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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 I I 74-13,914 JENNINGS, Clara Murphy, 1942THE IMPACT THE EDUCATION PROFESSIONS DEVELOPMENT ACT, PART B, SUBPART II HAD ON PREPARING TEACHERS FOR THE ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED STUDENTS: EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMS IN TWO MICHIGAN URBAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1973 Education, general U niversity M icrofilm s, A XERQ\Company , A n n A rbor, M ichigan THE IMPACT THE EDUCATION PROFESSIONS DEVELOPMENT ACT, PART B, SUBPART II HAD ON PREPARING TEACHERS FOR THE ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED STUDENTS: EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMS IN TWO MICHIGAN URBAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS By Clara Murphy Jennings A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary Education 1973 ABSTRACT THE IMPACT THE EDUCATION PROFESSIONS DEVELOPMENT ACT , PART B, SUBPART II HAD ON PREPARING TEACHERS FOR THE ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED STUDENTS: EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMS IN TWO MICHIGAN URBAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS By Clara Murphy Jennings Between 1969 and 1972, the Michigan Department of Education received grants under the Education Professions Development Act, Part B, Subpart II to fund short-term teacher education programs. Prior to the granting of these funds, there had existed a shortage of qualified teachers to work in inner city schools. For the most part, the shortages existed in eligible Title I schools serving the economically disadvantaged. The shortage was especially acute in Detroit and Pontiac, where very few certificated teachers applied for jobs. Those teachers who did apply often found themselves inadequately prepared to cope with the problems of economically disadvantaged students, and often sought to transfer after only a few months of teaching. In view of this situation, the Detroit and Pontiac school systems implemented six B-2 short-term teachar education programs. This study was devoted to the 92 graduates of these six programs, as well as a corresponding group of 81 other new teachers who graduated from tradi­ tional teacher preparation programs. Both groups were Clara Murphy Jennings employed as teachers in the two systems involved in the research study. The overall purposes of this study were to deter­ mine if the B-2 program graduates viewed teaching economi­ cally disadvantaged students as desirable, and whether they felt capable of doing so as a result of their teacher preparation program; to determine what changes the graduates would make in future programs; and, finally, to compare the B-2 teachers' perceptions of their preparation program and their competency to work with the economically disadvantaged with non B-2 new teachers. A brief history of the involvement of the Educa­ tion Professions Development Act, Part B-2 in preparing teachers for the disadvantaged was given. The role of the Michigan State Department of Education and the two local school districts was also described. A summary of the six B-2 programs implemented in Detroit and Pontiac was given. Through the use of a questionnaire sent to all graduates of the B-2 programs, and a corresponding group of other new teachers, the data to complete this study were collected. The analysis of the data suggested that the program graduates viewed teaching the economically disad­ vantaged as something they desired to do, and they felt qualified in doing so as a result of their teacher Clara Murphy Jennings preparation program. The data indicated that the B-2 teachers1 perceptions of their competency to cope with the problems of the economically disadvantaged is signi­ ficantly different from those of other new teachers. The two recommendations rated highest by the program graduates were: 1. The program should be longer than one year; it should be extended to at least two years to provide more time for the tasks to be completed. 2. All programs for prospective teachers should include courses, seminars, workshops and a variety of experiences in working with the economically disadvantaged students. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The researcher expresses her gratitude to all those persons who so graciously assisted in the completion of this study. Special thanks go to Dr. Ed Pfau, Director of Teacher Preparation and Professional Development, Michigan Department of Education. Dr. Helen Hart, Director of Continuing Education, Detroit Public Schools; D r s . Robert Boyce and Merle Smith, Pontiac Public School District; and Bob Carr, Consultant of Office of Research and Development, Michigan State University, for their con­ tinuous support given throughout the developmental stages of the study. Many thanks go to Dr. Don Nickerson, Committee Chairman, and other commitLee members, Dr. Perry Lanier, Dr. Donald Melcer, and special appreciation goes to Dr. Louis Romano for the extra help he gave me in pulling the study together for final approval, for truly this help was most needed. Finally, to Jim, my husband, T o i , my daughter, and Sheila Lacy, my cousin of Kansas City, Missouri, for the many hours spent alone trying to carry on without me while I worked so diligently on this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. II. Page I N T R O D U C T I O N ................................. 1 Significance of the Study ................. Need for the S t u d y .......................... Purpose of the S t u d y ........................ Questions for S t u d y ........................ Assumptions of the S t u d y .................... Limitations of the S t u d y .................... Sampling and Data C o l l e c t i o n ............... Definition of T e r m s ........................ Overview of the S t u d y ...................... 6 14 15 16 17 17 18 19 22 REVIEW OF THE L I T E R A T U R E .................... 23 Introduction ................................. The Inadequate Preparation of Teachers for the Teaching of Economically Disadvantaged Students ................................. History and Development of Teacher Education Teacher Preparation in the Universities . Laboratory Experiences in Teacher Education ............................ Why Teachers Leave Disadvantaged Areas . . . Changes in the Preparation of Teachers for Work with the Economically Disadvantaged .. A Review of Experimental Programs to Train Teachers to Work With the Economically Disadvantaged ............................ The PTE P r o g r a m .......................... General Outcomes of the PTE Program . . The BRIDGE P r o j e c t ........................ The Project Beacon Training Program ... The Four State Project: California C o m p o n e n t .............................. A History of the Education Professions Development Act, Part B, Subpart 2 . . . . Legislative History of the EPDA, Part B-2: Attracting and Qualifying Teachers and Teacher Aides .......................... 23 » • i n * 24 26 27 29 33 40 46 46 53 55 60 62 71 73 Page Chapter III. A History of the Michigan Department of Education's Developmental Process of the EPDA B-2 P r o g r a m s .................... Michigan Department of Education EPDA B-2 P r o c e d u r e s .............................. 75 PROGRAM DESCRIPTIONS AND METHODOLOGY . . . . 78 Introduction ................................. A Description of the Pontiac Public School System EPDA B-2 Short-Term Teacher Education Programs (ST3P) to Train Teachers for the D i s a d v a n t a g e d .................... History and Development of Programs in the Pontiac Public School District ......... 1969-70 Program ........................ 1970-71 Program ........................ 1971-72 Program ........................ Recruitment and Selection of Program T r a i n e e s ................................. An Overview of the Pre-service and Inservice Components of the Program . . . Description of the C u r r i c u l u m ........... Description of the Laboratory Experience . A Description of the Detroit Public School System EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Educa­ tion Programs to Train Teachers for the ............................ Disadvantaged The Detroit EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Training Program for Bilingual Students Development of the P r o g r a m ............. Recruitment and Selection ............. Description of the C u r r i c u l u m ........... E v a l u a t i o n .............................. The Detroit EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Training Program for Library Science . . Development of the P r o g r a m .............. Description of the C u r r i c u l u m ......... E v a l u a t i o n ................................. The Detroit EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Training Program for Special Education . Development of the P r o g r a m .............. Recruitment of Candidates for the Program Description of the C u r r i c u l u m ......... The Teacher Training Practicum ........... In-Service Training Workshops ........... E v a l u a t i o n ................................. M e t h o d o l o g y ................................... Development of the Questionnaire ........... Obtaining the D a t a .......................... 78 iv 76 78 81 81 82 83 84 86 92 93 96 98 100 103 104 105 106 106 110 112 112 115 117 118 121 122 122 122 123 124 Chapter IV. V. Page The S a m p l e ................................... Analysis Procedures ........................ S u m m a r y ....................................... 126 128 131 ANALYSIS OF D A T A ............................... 133 Introduction ................................... General Information .......................... Demographic Information .................... B-2 Graduates' Major Areas of Study Before Entering the P r o g r a m ...................... B-2 Graduates' Employment Before Entering the P r o g r a m ............................... B-2 Graduates' Place of Residence Before Entering the P r o g r a m ...................... The Research Questions ........................ Research Question 1 Research Question 2 Research Question 3 Comments of the G r a d u a t e s ............ Recommendations Provided by the Graduates Research Question 4 Research Question 5 Research Question 6 ...................... Research Question 7 ...................... Research Question 8 Research Question 9 ......... Research Question 10 .................... A Summary of Principals' Ratings on the Performance of B-2 T e a c h e r s ............... S u m m a r y ....................................... 133 134 135 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . Introduction ................................... S u m m a r y ....................................... C o n c l u s i o n s ................................... Recommendations ............................... General Recommendations .................... Recommendations for the Michigan State Department of Education ............... Recommendations for Institutions of Higher E d u c a t i o n .............................. Recommendations for Future Programs in Preparing Teachers for the Economically Disadvantaged ............................ B I B L I O G R A P H Y ............................................ v 139 140 141 141 142 144 151 153 154 157 161 16 8 17 2 178 182 187 198 199 206 206 207 213 124 215 216 216 217 219 Chapter Page A P P E N D I C E S ....................................... 224 A. B-2 Questionnaire and Cover Letters B. New Teacher Questionnaire and Cover Letter . 233 C. Course Descriptions for Pontiac B-2 Programs 238 D. Summary: A Follow-Up Study of Employment of Graduates of Pontiac B-2 Programs, 1969-1971 241 E. . . . . 224 Description of Academic Courses for the Detroit B-2 Bilingual Teacher Education P r o g r a m ................................. 245 F. Evaluation for the Detroit Bilingual Program 247 G. Competencies to Be Developed in the Detroit EPDA B-2 Library Science Program ........... 251 Curriculum Description for the Detroit B-2 Library Science Teacher Education Program 253 Evaluation of the Detroit B-2 Library Science Teacher Training Program ........... 256 A Description of In-Service Workshops (Phases I and II) of the Detroit B-2 Special Education Teacher Training Program . 261 Evaluation Design of Detroit B-2 Special Education Teacher Training Program ......... 26 3 H. I. J. K. LIST OF TABLES Table 3-1. 3-2. 3-3. Page Oakland University School of Education, Instructional Schedule Outline, Pre-Service and In-Service ST3P P r o g r a m ................. 88 Friday Morning Instructional Sessions, Fall Schedule--ST3P, September 11-December 18 . . . 89 Registration Schedule: Elementary School Librarians Program, Detroit Public Schools and Wayne State University .................... Ill 3-4. Credit Distribution, Academic Coursework, and Degree Requirements, Detroit Public Schools EPDA B-2 Special Education Program, 1971-72 . 119 3-5. Number of B-2 and Non-B-2 Teachers Respond­ ing to Q u e s t i o n n a i r e .............................127 3-6. Composition of Experimental and Control G r o u p s ............................................ 128 4-1. School System and Sex of B-2 Program Graduates ..................................... 134 4-2. Description of B-2 Graduates' Teaching A s s i g n m e n t s ..................................... 135 4-3. Demographic Variables of 92 B-2 Teachers . 4-4. B-2 Teachers' Major Subject Areas Before Entering the P r o g r a m ............................. 139 4-5. Prior Employment of B-2 T e a c h e r s .................140 4-6. Preference of Employment Assignments .......... 4-7. B-2 Graduates' Perceptions of their Success in Teaching Economically Disadvantaged S t u d e n t s ..........................................144 vii . . 138 143 Page Table 4-3. B-2 Graduates Not Teaching Economically Dis­ advantaged Students: Perception of their Success if They Were Teaching the ................................. Disadvantaged 145 4-9. Cross Analysis of Questions 17 and 1 8 ............ 146 4-10. Summary of Teachers' Ratings on Adequacy of the Teacher Preparation Program ............. 147 B-2 Teachers' Comments on Adequacy of the Program in Terms of Experience ............. 149 4-11. 4-12. Teachers' Ratings of Problems Commonly Cited as Typical of Economically Disadvantaged S t u d e n t s .......................................... 150 4-13. B-2 Graduates' Ratings of Components of the Training P r o g r a m ............................. 152 4-14. Number of Students Taught Daily by B-2 G r a d u a t e s ........................................ 158 4-15. Number of Classes Taught Daily by B-2 G r a d u a t e s ........................................ 159 4-16. Number of Disadvantaged S udents Taught Daily by B-2 G r a d u a t e s ...........................160 4-17. Univariate Analysis of Variance for Question 2 4 ......................................162 4-18. Analysis of Contingency Table 4-19. Contingency Table for Question 1 ................ 165 4-20. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 2 . 166 4-21. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 3 . 166 4-22. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 4 . 167 4-23. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 10 169 4-24. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 11 170 4-25. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 12 171 4-26. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 13 172 viii ................ 164 Page Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 10 173 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 11 175 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 12 176 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 13 177 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 11 179 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 1 180 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 2 181 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 3 181 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 6 183 Analysis of Contingency Table for Teachers in Middle Class Schools . , 184 Analysis of Contingency Table for Teachers in Lower Class Schools . , 185 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 12 186 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 13 187 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 17 188 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 24 190 Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 26 191 ANOVA Table of B-2 Teachers’ and New Teachers’ Responses on Question 24 ...................... 194 ANOVA Table for Question 44^ ................. 195 ANOVA Table of B-2 Teachers' Responses and New Teachers' Responses to Question 442 • • • 196 ANOVA Table for Six Statements ............... 197 Full-Time Employment in School Districts for ST3P Graduates, 1969-70 and 1970-71 . . . 242 ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Teacher education has come under attack from a variety of sources and covering a wide range of topics. For all too long educators, when pushed to make an honest and confidential analysis, have had to admit that programs for teacher preparation have not generally been effective in training teachers to work effectively with the economi­ cally disadvantaged. Indeed many authors doubt the validity of teacher preparation programs regardless of the specific focus.1 During the latter part of the 1960's fast-paced changes in the teaching profession have sharply accentuated some of the limitations of the teacher preparation program, and at the same time have pushed new demands upon the whole process of teacher education at the institutions of higher education, the local education agencies, and state departments of education. For example, Anderson cited three areas of pressures and needs that illustrate the limitation of traditional teacher preparation programs. 1Jonathon Kozal, Death at an Early Age Houghton Mifflin Company, 1967), p~, 240. 1 (Boston: 2 First, newly certified teachers frequently find themselves unable to meet the challenging tasks and demands to which they are asked to respond in present day schools and parti­ cularly so when teaching in disadvantaged areas. Second, special problems of providing adequate education for the urban and rural poor, for minority groups and for various classifications of atypical children have tended to focus on a need for some specialized preparation for teachers— specialization beyond traditional subject matter and grade level areas. And third, the whole fabric of school organi­ zation has been shaken by the demands of parents who want authority to make those decisions which professionals are accustomed to make about their rules and duties. 2 In contrast, Armstrong and Basley stated that teachers have generally been low man on the totem pole, with administrators, supervisors, specialists and parents directing their activities and evaluating their services relative to their preparation.2 To put it bluntly, Anderson says that teacher educa­ tion is at the crossroads and should change from the coursecentered curriculum to a field-based one. Colleges and universities have realized that they have been preparing 2Ibid., p . 245. ■*Earl W. Armstrong and Howard T. Basley, Teacher Education in Transition (Tallahassee, Florida: Florida State University, 1969), p. 17. teachers to teach only in the middle class schools.4 Tuckman states that educators have realized that our traditional teacher training programs at the undergraduate level have not and apparently can not prepare teachers to work with the culturally different students who are identi­ fied with middle-class culture.5 He also stated that such teachers are not adequately prepared to accept the value system, the culture of the world of the culturally different students and thus do not accept the disadvantaged child.5 As educators have become aware of the mounting pres­ sures, both external and internal, they have made a variety of changes in their teacher preparation programs. They have experimented and even changed their conventional teacher preparation programs from ones with an on-campus emphasis to ones which have field experiences in order to acquaint the prospective teacher with the background of his pupils and the trials and tribulations of the real world. Thousands of teachers with tenure in Michigan public schools have labored diligently to improve their efforts and effectiveness of their curricula and instruction. With no discredit to these teachers, Anderson states that this effort has been adequate for the teaching task in the recent 4L . O. Anderson, Challenges and Needed Development in Teacher Education (Columbus: Ohio State University, 1969), p. 163. 5Bruce W. Tuckman, Preparing to Track the Disadvan­ taged (New York: Caller-McMillan Limited, 1969), p. 167. 5Ibid., p . 69. 4 past but will be totally inadequate for the next decade or two. He feels that persistent problems have been recognized by many, and effective solutions to some of the problems have been discovered. The positive result is that persons in the teaching profession have begun to face up to the crucial fact that previous efforts have not placed really qualified teachers in classrooms of the culturally different students because the trainees were not prepared to do an effective job of teaching such children.7 The federal government recognized the problem and has taken steps to influence teacher education improvement. The Bureau of Research in the United States Office of Edu­ cation took the initiative in 1967 to encourage the develop­ ment of model programs for the preparation of elementary teachers. During that same year Congress passed the Education Professions Development Act. This legislation was designed to assist with the major problems bearing on attracting, preparing and maintaining an adequate supply of competent teachers to work specifically with the economi­ cally disadvantaged students. Participation in the various aspects also required inter-institutional cooperation. Other legislation has been enacted within the past six years which provide support for promising programs, many of which bear either directly or indirectly on the improve­ ment of teacher personnel. Much of the legislation 7Anderson, op. c i t ., p. 163. 5 provides funds directly to the state departments of educa­ tion, but the successful implementation of these programs requires joint efforts by more than one unit in a state department of education and higher level cooperation between the state education agency, local education agencies and g institutions of higher education. Part B, Subpart II, the short-term teacher education program, of the Education Professions Development Act was supported by Congress in 1967 to improve the teacher preparation programs at insti­ tutions of higher education and local school district levels to enhance the achievement level of youngsters through the provision of well-trained and competent teachers. According to the evaluation reports from 15 local school districts short-term teacher education from 1969 through 1972, the programs have made a tremendous impact on the improvement of education in terms of pupil-teacher ratio 9 in the State of Michigan. In retrospect, the Education Professions Development Act, Part B, Subpart II can be seen not only as one of the most important educational developments in Michigan during the period between 1969 and 1972, but as a crucially important contribution to the development of American education. The program was initiated during the time when O Armstrong, op. c i t ., p. 7. 9 Michigan Department of Education, Office of State Records and Publications Center Agency Set Number 568, Agency Container Numbers 2, 3, and 4. 6 states were experiencing a severe teacher shortage. The Act provided local and state education agencies and institutions of higher education with the opportunity to develop more effective means of training and utilizing education personnel of all k i n d s . ^ SIGNIFICANCE CF THE STUDY American society is a mixture of national origins and social classes. In some schools as many as 50 nation­ alities are represented in the pupil body. Because of local conditions and pressures to integrate the school, children of the poor and the wealthy, the illiterate and the educated, are sometimes found in the same school. But in the inner city the Blacks and those with Spanish sur­ names are forced by circumstance to live off by themselves, and thus their children attend schools in which there is less variation of cultural background and wealth. The same observation can be made about the Puerto Rican communities or the Indian reservations. Such variety among communities and pupils demands that all educational personnel be prepared to cope with problems arising from all kinds of social circumstances.^ ^ B u r e a u of Educational Personnel Development, Education Professions Development A c t , Part B, Subpart II (Washington, D. C.: United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, 1967). ^ O t h a n e l Smith, Teachers for the Real World (Washington, D . C .: A A C T E , 1969), p. 11. 7 For instance, even when the children come from apparently similar social and racial situations, as in suburbia or the black ghettos, a teacher ought to have a broad background, not only to understand a child's situa­ tion but to direct his search for broader experiences. A teacher who knows that the use of a dialect is in itself no indication of shallowness of thought or feeling may be able to relate to the child by showing an understanding of the depth and vigor of that dialect. Smith further states that instead of preparing teachers to be at ease with children of any social origin, the institutions of higher education are typically pre­ paring teachers for children who are much like themselves. Even for these the preparation is inadequate, since these children are stunted if they are not helped to understand other kinds of people. Awareness of this significant dis­ covery has finally led federal, state and local educational authorities to emphasize the preparation of teachers for the culturally different students who live in poor economic 12 circumstances. Fantini and Weinstein (1968) state that special motivations, attitudes, language system, and conduct of the culturally different students require that their teachers be trained in methods different from teachers of 12Ibid. middle class children. 13 The world needs teachers who are able to work effectively with children regardless of race or social situation, teachers who have a broad life ex­ perience of many social classes and ethnic- groups in our society.14 Frank (19 68) states that economically, socially and educationally disadvantaged children are not new to American society. Throughout American history, since col­ onial days, disadvantaged youths and their families have made heroic efforts to avail themselves of schools. The existence of the free public system itself can be attributed largely to the struggle of the laboring man to provide an education for his children. Even though the public school system is now fixed in the American institutional struc­ ture, the struggle for an adequate program of education 15 for low income group children continues. There are many crucial attributes of the emerging world which must be reflected in the preparation of teachers. The key words in education must be relevance and account­ ability. Are the schools, and their programs and teachers, resonating with the critical issues of our time? The ■^Maria Fantini and Gerald Weinstein, The Disad­ vantaged: Challenge to Education (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), p. 382. 14Ibid., p. 12. 15 Virginia Frank, New Curriculas, Materials and the Teaching of the Disadvantaged (Washington, D. C.: NDEA, National Institute for Advanced Study in Teaching Disad­ vantaged Youth, 1968), pp. 33-50. 9 question must be answered by teacher training institutions. In the context of social relevance, "white racism" and teacher training must be high priority issues. At home and abroad racism is a virulent disease which could conceivably lead to our extinction. Racial, class and ethnic bias can be found in every aspect of current teacher preparation. The selection processes militate against the poor and the minority person. The program content reflects current prejudices; the methods of instruction coincide with learning styles of the dominant group. Subtle in­ equalities are reinforced in the institutions of higher learning. Unless there is scrupulous self appraisal, un­ less every aspect of the teacher training program is care­ fully reviewed, the changes initiated in teacher preparation as a result of the current crises will be, like so many changes which have gone before, merely differences which make no difference. The teacher who is not alerted to the devasLations of enforced uselessness, segregation, and bureaucratic management is not adequately educated. The teacher who is not prepared to alter through the schools the devastating conditions of enforced uselessness, segregation, and bureau­ cratic management is not adequately trained . ^ If the school systems are to function effectively, 16Ibid., p . 3. 10 they need staff to match their mountainous problems. The situation as it exists now is not only inadequate, it holds the seeds of our destruction.^® School systems need teachers who are trained to negotiate interpersonal con­ tracts with students, and who are trained to share valuable knowledge and experience. To do this they must show students that what they have to offer is valuable. Also, the teachers must have that which they are asked to share. Teachers must know how to communicate to broad segments of the society. At present many culturally different learners are victimized because the teacher is unable to speak their language. 19 Recruitment of teachers primarily from the middle income population contributes to the problems of communica­ tion. Teacher preparation further restricts the communica­ tion process. Alienation of youth from adult establishments highlights the difficulty. Teacher preparation sensitizing to a variety of legitimate teacher who is ignorant of must include languages. A linguistics is not a good teacher, no matter what his area of competence. The teacher must be able to understand the student's world. Teachers currently build barriers between themselves and students because they have been provided with inadequate theory and outmoded concepts. Culturally different students •*~®Ibid . , p . 7 . 19 Kazol, o p . c i t ., p. 240. XI are eager to learn, and they cease to grow only when informed that they are intellectually incompetent, not useful to the classroom, and intruders into the educational process. Many teachers willingly and witlessly deliver such messages daily because that is what they are trained to do. 20 Here too, the culturally different learners are dealt with most cruelly. Because of ignorance the teacher is likely to confuse unintelligibility of curriculum with lack of intelligence of students. Because of remoteness from the life of the culturally different students, the teacher is likely to make them feel unwelcome in the school and then convince himself that this is evidence the pupils do not want to learn. Because the teacher is unable to assess the extent to which class, race, and ethnic bias have influenced his perceptions, he is likely to confuse a response to such aggressions as evidence of a student's inability to maintain self control.^^Because of this problem, there was a need for change in education generally, and specifically, for changes in training persons to be teachers. Institutions of higher education in training teachers to work with the economically different students, may add a course or two, or bring to the faculty a person who claims expertise in this area. 20 21 Ibid., p. 8. Mark Van Doren, The Portable Emerson Viking Press, 1965), p. 45. (New York: 12 But all too often the instructional program reinforces the notion of cultural deprivation and as such may be a negative rather than a positive influence on the prospective teacher.22 The current situation of remoteness of the pros­ pective teacher from the realities of classroom practices must be reformed. Prospective teachers must be brought into contact with reality of classroom practices through various training experiences and actual encounters with children in classrooms. Teacher preparation reform must stress the ability to conceptualize and analyze, which is the essence of scholarship. The teacher must be prepared not only to diagnose problems but also to devise programs to remedy the situation, and finally to evaluate the success of these programs.23 Changes in teacher training programs to improve the qualify of education of the economically disadvantaged students depend greatly on funding policies and strategies. The Education Professions Development Act of 1967 has been a means of making funds available for producing change. Only those teacher training programs which relate directly to the primary issue of preparing teachers to teach the 22Ibid., p. 9. 23Ibid., p. 10. 13 economically disadvantaged students were funded. The Act urged that only reform programs that entailed cooperation of the community, the teachers, the local and state school admin­ istration, and the institutions of higher education be funded. The Act also was intended to assist local educa­ tional agencies, colleges and universities in their task of recruiting persons into the teaching profession and related instructional positions, the bill proposed a new program of grants and contracts. Under the provisions of the proposed new section 504, the local school districts, state educational agencies, and colleges and universities received assistance to identify persons interested in the education profession, to encourage them to pursue an edu­ cation career, whether such career would start at a pro­ fessional or subprofessional level, and to publicize 24 availability of opportunities in education. The Detroit Public Schools/Wayne State University and the Pontiac Public School District/Oakland University were funded to implement such programs. Since the com­ pletion of the programs, nothing had been done to assess the performance of the 110 graduates now that they were teaching. Further, no definitive performance study coupled with the teachers' present position had been carried out. Additionally, no complete profile of just where the graduates were teaching had been accomplished. Likewise, 2^United States Code, Congressional and Administration News (1967), 80, p. 1265. 14 the graduates ' perceptions of the programs after at least two to three years of teaching have never been measured. In short, a study of the program graduates was mandatory in order that accurate data can be assembled to determine the worth and benefit of the EPDA B-II programs. NEED FOR THE STUDY From 1969 through 1972 the federal government al­ located approximately $45,000,000 to state departments of education to improve the education of the economically dis­ advantaged youngsters. Of the $45,000,000 the State of Michigan Department of Education received $1,886,237 to fund short-term teacher education programs whose purpose was two­ fold: (1) to improve the quality of teaching, and (2) to help meet the critical shortage of adequately trained educa­ tional personnel by providing a broad range of high quality retraining opportunities responsive to the changing needs of economically disadvantaged s t u d e n t s . ^ A recent survey of the state departments of educa­ tion indicate that even though persons were trained in the short-term teacher education programs, there had not been a study made to show the impact that the programs had had on the quality of teaching. Nor had there been a follow-up study on program graduates to assess their performance now 25Bureau of Educational Personnel Development, Edu­ cation Professions Development A c t , Part B, Subpart II. 15 that they are teaching in the school systems and if the graduates feel that the programs actually contributed to their competency. A study of this nature was long overdue since one of the primary purposes of the grants was to coordinate, broaden, and strengthen programs for the training and improvement of teachers to improve the quality of education for economically disddvantaged students. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY There are five purposes of this study. Each pur­ pose has been listed according to its importance in the completion of this study. The primary purposes of this study were: 1. To determine if the program graduates view teaching economically disadvantaged students as something they desire to do and feel capable of doing as a result of the E P D A , B-II short-term teacher education program under which they were trained. 2. To determine what changes graduates of the programs would like to see instituted in similar teacher preparation programs at institutions of higher education. 3. To compare the B-2 teachers' perceptions of their teacher preparation program with teachers who graduated from traditional teacher training programs. The secondary purposes of this study were: 1. To review the history of the Education Professions Development Act in order to determine how the programs were initiated. 2. To examine the history, development and procedures of the Education Professions Development Act, Part B, Subpart II, Short-Term Teacher Education Programs, 16 "Preparing Teachers to Teach the Economically Dis­ advantaged Students," in the Detroit and Pontiac Public School Systems from July 1, 1969 through June 30, 1972. QUESTIONS FOR STUDY The following questions were studied: 1. Do the EPDA B-II graduates employed in the Detroit and Pontiac public school systems view teaching economically disadvantaged students as something they desire to do? 2. Do the EPDA B-II graduates employed in the Detroit and Pontiac public school systems feel qualified to teach economically disadvantaged students? Why or why not? 3. What parts of the EPDA B-II programs have been of most practical value? 4. How many EPDA B-II graduates are teaching economi­ cally disadvantaged students? If not, why not? 5. How do responses to questions 1 and 2 above vary among the graduates of the three programs: Library Science, Bilingual, and Special Education? 6. Is there a difference between the Detroit and Pontiac graduates' responses, in terms of the location of the training program? 7. Is there a difference in attitudes relative to the wide range of age difference of graduates? 8. Is there a difference in the graduates' attitudes based on their socio-economic status? 9. Is there a difference between EPDA B-II graduates' responses from other new teachers in regard to their desire to teach economically disadvantaged students? 10. Do the EPDA B-II graduates feel different about the quality of their preparation to teach economi­ cally disadvantaged students than other new teachers from traditional teacher preparation programs? 17 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY The assumptions underlying this study w e r e : 1. The respondents to the questionnaire will be able to answer each question degree of objectivity than when they program, since they have been out of a maximum of three years. (the graduates) with a higher were in the the program for 2. The program graduates will be willing to participate in such a study due to their previous willingness to be involved in the short-term teacher education programs in the Detroit and Pontiac public school systems. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Michigan EPDA B-II Short-Term Teacher Education Programs have trained 250 persons to teaching in several school districts that serve the economically disadvantaged learners. Of the 250 persons, 137 or 55% were trained in Detroit and Pontiac Public School Districts' EPDA, B-II programs from July 1, 1969 to June 30, 1972. According to the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Bureau of Elementary-Secondary Education Act (ESEA) Sub-County Allocation Form and the Michigan Department of Education Local Education Agency Allocation Form for Fiscal Year 1972, the Detroit and Pontiac Public school systems enrolled 104,765 or 37.25% of the state's total 281,180 Title I eligibles. The State of Michigan has had 15 cooperating local school districts with EPDA B-II teacher training programs since EPDA B-II conception. This study was limited to 18 only the Detroit and Pontiac Public School Districts' EPDA B-II short-term teacher education graduates from July 1, 1969 to June 30, 1972, since these two school dis­ tricts trained a majority or 55% of those who were trained in the B-II programs. It is important to note that this study was further limited to those EPDA B-II graduates who are actually employed as teachers in the two school systems under study. Another limitation of the study was that it was confined to the final objective of the Education Professions Development Act, Part B, Subpart II, Short-Term Teacher Education Program, which is to better train teachers to teach the economically disadvantaged students to enhance their education. SAMPLING AND DATA COLLECTION The description method of research was used to complete this study. The data were secured by means of a questionnaire sent to each graduate of the Education Pro­ fessions Development Act, Part B, Subpart II, Short-Term Teacher Education Programs, and a corresponding group of other new teachers in the Detroit and Pontiac Public School Districts from July 1, 1969 through June 30, 1972. Other information related to the performance of the teachers trained in the B-II programs was ascertained through personal interviews with a small sample of the building 19 principals of the schools where the B-II graduates were employed as teachers. DEFINITION OF TERMS A listing of the important terms and their defi­ nitions in relation to this study are as follows: Disadvantaged children: Children who grow up in impoverished homes reared by parents with limited education, limited occupational skills, limited aspira­ tions, and limited prospects for the future. The children also are deprived in language development, self-concept, and social skills as well as in attitudes toward schooling and society. Economically disadvantaged: Children from homes and/or community backgrounds where a majority of the families lack adequate income which results in substandard living conditions. Teacher-Intern: A person who is not enrolled in a college planned program leading to a Bachelor of Arts or a Bachelor of Science Degree, at which time he or she will be certified to provide instruction to children in class­ rooms. Usually this person has a degree in some area outside teacher education. Practicum: A period of time during which the 20 teacher-intern will be working in the real situation with children in the classroom- The experience includes a com­ bination of direct teaching and other leadership experiences with the economically disadvantaged students and a seminar for the consideration of problems encountered in teaching. On-site instruction: All courses, seminars and workshops held in the community where the teacher-intern student teaches. On-campus instruction: All courses, seminars and workshops held in the institution of higher education's facilities. Pre-service: That segment of the teacher-intern's training at which the person will be expected to participate in classes, seminars and workshops that prepare him to move into the second phase of his training, the practicum. In-service: The second phase of the intern's training at which time he or she will be engaged in student teaching in conjunction with continued seminars and work­ shops under close supervision of the institution of higher education staff. Trainee: The person who is receiving the training in the short-term teacher education program. Formal education courses: The traditional curriculum 21 offered at institutions of higher education for students preparing to be teachers as part of their professional training course sequence and which are normally classified as pre-clinical preparation. EP D A : The Education Professions Development Act which is part of Title V of the Higher Education Act of 1965, passed by Congress in 1967. The primary purpose of the Act was to provide funding to coordinate, broaden, and strengthen programs for the training and improvement of the qualifications of teachers and other educational per­ sonnel for all levels of the American educational system so as to provide a better foundation for meeting the cri­ tical needs of the nation for personnel in these areas. Disadvantaged school: An elementary, junior or senior high school in which a majority of the children are educationally and economically different from children of a middle class environment. Target area school: An elementary, junior or senior high school in Detroit or Pontiac where the student popula­ tion is classified as being economically deprived according to the definition of the Elementary-Secondary Education Act of 1965. Competency; Possession of knowledge and skill needed by teachers to perform effectively in classrooms working with students. 22 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY Chapter II will be devoted to a review of litera­ ture related to the problem and the history and development of the Education Professions Development Act. The Pontiac Public School System EPDA B-2 programs to train teachers to teach the economically disadvantaged students was described in Part I of Chapter III. A description of the EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Education Programs for preparing teachers to teach the economically disadvantaged students in the Detroit Public Schools has been presented in Part II of Chapter III. The procedures and methodology used in completing this study were des­ cribed in Part III of Chapter III. Part IV of Chapter III was devoted to a summary of the entire chapter. The findings of the questionnaire administered to program graduates and evaluation of the programs in the two school systems under study were presented in Chapter IV. The study summary, conclusions, and recommendations derived from the results of the questionnaire and evalua­ tions are found in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE INTRODUCTION The review of the literature was directed toward information concerning the assumptions upon which this study was undertaken, namely: Assumption 1 . Typica.' / programs for teacher education are not geared to hel' ng teachers deal educatively with many of the eco; nically disadvantaged individual students and groups ,£ economically disadvantaged students whom they meet in the classroom. Assumption 2 . The problems involved in educating the economically disadvantaged in the schools are unique and differ from the problems involved in educating the economically advantaged students. Because of these special problems teachers face in educating the economically disadvantaged students, they have a tendency to leave the urban area to teach in middle class areas. Assumption 3 . The resources of the schools of education for teacher preparation must be joined with those of inner-city school systems if significant experimentation in developing and testing of new teaching technologies and formats for inner-city schooling is to be accomplished. Assumption 4 . The uniqueness of the above assumptions is recognized by the United States Office of Education, state departments of education, local education agencies and institutions of higher education. All these agencies have coordinated their efforts and have developed programs which provide specific teacher training for and experiences in working with economically disadvantaged students. 23 24 THE INADEQUATE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR THE TEACHING OF ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED STUDENTS The re-making of American public education so that the disadvantaged child will indeed have equality of opportunity for meaningful work and realization of his potentialities will necessitate a change in the way teachers are prepared. Teachers for the inner city need either a different program of college preparation or a better program, as not only difficulties in teacher recruitment for the inner city but also the high rates of teacher turnover in slum schools in nearly every urban complex testify to a lack of satisfaction and a lack of feeling of accomplishment on the part of the teacher. ^ Don Davies, Associate Commissioner, United states Office of Education, calls for different preparation of teachers by citing the recent report, "The Education Professions, 1969-1970, as follows: . . . particularly for low-income children, our schools and colleges have barely begun to meet basic staffing needs. An underlying reason for low pupil achievement in urban poverty area schools is inadequate and unrealistic teacher training which leaves beginning teachers with false, rigid values, an inability to change methods and materials to meet the needs of the children, and an insensitivity to these children as individuals. A majority of the teachers serving lowincome children are young, inexperienced, and poorly prepared for the culture shock of entering a classroom 1 Urban Task Force, Urban School Crisis, Final report of the Task Force on Urban Education of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education. Sub­ mitted to HEW Secretary Robert Finch (January 1970) , pp. 47-48. 25 filled with these children. Approximately 40 per cent of the teachers would prefer to be in a school other than the one in which they teach; more than 20 per cent prefer teaching white middle class p u p i l s . ^ Other educators recognize the need for special training for the teacher in the inner-city schools. In evaluating the problems facing higher education, Dr. Clifton Wharton, President of Michigan State University, commented, The challenges . . . [for higher education] are more human than technological and more urban than rural. . . . Among these . . . making the colleges of educa­ tion more relevant for the teacher who will work in the inner city and the urban centers. . .3 Regarding the lack of attention to the training of teachers for the culturally different students, Robert L. Green discussed the situation as it existed in Michigan in 1968-1969. Consider the State of Michigan. Although the city of Detroit and several other large urban communities have a high percentage of disadvantaged y o u t h , the three largest teacher-training institutions in the state offer very few courses that are specifically oriented toward teaching disadvantaged youth. One large teacher training institution in the state does not have one course of this kind on the undergraduate level. When a prospective teacher has completed four years of the elementary education curriculum at these institutions, he may be quite unprepared to work with disadvantaged children and to handle their individual combinations of emotional problems and achievement 2 Don Davies, "The Teacher Numbers Games," The Education Digest, Vol. 36 (January 1971), p. 2. 3Harry G. Salsinger, "Chifton Wharton's First Year," Change, Vol. 3 (January-February, 1971), p. 22. 26 blocks. To compound the problem, many new teachers are first assigned to schools that can be classified as economically and educationally disadvantaged.4 Teacher educators need to realize that traditional teacher preparation programs at the undergraduate level have not been able to prepare teachers to work effectively with disadvantaged young people. Programs in such areas as liberal arts, subject matter and methodology are doing a more than adequate job of preparing teachers to work with students who are identified with middle class culture. But teachers are not adequately prepared to accept the value system, the culture or the world of the disadvantaged and thus do not accept the disadvantaged child.^ HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION According to Klopf and Bowman, the beginning of teacher preparation for working with the economically dis­ advantaged youth is closely connected with the beginnings of all teacher education. The first attempts at formal education as such can be attributed to the recognition of the need to adequately prepare the children of the poor, ^Herbert C. Rudman and Richard L. Featherstone, Urban Schooling (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1968), p. 191. 5 Bruce Tuckman, Preparing to Teach the Disadvantaged (New York: Collier-Millan Limited, 1969), p. 167. 27 the immigrants and the freed slaves.® The earliest recorded example of large-scale, organized teacher preparation in this country was the use of the Lancastrian System by the Free School Society of New York City in 1805. Established by the mayor, De Witt Clinton and other citizens, its purpose was to educate "such poor children as do not belong to, or are not provided for by any religious society."^ The first state normal schools were established in New England around 1840, and after the Civil War a few mldwestern universities created departments of education. Teacher Preparation in the Universities Teacher education in the United States is a gigantic enterprise. Public colleges and universities account for the bulk of the teacher preparation. As many as 4 2 per cent of freshmen entering public four-year colleges and universities in the fall of 1967 were planning to go into elementary or secondary teaching.® The typical pattern in the university is that only students planning to teach at the elementary level major in education and/or register in the school of education. ^Gordon J. Klopf and Garda W. Bowman, Teacher Educa­ tion in a Social Context: A Study of the Preparation of Personnel for Work with bisadvantaged Children and Youth {New York: Bank Street College of Education, Mental Health Materials Center, Inc., 1966), pp. 12-13. ^Ibid., p . 13. York: ^Charles Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom Random House, 1970), p. 375. {New 28 Students planning to teach at the secondary level typically major in an academic subject and register in the appro­ priate liberal arts college or department although they are generally required to take some specified minimum number of courses in the department or school of education.9 Conant found that the typical university prepara­ tion program for elementary teachers consisted of general education, professional courses, methods courses and practice teaching. Students planning to teach at the secondary level typically carry a program consisting of the above require­ ments for elementary teaching but with a teaching major and minors. Woodring summarized the situation of teacher preparation as follows: Today, . . . there is widespread agreement that any sound program for teacher education must include: a substantial program of general or liberal education, representing not less than two years of work beyond high school; a knowledge of the subject or subjects to be taught . . . a knowledge of the contributions of philosophy, history, psychology, and the other social and behavioral sciences to an understanding of the place of the school in the social order and the process of learning; and a period of practice teaching or an extended internship during which time the prospective teacher tries out various methods of teaching under competent supervision.H 9Ibid., p. 376. Teachers 10James B. Conant, The Education of American (New Y o r k : McGraw” Hill, 1963) , p^ 153 . 11 Paul Woodring, "Century of Teacher Education," School and Society, Vol. 9 (May, 1962), p. 242. 29 Laboratory Experiences in Teacher Education Most universities and other teacher training institutions have courses in psychology, human growth and development, introduction to teaching or teaching and learning theory, general problems in education and methods courses. Observation and participation in public schools may be required as part of these courses. Stiles and Parker found a growing emphasis on pre-practice teaching laboratory or clinical experiences which might begin with a freshman tutorial program and continue through volunteer work with community agencies and teacher-aide experiences in schools.12 Historically, the student teaching or practiceteaching experience has been an integral part of teacher training. Sinclair found that supervised teaching was a part of the teacher training programs schools. 11 of the early normal Stiles and Parker found an "unprecedented outpouring of publications about student teaching and internship," as well as continued strong positive support for the importance of student teaching from college students and teachers. 12Lindley J. Stiles and Robert P. Parker, "Teacher Education Programs," Encyclopedia of Educational Research, (New York: McMillan Company, 1969) , pT 1417 . 12Ward w. Sinclair, "An Analysis of Three Pre-Student Teaching Experiences in the Preparation of Elementary Teachers," Unpublished Ed.D. Thesis, Michigan State University, 1961, p. 13. 30 Martin defines and describes the different kinds of student teaching experiences commonly available in colleges and universities: Off campus student teaching can be divided at least two ways— part-time vs. full-time and regular vs. internship. A part-time student teacher is one who is in the public school for a portion of the day and is on campus for classes the rest of the time. A full-time student teacher is one who is in the public school all day every day. Any college classes taken by the full-time student teacher must come at a time other than the regular school day. The regular student teacher program may include both part-time and full-time student teaching but differs from the internship program in that the interns take the place of the teacher and are paid for their teachJng. All of the above types are jointly super­ vised by university and local personnel. The amount and degree of supervision varied depending on the personnel and the school system.14 Most of the student teaching experiences are found in schools enrolling a majority of students from white middle-class backgrounds, even though a small number of prospective teachers still teach in campus laboratory schools. Neither of these two settings provide relevant experiences for the prospective inner-city teacher. If teachers are to be better prepared to know the disadvantaged child, then student teaching assignments will need to be opened in the inner-city schools. 15 ^Gerald C. Martin, "A Study of the Adequacy of Professional Preparation for Teaching Disadvantaged Children as Perceived by Selected Elementary Teachers," Unpublished Ed. D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1965, p. 87 . * 1^Carol Payne Smith, "Preparing Teachers for the Disadvantaged: Development and Procedures of an Experimental Program," Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971, p. 43. 31 White student teachers will need assignments in predominantly black schools because . . . for a number of years to come, some blacks will continue to be educated by white people, particularly when they live in integrated housing patterns. Such pupils will desperately need teachers who have been taught to understand and accept them as human beings and who are sensitive enough to the essence of black culture and the black experience to help black child­ ren appreciate themselves and their people.16 The typical curriculum of the college may or may not inform and influence the prospective teacher about the problems and relevant issues of depressed urban areas. These children and their neighborhoods have unique problems that one does not usually encounter in Psychological Foundations I or in student teaching in a suburban area. 17 Davies and Amershek cite the Civil Rights Movement as an example of an important factor which is having an impact on student teaching. 18 As yet school integration has not produced a corresponding change in teacher education programs in that few Negro or white students have opportuni= ties to observe or student-teach in integrated classrooms. Student teaching follows the time-honored concept in teacher education "that practice in actual situations 1 fi ^Robert L. Green, Racial Crisis in America (Chicago: Fallett Education Corporation , 1969), p7 69. 17 Harry Passow, Education in Depressed Areas (New York: Teachers College, 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 2 4 7 . Don Davies and Kathleen Amershek, "Student Teaching," Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Fourth Edition (New Y o r k : MacMillan Company, 1969), p. 1377. 32 should supplement the studies one pursues at college." 19 If teacher training institutions are serious about pre­ paring teachers, then experience in inner-city schools becomes imperative as many teachers will find themselves in urban centers because of their own personal mobility and the trend in population growth. However, mere expo­ sure to disadvantaged children and their neighborhoods is not enough in that the teacher will not be shocked by their differences from the middle-class children and neighborhoods he knows, but there is no assurance that exposure will bring understanding and insight to teaching. A training program for teachers of the disadvantaged should develop abilities to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. perform stimulant operations (question, structure, probe) manipulate the different kinds of knowledge perform reinforcement operations negotiate interpersonal relations diagnose student needs and learning difficulties communicate and empathize with students, parents and others perform in and with small and large groups utilize technological equipment evaluate student achievement __ judge appropriateness of instructional materials. Student teaching, an essential component of teacher preparation, will not provide these skills without a training component emphasizing these goals. For the beginning teacher, the training program should introduce 1Q B. Othanel Smith, Saul B. Cohen and Arthur Pearl, Teachers for the Real World (Washington: American Associa­ tion of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1969), p. 68. 20Ibid., p. 71. 33 the teacher to the deprived communities and to the schools as well as increase his skill in classroom work and in his interactions with parents, faculty and other members of the community. Colleges and universities have begun to realize that they have been preparing people to teach only in middle-class schools. As educators have become aware of this, they have made several changes in teacher education programs to better prepare teachers. These changes will be discussed later in this chapter. WHY TEACHERS LEAVE DISADVANTAGED AREAS The attrition rate of the teaching force in deprived communities can be attributed not only to the general exodus of teachers and their mobility within the profession, but also to the characteristics of these communities themselves. Working conditions and cultural advantages are always factors in the choice of where to work. Just as most physicians and other professionals do not choose to work in depressed rural areas or the inner city, teachers also tend to move from the areas where salaries and working conditions are less attractive. Mobility is greater from the rural communities and the inner city to suburban areas. For example, the rate at which teachers leave the depressed areas of Detroit is ten times greater than the rate of transfer in more 34 21 advantaged communities. Since teachers seem not to prefer neighborhoods where working conditions are unfavorable, young and Inexperienced teachers, who must accept positions wherever they find them, are often located in the disadvantaged areas. With the highest rate of turnover among beginning teachers, it is not surprising that schools in deprived communities suffer a high rate of attrition among their t e a c h e r s . ^ In the borough of Manhattan, according to Haubrick, one-third of the teachers appointed to positions do not accept their assignments. leave at the first Many of those who do accept o p p o r t u n i t y . ^ In a study of teacher attitudes in 15 major American cities, it is reported that 17 per cent of the teachers had been in their ghetto school for one year and 63 per cent had been in their present position for five years or less. The number of teachers remaining after five years dropped dramatically. Yet at the same time some 88 per cent of the teachers indicated that they were satisfied 21 Robert D. storm, "The Preface Man: A New Concept of In-service Training for Teachers Newly Assigned to Urban Neighborhoods of Low Income," Final Report, U. S. Depart­ ment of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Bureau of Research, Project No. 6-1365, Columbus: Ohio State University. 22 23 Smith, Cohen and Pearl, op. c i t . , p. 27. Vernon F. Haubrick, "Teachers for Big-City Schools," Education in Depressed A r e a s , Edited by Harry A. Passow, {New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1963), pp. 243-61. 35 with their positions. The teachers studied were least satisfied with their working conditions, their teaching loads, and the community. About 63 per cent were satis­ fied with their working conditions and approximately 62 per cent with their teaching loads. In addition, a large proportion of the teachers were satisfied with their colleagues, supervisors, the pupils, and with their salaries and the flexibility permitted them in the classroom. However, only 58 per cent expressed satisfaction with the - community, with 4 8 per cent of these being only somewhat satisfied. Thus these findings indicate that the dissatis­ faction of teachers in the ghettos stems from the community A J and the general conditions within the school itself. According to Haubrick, even though the teachers may express satisfaction with the school in general, the rate of attrition in the ghetto schools is still very high. 25 One reason cited most often for teachers* reluctance to teach in disadvantaged schools is that they feel they are not sufficiently trained to do the job. Some teachers become dropouts for the same reason that their students are dropouts: they quit because they failed. 24 Peter H. Rossi, et a l ., "Between White and Black: The Faces of American Institutions in the Ghetto," Supple­ mental Studies to the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1968), 248 pp. ^H a u brick, op. c i t . , pp. 243-61. 36 And they failed because they had not been trained to do the job beforehand. 26 As Haubrick has so cogently pointed out, the teacher in the ghetto either rejects an appointment there or quits after a year or so because of . . . inability to comprehend, understand, and cope with multiple problems of language development, varying social norms, habits not accepted by the teacher, behavior which is not success-oriented, lack of student cooperation and achievement levels well below expec­ tancies of teachers.2^ It should be noted, however, that in the Supplementary Studies to the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, the entire sample of teachers studied by Rossi et a l . were college graduates, and that 70 per cent of these teachers had received some professional training or had had some graduate study. Half of them had received some preparation for dealing with children in the deprived areas. These facts indicate that the deficiencies in preparation are not those which are associated with failure to meet requirements for the proper credentials. These deficiencies can be attributed to inadequacies in the training programs themselves.28 There are apparently three main deficiencies in the training of teachers who are reluctant to teach in the disadvantaged areas. 26 27 First of all, teachers know Smith, Cohen and Pearl, o p . c i t ., p. 28. Haubrick, op. c i t ., p. 28. 28Rossi, et a l ., p. 248. 37 almost nothing about the backgrounds of disadvantaged pupils and the communities where they live. All but a few have had little or no experience with other than middle class life until they walk into the ghetto schools or those of rural slums. There they undergo culture shock, an experience that disorients teachers because they are uprooted from their familiar surroundings. For example, studies show that teachers regard stealing, cheating, fighting, and other forms of extroverted behavior as most threatening to the classroom and to them­ selves. Withdrawal forms of behavior, fearfulness, and hypersensitivity are thought to be less serious. Inner city children are on the average more outspoken and aggres­ sive than middle class children. Most teacher preparation programs fail to equip the teacher with the skills and understanding necessary for dealing with conduct problems, especially aggressiveness. Naturally teachers are fright­ ened and frustrated when they are confronted by behavior which they have never before witnessed and for which they OQ are now made responsible. Secondly, teachers fail because they have not been trained to analyze new situations calmly against a firm background of relevant theory. Typically, teachers base their interpretations of behavior on intuition and common sense. Teachers often appear to have no interest in 2 9 Smith, Cohen and Pearl, op. c i t ., p. 28. 38 children or even to fear them, simply because they lack the conceptual equipment to understand them. No matter how idealistic the teacher may be, he will soon find his hopes crushed if he is unable to understand and cope with disturbing pupil behavior. If the teacher is incapable of understanding classroom situations, the actions he takes will often increase his difficulties. Smith, Cohen and Pearl stated that teachers who are ignorant about the background of ghetto children and not knowledgeable enough of conceptual theory to understand these children often find they cannot explain or cope with their own attitudes. Thus these teachers fall even further behind in their efforts to teach, and the student continues to resist their instruction. Preparatory pro­ grams for teachers have ordinarily done little to sensitize the teacher to his own prejudices and to provide him with experience in the control of t h e m . 3 ® A third area in which teachers lack sufficient preparation is in the skills needed to perform effectively in the classroom. The teacher who is graduated from a teacher training program with a bachelor’s degree is no more than an apprentice teacher. Much of his preparation has not been relevant to the tasks he will face. The student teaching program, at its best, fails to develop the skills of teaching. 30Ibid., p. 29. It is barely an introduction to 39 the realities of the classroom and the school. Moreover, the work which the teacher may later do as a graduate student will also have little relation to the problems he will encounter in the school. 31 In summary, several authors attempted to account for the mobility of teachers within the profession itself from one community to another. It appears that teachers leave the profession or move from one community to another because: — they are inadequately trained for the job they are expected to d o , — they are not satisfied with the conditions under which they w o r k , — they are not satisfied with the living conditions in the community where they work, and — there are few opportunities for advancement in their work. There will always be some movement of teachers from school to school and from community to community. But the attrition of teachers in the ghettos and rural slums will decrease if the above-mentioned conditions were corrected. Whether a teacher decides to go into a dis­ advantaged community and remain there is dependent upon how well the teacher is trained to work with 32 disadvantaged children. 31Ibid. 32Ibid., p. 30. 40 CHANGES IN THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR WORK WITH THE ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED According to Harry N. Rivlin, Dean of Teacher Education at the City University of New York, the major responsibility for education change rests within the education profession itself. If the education profession is not capable of accepting the responsibility for educa­ tional change, it is no profession at all, regardless of how many resolutions are passed declaring that it is. Rivlin suggested areas in education which need attention of the professions. He believes that if society wants to improve the education of students in big cities where child­ ren have little educational background and sometimes little academic ambition, then changes should be made in curriculum, the organization of the schools as well as methods of teaching at the universities. -3 *3 Klopf and Bowman note that the education profes­ sion has undertaken a massive program to improve teacher education through a wide variety of institutions. In- service training programs have been started in schools for teachers already in the field. Institutes for advanced education of teachers have been sponsored by educational institutions and have been supported by 33Harry N. Rivlin, "The Profession's Responsibility for Educational Change," in Changes in Teacher Education, Official Report of the Columbus Ohio Conference, Eighteenth National TEPS Conference (Washington, D. C.: NEA, 1963), p. 20. 41 federal funds. Experimental programs, with teacher education components in the schools, have been mutually sponsored by local school systems and colleges of educa­ tion. Some teacher education institutions have begun to offer courses at both the undergraduate and the graduate levels in teaching the disadvantaged.34 Teacher education programs for preparing school personnel to work with disadvantaged children and youth have been heavily oriented toward the sociological and anthropological aspects of the group ultimately to receive the education. Teachers being prepared are usually dif­ ferent from the children culturally, economically and/or socially; yet it is a basic premise that new understandings of the culture of the particular disadvantaged group are necessary if teachers are to bridge the gap from the home culture of the students to the school culture and the culture of the larger society.33 Because the teacher of the disadvantaged typically does not share a common cultureal background with his students, and because he has middle class values which his students have not acquired, it is assumed that he may have barriers to his acceptance of his students. Many programs have been designed to change 34 Klopf and Bowman, op. c i t ., p. 35. 35Ibid., p . 43. 42 attitudes of the teacher toward the disadvantaged. Kvaraceus, however, believes that these programs may not be effective. One rather significant finding . . . which we can be somewhat sure about, is the fact that education has relatively little impact on attitudes and behavior. Coleman’s study of adolescent society, Jaco b s ’ study of college education, and the research reported by Stanford indicate that most students enter schools, whether it be high school or college, and leave it without any visible change except that they are four years older.36 Kvaraceus continued that some of these persons may have changed, but only, as Jacobs points out, when the total collegiate atmosphere is consistent and pressing or, as the Stanford study indicates, due to the particular per­ sonality of the particular person. In almost any instance, however, the change is to produce more of the s a m e , that is, the intellectual becomes more intellectual, the non­ conformist becomes more deviant, the conservative more entrenched in his conservatism. The school serves to reinforce what is already present.37 Bloom, Davis and Hess, however, believe that changes in the teacher's self-concept can occur. They suggest that a major change in the teacher's self-concept means a shift from his conception of himself as the operative agent in a status-giving and selective system to 36William Kvaraceus, Negro Self-Concept: Implica­ tions for School and Citizenship (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965), p. 36. 37Ibid., p . 43. 43 that of operative agent in a system which develops each individual to his highest potential. These authors sug­ gest that in order to accomplish this change, teacher education programs will have to shift their emphasis. Another place to shift emphasis is on basic ideas, struc­ ture and methods of inquiry rather than on amassing minutiae of subject matter. A third emphasis must be placed on learning how to learn. Additionally, teachers must be taught how to develop disadvantaged children's interests, attitudes and personality which will lead to their finding satisfaction in the things they do, bringing meaning and fulfillment to their lives.88 Much educational research and study of the past decade has been directed toward exploring the problems of the disadvantaged, their cause and possible courses of remedial action. Riessman has made such a study and has identified the inductive learning style of disadvantaged children, which can be utilized by teachers to strengthen 39 the learning-teaching process. David and Pearl Ausubel identified the maternal style of teaching the disadvantaged. Teachers in segre­ gated schools may also tend to be overly permissive and to emphasize play skills over academic achievement. They 88Bloom, Davis and Hess, Compensatory Education for Cultural Deprivation (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), p. 2. 39 Klopf and Bowman, op. c i t ., p. 44. 44 are perceived by their pupils as evaluating them negatively, and concerned with behavior rather than with school work.40 Goldberg takes the position that no single teach­ ing style can be effective with all students. She states that "children from disadvantaged backgrounds, though highly variable, nevertheless represent a describable pupil population in need of teachers who are uniquely good for them."41 Using research of other authors, Goldberg develops a model of the hypothetical teacher who can successfully teach the disadvantaged, suggesting three attributes of the model which can be taught to teachers-in-training. are: (1) mastery of subject matter, They (2) understanding the major concepts of the behavioral and social sciences and their relevance to teaching disadvantaged children, and (3) a repertoire of teaching strategies which holds promise for working with disadvantaged p u p i l s . 42 To prepare such teachers adequately, Goldberg cites the need for development of new courses, for an emphasis on laboratory experiences to develop emotional closeness, and for criteria to select candidates who will successfully 4®David P and Pearl Ausubel, "Ego Development Among Segregated Negro Children," Education in Depressed A r e a s , op. cit., p. 124. 41Miriam L. Goldberg, "Adapting Teaching Styles to Pupil Differences: Teachers for Disadvantaged Children," Merrill Palmer Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 2 (April 1964), pp. 161-77. 42Ibid., p. 177. 45 adapt to teaching disadvantaged children and youth. In a paper delivered before a conference of NDEA institute directors at Tufts University in 1965, Elizabeth Gilkeson recommended that teachers be educated to recognize their own teaching styles and children's learning styles and then to develop ways of making these two styles fit. She further stated that teachers have to learn how to help children attain the skills and competencies that are not seen as important in their own cultures through the process of developing motivation for attaining new goals and aspirations. Such support for building the transition between the home culture and the school culture can be given the child by the teacher who is trained how to: 1. Join the child at his own level in order to lead him out to maximum strengths and satisfactions; investing in his learning, and building in the adult teacher. 2. Develop a design of new experiences for the child to lead him to learn the modes of thinking and behaving necessary for his stages of development and for coping with his expanding world.*3 For successful teaching, the teacher must be taught to diagnose the learning needs of disadvantaged children and youth, to develop strategies for facilitating their learning, and to fit the strategy to the individual diagnosis. Such an approach to teacher education for working with disadvantaged children and youth relies heavily ^ E l i z a b e t h Gilkeson, "Is There A Mousetrap?" Paper Delivered at Conference of NDEA Institute Directors at Tufts University, Medford, Mass., September 1965. 46 on clinical experience for the teacher-in-training. Only through extensive, closely supervised practicums can such a combination of knowledge, understandings, and skills be developed. A REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMS TO TRAIN TEACHERS TO WORK WITH THE ECONOMICALLY DISADVANTAGED Several programs have been devised to train teachers to work with the economically disadvantaged. We will first discuss one program, the PTE (Personalized Teacher Education) program, which, although not specifically designed to train only those teachers who will work with disadvantaged students, could be very useful for such teachers. We then turn to a discussion of some programs specifically designed for training those teachers who intend to work with the economically disadvantaged. These programs are: (1) The BRIDGE Project on the Prepara­ tion of Teachers for Schools in Culturally Deprived Neigh­ borhoods, (2) The Project Beacon Training Program, and (3) The Four State Project. The PTE Program Although the Personalized Teacher Education Program is designed for teachers of all types of students, this program could be especially useful in the training of teachers for the disadvantaged. Robert F. Peck, co-director of the PTE program, recognizes one of the basic problems 47 of modern education: prospective teachers receive de­ personalized, mass production-type instruction in the universities; in turn they tend to use this same form of instruction in their own classrooms. Thus it is difficult for teachers to deal with students as individuals, cer­ tainly an important factor when dealing with the economi­ cally disadvantaged. Peck discusses the mass-production, depersonalized process of modern education (which the PTE program intends to combat) as follows: Criticism of current practices in education comes from many sources and takes many forms, but one of the recurring themes is that education has become a massproduction, depersonalized process. Complaints by students, teachers, and others about the dehumanizing effect of mass-production education pervade all grade levels, from first grade through graduate school. Some educational critics charge that contemporary educational practice treats students as passive, teacher-controlled units in an almost faceless class­ room. Any teacher's chances of truly getting to know any one student is severely restricted by the small proportion of time in which that student can openly express his own thoughts. Consequently, the student is often seen by the educator as the object, rather than the subject of learning. He is something acted upon, and the teacher, using "academic subjects" as tools, performs the action. Alvin Toffler also makes this point. One basic complaint of the student is that he is not treated as an individual, that he is served up an undifferentiated gruel, rather than a personalized 44 Robert Peck, "Criticism of Current Practices in Education," Unpublished Paper, Austin: University of Texas, 1970, p. 15. 48 product. Like the Mustang buyer, the student wants to design his own. The difference is that while industry is highly responsive to consumer demand, education typically has been indifferent to student wants.46 John I . Goodlad describes the traditional classroom as follows: We were unable to discern much attention to pupil needs, attainments, or problems as a basis for individual opportunities to learn, . . . Teaching was predominantly telling and questioning by the teacher, with children responding one by one or occasionally in chorus. In all of this, the text­ book was the most highly visible instrument of learning and teaching. . . . Rarely did we find small groups intensely in pursuit of knowledge; rarely did we find individual pupils at work in selfsustaining inquiry . . . we are forced to conclude that much of the so-called educational reform movement has been blunted on the classroom door.46 Teacher education, while having the responsibility of turning out professionally prepared teachers, comprises only 15 to 25 per cent of the prospective teacher's academic preparation over four years of college. Teacher educators, consequently, have often been forced into the undesirable pattern of concentrated lecturing and other forms of mass communication in an effort to make the most of the relatively small amount of the prospective teacher's time that is available to them. The result is that teacher training, which sincerely values individualized instruction, fre­ quently prepares the future teacher for the opposite. ^ A l v i n Toffler, Future Shock (New York: House, 1971), p. 30. Random ^*\lohn I. Goodlad, "The School vs. Education," The Saturday Review (1969), pp. 59-61. 49 simply by its own example: We say that everything we do is an effort to individ­ ualize instruction. That is why we group according to ability; that is why we have varied materials; that is why we need smaller classes. But our whole history is against u s . Most of us would not know what to do if we had just one child to teach. Give me 50, 100, or 5,000 people and I am in my medium. There is nothing in my background, in my training, or in my experience, however, which enables me to cope with one youngster at a time.47 This orientation toward an educational assembly line also perpetuates the impersonal nature of education with results that prospective teachers are very likely to pass on to their future pupils. Our experience with the student group confirmed what we had long believed: The teacher's conception of how one educates children is a reflection of how she was educated and the role assigned to her as a learner.48 It is unfortunate t h a t , as future teachers are being told to recognize the importance of individualized instruction and personal interaction in the learning process, they, themselves, are experiencing the opposite. One can easily imagine the irony of a professor giving a lecture on the importance of personal interaction between the teacher and the student to a class of 500 prospective teachers. A complete understanding of the 47jack r . Frymier, "A School for the Future," (in press), Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 48 Seymour B. Sarason, e t a l . , The Preparation of Teachers (Mew York: Wiley, 1962) , p. 20. 50 impact of interpersonal relations upon learning cannot be acquired by the prospective teacher unless he personally experiences such an impact in his own learning experience. He cannot be expected to develop teaching techniques that individualize his instruction of pupils if his own training was not so carried out. The problems of mass production in the educational system exist both in the public schools and institutions of higher learning. These problems at both levels tend to perpetuate one another; teachers receive their crucial early training in the public schools, move into colleges where the practices are similar, and then go back into the schools to teach another generation of children with the same techniques that were used on them. The problem of fully utilizing human potential and creativity grows ever larger. Only an educational system that stresses personal interaction, individual growth, and institutional sensitivity can penetrate this problem. *0 The PTE program is a comprehensive system designed to penetrate this system of depersonalized mass-production education practices which currently exist in many teacher training programs. The program is being developed at the University of Texas Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, under the directorship of Dr. Oliver H. Bown and Dr. Robert F. Peck. 49peck, o p . c i t ., pp. 12-15. 51 The objectives of the PTE program are: (1) to break the cycle of depersonalization by providing a teacher training system that emphasizes the importance of personal interaction at every level of the learning process, (2) to make the training of prospective teachers more relevant by processing and dealing with their personal developmental processes, and (3) to give prospective teachers access to a comprehensive personal assessment system by which they can participate in tailoring their training, and through which they can move toward desirable personal and professional goals. C Q The program is in the implementation stage at this point and it is expected that it will be completed and evaluated and an exportable model of a "Personalized Teacher Education Program" for training elementary school teachers will be available by 1977. The model will represent a viable alternative to conventional coursecentered pre-service programs; it will provide the pro­ fession with a comprehensive conceptual model and adaptable operational models to personalize the education of pros­ pective elementary teachers. The program is built upon theories and practical experience in research on mental health and teaching behavior. E fl Past work in production of self-paced modules ^Personalized Teacher Education Program (Austin: University of Texas, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, April 1972), p. 5. 52 and in the construction of a theoretical foundation for a personalized teacher education system provides the empirical foundation for the program. The PTE program has the following general char­ acteristics : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. It is an integrated system rather than a collec­ tion of course units. It regards the student's developmental process as the central feature of the program. It is designed: (a) to assess "where the prospective teacher is" with respect to the personal, social, and intel­ lectual characteristics judged to influence learning and performance in the teaching role, (b) to provide the prospective teacher with graduated teaching experiences designed to achieve perspective on present capabilities in relation to those he wishes to develop, (c) to assist the prospective teacher in construct­ ing alternative courses of action, as resources in moving toward immediate goal achievement, (d) to negotiate the specific learning experience in such a way that the prospective teacher is given the power to decide within the limits defined by the instructor's or college's responsi­ bilities, and, (e) to provide continuous feedback to the pros­ pective teacher regarding consequences of actions for himself and others. IL is designed to be comprehensive by providing the full array of instructional materials, and experiential opportunities available to teacher education, but in sequence and pace geared to the perceived and aroused needs of the individual learner. It is designed to provide a direct model of the flexible, individualized, and personalized teaching that the program encourages him to apply in his subsequent inservice r o l e . The program is being developed to be maximally exportable. All components in the system are being explicated, documented, and evaluated, separately and as a total system.*1 51Ibid., p. 21. 53 General Outcomes of the PTE Program In order to break the cycle of depersonalized education, the Personalized Teacher Education Program addresses itself to individual behavioral changes pective teacher) and institutional changes educators, administrators and deans). (pros­ (teacher The Center hopes to effect outcomes in three major domains: self-fulfillment, interpersonal competence, and career-related competence. Thus it appears that the program's major focus is on the affective domains. The outcome of the effort will be a comprehensive teacher education program embodying the philosophy of personalized education. Teachers trained in such a program will be more adept at personalizing the education of their pupils.^2 According to the directors of this program, in contrast with conventional teacher education programs, such teacher educators will demonstrate: Increased identification with teacher training as a personally and professionally rewarding role demand­ ing continued self-renewal and change. Increased capacity to individualize and personalize their teaching, using available resources; increased willingness to search out and create needed additional resources. Increased desire to initiate, invite and sustain personal dialogues with individual students and fellow faculty about the teacher education program, students, and recent innovations. ^ T e l e p h o n e interview with Dr. Robert F. Peck, Co-director of the PTE Program at the University of T e x a s , Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, May 11, 1973. 54 Increased, shared responsibility with students in instructional management and decision making. Clearer understanding of self as a teacher edu­ cator and increased awareness of impact on different students. Increased willingness to identify and adapt content and methodology to match the needs of the students and the program. Increased collaboration with other faculty for the planning and management of the instructional program. Increase of integrated course offerings for students. Increased awareness of and response to complex developmental problems and needs of individual students.53 In contrast with conventional teacher education programs, deans and other institutional administrators using the Personalized Teacher Education Program will hav e : Increased knowledge of the day-to-day operations of the teacher education program, its problems, and needs. Increased awareness of personal needs and successes of individual students within the program. Increased formal and informal dialogue with instructional faculty about the successes and needs of the teacher education program. Increased communication among faculty relating to program and students. Faculty experiencing personal and professional value clarification about their role as teacher educators. Faculty spending an increased number of formal and informal hours with students and fellow educators on program-related matters. Increased frequency of requests for help from faculty in procuring materials and resources for the instructional program. Increased numbers of students desiring to par­ ticipate in the teacher education program.^4 53 Personalized Teacher Education Program, op. cit., p. 23 . 54lbid., p. 24. 55 From this discussion of the PTE Program, a program designed to improve teacher education in general, we turn to those programs designed specifically to improve education of teachers for the economically disadvantanged. The BRIDGE Project The goal of the BRIDGE Project is "to find ways of more effectively preparing teachers to work in schools in culturally deprived neighborhoods." The problem, as seen by the program planners, is two-fold: how to bridge the gap between middle-class-oriented college students preparing to be teachers and lower class youth of various ethnic backgrounds attending the public junior high schools; and, how to modify the professional courses at the college so as to increase their usefulness as prepara­ tion for meeting the problems of classroom instruction in difficult schools. The central focus of the project was on the development of professional skills and insights in the prospective teachers. Its strategy was to devise means for studying pupils and teachers in a difficult school and at the same time to provide experience for under­ graduates with educationally disadvantaged y o u t h . 55 The following statements attempt to summarize some 55 Gertrude L. Downing, "The Preparation of Teachers for Schools in Culturally Deprived Neighborhoods," The BRIDGE Project #935 (New York: Queens College, 1965), p. 196. 56 of the chief problems of teachers as they began and con­ tinued in the program. 1. The teachers had to develop a working attitude toward those aspects of the culture of their pupils which deviated from their own values and behavioral commitments and procedures for coping with them. 2. The teachers had to make radical adjustments in order to teach children who were on the average two years retarded in academic achievement and many of whom were barely literate. The college training of the teachers had not prepared them for this adjustment, nor had the school system eased their task by developing a curriculum and providing materials appropriate to the abilities and interests of children such as these. In the process of adjusting, several demands were made on the teachers. (a) They had to modify the curriculum substantially. (b) They had to learn classroom techniques appro­ priate for these children. (c) They had to learn to adjust to a variety of ability levels of the pupils. 3. One of the principal problems of the teachers in the early stages of the program was their diffi­ culty in enduring the onslaught on their physical and emotional energies made by pupils constantly testing them to see how strong they were in their ability to maintain school and classroom behavior policy, by the demands for adjustments in cur­ riculum content and procedure, and by the criticism of the school supervisors in the p r o j e c t . 56 Three years of study and experience produced substantial growth in professional understanding and skills among the teachers involved. The following comments attempt to give some picture of their development. 56Ibid., pp. 209-11. 57 1. The teachers improved in their ability to plan lessons which were adapted to the interests, needs and abilities of these children. They grew in their ability to set realistic goals and to develop clear and logical means to the achievement of these goals. They came to realize that for those child­ ren who were low in academic ability many steps in the learning process had to be spelled out in detail if concepts were to be understood, learned, and retained. They learned to use a variety of activities within each period, placing less reliance on "teacher talking" and class recitations. They learned to depart from their plans in order to teach something that was of immediate interest. 2. The teachers learned to use a great variety of materials and devised many of their own to meet classroom needs. They used textbooks, workbooks, audiovisual materials of many k i n d s , free materials from private corporations and public institutions, plays, fictional and biographical materials, and whatever could be adpated to their purposes. 3. Their teaching gave evidence of a continuously increasing knowledge of all aspects of the child's development. This was evidenced in the way in which they adapted their plans to individual and group differences and in their increased ability to talk with children about personal matters. They were able to establish open and sincere relationships with the children. The children responded to this by displaying less fear of the teachers and more confidence in them. Discipline problems were by no means eliminated, but the teachers developed greater firmness and consistency.57 One of the questions under investigation in the BRIDGE Project was whether or not beginning teachers could be successful in working with disadvantaged pupils on an extensive long-term basis. The study showed that indeed they can, if proper training is provided at the institution 57Ibid., pp. 211-12. 58 of higher education. Therefore, the program committee recommended that both modification of the college courses and changes in policies and practices in public schools take place. ep As a result of the BRIDGE Project the program committee has made the following recommendations: 1. The teacher education program should increase its emphasis on methods of teaching economically dis­ advantaged children. (a) All teachers preparing to teach in the junior high school should have a substantial block of time devoted to teaching of reading. (b) More time should be given to discovering, selecting, preparing, and evaluating materials appropriate for teaching disadvantaged children. More practice lessons and units should be prepared with this type of child in mind. (c) More attention should be given to developing skills in the use of modern audio-visual devices and in using manual and art activities to achieve goals in academic learning. 2. After-school centers should be established in some form and should be one of the alternative forms of field experience available to students in edu­ cational psychology. Such experience can give institutions of higher education control over the quality of the experience, and can give students the opportunity for leadership of a small group while still under supervision. 3. At least part of the teacher education program prior to student teaching should be spent in the observation of and participation in activities in the special service schools or in neighborhood centers in depressed areas. 4. Experience in after-school centers and student teaching in schools in depressed areas is only 58Ibid., p. 197. 59 valuable if students are assigned to competent, experienced cooperating supervisors and teachers. A bad experience at these points will alienate rather than attract, prospective teachers. The cooperating supervisors and teachers should be given time to work with the students. In student teaching, students should spend part of their service period in responsible teaching on their own without any other adults being present. It is only in this way that they can realize the dimensions of the problems which full-time teach­ ing will bring. The regulations forbidding such independent teaching should be modified in the interest of better prepared teachers. 5. It is important that the psychology instructors and the college supervisor of student teachers should know the agency, the school, some members of the staff, and some children taught by the students in the programs. This can be achieved by supporting programs of cooperative study and research between the college and the schools, by having instructors serve as consultants to school staffs, and by allotting instructors more time to spend with students in programs in special service schools. 6. College instructors who do not ordinarily super­ vise student teachers in slum schools should have their programs revised to include some service to these schools. They should act as consultants to school staffs in their areas of competency. 7. At least the first year of full-time teaching should be seen by the college and by the public school system as part of a continuous program of teacher preparation. The college should assume partial responsibility for supervision of its graduates in their first year of teaching in city schools. 8. The college should join the Board of Education in continuing research, experimentation and demon­ stration in attempting to assess better the learning problems of children and teaching problems of staff in these deprived-area schools.59 59Ibid., pp. 226-27. 60 The Project Beacon Training Program The Yeshiva University in Manhattan, New York Graduate School of Education's Project Beacon is a longrange program addressed to many aspects of the education of socially disadvantaged children. It involves a variety of research and evaluation projects, extended training programs, information retrieval and dissemination, annual invitational conferences, demonstration programs in selected schools on different levels and other projects. The general purpose of the program is to equip prospective teachers and other professional personnel for effective service in depressed area urban schools. relevant evaluative criteria, therefore, are: Four (1) the extent to which graduates of the program obtain positions in such schools; (2) the quality of their performance as professionals, in the schools where they are employed; (3) the assessment of students' performance by their classroom teachers and internship supervisors; and (4) the appraisal by Beacon trainees of their experiences in the program as perceived during the period of training and during the first year of professional employment.^ The Project Beacon Evaluation Committee's findings follow: 60 Julian Roberts and Doxey A. Wilkerson, "Project Beacon Training Project," Preparing to Teach the Disadvan­ taged (New York; The Free Press, 1969) , p^ 271. 61 1. With one or two exceptions, teachers adjudged the achievement of Beacon students in their courses and seminars as satisfactory or better. 2. Without exception, the performance of students in their several fall-semester internship assignments in Mobilization for Youth programs was judged by supervisors as "Good," "Very Good" or "Excellent." 3. The student teaching performance of inters during the spring semester was adjudged by supervisors as "Very Good" or "Excellent." 4. During their participation in the program, students expressed positive appraisals of most of their courses and seminars. However, their appraisals of their several methods courses— except for The Teaching of Reading— was generally negative. The content of the courses were said to be irrelevant to or nonfunctional in their student teaching situations. 5. During their participation in the program, students expressed generally positive appraisals of their internship experiences,in MFY programs and in public schools. However they identified a number of weaknesses in both areas of internship.61 Eight of the ten trainees under this project are now teaching in depressed area public schools in Manhattan. The other two are enrolled in doctoral studies. All teachers employed received satisfactory ratings after their first year of teaching. Recommendations for Project Beacon include: 1. Graduates of the program should be brought to the university campus periodically to have them record on tape "critical incidents" that reveal strengths and weaknesses in their professional preparation? and to participate with faculty members in retro­ spective appraisal of their experiences in the training program. 61Ibid., p. 273. 62 2. Faculty members should observe graduates of the program in their classrooms, recording selected behaviors and judgments on a carefully devised observation schedule. 3. Prior to entering the program and following the program each trainee should be administered a social value test. This would permit testing of the hypothesis that one's general social outlook is significantly related to his effectiveness as a teacher of socially disadvantaged c h i l d r e n .**2 The Four State Project: California Component The California Component of the Four State Project's purposes were: 1. to develop models for training teachers of the disadvantaged based upon the evidence from pre­ vious projects, that is, the identification of those elements of the various programs which have demonstrated success; and 2. to disseminate the published findings through the California Council on the Education of Teachers and other professional groups, the state educa­ tion agencies, institutions of higher education, and school districts.63 The California Component of the Four State Project's study was comprised of four hypotheses. Hypothe­ sis I stated that: Participants would express positive opinions about changes in themselves and estimate considerably less change in their students and the operation of their school. Findings concerning this hypothesis indicated that 62Ibid. , p. 274. 63 James C. Stone, Teachers for the Disadvantaged {San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1969), p. 7. 63 the participants interviewed reported considerable change in their attitudes toward problems of teaching disadvan­ taged pupils, in their understanding of their pupils' cultural and socioeconomic background, in their knowledge of special instructional programs, procedures, and materials for meeting the special educational needs and learning problems of their pupils, and in their teaching styles and general behavior in school. They also reported having observed gratifying indications of changes in their pupils. They mentioned particularly changes in their pupi l s 1 selfimage and their attitude toward school and education. Some reported marked improvement in their pupils' learning skills and academic achievement. Participants were more cautious about estimating changes in their schools. In summary, participants saw themselves in the role of change agents. They appeared to be generally optimistic that the process of change would continue— that they themselves would change further along lines and in directions in which they had reported a considerable begin­ ning. The participants also believed that their pupils would, in time, show greater improvements, particularly in their learning skills and classroom performance, and that their schools would, with continued encouragement and support, eventually implement the improvements in organiza­ tion, administration, operation, and especially facilities, which they would r e c o m m e n d . 64Ibid., p. 178. 64 64 Hypothesis II of the California study is as follows: Participants would see themselves changing most in the acquisition of new knowledge about the disadvantaged and curricula to meet their special educational needs, less in their attitudes toward problems, and still less in their teaching behavior. This hypothesis was based on the assumption that kinds and degrees of change in the participants would be a function of two complex variables: the duration and intensity of their involvement with teacher training activities in an in-service program and the priorities and emphasis placed upon these outcomes by the stated objectives and instruc­ tional procedures of the program. Findings resulting from content analysis of data gathered indicated that although there probably were dif­ ferences of degree among three kinds of change in parti­ cipants, these differences were neither as great nor as significant as had been anticipated by the researchers. Participants reported change not only in their knowledge and understanding of their disadvantaged pupils and of ways and means for meeting their special educational needs, but also in their attitudes toward problems of teaching such pupils and in their actual teaching behavior. Furthermore, the participants regarded the changes in themselves as outcomes of their participation in certain specific types of teacher-training activities. They associated these changes most particularly with the involvement in such activities as small group discussion and interaction; visits to the homes and neighborhoods of their disadvantaged 65 pupils? conferences with the parents of their disadvantaged pupils and with representatives of community social agencies also working with these children; lectures and panel dis­ cussions by authorities on the environmental conditioning of the disadvantaged who themselves came from minoritygroup backgrounds; visits on released time to observe instructional programs, methods, and materials in class­ rooms and schools other than their own; in-depth case studies of the learning problems of their disadvantaged pupils and efforts to prescribe remedial instruction to remove the disabilities and difficulties diagnosed; and various types of clinical exercises— actual teaching per­ formances and demonstrations— carried out with special classes of disadvantaged pupils under supervised laboratory conditions and often involving the use of video taping and interaction analysis or some other form of self-appraisal. A number of participants commented that they probably would have changed even more if they had had more extensive and more intensive opportunities of this sort. Several remarked that they might have changed sooner if they had had opportunities to undergo such training during the period of their pre-service teacher education.65 Hypothesis III was stated as follows: Projects which participants report as having caused the most change would be those in which there was a 65Ibid., p. 180. 66 maximum amount of interactions between and among par­ ticipants and in which there was maximum and deliberate exposure to the culture of the disadvantaged. This hypothesis was based on the assumption that, although the in-service programs featured a variety of curricula and instructional procedures, the participants would experience their most dramatic encounters with problems of teaching disadvantaged students in the confrontations and interactions between and among themselves and in the activities (practicums, observations, consultations, and visitations) that brought them in direct contact with the culture of the disadvantaged. It was assumed that the greater the number of such activities, the greater the amount of human interest and concern they would generate in the participants, thereby providing the strongest moti­ vating force for change in the participants themselves a n d , through them, in their disadvantaged students and their schools. The data analysis Indicated that participants felt that time provided for interaction among themselves was extremely valuable; in fact, most participants felt that more time should have been allowed for this type of activity. They generally noted that, although the learning environment provided by the program proved to be catalytic, more time was needed to digest the new information and ideas they had gained. Participants who were involved in programs that provided opportunities for confrontation as well as interaction valued such opportunities very highly. 67 They were especially enthusiastic in their praise for opportunities for direct confrontation and frank interaction between teachers of the black and white r a c e s . White teachers, especially, tended to rate these activities highly. Participants revealed one reason their opinions regarding the value of direct contact with the culture of the disadvantaged, though strongly favorable, were not reflected in an attitude cluster. Many reported that although their involvement with minority-group members through activities conducted in their communities proved to be extremely valuable, opportunities for such involve­ ment were seldom as extensive or intensive as would have been desirable. These participants were somewhat disap­ pointed that their programs were usually unable to provide opportunities for direct contact with the most alienated members of minority groups and their communities. In summary, participants did value interaction among themselves and exposure to the culture of the dis­ advantaged highly. They did not, however, relate these activities to changes in themselves, their students and their schools to quite the extent the researchers had hoped, primarily because most did not feel that their programs had provided them sufficient opportunities for such activities.®® ®®Ibid., pp. 181-82. 68 Hypothesis IV of the California study was stated as follows: Persons who would express the most positive reaction to the project in which they participated would be younger teachers from urban districts who taught classes with a high proportion of disadvantaged students in them, who themselves came from lower social-class backgrounds and who were strongly desirous of changing school structure. Findings regarding this hypothesis indicated that younger teachers are, generally speaking, more inclined to express liberal views and to demand more radical changes in the teaching of disadvantaged students, and, indeed, in the organization, administration, and operation of the schools. There is no indication, however, that young teachers in urban schools with a high proportion of dis­ advantaged students in their classes were significantly different in this regard from young teachers in other types of school settings with few disadvantaged students in their classes. Nor is there any evidence that younger teachers are more inclined than their more experienced colleagues either to praise or to blame the aims and efforts of the projects with which they were involved. Younger teachers in problem schools welcome almost any and all efforts what­ ever to improve the teaching of disadvantaged students. They are just as cognizant as their more experienced colleagues that all too many of these efforts fail to achieve substantial results. 6 7 67Ibid., p. 183. 69 Stone also discussed some additional important findings regarding opinions held by respondents in the California study on some educational issues apart from the project's focus itself. They were as follows. No expense should be spared to provide special help in the schools for disadvantaged children; the best thing which could be done for those children would be to put them in smaller-sized classes. Disadvantaged children should begin school at an earlier age and the legal age for leaving school should be maintained. Unstructured interaction groups should be used m o r e , and teachers-intraining can learn more in local schools than they can in the colleges and universities.88 Colleges or universities offer expertise, according to the participants, but the schools are the laboratories where that expertise is to be properly developed and applied— and the schools have developed considerable under­ standing of their own about the problems of teaching dis­ advantaged children. When participants were asked how teacher education could better prepare teachers for target schools, the response was almost invariably that teachersin-training should have more and earlier experience with the whole disadvantaged milieu— students, school, homes, and communities.^^ In this connection, several proposals 68Ibid., p. 184. 69 Ibid., p. 186. 70 were examined for a combined district college plan to bring college juniors and seniors into target schools as paid teaching assistants, passing them into internships in the fifth year, with classes being taught at a school site and largely by school personnel, and culminating with full-time teaching appointments in the schools where the candidates were trained. The programs discussed above, as is true of programs for training prospective teachers for the economically disadvantaged in general, vary greatly. For example, these programs vary in length of time spent in the program. The shortest programs are for one academic year, while some programs encompass a full four-year course of study. The staff serving the institutions of higher education in preparing teachers for the disadvantaged are as varied as the programs themselves. Some projects employ regular staff of the school of education, while others bring in specialists in mental health, sociology, reading, research and medicine to supplement the work of the regular teacher educators. Most programs employ the assistance, whether on a consultant basis or in a coopera­ tive relationship, of veteran teachers, counselors, and administrators in the inner city schools. However, part of the difficulty of designing and operating a program for preparing teachers for the disadvantaged is that teacher 7QIbid., p. 189. 71 educators themselves have generally not had experience in working with disadvantaged youngsters in public schools. Although many colleges and universities have established special programs for preparing teachers for the disadvantaged, evaluation of the success of these programs has been m e a g e r . Each program seems unique to the particular institution, with seemingly few attempts to use the best components of other programs. The existing programs seem, in general, to have been planned and organized hurriedly because of the demands of the local community and without the joint planning of the school personnel, families of the poor, students and teacher educators. Perhaps this explains the lack of research about the outcomes of the programs. A HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION PROFESSIONS DEVELOPMENT ACT, PART B, SUBPART 2 Part B-2 of the Education Professions Development Act (EPDA) is a state grants program designed to attract persons otherwise employed into education and train them as teachers or teacher aides. Emphasis is upon persons from the local community who might make excellent teachers but who are presently denied entry into teaching because they lack professional preparation. The preparation of such persons with a variety of background experiences can provide local education agencies with teachers who can enrich the 72 educational experiences of students and provide positive liaison between the schools and their c o m m u n i t i e s .71 A statement from the United States Office of Educa­ tion outlines the purpose and strategy of the State Grants Program which is carried out under Section B-2 of the Education Professions Development Act Education Act of 1965). (Title V of the Higher The statement reads: The Education Professions Development Act (EPDA) is an attempt to bring about change in education; to bring about change in people who staff our schools and colleges. While other sections of the Act are concerned with long-range change in the attitudes and competencies of all kinds of educational personnel, Part B-2 addresses itself to a more immediate need of many local systems: critical shortages of classroom personnel— teachers and teacher aides. Part B-2 authorizes a State Grants Program to provide local school districts with funds to meet such teacher shortages by recruiting persons from the com­ munity who are otherwise engaged, providing them with intensive short-term preservice training and putting them to work in classrooms as soon as p o s s i b l e . 72 In Michigan the B-2 program not only served to alleviate local shortages, but also promoted a move­ ment to encourage individualized, performance-based approaches to teacher education. In the 1969-1972 projects, the focus was on such programs to train new teachers to work with economically disadvantaged children. 71-Dale Parnell, Evaluation Report: EPDA B-2 Programs (Salem: Oregon Board of Education, l"97l, p . 1. 72 State of Florida, Department of Education, Teacher Evaluation Program, 1970-71, p. 3. 73 Legislative History of the EPDA, Part B - 2 : Attracting and Qualifying Teachers and Teacher Aides In hearings in seven cities conducted as part of the study of the United States Office of Education, and in field trips to New York City, the Special Subcommittee on Education became keenly aware of the critical, even emergency, nature of the shortage of competent elementary and secondary school teachers to work effectively with economically disadvantaged students. Prior to the hearings, articles appearing in the summer and early fall of 1966 indicated teacher shortages were being experienced in local school systems throughout the nation. While the shortage seemed most acute in the depressed urban areas, other school systems were also experiencing substantial difficulties in filling positions for the 1966-67 academic year. The shortages were brought about because of new positions created by additional federal funds for improved school programs, increased enrollment, additional curriculum offerings, and more teachers not returning to their jobs because they were not trained to cope with the many problems of economically disadvantaged students. The result of one national survey indicated that the teacher shortage was most serious in economically disadvantaged lower elementary grades where more than two-thirds of the states responding to the survey reported shortages of 74 qualified applicants.73 Many communities experiencing a severe shortage of teachers or other educational personnel had within them persons who at that time were qualified to teach, but who were engaged otherwise, or persons who could qualify to teach after intensive preservice training and subsequent inservice training. H. state plan R. 1094 proposed that grants be made, under a (See Appendix A ) , to assist local educational agencies to attract to teaching potential active teachers within their communities and to provide them with training. Under the program, state plans had to provide assurance that persons admitted to training would, upon completion of their short-term intensive training, be qualified for teaching in elementary or secondary schools of the community.7^ In proposing the authorization of assistance to local educational agencies for programs to attract teachers, the committee intended that funds be used to strengthen, expand, and improve traditional teacher preparation programs and other appropriate recruitment methods of local educa­ tional agencies. Unlike other EPDA programs which empha­ size long-term academic training such as the Teacher C o r p s , the committee intended for Subpart B-2 to be a short-term 7 3United States Code, Congressional and Adminis­ trative N e w s , House Report No. 373 (1965), pp. 1267-68. 74Ibid. , p . 1268. 75 intensive training program. Initial funding proposed for fiscal year 1969 was $50 million for Part B Subpart 2 of the Education Pro­ fessions Development Act. That figure increased for the 1970 fiscal year to $65 million. Allotments among the states were based on the number of children enrolled in public and private elementary schools of the state as compared with the total number of children enrolled in such schools in all of the states. The estimated distribu­ tion of funds for fiscal years 1969 and 197 0 for Michigan was $5,343,543 to attract and qualify teachers and teaching aides. A HISTORY OF THE MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION'S DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS OF THE EPDA B-2 PROGRAMS Originally, the State Board of Education appointed an Ad Hoc Committee to develop a state plan for the opera­ tion of the B-2 program in Michigan. This committee was discharged when the state plan was completed and approved by the Board. The Superintendent of Public Instruction then appointed a State Advisory Council on Teacher Preparation and Professional Development; this Council was later approved by the state Board of Education to advise the Board on B-2 activities as well as matters related to teacher education, certification and professional develop­ ment . 76 Michigan Department of Education EPDA B-2 Procedures The State Education Agency procedures used in publicizing the B-2 program, issuing guidelines, solicit­ ing and funding projects, monitoring and evaluating projects and disseminating information about the B-2 program, were: 1. A notice of the state grants program was pub­ lished in the Educational Report, which goes to all superintendents of both intermediate and local school districts. 2. Each superintendent was sent a copy of the State Plan, an application form and a letter explaining the two. See Appendix A. 3. Local and intermediate school districts were invited to submit application for determination of eligi­ bility as prescribed in the State Plan. 4. Those districts that were eligible were asked to prepare proposals and were given assistance by the State Department of Education. 5. Consultant assistance and workshops were provided to assist intermediate and local education agen­ cies in preparing the proposals. 6. All proposals were submitted to the Department of Education. 7. An appointed committee from the Department of Education reviewed all proposals and ranked them in order of quality and need. When necessary, school districts were asked to submit amendments. 8. Summaries of all programs were prepared and recom­ mended to the State Board of Education for final approval. 9. The State Board of Education approved the programs in rank order for funding. 10. Notification of approval for funding was sent to each district. 77 11. Department of Education B-2 coordinator from the Division of Teacher Education and Professional Development visited all approved B-2 programs at least twice to provide assistance with problems and to insure the programs were being implemented according to the original proposals submitted and the State Plan. 12. Evaluation report froms prepared by the Department of Education were approved as required and sub­ mitted to all program directors with instructions. All directors used these forms to evaluate their particular programs. 13. Data from project directors were submitted to the Department of Education for summarization purposes. 14. Members of the Department of Education tabulated and summarized the data for the final state grants program summaries. 5 (Lansing: Inal Evaluation Report of the EPDA B-2 Programs Michigan Department of Education , 1971) , pT 4*7 CHAPTER III PROGRAM DESCRIPTIONS AND METHODOLOGY INTRODUCTION Chapter III of this study is divided into four parts. The Pontiac Public School System EPDA B-2 programs to train teachers to teach the economically disadvantaged students have been described in Part I. A description of the EPDA B-2 Short-Term Teacher Education Programs for preparing teachers to teach the economically disadvantaged student in the Detroit Public Schools has been presented in Part II. The graduates used as the experimental group in this study received their preparation in these teacher education programs. The procedures and methodology used in completing this study have been described in Part III. A summary of the entire chapter comprises Part IV. A DESCRIPTION OF THE PONTIAC PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM EPDA B-2 SHORT-TERM TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS (ST3P) TO TRAIN TEACHERS FOR THE DISADVANTAGED The Pontiac Public School District has had three short-term teacher education programs funded under the Education Professions Development A c t . one specific purpose: The programs had to train teachers to work effectively 78 79 with economically disadvantaged children. The programs were designed for persons with college degrees in fields other than teaching and who were engaged in non-teaching positions or who were currently unemployed. The need for well prepared teachers for urban schools, with training based on sound educational prac­ tices and resources, is well documented. One of the primary tasks of teacher education is the cooperation of those guiding potential teachers; cooperation between the public school system and teacher preparation institutions is essential if potential teachers are to be trained effectively for their work in the classroom. The Short-Term Teacher Training Program in the Pontiac Public School District, designated as the ST3P program, embodied cooperative public school-university planning, facilitation and analysis so that newer pat­ terns of teacher preparation could be described. Aside from the primary objective of describing one program of professional preparation for teachers of inner city schools, with a different sequence and experimental base than regularly conducted university programs, the Pontiac project sought to gain evidence concerning procedures, processes and outcomes, through reactions and observational data of the participants— interns, supervising teachers, directors and school administrators. Identification of, and changes in, teaching perceptions and behaviors of the interns were deemed 80 important aspects of the project. Ratings and reactions of the participants to instructional, internship and supervisory components of the program formed bases for the continuation, modification, or rejection of certain aspects for future programs of similar nature. The ST3P program operated on the assumption that it is possible to have a more immediate transfer of formal college instruction to the teacher's work in the class­ room. Formal instruction becomes more flexible since the prospective teacher does not have to be convinced that there are problems in teaching which merit serious study; he is encountering them every day. There is no need to spend long amounts of time in describing schools, books, and children. More time can be spent in real problem situations, demonstrations and field trips to local schools and events. The Pontiac program operated on the idea that working with disadvantaged children requires specially trained teachers. ing. Empathy is achieved through understand­ The teacher who is trained to understand environmental influences on children, language patterns and cultural deprivation is certain to be more successful. The sense of satisfaction and achievement arrived at in this area of teaching comes with success and teachers with this back­ ground, it was believed, would always be in demand.1 1William Condon, ST3P Newsletter {Pontiac, Michigan: Office of Community Action Programs, Sept. 1970), pp. 4-5. 81 History and Development of Programs In the Pontiac Public School District 1969-70 Program The Pontiac School District received eligi­ bility approval by the Michigan Department of Education to develop a one-year short-term teacher education pro­ gram to train teachers to work in its schools with the disadvantaged on March 18, 1969. On March 25, a pre­ liminary meeting was held with B. C. Vankoughnett, Director of Community Action Programs, and Roderic E. Righter, Associate Dean of the College of Education at Oakland University. outlined. At that time a tentative plan was The plan was later reviewed with William Lacy, Assistant Superintendent for Instruction, and Lewis Crew, Director of Certified Personnel, of the Pontiac Public School District. Shortly after the reviewing of the tentative plan, a proposal was developed by the school district with the cooperation of the uni­ versity. The proposal was reviewed by staff of the state education agency. All efforts were made to com­ bine the activities of the EPDA B-2 program with those of the Urban/Rural Teacher C o rps, another teacher training program operated by the school district of the City of Pontiac and Oakland University.^ 2 Personal Interview with D r . Roderic Righter, Oakland University, May 2, 1973. 82 1970-71 Program This program was based, to a large extent, upon the experiences of the first year in the program. Changes were based on the evaluation report recommendations. The recommended changes included: 1. A restructuring of academic classes to allow the inclusion of a needed math methods class. 2. Changing the schedule to allow time for full day participation in the school classroom as opposed to half d a y s . 3. An analytic look at the interns' undergraduate training that allowed interfacing with other programs such as Bilingual Oral Language, Urban/Rural Teacher Corps, and Title I. 4. Provisions of options during the inservice portion of the program based on broadening the experiences of the trainees. The changes were reviewed with the EPDA B-2 consultant in the Division of Teacher Preparation and Professional Development of the Michigan Department of Education on December 11, 1969 and February 3, 197 0. A number of liaison meetings were held with Dr. Roderic Righter of Oakland University to insure coordination between the school district and the university. On January 8, 1970 development began on the new program to train teachers to work effectively with disadvantaged students.3 3Ibid. 83 Several meetings were held during the month of February 1970 before the final proposal was completed. Participants at each meeting included teachers who were trained in the program during 1969-1970, interns who would be trained in the new program, community represen­ tatives, Pontiac Education Association representatives, cooperating teachers, principals, and a university coordi­ nator. All suggestions were included in the proposal wherever possible. This broad participation in planning was an important contributing factor in the success of the program.^ 1971-72 Program This proposal resulted from an on-going evaluation of both the 1969-70 and 1970-71 programs and was also based, to an extent, on participation in the Human Res­ ources Center (H.R.C.), an educational park concept based upon the idea of combining all available resources to affect inner-city children. A concept paper discussing the beginning ideas in program preparation was completed on November 1, 1970. It was discussed with EPDA B-2 personnel, both in the United States Office of Education and the Michigan Department of Education. EPDA B-2 The concept paper was accepted ^Personal Interview with Dr. Robert Boyce, Former (ST3P) Program Director, May 4, 197 3. 84 on February 11, 1971 and preparation of the formal pro­ posal was begun. The program directors, Drs. William Condon, Robert Boyce and Roderic Righter, met regularly with the ShortTerm Teacher Training Program participants and administra­ tive personnel to evaluate the 1970 program and plan the proposed program for 1971-72. Representatives from the community, Pontiac Education Association, interns, coopera­ ting teachers, principals, the research and evaluation department and the university participated in planning the program for fiscal year 1971.^ During this time, the Oakland University School of Education evaluated the records of each applicant to determine eligibility and to prepare an individual program that would allow the interns to be recommended for appro­ priate certification upon completion of the program.^ Recruitment and Selection of Program Trainees The Pontiac Short Term Teacher Education Program recruited 90 persons with degrees in areas other than 5ibid . ^Although the three programs were discussed separately here for the purpose of clearly describing the history of EPDA B-2 programs in the Pontiac Public School District, henceforth these three programs will be combined since the basic procedures and outcomes were similar. We will describe the "Pontiac Short Term Teacher Education Program" as one program covering the years 1969-72. 85 teaching and retrained them to teach disadvantaged students. Of these, 62 completed the program, while 28 persons dropped out because of death or illness in the family, inadequate income and/or being dropped by directors. Seven of the 62 persons completing the program were employed as teachers in the Human Resource Center for the present school year and 28 were working as teachers in other schools in the Pontiac system as of May 197 3. The directors claim that the greatest success in recruitment resulted from four approaches: 1. Referrals from key people who were acquainted with the program particularly those associated with cooperating school districts and univer­ sities . 2. Letters were sent to Pontiac Schools substitute teachers with degrees but without certificates to teach on a full time basis. 3. Radio and television public service announcements were m a d e . 4. News stories and advertisements were displayed in local newspapers.' The procedure for selection following initial contact with the project director and university coordina­ tor included presentation of application and transcript to the director. Transcripts were reviewed by Oakland University and interviews were scheduled. The interview committee for selection of candidates to participate in the program consisted of the project 7Personal Interview with Drs. William Condon, Robert Boyce and Roderic Righter, May 4, 1973. 86 directors, university coordinator and the Dean of the College of Education, one principal and one teacher. The committee selected college graduates who were willing to enter the program and participate on a full time b a sis. Several of the interns had to give up a job in order to carry out their responsibilities in the program. According to the directors, there was no failure in the recruitment, since 109 people who met the qualifi­ cations set down by the B-2 guidelines did make applica­ tion. This large number of applicants did allow the selec­ tion committee to choose those whom they thought would be strong participants and could benefit from the program. Those trainees who were deselected from the program attest to the validity of the selection process.8 An Overview of the Pre-Service and InService Components of the Program The following approaches were utilized in pre­ paring the pre-service aspects of the ST3P program: 1. Personal interviews with each applicant were con­ ducted by the co-directors of the program so the interns understood the format of the program, their responsibilities, the director's role relationship and other pertinent factors. 2. Immediate placement into classrooms was effected on the day before school opened. Subsequent transfers were made, based upon supervising teacher-principal-director1s judgments. 8 Ibid. 87 3. A more individualized series of contacts were planned— individually and collectively— for students with both directors being participating members of each Friday morning seminar as well as serving as the college supervisors in the classroom intern­ ship. 4. Seminars (Education 555) were jointly planned by the co-directors utilizing specialist personnel from Oakland University, the Pontiac school system, the Oakland County Intermediate School District and from the community in the Friday instructional modules (See also #7). 5. Formal and informal contacts with interns, super­ vising teachers, and principals through classroom visits, reporting forms, and by telephone were frequent. On-going evaluations of each intern by his supervising teacher and college supervisor were shared with interns by the directors as they were obtained. Intern conferences with the college supervisor/director were annotated and initialed by both participants. Conferences with the interns generally involved the supervising teacher-internsupervisor in a three-way pattern of communication. 6. The instructional schedule shown in Table 3-1 outlines the general format followed on the Tuesday, Thursday and evening instruction sessions, as well as the pre-service in-classroom teaching schedule. 7. Fridays were divided into two instructional modules with mornings given over to work in the community and/or special problems. Table 3-2 indicates the schedules for the period September 11 through December 18, 1970 and gives some idea of the range of topics covered. Classes were held in Pontiac at an available site convenient to the interns and scheduled between 9:00 a.m. and 12:00 noon. In selected instances afternoons were given over to selected educational tours and topics. The academic portion of the program had one central focus with several ancillary and appropriate thrusts. The central emphasis was on the children with serious social, economic, language and ethnic handicaps. Thus the 88 Table 3-1. Oakland University School of Education, Instructional Schedule Outline, Pre-Service and In-Service ST3P Program Pre-Service September to December 1970 Monday cn g •H Xi o Id d) -P m g in d> in rQ 3 13 +J W C/1 Wednesday Tuesday cn to G 0 o 4J rf CTi 4-1 ■ in in in -rl d) G 13 3 -P in 13 W P id G e d) cn G 13 O G id *H 4J •«.*d o Friday Thursday in 01 4-> id rH o G •H O in g a) tj 3 T3 4J W cn 13 CO G co id id G in m in 13 w M O O ■H G e 4-> O id a\ o •H e in m G O CT> d) 13 13 cn 3 Pre-Service and In-Service January to June 1971 April 71 t------ Complete Ed 555 _______________________ i A;------ Ed 591 (Neighborhood Involvement)_____ ------ Math 314 or Science 305 ^ ! ^------- Dyad Teaching_______________________________ Pre-Service and In-Service Summer 1971 ..Work on Major and Minor Subject Areas 89 Table 3-2. Friday Morning Instructional Sessions, Fall Schedule - ST3P, September 11 - December 18 9/11 Ecology of the Classroom, Edward Bantel 9/18 Unit Planning, Classroom Management and General Topics, R. E. Righter 9/25 Audio-Visual Tools in Education, William Condon and the Oakland County Internediate District Personnel 10/2 "^ap Session," Questions and Discussion of the ST3P Program "The Directors" and Unit Planning, R. E. Righter 10/9 Lewis Crew, Director of Personnel - Elemen­ tary - "Hiring Practices in the Pontiac Schools" and Sponsored Resources in Elemen­ tary Instruction, R. E. Righter 10/16 Interaction Analysis, Virginia B. Morrison 10/23 Science in the Elementary Classroom, William Forbes 10/30 Ecology of the Elementary School Classroom, Edward Bantel, Jane Bingham 11/6 Eugene Richardson, Director of Special Programs, Lansing 11/13 Discipline in the Classroom, Virginia B. Morrison 11/20 Ecology of the Elementary School Classroom, D r . Edward Bantel 12/4 Sociometric Technique, R. E. Righter; The Role of the Elementary Principal, William Condon; 1:00-3:00 Tour of the Vocational Educational Center 12/11 Professional Negotiations and the Pontiac Education Association 12/18 Ecology of the Classroom, Dr. Edward A. Bantel; "Rap Session" and Discussion of Second Semester 90 ancillary thrusts were those which would assist the teacher in understanding such handicaps and use those understandings as guidelines in his work with children. Therefore, the training received by trainees dealt with the special nature of the child in inner-city Pontiac. The training program consisted of ten courses comprising 46 semester hours of work. The courses were especially developed for application to the unique school population found in the Pontiac school district and, in addition, the courses were developed to specific methodolo­ gical needs of the Human Resource Center. The two pre-service periods of lengthy duration offered opportunities for better understanding, on the part of the interns, of the Pontiac School District's Human Resource Center, a bold and dramatic departure from the normal inner-city education program. The pre-service program offered opportunities for deeper study of class­ room management, the disadvantaged child and also provided for a period for screening of the interns. The instructional program was not the normal structured lecture method found so often in university classes. Interns, on the contrary, asked for and received what they needed to help children, through multi-media approaches, community and resources speakers, programmed materials and concept based instruction. media approaches were the following: Among the multi- 91 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Role playing Micro teaching Programmed materials in reading, psychology and ecology Booklets, pamphlets and hand-outs Motion picture and slide projectors Video and audio recorders Community reports, logs and units Individual tutorial sessions Advisement/instructional sessions on a multiple participant basis Anecdotal records and logs Testing materials Community resource people were used as an adjunct staff to highlight items under discussion which could best be explained by using people who know the circumstances. In science, mathematics, reading, etc., specific concepts were put forth for review rather than isolated portions of the larger issue. By emphasizing the concept rather than its component parts, the interns were able to see clearly such issues as, "token economy," reinforcement, integration and segregation, the economics of the innercity, mass production employment and its effect upon the family, learning and its manifestations and classroom management. Special curriculum materials were developed for interns. Materials included: Outline for Language Arts Program, grades K-6; Research References for Developing Mathematics Ideas; Negro History; Teaching About the Negro in American History; Black Culture/White Teacher; Minority History and Children's Literature. The program provided a variety of experiences for trainees to work with and in social agencies in the community. 92 Description of the Curriculum The curriculum at Oakland University, "Preparing Teachers to Teach the Economically Disadvantaged," included seminars, workshops, field trips and courses. The academic portion of the program was offered by the Depart­ ment of Elementary Education in cooperation with other departments of the School of Education at Oakland Univer­ sity. The cooperating teachers received up to 24 hours of graduate course work, either applicable to the master's degree or as a part of a planned program toward the 18 or 30 hour requirements, depending upon the number of hours already earned. Interns, upon successful completion of the program, would receive an M.A.T. degree and elementary certification, providing all additional requirements for certification were fulfilled.^ New courses were developed to provide the interns with more contact with the economically disadvantaged students. Descriptions of the courses comprising the curriculum of the B-2 trainees are found in Appendix C.^° ^Roderic Righter, A Description and an Evaluation of the Short-Term Teacher Training Program: A Cooperative Venture Between Pontiac School District and Oakland University (Rochester, Michigan: Oakland University, School of Education, June 1972), p. 10. ~^A Proposal: Short Term Teacher Education Program for the Preparation of Elementary Teachers of Disadvantaged Children (Pontiac School District, 1971), pp. 25-32. 93 The courses comprising the curriculum for the ST3P programs at Oakland University focused on the problems of the inner-city family, community and school, as well as the experiences of minority group members and the poor in general. Since the size of the group of trainees in each of the ST3P programs was smaller than many education classes, more time was available for discussion of common problems faced in the classroom experiences of that same day, as well as current problems in the Pontiac community. The classes were able to attract speakers because the community and the public school teachers and administrators were pleased to see the university involved in special training of teachers for the disadvantaged. Description of the Laboratory Experience The laboratory experience (student teaching) envisioned by Roderic Righter and William Condon in their final draft of the proposal to train teachers to work effectively with the disadvantaged was a very crucial part of the program. Righter and Condon listed seven major roles and responsibilities for trainees' involvement. A description of these roles and responsibilities follows: A. Develop relationships with people: 1. (satisfactory and profitable) Teacher-pupil relationships— confidence and respect— reasonable levels of expectation— work effectively with pupils of various back­ grounds . 94 B. C. D. E. 2. Teacher-staff relationships— all other teachers, administrators and school-related personnel. 3. Student teacher-parent relationships— involve and inform parents about the progress of child­ ren and status of curriculum revisions and development. Develop a favorable classroom climate: 1. Cooperative participation for desirable educa­ tional purposeful activity. 2. Activities must be well directed and purposeful. 3. Attention must be given to physical facilities— comfort and appearance. Develop competency in planning for instruction: 1. Planning for separate subjects. 2. Planning for the total work for a day. 3. Planning units for longer periods 4. Planning a relevant program for evaluating pupils' work. of t i m e . Develop the ability to "manage" the planned instruction: 1. Assignments must be planned, explained, and completed. 2. Attention should be given to group size. 3. Attention must be given to interests and attention span. 4. Recognition must be given to the fact that reteaching is often necessary and should be included in planning. 5. Flexibility will allow for handling unexpected situations as they arise. Develop increasing command of subjects and of teaching materials: ! 1. A teacher should be "adequately prepared." 95 2. F. A teacher must know how to "teach" that which he proposes the students are to "learn." Develop personal qualities related to successful teaching: 1. Physical health is essential to success. 2. G. Expectations of parents, pupils and teachers that duties and responsibilities will be met on time and in good shape (dependability). 3. Teachers should be sensitive to the feelings of all others. 4. Teachers should have an accepting attitude toward positive criticism and be able to profit from suggestions by implementing such ideas. 5. Teachers need a genuine procedures of self­ appraisal to lead to professional growth and effectiveness. 6. A knowledge of correct grammar and a growing vocabulary are essential in speaking and writing. Develop professional qualities: 1. Participate in school and faculty activities. 2. Show a sincere enthusiasm for the job. 3. Persist in completing tasks and responsibilities undertaken. 4. Behave in an ethical manner. 5. Meet the behavioral expectations of the school and commun it y . Oakland University prepared a follow-up study of the employment patterns of graduates of the first two years' ST3P programs in Pontiac (1969-1971). study can be found in Appendix E. ^ I b i d . , pp. 28-29. A summary of this 96 A DESCRIPTION OF THE DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM EPDA B-2 SHORT TERM TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM TO TRAIN TEACHERS FOR THE DISADVANTAGED Before the EPDA B-2 teacher training programs came into existence, there were a significant number of teaching positions in the Detroit Public Schools manned by unqualified non-state approved teachers. There also was a critical shortage of qualified elementary and secondary school teachers to work in the city's inner city schools. For the most part these shortgages prevailed in Title I schools serving the disadvantaged. In 1969-70, for example, there were approximately 245 positions manned by unqualified, temporarily certificated teachers in Title I elementary schools where economic and social deprivation augment the educational handicaps of pupils. There were three important reasons for this shortage of teachers qualified to teach disadvantaged students in the Detroit Public Schools. These problems made it difficult to attract qualified teachers for the inner city schools. They were: 1. High teacher-pupil ratio. 2. Children from low-income families who were one to two years or more retarded in academic achieve­ ment . 3. Old, obsolete buildings in need of repair or replacement A 2 12 Louis D. Monacel, A Proposal to Attract and Qualify Elementary School Librarians (Detroit: Program Development Office and the Department of Adult Continuing Education, Detroit Public Schools, March 1970), p. 5. 97 The teacher training institutions had not prepared teachers to teach in the so-called "ghetto" of the inner city. As a result, many highly competent certified teachers accepted positions in the suburbs where the work was easier and the problems substantially reduced when compared with those in the inner city schools.^3 In view of this situation the Detroit Short Term Teacher Education Program was proposed for the purpose of attracting and qualifying elementary and secondary school teachers to work with the many economically disadvantaged students in the system. The Detroit Public Schools, in cooperation with the College of Education at Wayne State University, recruited graduates who held bachelor's degrees in subject areas outside teacher education for training in a teacher education certification program involving intensive training for one year. In the Detroit Public School System three EPDA B-2 programs were carried out. Although these programs varied in content, they all had as their focal point the training of teachers for the inner city schools. One EPDA B-2 program during fiscal year 1969-70 focused upon the training of teachers to work with bilingual students (Spanish-English), while another program during fiscal Impersonal Interview with Mr. Fred Martin, Personnel Director, Detroit Public Schools, June 26, 1973. 98 year 1970-71 trained teachers in library science. In fiscal year 1971-72, B-2 program teachers were trained to teach special education in the district's Title I schools. A description of each of these programs follows. The Detroit EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Training Program for Bilingual Students Before the advent of this program it had been statistically shown that the number of Spanish-speaking persons residing in Detroit was increasing steadily and that the mean achievement levels of Spanish-speaking elementary students were substantially lower than those of other students in the elementary schools in Region I, where there was a specific shortage of Spanish-speaking teachers. Thirty-three ESEA Title I schools in Region I were identified as those having an approximate total of 2,900 Spanish-speaking students. Further, there were seven elementary schools in the Region accounting for about 9 60 of the Spanish-speaking students. Additional Spanish-speaking teachers for these students were urgently needed since the learning process of the students was hampered by the language barrier which existed. Before the program began there were only two Spanish-speaking teachers employed in the seven elementary schools as compared to a total of 137 teachers in these schools. Clear evidence that a specific shortage of 99 Spanish-speaking teachers existed in the seven schools since approximately 22% of the enrollment in these schools were Spanish-speaking students. To meet this need, 25 Spanish-speaking persons who had at least one-and-one-half years of college were recruited locally and trained as elementary teachers for Detroit's Region 1 schools. A Spanish-speaking teacher with at least three years experience was the coordinator of the program and was responsible for its administration and general supervision of the trainees. A specially designed short-term intensive training curriculum was provided through an agreement with the College of Education, Wayne State University which con­ sisted of two quarter terms of academic preparation. This was followed by one quarter term of practicum experience, professional course work and Detroit Public Schools' in-service training. During the practicum, the trainees were divided into teams of two under the supervision of experienced teachers called intern consultants, most of whom were also Spanish speaking. Each trainee who completed the program would be qualified to teach in the Detroit public schools after having earned either a teaching permit 14 or a degree and a regular teacher's certificate. The primary goal of the program was to provide 14pergonai interview with Dr. Hart, May 19, 1973. 100 Spanish speaking students with the kinds of instructions that would produce improvements in their mean academic achievements up to at least grade level in reading and in computational skills as measured by standardized instru­ ments of measurements. This objective was to be accomplished through: 1. The utilization of Spanish-speaking teachers as bilingual language developers for the SpanishAmer ic an s tudent s . 2. The utilization of Spanish-speaking teachers as teacher-counselors for Spanish-American students in need of closer supervision and career planning. The secondary goal of this program was to recruit and train Spanish-speaking teachers for the increasing numbers of Spanish-speaking students coming into the Detroit area. Other secondary goals were: 1. To provide better qualified teachers for the Detroit Public Schools where a teacher shortage exists. 2. To affect an eventual decrease in the pupilteacher ratio. Development of the Program The development of the project was accomplished through the cooperation of the following individuals and insti­ tutions . 1. Dr. Arnold Glovinsky, Director, Wayne County Intermediate School District 15Ibid. 101 2. Mr. Ben Chinitz, Detroit Public Schools, Region I Superintendent 3. Mr. Jesse Soriano, Spanish-speaking educator and Chairman of Committee for Concerned SpanishAmericans 4. Dr. Charles Stewart, Executive Administrative Assistant, Adult and Continuing Education, Detroit Public Schools 5. Dr. John Childs, Acting Assistant Dean, College of Education, Wayne State University 6. Dr. Helen Suchara, Professor of Elementary Education, Wayne State University 7. Mrs. Ruth Harrell, Adult and Continuing Education Department, Detroit Public Schools 8. Representatives of the Office of Federal, State and Special Programs, Detroit Public Schools 9. Mr. Alexander Velasco, Spanish-speaking counselor, Northern High School, Detroit Public Schools.I6 These people met on March 3, 1969, to consider submitting a proposal to train Spanish-speaking teachers under the Education Professions Development Act, Part B, Sub-Part 2. Following the meeting, the Office of Federal, State and Special Programs conducted a study of all schools in Region I for purposes of determining where the greatest need for Spanish-speaking teachers was and the number required to fill the educational needs of Spanish-speaking students. The results of the study indicated that seven elementary schools evidenced a great need for Spanish-speaking interview with Dr. Arnold Glovinsky, Former Director of the EPDA B-2 Teacher Aid Program in the Wayne Intermediate School District, May 24, 1973. ^Personal 102 teachers and that approximately 25 were needed in order to better provide educational services for the Spanish­ speaking students. Additional meetings were held with Dr. Helen Suchara, Professor of Elementary Education at Wayne State University, to develop the curriculum necessary to provide the short-term intensive academic training and the inservice program for Spanish-speaking persons leading towards state teacher certification and a college degree. During these meetings, criteria for eligibility for the program were agreed to, as well as determining other sup­ portive services to be furnished by the Detroit Public Schools and Wayne State University during the academic and practicum phases of the training. Contact was then made with D r . John Childs of Wayne State University, in relation to university costs for the program and a commitment from the university to accept persons into the program who satisfied the bilingual and prior educational requirements. Further, it was agreed that WSU would recommend teacher or permit certi­ fication for the trainees upon their satisfactory comple­ tion of the program. Following all necessary university arrangements and agreements^ the final proposal was prepared by the Office [ of Federal, State and Special Programs in cooperation with the Adult and Continuing Education Department of the 103 Detroit Public Schools .-*-7 Recruitment and Selection To recruit candidates for this program, an attempt was made locally, and in other nearby communities, to identify persons who met the bilingual and educational requirements for entry into the program through: 1. Maximum utilization of various communication media. 2. Canvassing of immediate communities surrounding all Region I schools where the Spanish-speaking people reside in greater numbers than elsewhere locally. 3. Utilizing resources of local and other nearby institutions of higher learning that may already have a number of these eligible persons in attendance. 4. Receiving recommendations from the Wayne County Intermediate School District via its contacts with the Spanish-speaking community as a result of its Wayne County Migrant Program.7-** The Detroit Public Schools made a final selection of 25 Spanish-speaking persons who had at least one-and-one half years of college or its equivalent. These individuals were not teaching, nor had they taught six months prior to the beginning of the project year, September, 1969. Some were unemployed and others were in attendance at an institution of higher learning. However, this project was not designed solely for Spanish-speaking students who 17Ibid. 18 Personal Interview with Mrs. Ruth Harrell, Depart ment of Adult and Continuing Education, Detroit Public Schools, June 27, 1973. 104 were enrolled full-time in formal pre-service under­ graduate teacher education programs. Candidates chosen for the program had to indicate a commitment to perform educational services to Spanish-speaking and inner-city students from disadvantaged environments. Persons meet­ ing these requirements were selected for the program; the final selection and screening of candidates was done by a special committee appointed by the Detroit Public Schools. Description of the Curriculum The trainees were enrolled at Wayne State Univer­ sity, with two quarters at the university equaling one academic semester of short-term intensive training. A description of the academic courses can be found in Appendix E. Following the academic course work the trainees served in practicums for 11 weeks in teams of two in the elementary schools selected in Region I. In the practicum the trainee had as his goals: 1. To establish a classroom climate conducive to learning and to set up performance goals. 2. To utilize pre-service training and all available resources to motivate the maximum academic growth and language fluency possible with Spanish­ speaking children. During the practicum seminars were held each Saturday at the Detroit Public Schools. These seminars focused on problems encountered in the practicum or teaching methods 105 which seemed significant. Discussions of children, dis­ cipline, instructional programs, relationships with colleagues and Spanish-speaking parents, as well as the trainee's classroom observations were carried on. These sessions were a combination of group therapy, staff encouragement and instruction, and lectures by staff members and by specialists invited to share their knowledge Q about particular fields. 1 ^ The program was administered by the Adult and Continuing Education Department of the Detroit Public Schools and was coordinated by a Spanish-speaking Program Coordinator who had at least three years of successful teaching experience. Other staff members included at least four trainee consultants. These persons, along with the Program Co ­ ordinator , acted as the supervisory force for the trainees at a ratio of about 1 to 5. Also, the trainee consultants were available for the University's use as a part of its instructional assistance during the pre-service and inservice phases, as well as full time supervision for the trainees during the practicum. Evaluation The program was evaluated by the Educational 19 Interview with Frank Gallo, Director, Office of Federal, State and Special Programs, Detroit Public Schools, June 7, 197 3. 106 Research and Development Department of the Detroit Public Schools. This department's responsibility was to submit a written report to the Michigan Department of Education within 90 days following the completion of the project. The evaluation design can be found in Appendix F. The Detroit EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Training Program for Library Science Development of the Program In 1969-70 a special shortage existed in the number of certificated elementary teacher-librarians in the Title I schools. In addition to the 20 uncertificated substitute librarians that were employed as ESRP's (Emergency Substitutes in Regular Positions) in Title I elementary schools, there were eighteen contract teachers assigned as librarians who had had no library science training.20 Regarding this situation, on Friday, February 27, 1970 a meeting was held between the representatives of the Program Development Office and the School Libraries Division of the Detroit Public Schools and Wayne State University College of Education Library Office, relative to developing a proposal to train school librarians. It was agreed by those in attendance that such a cooperative 20 Monacel, op. c r t ., p. 9. 107 endeavor by the two institutions be entered into and all necessary steps taken to complete such a proposal. During the week of March 2, 1970 specific schools having a qualified librarian who would assume the role of sponsoring teacher and schools where the in-service phase of the program would be instituted, were identified. An important meeting was held on Thursday, March 5, 1970 between representatives of the following departments and agencies: Detroit Public Schools 1. 2. 3. 4. Office of Personnel Program Development Adult and Continuing Education School Libraries Wayne State University 1. 2. College of Education - Libraries Services Office of Education and Admissions, Records and Certif ication. The purpose of this meeting was to review the various components and elements of the program and to clear up any questions regarding recruitment, training, certifica­ tion and placement. Plans were also made to involve professional and lay persons representing the schools to be involved. Region Superintendents of the Detroit Public Schools Regions 6 and 8 {the two regions having the greatest shortage) were contacted about the proposal and through them, principals, school librarians and community persons of the sponsoring schools were invited to attend 108 a meeting for purposes of planning and their participation in the further development of the proposal. On March 12, 1970 a mass meeting was held which involved the six Title I elementary schools selected to participate in the training of interns in the program. Persons in attendance at this meeting consisted of prin­ cipals, assistant principals, master librarians, parents, community aides and school service assistants, represen­ tatives of the Adult and Continuing Education Department, Program Development Office, the Department of School Libraries, and the Library Science Department of the College of Education of Wayne State University. The program was explained in its entirety, followed by a lengthy discussion by those present. It was agreed by all that a critical shortage of elementary school librarians does indeed exist and that an intensive program of this kind was n e e d e d . 21 Throughout the planning of the proposal, the Detroit Public Schools and Wayne State University were involved in developing course description and content, supervisory responsibilities, coordination of activities, interdisciplinary practicum experiences, identification ^ D e t r o i t Public Schools, Office of Program Development, Minutes, 1970 Academic Year, pp. 9-10. 109 of instructional staff, the role of sponsoring teachers and other aspects of the p r o g r a m . 22 The primary objective of the program was to recruit and train eager, energetic, creative young people who were recent liberal arts college graduates who wished to acquire competency in inner-city school library w o r k , in an inten­ sive teacher training program leading to permanent certi­ fication. Trainees who completed the program were expected to develop the following competencies: A. To motivate and guide economically disadvantaged children in pursuing self-directed learning of all kinds. B. To relate learning resources and the library to the instructional program of the school. C. To define and communicate the role of the school library in relation to the goals of family and community. The attainment of these competencies was based upon these skills and understandings: A. To identify major characteristics of child growth and the factors affecting development in cognitive, affective, physiological and social terms. B. To apply principles of learning theories as they relate to human growth and development in helping the learner pursue individual search and inquiry. C. To establish and maintain an atmosphere in which students and staff work harmoniously at optimum levels. D. To establish rapport with other groups and individuals in school and community. 22Personal Interview with Dr. Louis Monacel, Former Assistant Superintendent, Detroit Public Schools, January, 1973. 110 E. To locate reliable sources of information about media. F. To identify and apply appropriate criteria for assessing and evaluating materials in terms of their purported function and the needs (cognitive, physiological and affective) of the potential user. G. To provide accessibility to resources through a systematic physical arrangement amendable to the u ser. H. To apply and adapt principles of classifying, cataloging, and indexing to the learning resources collection. I. To create, produce, or adapt resources to meet special n e e d s . 23 Description of the Curriculum A description of the specific courses taken by students in the Detroit Library Science program can be found in Appendix H. Table 3-3 shows how these courses were distributed over the academic year. A total of 56 credits were earned, 24 in library science and 32 in education. Graduate credit was granted for these courses if the trainee was admitted to the Wayne State University graduate school. To be eligible for a provisional elementary cer­ tificate, the trainee had to have an undergraduate major (45 credits) or a group major tional minors (30 credits). (54 credits) or two addi­ It was assumed the trainee in ^ o f f i c e of Program Development, 1970 Minutes, pp. 17-19. Ill Table 3-3. Registration Schedule: Elementary School Librarians Program, Detroit Public Schools and Wayne State University Credits Course Summer Quarter 4 44 4 ELE ELE LS 5317 5326 7493 (Second Half Quarter) Reading and Language Arts Survey of Recent Lit. for Children School Media Center Fall Quarter 4 4 ED EDP 5015 5731 6 2 ED LS 7902 7496 Analysis of Teaching Foundations of Educational Psychology Internship and Seminar Directed Study: Storytelling Winter Quarter 6 4 ED LS 7902 5492 4 LS 6498 2 4 LS EHP 7496 5601 Internship and Seminar Selection and Evaluation of Library Materials for Children Workshop: Selection and Utili­ zation of Learning Resources Directed Study: Storytelling Education Foundations in the United States Spring Quarter 4 4 LS ELE 5495 5316 General Reference Services Social Studies in the Elementary School Summer Quarter 4 4 4 LS LS LS 5495 6494 7495 (First Half Quarter) General Reference Services Technical Services Technology and Instructional Design 1 112 the graduate program would have completed a major and minors in his undergraduate study which could be approved for elementary school certification. If the trainee could not meet the major-minor standard, he had to take the necessary courses on his own after finishing the special training program, with senior standing. In any event, the trainees could qualify for a permit to teach in the Detroit Public Schools for the school year beginning September 1971. Undergraduates with senior standing (135 credits) in the program used undergraduate course numbers in registering. Graduate students applied the 24 credits in library science toward a Master's Degree in Library Science. Evaluation The program was evaluated in relationship to specific objectives (See Appendix I for the evaluation design). The Detroit EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Training Program for Special Education In 1970 there was increasing concern among offi­ cials in the Detroit Public School System relative to the critical shortage of qualified special education teachers. For the most part, these shortages were prevalent in eligible Title I schools serving the disadvantaged. At 113 the time of this project's development there were 75 special education classrooms being manned by personnel who did not meet the qualifications for full state approval. A good percentage of these persons were functioning under state emergency approval, and state reimbursement was not received for personnel in this cateqory.24 Because special education by its nature is a highly specialized educational area, such teaching situations in Detroit demanded highly trained personnel to fill these positions. It was felt that the quality of the special education program would be greatly improved by increasing the number of fully qualified special education teachers to teach in these classrooms. In the City of Detroit, during the 1960's, there had existed a shortage of fully qualified and certified teachers for placement in a regular classroom position. But in 1970 Detroit experienced a reversal of that trend by having more fully qualified teachers applying for regular teaching positions than there were jobs available. At the time of this project there was a surplus pool of approximately 300 persons waiting placement in regular classroom positions. Some of these persons were function­ ing in the capacity of emergency substitutes while others were simply on an eligibility waiting list. 24 Though those A Proposal to Train Special Education Teachers for the Disadvantaged (Detroit: Detroit Public Schools, Division of Federal, State and Special Programs, March 1971, p. 1. 114 persons held bachelor's degrees and teaching certification for the State of Michigan, none were trained nor qualified to fill the gaps that existed in the area of special education. Since on the one hand there existed a surplus of regular classroom teachers, and a dire shortage of highly trained special education teachers on the other, the Detroit Public Schools, in cooperation with the Special Education Department of Wayne State University, proposed to recruit 30 candidates from this surplus pool for intensified training in special education. By the end of the project, the candidates would qualify for full state approval as special education teachers. Special emphasis was placed on recruiting an ade­ quate number of male candidates to relieve the critical teacher shortage that existed in the vocational education facet of the special education program. The main thrust of the project was aimed toward upgrading that phase of the vocational special education program that served adolescent boys and girls. The shortage of teachers in this area was most acute and it was felt that there existed a real opportunity to alleviate that condition, due to the fact that approximately one-half of the persons in the surplus teacher pool possessed secondary teacher certifi­ cation. This represented an existing source of supply which could be tapped and utilized to satisfy the demand in this area. 115 Development of the Program Considering the extent and nature of the teacher shortage in the Detroit Public Schools, the EPDA B-2 project could provide an opportunity to solve the problem. The initial meeting relative to the germination of this project convened on January 25, 1971. In attend­ ance were representatives from the various departments of the Detroit Public Schools that would be directly and deeply involved in the development, preparation, and implementation of the proposed project. Key personnel from the following departments were present: Special Education, Teacher Placement, Teacher Education, and Program Development. It was the consensus of those present that the Detroit Public Schools had a feasible, logical foundation on which to build and that a project proposal should be developed. A Letter of Intent to Submit a Proposal was drafted by members of the Program Development Staff, to be forwarded to the State Department of Educa­ tion prior to the deadline date of February 5, 1971. Initial contact was made with Wayne State Univer­ sity relative to their involvement in the program, on February 4, 1971, at which time a concept paper was pre­ sented to the Special Education Department of the Univer­ sity. This led to a subsequent meeting between key persons of the Detroit Public Schools and Wayne State University on February 17, 1971. On this date Wayne State University 116 gave its assurance that the institution would be willing to cooperate with the Detroit Public Schools in final planning and implementation on this project. Subsequent meetings were held on Monday, February 22 and Wednesday, February 24, 1971, again involving key persons from the Detroit schools and Wayne State. Per­ tinent details relative to coursework content and the sub­ contracting agreement were discussed and agreed upon. Following is a list of personnel who were instru­ mental in the formation and planning of the project. Mr. Sherman Cain, Program Development, Detroit Public Schools Dr. Thomas Coleman, Chairman, Department of Special Education, Wayne State University Mr. Frank Gallo, Program Development, Detroit Public Schools Dr. Helen Hart, Teacher Education, Detroit Public Schools Mr. Eugene Hayden, Acting Department Head, Special Education, Detroit Public Schools Dr. Otis Nelson, Assistant Professor, College of Education, Wayne State University Dr. Leon Ofchus, Dean, College of Education, Wayne State University Dr. Richard Parres, Professor, College of Education, Wayne State University Dr. Gwen Retherford, Associate Professor, College of Education, Wayne State University Dr. Roy Robinson, Professor, Wayne State University College of Education Dr. Hubert Watson, Instructor, College of Education, Wayne State University.25 Several objectives were set for the project. Candidates of the project were expected to attain 2%>ersonal Interview with Mr. Sherman Cain and Mr. Frank Gallo, Office of Program Development, Detroit Public Schools, June 14, 1973. 117 proficiency and competency in the following basic technical skills and understandings: a. To identify major characteristics of child growth and the factors affecting development in cognitive, affective, physiological and social terms. b. To apply principles of learning theories as they relate to human growth and development in helping the learner pursue individual search and inquiry. c. To establish and maintain an atmosphere in which students and staff work harmoniously at optimum levels. d. To establish rapport with other groups and individ­ uals in school and community. e. To locate reliable sources of information about media. f. To identify and apply appropriate criteria for assessing and evaluating materials in terms of their purported function and the needs (cognitive, physiological and affective) of the potential us e r . g. To provide accessibility to resources through a systematic physical arrangement amenable to the user. h. To create, produce, or adapt resources to meet special needs.26 Recruitment of Candidates for the Program The candidate, to be eligible for participation in this project, had to have a minimum of a bachelor's degree from an accredited institution and be able to meet the state requirements for teacher certification at the 26A Proposal to Train Special Education Teachers for the Disadvantaged, op. c i t ., p. 12. 118 elementary or secondary level. In addition, the candidate could not have been employed as a full-time teacher during the four months prior to commencement of the project. Those who had served as substitute teachers should not have been employed in this capacity more than 50 per cent of the school year immediately preceding the project. Can­ didates also had to commit themselves to remain as employees of the Detroit Board of Education at least for the 197 2-73 school year. 27 Description of the Curriculum Following several days of orientation, all candi­ dates under the direction of the joint Project Coordinators (one from the Detroit Public Schools and one from Wayne State University) were enrolled at Wayne State University as full-time graduate students in a Master's degree program. Between August 23, 1971 and January 31, 197 2, on-site classes were taught by Wayne State University staff, and such can­ didates completed 32 quarter hours of prescribed graduate coursework in special education, including a teaching practicum and various scheduled instructional seminars. Table 3-4 shows the academic coursework taken by trainees in this program. 27personal Interview with Dr. Helen Hart, Director, Continuing Education, Detroit Public Schools, June 1973. 119 Table 3 -4 , Credit Distribution, Academic Coursework, and Degree Requirements, Detroit Public Schools EPDA B-2 Special Education Program, 1971-72 Course Number Title Credit Hours Orientation August 19-20, 1971 Orientation for Project Candidates Period I August 23 to September 20, 1973 Spec. Educ. 5403 Spec. Educ. 5411 Education of Exceptional Children Basic Theories, Programs and Practices in Mental Retardation 3 4 Period II September 20 to December 23, 1971 Spec. Educ. 5404 Spec. Educ. 5412 Spec. Educ. 5413 Educ. Psych. 5741 Cl. Psych. 6831 or 6407 Speech Improvement in the Classroom Learning Disabilities of Exceptional Children Teaching Mentally Retarded Children Mental Hygiene and Its Relation to Problems of Education Introduction to Psychological Testing 3 4 3 3 4 Period III* January 3 to January 31, 1972 Instr .Tech.5761 Spec. Educ. 6401 Technology in Education Introductory Master's Seminar 4 4 Period IV February 1 to March 24, 1973 Spec. Educ. 7409 Terminal Master's Seminar and Essay 4 120 Table 3-4. Continued Course Number Title Credit Hours Period V April 3 to June 16, 1972 Guid. & Coun. 7701 The Role of the Teacher in Guidance Educ. S o c . 7621 Educational Sociology 3 3 Period VI June 26 to August 5, 1972** Elective TOTAL CREDIT HOURS Elective Studies Related to Degree Major 3 45 *At the end of Period III candidates were to have met requirements for full state approval as special education teachers. They became full-time employees of the Detroit Public Schools on February 1, 1972 at Probationary I status in special education classrooms. The weekly stipend of $100.00 ended on that date. **Candidates were expected to have fulfilled the univer­ sity requirements for the M a s t e r 's degree in special education on August 5, 1972. 121 The Teacher Training Practicum During the months of September, 1971 through January, 1972 the candidates were involved in a student teaching practicum which was accomplished concurrently with their academic coursework. The teaching practicum was not viewed as a separate entity, but rather as part of the academic training. It was regarded as being the theory of coursework put into practice. The two were regarded as inseparable and complemented each o t h e r . The candidates were assigned to special education classrooms and functioned under the direct supervision and guidance of the sponsoring teacher. They spent as much as one-half day, daily, in their assignment. For the most part, candidates were assigned to one classroom and remained in that classroom through January 1971. It was felt that by remaining in the same room for an extended period of time a greater degree of rapport could be established with the students, and would afford candidates the opportunity to develop desirable relationships within the classroom structure through free communication and extended associa­ tion. During this period a weekly stipend of $100.00 was paid each candidate for every regularly scheduled university school week in which he was actively engaged in the project. In addition, the full cost of tuition and books was borne by project funds. Nominal travel allowance and full fringe benefits were also provided. 122 In-Service Training Workshops In-service training workshop sessions which took place during the months of September 1971 through Jan­ uary 1972 were designated as Phase I. The sessions held during the months of Febraury through June 1972 were thought of as Phase II. See descriptions of both phases in Appendix J. Evaluation The program was evaluated according to the design presented in Appendix K. METHODOLOGY In the spring of 1969 the State of Michigan Department of Education, Wayne State University/Detroit Public Schools and Oakland University/Pontiac Public School District instituted the first short term teacher education programs designed to prepare teachers to teach the economically disadvantaged students in those two school districts. These school districts have developed and implemented a total of seven teacher training programs of this nature since that t i m e . This study has been limited to only six of those programs however, since the graduates of the seventh program were not yet teaching at the time of this study. The responses to questionnaires by graduates from-the 1969, 1970 and 1972 programs were 123 used to complete this study. Graduates of the programs are in a unique position to judge the quality of their preparation since many of them have been employed as teachers in schools with many economically disadvantaged students. Development of the Questionnaire In order to determine the opinions of graduates concerning the desirable components of a preparation pro­ gram designed specifically for teachers to work effectively with disadvantaged students, it was necessary to develop a questionnaire. As a result of consultations with the following persons, the questionnaire used in this study was developed: Dr. Helen Hart, Director, Continuing Education; Dr. Charles Stewart, Associate Superintendent, Continuing Educationi Mr. Frank Gallo and Mr. Sherman Caine, Department of Federal, State and Special Programs, all of the Detroit Public Schools; Dr. Roderic R i g h ter, ST3P Coordinator, Oakland University; Dr. Bill Condon, Director of Career Education and Former Director of ST3P and Dr. Robert Boyce, Present Director of ST3P both of the Pontiac School District; and finally, Mr. Robert Carr, Research Department at Michigan State University. The questionnaire attempted to: 1. Describe the nature of the students who had been in the program. 2. Discover if they were presently teaching econo­ mically disadvantaged youngsters. 124 3. Secure feedback and evaluation information on the successes or failures of the program. 4. Determine if the teaching of economically dis­ advantaged students is something the graduates desired to do. 5. Determine what parts of the program had been of the most practical value to the graduates. 6. Compare the Education Professions Development Act Short Term Teacher Education Programs with tra­ ditional teacher preparation programs in terms of teacher perceptions. In order to identify any flaws in the questionnaire, it was necessary to field test the instrument on a group of teachers currently teaching children from an economically disadvantaged area. The Flint School System was selected because of the number of economically disadvantaged students. It was felt that this school system's student population was similar to that of the Detroit and Pontiac school districts. With the assistance of Mrs. Gladys Dillon of the Department of Continuing Education in Flint, a pilot test of the questionnaire was conducted. Revisions were made on the basis of the suggestions derived from the group of teachers in the Flint school system who res­ ponded to the questionnaire. A total of 23 questionnaires of 30 were returned to the researcher. Obtaining the Data A search of the records and other pertinent related information on former trainees of the EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Education Programs in the Michigan Department of 125 Education Office of Teacher Preparation, Professional Development Division was conducted. With the assistance of Dr. Helen Hart of the Detroit Public Schools, Dr. Merle Smith of the Pontiac School District, and the B-2 graduates themselves who provided knowledge of their friends' whereabouts, 110 graduates were located as having been participants in the B-2 programs between 1969 and 1972. Addresses were obtained from a search of the records by the Directors of Personnel in the two school systems under study. In April 19 73 the questionnaire, accompanied by a letter, was hand-delivered to the research departments of both the Detroit and Pontiac school districts for approval. After a careful review of the instrument, the questionnaire was approved with only a few minor changes. The changes made at this point related to direct questions i about age and socioeconomic status. These changes were not detrimental to the s t u d y , In May 1973 a six-page questionnaire, together with a cover letter, was sent to 110 EPDA B-2 graduates 28 of the Detroit and Pontiac programs. Another three-page questionnaire, with a cover letter, was sent to 110 other new teachers in these two school systems. and 29 For those 28See Appendix A for a copy of the questionnaire cover letter sent to B-2 graduates. 29See Appendix B for a copy of the three-page ques­ tionnaire and cover letter sent to other new teachers. 126 questionnaires not returned, a second mailing was done as a follow-up on June 1, 1973. On June 12 a third letter was sent to those persons who still had not responded. Of the 110 EPDA B-2 graduates to whom the questionnaires were sent, 92 or 84% responded. The number of non-EPDA B-2 teachers responding was not as great as the response of the program graduates. A fourth mailing was sent to these teachers. The State of Michigan Department of Education Personnel Registry was used to ascertain names of persons with 1-3 years of teaching experience in the two school systems under study as of July 1973. The list of names was then submitted to the personnel offices in the two systems, along with a copy of the cover letter and three-page questionnaire to be sent to the homes of these teachers. Of the ques­ tionnaires sent to new teachers who were not part of the EPDA B-2 programs, in all four mailings 81, or 70%, were returned to the researcher. The Sample During the spring of 1973 a total of 220 ques­ tionnaires were sent to teachers in the Detroit and Pontiac Public School Systems; 110 were sent to the EPDA B-2 graduates, and 110 were sent to new teachers with one to three years of teaching experience. Of the 220 questionnaires sent, 173, or 88%, were returned. The total sample for this study is represented in Table 3-5. 127 Table 3-5. Number of B-2 and Non-B-2 Teachers Responding to Questionnaire. Questionnaires Sent Group Teachers Responding No. % B-2 Graduates 110 92 84 Non B-2 Graduates 110 81 74 Totals 220 173 79 The only criterion used for selection of the teachers in the control group was that they had to be employed as full-time teachers for not more than three years. Principals of the schools where the B— 2 graduates were employed were asked to select one other teacher who fit the control criterion for each B-2 graduate within the building. The experimental group was made up of the EPDA B-2 graduates who were employed as full-time teachers or substitutes in regular positions during the 1972-73 school year. groups. Table 3—6 shows the composition of both 128 Table 3-6- Composition of Experimental and Control Groups. School System Sex Teachers Male Female Detroit Pontiac Age Under Over 30 30 Exper imenta1 Group N = 92 24% 76% . 56 (61%) 36 (39%) 55% 45% 20% 80% 73 (90%) 8 (10%) 100% 0% Control Group N - 81 Analysis Procedures The following questions were studied and answered to complete this investigation: 1. Do the EPDA B-2 graduates employed in the Detroit and Pontiac public school systems view teaching economically disadvantaged students as something they desire to do? 2. Do the EPDA B-2 graduates employed in the Detroit and Pontiac public school systems feel qualified to teach economically disadvantaged students? Why or why not? 3. What parts of the EPDA B-2 programs have been of the most practical value? 4. How many EPDA B-2 graduates are teaching economi­ cally disadvantaged students? If they are not, why not? 5. How do responses to questions 1 and 2 above vary among the graduates of the three Detroit programs: Bilingual, Library Science and Special Education? 129 6. Is there a difference between the responses of the graduates from the Detroit and Pontiac programs? 7. Is there a difference the wide age range of 8. Is there a difference in the graduates' attitudes based on their socio-economic status? 9. Is there a difference between EPDA B-2 graduates and other new teachers in regard to their desire to teach culturally disadvantaged students? 10. in attitudes relative to graduates? Do the EPDA B-2 graduates feel different about the quality of their preparation to teach economically disadvantaged students than other new teachers who graduated from traditional teacher preparation programs? Data obtained from the questionnaire determined if the EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Education Program pre­ pared the graduates to work effectively with economically disadvantaged students by providing an opportunity for respondents to rate the program on a five-point scale ranging from 1 = no preparation to teach this type student to 5 = extremely well prepared for teaching economically disadvantaged students. These ratings were reported by numerical frequency and percentage of frequency. An F-Test was used to compare the B-2 graduates with the other new teachers on these ratings. The B-2 respondents were asked to check what parts of the B-2 program were most valuable to them in their teaching. These ratings are reported by numerical fre­ quency and percentage of frequency. Both of the preceding sets of data are reported as tables using the model 130 suggested by Rusk.30 An analysis of variance was used to determine if there was a difference in responses of the Detroit B-2 graduates, since the teacher training programs in this system differed. Even though all three programs were geared specifically to teaching the economically disad­ vantaged, the subject areas differed. To determine if there was a significant difference beyond the .05 level between the responses of B-2 graduates in terms of the location of their training program, the Chi-square was used. The same method was used to deter­ mine if there was a significant difference between res­ ponses of the experimental group related to attitudes, age and/or socioeconomic status. Data obtained from the questionnaires yielded the number of respondents who actually were teaching economi­ cally disadvantaged students. This count was reported both by numerical frequency and percentage frequency. Data secured from the questionnaire also yielded the number of B-2 graduates who felt teaching the economi­ cally disadvantaged was something they desired to do and 30Elizabeth H. Rusk, "A Study of Secondary School Teachers of English Who Graduated from M.S.U." (Unpub­ lished Study for the College of Arts and Letters Teacher Preparation Committee and for the Humanities Teaching Institute, Michigan State University, 1967), p. 49. (Hereinafter referred to as "Secondary Teachers of English"). 131 if indeed they felt qualified to do so. These independent variables were reported both by numerical frequency and percentage of frequency. An F-test was used to determine if there was a significant difference beyond the .05 level between the experimental group and the control group on pertinent questions related to their respective teacher preparation programs. SUMMARY The EPDA B-2 teacher training programs for retraining persons with college degrees in fields other than teacher education grew out of a United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare interest in preparing teachers for schools with sizeable numbers of economically disadvantaged students. The interest was shared by the United States Congress which appropriated funds to states for such teacher preparation program implementation. The one-year program for persons interested in teaching the economically dis­ advantaged was supported by state departments of education, local education agencies, and institutions of higher education. The program not only achieved its major intent, which was to alleviate the shortage of qualified teachers to work in the nation's urban schools, but it also improved the quality of education for economically disadvantaged 132 students by providing training for teachers designed specifically for teaching these students. As of June 1973 the B-2 federal funds were dis­ continued because of the over-supply of teachers, but the impact of the program upon preparation programs for teachers of inner-city schools remains. A summary of each of the EPDA B-2 programs in the Detroit and Pontiac School Districts was presented to acquaint the reader with them. The B-2 teachers who com­ prised the experimental group for this study were trained in the programs in these school districts during the period 1969-72. The development of the questionnaire, the methods of data collection and the sample were also described. Ninety-two of the 110 questionnaires sent to the B-2 graduates and 81 of the questionnaires sent to the 110 other new teachers were returned, giving a total sample for this study of 173, or a 79% return on the question­ naire . Finally, a description of the methodology and procedures used in the analysis of the data were given. The analysis of the data collected to complete this study is found in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA INTRODUCTION Chapter I of this study presented eight questions to be answered concerning the impact of the Education Professions Development Act, Part B, Subpart II, Short Term Teacher Education Program on preparing teachers to teach economically disadvantaged students in the Detroit and Pontiac School Districts. In addition to those eight questions for study, two other questions were presented which attempted to compare the EPDA B-2 teachers with nonB-2 teachers to assess: (1) their desire to teach dis­ advantaged students, and (2) whether they felt that their teacher preparation program had prepared them to teach these children. All questions for study are now examined in light of the findings of the study. The data for this study consisted of the responses of 173 teachers to a questionnaire dealing with their perceptions of their teacher preparation program and if this program had helped them in their present teaching assignment to work with economically disadvantaged students. General information related to the graduates will 133 134 be presented first. Second, the questions for study and the analysis of the related data are presented in the same order as the theoretical development of these questions was presented in Chapter I . GENERAL INFORMATION Of the 173 respondents to the questionnaire, 9 2 or 54% were graduates of the EPDA B-2 programs in the school systems under study. Table 4-1 indicates the number of 92 B-2 graduates in each of the school systems, as well as their identification by sex. Table 4-1. School System and Sex of B-2 Program Graduates. Detroit Public Schools Sex Pontiac School District Total Male 14 (25%) 8 (21%) 22 (24%) Female 41 (75%) 29 (79%) 70 (76%) Total 55 (61%) 37 (39%) 92 (100%) All 92 of the EPDA B-2 graduates are teaching as full-time teachers, part-time teachers, substitute teachers or as emergency substitutes in regular positions (ESRP). Table 4-2 shows the number in each of these 135 categories by percentage. Table 4-2 also indicates the number of B-2 teachers who were teaching in schools that serve a large percentage of economically disadvantaged students. The table shows that only 9% of the B-2 teachers were teaching in totally middle class areas, while 30% were teaching in schools that had a mixture of students from lower, middle, and upper income areas. The schools having all three classes appear in Table 4-2 as hetero­ geneous income. Table 4-2. Description of B-2 Graduates' Teaching Assignments. Teaching Assign­ ment Rank Percentage of B-2 Teachers Full-time Part-time Substitute Emergency Substi­ tutes in Regular Positions 64 (70%) 2 ( 2%) 1 ( 1%) 25 (27%) Income Composition of Students Low Income 56 (61%) Middle Income 8 ( 9%) '^Heterogeneous Income 28 (30%) *Upper-middle-lower, upper-middle, middle-lower or upperlower class students all in the same class or school. Demographic Information The 92 graduates of the B-2 Short Term Program, "Preparing to Teach the Economically Disadvantaged, were 136 asked to describe the socioeconomic level of their childhood home. Ten per cent of the 92 respondents used upper class descriptions, 67% used middle class designations, and 23% described their homes as lower class. When asked to describe the socioeconomic level of the schools they attended, 11% of the respondents described their elementary schools as upper class, 64% used a middle class description, and 25% indicated that they attended a lower class elementary school. The descriptions of the junior high schools attended by B-2 graduates were similar in many respects. Eleven per cent described their junior high schools as upper class? 65% attended middle class junior high schools, and 24% indicated that they attended a school described as lower c l a s s . The senior high schools attended were similar in socioeconomic level to both the elementary and junior high schools attended, but here again there was a slight change in the lower and middle class senior high schools attended. The same 11% used an upper class description for their senior high school, but 55% des­ cribed their high school as middle class and 23% designated their high school as lower class. Seventy-six per cent of the B-2 graduates attended public elementary schools, while 12% attended parochial elementary schools and 12% attended other elementary schools. Eighty per cent of the graduates attended public junior high schools, while 10% attended parochial schools and 10% attended other types of junior high schools. Seventy-nine 137 per cent of the B-2 graduates attended public senior high schools, 11% attended parochial senior high schools and 10% attended other types of high schools. At both the junior and senior high school levels, the percentage attending the parochial schools dropped from 12% to 10%. The B-2 graduates were asked to identify their marital status. Thirty-eight per cent checked "single"; 60% answered "married" and the other 2% indicated that they were "divorced." The respondents were asked to indicate the income level of their family prior to entering the B-2 program.^ Thirty-seven per cent indicated that their income ranged between $0 and $3,000 annually, 15% had incomes between $4,000 and $5,000; 27% reported that their income was $6,000 to $10,000; 15% stated that their income ranged between $11,000 to $15,000, and only 5% had an annual income of over $16,000. Table 4-3 summarizes the demographic information on the B-2 graduates reported in the preceding paragraphs. In summary, the majority of the graduates of the B-2 program described themselves as being from middle class homes and having attended middle class, publicly supported elementary, junior and senior high schools. 1Some of the respondents may have misunderstood this question in that some may have reported their indivi­ dual income, while others reported income based on their entire family's income. Table 4-3. Demographic Variables of 92 B-2 Teachers. Socioeconomic Stat'US u 0) a a D 0 rH *0 <0 •rl 0 s 62 9 (10%) (67%) u z 21 (23%) Marital Status d) H Cn C *H W *0 ■rl u u rt s 35 55 (38%) (60%) Income Level T3 0) O u 0 > •H Q 2 (2%) o o o * cn v> i o i oo oo Oo «» 'T in vi-vb t o oo oo O “O VO H vy in- School Attended as a Child i oo oo oo h in rH iH Vb 25 14 14 34 (37%) (15%) (27%) (15%) o o MO 0 > VO 0H Vb u y Bilingual 1 y 14 !4 ^y ^■aroo.o S' 4 Library Science .y^3.33 9 Special Education y / 3 1 .03 6 y / .00 12 y / y^i.38 2 ^16.67 8 > y 2 7 .59 12 y / ^£00.0 29 >y ^yfoo.o Chi Square (X2 ) = 5.735 Degrees of Freedom = 4 ♦Number of B-2 teachers r e s p o n d i n g . **Per cent across of B-2 teachers responding in each program. 166 Table 4-20. Program Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 2. No Answer No Yes *12 0 2 14 Bilingual 8 5.71 8 Library Science - ^ 6 6 .67 23 Special Education ^Xioo.oo ^^14.29 o 4 y / 3 3 .33 4 y / .79 .y'79.31 Number of B-2 G rad­ uates in Each Program .y / o 2 y / 12 ^yioo.oo y / 29 6.90 ^yooo.oo Chi Square (X^) = 4.042 Degrees of Freedom = 4 Table 4-21. Program Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 3. Economi­ cally Disad­ vantaged * 11 Economi­ cally Advan­ taged 0 0 Library Science 6 y X ^ y * 3 4 .48 y / 21.43 3 16 10 .34 ^y'loo.oo 12 6 0 50.00 10 Special Education 0 Number of B-2 G rad­ uates in Each Program 14 3 Bilingual 8.57 Both A d ­ vantaged and D i s ­ advan­ taged 50.00 ^y / 55 .17 29 '100 .oo y / .X100.00 Chi Square (X ) — 8.866 Degrees of Freedom = 4 ‘Number of B-2 teachers responding. “ Per cent across of B-2 teachers responding in each program. 167 Table 4-22. Analysis of C ontingency Table for Question 4. Program Yes No Answer No Number of B-2 G r a d ­ uates in Each Program 14 Bilingual 64 .29 5.71 00.00 12 Library Science 58 .33 33 .33 8.33 24 Special Education 00.00 29 82.76 7 .24 00.00 Chi Square (X^) = 6.104 Degrees of Fre e d o m = 4 *Number of B-2 teachers responding. **Per cent across of B-2 teachers responding in each program. In summary, these responses suggest that almost all the graduates of the three Detroit programs (Bilingual, Library Science, and Special Education) viewed teaching the economically disadvantaged students as something they desire to do, and they feel qualified to teach these s t u dents. Research questions 6, 7, 8 and part of question 9 were tested using the X^ test of homogeneity contingency tables with the value at .05 u sed as the level of significance. 168 Research Question 6 : Is there a difference between the Detroit and Pontiac g r a d u a t e s 1 r e s p o n s e s , in terms of the location of the training program? Respondents were asked to respond to several q ues­ tions to determine if the persons trained in the Detroit Public School System responded differently from those persons trained in the Pontiac School District. The hypotheses to be tested can be stated as follows: Hq 1: There was no difference in the way the B-2 teachers responded to specific questions on the questionnaire due to the location of their training p r o g r a m s . Hq 2: Location of the training program made a difference in the way the B-2 graduates responded to certain questions on the questionnaire. An analysis of contingency coefficient results indicated that there was no evidence suggestive of any differences in the way the graduates of the programs in the two school districts respond to the questions of the q u e s tionnaire. Therefore the H q is accepted. Tables 4-23, 4-24, 4-25 and 4-26 show the data upon which this conclusion was b a sed. Table 4-23 shows responses to question 10 on the questionnaire: "If you are teaching in a middle class school, would you change to a lower class school if it were possible?" 169 Table 4-23. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 10. Program Yes No Answer No 12* 55 24 19 Total B-2 Teachers Detroit 54% 71% ** 60% 16 16 37 Pontiac 17 40% 46% 29% 41 35 92 Total 100% 100% Chi Square = 1.206 Degrees of Freedom = 2 statistic Critical Value for the 100% .05 Level = 5.991 *Number of B-2 teachers responding in each school distrlct. **Per cent of all B-2 teachers responding in each column. Table 4-24 shows the responses to question 11 on the questionnaire: "If you are teaching in a lower class school, would you change to a mid d l e class school if it were possible?" 170 Table 4-24. Program Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 11. Yes No Answer No 15 * 29 Total B-2 Teachers 55 11 Detroit 62.5% 69% 56% ** 23 37 Pontiac 37 .5% 44% 52 24 31% 16 92 Total 100 % 100% 100% Chi Square = .957 Degrees of Freedom = 2 X 2 Statistic Critical Value for the .05 Level = 5.991 *Number of B-2 teachers responding in each school district. **Per cent of all B-2 teachers responding in each column. Table 4-25 presents the responses of the B-2 teachers to question 12: "If you get a promotion within the school system, would you prefer a school that serves economically disadvantaged students?" 171 Table 4-25. Program Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 12. Yes No Answer No 43* Total B-2 Teachers 10 55 Detroit 60%** 62.5% 50% 29 37 Pontiac 40% 72 37 .5% 50% 16 92 Total 100% 100% 100% Chi Square — .208 Degrees of Freedom = 2 x2 Statistic Critical Value for the .05 Level = 5.991 ♦Number of B-2 teachers responding in each school district. **Per cent of all B-2 teachers responding in each column. Table 4-26 shows responses of the B-2 graduates on question 13 of the questionnaire: "If you had a choice, what kind of children would you prefer to teach: economically disadvantaged, economically advantaged or both?" 172 Table 4-26. Program Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 13. Economi­ cally Di sad­ vantaged Economi­ cally Advan­ taged 27* Both 25 Total 55 Detroit 61%** 75% 17 57% 19 37 Pontiac 39% 25% 44 43% 44 92 Total 100 % 100 % Chi Square = .592 Degrees of Freedom = 2 statistic Critical Value for the 100% .05 Level = 5.991 *Number of B-2 teachers responding in each school distr i c t . **Per cent of all B — 2 teachers responding in each column. Research Question 7 : Is there a difference in attitudes relative to the wide age differences of the B-2 graduates? The following HQ is used for all questions related to Research Question 7. H q 1: There is no difference in B-2 teachers* responses to certain questions on the questionnaire due to the wide range of a g e . 173 HQ 2 : There is a difference in B-2 t e a c h e r s 1 responses to certain questions on the questionnaire due to the wide range of a g e . In order to determine if there were differences in the responses of B-2 teachers because of age differ­ ences, an X 2 test for homogeneity was applied. Table 4-27 presents the responses of the B-2 graduates according to age to question 10: "If you are teaching in a middle class school, would you change to a lower class school if it were possible?" Table 4-27. Age of B-2 Teachers Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 10. Yes No No Answer Total B-2 Teachers 20-24 3* (18%)** 10 (29%) 8 (20%) 21 25-29 3 (18%) 10 (29%) 9 (22.5%) 22 30-34 0 ( 0%) 7 (20%) 1 ( 2.5%) 8 35-39 4 (24%) 2 ( 6%) 3 { 7.5%) 9 40-44 5 (29%) 3 ( 9%) 7 (17.5%) 15 45-49 2 (12%) 3 ( 9%) 8 (20%) 14 0 4 (10%) 4 41 (100%) 92 50-54 Total 0 17 (100%) 35 (100%) Chi Square = 24.071 Degrees of Freedom = 12 X2 Statistic Critical Value for the .05 Level = 21.026 *Number of B-2 teachers responding in each age category. **Per cent of all B — 2 teachers responding in each column. 174 The null hypothesis is rejected in that the c a l ­ culated value of the X 2 statistic exceeds the critical region at the .05 level. It can be concluded that older teachers tended to respond more positively to the question than younger t e a c h e r s . The respondents were asked: "If you are teaching in a lower class school, would you change to a middle class school if it were possible?" In order to determine if there was a difference in responses in terms of the different ages of the B-2 graduates, geneity was applied. an X 2 test for h o m o ­ The analysis results indicated that the significance level is not rejected because the calculated value of the X 2 statistic fell short of the .05 critical region which is 21.026. hypothesis is not rejected. Therefore the null There is no evidence of a difference between responses across age groups in terms of B-2 t e a c h e r s ' desire to m ove from a lower class to a middle class school. Table 4-28 summarizes the results. 175 Table 4-28. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 11. Age of B-2 Teachers Yes No Answer No Total B-2 Teachers 20-24 *9 ** (37.5%) 10 (19%) 2 (12 .5%) 21 25-29 6 (25%) 8 (13%) 8 (50%) 22 30-34 1 ( 4%) 6 (12%) 1 ( 6%) 8 35-39 0 ( 0%) 7 (13%) 2 (12.5%) 9 40-44 4 (17%) 11 (21%) 0 ( 0%) 15 45-49 2 ( 8%) 8 (15%) 3 (19%) 13 50-54 2 ( 8%) 2 ( 4%) 0 ( 0%) 4 Total 24 (100%) 52 (100%) 16 (100%) 92 Chi Square = 19.634 Degrees of Freedom - 12 x2 statistic Critical V a lue for the .05 Level = 21.026 *Number of B-2 teachers responding in each age category. **Per cent of all B-2 teachers responding in each column. The EPDA B-2 graduates were asked to respond to the following question: "If you obtained a promotion within the school system, would you prefer a school that serves economically disadvantaged students?" Table 4-29 summarizes the g r a d u a t e s ' responses to this question (Question 12). 176 Table 4-29. Analysis of C ontingency Table for Question 12. No Answer Total B-2 Teachers Age of B-2 Teachers Yes 20-24 18* (25%)** 2 (12.5%) 1 (25%) 21 25-29 18 (24%) 4 (25%) 0 ( 0%) 22 30-34 4 ( 6%) 4 (25%) 0 ( 0%) 8 35-39 4 ( 6%) 4 (25%) 1 (25%) 9 40-44 15 (21%) 0 ( 0%) 0 ( 0%) 15 45-49 11 (15%) 0 ( 9%) 2 (50%) 13 50-54 2 ( 2%) 2 (12.5%) 0 ( 0%) 4 Total 72 (100%) 4 (100%) 92 No 16 (100%) Chi Square = 27.17 4 Degrees of Freedom = 12 X 2 statistic Critical V a l u e for the .05 Level = 21.026 ♦Number of B-2 teachers responding in each age category. **Per cent of all B-2 teachers responding in each column. The H o is rejected in that the calculated value -* of the X 2 statistic with 12 degrees of freedom is 21.026; therefore X 2 for question 12 exceeds the critical region at the .05 level. The age of B-2 teachers affected the way they responded to the question concerning "promotion within the system." It appears that the older people 177 prefer to work in schools where the percentage of d i s a d ­ vantaged students is large, w h ile the younger teachers do not. There was a difference in the graduates' question 13 according to age differences. responses to The graduates were to identify the type of students they preferred to teach: economically disadvantaged, economically advantaged, or both. The H0 is rejected in that the calculated value of the statistic fell in the critical region for the .05 level. Table 4-30 shows the r e s p o n d e n t s 1 answers to question 13. Table 4-30. Age of B-2 Teachers Analysis of Contin g e n c y Table for Question 13. Economi­ cally D i s ­ advantaged Economi­ cally Advantaged Both Total 20-24 5* (11%)** 2 (50%) 14 (32%) 21 25-29 5 (11%) 3 ( 7%) 1 (25%) 16 (36%) 22 0 ( 0%) 5 (11%) 8 35-39 7 (16%) 1 (25%) 1 ( 1%) 9 40-44 10 (23%) 12 (27%) 5 (11%) 1 ( 2%) 15 45-49 0 ( 0%) 0 ( 0%) 50-54 2 ( 4%) 0 ( 0%) 2 ( 5%) 4 Total 44 (100%) 4 (100%) 44 (100%) 92 30-34 13 Chi Square = 30.123 Degrees of Fre e d o m = 12 Statistic Critical V a l u e for the .05 Level - 21.026 *Number of B-2 teachers responding in each age category. **Per cent of B — 2 teachers responding in each column. 178 Research Question 8 : Is there a difference in g rad­ uates * attitudes based on their socioeconomic status? The null hypothesis for each of the questions related to Research Question 8 is that there was no d i f­ ference in the way the B-2 teachers responded to specific questions due to their socioeconomic status. The alter­ nate hypothesis is that there is a difference in the way the B-2 teachers responded to these questions. To determine if respondents answered questions on the questionnaire differently in accordance with their different socioeconomic backgrounds, an analysis of c o n­ tingency table was applied. Results indicated that there was a difference in responses according to the socio­ economic backgrounds of the respondents on question 11: "If you are teaching in a lower class school, would you change to a middle class school if it were possible?" Therefore the H0 is rejected because the question 11 exceeded that of the statistic for .05 critical region. Table 4-31 summarizes the B-2 t e a c h e r s ' responses to this question. 179 Table 4-31. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 11. Socioeconomic Background of B-2 Graduates Yes No No Answer Total in Each Class Upper 2* { 8%)** 7 (13%) 0 (0%) Middle 18 (75%) 36 (69%) 8 (50%) 62 Lower 4 (17%) 9 (17%) 8 (50%) 21 Total 24 (100%) 52 (100%) 16 (100%) 92 Chi Square = 9.555 Degrees of Freedom = 4 Statistic Critical Value for the 9 .05 Level = 9.488 ♦Number of B-2 teachers responding in each class. **Per cent of all B-2 teachers responding in each column. Respondents were asked the following questions to determine if their socioeconomic status had any relation­ ship to the way they r e s p o n d e d . 1. If you are teaching in a middle class school, would you change to a lower class school if it were possible? 2. If you obtained a promotion within the system, would you prefer a school that serves economi­ cally disadvantaged students? 3. If you had a choice, which kind of student would you teach, economically disadvantaged, economi­ cally advantaged, or both? 180 After an X * analysis of the contingency tables was used# results indicated that there was no evidence to support the idea that there is a difference across socioeconomic levels in the way respondents answered the above questions. was not rejected. The null hypothesis for each question Tables 4-32, 4-33 and 4-34 show that the differences in responses to these three questions according to the socioeconomic level of the B-2 graduates were not significant. The number responding in each column was equal for each socio-economic class. Table 4-32. Analysis of C ontingency Table for Question 1. Socioeconomic Background of B-2 Graduates Upper Yes 2* (12%)** No 2 ( 6%) no u No Answer 5 (12 .5%) (71%) (80%) 22 (55%) Lower 3 (18%) 5 (14%) 13 (32.5%) Total 17 (100%) 35 (100%) Middle Chi Square = 5.683 Degrees of Freedom = 4 X 2 Statistic Critical V a l u e for the 40 (100%) Total in Each Class 9 r- o O ^ 21 92 .05 Level = 9.488 *Number of B-2 teachers responding in each class. **Per cent of all B-2 teachers responding in each column. 181 Table 4-33. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 2. Socioeconomic Background of B-2 Graduates Upper Middle Lower Total No No Answer Total in Each Class Yes *9 ** (12.5%) 0 ( 0%) 0 ( 0%) 9 46 (64%) 12 (75%) 4 (100%) 62 17 (24%) 72 (100%) 4 (25%) 16 (100%) 0 ( 0%) 4 (100%) 21 92 Chi Square = 4.365 Degrees of Freedom = 4 X 2 Statistic Critical Value for the .05 Level = 9.488 Table 4-34. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 3. Socioeconomic Background of B-2 Graduates Upper Yes No No Answer Total in Each Class 1 ( 2%) 9 32 (73%) 62 Middle 27 (61%) 0 ( 0%) 3 (75%) Lower 9 (20%) 1 (25%) 11 (12%) 21 Total 44 (100%) 4 (100%) 44 (100%) 92 *8 ** (18%) Chi Square = 6.7 66 Degrees of Freedom *» 4 X 2 Statistic Critical Value for the .05 Level — 9.488 *Number of B-2 teachers responding in each c l a s s . **Per cent of all B-2 teachers responding in each column. 182 For the following questions comparing B-2 teachers* responses with those of non-B-2 teachers, the homogeneity contingency tables were used. test of The hypothesis tested in each question is as f o l l o w s : a. H b. c : H B-2 teachers, yes > B-2 teachers, no . > B-2 teachers, no answer = P = P = p new teachers, yes new t e a c h e r s , no new t e a c h e r s , no answer is false. Research Question 9 : Is there a difference between the EPDA B-2 graduates * responses and other new teachers ' responses in regard to their desire to teach economically disadvantaged students? There is some evidence that indicates that teachers trained to teach the economically disadvantaged students feel better about their teaching assignments than teachers who were trained in traditional teacher preparation p r o ­ grams. In this study, to test this idea, B-2 teachers, as well as other new teachers, were asked if they liked their present teaching assignments. their responses. Table 4-35 shows 183 Table 4-35. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 6. No Answer Total Teachers Responding Respondents Yes B-2 Teachers 90* (70%)** 1 ( 2%) 1 (100%) 92 New Teachers 38 (30%) 43 (98%) 0 ( 0%) 81 128 (100%) 44 (100%) 1 (100%) 173 Total No Chi Square = 61.7 66 Degrees of Freedom * 2 X 2 Statistic Critical V a lue for the .05 Level = 5.999 *Number of teachers r e s p o n d i n g . **Per cent of all teachers responding in each column. The H q is rejected in that the calculated value of the statistic exceeds the critical region at the .05 level. The B-2 teachers felt more positive about their teaching assignments than the non-B-2 teachers. There are studies that support the hypotheses that: (1) persons teaching in middle class schools do not wish to move to lower class schools, and (2) persons teaching in lower class schools seek to transfer to middle class schools. Tables 4-36 and 4-37 present findings of the analysis of contingency tables for both these ideas. 184 Table 4-36. Analysis of Contingency Table for Teachers in Midd l e Class Schools. Total Teachers Responding No Answer Respondents Yes B-2 Teachers 17* (63%)** 35 (44%) 40 (60%) 92 New Teachers 10 (37%) 44 (56%) 27 (40%) 81 27 (100%) 79 (100%) 67 (100%) 173 Total No Chi Square = 4.6 82 Degrees of Freedom = 2 X 2 Statistic Critical V a l u e for the .05 Level = 5.999 ♦Number of teachers responding. **Per cent of all teachers responding in each column. The null hypothesis is not rejected because the calculated value of the critical region at the statistic fell short of the .05 level. The proportion of B-2 teachers who responded "yes" or "no" regarding their desire to move to a lower class school was slightly higher than non-B-2 teachers. However, the differences between responses of the two groups are not significant. Table 4-37 provides evidence that the null hypothesis is rejected in that the calculated value of the X statistic surpassed the critical region at the (5.999). .05 level The non-B-2 teachers' desire to move to a 185 middle class school is much higher than the B-2 t e a c h e r s 1 desire. Table 4-37. Analysis of Contingency Table for Teachers in Lower Class S c h o o l s . Total Teachers Responding Respondents Yes B-2 Teachers 24* (38%)** 52 (58%) 16 (70%) 92 New Teachers 39 (62%) 35 (40%) 7 (30%) 81 63 (100%) 87 (100%) 23 (100%) 173 Total No No Answer ■ Chi Square = 9.755 Degrees of Freedom - 2 x2 Statistic Critical Value for the .05 Level = 5.999 ♦Number of teachers responding. **Per cent of all teachers responding in each column. According to some research, many teachers in inner city schools seek promotions to schools that do not serve a large percentage of economically disadvantaged students. This is especially thought to be true of those teachers who did not receive such training during their career preparation. To assess the validity of these statements for EPDA B-2 program graduates, the subjects were asked: "If you obtained a promotion within the school system. 186 would you prefer a school that serves economically d i sad­ vantaged students?"" Table 4-38 shows the responses to this question. Table 4-38. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 12. ------1 ■ ■' No Answer Total Teachers Responding Respondents Yes No B-2 Teachers 72* (71%)** 16 (25%) 4 (44%) 92 New Teachers 29 (29%) 47 (75%) 5 (56%) 81 101 (100%) 63 (100%) 9 (100%) 173 Total Chi Square = 33.106 Degrees of Freedom = 2 X 2 Statistic Critical Value for the .05 Level = 5.999 *Number of teachers r e s p o n d i n g . **Per cent of all teachers responding' in each column. The null hypothesis is rejected because the calculated value of the X^ statistic surpassed the critical value for the .05 level. The non-B-2 teachers would rather obtain a promotion within the school system to a school that does not have a large percentage of disadvantaged s t u d e n t s . This is not true of the B-2 teachers. There is evidence that there is a difference between responses of B-2 teachers and other new teachers 187 in the kind of students they prefer to teach. Table 4-39 illustrates the respondents* answers regarding this idea. The table shows that the H is rejected in that the cal- culated value of the X 2 statistic exceeds the critical region at the .05 level. The B-2 teachers feel more positive about teaching economically disadvantaged students than do non-B-2 t e a c h e r s . Table 4-39. Respond­ ents B-2 Teachers New Teachers Total Analysis of Contingency T a ble for Question 13. Both Advantaged and D i s ­ advantaged Economi­ cally Disadvan­ taged Economi­ cally Advan­ taged 44* (75%)** 4 (10%) 44 (61%) 92 15 (25%) 38 (90%) 28 (39%) 81 59 (100%) 42 (100%) 72 (100%) 173 Chi Square = 44.815 Degrees of Fre e d o m = 2 statistic Critical V a l u e for the Total Teachers Responding .05 Level = 5.999 *Number of teachers r e s p o n d i n g . **Per cent of all teachers responding in each column. Research Question 1 0 : D o the EPDA B-2 graduates feel different about t h e q u a l i t y of their teacher p r e p a r a ­ tion program than other new teachers who graduated from traditional teacher preparation programs? 188 Many teachers of the economically disadvantaged who completed their training in the traditional curriculum, where there was no provision for experiences other than student teaching with disadvantaged s t u d e n t s , feel that their preparation was not geared to actual teaching in inner city schools. Most curricula, they feel, focus on teaching average middle class learners. There is evidence to support this idea. respondents in this study, The 92 B-2 teachers and 81 new teachers, were asked the following question: Question 17: "Do you feel that you have been success­ ful working w ith the economically disadvantaged students in your class?" Responses are summarized below. Table 4-40. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 17. Respondents Yes No No Answer Total Teachers Responding B-2 Teachers 88 (73%) 3 ( 6%) 1 ( 5%) 92 (53%) New Teachers 33 (27%) 47 (94%) 1 (50%) 81 (47%) 121 (100%) 50 (100%) 2 (100%) 173 (100%) Total Chi Square = 63.27 6 Degrees of Freedom = 2 x2 Statistic Critical V a l u e for the .05 Level = 5.999 189 The hypotheses can be stated as f o l l o w s : H : o* P B-2, yes p B-2, no P H]_: B-2, no answer = P = new teachers, yes. p — p new teachers, no new teachers, no answer HQ is false. The H0 was rejected since the calculated value of the statistic exceeded the critical value, for an alpha level of .05. 5.999. The B-2 teachers felt that they have been more successful teaching the economically disadvantaged students in their classes, while non-B-2 teachers do not feel s u c c e s s f u l . The teachers were asked if their teacher prepara­ tion program provided them with a variety of experiences (in addition to student teaching) cally disadvantaged students. in working with economi­ A majority, 81%, of the B-2 teachers stated that the program had provided a variety of direct contact experiences with the economically d i s ­ advantaged. Nineteen per cent of the new teachers reported that their program had provided experiences in working with these children. Twenty-one per cent of the 92 B-2 teachers responded "no" and 64% of the 81 new teachers answered that their training program had not provided such experience. Only one B-2 teacher did not respond to the question, while all new teachers responded. Table 4-41 190 summarizes the teachers' responses to this question. Table 4-41. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 25. No Answer Respondents Yes B-2 Teachers 74 (81%) 17 (21%) 1 (100%) 92 (53%) New Teachers 17 (19%) 64 (79%) 0 ( 0%) 81 (47%) 9 (100%) 81 (100%) 1 (100%) 173 (100%) Total No Total Teachers Responding Chi Square — 63.532 Degrees of Freedom = 2 X 2 statistic Critical Value for the .05 Level = 5.999 The null hypothesis is rejected in that the cal­ culated value of the above data using the X 2 statistic exceeded the .05 critical value which was 5.999. The percentage of B-2 teachers who felt that they were provided additional experiences working with the economically disadvantaged during their preparation programs was much higher than the percentage of non-B-2 teachers. The majority of the new teachers reported that they had not attended classes that were geared specifically to the teaching of economically disadvantaged students during their t r a i n i n g , although only a few of them felt that there were classes geared to the teaching of 191 such children. Of the 173 questionnaires returned, 85% of the B-2 teachers reported that there were classes in their program that focused on teaching economically d i s­ advantaged students, while only 14% of new teachers reported that there were such classes in their curricula. Four new teachers and one B-2 teacher did not respond to the question. This information is summarized in Table 4-42. Table 4-42. Analysis of Contingency Table for Question 26. No Answer Total Teachers Responding Respondents Yes No B-2 Teachers 72 (86%) 19 (23%) 1 (20%) 92 (53%) New Teachers 12 (14%) 65 (77%) 4 (80%) 81 (47%) 84 (100%) 84 (100%) 5 (100%) 173 (100%) Total Chi Square = 69.429 Degrees of Freedom - 2 statistic Critical Value for the The null hypothesis .05 Level = 5.999 (there is no difference in the way B-2 teachers responded to specific questions as compared to non B-2 teachers) is rejected since the cal­ culated value of the X^ statistic exceeded the critical 192 value at the .05 level. The B-2 teachers were more favor­ able than the non B-2 teachers about classes geared speci­ fically to teaching the disadvantaged offered during their training program. In addition to the classes and experiences provided in the training program for B-2 teachers, 75, or 81%, of the 92 teachers reported that workshops were also provided. In addition, all of them reported that seminars emphasizing educating economically disadvantaged students were included. This was not the case with the new teachers. Only 8% said they had had workshops geared to teaching the disadvantaged included in their training programs. None of the new teachers reported that seminars had been p r o ­ vided in their training p r o g r a m s . As implied in Chapter I of this s t u d y , most teachers who graduated from traditional preparation p r o ­ grams, in their first, second or third years of teaching, feel inadequate in coping with the problems of teaching economically disadvantaged students. They believe their inadequacy is caused by their lack of training in this area. The validity of this notion was supported by the findings of this study. The following questions were tested using the analysis of variance procedure. The testing of the hypotheses was done by using the .05 alpha level. The null hypothesis for the following questions is that the mean response of the B-2 teachers is equal to the m ean 193 response of the new t e a c h e r s . The alternate hypothesis on the following questions is that there is a difference in the m ean response of the B-2 teachers and the m e a n response of the new t e a c h e r s . All 173 teachers were asked to respond to the question: "To w h a t extent do you feel your teacher preparation program prepared you to cope with the problems of economically disadvantaged students?" A n analysis of the t e a c h e r s ' responses showed that the observed m e a n score for the B-2 teachers for this question was 3.45 with a standard deviation of 1.12; the observed m e a n for non-B-2 teachers was 1.20 with a standard deviation of .46. Thus the means concerning preparation for coping with the problems of the economically disadvantaged students fell near the "some" to "considerably well" end of the continuum (with a few "extremely well" r e s ­ ponses) , while for non B-2 teachers the means were closer to the "none” or "little" end of the continuum. Table 4-43 shows that the P-value is less than the chosen alpha level of .05; therefore the null h y p o ­ thesis is rejected for question 24. There is a difference in the way the B-2 teachers feel about how their program prepared them to cope with the problems of economically disadvantaged students as compared with the non B-2 teachers. More B-2 teachers felt that their program did help them in this area than new t e a c h e r s . 194 Table 4-43. Source ANOVA Table of B-2 Teachers' Responses on Question 24. Degrees of Freedom Mean Square 1 217 .42 171 .77 Between Within Total number of B-2 teachers Total number of new teachers Total teachers responding and N e w Teachers' F-ratio P-value* 281.11 .0001 92 81 17 3 ♦Assuming that the null hypothesis is true, the P-value is the probability of getting an F-ratio as large as or larger than the computed F-ratio for this sample. Thus, if the P-value is less than the chosen alpha level, we reject the null hypothesis. But if the P-value is greater than the chosen alpha level, we do not reject the null hypothesis. To further determine if the E PDA B-2 programs had made an impact on attitudes of g r a d u a t e s , it was necessary to ask the graduates and new teachers to respond to two specific related statements on a five point scale ranging from 1 = "strongly disagree" to 5 = "strongly An ANOVA test was applied. The hypotheses agree." to be tested were as f o l l o w s : Ho : M B-2 = “ new Hx : Mb _2 * “ new The first statement was: "It is difficult to motivate economically disadvantaged students to learn because of their discipline in the classroom." The 195 observed mean for B-2 teachers was 2.81, having a standard deviation of 1.3, whereas the observed m e a n score for new teachers was 3.60, w ith a standard dev i a t i o n of 1.1. The mean score for B-2 teachers shows t hat they tended to disagree, while the new teachers tended to agree that it is difficult to motivate economically disadvantaged students because of their discipline in the classroom. This analysis further points out that the B-2 teachers are better prepared to cope with d i s a dvantaged students than the new teachers. The results of this analysis are presented in Table 4-44. Table 4-44. Source ANOVA Table for Question 44^. Degrees of Freedom Mean Square F-ratio 1 26. 87 16 .70 171 1.61 Between Within Total Total Total number of B-2 teachers number of new teachers teachers responding P —value .0001 92 81 173 The null hypothesis for question 44^ is rejected because the P-value of the calculated F-ratio is less than that of the chosen alpha level of .05. The second statement the teachers were asked respond to was: "It is difficult to m otivate economically 196 disadvantaged students to learn because of inadequate and inappropriate materials." The mean score for the B-2 teachers was 3.10 with a standard deviation of 1.4, whereas the mean score for the new teachers was 3.93 with a standard deviation of 1.18. This analysis suggests that B-2 teachers shifted from disagreement to a g r e e m e n t , but still less than that of the new teachers on this second statement. From this analysis it can be concluded that B-2 teachers felt better prepared to teach economically disadvantaged students than the new teachers, who tend to put the blame on the materials. Table 4-45 illustrates the responses to this statement of both groups of t e a c h e r s . Table 4-45. Source Between Within Total Total Total ANOVA Table of B-2 Teachers' Responses and New T e a c h e r s ’ Responses to Question 442- Degrees of Freedom Mean Square F-ratio P-value 1 29 .64 16 .92 .0001 171 1.76 B-2 teachers responding new teachers responding teachers responding 92 81 173 The null hypothesis is rejected because the P-value of the calculated F statistic fell short of the chosen alpha level at .05. The teachers were asked to respond to six addi­ tional statements (See Table 4-46) to determine their Table 4-46. ANOVA Table for Six Statements. Pvalue 1.2524 .2647 3.38 4.03 1.27 1.04 2. Economically disadvantaged children are very difficult to teach. .0807 .7768 2.48 2.54 1.22 1.27 3. Teachers of economically disadvantaged students need not have specific training geared to teaching the disadvantaged. .7891 .3757 2.44 2.27 1.37 1.17 4. There is no difference in the problems of economically disadvantaged students and those of economically advantaged students. 1.5780 .2108 1.80 1.17 1.0 .5471 .4606 3.35 3.24 .96 1.01 .4126 .5216 2.36 2.49 1.24 1.29 .3250 .5694 2.22 2.33 1.11 1.31 Statement 1. There should be special instruction pro­ vided for in regular teacher preparation programs to prepare teachers to work effec­ tively with the economically disadvantaged. 5. Many teachers assigned to schools with a high concentration of low income students seek to transfer to middle class schools in the system. 6. It is difficult cally disadvantaged because of: (a) Black hostility (b) Difficulties in language of the Standard Deviation Non B-2 B-2 .74 to motivate economi­ students to learn understanding the children 197 Fratio Observed Means Non B-2 B-2 198 attitudes toward teaching the economically disadvantaged. For these statements the P-value was greater than that of the chosen .05 alpha level; therefore we do not reject the null hypothesis. Table 4-46 suggests that both groups of teachers responded favorably to the statements. ferences were slight and did not reach the The d i f ­ .05 alpha level. A SUMMARY OF PRINCIPALS' RATINGS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF B-2 TEACHERS A total of 36 principals in the Detroit and Pontiac School Districts were interviewed to obtain some information about the performance of the B-2 teachers as compared with other new teachers in their buildings. All principals interviewed ranked the B-2 teachers as "excellent" in their performance. Approximately 95% of the 36 principals reported that the B-2 teachers worked very well with the students. comments such as: be improved." The other 5% made "the teacher worked well but could Such comments were made in the case of B-2 graduates employed as Emergency Substitutes in Regular Positions (ESRP's) rather than as full time teachers. The principals stated that they had not had any complaints from the parents of children taught by the B-2 teachers, whereas this was not true of the other new teachers in their b u i l d i n g . One principal stated that he noticed a change in 199 a certain group of third g r a d e r s ' self-concepts after being given the B-2 teacher. Several Detroit principals stated that some students * attendance had improved as a result of the B-2 teacher's ability to motivate them to want to l e a r n . Principals reported collectively that the B-2 teachers had a much better rapport with the c o m m u n i t y . They were far more willing to participate in activities involving the community than the other new teachers in their buildings. M ost principals stated that the B-2 teachers in their building worked in after-school activities for the students. One principal reported that the B-2 teacher in his building did home visits to at least two students' homes in her class weekly. In their visits her purpose was to help the parents w ith activities which would enhance their children's learning in school. SUMMARY The questionnaire used to gather the data for this study was mailed to the 110 EPDA B-2 program graduates employed in the Detroit and Pontiac Public School D i s ­ tricts. Another similar but shorter questionnaire was sent to 110 other teachers w h o were employed in those two school districts between 1969 and 1972. Of the 220 questionnaires sent to the two groups of teachers, were returned. 88% Of the 110 B-2 questionnaires sent, 92 200 or 84% were returned. Respondents were asked to answer several questions related to their socioeconomic s t a t u s , a g e , and other personal questions to determine if these factors had an effect on their responses to the questionnaire. This general information was described in the first part of this chapter. The teachers were also asked specific questions about their training in order to provide answers for the ten research questions posed in this study. A summary of the findings regarding these ten questions follows. Research Question 1 ; D o the EPDA B-2 teachers employed in the Detroit and Pontiac Public School Systems view teaching economically disadvantaged students as something they desire to do? Results indicate that the majority of the teachers do feel that teaching the economically disadvantaged students was something they want to do. Most B-2 teachers did not want to transfer to schools having a large p e r ­ centage of middle class children. Most w ish to remain in schools that serve the economically disadvantaged if they were promoted within their own school system. Research Question 2 1 Do the EPDA B-2 graduates employed in the Detroit and Pontiac Public School Systems feel qualified to teach economically d i sad­ vantaged students? The majority of the B-2 teachers felt that they 201 have been successful teaching disadvantaged s t u d e n t s . Some of those who were not teaching economically d i s a d ­ vantaged students felt that they could be successful if they were teaching them. The ma j o r i t y of the respondents rated the effectiveness of their training program in helping them to be successful in teaching the economically disadvantaged as "considerably" or "extremely well," and stated that they were provided with a variety of experiences working with economically disadvantaged students. Only 8% felt that their training had not helped them in their present teaching position. Thus it can be concluded that the teachers feel very positive about their competency to teach in urban schools. Research Question 3 : What parts of the EPDA B-2 programs have been of most practical value? In answer to specific questions related to Research Question 3, some of the respondents said all parts of the program were helpful to them. Experiences working with the economically disadvantaged were rated very high, as was university instruction geared specifically to working with these s t u d e n t s . Application of theory and methods courses were also rated high. Therefore, it can be concluded that the program helped the B — 2 teachers in their actual classroom p r a c t i c e . 202 Research Question 4 : How m any EPDA B-2 graduates are teaching economically disadvantaged students? With the exception of one person who is teaching only economically advantaged students, all B-2 teachers are teaching either a total group of economically d i s a d ­ vantaged students or a m ixture of both economically d i s ­ advantaged and advantaged s t u d e n t s . Research Question 5 : How do responses to Research Question 1 and 2 vary among the graduates of the three Detroit programs: Bilingual, Library Science, and Special Education? Results indicated that there was no difference in the way the graduates of the three Detroit programs r e s ­ ponded to questions related to: (1) their desire to teach economically disadvantaged students; and (2) whether they felt qualified to teach them. The teachers differed in response on only one specific question: "If you are teaching in a middle class school, would you m ove to a lower class school if it were possible?" The teachers trained in the Bilingual Program responded differently to this question, probably because they were not teaching in schools that had a large number of bilingual students. They would move to schools where the percentage of bilingual students is high if it were possible. 203 Research Question 6 ; Is there a difference between the Detroit and Pontiac graduates' responses, in terms of the location of the training program? There was no difference, according to the results of this study, in the way the graduates responded to specific questions on the questionnaire because of the location of their training program. Research Question 7 i Is there a difference in attitudes relative to the wide age differences of the B-2 graduates? A difference was noted in the way the teachers responded to specific questions because of their age. Older teachers tended to be more favorable toward teach­ ing economically disadvantaged students than the younger teachers on all questions except one. The older and younger teachers responded differently on the question: "If you are teaching in a middle class school, would you move to a lower class school if it: were possible?"; this difference was not significant at the .05 X however, region. It can be concluded that the age of the respondents probably had some impact on how they answered the questionnaire. Research Question 8 : Is there a difference in graduates* attitudes based on their socioeconomic status? The results for the question: "If you are teaching in a lower class school, would you move to a middle class 204 school if it were possible?", indicated that a higher per­ centage of the bilingual teachers favored moving than teachers trained in the other two Detroit p r o g r a m s . However, the other questions asked indicated that the socioeconomic status of persons who were trained to teach the economically disadvantaged had very little impact on the way they felt about teaching these students. Research Question 9 ; Is there a difference between the EPDA B-2 g r a d u a t e s 1 responses and other new teachers' responses in regard to their desire to teach economically disadvantaged students? The study showed that B-2 teachers feel more positive about teaching economically disadvantaged students than new teachers. In only one case (responses of new teachers and B-2 teachers who were teaching in lower class schools to the question concerning transfer to a middle class school) was the difference not signifi­ cant at the statistic value for the .05 level. Responses to all other questions related to Research Question 9 suggest that B-2 teachers far surpass the non B-2 teachers in their desire and their sense of competency to teach economically disadvantaged students. Research Question 1 0 : Do the EPDA B-2 graduates feel different about the quality of their teacher preparation program than other new teachers who graduated from traditional teacher preparation programs? Because the level of significance exceeded the 205 X 2 statistic for the .05 region on all questions related to Research Question 10, it was indicated that there is a difference in the way B-2 teachers and non B-2 teachers felt about their preparation for teaching the disadvantaged. The B-2 teachers felt their training program was effective in preparing them to teach the disadvantaged. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS INTRODUCTION The blighted areas of our inner cities present challenging problems to the urban school and its t e a c h e r s . The problems are often new to teachers raised in a middle class environment. Therefore the need to attract and train teachers for the urban s c h o o l s , populated by economically disadvantaged s t u d e n t s , is c r u c i a l . Despite the current oversupply of teachers, there is still a shortage of those qualified to cope with the problems of economically disadvantaged students. Teachers of the disadvantaged need experiences different from those p r o ­ vided in the traditional teacher education curriculum. The EPDA B-2 programs were an attempt to provide experiences that would adequately prepare teachers to work effectively with the economically disadvantaged. This study sought to determine whether the oneyear short-term teacher education programs in the Detroit and Pontic Public Schools, funded under the EPDA state grants, did in fact help new teachers meet the challenge of teaching the economically disadvantaged. 206 207 An attempt was made to discover if the program graduates viewed teaching economically disadvantaged students as desirable, and whether they felt qualified to do so as a result of their training. was made to determine what changes, A further effort if any, should be made in future teacher preparation programs. To determine the effectiveness of the B-2 programs, attitudes of both B-2 and non B-2 graduates toward their respective training programs and teaching assignments were compared. SUMMARY Each graduate of the EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Education Programs in the Detroit and Pontiac School Systems was sent a questionnaire to assess the effective­ ness of his training program in helping him to work effectively with economically disadvantaged students. A corresponding shorter questionnaire was sent to an equal number of new teachers in each of the school systems. Follow-up questionnaires were sent to those who did not respond to the first mailing, and a third mailing was sent to those who still did not respond. ation A small renumer­ ($2.00) was given to each respondent from the Detroit School System, while Pontiac B-2 program graduates received no pay for completing the quest i o n n a i r e s . One hundred and seventy-three teachers responded to the ques­ tionnaire; 92, or 54%, were graduates of B-2 programs. 208 The teachers' responses were analyzed; a summary of the analysis follows. One of the most important functions of this study was to determine whether B-2 graduates were happy in their current teaching assignments; i.e., did they view teaching the disadvantaged as desirable, and did they feel they were adequately prepared for their current assignment? The study showed that the B-2 teachers were g e n e ­ rally satisfied with their present teaching assignments. Ninety-six per cent of the B-2 teachers were teaching either classes composed entirely of the disadvantaged or classes containing a mixture of economically disadvantaged and advantaged students during the 1972-73 school year. The graduates felt that the program had prepared them to cope with the problems of economically disadvantaged students by providing classes, workshops and seminars geared specifically to working with these students. The trainees reported that the program provided them with the competency to diagnose learning disabilities of the d i s ­ advantaged and to prescribe suitable instruction for them. Eighty-seven per cent of the graduates supported the observation that there were provisions in the program for trainees to apply the theory they had l e a r n e d , such a s : experiences in working in settlement h o u s e s , social service agencies and after-school activities, as well as visits to homes of economically disadvantaged students. 209 These experiences were most helpful to the prospective teachers in learning about the lifestyles and language of the disadvantaged. The graduates reported that the field trips to different social agencies serving d i s a d ­ vantaged families were very u s e f u l . The Pontiac B-2 teachers actually experienced standing in line to apply for food stamps and welfare checks during their training period. University training in interaction analysis# learning theory, problems of the economically disadvantaged, methods of teaching the disadvantaged and field experiences other than student teaching were rated by more than 70% of the respondents It as being useful. appears from the comments made by the graduates that all parts of the programs played a great part in helping the teachers feel qualified to teach disadvantaged students. According to the B-2 g r a d u a t e s ' c o m m e n t s , in general, no part of the programs should be deleted from future training. For these reasons it can be concluded that the B-2 graduates were well prepared to cope with the special problems of students in the inner city s c h o o l s . The author considered the possibility that there may have been differences in the way the graduates from the three Detroit programs (Bilingual, Library Science and Special Education) responded to the questionnaire because of some difference among their training p r o g r a m s . 210 Research Question 5 was formulated to determine if such differences did exist. Although responses to specific questions did differ in many cases, the differences were not signifi­ cant at the .05 alpha level. On only one question: "If you are teaching in a middle class school, would you change to a lower class school if it were possible?" was there a significant difference. In this case more bilingual teachers answered "yes" than teachers in the other two programs. This difference may have been due to the fact that the question did not apply to those in Library Science or Special Education w h o , for the most p a r t , tended to be already teaching in lower class schools, while the bilingual teachers were generally located in middle class schools. Thus it can be concluded that regarding the desire to teach the economically disadvantaged, and concerning attitudes toward the training programs, there were no differences among graduates of the three Detroit programs. Another possible source for varied responses was the location of the training programs in two school s y stems: Pontiac and Detroit. Thus Research Question 6 was posed: "Is there a difference between the Detroit and Pontiac graduates1 r e s p o n s e s , in terms of the location of the training program?" The null hypothesis was accepted for all questions related to Research Question 6. The mean response of Detroit program graduates was equal to the 211 mean response of Pontiac program g r a d u a t e s , suggesting that each program provided experiences for the trainees relevant to their current teaching assignments. Responses to the questionnaire could also vary with the different ages and socioeconomic backgrounds of the graduates. On all questions, except one, related to Research Question 7: "Is there a difference in attitudes relative to the wide age differences of the B-2 graduates?" the X 2 test of homogeneity contingency tables suggested that age did make a difference in the B-2 t e a c h e r s ' attitudes toward teaching economically disadvantaged students. In all cases except one, the older the teacher, the more positively he responded to the specific questions. For questions related to socioeconomic status of B-2 teachers, the H0 was accepted in all cases except one. The one exception was the question, "If you are teaching in a lower class school, would you change to a middle class school if it were possible?" Approximately one-half of the 36 teachers who came from a middle class socio­ economic background said they would change to a middle class school if it were possible. It can be concluded that even though the B-2 teachers received some training in teaching the disadvantaged, some would prefer to teach middle class students. These 18 teachers made the follow­ ing recommendations: 1. There should be more time in the program for 212 observation in a variety of classrooms where economically disadvantaged students are being taught. 2. Future programs should provide more assistance for future teachers in coping w i t h t h e problems of economically disadvantaged s t u d e n t s . 3. There should be more concrete methods for specific problems the teacher experiences working with economically disadvantaged students. 4. There should be more laboratory experiences in working with disadvantaged students. These 18 teachers agreed that more of these experiences should be provided in future similar p r o g r a m s . It appears that one year may not be enough time for some middle class persons to learn to cope with disadvantaged students. Finally, a most important aspect of the analysis was the comparison between B-2 and non B-2 t e a c h e r s . Their attitudes toward working with the disadvantaged as well as toward their respective training programs were compared. The Hq comparing the responses of B-2 teachers and new teachers was rejected for all questions asked the 17 3 teachers (92 B-2 teachers and 81 new t e a c h e r s ) . Therefore it can be concluded that the B-2 programs were more effective in preparing teachers to work in inner city schools than traditional teacher preparation p r o g r a m s . Based upon the responses, B-2 teachers are likely to have a longer tenure in the inner city s c h o o l s . There is evidence that suggests that B-2 teachers felt better prepared to teach the economically disadvantaged than do the new teachers. The new teachers relied more heavily 213 external reasons for their ineffectiveness in working in inner city schools, such as inadequate materials and discipline problems of economically disadvantaged students in the classroom- According to the responses, the B-2 teachers were not as likely to view inadequate materials or discipline as problems in teaching the disadvantaged- They felt competent in teaching these students. In addition to the questionnaires sent to B-2 and non B-2 teachers, a limited number or principals (36) were personally interviewed to assess their perceptions of the classroom competency of the B-2 teachers in comparison with other new teachers. Ninety-five per cent of the principals reported that the B-2 teachers, worked very well with the students. All principals ranked the work of the B-2 graduates as "excellent." Several noted the excellent rapport between these teachers and the community. The B-2 teachers were far more willing to participate in com­ munity activities than other new teachers. CONCLUSIONS From the analysis of the opinions expressed by the graduates of the EPDA Short Term Teacher Education Programs, the following general conclusions were made: 214 1. On the basis of a comparison of the B-2 teachers' responses with those of teachers who graduated from traditional teacher preparation p r o g r a m s , we conclude that there are specific experiences which teacher training institutions can and should provide to more adequately prepare teachers for the urban school situation. Prospective teachers need to be given primary experience with economi­ cally disadvantaged students and adults whenever possible. They also need to develop competency in applying learning theory to actual classroom situations. 2. Teachers who have not had the experience of working in disadvantaged schools and communities adjust more slowly and are more frustrated at the beginning of their careers than are those p r e ­ pared specifically for the disadvantaged students. They are more likely to seek to transfer to middle class schools and are more likely to feel that they are inadequately trained to cope with the problems of economically disadvantaged students. RECOMMENDATION S As a result of the study, the following recommenda­ tions were m a d e : General Recommendations 1. It is recommended that short-term teacher educa­ tion p r o g r a m s , "Preparing Teachers to Teach the Economically D i s a d v a n t a g e d ," be continued in the future. Since fiscal year 1972 was the termina­ tion date for EPDA B-2 federal funds, it is recommended that states appropriate funds for such programs at institutions of higher education. 2. Because education is so important, there should be a constant struggle to improve the educational system, especially for economically disadvantaged youth so that the power and position of their group can be e n h a n c e d . 215 3. It is recommended that the United States Office of Education, state education agencies, local school districts and institutions of higher education continue to study, discuss, and appro­ priate funds to improve the professional staff for economically disadvantaged s t u d e n t s . 4. It is recommended that the agencies involved in decision making for education maintain a constant vigilance to assure that new educational programs for teachers are developed for the benefit of both economically disadvantaged and advantaged students. Education should not be controlled by the interest of any one group or c l a s s .1 5. Continuous involvement of cooperating institutions of higher education in special programs to train teachers to work effectively with economically disadvantaged students is recommended. The institutions studied in this investigation should continue to use the competencies gained in their development of the EPDA B-2 programs. 6. Since fiscal year 1972 programs ending August 31, 1973 mark the termination of the EPDA B-2 grants to states from the United States C o n g r e s s , program accomplishments such as innovative methods, tech­ niques , ideas in teacher education should be made public so that all institutions of higher education may profit. The EPDA B-2 efforts in training teachers for the disadvantaged should be used as exploratory models for institutions of higher education in developing additional programs for teaching the economically disadvantaged. Recommendations for the Michigan State Department of Education 7. It is recommended that the Michigan State Department of Education develop, in conjunction with colleges and universities approved for teacher education, a program designed to improve the practitioner's competence for instruction in the fields of human relationship, cultural diversity, and educational This recommendation is supported by MacLean and Lee: Malcolm MacLean and Edwin A. Lee, Change and Process in Education (New York: Dryden Press, 1956), Chapter I. 216 needs of the economically disadvantaged. The program should be a component of the professional preparation of all teachers and become a part of the requirements for c e r t i f i c a t i o n .2 8. Coupled w ith recommendation 7, it is also recommended that the Mic h i g a n Teacher Certification Code be amended to require that classroom teachers c o m ­ plete no less than six academic credit hours in multi-ethnic studies before certification. Teacher already certified should be required to complete no less than six hours of academic p r e p ­ aration in multi-ethnic studies as a prerequisite to tenure. Teachers with tenure should meet this requirement within a two-year time p e r i o d . Recommendations for Institutions of Higher Education 9. It is recommended that recruitment committees of departments of education at institutions of higher education with a large population of disadvantaged students consider the possible lack of experience and expertise of their staffs in the area of teaching the economically disadvantaged. Efforts should be made to recruit staff members who are experienced and competent in this area. 10. Continuous involvement in schools that serve economically disadvantaged students is recommended for staff of departments of education to keep them abreast of the educational needs of these students. Thus instruction for the prospective teacher could be made more relevant. 11. Special efforts should be made by the institution of higher education staff to include in their instruction current research on economically disadvantaged students' behavior, low self-concepts, and hostility. 2 This recommendation is supported by Herman Coleman in "The Teacher of Multi-Ethnics or Minorities" {East Lansing: Michigan Education Association, 1973), p. 3. 217 Recommendations for Future Programs in Preparing Teachers for the Economically Disadvantaged 12. During similar EPDA B-2 programs, opportunities to visit homes of economically disadvantaged students and a continuing relationship with a low income family are recommended for future teachers. 13. It is recommended that more time be devoted to the study of community structures and services in urban centers during the one-year teacher prepa­ ration program. 14. A greater portion of the teacher education methods courses should be held on-site, in schools in the inner city area. Many field experiences such as visits to other classes as well as agencies and neighborhood centers serving the children of poverty should be included. 15. Since beginning teachers often have problems with motivation, discipline and lack of appropriate materials, it is recommended that university staff members provide follow-up services to program graduates who request help with problems in lowincome s c h o o l s . 16. Simulation experiences should be developed on the topics of motivation for learning, class control, dealing constructively with racial tensions, and individualized instruction for economically d i s ­ advantaged s t u d e n t s . 17. A continuation of the development of a variety of methods for teaching the economically d i sad­ vantaged students is highly recommended. 18. As a result of the program g r a d u a t e s 1 written comments, it is recommended that in the future more consideration be given to the scheduling of activities to allow adequate time for task completion. 19. The one-year program should be expanded to a twoyear teacher training program to allow time for adequate comprehension and application of the theory and concepts l e a r n e d . 20. Further follow-up study of all teachers who com­ pleted B-2 programs, to assess their tenure in schools that serve a large population of economi­ cally disadvantaged students, is recommended. This 218 study should not be limited to a segment of the population, but should include all graduates of the other nine programs, as well as graduates of the six programs in Detroit and Pontiac considered in this investigation. 21. Since those graduates who completed the program in June 1972 had only worked for part of an academic year when data for this study was col­ lected, it is recommended that further study be carried out on the classroom performance of these teachers. 22. Since EPDA B-2 funds for fiscal year 1972-73 were used to develop and implement "Competency-Based Teacher Education P r o g r a m s ," it is recommended that the classroom performance of graduates of those programs be compared with performance of graduates of the 1969-1972 B-2 programs. 23. The current situation of remoteness of the p ros­ pective teachers from the realities of classroom practices must be reformed. Prospective teachers for urban schools must be brought into contact with the reality of the classroom through various training experiences and actual encounters with economically disadvantaged students in classrooms. This conclusion is confirmed by Van Doren's s t u d y .3 24. Teacher preparation reform must stress the ability to conceptualize and analyze, which is the essence of leadership. The teacher for the disadvantaged must be prepared not only to diagnose p r o b l e m s , but also to devise programs to remedy the situa­ tion, and finally, to evaluate the programs. This conclusion is also confirmed by Van D o r e n . 4 3 Mark Van Doren, The Portable Emerson Viking Press, 1965), p. 9. 4I b i d ., p. 10. (New York: BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Anderson, L. O. Challenges and Needed Development in Teacher Ed u c a t i o n . Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1969. Armstrong, Earl W. and Basley, Howard T. Teacher Educa­ tion in T r a n s i t i o n . T a l l a h a s s e e : Florida State University, 1 9 6 9 . Ausubel, David P. and A u s u b e l , Pearl. "Ego Development Among Segregated Negro C h i l d r e n ." In Education in Depressed A r e a s , edited by Harry Passow. wew York: Columbia University, Teachers College, 1963. Bloom, Davis and Hess. tural Deprivation. Winston, 1965. Compensatory Education for C u l ­ New York: Holt, Rinehart and Bureau of Education Personnel D e v e l o p m e n t . Education Professions Development A c t , Part B, Subpart II. Conant, James B. The Education of American T e a c h e r s . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. Downing, Gertrude L . The Preparation of Teachers for Schools in Culturally Deprived N e i g h b o r h o o d s , "The Bridge P r o j e c t ." New York: Queens College, 1965. Fantini, Maria and Weinstein, Gerald. The D i s a d v a n t a g e d : Challenge to Education. New York: Harper and Row, Ttta:— 2— — --------------- Frank, Virginia. New C u r r i c u l a s , Materials and the Teaching of the D i s a d v a n t a g e d . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : N D E A , National Institution for Advanced Study in Teaching Disadvantaged Youth, 1968. Frymier, Jack R. "A School for the Future," (in press). Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop­ ment, 197 3. 219 220 Green, Robert L. Racial Crisis in A m e r i c a . Follett Education Corporation, 1969. Chicago: Haubrick, Vernon F. "Teachers for Big-City Schools." In Education in Depressed A r e a s , edited by Harry A. Passow. New York: Columbia University, Teachers College, 1963. Klopf, Gordon J. and Bowman, Garda W. Teacher Education in a Social Context: A Study of the Preparation of Personnel for Work with Disadvantaged Children and Y o u t h . New York: Bank Street College of Education, Mental Health Materials Center, Inc., 1966. Kozal, Jonathon. Mifflin Co., Death at an Early Age. 1967. Boston: Houghton Kvaraceus, William. Negro Self-Concept: Implications for School and C i t i z e n s h i p . New York: NcGraw-Hill Book Company, 196 5. MacLean, Malcolm and Lee, Edwin A. Change and Process in E d u c a t i o n . New York: Dryden Press, 1956. Parnell, Dale. Evaluation Report: EPDA B-2 P r o g r a m s . Salem: Oregon Board of Education, 1971. Passow, Harry A. Education in Depressed A r e a s . New York: Columbia University, Teachers College, 1963. Peck, Robert F. Personalized Teacher Education P r o g r a m . Austin: University of Texas, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, 1972. Righter, Roderie. A Description and an Evaluation of the Short Term Teacher Training P r o g r a m . Rochester, Michigan: Oakland University, School of Education, 1972. Iiudman, Herbert C. and Feather s t o n e , Richard L. Urban Schooling. New York: H a r c o u r t , Brace and World, I n c ., 1968. Seymour, Sarason B. The Preparation of T e a c h e r s . York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962. New Silberman, Charles. Crisis in the C l a s s r o o m . Random House, 1970. New York: Smith, Othanel. Teachers for the Real W o r l d . D . C . : 7\ACTE , 1969 . Washington, 221 State of Florida, Department of Education. Evaluation P r o g r a m , 1970-71. Teacher State of Michigan, Department of Education. Final Evaluation Reports of the EPDA B-2 Programs, Lansing, 1970, 1971 and 1972. Stone, James C. Teachers for the D i s a d v a n t a g e d . Francisco: J ossey-Bass, Inc., 1969. Toffler, Alvin. 1971. Future Shock. New York: San Random House, Tuckman, Bruce W. Preparing to Track the D i s a d v a n t a g ed. New York: Caller-McMillan Limited, 1969. Urban Task Force. Urban School C r i s i s . Final Report of the Task Force on Urban E d u c a t i o n o f the Department of HEW, 1970. Van Doren, Mark. Press, 1965. The Portable E m e r s o n . New York: Viking Wilkerson, Doxey A. and Roberts, Julian. "Project Beacon Training Project." In Preparing to Teach the Disadvantaged. New Yorlc": The Free Press, T969. Unpublished Papers, Records and Proposals Coleman, Herman. "The Teacher of Multi-Ethnics or Minorities." Unpublished Paper. East Lansing: Michigan Education Association, 1973. Condon, William. ST3P N e w s l e t t e r . Pontiac School D i s ­ trict, Office of Community Action Programs, September, 1970. Gilkerson, Elizabeth. "Is There A Mousetrap?" Paper Delivered at Conference of NDEA Institute Directors at Tufts University, Medford, Mass., September, 1965. M o n acel, Louis D. "Proposals to Attract and Elementary School Librarians, Bilingual Special Education Teachers." Detroit: Schools, Office of Adult and Continuing 1970, 1971 and 1972. Qualify Teachers and Detroit Public Education, 222 Peck, Robert. "Criticism of Current Practices in E d uca­ tion." Unpublished Paper. Austin: University of Texas, 1970. Righter, Roderic E. "Follow-up Study on Employment of ST3P Graduates of the School District of the City of Pontiac." Unpublished Paper. Rochester, Michigan: Oakland University, School of Education, 1972. Rivlin, Harry N. "The Profession's Responsibility for Educational Change." Changes in Teacher E d u c a t i o n . Official Report of the Columbus, Ohio Conference, Eighteenth National TEPS Conference, Washington, D . C . : NEA, 1963. Rossi, Peter H. "Between White and Black: The Faces of American Institutions in the Ghetto." Supplemental Studies to the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. Washintgon, D. C . : U. S. Government Printing Office, 1968. Rusk, Elizabeth H. "A Study of Secondary Teachers of English." Unpublished Paper. East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1967. Storm, Robert. "The Preface Man: A New Concept of In-Service Training for Teachers Newly Assigned to Urban Neighborhoods of Low Income." Final Report, U. S. Department of HEW, Office of Education, Bureau of Research, Project No. 6-1365, Columbus: Ohio State University, 1969. "United States Code." Congressional and Administrative N e w s . House Report No. 373, 1965, pp. 1267-68. "United States Code." Congressional and Administrative N e w s . Washington, D. C.: 80, 1967. Periodicals Davis, Don and Amershek, Kathleen. "Student Teaching." Encyclopedia of Educational R e s e a r c h , Fourth Edition. New York: MacMillan Company, 1969. Davis, Don. "The Teacher Numbers Games." tional D i g e s t , Vol. 36, January 1971. The Educa­ Goodlad, John I. "The School vs. Education." day Review, 1969. The Satur­ 223 Goldberg, Marian L. "Adapting Teaching Styles to Pupil Differences: Teachers for Disadvantaged Children." Merrill Palmer Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 2, April 1964. Lindley, J Stiles and Parker, Robert P. "Teacher Educa­ tion Programs." Encyclopedia of Educational Res e arch. New York: MacMillan Company, 1969. Salsinger, Harry G. "Clifton Wharton's First Year." Change, Vol. 3, January-February, 1971. Woodring, Paul. "Century of Teacher Education." and Society, Vol. 9, May 1962. School Dissertations Martin, Gerald C. "A Study of the Adequacy of Profes­ sional Preparation for Teaching Disadvantaged Children as Perceived by Selected Elementary Tea c h e r s ." Unpublished Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1965. Sinclair, Ward W. "An Analysis of Three Pre-Student Teaching Experiences in the Preparation of Elementary Teachers." Unpublished Ed.D. Thesis, Michigan State University, 1961. Smith, Carol Payne. "Preparing Teachers for the Disad­ vantaged: Developmental and Procedures of an Ex­ perimental Program." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971. APPENDICES APPENDIX A B-2 QUESTIONNAIRE AND COVER LETTERS STATE OF MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Lansing, Michigan 48902 STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION D R . GORTON R IE T H M IL L E R P re s id e n t JOHN W. PORTER JAM ES F. O 'N E IL Superintendent of Public Instruction D R . M IC H A E L J. DEEB V ic e P re s id e n t S e c re ta ry BARBA R A A. D U M O U C H E L L E T re a s u re r M A R IL Y N JEA N K E L L Y A N N E T T A M IL L E R W IL L IA M A. SEDERBURG E D M U N D F. V A N D U T T E G O V . W IL L IA M G. M IL L IK E N Ex-Oiflclo Dear We are in the process of doing a study on the impact the Education Profession Development Act Short-Term Teacher Education Program had on preparing teachers for the economically-disadvan­ taged students. According to our records you were a participant in the EPDA B-2 ST3P Program during the year 1969, 1970, 1971, or 1972, In order to accurately ascertain the data to complete this study we are asking for your assistance in completing the following questionnaire. It would be most helpful if you would answer each question, since to overlook any portion of it would affect the validity of the results. Thank you for your assistance and taking a few minutes from your busy schedule to complete this questionnaire. Sincerely, EPDA B-2 Coordinator Michigan Department of Education Box 420 Lansing, Michigan 40902 CJ:rf enclosures 225 May 1973 A F o l l o w - u p Study of the Graduates of the Education P r o f e s s i o n Development Act Short Ter m Te a c h e r T r a ining Programs In Detroit and Pontiac Schools F r o m 1969 through 1972 Dear Please complete all items possible. comments you feel are necessary. Feel free to write any additional Your responses will be kept anonymous. I am willing to pay a small r e m u n e r a t i o n of $2.00 for y o u time in completing and returning the questionnaire. A self-addressed, stamped envelope is enclosed for you r convenience. Sincerely, Clara Jennings C J :rr enclosures If you would like a summary of this study, p l e a s e c h e c k her e If you would like the small remuneration, p l e a s e ch e c k h e r e sign below. Name Address City State Zip / /. /_/ 1 and 226 DEFINITIONS FOR QUESTIONNAIRE CLARIFICATION DEFINITIONS EPDA B-2: The Education Professions Development Act, Part B, Subpart II. Short Term Teacher Training Pro­ gram: To train teachers to work effectively with economically disadvantaged students. ST3P is an EPDA B-2 Program. Economically disadvantaged: Children from homes and/or community backgrounds where a majority of the families lack adequate financial income which results in sub­ standard living conditions. Economically advantaged: Children from homes and/or com­ munities where the families have adequate income to provide for standard living conditions. QUESTIONNAIRE 1. In what school system are you currently teaching? Check o n e . ____ Pontiac School District Detroit Public Schools 2. Are you between the ages o f : (a) 20-24 (b) 25-29 (c) 30-34 (d) ____ 35-39 3. Check o n e . (e) (f) (q) (h) 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 Check the one which identifies your sex: (a) male (b) female 4. How many years had you taught prior to entering the EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Training Program? Years 5. Are you currently employed as a : (a) (b) (c) (d) 6. ____ ____ ____ ____ Check o n e . part-time teacher substitute teacher full-time teacher substitute teacher in regular position Do you like your present teaching assignment? Yes No In what kind of school are you currently teaching? Check o n e . (a) upper class (c) ____ lower class (d) ____ heterogeneous the classes (b) ____ middle class (about an equal division among If you chose "heterogeneous" above, please check the one that best describes the students in your class­ room . (a) (b) (c) (d) _____ upper, middle, lower _____ upper, lower ____ middle, lower ____ upper, middle Did you have a choice as to the type of school in ____ Yes ____ No which you were placed to teach? If not, why not?________________________________________ If you are not teaching the kind of children you prefer to teach, would you move if it were possible? Yes No If you are teaching in a middle class school, would you change to a lower class school if it were possible? ____ Yes No Why? ____________________________________________________ If you are teaching in a lower class school, would you change to a middle class school if it were possible? ____ Yes No Why? __________________________________________________ If you get a promotion within the school system, would you prefer a school that serves economically disadvantaged students? ____ Yes _____ No If you had a choice, which kind of students would you teach? Check o n e . (a) ____ economically disadvantaged (b) ____ economically advantaged (c) both 228 14. How many students do you teach daily? ______ 15. How many 16. How many__of your students are economically dis­ advantaged? ____ 17. Do you feel that you have been successful working with the economically disadvantaged stu ents in ____ Yes No your class? classes do you teach daily? ____ Why? _________________________________________________ 18. If you are not teaching economically disadvantaged students, do you feel that you could be successful in teaching them? ____ Yes ____ No Why? __________________________________________________ 19. In which of the following EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Training Programs were you trained? Check o n e . Pontiac School District (a) _____ ST3P Program 1969-1970 (b) _____ ST3P Program 1970-1971 ) ____ full-time teacher (c) ____ substitute teacher (d) ____ substitute teacher in regular position 5. Do you like your present teaching assignment? Yes No In what kind of school are you currently teaching? Check one. (a) (b) (c) (d) ____ ____ ____ ____ upper class middle class lower class heterogeneous (about an equal division among the classes) If you checked "heterogeneous" above, please check the one that best describes the students in your classroom. (a) (b) (c) (d) ____ ____ ____ ____ upper,middle, lower upper, lower middle, lower upper, middle Did you have a choice as to the type of school in ____ Yes ____ No which you were placed to teach? If no, why?_____________________________________________ If you are not teaching the kind of children you prefer to teach, would you move if it were possible? Yes _____ No If you are teaching in a middle class school would you change to a lower class school if it were _____ Yes No possible? Why?_____________________________________________________ If you are teaching in a lower class school would you change to a middle class school if it were possible? ____ Yes No W h y ? ________ _____ ____________ If you get a promotion within the school system, would you prefer a school that serves economically disadvantaged students? ____ Yes ____ No If you had a choice, which kind of students would you teach? Check o n e . (a) (h) (c) Economically Disadvantaged Economically Advantaged Both 236 Why?__________________________________________________ 13. How many students do you teach daily? ____ 14. How many classes do you teach daily? ____ 15. How many of your students are economically disadvantaged? ____ 16. Do you feel that you have been successful working with the economically disadvantaged students in your class? ____ Yes ____ No Why? _________________________________________________ 17. If you are not teaching economically disadvantaged students, do you feel that you could be successful ____ Yes ____ No in teaching them? Why? __________________________________________________ 18. Circle the one that best describes the socioeconomic level of your h o m e . Upper 1 2 Middle 3 4 Lower 5 6 19 . Circle the number that best describes the socio­ economic level of the school you attended as a child. If you attended more than one at a specific level, please estimate the average. Upper Middle Lower Elementary School: 1 2 3 4 5 6 Junior High School: 12 3 4 5 6 Senior High School: 1 2 3 4 5 6 20. Circle the kind of school you attended during your childhood. Elementary School (a) Public (b) Parochial (c) Other Junior High School (a) Public (b) Parochial (c) Other Senior High School (a) Public (b) Parochial (c) Other 237 For each of the following statements, fill in the blank with the letter that best represents your feeling about the statement. A B C D E - Strongly Disagree Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly Agree (a) Economically disadvantaged children are very difficult to teach. (b) There should be special instruction provided for in regular teacher preparation programs to prepare teachers to work effectively with economically disadvantaged children. (c) Teachers of economically disadvantaged students need not have specific training geared to teach­ ing economically disadvantaged students. {d) There is no difference in the problems of economically disadvantaged students and the problems of economically advantaged students. (e) Many teachers assigned to schools with high con­ centration of lower income students seek to transfer to middle class schools in the system. (f) It is difficult to motivate economically dis­ advantaged students to learn because o f : (1) Their discipline in the classroom. (2) Inadequate and inappropriate materials. (3) Black hostility. (4) Difficulties in understanding language of the children. APPENDIX C COURSE DESCRIPTIONS FOR PONTIAC B-2 PROGRAMS 238 Education 590 - Special Problems in Education 4 semester h o u r s . Social, economic and philosophical disadvantagement as factors in learning hindrance. This offering was a team endeavor using the knowledge and expertise of Oakland University, the Pontiac School District, and selected support per­ sonnel from the community, as they focused on those factors which contribute to learning problems. In addition, the team developed competency in the diagnosis of learning, special problems, and learn­ ing hindrance. Specific attention was focused on the development of remediation techniques in instruction and application of these by the teachers. Trainees did an intensive examination of and application of current instructional practices, problems and research in the teaching of reading as applied to children in Pontiac Title I target area schools. Education 591 - Ecology of the Classroom - 4 semester hours. This specialized course dealt with the ecological context for learning in Pontiac classrooms, schools and community. The primary task of the course in­ structor was to assist the cooperating teacher and the trainee in articulating the description, analysis and inferences about the structure of the child's ecological environment as related to learning of children in disadvantaged a r e a s . The course gave direction to the development of performance and behavior criteria as related to the enhancement of self-concept of the child in the learning process. Education 555 - Practicum for Teachers of the Urban/ Rural Disadvantaged - 8 semester hours. This course was a field-centered practicum designed to prepare teachers for teaching in disadvantaged settings. The course was devoted to the special nature of the child who emanates from those a r e a s , and through various factors comes to school with almost staggering learning blocks. The course dealt with the problems as they related to teaching and learning. 239 Education 509 - The School and the Disadvantaged Child - 4 semester h o u r s . This course dealt with the difficulties and o p ­ portunities arising from the teaching of children from Pontiac’s Title I school attendance areas. Community visits , studies of communication clashes and problems of motivation were studied, among other related topic areas. The course began on an intensive basis in the pre-service period and continued throughout the academic year on a once-a-month basis. The monthly meetings focused on special problems of the disadvantaged as brought to the fore by the t r a i n e e s . Education 590* - Utilization of Instructional Mediums and Methodologies in Enhancing and Reinforcing Perform­ ance Objectives - 2 semester hours. This specially designed course utilized the resources of interaction analysis, behavioral objectives, video, audio and print mediums in remedial instruction. New methods of instruction and methodologies were developed based on the diagnostic needs of the children for which the trainees were responsible. Heavy emphasis was placed on the development of methods of approach to learning difficulties discerned by the program trainees. These diagnoses were then used to act as the basis for remedial action by the instructional staff, the interns, and the university instructor as they worked as a team with the children. Education 531 - Current Trends in the Teaching of Reading - 4 semester h o u r s . This course dealt with the skill areas of reading in the content area, current practices, problems and trends in applying reading in classroom situations. Emphasis was placed upon the cognitive structure of reading and learning as such are affected by the myriad variables found in the c h i l d ’s world. Education 611 - Problems in Elementary Education 4 semester h o u r s . This course was offered to both cooperating teachers and trainees. It acted as a vehicle for a study of teaching skills necessary in public schools. Assessment and evaluation procedures were developed by the teachers and interns from their on-going teaching experiences. 240 Education 602 - Philosophy o f Education - 4 semester hours. This was the study of philosophical inquiry in relation to education. Philosophical analysis of educational problems , philosophic competencies and educational conclusions by systematic philosophers focused on the educational needs of children. Education 699 - Terminal Project - 4 semester hours. Each trainee developed his own unique project which had a specific place in the overall program to train teachers to work effectively with economically disadvantaged c h i l d r e n . Education 590 - Supervision of Instruction and Personnel Development - 4 semester h o u r s . The major focus of this course was on the develop­ ment of instructional modules. Education 511 - Interaction Analysis - 4 semester h o urs . This course sought to improve the effectiveness of instruction through a study of pupil-teacher interaction. Techniques of observation, methods of gathering data and analyzing behavior in both the affective and the cognitive fields were emphasized. Techniques included video-taping of teachers and pupils, projects including observations, schedules, as well as preparation and analysis of specific teach­ ing situations. APPENDIX D SUMMARY: A FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF EMPLOYMENT OF GRADUATES OF PONTIAC B-2 PROGRAMS, 1969-1971 241 SUMMARY: A FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF EMPLOYMENT OF GRADUATES OF PONTIAC B-2 PROGRAMS, 1969-1971 Oakland University prepared a follow-up study of the employment patterns of graduates of the first two years' ST3P programs in Pontiac— 1969-70 and 1970-71— to determine just what successes or failure the two programs may have had in the placement of interns in various types of classrooms. Questionnaires were sent to all program graduates; 87% responded. The questionnaire was divided into six sections, each with a variety of subsections. The results reported below were obtained from the data gathered by the use of the questionnaires. Table D-l shows full-time employment figures for program graduates in 1969-70 and 1970-71. The table reveals that 70% of the program graduates were employed in disadvantaged schools. Further, only two of the graduates who responded elected to move out of the State of Michigan. Thus, 31 of the total number employed were additions to the staffs of Michigan school systems, and more significantly, 23 were working with youngsters classified as disadvantaged, the specific clientele for whom the interns were trained to teach. Of the 31 employed program graduates, seven were teaching either out of state or in the out-state area of Michigan. The balance of 24 were employed in the greater Table D-l. Full Time Employment in School Districts for ST3P Graduates, 1969-70 and 1970-71 Teaching in Disadvantaged Schools N Employed in Other States Program N Employed in Michigan 1969-70 13 1 1970-71 18 Totals 31 Teaching in Ad­ vantaged Schools % # % 10 71% 4 29% 1 13 68% 6 32% 2 23 70% 10 30% # 242 Source: Roderic E. Righter, "Follow-Up Study on Employment of ST3P Graduates of the School District of the City of Pontiac," Unpublished Paper (Rochester, Michigan: Oakland University School of Education, 1972), p. 6. 243 Detroit Metropolitan Area. It should also be pointed out that 34% of the intern group employed were employed by the School District of the City of Pontiac.^ From the information obtained through the ques­ tionnaire, it was obvious that the program has had a high degree of success in preparing and placing teachers in Michigan's schools and in classrooms with disadvantaged youngsters. It was found that of the 53 interns graduated, 37 are employed, nine are unemployed and seven are unaccounted for because they did not respond to the ques­ tionnaire. All 37 persons employed are teaching in classrooms with disadvantaged students. However, of the nine unemployed persons, eight elected not to teach for a variety of reasons. Of those who were unemployed, that is, they were not hired full time, all were substituting as of the time the questionnaire was filed. Thus it appears from this study that the monies expended to train teachers for disadvantaged classrooms was wisely used when employment in such situations is considered. Dr. Righter has carried out a series of informal follow-up conversations with employing school district personnel and administrators covering the 1969-1970 and 1970-1971 intern groups. These conversations have Roderic E. Righter, "Follow-Up Study on Employ­ ment of St3P Graduates of the School District of the City of Pontiac," Unpublished Paper (Rochester, Michigan: Oakland University School of Education, 1972), p. 6. 244 revealed the fact that the ST3P interns are considered to be very well trained and prepared for teaching. general comment has been, The "Send us more of these people." This study conclusively showed that the employment picture for the ST3P interns is indeed a much brighter one than for graduates of regular preparation p r o g r a m s . ^ 2I b i d ., pp. 11-12. APPENDIX E DESCRIPTION OF ACADEMIC COURSES FOR THE DETROIT B-2 BILINGUAL TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM 245 The following courses were taught at Wayne State University for the Detroit B-2 Bilingual teacher educa­ tion program. Education Foundations in the United States - 4 credit hours. Analysis of the purposes, processes, structure, and financing of education. This course also dis­ cussed the relationship to historical content and social conditions in the urban society. The course emphasized relating the different educational phil­ osophies to classroom management, activities and experiences. Mathematics, Science and Social Studies in the Urban School - 12 credit hours. This course included: current trends in arith­ metic instruction and evaluation of present curricula in elementary science; analysis of learning diffi­ culties; available materials and books; evaluation of methods of teaching; individual problems. Appraisal of social studies programs, controversial issues and present trends; criteria for planning and improving social studies curricula and individual problems were also included. Child Growth and Development - 4 credit h o u r s . The course focused on factors pertinent to the environment of Spanish-speaking children, their effect on the child's total growth pattern, and implications for the learning-teaching process. Language Arts and Children's Literature for the Spanish Child in the Urban School"-- 8 credit h o u r s . A study of the best books for children comprised the focus of this course. Items discussed were: problems arising in a well-rounded reading program; development of basic reading abilities and skills; teaching English as a second language; providing for individual differences; appraisal of practices and trends, attention to oral and written expression, including spelling and handwriting. 246 Design, Production and Utilization of Individual and Class Instructional Materials for the Teaching of Spanish-speaking Children - 4 credit h o u r s . Performing Arts - 8 credit hours. This course was taught concurrently with the practicum and included creative growth through use of various media for artistic and musical expressions of Spanish-speaking children. Also included were trends and materials in the teaching of art, music and dance in the urban school; the relationship of art and music to interests and capacities of various age levels and to other learning activities; observations in teaching of art and music; utilization of Spanish­ speaking community resource people for motivation and enhancement of these experiences. APPENDIX F EVALUATION FOR THE DETROIT BILINGUAL PROGRAM 247 EVALUATION: DETROIT BILINGUAL PROGRAM The Evaluation Design A. Recruitment and Selection 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. B. Orientation 1. 2. C. Description of orientation functions carried on by the Detroit Public Schools and Wayne State University, Explanation of problems during program imple­ mentation . Short-term Intensive Training 1. 2. 3. 4. D. Recruitment procedures followed, Number of trainee candidates who applied, Geographical sources of trainees' applications, Description of qualifications of applicants, Composition of selection team, Description of selection process used, Number of trainees selected. Description of t rainees' performances in academic courses taken, The amount of short-term intensive training courses that were taught or assisted by the trainee consultants, Amount of tutoring actually provided for trainees by trainee consultants, Description of activities and other functions that were carried out during the instructional seminars. Practicum and In-Service Training 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Description of orientation prior to practicum and in-service, Description of team approach used during the practicum, Description of trainee consultants' functions during the practicum and the Detroit Public Schools in-service activities, Utilization of trainees to assist Spanish­ speaking students other than during the practicum, Description of community involvement by trainees, 248 b. 7. E. Kapport established by the trainees with the students and other regular teachers on the staff in the schools where practicum took place, Description of any pre-tests and post-tests administered to students served by the practicum team and significant results indicated. Following Completion of Program 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Number of trainees who completed the program, Degree and certification status of trainees upon completion of program, Report of trainees' evaluation of program and self-appraisal, Number of trainees to begin teaching for the Detroit Public Schools beginning September, 1970, and where placed, Number of trainees to continue working towards degree and a regular teacher's certification Evaluation The Intensive Training Program for TeacherTrainees of Spanish-speaking children provided direct experience with a gradual increase in responsibilities. It was assumed that the teacher-trainees learned best when they were actually involved in achieving their pur­ poses and solving their problems. This program provided an opportunity for the trainee to study teaching as he confronted it and to solve real p r o b l e m s . This trainee experience was arranged in order to provide guidance for the trainee as he learned to integrate theory and practice, R e s e a r c h Department, Detroit Public Schools, Final Evaluation Report of the EPDA B-2 Bilingual Short Term Teacher Education Program (Lansing: Michigan Department of Education Record Center, 1970), p. 41. 249 in assuming the responsibilities of a novice teacher.2 Everyone concerned with the trainee experiences was willing to become involved in continuous systematic study of role relationships. The university staff met with the cooperating schools' personnel on a continuous basis in order to discuss the expectations which members of both groups held for the trainees as well as for them­ selves . The key source of assistance during the pre-service and in-service phases of the program was the trainee con­ sultant who provided personal support and guidance for the trainee on a frequent basis. The trainee assisted in the interpretation and implementation of theory. Growth in theoretical understanding occurred because the trainee consultant was there to encourage it and to demonstrate its relevance. Since the consultant did not assume a direct role in evaluating the trainee, he was able to maintain a threat-free relationship with the interns. was their primary source of guidance. He Since the trainee consultant had worked in classroom situations with Spanish-speaking children, he could encourage the trainees to relate previous formal study to day-to-day teaching. Using his experience and knowledge of diagnostic procedures, the consultant helped the intern diagnose the learning 2 Personal Interview with Dr. Helen Hart, Director, Continuing Education, Detroit Public Schools, June 197 3. 250 difficulties of the Spanish-speaking children and to plan and implement appropriate met h o d s . The university staff and the project coordinator provided personalized supervisory support to the trainee consultant, thereby strengthening the resources available to meet the needs of the trainees.3 3Ibid. APPENDIX G COMPETENCIES TO BE DEVELOPED IN THE DETROIT EPDA B-2 LIBRARY SCIENCE PROGRAM 251 The following competencies were expected to be developed among the Detroit EPDA B-2 Library Science Program graduates: A . 1. Increasing students* interest and enjoyment in reading, viewing and listening 2. Selecting materials that meet students1 individual needs, abilities and interests 3. Stimulating the students' creativity in com­ municating with themselves and their world by helping them produce the message (e.g., story, poem, report) on tape, transparency, or film, in writing or in speaking, and by providing opportunities to share their creation with other children, staff, and community 4. Instructing students in the use of printed and audiovisual materials and equipment and of libraries. 1. Planning with the teacher for learning experiences involving use of media and/or the library 2. Communicating the role of the library program in relation to the goals of the school 3. Involving teachers in the selection and appraisal of learning resources for the library. 4. Establishing procedures for distributing resources and equipment to classrooms when needed 5. Establishing procedures for systematic dissemina­ tion of information about media and learning resources in the school and community. 1. Involving members of the family unit in appraising materials used in the program B. C. Involving mothers in storytelling and read-aloud programs in neighborhood, school and home Providing learning resources for use in the home setting Interpreting the goals and functions of the school library to community groups concerned about the school— PTA, citizens' groups, etc. APPENDIX H CURRICULUM DESCRIPTION FOR THE DETROIT B-2 LIBRARY SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM 253 The academic program for the Detroit B-2 Library Science Teacher Education Program consisted of the following courses: Language Arts and Children's Literature for the Inner-City Child - 8 credit h o u r s . A study of children's books in relation to the interests, needs, and abilities of the urban child. The components of a sound reading program, develop­ ment of basic reading abilities and skills, teaching English as a second language; oral and written expres­ sion including spelling and handwriting were the objectives of this course. School Library-Media Center - 4 credit hours. This course focused upon the services to children and teachers of the modern library resourcescenter. The class emphasized the special characteristics and potential of the urban school and its community resources. Micro-teaching and field visits were used as learning d e v i c e s . Education and Intergroup Problems in Urban Society 4 credit hours. This course was an analysis of the p u r p o s e s , processes, structures and financing of education and the social milieu in which the school o p e r a t e s . Classwork emphasized relating different educational philosophies to classroom management, activities and experience. Trainees spent several days per week in the school, the classroom and the library where he was assigned for his teaching practicum observing. Child Growth and Development - 4 credit hours. This introductory course focused on inner-city children, the factors in their environment which effect their growth pattern, and implications of these factors for the teaching-learning process. The course synthesized theories with realities of the trainees' teaching practicum. 254 Teaching Practicum in Homeroom and Library - 12 credit hours. The trainee was assigned half-time to homeroom and half-time to a library. In the six schools co­ operating in the program, each supervising librarian worked with four trainees— two in the morning and two in the afternoon; two homeroom teachers worked with two students daily— one in the morning, one in the afternoon. Trainees gradually engaged in full-time respon­ sible teaching. After the month of observation in September, independent teaching, under supervision, was permitted early in the q u a r t e r . A weekly seminar for the practicum was held; it was planned by the college supervisor, an education psychology professor and the supervising teachers and librarians. Selection and Evaluation of Learning Resources for Children - 4 credit hours. This class included criteria for assessing materials (print and nonprint) in terms of their purported function and the needs, abilities, and interests of the individual child; sources in infor­ mation about media and methods of utilization. Design, Production and Utilization of Individual and Class Instructional Materials for the Teaching of Inner-City Children - 4 credit h o u r s . Storytelling with Parents - 2 credit h o u r s . This course was directed to parents in the com­ munity interested in learning and sharing their skills in storytelling and family reading in school and neighborhood libraries. The t r a i n e e s ' role in this program was as participant-observers. Included were storytelling specialists from the Detroit Public Library, the trainees, and 30 adults from communities of the six participating schools. Storytelling - 2 credit hours. Coursework included criteria for selecting stories to tell, methods and analysis of student reactions to the trainees' storytelling. 255 Education Foundations in the United States - 4 credit hours. The emphasis in the course was an analysis of the purposes, processes, structure, and financing of education. The relationship to historical content and social conditions in the urban society were studies as well as relating the different educational philosophies to classroom management, activities and experiences. General Reference Services — 4 credit h o u r s . Discussed in this course were an evaluation of basic reference tools, the problems and techniques involved in locating information and a discussion of how to build reference collections. Social Studies in the Urban Elementary School - 4 credit h o u r s . The objectives, content, curriculum organization and evaluation of the social studies program were discussed. The trainee had to plan and assess social studies learning activities pertinent to his school with special emphasis on the integrated use of all instructional resources, including the library. APPENDIX I EVALUATION OF THE DETROIT B-2 LIBRARY SCIENCE TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAM 256 EVALUATION: DETROIT B-2 LIBRARY SCIENCE TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAM The Evaluation Design The program was to be evaluated in relationship to specific objectives. A. These objectives were as follows: Teacher-librarian trainees who become certificated will: 1. Fill vacancies in inner-city elementary schools. 2. Replace uncertificated librarians serving in' inner-city elementary schools. Evidence of attainment of these objectives would be: 1. Tabulation of the number of trainees who, after certification, filled vacancies and replaced personnel uncertificated for library work# B. Teacher-librarian trainees will develop specific competencies for use in the following ways: 1. The motivation and guidance of children in pursuing self-directed learning 2. The relating of the library and learning resources to the instructional program of the school 3. The effective selection, acquisition, organi­ zation, storage retrieval, and use of learning materials. Evidence of attainment of these objectives would be: 1. Comparison of the number of books and learning materials used both before and after participants are placed as librarian trainees. 2. Survey of the number of and kinds of instructional units developed cooperatively by teachers and librarian trainees. 257 3. Ratings of the library skills of the trainees by supervising teachers and university personnel. C. Role of-the School Library in Relation to the Goals of the Family and the Community 1. Trainees will interpret the goals and functions of the school library to parents and community groups. 2. Trainees will involve members of the family unit in appraising library materials used in the school program. 3. Trainees will promote family use of the library and provide materials for home learning ac t i vities. Evidence of attainment of these objectives would be: 1. Survey of presentations by trainees to parent and community g r o u p s . 2. Parent questionnaire eliciting their knowledge and appraisal of the library program and resources. 3. Survey of use of library resources by parents. D. Role of the university 1. The university will help the trainees to develop specific c o m pentencies: understanding of child growth and development; application of learning theories in helping students pursue individual search and inquiry; ability to establish rapport w ith children, colleagues, and parents; ability to organize learning materials and establish procedures for d i s­ tribution . Evidence of attainment of these objectives would be: 1. Trainee questionnaire to obtain evaluation of the effectiveness of university coursework and super­ vision in preparing t eacher-librarians. 2. Sponsoring teacher questionnaire to obtain their evaluation of the effectiveness of university cou r s e w o r k . 258 E. Role of experienced teacher-librarians teachers) (sponsoring 1. Sponsoring teachers will supervise trainees during orientation and pre-training in the school library. 2. Sponsoring teachers will supervise trainees during their placement as full-time teacherlibrarians during the second half year of the program. Evidence of attainment of these objectives would be: 1. Trainee questionnaires to obtain their evaluation of the effectiveness of sponsoring teachers, in guiding their library training experiences. Evaluation An important aspect of the evaluation of the EPDA B-2 library science program in the Detroit Public Schools was an evaluation by the trainees themselves. In general, the trainees felt that the pre-service program provided them with those skills needed to work effectively in elementary school libraries. The group was enthusiastically pleased with the instruction they received in lesson planning and educating the disadvantaged. All trainees stated that the in-service program provided experiences with children; helped them develop and use instructional materials and diagnose problems which cause children to f a i l ; to administer and score standardized tests; and to work cooperatively with teacher Final Evaluation Report on FY 1970 EPDA B-2 Program (Lansing: Michigan Department of Education, Teacher Preparation and Professional Development Division, November 1971), p. 31. 259 aides. H o w e v e r , they felt that little training had been provided in assisting specialized personnel such as school psychologists and subject matter specialists. None of the trainees reported training in team teaching. Most of the trainees did feel that the program was well organized. The trainees reported mixed feelings about the flexibility of the program content, and the appropriateness of the courses taken at Wayne State University. 2 Another important aspect of the evaluation of the program was the evaluation by the program staff. The staff felt that the program achieved its proposed objective of training elementary school librarians. The project coordinator identified the greatest strength of the orientation session as being its involvement of p r i n c i p a l s , teachers and i n t e r n s . Most of the staff reported that the work load for interns was too heavy. For example, an intern had a full day of teaching followed by three or four classes in the afternoon each week. These two factors together made the intern both metnally and physically exhausted by the time the day ended. One instructional staff member felt that a lighter class load or no classes at all during student 2I b i d . teaching would enable trainees to do better jobs in class­ rooms , and that each intern should be given a full time aide to assist him with the routine tasks and free him to work with children. Another staff member suggested that the physical and mental demands required of trainees were too great and not enough time was allowed for fulfilling their required responsibilities. The university coordinator suggested that the guidelines for selection be changed to allow for recruiting and retraining in-service teachers. Some of the recruits had no realistic notion of the work involved in teaching. He also felt that seminars should be provided for college faculty from various disciplines. This would permit continued crossover between theory and practice which would in turn improve the in-service program for interns. He suggested for future programs that all course work be completed before trainees are assigned jobs.3 The program evaluation was summarized as f o l l o w s : The primary objective of the project was to train persons to fill vacancies in inner-city school libraries. The objective was achieved in that fifteen of the sixteen trained persons have been employed by the Detroit Public Schools as librarians in elementary schools starting September, 1971. The other person who completed the program and also holds a provisional certificate has been employed also, but will work only half of his time in the school's library and the other half of his time in a regular self-contained classroom. 3I b i d ., p. 32. 4 Ibid. APPENDIX J A DESCRIPTION OF IN-SERVICE WORKSHOPS (PHASES I AND II) OF THE DETROIT B-2 SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAM 261 IN-SERVICE WORKSHOPS: DETROIT B-2 SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAM In-Service Training Workshops In-service training workshop sessions which took place during the months of September, 1971 through January 1972 were designated as Phase I. The sessions held during the months of February through June 1972 were thought of as Phase II. Personnel involvement took the following structure. Phase I . In-service training workshops during September, November and January involved personnel con­ sisting of project candidates, sponsoring or critical special education teachers, principals of the schools involved and selected consultants. It was felt that these participants were necessary during the months mentioned above beca u s e : 1. September was the initial month the candidates were activated in selected schools in special education classrooms involving sponsoring teachers. A workshop involving those concerned seemed imperative at that time to assure a successful and positive implementation of the project. 2. November was a mid-point in the student teaching practicum and demanded an evaluation of past experiences and a projection for future accomplish­ ments concerning those directly involved. 3. January marked the termination of the practicum phase of the project. Candidates at that point were preparing to enter and assume duties in special education classrooms of their own. Indepth evaluation of project experiences and 262 direction and projection for the future was imperative at that point in time. The October and December sessions involved personnel consisting of project candidates and selected consultants. These sessions afforded project candidates the opportunity to meet as a specialized group. Activi­ ties included solving individual problems, field trips, and gaining the expertise of consultants. Phase I I . The March and June 1972 sessions involved project candidates, principals of schools in which the project candidates were employed, and selected consultants. The March session was necessary for evaluating the degree of adjustment of the candidates relative to their new teaching positions (as of February 1, 1972) and offered support and guidance to assure a greater degree of future success. The June workshop offered the opportunity for a recapitulation of the accomplishments, successes and problems in evaluative form, and a projection of goals for the coming school year (1972-73). The February, April and May meetings involved the project candidates and selected consultants; it gave the candidates an opportunity to discuss problems, relate accomplishments, take field trips, and evaluate experiences both on an individual and/or project level. ^Evaluation Report, Detroit Public Schools EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Training Program for Special Education (Detroit: Detroit Public Schools, 1972). 2I b i d . APPENDIX K EVALUATION DESIGN OF DETROIT B-2 SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAM 263 EV A L U A T I O N : DETROIT B-2 SPECIAL EDUCATION PROGRAM The Evaluation Design The requirement for achieving success in this project was based upon a systematic development of objectives and goals stemming from the project objective which was stated as f o l l o w s : That selected educable mentally retarded youth will achieve academically after being taught by fully qualified and approved experienced teachers who par­ ticipated in this project. This project objective assumed that the quality of educa­ tion for selected Detroit educable mentally retarded children was critically influenced by the teaching expertise and performance of highly qualified special education teachers, if all else were equal. The project objective was to be achieved through the achievement of four major goals relating to the areas of personnel, procedures, material and space. Under each major goal were included several specific objectives.'*" Table 3-6 shows these objectives, the procedures for attaining the objectives and the criteria for evaluation in the Detroit EPDA B-2 Special Education Teacher Training Program. ^Evaluation Report, Detroit Public Schools EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Training Program for Special Education (Detroit Public Schools, 1972). Project Design and Evaluation Form, Detroit EPDA B-2 Short Term Teacher Program for Special Education, 1971-72. Specific Objectives MAJOR GOAL: 1.0 Procedures for Attaining Objectives Criteria for Evaluation (Methods, Procedures & Standards) THE PROJ ECT WILL EMPLOY HIGHLY QUALIFII3D PERSONNEL EITHER AS STAFF ME!^BERS, CONSULTANTS OR COOPERAT][NG FACULTY PEOPLE IN ORDER TO ASSURE SUCCESS. 1.2 Cooperating critic teachers whose expertise and students will be used as student teaching sites will be selected upon criteria comparable to the project directors. 1.3 Consultants serving needs of project partici­ pants will be university personnel who regularly serve as graduate education faculty members. 1.1 A secondary EMR teacher with at least 5 years of teaching experience in the inner city, possessing an M.A. + 30 hrs. in special education, fully certified and approved will be selec­ ted to head up the project. He should have administra­ tive and organizational abilities, tact and know­ ledge of central office procedures. 1.11 The project secretary will be selected upon qual­ ifications exceeding the employment standards for a clear-typist with the Detroit Public Schools. 1.1 Criteria for selection will be itemized and candi­ dates wishing to be con­ sidered will be evaluated accordingly. Selection of the project director will be in con­ formity to, at least, mini­ mum standards of qualifica­ tions. 1.11 The project secretary, likewise, will be drawn from the Detroit Public Schools' pool of candidates, but will be expected to exceed minimum selection criteria. 264 1.1 The project will be ad­ ministered by an experienced and fully approved teacher who will be supported by a competent secretary in the execution of his respon­ sibilities . Project Design and Evaluation Formf Continued. Specific Objectives Procedures for Attaining Objectives 1.12 Critic teachers will be selected upon comparable basis in order to qualify. 2.0 1.12 Critic teachers, too, will be selected upon a set of qualifying criteria which will be comparable to the project director's. THE PRO*JECT WILL BE SYSTEMATICALLY OPEFIATED ACCORDING TO CAREFULLY DELINEA'rED PROCEDURES SO THAT THE PROJE1CT OBJECTIVE WILL BE ACHIEVE]D. 2.1 Recruitment of project participants will be based upon selection criteria. 2.1 The Program Development Office in cooperation with the Department of Special Education will develop the 2.2 In-service education of essential criteria. cooperating school facul­ ties & project participants 2.2 The project director will will assure adequate orien­ plan and execute a continuous tation & perspective for in-service education program. all concerned. 2.3 Wayne State University fie 2.3 College studies in cooperating faculty will con­ special education will duct classes for project qualify participants for participants in order for them State Aid approval. Full to attain full approval status approval will be the goal. in special education. 2.1 When the selection cri­ teria is established and candidates are screened ac­ cordingly, then this objec­ tive will have been attained 2.2 The calendar, agenda & workshop evaluation forms should serve as evidence of objective attainment. 2.3 Completion of all par­ ticipants in graduate studies in special educatior toward full State Aid appro­ val. 265 MAJOR GOAL: Criteria for Evaluation (Methods, Procedures 6 Standards) Project Design and Evaluation Form, Continued. Specific Objectives Procedures for Attaining Objectives 2.4 The DPS & WSU will place pant will experience special education student teaching assignments in order to qualify for full approval. project participants in viable classrooms with critic teachers for project partici­ pants to do their student teaching assignments. 2.5 Each participant will 2.5 The personnel department be placed in a regular special education teach­ ing assignment (full­ time) after the first quarter he finishes stu­ dent teaching in a Detroit Public School. will hire each qualified, certified & approved partici­ pant for a full-time special education teaching assignment. 2.6 The project director will establish & maintain an informal accounting system. 2.6 Regular financial pro­ 2.5 Attainment of the objec­ tive will be realized when at least 85% of all partici­ pants are placed. 2.6 When expenditures are audited against the budget the results attained should infer a careful financial monitoring effort. 2.7 Dissemination pieces ject monitoring will be accomplished. a information releases will 2.7 The project director be planned and executed by the project director. will be responsible for disseminating information regarding the project as widely & often as possible in as many different media forms as possible. 2.4 Completion of student assignments by participants will constitute evidence of this objective. 2.7 A dissemination calendar & evaluation of recipient audiences will constitute evidence of the disseminaeffort. 266 2.4 Each project partici­ Criteria for Evaluation (Methods, Procedures & Standards) Project Design and Evaluation Form, Continued. Specific Objectives 2.8 The project director will make certain that this project fits into the school system milieu through various means of coordinative efforts. MAJOR GOAL: 3.0 Criteria for Evaluation (Methods, Procedures & Standards) 2.8 The project director will be responsible for all coor­ dination of this project, insofar as possible in order to achieve this objective. 2.8 Smooth inception, effi­ cient operations & phase-out procedures will be regarded as evidence of attainment. 2.9 The director will help design, implement & coordi­ nate the evaluation efforts for this project. 2.9 Baseline data & process & product evaluation results will be generated by internal and external evaluations in order to achieve this goal. SUFFICII2NT EQUIPMENT, MATERIALS AND SUI?PLIES WILL BE PURCHASED IN ORDEI1 TO ACCOMPLISH THE PROJECT OBJI2CTIVE. 3.1 The project director will meet with his sec­ retary, consultants and participants to determine the equipment, supplies and materials needs for the duration of the project. 3.1 The project director will call all concerned persons to determine material needs for project operations. 3.1 The minutes of the meet­ ings involving all concerned personnel should reveal that all participated in the determination of material needs for project use. 267 2.9 The project director will be responsible for both internal and exter­ nal evaluation of the project. Procedures for Attaining Objectives Project Design and Evaluation Form, Continued. Specific Objectives Procedures for Attaining Objectives Criteria for Evaluation (Methods, Procedures & Standards) 3.2 The director will in­ struct the secretary to prepare requisitions for project needs. 3.2 Arrival of material needs & their use in the project's operations will be sufficient evidence. 3.3 The project director and his secretary will maintain the equipment in operable condition and inventory files will be kept. 3.3 Repairs to equipment will be ordered when there is breakdown. Inventory files will be established and kept up to date. 3.3 Examination of equipment and inventory files should be sufficient evidence of attainment. MAJOR GOAL: 4.0 ADEQUATE PROJECT STAFF AND PARTICIPANT SPACE WILL BE PROVIDED BY THE DETROIT IPUBLIC SCHOOLS IN ORDER FOR THII PROJECT TO BE SUCCESSFUL, 4.1 The project director will seek and obtain adequate space (housing) for the project opera­ tions, including class­ room space for in-service education sessions. In­ cludes: lighting, heat­ ing, furniture, A-V equipment, custodial and other. 4.1 The project director will confer with the Housing Division and other personnel to secure space for project operations. 4.1 Adequacy of space will be determined by the evaluators who will ask participants, consultants & project staff to critique their housing. 268 3.2 The project director will requisition the agreed upon material needs.