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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zoeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 4B106 I I 74-6159 VLAHOS, Mantha S te lla , 1947CAREER EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PERCEPTIONS AMONG COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS AND STATE OFFICIALS. Michigan State U n ive rsity , Ph.D., 1973 Education, higher U n iversity M icrofilm s, A XEROX C o m p a n y , A n n A rbo r, M ich igan © 1973 MANTHA STELLA VLAHOS ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CAREER EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PERCEPTIONS AMONG COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS AND STATE OFFICIALS BY Mantha S te lla Vlahos A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State U niversity in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department o f Administration and Higher Education 1973 ABSTRACT CAREER EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PERCEPTIONS AMONG COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS AND STATE OFFICIALS By Mantha S te lla Vlahos The purpose o f the exploratory study was to make a comparative analysis o f the perceptions of selected state department o ffic ia ls and community college adm inistrators in Michigan as those perceptions pertain to the basic nature of the career education concept in the community college s e ttin g . Meaning which each sample had fo r the concept was measured in terms o f: (a) a ffe c tiv e responses to the term, "career education," as revealed by a semantic d iffe r e n tia l inventory; and (b) cognitive responses to an a p rio r i d e fin itio n o f c r itic a l elements o f career education as defined by a panel o f experts. The samples were composed o f 30 selected sta te o ffic ia ls o f the Vocational Education and Career Development Service (VECDS) o f the Michigan Department of Education and 30 selected adm inistrators from six Michigan community colleges (CC). in-person questionnaire survey method was u tiliz e d . The Mantha S t e ll a Vlahos An additional community college was used to determine g e n e ra liz a b ility of the sample. Instrumentation included the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l, L ik e rt-ty p e scales, and fa c to r analysis. Each measuring technique was discussed b r ie fly in terms o f s u it a b ilit y advantages, and disadvantages. The measuring techniques were applied to coded data to determine re s u lts . Major conclusions o f the study included: 1. The a ffe c tiv e d escrip tive meaning o f the term, "career education," was v ir tu a lly the same fo r both samples. VECDS personnel and CC adm inistrators perceive career education as ju s t rig h t o f center in potency, a c t iv it y , and evaluative fac to rs. The finding implies th at State o f fic ia ls and community college administrators experience a s im ila r e ffe c tiv e reaction to the term, "career education." 2. Overall analysis o f responses to an a p rio ri d e fin itio n o f c r it ic a l elements o f career education as defined by a panel of experts indicate th a t the State o f fic ia ls and community college adm inistrators do not d if f e r in how they co g n itive ly describe career education. The few s p e c ific differences which do e x is t were presented in the re s u lts . 3. A computer v a lid ity check determined th a t the questionnaire was able to discrim inate on selected items and, thereby, implies th a t the two samples a c tu a lly do not s ig n ific a n tly d if f e r in th e ir respective description o f career education concept. Mantha S t e lla Vlahos 4. The o rig in a l factors o f the questionnaire were contaminated. Items did not c le a rly d iffe re n tia te the fac to rs. Factor analysis fo r the VECDS indicated th a t underlying factors may be "self-development inform ation," "previous experience," and "job preparation." The CC sample seems to indicate th a t "information gathering" and "sharing" may be the underlying factors a ffe c tin g community college adm inistrators. The factors should be pursued in more d e ta il to determine i f they are the real factors which determine response to d e fin itio n of career education in programmatic element terms. 5. State o ffic ia ls co rrela te highly w ith in on the infusion theme while community college administrators show high correlations w ithin on the a rtic u la tio n theme. Self-assessment appears to c o rre la te most often with other items fo r the VECDS. 6 . The small size o f the check sample {N = 5) prohibits generalization although the check sample tends to in d icate th at conclusions from findings may be generalized to the populations. DEDICATED To My fa th e r, SPEROS, my mother, STELLA, and the memory o f my grandparents who l e f t th e ir v illa g e s in Greece so th at I could have th is opportunity ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1 wish to thank my doctoral committee: Dr. Max Raines, Dr. John Ivey, Dr. Louis Stamatakos, and Dr. Everett Rogers fo r th e ir valuable assistance and encouragement in the present endeavor. Additional g ratitu de is also extended to Dr. James Engelkes who attended my fin a l orals as a representative fo r Dr. Ivey. Dr. Max Raines deserves special thanks fo r the many hours he spent as frie n d , counselor, and mentor. I am ce rta in th at the e n tire process would have been much less meaningful without him. Dr. Louis Stamatakos and Dr. Dean MacLeod are extended my g ratitude fo r encouraging me to enter higher education adm inistration; the doctoral program in Dean fo r his knowledge of having been through i t a l l ; and Lou fo r his deep understanding o f our Greek h eritage. They helped me through many rough moments. Special thanks is in order fo r Dr. Jack Michie whose friendship iv and never-ending encouragement fo r me to fin is h the requirements fo r the degree gave me the in i t i a t i v e to s triv e harder. Those who gave me special design, tech n ical, and se creta rial assistance include: Dr. Roanld Edwards, Dr. Cas Heilman, Mr. W illiam Richards, and the la te Dr. Verling "Pete" Troldahl. The s e c re ta ria l s k ills o f Ms. Cindy Buchanan and Ms. Debbie Benjamin made possible th is fin a l copy. I wish to thank my colleagues and friends who gave me a special p art o f themselves in wishing me well during th is endeavor. Among them are: Mr. Richard Shupe, Mr. Gene Simms, Mr. Arnold Loomis, Mr. W illiam Weisgerber, Mr. Karl Stearns, and Mr. Sherman G riffin g . Sherman spent many long hours assisting me with analysis o f data and encouraging me to be "me" and f u l f i l l my dreams. For th a t, I am very g ra te fu l. Last, but c e rta in ly not le a s t, I thank my parents fo r raising me with the ideals and values which have led me to th is achievement. Mantha S. Vlahos TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE L is t Of T a b le s ................................................................................................. v i i i Chapter I. THE PROBLEM................................................................................. 1 Introduction ...................................................................... 1 Purpose .............................................................................. 4 D e lim ita tio n s...................................................................... 5 Need fo r the S tu d y .......................................................... 5 Basis fo r the Study............................................ 10 Philosophical Base.................................... 10 Sociological B a s e ...........................................................14 Economic B a s e ...................................................................17 Legal B a s e ....................................................................... 22 Research Questions .......................................................... II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Confusion in D e fin itio n 23 ............................................... 24 ............................................. 24 Summary............................................................................... 37 Antecedents o f Career Education ............................. 38 In d u s tria l A r t s ...............................................................39 Vocational Guidance .................................................. 41 L ife Adjustment Education ..................................... 42 v vi Chapter Page Developmental Tasks........................................... 44 General Education .............................................. 46 Summary .................................................................. 47 Components o f Career Education ....................... 48 Summary .................................................................. 52 The Community College Role ............................... 52 Summary .................................................................. 53 I I I . METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 55 Introduction ............................................................ 55 Samples ...................................................................... 55 Procedure .................................................................. 57 Instrumentation ...................................................... 60 IV. Semantic D iffe r e n tia l .................. 61 Likert-Type Scales ............................................ 67 Career Education Themes ................................. 70 Factor Analysis .................................................. 73 Background C h aracteristics ........................... 76 RESULTS ................................................................................ 78 Introduction .............................................................. 78 Semantic D iffe r e n tia l ........................................... 78 Background and Career Education Themes ......... 82 Factor Analysis ........................................................ 96 Correlations .............................................................. 99 Chapter Page V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ............................................................. 102 Summary o f the P roblem ................................................. 102 Summary o f Data C o lle c t io n ......................................... 103 Findings o f the Study. . . . ...................................... 104 L i m i t a t i o n s ......................................................................107 Conclusions and Im plications ..................................... Ill R e f l e c t i o n s ......................................................................114 Suggestions fo r Further Research ............................. 117 APPENDICES.......................................................................................... 120 I. S t r a t i f i c a t i o n s ............................................................. 120 II. Questionnaire Code B o o k .............................................121 III. Raw Questionnaire D a t a ............................ .................... 127 BIBLIOGRAPHY 135 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Comparison o f Semantic D iffe re n tia l Factors ................ 79 2. Variance o f Semantic D iffe r e n tia l Factors ..................... so 3. Mean Correlations o f Semantic D if f e r e n t ia l........................ 81 4. Comparison of Background Items............................................83 5. Comparison of CE Themes........................................................ 84 . Variance o f CE th em es................................................................. 85 7. Mean Correlations o f CE T h e m e s ............................................. 8 6 6 8 . 9. Comparison o f Goal O rientation Theme Items...................... 87 Comparison of A rtic u la tio n Theme Items ......................... 88 .................................. 90 10. Comparison o f Infusion Theme Items 11. Comparison o f Community Communication ThemeItems 12. Comparison o f Professional Growth Theme Items. . . . 92 13. Comparison of Openness Theme Items .................................. 93 14. Comparison o f "Negative" Items .......................................... 95 15. Items Comprising Factors fo r the VocationalEducation & Career Development Service ............................................. 97 Items Comprising Factors fo r Community College Administrators .......................................................................... 98 16. . . 91 Chapter I THE PROBLEM Introduction Presently certain conditions which ex is t in the United States appear to indicate th at the d irectio n which the educational system has taken may not be appropriate (President's Community Crime Prevention Task Force Report, 1973). Figures from the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare (1972) reveal th at 850,000 elementary and secondary school students dropped out of school in 1971. Another 750,000 students in the general education program graduated from high school with no sp ecific occupational s k ills and did not go on to college. In ad d itio n, 850,000 students entered college in 1967 but did not complete e ith e r a baccalaureate or an organized occupational program. The U.S. O ffice o f Education in te rp re ts the addition o f the above figures to mean th at approximately 2.5 m illio n people l e f t the formal educational system without having received vocational tra in in g to prepare them with job s k ills . Over f i f t y percent o f the youth entering the ninth grade in large metropolitan areas drop out before completing high school. Most of them are unemployable. 1 As a re s u lt, they 2 contribute to the ris in g rates o f unemployment, crime, and w elfare. (P resident's Conmiunity Crime Prevention Task Force Report, 1973) By 1980, e ig h ty -fiv e percent o f the jobs existin g in the United States w ill require less education than a baccalaureate degree but more than a high school diploma. More emphasis w ill be placed on two-year occupational programs a t the community college. (U.S. DHEW, 1973) To change the current s itu a tio n , the U.S. O ffice o f Education (USOE) has proposed the concept o f career education. Career education is a composite o f career preparation ( i . e . , vocationaltechnical tra in in g ) and career development ( i . e . , non-technical; career awareness, exp lo ratio n , decision-making, and placement). (U.S. DHEW, 1973) The present study emerged from the need fo r consensus between members o f the Michigan Department o f Education and adm inistrators o f Michigan's community colleges concerning the d e fin itio n of the United States O ffice o f Education's (U .S .O .E .) concept o f career education. The U.S.O.E. and the Michigan Department o f Education have placed major emphasis on implementation o f the career education concept. To date, the e f fo r t has focused on kindergarten through tw e lfth grade d is tr ic ts with l i t t l e regard to a career education model fo r post secondary in s titu tio n s . 3 The strategy used by the U.S.O.E. in i n i t i a l l y introducing the career education concept was merely to coin the term and not e x p lic it ly define i t . The reasoning fo r the action was to promulgate d e fin itio n s o f the concept a t the local le v e l, to fo s te r local involvement, and, hence, to gain fa s te r acceptance o f the concept. (Hoyt, e t. a ! . , 1972) Now th a t increased support and funding of career education are pending, the in v es tig ato r believes th at congruity in d e fin itio n s o f career education must e x is t among the various groups implementing career education in the community colleges. Otherwise, e ffo rts fo r statewide implementation o f career education programs and an appropriate funding system may c o n flic t and be counterproductive. According to Marland (1971), Assistant Secretary o f Health, Education, and W elfare, and the U.S. O ffic e o f Education, career education is defined as a concept which implies th a t such education w ill be p art of the curriculum fo r a ll students; i t w ill continue from f i r s t grade through senior high and beyond i f the student desires; each student leaving school w ill possess the s k ills to give him a s ta r t in making his liv e lih o o d . 4 The Michigan Department o f Education (1972) defined career education as follows: “educational a c t iv it ie s from kindergarten through ad u lt l i f e which provide an individual w ith the attitu d e s and s k ills necessary to select and be successful in a career f ie ld . This includes the blending occupational preparation, career development, consumer education, and general education programs." The central purpose o f the career education concept is to maximize the fu tu re career options o f youth and adults and assist them in find in g the personal values which w ill enhance th e ir potential in society. The career education program should provide students with a process fo r re la tin g themselves and th e ir education to real l i f e needs. (Michigan Department o f Education, 1973) Purpose The purpose o f th is study is to make a comparative analysis o f the perceptions of selected state department o f fic ia ls and community college adm inistrators in Michigan as those perceptions pertain to th e ir basic concepts o f the nature o f career education in a community college s e ttin g . (a) The concepts w ill include: a ffe c tiv e responses to the term "career education" as revealed by a semantic d iffe r e n tia l inventory, and 5 (b) cognitive responses to an a p rio r i d e fin itio n of c r it ic a l elements o f career education as defined by a panel o f experts. Del im itations Results o f the present study can be generalized to the populations o f adm inistrators in Michigan community colleges and to members o f the Michigan Department o f Education professional s t a f f of the Vocational Education and Career Development Service. Although s ta tis tic a l generalizations o f resu lts may not be made beyond these populations in Michigan, the researcher believes th a t the methodology and resu lts w ill prove useful throughout the United States in the nationwide attempt to define career education a t the community college le v e l. Need fo r the Study The concept o f "career education" was mandated to a ll public schools by former U.S. Commissioner o f Education, Sidney P. Marland, J r. (1971b). In order to f a c i l i t a t e it s adoption by local educational agencies, Marland did not e x p lic itly define the concept. Marland (1971a) f i r s t introduced career education as a new term to dispose o f the term, vocational education. His ra tio n a le fo r that act was to acknowledge th a t vocational education does not serve enough students (Marland, 1971). L ater, Marland (1972) proclaimed th at career education was not synonymous with vocational education. I t appears th a t i f the la s t statement is what Marland re a lly means, he should not have i n i t i a l l y introduced the term, "career education," as a replacement fo r "vocational education." Instead o f assisting in the adoption process, th is strategy has led to mass confusion w ith regard to the real meaning o f career education. In fa c t, confusion a ris in g from misunderstandings regarding the d e fin itio n o f the phrase, "career education," has resulted from inexact and sometimes inconsistent announcements from the U.S.O.E. regarding career education (Hoyt, e£. al_. 1972, p. i v ) . Even the four career education models described below which the U.S.O.E. is developing, each have a d iffe re n t ra tio n a le and d iffe re n t method (Moore, 1972, p. 5 ). As Hoyt points o u t, there are as many d e fin itio n s of career education as there are people defining i t (Hoyt, ejt. al_. 1972, p. 1). Unfortunately, lack o f understanding can lead to i n i t i a l re je c tio n of the concept (Hoyt, e t. al_. 1972). (The current d e fin itio n s and re su ltan t confusion is discussed in fu rth e r d e ta il in Chapter 2) 7 In an e ff o r t to remedy the confusion, Marland (1971a) attempted to define career education by o f f i c ia ll y placing high p r io r ity on designing a workable system o f career education. Three model career education programs were to have been developed. These are as follow s: 1. School-based model - - a revision of cu rricu la fo r kindergarten through ju n io r college to focus on the concept o f career development tying the school closely with local community, business, and industry. The principal objective was to guide the student e ith e r to a job or to fu rth e r formal education. The c r itic a l elements in this model were coordination among grade levels and establishment o f relationships outside the school with individuals who influence the student's career choice. 2. 3. Employer-based model - - creatio n , development, operation, and support of educational experiences by in d u strial and commercial firms fo r the b en efit o f youth 13 to 2 0 years old who have dropped-out of formal education. Home/Community-based model — use o f the home and community in s titu tio n s to support the f i r s t two models and to reach individuals with lim ite d formal schooling. (This model has since been referred to as two separate models: home-based and community-based). To date, l i t t l e has resulted in development of the U.S. O ffice o f Education's models ( M ille r , September 19-22, 1972). No information concerning the employer-based and home/community-based models has been disseminated. The school-based model became a K- 1 2 model w ith no consideration given to the post-secondary le v e l. The model is cu rren tly being tested in grades K-12 o f the Pontiac, Michigan Public Schools. These e ffo rts have v ir tu a lly done nothing to d isp ell the confusion concerning the meaning of career education. 8 In its zeal to fo llow Marland's mandate fo r career education, the State o f Michigan's Department of Education has mandated career education in Michigan's public schools — from kindergarten through the community college (Michigan Department of Education, 1972). The legal base from which the Michigan Department o f Education (MDE) is functioning can be found in the C onstitution of the State o f Michigan (1963, p. 36). According to A r tic le V I I I o f Michigan's C o nstitution, the State Department of Education in Michigan is to have "powers and duties provided by law." Paramount among it s powers is its duty to serve as the "general planning and coordinating body fo r a ll public education, including higher education," and to "advise the le g is la tu re as to the fin a n c ia l requirements in connection th erew ith ." With th is legal base, the Michigan Department o f Education acts as the planning and coordinating body between the federal government and local educational agencies (Michigan School Code, P.A. 269, 1955). The MDE has assumed the follow ing roles: ( 1 ) leadership ro le in the planning of educational programs; ( 2 ) lia is o n ro le as tran sm itter o f information between the U.S. O ffice o f Education and local educational agencies; and (3) fin a n c ia l role o f determining who receives state funds based on MDE funding c r it e r ia . (P o rte r, 1971). 9 Since MDE has mandated career education programming fo r levels kindergarten through adult with support of the U.S. O ffic e o f Education and since funding c r it e r ia indicate p r io r itie s fo r educational agencies emphasizing the career education concept, there exists a need to determine how the career education concept should be defined in the community college s e ttin g . In addition to the need fo r individual c la r it y of the concept, "career education," b e tte r communication must e x is t between the MDE and Michigan's community colleges concerning career education i f planning e ffo rts are to be successful. Public Act 364 (1973), which was recently signed into law, mandates a statewide assessment o f career education programs. This is cu rren tly creating havoc because of the lack o f a c le a r, concise, and mutual agreement as to what constitutes "career education" programs. The in vestig ato r believes th at many community colleges conduct a c tiv itie s which the MDE would consider "career education" but which the college may be re fe rrin g to by some other terminology. When the fu tu re funding p o licies depend on a survey such as is being cu rren tly conducted to f u l f i l l the mandate o f P.A. 364, e x p lic it d e fin itio n of the concept, "career education," becomes v ita l. Therefore, the current study is needed to: ( 1 ) determine how community college administrators and MDE personnel resp ectively describe career education in a community college s e ttin g ; 10 ( 2 ) id e n tify commonalities and d ifferen ces; and (3) o ffe r recommendations to the Michigan Department of Education with regard to its communication approach with Michigan community college adm inistrators in developing career education programs in a community college s e ttin g . Basis fo r the Study There e x is t p hilosophical, so c io lo g ic al, economic, and legal bases fo r career education. The follow ing are b rie f discussions o f these four areas. Philosophical Base Plato in The Laws (1970) wrote th at tra in in g fo r manual s k ills is "mean and i l l i b e r a l and is not worthy to be called education a t a l l . " In contrast to th is viewpoint in 1524, Martin Luther (1908) advised the mayors and aldermen in Germany: "Boys should spend an hour or two a day in school, and the rest o f the time work a t home, learn some trade and do whatever is desired so th a t study and work may go together, while the children are young and can attend to both." Plato and Martin Luther exemplify the beginnings o f two opposing views toward the ro le manual s k ills should command in education. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1911), the 18th century philosopher, revolted against the in te lle c tu a l ism in the French education system. He published Emile in 1762 in which Emile spent two 11 days weekly as an apprentice with a master carpenter to learn the carpentry trade. The Swiss educator, Johann Heinrich P e s ta lo zzi, was d ir e c tly influenced by Rousseau's book. Pestalozzi believed th at a ch ild learns by doing and so embodied many o f Rousseau's ideas in a school. Books were used ''to supplement experience and to supply those facts th a t are not re a d ily accessible by d ire c t in v e s tig a tio n ." (P e s ta lo zzi, 1951) The theories o f Pestalozzi (1951) were brought to the United States in the e a rly 1800's by Francis Joseph Neff who studied under P estalo zzi. In 1825 N eff (1966) went to New Harmony, Indiana, to teach in a school founded by Robert Owen. Owen (1969) believed in the Pestalozzi method and ca lle d fo r education "combining mechanical and a g ric u ltu ra l with lit e r a r y and s c ie n tific in s tru ctio n . . . making every scholar a workman and every workman a scholar." The idea o f combining general and vocational education was embodied in the American land-grant colleges in the la s t h a lf of the 1800's. In the beginning 1900's, the American educator, John Dewey (1916, p. 216), began to argue in favor o f his b e lie f that education was a tool to help the c itiz e n combine culture and vocation. Dewey believed th a t "while there is no guarantee th a t an education which uses science and employs 12 the controlled processes o f industry as a regular p art o f it s equipment w ill succeed, there is every assurance th a t an educational practice which sets science and industry in opposition to its ideal o f cu lture w ill f a i l . " According to Donahue (1959, p. 5 7 ), Dewey's theory implies th a t career tra in in g should not be a mere apprenticeship but ra th e r "a laboratory o f insights in to the in te lle c tu a l foundation, the general methods, and the humanistic values o f work." Dewey (1904) says th a t vocational tra in in g should supply the in te lle c tu a l method and m aterial o f good workmanship. Dewey (1916, p. 231) fu rth e r says th a t "the problem o f the educator is to engage pupils in these a c tiv itie s in such ways th a t w hile manual s k ill and technical e ffic ie n c y are gained and immediate s a tis fa c tio n found in the work, together w ith preparation fo r la t e r usefulness, these things shall be subordinated to 'education' - th a t i s , to in te lle c tu a l re su lts and the forming o f a so cialized d is p o sitio n ." Dewey (1930) believed th a t knowledge and choice are the constant concern o f human existence. Knowledge and choice are stressed in career education programs with emphasis on self-awareness, career awareness and exploration, and career planning and decision-making. (Michigan Department of Education, 1972). 13 The to ta l educational experience, as wide as l i f e i t s e l f , ensures development of habits o f instrumental thinking and social s k ills . Many educational a c t iv it ie s , observed Dewey, can be found in the home and in the community. He wrote th a t he did not expect genuine integration o f knowledge to be achieved in his life tim e (Dewey died in 1952). He did believe th a t "a mind th a t is not too e g o tis tic a lly impatient can have fa it h th a t th is u n ific a tio n w ill issue in its season." (Dewey, 1920, p. 26) Possibly, the time fo r th is has arrived w ith the advent o f career education. Dewey (1915, p. 136) wrote th a t the function o f work is to f i r s t sustain l i f e and then "to provide a permanent home in which a ll the higher and more s p ir itu a l in terests may center." However, most American educators did not agree th a t vocations should be taught in school. Their position was a d ire c t re s u lt of the English concept o f a ris to c ra tic education. Education was designed to meet the needs of the "gentleman class." Educators were urged to take "culture" to the "laboring classes" to "elevate" them. Classical M arxist philosophy (Marx, 1936) emphasized the opposite. Within th is perspective, man e s s e n tia lly is distinguished 14 from animals because o f his a f f i n it y fo r labor. Education, according to Marx, aims to c u ltiv a te the c h a ra c te ris tic work power. The s p i r i t is what emerges as workers f u lly re a liz e the f u ll range o f th e ir c a p ac ities . Marx believes th a t Man's labor is both the source and goal o f his e n tire l i f e . Marx contends th a t work is the basic and ultim ate human a c t iv it y . Even though many American educators s t i l l believe th at a lib e ra l a rts education is the best preparation fo r any vocation, some prominent educators fe e l d iffe r e n tly . John W. Gardner (1969, p. 86) former Secretary o f Health, Education, and W elfare, has w ritte n : "We liv e in a society which honors poor philosophy, because philosophy is an honorable c a llin g and ignores good plumbing, because plumbing is a humble occupation. Under such p ractices, we w ill have n eith e r good philosophy nor good plumbing. Neither our pipes nor our theories w ill hold w ater." Sociological Base Within the archeological perspective, man was f i r s t distinguished from animals by the invention o f tools and language. The use o f to o ls , or technology, has become a fundamental index of humanity. In the Western World, the 15 Judeo-Christian tra d itio n teaches th a t work is a f u ll human expression fo r which man is n a tu ra lly o riented. Labor is a prime fa c to r in the development o f both societies and in d ivid u als. (Parker, 1971) Protestantism established work a t "the base and key of life ." M artin Luther valued work as the re lig io u s path to salvatio n. Calvin believed i t was the duty o f everyone to seek out the profession which would bring him and society the greatest retu rn . A ll men, even i f ric h , must work according to C alvin, because th is is the "W ill o f God." Puritanism developed out of Calvinism and went one step fu rth e r in valuing work as a means whereby "more benediction may f a l l upon the next needy person." A ll th is led to 19th century b e lie f in work fo r the sake of work. (P arker, 1971) In simple societies the relatio n sh ip between work and basic necessities (food, c lo th in g , sh e lte r) is d ire c t fo r the individual and small groups. Only what is produced personally is consumed. Work does not e x is t in a n o n lite ra te world. I t begins w ith the d ivision o f labor and the sp e c ia liza tio n o f functions and tasks in sedentary, a g ric u ltu ra l communities. As society evolves, social production and ownership o f property re s u lt in an in d ire c t lin k between the individual productive e f fo r t and consumption o f goods and services. (McLuhan, 1964) 16 Development o f c iv iliz a tio n corresponds to the d iv e rs ity o f types of employment and the expansion o f goods and services which are regarded as n ecessities. Parker (1971, p. 33) goes a step fu rth e r and says th a t, "Work is a basic condition o f the existence and continuation o f human l i f e — i t is independent o f any p a rtic u la r form o f so ciety." The study o f work and occupational l i f e constitutes one o f the important sub-areas w ith in sociology. Richard Hall (1969) defines an occupation as the social ro le performed by the adult members o f society th at d ir e c tly and or in d ire c tly y ie ld social and fin a n c ia l consequences and th a t constitutes the major focus in the l i f e o f an a d u lt. Work is a social concept, and employment implies a social re la tio n s h ip . According to Parker (1971), the meaning o f work varies with the type o f occupation, industry, and status. D ifference in status, or social position in society is a d ifferen ce in class, or economic position in so ciety. A study conducted by Morse and Weiss (1955) indicates th at to the American m iddle-class, work is something in te re s tin g to do which gives them a chance to contribute to society and to accomplish something. working class defines work as synonymous with a c tiv ity . As V o lta ire a p tly states in his Candide: Work banishes those three great e v ils : boredom, vic e , and poverty. The 17 Cain (1971) and others claim that dependable workers are of greater value to society today than ever before. One o f the p rincipal arguments fo r vocational education is th a t i t is a social necessity. In theory, and in fa c t, i t represents an in d iv id u a l's turning point from economic dependency upon the social structure to his independent posture as a productive member o f society. This tra n s itio n can and does a ffe c t a person one or more times during his l i f e . Vocational education is tr u ly the bridge between man and his work. Although the basic emphasis remains constant, the ways and means of achieving the educational goal do change. Effectiveness o f vocational education in meeting the needs o f people depends upon how c le a rly social change is detected and how w isely this change is served. The nature o f the contemporary social settin g has been, and must continue to be, the motivation fo r change in vocational education. Therefore, today, in te re s t has developed a new thrust called "Career Education" - a to ta l curriculum concept encompassing both vocational and general education. Economic Base Currently e ig h ty -fiv e percent o f the students in elementary and high school do not go on to receive a baccalaureate degree (U.S.O.E. 1971). Unfortunately, many o f these students also do not 18 receive salable e n try -le v e l job s k ills while they are s t i l l in the public school system. O ffering fewer programs, shoving more students into each classroom, or throwing them out in the s tre e t would only decrease the opportunities youth have to properly develop th e ir in te re sts and a b ilit ie s in a manner acceptable to society. In Pontiac, Michigan, and many other m etropolitan c it ie s , the drop out ra te is over 29.73 percent. of Education, 1972) (Michigan Department This school dropout ra te , combined w ith the lack o f em ployability s k i ll s , has led to an increase in both the unemployment ra te and the crime ra te . Eighty percent o f the inmates in correctional in s titu tio n s in the United States are school dropouts (P resid en t's Community Crime Prevention Task Force Report, 1973). In addition to the tremendous human costs incurred when youth and adults are unprepared fo r se lf-s u p p o rt, large monetary costs are incurred from the re su ltan t s itu a tio n . According to the U.S. O ffice o f Education's National Center fo r Educational S ta tis tic s (1971) in the 1970-71 school year 850,000 youth dropped out of elementary and secondary schools. Assuming th a t, on the average, students dropped out a t the end o f the tenth grade a t the cost o f approximately $8,000 per c h ild , which i t takes to put a ch ild through eleven years o f school, th is constitutes an outlay o f $7 b illio n . 19 In a d d itio n , during the 1971-72 school ye ar, 750,000 students graduated from high school in general education. Most of these students did not have the s k ills needed to be successful in the job market. At the cost o f $12,000 per pupil necessary to put each through high school, th is constitutes a cost of $9 b illio n . (U .S .O .E ., 1971). Another 850,000 students had entered college but dropped out during the 1971-72 school year. Assuming th at these students l e f t a t the end o f th e ir f i r s t ye ar, fo r a conservative estim ate, th is implies a cost o f $12 b illio n . (U.S.O.E. 1972). Looking a t elementary, secondary and post-secondary schools a ll together, approximately 2.5 m illio n young people l e f t school in FY 72 without the necessary s k ills to get and keep a job. represents an expenditure o f approximately $28 b illio n . This The e n tire cost o f education in FY 1972 was $85 b illio n , so i t is evident th at these costs to ta led one-third o f the e n tire budget. (U .S .O .E ., 1972). Considering th a t these costs are fo r one year only, one can re a d ily see how these kinds o f costs can mount over a period of time and lead to an unfortunate economic s itu a tio n . According to the Manpower Report o f the President (1972), fo r 1971 the average unemployment ra te was 5.6 percent. Youth unemployment fo r those ages 16 through 24 was 12.7 - more than twice th at of the national average. S im ila rly , the unemployment rate fo r Blacks in 1971 was 9.9 percent and 10.9 percent fo r 20 Black females. These figures in d icate th at special emphasis must be placed on educating youth and m in orities so th a t they can function in society with f u ll human d ig n ity . The soaring unemployment figures should be g reatly reduced when students, young and old a lik e , are trained with salab le, jo b -en try level s k ills . Thus career education could possibly function as preventive medicine in helping to cure the disease o f unemployment which cu rren tly plagues our society. Unfortunately, a t the present tim e, according to figures in the Congressional Q uarterly's Congress and the Nation (1969), the federal government spends almost four d o lla rs fo r re tra in in g unemployed workers fo r every d o lla r i t spends on preventive programs th a t prepare young people fo r employment a t the beginning o f th e ir careers. There are many economic b enefits which can be derived from education. Among the most e a sily id e n tifie d b e n e fit is increased pro du ctivity o f the labor force. in physical c a p ita l. Along with th is comes an increase Money fo r education is returned to the economy in the purchase o f m a teria ls, f a c i l i t y construction, goods, and services. Changes in the d is trib u tio n of earned income and increased economic m o b ility are two more major economic benefits which are brought about by education. The c o s t-b en e fit ra tio becomes even more desirable when emphasis is placed on developing em ployability s k ills in students. (M ichie, 1972) 21 Earning power among students trained in vocational education s k ills is more than th at o f people who have not received th is preparation. In a cost-effectiveness study o f vocational education conducted by Kaufman, e t. a l. (1969) findings ind icate th a t during the f i r s t s ix years a fte r graduation, vocationaltechnical graduates earned more money, performed b e tte r, and were employed longer than graduates with non-vocational or academic majors. Obviously, th is increased earning power stimulates and returns tax d o llars to the national economy. Various studies are cu rren tly being conducted to determine the actual d o lla r returns. A study conducted by the Arizona State Department o f Vocational Education (1971) indicates th a t w ithin three years, the federal government received $2 back in taxes from vocational graduates fo r every $1 i t spent on th e ir education. In ad d itio n , the State o f Arizona, a t the end of three years, received $193,602 back in taxes. This amount constituted over a quarter (26.5%) o f the to ta l annual expenditure fo r vocational education spent by Arizona. The current social and economic i l l s o f society demand th at the educational system, as i t e x is ts , change to meet the changes society is experiencing. annually . . . . Over a m illio n students are dropping out turned o f f by the educational system and society. M illio n s more are psychological dropouts who a p a th e tic a lly go through the motions o f attending classes. As a re s u lt, the 22 unemployment and crime rates have soared has suffered. and humanity (President's Community Crime Prevention Task Force Report, 1973) Legal Base At the present there is no real legal base fo r career education in Michigan. Michigan's Public Act 364, which was signed into law by Governor Mi H i ken, is the f i r s t step th a t the Michigan Legislature took toward the sanctioning o f career education. P.A. 364 states th a t a statewide assessment o f the status o f career development programs must be completed and submitted to the Legislature. On March 21, 1973, House B ill No. 4422 was introduced as the "Career Education Act o f 1973." The b i l l states th a t guidelines fo r a comprehensive career education program w ill be established by January 1, 1974. Career education is defined in H.B. 4422 as "A to ta l educational program which maximizes the future career options o f youth and adults by providing adequate career development and preparation." Although the word, "adults" appears in the d e fin itio n o f career education, H.B. 4422 does not address i t s e l f to post secondary education. 23 Research Questions Explanations o f the purposes of the study, need and basis fo r the career education concept appear to lead to the follow ing set of research questions. 1. What is the description o f career education in terms o f a ffe c tiv e meaning and program elements in the community college according to the samples studied? 2. Is there commonality in the themes used to describe career education? 3. What are the differences w ithin and between the groups studied? 4. What should be done to fo ster awareness or consensus of d e fin itio n of the career education concept? Chapter I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Confusion in D e fin itio n Career education is referred to in the lit e r a t u r e as a concept (Marland, 197 ; Goldhammer & T aylor, 1972; Swanson, 1971; Hoyt, e t . a l . , 1972; Klinkhammer, 1973). Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) define a concept as a dimension expressed in its most basic terms. The meaning which an individual w ill have fo r a concept is determined by a ll his past experience (Osgood and Sebeok, 1965). Since the to ta l stored experiences of individuals are unattainable fo r an a ly sis, Osgood and Sebeok (1965) substantiate th at meaning may be defined by a r e la tiv e ly lim ited amount o f e lic ite d language. Generally, a d e fin itio n is a su b stitution o f language in order to achieve c la r it y (Benjamin, 1970). A "reported" d e fin itio n depends on people's verbal behaviors. The present study e l i c i t s reported d e fin itio n s o f "career education." Methods o f d e fin itio n include genus, comprehension, or negation (Benjamin, 1970). D e fin itio n by genus refers the term being defined to a class, kind, or group which is marked by 24 25 common c h a ra c te ris tic s . The comprehension method o f d e fin itio n re lie s on the in t e lle c t . The individual is supposed to grasp the knowledge according to his capacity fo r understanding. D e fin itio n by negation defines a term by te llin g a ll the things i t is not. The person receiving the d e fin itio n must then in fe r from the universe what i t is . Many attempts a t defining the career education concept have focused on the negation method (M ichie, 1972; P ierce, 1972). The problem with th is method has been th a t the negation has not been carried fa r enough so th at i t becomes c le a r what career education is . Rules fo r producing a successful d e fin itio n are offered by Benjamin (1970). He says th at the language which is used should have high comprehension p ro b a b ility . The need fo r a new term should be demonstrated, and fa m ilia r language should be used in introducing the new term. The language should be determined by the audience fo r which i t is intended. Furthermore, e n tire designators o f the concept should be replaced rather than merely replacing individual words. D e fin itio n and description o f the term should not appear in the same sentence, since th is w ill re s u lt in confusion. One should determine whether the in te n t o f the term is d e fin itiv e or d escrip tive. 26 In the case o f the "career education," Marl and proposed i t a t the 1971 Convention o f the National Association of School Principals as a replacement fo r the term, "vocational education." Marland believed the change in terminology would be a f i r s t step in disposing the ex is te n t academic versus vocational dichotomy. (Marland, January 23, 1971} Later in 1971, Marland (May 4, 1971) claimed that his motivation in using the term, "career education," in place of "vocational education" was to acknowledge that the vocational education prevalent a t th a t time was good but did not serve enough students. Marland (1971) says th a t career education to him means a concept which says three things: (1) career education w ill be part o f the curriculum fo r a ll students; (2) i t w ill continue throughout l i f e i f the student desires; and (3 ) each student w ill possess e n try -le v e l s k ills when he leaves school even i f i t ' s before graduation. "All education is career education, or should be," says Marland (1971, p .3 ). Career education would bridge school and work by stressing r e a lity in the classroom (Marland, 1971, p. 8 ). 27 Marland (March, 1973, p. 3) has “conscientiously avoided" a precise d e fin itio n o f career education. He says th a t academicians who have looked down a t career education as a re fle x action by the federal government to a lle v ia te the high unemployment s itu atio n are wrong. Marland also condemns vocational educators who define career education synonymously w ith vocational education. The present in v e s tig a to r fee ls th a t Marland spends most o f his energy declaring what career education is not and a c tu a lly has done very l i t t l e to the d e fin itio n . in comparison to as sis t in adding c la r it y His strategy may have been good a t the i n i t i a l beginning o f the career education concept, but strategies must change over time to f a c i l i t a t e adoption o f the concept. The present in v es tig ato r strongly believes th a t when implementation o f the concept is being forced upon schools and colleges (H.B. 4422), the time has come to estab lish a precise d e fin itio n o f career education. Marl and's explanation o f career education is “hardly a d e fin itio n ." To gain c r e d ib ility and support fo r career education programs from lo c a l, s ta te , and federal agencies, educators need to be e x p lic it in d e fin itio n s and not use professional jargon to obscure the true s itu a tio n . (Moore, 1972) 28 Since Marland's i n i t i a l introduction o f the concept, several persons have attempted to define career education using the comprehension method o f d e fin itio n . For example, Evans defines career education as "the to ta l e ff o r t o f the community to develop a personally sa tisfyin g succession of opportunities fo r service through work, paid or unpaid, extending throughout l i f e e t. a l . , 1972, p. 1 ) . (Hoyt, This d e fin itio n emphasizes career and the ethics o f work. Hoyt has a s im ila r d e fin itio n o f career education w ith more emphasis on human values. "To Hoyt, career education is defined as the to ta l e ffo r t o f public education and the community aimed a t helping a l l ind ividu als to become fa m ilia r with the values of a work-oriented so ciety, to in te g rate these values into th e ir personal value systems, and to implement these values in to t h e ir liv e s in such a way th a t work becomes possible, meaningful, and s a tis fy in g to each in d iv id u a l." (Hoyt, e t. a l . , 1972, p. 1) The d e fin itio n s o f career education given by Hoyt and Evans (Hoyt, e t. a l . , 1972, p. 66) both emphasize the values o f a workoriented society and the importance o f the educational system in perpetuating them. assumptions: The d e fin itio n s are based on the follow ing 29 1. P ro d uctivity o f any society depends d ire c tly on the s o ciety's commitment to the work e th ic , given equal resources and ingenuity. 2. The Protestant work eth ic is being eroded and is no longer a v ia b le concept fo r many people in American society. 3. None o f the great c iv iliz a tio n s in h isto ry continued to prosper once they abandoned th e ir commitment to work. 4. Career education's basic goal is to restore the work eth ic so i t re fle c ts new social and economic r e a lit ie s . Components o f career education according to Hoyt, e t. a l . , (1972) are as follows: 1. Emphasis by a ll teachers in a ll courses a t a ll levels on the career im plications of the substantive content being taught. 2. Vocational s k ill tra in in g to av ail students the competencies necessary to successfully enter or reenter the work world. 3. Comprehensive career development program involving school and non-school personnel. 4. Cooperation and p o s itive involvement o f p riv a te and public employers and labor organizations. 5. Recognition and c a p ita liz a tio n o f the in te rre la tio n s h ip s among the home, fa m ily , community, and occupational society. Hoyt, e t. a l . , (1972, p. 10) suggests th a t there are three phases in the career education process fo r every person: 30 1. awareness phase; 2. exploring and personal decision making phase; and 3. implementing work values phase. The process is repeated whenever an individual selects or changes his occupation. A s lig h tly d iffe re n t view is expressed by Evans and McClosky. They say th a t career education provides a means fo r demonstrating the social relevance o f what is learned in school by showing the relationships between that and careers. The individual can see that the m aterial taught and competencies developed are relevant to his p a rtic u la r career goals. Career education, then, o ffe rs an e ffe c tiv e vehicle to f a c i li t a t e adjustment to work changes. (Evans and McClosky, October 1972). Another description o f career education as an "emerging construct" offered by Pratzner (1972). He i n i t i a l l y defines career education as "education: (1) consisting o f general and specialized tra in in g ; (2) to help individuals achieve s e lf -fu lf illm e n t through th e ir work ro les ; and (3) to help society achieve a balanced supply and demand fo r professional and non-professional manpower." Broadly, Pratzner believes career education is an attempt a t humanization of education — esp ecially vocational education. In his summary, Pratzner (1972, p. 181) claims he defined career education as: (1) general and sp ecific tra in in g , (2) greater program and curriculum a lte rn a tiv e s , (3) more in d ividu alized s tra te g ie s , (4) focus on the a ffe c tiv e domain in content and methods, and (5) continual adjustment from kindergarten beyond the tw e lfth grade. Apparently Pratzner changed p art o f his d e fin itio n o f career education from the f i r s t portion o f his a r t ic le to his summary. Such a change can lead to confusion among readers and leads one to place less confidence in Pratzner's knowledge o f the career education concept. Pratzner (1972, p. 177) says th at work adjustment of the individual and a balanced supply and demand of s k ille d manpower are the goals o f career education. Goldhammer (1972) contends th a t education should prepare people fo r " l i f e careers," or l i f e ro les. He describes the l i f e roles as the follow ing: 1. Economic Man - produces goods or renders services. 2. Family Man - p a rtic ip a te s in the fam ily u n it. 3. Social Man - p a rtic ip a te s in social and p o litic a l a c t iv it ie s . 4. Avocational Man - p a rtic ip a te s in recreational a c t iv it ie s . 5. Religious Man - p a rtic ip a te s in a e s th e tic , moral, and re lig io u s a c t iv it ie s . 32 Every person p a rtic ip a te s in each o f the l i f e roles in varying degrees throughout his life tim e . In the present American so ciety, the economic l i f e role appears to be most important. A ll the other roles depend on s a tis fa c to ry fu lfillm e n t o f the economic ro le . M ille r (October, 1972) states th a t i f career education is defined in such broad terms as preparation of a member o f the society fo r a career as (1 ) economic man, (2) fam ily man, (3) s o c io p o litic a l man, (4 ) leisu re man, and (5) aesth etic man, there is no wonder th a t people should fin d i t a ttr a c tiv e . He implies th a t mere preparation fo r l i f e roles (Goldhammer's thesis) is in s u ffic ie n t d e fin itio n to demonstrate any d ifferen ce between career education and any other ideal educational system. He believes th a t the real d ifferen ce is pointed out by the U.S. O ffice o f Education. U.S.O.E. stresses fusion o f academic, vocational, and technical areas fo r a ll students. Career education, then, according to M ille r , is a comprehensive educational program involving the e n tire school program so that career development concepts, inform ation, and experiences are infused into the e x is tin g c u rric u la . "Career education" is a label fo r an evolving concept which is in the process o f being defined to accommodate in te re sts w ithin and among various groups (Swanson, 1971). The e f f o r t to 33 find an acceptable d e fin itio n according to Swanson merely results in a rriv in g a t a "to le ra b le level o f g e n e ra lity ." Swanson (1971) d e lib e ra te ly does not attempt to define career education. Instead, he describes the various approaches which have been used to e x p lica te the concept. The approaches include description o f the follow ing: a. A philosophical commitment o f the educational system to the values o f a work-oriented society; b. The essential components required fo r the functioning of a career education program; c. The u t iliz a t io n o f career education as an educational d e liv e ry system; d. The educational levels and the various educational objectives upon which they center from kindergarten throughout ad u lt l i f e ; and e. The outcomes o f career education. Swanson (1971) is the only author whom the present in v es tig ato r was able to fin d who discussed the o verall approaches which have been taken in describing career education. He concludes that no single approach to the d e fin itio n or description o f career education is complete or adequate. He contends th a t a ll the approaches c u rre n tly in use be u tiliz e d to define career education more p rec ise ly . 34 Swanson (1971) to date is the only w rite r in the career education realm who even mentions anything regarding the semantic meaning o f the concept. "Career" in the concept, "career education," according to him is "grammatically and conceptually" an a d je c tiv e . This im p lies, he says, th a t career education is a special kind o f education concentrating on the values o f work. The meaning o f career education, th e re fo re , cannot be synonymous with th a t of education. From the above examples, one can re a d ily see th at the number o f d e fin itio n s o f career education is as great as the number o f educational philosophers (B u rkett, March 1973, p. 73; Hoyt, e t. a l . , 1972, p. 1 ). No consensus on the d e fin itio n o f career education exists n a tio n a lly (Hoyt, March, 1973, p. 2 3 ). Goldhammer (1972, p. 5) claims th at "the most accurate and honest statement to be made a t th is time is th a t career education remains to be p recisely defined." He asserts th at there is no u n iversally accepted d e fin itio n o f career education and that the strategy of the U.S. O ffice of Education has been to leave the d e fin itio n open to as much dialogue and in te ra c tio n as possible (Goldhammer, 1972, p. 6 ). 35 Even the four USOE models o f career education each have a d iffe re n t ra tio n a le fo r career education and how i t should be done. Yet, each is used as an example o f career education when attempts are made to define i t . This leads to confusion concerning what career education re a lly is . (Moore, 1972, p. 5 ). "At present career education is l i t t l e more than a s ta tis tic a l caricatu re. I t is an idea without a w ell-defined p rin c ip le . I t is a theory th a t is y e t to be proven." (Moore, 1972, p. 4) Shimberg (1972, p. 47) says th a t there is lack of a precise d e fin itio n o f the term, "career education," and few specifics concerning how the concept w ill be implemented. Career education, th erefo re, has not appeared as a th re a t and, hence, has evoked general agreement th at i t is a good thing. Klinkhamer (1973, p. 124) refers to career education as a puzzle. He says that one advantage is th at educators have the opportunity to conceptualize i t before its conceptualization is completed. He also hints a t the p o s s ib ility th a t it s conceptualization may never be completed. Increased in te re s t in career education has resulted in a continual adding o f more pieces to the puzzle. 36 The u tte r confusion surrounding the concept o f career education is discussed by Moore (1972). He demonstrates how career education is "polluted" by terms, such as "vocational education," " s k ill tra in in g ," and "technical education." He explains th at many look at career education as vocationaltechnical education with a social dimension incorporating a general education, guidance, and counseling component. Goldhammer (1972) believes th a t a careers curriculum is not a panacea. He suggests th a t i t has p o te n tia l. I t re -d ire c ts the mission of education from purely in te g ra tiv e dimensions toward a p p lic ative ones. School adm inistrators should lead the e f f o r t to expand career education according to Venn (1972). He contends th a t career education "promises too much and produces too l i t t l e . " Career education is not a program, course, or method, according to Venn (March, 1973, p. 12). Rather, i t is a concept which expands options to youth and those who are out o f school. Venn believes th a t in it s to ta l application career education is a " tru ly new" concept. Some persons, such as Hoyt, Heilman, and Goldhammer disagree with Venn. There is nothing new so fa r in the concept o f career education (Hoyt, e t. a l . , 1972, p. i v ) , although some new applications o f existin g concepts are discussed. "Career 37 education, a concept long la te n t in American education, has emerged as a high national p r io r ity w ithin the la s t three years." (Heilman and Goldhammer, 1972, p. 1) McCarty (1972) believes career education is a method of channeling m in orities into blue c o lla r jobs. He fee ls th at support from teacher and labor unions is necessary in order th at the hard s e ll approach which has been taken be successful in implementing career education. Shimberg (1972) supports the career education concept but questions the ta c tic s being used fo r implementation. th a t, in general, career education is not threatening. He feels He says th a t the reason i t is not threatening is th at there is no precise d e fin itio n o f the term and few specifics on implementation of i t . Therefore, educators, he b elieves, think i t is a good thing. Summary In summary, review of the lite r a tu r e points out the confusion which cu rren tly appears to e x is t concerning the d e fin itio n of career education. The concept, career education, was not properly introduced by Marland, its o rig in a to r. The in vestig ato r believes the concept has not ye t been properly defined according to the tenets o f language theory. 38 Because o f the apparent am biguities, many persons have attempted to define; "career education". There has been no systematic attempt to define the concept to the in v e s tig a to r's knowledge. As a re s u lt, there appear to be as many d e fin itio n s o f career education as there are people investig atin g i t . The in vestig ato r is amazed that educators seem to be plunging into the operational phase o f the career education concept without an o verall consensus o f what the concept means. Several educational "movements" which appear to have been implemented h a s tily also. These movements did not achieve the success th e ir supporters believed they deserved. the movements re la tiv e ly died out. As a re s u lt, Some of these movements are discussed below. Antecedents o f Career Education Although Hoyt, Evans, and the others (1972, p. 54) include a section e n title d "Precursors o f Career Education" in th e ir book, they re fe r only to is o la te d , single projects which were in operation recently. They do not mention any o f the fu ll-s c a le movements in the history of American education which the current 39 in v es tig ato r believes are some o f the real antecedents of the career education concept. The following are some o f the antecedents of career education with b r ie f explanations o f each. In d u s trial Arts In d u s tria l a rts programs tr a d itio n a lly have been based on the teaching of manipulative s k ills — implementation o f the "learning by doing" concept. The knowledge learned emphasizes exploration o f s k ills necessary fo r performance of tool operations. A fte r in d u s trial a rts programs had been in operation fo r a number o f years, related knowledge was added to them. Knowledge which helped students develop a broader understanding of the work which they performed included such things as how metals were made, fu rn itu re s ty le s , e tc . (Giachino and G allington, 1954). According to Krug, (I9 6 0 ) there is no v a lid lin e of separation between the visual fin e arts and the in d u s trial a rts . Nevertheless, separate programs of instru ctio n e x is t fo r the two. In d u s trial a rts often is equated with vocational education but re a lly is part of the general, or lib e r a l, education curriculum. 40 In 1946 a committee of the in d u s tria l a rts d iv is io n of the American Vocational Association wrote the fo llo w in g : In d u s tria l a rts courses are part o f general education and do not have d is t in c t ly bread-and-butter ju s t if ic a t io n . They are assumed to generate sympathetic in te re s t in the whole o f in d u s try , as compared or contrasted w ith a g ric u ltu re , homemaking, commerce, and c e rta in technical professions. In s tru cto rs in th is f i e l d aim a t broad, ra th e r unspecialized , and often remote values. They consider t h e ir subjects and th e ir associations w ith pupils to be la rg e ly inform ational and in s p ira tio n a l." In d u s tria l a rts programs consist o f p revo catio n al, exp lo ratory courses in technical and in d u s tria l (T & I ) education. They encompass such things as woodworking, m etals, e le c t r i c it y , h yd ra u lics, automotive, and graphic a r ts . Students i n i t i a l l y explore the general areas and, then, study some in depth. The in v e s tig a to r believes th a t the in ten tio n s o f in d u s tria l a rts programs are very s im ila r to the o b jectives o f career education programs ( i . e . , exploration in general career areas leading to g re a te r s p e c ia liz a tio n ; study o f the broader, non­ technical areas o f general education as they r e la te to careers (ca re er development). Career education is c u rre n tly attempting to do fo r a ll vocational and general education areas what in d u s tria l a rts attempted fo r T & I programs. 41 Vocational Guidance Guidance helps the individual understand himself so th at he is able to make decisions on the basis o f his understanding. Vocational guidance develops the in d iv id u a l's understanding o f himself and his a b ilit ie s in re la tio n to the occupational world. I t includes both individual counseling and group in s tru ctio n in occupations. Vocational guidance may occur at any level in the educational system but has p rim a rily been focused in the ju n io r high and high school years. (Krug, 1960) Because vocational guidance has re lie d heavily on vocational aptitude and in te re s t te s ts , i t has received much c ritic is m . The c ritic is m is based on the fa c t th a t vocational guidance counselors often regard these tests as absolute ve rd icts . These tests are then sometimes used to manipulate the individual into an area fo r which he is not especially suited. In the ideal s itu a tio n , vocational tests are not used in is o la tio n . Instead, they are used in conjunction with numerous other indicators to aid the individual in making career choices. ( I b i d . , 1960) Vocational guidance is an in teg ral part of the career development component of career education. An attempt is being made to return to the essence o f vocational guidance as a method o f guiding students through vocational experiences. ( Ib id . , 1960). 42 L ife Adjustment Education In the middle 1940's» the term, " l i f e adjustment education," was used to denote a new impetus in the educational f i e l d . The l i f e adjustment movement originated from the Prosser Resolution (1945) which was presented a t a conference on the fu tu re of vocational education. This re so lu tio n , presented in Washington in June o f 1945, states the follow ing: I t is the b e lie f o f th is conference th a t, with the aid o f th is report in fin a l form, the vocational school o f a community w ill be able b e tte r to prepare twenty percent o f its youth o f secondary school age fo r entrance upon desirable s k ille d occupations; and th a t the high school w ill continue to prepare twenty percent o f it s students fo r entrance to co lleg e. We do not believe th a t the remaining 60 per cent o f our youth o f secondary school age w ill receive the l i f e adjustment tra in in g they need and to which they are e n title d as American c itiz e n s - unless and u n til the adm inistrators o f public schools with the assistance o f the vocational education leaders formulate a s im ila r program fo r th is group. We therefore request the U.S. Commissioner o f Education and the Assistant Commissioner fo r Vocational Education to c a ll a t some e a rly date a conference or a series of regional conferences between an equal number o f representatives o f general and o f vocational education - - to consider th is problem and to take such i n i t i a l steps as may be found advisable fo r its solution. The term, " l i f e adjustment education," caught on quickly and spread throughout the country in both educational and popular media. In response to a request in the re so lu tio n , the U.S. O ffice o f Education conducted a series o f regional 43 conferences fo r educators throughout the country. The focus o f these conferences was not to i n i t i a t e a new curriculum, but rath er to renew the e f f o r t to re la te secondary education to the problems and concerns of everyday l i f e . In itia lly , the e f f o r t focused on the 60 percent o f high school youth who did not go to college. When l i f e adjustment education was c r itic iz e d fo r planning a separate curriculum fo r one group o f the high school population, the non-college bound youth, i t sh ifted emphasis to encompass a ll youth. This move was c r itic iz e d as a move to d ilu te the e n tire high school program. As a re s u lt, no follow -up programs were established to develop the concept fu rth e r. The absence of follow-up programs and worn out enthusiasm brought about the gradual d is in te g ra tio n o f the l i f e adjustment education movement. By the middle o f the la te 1950's, the term, “l i f e adjustment education," disappeared as a favored term. However, as a re s u lt o f l i f e adjustment education, teachers and adm inistrators began to re a liz e th at students d if f e r in the extent to which they can study and learn tra d itio n a l academic m aterials. As Krug, (1960) contends, "what is important is to be sure th a t we deal with individual d ifferen ces, not with differences o f students thrown a r b it r a r ily in to groups." 44 The present in vestig ato r believes th at the l i f e adjustment education movement was quite s im ila r to the career education movement. L ife adjustment education and career education each were f i r s t introduced a t a vocational education conference and la t e r supported by U.S.O.E. They were both conceived as methods fo r reaching the six ty percent o f youth who did not enter co lleg e. Both concepts asked fo r union o f vocational education and general education into one kind o f education. The focus o f both l i f e adjustment education and career education was to re la te curriculum to the concerns o f everyday l i f e ra th e r than to in i t i a t e an e n tire ly new curriculum. Educators who believed in l i f e adjustment education started to look a t behavioral theories which would assist them in understanding the individual students. One of the concepts which they attempted to incorporate was the ‘'developmental tasks" approach o f Havighurst (1950). The approach is explained in the following section. Developmental Tasks Another antecedent of the career education concept is the developmental tasks approach to education. 45 Havighurst (1950, p. 2) was the f i r s t person to coin the term, "developmental task." He said that because so much misunderstanding results from using the term, "needs," he was "determined to tr y out the term 'Developmental Task' instead. A developmental task is a task which arises a t or about a ce rta in period in the l i f e of an in d iv id u a l, success achievement of which leads to his happiness and to success with la te r tasks, while fa ilu r e leads to unhappiness in the in d iv id u a l, disapproval by society and d if f ic u lt y with la te r tasks" ( Ib id . , p. 6 ). Developmental tasks may be described fo r any growth level from infancy throughout adult l i f e . The level designations are a rb itra ry and seem to correspond p rim arily to common sense notions rather than to any s c ie n tific base ( Ib id . , p. 6 ). The developmental tasks may be applied to situ ation s w ithin the educational s e ttin g . At d iffe re n t times during his years in school, the student is "ready" fo r d iffe re n t tasks. The tasks progress in d if f ic u lt y over the years. Havighurst ( Ib id . , p. 8) does not contend th a t developmental tasks should co n stitute the e n tire basis fo r a school program. He does suggest th at developmental tasks are important in 46 discovering and stating the purposes of education 1n the schools and 1n determining the timing of educational e ffo rts . He contends that developmental tasks o ffer c rite ria for evaluation of educational programs. Super (1957) u tilize d Havlghurst's suggestions and established vocational developmental tasks and opportunities by grade level. Career education programs Include the developmental tasks under the guise o f "performance o b jectives." General Education Since general education 1s d if fic u lt to define, Johnson (1952) describes 1t 1n terms of approaches. The "great books" approach assumes that students grasp knowledge from the past which they can apply to present and future problems. The liberal arts approach assumes that sampling from many different fields gives students Insight into current problems. Sim ilarly, surveying fields of knowledge assumes that an understanding of the present w ill evolve from the study. The functional approach assumes that Identification of lif e needs of the students and society allow a d ire c t, Individual approach. The Infusion approach maintains that outcomes, such as citizenship, can be taught as the opportunity arises. Henry(1956) defines general education as that required of a ll students. 47 Henry's d e fin itio n is very broad and could conceivably include a ll education. The basic assumption-is th at general education can be le g itim a te ly defined in terms o f common classes or courses. The career education component o f career development embraces general education. Career development focuses on the non-technical s k ills necessary to obtain and maintain a jo b . The topic w ill be covered in more depth in the subsection e n title d "Career Development." Summary Upon examination, one can see th a t a ll o f the antecedents lis te d above contain elements which can be found in career education programs. They are not a ll inclu sive but do represent some o f the major educational movements which preceded career education. S im ila rly , they are not mutually exclusive. A ll o f them contain some elements which are contained in the others. Of the antecedents lis te d above, each in turn was considered to be the answer to the i l l s o f the educational system. in turn, experienced a ris e and f a l l . Each, I t appears to the in v es tig ato r th at in many o f the situ ation s the adm inistrators o f the educational programs were responsible fo r the decline. 48 Administrators were too quick to label the program concepts as panaceas. Because o f th e ir anxiety to have a ll th e ir problems solved, adm inistrators used the programs as dumping grounds fo r the "problem students." Since the "dumping" was done so quickly and since the programs had not had s u ffic ie n t time to be f u lly implemented, i t fa no wwnder th a t the programs fa ile d . Proponents of career education programs may be wise to heed the fa te o f many o f it s antecedent programs. I f the same pattern o f "quicky" implementation repeats i t s e l f and i f the a ttitu d e o f administrators o f programs is not o f f i c i a l l y addressed and adequately, i t seems th a t career education programs w ill not have much o f a chance to be successful. Components o f Career Education Career preparation and career development from the two major components o f career education (Michigan Department o f Education, 1973a). Career preparation is defined as "a comprehensive occupational program to prepare students enrolled therein fo r employment (Michigan Department o f Education, 1973b)." The comprehensive occupational program implies a minimum of fifte e n USOE Occupational Instructional Codes in a minimum o f three occupational fie ld s (U.S. DHEW and U.S. Department o f Labor, 1969). 49 Career preparation is the s k ill tra in in g portion of career education. I t is vocational education with a broadened scope which includes more f l e x i b i l i t y in programming and greater options fo r students. (Koble, J r. and Coker, 1973). Vocational education has become the vehicle fo r delivering career education apparently because o f Marland's o rig in a l statement lin kin g vocational and career education. Funds to operate career education programs are being taken only from vocational education monies. Therefore, adm inistrators o f vocational programs are administering career education programs. Career education meshes the vocational, or career, preparation component with career development. Career development is defined as those systematic a c tiv itie s to develop: self-awareness and assessment; career awareness and exploration; career planning and decision making; and placement. {Michigan Department o f Education, 1973b). Although career development has been described according to various c la s s ific a tio n schemes (H ilto n , 1962; Osipow, 1968), the general approaches are s im ila r {H err, 1972; p. 6 9 ). The most common approach has been labeled as " t r a i t and fa c to r." Personality t r a it s are compared with social fa c to rs , such as social status and parental influences, in an attempt to predict such things as occupational choice, job success, and job s a tis fa c tio n . 50 Another approach to career development is based on Keynesian economic theory ( I b i d . , 1972, p. 70). An individual selects , >> • ■* a career which w ill maximize gains and minimize losses o f anything which the individual values. assumes p o s itiv e decision-making. The economic approach This assumption is not always appropriate, because, as Herr points out, sometimes decisions are made between the lesser o f two e v ils rather than toward a p o s itive good. A th ird approach which has been taken toward career development is based on sociological theory ( Ib id . , 1972, p. 70). Career choice is determined by class in the social structure in which an individual finds him self. The lower and more re s tric te d the social class, the fewer career a lte rn a tiv e s a v a ila b le . Social conditions, such as poverty, have impact on the careers which an individual has the opportunity to en ter. The information processing model is described by Herr (1972, p. 71) as a fourth approach to career development. In the information processing approach, the Individual is overwhelmed by the amount o f career information a v a ila b le . The information overload which is created causes anxiety in the in d iv id u a l. To reduce the an x ie ty, the ind ividu al makes a career choice prematurely. This approach is best described by the theory o f cognitive dissonance (F estin ger, 1957). A f i f t h approach to career development is based on personality theory. Personality differences in individuals are thought to create certain needs in those in d ivid u als. Career choices are based on sa tisfyin g or reducing those needs. (Holland, 1959) Roe (1956) uses the personality theory approach to emphasize the impact which e a rly childhood experiences and parental a ttitu d e s have on occupational choice. Persons from accepting homes tend to be interested in a ll sorts o f occupations, while people from re je c tin g homes tend towards "non-people" occupations (technology, science, outdoor types). The fin a l approach which is discussed by Herr (1972, p. 71) is one which emphasizes development of s e lf concept. The approach assumes th at behavior depends on one's s e lf concept. As the individual becomes aware o f him self, he learns how to assess his own in te re s ts , a b i l i t i e s , and a ttitu d e s . Self-awareness determines his in te ra c tio n w ith his environment and his ultim ate career choices. Job s a tis fa c tio n depends on congruence between the in d iv id u a l's self-concept and his jo b . (Ginzberg, 1951; Super, 1957) In summary, Herr (1972, p. 73) says th at his review of approaches to career development indicates a s h ift in emphasis. The s h ift is from the Parsonian approach which matches people 52 with jobs to a model focusing on s e lf development. The in d iv id u a l's development o f in te re s ts , a b i li t i e s , and a ttitu d e s leads to career planning and decision-making processes which extend throughout a life tim e . Summary Career education, in summary has two primary components: career preparation and career development. Career preparation refers to the vocational-technical s k ill tra in in g , while career development implies the non-technical aspects. The non­ technical aspects include such things as self-awareness, career awareness, career exp lo ratio n , career decision-making, guidance, and placement. The two components of career education are meshed together to compose one to ta l career education. The Community College Role Marland suspects th a t community colleges are probably the most responsive instruments in terms o f time and space fo r adult education. Because of a lack o f academic tra d itio n and rig id stru c tu rin g , community colleges are reaching a wider v a rie ty of people with a greater v a rie ty o f offerings than are secondary school or four year in s titu tio n s . 1972, p. 4 8 ). (Marland, 53 Post secondary programs provide fo r two functions of career education according to Goldhammer (January, 1972). The one function is providing opportunities to students so they may make i n i t i a l preparations fo r the career o f th e ir choice. The other one is o ffe rin g re tra in in g fo r people already in a job. Moore (1970) agrees with Goldhammer th a t community colleges p a rtic u la rly have the type o f emphasis and configuration necessary fo r career education programming. U nfortunately, at the present tim e, most community colleges are structured so th at academic and vocational programs are in competition (Brameld, 1967, p. 23). Because competition exists between academic and vocational programs, the community colleges must change says Hoyt (August, 1970). The community college has the p o tential to combat any prejudice against vocational education. Hoyt believes th at vocational education programs should be offered with an open door policy and th a t job placement of students should be operated on a statewide rath er than a local basis. (Hoyt, 1970, p. 37-38). Summary In summary, community colleges appear to be good settings fo r career education programs. Students can attend the community 54 college at any time during th e ir adult liv e s . The community college is geared to both tra in in g , re tra in in g , and upgrading o f job s k ills . Chapter I I I METHODOLOGY Introduction The present study is descrip tive and exploratory in nature. The basis o f the investig atio n is a comparative analysis o f the Michigan Department of Education's Vocational Education and Career Development Service professional personnel and Michigan's community college adm inistrators in terms of th e ir perceptions of the career education concept in the community college s e ttin g . The purpose of the present chapter is to explain the methodology u tiliz e d in the study. Samples Based on the purpose o f the study and the fa c t th at the community colleges were id e n tifie d in Chapter I I as an ideal setting fo r career education programs, Michigan's community colleges were selected as one population fo r the study. The in vestig ato r chose to survey community college adm inistrators since the adm inistrators are the people who u ltim a te ly determine what programs w ill be offered by the college. A sample o f t h ir t y community college (CC) adm inistrators was selected. J u s tific a tio n fo r selection o f an N = 30 is th a t Isaac and Michael (1972) assert th at exploratory research normally has a sample size from 10 to 30. 55 Five v/as chosen as the number of 56 community college administrators to be interviewed per college since a ll Michigan colleges have a t le a s t fiv e adm inistrators. Selecting a number greater than fiv e would have resulted in interviewing some "non-decision makers." The state department sample o f t h ir t y is a saturation sample o f the Vocational Education and Career Development Service (VECDS). This p a rtic u la r Service of the Michigan Department o f Education was selected since p rim a rily leadership, and hence, decision-making fo r the development o f career education programs w ithin the State o f Michigan had been vested there (Michigan Department of Education, 1973). Therefore, the samples were composed of: a. The fiv e administrators id e n tifie d by the president o f the community college as the primary decision-makers o f the college. Five people were id e n tifie d a t six Michigan community colleges. The colleges were selected by s tr a t if ie d random sampling methods from the population of twenty-nine Michigan community colleges (see Appendix I I I fo r s tr a t ific a tio n s ). The colleges selected include the follow ing: Genesee Community College, F lin t; Jackson Community College, Jackson; Kellogg Community College, B a ttle Creek; Mid-Michigan Community College, Harrison; Montcalm Community College, Sidney; Washtenaw Community College, Ann Arbor. N = 30 57 b. Members of the Michigan Department of Education's Vocational Education and Career Development Service professional s t a f f . sample. This sample is a saturation The respondents are taken from the popula­ tio n o f professional s t a f f o f the th irte e n major services of the Michigan Department of Education. N = 30 Procedure Community college presidents and the selected members of the Michigan Department o f Education were asked in-person or by phone to particpate in th is study. Community college presidents decided i f th e ir colleges would p a rtic ip a te and, i f a ffirm a tiv e , were asked to id e n tify the top fiv e decision­ makers a t the college (including themselves). They asked fo r compliance from th e ir respective s t a f f members. The in v es tig ato r set up appointments to v i s i t the college campuses and to meet with VECDS s t a f f . Approval was obtained from Personnel Services and from the State D irecto r of the Vocational Education and Career Development Service to interview VECDS professional s t a f f during o ffic e hours. The in vestig ato r took leave time from her position with the MDE to v is it the community college campuses. 58 F ir s t, a p re -te s t was conducted at Lansing Community College and Delta Community College to check wording and to determine the meanings which the questions e lic ite d . For the p re -te s t, respondents f i l l e d out the questionnaire and were then personally interviewed about the questionnaire. The wording o f some items was a lte re d follow ing the p re -te s t, but no major stru ctu ral changes were required. As a re s u lt of the p re -te s t, i t was decided th a t questionnaires whould be administered and collected personally to assure th e ir return. Questionnaires were administered to respondents in th e ir o ffic e s by the researcher with an explanation th a t the research was being conducted to determine the current descriptions o f career education according to community college adm inistrators and the Michigan Department of Education. The researcher personally gave them the questionnaires and, in most cases, remained with the respondent while he completed the questionnaire. In the cases where respondents were not present due to illn e s s or p rio r commitments, the research gave the questionnaire to the respondent and was mailed the response w ithin a couple days. Respondents were assured th a t findings would be reported by groups o f people and th a t indidivual names would never be attached. Respondents were also to ld th at the study is not an o ffic a l Michigan Department of Education study although recommendations based on resu lts o f the study w ill be made to the Department. This was to reduce any stigma which may 59 have been placed on the study i f i t was perceived as a "state department document" due to the researcher's professional a f f i l i a t i o n with the Michigan Department of Education. Respondents were also to ld th at they would receive a short resume o f findings a t the completion o f the study. As a v a lid ity check, in personal interview s, respondents were each asked whether they f e l t th at the questionnaire got a t th e ir true feelin gs concerning career education or whether th e ir responses were forced. A ll said th a t the questionnaire allowed them to respond honestly and to th e ir s a tis fa c tio n . A v a lid ity check o f the questionnaire was also determined on the computer and is a v ailab le from the in v e s tig a to r. As a fu rth e r check, adm inistrators a t Grand Rapids Junior College were given the questionnaire to determine i f results o f the current study can be generalized beyond the colleges in the sample. Grand Rapids Junior College was selected because i t appeared to the in v e s tig a to r to be the most d is s im ila r to the sample colleges. GRJC is s t i l l a larg e , urban ju n io r college whose students are mostly tra n s fe r rath er than career students. I t is assumed th a t i f results from the present study samples are generalizable to the GRJC sample, then results of the present study should be generalizable to the other community colleges. 60 Instrumentation The present study is exploratory and descriptive in nature since no cause and e ffe c t relation sh ips e x is t. The purpose of a d escrip tive study is to describe system atically, fa c tu a lly , and accurately the facts and c h a rac teris tic s o f a given population (Van Dalen and Meyer, 1966). The present study employs the survey method. According to Van Dalen and Meyer (1966) the purpose o f the survey is the follow ing: (1) to c o lle c t factual information th at describes existin g phenomena; (2) to id e n tify problems or ju s t if y current conditions and practices; (3) to make comparisons and evaluations; and (4) to determine what others are doing with s im ila r problems or situ atio n s and b e n e fit from th e ir experience in making fu tu re plans and decisions. The factual information in the present investig atio n regards the meaning o f career education a t the community college le v e l. The current "state o f the d e fin itio n " is id e n tifie d and comparisons are made between community college adm inistrators and selected state department personnel. The most appropriate s ta tis tic s to be used in an exploratory, d escriptive study o f a ffe c tiv e and operational d e fin itio n s are the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l, L ik e rt-ty p e scales, and fa c to r analysis 61 (T ro ld ah l, 1971). The semantic d iffe r e n tia l has been validated as a measure of a ffe c tiv e meaning of concepts (Osgood, 1952). Therefore, the semantic d iffe r e n tia l would enable determination o f the a ffe c tiv e meaning o f career education and, th u s , f u l f i l l one of the purposes of th is study. L ik e rt-ty p e scales would allow one to determine how people are o p eratio n ally defining career education programs and, hence, f u l f i l l another purpose o f th is study. Factor analysis would as sis t in determination of the real underlying factors which y ie ld any differences which may e x is t between the VECDS and CC samples. Therefore, the questionnaire fo r the study was i n i t i a l l y composed with the exploratory s ta tis tic s in mind. One section is composed of semantic d iffe r e n tia l items, another o f L ik e rttype items, and another of background items which lend themselves along with the re s t o f the questionnaire to fac to r analysis. Following are sections b r ie fly describing the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l, L ik e rt-ty p e scale, and fa c to r analysis techniques. Semantic D iffe re n tia l The semantic d iffe r e n tia l technique measures the meaning rather than the a ttitu d e of an object or event to a person (Robinson & Shaver, 1969, p. 55). 62 The semantic d if f e r e n t ia l s p e c ific t e s t . is a procedure ra th e r than a Scales are selected because o f t h e ir knoWn fa c to r composition and, th e re fo re , can vary depending on appropriateness to the concept being s tu d ie d . Both verbal and nonverbal signs (carto o n s, sound p a tte rn s ) can be studied w ith the procedure. The procedure has been ap p lied to studies o f a ttitu d e change, psychotherapy, dream in te r p r e ta tio n , p o l i t i c a l symbolism, a e s th e tic s , anthropology, m arketing, and p s y c h o lin g u is tic s . (Osgood, S u c i, and Tannenbaum, 1957). I t appears th a t previous studies o f the education f i e l d which have employed any s o rt o f semantic a n a ly sis have focused on read­ a b i l i t y o f in s tru c tio n a l m a te ria ls (M a rtin , 1936; M cC lelland, 1961; Page, 1965). These stu d ies have been used to c la s s ify reading m a te ria ls according to grade le v e l. (Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, 1957) In g e n e ra l, the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l has been used: (1 ) to measure semantic p ro p e rtie s o f words and concepts in three-dim ensional semantic space; and (2 ) to measure a t t it u d e o f the a f f e c t iv e domain. (Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, 1957) The purpose o f the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l is to d if f e r e n t ia t e concept meanings along m u ltip le v a ria b le s in terms o f a lim ite d number o f known semantic scales (Osgood, 1952). A concept is described along an e x p e rie n tia l continuum which is defined by a p a ir o f p o la r terms. Osgood claim s th a t content o f most complex verbal 63 associations can be reduced to a llo c a tio n o f a concept to a scale of b ip o la r a d je c tiv e s . The more intense the strength o f the association between the concept and one o f the b ip o la r a d je c tiv e s , the clo ser to the extrem ity o f the scale w ill be the response a llo c a tio n . (Osgood, 1952) Three basic elements compose a semantic d if f e r e n t ia l scale: (1 ) the concept, (2 ) the p o lar a d je c tiv e p a ir , and (3 ) a series o f undefined scale p o sitio n s. (Osgood, S u ci, and Tannenbaum, 1957) To obtain an o b je c tiv e measure o f the semantic p ro p erties o f words and concepts, Osgood, e t . a l . (1957) fa c to r analysed 76 pairs o f a d jec tiv es which were opposite in meaning ( i . e . , p o lar a d je c tiv e s ). Three primary fa c to rs : e v a lu a tiv e (e .g . good-bad), potency ( e . g ., easy-hard), and a c t i v i t y ( e . g . , fa s t-s lo w ), were id e n tifie d . B ipolar a d je c tiv e s were c la s s fie d by means o f high and pure loadings o f numerical q u a n titie s on each o f the fa c to s . (Osgood, e t . a l . , 1957). The semantic d if f e r e n t ia l measuring device is assumed to provide an index o f the psychological s ta te which is e lic it e d when a sign is presented to the respondent. The semantic d if f e r e n t ia l combines both association and scaling procedures. (Osgood, e t . a l . , 1957). The semantic d if f e r e n t ia l assumes th a t d iff e r e n t continua are equivalent and can be represented by a s in g le dimension. For example, 64 sc a le s , such as good-bad, k in d -c ru e l, f a i r - u n f a i r , are very h ig h ly c o rre la te d and rep resen t a s in g le , in th is case " e v a lu a tiv e ," fa c to r . Means o f the scales may be summed to obtain the mean fo r each fa c to r ( I b i d . , 1957) Another assumption o f the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l is th a t a lim ite d number o f continua s u ffic e to describe semantic space in which any concept can be s p e c ifie d . This in d ic a te s th a t some form o f fa c to r an a ly sis can be used as the methodology in a n a ly s is . ( I b i d . , 1957) The semantic d if f e r e n t i a l assumes th a t the meaning o f any concept can be s p e c ifie d as an in te rc e p t p o in t in the n-dimensional semantic space which is defined by th e fa c to rs ( I b id . , 1957). In the present s itu a tio n , the semantic space has th ree dimensions (potency, a c t i v i t y , and e v a lu a tiv e ). Scale scores can be analyzed f o r d iffe re n c e s between scales o r su b je cts . A t - t e s t o r Median t e s t in d ic a tin g any s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e between group means or medians f o r in d iv id u a l scales or a ll scales can be determ ined. (Van Dalen,and Meyer, 1966) In the present study, sc ale scores between subjects in the two samples were analyzed. one o f equal in t e r v a ls . The assumption was made th a t the scale was A lim it a t io n o f using the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l technique is th a t fin d in g s may be a r e s u lt o f the b ip o la r a d je c tiv e p airs which were selected ra th e r than as a r e s u lt o f actual meaning. 65 For the present study (see Appendix I I ) , a d je c tiv e p airs used f o r the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l were selected by Troldahl and a re derived from Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum (1 9 5 7 ). Troldahl selected only a d je c tiv e s which have high loadings on the primary fa c to r and low loadings on a l l o th er fa c to rs . the His v a lid a tio n o f p u r ity o f the fa c to rs allow s t h e ir summation (T ro ld a h l, 1971). Responsesto the f i r s t a d je c tiv e p a ir which appears in the q u e s tio n n a ire , " in te re s tin g - u n in te re s tin g ," is not analyzed since the a d je c tiv e p a ir is included in the q u estion n aire only as a le a d -in to the o th er a d je c tiv e s . The o th e r and a d je c tiv e s are fa c to rs o f potency (P ), a c t i v i t y (A ), e v alu atio n (E ). item in the l i s t . Each type o f fa c to r appears as every th ir d The l i s t o f b ip o la r a d je c tiv e s appears below w ith the fa c to r codes: Code B ip o la r A d jectives P+ Strong - Weak A- S t i l l - V ibran t E+ Pleasant - Unpleasant P- L ig h t - Heavy A- Passive - A ctive E+ Good - Bad P- Sad - Happy A+ Modern - Old-Fashioned E- T as te fu l - D is ta s te fu l P+ Masculine - Feminine A+ Fresh - S tale E- Worthless - Valuable 66 "P" in the code re fe r s to th e potency fa c to r ; "A" to the a c t i v i t y fa c to r ; and "E" to the e v a lu a tiv e fa c to r o f the semantic d i f f e r e n t i a l . A plus in d ica te s th a t a score o f 7 is given to any response in the le ft-m o s t blank, continuing w ith a score o f 6 fo r the next b la n k , on down to a 1 fo r the rig h t-m o s t blank. A minus in d ic a te s th a t scores fo r responses range from 1 to 7 w ith 1 in the le ft-m o s t blank and 7 in the rig h t-m o s t blank: plus: 7 6 5 7 4 / 3 2 1 minus: 1 2 3 / 4 / 5 6 7 Each fa c to r appears fo u r times as every th ir d a d je c tiv e p a ir in the q u estion n aire used 1n th is study. This ordering is to assure th a t s ig n ific a n t responses are not a r t if a c t s o f o rd er. Two pluses and two minuses are used in the scoring o f each fa c to r so th a t any l e f t - r i g h t bias is excluded. The design o f the b ip o la r a d je c tiv e s allows f o r independence o f judgements. The computer program devised fo r the an alysis o f th is semantic d if f e r e n t ia l sums the fo u r potency fa c to r s , the fo u r a c t i v i t y fa c to r s , and the fo u r e v a lu a tiv e fa c to rs . run from 4 to 28. The sum scores Each fa c to r summation p o te n tia lly runs from -12 to +12, since t h e o r e tic a lly the scores run from -3 to +3, fo r a s in g le fa c to r score and each fa c to r appears fo u r tim es. 67 Scoring o f the q u estio n n aire responses is based on a 1 to 7 scale instead o f th e -3 to +3, since using negative numbers complicates th e computer programming. In the present study, responses a re converted so th a t a l l were p o s itiv e and based on the semantic d if f e r e n t i a l scale ranging from one to seven. Scale means in d ic a te how, on the average, respondents from each sample a f f e c t iv e ly d e fin e career education. Results appear in Chapter IV . L ik e rt-T y p e Scales L ik e r t-ty p e scales a re used in the present study to determine perceptions o f the VECDS and CC samples to an a p r io r i d e fin it io n o f career education. The most common L ik e r t scale has f iv e ra tin g points among which the respondent may choose. o f the scale is the n eu tral p o in t. The m idpoint In the present study the m iddle, n e u tra l p o in t is e lim in a te d so th a t the respondent is faced w ith a forced choice. The reason f o r the forced choice is th a t the in v e s tig a to r is in te re s te d in fin d in g out th e actual perceptions o f respondents. She b elie ve s th a t ca re er education is a "hot" enough issue so th a t persons would have some opinion but th a t they might take the n eu tral p o s itio n as an easy way out i f given the o p p o rtu n ity. A ll observational methods are i n f e r e n t ia l. O b je c tiv ity o f observational methods depends on prescribed ru les which determine the score given by coders. A scale is a measuring device which 68 assigns numbers to the responses o f in d iv id u a ls . in d ic a te the e x ten t The responses to which the in d iv id u a l possesses amount o f whatever the a corresponding scale claims to measure. (Isaac and Michael* 1972) L ik e rt-ty p e or summated ra tin g scales are composed o f items approxim ately equal in value loading o r a tt it u d e . Responses in degress o f in te n s ity are made on a scale by respondents. values are assigned to each scale p o in t. In te g ra l The responses can then be summed or the average o f the scores may be c a lc u la te d . ( L ik e r t, 1932) The present study used a summated ra tin g scale o f fo ur items: Score Item 1 Not Important At A ll 2 Not Very Important 3 Important 4 Very Important The scale has been v a lid a te d fo r the e q u a lity o f perceptual space between items (T ro ld a h l, 1971). Therefore, the above scale is an equal in te rv a l scale which may be summated. Isaac and Michael (1972) in d ic a te th a t summated ra tin g scales are useful in behavioral research, since they are e a s ie r to develop and y ie ld approximately equal inform ation as do more complex, equal-appearing in te rv a l scales. g rea ter variance. The summated scale also obtains A disadvantage, which applies to a l l scales, is the p o s s ib ility th a t the variance w il l bias response set in one d ir e c tio n . 69 Sometimes the s a lie n c y o f items may not j u s t i f y the summation. The summation way also lead to ambiguous in te rp re ta tio n s ’ because o f the middle category o f a fiv e - p o in t L ik e r t s c a le . The middle score could be obtained from responses which were a l l "undecideds h a lf p o s itiv e and h a lf negative responses, o r some combination which happens to average to the n e u tra l p o s itio n . (Shaw and W righ t, 1967) As mentioned e a r l i e r , in order to avoid any confusion in in te r p r e ta tio n , the middle category was om itted in the present study. The r e s u lt is a forced choice L ik e r t-ty p e scale as recommended by Shaw and W right (1 9 6 7 ). The L ik e r t-ty p e scale is ap p lie d in th is study to the career education theme items which were developed as fo llo w s : A panel o f experts from the Michigan Department o f Education was u t iliz e d to develop an a p r io r i d e fin itio n o f c a re e r education. Those persons id e n t ifie d by the S ta te D ire c to r o f the Vocational Education and Career Development S ervice as most knowledgeable concerning the c a re e r education concept. The panel o f experts was asked to l i s t the items each considered e s s e n tia l to career education programs in th e community c o lle g e . The l i s t s were combined by the in v e s tig a to r and the top ten most frequent items s e le c te d . The ten items were re-subm itted to the p an el. Each person was again asked to s e le c t the items which he considered v i t a l f o r the existence o f career education programs a t the community co lle g e le v e l. From the responses, the in v e s tig a to r estab lis h e d s ix major career education themes. Career Education Themes The ca re er education themes are as fo llo w s : 1) G o a l-o rie n te d Theme 2) A r tic u la tio n Theme 3) In fu sio n Theme 4) Community Communication Theme 5) Professional Growth Theme 6) Openness Theme The above c a re e r education themes were used to develop the L ik e r t-ty p e items 31 through 80 in the q u estio n n aire (see Appendix I I ) Below is the c a te g o riz a tio n o f those item s: I. G o a l-O rie n ta tio n Theme Those a c t i v i t ie s designed to e s ta b lis h o v e ra ll m ission, set g o a ls , determine p r i o r it i e s and develop performance o b je c tiv e s . These a c t i v i t ie s 1. include: Evidence th a t m ission, goals and performance o b je c tiv e s have been s e t (w ritte n sta tem en t). 2. Evidence o f p r i o r it i e s and ra tio n a l f o r these (w ritte n s ta te m e n t). 71 II. A r tic u la tio n Theme Those a c t i v i t ie s designed to develop in te rn a l and ex tern a l a r t ic u la t io n o f career education programs. These a c t i v i t ie s include: 1. Formal o rg a n iza tio n s tru c tu re which id e n t if ie s a key person(s) responsible fo r a r t ic u la t io n . 2. Evidence o f coo perative planning w ith in CEPD. 3. Evidence o f in te r-s c h o o l a r t ic u la t io n w ith a l l o th e r schools. 4. Evidence o f j o i n t use o f f a c i l i t i e s w ith o th e r schools or agencies. III. 5. Evidence o f sharing o f s t a f f members. 6. Evidence o f j o i n t use o f advisory committees. Infu sio n Theme These a c t i v i t i e s designed to in fu s e , or in te g r a te , career re la te d c u r r ic u la . These include those a c t i v i t ie s designed to implement both the ca re er development and th e career p rep aratio n components o f c a re e r education: 1. S e lf Awareness Component — those a c t i v i t ie s designed to g ive the student awareness o f h im se lf so th a t he may assess h is a b i l i t i e s and goals and develop personal d ecision making s k i l l s which w i l l a llo w him to achieve those g o als. 2. Career Awareness — those a c t i v i t ie s designed to allo w the student to explore careers and re c e iv e occupational exposure. 72 3. Career Planning — those a c t i v i t ie s designed to develop decision-m aking s k i l l s and understanding o f the planning process so th a t the stu d en t's career goals may be achieved. 4. Career P reparation — in te g ra tio n o f academic and v o c a tio n a ltec h n ica l program components along w ith guidance s e rv ices . 5. Placement - - those a c t i v i t ie s designed to insure placement o f students in a job o r in fu r th e r education. IV . Community Communication Theme Those a c t i v i t ie s designed to develop communication networks w ith a community to c u lt iv a t e ongoing involvement o f business, in d u s try , la b o r, higher education in s t it u t io n s , secondary schools, p riv a te schools and o ther agencies. These in clu d e: 1. Evidence o f development o f community plans. 2. Evidence o f actual a c t i v i t ie s held e it h e r between the c o lle g e and one or more o f these agencies or communitywide. V. Professional Growth Theme Those a c t i v i t ie s designed to bring about pro fession al development o f a d m in is tra to rs and fa c u lty in the area o f career education. These a c t i v i t ie s inclu d e p re -s e rv ic e and in -s e rv ic e tr a in in g . V I. Openness Theme Those a c t i v i t ie s designed to develop an open s tru c tu re so th a t students may leave and re -e n te r the formal education 73 system throughout l i f e . These include placement te s ts , personal in te rv ie w s , and a b i l i t y to tr a n s fe r courses. In a d d itio n to the panel o f e x p e rts , the c a re e r education themes are supported by the fo llo w in g authors .n the lit e r a t u r e : 1. 19 G o a l-o rie n a ta tio n theme — Bloom, e t . a l . , 1956; Bottoms, 1972; Cohen, 1969; Goodlad, 1964; Guba, 1965; Krathwohl, 1965; Loomis, 1971; Mager, 1962; M arland, 1972; Moore, 1972. 2. A r tic u la tio n theme — Goldhammer, 1972; Marland, 1972; P a r n e ll, 1969. 3. In fu s io n theme - - Goldhammer, 1972; H e rr, 1972; Hoyt, March 1972; M arland, May 4 , 1971; Moore, 1972. 4. Communication theme — C ulbertson, 1963; Goldhammer and Elam, 1962; Havelock, 1970; Michigan Department o f Education, 1968; Rogers, 1962. 5. Professional Growth theme — B rig g s, 1971; Goldhammer, 1972. 6. Openness theme — Goldhammer, January, 1972; M arland, 1972. F actor Analysis Factor an a ly sis is ap p lie d in th is study to the L ik e rt-ty p e items o f the career education themes and th e the background items which are discussed in the next s e c tio n . A la rg e p o rtio n o f education and psychological research has consisted o f construct in v e s tig a tio n o r v a lid a tio n . a n a ly s is . These types o f studies re q u ire fa c to r Factor a n a ly s is , th e re fo r e , has become accepted as an a n a ly tic a l method in the f i e l d o f education. (K e rlin g e r, 1964) 74 Factor an alysis is commonly used as a d e s c rip tiv e technique where the theory underlying use o f the ind ices is e ith e r not in existence or in need o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n . an a ly sis is : The purpose o f fa c to r (a ) e x p lo ra tio n o f v a ria b le s to determine underlying fa c to rs ; and (b) hypothesis te s tin g o f re la tio n s among v a ria b le s ( Ib id . , 1964). The present study is concerned w ith (a ) determ ina­ tio n o f underlying fa c to rs . Factor an a ly sis can be conceived o f as a to o l fo r construct v a l id i t y . C o n s tru c tiv a lid ity searches fo r the "meaning" o f a construct in terms o f i t s re la tio n s h ip w ith o th e r co n stru cts. D e fin itio n s which d efin e constructs by means o f th e r constructs are re fe rre d to as c o n s titu tiv e d e fin itio n s . Factor an alysis is a c o n s titu tiv e meaning method which enables study o f the c o n s titu tiv e meanings o f constructs and t h e ir v a l id i t y . ( I b i d . , 1964) Each item , or ind ex, may be measuring several underlying fa c to rs sim ultaneously. The index w i l l have some s o rt o f c o rr e la ­ tio n in varying degrees, w ith each fa c to r . One o f the goals o f fa c to r an alysis is to estim ate the c o rre la tio n each index has w ith the possible fa c to rs in ord er to determine what those fa c to rs may be. The major advantage is to replace numerous in d ic e s , which alone have l i t t l e th e o re tic a l meaning, w ith a conceptual v a r ia b le , or co n stru c t. (B la lo c k , J r . , 1960) 75 U s u a lly , i f th e q u estio n n aire form is v a lid , indices w il l tend to c lu s te r . By id e n tify in g and examining the items in each c lu s t e r , one can determine what commonality e x is ts among the in d iv id u a l item s. The commonality is lab eled as the fa c to r . ( I b i d . , 1960) The fa c to r an alysis technique assumes lin e a r re la tio n s h ip s among in d ic e s . Since c lu s te rs themselves can be in te r c o r r e la te d , fa c to rs must be " r o ta te d .” The purpose o f ro ta tio n is to obtain fa c to rs which w il l h ig h ly c o rr e la te w ith some indices but not w ith the r e s t. "Factor loading" is the term used to r e f e r to the c o rre la tio n o f an index and a given fa c to r . ( I b i d . , 1960) Disadvantages o f th e fa c to r a n a ly s is method include the p o s s ib ilit y o f a t t r ib u t in g " r e a lity " to fa c to rs which may not e x is t . Naming o f fa c to rs is always te n t a t iv e - - su b ject to change a t a l a t e r tim e . A c tu a lly , anything th a t produces c o rre la tio n among v a ria b le s "creates" a fa c to r . Demographic c h a r a c te r is tic s , response s e ts , t e s t forms, and the use o f d if f e r e n t samples are a l l capable o f causing fa c to rs to appear. Another disadvantage is the s u b je c t iv it y th a t enters the ro ta tio n s . ( Ib id . , 1964, p. 683) As K e rlin g e r (1964) points o u t, educators seem to m is tru s t th e method because o f i t s s t a t is t i c a l com plexity. He demonstrates th a t fa c to rs do emerge re p e ate d ly w ith d if f e r e n t samples, co n d itio n s , and te s ts . When s im ila r re s u lts occur re p e a te d ly , one can be f a i r l y c e rta in th a t some underlying t r a i t is being measured. 76 In the present study, fa c to r analysis is applied to a ll questionnaire items except the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l item s. The reason the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l is excluded is th a t the scales have been previously fa c to r analyzed and v a lid a te d as the a c t i v i t y , potency, and evalu ation fa c to rs . (T ro ld a h l, 1971) Factor analysis o f the background items and the career education themes may y ie ld the underlying fa c to rs which a c u ta lly determine how respondents d efin e career education in the community co lleg e s e ttin g . Background C h a ra c te ris tic s In add itio n to the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l items and L ik e r ttype item s, questions p e rta in in g to demographic c h a ra c te ris tic s o f the samples appear in the q uestionnaire and are fa c to r analyzed. The items include place o f employment, job p o s itio n , recency o f u n iv e rs ity course attendance, highest degree earned and predominant f i e l d o f study and previous work experience. Although no d ir e c t , substantive research has been conducted in the above areas, the researcher believes th a t in an exploratory study, such as the c u rren t one, such demographic data should be explored. A reason is th a t the researcher has p erso nally been to ld by numerous community co lleg e ad m in istrators th a t the discrepancies in viewpoints which e x is t between the colleges and the s ta te department are because o f the above mentioned v a ria b le s . 77 A d m in istrato rs have claimed th a t people a t the s ta te department have been out o f c o lle g e lo n g e r, hold lower academic degrees, predominantly majored in v o c a tio n a l-te c h n ic a l areas ra th e r than academic a re a s , have had most, i f not a l l , o f t h e ir previous work in a kindergarten through tw e lfth grade d i s t r i c t , and, on the average, have spent less time in t h e ir present p o s itio n than have community c o lle g e a d m in is tra to rs . No studies have been conducted to determine i f the claim s are w arranted. T h erefo re, the present study includes a background s e c tio n . See Appendix I I f o r the complete code book o f the q u estio n n aire and response scales f o r the present study. CHAPTER IV RESULTS In tro d u c tio n The purpose o f the present chapter is to present the re s u lts o f the study. Appendix I I I . The actual raw data appears in Means, standard d e v ia tio n s , and variances fo llo w th is in tro d u c tio n in ta b le form w ith b r i e f n a rra tiv e exp la n a tio n s. Tables one through th ree r e f e r to the re s u lts o f the a f f e c t iv e responses to semantic d if f e r e n t ia l items o f the q u e s tio n n a ire . item s. Table fo u r shows comparisons o f the background The L ik e r t-ty p e items denoting ca re er education themes appear in ta b le s f iv e through fo u rte e n . Tables f i f t e e n and six tee n contain the items which comprised the fa c to rs obtained when the fa c to r a n a ly sis technique was ap p lied to a l l question­ n a ire items o ther than the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l items because the items had been v a lid a te d (T ro ld a h l, 1971) as comprising the a c t i v i t y , potency, and e v a lu a tiv e fa c to rs p r io r to th is study. Semantic D if fe r e n tia l The semantic d if f e r e n t ia l item re s u lts fo llo w in th ree ta b le s . 78 TABLE 1 COMPARISON OF SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL FACTORS VECDS COMM. COLLEGE CHECK Factors Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Potency 4.8 1.4 4.8 1.4 4.8 1.4 A ctivity 5.9 1.4 5.7 1.3 5.6 1.3 Evaluation 5.3 2.0 5.4 2.0 4.9 1.6 Table 1 indicates that there is no significant difference (.05 level) between the Vocational Education and Career Development Service (VECDS) sample and the community college (CC) sample on the semantic d iffe re n tia l factors. The scale ranges from one to seven with one being the lowest and seven the highest degree of each factor. Since four is the midpoint, both samples are defining the concept of career educat tion as a concept with above-average amount of potency, a c tiv ity , and positive evaluation. TABLE 2 VARIANCE OF SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL FACTORS Factors VECDS Comm. Coll. Potency 2.0 2.0 1.1 A ctivity 2.0 1.6 1.6 Evaluation 4.1 4.2 2.6 The variances shown in Table 2 are high for both VECDS and CC samples. check shows a lower variance. Check The sample Since only fiv e respondents comprise the check sample, the lower variance is misleading and probably is due to sample size. TABLE 3 MEAN CORRELATIONS OF SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL Factors Coimi. Coll. With VECDS Comm. Coll. With Check VECDS With Check Potency -o.l o.9 o.l A ctivity 0.3 0.5 l.o -0.0 0.7 0. 7 Evaluation In Table 3, mean correlations between the CC and VECDS samples are not significant. Two of the correlations are negative but quite small. The CC with the check samples correlate quite highly (Between 0.5 and 0.9). VECDS also correlates highly with the check sample on activity (1.0) and evaluation (0.7). due to the small sample size of the check sample. The effect may be 82 Several background items (See Table 4 on the next page) are s ig n ific a n tly d if f e r e n t fo r the VECDS and CC samples: Background Items VECDS CC Hi Degree & F ie ld 67% M.A. - Voc. 50% M.A. - Voc. & Acad. 33% Ph.D. - Voc. Time in present p o sitio n 2 -3 4 -6 Time in CC less than 6 months 7 - 1 0 years Time work a t 4 -y r . co lleg e less than 6 months 6 months - 1 year Experience a t S tate Level 4 -6 less than 6 months Time in M ilit a r y less than 6 months 1 year Time government employee 4 -6 less than 6 months years years years years The s ig n ific a n t d iffe ren c es in d ic a te th a t the "average" person in e ith e r the VECDS or the CC has a Masters degree in a vocational area . Community co lleg e adm inistrators have worked in t h e ir present p o s itio n , a t a 4-year c o lle g e , and in the m ilit a r y tw ice as long as have s ta te personnel. CC adm inistrators on the average, have worked in the CC s e ttin g tw ice as long as VECDS personnel have worked fo r the s ta te . VECDS personnel have almost no CC work experience, w hile CC adm inistrators have almost no s ta te lev el experience. COMPARISON OF8 BACKGROUND ITEMS VECDS Item Codes COMM. COLL. Mean S.D. Mean S.D 2,3 13.4 1.7 3.1 2.0 4 2.9 1.3 3.1 1.0 5 4.7 1.5 5.2 2.5 6 4.2 1.6 4.9 .9 7 4.5 2.4 4.3 2.5 8 -9 1.9 5.9 1.2 9 1.2 2.2 2.0 2.4 10 5.3 1.7 .5 1.7 11 4.1 1.7 4.5 1.9 12 .6 1.3 .6 1.5 13 1.1 1.7 2.0 2.5 14 1.5 1.9 1.6 2.0 15 .7 1.2 .8 1.5 16 1.1 1.8 2.9 1.9 17 5.0 2.3 1.0 2.2 18 .9 2.0 1.2 1.7 TABLE 5 COMPARISON OF CAREER EDUCATION THEMES VECDS Factors Mean COMM. COLLEGE S.D. CHECK Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Goal-Orientation 3.7 0.5 3.8 0.4 3.5 0.8 Articulation 3.4 0.7 3.3 0.8 3.3 0.7 Infusion 3.5 0.7 3.4 0.8 3.3 0.9 Community Communication 3.3 0.8 3.4 0.8 3.5 0.6 3.5 0.7 3.4 0.6 3.2 0.9 3.5 0.8 3.7 0.6 3.2 1.2 Professional Growth Openness No significant differences exist within or between the career education themes shown in Table 5. Means indicate that in a ll three samples, respondents perceived the career education elements as important to very important for career education programs. TABLE 6 VARIANCE OF CAREER EDUCATION THEMES Themes VECDS Comm. Coll. Check Goal-Orientation 0.2 0.2 0.6 Articulation 0.5 0.6 0.5 Infusion 0.5 0.6 0.8 Community Communication 0.6 0.7 0.4 Professional Growth 0.4 0.4 0.9 Openness 0.6 0.4 1.3 Table 6 shows a fa irly low amount of variance among career education themes. variance is lower than that which was found in the semantic differential. The TABLE 7 MEAN CORRELATIONS OF CAREER EDUCATION THEMES Career Education Themes Comm. Coll. With VECDS Goal-Orientation Comm. Coll. With Check VECDS With Check -0.7 -0.8 1.0 Articulation 0.1 -0.6 0.6 Infusion 0.4 0.3 0.2 Community Communication 0.0 0.2 0.4 Professional Growth 0.5 0.9 0.8 Openness 0.9 1.0 0.8 Mean correlations in Table 7 are negative on the goal-orientation theme fo r the CC/VECDS and CC/CK samples. The CC/CK sample is negative on the articulation theme. The goal-orientation theme is highly correlated with a ll three combinations of samples, although two of them are in the negative direction. high fo r the CC/CK and VECDS/CK samples. and VECDS/CK samples. The articulation theme is fa ir ly Professional growth is very high for CC/CK The openness theme is very high for a ll samples. TABLE 8 COMPARISON OF GOAL ORIENTATION THEME ITEMS VECDS Item Codes COMM. COLL. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. 31 3.7 .5 3.9 .3 32 3.7 .6 3.8 .4 33 3.8 .4 3.8 .4 The goal orientation theme Items shown above indicate no significant differences between the two samples. TABLE 9 COMPARISON OF ARTICULATION THEME ITEMS VECDS COMM. COLL. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. 34 3.4 .7 3.3 .9 35 3.5 .6 3.3 .9 36 3.7 .5 3.5 .6 37 3.4 .6 3.5 .7 38 3.2 .7 3.3 .7 39 2.9 .8 2.9 1.0 40 3.6 .5 3.6 .5 41 3.3 1.0 3.1 .8 42 3.8 .4 3.8 .4 43 2.9 .8 CTl • C sJ 1.0 Item Codes No significant differences are indicated among the articulation theme items shown above. 89 Table 10 (see fo llo w in g page) points out several s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s on the in fu sio n theme between the VECDS and CC samples: In fu sio n Theme VECDS CC In fu sio n o f careers c u rr. 3 .5 2 .9 Guarantee job placement 3 .5 3 .0 Buarantee placement in to HE 3 .3 2 .7 S tate department personnel tend to place more importance on the above s ta te d in fu sio n item s, whereas community c o lle g e ad m in is tra to rs perceive th e items as a l i t t l e im portant. less than 90 TABLE 10 COMPARISON OF INFUSION THEME ITEMS COMM COLL. VECDS Item Codes Mean S.D. Mean S.D 44 3 .3 1 .0 3 .7 .5 45 2 .9 1.1 3 .5 .9 47 3 .3 1 .0 3 .4 .8 48 3 .8 .4 3 .7 .5 .5 3 .8 .5 3.7 50 3.7 .5 3 .7 .5 51 3 .6 .6 3 .6 .6 52 3 .6 .6 3 .7 .5 53 3 .6 .6 3 .8 .4 54 3 .6 .7 3 .7 .5 55 3 .8 .7 3 .6 .5 56 3.6 .5 3 .4 .7 57 3.5 .7 3 .3 .8 58 3.1 .8 3 .3 .8 59 3 .0 1 .4 3 .5 .7 60 2 .7 1.2 3 .3 .8 61 3.7 .6 3 .7 .5 62 2 .5 .7 2 .5 1 .0 63 3.7 .7 3 .7 .6 TABLE 11 COMPARISON OF COMMUNITY COMMUNICATION THEME ITEMS VECDS Item Codes COMM. COLL. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. 65 3.5 .6 3.6 .7 66 3 .6 .6 3.8 .4 67 3.3 .8 3.1 .8 68 3.5 .6 3.6 .5 69 3.3 1.0 3.4 ,7 70 2.9 1.0 2.8 1.1 71 3.1 .8 3.2 1.0 Community communication items are not sig nificantly d iffe ren t for the VECDS and CC samples (Table 11). Within each sample, the item reflecting ongoing involvement of teacher unions in establishing career education programs in the community college is lower than the other items. I t is rated as a l i t t l e lower than "important" TABLE 12 COMPARISON OF PROFESSIONAL GROWTH THEME ITEMS VECDS COMM. COLL. Item Codes Mean S.D. Mean S.D. 72 3.7 .7 3.7 .6 73 3.6 .7 3.5 .6 74 3.5 .6 3.1 .6 75 3.1 .6 3.3 .7 Table 12 shows the requirement of work at regular intervals outside of education for teachers as significantly different between the VECDS (3.5) and CC (3.1) samples for professional growth. The same item is significantly lower within the CC sample. Attendance to conferences and workshops concerning career educati is a significantly lower item within the VECDS sample. TABLE 13 COMPARISON OF OPENNESS THEME ITEMS VECDS Item Codes COMM. COLL. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. 77 3.6 .8 3.5 .9 78 3.9 .4 4.0 .2 79 3.2 .9 3.3 .8 80 3.2 1.0 3.6 .9 The importance of waiver examinations for advance placement differs between the VECDS (3.2) and the CC (3.6) samples (Table 13). Community college people rate the item as more important than do state people. Placement tests and waiver exams are lower within the VECDS sample, while the CC sample shows placement tests as significantly lower within. fa irly high. Variance on the openness theme items tends to be The "negative" q u estio n n aire items appear in Table 14. i (see fo llo w in g page) Response to "a s p e c ific u n it or course about careers" is s ig n if ic a n t ly lower in the VECDS sample (1 .8 ) than in the CC sample ( 2 . 3 ) . W ithin the VECDS sample th ere are no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s among negative item s. W ithin the CC sample, a d m in is tra to rs s ig n if ic a n t ly rated "career education programs o nly fo r v o c a tio n a l-te c h n ic a l students" lower than the o th er item s. The reason is probably due to the MDE's constant reminder to the community co lleg es th a t ca re er education is more than vocational education. on the o th e r items is nebulous. MDE's p o s itio n G e n e ra lly , responses to negative items tended to be "not im portant". TABLE 14 COMPARISON OF "NEGATIVE" ITEMS VECDS Codes COMM. COLL. Mean S.D. Mean S.D 34 1.8 .9 2.3 .9 52 1.7 1.1 1.5 .7 64 1.8 1.0 2.1 1.0 VO tn 96 Factor A nalysis The fa c to rs which appear from the fa c to r an alysis are contaminated, since the c a re e r education themes loaded on the same fa c to r s . Since only a small p o rtio n o f the variance is explained by the fa c to rs (32% fo r VECDS and 33% fo r CC), re s u lts are d i f f i c u l t to la b e l. Table 15 (see next page) fo r the VECDS sample tends to in d ic a te "self-developm ent inform ation" as Factor I and "previous experience" as Factor I I . "job p re p a ra tio n ." Factor I I I might be c a lle d The CC sample in Table 16 (fo llo w in g Table 15) seems to in d ic a te "in fo rm atio n g athering" as Factor I , Factor I I does not re a d ily lend i t s e l f to any la b e l, and Factor I I I seems to imply some s o rt o f sharing among various groups. The fa c to rs are contaminated and very weak, so, even though la b e ls have been e s ta b lis h e d , the reader is cautioned in his use o f the la b e ls . 97 TABLE 15 ITEMS COMPRISING FACTORS FOR THE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT SERVICE FACTORS I (exp lain s 16% v a r . ) Measure Factor Loading Exp. in bus. & ind. .41 Goals & PO's .54 ID key 1iaison .35 Student .42 Testinq S e lfassessment .82 In fo . & occup. exposure .74 Placement te s ts .56 OJT .62 Decision making .69 In te g ra te programs .56 Waivers .59 Counselinq .47 Testing service .53 Ed. ob.i. .60 Place in to HE .70 In fo . .60 In fo . .74 exchange Com. .68 Com. .77 CC in fo , exchange w ith MDE .45 Reg. in -s e rv ic e .51 Attend conf. .57 on CE T ransfer c r . .62 R e-enter & .66 leave II (ex p la in s 8% v a r . ) Measure - Factor Loading P o s itio n .54 Time In present p o s itio n .61 Work exp. .46 Work exp. .54 Work exp. .55 Use f a c i l i t i e s o f bus. .46 Bus. Resource .73 Use people w ith ou t degrees .53 P re -s e rv ic e tra in in g in CE .55 III (exp lain s 8% v a r . ) Measure T rain in g in fa c to ry T rain in g c le r ic a l Work exp. in g o v 't. J o in t fa c ilitie s Factor Loading .42 .61 .47 .37 -.6 5 In fu sio n S p e c ific u n it on careers .58 In volve a l l fa c u lty & community in .53 guidance Permanent placement s ta ff .68 Follow-up .49 O utside-ed. work by fa c u lty - .4 4 98 TABLE 16 ITEMS COMPRISING FACTORS FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS FACTORS I (ex p la in s 13 % v a r . ) Measure Factor Loading Exp. in .41 bus. & ind. Mgr. outside ed. .41 ID key CC 1iaiso n .59 Bus. & ind. resources .56 R elate course work to careers .72 In fu sio n .59 Testing .74 Occup. experience .42 C arrer prep. in te g ra tio n 52 Voc. guidance .69 Counseling .78 Guidance te s tin g .56 Permanent placement s ta ff .60 ,83 Follow-up In fo , exchange w ith .37 MDE Attendance to CE conf. .82 II (exp lain s 10% v a r .) Measure Factor Loading P o sitio n - .5 9 U attendence recency .46 Hi degree & fie ld .58 Time in present p o s itio n .55 Time as teacher .47 Time as fa c u lty At U. .57 T ra in in g in m il itar.y .48 Total tim e s e l f employed .43 O verall c o lle g e mission .48 Self-awareness a c tiv itie s .69 A s sist students in s e lf-a s s e s s .65 In fo , exchange in d e p ts .________ . 61 In v o lv e la b o r unions in CE_________ .65 Advance placement .3 3 III (explain s 10% v a r . ) Measure Factor Loading Goals & PO's For VE & academic .43 In t e r - i n s t i t u t e a r t ic u la t io n .68 J o in t fa c ilitie s .69 Share .64 s ta ff Use o f bus. & .72 ind. people J o in t use o f advisory commi tte e .47 Student decision-mkg. s k ills .54 Non-guide fa c u lty in guidance .64 In fo , exchange w ith comm. bus. & in d u s try ___ .55 D ialogue: p riv a te schools .62 Openness .34 99 C o rrelatio n s C o rre la tio n s were computed on background and career education item s. The re s u lta n t 66 x 66 m a trix is based on the raw data (Appendix I I I ) . m a trix fo llo w s . A b r i e f d e s c rip tio n o f the c o rre la tio n Only s ig n ific a n t'ite m s (.0 5 l e v e l ) , above .3 0 6 , a re discussed. Background items c o rre la te d moderately w ith themselves fo r both the Vocational Education and Career Development Service (VECDS) and community c o lle g e (CC) samples. Moderate c o rre la tio n here means th a t only two o r th ree c o rre la tio n s out o f the e n tir e 66 x 66 a rra y c o rre la te d s ig n if ic a n t ly . "P o s itio n " appeared as the predominant c o rre la tin g item in the CC sample. G o a l-o rie n ta tio n items c o rre la te d only m oderately w ith background items fo r both VECDS and CC samples. A r tic u la tio n theme items showed a very moderate c o rre la tio n w ith background items fo r both samples. The CC sample also in d ica te d an in te rn a l c o rre la tio n o f a r tic u la t io n items w ith themselves. The predominant items included " in t e r - in s t it u t io n a l a r t ic u la t io n ," highest degree and f i e l d , j o i n t use o f f a c i l i t i e s in education and business and in d u s try , and the use o f business and in d u s try persons as in s tru c to rs . In the case o f the in fu sio n theme, the VECDS and CC samples d if f e r e d . The VECDS sample c o rre la te d s ig n if ic a n t ly w ith in the in fu sio n theme on fo r ty -n in e item s. Self-awareness and s e l f - 100 assessment were most fre q u e n t. The CC sample showed s ig n ific a n t c o rre la tio n s between the in fu s io n theme and the a r t ic u la tio n theme on t h i r t y - s i x item s. The use o f business and in d u s try 's f a c i l i t i e s c o rre la te d more fre q u e n tly than did any o ther items. The community communication theme c o rre la te d w ith the infusion theme on fo rty -s e v e n items in the VECDS sample. Assistance in self-assessm ent, inform ation and occupational exposure, and counseling items appeared most fre q u e n tly . In the CC sample, the community communication theme only modestly c o rre la te d w ith the a r tic u la tio n theme on f if t e e n item s. Of those item s, in t e r - in s t it u t io n a l a r t ic u la tio n was predominant. The p ro fession al growth theme c o rre la te d w ith the infu sio n theme on tw e n ty -th re e items (in fu s io n o f a careers curriculum predominated) and only modestly (th ir te e n item s) w ith the community communication theme fo r the VECDS sample. The CC sample tended toward the background items and a r t ic u la t io n theme although the numbers o f s ig n ific a n t c o rre la tio n s were low (e ig h t and f i v e ) . In terms o f the openness theme, the VECDS showed a s ig n ific a n t c o rre la tio n between openness and the infu sio n theme on t h i r t y th ree item s. There also were c o rre la tio n s w ith the community co communication theme on sixteen item s. Self-assessm ent, d ec is io n ­ making s k i l l s , and communication w ith business and in d u s try , p riv a te schools and o th er colleges or u n iv e rs itie s c o rre la te d most fre q u e n tly . The CC sample demonstrated a moderate tendency 101 toward c o rr e la tio n o f the openness theme w ith eleven background item s. The predominant theme which c o rre la te d was "the to ta l amount o f time in present p o s itio n ." Chapter V CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH The purposes o f the present chapter are to present a summary o f the study, the major conslusions and the im p lic a tio n s derived from the in v e s tig a tio n , and suggestions f o r fu r th e r research. Summary o f the Problem The purpose o f the e x p lo ra to ry study was to make a comparative a n a ly s is o f the perceptions o f selected s ta te department o f f i c i a l s and community c o lle g e a d m in is tra to rs in Michigan as those perceptions p e rta in to the basic nature o f the career education concept in the community c o lle g e s e ttin g . Meaning which each sample had fo r the concept was measured in terms o f: (a ) a f f e c t iv e responses to the term , "ca re er ed u catio n ," as revealed by a semantic d if f e r e n t ia l in v en to ry; and (b ) c o g n itiv e responses to an a p r io r i d e f in itio n o f c r i t i c a l elements o f career education as defined by a panel o f exp erts. 102 103 The p h ilo s o p h ic a l, s o c io lo g ic a l, economic, and le gi a l bases fo r c a re e r education were e s ta b lis h e d . A b r ie f discussion o f the c u rre n t co n d itio n o f career education in th e community c o lle g e led to id e n t if ic a tio n o f th e fo llo w in g needs: (1 ) d eterm in ation o f how community c o lle g e (cc) a d m in is tra to rs and Michigan Department o f Education (MDE) personnel re s p e c tiv e ly describe career education in a community c o lle g e s e ttin g ; (2 ) id e n t if ic a t io n o f commonalities and d iffe re n c e s between CC and MDE; and (3 ) recommendation to the MDE w ith regard to it s communication approach w ith M ichigan's CCs in developing c a re e r education programs in a community c o lle g e s e ttin g . Review o f the l it e r a t u r e pointed out th e confusion concerning the d e fin itio n o f c a re e r education. education concept were discussed. Antecedents o f the career The present components o f ca re er education and the community c o lle g e ro le estab lis h e d the f a c t th a t career education does and should e x is t a t the post secondary le v e l. Summary o f Data C o lle c tio n The samples were composed o f 30 selected s ta te o f f i c i a l s o f the Vocational Education and Career Development S ervice (VECDS) o f the Michigan Department o f Education and 30 selected a d m in is tra to rs from s ix Michigan community colleges (CC). in-person q u e stio n n aire survey method was u t il i z e d . The 104 An ad d itio n a l community co lleg e was used to determine g e n e r a liz a b ility o f the sample. Instrum entation included the semantic d if f e r e n t i a l , L ik e rt-ty p e scales, and fa c to r a n a ly s is . Each measuring technique was discussed b r ie f ly in terms o f s u it a b il i t y advantages, and disadvantages. The measuring techniques were applied to coded data to determine re s u lts . Findings o f the Study The find in g s o f the study are summarized below: (.0 5 le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e ) 1. No s ig n ific a n t d ifferen ces e x is t between VECDS and CC samples fo r semantic d if f e r e n t ia l fa c to rs . 2. VECDS and CC samples re s p e c tiv e ly c o rre la te h ig hly w ith the g e n e r a liz a b ility check sample. 3. Several background items are s ig n ific a n tly d if fe r e n t between the VECDS and CC samples: The s ig n ific a n t d iffe ren c es in d ic a te th a t the "average" person in e ith e r the VECDS o r the CC has a Masters degree in a vocational area. Community co lleg e ad m in istrators have worked in t h e ir present p o s itio n , a t a 4 -y ea r c o lle g e , and in the m ilit a r y tw ice as long as have s ta te personnel. CC adm inistrators on the average have worked in the CC s e ttin g tw ice as long as VECDS personnel have worked f o r the s ta te . VECDS personnel have almost no CC work experience, w hile CC ad m in istrators have almost no s ta te lev el experience. 105 4. On the average, respondents in a l l th ree samples (in c lu d in g the check) perceived th e career education elements as "im po rtant11 to "very im portant" fo r c a re e r education programs. No s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s appeared between or w ith in group means. 5. S ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s appeared between samples VECDS & CC) when sorted on the s ig n if ic a n t ly d if f e r e n t background item s. 6. The CC sample c o rre la te s n e g a tiv e ly to a s ig n ific a n t degree w ith both the VECDS and check samples on the g o a l-o rie n ta tio n theme. The openness theme shows a high c o rre la tio n among a l l samples. 7. N e ith e r g o a l-o rie n ta tio n nor a r t ic u la t io n items contain any s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s between or w ith in samples. 8. Several s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s appear between VECDS and CC fo r the in fu sio n theme. Community co lle g e a d m in is tra to rs perceived in fu s io n o f a careers cu rricu lu m , guaranteed jo b placement, and guaranteed placement in to higher education as tending toward a l i t t l e less than "im p o rta n t." VECDS personnel viewed these Items as "very Im p o rtan t." 9. No s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is t f o r community communication item s. Both VECDS and CC perceived "ongoing involvement o f teacher unions in e s ta b lis h in g career education programs in the community c o lle g e as less than “im p o rtan t." The r a tin g r e f le c t s a n eg ative response to th e item . 10. The p ro fession al growth theme showed the requirement th a t fa c u lty be req u ired to work o u ts id e o f education a t re g u la r in te r v a ls as s ig n if ic a n t ly lower fo r the CC than fo r th e VECDS although both groups viewed i t as "im p o rta n t." The item was also s ig n if ic a n t ly lower w ith in the CC sample than o th e r items composing the p ro fessio n al growth theme. W ithin VECDS attendance to conferences and workshops concerning c a re e r education was perceived as s ig n if ic a n t ly lower than the o th er item s. 106 11. 12 . Placement tests were viewed as s ig n ific a n tly less important than other aspects o f the openness theme fo r both VECDS and CC. CC adm inistrators rated the importance o f waiver examinations as s ig n ific a n tly higher than did the VECDS. Responses to negative items tended to be "not im portant." VECDS did not d if f e r s ig n ific a n tly w ith in on negative items. W ithin the CC sample, adm inistrators rated "career education programs only fo r vocationaltechnical students" s ig n ific a n tly lower than the other items. VECDS rated "a s p e c ific u n it or course about careers" s ig n ific a n tly lower than did CC ad m in istrators, although both perceived i t ra th e r n eg atively. 13. Factors used in the study were contaminated, since the career education themes loaded on the same fa c to rs . Only a small percentage (32% and 33%) o f the variance was explained by the fa c to rs . 14. C orrelations were run on background and career education items w ith the s ig n ific a n t c o rre la tio n s by themes and predominant items described as follow s: THEMES VECDS CC Background (Background) (Background — p o sitio n ) Goal-orientation (Background) (Background) ♦Infusion Infusion — s e lf awareness s e lf awareness A rtic u la tio n — use o f bus & in d ivid u al f a c i l i t i e s Community Communication Infusion — s e lf assessment in fo . & Occup. exposure counseling A rtic u la tio n — i n t e r in s t it . a r tic u la tio n Professional Growth Infusion — infuse careers c u rr. (Background & a r tic u la tio n ) (Comm Com) Openness Infusion — self-assessment decision making communication w ith bus, in d iv id u a l, p riv a te schools, colleges ♦Strong co rre la tio n s - very high; imply consensus ( ) - moderate c o rre la tio n Background — to ta l time in present position 107 L im ita tio n s In te r p r e ta tio n o f any scale which depends on a s u b je c tiv e judgment is a lim ita tio n even i f s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s between sample groups is e s ta b lis h e d , determ ination o f the th e o re tic a l o r p ra c tic a l meaning o f the d iffe re n c e is d i f f i c u l t . (Isaac and M ic h a e l, 1972) Findings in the present study may be a r e s u lt o f the b ip o la r a d je c tiv e p airs an d /o r the ca re er education themes which were s e le c te d . External and in te rn a l extraneous v a ria b le s may have co n trib u ted to spurious re s u lts . No b as elin e data is a v a ila b le so th a t comparisons could have been made. R eactive measures are those in which the su b ject is d ir e c t ly involved in the study and reacts to the measurement process its e lf. The r e s u lt can introduce changes in to the research s itu a tio n . One such change is the "guinea pig e f f e c t . " The subject fe e ls lik e a guinea pig and as a re s u lt e it h e r fe e ls he must do his very best or fe e ls a n ta g o n is tic . is another change which may occur. Role s e le c tio n In th is case the su b ject assumes the ro le o f "the kind o f person he th in ks he should b e." (Is a a c and M ich ael, 1972) The measurement i t s e l f may ac t as a change agent. is re fe rre d to as the "Preamble E ffe c t" by C a n tril The s itu a tio n (1 9 4 4 ). The in s tru c tio n s o r contents o f the q u estion n aire induce c e rta in a ttitu d e s or mind sets in th e su b ject which extend beyond the research 108 s itu a tio n . The research s itu a tio n s ta r ts the opinion-form ing process in to a c tio n . The in v e s tig a to r b elieves th a t the "preamble e ffe c t" was working in the present study based on the f a c t th a t numerous respondents remarked th a t the q u estio n n aire contained good ideas on how to d e fin e career education. In terview s w ith respondents a f t e r they completed the q u estio n n aire confirmed the "preamble e ffe c t" observatio n. The tendency fo r respondents to answer questions in c e rta in p re d ic ta b le ways is re fe rre d to as a response s e t. The present q u estio n n aire was designed to e lim in a te response sets although some may have occurred. The semantic d if f e r e n t ia l scales a lte rn a te d as p o s itiv e and n eg ative and several n egative items were included in the L ik e r t-ty p e s c a le . The negative items were meant to "wake-up" any respondent who was lapsing in to a response s e t. The negative semantic d if f e r e n t ia l p o s itiv e ly during coding. items were transposed The negative L ik e rt-ty p e items were computed s e p a ra te ly when the s t a t is t i c a l an alysis was performed. In the cases where biased response sets did occur, th ree primary ra tin g e rro rs could have occurred. e r ro r where the response is u nfavo rable. One is an o v e r-ra te r A th ir d is a c e n tra l tendency where ra tin g s tend to be in the middle o f the sc ale . The m id d le-scale ra tin g s tend to occur according to Isaac and Michael (1972) when the observer is u n fa m ilia r w ith what is being ra te d . 109 The in v e s tig a to r's observations during the present study in d ic a te d th a t the c e n tral tendency r a te r e rro r may have a ffe c te d the responses on the semantic d i f f e r e n t i a l . The reason in the cases where the middle ra tin g s occurred appeared to be u n fa m ilia r ity w ith the s c a le . Several respondents w ith vocational education backgrounds remarked th a t they had d i f f i c u l t y in co n ceptu alizin g the semantic d if f e r e n t ia l item s. They assumed th a t t h e ir "academic" counterparts were b e tte r a t responding to such a sc ale . In te rv ie w e r e ffe c ts are another lim it a t io n . The in t e r ­ viewer (th e in v e s tig a to r) was the same in a l l s itu a tio n s . fo r e , many in te rv ie w e r biases were held constant. There­ The q u estio n n aire was o b je c tiv e so th a t any in v e s tig a to r bias which appeared would only be due to the in v e s tig a to r 's s e le c tio n o f questions or in te rp re ta tio n s o f data. The research instrum ent remained co n stant, but e lic it e d responses may have been d if f e r e n t because o f the tim e lapse in gathering d ata. The period during which data was gathered extended th ree weeks because o f scheduling a t community c o lle g e s . S t i l l another lim it a t io n to the study may have been the "halo e f f e c t . " The "halo e ffe c t" is the s itu a tio n where some ir r e le v a n t fe a tu re o f the study, such as a stong i n i t i a l p o s itiv e or negative im pression, influences ra tin g s on a l l subsequent observations. In s itu a tio n s , such as in the present study, where the v a ria b le being ra ted is vaguely d e fin e d , the halo e ff e c t is stro n g er. Because o f the unclear understanding which seems 110 to e x is t regarding the career education concept, i t would be p la u s ib le th a t the halo e f f e c t may have been strong in th e c u rre n t study. Because o f the numerous lim ita tio n s mentioned above, m u ltip le measures ( i . e . , semantic d if f e r e n t ia l and L ik e r t-ty p e ) o f the c a re e r education concept were used. Use o f m u ltip le measures should enable a g re a te r degree o f g e n e r a liz a b ility . The v a l i d i t y check among c a teg o ries was performed to determine appropriateness o f the c a te g o rie s . Since the in v e s tig a to r o f th is study was th e only person coding the responses, coder r e l i a b i l i t y was held r e la t iv e ly constant. Category s t a b i l i t y was determined by the p r e -t e s t . To a s c e rta in in t e r p r e tiv e r e l i a b i l i t y independent in d iv id u a ls were asked to in te r p r e t r e s u lts . The in te rp re ta tio n s given approximated those which appeared in Chapter V. V e r ific a t io n o f the q u estio n n aire was obtained by means o f personal in te rv ie w . Selected o f f i c i a l s a t the Michigan Department o f Education and one a d m in is tra to r a t each o f the community colleges in the sample were asked i f they f e l t the instrum ent was measuring what was intended. The q u estio n n aire had been p rev io u sly changed according to rep o rts during p re te s tin g u n til th e re was v e r if ic a t io n o f meaning. A la r g e r CC sample s iz e may have y ie ld e d more s ig n ific a n t fin d in g s . Ill Conclusions and Im p lic atio n s The present study was e x p lo ra to ry in nature and focused on d e s c rip tio n o f e x is tin g conditions between samples. So even though re s u lts o f the study g e n e ra lly do not demonstrate la rg e d iffe re n c e between the VECDS and CC ad m in istrato rs samples, conclusions d escrib in g the samples can be drawn. 1. The a ff e c t iv e d e s c rip tiv e meaning o f the term , "career ed u catio n," was v i r t u a l l y the same fo r both samples. VECDS personnel and CC a d m in is tra to rs perceive career education as ju s t r ig h t o f c e n te r in potency, a c t i v i t y , and e v a lu a tiv e fa c to rs . The fin d in g im p lies th a t S ta te o f f i c i a l s and community c o lle g e a d m in is tra to rs experience a s im ila r e f f e c t iv e re a c tio n to the term , "career ed u catio n ." 2. O verall a n a ly s is o f responses to an a p r io r i d e f in it io n o f c r i t i c a l elements o f ca re er education as defined by a panel o f experts in d ic a te th a t the S tate o f f i c i a l s and community c o lle g e a d m in is tra to rs do not d i f f e r in how they c o g n itiv e ly describe career education. The few s p e c ific d iffe re n c e s which do e x is t were presented in the r e s u lts . 3. A computer v a l id i t y check determined th a t the q u estion n aire was able to d is c rim in a te on selected items and, th ere b y , im plies th a t the two samples a c tu a lly do not s ig n if ic a n t ly d i f f e r in t h e i r re sp ec tive d e s c rip tio n o f career education concept. 112 4. The o rig in a l fa c to rs o f the questionnaire were contaminated. Items did not c le a r ly d if f e r e n t ia t e the fa c to rs . Factor an alysis fo r the VECDS in d icated th a t underlying fa c to rs may be "self-developm ent in fo rm a tio n ," "previous experience," and "Job p re p a ra tio n ." The CC sample seems to in d ic a te th a t "inform ation gathering" and "sharing" may be the underlying fa c to rs a ffe c tin g community co lle g e ad m in is tra to rs . The fa c to rs should be pursued in more d e ta il to determine i f they are the re al fa c to rs which determine response to d e fin itio n o f career education in programmatic element terms. 5. S tate o f f i c i a l s c o rre la te h ig h ly w ith in on the in fu sio n theme w h ile community co lleg e ad m in istrators show high c o rre la tio n s w ith in on the a r t ic u la t io n theme. Self-assessment appears to c o rre la te most o fte n w ith o th er items fo r the VECDS. 6. The small size o f the check sample (N=5) p ro h ib its g e n e ra liza tio n although the check sample tends to in d ic a te th a t conclusions from fin d in g s may be generalized to the populations. Since the in v e s tig a to r found th a t the q uestionnaire did d is c rim in a te on item s, one can say th a t conclusions from re s u lts p o in t to the fa c t th a t s ta te o f f i c i a l s and community co lleg e ad m in istrato rs on the whole do not d i f f e r from each o th er in 113 d escribing career education 1n the community c o lle g e s e ttin g . Of course, the statem ent assumes th a t the paper-and-pencil measure t r u ly sta te s what the respondents r e a lly th in k . Results also c o n tra d ic t the l it e r a t u r e 's as se rtio n th a t much confusion e x is ts concerning the meaning o f the ca re er education concept. Factor an alysis in d ic a te d th a t the s ix career education themes were not the actual fa c to rs which a ffe c te d responses to the q u e s tio n n a ire . The discovered fa c to rs : self-developm ent in fo rm a tio n , previous experience, job p re p a ra tio n , info rm ation gath erin g and sharing tend to suggest th a t propensity to tra n s m it inform ation may be the re al u nderlying fa c to rs which determine d e s c rip tio n s o f career education. The reason f o r s ta te o f f i c i a l s ' responses c o rre la tin g predominantly w ith the in fu sio n they may be due to t h e ir p rim a rily secondary education le v e l work experience. In fu sio n is a concept which is g e n e ra lly stressed in elem entary and secondary education where s p e c ia liz a tio n is less emphasized. In w e ll- conceived ca re er education programs, students explore career la t t ic e s to g et an "across-the-board" p ic tu re . On the o th er hand, community c o lle g e programs and p a r t ic u la r ly students tend to emphasize s p e c ia liz e d areas. career la d d e rs , ra th e r than an e n tir e l a t t i c e . Students focus on T h e re fo re , the 114 community co lle g e ad m in is tra to rs r e f le c t the s p e c ia liz a tio n approach in t h e ir preoccupation w ith a r tic u la tio n in the present study. The in fu sio n theme would be much more d i f f i c u l t to handle because o f the very s tru c tu re o f the community co lleg e s e ttin g . G e n e ra lly , high consensus o f responses among community co lle g e ad m in istrato rs suggests a possible "p a rty lin e " which did not appear among s ta te o f f i c i a l s . This is probably due to the fa c t th a t the co lleg e a d m in is tra to rs u su ally re c e iv e inform ation con concerning career education a f t e r i t becomes s ta te o r U.S.O.E. o f f i c i a l p o lic y . On the o th e r hand, s ta te o f f i c i a l s are forg in g the d e fin itio n o f c a re e r education a t the foremost perim eter and th e re fo re , hold d iverg en t points o f view concerning i t . The g re a te r amount o f inform ation concerning c a re e r education to which the s ta te department has access exposes o f f i c i a l s to many d if f e r e n t view points. Community c o lle g e people o ften must w a it fo r the inform ation to t r i c k l e through the s ta te department where the "gatekeeper e ffe c t" takes p la ce . R eflectio n s The purpose o f th is section is to r e f le c t on the fin d in g s o f the study by means o f in v itin g from th e raw data (Appendix I I I ) . Both samples seem to equate the career education concept w ith : (1 ) lif e lo n g education; (2 ) the use o f business and ind ustry resource persons; and (3 ) the determ ination o f goals and p r i o r i t i e s . D is trib u tio n s fo r both samples were most negative f o r the items 115 which suggested th a t: (1 ) r e s p o n s ib ility fo r career education programs (should be) under a d m in is tra tio n o f vocational education; (2 ) career education programs (should) be o ffe re d only to voca­ tio n a l education stu d en ts, and (3 ) th a t a s p e c ific course, or s in g le u n it , about career education (should) be included in the curriculum . F a ir ly even d is trib u tio n s ranging from the n egative to the p o s itiv e end o f the scale were assumed to denote items which comprised an issue. Lack o f consensus seems most p re v a le n t on the fo llo w in g issues: a. Whether the ca re er education concept is : strong or weak v ib ra n t o r s t i l l heavy or l ig h t b. Sharing o f s t a f f w ith o th er educational in s titu tio n s c. Use o f non-degreed teachers to teach c o lle g e courses d. Guarantee o f job placement by the community c o lle g e f o r i t s students (th is item is an issue f o r the CC sample but was scored as very im portant by the VECDS sample) e. Guarantee by the c o lle g e o f placement o f tw o-year students in to higher education f. Faculty r e s p o n s ib ility fo r placement o f t h e ir own students g. Involvement o f teacher unions in the development o f c areer education programs h. Involvement o f la b o r unions in the development o f c a re e r education programs In a d d itio n to the issues which appeared from the d a ta , the in v e s tig a to r used her in t u it io n during the study. Based on i n t u it i o n , the in v e s tig a to r fe e ls th a t respondents tended 116 to fav o r the concept o f career education. Both samples expressed many o f the same concerns and fe a rs about each o th e r. The concerns and fears included such things as, "they ( r e fe r r in g to the o th e r sample) are not aware o f what we are doing in career education" and "they (a g a in , the o ther sample respondents) are not t r u ly aware o f the re a l meaning o f career ed u catio n." The in v e s tig a to r was surprised to fin d the apparent degree o f knowledge about career education which e x is ts among community c o lle g e a d m in is tra to rs . The reason, in p a r t, may be due to her s ta te department bias th a t the "p e o p le -in t h e - f ie ld " do not know much about career education except what the s ta te department t e l l s them. In f a c t , a f t e r the present study, the in v e s tig a to r fe e ls th a t p e o p le -in -th e f i e l d in community c o lle g e a d m in is tra tiv e le v e ls know as much o r more about the meaning o f the career education concept and i t s p ra c tic a l a p p lic a tio n than do many o f the s ta te department personnel. In fu r th e r r e f le c t io n , the in v e s tig a to r b elieves th a t the a^ p r io r i d e f in it io n o f career education upon which she based her q u e stio n n aire may have stim ulated the respondents th in kin g in th a t d ir e c tio n . Even though the research design is s t a t i s t i c a l l y sound, the in v e s tig a to r re g rets th a t the sample s iz e fo r community co lleg es was not g re a te r. The use o f 117 s t a t is t ic a l techniques, u n fo rtu n a te ly , sometimes tends to obscure ra m ific a tio n s o f the data. The in v e s tig a to r hopes th a t th is section about re fle c tio n s has helped to bring out some o f those ra m ific a tio n s . Suggestions fo r F urther Research' Based on the comparative analysis o f data in the present study, the fo llo w in g hypotheses were generated as possible d ire c tio n s fo r fu tu re research: (sta ted as n u ll hypotheses) 1. There is no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e between sta te o f f i c i a l s and community co lleg e ad m in istrators in the d es crip tio n o f career education in the community co lleg e s e ttin g . 2. A ffe c tiv e meaning which s ta te o f f i c ia ls have fo r the term , "career education," as measured by a semantic d if f e r e n t ia l scale is not s ig n ific a n tly d if fe r e n t from the a ffe c tiv e meaning held by community co lleg e a d m in is tra to rs. 3. There is no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e between s ta te o f f i c i a l s and community co lleg e adm inistrators w ith regard to responses to an a p r io r i d e fin itio n o f c r i t i c a l elements o f career education as defined by a panel o f experts. 4. S tate o f f i c ia ls do not c o rre la te s ig n ific a n tly higher on the infu sio n theme than do community college a d m in is tra to rs. 5. Community co lleg e adm inistrators do not c o rre la te s ig n ific a n tly higher on the a r tic u la tio n theme than do s ta te o f f i c i a l s . 6. There is no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e between s ta te o f f i c ia ls and community co lleg e adm inistrators in terms o f: a. b. c. d. e. f. Background Self-developm ent inform ation Previous experience Job preparation Inform ation - gathering Sharing 118 7. There w i l l be no s ig n ific a n t differences in description o f career education persons w ith the same degree o f a b i l i t y to obtain and transmit ' inform ation. Studies in the fu tu re may wish to consider use o f the measure of ordinal consensus (L e ik , 1966). The method helps e lim in a te some o f the ambiguity in the term ‘'consensus," by describing the d is t r ib u t io n . The stru c tu re o f the d is t r ib u t io n is more p re c is e ly defined by the measure, so th a t such things as p o la r iz a tio n and modality o f the s tru c tu re may be i d e n t i f i e d . In ad d itio n to corroborative research, in te rp re ta tio n of the present study suggests th a t research concerning the communication patterns between the VECDS personnel and CC administrators is necessary. Research o f the communication p atters would possibly i d e n t i f y why problems tend to e x is t between VECDS and the CC's when the present study has shown th a t both are speaking the sample language with regard to the d e f in it io n o f career education. Communication research could focus on the id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f communication breakdown points. Such research would trace the various tupes o f communication which are u t i l i z e d between the VECDS and CC. The types could include both the formal and informal channels; who communicates w ith whom; f o r what purpose; what media are used; fo r what purposes; channel e f fic ie n c y ; d ire c tio n o f the communication; and amount o f d is to r tio n o f the message. When breakdown points are i d e n t i f i e d , measures can be taken to remedy them. 119 The lev el o f knowledge, o r amount o f inform ation a person » has regarding the ca re er education concept may also a f f e c t his a t t i t u d e and support o f the concept. The area of communica­ tio n concerned with q u a n tity and q u a lit y o f inform ation could be in v e s tig a te d in t h is respect. Another aspect o f communication which may y i e l d in te r e s tin g re s u lts is t h a t of inform ation g ath erin g . The in v e s tig a to r cannot prove in the present study th a t inform ation gathering is a strong fa c t o r in determining the e x te n t to which VECDS and CC agree on the d e f i n i t i o n o f career education. She does, however, i n t u i t i v e l y b e lie v e th a t a respondent's a b i l i t y to e l i c i t and tran sm it inform ation w i l l a f f e c t how he defines career education. The in v e s tig a to r also b elieves th a t the higher the inform ation transmission lev el o f the respondent, the more p o s itiv e the respondent's a t t i t u d e w i l l be toward care er education. APPENDIX I STRATIFICATIONS S t r a t i f i c a t i o n s o f the samples were based on the Michigan Department o f Education's 1972-73 D ire c to ry o f In s t it u t io n s o f Higher Education, Section 2: 10-14. Public Community Colleges, pp. According to the D ire c to ry , the r a t i o o f la rg e (over 5,000) to medium (between 1,000 and 5,000) to small (le s s than 1,000) colleges by enrollments is 1: 3: 2. Colleges were also s t r a t i f i e d in terms o f urban-nonurban se rv ice areas as i d e n t i f i e d by the Michigan Department o f Education. (U) to nonurban (N) colleges is 2 : 1 . The r a t i o f o r urban Below are the fig u re s f o r the sample when s t r a t i f i c a t i o n r a t io s were a p p lie d : Community College EnrolIments Genesee Washtenaw Jackson Kellogg Mid-Michigan Montcalm 11,951 4,024 3,515 3,314 701 665 120 Service Area U U U U N N APPENDIX I I CAREER EDUCATION IN THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE Column Numbers Place o f Employment: 1 2 3 4 5 = = = = = 6 = 7 = 8 = 2 & 3 Kellogg Community College Montcalm Community College Mid Michigan Community College F l i n t Community College Washtenaw Community College Jackson Community College Michigan Department o f Education Grand Rapids Junior College Position: 01 = Community College President/ Vice President 02 = Community College Academic Dean 03 = Community College Occupational Dean 04 = Community College Student Services Dean 05 = Community College Business Manager 06 = Community College Other 09-16 = C iv il Service Level 4 Recency o f u n iv e rs ity course attendance as a f u l l or p art-tim e student: 1 = w ithin la s t 2 = 6 months to months year ago 3 = 1 to 2 years ago 4 = more than 2 years ago 5 6 1 Highest degree & predominant f i e l d o f study: 1 2 3 4 5 = = = = = 6 = 7 = 8 = 9 = 121 B.A. - academic B.A. - vocational M.A. - academic M.A. - vocational S p e c ia lis t - academic S p e c ia lis t - vocational Ph. D. - academic Ph. D. = vocational Other 122 (6 -1 8 ) Previous Experience: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 - None = Less than 6 months = 6 months to one year = 1 year = 2 - 3 years = 4 - 6 years = 7 - 1 0 years 8 = 11 - 15 years 9 = more than 15 years . 6 7. 8 . 9. Total amount o f time in your present p o s itio n : Total time as a teacher and/or a d m in is tra to r a t the school l e v e l : high Total time in a community-junior college ( f a c u lt y and/or a d m in is tra tio n ); Total time as f a c u lt y and/or a d m in is tra tio n a t a fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e or u n iv e rs ity : 10. Total work-experience in education a t the s ta te l e v e l: 11. Total work experience outside the educational f i e l d in business and industry: 12. Total t r a in in g time as a member o f a bargaining u n it 13. Total tr a in in g time a t the managerial le v e l outside education: 14. Total tr a in in g time in a fa c to ry ( o n - t h e - l i n e ) : 15. Total tr a in in g time in a c l e r i c a l s itu a tio n : 16. Total t r a in in g time in the m i l i t a r y : 17. Total work experience as government employee: 18. Total time self-employed: (union): 123 (1 9 -3 0 ) Semantic D i f f e r e n t i a l : 1 - 7 f o r each one Potency: sum columns 1'9, 2 2 , 25, 28 A c t i v i t y : sum columns 20, 23, 26, 29 Evaluation: sum columns 2 1 , 24, 27, 30 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. strong - weak s t i l l - v ib ra n t pleasant - unpleasant l i g h t - heavy passive - a c tiv e good - bad sad - happy modern - old-fashioned ta s te f u l - d is ta s te fu l masculin - feminine fresh - s ta le worthless - valuable (3 1 -8 0 ) 1 2 3 4 = = = - Career education program elements importance. Responses f o r columns 31-80: Not important a t a l l Not very important Important Very important 31. O verall missions o f the c o lle g e . 32. Goals and performance o b jec tiv es w r it t e n f o r both academic and occupational programs. 33. Determination o f p r i o r i t i e s o f goals and o b je c tiv e s . 34. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a key person(s) in the community co lleg e to serve as a lia is o n w ith the S ta te Department o f Education w ith regard to ca re er education programs. 35. Cooperative planning o f the community c o lle g e w ith a Career Education Planning D i s t r i c t (CEPD). 36. I n t e r - i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r t i c u l a t i o n w ith o ther colleges and schools. 37. J o in t use o f f a c i l i t i e s w ith high schools and o ther co lle g es. 38. Use o f f a c i l i t i e s operated by business and industry. 124 39. Sharing o f s t a f f members with other educational i n s t i t u t i o n s . 40. Use o f persons from business and industry as in s tru c to rs . 41. J o in t use o f advisory committees w ith local high schools and o ther co lle g es. 42. Persons from business and industry used as resource people. 43. U t i l i z a t i o n o f persons w ithout co lle g e degrees to teach c o lle g e courses. 44. R e la tin g course work in academic subjects as well as v o c a tio n a ltechnical subjects to careers. 45. In fu s io n , or in t e g r a t io n , o f an approach which bases the e n t i r e c o lle g e curriculum o f fe r in g (in c lu d in g academic subjects, such as English) on careers. 4 6. A s p e c ific u n it or course about careers to be o ffe re d by the c o lle g e , ra th e r than having the t o ta l curriculum focus on ca re ers. 47. Testing to determine student a b i l i t i e s and in te r e s t s . 48. A c t i v i t i e s designed to a s s is t students in developing awareness o f t h e i r own s e lf-c o n c e p ts , i n t e r e s t s , and abi 1 i t i e s . 49. Assistance to students in developing self-assessment s k i l l s . 50. Inform ation and occupational exposure to expand the student's knowledge and e x p lo ra tio n o f careers. 51. O n-the-job tr a in in g f o r students. 52. A c t i v i t i e s to develop the student's decision-making s k i l l s in planning a ca re er. 53. In te g r a tio n o f academic, v o c a tio n a l, and technical program components o f career p rep a ratio n . 54. Vocational guidance services w ith formal o rg an izatio n o f inform ation f o r student use. 55. In d ivid u al counseling o f students. 125 56. Systematic involvement o f f a c u lt y outside guidance services and community members in the o f fe r in g o f guidance, services. 57. Testing service a v a ila b le to students who wish to use i t f o r t h e i r own i n t e r e s t . 58. A ll students d ec la re an educational or ca re er o b je c tiv e and r a t io n a le w ith p e rio d ic review and update. 59. Job placement guaranteed by the c o lle g e f o r students who d es ire i t . 60. Placement in to higher education guaranteed by the co lleg e f o r those who su c ce ssfu lly complete a two-year program. 61. Permanent, f u l l - t i m e s t a f f assigned to placement services. 62. Faculty members place t h e i r own students. 63. Systematic fo llo w -u p o f students to be conducted by the co lle g e a t re g u la r i n t e r v a l s . 64. Career education programs only f o r v o c a tio n a l-te c h n ic a l students. 65. Exchange o f info rm ation about a c t i v i t i e s among departments w ith in the community c o lle g e . . Inform ation exchange w ith the lo c al community, business, and in d u s try . 67. Dialogue w ith p r iv a t e schools concerning a r t i c u l a t i o n o f programming. 66 68 . Communication w ith o th e r colleges or u n iv e r s it ie s w ith regard to programming. 69. Community co lleg e inform ation exchange w ith the S ta te Department o f Education. 70. Ongoing involvement o f teacher unions in e s ta b lis h in g career education programs in the community c o lle g e . 71. Involvement o f la b o r unions on an ongoing basis to e s ta b lis h career education programs in the community c o lle g e . 72. In - s e r v ic e t r a in in g o f s t a f f members on a re g u la r basis. 126 73. P re -se rv ic e tr a in in g o f a l l f a c u lt y in "career education." 74. Regular in t e r v a ls o f work experience outside o f education required o f f a c u lt y . 75. Attendance to conferences, workshops, and conventions regarding "career education." 76. R e s p o n s ib ility f o r career education programs to come under v o c a tio n a l-te c h n ic a l programs. 77. A b i l i t y to t r a n s fe r to o th e r educational in s t it u t io n s w ith ou t loss o f c r e d it s . 78. Opportunity to e n te r , lea v e , and r e - e n t e r the co lle g e a t any time in l i f e . 79. Placement te s ts f o r new o r re -e n te rin g students. 80. Waiver examinations f o r advanced placement o f students. 2 ., 3. VECDS CC 4. 5. ro XI 6. 9 10 1 0 4 0 1 2 10 4 3 4 4 3 11 12 1 2 3 4 VECDS CC 7 4 4 3 5 10 14 13 VECDS CC 0 0 2 0 1 7 VECDS CC 13 13 14 5 7 7 15 7 2 2 16 3 7 8 0 0 5 6 7 I 9 20 1 2 1 0 7 1 1 4 4 5 3 o c= m> m -o •-i m 1 5 1 11 6 4 1 1 0 0 0 1 12 7 10 0 0 0 oz 2 0 2 K-. > X 73 t- 4 I—t 7. 8. 9. 10. VECDS CC 4 2 0 2 3 7 6 0 0 2 6 6 VECDS CC 24 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 VECDS CC 22 0 1 16 0 1 0 0 27 0 VECDS CC 7 4 3 4 2 2 1 0 0 6 3 12 7 2 2 2 1 1 0 1 5 2 4 0 2 0 3 1 4 9 7 2 4 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 2 m i—i o > 5 ►—t 1 2 3 4 5 6 ■ 7 8 £ VECDS CC 3 3 1 0 0 1 0 1 13 7 9 9 4 7 0 2 0 0 12. VECDS CC 22 25 2 0 4 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 13. VECDS CC 19 17 1 0 3 1 1 2 6 5 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 14. VECDS CC 16 16 3 2 1 3 3 1 6 4 0 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 15. VECDS CC 21 23 4 0 1 1 2 2 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16. VECDS CC 21 8 0 0 0 2 3 3 5 12 1 5 0 0 0 0 O' 0 17. VECDS CC 3 23 0 0 2 1 0 2 5 2 5 0 7 0 4 1 4 1 18. VECDS CC 22 18 1 1 3 3 1 3 1 4 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 19. VECDS CC 1 1 2 2 1 2 5 6 5 3 8 9 8 7 0 0 0 0 20. VECDS CC 1 0 1 2 2 1 5 5 5 7 5 10 11 5 0 0 0 0 128 11. 21. 22. 23. 24. 26. 27. 28. ' 29. 30. 5 6 7 8 9 0 5 13 14 0 0 0 5 5 7 0 11 0 0 13 2 0 0 12 5 5 5 3 2 4 3 2 0 0 1 1 0 4 8 0 2 0 1 11 13 13 0 0 3 3 0 0 VECDS CC 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 9 21 0 19 0 0 VECDS CC 0 0 0 11 9 0 0 0 0 9 3 3 7 0 8 10 0 0 2 VECDS CC 0 0 0 0 VECDS CC 0 3 1 VECDS CC VECDS CC 0 0 1 2 2 8 17 0 0 0 0 1 6 5 8 10 0 0 VECDS CC 11 8 7 5 0 0 0 0 11 4 4 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 VECDS CC 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 28 25 1 0 1 3 0 0 0 VECDS CC 0 0 0 4 0 0 2 4 5 9 15 13 0 VECDS ' CC 0 0 0 0 2 5 0 0 0 1 0 6 23 23 8 129 25. 3 i 1 31. 32. 33. 34. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 2 3 4 VECDS CC 0 0 10 20 0 0 4 26 VECDS CC 0 7 0 0 4 7 24 23 VECDS CC 0 0 6 0 0 6 24 24 VECDS CC 0 12 2 3 3 VECDS CC 0 1 12 1 6 7 17 16 VECDS CC 0 0 10 20 0 1 13 16 VECDS CC 0 1 17 12 1 1 11 17 19 14 9 13 9 15 16 VECDS CC 1 1 0 3 VECDS CC 1 7 15 * 3 6 12 9 0 0 12 0 0 11 18 19 VECDS CC 130 35. 1 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. VECDS CC 1 2 3 4 1 2 11 15 2 3 15 10 VECDS CC 0 0 0 0 5 5 25 25 VECDS CC 1 8 1 6 14 13 7 9 VECDS CC 0 0 10 20 1 1 11 16 VECDS CC 0 2 14 13 3 4 11 11 VECDS CC 13 11 6 11 11 VECDS CC 1 1 1 12 VECDS CC 0 1 6 4 10 0 6 17 15 23 24 VECDS CC 0 VECDS CC 0 1 0 6 Q 23 0 VECDS CC 0 1 10 19 0 1 9 20 0 1 1 5 6 24 23 21 1 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 3 4 0 1 6 0 2 8 23 20 VECDS CC 0 0 0 2 5 9 25 19 VECDS CC 0 0 9 1 0 8 21 21 VECDS CC 0 0 11 1 1 2 VECDS CC 0 3 12 0 0 12 VECDS CC 1 12 0 3 3 VECDS CC 1 2 1 VECDS CC VECDS CC 3 19 26 15 18 10 14 17 5 13 15 14 9 1 0 12 17 5 5 9 10 1 3 5 11 15 9 11 VECDS CC 0 1 6 23 0 2 6 22 VECDS CC 3 3 4 19 15 2 11 1 132 57. VECDS CC 2 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 2 3 4 VECDS CC 0 1 2 5 0 6 23 23 VECDS CC 15 15 7 13 2 4 0 1 VECDS CC 0 2 10 1 0 10 18 19 VECDS CC 0 1 11 0 0 5 18 25 VECDS CC 1 3 5 12 14 13 11 0 1 14 0 0 12 15 18 VECDS CC 1 VECDS CC 1 1 11 1 0 14 16 15 VECDS CC 4 4 3 8 15 7 8 11 VECDS CC 2 3 15 2 6 6 10 16 VECDS CC VECDS CC 1 1 5 23 0 1 8 21 1 1 7 21 0 2 10 18 133 68. 1 1 2 3 4 74. VECDS CC 0 0 1 4 14 20 15 6 75. VECDS CC 0 1 3 1 20 17 7 76. VECDS CC 14 10 7 10 6 6 2 VECDS CC 1 0 2 1 5 9 22 78. VECDS CC 0 0 1 0 1 1 28 29 79. VECDS CC 2 1 4 4 10 9 14 16 80. VECDS CC 1 0 4 1 10 7 14 77. n 4 19 134 21 BIBLIOGRAPHY Arizona S tate Department o f Vocational Education, 1971 Benjamin, R. Semantics and Language A n a ly s is . B obbs-M erril1 C o., I n c . , 1970. New York: B lalock, J r . , H. Social S t a t i s t i c s . New York: McGraw-Hill Book C o ., I n c . , 1960, pp. 383-391 Bloom, B. e t . a l . 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