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Filmed as Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 49106 I I 74-19,812 HERBERT, Thomas Allan, 1944AN ANALYSIS OF THE PHYSICAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF EROSION ON LAKE MICHIGAN, A CASE STUDY AT ST. JOSEPH, MICHIGAN. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1974 Geology U n iv e rs ity M ic ro film s , A XEROX C o m p an y , A n n A rb o r, M ic h ig a n A N A N A L Y S I S OP T H E P H Y S I C A L A N D L E G A L A S P E C T S OF E R O S I O N O N LAKE MICHIGAN* A T ST. A CASE STUDY JOSEPH* MICHIGAN By Thomas Allan Herbert A DISSERTATION S u b m i t t e d to Michigan State University in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the r e q u i r e m e n t s for the d e g r e e of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y D e p a r t m e n t of R e s o u r c e D e v e l o p m e n t 1974 ABSTRACT A N A N A L Y S I S OF THE P H Y S I C A L A N D L E G A L A S P E C T S O F E R O S I O N O N LAKE MICHIGAN, A C A S E S T U D Y A T ST. JOSEPH, MICHIGAN By Thomas Allan Herbert T h i s s t u d y w a s d e s i g n e d to a n a l y z e the s c i e n t i f i c r e asons w h y e r o s i o n is o c c u r r i n g a lon g the d e v e l o p e d shores of Lake M i c h i g a n and to r e v i e w the p o s s i b l e o p e n to r i p a r i a n ow n e r s s e e k i n g u r a l l y i nd u c e d e r o s i o n dam ages. parameters legal ave nue s r e l i e f from o t h e r t h a n n a t ­ The specific geological that i n t e r a c t to cau se e r o s i o n are d e s c r i b e d u^ - ing a p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e model. shore at St. Joseph, E r o s i o n rates alo ng the Michigan have b e e n rapidly accelerat­ ing o n the s o u t h side of the twin h a r b o r pie rs m a i n t a i n e d b y the A r m y C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s at the m o u t h of the St. J o s ­ eph River. Littoral sediment side of p ier s is b e i n g t r a p p e d on the north to the d e t r i m e n t of the o f f s h o r e b a r s y s t e m on the s o u t h side. The process-response model 1 predicts Thomas Allan Herbert that u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of r i s i n g lak e s t a g e o f f s h o r e b a r s w i l l not b u i l d u p w a r d w i t h the s t a g e cha nge . ba r r e l a t i o n s h i p is c r i t i c a l the beach. in r e g u l a t i n g wave e n e r g y at the b e a c h thus c aus i n g e r o s i o n . librium conditions Under equi­ sediment which has be e n eroded by creased wave energy will b u i l d offshore bars s t a g e —b a r c ond iti on. in­ to a stable E q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s are then r e ­ S h o r e s t r u c t u r e s b u i l t as p r o t e c t i o n s t o p na tur al the r e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s and ca u s e a c c e l e r a t e d e r o s i o n to o c c u r f a r t h e r d o w n dri ft. made s tag e- L a c k i n g a d e q u a t e b a r h e i g h t w a v e s of h i g h e r energy strike gained. Thi s from a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s E r o s i o n rate m e a s u r e m e n t s t a k e n in 1 9 3 8 and 1 9 6 9 through 1973 w e r e u s e d to d o c u m e n t the r a t e s of e r o s i o n a t St. J o s ­ eph. These rates w e r e c o m p a r e d w i t h d a t a c o l l e c t e d b y o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s w o r k i n g o n o t h e r areas on L a k e M i c h i g a n and Huron. Using at St. the se t of fa cts d e t e r m i n e d J o s e p h as a basis, analyzed for the conditions four possible legal avenues were to d e t e r m i n e h o w t h e y c o u l d be u s e d to s t o p m a n - in duc ed e r o s i o n d a m a g e to r i p a r i a n p r o p e r t y . thetical c l a i m s are p r e s e n t e d u s i n g gal a v e n u e s available T he four h y p o ­ the m o s t a p p l i c a b l e l e ­ to r i p a r i a n owners. Remedies under Thomas Allan Herbert the c o m m o n law# a federal mental Protection Act Policy Act (NEPA) tort claim# (EPA) M i c h i g a n ’s E n v i r o n ­ and the N a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l ar e re viewed. T h e l o n g - t e r m s o l u t i o n to the s hor e e r o s i o n p r o b ­ lem at St. J o s e p h and o t h e r a r e a s on the G r e a t Lakes l a r l y a f f e c t e d is to m i n i m i z e the d i s r u p t i o n o f the n a t ­ ural b e a c h a n d l i t t o r a l system. ians at St. eers Th e eff o r t s Joseph will be most effective of n e w shore s t r u c t u r e s is e n c o u r a g e d o f the r i p a r ­ if c o n s t r u c t i o n is m i n i m i z e d a n d the C o r p s o f E n g i n ­ to b e g i n s a n d t r a n s f e r a nd n o u r i s h m e n t of the s hor e south of the h a r b o r piers. L ega l be u s e d to a i d s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m are as al ong needed. simi­ It is a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t a Co r p s ac t i o n s can the sh ore w h e n public works pro­ ject w i l l b e p r o p o s e d to r e b u i l d the e r o s i o n d a m a g e d shore areas. Co r p s mental T h e N E P A can b e u s e d as a le gal plans if they are not c o n s i s t e n t w i t h sys t e m s p r e s e n t at St. provision tool to m o d i f y Joseph. for c i t i z e n s t a n d i n g ca n b e the e n v i r o n ­ Th e E P A w i t h its applied similarly to c o n t r o l p u b l i c and p r i v a t e e r o s i o n c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s they are n ot c o n s i s t e n t w i t h It is r e c o m m e n d e d if the shore e nv i r o n m e n t . that s e d i m e n t n o u r i s h m e n t b e b e ­ gun as a f i r s t s t e p in r e b u i l d i n g the nat ura l littoral T h o m a s A l l a n Herbert: e n v i r o n m e n t at St. vide Special for f u n d i n g o f e r o s i o n c o n t r o l mentation of Lakes Joseph. the p l a n s legislation to p r o ­ studies imple­ should he enacted riparians. 4 and to a i d G r e a t Dedication To the m e m o r y o f C h a r l e s F r e d e r i c k H e r b e r t » father and Charles A r t h u r Herbert# grandfather# motivators both mining engineers and p r i m e o f m y p r o f e s s i o n a l ca reer. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to e x p r e s s h e a r t f e l t t hanks and thesis c o m m i t t e e chairman# ciate p r o f e s s o r of r e s o u r c e ment Department L e i g h t o n L. to m y g u i d a n c e Leighty# asso­ l aw in the R e s o u r c e D e v e l o p ­ for h is h e l p in g u i d i n g the legal research. P r o f e s s o r M a y n a r d M. M i l l e r of G e o l o g y w a s m o s t h e l p f u l w i t h h is critical aspects and to h i m r e v i e w of the g e o l o g i c a nd g e o m o r p h i c I g i v e sp eci al thanks. o r d e r to P r o f e s s o r C l i f f o r d R. H u m p h r y s Thanks are in of R e s o u r c e D e v e l ­ o p m e n t a n d A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r T o n y B l o o m q u i s t of Ci vil E n g i n e e r i n g for th eir s u g g e s t i o n s S i n c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n goes Toby# a nd help. to m y family# for th eir c o n c e r n and s u p p o r t w h i c h w i l l forgotten. E d i t h and no t b e TABLE OF CONTENTS Page L I S T OF T A B L E S ........................... L I S T OF F I G U R E S ............................................. viii ix Chapter I. I N T R O D U C T I O N A N D B A C K G R O U N D .................... T h e P r o b l e m ................................... O b j e c t i v e s ................................... W r i t e r ' s I n t e r e s t in the P r o b l e m . . . . R e v i e w o f R e l e v a n t L i t e r a t u r e ............ D e f i n i t i o n s ................................... II. III. 1 16 19 21 23 29 P R O J E C T D E S I G N ................................... 31 T h e C a s e S t u d y A p p r o a c h .................... S e l e c t i o n o f the S t u d y A r e a ............... R e s e a r c h M e t h o d s ........................... 31 32 33 S c i e n t i f i c R e s e a r c h M e t h o d .......... L e g a l R e s e a r c h M e t h o d s ............... 35 36 C o n c e p t u a l F o u n d a t i o n ...................... 38 T H E ST. J O S E P H S T U D Y A R E A ....................... I n t r o d u c t i o n ................................ G e o g r a p h i c a l L o c a t i o n ...................... P h y s i c a l S e t t i n g ........................... C u l t u r a l - P o l i t i c a l S e t t i n g ............ iv 44 44 46 46 53 TA B L E OF C O N T E N T S (cont.) Chapter Page C h r o n o l o g y of S i g n i f i c a n t E v e n t s . . . . A n a l y s i s o f E v e n t s ........................ IV. P H Y S I C A L A N A L Y S I S OF T H E E R O S I O N P R O B L E M A T ST. J O S E P H ..................................... B a c k g r o u n d ..................................... G e o l o g i c H i s t o r y ............................. S h o r e P r o c e s s e s ................................ S t a g e - B a r R e l a t i o n s h i p .................... Th e Pro c e s s - R e s p o n s e M o d e l at St. J o s e p h .................................. H y d r o m e t e o r o l o g i c A s p e c t s ................. L o n g - T e r m and S e a s o n a l Stage F l u c t u a t i o n s ........................ S h o r t - T e r m V a r i a t i o n s in Lake L e v e l s ................................ Artificial Factors Affecting Stage . . . E n g i n e e r i n g A s p e c t s ........................ V. A P P L I C A T I O N O F THE P R O C E S S - R E S P O N S E M O D E L T O P R O V I D E F A C T U A L L E G A L E V I D E N C E .......... I n t r o d u c t i o n ................................ A r e a s for E r o s i o n R a t e M e a s u r e m e n t Comparison ............................. E r o s i o n R a t e M e a s u r e m e n t s ................... E r o s i o n R a t e s 1 9 6 9 — 1 9 7 3 — T h e B a s i s for P r i v a t e D a m a g e C l a i m s ...................... E r o s i o n R a t e s 1 9 3 8 - 1 9 7 0 — T h e B a s i s for C l a i m s A g a i n s t the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t . VI. 54 61 THE L E G A L F R A M E W O R K G O V E R N I N G TH E USE OF R I P A R I A N L A N D ON T H E G R E A T L A K E S ............ I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................. Fe deral R e s t r i c t i o n s on R i p a r i a n O w n e r s h i p .................................... v 65 65 68 72 80 90 95 96 98 102 106 115 115 119 122 130 138 146 146 147 T ABLE O P C O N T E N T S (cont.) Chapter Page State Regulation of Riparian Ownership . 154 L o c a l R e g u l a t i o n of R i p a r i a n Land. . . . 158 C o m m o n L a w .............................. 162 VII. A N A L Y S I S OP P O U R L E G A L A V E N U E S O P E N T O P R O T E C T R I P A R I A N R I G H T S .................. 165 I n t r o d u c t i o n ................................ P a c t s C o m m o n to E a c h L e g a l C l a i m . . . . 165 169 H i s t o r i c a l Pac ts ...................... 169 172 S c i e n t i f i c D o c u m e n t a t i o n ............ R e g u l a t o r y C o n t r o l s on R i p a r i a n L a n d .............................. 173 A u t h o r i z a t i o n for R e p a i r of D a m a g e s . 174 E n v i r o n m e n t a l D a m a g e ................. 17 5 T h e C o m m o n L a w T o r t C l a i m ............. 177 The C l a i m ............................ 178 179 Th e Leg al B a s i s ........................ L e g a l P r e c e d e n t ........................ 180 T h e F e d e r a l T o r t C l a i m ............... 183 183 T he C l a i m ............................ T he L e g a l B a s i s ........................ 18 5 Legal P r e c e d e n t ........................ 186 A C l a i m U n d e r the M i c h i g a n E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A c t ....................... 192 Th e C l a i m ............................ 193 The Legal B a s i s ........................ 194 L e g a l P r e c e d e n t ........................ 195 A C l a i m U n d e r the N a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l P o l i c y A c t (NEPA) a nd A d m i n i s t r a t i v e P r o c e d u r e A c t ( A P A ) .................. 202 vi TABLE OF C O N T E N T S (cont.) Chapter Page T h e C l a i m ................................ Th e Legal B a s i s ........................ L e g a l P r e c e d e n t ........................ The Legal Avenues in P e r s p e c t i v e . . . . 207 209 211 218 S u i t s A m o n g N e i g h b o r s ................. T h e W e i g h t of P r e c e d e n t ............... R e v i e w of F u t u r e A c t i v i t i e s .......... 218 220 221 C O N C L U S I O N S A N D R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S ................ 223 C o n c l u s i o n s .................................. 223 P h y s i c a l A s p e c t s ...................... L e g a l A s p e c t s ........................... 223 225 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s ............................. 229 B I B L I O G R A P H Y .............................................. 23 5 G L O S S A R Y ................................................... 245 VIII. vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Page Summary of Artificial Diversions andT h e i r E f f e c t on L e v e l s on the G r e a t L a k e s ........... 104 2. E r o s i o n R a t e s M e a s u r e d at St. J o s e p h ........... 132 3. Erosion Rates Measured J o s e p h ........... 132 4. Background Erosion ........... 133 5. B a c k g r o u n d E r o s i o n R a t e s ................ ........... 141 6. Background Erosion Rates 142 at Rates St. ........... L I S T OF F I G U R E S Figure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Page A view of property damage along a structur­ a l l y p r o t e c t e d s e g m e n t o f b e a c h n e a r St. J o s e p h # M i c h i g a n # M a r c h 1973 f o l l o w i n g a t w o - d a y s t o r m o n L a k e M i c h i g a n ................ 6 S e l f - h e l p e r o s i o n p r o t e c t i o n a l o n g the s h o r e at St. J o s e p h # M i c h i g a n w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f j u n k c a r b o d i e s # o l d r e f r i g e r a t o r s # and a s s o r t e d c o n c r e t e rub ble . (Photo 1970, c o u r t e s y o f the M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e H i g h w a y s . ) ................................ 11 L o c a t i o n m a p o f the c a s e s t u d y a r e a at St. J o s e p h # M i c h i g a n ................................ 15 V e g e t a t i o n s t a b i l i z e d b l u f f s at St. J o s e p h # M i c h i g a n in J u n e 1969. (Photo c o u r t e s y o f the M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e H i g h w a y s . ) 49 H i g h o b l i q u e p h o t o g r a p h i c v i e w to the s o u t h w i t h the t w i n f ed e r a l p i e r s at the m o u t h of the St. J o s e p h R i v e r in the f o r e g o i n g . (Photo# M a y 1973# b y T. A. Her ber t) . . . . 50 A p p r o x i m a t e s h o r e p o s i t i o n s at t h e m o u t h o f the St. J o s e p h R i v e r d u r i n g the p a s t 140 y e a r s b a s e d o n i n f o r m a t i o n fr om the a r c h i v e s of the St. J o s e p h P u b l i c L i b r a r y . 51 Lak e s t a g e s in the G r e a t L a k e s b a s i n d u r i n g the p a s t 1 0 # 0 0 0 y ears# m o d i f i e d from H o u g h ( 1 9 5 8 ) ..................................... 69 ix LIST OF F I G U R E S (cont.) Figure 8. Page Terminology associated with geomorphic f e a t u r e s in the l i t t o r a l e n v i r o n m e n t along a t ypical G r e a t L a k e s shor e in the v i c i n i t y of the s t u d y a r e a ............... 9a. M o v e m e n t of s e d i m e n t b y b e a c h drift# m o d i f i e d from S t r a h l e r (1960) 9b. 73 diagram L i t t o r a l d r i f t or l o n g s h o r e d r i f t of s e d i ­ m e n t in the l i t t o r a l belt# d i a g r a m m o d i ­ fied from S t r a h l e r ( 1 9 6 0 ) ................... 76 76 10a. H y p o t h e t i c a l s t a g e - b a r r e l a t i o n s h i p at n e a r e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s at a l o w - w a t e r stage o n the G r e a t L a k e s ............................. 81 10b. H y p o t h e t i c a l s t a g e - b a r c o n d i t i o n s d e p i c t e d d u r i n g rising stage. Note landward shift­ ing of b a r s w i t h s u b s e q u e n t e r o s i o n until e q u i l i b r i u m is again a c h i e v e d .............. 81 11. 12a. 12b. A c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of the l i t t o r a l s y s t e m at St. Joseph# M i c h i g a n as s k e t c h e d from the p h o t o v i e w in F i g u r e 5. T o p of d i a g r a m is s o u t h ............................... 87 S c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the s t a g e - b a r c o n d i t i o n s on a s t r u c t u r a l l y a l t e r e d shore at a low lake s t a g e ........................... 88 S c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the s t a g e - b a r co n d i t i o n s on a s t r u c t u r a l l y a l t e r e d shore at a h i g h lake s t a g e ........................... 88 x LIST OF FIGURES (cont.) Figure 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Page Simplified illustration showing processr e s p o n s e mo d e l # w i t h d e s t r u c t i o n of the littoral system b y structures. Breakback or f l a n k i n g g r e a t l y a c c e l e r a t e s the e r o ­ si on rat e on the d o w n d r i f t s ide o f the i n s t a l l e d s t r u c t u r e ........................... 94 L a k e M i c h i g a n — H u r o n s t a g e s for the p e r i o d of r e c o r d 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 7 3 w i t h the 0.03 ft. per y e a r o b s e r v e d l o w e r i n g t r e n d a p p l i e d to the d a t a po in ts# d i a g r a m m o d i f i e d f r o m L a r s o n (1972) 97 A r e a s w h e r e e r o s i o n rat e i n f o r m a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e f r o m o t h e r r e s e a r c h s tud i e s # al so n o t i n g St. J o s e p h l o c a l e ............... 121 V e r t i c a l a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h i c v i e w o f two s h o r e s e g m e n t s t h a t h a v e b e e n e r o d i n g at an a c c e l e r a t e d r a t e d u r i n g the p e r i o d 19 6 9 - 1 9 7 3 . (Aerial p h o t o s c o u r t e s y o f the M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e H i g h w a y s ) . 123 M e t h o d o f c o n t r o l and p h o t o g r a m m e t r i e m e a ­ s u r e m e n t on 1 : 3 0 0 0 v e r t i c a l aerial p h o t o ­ g r a p h s at St. J o s e p h # M i c h i g a n ............... 128 High oblique aerial v i e w of Sleeping Bear D u n e s s h o w i n g the l o c a t i o n w h e r e e r o s i o n ra te m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e m a d e b y the M i c h i g a n W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o m m i s s i o n staff. (Photo b y T. A. H e r b e r t # A p r i l 1 9 6 9 ) ............... 14 4 xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND W i t h i n the p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s States there exist l i ne w h i c h endowed with both seacoasts nation means w e a nd shores. During the past decade that b o r d e r our seacoasts T h e s e 30 c o a s t a l population states a nd 12 o f largest 90 o c c u r r e d w i t h i n the and G r e a t L a k e s . c o n t a i n 75 p e r c e n t the 13 T he is c u r i o u s l y o r i e n t e d p e r c e n t of o u r p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h h a s 30 s t a t e s are u n i q u e l y a n d g r e a t l a k e sho res . the U n i t e d S t a t e s t o w a r d the b e a c h e s the U n i t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 2 , 0 0 0 m i l e s of s h o r e ­ for a c o n t i n e n t a l populace of of cities. o f o u r t ota l Furthermore n e a r l y o n e — h a l f o f this p o p u l a t i o n l i v e s w i t h i n the coastal c o u n t i e s .^ The needs ti on on for l i v i n g the c o a s t a l regions has of this large p r o p o r t i o n of our p o p u l a ­ s p a c e an d r e c r e a t i o n p u t s e x t r e m e p r e s s u r e zones. tak en p l a c e D e v e l o p m e n t of shore at a rate too rapid ^U.S. A r m y C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s , S t u d y , W a s h i n g t o n , D. C., 1971. 1 areas in m o s t to r e g u l a t e National Shoreline 2 effecti vel y. U n p l a n n e d d e v e l o p m e n t alo ng the c o a s t a l z o n e / e s p e c i a l l y w h e n m a n ' s w o r k s e x t e n d to the w a t e r s beyond# leads to s e r i o u s and o f t e n c a t a s t r o p h i c E r o s i o n of the s h o r e l i n e p l a c e s on indivi dua l p r o p e r t y owners# local and the federal g o v e r n m e n t as well. coastal zone w h o l i t e r a l l y ot her w o r k s and s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s People f i g h t to s ave living in the their homes and of E n g i n e e r s of the U n i t e d St ate s A r m y c a r r i e d and t e r r i t o r i a l sh o r e s cant erosion. the s h o r e l i n e This tha t 2 0 / 5 0 0 m i l e s of are e x p e r i e n c i n g signifi­ figure r e p r e s e n t s o n e — fou r t h o f all in the U n i t e d States/ Of this 20/500 m i l e so to m o t i v a t e the N a t i o n a l S h o r e l i n e S t u d y in 1968. out this s t u d y and r e p o r t e d in 1971 na ti o n a l results. f r o m e r o s i o n an d f l o o d i n g h a v e b e c o m e e x t r e m e l y to a u t h o r i z e Th e Cor ps and an e x t r e m e b u r d e n vo cal on this t o p i c in r e c e n t y e a r s , e n o u g h Congress edge# e x c l u d i n g Alaska. 2 fi g u r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 500 l i n e a r m i l e s of the S t a t e of M i c h i g a n ' s l a k e s hor e are n o w u n d e r g o i n g s i g n i f i c a n t erosion. Th e lure of o p e n w a t e r b r i n g s m a n y m i l l s i o n s of r e c ­ reational enthusiasts 2 to the b e a c h e s of the c o a s t a l zon e Th e S t a t e of A l a s k a al one h as a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 4 / 0 0 0 mi les o f tidal c o a s t l i n e m o s t of w h i c h lies in a v i r g i n condition/ A l a s k a E n c y c l o p e d i a B r i t a n n i c a # 1973 edition. 3 to p ar t a k e in v a r i o u s s p o r t i n g a c t i vit ies . lure of the b e a c h b r i n g s m a n y p e o p l e land for h o m e s i t e s or to a c q u i r e erty. To L i k e w i s e , the se ek i n g already developed prop­ the o c c a s i o n a l o r w e e k e n d w a t e r s p o r t s e n t h u ­ siast the loss of b e a c h areas temporal af f e c t for h e through erosion has only a is m o b i l e and can u s u a l l y s e e k o u t new shore areas u n c l u t t e r e d b y m a n ' s works. erty ow ner ever/ to b u y r aw a l o n g the sho re For the p r o p ­ the p r o b l e m of er os i o n / how­ c ann ot b e d i s m i s s e d b e c a u s e h i s l o c a t i o n w i t h r e ­ spect to the w a t e r s e d g e is fixed. new t hreat to his p rop erty/ Each storm brings a w h i l e e a c h u n p l a n n e d wharf/ je tty and b u l k h e a d c o n s t r u c t e d in his v i c i n i t y t h r e a t e n s da m a g e to h i s investment. Sh ore p r o p e r t y is e x t r e m e l y v a l u a b l e / ing for h u n d r e d s or e v e n t h o u s a n d s frontage a foot for p r i m e c o m m e r c i a l "gold coast" of Flo rida/ ditional well land as f o u n d on for exa mple. Man s t r u c t u r e d t h i n k i n g o f t e n re g a r d s p e rty as b e i n g equ al which monuments ership. for eac h foot of o r d i n a r y r e s i d e n t i a l p r o p e r t y a n d u p w a r d s of $ 10/ 000 the of d o l l a r s often sell­ in his sho re p r o ­ to a n y o t h e r l a n d l o c k e d pr operty/ are e m p l a c e d to d e l i m i t tra­ on the e x t e n t of o w n ­ Once a line has b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d / w h e t h e r it b e 4 s h o r e l i n e or an o r d i n a r y p r o p e r t y line# expects it to s t a y put. The landward extensions of shore o w n e r s h i p are r e a s o n a b l y f i x e d tion; h o w e v e r # to f l u c t u a t i o n s al o n g governed by (geological f i x e d a nd p e r m a n e n t ca ses the g e o l o g i c a l Man's actions to c o n t r o l nature and h i s forces in n e a r l y all failure. that is a l i e n to too o f t e n s t a t i c s e n s e of e q u i l i b r i u m . this s ta te o f d y n a m i c e q u i l i b r i u m e r o s i o n the s t e a d y - s t a t e the is c o n s t a n t l y s t r i v i n g achieve a dynamic equilibrium of at w o r k forces) in e f f o r t s to m a i n t a i n to a m e a s u r a b l e d e g r e e m e t w i t h interests posi­ is s u b j e c t systems seaward boundaries have O n the b e a c h # man's in t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c a l the s e a w a r d o r l a k e w a r d b o u n d a r y the c o a s t a l zone. of nature man unreasonably to In is o n l y on e p a r t s y s t e m of e r o s i o n - s e d i m e n t transport- deposition that moves beach material in r e s p o n s e other controlling geologic In f a c t the p a r t i c u l a r bea c h conditions# i.e.# the factors. seaward or lakeward limit e x i s t s w h e n a s hor e p r o p e r t y o w n e r p u r c h a s e s shore be in a g e o l o g i c st a b l e beach# for m o r e sense# t han the to the cannot be that a s e g m e n t of assumed actually time b e t w e e n m a j o r s to r m s . as A m e r i c a n n a t u r a l i s t W i l l i a m B e e b e w r o t e is# to The "the b a t t l e g r o u n d o f tbe s h o r e . " tw een storms# the b e a c h m a i n t a i n s of s e e m i n g s t a b i l i t y # occurring. During quiescent periods b e ­ a remarkable w i t h no great movements appearance of sediment But during one m a j o r sto r m w h e t h e r it b e h u r r i c a n e o n the A t l a n t i c c o a s t o r a s u s t a i n e d " n o r 1w e s t e r " which takes o n the G r e a t L a k e s place ing the m o s t can exceed recent geologic sh ort p e r i o d of time# substantial tures ogist ments the e r o s i o n a n d d e p o s i t i o n time. In turn# w i t h i n a the s h o r e p r o p e r t y o w n e r s to b u i l d i n g s th e changes From the p o i n t of v i e w o f the e n g i n e e r # the g e o l ­ nature." engineer can devise The coastal the the anthropocentric c all beach "natural equilibrium conditions. v i e w of w h a t he w o u l d c h a n g e an d d i v e r t a in the b e a c h w e r e o n l y m i n o r a d j u s t ­ in the n a t u r a l N o w enter: can suffer and s t r u c ­ in an e v e n t t h a t m a n y p e o p l e w o u l d c a l l 1. t h r e e —d a y that which had occurred d u r ­ and e v e n t o t a l l o s s disaster#" Figure a "struggle b e t w e e n m a n impact of natural and a d j o i n i n g upl a n d s # in h i s and many structures processes times in v i e w they are a s e e m i n g d e f e n s i v e v i c t o r y o v e r on and to the the s h o r t the n a t u r a l W i l l i a m Bee be # A d v e n t u r i n g w i t h B eeb e; Selections f r o m the W r i t i n g s o f W i l l i a m B e e b e (New York: D u e l l # S loan# a n d P earce# 1955). 6 Fig. 1 . — P r o p e r t y d a m a g e a l o n g b u l k h e a d e d s e g m e n t of shore ne a r St. J o se ph , M i c h i g a n . P h o t o g r a p h w a s t a k e n in M a r c h 1 9 7 3 f o l l o w i n g a s e v e r e t w o - d a y s t o r m on L a k e M i c h i g a n . (Phot o c o u r t e s y of the M i c h i g a n W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o m m i s s i o n . ) 7 forces involved. most instances is What has that the b e a c h areas o w n b e s t p r o t e c t o r . is c o n t i n u a l l y e r o d i n g # this c h a n g e true. is t h e n it c a n b e su ch The converse and relative involving posi accretion t hat m a n can as t h o s e rebound or tectonic upwarping or d o w n - for e x a m p l e # is t o t a l l y in the b e a c h e n v i r o n m e n t from e r o s i o n . is such long run the m i n o r i n s t a b i l i t i e s la nd there in the g e o l o g i c s y s t e m t h a t insignificant. In all i n s t a n c e s m a n m u s t p l a n to l i v e w i t h n a t u r e . bility a beach assumed that h a v e on l a r g e m a g n i t u d e g e o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s warping state In e i t h e r s i t u a t i o n the e f f e c t involving glacial in the a d j a c e n t u p l a n d in the b e a c h p r o f i l e tion of t h e s h o r e l i n e . is a l s o t a k e n i nto a c c o u n t If in the n a t u r a l is an i n h e r e n t i n s t a b i l i t y ca usi ng not been and In the the inherent flexi­ are w h a t protects the u p ­ On undeveloped shores there is n o s u c h thing as e r o s i o n d a m a g e o n l y a t e m p o r a r y r e s c u l p t u r i n g o f the sho rel i n e . On d e v e l o p e d s h o r e s approach has been to b u i l d forces of w i n d and w a v e s processes to s e e k the traditional engineering structural defenses rather tha n a l l o w i n g t h e i r o w n end. the s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d e x p e r t s in the The Corps against the the s h o r e of Engineers# field of coastal marine 8 e n g i n e e r i n g * h a v e s t a t e d t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y q u i t e unique ly: U n f o r t u n a t e l y this n a t u r a l m o d e o f d e f e n s e d o e s n o t r e t a i n the fo r m e r b o u n d a r i e s of the d r y l a n d m a s s in a s ta b l e p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e to the sea* nor does it o c c u r w h e n needed* b u t r a t h e r at i r r e g u l a r and u n p r e d i c t a b l e intervals. Therefore it has b e e n n e c e s s a r y for m a n to e n t e r the b a t t l e w i t h his s t r u c t u r a l d e f e n s e s for s t a b i l i z a t i o n In the ten y e a r s s i n c e l ished b y the Corps* the a bov e s t a t e m e n t w a s the p o s i t i o n of s t a f f e n g i n e e r s pub­ in that a g e n c y h a s not c h a n g e d a t l e a s t as far as is r e p r e ­ sented b y t h e i r m o s t r e c e n t d e c i s i o n s and e n g i n e e r i n g re ­ commendations . On the o t h e r hand* so c a l l e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l during this same time p e r i o d the a w a r e n e s s h a s c a u g h t h o l d a cro ss the c o u n t r y and this n e w p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s h a s b r o u g h t to task m a n y of the p r e v i o u s l y "sacred" E n t e r n o w the p r i v a t e property owner suffering projects citizen* of the Corps. w h o is a r i p a r i a n from a c c e l e r a t e d e r o s i o n d a m a g e s to his land as the r e s u l t of p o o r l y c o n c e i v e d and d e s i g n e d engineering works in the v i c i n i t y o f his p r o p ert y. are h i s a l t e r n a t i v e s ? n a tional What M u c h o f the s a m e 2 0 * 5 0 0 m i l e s of s h o r e l i n e that are n o w u n d e r g o i n g significant G a r y Soucie, "Where B e a c h e s H a v e B e e n Going: the O c e a n * " S m i t h s o n i a n M a g a z i n e * J u n e 1973* p. 56. Into 9 e r o s i o n are in an a l r e a d y d e v e l o p e d c o n d i t i o n m a k i n g this a pro b l e m of c o n s i d e r a b l e m a g n i t u d e an d o ne w i t h a l a r g e number of c i t i z e n s b e i n g have h a d s u f f i c i e n t affected. Th e p r i v a t e o w n e r m a y f o r e s i g h t to b u i l d h i s dwellings well ba ck from the ac t i v e e r o s i o n zone a lon g the beach. those owners the loss of a few feet t hr o u g h e r o s i o n d u r i n g e a c h s t o r m is a m i n o r to the d i s a s t e r r e a p e d b y To accelerated irritation compared the o w n e r w h o h a s p o s i t i o n e d his dw ell i n g too near the a c t i v e b e a c h zone. The rea s o n s w h y a r i p a r i a n w o u l d s e e k to c r o w d too close to the ac t i v e zone o f the b e a c h can b e many. owner m a y h a v e w a n t e d Th e the s c e n i c s e a s c a p e s b r o u g h t d i r e c t l y into his l i v i n g r o o m — a p e r s o n a l c h o i c e of l oca tio n. o t h e r i nst a n c e s the r i p a r i a n o w n e r m i g h t h a v e b e e n f orc ed into close a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h the a c t i v e z o n e b y less sc rup ulo us l a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p r a c t i c e s . ing or b u i l d i n g r e g u l a t i o n s In tha n Unenlightened zon­ of p r e v i o u s y e a r s h a v e a l l o w e d d e v e l o p e r s to rea p the v e r y m a x i m u m d o l l a r r e t u r n o u t of shore proper ty# wi th in w h i c h cases insufficient set-back s i t u a t i o n in t urn h a s oped shore l o t s lots w e r e too o f t e n p l a t t e d from the w a t e r s edge. This f o r c e d the p u r c h a s e r s of t hes e d e v e l ­ to b u i l d too cl ose to the shore. Whatever 10 is the reason# oped sta te m u c h of o u r c o a s t l i n e h a s t h a t u n d e r newer# enlightened regulations wou l d be c o n s i d e r e d n o n - c o n f o r m i n g . for the p r o p e r t y o w n e r s achieved a devel­ 5 W h a t t h e n is the s o l u t i o n in s u c h d e v e l o p e d r e a c h e s w h o are s u f f e r i n g s e v e r e e r o s i o n da m a g e ? T o m a n y ow n e r s t h e i r firs t t h o u g h t is to w a g e o wn p e r s o n a l b a t t l e against vate o w n e r m a y h i r e a m a r i n e e n g i n e e r and p r o c e e d w i t h p r o ­ te ctive m e a s u r e s . are e v e n less sive m e a s u r e s fall than s o p h i s t i c a t e d . in the s a m e c a t e g o r y w i t h Countless examples of the U n i t e d States# where The pri­ O f t e n t hes e p e r s o n a l l y a r r a n g e d p r o t e c ­ tive m e a s u r e s ure 2. the forces o f nature. their can b e Many defen­ those in F i g ­ found on b o t h s e a c o a s t s the G u l f a n d a lon g the G r e a t L ake s the c o m p l e t e s p e c t r u m of s e l f - h e l p m e a s u r e s ha s b e e n tried. O t h e r o w n e r s m a y s e e k l ega l r e m e d y to r e c o u p l o s s e s from n e i g h b o r i n g r i p a r i a n s for e r o s i o n d a m a g e s # the ca use of w h i c h ca n b e r e l a t e d to these o t h e r r i p a r i a n s 1 at te m p t s to p r o t e c t t h e i r pro per ty. in l i t i g a t i o n and th e c l a i m s 5 W h e n p r i v a t e ow n e r s for d a m a g e s are i n v o l v e d are o n e p r i v a t e In the t e r m i n o l o g y of z o n i n g a p r e s e n t l y nonc o n f o r m i n g u s e m a y h a v e b e e n in e x i s t e n c e at the time the z o n i n g o r d i n a n c e w a s ena cted. Fig. 2.— Self-help erosion protection along the shore at St. Joseph, Michigan which consists of junk car bodies, old refrigerators, and assorted concrete rubble. (Photo 1970, courtesy of the Michigan Department of State Highways.) 12 owner against another/ th ere ru lin g incurring fo r a p l a i n t i f f from a c t i o n s of his is a c o m m o n l a w b a s i s neighbor. these unusual damages O n the o t h e r h a n d as w a s described earlier# m a n y of the d e v e l o p e d u n d e r the p h y s i c a l influence tures b u i l t b y the C o r p s zation of Congress Many riparians have sought fall struc­ to p r o m o t e w a t e r b o r n e to c o l l e c t d a m a g e s commerce. fo r a c c e l e r ­ f e d e r a l p r o j e c t s b u t no a m o u n t of the maintain navigational areas of federal navigational legal m a n e u v e r i n g c a n e l i m i n a t e precedent supporting shore o f E n g i n e e r s u n d e r the a u t h o r i ­ in o r d e r ated erosion caused b y for a the g r e a t b o d y o f le g a l f ed e r a l g o v e r n m e n t ' s r i g h t to structures without regard for h a r m to private property.^ Recent legislation le vel h a s agencies 7 at b o t h the federal s t r i p p e d a w a y s o m e of the u n b r i d l e d involved in m a n a g i n g o u r n a t u r a l allowed direct citizen a nd s t a t e a u t h o r i t y of resources and h a s intervention on environmental g S e e g e n e r a l l y pp. 3 7 5 - 3 9 6 in J o s e p h L. Sax# W a t e r L a w C a s e s a n d Commentary' (Boulder# C o l o r a d o : Pruett Press# 1965) . 7 . "The N a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l P o l i c y A c t " 42 U. S . C . 4 3 2 1 - 4 7 (1970) an d "The M i c h i g a n E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A c t o f 1970# " M i c h i g a n C omp . L a w s Ann. § 6 9 1 . 1 2 D 1 - 0 7 (Supp. 1972) ar e the f o r e r u n n e r in F e d e r a l a n d S t a t e environmental legislation. 13 gr o u n d s in s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e m i s m a n a g e m e n t apparent. However, is implied or specific environmental questions, ha ve y e t to be b r o u g h t to b e a r o n t h e shore erosion problem. A d m i t t e d l y s l o w to r e s p o n d le v e l s o f g o v e r n m e n t h a v e shore-zone p r o b l e m s . Management Act ha s y e t to b e 8 In r e c e n t y e a r s a d e q u a t e l y funded. M i c h i g a n , ^ W a s h i n g t o n ,^ police powers h a v e b e g u n response g r o w i n g b u t the federal Coastal states have fact remains like recently en­ regulations. sh ore zone problems Rev. areas is c o n t i n u a l l y that many citizens will "The C o a s t a l Z o n e M a n a g e m e n t A c t o f 19 72" L a w 9 2- 583 , O c t o b e r 27, 1972. o f 1970, their The overall g o v ­ 8 9 of on e of g o v e r n m e n t t h r o u g h to r e s t r i c t the u s e of to c o a s t a l to level b u t z o n e m a n a g e m e n t ac ts levels through zoning and b u i l d i n g ernmental to r e s p o n d the C o a s t a l Z o n e at the and F l o r i d a ^ acted their own state coastal Local i n s t a n c e s all nevertheless begun has been enacted form o r ano t h e r . in m a n y face Public M i c h i g a n Shorelands Prote c t i o n and M a n a g e m e n t Act A c t 245, P u b l i c A c t s o f 1970. ^ W a s h i n g t o n S h o r e l i n e M a n a g e m e n t A c t o f 1971, S t a t . , Ch. 90.58. ' ^ F l o r i d a C o a s t a l C o n s t r u c t i o n Law, 1 6 1 . 0 5 3 , Cha p. 280, L a w s o f 1971. Wash. F l o r i d a Stat. 14 considerable losses personal in land# buildings# p r o p e r t y in s h o r e a r e a s w h i c h o p e d a nd w h e r e l e s s than adequate to l o n g - t e r m e n v i r o n m e n t a l structures and are a l ready d e v e l ­ attention has been paid compatability with natural sh ore p r o c e s s e s . This present study emphasizes associated with erosion along spective losses the m a n y p r o b l e m s the c o a s t a l zone. is t h a t o f the p r i v a t e c i t i z e n w h o in p r o p e r t y c a u s e d b y n a t u r a l he m a y not fully understand# greatly altered b y his own# is geologic fo rce s w h o s e his neighbor's The p er­ faced with forces intensity o r the that is federal g o v e r n m e n t ’s p r o t e c t i v e w o r k s . This study viding basic physical information needed b y ripar­ ian o w n e r s s e e k i n g the G r e a t Lakes. ical and using is St. legal and legal to p r o m o t e b e t t e r e r o s i o n m a n a g e m e n t o n This treatment will d e v e l o p the k e y p h y s ­ a s p e c t s of the s h o r e e r o s i o n p r o b l e m b y t he c a s e s t u d y m e t h o d . Joseph# is a i m e d at p r o ­ Michigan# The site of the c a s e a h i g h l y deve l o p e d shore study area which has undergone unusually severe erosion damage period­ ically over this s i t e the p a s t is s h o w n 60 year s. in F i g u r e 3. T h e g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n of 15 « i»w. KEY TO C O U N TIE S A R E A OF M A P STUDY AREA Fig. 3.— Location map of the case study area at St. Joseph, Michigan. 16 The Problem T h e p r i v a t e r i p a r i a n o w n e r on the G r e a t L a k e s s u ffe rs e r o s i o n d a m a g e e q u a l elsewhere in the world. in m a g n i t u d e The G r e a t L a k e s r i p a r i a n u n i q u e in his e r o s i o n problem . the se aco a s t s an d to a ny o c c u r r i n g is not M a n y d e v e l o p e d are as on the G r e a t L a k e s are s u f f e r i n g a c c e l e r ­ ated d a m a g e s resulting navigational structures or structures sanctioned b y eral permit. from the e m p l a c e m e n t o f fe deral The Great Lakes r i p a r i a n / however* in the re s p e c t t h a t s t a g e s on the G r e a t L a k e s over a r e l a t i v e l y w i d e r a n g e o v e r p e r i o d s years. T h e G r e a t L ake s in h a v i n g riparian of fed­ is u n i q u e fluctuate from 1 5-3 0 in M i c h i g a n is f o r t u n a t e two r e c e n t l y e n a c t e d laws that m a y in the long run p r o v i d e some h e l p in d e a l i n g w i t h hi s e r o s i o n p r o b l e m s » the S h o r e l a n d s Protection and M a n a g e m e n t A c t of 1970 and the 1970 M i c h i g a n E n v i r o n m e n t a l addition/ 13 13 In e n v i r o n m e n t a l l e g i s l a t i o n m a y aid the r i p a r i a n ’s i legal argume nt s. 12 P r o t e c t i o n Act. 12 How e v e r / none of th ese l ega l A c t 245/ P u b l i c A c t s of 1970. A c t 127/ P u b l i c A c t s o f 1970. tools h a v e 17 yet b e e n b r o u g h t to b e a r o n the p r o b l e m s resulting from either private of shore erosion or public protective struc­ tures . The private st ands alone w h e n riparian it c o m e s for a l l fense. of s h o r e o w n e r s b a n d e d These groups are of ten # g a r d e n p a t h so to speak* tural or legal means. the b a s i c g e o l o g i c engineering All taken down the consultants too o f t e n t h e s e are o f t e n and solutions lack Many textbook remedies the j o b In the s a m e r e s p e c t * often rely on ancient precedent basis for self d e ­ to t h e i r p r o b l e m s b y s t r u c ­ that n e v e r h a v e o r n e v e r w i l l d o 14 together however# f rom d a m ­ are l o o s e k n i t i n f o r m a t i o n to b e e f f e c t i v e . ty pe s o l u t i o n s were designed. There by well meaning lawyers providing solutions and purposes to p r o t e c t i n g h i m s e l f ages— either p h y s i c a l l y or legally. associations intents for w h i c h legal they alternatives t h a t h a v e no g e o l o g i c in the c o n t e x t o f th e v a l i d i t y o f c a u s e — a n d — e f f e c t relationships. 14 W h i l e this b r o a d s t a t e m e n t is m a d e o n the b a s i s of p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s b y this w r i t e r # the p r o j e c t m a i n ­ t e n a n c e r e c o r d s of t he M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t of S t a t e H i g h ­ w a y s a n d the C & O R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y s u p p o r t this s t a t e m e n t for the St. J o s e p h area. 18 In the end# erosion continues# o n l y the p r o p e r t y o w n e r s u f f e r s . his structural defenses are w a s h e d his d w e l l i n g s are d e s t r o y e d o r great expense and his cause. There is a l i g h t at the e n d of the p r o v e r b i a l tunnel# however# legal designed fees which utilizes a s h a r p e r c u t t i n g edge. t o t a l l y fu til e they have The The away# to h e m o v e d at are p a i d in a l o s i n g the s a m e t o o l s o n l y w i t h structural defense is n o t if it is p u t i n t o p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e and to a u g m e n t a n d w o r k h a r m o n i o u s l y w i t h nat u r e . Bu t s u c h p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s m u s t b e u n d e r t a k e n on an effective s c a l e o f o p e r a t i o n w h e r e b y the e n t i r e shore area is a f f o r d e d t h e b e n e f i t s . Legal remedies probably can be used most effec­ t i v e l y if t a k e n o n l e g a l p o i n t s w h e r e p r e c e d e n t able. and The new environmental federal mental levels give new hope agency actions this is w h e r e h e c a n b e the k e y research s t u d y a r e a at St. against detri­ shore environment. to h i s own salvation# a i d e d b y the r e s o u r c e m a n a g e ­ m e n t t e a m m a d e u p o f the s c i e n t i s t # This the favor­ a t b o t h t he s t a t e for acting tha t d e g r a d e Th e p r i v a t e r i p a r i a n h o l d s and statutes is e n g i n e e r and law yer. through a model Joseph probes the analysis of the c a s e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s of these 19 three# often diverse disciplines with the a i m of p r o v i d i n g the m u c h - s u f f e r i n g r i p a r i a n o w n e r w i t h a w o r k a b l e # term a p p r o a c h to s o l v e long­ the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m a l o n g d e v e l o p e d shores. Objectives T h e s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e s s o u g h t in this st udy are as follows: 1. To analyze de v e l o p e d a r e a a l o n g t h r o u g h u s e of a p r o t o t y p i c a l the G r e a t L a k e s c o a s t o f M i c h i g a n the k e y nat u r a l g e o l o g i c f act ors a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n ­ ditions that p r o d u c e u n u s u a l e ros ion. 2. To r e v i e w the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of c u r r e n t l y u s e d engineering structures th r o u g h e x a m p l e s and o t h e r p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s available in the s t u d y a r e a an d r e f e r e n c e d in the l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n i n g o t h e r a r e a s of the w o r l d u n d e r g o i n g s i m i l a r ero sion. This r e v i e w a n a l y z e s the particular problems in the g e o l o g i c a l trine e n v i r o n m e n t s 3. inherent and l a c u s ­ of the G r e a t Lakes. To d e v e l o p a c h r o n o l o g y of e v e n t s b o t h n a t ­ ur al and m a n — ind u c e d w h i c h h a v e led to ser i o u s b e a c h 20 d i s r u p t i o n a nd o n - g o i n g e r o s i o n p r o b l e m s at St. Joseph# Michigan. 4. li t t o r a l To develop a relevant conceptual model of s y s t e m in the study area icant p r o c e s s — r e s p o n s e to d o c u m e n t interactions the the s i g n i f ­ and effects in the near-shore environment. 5. To delineate the s y s t e m i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a naturally self-regulating beach environment and related coastal for p r o j e c t ­ features ing l ega l in the s t u d y a r e a as a b a s i s accountability regulating in s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e c a p a c i t y o f the s y s t e m the s e l f — is d i s r u p t e d o r e v e n d e s t r o y e d b y man. 6. To gather area's e r o s i o n rates and to s u b s t a n t i a t e sulting To to a l l y to the f o r e g o i n g the l e g a l b a s i s analyze available of p r e v i o u s This information concerning from m a n — induced changes 7. natives factual the p o s s i b l e legal precedent legal claims short-term legal re­ alter­ in the l i g h t an d e s t a b l i s h e d d o c t r i n e s . accomplished through actions b a s e d on tions o b s e r v e d at the s t u d y objective in p r o c e s s — r e s p o n s e m o d e l . to m i t i g a t e e r o s i o n d a m a g e s objective will be hypothetical for d a m a g e the area. the the us e of fa cts and c o n d i ­ 21 8. To propose an a l t e r n a t i v e l e g a l ming from recent e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y ba s e d bring about changes in a d m i n i s t r a t i v e have caused continuance 9. laws in o r d e r agency actions legal procedures o p t i o n s w h i c h are c o n s o n a n t w i t h of the d y n a m i c s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g evolution of b e a c h profiles the g e o m o r p h i c stresses to that o f the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m . To recommend potential engineering approach stem­ and the r e a l i t i e s system which controls in c o a s t a l regions the s u b j e c t to o f w a v e e n e r g y and l o n g - s h o r e currents. Writer's Interest This w r i t e r has the i g n o r a n c e o f ua te training have be e n for s o m e ti me the g e n e r a l p u b l i c fundamental natural i n t e r e s t s tem s in the P r o b l e m phenomena# felt strongly about to the i.e.# i m portance of geologic forces. o r i g i n a l l y from his u n d ergraduate in the strongly field of geology. tempered b y his association w i t h an engineering and g r a d ­ These perceptions close professional organization, the M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t of S t a t e H i g h w a y s w h e r e h e h a s b e e n e m p l o y e d the p a s t six years This as a f i e l d a n d r e s e a r c h g e o l o g i s t . for 22 The writer's doctoral program te res t t h r o u g h e n l a r g e d e x p o s u r e furthered this in ­ to the m u l t i p l e d i s c i ­ p l i n e s i n v o l v e d in the s t u d y of R e s o u r c e D e v e l o p n e n t . has b e c o m e increasingly clear that effective to p r o b l e m s s t e m m i n g f r o m the m a n - n a t u r e sh o u l d c o m e through a thorough understanding sical p r o b l e m s s e g m e n t of ideal b u t perfect tions i n v o l v e d » plus the p o p u l a c e involved. are t o o o f t e n to p r o b l e m s w h i c h Such problems in o u r solutions will ing o u t o f shores. o f the p h y ­ a process w o u l d be faced w i t h far-fromfinding solu­ The let alone assess field of law finding equitable solutions i m p e r f e c t real w o r l d . also be the ar e so d e e p l y r o o t e d a n d c o m p l e x to t h e i r p r o p e r m a g n i t u d e . a w a y of interaction for in this that t h e y are d i f f i c u l t to r e c o g n i z e # provides solutions a p p r o p r i a t e e d u c a t i o n of it is too s i m p l i s t i c / society we It found the m a n - n a t u r e in l a w as fortunately to c o m p l e x It is h o p e d that for th ese p r o b l e m s interaction along developed ar is 23 Review of Relevant Literature T h i s s t u d y i nvo l v e s broad-based disciplines* its u n a b a s h e d p u r p o s e an i n t e g r a t i o n of the t hre e geology# engineering is to a t t e m p t to and law# "solve" and the p r o b l e m ma n is n o w f a c i n g f r o m c a t a s t r o p h i c s h o r e e r o s i o n in d e v e l ­ oped r eaches. If t h i s is too p r e s u m p t u o u s a t l e a s t this in t e g r a t i o n c a n b e g i n problem. A to s e e k a r e a l i s t i c s o l u t i o n to the review of relevant literature from s p e c i f i c s e c t o r s Th e literature fields of ma rin e* bridge 15 these in geology# lacustrine fortunately specific applicat ion . in e a c h of invo l v e s d r a w i n g three d i s c i p l i n e s . s p e c i f i c a l l y in the and P l e i s t o c e n e geology * in s u b j e c t m a t t e r and r e g i o n a l tive s e a r c h of g e o m o r p h o l o g i c a l lit era tur e. pr ovides b o t h s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s the problem. in its T he e n c y c l o p e d i c s u r v e y of R h o d e s W. F a i r - p r o v i d e s an e x c e l l e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t toral d rif t" is and "erosion" in the s e l e c ­ T his w o r k to t opics s u c h as a n d to the r e g i o n a l T h e w o r k s o f D. W. Joh n s o n # 16 "li t­ a s p e c t s of Andre 15 R h o d e s W. F a i r b r i d g e * ed.* Th e E n c y c l o p e d i a of G e o m o r p h o l o g y (New York: R e i n h o l d B o o k C o m p a n y # 1968). 16 York: Shore Processes J o h n Wi ley # 1919). a nd S h o r e l i n e D e v e l o p m e n t (New 24 Gu ilc h e r 1V and C. A . M . King on coastal pr o c e s s e s . 18 gave significant Narrowing the s u b j e c t s o f l i t e r a ­ ture sea r c h b r o u g h t to b e a r s i g n i f i c a n t ten b y J a c k L. Ho u g h / Eschman, 20 19 , E r w i n Seibel, ific G r e a t Lakes areas. d e v e l o p e d b y L u n a B. J o h n A. Dorr, 21 information writ- Jr., D o n a l d F. . and C u r t i s L a r s o n The general L e o p o l d an d W a l t e r B. C o a s t a l and S u b m a r i n e M o r p h o l o g y W i l e y & Sons, 1958). Beaches and C o a s t s (London: 22 on spec­ s y s t e m s th eor ies 17 18 information Langbein, 23 (London: John E d w a r d Ar nol d, Ltd., 1959) . 19 T h e G e o l o g y o f the G r e a t Lak es v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s Press, 1956). 20 . T h e G e o l o g y of M i c h i g a n of M i c h i g a n Press, 1971). (Urbana: (Ann Arbor: Uni­ . University 21 "Shore E r o s i o n at S e l e c t e d S i t e s on L a k e M i c h ­ igan and La ke H u r o n " ( u n p u b l i s h e d Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of Mi chi g a n , A n n Arbor, 1972) . 22 "The C u l t u r a l V a r i a b l e in S h o r e E r o s i o n A l o n g the Ill i n o i s S h o r e o f L a k e M i c h i g a n , " (Chicago: Lake M i c h i g a n F e d e r a t i o n , 1972). The C o n c e p t of E n t r o p y in L a n d s c a p e E v o l u t i o n , U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y P r o f e s s i o n a l P a p e r 500A (Washington, D. C.: U. S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office, 1962). 25 R i chard J. C h o r l e y etical b a s i s 24 and M. M. M i l l e r for this work. 25 p r o v i d e d a theor- Several publications Corps o f E n g i n e e r s p r o v i d e d s p e c i f i c 26 information on of the the Gr eat Lakes. Th e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t w o r k in the f iel d of e n v i r o n - ment and g e o l o g y was w r i t t e n b y Ian M c H a r g • architect b y profession. ogy had a His mandate 27 a landscape to the field of g e o l ­ p r o n o u n c e d e f f e c t on the d i s t i l l a t i o n o f i n f o r ­ m a t i o n d e r i v e d from all The engineering the o t h e r c i t e d authors. literature n i f i c a n t l y on this p r o b l e m that fo cus ed m o s t s i g ­ is t h a t p u b l i s h e d b y the U n i t e d States A r m y C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h Ce nter. 20 Other 24 G e o m o r p h o l o g y and G e n e r a l S y s t e m s T h e o r y / U. S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y P r o f e s s i o n a l P a p e r 500B (Washington# D. C.: U. S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office# 1967). 25 "E nt r o p y and the S e l f - R e g u l a t i o n of G l a c i e r s in Arctic and Alpine Regions#" Symposium on Arctic and Alpine P r o c e s s e s # G u e l p h Un i v e r s i t y # M a y 4-5# 1973 and p u b l i s h e d in G e o s c i e n c e A b s t r a c t s # E a s t A ngl ia# Eng l a n d # Dec. 1972. 26 Sh o r e P r o t e c tio n# P l a n n i n g and D e s i g n # T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t No. 4# U.S. A r m y C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h Center# U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office# W a s h i n g t o n # D.C.# 1966 and S h o r e l i n e P r o t e c t i o n G u i d e l i n e s # W a s h i n g t o n # D.C.# 1971. 27 D e s i g n w i t h N a t u r e (Garden City# D o u b l e d a y and Co mpa ny# Inc.# 1969). 28 Note 26 s u p r a , N e w York: 26 publications of the Corps helpful information. also provided a great deal of The Michigan Water Resources C o m ­ mission has publi s h e d a number of useful re ports o n the e n g i n e e r i n g m e t h o d s semi-technical for s h o r e p r o t e c t i o n . 29 A r a t h e r c o m p l e t e s t u d y of the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m o n the Gr e a t L a k e s w a s bel 30 c o n d u c t e d b y E. P. B r a t e r o f the U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n . i n f o r m a t i o n on e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n m e n t is f o u n d in the M c H a r g The di s c i p l i n e , f i e l d of law, involved 31 and E r w i n Sei- Additional for the s h o r e e n v i r o n - reference. not being a much broader this w r i t e r ' s m a j o r approach in the l i t e r ­ at ure s e a r c h a n d r evi ew. The ma d e " through m a n y volumes of law followed a path and s t a t e r e p o r t e r s after relevant r e v i e w of c a s e l a w or this w r i t e r d i s c o v e r e d "c o u r t federal a recent 29 Low Cost Shore Protection, Engineering Research In sti t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n , R e p r i n t e d 1959 b y the Water Resource Commission, and Great Lakes Shore Erosion in M i c h i g a n , L a n s i n g , M i c h i g a n , 1969. ~^°A n E n g i n e e r i n g S t u d y o f G r e a t L a k e s S h o r e E r o ­ sion in the L o w e r P e n i n s u l a o f M i c h i g a n , M i c h i g a n W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o m m i s s i o n , D e p a r t m e n t of N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s , La nsi ng, 1973. 31 N o t e 27 supra. 27 case r e p o r t e d the same in the E n v i r o n m e n t R e p o r t e r facts as those at St. Valuable i n f o r m a t i o n w a s o b t a i n e d in j ou r n a l and B a r r y B. Boyer, 37 35 32 38 field articles. articles b y S a x , 34 R o g e r C. C r o m p t o n R i c h a r d W. D o n a l d L. H u m p h r e y s # A great in the le gal t h r o u g h the s t u d y of l a w jo u r n a l T e r r y A. T r u m b u l l / 33 J o s e p h L. reale, having nearly J o s e p h # Michigan. deal o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n on r e c e n t tre nds is ava il a b l e 32 Bartke, 36 E v a H. and L e i g h t o n L. Mo r- Leighty. 39 r e l a t i v e l y n e w r e p o r t i n g series p u b l i s h e d b y the B u r e a u of N a t i o n a l A f f a i r s # Inc. (BNA) in W a s h i n g t o n # D. C.# w h i c h s p e c i a l i z e s in e n v i r o n m e n t a l law. 33 A "Private E n v i r o n m e n t a l L e g a l A c t i o n # " o f S an F r a n c i s c o L a w R e v i e w # Vol. 7# Oct. 1972# University pp. 27-56. 34 Law: Vol. "The P u b l i c T r u s t D o c t r i n e in N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e Effective Judicial Intervention#" Michigan Law R e v i e w # 68# J a n u a r y 1970# pp. 473-506. 35 " C i t i z e n s ’ Suits m the E n v i r o n m e n t a l Field: Peril or P r o m i s e # " E c o l o g y L a w Q u a r t e r l y # Vol. 2# No. 3# S u m m e r 1972# pp. 407-436. 36 Struggle p. 1. "The N a v i g a t i o n S e r v i t u d e and J u s t C o m p e n s a t i o n : for a D o c t r i n e # " O r e g o n L a w R e v i e w # Vol. 48# 1968# 37 "Federal P o w e r in W e s t e r n Waters: Th e N a v i g a t i o n P o w e r and the R u l e of N o C o m p e n s a t i o n , " N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s J o u r n a l , Vol. 3# M a y 1963# p. 1. 38 "NEPA and M u l t i - A g e n c y A c t i o n s — Is the Lead Agency Concept Valid?" N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s L a w y e r # Vol. No. 4, 1973# p. 257. 39 Ri g h t s "The S o u r c e and S c o p e of p u b l i c and P r i v a t e in N a v i g a b l e W a t e r s — P a r t I#" L a n d and W a t e r L a w 5# 28 Additional of r e l e v a n t N o r m a n J. logy# texts Landau a n d P aul D. through t h o s e b y J o s e p h L. Rhemgold# f i e l d of e n v i r o n m e n t a l rapid pace w i t h and fo r this including gained 41 and a review Sax# 40 the a n t h o - 42 the B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s . Law and The information was l a w is g r o w i n g at a n e w l i t e r a t u r e c o m i n g o u t a l m o s t d ail y# r e a s o n o n l y the m o r e significant works were actually used here h a v e b e e n mentioned. of s i g n i f i c a n t case law can b e e x t r e m e l y in t h a t d e c i s i o n s The that review "time s e n s i t i v e " are being h a n d e d d own al m o s t daily. case l a w u s e d r e p r e s e n t s those relevant cases The reported p r i o r to m i d - 1 9 7 3 . The official C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s records of public hearings permits were found helpful involving in p r e p a r a t i o n R e v i e w # Vo l. 5# No. 2# 1970; " P u b l i c R i g h t s in N a v i g a b l e State W a t e r s — Some S t a t u t o r y App r o a c h e s # " Land and W a t e r R e v i e w # Vol. 6# No. 2# 1971# p. 1. 40 D e f e n d i n g the E n v i r o n m e n t ; A S t r a t e g y for C i t i ­ z e n A c t i o n (New York; A l f r e d A. K n o p f Co.# 1971) # a n d W a t e r L a w C a s e s and C o m m e n t a r y . 41 l a tine# The Environmental 1971). 42 Law Handbook (New York: Bal— L a w rence F r i e d m a n and S t eward Macauly# editors ( I ndi ana pol is; T h e B o b b e s M e r r i l l C o m p a n y # 1969. 29 for this study. 43 Additional the e x a m i n a t i o n o f cases p e n d i n g lawyer's briefs in t h e St. J o s e p h ence h a s b e e n m a d e gained fro m s e v e r a l area. to t h e s e c a s e s p r i e t y in th at t h e y h a v e y e t time of insight was No through actual further refer­ for the s a k e of p r o ­ to b e h e a r d in c o u r t a t the this w r i t i n g . Definitions This many terms in the thesis, its c r o s s - d i s c i p l i n a r y sc ope , tha t w i l l b e u n f a m i l i a r fields of geology, was possible these quent discussion text. by W h e n an u n u s u a l engineering t e r m is u sed, however, is g i v e n As much ter ms w i l l b e tual b a c k g r o u n d . For these cases as subse­ from the the w o r d h a s to a m o r e in the g l o s s a r y at the e n d o f evident that some 43 a n d law. their meaning discernible been underlined and reference definition to t h e r e a d e r n o t v e r s e d terms h a v e b e e n u s e d w i t h e n o u g h to m a k e uses complete this w o r k . foreign even with It is the t e x ­ the r e a d e r m a y w i s h to All pu b l i c m e e t i n g s on Corps permits are r e c o r d ­ ed b y a court reporter. T h i s p u b l i c r e c o r d is a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h the v a r i o u s D i s t r i c t O f f i c e s o f the C o r p s o f Engineers. 30 44 refer to the G l o s s a r y of G e o l o g y / ual 45 the E n g i n e e r i n g M a n - 46 a n d the B a l l e n t i n e ' s L a w D i c t i o n a r y . w h o is u n f a m i l i a r w i t h legal c i t a t i o n s The re ade r is r e f e r r e d to A 47 Uniform S y s t e m o f C i t a t i o n s * d i s t r i b u t e d b y the H a r v a r d La w R e v i e w A s s o c i a t i o n . and technique# have b e e n F o r all o t h e r m a t t e r s the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f K a t e L. T u r a b i a n p. 48 followed. 44 1972* of style American Geological 585. 45 Engineering Manual Institute* Washington* (McGraw-Hill* D. C.* 1967). 46 T h i r d e d . * W i l l i a m S. A n d e r s o n * ed. (New York? Rochester: T h e L a w y e r s C o - O p e r a t i v e P u b l i s h i n g Co.* 1969. 47 48 Ca m b r i d g e * Massachusetts: G a r n e t t House* 02138. A M a n u a l for W r i t e r s o f T e r m Papers* Theses* and D i s s e r t a t i o n s (Chicago: T h e U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press* 1967) . C H A P T E R II PROJECT DESIGN The Case Study Approach In this d i s s e r t a t i o n the case s t u d y m e t h o d of researc h is used. A n a l y s i s of a p r o b l e m t h r o u g h of s p e c i f i c sets o f facts an d c o n d i t i o n s h a s the use se ve r a l ad­ v a n t a g e s o v e r a b r o a d l y b a s e d an d w i d e l y r a n g i n g r e s e a r c h approach. 1. These a d v a n t a g e s m a y b e s u m m a r i z e d as T he c a s e s t u d y focuses o n an a ct u a l p r o b l e m ar ea w h e r e s o l u t i o n s are b o t h b e n e f i c i a l the p r o b l e m area at h a n d w h i l e and a p p l i c a b l e at the same b r o a d a p p l i c a t i o n to the o v e r a l l p r o b l e m s 2. The case a p p r o a c h a llows 3. to time h a v i n g involved. f act ual illustrations to b e d e v e l o p e d w i t h o u t r e l y i n g on h y p o t h e t i c a l w h i c h m a y or m a y n o t b e follows: situations f i t t e d to real w o r l d c o n d i t i o n s . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of r e s e a r c h a r o u n d a case s t u d y allows a c e r t a i n d e g r e e of f l e x i b i l i t y in scope, 31 b u t a t the 32 same time r e s t r i c t s it to a m a n a g e a b l e s i z e t h r o u g h h a v i n g to r e s t r i c t d i s c u s s i o n to a l i m i t e d s e t of facts. 4. The case study approach can be ented#" w h e r e b y the p r o b l e m a n a l y s i s leads "solution ori­ to r e s o l v i n g the p r o b l e m s o f the case s t u d y a r e a itself. S e l e c t i o n of the S t u d y A r e a T h i s case s t u d y w i l l d e v e l o p the facts and h i s t o r ­ ical a s p e c t s r e l e v a n t to a n a r e a at St. in o r d e r that this ph ysical p r o b l e m s applicable Joseph# Michigan# i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e u s e d to e x a m i n e the that a re u n i q u e to the G r e a t L a k e s to the s e a c o a s t as w e l l an d to a n a l y z e a l t e r n a t i v e s of p r i v a t e r i p a r i a n own ers The s t u d y a r e a at St. J o s e p h w a s v a r i e d p h y s i c a l a nd legal al ong and the legal the shore. s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e of the aspects# i n c l u d i n g a h i s t o r y of r e pe a t e d e r o s i o n d a m a g e and p e n d i n g l i t i g ati on. The ultimate s e l e c t i o n of the a r e a at St. Michigan was preceded by extensive work by this w ri t e r . G r eat L a k e s d amage shores Joseph# f iel d r e c o n n a i s s a n c e T h e r e are m a n y areas a lon g M i c h i g a n ' s that are u n d e r g o i n g e x t e n s i v e e r o s i o n that co u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d for s t u d y and m a n y of 33 these areas w e r e f iel d c h e c k e d w h i l e during fostered th ro u g h as the s t u d y area w a s i nqu i r i e s w i t h p e r s o n n e l gan D e p a r t m e n t of N a t u r a l 1 the S t a t e the s u m m e r s o f 1971 and 1972. T h e s e l e c t i o n of St. J o s e p h tion traveling from the M i c h i ­ R e s o u r c e s » S u b m e r g e d L and s S e c - and the C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s , D e t r o i t D i s t r i c t . 2 Their h e l p p r o v i d e d the b a c k g r o u n d for f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d o n - s i t e field i n v e s t i g a t i o n on the St. J o s e p h area. terviews w i t h p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s and r i p a r i a n p r o p e r t y o w n e r s p r ov i d e d a d d i t i o n a l s u b s t a n t i a t i o n Jo sep h area. made/ Personal for s e l e c t i n g in ­ the St. O n c e the s e l e c t i o n of the s t u d y area w a s i n - d e p t h field and l i b r a r y r e s e a r c h began. Research Methods It is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e in tod ay' s e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x so cie ty that an y one d i s c i p l i n e su ch as law# engineering# g e o l o g y or s o c i o l o g y c a n n o t o n its o w n b e u s e d to s olv e "^Messrs. G e o r g e T a a k and M o g e n s N e i l s o n of this s e c t i o n of the D N R p r o v i d e d e s s e n t i a l b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r ­ m a t i o n for this study. 2 M e ssrs. A l l a n A a r o n a nd U r b a n B o r e s h o f the C o r p s d i r e c t e d this w r i t e r to k e y a s p e c t s of the study. 34 resource m a n a g e m e n t p r o b l e m s w h i c h c o m p r i s e an in hom ogeneous b l e n d o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r to b e g i n with. study tries to "bridge This the gap" b e t w e e n those d i s c i ­ pl ines to p o i n t the w a y t o w a r d s o l u t i o n s tha t in the long run w i l l b e a c c e p t a b l e in e a c h s e p a r a t e field. T h e s c i e n t i s t s and e n g i n e e r o f t e n for g e t t hat most of the w o r l d runs on e motion. Ev e r e t t has c a l l e d " t u n n e l - v i s i o n e d rigor" and e n g i n e e r s h a v e m a d e d e c i s i o n s tative a p p r o x i m a t i o n an d e m o t i o n a l recent y e a r s nology. W i t h w h a t A. G o r d o n this ha s l ed 3 scientists that e x c l u d e the q u a l i ­ considerations. to a "backlash" In against tech­ T h e s e o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a re e q u a l l y v a l i d so the p r o b l e m r e a l l y b e c o m e s o ne of f in d i n g a w a y to f act or sc ience a nd e n g i n e e r i n g p u bli c d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g into a r e l e v a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p in that i n c l u d e s all a s p e c t s and v i e w - points of o b j e c t i v i t y and su bj e c t i v i t y . In the same respect/ m C. P. 4 the field of l a w as d i s c u s s e d Snow's The Two Cultures 5 is h e a v i l y d e p e n d e n t 3 " G eo l o g y in P u b l i c D e c i s i o n M a k i n g / " T h e P r o f e s ­ si ona l G e o l o g i s t / Vol. 9/ No. 5/ D e c e m b e r 1972/ pp. 7-10. 4 5 Ibid. C. (Cambridge: P. Snow/ T h e T w o C u l t u r e s U n i v e r s i t y Press# 1964). and a S e c o n d L o o k 35 up on h u m a n d r a m a to u s e the an d e m o t i o n . intellectual solve p r o b l e m s . ends of s c i e n c e Both capacities According science to and law seek fi nd f a c t s and to E v e r e t t "Between to the p o l a r a n d o f this s p e c i a l i z e d v e r s i o n o f art* lie all h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e . " The Joseph* cas e s t u d y of the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m s Michigan provides tist to b e g i n s e e k i n g agement problems the b r i d g e answers at St. for a p h y s i c a l scien­ to d i f f i c u l t r e s o u r c e m a n ­ at s o m e c o m m o n l a t i t u d e b e t w e e n these "polar e n d s . " Scientific Research Method Basic research was carried out to d e t e r m i n e the g e o l o g i c a n d e n g i n e e r i n g a s p e c t s o f the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m at St. Joseph. All information related relevant scientific to the St. gether and reviewed. field s u r v e y s ture. This was to c o n f i r m Additional J o s e p h area was b r o u g h t the c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m the l i t e r a ­ carried out tha t flight over the study area c h a r t e r a i r c r a f t an d d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n tures a n d b l u f f c o n d i t i o n s to­ followed b y detailed on-site field work was a photo-reconnaissance an d e n g i n e e r i n g included in a of shore s t r u c ­ at all p o s s i b l e p o i n t s o f e n t r y 36 along the shore. At these p o i n t s a photographic record was also made. T h e l a b o r a t o r y p h a s e of the s t u d y i n v o l v e d e x a m ­ ination of ae ria l p h o t o g r a p h y t a k e n d u r i n g 1969-1973 as w e l l as e a r l i e r p h o t o g r a p h s the p e r i o d t a k e n from 193 8- 1969 to d e t e r m i n e r a t e s o f e r o s i o n at v a r i o u s p o i n t s d u r ­ ing p r e v i o u s and c u r r e n t h i g h - w a t e r e r o s i o n p eriods. aerial p h o t o g r a p h s w e r e a s s e m b l e d mo sai cs into c o n t r o l l e d s t r i p from w h i c h all m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e made. photographic record also provided the p e r f o r m a n c e of the e n g i n e e r i n g same time period. The The This an e x c e l l e n t r e c o r d o f s t r u c t u r e s o v e r this i n f o r m a t i o n on e r o s i o n rates w a s then u s e d to f o r m the factual basis for the h y p o t h e t i c a l legal cases p r e s e n t e d in a s u b s e q u e n t cha pte r. Legal R e s e a r c h M e t h o d s The methods employed in this p h a s e of follow an i n v e s t i g a t i v e p r o c e d u r e at tor n e y s in p r e p a r i n g a case. m a t i o n as b a c k g r o u n d this r e s e a r c h c o n c e r n e d , first/ s i m i l a r to that u s e d b y With for a n a l y s i s the stu dy the s c i e n t i f i c infor­ of leg al a l t e r n a t i v e s the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s w h i c h c a n lead to the f o r m a t i o n of legal 37 arguments. case law# Se cond# a s e a r c h o f legal d o c t r i n e s # a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e d u r e s w as determine the r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l depth f a c t - f i n d i n g t h r o u g h p e r s o n a l Th ird ly# some information fact-finding process led interviews w i t h p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s (local# state to and federal) involved in the d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m a n a g e m e n t o f the s h o r e this area# w i t h r i p a r i a n owners# zen groups w o r k i n g coastal zone. much valuable the s t u d y of E n g i ne ers p u b l i c h e a r i n g s for s t r u c t u r e s and w i t h l e a d e r s in in c i t i ­ tow ard an i m p r o v e d m a n a g e m e n t o f the In addition# g a thered t h r o u g h in- interviews was conduct­ ed m u c h in the s a m e w a y as an a t t o r n e y seeks This c o n d u c t e d to and p r e c e d e n t that c o u l d be u sed in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e facts. through d e p o s i t i o n s . statutes# t r a n s c r i p t s of Co rps of involving permit applications in the G r e a t L a k e s and for other s i m i l a r cases. r ather l e n g t h y and v o c a l information was fro m b r i e f s prepared T h i s w r i t e r a l s o a t t e n d e d two public hearings concerning permits for the C o o k N u c l e a r P l a n t in the c o a s t a l z o n e n e a r B r i d g e man# Mic higan. The fact-finding also included respondence with attorneys now engaged nature to the h y p o t h e t i c a l in ter vie ws and c o r ­ in s u i t s o f s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d here. 38 Specifically# the r e s p e c t i v e a t t o r n e y s Plant case w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d as w e r e plaintiffs claims in the C o o k N u c l e a r the a t t o r n e y s and d e f e n d a n t in the St. J o s e p h case a g a i n s t the for the involving fed e r a l g o v e r n m e n t for e r o s i o n d ama ges . The p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h in ter v i e w s w i t h these at tor n e y s w h o are d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d w i t h o n - g o i n g cases of a s i m i l a r n a t u r e w a s e x t r e m e l y he lpf ul. Conceptual Foundation Methods b y which the p r e v i o u s l y l i s t e d o b j e c t i v e s of this s t u d y are a t t a i n e d are b a s e d o n the d u a l of s c i e n t i f i c Th e techniques i n q u i r y and of in-d e p t h leg al analysis. g scientific method utilizes standardized pro­ cedure of i n q u i r y (combined d e d u c t i v e and inductive) by which: 1. A question is formulated# 2. A set o f e x p e r i m e n t s 3. The experimental observations is d e s i g n e d to a n s w e r it# are made# g T h e r e are m a n y c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of the s c i e n t i f i c method# b u t this w o r k u t i l i z e s the g e o l o g i c m e t h o d s p r e ­ s e n t e d b y J o h n C. G r i f f i t h s in the text S c i e n t i f i c M e t h o d in the A n a l y s i s o f S e d i m e n t s (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company# 1967) # p. 2. 39 4. The o b s e r v a t i o n a l d a t a are analyzed# 5. Conclusions data» 6. A hypothesis 7. A s e t of p r e d i c t i o n s 8. Further 9. T h e h y p o t h e s i s is a c c e p t e d or r e j e c t e d on the b a s i s of the a g r e e m e n t or d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h the p r e d i c t i o n s . (inferences) are d r a w n f r o m the is erected# tests is made# are made# P r i o r to u n d e r t a k i n g scientific analysis se archer m u s t h a v e a p r o p e r c o n c e p t of he is studying. the r e ­ the sys t e m s m o d e l E s s e n t i a l l y the s t u d y of the p h y s i c a l as­ pects of s h o r e e r o s i o n can b e b e s t d e s c r i b e d b y a p r o c e s s response m o d e l o f the l i t t o r a l e n v i r o n m e n t W. C. K r u m b e i n 7 and m o d i f i e d b y relationships among elements page 40 of the w ri t e r # fol low ing this study. one or m o r e o f the i nit ial a corresponding the model. 7 the c a n b e e x p r e s s e d as s h o w n on The process-response model predicts fying formulated b y that c han ges process elements will response with feedback effects Th e c a s e s t u d y area e x h i b i t s result in in further m o d i ­ conditions "A G e o l o g i c a l P r o c e s s - R e s p o n s e M o d e l for A n a l y s i s of B e a c h P h e n o m e n a # " Bull. B e a c h E r o s i o n B o a r d # Vol. 17# pp. 1-15. 40 Process Elements Response Elements Energy Factors Material Factors Shore Geometry Time Process Rate Beach Geometry Beach Materials Modification b y Feedback wh e r e all s e v e n p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e e l e m e n t s The w a v e e n e r g y s y s t e m h a s b e e n are i n v o l v e d . c h a n g e d < the energy appl i c a t i o n has c o n s e q u e n t l y varied* been removed f r o m the s y s t e m a n d (storms) s tages o n t he G r e a t Lak es. answered The that d e s t r u c t i v e erosion has high energy periods is: What material has the s h o r e g e o m e t r y h a s be en a l t e r e d b y s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s . has b e e n rate o f resulting response taken place during that have occurred during high The important question is the r a t e o f p r o g r e s s i o n # acceleration of process to b e i.e.# the o f this m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the p r o ­ cess-response model? The experiments needed be p e r f o r m e d b y m e a s u r i n g various time intervals# aerial p h o t o g r a p h s to a n s w e r this q u e s t i o n c a n particular b l uff positions at a task read i l y a c c o m p l i s h e d on taken at i n t e r v a l s o v e r a p e r i o d of 41 years. The experimental compari son # design must b a c k g r o u n d o r co nt r o l . ison for d a t a c o l l e c t e d Extensive work this b a c k g r o u n d The process-response model tions in t h e l e g a l process-response system involved rate of e r o s i o n tion of The system b y in l e g a l a cti o n s . legal applica­ solutions interaction with all respective In t h i s s t u d y the the s y s t e m . fully describe Further and me a s u r e elements. T h e q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of a reasonable scientific basis scientific reported by other a rather b r oad based quantifica­ study w o u l d be needed to more remedying similar r e l y h e a v i l y o n an u n d e r ­ the d e g r e e d i s r u p t i o n w i t h i n other model for o t h e r is information. fr om m a n ' s elements will is o n l y for c o m p a r ­ Joseph has as w e l l . stemming s t a n d i n g of the g e o l o g i c a l pa rt i e s for o f the n e a r s h o r e f o u n d a l o n g the c o a s t at St. to e r o s i o n p r o b l e m s in the The basis r a t e s of e r o s i o n areas o n the G r e a t L ake s. sy ste m a basis at the St. J o s e p h s t u d y a r e a developed by determining researchers provides include this aberration information following model accelerated erosion for l e g a l action aimed in the g e o m o r p h i c is f a c t o r e d of legal rates sys tem . into the l e g a l is at The analysis analysis which has b e e n 42 suggested b y L e i g h t o n L. Lei ghty* P r o f e s s o r of R e s o u r c e Law* D e p a r t m e n t of R e s o u r c e D e v e l o p m e n t * Michigan State University. S c ien tif ic Input Concept ual Mode1s Physical Monitoring Data Factual Elements R u l e s o f Law I n v o l v e d parties* interests* p l a c e s things* entities* resources Statutes Regulations Precedent B a s i s of ca use of action a. Legal theory b. issues Court Decision Analysi s Conclusions Defenses Relief sought Feedback Legal Research T h i s d i a g r a m of the legal m o d e l d e p i c t s the v a r i o u s factors t h a t m u s t b e i n t e g r a t e d to d e t e r m i n e the b a s i s a claim or d efe n s e . The the factual ele men ts. scientific Th e problem, these into f a c t u a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f places* things, e n t i t i e s and r e s o u r c e s tific a nal ysis. inpu t is d i r e c t e d for is a i d e d d i r e c t l y b y s c i e n ­ In the case o f the St. Joseph erosion fac tor s are o f t e n d i f f i c u l t to c o m p r e h e n d 43 and p r o b a b l y are b e s t d e s c r i b e d b y a c o n c e p t u a l i z e d m o d e l of the system. The aided b y s c i e n t i f i c specific issues b a s i s o f c a u s e of legal a c t i o n is i n p u t b y i n s u r i n g the v a l i d i t y of the (i.e.* data supplied b y analysis of pro­ ce ss-response interactions) . The type o f d e f e n s e u t i l i z e d is g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d b y c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h sector. Finally* the r e l i e f sought* or injuncti ve relief* whether m o n e y damages is o f t e n b a s e d o n inputs d e r i v e d from o u t s i d e s o u r c e s s u c h case of St. Jos eph * the type as e x p e r t w i t n e s s e s . In the of r e l i e f s o u g h t c o u l d b e function of w h a t the physi cal * will tolerate. the s c i e n t i f i c so c i a l and legal sy ste ms a C H A P T E R III T HE ST. J O S E P H S T U D Y A R E A Introduction T h e s t u d y of the v a r i o u s l ega l ical and engineering problems related sion q u e s t i o n is b e s t d i s c u s s e d analysis. so lut i o n s for p h y s ­ to the sh ore e r o ­ in the c o n t e x t of a case It is for this r e a s o n that a s e g m e n t of s h o r e ­ line at St. Jo sep h# Michigan was had s u b s t a n t i a l n o t o r i e t y selected. in the p r e s s This a r e a has through dramatic p h oto gr aph s d e p i c t i n g h o m e s o n the b r i n k of an e r o d e d shore b l u f f or the s p l i n t e r e d r e m a i n s o f once b e a u t i f u l s ummer h o m e s that h a v e a l r e a d y f a l l e n v i c t i m sion and l a n d slides# to s h o r e e r o ­ F i g u r e 1. In r e c e n t y e a r s the S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a h a s re­ ceived a g o o d s har e of n o t o r i e t y on c o a s t a l p r o b l e m s natural d i s a s t e r s w i t h e a r t h q u a k e s # brush fires a n d c o a s t a l e rosion. m u d slides# T he oil and spills# study o f shore prob­ lems in C a l i f o r n i a and o t h e r s ta t e s h a s p r o v e n u s e f u l 44 in 45 bringing t o g e t h e r a g r e a t b o d y of i n f o r m a t i o n o n c oa s t a l management problems. T he f a c t that the S t a t e of M i c h i g a n has more s h o r e l i n e t h a n an y o t h e r state e x c e p t A l a s k a in itself is j u s t i f i c a t i o n for s e l e c t i n g a s t u d y area in this state. M i c h i g a n ' s G r e a t L a k e s sh ores in that in m a n y w a y s great inland seas and they are a n a l o g o u s to the w o r l d 's that k n o w l e d g e g a i n e d f r o m o c e a n and sea coa st are as can a p p l y in this the m o s t part, are a l s o of i n t e r e s t the G r e a t L a k e s fresh w a t e r e n v i r o n m e n t respect. How eve r, for remain a singularly unique f oun d in the h e a r t of on e of the more h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d r e g i o n s of the N o r t h A m e r i c a c o n ­ tinent. While it wa s the p u b l i c i t y a t t e n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l damage that fir st d r e w a t t e n t i o n to this s t u d y area, the h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s of e r o s i o n p r o b l e m t h a t m a k e s study area of s p e c i a l interest. T h e c o a s t at St. provides a n e a r l y c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r a cti on w i t h years. the p a s t 140 the r e s i d e n t s face today. Hi sto r i c a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n of t hes e ev e n t s p r o v i d e frame Joseph i n t e r a c t i o n s h a v e g r o w n the e r o s i o n and shore m a n a g e m e n t p r o b l e m s tial time the r e c o r d of m a n ' s the l i t t o r a l e n v i r o n m e n t o v e r O ut of these it is to w h i c h the g e o l o g i c a l the e s s e n ­ s t u d i e s of p r o c e s s 46 and r esp o n s e are k e y e d and from w h i c h the b a s i c relationships (cause and effect) factual for the l ega l a n a l y s i s are d r a w n . Geographical Location Th e s t u d y a r e a i ncludes strip of s h o r e l i n e located an a p p r o x i m a t e l y five m i l e in the C i t y of St. J o s e p h and the V i l l a g e of S h o r e h a m in B e r r i e n C o u n t y # M i c h i g a n # ure 3. This five-mile-long study area extends from the fe d e r a l h a r b o r piers Joseph R i v e r to the St. J o s e p h also forms Fig­ southward at the m o u t h of the St. township boundary which the s o u t h w a r d l i m i t of the V i l l a g e o f S hor e h a m . Physical Setting Th e s t u d y zone high# 20 -10 0 fo ot b l u f f s glacial till# and 2. At both shoreline c o m p o s e d of clay# unconsolidated and s t r a t i f i e d s a n d an d gravel# Figures 1 the no rth and so uth ends o f this rea ch of the b l u f f s the nor th end is l o c a t e d in an a r e a of g e n e r a l l y are less steep. from the c i t y w a t e r w a r d s The b l u f f line at to the b r e a k w a t e r 47 lies several h u n d r e d line. feet l a n d w a r d from the p r e s e n t w a t e r T h e S i l v e r B e a c h A m u s e m e n t P a r k and the L ion s p u b ­ lic be ach are l o c a t e d on the r e m n a n t s of the old d e l t a of the St. J o s e p h River. of the stu dy area# E x c e p t for this n o r t h e r n p o r t i o n the w a t e r ' s e d g e is in c l o s e p r o x i m i t y to the toe of the b l u f f a n d d u r i n g h i g h storm c onditions# wave run-up reaches serious u n d e r c u t t i n g and slum pin g# g e ner al ly v a r i a b l e material lake st a g e s w i t h the b l u f f c a u s i n g Figures 1 and 2. The c o m p o s i t i o n a n d s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of in the b l u f f aids which e r o s i o n takes place. the rate o f u n d e r c u t t i n g at W a t e r seeps o r s p r i n g s o c c u r throughout the e n t i r e l e n g t h o f the s t u d y a rea at v a r i o u s elevations d e p e n d i n g u p o n the s t r a t i g r a p h i c s e q u e n c e and the p o s i t i o n o f an i m p e r v i o u s c l a y l a y e r k n o w n l o c a l l y as "hardpan." T h i s s u r f a c e s e e p a g e add s to the w a s t a g e p r o b ­ lems b y p r o v i d i n g l u b r i c a t i o n for s l i p surfaces# although this is a m i n o r e f f e c t c o m p a r e d to that p r o d u c e d b y w a v e energy d i s s i p a t e d o n The b l u f f respose the bea ch. face h a s a p p r o a c h e d the n o r m a l a n g l e of for u n c o n s o l i d a t e d s a n d y s e d i m e n t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 to 33 degrees) wh en w a v e a t t a c k d i d not r e a c h (ranging during periods the b luf fs. from of l ow w a t e r F o r e xam ple # 48 during lo w w a t e r st a g e s b e t w e e n the y e a r s bluffs s t a b i l i z e d at this angle so as to a l l o w the e s t a b ­ lishment of e x t e n s i v e v e g e t a t i o n # sense of s t a b i l i t y w a s 19 55-19 57 the afforded by F i g u r e 4. A temporary this v e g e t a t i o n d u r i n g this int eri m l o w w a t e r p e r i o d w h e n m a n y ne w h o m e s a nd a large a p a r t m e n t c o m p l e x w e r e b u i l t c l o s e to the b l u f f line. T h e s t u d y a r e a is d o m i n a t e d b y the p r e s e n c e of the twin b r e a k w a t e r p i e r s m a i n t a i n e d b y the C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s as an aid to n a v i g a t i o n bor and St. br eak wat er Joseph# for the po rt c i t i e s of B e n t o n H a r ­ Figure the p u r p o s e o f the be low . the s t r u c ­ its b e g i n n i n g an e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r southward m o v i n g l i t t o r a l sedime nts # the b r e a k w a t e r to as w i l l b e d e m o n ­ A p p r o x i m a t e l y 600 l i n e a l land h a v e b e e n a d d e d l a k e w a r d side of While is p r i m a r i l y for h a r b o r p r o t e c t i o n # ture has b e e n sin ce strated 5. feet o f a c c r e t e d from the sh ore on the n o r t h in the 120 y e a r s since its c o n s t r u c ­ tion in the 1 8 6 0 's# F i g u r e 6. S o u t h of the federal h a r b o r w o r k s privately con­ structed s h o r e e r o s i o n s t r u c t u r e s h a v e b e e n i n s t a l l e d m i t t e n t l y for the e n t i r e l e n g t h o f the s t u d y area. most n o t a b l e are City o f St. those Joseph inter­ T he that h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d b y the for the immediate purpose of protecting Fig. 4.— Vegetation stabilized bluffs at St. Joseph, Michigan in June 1969. (Photo courtesy of the Michigan Department of State Highways.) 50 5.— High o b l i q u e p h o t o g r a p h i c v i e w to the so u t h with the twin f e de ra l p i e r s at the m o u t h of the St. J o s e p h River in the f or eg r o u n d . (Photo M a y 1973, by T. A. H e r b e r t . ) SHORE POSITION PRIOR TO 1832 — S — SHORE POSITIONS 1866-1973 L— i*— 600'— *| ST. JOSEPH RIVER Fig. 6.— Approximate shore positions at the mouth of the St. Joseph River during the past 140 years based on information from the archives of the St. Joseph Public Library. 52 the C i t y w a t e r w o r k s # and t hose c o n s t r u c t e d b y the C & O R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y to p r o t e c t n e a r l y a m i l e of t r a c k s o u t h of the w a t e r w o r k s # as w e l l State H i g h w a y D e p a r t m e n t road s t r u c t u r e s bu sin e s s (Red A r r o w Highway) Jo sep h f r o m the south# follows south t e r m i n u s i m m e d i a t e l y s o u t h of the the r a i l ­ to p r o t e c t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.9 m i l e of loop 1-94 photography as t h o s e c o n s t r u c t e d b y of n u mer ous p r i v a t e Photo M a p 1 f ina l t h a t e n t e r s St. (foldout of vertical p a g e o f t h i s work) . the h i g h w a y s t r u c t u r e s structures From the t h e r e ar e a l s o that h ave b e e n b u i l t to p r o ­ tect d w e l l i n g s . The structural tective w o r k s s o u t h of design the (or l a c k o f federal be of q u i t e d i f f e r i n g quality.^" the C & O R a i l r o a d # it) structures for the p r o ­ is fo u n d T h e C i t y o f St. Joseph# the H i g h w a y D e p a r t m e n t and m a n y o f pr i v a t e o w n e r s h a v e resorted p i lin g g r o i n s a n d b u l k h e a d s .^ to st eel to the sheet piling or wooden For the most part where ^The lack of qualified professional engineering d e s i g n is r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t a l o n g the s h o r e as is s h o w n in F i g u r e 2 w h e r e j u n k c a r b o d i e s h a v e b e e n d u m p e d o v e r the to p of the blu ff. Professional engineers were used of t h e s e s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s . to d e s i g n m a n y 53 these s t r u c t u r e s h a v e b e e n ab le to w i t h s t a n d w a v e a c t i o n they p r e s e n t a s t r i k i n g g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n alo ng the shore as is d e p i c t e d the same in P h o t o M a p 1 a nd F i g u r e 5. At time i n t e r s p e r s e d a m o n g the r e g u l a r g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n e d structures are r a t h e r u n e s t h e t i c other r i p a r i a n owners* Offshore Figure 3 remedies conceived b y 2. from this e n t i r e r e a c h of s h o r e l i n e the water is t u r b i d as the r e s u l t of a c t i v e e r o s i o n of the clay and s a n d bl uff s. visible B r o w n pl u m e s of t u r b i d w a t e r are from the air and are r e c o r d e d on the a er i a l v i e w s in Photo M a p 1. Cultural - Political Setting T h e s t u d y a r e a is l o c a t e d in the C i t y of St. the V i l l a g e of S h o r e h a m * County* M i c h i g a n . T he in St. Joseph* J o s e p h T o w n s h i p in B e r r i e n area a l o n g the s hor e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 150 s e p a r a t e r i p a r i a n p a r c e l s i tse lf has of land. The entire a r e a is c o n t r o l l e d b y o v e r l a p p i n g p o l i t i c a l e n t i t i e s 3 T h e e s t h e t i c s q u a l i t i e s of the s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s is* of course* a m a t t e r of opinion. This w r i t e r feels s t r o n g l y t h a t in m o s t ins ta n c e s s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s cause m o r e d a m a g e to the s hor e than w o u l d o c c u r if the na t u r a l shore s ys t e m s w e r e a l l o w e d to w o r k uni mpe d e d . 54 including county# City C o u n c i l . t o w n s h i p and v i l l a g e bo a r d s # Commercial interests and the in the s h o r e are a are r e p r e s e n t e d b y the L a k e s h o r e C h a m b e r of C o m m e r c e . Th e r i p a r i a n p r o p e r t y o w n e r s are o r g a n i z e d into an i n c r e a s i n g l y v o c a l g r o u p c a l l e d the L a k e s h o r e P r o p e r t y Owners A s s o c i a t i o n . C h r o n o l o g y of S i g n i f i c a n t E v e n t s The following synopsizes the h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d of the e ven ts w h i c h h a v e o c c u r r e d d u r i n g the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m s at St. Jos eph . based on v a r i o u s w r i t t e n s ources# the d e v e l o p m e n t of This personal i n f o r m a t i o n is inquiry# and inference b y the writer. P r i o r to 1 8 3 1 — Th e c o n d i t i o n o f the s h o r e w a s e s s e n ­ tially u n a f f e c t e d b y m a n ’s act ivi ty. Th e St. flowed s o u t h w e s t w a r d l y o u t t h r o u g h a b r e a k bluffs a lon g Joseph River in the line of the c o a s t and w a s d e f l e c t e d e v e n m o r e to the south b y a s p i t of land e x t e n d i n g sou th from the n o r t h bank# Figure 6. 55 1836 to 1 8 6 6 — The C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s 1,100 feet of p i e r e x t e n d i n g river and 212 f e e t constructed from the n o r t h b a n k o f the f r o m the s o u t h shore. Figure 6. 1 8 66 to 1 8 6 8 — Th e C o r p s a d d e d a n o t h e r 200 feet to the sou th pier. 1872— The Corps a d d e d a n o t h e r 41 6 f eet to the a d d e d a n o t h e r 300 fee t to the south pier. 1876— The Corps south pier. 1877 to 1 8 8 1 — T he C o r p s a d d e d a n o t h e r 3 50 feet to the no rth pier. 1 8 8 6 — R e c o r d h i g h w a t e r l e v e l s o c c u r r e d on the Great L a k e s . 1 8 9 2 — T h e C o r p s a d d e d a n o t h e r 3 50 feet to the north pier. 1 9 0 2 — T h e C o r p s a d d e d a n o t h e r 1, 000 south p i e r a nd 3 50 feet to the n o r t h pier. 1 9 0 4 — T h e C o r p s a d d e d 1,0 02 pier, and 1,803 c o n s t r u c t i o n of feet to the nor th feet to the s out h pier. the piers w a s 1 9 1 7 — T h e C i t y of St. protective works feet to the along The p h y s i c a l c o m p l e t e d at this J o s e p h b u i l t 700 the s h o r e time. feet of to p r o t e c t the w a t e r 56 intake and p u m p i n g s tation. H i g h w a t e r st ages o c c u r r e d on the G r e a t L a k e s . 1 9 2 9 — T h e C h e s a p e a k e and O h i o (C&O) Railroad Company b e g a n g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i v e w o r k w h i c h o v e r the years h as vation# i n c l u d e d s eaw alls# drainage facilities ex p e n d itu re of $ 1 # 6 1 0 # 0 0 0 groins# jetties, and p l a n t i n g s w i t h since bank exca­ a total that time. 1 9 4 0 — T he C & O R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y i n s t a l l e d 500 lineal feet of steel s h e e t p ile b u l k h e a d . 1943-44-46— The C&O Railroad performed general repair. 1 9 4 9 — T h e M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t o f St a t e H i g h w a y s (MDSH) constructed groins material and n o u r i s h e d the b e a c h w i t h t r u c k e d f r o m l a n d sources. 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 5 — M D S H c o n s t r u c t e d groins, heads an d f u r t h e r n o u r i s h e d timber b u l k ­ the beach. 1 9 5 2 - 1 9 5 3 — T h e p e a k of the h i g h w a t e r p e r i o d on the G r e a t Lakes# the C i t y o f St. J o s e p h sp ent $2 50,000 on p r o t e c t i o n for the w a t e r works# three p r i v a t e h o m e s 57 were lost an d two m o r e moved. P r i v a t e o wn e r s b e g a n stalling e x t e n s i v e p r o t e c t i v e works. 1954-1961— Extensive owner a g a i n s t h i s age to hi s h ouse. insurance 4 l i t i g a t i o n b y one p r o p e r t y company for l a n d s l i d e d a m ­ U l t i m a t e l y the cas e w a s favor of the l a n d o w n e r b u t no any shore d a m a g e a f t e r 19 54. in- decided insurance was written in for 5 195 6 — A Corps of Engineers r e p o r t s t a t e d that 100/000 c u b i c y a r d s of s and m u s t b e p l a c e d zone sou th o f the h a r b o r je tt i e s into the b e a c h to r e p l e n i s h was b e i n g b l o c k e d b y the h a r b o r jet ties. no a c t i o n b e c a u s e of the h i g h cost that w h i c h The City involved. took 6 1 9 6 0 — 1 9 6 1 — — L o w w a t e r p e r i o d on the G r e a t La k e s z u p to 100 feet o f d r y s a n d w a s e x p o s e d b e t w e e n edge and the ized foot of the bluff# (Figure 4) the b l u f f sl o p e s the w a t e r ' s mature vegetation stabil­ creating an attractive 4 P e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h Mr. L e l a n d Hill# M a n a g e r o f St. J o s e p h a nd fo r m e r C i t y E n g i n e e r . ^W e s t c h e s t e r F i r e I n s u r a n c e Co. v. H a n l e y # 284 F2d 409, 365 US 869. g P e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h Mr. L e l a n d Hill# St. J o s e p h C i t y M a n a g e r . City 58 setting# m a n y of the o l d e r h o m e s w e r e s o l d and som e n e w homes w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d on v a c a n t land n e a r the b l u f f line. 1 9 6 4 — A n all time l o w w a t e r s t a g e m e a s u r e d on Lake M i c h i g a n - H u r o n . 1 9 6 8 — T h e R i v e r s and H a r b o r s A c t S e c t i o n 111 authorized the C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s erosion c a u s e d b y F e d e r a l 7 to s t u d y p r o b l e m of navigation structures. Prelim­ inary s t u d y on the St. J o s e p h h a r b o r j e t t i e s w a s be gun. The h i g h w a t e r cyc le w a s o n the u pswing. 1 9 6 8 - 1 9 6 9 — W i n t e r st o r m s b e g a n a c t i v e e r o s i o n of shore areas sou th of the h a r b o r j e t t i e s . Property owners b e g a n building structures and dump­ ing rubble on l o w e r s l o p e s for p r o t e c t i o n . issued for r e m o v a l of j u n k cars Court order from slopes. De p a r t m e n t b e g a n s u r v e y and d e s i g n state Highway for h i g h w a y structure. Lakeshore C h a m b e r o f C o m m e r c e r e t a i n e d a p r i v a t e c o n s u l t i n g g firm to c o n d u c t a s t u d y o n b e a c h and b l u f f ero sio n. 1970— A study by er osi on c a u s e d b y 7 8 the the C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s federal h a r b o r p i e r s was P u b l i c L a w 90-485. Gove Engineers# 82 Stat. Kalamazoo# 731 111. Michigan. of the required by 59 Governor Mil lik en. Corps of E n g i n e e r s T o the d a t e o f this w r i t i n g * report has inquiries b y local citizens* not b e e n r e l e a s e d d e s p i t e l e g i s l a t o r s and c o n g r e s s m e n . Rebuilding of p r o t e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e s w a s along those shores* this c o n t i n u e d all e s p e c i a l l y at the w a t e r w o r k s along the r a i l r o a d r i g h t - o f - w a y . Also and the c o n t r a c t for the m o s t r e c e n t H i g h w a y D e p a r t m e n t s t r u c t u r e s w a s l e t and constru cti on w a s begun. L a k e le v e l s remained high with periods fall and w i n t e r s torms causing of sev era l i n c r e a s i n g l y g r e a t e r damage. 1 9 7 1 — H i g h w a t e r l e v e l s contin ued * w i n t e r and storms c a u s e d c o n t i n u e d and i n c r e a s i n g damage. w a y D e p a r t m e n t p r o j e c t wa s Waterworks fall T he H i g h ­ completed. protection was continued* groins and b u l k h e a d s w e r e con s t r u c t e d * s h e e t pile a nd r u b b l e was placed on a c o n t i n u i n g b a s i s d u r i n g this period. T h e C & O R a i l r o a d c o n t i n u e d to fill and p l a c e re vet men t m a t e r i a l d u r i n g works s t a r t e d to p r o t e c t a lar ge iately s o u t h of Extensive private apartment complex immed­ the H i g h w a y D e p a r t m e n t project. p r operty o w n e r s w e r e homes this period. forced to b u i l d s t r u c t u r e s in d a n g e r of d e s t r u c t i o n . rub ble Private* In div i d u a l or m o v e protective 60 structures w e r e r e m o d e l e d and s t r e n g t h e n e d t h r o u g h o u t the entire s t u d y area. M a n y p r o p e r t y o w n e r s n o t f ace d w i t h loss of h o u s e s and o t h e r b u i l d i n g s d i d no t p a r t i c i p a t e the b u i l d i n g of p r o t e c t i v e in struct ure s. 1 9 7 2 — H i g h w a t e r l e v e l s c o n t i n u e d and b e g a n a steady rise t o w a r d the e n d of the year. O n N o v e m b e r 14# 1972 an intense s t o r m t h r o u g h o u t M i c h i g a n c a u s e d the m o s t rapid e r o s i o n o f shore a n d b l u f f e v e r recorded. Berrien C ounty wa s d e c l a r e d a d i s a s t e r a r e a thus b e c a m e eligible for low in te r e s t loans f r o m the f ede ral S mal l B u s i n e s s Administ rat ion . P r o p e r t y o wne rs loans to fi n a n c e erty owners fil ed a p p l i c a t i o n for l o w i n t e r e s t fu r t h e r p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s . also b e c a m e e l i g i b l e to m a k e uality l osses on the ir 1 972 F e d e r a l The p rop­ cl a i m s for ca s- I n c o m e T a x Returns. 1 9 7 3 - P r e s e n t — T h e w a t e r level o f L a k e M i c h i g a n co ntinued a s t e a d y rise a i d e d b y an e x t r e m e l y warm# wi n t e r in 1972-73. L i t t l e or no shore the c o l d e r m o n t h s # thus e r o s i o n was wet ice f o r m e d d u r i n g allowed to c o n t i n u e through the w i n t e r w i t h o u t this n a t u r a l b a r r i e r . On M a r c h 17# e r osi on rates 1973 to continue. a late w i n t e r s t o r m c a u s e d r e c o r d Berrien County again was 61 d eclared a d i s a s t e r area. ualty los ses Property owners claimed cas­ for e r o s i o n d a m a g e s o n t h e i r 1972 F e d e r a l Income T a x returns. Applications for l o w - i n t e r e s t S mal l Business A d m i n i s t r a t i o n d i s a s t e r loans d e n i e d for 177 9 of the 179 a p p l i c a n t s . The P r esent— Near on Lake M i c h i g a n record high water stages in the s u m m e r and fall of 1973. F o r the s h ore - t e r m fu t u r e h i g h l a k e le v e l s m a y h e e x p e c t e d tinue for a few m o r e years. p r e d ic tio ns b y s e v e r a l cooler and d r i e r c o n d i t i o n s While a r e v e r s i o n to t o w a r d the e nd o f the century. of E v e n t s this l i s t b y no m e a n s c h r o n o l o g y of the h i s t o r i c a l in the s t u d y area* to c o n ­ Recent world-wide climatic scientists'*"^ re v e a l Analysis occurred events provides that h a v e e n o u g h ha s b e e n c i t e d an e x h a u s t i v e t a k e n place to g i v e the r e a d e r 9 P e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h Mrs. D o n n a A s s e l i n , Lake S h o r e P r o p e r t y O w n e r s A s s o c i a t i o n # S o u t h L a k e s h o r e Drive# St. Joseph# M i c h i g a n . "*"^M. M. Mil l e r # e t a l . # "A P r i n c i p l e s S t u d y of Fa cto rs A f f e c t i n g the H y d r o l o g i c a l B a l a n c e of the LeraonPt a r m i g a n G l a c i e r System# S. E. A la s k a # 1 9 6 5 - 1 9 6 9 # " Institu te o f W a t e r R ese a r c h # Tech. R e p o r t 3 3 # M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y # 1972. 62 reasonable b a c k g r o u n d taken place The i n f o r m a t i o n on the e v e n t s tha t h a v e in the l a s t 150 years. f l o w of e v e n t s that h a v e o c c u r r e d o v e r the most re c e n t p e r i o d o f e rosion# 1968 to the prese nt# po i n t s to one m a j o r f l a w in o u r s y s t e m of s hor e d e v e l o p m e n t and management. E a c h entity# w h e t h e r p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y o w n e r or g o v e r n m e n t agency# gard to i n t e g r a t i n g h a s o p e r a t e d in a v a c u u m w i t h o u t r e ­ shore protection a c t i v i t i e s . So me co ope rat ion w a s u n d e r t a k e n o n the H i g h w a y D e p a r t m e n t ' s protective w o r k s proje ct# b u t this w a s m o r e a m a t t e r of agreement b y the p r i v a t e o w n e r s to let the S t a t e o f M i c h ­ igan and the F e d e r a l H i g h w a y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n p a y for p r o ­ tecting p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y u n d e r the g u i s e of p r o t e c t i n g the e n d a n g e r e d roadway. L i k e w i s e s o m e c o o p e r a t i o n and p o o l i n g of e fforts w e r e u n d e r t a k e n b y p r i v a t e o w n e r s when c o n t i g u o u s in a few c a s e s s t r u c t u r e s h a p p e n e d to b e b u i l t s i m u l t a ­ neously . Th e l a r g e r - m a g n i t u d e and l o n g e r - t e r m e r o s i o n m a n ­ agement e f f o r t w h i c h s h o u l d tection e f f o r t lacking. integrate the e n t i r e s h o r e p r o ­ in some l o g i c a l m a n n e r has b e e n W i t h o u t an each p r o p e r t y owner# totally integrated or coordinated approach whether the c i t y or p r i v a t e individual# 63 is faced w i t h stop-gap solutions# one p r i v a t e o w n e r h a s F r o m the called a "bandaid" approach them. f l o w of p h y s i c a l events in this c h r o n ­ ology s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g c o n c l u s i o n s c a n b e drawn. overall i n f l u e n c e o f the two p i e r s b u i l t was not felt u n t i l 1917 w h e n their first r e m e d i a l # reason piers action. attributed The in the 1 8 6 0 's the C i t y of St. protective for this can b e as Joseph took P a r t of the to the l e n g t h o f the in r e l a t i o n to the z o n e o f a c t i v e l i t t o r a l dr i f t . The zone of d r i f t w a s the piers u n t i l t h e i r final i n ter es tin g to n o t e lakes o c c u r r e d p r o b a b l y not c o m p l e t e l y b l o c k e d b y It is tha t the h i g h e s t w a t e r r e c o r d e d o n the in 1 8 8 6 at a s t a g e o n l y a f r a c t i o n of a foot h i g h e r t h a n the s t a g e o f 1972. toral d r i f t a n d s e d i m e n t re po r t e d d a m a g e s d u r i n g By 1929 ha d to in t u r n c o m p l e t i o n in 1904. for o f f - s h o r e b a r s take r e m e d i a l T his w a s decade. By 1949 t h e r e w e r e no the 1 8 8 6 h i g h stage. the C h e s a p e a k e tracks. Given adequate lit­ and Ohio R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y a c t i o n to p r o t e c t t h e i r in a s p a n of o n l y l i t t l e m o r e than a the M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t of S t a t e H i g h w a y s h a d to take m e a s u r e s An d b y 1952 m a n y of to p r o t e c t the p r i v a t e the R e d A r r o w H i g h w a y . citizens a l o n g the s h o r e 64 began to be a f f e c t e d b y the e n t r a p m e n t of l i t t o r a l d r i f t material b y the fe der al s t r u c t u r e s ing structures. an d b y u p d r i f t n e i g h b o r ­ In this l a t e s t h i g h w a t e r e p i s o d e n e a r l y every o wne r w i t h i n the "shadow" of the f ede ral s t r u c t u r e s suffered e x t e n s i v e d amages. From i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this equally e v i d e n t that the c h r o n o l o g y it is federal g o v e r n m e n t is r e l u c t a n t to take any r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e i r actions. Corps o f E n g i n e e r s and owner the to b e g i n federal works; at s t a k e as the p r i v a t e r i p a r i a n "short e n d of the s t i c k . " quence of the C o r p s ' f a i l u r e to i.e., "reputation" have mere l y given Harbors A c t o f 1968# the the S m a l l B u s i n e s s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (SBA)# the l a t t e r h a v i n g no real does the Corps# Both Thi s is the c o n s e ­ i m p l e m e n t the R i v e r s S e c t i o n 111# to to r e p a i r the d a m a g e s its and f ul l e s t extent# r e s u l t i n g from the an d it is also a c o n s e q u e n c e of the S B A n o t supporting the u r g e n t r e q u e s t s repair dam age to homes. eral a c t i o n ^ has for l o w - i n t e r e s t loa ns to F o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n la ck o f f e d ­ a l l o w e d e r o s i o n to c o n t i n u e w i t h o u t e v e n token e f f o r t s at remedy. - — A t the time o f this w r i t i n g l e g i s l a t i o n is p e n d ­ ing b o t h in the M i c h i g a n L e g i s l a t u r e and the F e d e r a l C o n ­ gress to i m p l e m e n t p r o c e d u r e s for f u n d i n g e r o s i o n d a m a g e repair at St. J ose ph# M i c h i g a n . C H A P T E R IV PHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF T H E E R O S I O N P R O B L E M A T ST. J O S E P H Background The five m i l e study a rea at St. reach of shoreline comprising J ose ph* the M i c h i g a n r e p r e s e n t s o n l y a small segment of the total b e a c h a r o u n d the l o w e r p e n i n s u l a of the State th at h a s b e e n in Lake M i c h i g a n - H u r o n . the m o s t c r i t i c a l as e r o s i o n d a m a g e s influenced b y eustatic fluctuations This segment* locations on as far are con cern ed. for the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m h a v e the p h y s i c a l a range in m a g n i t u d e isostatic crustal movements to small m a g n i t u d e a d j u s t m e n t s the g e o m o r p h i c p r o c e s s e s active ca u s a l a gen ts hy d r o l o g i c is one of the e n t i r e c o a s t l i n e F r o m the g e o l o g i c v i e w p o i n t large r e g i o n a l however* c aus es from c a l l e d rebound* in the b e a c h profi le. While in e v i d e n c e on the b e a c h are the for erosion* factors affecting water 65 the m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and stages a n d p r o v i d i n g 66 the p r i n c i p a l e n e r g y s o u r c e s volved. for e r o s i o n are e q u a l l y i n ­ T h e h y d r o l o g y o f the G r e a t L ake s s y s t e m is r e g u ­ lated by g a t e d w o r k s and h a s b e e n a l t e r e d b y d i v e r s i o n s o f water b o t h to a nd from the G r e a t L a k e s w a t e r s h e d . Divi­ sions and r e g u l a t i o n of l e v e l s and flows h a v e b e e n c i t e d as causal fa cto rs c o n t r i b u t i n g to e r o s i o n dam a g e s . Engineering works have been erected for h a r b o r protection and to p r o t e c t s h o r e ar eas o f t e n w i t h total disregard f or the o t h e r p h y s i c a l p a r a m e t e r s i n v o l v e d or the l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s o f t h e s e stru ctu res . A s a result# structures for a large al ong the s hor e h a v e b e e n b l a m e d share of the e r o s i o n damage s. Th is chapter describes sical factors Joseph. the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m at St. T h e d i s c u s s i o n b y v i r t u e o f the m a g n i t u d e of the Great Lakes side the influencing the v a r i o u s u n d e r l y i n g p h y ­ system necessitates a r e v i e w of fac t o r s o u t ­ imm ed i a t e g e o g r a p h i c a l v i c i n i t y o f St. Joseph. It is m o s t important riparian o w n e r al ike lying g e o l o g i c causal for the engineer# to b e a p p r i s e d of w h a t are factors# w h a t has b e e n in terms o f e n g i n e e r i n g wo rks # and lawyer# the u n d e r ­ tried b e f o r e from the legal point w h a t the b a s i c facts are c o n c e r n i n g and cause stand­ and e f f e c t 67 relationships. F r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of the p r o p e r t y owner it is c r i t i c a l that h e u n d e r s t a n d w h a t can r e a l ­ istically b e a c c o m p l i s h e d ment program. in a l o w c o s t e r o s i o n m a n a g e ­ L a r g e r * more comprehensive erosion ma n a g e ­ ment p r o g r a m s m u s t b e u n d e r t a k e n an d o f t e n m u s t b e p r e c i p ­ itated b y c o n c e r t e d c i t i z e n legal eral legal a v e n u e s initiate suits action. T h e r e are s e v ­ o p e n to the r i p a r i a n o w n e r s e e k i n g to for e r o s i o n d a m a g e s o r to force g o v e r n ­ mental a c t i o n to p r o v i d e m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e e r o s i o n m a n a g e ­ ment. Leg al c o u n s e l for these citizens# familiar w i t h the p h y s i c a l de velop a f act ual b a s i s engineer too h a s b e e n (geological) for p o s s i b l e therefo re# systems must be in o r d e r co u r t action. to The i n t i m a t e l y i n v o l v e d in p r o v i d i n g d e ­ signs and s u p e r v i s i o n of c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b o t h p u b l i c private p r o t e c t i v e w o r k s and o f t e n w i t h o u t an a d e q u a t e w o r k i n g k n o w l e d g e o f the full sc ope of the g e o l o g i c problem. chapter is a i m e d at p r o v i d i n g the b a c k g r o u n d This information on the g e o l o g i c and e n g i n e e r i n g a s p e c t s of the e r o s i o n problem for all One of of p hys i c a l involved p a r t i e s . the m o s t b e n e f i c i a l o u t c o m e s of the an al y s i s factors c o n t r o l l i n g e r o s i o n s h o u l d b e the 68 u n derstanding g a i n e d b y all p a r t i e s of the problem. citizen# Xn turn# r i p a r i a n owner# as to the true s c o p e this s h o u l d a l l o w the c o n c e r n e d l a w y e r and p r o f e s s i o n a l view the l o n g - t e r m e r o s i o n m a n a g e m e n t g o a l s alike to in their proper p e r s p e c t i v e . Geologic History The r e c e n t g e o l o g i c h i s t o r y years# F ig u r e 7) upper lakes# h as of lake le v e l s of the G r e a t Lakes# (i.e.# the p a s t 10#000 e s p e c i a l l y in the followed a sequence of general in r e l a t i o n to the l a n d s urface. ing of the l ev e l s is the r e s u l t of two factors: lowering T h e l owe r first# the u p w a r p i n g o r r e b o u n d i n g of the l a n d s u r f a c e s u b s e q u e n t to the rem ova l of the w e i g h t of g l a c i a l ice; an d second# the s u b s e q u e n t g r a d u a l d o w n c u t t i n g and l o w e r i n g of the out lets of the u p p e r lakes outlets. The St. t h r o u g h the v a r i o u s p o s t - g l a c i a l C l a i r R i v e r at P o r t H u r o n is the n a t u r a l outlet p r e s e n t l y c o n t r o l l i n g lake sta g e s for the Lake M i c h i g a n —H u r o n system. Th e g e o m o r p h o l o g y alo ng the sho res o f the lakes provides a r e c o r d o f this g r a d u a l l o w e r i n g effect. 69 E L E V A T IO N O F L A K E STAGE A B O VE S E A L E V E L - IN F E E T O U T L E T OF L A K E ro 10,000 YRS.B.P C A P P R O X ) t*j cj a> ro o) o o o o o o ^ tn Ui O) O) oo ro o) o ^ cj) vj oo ro o o o o o o o i— i— r C H IC A G O & H U R O N B A S IN N O R T H E A S T W A R D TO H U R O N B A S IN K IR K F IE L D 5 6 5 A L G O N Q U IN 605 C H IC A G O A N D S T R A IT S OF M A C K IN A C P E N E T A N G 510 ^ ^ ^ ^ rfc E D A R mmmmmr* PAYETTE P O IN T 4 9 3 465 KORAH 3 9 0 S T R A I T S O F M A C K IN A C 230 N IP IS S IN G 605 ALGOMA 595 S T R A IT S OF M A C K IN A C BASIN C H I C A G O A N D S T R A I T S OF M A C K IN A C OF THE MICHIGAN C H IP P E W A LAKE STAGES LO W ER A L G O N Q U IN 5 6 5 W Y E B R ID G E 5 4 0 M IC H IG A N 560 PRESENT Fig. 7.— Lake stages in the Great Lakes ba sin during the p ast 10,000 years, mod if i e d from Hough (1958). 70 Ab and o n e d b e a c h ter ra c e s w h i c h d e l i m i t a n c i e n t s h o r e l i n e s are found on u p l a n d to more than 200 a rea s f r o m e l e v a t i o n s o n l y a few feet feet ab ove m o d e r n lake stages. ence of a b a n d o n e d b e a c h ri d g e s these ter r a c e s giv es e v i d e n c e at v a r i o u s e l e v a t i o n s tha t p e r i o d the levels of the lake h a v e o c c u r r e d at the for ma t i o n of and w i n t e r fluctuations in int er v a l s s i n c e F i g u r e 7. These beach fo r m e d at h i g h w a t e r p e r i o d s w h e n ice p u s h p i l e d b e a c h s e d i m e n t eral f eet abo ve on the i n c i p i e n t g l a c i a l G r e a t L a k e s 1 0 # 0 0 0 years ago d u r i n g d e g l a c i a t i o n # ridges w e r e Th e p r e s ­ the lake st age at that storm waves into m o u n d s time. sev­ In the s u c ­ ceeding years u p l i f t of the l a n d an d l o w e r i n g of the o u t ­ lets c a u s e d a g e n e r a l stage. l o w e r i n g of lake levels Whereupon storms and w i n t e r ice to a n e w f ormed o t h e r ridges at these s o m e w h a t l o w e r stages. D o w n c u t t i n g o f o ne of the m a j o r C a n a d i a n p o s t ­ glacial o u t l e t s c a u s e d a r a p i d l o w e r i n g wa ter s tag e d u r i n g w h a t stage#'*" F i g u r e 7. is c a l l e d Crustal to an e x t r e m e low the C h i p p e w a l ow w a t e r rebound# o r t e c t o n i c u p l i f t of ■*"J. L. Hough# G e o l o g y of the G r e a t L a k e s U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s Press# 1958)# pp. 263-68. (Urbana: 71 the l and as the r e s u l t of d e g l a c i a t i o n * and n ew l o w e r l e v e l o u t l e t s w e r e found. filled to lev els h i g h e r tha n those of and r e s u m e d a s l o w e r l o w e r i n g c l o s e d this o u t l e t rate. T h e lakes the m o d e r n The the n lakes rate of l o w e r i n g of the m o s t r e c e n t G r e a t L a k e s has s l o w e d to a rate that has b e e n c a l c u l a t e d to b e These level b e a c h e s Lakes in f e r e n c e s .03 feet p e r y e a r s i n c e 1860. f r a n the g e o l o g i c r e c o r d of h i g h e r p u t the o v e r a l l g e o l o g i c s y s t e m o f the G r e a t into a time p ers p e c t i v e . 10*000 y e a r s 2 O v e r the span o f the l a s t the levels o f the lakes h a v e through a r ang e of s ev e r a l h u n d r e d the b e s t g e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e most of the m o r e feet» fluctuated Figure 7. it can b e d e t e r m i n e d From that rap id l o w e r i n g of lak e sta g e s h a s ceased. The c r u s t a l r e b o u n d has g e n e r a l l y s t a b i l i z e d a n d d o w n cutting o f o u t l e t c h a n n e l s has e i t h e r g r o u n d e d o n b e d ­ rock or has b e e n g r e a t l y reduced. this s t a b i l i z a t i o n t h r o u g h works on the outlets. 2 Man's activity has aided the i n s t a l l a t i o n of r e g u l a t o r y The most recent geologic hi s t o r y is G i l b e r t C. Ropes* "Ver tical C o n t r o l of the G r e a t Lakes*" P r o c e e d i n g s of the A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i ­ neers* S u r v e y i n g and M a p p i n g D i v i s i o n * A p r i l 1965# pp. 39-49. 72 a record o f m a n ' s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the n a t u r a l systems. The p r e s e n t sho re c o n d i t i o n s result of m a n ' s are to a l a r g e d e g r e e the a c t i v i tie s. Shore Processes T h e d i s c u s s i o n o f shore p r o c e s s e s by n e c e s s i t y s o m e w h a t co n d e n s e d . textbooks 3 and a r t i c l e s 4 in this w o r k A number of excellent on geomorphic processes shore e n v i r o n m e n t are a v a i l a b l e is sh o u l d in the the r e a d e r w i s h more detail. The l i t t o r a l b e l t a l o n g s e a c o a s t s a n d l arg e lakes en c o m p ass es g e o m o r p h i c p r o c e s s e s that are v a r i e d a n d among the m o s t v i g o r o u s on the face of the earth# the b r o a d e s t se nse 3 In these p r o c e s s e s c a n b e d e s c r i b e d as C.A.M. King# B e a c h e s a n d Arnold# Ltd.# 1959); A. G u i l c h e r # M o r p h o l o g y (London: John Wiley & A. Holmes# P r i n c i p l e s o f P h y s i c a l York: R o n a l d Press# 1965). 4 F i g u r e 8. C o a s t s (London: Edward C o a s t a l and S u b m a r i n e Sons# Inc.# 1958) ? a nd G e o l o g y (2d ed.; N e w P. Brunn# "Sea L e v e l R x s e As a C a u s e of S h o r e E r o s i o n # " J. W a t e r w a y s H a r b o r s D i v . # Am. Soc. C i v i l E n g r s .» Vol. 88# 1962# pp. 117-130; M. Sch wartz# " L a b o r a t o r y S t u d y of S e a - L e v e l Ris e as a C a u s e o f S h o r e E r o s i o n # 11 J. G e o l .# Vol. 73# No. 3# 1965# pp. 528-534. L IT T O R A L BELT A BEACH H EA DLAND SHORE LIM IT OF WAVE TURB ULENCE- A BLUFF SHORE L IN E EPHEM ERAL BAR OFFSHORE BARS WATER LEVEL DEEP WATER Fig. 8.— Terminology associated with geomorphic features in the littoral environment along a typical Great Lakes shore in the vicinity of the study area. ones involving erosion transportation# and deposition# each a i d e d b y th e m o t i v e forces of wind# rent. is the e n v i r o n m e n t The littoral b e l t a c t i v i t i e s and e f f o r t s to l i v e of n a t u r e are m o s t d r a m a t i c . the e r o s i o n - d e p o s i t i o n His Chapter and c u r ­ in w h i c h m a n ' s a n d to c o n t r o l the confrontation and s e d i m e n t c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of this s y s t e m response model waves forces is w i t h t r a n s p o r t sys t e m . A is a g a i n the p r o c e s s - for the l i t t o r a l e n v i r o n m e n t p r e s e n t e d in II. The terminology used to d e s c r i b e the v a r i o u s sub­ un its w i t h i n t h e l i t t o r a l b e l t v a r y s l i g h t l y a m o n g d i s c i ­ plines. Geologists b e l t to include f r e q u e n t l y e m p l o y the t e r m l i t t o r a l the z o n e generated turbulence backshore line# sand dunes# to the b e a c h beach and c o n t i n u i n g ridg es# c l i f f line# to the or b l u f f F i g u r e 8. The shore as f r o m the l o w e r l i m i t o f w a v e ­ in the l a c u s t r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t the z o n e e x t e n d i n g swash line from the l o w w a t e r (the h i g h e s t l i m i t o f w a v e coast is a l o o s e l y d e f i n e d e x p r e s s i o n sh o r e and is d e f i n e d t o the m a x i m u m run-up) . th at The includes the a d j a c e n t b e l t of l a n d d i r e c t l y term the influenced by 75 it. The coastline land. is the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n w a t e r and d r y 5 The b e a c h is d e f i n e d as a s h o r e c o n s i s t i n g at least p a r t l y o f u n c o n s o l i d a t e d m a t e r i a l . The material m o s t o f t e n s a n d sized/ or shingles# w h i c h lea ds to the Finer material beach leads in the c l a y s i z e to w h a t fraction whe n found on a is c a l l e d a m u d b e a c h . composed of sand sized and larger u p to the m a x i m u m s i z e c a p a b l e o f b e i n g m o v e d b y w a v e action# this sediment limit of swash or w a v e as d e p i c t e d in F i g u r e lel shore to cobbles t e r m c o b b l e b e a c h or s h i n g l e be ach . Along beaches material but may be is the is c a r r i e d s h o r e w a r d r u n - u p and seaward w i t h 9a. causing Incoming waves the m o t i o n of to the th e b a c k w a s h are r a r e l y p a r a l ­ this sed i m e n t to T h e t e r m c o a s t l i n e in the g e o l o g i c s e n s e is the land-water boundary. The legal d e f i n i t i o n of O r d i n a r y H i g h W a t e r M a r k (OHWM) o n the G r e a t L a k e s a nd M e a n H i g h T i d e (MHT) o n the s e a c o a s t s of the U.S. e s t a b l i s h e s the d e m a r c a ­ tion b e t w e e n private r i p a r i a n o w n e r s h i p and public trust o w n e r s h i p b y the St ate . T h e O H W M w a s s e t at the d a t u m of 579.8 fe et a b o v e m e a n s e a l e v e l in M i c h i g a n o n L a k e s M i c h i g a n - H u r o n b y the S u b m e r g e d L a n d s A c t (Act 247 o f the M i c h ­ i g a n P u b l i c A c t s o f 195 5). T h e 5 7 9 . 8 f e e t e l e v a t i o n is the d e m a r c a t i o n l i n e for b o u n d a r y p u r p o s e s in the St. J o s e p h area. M e a n h i g h t i d e a l o n g t i d a l c o a s t s o f the U.S. is d e t e r m i n e d b y a c c u r a t e t i d a l g a u g i n g b y the N a t i o n a l O c e a n Survey (NOS). In F l o r i d a # f o r e x a m p l e # t h e N O S s u r v e y s are b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n to f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h the l i m i t s o f p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c o w n e r s h i p d e f i n e d b y t h e M H T line. 76 '^<^xBACKWASH>^ SW ASH ~ - \ ^ v. Fig. 9 a . — M o v e m e n t of s e d i m e n t by b e a c h drift, d i a g r a m m o d i f i e d fro m S t r a h l e r (1960) . LAND / / / / / f , ' 38 / LONGSHORE C URRFM T d r if t in g ^^^33686219813 Fig. 9 b . L i t t o r a l d r i f t or l o n g s h o r e d r i f t of s e d i m e n t in the l i t t o r a l belt, d i a g r a m m o d i f i e d f r o m S t r a h l e r (1960) . 77 follow a z i g - z a g p a t h u p and d o w n the b e a c h # The re sul t is w h a t is k n o w n as b e a c h drift# F i g u r e 9a. which is d e ­ fined m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y as the s l o w n et m o v e m e n t of m a t e ­ rial in the s w a s h zone away from i n - c o m i n g w a v e s . d i r e ct ion is a f u n c t i o n of w i n d d i r e c t i o n s . occurs d u r i n g all w a v e e n e r g y c o n d i t i o n s Wave Beach drift from mild rip­ ples to s t o r m waves. This zone of w a v e same g e n e r a l p r o c e s s oc c u r s turbulence beginning offshore in the at the p o i n t w h e r e w a v e s b e g i n s h o a l i n g and is r e f e r r e d to as l o n g s h o r e o r l i t t o r a l drift# F i g u r e 9b. S t r i c t l y d e f i n e d l o n g s h o r e d r i f t refers to the w i n d g e n e r a t e d l o n g s h o r e current. is the p r o c e s s of s e d i m e n t m o v e m e n t . Littoral drift In g e n e r a l u s a g e no d i s t i n c t i o n is m a d e b e t w e e n l o n g s h o r e d r i f t or l i t t o r a l dri ft and they are o f t e n u s e d estimates i ndi c a t e interchangeably. that littoral drift The best is c o n f i n e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y to p e r i o d s of h i g h w a v e e n e r g y and t urb ule nce . g B r a t e r a nd S e i b e l s t a t e that 90 p e r c e n t o f all m o v e m e n t or d i s p l a c e m e n t of l i t t o r a l m a t e r i a l occurs during the two g A n E n g i n e e r i n g S t u d y of G r e a t L a k e s Sho re E r o s i o n in the L o w e r P e n i n s u l a of M i c h i g a n # W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o m m i s ­ sion# D e p a r t m e n t of N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s # 1973# p. 4. 78 or three l a r g e s t s t o r m s year period. for l ittoral on the G r e a t Lak es B e c a u s e the s t o r m s t h a t are m o s t r e s p o n s i b l e transport occur during the spring m o n t h s w h e n w e a t h e r p a t t e r n s m o v e west# o v e r a t hree fall# w i n t e r and in from the n o r t h ­ the p r e d o m i n a n t d i r e c t i o n o f the l o n g s h o r e d r i f t on M i c h ig an' s w e s t c o a s t (e.g.# in the St. J o s e p h area) is to the sou t h . On the G r e a t L a k e s 7 longitudinal offshore bars occur o n the b o t t o m p r o f i l e f r o m t he e d g e o f the s w a s h zone to a d i s t a n c e of u p to 1#000 fe et o ff shore# u p o n the b o t t o m s lop e a n g l e a n d w a t e r depth. depending The ephemeral b a r is found n e a r the e d g e of the s w a s h zone w h i l e u p to three o t h e r b a r s are f o u n d r e g u l a r l y s p a c e d w a t e r at a d e p t h o f 1 5-1 8 bars feet. into d e e p e r T h e m a x i m u m d e p t h at w h i c h form is a f u n c t i o n o f the m a x i m u m w a v e h ei g h t . tu r b u l e n c e m o l d s the l i t t o r a l shapes o f the o f f s h o r e bars# 7 Wave s e d i m e n t into the r i d g e - l i k e F i g u r e 8. A c c o r d i n g to C . A . M . K i n g m B e a c h e s an d C o a s t s p. 333: " S u b m a r i n e b a r s are b e s t d e v e l o p e d w h e r e tidal ra nge is s mal l s u c h as in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a and the G r e a t Lakes of N o r t h A m e r i c a . " at 79 T h e p r o c e s s of e r o s i o n c an b e d e f i n e d as a net loss in sediment* m e n t of b each. "stability" as in this c a s e fr o m ' a p a r t i c u l a r s e g ­ In the n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n ass um i n g in the l o n g - d u r a t i o n g e o l o g i c sion is o f t e n o n l y temporal. The material pr oce s s e s * removed ally r e p l a c e d l a t e r b y d e p o s i t i o n of m a t e r i a l tr a n s p o r t e d a l o n g the b e a c h rent a c t i o n f rom u p d r i f t in r e s p o n s e areas. Th is relative ero­ is u s u ­ that ha s b e e n to a w a v e and c u r ­ condition of dynamic s t a b i l i z a t i o n w h e r e e r o s i o n is f o l l o w e d b y d e p o s i t i o n is Q called b e a c h e q u i l i b r i u m . Barring unusual offshore con­ ditions su ch as nat u r a l w h i l e the s y s t e m most littoral o r a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r s n e a r shore* is in e q u i l i b r i u m at a g i v e n w a t e r s t a g e sediment remains in the l i t t o r a l zone. U n d e r the e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s of c o n t i n u i n g static w a t e r levels* the p r o f i l e of the b e a c h w i l l a s table c o n f i g u r a t i o n . m e n t and h a v i n g 0 ass ume F o r a s hor e c o m p o s e d of f i n e r sedi steep b a c k s h o r e b l u f f s of u n c o n s o l i d a t e d A c c o r d i n g to C. A. M. King in B e a c h e s and C o a s t s at p. 328: The e q u i l i b r i u m g r a d i e n t of a n y b e a c h in n a t u r e is n o t a sta tic s l o p e b u t o n e w h i c h w i l l be c o n ­ t i n u a l l y t end ing to a d j u s t it s e l f to the c h a n g ­ ing v a r i a b l e s on w h i c h it d e p e n d s . . . . (T) h e e q u i l i b r i u m is a d y n a m i c one* not a s t a t i c one. 80 s e dim en t s u c h as those f o u n d a t St. Joseph# the c o n f i g u ­ ration of the l i t t o r a l b e l t can b e d e p i c t e d as s h o w n in Figure 8. An equilibrium which ity of the l i t t o r a l to a d j u s t to c h a n g e s Changes the g r a d u a l in the m a s s / e n e r g y of time# s u c h as h a v e the l a s t 1 0 # 0 0 0 y e a r s state of d y n a m i c e q u i l i b r i u m # ference time. interface taken place during stages in the H o l o c e n e of dynamic e q u i l i b r i u m conditions. configurations system or s o o f g e o l o g i c h istory) s h o r t - t e r m v i e w of a f e w years# and o f f - s h o r e input over the w a t e r l a n d lowering of G r e a t Lakes gi ve e v i d e n c e the a b i l ­ e n v i r o n m e n t as a t o t a l p h y s i c a l in the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of ov er lon g p e r i o d s (i.e.# is d y n a m i c c o n n o t e s however# In the stable on-shore a r e q u i c k l y a c h i e v e d u n d e r the barring significant inter­ f rom m a n ' s w o r k s . Staqe-Bar Relationship On sh own bars. the b e a c h b u i l t on u n c o n s o l i d a t e d in F i g u r e 10a# The presence there develops (or absence) a series sediment# as of o f f - s h o r e of t h e s e b a r s in a n y s h o r e HORIZONTAL SCALE SAND sand: EROSION AT HEADLAND HIGH LAKE STAGE SHIFT OF BARS LANDWARD l« il>■ Fig. 10a (above).— Hypothetical stage-bar relationship at near equilibrium conditions at a low-water stage on the Great Lakes. Fig. 10b (below) .— Hypothetical stage-bar conditions depicted during rising stage. Note landward shifting of bars with subsequent erosion until equilibrium is again achieved. 82 system s u c h as the o n e at St. Joseph is the factor control­ ling e s t a b l i s h m e n t of e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s . According c o ndi t i o n s are to King# e t a l .* in e v i d e n c e * 9 when disequilibrium accelerated erosion or depo­ sition o c c u r s o n the b e a c h u n t i l the o f f - s h o r e b a r s and r e f o r m to n e w e q u i l i b r i u m p o s i t i o n s . lo wer ing l a k e s t a g e s ually move they m o v e farther offshore under the b a r s g r a d ­ and conversely i n s h o r e u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f r i s i n g s tag es# gr adi ng conditi ons ) water levels Figure Beneath tion of b a r s 10b. During is a p p a r e n t and is the o n l y v i s i b l e the w a t e r # however* (de­ the r e c e s s i o n o f l i t t l e o r no h e a d l a n d e r o s i o n a w i d e n i n g o f the b e a c h change. This means ( a g g r a d i n g conditio ns) to p o s i t i o n s shift geomorphic the o f f - s h o r e m i g r a ­ to t h e i r n e w e q u i l i b r i u m p o s i t i o n s o c c u r s # Fi gur e 10a. Under degrading beach w i dth conditions Figure 10b. headland erosion provides 9 is a r e d u c t i o n accompanied b y a shoreward migration of off-shore bars* the b e a c h there the peak some additional and o f f s h o r e bars. Notes When 3 a n d 4 supra. stage sediment It is i m p o r t a n t in the is r e a c h e d for to n o t e that 83 this e r o s i o n r e p l a c e s s e d i m e n t l o s t to d e e p w a t e r d u r i n g the pre vious l o w stage. This b a s i c c o n c e p t e l u c i d a t e d b y H o l m e s eustatic c h a n g e s of a p e r i o d i c 13 and L a r s o n fluctuations 14 in lake equilibrium conditions dissipa te w a v e energy. through 11 S chw artz# stage. in e s t a b l i s h i n g the the m a n n e r Wave energy in w h i c h the y is a c t u a l l y a f u n c t i o n In t u r n w a v e h e i g h t is a f u n c t i o n of w i n d “^ P r i n c i p l e s of P h y s i c a l G e o l o g y Ronald Press# 1965). (2d e d . ; N e w York: ^ " S e d i m e n t a t i o n in the N e a r s h o r e E n v i r o n m e n t # S o u t h e a s t e r n L a k e M i c h i g a n # " ( unp u b l i s h e d Ph.D. d i s s e r ­ tation# U n i v e r s i t y of Illinois) # p. 131. 12 "The B r u u n T h e o r y o f S e a L e v e l R i s e as a C a u s e of Sh ore E r o s i o n # " J o u r . G e o l .# Vol. 75# No. 1# 1966# pp. 76-92; "The S c a l e of S h o r e E r o s i o n # " J o u r . G e o l .# Vol. 76# No. 3, 1967# pp. 356-363. 13 " P r o p e r t i e s of L o n g s h o r e Bars in the G r e a t Lakes #" P r o c e e d i n g s of the T w e l f t h C o a s t a l E n g i n e e r i n g C o n f e r e n c e # W a s h i n g t o n # D. C.# Se pte m b e r # 1970. 14 12 in th eir c o n s i d e r a t i o n s Offshore bars play a k e y role of w a v e h eig ht. for in sea level h a s b e e n s h o w n to b e e q u a l l y operative in the G r e a t L a k e s s y s t e m b y Davis# Saylor an d H ands# 10 T h e C u l t u r a l V a r i a b l e in S h o r e E r o s i o n A l o n g the I lli n o i s S h o r e o f L a k e M i c h i g a n (Chicago: La ke M i c h i g a n F e d e r a t i o n # D e c e m b e r # 1972). 84 ve locity and l e n g t h of fetch# the f e t c h b e i n g of w a v e b u i l d - u p o v e r o p e n w a t e r . from 70 to 100 m i l e s M a x i m u m f etc hes for s e v e n h o u r s produce a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i v e - f o o t w a v e s ca n in d e e p water. A for the s ame d u r a t i o n c an p r o d u c e w a v e s 14 feet in h e x , *t. 15 Shoaling begins wh e n of w a v e turbu. ince e n c o u n t e r s bar# ra nge ac r o s s L a k e M i c h i g a n an d o v e r this distance a w i n d o f 30 k n o t s b l o w i n g 40 knot w i n d the d i s t a n c e therefore# acts the l o w e r l i m i t the b o t t o m . The offshore as a w a v e e n e r g y d i s s i p a t o r b y c a u s ­ ing these in co m i n g w a v e s to b e g i n b r e a k i n g o r s h o a l i n g b e ­ fore the y i m p i n g e a g a i n s t the beach. In the n a t u r a l s i t u a t i o n of r i s i n g w a t e r levels# the p o i n t at w h i c h w a v e s b e g i n b r e a k i n g w i l l be s h i f t e d landward a l l o w i n g m o r e w a v e e n e r g y to r e a c h the b e a c h w i t h the r e s u l t b e i n g e r o s i o n of the b e a c h or h e a d l a n d . the s e d i m e n t r e s u l t i n g shore b a r s from this e r o s i o n r e b u i l d s Once the o f f ­ to a s u f f i c i e n t h e i g h t w a v e e n e r g y is a gai n la rge ly d i s s i p a t e d o f f s h o r e equilibrium condition are rebuilt# f r o m the beach. is r e a c h e d w h e n (aggraded) Note 6 s u p r a . to m e e t T he b e a c h the o f f s h o r e b a r s the n e w st age c o n d i tio ns. 85 In this situatio n# erosion (degrading) of the h e a d l a n d h a s ceased or o c c u r s o n l y at times o f a b n o r m a l storms. S e d i m e n t in l i t t o r a l transit tinuing s our ce of the m a t e r i a l n e e d e d (drift) is the c o n ­ for b a r r e f o r m a t i o n . In or der to m a i n t a i n a n a t u r a l s t a t e of d y n a m i c e q u i l i ­ brium there m u s t b e a near constant volume of sediment active t r a n s i t a l o n g the shore. riers to the n a t u r a l bars d o w n d r i f t w i t h in N a t u r a l or m a n - m a d e b a r ­ flow of s e d i m e n t r e d u c e the h e i g h t o f the r e s u l t t h a t less e n e r g y d i s s i p a t e s there and e r o s i o n at the b e a c h or h e a d l a n d m u s t c o n t i n u e to c o m p e n s a t e for these l o s s e s . Th is e r o s i o n w i l l con­ tinue u n t i l e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s are a chi eved. Natural barriers to l i t t o r a l s e d i m e n t m a y inc l u d e such f eat ure s as b e d r o c k p o i n t s # f a l l e n tre es or d e e p wa ter cl ose to s h o r e s u c h as a t r e n c h or canyon. ural b a r r i e r s tem# as are a c c o m m o d a t e d r a t h e r q u i c k l y b y the s y s ­ in the case of trees. to s e d i m e n t m o v e m e n t h a v e over time. Most nat­ In ge ne r a l # Major natural forced reformation of coastlines the l i t t o r a l s y s t e m near e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n and bered b y m a n ' s w o r k s im p e d i m e n t s it w i l l is p r o b a b l y in if l e f t to e v o l v e u n i n c u m ­ r e m a i n so. 86 Man-made structures tive b a r r i e r s to s e d i m e n t are e q u a l l y if n o t m o r e e f f e c ­ flow than any natural Structures s u c h as h a r b o r m o u t h je tties# waters and gr oin s ment. Bulkheads ar e m a n - m a d e b a r r i e r s piers impedence. or b r e a k ­ to l i t t o r a l m o v e ­ t h a t r e t a i n a s e c t i o n o f b e a c h and w h i c h prevent s e d i m e n t n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m the u p l a n d are also portant i n t e r r u p t o r s of n a t u r a l The structures s h o r e l i n e at St. sediment replenishment. J o s e p h has m a n y a r t i f i c i a l that are e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r s to n a t u r a l s e d i m e n t m o v e m e n t and r e p l e n i s h m e n t as c a n b e o b s e r v e d and P h o t o M a p 1. The harbor structures St. J o s e p h R i v e r p r o v i d e littoral drift. im­ in F i g u r e 5 at the m o u t h of the an e s p e c i a l l y e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r to O v e r the y e a r s the r e s u l t a n t d o w n d r i f t er osi on at times of h i g h w a t e r h a d l ed to f u r t h e r p r o t e c ­ tive w o r k s b e i n g b u i l t ures 11 an d 12a. These in the s e d i m e n t s h a d o w area# smaller works have Fig­ in t u r n p r o d u c e d their o w n s e d i m e n t s hadows. E r o s i o n in the s e d i m e n t s h a d o w area# will c o n t i n u e u n t i l e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s Unfortunately# however# never b e a c h i e v e d once i nitiated# are a chi eved. this e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n w i l l in the p r e s e n t st ate of the system. W h e r e all o r m o s t o f the s e d i m e n t flow is b l o c k e d b y the 87 PRIVATE OWNERS (U N P R O T E C T E D ) REFRA CTIO N PRIVATE OWNERS (U N P R O T E C T E D ) PRIVATE OWNERS '^ R E F R A C T IO N (R E V E T M E N T G R O IN S ) HIGHWAY DEPT. ' CGROINS, B U L K H E A D ) c&ORii; (G R O IN S, PIERS, BULKHEADS) WATERWORKS (GROINS, BULK H EA D S, R E VE TM EN T) LIONS BEACH % Sftfft: &&Z. .riH! SSSoiV SEDIMENT SHADOW AREA y/.y/ H littoR ^ Fig. 1 1 . — A c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of the l i t t o r a l s y s t e m at St. Joseph, M i c h i g a n as s k e t c h e d fro m t h e p h o t o v i e w in F i g u r e 5. T o p of d i a g r a m is south. HORIZONTAL SCALE iSAND: LEVELED BEACH ^BULKHEAD /-GROIN LOW LAKE STAGE 575 STORM WAVES REACH BLUFF DEEP WATER NEAR STRUCTURES HIGH LAKE STAGE BARS LACKING ADEQUATE NOURISHMENT REDUCED IN AMPLITUDE Fig. 12a (above).— Schematic representation of the stage-bar conditions on a structurally altered shore at a low-lake stage. Fig. 12b (below).— Schematic representation of the stage-bar conditions on a structurally altered shore at a high lake stage. 89 federal h a r b o r p i e r s , the s y s t e m w i l l li br i u m b y r e m o v i n g m a t e r i a l through e r o s i o n . tive w orks, mitted Blocked by bulkheads farther of adds to the g r e a t e r Thus, vertical bulkheads as m u c h pilings to the h e a d l a n d . at 12b. Sheet piling deep wat e r extreme (15 feet) b e n t and u p r o o t e d b y shortly after in St. turbulence at w h i c h The the St. Joseph its i n s t a l l a ­ in the s p r i n g o f at the b u l k h e a d ti me the w a v e s . formed t he p i l i n g w a s e a s i l y Similar in-shore water the o t h e r b u l k h e a d s t r u c ­ J o s e p h sh ore . stage-bar relationship protected shores in w a t e r 2— 3 f e e t 20 f e e t l o n g h a s b e e n b e n t de p t h s h a v e b e e n m e a s u r e d o f f a l l tures a l o n g The pres­ feet have b e e n m e a s u r e d off steel tion a t the C i t y w a t e r w o r k s Here, is t r a n s ­ the l a n d - w a t e r i n t e r f a c e . that w e r e o r i g i n a l l y d r i v e n Figure the n a t ­ greater wave energy turbulence as 15 Deep against which water smashes and d e m o l i s h e d b y s t o r m w a v e s 1973. and other p r o t e c ­ i n s h o r e in the a b s e n c e o f F i g u r e 12b. ence deep. in the s e d i m e n t s h a d o w a r e a to the b e a c h a n d b e y o n d Depths toward equi­ the s y s t e m r e m a i n s h i g h l y u n s t a b l e . water occurs ural bars. strive is p r e s e n t e d for b u l k h e a d in F i g u r e s this s i t u a t i o n d e e p w a t e r a f f e c t s inshore and groin 1 2 a a n d 12b. areas and the In 90 increased t u r b u l e n c e m o v e s deeper w ater. a g r e a t e r a m o u n t of s e d i m e n t to This results in f u r t h e r d e e p i n g o f the n e a r ­ shore w a t e r w h i c h in tu rn i n t e n s i f i e s succeedi ng storms. The n a t u r a l bar, the e r o s i o n d u r i n g as the s i g n i f i c a n t s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g e l e m e n t in the system, c o m p l e t e l y b r o k e n down. c o n d i t i o n of At the l i t t o r a l shore s e g m e n t s at this p o i n t h a s the p r e s e n t time s y s t e m at St. on the G r e a t La kes are this Joseph. is the Other in c o m p a r a b l e sta g e s of s y s t e m d e g e n e r a t i o n . Th e P r o c e s s - R e s p o n s e M o d e l at St. J o s e p h The physical conditions v i c i n i t y of St. along the sh o r e in the J o s e p h can b e d e s c r i b e d b y a c o n c e p t u a l p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e m ode l. This conceptual model provides the m e c h a n i s m for t est ing l o n g - t e r m e r o s i o n c o n t r o l m e a ­ sures and, more i m p o r ta ntl y, the factual b a s i s can b e b e s t illustrated by is an a r t i s t ' s with for leg al in this s t u d y it p r o v i d e s argume nts . The model the s k e t c h in F i g u r e r e n d e r i n g of the s h o r e l i n e the s i g n i f i c a n t m o d u l a r at St. factors d epi cted. itself 11, w h i c h Joseph 91 The fe der al p i e r s p r o t e c t i n g the St. J o s e p h h a r b o r en tra nce are the s i n g l e m a j o r h i n d r a n c e to the na t u r a l sys­ tem abo ut w h i c h all o t h e r s mall m a g n i t u d e p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e i n t e r act ion s h a v e e v o l v e d . The piers have completely stopped the flow o f n a t u r a l b e zone. South f r o m the p i e r s zone w h i c h e x t e n d s ch s e d i m e n t in the l i t t o r a l ire e x i s t s a s e d i m e n t s h a d o w s o u t h w rd a n u n d e t e r m i n e d d ist anc e. The s o u t h w a r d e x t e n t o f the s e d i m e n t s h a d o w (at St. Joseph) is a f u n c t i o n of the a m o u n t o f s e d i m e n t r e t u r n e d system b y e r o s i o n o f the h e a d l a n d . to the It is p r o b a b l e t hat the full r e s p o n s e e f f e c t s f rom the e l i m i n a t i o n o f l i t t o r a l sediment extend well past the l i m i t s o f the s t u d y area. T h e a c c r e t i o n o f s e d i m e n t on the n o r t h side of the piers h a s d i v e r t e d s e d i m e n t f a t h e r o f f sh ore wh ere a p o r t i o n of this m a t e r i a l water. This is b e i n g is d e p i c t e d b y the a rrows no field d a t a s u p p o r t s this any s a n d - s i z e d m a t e r i a l The loss of s edi men t* structures. in general* While p r o b a b l y li t t l e has if c a u s e d the o f f s h o r e to the e x t e n t are now p r e s e n t c los e Bathymetric maps 11. the s o u t h side of the piers. bars to b e d e s t r o y e d o r d i s r u p t e d re gul ar b a r p a t t e r n s l o s t to d e e p in F i g u r e assumption* reaches to the p o i n t that no to the p i e r s h o w a c h a o t i c p a t t e r n of 92 bar seg ments cu t b y r i p - c h a n n e l s . 16 most n o t a b l y E d i t h McKee* b e l i e v e water b a r s this d i s r u p t i o n o f d e e p e r i m m e d i a t e l y s o u t h of the p i e r s front r e f r a c t i o n a r o u n d the piers. bu lence Other researchers* in t u r n p r o d u c e s is c a u s e d b y w a v e The resultant wave the c h a o t i c b a r pat ter ns* tur ­ Figure 11. In r e s p o n s e to this r e d u c t i o n in the o f f - s h o r e bars and the d e g r a d i n g of the b o t t o m p r o f i l e * er osi on b e g a n a f f e c t i n g d e v e l o p e d shore the piers. The segments s o u t h of i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n of s hor e ow n e r s w a s erect s h o r e l i n e s t r u c t u r e s such as g r o i n s This ha s b e e n d o c u m e n t e d e a r l i e r of events. accelerated and b u l k h e a d s . in the h i s t o r i c a l E a c h o f these s t r u c t u r e s p l a c e d al ong e v e n t u a l l y p r o d u c e d u n n a t u r a l e ff e c t s d r ift s egm ent s. quence d e e p w a t e r the g r o i n s and b u l k h e a d s . t hen In c o n s e ­ f o r m e d at the sh o r e a n d c a u s e d g r o i n s l e n g t h ene d* trapping more l a ke w a r d p r o j e c t i n g s t r u c t u r e s 16 the shore Th e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h s h o r e w a r d e r o s i o n be ing r e g u l a t e d b y to b e sequence on neighboring down introduces r e p l a c e m e n t s e d i m e n t to the s y s t e m w as and p ier s to s edi ment. at the b e a c h The also c h a n g e d P e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h E d i t h McKee* fied P r o f e s s i o n a l G e o l o g i s t . Certi­ 93 the angle of w a v e a d v a n c e tures. i m m e d i a t e l y s o u t h of the se s t r u c ­ R e f r a c t i o n o f t hes e w a v e s or "flanking" o f the st r u c t u r e s . process and the r e s p o n s e r e s u l t e d in This " b r e a k- bac k" smaller magnitude i n t e r a c t i o n is d e p i c t e d in F i g ­ ure 13 . Th e s e q u e n c e o f erosion# flanking p r o c e e d e d southw ard# ment to the p r e s e n t state. at this time s t r u c t u r a l p r o t e c t i o n and sh o r e s e g m e n t b y s h o r e s e g ­ T he s h o r e l i n e in the s t u d y a rea is a n e a r l y c o n t i n u o u s li ne of p r o t e c t i v e structures w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of two r a t h e r s h o r t segments# Figure 11. The preceding narrative 11 points to t h r e e a c t u a l shor e p r o c e s s e s m o dif ie d b y s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s # angle o f w a v e and h ead lan d. i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of F i g u r e littoral t hat h a v e b e e n s e d i m e n t t ransport, a p p r o a c h and n a t u r a l e r o s i o n at the b e a c h The r e s p o n s e of the s hor e s y s t e m has b e e n d i r e c t e d t o w a r d r e s u m p t i o n of a m o r e stable# shore c o n f i g u r a t i o n . drift s ide of m a j o r has c h a n g e d equilibrium S e d i m e n t h a s a c c u m u l a t e d o n the up s t r u c tur es. the o f f s h o r e p rofile# er o s i o n at the h e a d l a n d . ships o f a d v a n c i n g w a v e B u t the l a c k of s e d i m e n t the r e s p o n s e a g a i n b e i n g The c h a n g e in a n g u l a r r e l a t i o n ­ fronts a t the h a r b o r piers# the Fig. 13.— Simplified illustration showing process-response model with destruc­ tion of the littoral system by structures. Breakback or flanking greatly accelerates the erosion rate on the downdrift side of the installed structure. 95 many individual jet t i e s and piers# and at p r o t e c t e d p r o ­ mentor ies has c a u s e d t u r b u l e n c e and e r o s i o n offshore b a r s an d to r a p i d l y e r o d e the to d e s t r o y flanks of p r o t e c ­ tive s t r u c t u r e s . Hvdrometeoroloqic Aspects The fluctuations in the l e v e l s and o u t f l o w s and the i nci d e n c e of s t o r m c o n d i t i o n s o n the G r e a t b a k e s w a t e r ­ shed are a f u n c t i o n of the h y d r o l o g i c tors. A s d i s c u s s e d earlier# periods of i nte nse erosion. changes and m e t e o r o l o g i c in lake lev e l s lead to S t o r m c o n d i t i o n s g e n e r a t e the high e n e r g y w a v e s that are the p r e c i p i t a t o r s erosion damages. I n v o l v e d h e r e are the d i s c i p l i n e s meteorology# fac­ as the s c i e n c e d e a l i n g w i t h of s p e c i f i c of the a t m o s p h e r e and the m o v e m e n t of w a t e r as v a p o r an d as l i q u i d in the air# and h y d r o l o g y as a d i v i s i o n of e a r t h s c i e n c e concerned wi th the d i s t r i b u t i o n of w a t e r o n the e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e and beneath. Th e Great L a k e s fluctuations are a s p e c t s watershed while in the lev els o r stages of the of the h y d r o l o g y of the G r e a t La kes the cau sal f act ors of s p e c i f i c p e r i o d s of 96 intense co ast al e r o s i o n are a spe c t s of fundamental meteor­ ologic concern. Long-Term a nd S e a s o n a l Stage F l u c t u a t i o n s T h e p e r i o d of r e c o r d fr om 1860* w h e n g a u g i n g of the lake stages began* to the p r e s e n t i n v o l v e d c o n t i n u o u s me asurements of the c o m b i n e d e f f e c t s o f b o t h s e a s o n a l long term v a r i a t i o n s which control in lake level. the l o n g e r p e r i o d of each lake are m e t e o r o l o g i c origin. a nd Th e p r i m a r y fa cto rs f l u c t u a t i o n s of the le vel s and c l i m a t o l o g i c in t h e i r P e r i o d s of b e l o w a v e r a g e p r e c i p i t a t i o n c o u p l e d with h ot dr y s u m m e r s p r o d u c e h i g h e v a p o r a t i o n rates. These periods are f o l l o w e d b y c o r r e s p o n d i n g l o w w a t e r s t a g e s on the lakes. H i g h e r than a v e r a g e p r e c i p i t a t i o n c o m b i n e d w i t h cool c l o u d y s u m m e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y p r o d u c e p e r i o d s o f h i g h w a t e r stage. years occ ur Over periods in s uc c e s s i o n * of y e a r s the n et e f f e c t o n the levels in the lakes ca n b e c u m u l a t i v e . igan-Hur on st a g e T h e p l o t o f the L a k e M i c h - for the p e r i o d of r e c o r d Figure 14 i l l u s t r a t e s fluctuations. in w h i c h s e v e r a l d r y (1866-1973) in the n a t u r e and c h a r a c t e r of l o n g - t e r m As can b e s e e n o n the p l o t o f the mean* 584 ELEVATION I N FEET ABOVE I.G.L.D. 583 582 581 580 579 578 577 576 575 574 1840 I860 1880 1900 1920 1940 I960 1980 YEAR Fig. 14.— Lake Michigan-Huron stages for the period of record 1860-1973 with the 0.03 ft. per year observed lowering trend applied to the data points, diagram modified from Larson (1972). 2000 98 annual lake lev els in this figure o v e r the p e r i o d of r e c o r d the m ost r e c e n t h i g h w a t e r p e r i o d s o c c u r r e d in 1 969-present/ and b u t the r e c o r d is m a r k e d b y o t h e r h i g h and low stages w h i c h h a v e quency. in 195 2-5 3 o c c u r r e d in an a p e r i o d i c fre­ Peak highs have occurred roughly every 15-25 years. On an an nua l b a s i s levels of the lakes seasonal f o l l o w the g e n e r a l stages in the s u m m e r r e s u l t i n g melt and low sta ges f r o m s p r i n g rains and s n o w - fr om the g e n e r ­ a nd i n c r e a s e d e v a p o r a t i o n t h r o u g h F r o m y e a r to y e a r the a m p l i t u d e of the f l u c t u a t i o n is q u i t e v a r i a b l e d e p e n d i n g u p o n term m e t e o r o l o g i c fa c t o r s but/ pattern remains in the pattern of high in the fall r e s u l t i n g ally d r i e r c o n d i t i o n s the s ummer m ont hs. fluctuations co n s i s t e n t . in general/ short­ the s e a s o n a l 17 Short-Term Variations in Lake L eve ls W h i l e b o t h l o n g - t e r m an d s e a s o n a l lake levels 17 fluctuations in are the u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e of h i g h w a t e r erosion/ W a t e r L e v e l s o n the G r e a t Lakes/ R e p o r t on L a k e R e g u l a t i o n / A p p e n d i x A/ H y d r a u l i c s and H y d r o l o g y / D e t r o i t D i s t r i c t / 1965. 99 the m e t e o r o l o g i c p r o c e s s e s associated with short-term fluctuations l e a d to g r e a t e s t c h a n g e s ment. According Pox and Davis, 19 in the b e a c h e n v i r o n - to the s t u d i e s c o m p l e t e d b y S e i b e l 18 as m u c h as 90 p e r c e n t of all c h a n g e s the p ro f i l e of the foresho re# rn b e a c h and o f f s h o r e b o t t o m occurs d u r i n g s t o r m c ond iti ons . A f air e s t i m a t e w o u l d b e that 90 p e r c e n t of the total c h a n g e s and off sho re p r o f i l e s and occur during in the upland# beach one p e r c e n t of the time. Short-term variations in the levels of the la kes are i n d e p e n d e n t of b o t h l o n g - t e r m o r sea s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s and the v o l u m e of w a t e r in the lak es an d can b e r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y to l oca l or r e g i o n a l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l Du r i n g the per i o d s is m o v e d of s h o r t - t e r m v a r i a t i o n s u r f a c e w a t e r in r e s p o n s e Wind-driven waves phenomena. to b a r o m e t r i c p r e s s u r e s and wind. t e n d to rai se l e v e l s a l o n g w i n d w a r d shores e s p e c i a l l y in n a r r o w b a y s w h e r e the e f f e c t s are 18 "Shore E r o s i o n at S e l e c t e d Sit es on L a k e M i c h i ­ g a n and L a k e H u r o n " (unpub lis hed Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n # U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n # 1972). 19 C o m p u t e r S i m u l a t i o n M o d e l of C o a s t a l P r o c e s s e s in E a s t e r n L a k e M i c h i g a n # Tech. R e p o r t No. 5 # W i l l i a m s town# Mass.# W i l l i a m s C oll ege . 100 focused and m a g n i f i e d . Alo n g leeward shores a corre­ sponding low eri ng o f le v e l s occurs. surface w a t e r This m a s s t r a n s f e r of is e q u a l i z e d d u r i n g p r o l o n g e d st o r m s b y sub- surface return. 20 S h o r t p e r i o d o s c i l l a t i o n s w h i c h are p r o d u c e d b y me teo r o l o g i c a l f orc es s u c h as w i n d o r b a r o m e t r i c p r e s s u r e and w h o s e per i o d s are l o n g e r than those of s u r f a c e w a v e s are f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d to as a "seiche." A seiche c o n ­ dition m a y r e s u l t in the t e m p o r a r y r a i s i n g and l o w e r i n g of lake levels w i t h an a m p l i t u d e of u p to 8 . 4 feet. conditi ons h a v e b e e n te rme d w i n d 21 Seiche tides b y so me r e s e a r c h e r s . D u r i n g a s e i c h e c o n d i t i o n w a v e r u n - u p ca n o f t e n reach e x t r e m e l y h i g h u p l a n d area s c a u s i n g e r o s i o n and d a m ­ age to p r o p e r t y tha t s hor e o w n e r s from such attack. lake s tag es waves h a v e initially considered It is d u r i n g p e r i o d s of e x t r e m e h i g h and u n d e r se i c h e or w i n d tide c o n d i t i o n s t hei r g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on u p l a n d pro per ty. pr ese nt p e r i o d of h i g h la ke le v e l s h as 20 21 safe that Th is focused public N o t e 1 s u p r a p. 44. Th e m a x i m u m t e m p o r a r y ri ses h a v e b e e n m e a s u r e d at 8.4 feet on Lake E r i e and 2.5 f e e t o n L a k e H u r o n a c c o r d ­ ing to Hou gh* p. 44* N o t e 1 s u p r a . 101 attention on two areas of the sta te w h e r e d a m a g e s h a v e been costly. S h o r e ow n e r s a long L a k e E r i e h a v e b e e n faced with flooding w h e n w i n d s d r i v e lake w a t e r inland alo ng distance of f l a t - l y i n g shores. a l o n g the e a s t ­ ern shore of L a k e Mi chi g a n # which are s u s c e p t i b l e L ike wise# especially where high bluffs to u n d e r c u t t i n g and e r o s i o n are found as in the v i c i n i t y of St. J ose ph# reach u n p r o t e c t e d b l u f f s in spite of p r o t e c t i v e w orks. T w o r e c e n t st udi es on Lake M i c h i g a n h a v e p o i n t e d at the s h o r t - t e r m w i n d - g e n e r a t e d set-up# w a t e r in the la ke basin) wind driven waves (i.e.# in the l a k e s y s t e m as the m o s t s i g n i fic ant f a c t o r c a u s i n g s h o r t - t e r m c h a n g e s environment. F o x and D a v i s 22 at m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e c h a n g e s the rate of c h a n g e o f t ilt ing of in b e a c h e x a m i n e d the i n f l u e n c e of (i.e.# fr ontal systems) the b e a c h p r o f i l e w h i l e S e i b e l the f r e q u e n c y of lo w p r e s s u r e cells. on 23 used Seibel's work encom­ passed a 3 2- y e a r s p a n t h r o u g h the u s e of ae ria l p h o t o g r a p h s dating b a c k to 1938 o n w h i c h w e r e m e a s u r e d the b l u f f - l i n e m i g r a t i o n rate. 22 23 B l u f f r e c e s s i o n rat es w e r e No te 19 s u p r a . Note 18 s u p r a . correlated with 102 low pressure co nditions. a shorter p e r i o d o f time Th e F o x and D a v i s {six years) study was for an d u t i l i z e d o n - s i t e measurements of l i t t o r a l c o n d i t i o n s on a c o n t i n u o u s b a s i s during per iod s of b o t h r e l a t i v e q u i e s c e n c e and s t o r m a c ­ tivity. S e i b e l ' s w o r k c o n c l u d e d that o v e r the l o n g e r time spans e r o s i o n rates r e m a i n s t a t i s t i c a l l y u n i f o r m for long periods of time u n l e s s tures. Larson's study Seibel. 24 influenced b y man-made in I l l i n o i s s u p p o r t s the w o r k of Th e s t u d i e s of F o x and D a v i s justments st ruc - reported rapid ad­ in the b e a c h a nd o f f s h o r e z ones d u r i n g per iod s of hxg h w a v e energy. Artificial Factors Affecting Stage M a n - m a d e r e g u l a t o r y w orks, and w a t e r d i v e r s i o n s b o t h dredging for n av i g a t i o n , in to and o u t o f the G r e a t Lak es have m o d i f i e d the n a t u r a l h y d r o l o g y o f the w a t e r s h e d s i g ­ nificantly. are minimal. Th e o v e r a l l n e t c h a n g e s how ever, G a t e d r e g u l a t o r y w o r k s at S a u l t Ste. N o t e 14 s u p r a . 25 in levels, N o t e 19 s u p r a . Marie 103 control the level of Lake S u p e r i o r b y r e g u l a t i n g o u t f l o w which in turn i n f l u e n c e s lev els in the l o w e r lakes. di ver sio n into Lake S u p e r i o r of 5/000 cfs second) A (cubic feet per f rom the A l b a n y R i v e r b a s i n t h r o u g h L o n g L a k e and the Ogoki R i v e r h a s since 1938 increased the w a t e r s u p p l y 26 flowing into the l o w e r lak es at the Soo w o r k s . the ext r e m e h i g h w a t e r p e r i o d o v e r the y e a r s 1953 and a g a i n d u r i n g the p r e s e n t peaks/ During 1951/ 1952/ an a g r e e m e n t w i t h Canada s e c u r e d a r e d u c t i o n in this d i v e r s i o n in an e f f o r t to ease the e r o s i o n proble m. Th e net e f f e c t o f the L o n g L a k e -O gok i d i v e r s i o n on the l o w e r lakes level + 0 . 3 7 +0.23 feet feet (4.5 inches) (2.75 inches) Water# Michigan Basin however/ into C h i c a g o sin ce 1848. is to raise the o n L a k e M i c h i g a n - H u r o n and o n Lake Erie/ T a b l e 1. has b e e n d i v e r t e d o u t o f the Lake the M i s s i s s i p p i d r a i n a g e s y s t e m t h r o u g h The C i t y of C h i c a g o b y S u p r e m e C o u r t de cree ha s b e e n r e s t r i c t e d to the a m o u n t o f 3/200 cfs on an average b a s i s for b o t h d o m e s t i c use/ sion to m a i n t a i n le vel s 26 N o t e 17 s u p r a . and d i r e c t d i v e r ­ in the s h i p p i n g and s a n i t a r y TABLE 1 SUMMARY 07 ARTIFICIAL DIVERSIONS AND THEIR EFFECT ON LEVELS ON THE GREAT LAKES3 Diversion Long Lake-Ogoki Chicago Welland Canal Net Effects 5,000cfs 3 ,100cfs 7 ,000cfs Lake Michigan -Huron +0.37 foot or +4Jj inches -0.23 foot or — 2— 3/4 in. -0.10 foot or -1% inches +0.04 +% inch Lake Erie +0.23 foot or +2-3/4 inches -0.14 foot or -l'-5/8 inches -0.32 foot or -3-7/8 inches= -0.23 2-3/4 inches ULTIMATE EFFECTS OF EXISTING DIVERSION ON WATER LEVELS (+) DIVERSION RAISES LEVEL OR (-) DIVERSION LOWERS LEVEL aL. D. Kirshner, "Effects of Diversions on the Great Lakes," Miscellaneous Paper 6 8 - 7 , U.S. Lake Survey, November 1968, p. 296. 104 Annual Rate 10 5 canals. T h e famous c o u r t cas e 27 stemming . f r o m this d i v e r ­ sion wh ile g a i n i n g m u c h n o t o r i e t y h a d l i t t l e b a s i s in fact because it can b e s h o w n that the d i v e r s i o n at C h i c a g o has minimal e f f e c t on lake le v e l s due to the c o m p e n s a t i n g e f ­ fect of the Long L a k e - O g o k i d i v e r s i o n into L a k e Su per i o r # Table 1. Channel dredging in the St. C l a i r and D e t r o i t Rivers has h a d the ne t e f f e c t o f l o w e r i n g foot in the M i c h i g a n - H u r o n system. Corps of E n g i n e e r s p l a n s 28 the level 0.59 Ho we v e r # preliminary to r e m e d y this lo we r i n g b y a system of sills p l a c e d in the c h a n n e l s are b e i n g d e v e l o p e d at the p r e s e n t time. T h e s u m m a r y o f all n a t u r a l butions to the levels and a r t i f i c i a l of the G r e a t L a k e s contri­ is p r e s e n t e d in Table 1. 2 7 87 U. S. 28 1774-76# J u l y 1# 1967. I. M. Kor kig ian # "Channel C h a n g e s in the St. C l a i r R i v e r s in ce 1 933 #" P r o c e e d i n g s of the A m e r i c a n S o c ­ iety of C i v i l E n g i n e e r s # J o u r n a l o f the W a t e r w a y s and Harbors D i v i s i o n # M a y 1963# pp. 3-8. Engineering Aspects Th e e n g i n e e r h a s s o u g h t to p r o v i d e h a r b o r s of r e f ­ uge and cen ter s seacoasts. for c o m m e r c e on the G r e a t Lakes and the T he n e e d s o f w a t e r b o r n e c o m m e r c e are m e t w h e n river and b a y m o u t h s are p r o t e c t e d from h e a v y s eas and channels l e a d i n g to s a f e a n c h o r a g e s adequate depth. are m a i n t a i n e d to an W h i l e o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d as b e i n g a b o o s t to the e c o n o m y of the i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y * h a r b o r works h a v e in m o s t i n s t a n c e s w r o u g h t e x t r e m e l y h i g h m a i n ­ tenance and s e c o n d a r y costs. The dredging which is u s e d to m a i n t a i n c h a n n e l d e p t h s is a c o n s t a n t t ask i n v o l v i n g co nstant cost. s e c o n d a r y c o s t s are tho se a t t r i b uted to Additional damages caused by d r ift and e r o s i o n losses. costs u s i n g the i n t e r r u p t i o n s of l i t t o r a l T h e b a l a n c i n g o f b e n e f i t s an d the p r o p e r w e i g h i n g o f s e c o n d a r y b e n e f i t s w o u l d p r o b a b l y s h o w v e r y fe w if a ny of the h a r b o r s t r u c ­ tures on the G r e a t L a k e s b e n e f i t st and poi nt. to b e b e n e f i c i a l from a cost- Th e c ost s o f b e a c h p r o t e c t i o n m u s t be i n c l u d e d as p a r t of a n y h a r b o r p roject. developed harbor projects Most recently take this a s p e c t into account. B e a c h p r o t e c t i o n can h e b r o u g h t a b o u t in se ve r a l ways and m a y u t i l i z e b o t h s t r u c t u r a l a n d n o u r i s h m e n t 29 niques. T he s t r u c t u r a l m e t h o d s tech- that have b e e n prescribed for many y e a r s by e n g i n e e r i n g t e x t s a r e in two c a t e g o r i e s ; those e x t e n d i n g o u t w a r d f r o m sh o r e a n d t hos e c o n s t r u c t e d parallel w i t h the shore. S e a w a r d or l a k e w a r d p r o j e c t i o n s groins or jetties# length. Groins the l a t t e r b e i n g s o m e w h a t l o n g e r in and jet tie s are u s u a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d at a sl igh t ang le t o w a r d the p r e v a i l i n g case of St. are c o m m o n l y c a l l e d incident waves. In the J o s e p h and o t h e r w e s t M i c h i g a n l o c a t i o n s they are u s u a l l y o r i e n t e d s l i g h t l y to the n o r t h of w e s t P h o t o M a p 1. T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f the g r o i n is to t r a p l i t ­ toral s e d i m e n t t h e r e b y b u i l d i n g b e a c h on the u p d r i f t s id e . ^ ° R a pid e r o s i o n o n the d o w n d r i f t side w h i c h is o f t e n r e f e r r e d to as f lan k i n g o r b r e a k - b a c k # w i l l n o uri s h e d o n a c o n t i n u i n g b a s i s # son# g r o i n fields F i g u r e 13. (multiple groins) 29 r e s u l t if n ot a d e q u a t e l y F o r this r e a ­ ar e o f t e n u s e d to See generally# Shore Protection G u i d e l i n e s # D e p a r t m e n t of the Army# C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s # W a s h i n g t o n # D. C.# 1971. 30 I b i d . # p . 41. 108 protect a l o n g e r s e c t i o n of b e a c h . G r o i n fields afford marginal p r o t e c t i o n at b e s t in t h e i r o w n r i g h t so a r t i f i cial fill for n o u r i s h m e n t ing will r e t a r d the is u s u a l l y r e c o m m e n d e d . 31 Fill­ f o r m a t i o n pf a s e d i m e n t s h a d o w d own - drift from the s t r u c t u r e s . If n o u r i s h m e n t is n o t u n d e r ­ taken or is not d o n e on a r e g u l a r basis* fla nking p r o c e e d s rather q u i c k l y d u r i n g h i g h w a t e r c ond iti ons . quent e n t r a p m e n t o f a p o r t i o n of rial t h e r e f o r e c r e a t e s The conse­ the l i t t o r a l d r i f t m a t e ­ a t e m p o r a r y net loss to the l i t t o r a l system. T h e m a t e r i a l s u s e d for c o n s t r u c t i n g g r o i n s o r j e t ­ ties m ay i n c l u d e n at u r a l stone# The p e r m a n e n c y of a n y m a t e r i a l and funds a v a i l a b l e thumb" ex i s t s concrete# w o o d o r steel. type is a f u n c t i o n o f d e s i g n for c o n s t r u c t i o n . W h i l e no "rule of the lo w e r c o s t s t r u c t u r e s s e e m to b e the ^ 2 least permanent. H owe v e r # m a n y i nst anc es can b e p o i n t e d out where e x p e n s i v e steel p i l i n g w a s d e s t r o y e d r a p i d l y 3 1 T, Ib i d . 32 "Low C o s t Sh o r e P r o t e c t i o n for the G r e a t La ke s # " E n g i n eer ing R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e R e p o r t # U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan# r e p r i n t e d O c t o b e r 1 9 5 9 b y the W a t e r R e s o u r c e s Commission* M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t of N a t u r a l Re sou rce s. 109 during one w i n t e r s t o r m and w h e r e better than average shoreline ei the r a b u l k h e a d o r sea w a l l - w h i c h case interlocking t hey ar e is u s u a l l y c a l l e d They may be sloped concrete or natural called revetments. normally constructed to b e e n e r g y - a b s o r b i n g p l a c e d at the toe o f the s t r u c t u r e Bulkheads are a f o r m of steel t hat level. b e a c h slope. form t h e i r function M a p 1. The 33 abound federal h a r b o r works Note 2 9 s u p r a . e ner g y . w o o d or to l e v e l the per­ the b e a c h area. turbulence during protection. Structural designs stone conditions bulkheads and destroys b u l k h e a d alone w i t h o u t n p - r a p are j e t t e d or d r i v e n to l e v e l near-shore heavy water often undermines of c o n c r e t e # B a c k f i l l i n g o f t e n is u s e d intended in and as s u c h to r e d u c e w a v e in place# Under quiet water stone th at a r e n e a r l y v e r t i c a l They may be is e i t h e r p o u r e d into the b o t t o m . Ho we v e r # seawall and Revetments they o f t e n h a v e r i p - r a p o f c o n c r e t e o r n a t u r a l to the w a t e r afforded protection. P r o t e c t i o n at t h e ar mor ed w i t h old auto b o d i e s structures storms standing 33 at St. are Joseph# comprised of Photo 110 c o n c r e t e - c a p p e d w o o d p il i n g # of s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n tried along this reach over Steel Steel can b e "non— e n g i n e e r e d " the p r e s e n t h i g h can be driven are u s u a l l y rubble jetted rapidly# revetments constructed designs. The success or into position. it a p l a c e d at the n a t u r a l as w e l l structures f a i l u r e of a s t u d y of the c o s t and f r e q u e n c y of the r a t e o f b l u f f r e c e s s i o n . were somewhat haphazardly to the d e g r e e found the p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e the p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f the r u b b l e other small-sized private of Joseph. can b e m e a s u r e d b y through as m a n y o t h e r Photo M a p 1 shows examples With bluffs in p l a c e t hus g i v i n g and shore-based protective in the s t u d y a r e a at St. r e p a i r and and e a r l i e r b u t steel common during sheeting b l u f f angle h a v e b e e n Joseph W o o d pilings were o v e r wood. Concrete at St. 1950's fabricated more cost a d v a n t a g e the l a k e w a r d the y ear s. the sh eet p i l i n g h a s b e e n m o r e whereas wood pilings form and c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l h a s b e e n used extensively during w a t e r ep is o d e . but almost every other revetments which c o n s t r u c t e d at b e s t # n o n e o f the structures have protected intended by their designers. the Ill In ge ne r a l # the m o s t s u c c e s s f u l at St. J o s e p h h a v e b e e n road C o m p a n y h a s going repair# T h e C&O R a i l ­ the m o s t e x p e n s i v e . spe n t o v e r one m i l l i o n dollars in o n — r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and general maintenance. The shore a d j a c e n t to the r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n a r y s i n c e 1938. pa rt m e n t h a s protective works Likewise stable s h o r e p o s i t i o n . and r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y # si der a b l e a m o u n t s o f in o r d e r 35 remained the M i c h i g a n H i g h w a y D e ­ rebuilt and m odified in ex ces s o f $4 m i l l i o n tr a c k s h a s 34 their works for a s u m to m a i n t a i n a r e l a t i v e l y . The Michigan Highway Department however# both have had fill m a t e r i a l in o r d e r to ad d c o n ­ to m a i n t a i n these p o s i t i o n s . Bruun 36 considers "atomic w e a p o n 1' a g a i n s t agree t h a t n o u r i s h m e n t artificial nourishment shore erosion. This w riter would is the a n s w e r w h e r e it c a n b e p r o ­ vi ded e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d in s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s . 34 the P e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h Mr. C i t y M a n a g e r # St. J o s e p h # M i c h i g a n . Most L e l a n d Hill# 35 P e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h Mr. T h o m a s C o l e m a n # Soils E n g i n e e r # M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e H i g h w a y s . 36 "Coastal S t a . # 1963. P r o t e c t i o n # n F l o r i d a Eng. Ind. Expt. 112 schemes for p r o v i d i n g b e a c h nourishment rely on either offshore d r e d g i n g or l a n d - b a s e d Offshore d e p o s i t s of a g r a d a t i o n in the b e a c h z o n e m a y b e h a r d may p rov e h a r d ro nmental sites f o r t his m a t e r i a l . large enough to fin d a n d if f o u n d to r e c o v e r for v a r i o u s reasons. the long r u n b u t Land to r e m a i n sites provide they physical and e nvi­ the b e s t source in the d e c i s i o n m u s t b e w e i g h e d w h e t h e r "robbing P e t e r to p a y P a u l " is the b e s t l o n g - t e r m s o l u t i o n . T h e m o s t e f f i c i e n t m e t h o d to a c c o m p l i s h s and n o u r ­ ishment is to i n s u r e which f o r m b a r r i e r s sand b y p a s s i n g that structures to l i t t o r a l (sand transfer) is a s i m p l e e n o u g h m e c h a n i c a l at the s a m e tim e it p r o v i d e s such as h a r b o r jetties drift are equipped w i t h devices. operation 37 Sand bypassing to a c c o m p l i s h w h i l e the n e a r n o r m a l amount of s e d i m e n t to the d o w n d r i f t b e a c h e s . Hydraulic suction dredges whi c h a f f i x e d to the j e t t y s t r u c t u r e s pa ssi ng years facilities have been are t h e u s u a l d e s i g n . in o p e r a t i o n at P a l m B e a c h a nd D a y t o n a Beach* 37 Note 29 supra. are p e r m a n e n t l y By­ for a n u m b e r of Florida# Virginia Beach/ V i r g i n i a a n d s e v e r a l locations the d a t e of san d t r a n s f e r this w r i t i n g in o p e r a t i o n w i t h no the e x c e p t i o n o f in C a l i f o r n i a . facilities the s a n d To are transfer- n o u r i s h m e n t w o r k b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n a s an i n t e r i m m e a s u r e the C o o k N u c l e a r P l a n t ' s from the sit e of the n u c l e a r p l a n t h a u l e d to the d o w n d r i f t harbor temporary harbor. (south) in o r d e r to n o u r i s h this segment of beach. the s o u t h e d g e of and b u l l d o z e d into the surf. t r eme ly g o o d e x a m p l e at St. No to remedy the e r o s i o n army. fi g h t t e m p o r a r y h o l d i n g o v e r a l l retreat/ but Joseph provide an ex ­ sand suc h as g r o i n s s i t u a t i o n the p r o p e r t y o w n e r s equipped retreating harbor transfer must amount of m o n e y put exclusively into p r o t e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e s will even beg i n The the t e m p o r a r y o f an a r e a w h e r e be p u t into o p e r a t i o n . is b e i n g s i d e of a t e m p o r a r y s a f e near jetties Sand excavated (on shore) sand is p i l e d The ha rbor at will be or revetments problem. In this analogous to the T h e a r m y m a y s top/ actions during so a r e fi gh t i n g a t e m p o r a r y h o l d i n g the p r i v a t e r e f o r m and the c o u r s e o f an property owners action against ill- the w a v e ' s 114 energy. Without shore b a r s the n a t u r a l the p r o p e r t y o w n e r p r o t e c t i o n of s h o a l i n g o f f ­ is d o o m e d to d e f e a t as is the i l l - e q u i p p e d army. Th e e x a m p l e s o f ect and the S t a t e H i g h w a y D e p a r t m e n t p r o j ­ the C & O R a i l r o a d ' s e f f o r t s reached b y m o s t o b s e r v e r s / over $ 5.5 m i l l i o n point even with the e x p e n d i t u r e o f for a p o r t i o n o f b e a c h miles l o n g w i t h o u t to the c o n c l u s i o n les s than two the p r o t e c t i o n o f o f f s h o r e b a r s and natural b o t t o m s l o p e n o l o n g - t e r m p r o t e c t i o n c a n b e g a i n e d only from s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s . works alone cannot hope St. Joseph# matter# M o n e y spent on p r o t e c t i v e to s o l v e the e r o s i o n or any other location without provisions natural s e d i m e n t drift such as h a r b o r p iers. in the w o r l d for m a i n t a i n i n g fl ow a c r o s s m a j o r problems at for t h a t an e f f e c t i v e impediments to l i t t o r a l CHAPTER V A P P L I C A T I O N OP THE PROCESS-RESPONSE M O D E L TO PROVIDE FACTUAL LEGAL EVIDENCE Introduction The p rocess — response model St. Jos eph# Michigan of the i n t e r a c t i n g systems in e v i d e n c e u n d e r the g i v e n s e t The boundary conditions as t h e o v e r a l l ph ysi cal p a r a m e t e r s bar c o n f i g u r a t i o n ment in transit# at is t h e s c i e n t i s t s 1 c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s . such f a c t o r s of shore conditions are al e x t e n t o f th e area# s u c h as m a t e r i a l a n d the include types# amount of littoral a n d the e n g i n e e r i n g size* c o n f i g u r a t i o n and s p a t i a l These factors w h e n combined offshore the slo pes# sediment* f a c t o r s s u c h as sedi­ le ngth# relationship of structures. form the u n i q u e system expressed by the p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e m ode l. Applications of engineering this m o d e l for p l a n n i n g * of erosion control measures will 115 design and rely on more 11 6 detailed analysis of each of mo re i n f o r m a t i o n o n these fac tors. For example# the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f m a t e r i a l type and bar size w o u l d b e n e e d e d to p l a n a n d d e s i g n a n o u r i s h m e n t p r o g r a m for this these v a r i o u s constrained b y team and m o r e area. individual The a m o u n t of q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f and combined parameters the p r o f e s s i o n a l a b i l i t i e s fundamentally by the of is o n l y the r e s e a r c h available research budget. F r o m the p o i n t of v i e w o f the p h y s i c a l the p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e m o d e l for u n d e r s t a n d i n g p h ysi ca l design the d e c i s i o n m a k i n g and for the shore. facing a d i l e m m a b e c a u s e m a n y of the o v e r a l l Joseph. not understand in the p l a n n i n g # protective measures standing the p o i n t of b e g i n n i n g t h e p r o b l e m s a t St. scientists will this m o d e l is o n l y ing s h o r e p r o t e c t i o n m e t h o d s the Many non­ importance of i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of The riparian owner the p e o p l e significance of position. scientists is n ot u n d e r ­ the p r o b l e m a r e And most decisions in concern­ are b e i n g m a d e b y t h e s e indi­ vi du a l s . The le gal to b r i n g s ome becomes system has evolved# of t h e s e p o l i c y m a k e r s evident that their decisions especially of late# to a c c o u n t w h e n it are incompatible with 117 environmental to settle s yst e m s . claims Likewise# for d a m a g e s n e a r -s hor e c o n d i t i o n s . settle d i s p u t e s without facts The or b r i n g provides legal c l a i m as w e l l as legal framework chapter d i s c u s s e s the a p p l i c a t i o n s w h ile the f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r into the l e g a l out of a c t u a l To the essential recapitulate d i s c u s s e d in a p r e v i o u s model d e s c r i b e s processes) and integrates s ect i o n # two p r i m a r y t h a t ar e c a u s i n g the s t u d y area. Fi r s t # focus information Joseph. this process-response (alterations of natural tha t a r e b l o c k i n g structures Both with arising in is the p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r of s eco nd# at the sho re. cases accelerated shore erosion of l i t t o r a l s e d i m e n t and# shore p r o c e s s # this information a g a i n on w h a t h a s b e e n factors th ere the f e d e r a l h a r b o r p i e r s This the p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e scientific f o u n d a t St. the of s c i e n ­ c lai ms. cont e x t of three h y p o t h e t i c a l situations to process- the types to s u p p o r t t h e v a r i o u s of The for o r g a n i z i n g tific d a t a n e e d e d for o b t a i n i n g in the in p o l i c y b u t n o t cl aim s. for d e l i m i t i n g model is u s e d system can he used specific the system a r i s i n g out of changes about changes to s u p p o r t re sponse m o d e l the l e g a l th ere are the n a t u r a l the severely alter flow individual the n a t u r a l th e r e s p o n s e b e i n g d e s t r u c t i o n or 118 s i g n i f i c a n t d i s r u p t i o n o f t he n a t u r a l The d i s r u p t i o n of the b a r s offshore b ar in t u r n h a s of w a v e e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n # the altered sy ste m. the process further response being g r eat er e r o s i o n at the b e a c h and a l a n d w a r d m i g r a t i o n o f the b l u f f line. estimating The most easily m e a s u r e d parameter the d e g r e e o f d i s r u p t i o n in th e n a t u r a l is the ra te of b l u f f li ne m i g r a t i o n . A rate q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of a ti me r e l a t e d p a r a m e t e r . ph o t o g r a p h s plotted different years yield the in time. system is b a s e d o n Aerial a l l o w the p o s i t i o n o f the b l u f f l i n e for a g i v e n p o i n t for Successive to b e photos for i n f o r mation on rates of b l u f f line m i g r a t i o n . Along the s h o r e itself structural works natural a c t i o n o f the wa ves # in process. The to structural the a change the d o w n d r i f t s i d e c a u s e s b r e a k —b a c k o r ing is thus the r e s p o n s e al system. thereby constituting refraction of waves on of these s t r u c t u r e s impede f lan k i n g . change Plank­ in the n a t u r ­ Spec i f i c small magni t u d e p r o c e ss-response c o n ­ di tio ns w h i c h l e a d to easily measured by of the b l u f f l ine f l a n k i n g are also time r e l a t e d a n d time-based photogrammetrie measurements recession. 119 The rates of b l u f f - l i n e recession throughout study a r e a w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h similar rates unaltered shores in d a mages against difference is the b a s i s claims Specifically for the in r a t e s of b l u f f - l i n e m i g r a t i o n b e t w e e n r e s p e c ­ tive r i p a r i a n p r o p e r t y * gional rate* is owners. following The the s c i e n t i f i c while the b a s i s considering the o v e r a l l for l e g a l c l a i m s b e t w e e n information was information estimating the s t u d y area a n d s m a l l se gments f or e s s e n t i a l l y fact f o r l e g a l the C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s . the area changes gathered overall on private to p r o v i d e change of two u n p r o t e c t e d of the s h o r e w h i c h h a v e u n d e r g o n e break-back during re­ accelerated the p e r i o d 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 3 . Areas for E r o s i o n Rate Measurement Comparison The b r o a d scope of the s t u d y a t St. forced a l i m i t o n the w r i t e r ' s involvement surements s t u d y area. reason* the data concerning erosion could h e l p working in a r e a s o u t s i d e in b a c k g r o u n d information rates Josep h has in f iel d m e a ­ For this in oth e r areas w h i c h comparisons were obtained b y from other sources. Data re­ from four such 120 sources are u s e d as a b a s i s of comparison in tbis study. T h r e e s i g n i f i c a n t research- p a p e r s p r o v i d e the b a c k g r o u n d rate inf o r m a t i o n . The shore n o r t h o f C h i c a g o studies b y Larson for t h e p e r i o d s 1955 are e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l h e r e . in M i c h i g a n With tha t s e r v e as a b a c k g r o u n d 2 bel * and S e i b e l along the b a s e and Brater of 3 1 on the Illinois 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 55 an d 1 9 4 6 respect to the the s t u d i e s b y S e i - proved m o s t useful. the S l e e p i n g B e a r D u n e s The shore is a l s o r e f e r ­ e n c e d in the e v a l u a t i o n of b a c k g r o u n d e r o s i o n rates. information was supplied by the W a t e r S e r v i c e s the W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o m m i s s i o n # N a tur al R e s o u r c e s . The sites This S e c t i o n of M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t of referenced area c o m p a r i s o n a re d e p i c t e d o n areas the m a p in t h i s l a r g e in F i g u r e 15. P r e l i m i n a r y e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e model in a d e t a i l e d m a n n e r p r e d i c t e d c h a n g e s w o u l d o c c u r ^T h e C u l t u r a l V a r i a b l e in S h o r e E r o s i o n A l o n g T h e Il li n o i s S h o r e of L a k e M i c h i g a n * C h i c a g o : Lake Michigan F e d e r a t i o n R e p o r t # D e c e m b e r 1972. 2 "Shore E r o s i o n at S e l e c t e d S i t e s o n L a k e M i c h i g a n a n d L a k e H u r o n " ( u n p u b l i s h e d Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n # U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n # 1972) . 3 An Engineering Study of Gr e a t Lakes Shore Erosion in the L o w e r P e n i n s u l a o f M i c h i g a n # R e p o r t o f the W a t e r Resources Commission# Michigan Department of Natural Re­ sources# 1973. SLEEPING BEAR POINT, PORTAGE LAKE 121 LEXINGTON SCALE POFiT SHELDON 25 MILES GLENN WILMETTE ST. JOSEPH Fig. 15.— Areas where erosion rate information is available from other research studies, also noting St. Joseph locale. 122 on short s e g m e n t s tural w o r k s of shore in r e s p o n s e at the s h o r e l i n e . segments o f sh o r e w i t h i n ment# is 500 partment's in this One A number of private 500-foot F i g u r e 16. m e nt is d e s i g n a t e d int erval# seg­ struc­ s o u t h o f the is l o c a t e d The other unprote cted seg­ as the A s s e l i n s e g m e n t f e e t s o u t h of segment the B l u f f s The Bluffs Apartment complex in this segment# ma t e l y 1#000 interaction. the M i c h i g a n S t a t e H i g h w a y D e ­ protective works. highway works. specific unprotected feet a l o n g d e s i g n a t e d feet s o u t h of tures are l o c a t e d struc­ the s t u d y a r e a p r o v i d e g o o d e x a m ­ ples o f the p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 *00 0 Two to p a r t i c u l a r and is a p p r o x i ­ the B l u f f s A p a r t m e n t s and a l s o south of a line of e x t e n s i v e private protective works. The A s s e l i n s e g m e n t feet is 1 * 2 5 0 in l e n g t h - after the n o r t h e r n m o s t p r o p e r t y o w n e r It is n a m e d in the seg me n t . Erosion Rate Measurements The o v e r time rate o f e r o s i o n o f h e a d l a n d s through photographs the u s e represent can b e m e a s u r e d of a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s . time-based two d i m e n s i o n a l Aerial physical ASSELIN SEGMENT Fig. 16.— Vertical aerial photographic view of two shore segments that have been erosing at an accelerated rate during the period 1969-1973. (Aerial photos courtesy of the Michigan Department of State Highways.) 124 mo dels of the s h o r e c o n d i t i o n s raphy. a t the t i m e of the p h o t o g ­ Accurate photogrammetrie measurements made photoma ps p r e p a r e d fro m t his r e c o r d p r o v i d e s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n to s u b s t a n t i a t e and reinforce tations o f the p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e m o d e l Thus from they a l s o p r o v i d e s o m e of the interpre­ for the G r e a t La k e s . the l e g a l facts n e c e s s a r y for l i t i g a t i o n p u r s u e d b y r i p a r i a n ow ners. Photogrammetrie measurements either scaled p h o t o-mosaic map s g r o u n d terrain. or stereo models o f the St. photographs used were format in c o l o r at a s c a l e o f made available through o f the the s t a n d a r d 9" x 9" 1:3000. The photos were the P h o t o g r a m m e t r i e S e c t i o n o f the the p h o t o s tures for p r o t e c t i o n o f The State Highway to a i d in the d e s i g n o f s t r u c ­ the R e d A r r o w H i g h w a y The Department contracted wi t h 1: 3000 s c a l e c o l o r c o v e r a g e o f (B.L. the A b r a m s A e r i a l C o r p o r a t i o n of L a n s i n g #■ M i c h i g a n b o r p ier s from J o s e p h s t u d y area. M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t of S t a t e H i g h w a y s . Department used those made The erosion rate data gathered utilized scaled photo-mosaic maps The are Survey to p r o v i d e v e r t i c a l # the c o a s t to a p o i n t t h r e e m i l e s I 94). s o u t h of highway protection on a y e a r l y basis s o u t h of the h a r ­ the p r o p o s e d for the p e r i o d 125 1969-1974. This vertical angle c o l o r o b l i q u e vertical photography was p h o t o g r a p h y of photography permitted photo m o s a i c m a p s to b e m a d e of the b l u f f - l i n e recession. 1969 flight in J u n e or M a y b e f o r e all o f the augm e n t e d b y iow- the s a m e area. time-based controlled for a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e m e n t s W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f the the p h o t o g r a p h y was foliage obscured Department p h o t o graphy was The the g r o u n d . in A p r i l The Highway augmented by 1938 photography b y the U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e . Mosaics photographs is b y e y e are p r o d u c e d l aid down and the m o s a i c f r o m t w o or m o r e fitted is u n c o n t r o l l e d . accuracy on uncontrolled mosaics crepancies between us ed only. in m o s t if the together. individual investigations This tr ol l e d m o s a i c s for this s t u d y w e r e through use of g r ound control to s c a l e d i s ­ type m a p is information is a c c o m p a n i e d b y scaling of f of accurate distances b e t w e e n th e m o s a i c fitting The measurement for q u a l i t a t i v e f i t t i n g o f th e p h o t o s on a d j a c e n t p h o t o s / then If t h e is l o w d u e pho tos . individual control is c o n t r o l l e d . the points Con­ p r e p a r e d b y the w r i t e r information Highway D e p a r t m e n t Photog r a m m e t r y Section. furnished by the 126 By r e f e r e n c e area for the y e a r s to c o n t r o l l e d m o s a i c s o f the s t u d y 1969 and 1973 a quantitative of b l u f f - l i n e r e c e s s i o n ra tes w a s m a d e the shore w i t h i n the c o v e r a g e The control w a s a v a i l a b l e tances comparison for all p o i n t s a l o n g area of this p h o t o g r a p h y . from a c c u r a t e h o r i z o n t a l d i s ­ that h a d b e e n laid o u t b y H i g h w a y D e p a r t m e n t s u r v e y crews along the c e n t e r line of the R e d A r r o w H i g h w a y . Yel­ low crosses m a r k e d the p o s i t i o n of the c o n t r o l p o i n t s al o n g the c e n t e r line. The and u s e of a large me a s u r e m e n t s feet. flat t e r r a i n e a s t from the b l u f f line scale (1:3000) allowed ground-distance to b^ m a d e to a n a c c u r a c y of w i t h i n ± 2.5 This v a l u e w a s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m s t a t i s t i c a l che cks of the m e a s u r e m e n t s o n the b a s i s o f four r e p e a t e d m e a s u r e ­ ments o f the same d i s t a n c e . Slight differences mo saics u s e d scale b e u s e d in f l i g h t a l t i t u d e (1969 a n d 1973) necessitated for the two th at a c o m m o n to w h i c h all d a t a w o u l d b e r e c t i f i e d . The scale o f the 1969 p h o t o g r a p h y w a s e x a c t l y 1 : 3 0 0 0 w h i l e 1973 photos w e r e t a k e n at a s l i g h t l y l o w e r a l t i t u d e thus giving a s l i g h t l y l a r g e r sc ale of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1:2950. The 1973 b a s e was u s e d for all i n f o r ma tio n. the 127 Measurements to b l u f f - l i n e p l o t t i n g the p o s i t i o n o f recession were made by t h e 1969 b l u f f p o s i t i o n o n an a c e ­ tate o v e r l a y on the 19 73 c o n t r o l l e d m o s a i c . The 1969 posi­ tion o f the b l u f f l i n e w a s m e a s u r e d a l o n g l i n e s e g m e n t s oriented b e t w e e n v i s i b l e ground points# visible ground points wer e used se gme nts o n b o t h surements along the 1 9 6 9 the l i n e with divisions 0.01 measurement Figure 17. to p l o t e a s t —w e s t and 1973 m o s a i c s . segments using The line Repeated m e a ­ a measuring scale inch u n d e r 1 0X m a g n i f i c a t i o n gave a c c u r a c y of + 2.5 repeated four times provided the a v e r a g e v a l u e s . feet. an d t h e d i s t a n c e s a All measurements were along line segments Even though the m o s a i c s w e r e c o n t r o l l e d sl igh t s c a l e change f r o m the p r i n c i p l e p o i n t of a n y p h o t o ­ graph# radially outward. mized b y util i z i n g This scale change error was m i n i ­ and b y graphical triangulation on se ver al p o i n t s b e t w e e n p h o t o g r a p h s # F i g u r e la tion o f a n u m b e r o f p o i n t s b e t w e e n slight# that i.e.# for on the m o s a i c 17. individual as a w h o l e the o r d e r o f ± 5 feet. mum error detected is a the c e n t e r p o r t i o n o f e a c h p h o t o g r a p h for the m e a s u r e m e n t s indicated there Triangu­ photographs scale error was This was o v e r the h i g h w a y c e n t e r l i n e the m a x i ­ to b l u f f 128 La Ll. H IG H W A Y C E N T E R L IN E PHOTO OVERLAP X = GROUND SURVEY C O N T R O L CMDSH) □ = GROUND CONTROL S C A L IN G CONTROL D IS T A N C E Fig. 1 7 . — M e t h o d of c o n t r o l a n d p h o t o g r a m m e t r i e m e a s u r e m e n t o n 1 : 3 0 0 0 v e r t i c a l ae r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s at St. Joseph, M i c h i g a n . I 129 line d i s t a n c e s ranging total le n g t h of To tal from 300 to 900 fee t a lon g the the p h o t o mo saic. e r r o r a t t r i b u t e d to m e a s u r e m e n t and s cale changes is e s t i m a t e d to b e ± 7.5 feet. No consideration was g i v e n to o t h e r fac tor s s u c h as t e r r a i n or lens d i s ­ tortion/ b e c a u s e the r e l i e f is l o w and the c a m e r a e q u i p ­ ment of h i g h quality. Fo r c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n s h o r t — and l o n g - t e r m rates of change of b l u f f - l i n e p o s i t i o n s 1938 w e r e used. ph o t o g r a p h y and also A to a c o m m o n the 1 : 3 0 0 0 the sc a l i n g e r r o r w a s m o r e d i f f i c u l t c on t r o l were m e a s u r e d b e t w e e n raphy. than w i t h from T o a c c o m p l i s h a s o m e w h a t h i g h e r d e g r e e of accuracy/ h o w e v e r / features photographs R e c t i f i c a t i o n o f these ph o t o s scale wa s s o m e w h a t m o r e d i f f i c u l t to rectify. aerial t hat w e r e points i d e n t i f i a b l e n a t u r a l or m a n - m a d e f o u n d on b o t h T he d i s t a n c e s w e r e the 1973 and 1938 p h o t o g ­ t ake n fro m the 1973 p h o t o g r a p h y . "s e m i — s c a l e d " s t r i p m o s a i c wa s same area c o v e r e d and c o n t r o l d i s t a n c e s in the 1969 then c o n s t r u c t e d for the and 1973 mo sai cs. Th e s m a l l e r sc a l e 19 38 p h o t o g r a p h s h a v e g r e a t e r di s t o r t i o n from a l t i t u d e v a r i a t i o n s individual p h o t o s in the strip/ and that o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n from len s a b e r r a t i o n s 130 and other factors contributing zontal m e a s u r e m e n t s . to g r e a t e r e r r o r in h o r i ­ E r r o r for h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e s from all causes w a s e s t i m a t e d to b e ± 5 feet o n the 1938 m o ­ saics. Triangufation of common points on adjacent p h o t o ­ graphs and h o r i z o n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s from the r o a d c e n t e r line w e r e u n d e r t a k e n o n the 1938 m o s a i c in a s i m i l a r manner as w a s d o n e for the 1 9 6 9 and 1973 m o s a i c s . E r o s i o n Rat es 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 3 — T he B a s i s for P r i v a t e D a m a g e C l a i m s Th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p r i v a t e riparians seeking d a m ­ ages for e r o s i o n c a u s e d b y n e i g h b o r i n g p r o t e c t i v e w o r k s is v e r y real/ e s p e c i a l l y c o n s i d e r i n g the w i d e erosion ra tes in e v i d e n c e a l o n g the St. suits b e t w e e n a d j a c e n t o w n e r s the p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e m o d e l ra nge in J o s e p h shore. Law p r o v i d e a g o o d a p p l i c a t i o n of for s m a l l - m a g n i t u d e changes in the n e a r - s h o r e e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a c c u r a t e b l u f f - l i n e p o s i t i o n s for the two dates, 1969 sion to be c a l c u l a t e d and 1973, a l l o w e d the r ate s of e r o ­ for p r o t e c t e d a nd u n p r o t e c t e d s e g m e n t s 131 of each. The r e s u l t s are p r e s e n t e d p i c t o r i a l l y o n the map in F i g u r e 16 and n u m e r i c a l l y in T a b l e s During the p e r i o d 1 969 - 1 9 7 3 by structur al w o r k s t h o s e ar eas p r o t e c t e d s u f f e r e d h e a d l a n d e r o s i o n at rates calculated to b e 4.1 and u p d r i f t 2* 3 and 4. feet p e r y e a r a l o n g the a r e a n o r t h from the B l u f f s s e g m e n t o f u n p r o t e c t e d shore; and 5.0 feet p e r y e a r n o r t h and u p d r i f t f r o m the A s s e l i n segment* Figure 16 a nd T a b l e 2. The Bluffs segment during this same p e r i o d e r o d e d at a rate o f 8. 7 feet p e r year* over twice the rate o f the a d j a c e n t ar ea p r o t e c t e d b y structures. T he A s s e l i n s e g m e n t w a s e r o d e d at a rate of 14.4 feet p er y e a r d u r i n g 16 and T a b l e 2. the 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 3 period* Figure T h e rate of e r o s i o n at the A s s e l i n s e g ­ ment was n e a r l y t hre e times the rate o f the p r o t e c t e d ar ea im med iat ely to the north. The process-response model predicts erosion a d j a c e n t to ch anges to p r o j e c t i o n s in w a v e wave a p p r o a c h of i n c o m i n g w a v e 13. into the lake w h i c h and c u r r e n t action. effect of l a k e w a r d s t r u c t u r e s accelerated lead T he sm all m a g n i t u d e is to r e d i r e c t the a ngl e of fronts as s how n in F i g u r e Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of the d e g r e e of r e s p o n s e is dr amatic. 132 TABLE 2 E R O S I O N R ATE S M E A S U R E D A T ST. J O S E P H St. Joseph, M i c h i g a n p r o t e c t e d s e g m e n t u p d r i f t f r o m the B l u f f s s e g m e n t e r o s i o n rate m e a s u r e m e n t s 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 3 . 4.1 f e e t / y e a r St. Joseph, M i c h i g a n p r o t e c t e d s e g m e n t u p d r i f t f r o m the A s s e l i n s e g m e n t e r o s i o n rate m e a s u r e m e n t s 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 3 . 5.0 f e e t / y e a r TABLE 3 E R O S I O N R A T E S M E A S U R E D A T ST. J O S E P H St. Joseph, M i c h i g a n e r o s i o n r ate for the u n p r o t e c t e d B l u f f s s e g m e n t 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 73. 8. 7 f e e t / y e a r St. Joseph, M i c h i g a n e r o s i o n r a t e f o r the u n p r o t e c t e d A s s e l i n s e g m e n t 1 9 6 9 — 1973. 14.4 feet/year 133 TABLE 4 BACKGROUND ER O S I O N RATES E r o s i o n rate at W i l m e t t e # I l l i n o i s for the p e r i o d 1 9 4 6 - 1 9 5 5 # a f t e r L a r s o n 1972. 3. 5 f e e t / y e a r E r o s i o n rate at L e x i n g t o n # M i c h i g a n for the p e r i o d 1949-195.5# a f t e r B r a t e r a nd S e i h e l 1973. 4. 1 feet/year E r o s i o n rat e at G l e n n # M i c h i g a n for the p e r i o d 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 5 5 # a f t e r B r a t e r and S e i h e l 1973. 6. 4 feet/year E r o s i o n r a t e at P o r t Sh eld on# M i c h i g a n for the p e r i o d 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 5 5 # a f t e r B r a t e r and S e i b e l 1973. 7.0 feet/year 134 The use of these measurements of erosion rates e v i d e n c e in a l e g a l claim between respective bors# h o w e v e r # take must into ac c o u n t as riparian neigh­ the b a c k g r o u n d r a t e of erosion. A reasonable counter claim b y a defendant erosion suit w o u l d b e t h a t the e r o s i o n rates unprotected owners were The p r o t e c t e d o w n e r s of the p r o t e c t i o n lend e v i d e n c e the n o r m a l received afforded b y to c o u n t e r this on the G r e a t L a k e s as along called a legal c l a i m c o u l d b e their works. statement# to the e r o s i o n r a t e s This rate. approaches If the the v a l u e t h e n the v a l i d i t y of in d o u b t . a feasible background for e r o s i o n # similar areas free o f m a j o r s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s w e r e examined. in p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . because areas h a v i n g boulders tom and b e a c h expected. In o r d e r the b a c k g r o u n d segments# In o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e are s i m i l a r to b e less erosion loss b y v i r t u e similar shores d e t e r m i n e d for u n p r o t e c t e d as a " r u l e - o f - t h u m b " sustained by a whole must be considered. determination would be b a c k g r o u n d rate rate in an or cobbles or w h i c h h a v e b e e n s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e r o s i o n rates. This rate relatively These areas is i m p o r t a n t armoring the b o t ­ c u t into b e d r o c k w o u l d Therefore# the areas 135 chosen for a b a c k g r o u n d rate to c o m p a r e w i t h area have s i m i l a r b l u f f c o n d i t i o n s (i.e.# s a n d and gravel) . parameter was the St- Joseph and b e a c h c o m p o s i t i o n The only significant different the g e o g r a p h i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n and e x p o s e o f the coast w h i c h in a r e f i n e d a n a l y s i s p r o b a b l y c o u l d b e shown to h a v e a m e a s u r a b l e effect. T h r e e areas n o r t h of St. one area o n Lake M i c h i g a n shore mette and W a u k e g a n # Joseph on Lake Michigan# in I l l i n o i s b e t w e e n W i l ­ and one a r e a o n L a k e H u r o n all h a v e comparable physical characteristics. More important each has b e e n the s u b j e c t o f s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d b y o t h e r r e ­ searchers. Like m o s t sites on the G r e a t L a k e s these are not e n t i r e l y free f r o m m a n ' s w o r k s b u t n i f i c a n t l y less St. Joseph. structural i n t e r f e r e n c e t h a n the s h o r e at In fact none of these nearly continuous they have h a d sig­ other locales have s t r u c t u r e s as d o e s St. J o s e p h are l o c a t e d so n e a r the s e d i m e n t s h a d o w i n g long p i e r s . son 4 i n f l u e n c e of P a r t i c u l a r l y the r e s e a r c h w o r k o f b o t h L a r - and B r a t e r a n d S e i b e l 4 and none Note 1 s u p r a . 5N o t e 3 s u p r a . 5 provides an e x c e l l e n t b a s i s 136 for b a c k g r o u n d e r o s i o n rates al o n g the l e s s i n t e n s i v e l y developed shores of Lake M i c h i g a n - H u r o n . T h e B r a t e r and S e i b e l e r o s i o n s t u d i e s four areas w h i c h h a v e bee n used here Port Sheldon# L a k e a n d Lexington# 15. Portage L a r son's w o r k at W i l m e t t e # cable here. The as involved b a c k g r o u n d : Glenn# Michi g a n # F i g u r e Illi n o i s w a s e q u a l l y a p p l i ­ time i n t e r v a l u s e d b y b o t h r e s e a r c h e r s included the 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 5 5 p e r i o d w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s the p r e ­ vious h i g h w a t e r e v e n t on the G r e a t Lakes. included l o n g e r time p e r i o d s including in Illinois and the 1 9 3 8 - 1 9 7 0 p e r i o d tions. I n f o r m a t i o n b a s e d on this T h e i r w o r k also the 1 8 7 2 - 1 9 4 6 p e r i o d for the M i c h i g a n l o c a ­ l o n g e r p e r i o d w i l l be d i s c u s s e d later. S o m e of the r e s u l t s o f L a r s o n and B r a t e r and S e i b e l studies h a v e b e e n c o m b i n e d values range f r o m 3.5 19 55 for the Illi n o i s in T a b l e 4. T h e e r o s i o n feet p e r y e a r area# to 4.1 for the o t h e r M i c h i g a n locations. pr o b a b l y due erosion during the p r e v i o u s ters of 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 2 the p e r i o d 1946- to 7.0 This in p a r t to the u n e q u a l as their u n m e a s u r a b l e p h y s i c a l for feet p e r y e a r range time factors. however# in v a l u e s increments M o s t of lake h i g h o c c u r r e d and 1952-1953; rate is as w e l l the i n t e n s e in the w i n ­ b o t h L a r s o n and 137 Seibel included a longer time span than ceivable that if the d a t e s more ation i n c l u s i v e , as w a s It is c o n ­ of the air p h o t o g r a p h y h a d b e e n in the case o f the St. Joseph situ­ (1969-1973) , the v a l u e s w o u l d h a v e b e e n h i g h e r a n d perhaps w i t h less o f a range. years this. in w h i c h l i t t l e In o t h e r w o r d s , or no e r o s i o n took place we r e aged in w i t h the h i g h e r e r o s i o n y e a r s B r a t e r and S e i b e l ' s sites to g i v e F r o m the above, aver­ a lower mean. at G l e n n and P o r t S h e l d o n m o s t c l o s e l y b r a c k e t the h i g h e r o s i o n p e r i o d a n d higher values w h i c h lends several some s u p p o r t these h a v e to this assumption. the b a c k g r o u n d e r o s i o n rate for a nearly similar period of e r o s i o n i n t e n s i t y on a s h o r e h a v ­ ing less s t r u c t u r a l interference is e s t i m a t e d range o f 5.0 to 7.0 feet per year w h i c h than the St. Joseph case segment has study. T h e St. a r a t e c a l c u l a t e d at 8 . 7 the b a c k g r o u n d . to b e in the is s o m e w h a t less Joseph Bluff shore f e e t p e r year, This rate was only slightly h i g h e r than considerably b y the $2 50,000 w o r t h o f p r o t e c t i v e w o r k s that h a v e b e e n b u i l t o v e r the p e r i o d 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 7 3 . s t a l l a t i ons, however, slowed These in­ were not started until after the 1 9 6 9 -1970 w i n t e r s t o r m s h a d b e g u n to p r o d u c e rapid flank­ ing on the n o r t h e d g e of this shore segment. 138 The St. J o s e p h A s s e l i n s e g m e n t s u s t a i n e d a r a t e of 14.4 feet p e r year# rate. at l e a s t twice the r e g i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d W i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f the two p a r c e l s at the n o r t h end# no p r o t e c t i v e w o r k s w e r e b u i l t a l o n g The A s s e l i n ' s s e a w a l l b u l k h e a d and lief from the f l a n k i n g c a u s e d b y this segment. fill p r o v i d e d some r e ­ the s t r u c t u r e s immediately to the n o r t h b u t their a c t i o n s w e r e at the e x p e n s e of their neighbors homes. to the s o u t h w h o w e r e f o r c e d to r e m o v e s e v e r a l The e r o s i o n rate a t the p o i n t i m m e d i a t e l y s o u t h of the A s s e l i n ' s b u l k h e a d w a s e x t r e m e l y high# i.e.# n e a r l y 40 feet per y e a r for the p e r i o d 1971-1 9 7 3 . T h e s e data# therefore# l e n d s u p p o r t to the c l a i m s of r i p a r ian o w n e r s b a s e d on a c c e l e r a t e d e r o s i o n a n d p r o p e r t y damage. It is a l s o c l e a r that e r o s i o n has rate u p to s e v e r a l times p r o c e e d e d at a that w h i c h w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d w i t h ­ out the i n f l u e n c e o f s t r u c t u r a l works. E r o s i o n R a t e s 1 9 3 8 - 1 9 7 0 — T h e B a s i s for C l a i m s A g a i n s t the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t The e x a m i n a t i o n o f the a v e r a g e e r o s i o n rate f o r the period from 1938 to 1970 at St. Joseph# Mich i g a n points to the d e g r e e o f s e v e r i t y of t h i s problem. There has been much d i s c u s s i o n in this and o t h e r r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s a b o u t the m e c h a n i s m s c a u s i n g w i d e s p r e a d e r o s i o n on the s h o r e s the G r e a t Lakes. The fed e r a l h a r b o r w o r k s on t h e s e l akes have b e e n g i v e n the b l a m e ages. O f course* in the p o l i c i e s a n y c o u r t a c t i o n to b r i n g a b o u t a c h a n g e erosion p r o t e c t i o n among s e v e r a l information. to the the m o s t s e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d a n d T h e s e v e r i t y o f the d a m ­ Joseph which has be en documented also provides for cl a i m s five a r e a s for e n v i r o n m e n t a l d a m a g e s . in the r e g i o n s e l e c t e d to p r o v i d e b a c k g r o u n d e r o s i o n r a t e f o r the p r i v a t e above a l s o p r o v i d e a suitable background term e r o s i o n rate at St. ally, points some s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s e v e n for d a m a g e cl a i m s a viable basis The must be A n a n a l y s i s of e r o s i o n rates s i m i l a r areas o n the G r e a t Lakes against the C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s . ages at St. r e s p e c t to (or r e d u c t i o n in e r o s i o n rates) St. J o s e p h a r e a as b e i n g e s t a b l i s hes for a l a r g e s h a r e of these d a m ­ of the C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s w i t h based o n fact u a l of cl a i m s d i s c u s s e d to w h i c h J o s e p h c a n b e compa r e d . d a t a o n the s h o r e - l i n e c h a n g e s a the l o n g ­ Addition­ in the S l e e p i n g B e a r D unes S t a t e P a r k c a n b e u s e d w i t h some r e s e r v a t i o n . 140 T h e rate of b l u f f erosion# as s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y # is a f u n c t i o n o f the p r o c e s s — r e s p o n s e model. The acceler­ ated e r o s i o n r a t e o f the e n t i r e s h o r e s o u t h of the piers is in t u r n a f u n c t i o n o f s e d i m e n t s t a r v a t i o n . rate of e r o s i o n is# therefore# fe deral The a direct quantifiable mea­ sure of the d e g r e e of s e v e r i t y of this s t a r v a t i o n . In l i e u of a c c u r a t e b a t h y m e t r i c p r o f i l i n g of the o f f s h o r e areas bo t h n o r t h and s o u t h o f St. J o s e p h h a r b o r p i e r s more d e t a i l e d o f f s h o r e s t u d i e s here# the e r o s i o n rate is t h a t are b e y o n d the s i n g l e b e s t and m u c h the scope i n d i c a t o r of damage. T h e w o r k s o f L a r s o n and B r a t e r a n d S e i b e l h a v e b e e n s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 4# w h i l e T a b l e similar c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h respect 5 is the s u m m a r y o f to the St. The B r a t e r and S e i b e l s t u d i e s on M i c h i g a n ' s J o s e p h coast. shores the e f f e c t s of b a s i c a l l y one p e r i o d of e r o s i o n and the b e g i n n i n g p h a s e of the p r e s e n t p e r i o d The e r o s i o n rates# therefore# major p e r i o d of h i g h are show (1952-53) (1969-1970). the e x p r e s s i o n of one intensity erosion averaged with a number of y e a r s w h e n e s s e n t i a l l y n o e r o s i o n t o o k place. The d a t a t e n d to r e f l e c t data for d i f f e r e n t time this a v e r a g i n g v a r i a n c e o f the increments. 141 TABUS 5 B A C K G R O U N D E R O S I O N RATES E r o s i o n r a t e a t W i l m e t t e # I l l i n o i s f o r the p e r i o d 1 8 7 2 - 1 9 5 5 a f t e r L a r s o n 1972. 1. 1 feet/year E r o s i o n r a t e at L e x i n g t o n # M i c h i g a n f o r the p e r i o d 1 9 3 8 - 1 9 7 1 a f t e r B r a t e r a n d S e i b e l 1973. 2.3 feet/year E r o s i o n r a t e at G l e n n # M i c h i g a n for the period 1950-1970 after Brater and Seibel 1973 . 2.7 feet/year E r o s i o n r a t e a t P o r t a g e La k e # M i c h i g a n f o r the p e r i o d 1 9 3 8 - 1 9 7 0 a f t e r B r a t e r a n d S e i b e l 1973. 3.7 feet/year Erosion rate at Port Sheldon# M i ch i ga n for the p e r i o d 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 7 0 a f t e r B r a t e r a n d S e i b e l 1973. 3.7 feet/year E r o s i o n r a t e a t S l e e p i n g B e a r Point# M i c h i g a n for the p e r i o d 1 9 3 8 - 1 9 7 2 d e t e r m i n e d b y the W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o m m i s s i o n staff. 0.2 feet/year 142 The data presented reworked to i n c l u d e span r e c o r d s time h i g h peaks. four h i g h w a t e r periods and including the l e s s e r 1917# 83-year record provides valuable record of paper have been the t i m e p e r i o d 1 8 7 2 - 1 9 5 5 . level of 1886 This in L a r s o n ' s This time the all- 1929 a n d 1953 a limited b ut still the e r o s i o n r a t e s o n the l a k e s w i t h essentially min o r structural m o d i f i c a t i o n of natural con­ ditions . The data inclusive f r o m the S l e e p i n g B e a r D u n e s for the p e r i o d 1 9 3 8 — 1970 the W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o m m i s s i o n o f of N a t u r a l obtained from the M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t Resources. The numerical sites and was a r e a are are p r e s e n t e d data with respect in T a b l e s TABLE 5 a n d 6. to all o f The th e s e Illinois 6 B A C K G R O U N D E R O S I O N RATES E r o s i o n rate f o r the St. J o s e p h # M i c h i g a n s t u d y a r e a as a v e r a g e d f r o m s e v e r a l h u n d r e d i n d i v i d u a l m e a s u r e m e n t s for the p e r i o d 1 9 3 8 - 1 9 7 3 . 5.0 feet/year site 143 e x h i b i t e d an e r o s i o n rate 83-year span* w h i l e 2.3, 2.7, 3.7, for s h o r t e r a n d 3.7 While time increments a n d H u r o n s h o r e si t e s . shore segment during 1938-1970 e x h i b i t e d ure 18. f e e t p e r y e a r o v e r the e r o s i o n r a t e o f 0.2 the D u n e s Park segment the c o m p a r i s o n o f by m a n ' s w o r k s w i t h those on is p r o b a b l y a s i g n i f i c a n t f e e t p e r year. in t h e St. this a r e a u n t o u c h e d indicator of the d e g r e e o f n a t u ­ activities. representing one-fifteenth Joseph Fig­ is s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a pristine cates a r a t e o f e r o s i o n a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e experienced from the s o u t h e r n e n d o f the l a k e interference b y man's locality measurement, of The Sleep­ the t i m e p e r i o d in shore m o r p h o l o g y ral p r o c e s s rates feet per year respectively were me a s u r e d a t t h e M i c h i g a n ing B e a r D u n e s of 1.1 area, t h a t of t h e o t h e r and The Dunes shore, indi­ twenty-fifth that from o n e - t e n t h to sites m e a s u r e d b y o t h e r workers. The use of erosion rate only a b r o a d indication of Joseph resulting drift b y the rates c o m p i l e d b y in i t s e l f the e x t e n t o f d a m a g e from continued f e d e r a l pi e r s . information is at St. interruption of littoral If all the d a t a o n e r o s i o n all r e s e a r c h e r s w o r k i n g o n s i m i l a r 144 E R O S IO N Fig. 1 8 Hi gh o b l i q u e aer ial v i e w of S l e e p i n g B e a r D u n e s s h o w i n g the l o c a t i o n w h e r e e r o s i o n r a t e m e a s u r e m e n t s were m a d e by the M i c h i g a n W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o m m i s s i o n staf f. (Photo by T. A. H e r b e r t , A p r i l 1969.) 145 studies w e r e p l a c e d in r a n k o r d e r the a r e a o f St. Joseph w ould o c c u p y the f i r s t p o s i t i o n . Additional work this s t a t e m e n t . is n e e d e d # for e x a m p l e # itive s t a t e m e n t c a n b e m a d e . chapters# which deal structure# this sion r a t e s is a d e q u a t e thetical c a s e s to s t r e n g t h e n Additional basic data must be gathered on the s t a g e - b a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s # following however# But before any d e fi n­ for the p u r p o s e s of the l a r g e l y w i t h the l e g a l preliminary research on quantifying ero­ for s e t t i n g presented the s t a g e in C h a p t e r VII. for the h y p o ­ CHAPTER VI T H E L E G A L F R A M E W O R K G O V E R N I N G T H E USE OF R I P A R I A N LAND O N THE GRE A T LAKES Introduction The previous chapters have outlined the p h y s i c a l aspects o f the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m o n t h e G r e a t L a k e s e s p e c i a l l y the s h o r e tions a r e a at St. Joseph# to the c a s e s of m a n — i n d u c e d e r o s i o n part w i l l lie Michigan. land. The need Solu­ for t h e m o s t in a p p l i c a t i o n of l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s the u s e o f r i p a r i a n and governing for a r i g h t f u l and e q u i t a b l e a p p o r t i o n m e n t of w a t e r a n d l a n d a l o n g the s e a and G r e a t L a k e s to d e v e l o p a legal shore has led reasonable people framework governing the u s e of r i p a r i a n l a n d "so that p r o g r e s s m a y b e m a d e b y o n e g r o u p w i t h o u t r e s u l t a n t loss to a n o t h e r . 1N. V. Olds# "The L a w o f the L a k e s # " M i c h i g a n St a t e B a r J o u r n a l # XLIV# No. 2 (1966). 146 147 The legal framework governing land o n the G r e a t L a k e s w h i c h and o b l i g a t i o n s of the for p u r p o s e s tions# state (4) regulations# categories (3) This of local chapter riparian the r i g h t s # is d i v i d e d of d i s c u s s i o n : common law doctrines. each o f t h e s e out riparian owner categories (2) spells t h e u s e of (1) duties into federal four regula­ regulations# and is c o n c e r n e d w i t h control over shore land u s e . Federal Restrictions on Riparian Ownership Two growths of important federal control the U n i t e d S t a t e s . controls the As recourse eral g o v e r n m e n t . restrictions As of the on riparian use are o u t ­ commerical waterways a doctrine# navigation of private riparians a regulatory control servitude against the the R i v e r s of 2 fed­ and " N a v i g a t i o n s e r v i t u d e " is the s h o r t h a n d e x p r e s ­ s i o n f o r t h e r u l e t h a t in t h e e x e r c i s e o f the n a v i g a t i o n power c e r t a i n p r i v a t e p r o pe r t y m a y be taken w i t h o u t c o m ­ pensation. T h e r u l e is a l s o s p o k e n o f as t h e " s u p e r i o r n a v i g a t i o n e a s e m e n t # " see# e . g . # U n i t e d S t a t e s v. G r a n d R i v e r D a m A u t h o r i t y # 363 U.S. 229, 2 3 1 (1960) o r the " d o m i n a n t s e r v i t u d e # " see# e . g . # F P C v. N i a g a r a M o h a w k P o w e r C o r p . , 347 U . S . 239# 2 4 9 (19 54). 1 48 Harbors A c t o f 1 8 9 9 3 p r o v i d e s t h a t the C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s has the a u t h o r i t y u n d e r a p e r m i t s y s t e m to c o n t r o l structures p l a c e d in the n a v i g a b l e w a t e r s of any the U n i t e d States. The c o n c e p t of n a v i g a t i o n s e r v i t u d e h a s in the l a w o f E n g l a n d w h e r e rights— n a v i g a t i o n and fish i n g . the p u b l i c h a d t h e r i g h t on the c o u n t r y ' s there were navigable waterways. the d e t r i m e n t of t h e p u b l i c ideas concerning tion o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . federal g o v e r n m e n t rather an 4 In the s a m e r e s p e c t to fishing and navigation. also recognized Then in w a t e r rights w e r e developed after t h a n the E n g l i s h in the c r e a ­ the s o v e r e i g n b e c a m e 3 33 U . S . C . § § 4 0 1 — 6 6 K (1970) a n d H a r b o r s A c t o f 1899* ch. 4 an a n c i e n t r i g h t interest right of public colonial A m e r i c a a n d w e r e R ivers Through important public to f r e e a n d u n h i n d e r e d p a s s a g e no p r i v a t e p e r s o n c o u l d a c q u i r e Similar two its o r i g i n s sovereign* the but ( o r i g i n a l l y e n a c t e d as 42 5* §9* 30 S t a t . 1151) . In E n g l i s h law* " n a v i g a b l e " w a t e r w a y s a r e t h o s e in w h i c h the t i d e e b b s a n d flows. As a small island nation this r u l e is v a l i d s i n c e m o s t w a t e r w a y s a r e n e a r e n o u g h to the o c e a n to h a v e t i d a l i n f l u e n c e f o r m o s t o f t h e i r le n g t h . The Unit e d States adopted a diffe r e n t d e f i n i t i o n of " n a v i g a b l e " b e c a u s e of the d i f f e r i n g g e o g r a p h y w i t h the r u l e of " n a v i g a b l e in f a c t — n a v i g a b l e in law" as s t a t e d in T h e D a n i e l B a l i v. U . S . * 77 U.S. 557 (1970) . 149 regardless the public's waters was guaranteed. The d o c t r i n e the c o m m e r c e Article I# the f e d e r a l right free p a s s a g e of n a v i g a t i o n clause of S e c t i o n 8. the U n i t e d Once government's navigable w a t e r s to o f the servitude and "navigable on in fa c t " jurisdiction over nation becomes In a i d o f n a v i g a t i o n # is b a s e d States Constitution/ adjudged control on n a v i g a b l e the paramount. C o n g r e s s may: . . . o r d e r o b s t r u c t i o n s to b e p l a c e d in t h e n a v i ­ g a b l e w a t e r s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s # e i t h e r to a s ­ s i s t n a v i g a t i o n o r to c h a n g e its d i r e c t i o n . * * * It m a y b u i l d l i g h t h o u s e s i n the b e d o f the s t r e a m . It m a y c o n s t r u c t j e t t i e s . It m a y r e q u i r e a l l n a v i g a t o r s to p a s s a l o n g a p r e s c r i b e d c h a n n e l # an d m a y clo s e an y o t h e r chan n e l to t h e i r passage. Through the p a r a m o u n t navigable w a t e r s government h a s ing to 5 the long held purpose The the an e a s e m e n t federal government following succinct the public of commerce the o r d i n a r y h i g h w a t e r m a r k this e a s e m e n t ity. for i n t e r e s t of the federal in s u c h w a t e r s (OHWM) . is extend­ In e x e r c i s i n g immune statement of in this from liabilis found T h i s "taking" of private p r o p e r t y for public p u r ­ p o s e s n o r m a l l y as p r e s c r i b e d b y the F i f t h A m e n d m e n t r e ­ q u i r e s the p a y m e n t o r j u s t c o m p e n s a t i o n b y C o n g r e s s . A c c o r d i n g t o B a r t k e (3 N . R . J . a t p. 20) : . . . w h e r e C o n g r e s s e x e r c i s e s the n a v i g a t i o n power# the b a s i s i n h i b i t o r y p r i n c i p l e against 150 g in U n i t e d S t a t e s v. Chicago* M . * St. P. and P. R. Co. The e x e r c i s e of the p o w e r w i t h i n these limits is n o t a n i n v a s i o n o f a n y p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y r i g h t in s u c h l a n d s f o r w h i c h the U n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t make compensation. The damage sustained results not from a taking of a r i p a r i a n o w n e r ' s p r o p e r t y in the s t r e a m b e d * b u t f r o m the l a w f u l e x e r c i s e o f a p o w e r to w h i c h t h a t p r o p e r t y h a s a l w a y s b e e n subject. The therefore* riparian is a l w a y s land adjacent subject for n a v i g a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s to t h i s acts of continuing easement and any damages to are n o t c o m p e n s a b l e b e c a u s e of l e g i t i m a t e to n a v i g a b l e w a t e r s * they were the s o v e r e i g n . U.S. 592* 597 there­ the consequence 7 taking of private p r o p e r t y w i t h o u t is s a i d to b r e a k down. 6 312 pursuant compensation (1941). 7 T h e t e s t o f l e g i t i m a c y o f the " t a k i n g " in i n d i v ­ idual c a s e s w o u l d r e q u i r e t h a t the f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t w a i v e the a n c i e n t r i g h t o f s o v e r e i g n i m m u n i t y . S o v e r e i g n i m m u n ­ ity b a r s s u i t s a g a i n s t t h e " s o v e r e i g n " w i t h o u t h i s c o n s e n t . J u s t i c e H o l m e s * s p e a k i n g f o r a u n a n i m o u s S u p r e m e C o u r t in a 1907 d e c i s i o n * K a w a n a n a k o a v. P o l y b l a n k * 2 0 5 U . S . 349* 3 53 (1907) e x p l a i n e d t h e r a t i o n a l b e h i n d t h e d o c t r i n e as follows: A s o v e r e i g n is e x e m p t f r o m s u i t * n o t b e c a u s e o f any formal c o n c e p t i o n or a b s o l u t e theory* b u t o n the l o g i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l g r o u n d that th e r e c a n b e n o l e g a l r i g h t as a g a i n s t t h e a u t h o r i t y t h a t m a k e s t h e l a w o n w h i c h the r i g h t d e p e n d s . The d o c t r i n e h a s commentators. long be e n subject to c r i t i c i s m b y legal 1 51 Since 1899 the d a t e of the e n a c t m e n t of the ori- 0 ginal R i v e r s an d Harbors Act* the Cor p s the U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y h a s b e e n government a g e n c y of in c h a r g e o f m a i n t a i n i n g and w a t e r w a y s the A r m y the of the U n i t e d States. is r e s p o n s i b l e of the R i v e r s important of siring t o b u i l d United States# aspects t h a t act. a structure such the 9 the rivers# of federal harbors# The S e c r e t a r y of the o v e r a l l and H a r b o r s A c t of one of the m o s t of S e c t i o n 10 for of Eng i n e e r s 1899 is administration as the amended of which administration U n d e r s e c t i o n 10 anyone de­ in a n a v i g a b l e w a t e r as L a k e M i c h i g a n # must have of a the federal permit. An a series of application steps# ested parties h a v e for those of an o p p o r t u n i t y the p r o p o s e d interested federal agencies 8 9 Note in is in t h e o r y a t l e a s t # c ation for a p e r m i t m u s t b e drawings a permit processed so that all to r e s p o n d . The inter­ appli­ accompanied by engineering structure which are the p r o j e c t w h i c h u s u a l l y that have through anything to d o reviewed by includes all related with 3 supra. S e e g e n e r a l l y # P e r m i t s f o r W o r k in N a v x g a b l e W a t e r s # C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s # D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e A r m y # 1 9 6 8 . 152 water# state agencies# interested g r o u p s The and decision he i s s u e d r e s t s o n including local officials individuals. as the e f f e c t s to w h e t h e r o r of ge n e r a l p u b l i c interest. state a g e n c i e s for evaluation general issued. public or objections from nificant n u m b e r s The Corps of any other to uses agency the p e r m i t is g i v e n a c h a n c e the g e n e r a l ecology other forthcoming then public and federal related from the p e r m i t are received# to res o l v e are factors# on navigation# these other is permit will relevant aesthetics# response If o b j e c t i o n s permit a p p l i c a n t not the the p r o p o s e d w o r k s pollution# If n o n e g a t i v e all k n o w n 10 an e v a l u a t i o n of all fish a n d w i l d l i f e # tors. and to w a r r a n t a p u b l i c h e a r i n g fac­ th e is th e them. received and If in s i g ­ then one is s c h e d u l e d .^ The parties which public hearing to r e s p o n d the p e r m i t hearing process to v a r i o u s is s o u g h t . is r e v i e w e d and ^ I b i d . # p. 2. 11 lb i d . # p. 3. taken allows aspects the of the The official interested project record of into consideration. for the In 153 actual p r a c t i c e ( if t h e application that is e x t r e m e l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l invol v e d forwards it to for a p e r m i t then the S e c r e t a r y is o n e the C o r p s D i s t r i c t o f the A r m y f o r an ultimate decision. The many cases responsibility seems breakdown of tions a r e to b e the permit for taken the issuance as a m a t t e r o f p r o c e d u r e . system occurs when "rubber stamped" rather is t h a t the l a w t r a n s c e n d s writer's opinion, the the Corps' limits 12 The in The applica­ from a important con­ responsibility under of navigation often promotes these than reviewed long-term m a n a g e m e n t p o int of view. sideration here of permits poor and, in t h e resource management in the s h o r e e n v i r o n m e n t . 12 T h e C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s m a y b e r e l u c t a n t to e x ­ p a n d its a u t h o r i t y to t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t the e n v i r o n m e n t a l consequences o f their actions. In Z a b e l v. T a b b , 2 9 6 F. Supp. 7 6 4 (1969) the c o u r t d i r e c t e d t h a t a d r e d g e a n d f i l l permit be issued w h e r e no interference w i t h navigation could be shown. The C o r p s h a d w i t h h e l d the p e r m i t o n the g r o u n d s t h a t f i s h a n d w i l d l i f e w o u l d b e h a r m e d (un d e r t h e Fish a n d W i l d l i f e C o o r d i n a t i o n A c t o f 1958, 48 S t a t . 401, as a m e n d e d , 16 U . S . C . § 6 6 1 e t seq., (1964)). 154 State Regulation of Riparian Ownership Title to b o t t o m of the G r e a t L a k e s w a s upon t h e i r a d m i s s i o n to s e a c o a s t of t h e U n i t e d retained by those It is the lands beneath conveyed respective the b o u n d a r y w i t h merged Lands A c t . ^ ^ (OHWM) to Prior states along the to t h e s e a b e d w a s as it is g e n e r a l l y # of 14 the e n a c t m e n t in M i c h i g a n In M i c h i g a n # of the o r i g i n a l government extended a meander grants line the S u b ­ the G r e a t the e x t e n t of of question b e c ause description of many of that navigable waters the O H W M d e f i n e d b y to a matter to Similarly# riparian property. Submerged Lands Act ward o w n e r s h i p was respective the t i t l e law o f Michigan# private o w n e r s h i p e x t e n d s Lakes 13 navigable waters states. the o r d i n a r y h i g h w a t e r m a r k forms to the the U n i o n . States the lake- the legal from the federal that m a y or m a y not 13 F o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f the q u e s t i o n o f r i p a r i a n t i t l e a n d the e x t e n t o f p u b l i c t r u s t o w n e r ­ s h i p t h e r e a d e r is d i r e c t e d to P r o f e s s o r L. L. L e i g h t y ' s a r t i c l e "The S o u r c e a n d S c o p e o f P u b l i c a n d P r i v a t e R i g h t s in N a v i g a b l e W a t e r s — P a r t I." 14 o f 1955# Submerged S e c t i o n 2. 1 5 Ibid. Lands Act# Act 247 of the P u b l i c A c t s 155 have b e e n c o i n c i d e n t w i t h original government were needed prior A c t to d e f i n e The the survey. to shore 16 the e n a c t m e n t may cause a landw a r d m i g r a t i o n of accretion m a y m o v e owner's p r o p e r t y u n d e r c ause e n t r a p m e n t of the OHWM# a riparian in 1 9 6 8 w i t h S e c t i o n 11 o f title gradually or d e s t r o y e d as d e t a i l e d to e s t a b l i s h Lakes or conversely# Thus# and accretion. Lands Erosion conditions may be structures, sediment State L e g i s l a t u r e m o v e d land the G r e a t accretion or gradually diminished Permanent the 17 the OHWM. lakeward. natural of court decisions ownership. position of this m a r k time the S u b m e r g e d at w o r k o n the geographic by erosion. of the e x t e n t of p r i v a t e shore processes the Numerous may a l t e r enlarged b y at previously# The M i c h i g a n to t h i s accreted the S u b m e r g e d L a n d s A c t o f T h e p r o b l e m s of o w n e r s h i p u p until the e n a c t m e n t of the S u b m e r g e d L a n d s A c t is p r e s e n t e d in t h e A m e r i c a n L a w R e p o r t s A n n o t a t e d at 7 A L R 1256# (Land B e t w e e n M e a n d e r a n d S h o r e Lines) . 17 There have been several significant decisions on this q u e s t i o n i n c l u d i n g : K a v a n a u q h v. R a b i o r # 222 M i c h . 68# 192 N. W. 623; K a v a n a u q h v. B a i r d # 2 4 1 M i c h . 240# 217 N. W. 2; S t a u b v. T r i p p # 248 M i c h . 45# 2 2 6 N. W. 667; N e w m a n v. B u m p # 2 4 5 M i c h . 665# 2 2 4 N. W. 321; a n d A i n s w o r t h v. M u n o s k o n q H u n t i n g a n d F i s h i n g C l u b # 1 5 9 M i c h . 61# 123 N. W. 8 0 2 a n d o t h e r s # s e e 71 A L R 1 2 5 6 g e n e r a l l y f o r a m o r e complete review. 156 that y e a r . 18 property b y Title is g r a n t e d the p l a c e m e n t of lawful No l e g i s l a t i o n h a s b e e n losses to l a n d accreted permanent forthcoming which to r i p a r i a n structures. treats 19 shore in an e q u i t a b l e m a n n e r . The Submerged Lands Act 1955 s e t forth pr o v i s i o n s placed o n the OHWM. the p u b l i c 20 State extending lakeward permits, therefore, as o r i g i n a l l y e n a c t e d for permitting of trust b o t t o m land of permits from are be placed offshore. are required the O H W M . Protective works, described previously, that e xtend structures the state b e l o w for a n y s t r u c t u r e Both State required before in and Federal any structure 21 can s u c h as h a v e b e e n lakeward are und e r such of Michigan to permits. The most regulate ment of the u s e recent move by of r i p a r i a n the S h o r e l a n d s 18 1968 the State property Protection came wit h the e n a c t ­ and M a n a g e m e n t Act, S u b m e r g e d Lands Act, Section Act 11. 19 In t h e c a s e o f St. J o s e p h , t h e l a n d a c c r e t e d to the s h o r e n o r t h o f t h e p i e r s c o u l d b e g r a n t e d to t h e r i p a r ­ ians in t h a t a r e a u p o n a p p l i c a t i o n u n d e r the p r o c e d u r e s s e t f o r t h u n d e r S e c . 11 of the 1 9 6 8 S u b m e r g e d L a n d s Act. 20 The O H W M on Lake M i c h i g a n - H u r o n has b e e n e s t a b ­ lished at a d a t u m of 579.8 feet abo v e m e a n s e a level. 21 See Chapter IV u n d e r E n g i n e e r i n g A s p e c t s . 15 7 245# o f the P u b l i c A c t s tant p r o v i s i o n s First* of (DNR). at the l o c a l l e v e l * three the z o n i n g areas b y are absence the W a t e r impor— 22 of all local gov­ to b e d e l i n e a t e d b y the M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t In the D N R is e m p o w e r e d for areas are P r o t e c t i v e Act. and environmental conducted by Resources There the S h o r e l a n d s These high-risk s t udies 1970. the A c t p r o v i d e s high-risk erosion ernment. of of of N a t u r a l the n e c e s s a r y z o n i n g Resources C o m m i s s i o n of to p r o m u l g a t e rules the for t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f these a r eas. Second# the S h o r e l a n d s A c t be c o n d u c t e d w h i c h erosion z oning areas and are areas aimed these at d e l i n e a t i n g of environmental regulations described s u a n t to authorizes studies b y above are the h i g h concern. to b e the D e p a r t m e n t studies to risk The enacted of Natural pur­ Re­ sources . Third# the S h o r e l a n d s A c t sources C o m m i s s i o n to d e v e l o p a requires the W a t e r R e ­ "comprehensive the o v e r a l l m a n a g e m e n t o f M i c h i g a n ' s G r e a t plan" Lakes for shore­ lands . 22 F o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of A c t 2 4 5 t h e r e a d e r is d i r e c t e d to the r e p o r t p r e p a r e d b y the W a t e r R e ­ sources C o m m i s s i o n staff ti t l e d A P l a n for M i c h i g a n S h o r e ­ lands * O c t o b e r 197 2. 15 8 The Shorelands A ct the t o o l s to d i r e c t areas o f r e a l much h o p e for tion to t h i s the these it n o w stands will future development. concern development and as are those w i t h language of However# the A c t d o e s section b u t plans d o little or to r e c t i f y p r e v i o u s in t h e the presently existing not already developed reaches. statement may he provide lend The e x c e p ­ "comprehensive to c o r r e c t o n - g o i n g plan" erosion# erosion damage. Local Regulation of Riparian Land Local governments jurisdiction through by w h a t is c a l l e d over l a n d u s e which Zoning that delineate zoning put. of ordinances shore recently been Protection powers# are c o n t r o l s types Regulation of the S h o r e l a n d s their their police the v a r i o u s authority has the e n a c t m e n t o f land use within application zoning. the l a n d m a y b e existing the regulate of u s e s to areas under strengthened b y and Management Act p r e v i o u s l y discu s s e d . Zoning trol p r i v a t e as a legitimate land has its roots p o w e r of g o v e r n m e n t in to c o n ­ the U n i t e d S t a t e s 15 9 C o n s t i t u t i o n as interpreted States S u p r e m e C o u r t case of Ambler R e a l t y C o m p a n y . 23 of the p o l i c e p o w e r o f in the cited the v i l l a g e in p r i n c i p l e the s t a t e interest of 1926 U n it ed o f E u c l i d v. The Court held ances are c o n s t i t u t i o n a l of the p e o p l e in t h e o f t e n that z o n i n g o r d i n ­ as a valid to r e g u l a t e exercise the activities the g e n e r a l h e alth# safety# and w e l f a r e . The zoning authority of local b y the s t a t e through what lation. local government u n der The the p o w e r is c o m m o n l y c a l l e d this local zoning Zoning of shore areas in M i c h i g a n w a s t h e e n a c t m e n t o f A c t 42# Acts o f 1 9 52# (Act 183, P.A. which of amended 1943) B oards o f S u p e r v i s o r s Great Lakes of to e s t a b l i s h in a r e a s outside of The effectiveness setback fro m the those of counties local 2 3 272 U . S . roughly by 365. the Public for C o u n t y fronting on the setback or building zoning shore has been minimal. ness c a n b e m e a s u r e d in Zoning Act incorporated villages of legis­ initiated the M i c h i g a n it p o s s i b l e appropriate enabling ordinances. the C o u n t y R u r a l making is v e s t e d legislation has to p r o m u l g a t e 1952 w i t h lines governments number to and cities. insure This proper ineffective­ of homes built 160 in areas s u bject to e r o s i o n damage. 24 The S h o r e l a n d P r o ­ tection and M a n a g e m e n t A c t of 1970 w a s p r i m a r i l y the o u t ­ growth of this inactivity at the local level and the r e c ­ ognition of the need for shoreland management. ing provisions of the A c t state that counties# The z o n ­ townships# cities o r vill a g e s w i t h i n three years after the e f f e c t i v e date 25 zoned of this which A c t m a y zone any s h o r e l a n d is w i t h i n their m u n i c i p a l tection o f d e s i g n a t e d sion" areas. means the land and land to be limits for the p r o ­ "environmental and h i g h - r i s k e r o ­ The s h o r e l a n d as d e f i n e d b y the statute# in the State w h i c h b o r d e r s or is a d j a c e n t to a G r e a t L a k e or a co n n e c t i n g w a t e r w a y situated w i t h i n 1#000 feet l a n d w a r d from the o r d i n a r y h i g h w a t e r m a r k as defined in S e c t i o n 2 o f A c t 247# of the Public Acts of 1955# as amended. 26 24 W h i l e no e x t e n s i v e study of actual dates on building p ermits w a s u n d e r t a k e n to s u b s t a n t i a t e this state ment an a i rplane flight along the shore w i l l c o n f i r m the fact that m a n y h o m e s h a v e b e e n b u i l t since 1952. Set back lines e i t h e r h a v e not b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d or if e s t a b l i s h e d have not a llowed e n o u g h s e t b a c k in m o s t instances. 25 26 The important date See Sec. is A p r i l 1# 1974. 7-11# A c t 245 of 1970. 161 An important new concept presented b y lands A c t is the p r o v i s i o n local g o v e r n m e n t s fail for d i r e c t state a c t i o n to z o n e t h o s e in the Act. 27 the W a t e r R e s o u r c e s the s h o r e a r e a s > a f u n c t i o n p r o v i d e d The W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o m m i s s i o n ized to set r e g u l a t i o n s if local g o v e r n m e n t s if " e n v i r o n m e n t a l and hi g h - r i s k e r o s i o n ar e a s " d e s i g n a t e d b y C o m m i s s i o n s t u d y of the S h o r e - is a u t h o r ­ to p r e v e n t u n w i s e u s e o f s u c h a reas fail t o e n a c t the n e c e s s a r y restric­ tions . Th e l e g a l i t y of s u c h a m o v e b y the W a t e r R e s o u r c e s Commission probably w i l l n o t fully be established until test case h a s b e e n d e c i d e d . for c o n t r o l l i n g shores are good. a The l o n g - r a n g e p o s s i b i l i t i e s the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the n o w u n d e v e l o p e d T h e d e v e l o p e d s h o r e reach# however# will pr o bably b e o n l y m i n i m a l l y a f f e c t e d s i n c e e x i s t i n g u s e s are r e s p o n s i b l e occurred. for m u c h o f the e r o s i o n d a m a g e that h a s 28 27 E x i s t i n g R e g u l a t o r y T e c h n i q u e s for M a n a g i n g Michigan's S h o r e l a n d # W a t e r Resources Commission# D e p a r t ­ ment of N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s # A u g u s t 1972# p. 2 (draft c o p y ) . 28 Sec. 12# (1) (a) o f A c t 245 c a l l s for: An inven­ tory a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the u s e and d e v e l o p m e n t c h a r a c ­ teristics o f the shorel a n d : the g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l and m a n i n f l u e n c e d s h o r e l i n e features; the e x i s t i n g and p r o p o s e d 162 Common Law R i p a r i a n r i g h t s h a v e d e v e l o p e d out of the c o m m o n law and o f c o u r s e d i r e c t l y a p p l y to l a n d a d j a c e n t to the Great Lakes. A r i p a r i a n p r o p r i e t o r or r i p a r i a n owns land w h i c h stream. 29 includes the s h o r e o r b a n k of a lake o r O n the G r e a t L a k e s o r the o c e a n have b e e n c a l l e d is one w h o "littoral rights." 30 these ri g h t s The principles of law* h o w e v e r # are e s s e n t i a l l y the same r e g a r d l e s s of the water b o d y involved.^ municipal and i n d u s t r i a l water; int a k e s a n d s e w a g e and industrial w a s t e outfalls; and h i g h r i s k and e n v i r o n m e n t a l areas. T h e i n v e n t o r y w h i c h / of course# is the f i r s t s t e p in i d e n t i fying those areas of s p e c i a l c o n c e r n on the s h o r e is the o n l y l a n g u a g e in the act t h a t m e n t i o n s "general physical and m a n - i n f l u e n c e d s h o r e l i n e f e a t u r e s . " The critical areas are a l r e a d y o f c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e s u c h as at St. J o seph. T h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n of f u n d i n g for shore r e p a i r w i l l h o p e f u l l y b e a n s w e r e d in s u b s e q u e n t state and fed e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n . 29 See generally# 93 C.J.S. 605-620# §§ W a t e r s . ^^See generally# Natural L a k e s and Ponds. 93 C.J.S. 789-799# §§ W a t e r s # 31 IV R i p a r i a n l a w has b e e n g e n e r a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d to include all b o d i e s of wa t e r # streams# ponds# lakes and the ocean. R i p a r i a n ri g h t s are those a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f l o w i n g w a t e r in a s t r e a m w h i l e those same ri g h t s o n land a b u t t i n g a lake o r the o c e a n are k n o w n as littoral. 163 In M i c h i g a n the r i g h t s of r i p a r i a n o w n e r s h a v e b e e n defined b y the M i c h i g a n S u p r e m e C o u r t to include: 32 1. T h e r i g h t to u s e the w a t e r for g e n e r a l purposes# s u c h as b a t h i n g # d o m e s t i c use# etc. 2. T h e ri g h t to w h a r f out to 3. The r i g h t of ac c e s s 4. The right to accretion. navigable w a t e r s . to the n a v i g a b l e waters. The r i g h t to w h a r f o u t to n a v i g a b l e w a t e r s and u n r e s t r i c t e d b e c a u s e it is s u b j e c t to the r e g u l a t o r y assent of the s t a t e b e c a u s e of p u b l i c the b o t t o m l a n d 33 is n o t a b s o l u t e trust o w n e r s h i p of and the federal g o v e r n m e n t b e c a u s e of the p o s s i b l e h i n d r a n c e to navigation. 34 T h e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f r i p a r i a n law are many# but in the c o n t e x t o f this s t u d y the s p e c i f i c tenets of the d o c ­ trine are r e l a t e d lake water. to the r i g h t o f d e f e n s e a g a i n s t In general.- the r i p a r i a n o w n e r h a s the r i g h t to b u i l d a b u l k h e a d or o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s his property# b u t h e 32 33 34 is a n s w e r a b l e Note 1 s u p r a . N o t e 14 s u p r a . N o t e 3 supra. the to p r o t e c t and a c c o u n t a b l e in damages if h i s p r o t e c t i v e w o r k s c a u s e i n j u r y to o t h e r 35 riparian o w n e r s . 35 S e e 93 C. J . S . 623 § 19# E m b a n k m e n t s # Other Works to P r o t e c t Property. Levies and CHAPTER VII A N A L Y S I S OF F O U R L E G A L A V E N U E S O P E N T O P R O T E C T R I P A R I A N RI G H T S Introduction Previous c h a p t e r s h a v e a n a l y z e d the p h y s i c a l # c u l ­ tural and h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s o f the s h o r e e r o s i o n p r o b l e m s at St. Joseph/ M i c h i g a n . T h e M i c h i g a n l o c a t i o n is p r o t o ­ typical of m a n y o t h e r h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d shore areas on the Great Lakes and s e a c o a s t s of the U n i t e d States. been s h o wn that m a n ' s interaction with It h a s the n a t u r a l sh o r e processes has g r e a t l y a c c e l e r a t e d the rate of erosion. chronological, r e c o r d of m a n ' s a c t i v i t i e s at St. J o s e p h r e ­ veals a g r e a t e r a n d g r e a t e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l artificial s t r u c t u r e s ian p r o p e r t y h a v e A a l o n g the shore. influence from Damages to r i p a r ­ increased with succeeding high water periods on the G r e a t Lakes. Individual p r o p e r t y owners# local a n d state g o v e r n m e n t and the f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t # 165 all 166 as r i p a r i a n o w n e r s # have expended large an a t t e m p t to p r o t e c t s h o r e causing e r o s i o n . Most of because o f the s m a l l can o p e r a t e scale property problem. forces these attempts hav e b e e n futile at w h i c h basis. The Acting alone# n e e d e d to engineers ing in terms o f h a r m o n i o u s These harmonious can muster the s u f f i ­ "fight nature" and laymen alike o n an e v e n caused to b e g i n think­ a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h nature.^- associations in p r i s t i n e a r e a s b y r e g u l a t i n g the n a t u r a l scale r i p a r i a n own e r s # l o s s o f this b a t t l e w i t h n a t u r e h a s many s c i e n t i s t s # areas w i t h the r i p a r i a n o w n e r s tremendously large neither p r i v a t e n o r g o v e r n m e n t a l # cient e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s in f r o m the w a v e in r e l a t i o n to the of the o v e r a l l sums of m o n e y systems are e a s i l y p l a n n e d the d e v e l o p m e n t of in m i n d b e f o r e shore significant This principle of natural h a r m o n y ha s b e e n s t r e n g t h e n e d b y a r e c e n t d e c i s i o n b y the N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e to a b a n d o n a t t e m p t s to " s t a b i l i z e " a n d " p r o t e c t " the b a r r i e r i s l a n d s of t h e C a p e H a t t e r a s N a t i o n a l S e a ­ shore. The d e c i s i o n w as h o t l y opposed by some local shore o wners w h o face p r o p e r t y d a m a g e w i t h u p c o m i n g s t o r m s but# in terms o f t h e o v e r a l l n a t i o n a l s e a s h o r e m a n a g e m e n t plan# na t u r e w i l l p r o v i d e its o w n b e s t d e f e n s e o f the shore. R o b e r t D o l a n# a r e s e a r c h s c i e n t i s t for the P a r k S e r v i c e states in h i s r e p o r t o n the b a r r i e r i s l a n d p r o b l e m : "The b e s t s t r a t e g y f o r c o n t i n u e d u s e o f the l a n d a n d w a t e r r e ­ so urces o f b a r r i e r i s l a n d s is, in m o s t c a s e s m a n w i t h n a ­ ture# n o t m a n a g a i n s t n a t u r e , " "Park S e r v i c e to L e t N a t u r e R e i g n , " W o r l d D r e d g i n g & M a r i n e C o n s t r u c t i o n # V o l . 9# No. 14, D e c e m b e r 1973, p. 63. 167 development takes p l a c e . nition of the n a t u r a l In a sense# servitude which shoreline p r o p e r t y u s e d b y man# can be invoked in d u e course in the p o p u l a t e d c o a s t a l man that h a v e The Because areas of natural s h o r e time. sion d a m a g e w h i c h w i l l b e not be further a c t i v i t i e s tion of t h a t are thing# and the reevaluating along already devel­ into h a r m o n y w i t h c o n t i n u e to in a s h o r t suffer ero­ a continued source to r e c o v e r pro­ this v e r y accomplished L a w suits m a y b e seeking o n all the s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s to b u i l d b a c k Many riparian owners will many r i p a r i a n s of the G r e a t Lakes# task of b r i n g i n g systems will and f r u s t r a t i o n . inexorable is f a c e d w i t h u n d o i n g # taken years recog­ nature demands t h r o u g h the and r e c o n s t r u c t i n g m a n y o f h i s w o r k s oped shores. connotes in e f f e c t an e a s e m e n t w h i c h cesses of g e o m o r p h i c e v o l u t i o n . world in g e n e r a l # this of irritation the l a s t r e s o r t for d a m a g e s leading for a n d to s t o p to c o n t i n u e d d e g r a d a ­ the s h o r e e n v i r o n m e n t . This chapter is an a n a l y s i s of four possible legal avenues t h a t c a n b e u s e d b y riparian owners rights and to d i r e c t shore management decisions. a general for the fashion St. the Joseph future factual case information to p r o t e c t that was their In developed s t u d y a r e a w i l l b e u s e d as the 168 ba c k g r o u n d for native l e g a l This the d i s c u s s i o n in e a c h o f basis study was not under ta k e n a i m e d at p r o v i d i n g for t r e a t i n g problems shore c o n d i t i o n . a rational# Joseph hut rather physical-and-legal the s h o r e e r o s i o n a n d s h o r e m a n a g e m e n t This avenues to p r o v i d e s p e c i f i c a t St. that arise w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h four legal four a l t e r ­ approaches. evidence for a s e r i e s of l a w s u i t s it was the chapter will provide that w o u l d b e formulation of a case an a l r e a d y - d e v e l o p e d applicable if a l l o t h e r c h a n n e l s a r e v i e w of to g u i d e the of r e c o v e r y fail. The f o r m a t o f this chapter will be developed around the a n a l y s i s o f f o u r d i f f e r e n t on the a n a l y s i s ical of the St. types J o s e p h area. c l a i m as t h e s t a r t i n g poi n t # Using to e a c h c l a i m as situation are s u m m a r i z e d following this the four a l t e r n a t i v e s pl i e d to s o l v i n g taken The f r o m t h e St. last in l i g h t o f h o w for the follow. in a s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n introduction. a hypothet­ the l e g a l b a s i s claim and d i s c u s s i o n of l e g a l p r e c e d e n t w i l l facts c o m m o n of claims based The Joseph immediately section will review they m a y b e s t b e ap­ the shore e r o s i o n p r o b l e m and u l t i m a t e l y 1 69 b ringing a b o u t l o n g - t e r m s h o r e m a n a g e m e n t w h i c h erosion r i s k a n d l o s s e s reduces to a m i n i m u m . F a c t s C o m m o n to E a c h L e g a l C l a i m The discussion of will b e p r e c e d e d b y the four types of legal a summary of the b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d p r e v i o u s l y o n the St. tion. A l l o f the applicable following information the s h o r e e n v i r o n m e n t . ment c e r t a i n Prior in e a c h o r less individual emphasized more to the s e t t l e m e n t of t h e St. the at its m o u t h Events" is m o r e situa­ argu­ t h a n oth e r s . 2 shore w as T h e St. 2 Joseph to r i p a r i a n l a n d o r to However# facts w i l l b e Historical Facts librium. f r o m the to the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n y o f the f o u r c o u r t claims w h e t h e r b a s e d o n d a m a g e s the 1 8 2 0 ' s facts action See# g e n e r a l l y # in C h a p t e r III. a r e a in in a s t a t e of n e a r n a t u r a l e q u i ­ Joseph River and l i t t o r a l Joseph flowed over a shallow bar sediment moved southward along "Chronology of S i g n i fi c an t 170 the shore forming a spit of land that d e f l e c t e d the r i v e r to the south. A r o u n d 183 5 the r i v e r m o u t h w a s by a s h o r t p i e r o n the n o r t h s i d e of placing cutting the s p i t in o r d e r navigating the r i v e r . century u n t i l today the c h a n n e l to a i d d e e p e r d r a f t b o a t s F r o m this d a t e the s h o r e in the n i n e t e e n t h southward is a n e a r l y c o n t i n u o u s tures for a d i s t a n c e o f five m i l e s . f r o m the line of struc­ By 1905 the C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s h a d a d d e d l e n g t h to the h a r b o r p i e r s times a n d in the n u m b e r o f e n g i n e e r i n g w o r k s h a s steadily i n c r e a s e d u n t i l twin federal p i e r s reconstructed their p r e s e n t co n f i g u r a t i o n w a s several attained. D u r i n g h i g h w a t e r p e r i o d s on t h e G r e a t L a k e s the 1 8 8 0 ’s a n d a g a i n very l i t t l e e r o s i o n in t he e a r l y y e a r s o f took p l a c e along 1920's o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 90 y e a r s was p l a c e d at t h e r i v e r m o u t h , property s o u t h o f the Since spent b y federal the Joseph, federal first structure to piers. of d o l l a r s h a v e b e e n private of M i c h i g a n and p r i v a t e r i p a r i a n o w n e r s shore s o u t h o f the B y the erosion caused damage the 1 9 2 0 's m i l l i o n s the C i t y of St. this c e n t u r y , the sh o r e . after in piers firms, the S t a t e to p r o t e c t from e r o s i o n . At the the s a m e 171 time l a n d o n the n o r t h s i d e w a s accreting to the s h o r e through l i t t o r a l e n t r a p m e n t . Subsequent the G r e a t L a k e s that 1 0 0 • 0 0 0 to the 1 9 5 0 ' s h i g h w a t e r p e r i o d on a study b y cubic yards trapped e a c h y e a r b y gress o f of l i t t o r a l reported sediment was being the f e d e r a l pi e r s . the U n i t e d S t a t e s neers to s p e n d u p sional t h e C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s authorized In 1 9 6 8 the C o n ­ the C o r p s o f E n g i ­ to o n e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s w i t h o u t C o n g r e s ­ a u t h o r i z a t i o n to r e p a i r d a m a g e s caused b y navi­ gational s t r u c t u r e s . B y the b e g i n n i n g on the G r e a t L a k e s the m o u t h o f of the p r e s e n t h i g h w a t e r p e r i o d in the l a t e the St. The n e a r l y f i v e - y e a r p e r i o d mendous o u t l a y of the s h o r e s o u t h o f Joseph River was buttressed by forms o f s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s b u i l t when s h o r e e r o s i o n 1960's to p r o t e c t since the funds of s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s . for r e p a i r of 1 9 6 9 recorded a tre­ and new construction M o s t o f the w o r k s h a v e b e e n i n e f f e c t i v e in p r o t e c t i n g the u p l a n d as totally intended and in­ stead the e r o s i o n p r o b l e m h a s b e e n p u s h e d the s h o r e b y the shore. firm storms actively commenced has all the p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e wo r k s . southward along 172 Scientific Documentation 3 Through scientific inquiry certain ing the p h y s i c a l d i s r u p t i o n of were d e t e r m i n e d . ward 2,800 f e e t the n e a r s h o r e e n v i r o n m e n t i n t o the l i t t o r a l The effects to the o f this shore area s o u t h o f the p i e r s The offshore b a r Lacking a d e q u a t e ally r e g u l a t e zone along sediment The farther Increased wave l a n d w a r d in the a b s e n c e increased e n ergy and wave led to a c c e l e r a t e d e r o s i o n of response is b e s t u n d e r s t o o d response m o d e l of natur­ energy reaching shore have not m a i n ­ transferred turbulence has the s h o r e a n d h e a d l a n d . and predicted by This the p r o c e a s - the l i t t o r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . A d e t a i l e d study of aerial See, s t a r v a t i o n o n the system has b e e n s e v e r e l y affected. energy h a s b e e n sion s o u t h of littoral s e d i m e n t n o u r i s h m e n t the b a r s w h i c h the w a v e pro­ are d r a m a t i c . s t a g e —b a r r e l a t i o n s h i p . again in 1969, the s h o r e southward moving tained a s t a b l e of the b a r s . concern­ The harbor mouth piers which extend out­ vide an e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r sediment. facts 1970, 1971, 1972 photos a n d 1973 taken reveals in 1 9 3 8 that e r o ­ the r i v e r m o u t h h a s p r o g r e s s e d at a r a t e generally. IV a n d V. Chapters and 173 several times t h a t of o t h e r s i m i l a r s e g m e n t s o n the s h o r e s of the G r e a t L a k e s . O n two s h o r t s e g m e n t s of u n p r o t e c t e d shore at St. e r o s i o n rates times Joseph# the o v e r a l l rate measured. several for t h e St. J o s e p h a r e a as a w h o l e w e r e These rapid erosion rates on segments w i t h i n the n e a r l y c o n t i n u o u s works w a s ruptions shown t h a t of to b e “u n d e f e n d e d " line of engineering t h e r e s u l t of s m a l l m a g n i t u d e d i s ­ in the s h o r e p r o c e s s e s b y s p e c i f i c structures along the s h o r e . Continued d ictable model. starvation of littoral t h r o u g h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g Erosion will piers u n t i l such is p r e ­ the p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e c o n t i n u e o n the s o u t h s i d e o f the time as the o f f s h o r e b a r s their n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n . erosion o f of sediment If a l l o w e d the h e a d l a n d w i l l bars are r e b u i l t w i t h are r e b u i l t to to c o n t i n u e u n c h e c k e d # continue until sediment derived the o f f s h o r e f r o m the e r o d e d bluffs a l o n g the shore. Regulatory Controls on Riparian Land M o s t of the s h o r e s o u t h o f the J o s e p h is 4 in a d e v e l o p e d state. See# generally# federal piers at St. T h e r e g u l a t i o n o f th e C h a p t e r VI. 174 placement of d w e l l i n g s stringent e n o u g h on u n d e v e l o p e d r i p a r i a n in the p a s t age from o c c u r r i n g . to h a v e N e w land use c o n trols are in o t h e r erty through self h e l p from arising riparian owners to p r o t e c t by placing structural works their own at the s h o r e works c o n s t r u c t e d o n the s t a t e - o w n e d * mit. In b o t h o f the U n i t e d States instances prior must be s e c u r e d prop­ line. Those public-trust bottom lands and t h o s e w o r k s w h i c h a r e b u i l t o u t w a r d navigable w a t e r s in e f f e c t areas. On this d e v e l o p e d shore p r ivate have s o u g h t not prevented erosion dam­ which w i l l s u r e l y p r e v e n t s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s in the f u t ure land was are approval into the regulated by per­ for suc h structures f r o m b o t h the S t a t e o f M i c h i g a n a n d the Ar m y C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s . Authorization of D a m a g e s for R e p a i r The A r m y Corps of Engineers has problems groins* inherent with jetties 5 structural works a n d seawalls.'* long recognized such as pie r s # The Corps maintains an See* g e n e r a l l y * S h o r e P r o t e c t x o n G u i d e l i n e s * D e p a r t m e n t o f the A r m y * C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s # W a s h i n g t o n # D. C.# A u g u s t 1971. the 175 active r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m to d e t e r m i n e the b e s t m e t h o d s construct a n d m a i n t a i n s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s land b o u n d a r y . In 1 9 6 8 an amendment Harbors A c t o f 1 8 9 9 a u t h o r i z e d the C o r p s to c o n d u c t s t u d i e s ages to s h o r e as works. The Corps the p r o b l e m the r e s u l t o f the w a t e r - to the R i v e r s one m i l l i o n d o l l a r s areas along to and to s p e n d u p to and to r e p a i r d a m ­ federal navigational of E n g i n e e r s h a s b e e n s l o w to a c t o n at St. Joseph with the e x c e p t i o n that a s t u d y on the e x t e n t o f e r o s i o n d a m a g e s h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d b u t not yet r e l e a s e d for p u b l i c c omment at the d a t e of this writing. Environmental D a m a g e The damages to the s h o r e s of L a k e M i c h i g a n b y accelerated m a n - i n d u c e d e r o s i o n e n v i r o n m e n t in the v i c i n i t y . disrupted, natural sand bars Mi c h i g a n m u d d i e d b y by s t r u c t u r a l w o r k s , is d a m a g e The offshore destroyed, to the t o t a l areas h a v e been the w a t e r s of Lake constant e r osion and turbulence caused and the n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n o n o t h e r ­ wise s c e n i c b l u f f s h a s b e e n lost. g 82 Stat. S e c t i o n 11 o f 731. the R i v e r s and H a r b o r s A c t o f 1968, 176 While n o t a f o r m o f p o l l u t i o n p e r se this d e s t r u c ­ tion of the n a t u r a l source# shore conditions# is e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n . tions a l o n g r i v e r s effluents# a scenic natural re­ In s i m i l a r s i t u a ­ and lakes polluted w i t h w a s t e and o t h e r and w h e r e g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y e n f o r c e m e n t h a s been lax o r n o n - e x i s t e n t r i p a r i a n o w n e r s on half h a v e s o u g h t r e c o u r s e common in l a w o n b o t h their own b e ­ law a n d e n v i r o n m e n tal g r o u n d s .^ The e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y degr a d i n g nature of induced e r o s i o n at St. in the a r e a s u b j e c t noxious shores. Joseph has the m a n - reduced property values to this e r o s i o n j u s t as s u r e l y as industrial waste were constantly w a s h e d upon The a n x i e t y of t h o s e faced with continued if those financial P r o f e s s o r S a x ' s c o m m e n t a r y on the e n v i r o n m e n t a l state of a f f a i r s is p a r t i c u l a r l y p o i g n a n t w h e n h e sta t e s : P r i v a t e c i t i z e n s # n o l o n g e r w i l l i n g to a c c e d e to the e f f o r t s of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a g e n c i e s to p r o t e c t the p u b l i c i n t e rest, h a v e b e g u n to t a k e the i n i ­ tiative themselves. O n e d r a m a t i c r e s u l t is a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f l a w s u i t s in w h i c h c i t i z e n s # d e ­ m a n d i n g j u d i c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i r r i g h t s as m e m b e r s o f the p u b l i c # sue t h e v e r y g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s w h i c h a r e s u p p o s e d to b e p r o t e c t i n g the p u b l i c inter e s t . As q u o t e d f r o m "The P u b l i c T r u s t D o c t r i n e in N a t u r a l R e ­ source Law: E f f e c t i v e J u d i c i a l I n t e r v e n t i o n . " 68 M i c h . L. R e v i e w 473 at p. 473. 177 loss w i t h o u t a d o u b t h a s l e d to the d e g r a d a t i o n of quality o f t h e i r lives. Many moderately w e a l t h y and able riparians at St. The costs of protective engineering c o n s u l t a n t s staggering sums chase p r i c e of Joseph while to a f f o r d an e x p e n s i v e h o m e overlooking the l a k e h a v e b e e n p u s h e d to n e a r ruin. financial w o r k s # house moving/ a nd a t t o r n e y s h a v e p i l e d u p o f t e n a m o u n t i n g to as m u c h as the h o m e the p u r ­ are owned c o l l e c t i v e l y b y all zens of the S t a t e of M i c h i g a n a n d m a n a g e d b y p u b l i c beaches All citizens w h o use and enjoy and o f f s h o r e w a t e r s tecting this v a l u a b l e which d e a l s w i t h torts rights an i n t e r e s t citi­ agen­ the in p r o ­ the shores of Lake Michigan. T