestive but non-conclusive evidence regarding changes in a favorable direction in the two areas of non-violence and social class axioms. 3. Campers views of the "average man's" attitudes had not changed. However, their own scores having changed in a favorable direction, distance between camper's attitudes and those they attributed to the "average man" were widened. 25 4. There was a slight but consistent change in campers' value orientations. More emphasis was placed on developing moral standards rooted in one's own responsibility to his fellow man rather than in external values. 5. As a group, campers became more independent, more desirous of freedom from restraint, and less aggressive and hostile in meeting frustration and oppos ition. 6. A majority of campers, at the end of summer, re­ affirmed their intentions to enter the predominently "service oriented" occupations they had preferred at the beginning of camp. Long Term Effects In re-testing campers ten months after the work camp experience, 1. Riecken found: There was a high degree of durability of changed attitudes induced by the work camp, even ten months afterwards. 2. Vocational choices remained the same as they had at the end of summer. 3. Continued contact with like-minded individuals helped work campers sustain their attitudes. 26 Conclusions drawn by Ricken regarding his study would seem to support those who claim that intercultural experiences affect attitudes in a positive manner. The uniqueness of his study population, however, discourages the assumption that most inter-cultural programs produce similar results. Quakers and those who work with the Quaker-based American Friends Service Committee are known for their attitudes of pacifism, liberalism, non­ authoritarianism, worldmindedness, and humaneness. The work campers were a homogeneous group whose purpose was to interact with and be of service to indigent groups of other cultures both within and without the United States. What Riecken found was that such a group of people strengthen their humanitarian values when given the oppor­ tunity to be in the work camp environment. The lack of a control group in the study's design raises the question of whether the same type of people would have shown similar changes in personality had they spent the summer in a different setting. In her study of the Summer European Study Tour of the Association of International Clubs, Taba dealt with a relatively more heterogeneous population and garnered different results than those of Riecken. 2 She accompanied ^Hilda Taba, Cultural Attitudes and International Understanding: An Evaluation of an Internatlonal Study Tour, Occasional Paper Number 5, Institute of International Education, June, 1953. 27 fifty-eight college coeds abroad in the role of participant/ observer during the summer of 1950. An avowed purpose of the tour was to develop knowledge about international affairs and to create more internationally minded attitudes. The schedule included: (1) one month in Paris attending an Institute of International Affairs, (2) one week in Geneva attending an institute sponsored by the summer school of the World Federation of the United Nations, and (3) three weeks of travel. Data for the study was gathered via interviews and measurement scales. Forty-eight of the fifty-eight travelers submitted to personally conducted interviews probing their impressions of Europe. Pre- and post-testing of these students was conducted using two scales: the International Relations Opinionnaire and the Cultural Stereotypes T e s t . Interview results indicated students had contra­ dictory impressions regarding their experiences. Opposite characteristics were attributed to the same peoples. Taba felt that such impressions resulted from students having different expectations. Data from the International Relations Opinionnaire indicated that a one summer's stay produced no significant shift in attitudes. Despite students self-reporting, through interviews, of their broadened international understanding, such a change was not reflected from pre­ test to post-test administration. 28 In discussing the Cultural Stereotypes Test results, Taba looked at student characterizations of the Ideal Society, the United States' Society, Responses fell in three types: and France's Society. Students with a Type I response had a distinct conception of the three societies; the Ideal, the United States, and the French. The United States and French societies did not live up to the Ideal. Changes over the summer for this group of students were not marked, but what changes did occur emphasized the differ­ ences between the United States and France. Individuals with a Type II response tended to idealize France but not the United States. The change in this group over the summer was in the direction of a more realistic concept of the French. People with a Type III response tended to idealize the United States and perceived France as being altogether different from or opposite to the United States. The summer change for most of this group was a strengthened conviction that the United States represented an ideal culture. One of the more significant conclusions Taba made on the basis of the gathered data, was that tour members interpreted what they experienced in Europe according to pre-existing value standards. The more ethnocentric the student was before the trip, the less likely he was to change. Taba further suggested that the learning of cultural attitudes involves several steps and that it requires more than one summer to take full form. 29 The population of Taba's study was somewhat more heterogeneous than that of Riecken's study. Bound together by a desire for world travel rather than a desire to serve humanity, the persons studied held more varied attitudes. This may account for less positive results in terms of attitude change. Like Riecken, Taba did not use a control group, which again raises the question of whether or not changes that did occur were the result of the treatment or simply of the passage of time. Smith expanded on the work of Riecken and T a b a .^ He examined several types of intercultural programs occurring during the summer of 1950, in an effort to deter­ mine if specific programs had more or less impact on individual attitudes and behavior. The programs studied by Taba and Riecken were different in nature and both achieved different results in terms of attitude change. upon these results in his study. Smith built Further, as suggested by Taba, he addressed himself to the question of whether or not prior knowledge of an individual's attitudinal structure enables one to predict what his reaction to an inter­ cultural experience will be. Finally, he wanted to find out if there were any personality differences between the extremely worldminded and the extremely nationalistic individuals. 3 Howard P. Smith, "Changes in Attitudes Resulting From Experiences in Foreign Countries" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation. Harvard University, 1954). 30 Four experimental groups and throe control groups made up the population of the study. Experimental G r o u p s : 1. One hundred and thirty-six persons who went to Europe with the Experiment in International Living P rogram. 2. Twenty-six persons who went to Europe with the Quaker International Voluntary Service. 3. Forty persons who traveled with the United States National Student Association. 4. Forty-five persons who went to Europe by themselves, with family or friends, or as members of a tourist g r oup. Control Groups: 1. Twenty-five "stay at home" Columbia University students. 2. Fourteen Quaker International Voluntary Service members who had gone to Europe for the summer but received the post-test only. 3. Twenty-five student tourists who had been to Europe as tourists but received the post-test only. Smith considered the first experimental group, the 136 persons who went to Europe with Experiment in Inter­ national Living to be the primary experimental group. The 31 other three experimental groups, the Quaker International Voluntary Service group, the National Student Association group, and the tourist group, he considered to be com­ parison groups. A variety of pro- and post-test attitudinal measures were used to gather data. The Personality S c a l e , the Worldmindedness S c ale, and the Friendliness Scale wore administered. In addition items from the Ethnocentrism Scale, the Facism S c ale, the Political Economic Conserva­ tism Scale, and the Democracy Scale were included. Further data was gathered by means of a pre-test survey asking those going to Europe to respond to a listing of eight reasons for the trip and ranking them in order of priority, a post-test questionnaire asking those who went to Europe six open ended questions evaluating their experiences, and pre- and post-trip interviews questioning traveler's attitudes toward England, France, and Germany. Smith found no significant changes in attitudes on the measurement scales for any of the four experimental groups or for the "stay at home" control group. Smith found, as did Taba, that a summer's intercultural experi­ ence did not produce significant attitude changes on measurement scales. In addition, he found that one type of overseas experience proved to be no different than another in terms of attitudinal impact. Seventeen travelers representing three of the four experimental groups (he excluded the Quaker g r o u p ) , were 32 were labeled as "changers" by Smith. They were individuals who showed the greatest positive growth on the Worldmindedness Scale and the Ethnocentrism Scale; they became more worldminded and less ethnocentric. Smith found that nothing in the written self-evaluations differentiated the "changers" from the other subjects. Smith did find evidence, however, that these changers were significantly different from the others in their initial attitudes. They were generally more conservative on measures of world­ mindedness, ethnocentrism, democracy, and political economic conservatism. "The practical significance of these results," writes Smith, lies in the suggestion they contain that the person who benefits most from intercultural experiences, in the sense of becoming more worldminded and less ethno­ centric, is the individual who prior to the inter­ national experience is relatively (but not extremely) authoritarian, conservative in his political and economic views, anti-democratic, ethnocentric, and nationalistic.4 Smith's findings concur with T a b a 's theory that pre­ existing values determine a person's ability to benefit from international travel. Individuals who benefited least from intercultural study appeared to be the extremely worldminded and the extremely nationalistic. Smith concluded that his data 4Howard P. Smith, "Do Intercultural Experiences Affect Attitudes?" Journal of Abnormal and Social Psy­ chology , LI (1953),474. 33 defined a typology, expressed in distinctive attitudes and personality traits, of these two extremes. The attitudes of the exceptionally worldminded individual as compared to the exceptionally nationalistic person were more politically and economically liberal and less authoritarian. haviorally, Be- the worldminded person was more active in the international area than the nationalistic person. lie corresponded more frequently with Europeans, belonged to more international organizations, and had more serious motives for going abroad. Personality-wise, the highly worldminded individual was less masculine and ascendant, more impulsive and emotionally dependent, and more inclined toward introspection and internalization of impulses than the highly nationalistic individual. An interesting dimension of the Smith study is his attempt to estimate long range effects of an overseas summer experience. One hundred fifty individuals who had been to Europe with the Experiment in International Living in 193B, study. 1947, and 1949 were selected for an ex post facto This sample was matched so far as possible with the 1950 sample with regard to age, seK, education, school attended, birth, country visited, father's occupation, place of and European country visited. One hundred eleven of these former "Experimenters" responded to the mailed questionnaire. 34 In the case of attitude changes over a one to three year period, the group was less ethnocentric, more world­ minded, less nationalistic, and more in favor of democracy in group relations than the 1950 group. Smith is quick to point out that the differences wore not significant except in the case of the Democracy Scale. Like Taba, Smith suggests that attitude change may be a slow process and a period of incubation may have to take place before a re­ structuring of attitudes as a result of world travel takes place. He notes that evidence garnered from the ex post facto study is highly tenative because of the lack of a control group and the lack of a pre-test/post-test design. Kafka, like Smith, used worldmindedness as a vari­ able in his 1966 examination of one overseas study program at Michigan State University.5 Students enrolled in Justin Morrill College were offered study experience in three locales during the summer term of 1966; Lausanne, Switzer­ land; Moscow, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; and Madrid, Spain. Prior to the summer term 1966, all freshman at Justin Morrill were given a pre-sojourn questionnaire and a three battery test. The pre-sojourn instrument questioned family and environmental background. 5 The test battery was Eric Phillip Kafka, "The Effects of Overseas Study on Worldmindedness and Other Selected Variables of Liberal Arts Students" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968). 35 made up of the Dogmatism S c a l e , the Worldmindedness S c a l e , and the Differential Values Inventory. Approximately one- third of this group participated in the summer overseas study program# becoming the experimental group of eightyone students. Upon their return to college# the freshman class was retested with the Worldmindedness S c a l e . The experimental group was given a post-sojourn questionnaire which probed student's feelings regarding objectives of the trip, language fluency, residency situations, associations with host countrymen, role relationships, events observed, perceptions of host countrymen, ego involvement with the United States, and comparisons of the United States with the host country. Kafka hypothesized that open-mindedness, other directedness, sex of student, and participation in the overseas program would be related to changes in w o r l d ­ mindedness. Of those who went abroad, he also predicted that academic grades, language skill, residential involve­ ment, number of close foreign friends, descriptions of nationals, and variables related to national image would differentiate those who changed in worldmindedness and those who did n o t . Analysis of the data revealed that no variable was related to significant change in worldmindedness. This finding was true for both the experimental and control groups. While no significant differences in terms of the 36 attitudes of worldmindedness could be discerned between those who went abroad and those who stayed home, Kafka noted clusters of related variables for the experimental group. Three such clusters emerged, one "National Image" cluster and two "Cross Cultural Immersion" clusters: National Image Cluster: Individuals falling into this category had the following characteristics: 1. Above the mean family income. 2. Inner-directed value system. 3. Initially related the United States superior to the host country. 4. Reinforced the United States' superiority upon return. 5. Disagreed with host on relative national status. 6. Less involved in residences. 7. Described nationals less positively. 8. Had higher fall term grades. Cross Cultural Immersion Cluster (Type I ) : Indi­ viduals falling into this category had the following characteristics: 1. Described nationals more positively. 2. Spent more free time with nationals. 3. Had less ego involvement with the United States. 37 4. Had a more friendly self-rating. 5. Agreed with hosts on relative national status. Cross Cultural Immersion Cluster (Type II): Indi­ viduals falling into this category had the following characteristics: 1. Involved in residences. 2. Had one or more close foreign friend. 3. Had confidence in language fluency. 4. Ascribed more status to host country. Kafka, like Taba and Smith, does not find any significant relationship between intercultural travel and attitude change. Also, like Taba and Smith, he finds that individuals in cross cultural programs fall into various typologies and that personality type as well as pre­ existing attitudes influence the amount of change that may take place in a person's attitudes. The research discussed above has focused on short term intercultural experiences. One conclusion that most of the researchers made was that a short period of time cannot make a large amount of difference in changing attitudes. Gleason studied the effects of long term cross 38 cultural experiences.** Focusing his attention on young­ sters who attended schools overseas for from one to thirteen years, Gleason described patterns of social adjustment and world outlook. He defined worldmindedness as . . . the manifestation of a group of attitudes and assumptions on the part of overseas-experienced youth, which reflect certain qualities of open-mindedness concerning national identities and cultural v a l u e s . ? Participants in the study were educated, while abroad, in one of the following ways: schools, (1) Church related (2) Family or individually sponsored schools, (3) Company owned schools, (4) Bi-national, non-profit, non­ sectarian schools, and (5) Department of Defense schools. One hundred and fifty college students formed the population of the study. A Screening Instrument and a Survey Instrument were used as the main source of data collection. The Screening Instrument introduced the respondent to the study, stated the conditions for partici­ pation in the study, and contained questions relating to family background, overseas school experience, and mobility patterns. The Survey Instrument questioned social adjust­ ment patterns of overseas experienced youth after their return to the United States. In addition to the ^Thomas Gleason, "Social Adjustment Patterns and Manifestations of Worldmindedness of Overseas Experienced American Youth" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970). 7 Ibid., 5. 39 questionnaires, interviews were held with thirty-five students regarding perceived effects of their experiences alroad. Responses from both forms were summarized ac­ cording to the sponsorship of the parent in the overseas area: Department of Defense, Federal/civilian, Missionary, and Business. Although a major part of the data dealt with how students adjusted to their life abroad and how they ad­ justed to their return to the United States, five questions dealt directly with attitudes of worldmindedness: 1. Where would you like to establish your home? 2. Where would you like your children to spend their teen years? 3. In what places of the world do you feel most at home? 4. Are any of your friends foreign students? 5. If answer to number four is "yes," is any one of them your best friend? Students who scored highest in the area of world­ mindedness were those who: 1. Had lived five to seven years overseas during grades one to seven in contrast to brief periods of one to two years. 40 2. In addition to an extensive stay between grades one to seven, these students had also lived an additional five years overseas during grades eight to thirteen. 3. Expressed preference for the Democratic Party, the Republican Party, or a third party in contrast to an independent or "no government" preference. 4. Had parents whose yearly income was reported as less than 520,000 per year as contrasted to incomes of more than $20,000. Gleason concluded that the following factors contribute to variations in worldmindedness: 1. Living among the local population in an overseas area as opposed to living in an American community. 2. Frequent interaction with local citizens in both social and work roles. 3. Making an attempt to learn and use the local 1anguage. 4. Living several years in an overseas environment and preferably in several different overseas environments. 5. Feeling "at home" in the foreign environment. 6. Having foreign students as best friends. 41 The population of the Gleason study departs from the populations of the four studies presented above. Gleason concerned himself with what has been described the "third culture” youth, the one who has made his home in another culture while Keeping his United States citizenship. The parent’s occupation rather than a desire for travel and study was responsible for his intercultura1 experience. The intensity of these experiences as compared to summer travel study programs is obvious. It would be an unusual university sponsored program that could provide both the quantity and the quality of cultural immersion that the population of Gleason's study experienced. The Student Teaching Office at Michigan State Uni­ versity has recently made some attempts to assess effects of student teaching abroad on its teacher candidates. addition to the present study, with this program. In two others deal specifically In 1971, the Committee to Evaluate Overseas Student Teaching surveyed participants of six overseas projects conducted between fall, 1969 and fall, 1970. B Eighty-eight students responded to a mailed questionnaire. Much of the survey dealt with the quality of the student teaching experience. Students were asked to compare their stateside laboratory experience with their O Committee to Evaluate Overseas Student Teaching, "Project Overseas Student Teaching Follow Up Study" (East Lansing, Michigan: Student Teaching Office, Michigan State University, 1971). (Ditto.) 42 overseas student teaching assignment in such areas as group seminars, acceptance as a novice teacher, and evaluation procedures. Seven of the questions did, however, deal with the cross-cultural aspects of the experience. Students were asked to rate their reactions to the following state­ ments according to feelings ranging from agree to disagree: 1. The experience should provide an opportunity to live with a family to gain an understanding of the culture. 2. The travel opportunities were adequate to gain a concept of the culture. 3. I did not have significant difficulty adjusting to another culture. 4. I believe the overseas student teaching experience can adequately prepare a beginning teacher and permit close study of another culture. 5. The staff of the host school accepted the concept that the assignment should include adequate opportunity to study another culture through travel and visits to historical locations. 6. I did not find students in the host school signifi­ cantly different from those in a public school in the United States. 43 7. I would accept a teaching position, if offered, for the next year in the same school of my student teaching assignment. In replying to the above statements, over 50 percent of the respondents marked "agree" or "probably agree." From their perceptions, the former student teachers found the overseas assignment to be beneficial to their under­ standing of another culture. Another recent study of the Michigan State Uni­ versity overseas student teaching program dealt with both the academic and cultural phases of the program. Brady collected data from sixty student teachers who represented three overseas student teaching projects: subjects of the present study), Holland Italy, and England. Impact Survey was used to gather his major data. 9 (the The This was a questionnaire used to survey all student teachers and their supervising teachers in Michigan during the fall of 1969. Information from the 1969 survey was used to assess student teachers' and supervising teachers' opinions on the quality of the student teaching experience. Using the Impact Survey, Brady assessed opinions of overseas 9 Hugh P. Brady, "A Comparison of the Student Teaching Experience of Michigan State University Student Teachers Assigned to Overseas American Schools With That of Michigan State University Student Teachers Assigned to Public Schools in Michigan" (unpublished Doctor's disser­ tation, Michigan State University, 1971). 44 student teachers and their supervising teachers on the quality of the student teaching experience in an overseas school. Brady found that there was no significant differ­ ence in the professional sequence, as measured by the Impact Survey, in student teaching abroad as compared to student teaching in Michigan. He concluded that the program was of much the same quality overseas as in Michigan regarding factors having to do with introducing teacher candidates to the classroom. In addition to the Impact Survey, student teachers from the Holland and Italy programs were asked to complete a Sociological Questionnaire which was designed for the study by Brady. The questionnaire which contained twenty- nine items measured "changes in values and attitudes of student teachers assigned overseas resulting from their opportunity to interact with people of different nation­ alities and American segments of the overseas community." Students indicated a range of agreement or disagreement to various statements such as "Do you feel at home in this foreign environment?" "I feel I can trust most foreigners I meet in their home country," and "I am more aware of European affairs since my assignment overseas," Data gathered from this portion of Brady's study is important because a part of the study population, student teachers from The Netherlands, was the experimental group of the present study. 45 Students, in responding to the Sociological Quostionnaire, reported that the host nationals were friendlier, more serious-minded, more culturally oriented, and more traditional than Americans. Americans wore described as more sophisticated, more industrious, more competitive, and more morally upright. The Rome group saw Italians as less well informed but more conservative than Americans, while the student teachers in The Netherlands saw the Dutch as better informed and less conservative than Americans. Taped interviews also substantiated perceptions revealed in the questionnaires. Brady drew three major conclusions about the three overseas student teaching projects he studied: 1. The classroom student teaching experience does not appear to be significantly different whether under­ taken in a Michigan public school or in an overseas American school. 2. The overseas student teaching experience had a positive effect on the students in terms of understanding and appreciating their own and other cultures. 3. The student teachers who were exposed to an over­ seas student teaching experience became more flexible and open minded as a result of their overseas experience. 46 Brady's conclusion that those who student taught abroad became more flexible and open-minded conflicts with the conclusions of Taba, Kafka, and Smith. These differing results may be explained by the fact that the earlier three studies used a pre-test/post-test design while the Brady study gathered data at the end of the intercultural experience only. No data revealed how open-minded and flexible participants were before going overseas to student teach. A difference is found, too, in the types of measure­ ment devices used. Brady used a questionnaire that discussed participants' experience. reactions to the specific overseas Taba probed these kinds of reactions through interviews, Smith through a post-journey, open-ended questionnaire and interviews, and Kafka through his post­ sojourn questionnaire. The three earlier researchers went further, however, and used standard measurement scales to measure the more general attitude areas of international relations, ethnocentrism, worldmindedness and dogmatism. It was data from these devices that led the researchers to conclude that little change occurred. Research results of the seven studies summarized above have generally proved inconclusive. Students who have traveled overseas verbalize a newly-found world view. Interviews with returning students indicate this feeling. Standard measurement devices, however, have not shown any significant attitude changes as a result of short term intercultural experiences. Riecken and Brady concluded 47 that, in their studies, attitude change did occur in a positive direction; Taba, Smith and Kafka came to a differ­ ent conclusion. Gleason's work suggested that those factors which contribute most to growth of worldmindedness are not built into a short term overseas experience. Although many educators insist that an emphasis on world understanding is crucial to teacher education programs, research into intercultural programs indicates that there is no fool-proof way to assure that an inter­ cultural contact does indeed increase an individual's world understanding. What previous researchers have discovered is that the personality of the traveler rather than the program itself may determine whether or not attitudes will change. Studies Relating to Openness The present study is concerned with attitudes of worldmindedness and openness as they relate to inter­ cultural student teaching. Studies discussed so far have been concerned with several types of intercultural experi­ ences and ways that these experiences affected attitudes. This section of Chapter II changes its emphasis from over­ seas study to stateside teacher education programs and ways that these programs have affected openness. Just as some educational leaders have endorsed teacher education programs which encourage students to 48 develop worldmindedness, other educational leaders have argued for teacher education programs which develop openness. Research studies by Engle, Emmerling, Freeze, Johnson, and Chase look at openness as it relates to teacher education. Engle believed that people who were more open to their experience could change more and thereby profit more from their e d u c a t i o n , ^ To test this theory, he studied 110 teachers and administrators who were enrolled in a 1960 summer workshop at Auburn University, sponsored by the Cooperative Program for Instructional Improvement. The workshop, according to Engel, was characterized by a "permissive and facilitating atmosphere." Four measurement instruments were administered to all participants at the beginning and at the end of the workshop: the Index of Adjustment and Values, the Teacher Role Concept Q S ort, the Semantic Differential, and the Teacher Problems Q Sort. On the basis of pre-test data, the population was divided into two groups designated as more open and less open. It was hypothesized that more open people would change more than less open people during a relatively common educational experience— the summer workshop. Harry Engle, "A Study of Openness as a Factor in Change" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Auburn Uni­ versity , 1961). 49 This hypothesis was supported during the post-test phase of the study. 1. Engle discovered that: More open people were superior in their ability to make positive change during the workshop. 2. More open people evidenced more positive and accepting attitudes of themselves. 3. More open people became more understanding of and more accepting of others. 4. At the end of the workshop, both groups perceived education as being better, more active, and more potent. 5. More open subjects became more heterogeneous in their descriptions of an ideal teacher in a democracy. 6. The workshop provided the necessary and sufficient conditions for positive change to occur. "Implications from this study," wrote Engel, indicate that the development of "openness" in teachers is essential if education is responsible for developing "openness" in students. Teacher preparation programs, therefore, should consider seriously the "heavy hand of tradition" and establish interpersonal relationships which provide opportunity for preparing teachers to achieve the highest destiny of which they are capable. From this point of view "openness" may become an important factor in admission procedures for teacher education and a vital part of the teacher training program in terms of the learning climate provided by instructors.H ^ ^ I b i d . , pp. 200-201. 50 While Engle examined the way more open and less open educators reacted to a workshop experience, Emmerling looked at the perceptions of students assigned to the classrooms of more open and less open teachers. 12 He wanted to learn whether a different quality of relationship was apparent in the classrooms of the two types of teachers. Emmerling selected twenty teachers from the same 1960 Auburn University workshop used as the basis of the Engle study. open, Ton of these teachers had been identified as more ten as less open. Six hundred children were randomly selected from all the children taught by these twenty teachers. Data gathered from the children was based on administration of the Relationships Inventory and the SelfCenteredness Sca l e . Emmerling found that teachers identified in the Engle study as being more open were seen by their pupils as creating a better classroom atmosphere than those identified as less open in terms of level of regard, empathetic understanding, unconditionality of regard, congruence, and pupil centeredness. The work of both Engle and Emmerling indicates that not only is the more open educator more likely to profit 12 Frank C. Emmerling, "A Study of Relationships Between Personality Characteristics of Classroom Teachers and Pupil Perceptions of These Teachers" {unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Auburn University, 1963), 51 from new educational experiences, but his students perceive a different quality of teaching emanating from him. Freeze looked at openness as it relates to student teaching. He studied student teachers, the pupils of student teachers, supervising teachers, and college super­ visors. He predicted: (1) An open student teacher with an open college supervisor and an open supervising teacher will remain open during his student teaching experience and will, perhaps become more open; (2) A less open student teacher assigned to an open college supervisor and an open supervising teacher will move toward openness during his student teaching; and (3) An open student teacher with a less open college supervisor and supervising teacher will become less open during student teaching. One hundred and forty-five secondary student teachers took the College Students Problems Q Sort before and after student teaching. One hundred and thirty-one supervising teachers took the Teachers Problems Q Sort and sixteen college supervisors took the College Teachers Problems Q Sort at the beginning of student teaching only. The various Q Sorts were used to identify the relative degree of openness of the student teachers, the super­ vising teachers, and the college supervisors. ^ C h e s t e r Freeze, "A Study of Openness as a Factor in Change of Student Teachers" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Alabama, 1963). 52 Of the 145 student teachers participating in the study, ten student teachers had extremely high scores and eight student teachers had extremely low scores. The pupils of these eighteen student teachers were given the Relationships Inventory. Further, 120 student teachers assigned to the sixteen college supervisors were given the Relationships Inventory. Analysis of the data revealed that little change in openness for the 145 student teachers took place during student teaching. It was shown, however, that student teachers who were placed with less open supervising teachers and less open college supervisors experienced a significant decrease in openness. Results obtained from administration of the Relationships Inventory to the pupils of more open and less open student teachers supported Emmerling's findings. More open student teachers were seen by their pupils as having more positive regard, more empathetic understanding, more unconditionality of regard, and more congruence. Student teachers perceived college supervisors who were identified as more open as not having any more positive regard or congruence than college supervisors who were identified as less open. More open college supervisors, however, were perceived as having more empathetic understanding and more unconditionality of regard. 53 Freeze found that the degree of openness of an educator may make a difference in the way he is perceived by his students. He further discovered that the student teaching program which he studied did not encourage growth in openness and sometimes actually discouraged such growth. Johnson concentrated on the supervising teacher's personality and its affect on personality change in student teachers. 14 The population of his study included student teachers, supervising teachers, and college supervisors. Using the Dogmatism Scale as a measure of openness, Johnson sought to determine if there was a significant relationship between dogmatism scores and ratings of success in student teaching as determined by college supervisors and super­ vising teachers. He had three secondary purposes: (1) To determine the relationship between the degree of openness and student teacher attitudes toward student teaching as measured by the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory; (2) To determine the relationship between the degree of open­ ness and student teacher self ratings; (3) To determine the relationship between the degree of openness in the rater and the ratings of success given to the student teachers. 14 James S. Johnson, "The Relationship of Open and Closed Mindedness to Success in Student Teaching" (un­ published Doctor's dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1966). 54 One hundred and thirty student teachers# 133 supervising teachers, and 20 college supervisors completed the Dogmatism Scale. Of the student teaching group, 118 received the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory, 130 received the Self Rating Scale, and 94 received a post-test Dogmatism Scale. Johnson drew six major conclusions from the data: 1. Supervising teachers gave higher ratings to student teachers who were closed minded. 2. There was no significant relationship between student teacher dogmatism scores and ratings of success received from college supervisors. 3. The similarity of open and closed mindedness of student teachers and their supervisors had little effect on the ratings obtained. 4. A significant number of student teachers moved from pre-test to post-test toward the dogmatism score of their supervising teacher. 5. Low dogmatic student teachers expressed more favorable attitudes on the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory toward teaching and teacher pupil relationships. 6. The degree of open and closed mindedness of the student teachers did not significantly affect his own self-rating of success. 55 A somewhat surprising finding was that closed minded students received higher ratings of success from supervising teachers than did open minded student teachers. While educators say that openness is a trait of a good teacher, teacher candidates, at least in this study, were not being reinforced in this area. Johnson wrote, One important implication for the student teaching phase of teacher education programs seemed appropriate. The study indicated that the cooperating school supervising teacher's degree of open and closed minded­ ness has some influence on attitudinal change in the student teacher. Careful consideration should be given to personality characteristics when placing a student teacher with a supervising teacher. “ Chase examined the SERL (Secondary Education Residency Lansing) student teaching program of the Lansing Public Schools and Michigan State University. 1 6 Me wanted to find out if participation in the SERL program influenced participants to become more open and to have more positive attitudes toward teaching and students than participation in the conventional program of student teaching. The SERL program represents a move away from the traditional student teaching program of one student teacher being assigned to one supervising teacher with a university ^5Ibid., p . 80. ^ D o n a l d Chase, "A Comparative Study of the Co­ operative Michigan State University-Lansing SERL Project and the Conventional Program of Student Teaching With Reference to Openness and Attitude Formation" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971). 56 supervisor serving as a liaison between the public schools and the university. It rather emphasizes a knowledge of the community which the Lansing School District serves. The format for the program includes the assignment of ten to twelve student teachers to one building. Students normally spend one-half day in the classroom and one-half day working with social agencies, organizations within the community, or with fellow student teachers. A clinical consultant coordinates the program with aid and direction from the university coordinator. The clinical consultant is a member of the teaching staff of the school where student teachers are placed. the school district Released time is provided by for the clinical consultant assigned to the program. The population of Chase's study included all eighteen participants in the SERL program during Fall, 1971 and a group of twenty-six student teachers who also student taught in Lansing during Fall, 1970, but were assigned to the conventional program. The Teachers Problems Q Sort and the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory were administered to all participants in the study at the beginning and at the end of student teaching. Chase found that participants in the SERL program increased in openness and in positive attitudes toward children and teaching as measured by the two scales. Students in the conventional program, however, experienced negative change on both measures. 57 Results indicated that the SERL program was pro­ viding a better environment for positive attitude change than was the conventional program. Chase concluded, The group, along with the contributions of the clinical consultant, the cooperating teacher, the college co­ ordinator and the cooperation of a multitudinous variety of experiences seems to make the SERL Project a superior pattern of providing the student teaching experience with reference to openness and attitude formation 1^ ? Summary The above review of the literature has summarized the results of twelve studies which relate to the present study. Seven studies dealt with intercultural experiences and ways that these experiences affected attitudes. Five studies dealt with stateside teacher education programs and ways that these programs affected openness. The literature seems to indicate that short term intercultural experiences do not guarantee a positive change in attitudes. What may be a better prediction of attitude change in an intercultural setting is the pre­ existing structure of the individual participant's value system. In all of the studies cited, participants in over­ seas programs reported, through interviews or question­ naires, a broadening of their world view. Yet scores on standard pre-test/post-test measures, with the exception 17Ibid., p. 87. 58 of the Riecken work campers, took place. indicated that no such changes One explanation of this discrepancy may be that general attitude scales cannot measure the subtle changes that take place during an intercultural experience. Another possibility is that students simply verbalize positive changes but these changes are not really inter­ nalized into the individual's value system. A final theory may be that testing for attitude change immediately following the overseas experience is too soon and a period of time must pass before changes are testable. Several patterns emerge in analyzing the five studies of stateside teacher education programs. Open educators are perceived by the students they serve in a more positive manner than are less open educators. This data supports the contention that openness is a desirable teacher trait. A discouraging finding is that traditional student teaching programs do not encourage growth in openness in teacher candidates and in fact often discourage such growth. One possible remedy for this situation is a move away from the traditional apprentice/master model of student teaching to programs which have been proven to foster openness and positive attitude formation. The studies cited seem to indicate that many inter­ cultural experiences do not result in desired changes on the part of participant. findings, Despite these disheartening international educators continue to recommend more commitment to international experiences. Taylor's 59 book. The World As Teacher, based on a comprehensive study of the preparation of teachers in the field of world affairs, area. indicated that not enough was beinq done in this He and his staff visited a cross section of fifty-two colleges and universities where teachers are prepared. In addition, existing literature was reviewed and conferences with educators, government officials, students, and United Nations personnel were held. Taylor concluded, If we put the question bluntly, to what extent are American teachers being prepared through their curriculum to understand and teach about the nature of world society? The answer is, almost not at a l l . 18 One major recommendation emerging from the study is that . . . international teaching centers be established on American campuses, with connections and exchange arrangements with institutions abroad for educational research, international curriculum, practise teaching, and teacher education.18 William McCormack claims that too much is expected of study abroad. To think that intercultural experiences will drastically change attitudes is naive. do occur he feels. Some outcomes Study abroad does increase "personal knowledge about the host society and the world at large." 18 Harold Taylor, The World As Teacher Doubleday Co., Inc., 1970), p. 21. (New York: 19I b i d ., p. 359. 20 William McCormack, "Student Exchange as an Instrument of International Understanding," International Educational and Cultural Exchange, Spring, l9iT5, p . 30. 20 60 That this knowledge will change attitudes, however, research cited above shows, is much in dispute. The caution expressed by McCormack was repeated by Wilcox in an address before the conference on International Teacher Education. 21 He warns against assuming that over­ seas experiences for student teachers are good and cites examples where such experiences might cause negative reactions. For example, a student teacher who wants to improve her Spanish speaking skills could be assigned to live with a family who wants to improve their English skills. The assumption that the way to develop a world view on the part of teachers is to expose them to the world, seems to be a sound one. Perhaps the way these programs unfold, as Wilcox suggests, causes the non-achievement of the goals. He emphasizes the need for careful planning, rigorous administration, careful research, and continuous evaluation in instituting overseas student teaching programs. Turning away from a study of relevant literature, information presented in Chapter III will outline the design of the present study. 21 John Wilcox, "Developing Overseas Student Teaching Experiences" (Address prepared for the Conference of International Teacher Education, Moorhead State College, Moorhead, Minnesota, July 18-22, 1970). (Mimeographed.) CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Introduction It was the purpose of this study to investigate attitudes of worldmindedness and openness in student teachers who participated in the Intercultural Student Teaching Program at Michigan State University. These attitudes were compared with the attitudes of two groups of student teachers who taught in Michigan schools. All student teachers who participated in the study student taught during spring quarter, Chapter III includes: population, 1971. (1) A description of the (2) A description of the measures, hypotheses of the study, the study, and (3) The (4) The design and analysis of (5) A summary. The Population The population of this study consisted of a total of fifty-eight student teachers. was divided into three groups. This group of fifty-eight The experimental group was made up of twenty of twenty-four student teachers who 61 62 student taught in The H a gue, The Netherlands during spring term, 1971.^ One control group consisted of nine of thirteen student teachers who volunteered to student teach overseas but who were not chosen. 2 The other control group consisted of twenty-nine of fifty student teachers who did not apply for overseas student teaching."* This last group was selected by random sampling using a random number table. The experimental group consisted of a total popu­ lation. The first control group, those who volunteered to student teach but were not selected, was also a total population. The decision to include this group in the study was based on the possible argument that by volun­ teering for student teaching overseas an individual was naturally more worldminded and open than an individual who did not volunteer. The second, larger control group, was a random sample of all stateside student teachers. Student teachers in the two control groups were assigned to student teaching centers throughout Michigan. No attempt was made to select students for participation on the basis of sex or ^Four of the twenty-four student teachers did not finish both phases of the testing. 2 Three of the thirteen student teachers did not finish both phases of the testing. It was not possible to classify one student teacher either elementary or secondary, thus eliminating him from the study. Twenty of the fifty student teachers did not finish both phases of the testing. It was not possible to classify one student teacher as either elementary or secondary, thus eliminating him from the study. 63 grade level. If a student was student teaching at Michigan State University during spring, 1971, he was eligible for participation in the study as part of the random sample. All three groups were tested at the beginning of spring term and were retested with the same instruments at the end of spring term. Members of the experimental group were pre-tested during a pre-sojourn seminar. They were post-tested during one of their final seminars while they were overseas. The procedures for testing participants who remained in Michigan involved the cooperation of the center directors who direct the various student teaching centers throughout Michigan. Once the participants were identified it was determined to what student teaching center they were assigned. Questionnaires were sent directly to the student teaching center with directions to the center director for dissemination. The center directors administered and collected the completed questionnaires and returned them to the Student Teaching office. This procedure was used for both the pre-test and post-test phase of the study. The Measurements Two attitude scales were used in this study. The Worldmindedness Scale was used to measure the attitude of worldmindedness. 4 4 The Dogmatism Scale was used to measure Donald L. Sampson and Howard P. Smith, "A Scale to Measure World-Minded Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology (1957), 99-106. 64 the attitude of openness.** random fashion, Both scales were combined, in a to make up a ninety-eight item measure. Respondents were also asked five demographic questions: (1) Sex, (2) Teaching Level, (3) Marital Status, of Student Teaching Program, and (4) Type (5) Type of School in Which the Respondent Would Like to Teach. Worldmindedness Scale The Worldmindedness Scale consists of thirty-two Likert-type items which are scored along an agree/disagree scale. There are sixteen pro-worldminded items and sixteen anti-worldminded items. For pro-worldminded items, a score between six and zero is given; six indicating the strongest agreement, zero indicating the strongest dis­ agreement. reversed. For anti-worldminded items, the scoring is The possible range of scores on the instrument is from zero, for extreme national-mindedness to 192 for extreme worldmindedness. scale: (1) Religion, Economics, There are eight dimensions to the (2) Immigration, (5) Patriotism, (6) Race, (3) Government, (4) (7) Education, and (8) War. Reliability for the Worldmindedness Scale was established in several ways. A split half reliability of .93 was based on the responses of fifty-six college ^John Robinson and Phillip Shaver (eds.), Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes (Ann Arbor, Michigan"! Institute for Social Research, T*T69), pp. 334-347. 65 students. A reliability of .93 was established for thirty- three college students after a twenty-eight day interval For the population of the present study, using the Spearman Drown Split Half Prophecy Formula a reliability of .83 was established. The developers of the Worldmindedness S c ale, claimed content validity on the basis of the instrument's 7 internal consistency. The careful division of the thirtytwo items between pro-worldminded and anti-wor1dminded items and the further division of the eight sub-scales into four items each established validity. technique was also used. students were compared. The "Known Group" Mean scores for two groups of One hundred and ninety-two students traveling to Europe had an average score of 123.7. This score was compared to a mean of 155.8 for a group of twenty-five student members of the Quaker International Voluntary Service. ness. Quakers are known for their worldminded­ Since the difference between the two scores was statistically significant, validity was claimed. Dogmatism Scale The Dogmatism Scale (form D) has as its primary purpose the measurement of "individual differences in ^John Robinson and Phillip Shaver (eds.) , Measures of Political Attitudes (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute For Social Research, 19&S), p. 302. ^Ibid. 66 openness and closedness of belief systems." sixty-six Likert-type items. It consists of Responses are scored along a positive three to negative three agree/disagree scale. Like the Worldmindedness Scale there are no right or wrong answers. Scores are converted to a one to seven scale by adding the constant four to each score. Scores range from sixty-six to 462 with a high score indicating a high degree of dogmatism. Eight dimensions to the scale are cited: (1) Isolation within and between belief and disbelief systems; (2) Relative degrees of differentiation between the belief and the disbelief system; beliefs; region; (3) Specific content of primitive (4) Formal content of the intermediate belief (5) Interrelations among primitive, intermediate, and peripheral beliefs; present, and future; (6) Attitudes toward the past, (7) Knowing the future; and (8) Belief in force as a way to revise the present. For Worldmindedness Scale sub-scales the attitudinal areas measured are clearly understood. The sub-scale titled "Immigration" has as its thrust the respondent's attitude toward open and closed immigration p a t t e r n s . The Dogmatism Scale sub-scales, however, are more technical in scope and warrant further explanation. Rokeach, the author of the Dogmatism Scale explains belief systems as having three dimensions: a belief- disbelief dimension, a central-peripheral dimension, and a time-perspective dimension. 67 The belief-disbelief dimension has the components of isolation, differentiation, and comprehensiveness or narrowness of the system. Isolation refers to the extent to which an individual denies the interrelatedness of beliefs. Isolation occurs when an individual claims to be non-violent but states that violence is justified on certain occasions. Differentiation refers simply to the amount of knowledge expressed in a given belief system and the "perception of similarity between adjacent disbelief subsystems." A low degree of differentiation in a belief system would be an individual's expressed belief that Nazis and Communists are the same. Comprehensiveness or narrow­ ness of the system refers to the "total number or range of disbelief sub-systems represented" within a given belief system. Mohammedanism and Taoism may be a part of one person's belief-disbelief system and may be meaningless words to another person. The central-peripheral dimension is divided into the central region, the intermediate region, and the peripheral region. The central region represents the individual's "primitive" beliefs--"al1 the beliefs a person has acquired about the nature of the physical world he lives in, the nature of the 'self' and of the 'generalized other!'" The intermediate region "represents the beliefs a person has in and about the nature of authority and the people who line up with authority on whom he depends to 68 help him form a picture of the world he lives in." The peripheral region "represents the beliefs derived from authority." The time-perspective dimension refers to "the persons’ beliefs about the past, present, and future and g the manner in which they are related to each other." The Dogmatism Scale has undergone several revisions so that there are presently five forms of the measure; Form A through E. present study. Rokeach, Form D was the instrument used in the Using a group of 137 British students, the author of the scale, obtained an odd-even reliability of .91 using the Spearman Brown Formula. 9 For the population of the present study using the Spearman Brown Split Half Prophecy a reliability of .86 was established. As in the case of the Worldmindedness Scale, the "Known Group" technique was used to establish the validity of the Dogmatism Scale. Rokeach conducted two studies while attempting to establish the validity of the instru­ ment. In Study I, college professors selected from among their graduate students those they considered to be open or closed in their belief systems. In Study 2, similar selections were made by graduate students, in psychology York: g Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind (New Basic Books, I960)” p p . 31-5 3. 9 Ibid., p. 90. 69 from among their personal friends and acquaintances. In Study 1, the group mean scores between the two groups (high dogmatic or low dogmatic as judged by professors) differences. However, between the two groups showed no in Study 2 the group mean scores (high dogmatic and low dogmatic as judged by peers) differed significantly. The results of Study 2 argue for the validity of the instrument. Rokeach says that the results of Study 1 can be attributed to the nature of the professor-student relationship which intro­ duces a "masking effect" on the professor's judgment. He argues that peers are better judges than professors because they see the student in several different situations while usually professors see the student only in the . classroom. 10 Hypotheses Two sets of hypotheses were developed and explored in this study. First, two major hypotheses regarding changes in attitudes were developed as a result of the rationale presented and the general questions regarding the effects of the Michigan State University Intercultural Student Teaching program that have been raised. Second, two exploratory hypotheses were developed and explored; ^ R o k e a c h , op. cit. , pp. 102-107. 70 they were included in anticipation that this investigation might provide data and stimulation for further i n q u iry.^ In Chapter I, to facilitate understanding, both sets of hypotheses were stated in positive form. In Chapter III, each hypothesis is restated in null form. Major Hypotheses Two major hypotheses are presented regarding changes in attitude among student teachers. 1, Michigan State University students who participated in the Overseas Student Teaching Project, spring term, 1971 will not exhibit greater change in worldmindedness, as measured by the Worldmindedness Scale than student teachers who did not partici­ pate in the project. 2. Michigan State University student teachers who participated in the Overseas Student Teaching Project, spring term, 1971, will not exhibit greater change in openness, as measured by the Dogmatism Scale, than student teachers who did not partici­ pate in the project. ^ O r i g i n a l l y , plans were to investigate worldminded­ ness and openness in relation to sex and innovative student teaching programs. There were not enough males in the study population to allow for study. It was further decided that even a brief study of innovative student teaching programs at Michigan State University during spring term, 1971, was not within the scope of the present study. 71 Exploratory Hypotheses Two exploratory hypotheses are presented regarding changes in attitudes among student teachers. 1. Elementary education majors will not differ in worldmindedness, as measured by the Worldmindedness Scale, from secondary majors. 2. Elementary education majors will not differ in openness, as measured by the Dogmatism Scale, from secondary majors. Design and Analysis A one way three group design was employed in this study. Two groups were determined by their experience choice and a third group consisted of randomly chosen student teachers. Because of the multi-faceted dimensions of the Worldmindedness Scale and the Dogmatism S c ale, a Multi­ variate Analysis of Variance statistical test was used. Further# it was of interest to assess the total impact of these dimensions on the groups and not a total score since the total score masks differences on each of the sub scales. The level of significance was .05. Portrayed diagramatically the design looked like the following: 72 Elementary Experimental Group 1 fWorldmindedness Secondary Worldmindedness Dogmatism Dogmatism 1 Worldmindedness Worldmindedness - Dogmat ism Dogmatism Worldmindedness Worldmindedness Dogmatism Dogmatism - 20 Control Group 1 9 Control Group 2 1 — 29 Summary The study of the Overseas Student Teachinq program of Michigan State University focused on the effects of intercultural student teaching on attitudes. The attitudes studied were those of worldmindedness as measured by the Worldmindedness Scale and openness as measured by the Dogmatism Scale. The population of the study (N = 58) consisted of twenty student teachers who student taught in The Hague, The Netherlands spring term, 1971, nine student teachers who volunteered to student teach overseas spring term, 1971, but who were not selected and received 73 stateside assignments, and twenty-nine student teachers who did not volunteer to student teach overseas, selected by random sample, assigned to Michig( in schools spring term, 1971. Each participant in the study was pre-tested at the beginning of the quarter and post-tested at the end of the quarter. Material presented in Chapter IV will show the results of the data that was collected according to the above design. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA It is the purpose of Chapter IV to present and analyze the data gathered to test the hypotheses of the study. The chapter is divided into the following sections: (1) Composition of the study, used, ses, and (2) Statistical procedures (3) Presentation and testing of statistical hypothe­ (4) Presentation and testing of research hypotheses, (5) Discussion and summary. Composition of the Study Fifty-eight Michigan State University students who did their student teaching spring term, 1971, were partici­ pants in the study. They were divided into three groups: (1) Nine student teachers who volunteered to student teach overseas but who were not chosen (Cl); (2) Twenty-nine student teachers who did not apply for overseas student teaching and who were assigned to Michigan schools and (C2); (3) Twenty student teachers who were assigned to the American International School in The Hague, The Netherlands 74 75 (C3). Table 4.1 summarizes the group composition of this study. All participants were pre-tested at the beginninq of spring quarter, spring quarter, 1971, and post-tested at the end of 1971, using two attitude scales: Worldmindedness Scale and the Dogmatism S c ale. the Efforts were made to protect the anonymity of the participants. Symbols were used, matching post-test results with pre­ test results, so that students could not be identified by name. Table 4.1 Composition of the Study Group Elementary Secondary Cl 5 4 C2 14 15 E 10 10 Statistical Procedures Used The statistical procedure used in this study was the Multivariate Analysis of Variance. This statistical method allows multiple dependent variables (Worldmindedness Scale subscales and Dogmatism Scale subscales) to be incor­ porated into the analysis and treated jointly rather than singly. Further, because the measurement scales used to test the attitudes of worldmindedness and openness had many 76 dimensions, it was deemed important to assess the total impact of these dimensions. The statistical technique chosen eliminates the masking effect that can occur when only a total score is determined. Testing of Statistical Hypotheses Tables 4.2 and 4.3, below, present mean differ­ ences of each subscale within the total scale for the Worldmindedness Scale and the Dogmatism Scale respectively. These scores were obtained by subtracting the pre-test score from the post-test score. This difference can be either positive or negative. In the case of the Worldmindedness Scale subscales, a positive score indicates the subjects became more worldminded; a negative score indicates the subjects became loss worldminded. In the case of the Dogmatism Scale subscales, the opposite is the case. A negative score indicates the subjects became less dogmatic and, therefore, more open; a positive score indicates the subjects became more dogmatic and therefore less open. In presenting the cell means for both the Worldm i n d e d n e B B Scale and the Dogmatism Scale, the population has been classified into the following categories: Cl-El— Elementary education students who volunteered to student teach overseas but who were not selected. 77 Cl-SEC-~Secondary education students who volunteered to student teach overseas but who were not selected. C2-EL--Elementary education students who chose to student teach in Michigan schools. C2-SEC--Secondary education students who chose to student teach in Michigan schools. E-EL--Elementary education students who participated in the overseas project. E-SEC--Sccondary education students who participated in the overseas project. Table 4.2 is defined by using group membership as the row dimension and the Worldmindedness Scale subscalos as the column dimension. A positive score indicates a gain in worldmindedness; a negative score indicates a loss in worldmindedness. For example, the category designated as Cl-EL (Elementary education students who volunteered to student teach overseas but who were not selected) had a loss in worldmindedness scale (WMl). (-1.00) on the "Economics" sub­ The group designated as E-EL (Elementary education students who participated in the overseas project) did not change in worldmindedness on the "War" subscale (.00) (WM2). It is of interest to note that all of the groups becomes less worldminded on the "Education" subscale with the elementary education students changing in 70 Table 4.2 Cell Means— Worldmindedness Group C2-EL C2-SEC E-EL WMS WM6 WM7 WMH 0. 00 -2 .60 -2.40 -3 .20 2 .40 -1 .00 -1 .HO 1.50 - .25 .50 -3.50 -1 .50 1.25 - .25 - .97 .64 -2.71 .79 .21 1 .43 .57 1.14 1.33 .13 -2.06 - .53 - .06 .13 1 .13 — .66 - .50 .00 -2. 10 .50 -1 .60 - .70 .70 - .60 - .40 .20 .40 .70 .10 .90 E-SEC Note: WM4 -1.00 .10 4 C1-SEC WM 3 O 0 (N 1 Cl-EL WM2 WM1 1.0 Explanation of symbols: W M1 — Economics WM2— War WM3--Education WM4— Religion WM5--Immigration W M 6 — Patriotism WM7— Government W M B — Race a negative direction to a greater degree than the secondary education students. Other than this one trend there seems to be no pattern of gain or loss on the Worldmindedness Scale subscales. Table 4.3 is defined by using group membership as the row dimension and the Dogmatism Scale subscales as the column dimension. openness; ness. A negative score indicates a gain in a positive score indicates a loss in open­ For example, the group designated as Cl-EL (Ele­ mentary education students who volunteered to student teach overseas but were not selected has a loss in 79 Table 4.3 Cell Means— Dogmatism Group D6 D7 DR .40 1.20 -9 .40 -10.20 .25 4.26 .75 -11.00 - 7 .00 5. 14 1 .00 2.43 .07 9.71 6 .36 1. 20 - .67 - .47 2 .80 -0.73 - 9.53 - 8.00 1.50 .70 -5.10 .40 2.80 1.40 - 7.80 - 7.60 1.20 .70 1.10 .30 2 .50 - .90 - 6.40 - 9.30 D1 D2 Cl-EL 2. 60 2 .60 Cl-SEC 2.25 C2-EL D4 D5 10.40 .80 2. 25 0.00 1.00 .64 -1.06 E-EL E-SEC C2-SEC Note: D3 Explanati on of symbols: Dl--Formal content of the intermediate belief region. D2--lsolation within and between the belief and disbelief system. D3— Specific content of primitive beliefs. D4— Relative degrees of differentiation between the belief and the disbelief system. D5— Attitudes toward the past, present, and future. D6— Knowledge of the future. D7— Interrelations among primitive, intermediate, and peripheral beliefs. D8--Belief in force as a v ay to revise the present. 80 openness (2.60) on the "Formal content of the intermediate belief region subscale" (Dl). The group designated as E-EL (Elementary education students who participated in the overseas project) had a gain in openness (5.10) on the "Specific Content of primitive beliefs" subscale the exception of the C2-EL group (D3). With (Elementary education students who chose to student teach in Michigan schools, all the groups had a gain in openness on two subscales. (1) "Interrelations among primitive, intermediate, and peripheral beliefs" (D7); (2) "Belief in force as a way to revise the present" (D8). As in the case of the cell means for the Worldmindedness Scale, with this one exception there seems to be no pattern of gain or loss on the Dogmatism Scale subscales. A sample within cell correlation matrix was run to see if a correlation between subscales existed. Table 4.4 shows the correlation coefficients for the Worldmindedness Scale. Table 4.5 shows the correlation coefficients for the Dogmatism Scale subscales. Both tables indicate a moderate correlation exists within the subscales of each instrument. Given the sample size of this study, a corre­ lation above .22 indicates that the correlation coefficient is significantly different from 0 at the .05 level.^ ^Helen Walker and Joseph Lev, Elementary Statistical Methods (New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 19«J ; V.“ 3W.— 81 However, it is still necessary to question whether or not the relationship is strong enough to make decisions about the subscales' interrelatedness. For the purpose of this study, a positive relationship will be considered strong if it is above .35. In Table 4.4, then, the highest correlation coefficient is .47 between the Worldmindedness Scales subscales of "Religion" (WM4) and "Race" (WM8). This is the only correlation coefficient within the matrix that exceeds .35 level established as the point at which a correlation coefficient can be considered strong. Table 4.5 indicates a strong correlation coef­ ficient exists between several Dogmatism Scale subscales: (1) "Formal content of the intermediate belief region" and "Specific content of primitive beliefs" "Specific content of primitive beliefs" (Dl) fD3) ; (2) (D3) and "Isolation within and between the belief and disbelief system" (D2); (3) "Interrelations among primitive, intermediate, and peripheral beliefs" (D7) and "Isolation within and between the belief and disbelief system" tent of primitive beliefs" future" (D2); (4) "Specific con­ (D3) and "Knowledge of the (D6); and (5) "Belief in force as a way to revise the present" and future" (D8) and "Attitude toward the past, present, (D5). In general, the correlation coefficients tend to be stronger for the subscales of the Dogmatism Scale than for the subscales of the Worldmindedness Scale. 82 Table 4.4 Sample Correlation Matrix--Within Cells Worldmindedness WM1 WM1 WM2 WM3 WM4 WM5 WM6 WM7 WM8 1 .00 WM2 .22* 1.00 WM3 .28* .13 1.00 WM4 .04 .IB .03 WM5 .14 .01 .32* .08 WM6 .01 .29* .24* -.08 .22* 1.00 WM7 .04 .22* .26* -.05 .01 .15 1.00 WM8 .12 .29* .47* -.04 -.01 .04 1.00 WM1 WM2 WM6 WM7 WM8 -.01 WM3 1.00 WM4 1.00 WM5 *A correlation which is significantly different from 0 at the .05 level. Note: WM1— WM2— WM3— WM4— Explanation of Symbols: Economics War Education Religion WM5--Immigration WM6--Patriotism WM7— Government WM8— Race Table 4.5 Sample Correlation Matrix— Within Cells Dogmatism D2 Dl Dl D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 1.00 1.00 D2 .32* D3 .46* .38* D4 .12 .27* .26* 1.00 D5 .06 .09 .11 -.16 D6 .03 .34* .54* .27* .03 D7 .27* .39* . 30* .08 .31* D0 .03 .07 .11 -.03 .49* Dl D2 1.00 D3 D4 1.00 D5 1.00 .30* -.14 D6 1.00 .31* 1.00 D7 D8 *A correlation which is significantly different from 0 at the .05 level. Note: Explanation of symbols: D1— Formal content of the intermediate belief region. D2— Isolation within and between the belief and disbelief system. D3— Specific content of primitive beliefs. D4— Relative degrees of differentiation between the belief and disbelief system. D5— Attitudes toward the past, present, and future. D6— Knowledge of the future. D7— Interrelations among primitive, intermediate, and peripheral beliefs. DB— Belief in force as a way to revise the present. 84 The remaining portion of this chapter is devoted to the adjudication of the hypotheses. In Chapter III, the research hypotheses of the study were presented. These consisted of two major hypotheses and two exploratory hypotheses. For purposes of presentation of the statistical data, these four research hypotheses are recast into statistical hypotheses. The following symbols are used in the statistical hypotheses: p01— Vector of Worldmindedness subscales for the Michigan State University overseas student teachers. \j02--Vector of Worldmindedness for the Michigan State University stateside student teachers. u03— Vector of Dogmatism for the Michigan State Uni­ versity overseas stjdent teachers. ii04— Vector of Dogmatism for the Michigan State Uni­ versity stateside student teachers. pll— Vector of Worldmindedness for elementary student teachers. yl2--Vector of Worldmindedness for secondary student teachers. U13— Vector of Dogmatism for elementary student teachers. 85 pl4--Vector of Dogmatism for secondary student teachers. Y— Interaction effect of level of student teaching and group membership. W o r 1dmindednoss as Measured by the Worldmindcdness Scale Three statistical hypotheses are presented dealing with Worldmindedness as measured by the Worldmindedness Seale: HI: H 2: y = 0 Y ¥■ 0 uOl = p02 H 3: U0 1 ^ u0 2 pH = pl2 li11 ^ p 12 HI answers the question of whether or not joint classification of group seas student teachers) (Michigan student teachers, over­ and level (elementary, secondary) influence scores of the subscales of the Worldmindedness Scale. H2 answers the question of whether or not group assignment teachers) (Michigan student teachers, overseas student influences scores of the subscales of the Worldmindedness Scale. 86 H3 answers the question of whether or not teaching level (elementary, secondary) influences scores of the subscales of the Worldmindedness Scale. Table 4.6 Values of the Multivariate Test for Group, Level, and Interaction Effects on Worldmindedness D.F . Hypotheses Multivariate F HI 1.0449 16,90 .4192 No H2 .8619 16,90 .6135 No H3 .6052 16,90 .7686 No P. Value Signi f icant p <_ .05 for statistical significance. The data presented in Table 4.6 indicates that the statistical hypotheses of Hi, H 2 , and H3 cannot be re­ jected. The hypothesis dealing with interaction, HI, not significant at the .05 level. is Since p ■ .4192, the hypothesis of no interaction cannot be rejected. Group assignment and teaching level do not interact to influence in a statistical sense the scores on the subscales. The same situation applies to, H2, the hypothesis which examines the effects of group membership on the subscales. Since p < .6135, the null hypothesis of no group differ­ ences cannot be rejected. Following this same pattern, since the hypothesis measuring the effects of teaching 87 level has a p < .7686, it cannot be rejected. level, does not effect the subscale scores. Teaching The attitude of worldmindedness as measured by the Worldmindedness Seale is not significantly influenced by either group membership or teaching level. Openness as Measured by the Dogmatism Scale Three statistical hypotheses are presented dealing with openness as measured by the Dogmatism Scale: H 4: H5: y =0 Y / 0 u0 3 = vi04 Vi03 ^ u04 ;j 13 H6: = ul4 Ul3 ^ pl4 H4 answers the question of whether or not joint classification of group (Michigan student teachers, over­ seas student teachers) and level (elementary, secondary) influence scores of the subscales of the Dogmatism Scale. H5 answers the question of whether or not group assignment teachers) (Michigan student teachers, stateside student influences scores of the subscales of the Dogmatism Scale. BB H6 answers the question of whether or not teaching level (elementary, secondary) influences scores of the subscales of the Dogmatism Sca l e . Table 4.7 Values of the Multivariate Test for Group, Level, and Interaction Effects on Openness Hypothos is Multivariate F D.F. p Value Significant H4 .7493 16 ,90 .7366 No H5 .9731 16,90 .4924 No H6 .6730 B ,4 5 .7124 No p ^ .05 for statistical significance. The data presented in Table 4.7 indicates that the statistical hypotheses of H 4 , H5, and H6 cannot be rejected. The hypothesis dealing with interaction, H 4 , is not significant at the .05 level. Since p < .7366, the hypothesis of no interaction cannot be rejected. assignment and teaching level, Group then, do not interact in a statistical sense to influence the scores on the Dogmatism Scale subscales. The same situation applies to H5, the hypothesis which examines the effects of group membership on the subscales. Since p < .4924, the null hypothesis of no group differences cannot be rejected. Following this same pattern H 6 , the hypothesis measuring the effects of 89 teaching level has a p ' .7124 and cannot be rejected. Teaching level docs not effect the subscale scores. The attitude of "openness" as measured by the Dogmatism Scale is not significantly influenced by group membership or teaching level. Presentation and Testing of Research Hypotheses There were four hypotheses used for the basis of this study. Two were considered to be major hypotheses and two were considered to be exploratory hypotheses. purposes of presenting data, For these research hypotheses were recast into statistical hypotheses. These four hypotheses are restated below in research form and they are discussed in relation to the data just presented. Major Hypothesis 1. Michigan State University students who participated in the overseas Student Teaching Project, spring term, 1971, will not exhibit greater change in worldmindedness, as measured by the Worldminded­ ness Scale, than student teachers who did not participate in the project. Data presented in Table 4.6 shows that the above null hypothesis cannot be rejected. 90 2. Michigan State University student teachers who participated in the overseas student Teaching Project, spring term, 1971, will not exhibit greater change in openness, as measured by the Dogmatism S c a l e , than participate in t h e student teachers who did not project. Data presented in Table 4.7 show that the above null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Exploratory Hypotheses 1. Elementary education majors will not differ in worldmindedness as measured by the Worldmindedness Scale, from secondary education majors. Data presented in Table 4.6 shows that the above null hypothesis cannot be rejected. 2. Elementary education majors will not differ in openness as measured by the Dogmatism Scale, from secondary education majors. Data presented in Table 4.7 shows that the above null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Discussion and Summary The Michigan State University overseas student teaching program of spring, 1971 did not significantly effect the attitudes of worldmindedness and openness 91 as measured by the Worldmindedness Scale and the Dogmatism Scale. No significant differences could be found between the experimental group of overseas student teachers and the two control groups of stateside student teachers when measuring attitudinal change. Further there was no signifi cant difference in change from pre-test to post-tost when using the measures to discriminate elementary education majors from secondary education majors. These conclusions imply that if one can assume the Worldmindedness and Dogmatism Scales are measures of what the Overseas Student Teaching Program proposed to accomplish, then the Overseas Student Teaching Program as conducted spring term, 1971, had little effect on certain attitudinal variables of its participants. Specifically, participants in the experi­ mental group became neither more worldminded nor more open as a result of their overseas experience. The findings of this study are consistent with the findings of the intercultural studies summarized in 2 3 4 Chapter II. Studies by Riecken, Taba, Smith, and 2 Henry Riecken, The Volunteer Workcamp Addison Wesley Press, 1952). (Cambridge: "*Hilda Taba, "Cultural Attitudes and International Understanding: An Evaluation of an International Study Tour" (Occasional paper Number 5, Institute of Inter­ national Education, June, 1953). a Howard P. Smith, "Changes in Attitudes Resulting From Experiences In Foreign Countries" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation. Harvard University, 1954). 92 Kafka 5 each dealt with groups of United States students who participated in overseas or intercultural programs. With the exception of Riecken, whose population was made up of Quaker Work Camp volunteers, these researchers found no significant positive gains in attitudes when measured by attitude scales administered in a pre-test/post-test design . Two studies dealing with teacher education programs cited in Chapter II also support the findings of this study. Freeze** found that little change in openness occurred during student teaching for 145 secondary student 7 teachers. Johnson found that more closed minded student teachers were rewarded. They received higher ratings from their supervising teachers than more open-minded student teachers. Data from the present study did show a trend towards less worldmindedness on the "Education" subscale of the Worldmindedness Scale (Table 4.2). Since the 5 Eric Phillip Kafka, "The Effects of Overseas Study on Worldmindedness and Other Selected Variables of Liberal Arts Students" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968). ^Chester Freeze, "A Study of Openness as a Factor in Change of Student Teachers" (unpublished Doctor's dissertation, University of Alabama, 1963). 7 James S. Johnson, "The Relationship of Open and Closed Mindedness to Success in Student Teaching," (un­ published D o c t o r ’s dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1966). 93 study's population is made up of teacher candidates, this is a factor worth noting. However, since this trend was not found to be statistically significant level) no conclusions can be drawn. (at the .05 Gain scores on the Dogmatism Scale showed a slight trend towards openness for five of the six membership groups studied on two subscalcs (see Table 4.3). Except for the group of ele­ mentary majors who volunteered to student teach overseas but who were not accepted, there was a move toward open­ ness on the dimensions of "Interrelations among primitive, intermediate, and peripheral beliefs," and "Belief in force as a way to revise the present." As in the case with the Worldmindedness Scale, however, no conclusions can be drawn because this gain was not found to be statistically significant at the .05 level. The population of this study was made up of a specific group of individuals: student teachers who volunteered and were selected to student teach in another country. The student teaching program at Michigan State University has as its main purpose, the provision of its student teachers with a laboratory setting in which to develop skills as becoming teachers. In addition to this purpose, the Overseas Student Teaching Program has as a goal the "opportunity to study and participate in a second culture in order to better understand the similarities and differences in customs, living patterns and traditions." 94 If the accomplishment of this latter goal is measured by gain scores on attitude scales, the evidence gathered in the present study indicates that the goal was not achieved for the spring, 1971, Overseas Student 0 Teaching Program. Based on the data presented in this chapter, it will be the purpose of Chapter V to summarize the total study, draw conclusions based on the study, and make recommendations for further study. Q It may be of interest to note whether or not the students who expressed an interest in a teaching position in the "inner city" had a different pattern of gain scores than those who did not. At the pre-testing session, six participants from the total population expressed an inter­ est in "inner city" teaching. Two of those six students changed their choice of teaching assignment during the post-testing period to "suburban" or "urban." One partici­ pant who had originally made an "urban" choice changed to "inner city." There seemed to be no consistent pattern in gain scores for this group. The participant who changed his choice from "urban" to "inner city" did however, show large gains; +13 on the Worldmindedness Scale and +2 1 on the Dogmatism Scale. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS It is the purpose of Chapter V to summarize the study, draw conclusions based on the study, and make recommendations for further research. The chapter is divided into these three areas. Summary The purpose of the study was to investigate attitudes of worldmindedness and openness in student teachers who participated in the Intercultura1 Student Teaching Program at Michigan State University during spring quarter, 1971. These attitudes were compared with the attitudes of two groups of student teachers who student taught in Michigan schools. The following questions formed the basis study's hypotheses: for the (1) Will Michigan State University student teachers, who participated in the Overseas Student Teaching Project, spring term, 1971, exhibit greater changes in worldmindedness than student teachers who did 95 96 not participate in the project? (2) Will Michigan State University student teachers who participated in the Over­ seas Student Teaching Project, spring term, 1971, exhibit greater change in openness than student teachers who did not participate in the Project? (3) Will elementary edu­ cation majors exhibit greater change in worldmindedness than will secondary education majors? (4) Will elementary education majors exhibit greater change in openness than will secondary education majors? To test the hypotheses of this study, throe groups of student teachers were studied: (1) An experimental group of twenty student teachers who student taught at the American International School in The Hague, The Netherlands. (2) A control group of nine student teachers who volun­ teered to student teach overseas but who were not chosen. (3) Another control group of twenty-nine randomly selected student teachers who did not apply for overseas student teaching and were assigned to Michigan schools. All participants were pre-tested at the beginning of spring quarter, 1971. 1971 and post-tested at the end of spring quarter, The Worldmindedness Scale was used as a measure of worldmindedness; of openness. the Dogmatism Scale was used as a measure The validity and reliability of both measures has been established. The statistical procedure used in this study was the Multivariate Analysis of Variance. This statistical method 97 allows multiple dependent variables openness) (worldmindedne.ss and to be incorporated into the analysis and treated jointly rather than singly. Further because each measure­ ment instrument has eight dimensions it was considered important to assess the total impact of these dimensions. The level of significance was .05. Many criteria for successful teachers have been developed but no one set has been considered definitive. Many prominent educators, however, feel that teacher edu­ cation experiences which encourage worldmindedness and openness will increase the changes that teacher candidates will become successful. The rationale for inclusion of these goals is that today's society is undergoing such rapid changes that our educational leaders must be trained in such a way as to provide for the likely occurence that the world in which they were taught will be vastly differ­ ent than the one in which they will teach. An individual's experiences influence the attitudes he develops. follows, It then, that teacher education experiences which foster openness and worldmindedness will produce teachers with these attitudes. Review of the literature established openness and worldmindedness as desirable teacher traits. This same review, however, cited problems in documenting intercultural experiences as making the difference in attitude change. 96 This difficulty was evident in the analysis of the data related to the present study. Tests were made of the null hypotheses of the study and were accepted or rejected on the basis of the data collected. Major Hypotheses 1. Michigan State University students who participated in the Overseas Student Teaching Project, term, spring 1971, will exhibit greater change in world­ mindedness, as measured by the Worldmindedness Se ale, than student teachers who did not partici­ pate in the Project. The hypothesis was not supported. 2. Michigan State University student teachers who participated in the Overseas Student Teaching Project spring term, 1971, will exhibit greater openness, as measured by the Dogmatism S c ale, than certain student teachers who did not participate in the Project. The hypothesis was not supported. Exploratory Hypotheses 1. Elementary education majors will differ in worldmindedness as measured by the Worldmindedness Scale from secondary majors. The hypothesis was not supported. 99 2. Elementary education majors will differ in openness as measured by the Dogmatism Scale from secondary majors. The hypothesis was no t supported, Conclus ions Student teachers who participated in the Overseas Student Teaching Project spring term, 1971, did not show any significant gains in attitude change as compared to student teachers who did not participate in the Overseas Student Teaching Project spring term, 1971. Differences in scores on the Worldmindedness Scale, the instrument used to measure worldmindedness, and on the Dogmatism Scale, the instrument used to measure openness, were not statistically significant between the experimental and control groups. Several explanations for these outcomes are possible. Attitude measurement is a difficult undertaking. Most published attitude scales such as the Worldmindedness Scale and the Dogmatism Scale are self-reporting instruments which are dependent upon the good will of the person reporting for accurate data. It is easier to measure a teacher candidate's knowledge of subject matter than it is to measure his attitudes. 100 This difficulty was apparent in the review of the literature. Studies were cited where the participants of a given intercultura1 project would report great changes in attitude, yet these changes were not apparent when measurement instruments were administered. In the case of the present study, this conflict is apparent when examining Brady's study which uses some of the same population.^- Brady reports an increase in world­ mindedness on the part of Michigan State University Over­ seas Project participants. The different conclusions, part, rest with different measurement devices. in Brady's study measured worldmindedness via a sociological question­ naire he devised for the study. Instruments used in the present study defined both worldmindedness and openness in terms of published attitude measures whose previous reliability and validity had been established. Another explanation for the non-significance of the results may be that the Overseas Student Teaching Project as it has been operating, is not addressing some of its major goals. The assumption that a student teacher who is assigned to an American school in another country will be Hugh P. Brady, "A Comparison of the Student Teaching Experience of Michigan State University Student Teachers Assigned to Overseas American Schools With That of Michigan State University Student Teachers Assigned to Public Schools in Michigan" (unpublished Doctor's disser­ tation, Michigan State University, 1971). 101 exposed to a culture different than his own, may indeed be faulty. If that student teacher lives in a dorm with other American student teachers, is assigned to an American supervising teacher, and teaches American students an American curriculum, exposure to non-American experiences will indeed be minimal. teaching, 2 Since the ma]or purpose of student is to provide education students with a labo­ ratory in which to develop skills, it may be asking too much that the students in such a setting also immerse themselves in intercultura1 exchanges even when the opportunity is offered. Many questions can be posed relating to the major conclusions of the study: 1. Is a ten week period long enough to really create even an awareness of internationalism? 2. Is student teaching, normally a time of great concern for the student teacher, an appropriate time to call for another adjustment such as exposure to another culture? 3. Are the selection procedures used for choosing students appropriate? 2 For example, because the The twenty student teachers who were a part of the present study did live with Dutch families. This is not the pattern with all overseas student teaching projects at Michigan State University. Depending upon the site, students may live as a group in dormitories, may make their own housing arrangements, or may live as a group in native hotels. 102 student must pay his own way, consequently only the more affluent are able to volunteer. Does this leave out an important group who might bo able to profit from such an experience? 4. Is enough emphasis placed on the intercultural aspects of the program? For example, should housing with native families be provided? Should students be required to live with native families? 5. Are student teaching sites in only Western Europe or Mexico really providing an international thrust? Why not non-Western sites such as Africa? 6 . Is a pre-test/post-test design appropriate for attitude change study? an It may take months for an intercultural experience to effect a change in attitude. Since the spring, 1971, Overseas Student Teaching Project, there have been five additional Overseas Student 3 Teaching Projects. In general, they have followed the same type of pattern as the Project used as the basis for this study. From a group of volunteers, twenty to twenty- five are selected by the Center Director responsible for that project. Orientation to Michigan schools is provided 3 Fall, 1971, Lakenheath, England and The Hague, The Netherlands. Winter, 1972, Rome, Italy; spring, 1972, The Hague, The Netherlands; fall, 1972, Lakenheath, England, winter, 1973, Rome, Italy. 10 3 either before or after travel and the Center Director provides an orientation to the upcoming experience. Aware of the need to address some of the above questions, the Committee to Evaluate Overseas Student Teaching has made several recommendations concerning program changes in a series of documents presented to the Michigan State University Student Teaching Office Staff on February 15, 1973. 4 as the following: 1. The goals of the project are redefined To provide a cross-cultural experience for the teacher candidates. 2. To provide an intercultural dimension for the Student Teaching Program and staff. 3. To provide in-service opportunities for faculties of overseas schools in cooperation with the Graduate Overseas Program of Michigan State Uni­ versity . These aims are re-phrased into objectives and are stated as follows: 1. To provide an opportunity for student teachers to study the culture of the host country through 4Student Teaching Office Overseas Committee (Formerly Committee to Evaluate Overseas Student Teaching), "Committee Report-Overseas Student Teaching" (East Lansing, Michigan: Student Teaching Office, Michigan State University, 1973). (Ditto.) 104 exposure to family life, customs, living patterns, and traditions. 2. To provide an opportunity for student teachers to make an impact on the educational program of the school by assisting individual teachers to perform tasks which generally are prohibited by the amount of time spent on normal duties. 3. To provide an opportunity for foreign travel as a means of contact with nationals in order to gain a concept of the culture, economics, politics, and geography of the host and other countries. Goals 1 and 2 above and Objectives 1 and 3 above indicate a recommitment by the Michigan State University Student Teaching Office to insure an international dimension to its Intercultural Student Teaching Program. The information gathered in the present study indicates that the achievement of these goals and/or objectives may not be an automatic outcome of such projects. Recommendations for Further Research The study presented is worthwhile in that it examines what happened in one overseas student teaching project. It should provide the stimulus for further examination of intercultural student teaching programs. Suggestions for further research are as follows: The development of criterion-referenced measurement instruments which can be used in determining whether or not the specific international objectives of the Michigan State University Overseas Student Teaching Project are being achieved. The piloting of these instruments with several overseas proj ects. A comparison study between an Overseas Student Teaching Project and a stateside student teaching project that emphasizes inner-city teaching with relation to attitude change. A comparison study of an overseas student teaching project which is located at a non-Western site and one which is located at a Western site. A study of attitude change in overseas student teaching participants who live with native families as compared to those who live with other student teachers. A study of attitude change of student teachers who participate in overseas student teaching projects on the basis of length of project--one quarter versus one semester versus six months. 106 6 . A study of the relationship between the factors of openness and worldmindedness in terms of inter­ cultural student teaching. 7. A study of an intercultural student teaching project which measures the long term effects, with regard to attitude change. (?. A study of the feasibility of setting up an inter­ national teacher education center under the sponsorship of Michigan State University to be located at a foreign site. This center would draw together several departments and several programs which now deal with international education but do so independently. following: teachers, This center might offer the laboratory experiences for student research services, graduate classes, and field study proqrams. The above suggestions are by no means inclusive of all the possibilities. Further research into this area would help to realize the goal of creating an international dimension in teacher education both at Michigan State University and e 1sewhere. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Borg, Walter. Educational Research. McKay C o . , 1^63. New York: David Combs, Arthur, and Snygg, Donald. Individual Behavior. New York: Basic Books, 1960. Elzey, Freeman F. A First Reader in Statistics. Belmont, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., Inc., 1968. Fairchild, Henry P. (ed.). Dictionary of Sociology. Jersey: Littlefield, Adams, and Co., 19^5. Gage, N. L. Handbook of Research on Teaching. Rand McNally, 1§6~3. Good, Carter. Dictionary of Education. Hill Book C o ., 19 5^. Chicago: New York: Riecken, Henry. The Volunteer Work C a m p . Addison Wesley Press, 1952. New McGraw Cambridge: Robison, John, and Shaver, Phillip (ed.). Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1969. ________ . Measures of Political Attitudes. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research. Rokeach, Milton. The Open and Closed M i n d . Basic Books'^ 1960. Taylor, Harold. The World As Teacher. day Co., Inc., 1970. New York: New York: Double­ Walker, Helen, and Lev, Joseph. Elementary Statistical Methods. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, l H $ , P- 362. 107 108 Periodicals Beynon, Robert. "The Curriculum--The Teacher--The Years Ahead." Education, LXXXX (September, 1969), 72-75, 89. McCormack, William. "Student Exchange as an Instrument of International Understanding." International Edu­ cational and Cultural Exchange (Spring, 19(>§) , 2 7- 31 ?. Oliva, Peter, F. "College Credit For Travel." Contemporary Education, XLII (November, 1970), 88-91. Sampson, Donald L . , and Smith, Howard P. "A Scale to Measure World-Minded Attitudes." The Journal of Social Psychology, XLV (195 7) , 99-106 . Smith, Howard P. "Do Intercultural Experiences Affect Attitudes?" Journal of Abnormal Psychology, LI (1953), 469-47TI Taylor, Harold. "World Education for Teachers." Phi Delta Kappa, XLIX (December, 1967) , 178-18Y"! Urch, George E. "The University, The Teacher, and Ethnocentrism." Journal of Teacher Education, XXI (Summer, 1970), 273-275. Useem, John. "The Community of Man: A Study in the Third Culture." The Centennial Review, VII (Fall, 1963), 481-498. Other Publications Bradley, Banks. "Overseas Follow-up Study." East Lansing, Michigan: Student Teaching Office, Michigan State University, 1973. (Ditto.) Bills, Robert E. About People and Teaching. Bureau of School Service, College ot Education, University of Kentucky, XXVIII (December, 1955). . "The Classroom Teacher, Mental Health, and Learning." Mental Health and Teacher Education. Forty-Sixth Yearbook of the Association for Student Teaching. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co., 1967 . 109 Brady, Muyh P. "A Comparison of the Student Teaching Experiences of Michigan State University Student Teachers Assigned to Public Schools in Michigan." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971. Carr, William. "Teachers and International Education." Reality and Relevance. Twenty-Second Yearbook of the Washington, D .C . , Association of American Colleges for Teacher Education, A A C T E , 1969. Chase, Donald. "A Comparative Study of the Cooperative Michigan State University-Lansing SERL Project and the Conventional Program of Student Teaching With Reference to Openness and Attitude Formation." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971. Committee to Evaluate Overseas Student Teaching. "Com­ mittee Report Overseas Student Teaching." East Lansing, Michigan: Student Teaching Office, Michigan State University, 1973. (Ditto.) _________. "Project Overseas Student Teaching Follow Up Study." East Lansing, Michigan: Student Teaching Office, Michigan State University, 1971. (Ditto.) Crew, Adolph. "A Decade of Student Teaching in Latin America." University of Alabama, University, Alabama, 1971. (Mimeographed.) Emmerling, Frank C. "A Study of Relationships Between Personality Characteristics of Classroom Teachers and Pupil Perceptions of These Teachers." Un­ published Doctor's dissertation, Auburn University, 1963. Engle, Harry. "A Study of Openness as a Factor in Change." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Auburn Uni­ versity, 1971. Freeze, Chester. "A Study of Openness as a Factor in Change of Student Teachers." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation. University of Alabama, 1963. Gleason, Thomas. "Social Adjustment Patterns and Mani­ festations of Worldmindedness of Overseas Experi­ enced American Youth." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970. 110 Hatfield, Evelyn. "Mankato State Goes International." Mankato, Minnesota: Mankato State College, no date. (Mimeographed.) Johnson, James S. "The Relationship of Open and Closed Mindedness to Success in Student Teaching." Un­ published Doctor's dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1966. . "Intercultural Student Teaching." East Lansi Michigan: Student Teaching Office, Michigan Sta University, no date. (Mimeographed.) rt 3 Kafka, Eric Phillip. "The Effects of Overseas Study on Worldmindedness and Other Selected Variables of Liberal Arts Students." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968. Kelley, Earl. "The Fully Functioning Self." Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming. 19 62 Yearbook of the Associ­ ation for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Washington, D.C.: ASCD, 1962. "Miami University Student Teaching in Europe Program." Oxford, Ohio: Miami University, no date. (Mimeo­ graphed .) Michigan State University. December, 1969. University Catalogue, LXIII, National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards. Who's In Charge Here? Washington, D.C The Commission, "Notes of the Committee to Evaluate Overseas Student Teaching." East Lansing, Michigan: Student Teaching Office, Michigan State University, 1970. (Photocopy.) Program. Conference of International Teacher Education. Moorhead, Minnesota: Moorhead State College, July 18-22, 1970. Smith, Howard P. "Changes in Attitudes Resulting From Experiences in Foreign Countries." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Harvard University, 1954. Ill Taba, Hilda. "Cultural Attitudes and International Under­ standing: An Evaluation of an International Study Tour." Occasional Paper Number 5, Institute of International Education, June, 1953. Wilcox, John. "Developing Overseas Student Teaching Experiences." Address Prepared for the Conference of International Teacher Education. Moorhead, Minnesota; Moorhead State College, July 18-22, 1970. (Mimeographed.) APPENDICES APPENDIX A THE WORLDMINDEDNESS SCALE CATEGORIZED BY SUBSCALES APPENDIX A THE WORLDMINDEDNESS SCALE CATEGORIZED BY SUBSCALES Religion 1. Our country should have the right to prohibit certain racial and religious groups from entering it to live. 2. Foreigner's are particularly obnoxious because of their religious beliefs. 3. It would be dangerous for our country to make inter­ national agreements with nations whose religious beliefs are antagonistic to ours. 4. It would be dangerous for us to guarantee by inter­ national agreement that every person in the world should have complete religious freedom. Immigration 5. Immigrants should not be permitted to come into our country if they compete with our workers. 6 . Immigration should be controlled by an international organization rather than by each country on its own. 7. Any healthy individual, regardless of race or religion, should be allowed to live wherever he wants in the world. 8 . Our country should permit the immigration of foreign peoples even if it lowers our standard of living. 112 113 Government 9. It would be a dangerous procedure if every person in the world had equal rights which wore guaranteed by an international charter. 10. We ought to have a world government to guarantee the welfare of all nations irrespective of the rights of any one. 11. Our country should not participate in any international organization which requires that we give up any of our national rights or freedom of action. 12. All national governments ought to be abolished and replaced by one central world government. Economics 13. j prices for exported food and manufactured goods r-’.ould be set by an international trade committee. 14 Our country should not cooperate in any international trade agreements which attempt to better world economic conditions at our expense. 15. If necessary, we ought to be willing to lower our standard of living to cooperate with other countries in getting an equal standard for every person in the wo rl d . 16. It would not be wise for us to agree that working conditions in all countries should be subject to international control. Patriotism 17. Our country is probably no better than many others. 18. it would be better to be a citizen of the world, than of any particular country. 19. We should strive for loyalty to our country before we can afford to consider world brotherhood. 2 0 . Patriotism should be a primary aim of education so our children will believe our country is the best in the world. 114 Race 21. 22. 2 3. 24. Race prejudice may be a good thing for us because it keeps many undesirable foreigners from coming into this country. Our responsibility to people of other races ought to be as groat as our responsibility to people of our own race. Some races ought to be considered naturally less intelligent than others. It would be a good idea if all the races were to intermarry until there was only one race in the world. Education 25. It would be a mistake for us to encourage certain racial groups to become well educated because they might use their knowledge against us. 26. An international committee on education should have full control over what is taught in all countries about history and politics. 27. Our schools should teach the history of the whole world rather than of our own country. 28. We should teach our children to uphold the welfare of all people everywhere even though it may be against the best interest of our own country. War 29. We should be willing to fight for our country without questioning whether it is right or wrong. 30. Our country should refuse to cooperate in a total disarmament program even if some other nations agreed to i t . 31. An international police force ought to be the only group in the world allowed to have armaments. 32. War should never be justifiable even if it is the only way to protect our national rights and honor. APPENDIX B WORLDMINDEDNESS SCALE RAW SCORES Table B-l Worldmindedness Scale Raw Scores Experimental Group Overseas Student Teachers Participant Pre-Test Post-Test 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 123 138 127 118 137 144 126 111 134 131 131 109 153 149 97 121 108 122 116 126 107 131 130 123 124 151 121 118 143 131 119 100 168 162 98 125 98 129 144 149 Change -16 - 7 + 3 + 5 -1 3 ^ 7 - 5 + 7 + 9 0 -12 - 9 + 15 + 13 + 1 + 4 -10 + 7 + 28 + 23 Control Group 1 Student Teachers Who Volunteered to Student Teach Overseas But Who Were Not Selected Participant Pre-Test Post-Test 21 22 23 24 25 27 28 29 30 108 151 139 146 108 125 103 125 146 124 150 121 157 110 120 97 127 147 115 Chnnqe + 16 - 1 -18 + 11 + 2 - 5 - 6 + 2 + 1 ]16 Control Group 2 Student Teachers Who Were Assigned to Student Teach in Michigan Participant Pre-Test Post-Test 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 122 93 99 129 103 151 129 109 85 139 143 157 1 32 102 96 125 154 98 137 118 136 106 137 157 113 132 137 141 101 121 91 106 127 92 145 119 105 94 138 157 154 108 91 116 99 167 116 135 108 136 109 132 168 108 142 144 133 112 Gain - 1 - 2 + 7 - 2 -11 - 6 -10 - 4 + 9 - 1 + 14 - 3 -24 -11 + 20 -26 + 13 -18 - 2 -10 0 + 3 - 5 + 11 - 5 + 10 + 7 - 8 + 11 APPENDIX C THE DOGMATISM SCALE CATEGORIZED BY SUBSCALES APPENDIX C THE DOGMATISM SCALE CATEGORIZED BY SUBSCALES Isolation within and between belief and disbelief systems 1- The United States and Russia have just about nothing in common. 2. Communism and Catholicism have nothing in common. 3. The principles I have come to believe in are quite different from those believed in by most people. 4. In a heated discussion, people have a way of bringing up irrelevant issues, rather than sticking to the main issue. 5. The highest form of government is a democracy and the highest form of democracy is a government run by those who are the most intelligent. 6 . Even though freedom of speech for all groups is a worthwhile goal, it is unfortunately necessary to restrict the freedom of certain political groups. 7. While the use of force is wrong by and large, it is sometimes the only way possible to advance a noble ideal. 8 . Even though I have a lot of faith in the intelligence and wisdom of the common man, I must say that the masses behave stupidly at times. 117 11 B Relative degree of difforcntintion between the belief nnd the disbelief sy stems 9. 10. It is only natural that a person would have a much better acquaintance with ideas he believes in than with ideas he opposes. There are certain "isms" which are really the same even though those who believe in the "isms" try to tell you they are different. Specific content of primitive beliefs 11. Man on his own is a helpless and miserable creature. 12. Fundamentally, the world we live in is a pretty lonesome place. 13. Most people just 14. I'd like it if I could find someone who would tell me how to solve my personal problems. 15. It is only natural for a person to be rather fearful of the future. 16. There is so much to bo done and so little time to do it i n . 17. Once I get wound c a n 't stop. don't gave a "damn" for others. up in a heated discussion I just 18. In a discussion I often find it necessary to repeat myself several times, to make sure I am boinq under­ stood . 19. In a heated discussion I generally become so absorbed in what I am going to say that I forget to listen to what the others are saying. 20. In a discussion, I in my eagerness to sometimes interrupt others too much put across my own point of view. 21. It is better to be coward. a dead hero than to be a live 22. My hardest battles are with myself. 23. At times I think I am no good at all. 119 24. I am afraid of people who want to find out what I ’m really like for fear they'll be disappointed in me. 25. While I d o n ’t like to admit this, even to myself, my secret ambition is to become a great man, like Einstein, or Beethoven, or Shakespeare. 26. The main thing in life is for a person to want to do something important. 27. If given the chance, I would do something of great benefit to the world. 28. If I had to choose between happiness and greatness, I ’d choose greatness. 29. It's all too true that people just won't practise what they preach. 30. Most people are failures and it is the system which is responsible for this. 31. I have often felt that strangers were looking at me critically. 32. It is only natural for a person to have a guilty conscience. 33. People say insulting and vulgar things about me. 34. I am sure I am being talked about. Formal content of the intermediate belief region 35. 36. 37. In the history of mankind, there have probably just a handful of really great thinkers. been There are a number of people I have come to hate because of the things they stand for. A man who does not believe in some great not really lived. cause has 38. It is only when a person devotes himself to an ideal or cause that life becomes meaningful. 39. Of all the different philosophies which exist in this world there is probably only one which is correct. 40. A person who gets too enthusiastic about too many causes is likely to be a pretty "wishy-washy" sort of person. 120 41. To compromise with our political opponents is dangerous because it usually leads to the betrayal of our side. 42. When it comes to differences of opinion in religion we must be careful not to compromise with those who believe differently from the way we do. 43. In times like these, a person must be pretty selfish if he considers primarily his own happiness. 44. To compromise with our political opponents is to be guilty of appeasement. 45. The worst crime a person could commit is to attack publically the people who believe in the same thing he does. 46. In times like these it is often necessary to be more on guard against ideas put out by people or groups in one's own camp than by those in the opposing camp. 47. A group which tolerates too much differences of opinion among its own members cannot exist for long. 48. There are two kinds of people in this world: those who are for the truth and those who are against the truth. 49. My blood boils whenever a person stubbornly refuses to admit he's wrong. 50. A person who thinks primarily of his own happiness is beneath contempt. 51. Most of the ideas which get printed nowadays aren't worth the paper they are printed on. 52. I sometimes have a tendency to be to critical of the ideas of the others. Interrelations among primitive, perpheral beliefs intermediate, and 53. In this complicated world of ours, the only way we can know what's going on, is to rely on leaders or experts who can be trusted. 54. It is often desirable to reserve judgment about what's going on until one has had a chance to hear the opinions of those one respects. 121 55. In the long run the best way to live is to pick friends and associates whose tastes and beliefs are the same as o n e ’s own. 56. There's no use wasting your money on newspapers which you know in advance are just plain propaganda. 57. Young people should not have too easy access to books which are likely to confuse them. Attitude toward the past, present, and future 58. The present is all too otten full of unhappiness. is only the future that counts. 59. It is by returning to our glorious and forgotten past that real social progress can be achieved. 60. It To achieve the happiness of mankind in the future it it sometimes necessary to put up with injustices in the present. Knowing the future 61. If a man is to accomplish his mission in life it is sometimes necessary to gamble "all or nothing at all." 62. Unfortunately, a good many people with whom I have discussed important social and moral problems don't really understand what's going on. 63. Most people just don't know what's good for them. 64. There is nothing new under the sun. 65. To one who really takes the trouble to understand the world he lives in, it's an easy matter to predict future events. Belief in force as a way to revise the present 6 6 . It is sometimes necessary to resort to force to advance an ideal one strongly believes in. APPENDIX D DOGMATISM SCALE RAW SCORES Table D-l Dogmatism Scale Raw Scores Experimental Group Overseas Student Teachers Participant Pre-Test Post-Test 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 19 20 195 237 162 216 202 189 216 208 156 252 250 185 247 229 236 196 191 188 185 199 230 179 216 182 207 190 186 165 199 235 214 244 235 240 204 178 187 138 Gain - 4 + 7 -17 0 + 20 -18 + 26 + 22 - 9 + 53 + 15 -29 + 3 - 6 - 4 - 8 + 13 + 1 + 47 Control Group 1 Student Teachers Who Volunteered to Student Teach Overseas But Who Were Not Selected Participant 21 22 23 24 25 27 28 29 30 Pre-Test Post-Test 269 284 285 160 220 265 219 229 241 255 278 294 166 211 184 238 197 230 122 Ga in + 14 + 6 - 9 - 6 + 9 + 81 -19 + 32 + 11 123 Control Group 2 Student Teachers Who Were Assigned to Student Teach in Michigan Participant Pre-Test Post-Test 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 50 59 60 255 194 243 232 204 163 215 198 232 269 192 190 254 193 212 246 235 262 223 226 197 227 253 179 212 234 201 179 174 287 182 213 103 208 168 221 203 276 255 208 190 231 196 207 258 214 255 232 219 177 226 245 153 213 239 218 171 181 Gain -32 + 12 + 30 + 49 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 5 -44 + 14 -16 0 + 23 - 3 + 5 -12 + 21 + 7 - 9 + 7 + 20 + 1 + 8 + 26 - 1 - 5 -17 + 8 - 7 APPENDIX E WORLDMINDEDNESS SCALE AND DOGMATISM SCALE As Presented to the Study Population APPENDIX E WORLDMINDEDNESS SCALE AND DOGMATISM SCALE Dear Student Teacher: You have been chosen (by means of random sampling) to participate in a study of various aspects of student teaching. It is hoped that the results of the study will help to improve our student teaching program and will thereby serve Michigan State University students even better than it is presently. We ask you to respond to the attached questionnaire. Toward the end of the quarter, we will ask you to respond to a similar questionnaire. In order to keep respondents anonymous, and yet keep our questionnaires in order, will you please put some type of identifying symbol in the box below. It can be initials, a number, a drawing, whatever. Just remember your symbol so that at the end of the quarter you will know which questionnaire is yours. (You may use your name if you w i s h .) IDENTIFYING SYMBOL Will you also respond to the following statements by circling the appropriate answer? 1. 2. Sex: male, female. Teaching certificate: 3. Marital Status: 4. Type of student participating: elementary, secondary single, married teaching program in which you are regular, cluster, overseas, Re-Fuel. 124 125 5. Type of school you would like to teach in: urban, rural, "inner city." suburban, Thank you in advance for your cooperation. I will be happy to share the results of this study with you at its com­ pletion in August. Grace Weston Student Teaching Office 355-1713 126 The following is a study of what the general public thinks and feels about a number of important social and personal questions. The best answer to each statement below is your personal opinion. We have tried to cover many differ­ ent and opposing points of view; you may find yourself agreeing strongly with some of the statements, disagreeing just as strongly with others, and perhaps uncertain about others; whether you agree or disagree with any statement, you can be sure that many people feel the same as you do. Mark each statement in the left margin according to how much you agree or disagree with it. Please mark every one. Write SA, A, MA, MD, D, or SD. SA: A: MA: Strongely Agree Agree Mildly Agree MD: D: SD: Mildly Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree 1. Of all the different philosophies which exist in the world there is probably only one which is correct. 2. Even though freedom of speech for all groups is a worthwhile goal, it is unfortunately necessary to restrict the freedom of certain political groups. 3. It is only natural for a person to have a guilty conscience. 4. If necessary, we ought to be willing to lower our standard of living to cooperate with other countries in getting an equal standard for every person in the world. 5. The principles I have come to believe in are quite different from those believed in by most people. 6. We should be willing to fight for our country without questioning whether it is right or wrong. 7. In a discussion I often find it necessary to repeat myself several times to make sure I am being under­ stood . 8 . There are a number of people I have come to hate because of the things they stand for. 9. It would be dangerous for us to guarantee by inter­ national agreement that every person in the world should have complete religious freedom. 127 10. Unfortunately, a good many people with whom T have discussed important social and moral problems d o n ’t really understand what's going on. 11. It would not be wise for us to agree that working conditions in all countries should be subject to international control. 12. In the history of mankind there have probably been just a handful of really great thinkers. 13. When it comes to differences of opinion in religion we must be careful not to compromise with those who believe differently from the way we do. 14. An international police force ought to be the only group in the world allowed to have armaments. 15. There is nothing new under the sun. 16. In a heated discussion I generally become so absorbed in what I am going to say, that I forget to listen to what the others are saying. 17. All prices for exported food and manufactured goods should be set by an international trade committee. 18. Most people just don't know what's good for them. 19. Once I get wound can't stop. up in a heated discussion, I just 20. Immigration should be controlled by an international organization rather than by each country on its own. 21. Patriotism should be a primary aim of education so our children will believe our country is the best in the world. 22. While I don't like to admit this even to myself, my secret ambition is to become a great man, like Einstein, or Beethoven, or Shakespeare. 23. While the use of force is wrong sometimes the only way possible ideal. 24. by and large, it is to advance a noble To achieve the happiness of mankind in the future, it is sometimes necessary to put up with injustices of the present. 128 25. To compromise with our political opponents is dangerous because it usually leads to the betrayal of our own side. 26. I have often felt that strangers were looking at me critically. 27. We should strive for loyalty to our country before we can afford to consider world brotherhood. 28. People say insulting and vulgar things about me. 29. The highest form of government is a democracy and the highest form of democracy is a government run by those who are most intelligent. 30. We ought to have a world government to guarantee the welfare of all nations, irrespective of the rights of any one. 31. There’s no use wasting your money on newspapers which you know in advance are just plain propaganda. 32. In this complicated world of ours, the only way we can know what's going on is to rely on leaders or experts who can be trusted. 33. A group which tolerates too much differences of opinion among its own members cannot exist for long. 34. My hardest battles are with myself. 35. Our country should permit the immigration of foreign peoples even if it lowers our standard of living. 36. Most of the ideas which get printed nowadays aren't worth the paper they are printed on. 37. An international committee on education should have full control over what is taught in all countries about history and politics. 38. Most people just don't gave a "damn" for others. 39. In times like these it is often necessary to be more on guard against ideas put out by people or groups in one's own camp than by those in the opposing camp. 40. In a discussion I sometimes interrupt others too much in my eagerness to put across my own point of view. 129 41. I am afraid of people who want to find out what I'm really like for fear they'll be disappointed in me. 42. I am sure I am being talked about. 43. A person who thinks primarily of his own happiness is beneath contempt. 44 . At times I think I am no good at all. 45. Any healthy individual, regardless of race or religion, should be allowed to live wherever he wants to in the world. 46. It is often desirable to reserve judgment about what's going on until one has had a chance to hear the opinions of those one respects. 47. Our country 48. Some races ought to be considered naturally less intelligent than others. 49. I sometimes have a tendency to be too critical of the ideas of others. 50. War should never be justifiable even it if is the only way to protect our national rights and honor. 51. In times like these, a person must be pretty selfish if he considers primarily his own happiness. 52. In the long run the best way to live is to pick friends and associates whose tastes and beliefs are the 3ame as one's own. 53. It would be a dangerous procedure if every person in the world had equal rights which were guaranteed by an international charter. 54. To compromise with our political opponents is to be guilty of appeasement. 55. There are certain "isms" which are really the same even though those who believe in these "isms” try to tell you they are different. 56. Our responsibility to people of other races ought to be as great as our responsibility to people of our own race. is probably no better than many others. 130 57. If I had to choose between happiness and greatness. I'd choose greatness. 58. Foreigners are particularly obnoxious because of their religious beliefs. 59. It is sometimes necessary to resort to force to advance an ideal one strongly believes in. 60. If a man is to accomplish his mission in life, it is sometimes necessary to gamble "all or nothing at all." 61. A man who does not believe in some great cause really lived. 62. Communism and Catholicism have nothing in common. 63. It is better to be a dead hero than to coward. a live be has not 64. Most people are failures and it is the system which is responsible. 65. Young people should not have too easy access to books which are likely to confuse them. 6 6 . To one who really takes the trouble to understand the world he lives in, it's an easy matter to predict future events. 67. It would be a good idea if all the races were to intermarry until there was only one race in the world. 68. I'd like it if I could find someone who would tell me how to solve my personal problems. 69. The present is all too often full of unhappiness. It is only the future that counts. 70. A person who gets enthusiastic about too many causes is likely to be a pretty "wishy-washy" sort of person. 71. We should teach our children to uphold the welfare of all people everywhere, even though it may be against the best interest of our own country. 72. It's all too true that people just won't practise what they preach. 1 31 73. Our country should not participate in any inter­ national organization which requires that we give up any of our national rights or freedom of action. 74. Our schools should teach the history of the whole world rather than of our own country. 75. There is so much to be done and so little time to do it i n . 76. Race prejudice may be a good thing for us because it keeps many undesirable foreigners from coming into this country. 77. It is by returning to our glorious and forgotten past that real social progress can be achieved. 78. Our country should refuse to cooperate in a total disarmament program even if other nations agree to it. 79. If given the chance I would do something of great benefit to the world. 80. Our country should not cooperate in any international trade agreement which attempts to better world economic conditions at our expense. 81. It would be better to be a citizen of the world than of any particular country. 82. The United States and Russia have just about nothing in common. 83. In a heated discussion, people have a way of bringing up irrelevant issues, rather than sticking to the main ide a . 84 . It is only when a person devotes himself to an ideal or cause that life becomes meaningful. 85. Immigrants should not be permitted to come into our country if they compete with our own workers. 86. Man on his own is a helpless and miserable creature. 87. Our country should have the right to prohibit certain racial and religious groups from entering it to live. 88 . It is only natural that a person would have a much better acquaintance with ideas he believes in than with ideas he opposes. 132 B9. There are two kinds of people in this world: those who are for the truth and those who are against the truth. 90. All national governments ought to be abolished and replaced by one central world government. 91. Even though I have a lot of faith in the intelligence and wisdom of the common man I must say that the masses behave stupidly at times. 92. 93. The main thing in life is for a person to want to do something important. It would be a mistake for us to encourage certain racial groups to become well educated because they might use their knowledge against us. 94. My blood boils whenever a person stubbornly refuses to admit he's wrong. 95. Fundamentally, the world we live in is a pretty lonesome place. 96. The worst crime a person could commit is to attack publicly, the people who believe in the same things he does. 97. It would be dangerous for our country to make inter­ national agreements with nations whose religious beliefs are antagonistic to ours. 98. It is only natural for a person to be rather fearful of the future.