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I
I

I
I

75-7131
BUFE, Noel Carl, 1933THE EFFECT OF SELECTIVE ENFORCEMENT ON RURAL
TRAFFIC FATALITIES IN SEVERAL MICHIGAN
COUNTIES.
Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1974
Education, general

Xerox University M icrofilm s,

Ann A rbor, M ichig an 40106

THE EFFECT OF SELECTIVE ENFORCEMENT ON RURAL TRAFFIC
FATALITIES IN SEVERAL MICHIGAN COUNTIES
By
Noel C. Bufe

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the requirements
f o r the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
College of Education
1974

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This d i s s e r t a t i o n could not have been made possible without
the cooperation and assistance o f many i n d i v i d u a l s .
I f i r s t would l i k e to thank my doctoral committee f o r t h e i r
able guidance throughout my p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the program.

A special

thanks is in order f o r Dr. Robert Gustafson, chairman of the committee
and Associate Pr ofessor, Michigan S ta te U n i v e r s i t y , Highway T r a f f i c
Safety Center, f o r his special a t t e n t i o n to the d e t a i l s required in
the w r i t i n g of t h i s manuscript.

I'm also very mindful o f the con­

s i d e r a t i o n and, e s p e c i a l l y , the encouragement t h a t I received from
Professors W illiam Mann, College o f Education, Michigan S ta te Uni­
v e r s i t y , and Robert Nolan, Michigan State U n i v e r s i t y , Highway T r a f f i c
Safe ty Cen ter, throughout my years as a student.

I'm indebted to

Dr. V i c t o r S t r ec h e r, Professor, School o f Criminal J u s t i c e , Michigan
State U n i v e r s i t y , f o r his counsel and encouragement to begin graduate
study and f o r his repeated expressions of i n t e r e s t in my progress.
I also want to express my g r a t i t u d e to Dr. W il liam P o llo c k ,
Research Psych ologist, Highway Safety Research I n s t i t u t e , the U n iver­
s i t y o f Michigan, f o r his in v a lu a b le guidance and counsel throughout
my program.

He has been most he lp fu l as a constant in flu e n c e to apply

my academic t r a i n i n g to my care er work.
I am o f course g r a t e f u l

f o r the cooperation o f the D i r e c t o r

o f the Michigan S tate P o l i c e , Col. John R. P la n ts , who has been

p a r t i c u l a r l y h e lp fu l to insure t h a t t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n got completed.
Also L t . Zane Gray o f the Michigan S tate P o l i c e , who so w i l l i n g l y
cooperated in the production o f data information concerning the i n d i ­
vidual counties contained in the discussion section o f Chapter V, and
f o r his ab le lea de rs hip in overseeing the executing o f t h i s demon­
s tration project.
Thanks are in order f o r a group of fou r c l e r i c a l

s t a f f who

worked so hard to a s s i s t me in the production of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .
To Mrs. Raymond Benne tt, Sandy Bennett, Mrs. Frances M i l l e r , and
Dolores Nouhan, I w i l l

always be indebted f o r t h e i r assistance.

L a s t , but not l e a s t , to my f a m ily f o r t o l e r a t i n g a student
who works f u l l

time and has considerable t r a v e l commitments.

It

would not have been possible to complete t h i s important enrichment
program without the constant encouragement o f my w i f e Nancy and the
i n t e r e s t and support of my c h i l d r e n , Kevin, Lynn, Bruce, and Carol.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................

vi

LIST OF F I G U R E S .........................................................................................................v i i i
LIST OF A P P E N D I C E S .............................................................................................

ix

Chapter
I.

II.

III.

THE PROBLEM..............................................................................................

1

.....................................................
T r a f f i c Accident S i t u a t i o n
The T r a f f i c Saf ety System ............................................................
The P r o b l e m .......................................................................................
S p e c i f i c Statement of the Problem
.................................
Theory o f S t u d y .........................................................................
Importance o f the S t u d y ............................................................
Scope o f S t u d y ...............................................................................
Study D e s i g n ................................................................................
D e f i n i t i o n o f T e r m s .........................................................................
D i s s e r t a t i o n Overview ...................................................................

1
4
10
10
10
12
14
14
15
17

LITERATURE R E V I E W ............................................................

19

P o lic e T r a f f i c Services L i t e r a t u r e ........................................
Information Secured From Operational Records
. . .
Research L i t e r a t u r e on S e l e c t i v e Enforcement
. . .
Summary....................................................................................................

19
23
28
35

STUDY D E S IG N ..............................................................................................

37

Study H y p o t h e s i s ................................................................................
Study Design S p e c i f i c a t io n s
.....................................................
Sample Selection Process
.....................................................
Experimental County Study Design ........................................
Control County Study Design
...............................................
Experimental V a ria ble s ...................................................................
S t a t i s t i c a l Analysis o f D a t a ...............................................
Confounding V a r ia b l e s
............................................................
Data C o l l e c t i o n ...........................................................
D e l i m i t i n g Factors
...................................................................
Summary....................................................................................................

39
40
40
45
49
50
50
52
54
54
58

iv

Chapter
IV.

V.

Page
ANALYSIS

OF R E S U L T S ........................................................................

60

Independent V a r i a b l e Analysis (Enforcement) . . . .
Dependent V a r i a b l e An alysis (Accidents)
...........................
Time-Series Analysis ...................................................................
Cross-Sectional Analysis
.....................................................
Miscellaneous V a r i a b l e Analysis ...............................................
Summary....................................................................................................

60
68
69
75
80
83

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ........................................................................

85

Summary....................................................................................................
85
86
F i n d i n g s .............................................................................................
C o n c l u s i o n s .......................................................................................
87
89
D i s c u s s i o n .............................................................................................
Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , and S t . C l a i r Counties
. . . .
93
Tuscola County ................................................................................
95
Cass C o u n t y .......................................................................................
96
Be rrien County ................................................................................
97
...................................................................
97
M ultiple F a t a litie s
Miscellaneous
................................................................................
98
Im p lic ati o n s f o r Furth er Research ........................................
103
...................................................................
105
P r o je c t Management
Personnel T r a in i n g
...................................................................
105
E q u i p m e n t .............................................................................................. 106
Data B a s e .............................................................................................. 106
........................................
107
S e le c t iv e Enforcement A c t i v i t y
Problem D e f i n i t i o n .......................................................................... 107
P o lice J u r i s d i c t i o n
...................................................................
107
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.

...........................................................................................................

108

A P PEND IC ES......................................................................................................................... 121

v

LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.

Page
General C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Po lice T r a f f i c Services
L i t e r a t u r e .............................................................................................

20

2.

Dearborn Heights T r a f f i c Crash Data ................................................

26

3.

East D e t r o i t T r a f f i c Crash D a t a .......................................................

26

4.

T r a f f i c Crash E x p e r ie n c e - S t a n d a r d Mean D e v i a t i o n ,
1972 (January through J u l y ) Rural F a ta l Crashes,
Ten Most Serious C o u n t i e s ............................................................

43

T r a f f i c Crash Experience— Standard Mean D e v ia t io n ,
Aggregate Fatal Crash Experience 1968-1972; Rural
Fatal Crash 1970-1971; and January-July 1972
Rural Fatal Crashes; Twelve Most Serious Counties

.

43

Michigan S ta te P o lice T r a f f i c A r r e s t A c t i v i t y ,
1971-1972 (August-December).
Experimental
Counties: B e r r i e n , Cass, Eaton, H i l l s d a l e ,
St. C l a i r , and T u s c o l a ...................................................................

62

Michigan S ta te P o lic e T r a f f i c A r re s ts A c t i v i t i e s :
Weekend vs. Weekday, January-July 1972, AugustDecember 1972, Experimental Counties ( B e r r i e n ,
Cass, Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , S t . C l a i r , Tuscola)
.

63

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

.

.

.

.

Michigan S ta te P o lic e Fatal Crash Reduction Program
Patrol A c t i v i t y Comparisons, August-December 1972,
Experimental Counties ( B e r r i e n , Cass, Eaton,
H i l l s d a l e , St. C l a i r , Tuscola) .....................................................

65

Michigan S tate P o lic e Car Hour Per T r a f f i c Contact,
August 1972-December 1972, Experimental Counties
( B e r r i e n , Cass, Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , S t . C l a i r ,
T u s c o l a ) ....................................................................................................

67

Michigan S ta te P o lice Criminal Arre sts f o r T r a f f i c
Related O ff enses, P r o je c t S e l e c t i v e Enforcement
Personnel, August-December 1972, Experimental
Counties ( B e r r i e n , Cass, Eaton, H i l l s d a l e ,
St. C l a i r , T u s c o l a ) .........................................................................

68

vi

Page

Table
11.

12.
13.

14.

15.

Monthly F a t a l i t y Counts, Means, and Standard Deviations
f o r the Four-Year Period Preceding the Experimental
Treatment Year, Experimental Counties ( B e r r i e n ,
Cass, Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , St. C l a i r , Tuscola)
. . . .

70

Chi-Square Analysis o f P r o je c t Year F a t a l i t i e s Versus
F a t a l i t i e s in the Four Preceding Y e a r s ..................................

74

Chi-Square Analysis o f Experimental Counties'
F a t a l i t i e s Versus F a t a l i t i e s in the Control
County Groups During the P r o je c t Year
..................................

77

Chi-Square Analysis o f Experimental Counties'
F a t a l i t i e s Versus F a t a l i t i e s in A l l Control
Groups During the P r o j e c t Year
................................

79

" t " - T e s t Evaluation of F a t a l i t y Experience o f
Experimental Counties Versus A l t e r n a t e Con­
t r o l Counties During the P r o je c t Year
...................................

81

vi 1

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure

Page

1.

P o lice T r a f f i c Functions and Subfunctions

.................................

9

2.

Experimental V aria ble s L i s t ...................................................................

51

3.

Comparison o f Treatment Year F a t l i t i e s w ith Average
F a t a l i t i e s i n the Four Years Preceding the
Treatment Y e a r .......................................................................................

71

Combined F a t a l i t y Experience o f the Experimental
Counties and the Three Control County Groups
During the Three Periods o f the P r o j e c t .................................

76

4.

5.
6.

S ta te P o li c e Patrol Hours— T r a f f i c F a t a l i t y Comparison,
1954 Through 1972
T r a f f i c F a t a l i t y Vs. Employment Trends, 1952-74

vi ii

.

.

.

101
.

102

LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix

Page

A.

Fatal Accident Comparisons by County

.........................................

B.

Experimental County T r a f f i c Crash C h a r a c t e r i z a t io n

C.

Comparison o f Counties With High Fatal Accident
E x p e r i e n c e .....................................................................................................134

D.

Data Example:
Rural Total Accidents by Time o f Day,
Day o f Week {Drinking I n v o l v e d ) ........................... .....

.

.

122
.

127

136

E.

Data Example:
Rural Fatal Accidents by Time o f Day,
Day o f W e e k .....................................................................................................138

F.

Manpower Deployment o f Experimental County State
P o lic e Personnel
................................................................................

140

G.

Michigan State P o lic e Post D a ily Report

...................................

142

H.

Michigan Sta te P o lic e O f f i c e r ' s D a ily Report ............................

144

I.

Department o f State Po lice Attendance Report ............................

146

J.

Other Patrol and Complaint A r r e s t s , S e le c t i v e
Enforcement O f f i c e r s
.........................................................................

148

ix

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM

The p o li c e t r a f f i c
o f any p o li c e o p era tion .

services fun ction is an important sub-system
Although i t s prominence might vary from one

agency to ano ther, some degree o f serv ice to the motoring public is
being rendered by a l l

p o lic e agencies.

One of the p r in c ip a l reasons t h a t p o l ic e t r a f f i c s e r v i c e s , as
an i n t e g r a l p o rt ion o f a p o l ic e mission, vary so d r a s t i c a l l y from com­
munity to community is because there is l i t t l e

known about the

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the service and the r e s u l t s i t produces in terms of
crash reduction.
I t seems a p p ro pria te t h a t before i n v e s t i g a t i n g a very s p e c i f i c
aspect o f the p o lic e t r a f f i c

s e r v ic e s , namely, s e l e c t i v e enforcement,

t h a t a b r i e f examination be made o f the extent o f the t r a f f i c accident
s i t u a t i o n and the t r a f f i c s a f e t y system which is designed to provide
s a fe t y f o r the motoring pu b li c .

This review w i l l

s o r t out s o c ie ta l

roles and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and help s t r u c t u r e the e va lu atio n process
t h a t is developed in t h i s p r e s e n ta ti o n .
T r a f f i c Accident S i t u a t i o n
I t seems t h a t too few r e a l l y understand what the t r a f f i c
accident s i t u a t i o n is a l l about.

Not too many Americans understand

t h a t on an average day , the highway c a s u a l i t i e s in the United States

t o t a l over 10,000 i n ju re d .^

Too few r e a l i z e t h a t these t r a f f i c a c c i ­

dents account f o r more than 1,000 deaths weekly across t h i s nation
and r e s u l t in approximately $2 b i l l i o n loss each month.
are s t i l l

Americans

k i l l i n g and maiming themselves on highways in l a r g e numbers

as has been experienced in past years.

This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t r e s ­

sing as one observes the increasing trends in v e h ic l e miles t r a v e l e d ,
t o t a l vehic le s r e g i s t e r e d , and numbers of licensed d r i v e r s ; increases
that w ill

r e s u l t in an increase in the numbers o f t r a f f i c crash

deaths i f h i s t o r y continues to repeat i t s e l f in the f u t u r e .

Ye t,

somehow, t h i s pressing problem, which a f f l i c t s great numbers of people
in t h i s cou ntry, s t i l l

does not seem to get through to the t hin k in g

and emotions o f most Americans or to generate social concern which
t h i s unpleasantness c l e a r l y deserves.
S p e c i f i c a l l y , motor v e h ic le deaths continued t h e i r r i s e in
1972 and reached an estimated t o t a l o f 56,600 which surpassed the
death f i g u r e o f American l i v e s l o s t in the whole o f the V i e t Nam war.
This was the highest annual t o l l on re co rd , surpassing the previous
high o f 55,791 in 1 9 69 .2
The grim s t a t i s t i c s unmistakable h i g h l i g h t t h a t in motor
v e h ic le deaths the nation faces a d e s t r u c t iv e problem equal in s iz e and
complexity to ot h er social

ills

such as crim e, disease, and poverty:

^William Haddon, J r . , "Address Before Association o f Minnesota
Counties," U.S. Department o f T r a n s p o r ta t io n , National Highway Safety
Bureau, November 28, 1967, p. 1.
2"Accident Facts 1973 E d i t i o n , " National Safety Co un cil,
425 N. Michigan Avenue, Chicago, I l l i n o i s , 1973, p. 12.

3
Highway i n j u r i e s exceed by 10 times a l l v i o l e n t criminal
acts combined, inclu ding homicides, armed robbery, rape, r i o t ,
and a s s a u lt .
Motor v e h ic le crashes rob s o cie ty o f n e arly as many pro­
du cti v e working years as hear t disease and o f more than are
l o s t to cancer and stro kes . Only about 1 of 5 expected man
years o f l i f e l o s t to heart disease is in the age i n t e r v a l
between 20 and 65; in c o n t r a s t , 7 out o f 10 man years l o s t
to motor v e h ic l e deaths are in the productive years between
20 and 65. ^
The dimensions o f the problem extend beyond the death and
i n j u r y t o t a l s , f o r each American f a m i ly also suffe red an average
financial

loss estimated a t $291 as a r e s u l t o f highway crashes in

1968— a t o t a l loss o f almost $15 b i l l i o n . ^
What f u r t h e r complicates the t r a f f i c s a fe t y problem is th a t
one is not d e alin g w ith a s i t u a t i o n so divorced from o th er things th a t
i t can be solved w ith parochial e f f o r t s and understanding which has,
f o r over 60 y e a rs , c o n s t i t u t e d the t o t a l response and which has
accounted f o r almost 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 highway dead.

The problem needs to

be viewed, not as a m atte r in i s o l a t i o n from the r e s t o f human a f f a i r s ,
but as having such a close r e l a t i o n s h i p with ot h er contemporary issues
t h a t i t can be d e a l t w ith pr ope rly only in a much broader context than
has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been the case.
Consider a few i l l u s t r a t i o n s :
1.

The continuing t r a g i c and l a r g e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a lc o h o lic s
and other heavy drinkers to highway crashes, e s p e c i a l l y to
the most severe ones, must be approached in terms o f the
lo c a t io n and treatment of the a lc o h o l i c and ot h er problem
d r i n k e r s in s o c ie t y in g e n e r a l , and not e x c l u s i v e l y in
terms of t h e i r behavior on the highway, e i t h e r as d r i v e r s
or as ped estrians .

"A dministrat ion o f the National T r a f f i c and Motor Vehicle A c t , "
Message from the President o f the United S t a t e s , U.S. Government
P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, D . C ., 1969.
5
Haddon, op. c i t . , p. 3.
^ I b i d . , p. 3.

4
2.

3.

4.

The problem o f the teenagers, o f young men o f high school
and c o lle g e age who are crashing as the r e s u l t o f d rin k in g
and oth er teenage behavior must be considered in the con­
t e x t o f the o v e r a ll behavior o f the young, and not only as
a problem in r e l a t i o n to the highway.
The deaths o f c h i l d r e n playing under the wheels o f cars
r e f l e c t our f a i l u r e to plan our communities w it h s u i t a b l e ,
neighborhood play a re as, not to mention our f a i l u r e to
provide care f o r the c h ild r e n o f working and otherwise
occupied mothers who cannot pr operly supervise t h e i r
children.
The deaths o f so many o f our e l d e r l y pedestrians r e f l e c t
our f a i l u r e to provide environments f o r them which are
she ltere d in much the same way as those we need f o r our
children.
Yet he re , t o o , we seldom t h in k in urban pl a n­
ning of the i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t s over many decades of
i n t e r l a c i n g the paths o f everyday pedestrian a c t i v i t y
and those of moving t r a f f i c . ®
This broad understanding of the highway s afety problem is an

important con side ra tio n in attempting to

cope

with i t and one t h a t

should be taken i n t o account in the decision making process to more
f u l l y optimize the u t i l i z a t i o n o f a v a i l a b l e resources.
The T r a f f i c Safety System
The t r a f f i c system is organized to permit the movement o f
people and goods f o r the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a v a r i e t y of in d iv id u a l needs,
both commercial and p r i v a t e .

T r a f f i c s a f e t y is one very general
y
measure o f the e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f the t r a f f i c system.
I f one under­
stands how i n d iv id u a l cars and people perform in t h i s system, then
what happens when ther e is a breakdown can be considered next.
W i ll ia m Haddon, J r . , "The National Highway Sa fety P r og ra m --! 8
Months L a t e r , " D r iv e r Behavior, Cause and E f f e c t (Washington, D.C.:
Insurance I n s t i t u t e f o r Highway S a f e t y , March, 1 9 6 8 ), p. 14.
James 0 ‘ Day, Systems Analysis and the D r i v e r , " D r i v e r Behavior,
Cause and E f f e c t (Washington, D .C .:
Insurance I n s t i t u t e f o r Highway
S a f e t y , March, 196 8 ), p. 88.

5
The problems o f highway s a f e t y improvement are f a r more
complex than many e a r l y in v e s t i g a t o r s recognized.

This complexity

is due to a t l e a s t three major f a c t o r s :
1.

A la r g e number o f v a r ia b le s in f lu e n c in g highway
safety.

2.

A complex and, in most cases, unknown r e l a t i o n s h i p
among these v a r ia b le s and between these v a ri a b le s
in safe performance.

3.

The f a c t t h a t both these v a ria b le s and functions
vary p r o b a b i l i s t i c a l l y over time.

Because o f the complexity o f the t r a f f i c
has become important to s t r u c t u r e i t

sa fe t y problem, i t

in the context o f a system.

This system approach allows f o r breaking down the complex problem o f
t r a f f i c s a f e t y i n t o component parts which are more amenable to s c i ­
e n tific

inquiry.

In a d d i t i o n , i t also provides the basis f o r

i n v e s t i g a t i n g the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t e x i s t betwen component parts
o f the t r a f f i c

system and f o r then a l l o c a t i n g resources to meet the
g

s p e c i f i c problems i d e n t i f i e d in the system.
The problem o f highway s a fe t y div id e s l o g i c a l l y i n t o three
parts.

These parts are commonly r e f e r r e d to as the p r e - c r a s h , crash,
g
and the post-crash phases.
In the pre-crash phase, the issues are
those which determine whether or not a crash takes place.

In t h i s

phase, concern is w ith those elements o f the system which are designed
to prevent a cc id e n ts ; i . e . , design of programs f o r the drunken d r i v e r ;
designing into the highways adequate s i g n a l i n g , markings, and signing
8W illia m Hall and W illia m Carlson, Highway Saf ety P r o jec t
Evaluation Methodoloqies, Highway Safety Research I n s t i t u t e , Decem­
ber 31 , 1968, pp. 29-30.
A

Haddon, "National Highway Safe ty Program," op. c i t . , p. 3.

6
systems; and i n c lu s io n o f those measures which can be taken to i n f l u ­
ence d r i v e r behavior to circumvent the tragedy o f the next phase which
is the crash phase.
In the crash phase, the concern is with the circumstances in
the crash i t s e l f which determine whether or not any i n j u r i e s occur
and, i f so, t h e i r s e v e r i t y .

Here the success o f the v e h ic le package

in p r o t e c t in g i t s occupants is o f paramount importance.

Also important

is the success of the highway designer in providing the s a fe s t possible
highway crash design o f the road, f o r example, by insuring t h a t vehi­
cles t h a t do leave the roadway w i l l not h i t s o li d objects t h a t
d e c e l e r a t e them too a b r u p tl y to allow the surv iv al o f those involved.
In the post-crash phase, concern becomes whether or not many
w ill

l i v e or d i e .

Here the p r i n c ip a l

issues involved are the r a p i d i t y

and q u a l i t y o f the po s t- a c ciden t response, the accident d e t e c tio n and
communication systems e f f i c i e n c y , emergency t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , the
provisions of the best in f i r s t aid and medical c a r e , and the protec­
t io n o f the crash s i t e to preclude i t from causing f u r t h e r crashes.
To complete the m atrix o f arranging highway s a fe t y in some
systematic f a s h i o n , one must also look at ot h er dimensions o f the
problem.

I t is necessary to look a t the elements t h a t make up the

basic t r a f f i c

s a f e t y system.

The f i r s t of these is the VEHICLE which

is the p r o j e c t i l e which flows through the highway and s t r e e t system.
The concern with the v e h ic le is to insure t h a t measures be i n s t i t u t e d
to make the v e h i c l e safe from mechanical breakdown and a ls o crashworthy in the event t h a t i t becomes involved in a c o l l i s i o n .

7
The second basic element involved in the highway s a fe ty system
is the ENVIRONMENT on and through which the v e h ic le t r a v e l s .

In

a d d itio n t o the highway and s t r e e t network system i t s e l f , t h i s e l e ­
ment includes such ot h er things as the signs, markings, and signals
which d i r e c t the v e h i c l e in a safe manner through the system and the
maintenance f o r upkeeping the condition o f the highways.

I t is also

important in examining the environmental system t h a t crash locations
be analyzed and defects t h a t might be c o n t r ib u t in g to accidents be
c or re c te d.
The t h i r d basic element in the highway s a fe t y system and,
perhaps, the most im p or tant, is the DRIVER h im s e lf.

Here one becomes

involved d i r e c t l y w it h the m atte r of human behavior and those things
which a re i n s t i t u t e d as t r a f f i c accident counter measures to more
properly i d e n t i f y the behavior t r a i t s which are most d e s ir a b le to be
operating in the highway s a f e t y system and suppress those that are not.
Such a c t i v i t i e s as d r i v e r edu cation, d r i v e r lic e n s in g and t e s t i n g ,
pedestrian and passenger and s a fe t y education, and t r a f f i c law enforce­
ment a l l
•

c o n s t i t u t e a c t i v i t i e s which attempt to deal w ith developing

and molding human behavior.

These a c t i v i t i e s are designed to b e t t e r

prepare d r i v e r s to deal with s i t u a t i o n s t h a t they w i l l encounter while
t r a v e l i n g on the highway system.

A more d e t a i l e d development o f the

highway s a fe t y system m atrix is presented in "A Relevant Methodology
f o r Aiding Highway Safety Decision Makers in Resolving Highway Safety
Problems."^
10Noel C. Bufe, "A Relevant Methodology f o r Aiding Highway
Safety Decision Makers in Resolving Highway S a f e ty Problems," M.S.
t h e s i s , Michigan S tate U n i v e r s i t y , 1971.

8
A n a ly t i c a l t o o ls pre se ntly a t hand f o r r esolv ing highway
s a f e t y problems in the area o f the v e h ic l e and environment are adequate
to p r o t e c t highway t r a f f i c s a f e t y a d m in is tra to rs from any ge n era lly
bad and expensive ventures because they are dea ling with r e l a t i v e l y
s t ab le physical f a c t o r s in these highway s a fe ty sub-systems.

When

human beings, the d r i v e r s and pe d e str ia ns , are in v o lve d, the s i t u ­
a t io n is not n ea rly so c l e a r . ^

The i n t e r f a c e w ith humans in the

highway t r a f f i c system is complex and requires more than physical
engineering solutio ns alone can o f f e r .
The t r a f f i c s a f e t y system is complex and the technology
scarce t h a t d e li n e a t e s how a l l
w i t h i n the p o li c e t r a f f i c

the component parts i n t e r r e l a t e .

services fu n ct io n al

Even

sub-system, a v a i l a b l e

information in d ica te s a lack o f conclusive evidence t h a t supports the
r e l a t i o n s h i p betwen p o lic e t r a f f i c services and, more s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
the e f f e c t s o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement on the t r a f f i c crash problem.
The l i t e r a t u r e points to only one q u a n t i t a t i v e research study, "Opera­
tio n 101, An Accident and Enforcement Study," t h a t shows a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t reduction o f accidents where s u f f i c i e n t control o f those
f a c t o r s t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y in flu e n c e the occurrence o f an accident was
present.
tra ffic

12

Figure 1 i l l u s t r a t e s well the com plexities o f the police

services fu n ctio n which includes s e l e c t i v e enforcement

( s e l e c t i v e l o c a t i o n p a t r o l ) as j u s t one component p a r t .

The unequivo­

cal demonstration o f causal connections between s e l e c t i v e enforcement
^ O ' D a y , op. c i t . , p. 92.
17

Edward F. Fennessy, J r . , e t a l . , The Technical Content o f
State and Community Police T r a f f i c Services Programs ( H a r t f o r d , Conn.:
T r a v ele rs Research Center, Inc. , September, 19 68 ), p. x v i i i .

9

T r a f f i c Control and D i r e c t i o n
a.
b.
c.
d.

e.
f.
gh.

i .

5.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

I n t e r s e c t i o n control
Parking con trol
Pedestrian control
T r a f f i c management
Public contact
Escort
Event control
Hazard control
Temporary device control

g*
h.
i .
j *
k.
1.

Accident Management
a.
b.

c.
d.
e.
f.
9-

I n i t i a l investigation
Follow-up
T r a f f i c control
I n j u r y control
Enforcement
Records/reports
Noti f i c a t i o n

m.
n.
0 .
6.

Line patrol
Area patrol
S e l e c t i v e lo c a t i o n patr ol
R e c o r d s /lo g is t ic s
Maintenance

A n c i l l a r y Services
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
gh.

Giving information
Aiding disabled motorists
Emergency services
Hazard removal
Inspection
Auto t h e f t control
Abandoned car control
Missing property control

7.

Administration
Planning/budgeting
O f f i c e management
Personnel management
Research/analysis
Public information
Trainin g
Communication
Transp ortation
Records/identification
Facilities
Property control
Supply equipment
Laboratory
Other t ech nic al

Interaction
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Law Enforcement
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Support

Court du tie s
Serving notices
Criminal control
Detention a c t i v i t i e s
Trans p orta tio n

Regulatory A c t i v i t i e s
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

D r i v e r 1icensing
Veh icle r e g i s t r a t i o n
Vehicle inspection
Weight control
C a r r i e r r e g u l a t io n
Commercial r e g u la t io n

Figure 1 . — P o li ce T r a f f i c Functions and Subfunctions.

10
p r a c tic e s and a measured change in the accident experience continues
to be o f c r i t i c a l

importance to the p o li c e a d m i n i s t r a t o r .

The basic d i f f i c u l t y is t h a t any s p e c i a l l y designed p o li c e
op e ra tio n al t a c t i c cannot be app lied in i s o l a t i o n .

Rather, the

p r a c t i c e is u s u a lly operated c oin c iden t w ith oth er events and a c t i v i ­
t i e s known, or b e l i e v e d , to be c o r r e l a t e d w ith acciden t experience
such as t r a f f i c volume, weather c o n d it i o n s , roadway c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
and a host o f o th er c o n d itio n s .
The Problem
S p e c i f i c Statement o f the Problem
The purpose o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n is to demonstrate and
e v a l u a t e , in an o p e ra tio n a l environment and under c o n t r o l l e d condi­
t i o n s , the e f f i c i e n c y and e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f a sustained p r o j e c t applying
the p r i n c i p l e s o f s e l e c t i v e t r a f f i c
of fatal

t r a f f i c crashes.

law enforcement to the reduction

The basic question to be resolved is

whether or not s e l e c t i v e l y app lied p o lic e resources have a s i g n i f i c a n t
impact on the reduction o f the t r a f f i c f a t a l i t y crash problem.
Theory o f Study
Although the re is no conclusive evidence, t he re is f a i r l y
general agreement t h a t a reduction in aberrant or unsafe d r iv in g
behavior w i l l

r e s u l t in a reduction in t r a f f i c accidents and t h a t

enforcement o f t r a f f i c
in unsafe d r i v i n g . ^ 3

laws and codes does r e s u l t in some de c lin e
Many p o li c e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , f o r example, contend

3James E. Wilson, " S e l e c t i v e T r a f f i c Enforcement Program
(STEP)," U.S. Department o f T r a n s p o r t a t io n , National Highway T r a f f i c
Saf ety A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Washington, D . C . , February 18, 1971, p. 2.

11
t h a t increased or improved enforcement measures w i l l mean fewer
a c c id e n ts , based on the premise t h a t many accidents are caused by
d r i v e r s who do not obey t r a f f i c laws and codes.

The presence o f

p o l ic e or o th er methods o f s u r v e i l la n c e should t h e r e f o r e d e te c t
those who through choice or low c a p a b i l i t y do not obey t r a f f i c
so t h a t remedial ac ti o n can be taken.

laws

However, such g e n e r a l i z a t io n s

are based more on expert judgment than on empirical evidence.
A d d itio n a l empirical

inform ation is requir ed to a id in

solvin g decision problems such as the proper amount and a l l o c a t i o n
o f resources which should be devoted to enforcement a c t i v i t y .

14

For

example, although data obtained from p o lic e records i n d i c a t e t h a t
v i o l a t i o n s were i n f e r r e d in 92% o f the acciden t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s reported
by them, i t

is not known w i th any c e r t a i n t y the extent to which e n v i­

ronmental conditions and c on tr ols imposed by man c o n t r i b u t e to
ab erra n t d r i v e r behavior, nor the degree of i n t e r p l a y among these
f a c t o r s in generating s p e c i f i c types o f accidents.

Concomitantly,

there is not s u f f i c i e n t information on what e f f e c t s s p e c i f i c amounts
and types o f enforcement a c t i v i t y have on s p e c i f i c types of good and
bad d r i v i n g behavior.
Despite t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y , s t a t e and local governments are
in v e s tin g huge amounts o f money in t r a f f i c law enforcement.

Sub­

s t a n t i a l f e d e r a l funds are being spent through the National Highway
T r a f f i c Safe ty A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 's S t a t e and Community Highway Saf ety
Programs.

This vast sum o f resources is a l l o c a t e d among competing

12

enforcement a c t i v i t i e s without the b e n e f i t o f sound information on
a n t i c i p a t e d e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f these expenditures.

15

F u l l y c o n t r o l l e d demonstrations based on a sound a n a l y t i c a l
framework w ith r e l i a b l e and meaningful data are required before
progress can be made on methods and s t r a t e g i e s f o r a l l o c a t i n g t r a f f i c
enforcement resources in an optimal manner.
Importance o f the Study
The purpose in focusing on the p o lic e t r a f f i c services
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f the p o lic e a d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s du tie s is to bring
emphasis to t h i s much neglected m a t t e r .

A review of the f a c t s

q u ick ly re v ea ls the g re at losses suffered by soc iety as a r e s u l t of
t r a f f i c accidents* y e t in discussions with many p o lic e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,
and with p o l ic e a d m in is t r a t io n academicians as w e l l , ther e seems to
be a tendency to consider t h i s problem w ith very l i t t l e
is the w r i t e r ' s p o s itio n t h a t a p o li c e o f f i c i a l

regard.

It

is charged with

p r o t e c t io n o f l i f e , regardless o f the means by which hurt is i n f l i c t e d ,
be i t an automobile or a weapon o f some oth er v a r i e t y .
toward t r a f f i c
investigation.

This apathy

prompted the w r i t e r ' s i n t e r e s t in p u r s u it o f t h i s
It

is intended t h a t the arguments w i l l be stronger

upon the conclusion o f t h i s e f f o r t to influe nce these important
o f f i c i a l s to modify t h e i r a t t i t u d e s about t h e i r responses to the
t r a f f i c accident problem.
The p o lic e a d m i n i s t r a t o r should also a p p r e c i a t e , from an
examination o f the t r a f f i c s a f e t y problem, t h a t i t does encompass the

13
involvement of many other resources o f the community and, a d d i t i o n a l l y ,
t h a t accidents are very o fte n caused by matters over which the admin­
i s t r a t o r has no d i r e c t c o n t r o l .

The T r a f f i c S a fe ty System section

presented e a r l i e r in t h i s chapter i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s point c l e a r l y .
This f a c t is important, and again t h i s is the primary purpose o f
this investigation:

to analyze an important p o li c e operational t a c t i c

believed to have high p o t e n t ia l f o r accident red uc tion .

Too f r e q u e n t ly

p o lic e a d m i n is t ra t o r s assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r control over matters
f o r which the ad m in is tra to r s should not be held accountable in t o t a l .
When t h i s occurs ot h er more p o l i c e - o r i e n t e d missions w i l l
addressed.

not be

Oftentimes t h i s turns out to be the p o lic e t r a f f i c mission

and, in p a r t i c u l a r , the a p p l i c a t i o n of s e l e c t i v e enforcement p r a c t ic e s .
The p o lic e a d m i n i s t r a t o r has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been charged with
a very wide range o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s dealing p r i m a r i l y w ith problems
o f human behavior and most o fte n with those who d e v ia t e from norms
e sta blishe d by the s o c ie t y in which the a d m in is t r a t o r serves.

In

the pa s t, p o lic e a d m in is tra to r s have given p r i o r i t y to those responsi­
b i l i t i e s r e l a t e d to crime.

His r o l e in c o n t r o l l i n g the community's

t r a f f i c accident s i t u a t i o n has been given considerable less a t t e n t i o n
or emphasis.

Until

the p o li c e a d m in is t ra t o r s are shown s c i e n t i f i c a l l y

the b e n e f i t o f applying p o li c e resources to the t r a f f i c problem, i t
can be expected t h a t public pressure w i l l

continue to influe nce them

to give p r i o r i t y a t t e n t i o n to problems drawing g r e a t e r l i m e l i g h t .
In s p i t e of the h i s t o r i c a l la c k o f evidence to support s c i e n t i f i c a l l y
the e f f e c t s o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement in the reduction o f t r a f f i c
fa ta litie s ,

the w r i t e r is of the b e l i e f t h a t a pr op erly executed

14
s e l e c t i v e enforcement program can have an immediate and s i g n i f i c a n t
impact on the t r a f f i c f a t a l i t y problem.
that t r a f f i c

is b e lie v e d

s a f e t y r e q u ir e s the combined s erv ic e s o f many community

agencies to s u s t a in a successful
duration.

Further, i t

It

tra ffic

s a f e t y program over the long

is importan t to be in a p o s i t i o n to i d e n t i f y the e f f e c t s

o f the several

tra ffic

accid en t countermeasures and a n a ly ze t h e i r

va rio us c o n t r i b u t i o n s toward the r e s o l u t i o n o f the t r a f f i c crash
problem in both the immediate and long range f u t u r e and then arrange
to apply them a c c o r d in g l y .

H o p e f u l l y , t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the

s e l e c t i v e enforcement countermeasures w i l l

add some l i m i t e d technology

to promote t h i s general o b j e c t i v e .
Scope o f Study
The independent v a r i a b l e of s e l e c t i v e enforcement was a pp li ed
e x p e r i m e n t a l l y in r u r a l

areas o f six counties in the s t a t e o f Michigan.

The d u ra t i o n o f the experiment was f i v e months— August, 1972, through
December, 1972.

Experimental counties f o r the study were B e r r i e n ,

T u sc o la, St. C l a i r , H i l l s d a l e , Cass, and Eaton.

Other commonly known

t r a f f i c a c c id e n t countermeasures, i . e . , d r i v e r e du c a ti o n , t r a f f i c
engineering s e r v i c e , p e d e str ia n s a f e t y , e t c . , w h il e pre sent in various
degrees, were not introduced as component f e a t u r e s o f t h i s study.
Study Design
Experimental c ou ntie s were c a r e f u l l y s e lec te d to r e p re s e n t
areas o f the s t a t e where the r u r a l

tra ffic fa ta lity

problem was acute

and where necessary supporting s e r v ic e s could be secured.

Control

counties were s e le c te d t h a t c l o s e l y resembled c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the

15
experimental cou nties.

Accident experience was analyzed during the

period o f the experiment in both the control and experimental counties
to observe i f the independent v a r i a b l e caused a s i g n i f i c a n t change
in accident experience in the experimental cou ntie s.

Pre- and post-

experimental ana lysis was a ls o completed f o r both groups o f counties
as an a d d it io n a l con trol measure.
applied on weekends o n ly .

The independent v a r i a b l e was

This o f f e re d an a d d i ti o n a l control of

observing accident experience in the experimental counties while
under treatment and w hile not.
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
S e l e c t i v e enforcement:

Enforcement measures proportional to

the t r a f f i c accident experience, w ith respect to t im e , pl ac e, and
type o f v i o l a t i o n .
Enforcement in d e x :

Convictions with penalty paid f o r hazardous

t r a f f i c law v i o l a t i o n s per motor v e h ic le t r a f f i c accident r e s u l t i n g in
i n j u r y or death.
Casualty a c c i d e n t :

Any accident which r e s u l t s in a death or

i n j u r y to a person.
Personal i n j u r y :

Any bo dily harm received by any person in

a motor v e h ic le t r a f f i c ac ciden t.
P o lic e t r a f f i c s e r v i c e s :

(Synonymous with p o li c e t r a f f i c

supervision.)
P o lic e t r a f f i c

s u p e r v is io n :

Keeping order on s t r e e t s and

highways w it h i n e x i s t i n g r e g u l a t i o n s , to make t h e i r use safe and
ex p ed iti o u s .

T r a f f i c supervision is e s s e n t i a l l y the t r a f f i c work o f

16
p o lic e agencies.

I t has three main d i r e c t functions which req u ir e

p o lic e powers:
1.
2.
3.

Police t r a f f i c
Police t r a f f i c
Police t r a f f i c

accident i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
direction.
law enforcement.

C i t a t i o n or a r r e s t r a t e :

Drive rs c i t e d or a rre ste d f o r a

t r a f f i c off ense per 100 cases known.
Fatal a c c i d e n t :

Any motor v e h ic le or other road v e h i c l e

acciden t t h a t r e s u lt s in f a t a l
F a ta lity :
Fa t a l

i n j u r i e s to one or more persons.

(Synonymous w ith f a t a l

inju ry:

in ju ry.)

Any i n j u r y t h a t r e s u l t s in death w i t h i n twelve

months o f the motor v e h i c l e t r a f f i c ac c id e n t.
Hazardous t r a f f i c

law v i o l a t i o n s :

V i o l a t i o n s o f any law,

ordinance, or r e g u la t i o n a f f e c t i n g the use or p r o te c tio n o f s t r e e t s
or highways enacted p r i m a r i l y to r e g u la t e safe movement o f vehicle s
and pedestr ians.

There are two general kinds o f these:

1.

Unsafe behavior -- A n a c ti o n or omission in t r a f f i c
which is hazardous even when v e h i c l e s , s t r e e t s or
highways, and people involved are in legal c o n d i t i o n .

2.

Unsafe c o n d i t i o n - -Causing or p e r m it t in g an i l l e g a l
and possibly hazardous condition of:
a.
b.
c.

A d r i v e r or pedestrian in t r a f f i c .
Streets or highways used by t r a f f i c .
Vehicle used in t r a f f i c .

Other t r a f f i c

law v i o l a t i o n s :

V i o l a t i o n o f any law, o r d i ­

nance, or r e g u l a t i o n a f f e c t i n g the use of p r o t e c t io n o f s t r e e t s or
highways but not enacted p r i m a r i l y to r e g u la t e safe movement of
v ehicle s and pedestrians.
I n j u r y s e v e r i t y of a c c i d e n t :

The most severe i n j u r y to any

person in the acciden t according to the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s e v e r i t y of

17
motor v e h ic le t r a f f i c acciden t i n j u r i e s .

A p p li c a tio n o f t h i s c l a s s i ­

f i c a t i o n gives the f o ll o w in g categories o f accident s e v e r i t y :
a.
b.
c.

In c a p a c it a t in g i n j u r y a cc ident.
Nonincapacitating eviden t i n j u r y accident.
Possible i n j u r y accident.

T r a f f i c accident countermeasure:

Any e f f o r t to remedy the

t r a f f i c crash problem.
T r a f f i c s a f e t y sytem:

The supporting services which provide

f o r the safe movement o f goods and people on our highways.
Motor v e h i c l e t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t :

Any motor v e h ic le accident

t h a t occurs on a t r a f f i c w a y or t h a t occurs a f t e r the motor v e h ic le
runs o f f roadway but before events are e s ta b li s h e d .
T r a f fic crash:

(Synonymous w ith motor v e h ic le t r a f f i c

accident.)
D i s s e r t a t i o n Overview
I s o l a t i n g the problem to be in v e s t ig a t e d in a system as
complex as t r a f f i c s a f e t y is v i t a l l y important p r i o r to design o f a
methodology to observe the e f f e c t o f change introduced to the e x i s t ­
ing system.

In Chapter I ,

the s t r u c t u r e o f the problem to be

in v e s t ig a t e d has been i d e n t i f i e d , as has i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to the
t r a f f i c s a f e t y system as a whole.

In Chapter I I ,

pertinent l i t e r a ­

tu r e is reviewed dea ling s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith t h a t aspect o f the p o li ce
a c t i v i t y which bears on the c a u s e / e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p between p o lic e
enforcement and accident r ed uction .

This review w i l l be supported

w ith em p iric al experience t h a t has not been f o r m a lly documented, y e t
o f f e r s considerable in c e n tiv e to pursue the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the
study hypothesis.

18
Chapter I I I deals with the methodology used in conducting the
experiment.

Design consider ations are explained along w ith the

s t r a t e g i e s t h a t describe e x a c t l y what was done during the course of
the experiment.
In Chapter I V , the data t h a t were c o l l e c t e d are presented,
along with the f in d in g s produced by the an alysis o f the in form a tion .
The experimental hypothesis is considered in terms o f acceptance or
rejection.

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the f in din gs is also addressed.

The concluding chapter is designed to c o l l a t e the summaries
o f the i n v e s t i g a t i o n , discuss the im p lic a tio n s of the r e s u lt s from
the theory proposed, and to suggest an ap p ro p r ia te course o f f u t u r e
research endeavors on t h i s important subject m a t t e r.

CHAPTER I I
LITERATURE REVIEW
Po lice T r a f f i c Services L i t e r a t u r e
I t cannot be said w ith any t r u t h t h a t p o l i c e t r a f f i c functions
are i l l - u n d e r s t o o d because they have not been w r i t t e n about.

Quite

the c o n t r a r y — even a cursory look a t the holdings o f any moderatesized l i b r a r y w i l l

turn up hundreds o f books, r e p o r t s , and a r t i c l e s

t r e a t i n g some aspect o f p o lic e t r a f f i c s e rv ic e s .

The rea l problem,

however, is in t r y i n g to make some composite sense out o f the myriad
o f forms and lo c a tio n s in which these i n d i v id u a l

b i t s of l i t e r a t u r e

or information e x i s t and, more p a r t i c u l a r l y , to i d e n t i f y those aspects
o f the p o lic e t r a f f i c services fu n ctio n t h a t have a d i r e c t immediate
in flu e n c e on the t r a f f i c crash problem.
Over 300 in d iv id u a l l i t e r a t u r e c i t a t i o n s were reviewed during
the course o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

A fte r elim inating duplicates,

e a r l i e r e d i t i o n s o f the same book, speeches, p e r i o d i c a ls o f less than
f i v e pages, and c i t a t i o n s which contained t r a f f i c operations informa­
t io n as a very subordinate t o p i c , 136 references were i d e n t i f i e d as
p o t e n t ia l

resources t h a t might have relevance to t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

This global l i t e r a t u r e approach was undertaken to lessen the l i k e l i h o o d
of overlooking any possible support f o r the study hypothesis.

Presented

in Table 1 is a t a b u l a t i o n t h a t shows how many o f those c i t a t i o n s were
concerned w ith each o f an abbreviated l i s t o f p o lic e t r a f f i c f u n c t io n s .

19

20
TABLE 1 . --General C h a r a c t e r iz a t io n o f Police T r a f f i c Services
Li t e r a t u r e .
Function
General t r a f f i c

P u blication s

functions

22

T r a f f i c d i r e c t i o n and control

6

T r a f f i c Law Enforcement
Policy considerations
A l c o h o l - r e l a t e d operations
V i o l a t i o n d etec ti o n
Enforcement e f f e c t iv e n e s s
S e l e c t i v e enforcement (STEP)

10
28
14
6
6

Accident scene management
Accident causation
In v e s t i g a t i o n

17
12

Support functions
Records
T r a in in g
Admini s t r a t i on

3
0
0

Service functions
Public information
M o t o r i s t aid

0
0

Cooperative functions
Saf ety education
T r a f f i c engineering
D r iv e r examination and improvement
V eh ic le inspection
Ad judication

0
6
0
2
4
136

Total

I t can be concluded from Table 1 t h a t the l i t e r a t u r e coverage
o f the p o li c e t r a f f i c

services function i s s p o tt y .

Some f u n c t i o n s ,

f o r example, alcohol r e l a t e d enforcement, are covered in many primary
publications.

S e l e c t i v e enforcement r e l a t e d subjects are t r e a t e d in

considerable d e t a i l , however, in a conceptual con te x t.

Conversely,

21
many ot h er important t r a f f i c functions are not covered as primary
l i t e r a t u r e subje cts.

Thus, users have to glean b i t s and pieces from

various sources r e l a t i v e to t h e i r r o le s in t r a f f i c s a f e t y .
because i t

is not c l e a r l y understood, a l l

F u rt h e r ,

fu n ctio n al aspects of

p o li c e t r a f f i c services have to be studied in order to i d e n t i f y ,

if

po s s ib le , those a c t i v i t i e s which r e l a t e d i r e c t l y or not to the sub­
j e c t of th is in vestigation .
During the course o f the revie w, i t was i n t e r e s t i n g to note
t h a t much o f the l i t e r a t u r e is w r i t t e n by researchers, app are ntly f o r
other resea rcher s.

Two such rep orts came from the Indiana I n s t i t u t e

f o r Research in Public S a fe ty .

Both o f these r e p o r t s eries d e a l t in

a s c h o l a r l y , complete way w i th p o lic e fu n c t i o n s .

One, by Joscelyn,

was a m ag nif ic ent t r e a t i s e on the d r in k in g d r i v e r problem, but t r a n s ­
l a t i n g the concepts and approaches proposed to operations is d i f f i c u l t
f o r a layman to understand.

1 fi

S i m i l a r l y , the Indiana r e p o r t on auto­

mated deployment of t r a f f i c p o lic e by Jones is f a s c i n a t i n g , but only
p a r t i a l l y useful to some operations and then only a f t e r much d e l i b e ra t e t r a n s l a t i o n to operation al

language.

17

^ K . b . Joscelyn and R. K. Jones, "A Systems Approach to the
Analysis o f the Drinking D r i v e r Control System," Indiana U n iv e r s i t y
I n s t i t u t e f o r Research in Public S a f e t y , Bloomington, In d ia n a ,
c on sis ti n g o f v o l . I , 117 pp.; v o l . I I , 92 pp.; and v o l . I l l , 98 pp.
^ R . K. Jones and K. 8. Joscelyn, "Computerized A ll o c a t i o n of
Po lice T r a f f i c Services: A Demonstration Study," Indiana U n iv e r s i t y
I n s t i t u t e f o r Research in Public S a f e t y , Bloomington, In d i a n a , 1972,
146 pp. A ls o , r e f . v o l . I , computer-sensor system d e s c r i p t i o n ,
212 pp.; and r e f . v o l . I I , accident data handbook, 240 pp.

22
Another p e r s i s t e n t d e f i c i e n c y noted in the general l i t e r a t u r e
rev ie w was the very d e l i b e r a t e l i m i t a t i o n s in i n d i v i d u a l

reports.

Most o f the r ep o r ts t r e a t e d o n ly one or a few o f the many i n t e r a c t i n g
f u n ct io n s t h a t p o l i c e op era tion s must perform, l e a v i n g t o the rea der
the jo b o f b u i l d i n g c o n t i n u i t y between the s e p a r a t e l y described
functions.

For example, several

r ep o r t s d e t a i l e d a c c id e n t i n v e s t i g a ­

t i o n f u n c t i o n s , others discussed record f u n c t i o n s , and several
described v i o l a t i o n d e t e c t i o n f u n c t i o n s , but few r ep o r t s t a lk e d to
the a r t o f s t r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r those fu n ction s f o r smooth sequences
o f m u tu a lly supporting o p e r a t io n s .

Much o f t h a t problem would be

e l i m i n a t e d i f some taxonomy o f p o l i c e f u n c t i o n s , w i th f u n c t io n i n t e r ­
a cti o ns d e sc r ib e d , were provided and a p p r o p r ia t e documentation to
support how such i n t e r a c t i o n can be p r e d ic t e d s c i e n t i f i c a l l y .
r ep o r ts provided beginnings f o r such a f u n c t i o n a l

Some

taxonomy, but are

c u r r e n t l y r a t h e r bare skeletons ( I A C P / 1 9 6 9 ; ^ Fennessey/19 6 8 ^ ) .
Much a d d i t i o n a l work is needed to b u i l d t h a t o p e r a t i o n a l

taxonomy, one

use o f which could be to provide a framework on which to hang the
c u r r e n t and f u t u r e l i t e r a t u r e fragments.
The l i t e r a t u r e research on the s u b je c t o f p o l i c e t r a f f i c
s erv ic e s in t h i s broad con text produced no s u b s ta n tiv e documentation
f o r support o f the study hy p othes is, but did provide e x te n s i v e con­
cept ual guidance and support f o r the p r o p o s it io n o f the p o t e n t i a l
1R

P o li c e T r a f f i c R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , Manpower Requirements and
A n o c a t i o n s - - D i s t r i b u t i o n (Washington, D .C .:
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Associa t i o n o f Chiefs o f P o l i c e , 19 6 9).
^ F e n n e s s e y , op. c i t .

23
b e n e f i t t h a t could be expected from the proper a l l o c a t i o n and deploy­
ment o f p o lic e t r a f f i c

resources.

Information Secured From Operational Records
Conclusions r e l a t i v e to the fragmentary, incomplete nature of
the l i t e r a t u r e r e l e v a n t to the study hypothesis r e f e r to the published
lite ra tu re .

A compounding f r u s t r a t i o n is t h a t the actual s t a t e o f

the a r t o f p o lic e t r a f f i c services is j u s t not covered by t h a t
literatu re.

An enormous volume o f d e t a i l e d information on innovative

techniques and a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s u l t s resides in the f i l e s o f s t a t e
and lo c a l government agencies throughout the nation which have operated
p o li c e programs under g r a n t - i n - a i d provisions o f Section 402 of the
Highway Safety Act o f 1966.

That "buried" l i t e r a t u r e , w h ile extremely

p e r t i n e n t and c u r r e n t , is not a v a i l a b l e to l i b r a r i e s and w i l l not be
digested and made a v a i l a b l e f o r general d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r some time.
This i s an important f a c t o r to recognize, f o r i t is theorized t h a t
t h i s "buried" l i t e r a t u r e probably has s i g n i f i c a n t r e l e v a n t information
on the s p e c i f i c subject being i n v e s t i g a t e d .

For example, in Michigan,

seventeen s e l e c t i v e enforcement projects have been implemented
through the O f f i c e o f Highway Saf ety Planning, Department o f State
P o l i c e , in various lo c a l communities resembling c lo s e l y the design of
the p r o j e c t described in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .
all

20

These pr ojects were

associated w ith the expansion o f e x i s t i n g manpower resources to

form s e l e c t i v e enforcement u n its to be deployed f o r t r a f f i c purposes o n l y .
20

"S e le c t iv e Enforcement P r o j e c t Summary Report," O f f i c e of
Highway Safety Planning, Michigan Department o f Sta te P o l i c e , Lansing,
Michigan, no d a t e , p. 1.

24
The governmental u n it s t h a t conducted these pr oje cts are as
follow s:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Clin ton Township Po lice Department
Dearborn Heights Po lice Department
East D e t r o i t P o li c e Department
Farmington P o lic e Department
Farmington Township Police Department
F l i n t Po lic e Department
Fraser P o lice Department
Genesee Township P o lic e Department
Holland P o lice Department
Kalamazoo P o lic e Department
Kalamazoo Township P o lice Department
Royal Oak P o lic e Department
S o u t h f ie ld Police Department
S t e r l i n g Heights Po lice Department
Ta ylo r P o lic e Department
Waterford Township P o lic e Department
Westland Po lice Department

The primary purpose o f these e f f o r t s was to develop and
implement a s e l e c t i v e enforcement program in each community which
would produce a reduction o f t r a f f i c crashes in each o f the j u r i s ­
dictions.

For the most p a r t , as the f o llo w i n g data i n d i c a t e s , t h i s

goal was accomplished.

In several a re a s , the r e s u l t s achieved were

immediate and dramatic.
The o v e r a l l

impact o f e f f e c t o f these s e l e c t i v e enforcement

a c t i v i t i e s during the period 1969-1971, looking a t 13 pro je c ts where
comparable pr e -tr eatm en t data were a v a i l a b l e and where an app ro pria te
time frame e x i s t e d , suggested a t o t a l o f 71 fewer deaths during the
period 1969-1971 based on p r o je c t io n s from e a r l i e r y e a rs .
tio n a lly ,

in these same 13 p r o j e c t s , there was an o v e r a l l

in i n j u r y type crashes and property damage c o l l i s i o n s .
are presented to i l l u s t r a t e these successful p r o j e c t s .
21 I b i d . , p. 2.

21

Addi­
reduction
A few examples

25
In Dearborn He ights, the s e l e c t i v e enforcement u n i t , even
though in operation f o r only s i x months o f 1971, was associated with
a dramatic decrease in personal

i n j u r y accide nts.

Personal i n j u r y

accidents dropped from 1 ,023 to 759 even though the s e l e c t i v e
enforcement program had been in e f f e c t f o r only six months.

22

(See

Table 2 . )
In East D e t r o i t the experience showed the p r o j e c t c o r re la t e d
w ith a continuing decrease in the t o t a l number o f t r a f f i c accidents
and in the number o f i n j u r y accidents since the implementation of
the s e l e c t i v e enforcement p r o j e c t .
1,485 to 1,189 and personal

23

Total accidents dropped from

i n j u r y accidents

dropped from 501

to 381.

The data are presented in Table 3.
In comparing the f i r s t twelve months

o f operation o f the

c i t y o f Farmington p r o je c t (September 1, 1969, through August

1, 1970)

w ith the twelve months p r i o r , the enforcement index was raised from
16 to 28.

The a r r e s t r a t e a t accidents was raised from 34% to 48%.

A reduction o f 53% in personal

i n j u r y accidents and an 11% reduction

in t o t a l accidents were experienced.
i n j u r i e s was reduced 21%.

The s e v e r i t y r a t e f o r type "A"

Drunk d r i v i n g enforcement was raised

57.5% during the f i r s t twelve months of op era tio n .

24

The S e le c t i v e Enforcement U n it o f the F l i n t Po lice Department
began f i e l d operations on November 2 3 , 1969.

F a t a l i t i e s were reduced

by 57% j u s t one year a f t e r the i n i t i a t i o n o f the s e l e c t i v e enforcement
program, and t o t a l acciden t experience in the c i t y was reduced by
22I b i d . , p. 4.

2 3 I b i d . , p. 5.

26

TABLE 2 . --Dearborn Heights T r a f f i c Crash Data.
Year

F atalities

1968

14

1969
1970
1971*

PI

PD

Total

H.M.V.

930

1 ,331

2,275

6,404

2

950

1 ,449

2,401

6,476

8

1 ,023

1 ,514

2,545

6,621

11

759

1 ,669

2,439

9,899

* S e l e c t i v e enforcement u n i t had been in operation f o r less than
six months in the l a t t e r p a r t o f 1971.
KEY:

P I- -P e rs o n a l i n j u r y accidents.
PD--Property damage accide nts.
H . M .V . — Hazardous moving v i o l a t i o n s ( c i t a t i o n s )

TABLE 3 . - - E a s t D e t r o i t T r a f f i c Crash Data •
Year

Fatalities

PI

PD

In ju re d

Total

H.M.V.

1969

4

501

980

817

1 ,485

6,378

1970

1

467

976

699

1,444

7,561

1971

4

381

804

570

1 ,189

7,774

KEY:

P I — Personal i n j u r y ac cidents.
PD— Property damage accidents.
H.M.V. --Hazardous moving v i o l a t i o n s

(c ita tio n s )

27
approximately 22%.

I t was also noted t h a t a reduction o f crime occurred

in the areas p a t r o l l e d f o r de tec ti n g t r a f f i c v i o l a t o r s .

In F I i n t , t h i s

impact occurred w it h i n only one year a f t e r implementation and speaks to
the immediate payoff p o t e n t i a l of properly executed s e l e c t i v e enforcement programs.

25

This p r o j e c t has been c i t e d f o r i t s success by the

National Saf ety Countil , Michigan Association o f Chiefs o f P o lic e ,
and the U.S. Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
A s i m i l a r s tory can be t o l d f o r each o f the 13 communities.
Even though these experiences are considered success stores in the
eyes o f the p r a c t i t i o n e r ,

i t must be r e a l i z e d t h a t they represent

op eration al e f f o r t s , not designed, c o n t r o l l e d experiments.

Nonethe­

le s s , the e f f o r t s did o f f e r Michigan's law enforcement community and
highway s a f e t y program planners some suggestive s t r a t e g i e s f o r study
and an alysis and also encouragement f o r applying the s e l e c t i v e
enforcement technique in a r u r a l environment, a primary focus o f t h i s
investigation.
The experience in these communities, in f a c t , led to the
development of the p r o j e c t which is the subject o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a ­
tion.

The design e f f o r t s in t h i s study were constructed to e l i m i n a t e ,

to the maximum e xte n t p o s s ib le , the shortcoming t h a t the e a r l i e r 17
products had in terms o f providing more information f o r measurement
purposes.

This demonstration program e v e n t u a lly led to a national

program implementation by the National Highway T r a f f i c Safe ty Admin­
i s t r a t i o n in which each s t a t e was o f f e r e d the op po rtunity to implement
2 5 I b i d . , p. 7.

28
a s i m i l a r s e l e c t i v e enforcement program, commonly r e f e r r e d to as
FARE (Fa ta l Accident Reduction Enforcement).
I t is understood t h a t many o f these pro je c ts have been suc­
cessful b u t , o f course, are not a v a i l a b l e a t t h i s time in the
lite ra tu re .

There are a v a i l a b l e , however, a number of research

items r e l a t e d to the subject of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n which must not
go unnoticed.
Research L i t e r a t u r e on S e l e c t i v e Enforcement
In a s i g n i f i c a n t study done on various highway s a f e t y counter ­
measures in 1966, i t was concluded:

"At pre sent, ther e is no f ir m

evidence to i n d i c a t e the degree to which enforcement con tr ib u te s to
t r a f f i c accident pre v e n tio n ."

26

In 1968, another very important study concluded:
. . . t h a t there are some, sometimes very s tro ng, i n d i c a tio n s
in the studies examined t h a t po lice t r a f f i c law enforcement
a c t i v i t i e s can reduce t r a f f i c accide nts.
However, there is
no adequate q u a n t i t a t i v e and o b j e c t i v e evidence c u r r e n t l y
a v a i l a b l e t h a t would enable us to recommend any "optimal" or
"d es irable " l e v e l s of t r a f f i c law enforcement. . .
A more recent study conducted by researchers involved in the
1968 study c i t e d above concluded:
. . . t h a t to e v a l u t a t e the f u l l e f f e c t of t r a f f i c law
enforcement req uire s very sop histica te d design and a n a ly s is .
None o f the studies reviewed did attempt to measure more
^ A r t h u r D. L i t t l e , I n c . , The Sta te of the A r t o f T r a f f i c
Safety (New York: Praeger Pu bli sh e rs , 1966), p. 251.
^F e nn es sy , op. c i t . , x v i i i .

29
than a gross r e l a t i o n s h i p between increased p o l ic e a c t i v i t i e s
and ac c id e n ts , and t h e i r designs were inadequate to convinc­
i n g l y demonstrate any e f f e c t .
The consistency o f the
apparent e f f e c t s , however, suggested the existen ce o f rea l
e f f e c t s .28
One o f the b e t t e r known studies on the subject o f s e l e c t i v e
enforcement is based on a p r o j e c t e n t i t l e d "Operation 101 , An Accident
and Enforcement Study."

This study was conducted in C a l i f o r n i a in

1964 to determine whether s e l e c t i v e and concentrated enforcement would
r e s u l t in accident r ed uction .

Although some o f the fin d in g s have

been disp u te d , the study did show a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t decrease
in i n j u r y accidents (20%) and a decrease in f a t a l and t o t a l a c c i dents.

29

In another phase r e p o r t o f "Operation 101," i t was learned

that " . . .

the three enforcement a c t i o n s — a r r e s t s , verbal warnings,

and mechanical warnings--and the o f f i c e r ' s presence, as measured by
i n - v ie w hours and t o t a l

stops, were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to a c c i­

d e n t s . " 30
"Operation 101" also produced the f a c t t h a t a major c o n t r i b u t o r
to acciden t frequency i s r a i n f a l l .

I t was implied from t h i s observa­

t io n t h a t motorists were d r i v i n g l e g a l l y and g e t t in g i n t o accidents
because l e g a l i t y was no longer synonymous with s a f e t y ; or t h a t the
le vel o f enforcement was reduced and, t h e r e f o r e , d r i v e r s v i o l a t e d
OD

H. C. Joksch, A Comprehensive Search f o r Cost Effe ctiv e ne s s
Data f o r Highway Saf ety Countermeasures (Center f o r the Environment
and Man, December, 1972, NTIS-D0T-HS-800-803).
^Jarnes E. Wilson, " S e l e c t iv e Enforcement Program," National
Highway T r a f f i c Safe ty A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , February, 1971, p. 3.
30"0pera tio n 101, Final Report, Phase IV, P a r t , 2 , R e l a t i o n ­
sh ip s," State o f C a l i f o r n i a , Department o f C a l i f o r n i a Highway P a t r o l ,
A p r i l , 1972, p. 4.

30
more and became invo lved in a c c i d e n ts .
that " . . .

31

F u r t h e r , i t was learned

speeding, as an acc id en t cause, was reduced by n e a r l y

h a l f and, a t the same t i m e , 40% o f the t o t a l a r r e s t s were f o r speeding."

32

A l s o , the mid night s h i f t was the most successful w ith a

s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t decrease over the e n t i r e roadway.

33

Pa ra ­

mount to the Michigan experimen tal study described in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
was the f i n d i n g in the "101 study" t h a t during the weekday, t h e r e was
no s i g n i f i c a n t decrease in a c c i d e n t s , w h i l e f o r the weekend, t h e r e
was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t red u c tio n in a c c id e n ts .
r e l a t i n g weekday-weekend to s h i f t ,

Further,

i t can be concluded t h a t the most

s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s were gained on the n i g h t t i m e s h i f t s on the weekends,
and the poorest r e s u l t s were obtained during the weekdays on the day
sh ift.

34
"Operation 500" is an expanded f o l l o w - u p in C a l i f o r n i a to

the "Operation 101" p r o j e c t .

In one i n v e s t i g a t i o n re p o r te d in "Opera­

t i o n 5 0 0 ," the P l a c e r v i l l e stu d y , manpower was increased from 13 to
34 t r a f f i c

o f f i c e r s on a s e cti o n o f U.S. 50.

Total a cc iden ts during

the study per iod d e c lin e d 14% from the previous two-year average.
I n j u r y and p r o p e rt y damage a ccidents a ls o decreased but f a t a l i t i e s
did n o t .

Although t h e change in accidents was not d r a m a t i c , i t

is

s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t the decreases took place during a time when t h e r e
was a r a p id and general upward trend in accidents along t h i s s e cti o n
3 ^"Operation 101, An Accident and Enforcement Study" (Conden­
s a t i o n ) , S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a , Department o f C a l i f o r n i a Highway
P a t r o l , A p r i l , 1972, p. 4.
32 I b i d . , p. 5.
3 4 I b i d . , p. 11.

33 I b i d . , p. 10.

o f highway.

35

The f i n a l

r ep o r t o f "Operation 500" concluded t h a t "a

s i g n i f i c a n t increase in manpower w i l l
t io n in r e p o r t a b le a c c id e n ts ."

r e s u l t in a s i g n i f i c a n t reduc­

F u r t h e r , "more than 2 .0 men per m ile

per 100,000 v e h ic le miles o f t r a v e l

is requir ed f o r nonmetropolitan

roadways to e f f e c t accident r e d u c t i o n , " and t h a t "beyond 4 . 2 men per
m ile per 100,00 v e h i c l e miles o f t r a v e l on a nonmetropolitan roadway,
the b e n e f i t o f manpower on accidents decreases."

This would tend

to suggest t h a t ther e is a s a t u r a t i o n p o int t h a t is reached in r u r a l
law enforcement e f f o r t s .
In a demonstration p r o j e c t e n t i t l e d " P r o je c t 4 1 , " s t a t e po lic e
o f f i c e r s were concentrated along 250 miles o f Route 41 in Indiana.
Each v e h ic le was equipped with a speed measuring device.

P r i o r to

inauguration o f the p r o j e c t , a pu blic info rmation campaign was under­
taken.

A comparison o f a five-month period a f t e r implementation of

" P r o je c t 41" w ith the same f i v e months in the previous years ind ic ated
(1) a 5% decrease in a c c id e n ts , ( 2 ) a 26% decrease in i n j u r i e s , and
(3) a 45% decrease in f a t a l i t i e s . ^
Perhaps one o f the best i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f what can be accom­
plished in j u s t one type o f enforcement a c t i v i t y is demonstrated by
a Swedish experience.

A concentrated e f f o r t d ir e c t e d a t the d r in k in g

d r i v e r appears to have had major b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s .
in the U . S . , t he re are in d ic a t io n s t h a t alcohol
35

For example,

is associated with

Wilson, " S e l e c t i v e Enforcement Program," op. c i t . , p. 3.

^ " O p e r a t i o n 500, A Study o f the E f f e c t o f Increased Road
P a t r o l , Fin al Report," S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a , Department o f C a l i f o r n i a
Highway P a t r o l , A p r i l , 1972, pp. 3 - 4 .
Wilson, " S e l e c t i v e Enforcement Program," op. c i t . , p. 3.

32
approximately 50% o f a l l

f a t a l ac c id en ts .

In Sweden where the

enforcement is much more s t r i n g e n t , the comparable estimate i s in
the neighborhood o f 10 to 12%.*^
S i m i l a r r e s u l t s were obtained in Great B r i t a i n .

In the

f i r s t 12 months o f a s t r i n g e n t l y enforced alcohol s a fe t y program,
a 15% reduction in auto f a t a l i t i e s and an 11% reduction in serious
i n j u r i e s was experienced.

39

The s t a t e o f C o nn ec ticut,
enforcement program on speeding.

in 1955, i n i t i a t e d a strong
Although the r e s u l t s have been

dis puted, t he re is some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , as a r e s u l t c f the "speed
crackdown," t r a f f i c deaths have decreased.

During the f i r s t year

o f the "crackdown," highway f a t a l i t i e s declined by approximately

12%. 40
Another r e l a t e d study bearing on the subject o f t h i s i n v e s t i ­
gation was done in Wyoming.4^

This e f f o r t d e a l t with the m atte r o f

t r a f f i c accident costs and the e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f highway s a f e t y
e xpe nditures.

I t was concluded t h a t " a d d it i o n a l d o l l a r s " a l l o c a t e d

to the Wyoming Highway Pat rol were the most e f f e c t i v e in reducing
the number o f accidents and accident costs.

An a d d i t i o n a l d o l l a r

spent on the p a t r o l r e s u lte d in an average reduction in accident
costs o f over ten d o l l a r s .
ever,

The study is being

held in questio n,

how­

because o f the low r i g o r o f the ana ly s is process t h a t was used,
3 8T. • ,
Ib id .

39t .
Ib id .

4 0 ,,.,
Ib id .

4^R. W. Hooker, " T r a f f i c Accident Costs and Effe ctiv e n e s s o f
Highway Safety Expenditures in Wyoming," U n i v e r s i t y o f Wyoming,
Laramie, Wyoming, November, 1966.

33
Another r e l e v a n t work is represented in the l i t e r a t u r e e n t i ­
t l e d "Saturated Patrol Works in Minnesota."

Concentrated enforcement

resources were app lied to selected areas of the s t a t e .

Results were

impressive but produced scanty information in a q u a n t i t a t i v e sense.
However, the few data on r e s u l t s were so spect acular t h a t they show
convincingly the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a b e n e f i c i a l
services.

e f f e c t o f p o lic e t r a f f i c

42

One study o f p a r t i c u l a r relevance to t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was
performed by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Chiefs of Police in 1969
e n t i t l e d " P o li c e T r a f f i c Su p e r v is io n ."

41

This work i s prominent f o r

i t s d e s c r ip t io n o f the p o li c e t r a f f i c services fun ction in con sider­
able d e t a i l , but more p a r t i c u l a r l y , f o r i t s e f f o r t s

in producing the

f i r s t documented attempt to provide a manpower a l l o c a t i o n formula f o r
the d e l i v e r y o f t o t a l

p o lic e t r a f f i c

serv ice s .

Although the data

base from which i t was stru ct u re d is sketchy, i t nonetheless has a
bearing on t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n in t h a t i t might be useful

in corrobora­

t in g f in d in g s in the i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r e s e n t ly under study in terms of
ev a luating the e xte n t o f enforcement required to produce a desired
effect.

I t was also d e f e c t i v e in t h a t i t measured the e f f e c t s o f

p o lic e agencies which had overlapping j u r i s d i c t i o n s .

The important

development o f the study was i t s production o f a "percent o f time
a l l o c a t i o n " system f o r c a l c u l a t i n g manpower requirements based upon
42

Fennessy, op. c i t . , p. 82.

43R. Dean Smith, e t a l . , P o lic e T r a f f i c Supervision (Washing­
t o n , D . C . : Management and Research D i v i s i o n , I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association
o f Chiefs o f P o l i c e , J u l y , 1969).

34
the services to be performed using b i l l i o n s o f miles tra v e le d as the
principal c r i t e r i a .

This a l l o c a t i o n scheme

d i f f e r e d from those pro­

duced in "Operations 101 and 500" in t h a t a l l o c a t i o n was based on
rendering t o t a l

p o lic e t r a f f i c

services and not j u s t those which are

thought to be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to accident reduction.
In a d d i t i o n , the r e p o r t presented considerable d e t a i l on
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e indexes which have been used in the po lice t r a f f i c
services fu n ctio n f o r management purposes, but i t was a p p r o p r i a t e l y
pointed out t h a t these have not been s c i e n t i f i c a l l y proven.
Several other studies o f r e l a t e d importance were examined but
found to be s u f f i c i e n t l y d e f i c i e n t to be o f l i t t l e
v alue.

c o r ro b o ra t iv e

Shumate's work on the e f f e c t s o f enforcement on accidents had

the d e f ic i e n c y o f i n s u f f i c i e n t r i g o r in the deployment system used
f o r pa trol

vehicle s in the experiment.

44

M ic h a e l's work on the

e f f e c t s o f enforcement on t r a f f i c behavior used some o f the Shumate
data and had a s i m i l a r d e f i c i e n c y as a r e s u l t .

45

The Calica e t a l .

work on enforcement e f f e c t s on t r a f f i c acc id e n ts ' generation pro­
duced some i n t e r e s t i n g inf orm atio n on the e f f e c t s o f s t a t i o n i n g
" pa trol v ehicle s a t recorded points and measuring the d r i v e r behavior
as a r e s u l t .

Although s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t f in d in g s were noted,

the magnitude o f the f in d in g s was o f no p r a c t i c a l

importance.

46

In another research product from a f o r e ig n c ou ntry , i t was
i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t one o f t h e i r f i n d in g s was t h a t " . . .
pean experience does demonstrate t h a t the e s s e n t ia l e f f e c t o f
44Fennessy, op. c i t . , p. 92.
4 5 I b i d . , p. 88.

4 6 I b i d . , p. 100.

Euro­

35
conventional speed enforcement on an inexperienced automobile populat io n i s t h a t o f i n j u r y prevention r a t h e r than accident pr evention."

47

A l i t e r a t u r e review was conducted in 1967 by the Ontario
Department o f Tr ansp orta tio n on the r e l a t i o n s h i p between enforcement
and accident frequency, and i t was found t h a t a t e n t a t i v e g e n e r a l i z a ­
t io n from the studies they reviewed could be made t h a t " . . .

there

was no c l e a r demonstration t h a t e x i s t i n g or a d d it io n a l enforcement
a c t i v i t y led to accident r e d u c t io n ."

48

Summary
The l i t e r a t u r e review o f the p o lic e t r a f f i c

services func­

t i o n a l area did not produce substantive documentation f o r the study
hypothesis.

With the exception of a few research e f f o r t s , the bulk

o f the a v a i l a b l e m a t e ri a l addressed only to p ic a l
i s t r a t i v e or conceptual c o n te x t .

items in an admin­

I t was also i n t e r e s t i n g to note

t h a t the p r in c ip a l c i t a t i o n s u su ally addressed a s in g u la r po rtion o f
the p o l ic e t r a f f i c services fu n c t io n a l are a .

Very few develop a

taxonomy f o r the reader to lessen the burden of making optimal use o f
a v a i l a b l e resource in fo r m a tio n .
The ot h er i n t e r e s t i n g f in d i n g in the l i t e r a t u r e search was
the p o t e n t ia l gold mine o f information possessed by the s t a t e s as a
^ J . Wadsworth, "The E f f e c t s o f Co nventionally Enforced
Maximum Speed Lim its on Motor V e h ic l e Accidents," Technical Note #9,
National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, November, 1966, p. 21.
AQ

G. D. Faxer, "Review o f the L i t e r a t u r e on Effectiv enes s of
Journal Enforcement A c t i v i t i e s in Reducing Accident Frequency,"
Research Branch, O ntario Department of Transp ort, 1967, p. 1.

36
r e s u l t o f programs operated in conjunction with the Highway Safe ty
Act of 1966.

These unpublished p r o je c t r e s u lt s could hold s i g n i f i c a n t

information on the subject o f the study hypothesis.

Several references

to Michigan s e l e c t i v e enforcement projects operated w ith the support
o f Highway Saf ety Act money suggest t h a t perhaps the most r e le v a n t
technology on the study question might be in t h i s unpublished s ta tu s.
Most o f the r e l e v a n t research e f f o r t s in d i c a t e in flu e n c e of
p o lic e a c t i v i t i e s on accide nts.

However, in most cases, the e x p e r i ­

mental design, the data base, or s t a t i s t i c a l methods were inadequate
to a llow convincing conclusions.

This appears to hold t r u e f o r both

reported and unreported research products.

The one study were

experimental control has been i n s t i t u t e d and s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s
obtained was "Operation 101."
In s p i t e o f the recognized d e f i c i e n c i e s in the l i t e r a t u r e ,
much suggestive infere nce can be drawn from the present s t a t e of
a f f a i r s to help decision makers in p r o je c t in g r a t i o n a l judgments on
p o l ic e resource a l l o c a t i o n s to the t r a f f i c
Further, i t

portion of t h e i r mission.

in d ic a te s c l e a r l y the need f o r proper a p p l i c a t i o n of

sound research methodology to subsequent study o f the causal r e l a ­
ti o n s h i p between accidents and enforcement.

The design o f t h i s

i n v e s t i g a t i o n is modeled in p a r t on the "101 study" which has to be
i d e n t i f i e d as the best a v a i l a b l e documentation f o r pr op e rly designing
a r e p l i c a t i o n study on the e f f e c t o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement on t r a f f i c
accidents.

CHAPTER I I I
STUDY DESIGN

Conclusive evidence t h a t supports the r e l a t i o n s h i p between
p o lic e t r a f f i c services and t r a f f i c s a fe t y is not a v a i l a b l e .

The

l i t e r a t u r e points to only one q u a n t i t a t i v e research study, "Operation
101, An Accident and Enforcement Study," t h a t shows a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t reduction o f accidents w h i l e , a t the same tim e , o f f e r i n g
s u f f i c i e n t control

o f f a c t o r s oth er than p o lic e operations t h a t could

p o t e n t i a l l y influ e n ce the occurrence o f an a cc id e n t.

49

The experimental p r o j e c t on which t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n is based
was made possible through the assistance o f fe d e ra l highway s a fe ty
funds awarded to the s t a t e of Michigan in June, 1972.

As reviewed

in Chapter I I , Michigan had j u s t completed an ana ly s is o f 17 local
s e l e c t i v e law enforcement programs supported w ith section 402
highway s a f e t y funds monitored by the O f f i c e o f Highway Saf ety Plan­
nin g, Department of S ta te P o l i c e , which were very suggestive in
terms o f producing immediate impact on the t r a f f i c crash program in
the communities in which they were o p e ra t in g .

In a d d i t i o n to the

i n t e r e s t shown by the Michigan law enforcement community concerning
the r e s u l t s o f these p r o j e c t s , the National Highway T r a f f i c Safety
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Department o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , also took no tic e and
49,Fennessy, op. c i t . , p. x v i n .
37

38
suggested t h a t more extensive i n v e s t i g a t i o n be made into the a p p l i c a ­
t io n o f t h i s p o l i c e p r a c t i c e under more c o n t r o l l e d experimental
c o n d itio n s .

F u r t h e r , the federa l government was i n t e r e s t e d in app ly ­

ing s e l e c t i v e enforcement p r a c tic e s in r u r a l areas where a considerable
p o rt io n o f the f a t a l

crash problem occurs.

In Michigan, f o r example,

in 1972, 66% o f a l l

t r a f f i c crashes occurred w i t h i n the urban areas;

however, 67% o f a l l

t r a f f i c deaths occurred in r u r a l areas.

50

Congress had also taken n o t ic e o f the p o t e n t i a l t h a t p o l ic e
s e l e c t i v e enforcement had in addressing the f a t a l crash problem and
had suggested t h a t the National Highway T r a f f i c Safety A d m in is tra tio n
demonstrate t h i s f a c t so t h a t supplemental funds could be awarded to
the state s should the c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d demonstration pr ojects
prove successful.

In June o f 1972, the f e d e ra l government awarded

two $300,000 p r o j e c t s , one each to the s t a t e s o f Michigan and Texas,
f o r purposes o f experimenting w it h s e l e c t i v e enforcement techniques.
Michigan's t r a f f i c f a t a l i t y experience in 1972 made i t a good
candidate f o r t h i s demonstration program.

F a t a l i t i e s in the calendar

years 1970 and 1971 were reduced; beginning with February, 1970,
there were 14 consecutive months in which the re were fewer t r a f f i c
f a t a l i t i e s than during the corresponding months of the previous years.
This t r e n d , however, had reversed i t s e l f beginning in A p r i l o f 1971,
as t r a f f i c f a t a l i t i e s

increased in 11 o f the 14 months t h a t follow ed.

In the 12-month period from May of 1971 through May o f 1972, Michigan
had an increase o f 118 deaths, or 5.6%, as compared to the previous
50"ig72 Michigan T r a f f i c Accident Fa c ts ," Department o f
State P o l i c e , East Lansing, Michigan, p. 5.

39
12-month perio d .

51

Even i f the fede ra l grant had not been made

a v a i l a b l e , the increase o f f a t a l i t i e s was beginning to d i c t a t e a
need f o r an enlarged or more su b s ta n ti a l e f f o r t to impact the d r i v i n g
ha b its o f the motoring p u b l i c .
Study Hypothesis
Given these f a t a l i t y s t a t i s t i c s the primary focus of th is
i n v e s t i g a t i o n was on the r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l e c t i v e t r a f f i c law
enforcement and f a t a l i t i e s ;

however, a review was made o f the e f f e c t

of the enforcement a c t i v i t y on f a t a l t r a f f i c accidents as w e l l .

In

a d d i t i o n , a review was made to determine the e f f e c t of the saturated
weekend enforcement on the crash experience during the weekdays
when they were not deployed, both as an experimental control and
as an i n d i c a t o r o f enforcement d i f f u s i o n .

With these study aims, the

f o l lo w in g experimental hypothesis r e s u l t e d .
Hypothesis:

The s e l e c t i v e deployment of t r a f f i c law
enforcement resources, con centrating on the
detec ti o n and c i t a t i o n o f t r a f f i c law v i o l a ­
t i o n , does not s i g n i f i c a n t l y impact the
f a t a l i t y t r a f f i c acciden t experience of a
t r e a t e d a re a.

Studies have been conducted which showed s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t reductions o f accidents c o r r e l a t e d with enforcement;
however, i t is d i f f i c u l t to a t t r i b u t e the reduction s o l e l y to a
s p e c i f i c p o l ic e a c t i v i t y .

Other studies have tended to show t h a t

the immediate presence o f a law enforcement symbol can reduce the
occurrence o f c e r t a i n types o f v i o l a t i o n s o f t r a f f i c law; however,
^ " F a t a l Crash Reduction Program," Federal A p p l ic a t io n f o r
Highway Saf ety Funds, Michigan Department o f State P o l i c e , O f f i c e o f
Highway Saf ety Planning, Lansing, Michigan, p. 4.

40
very l i t t l e

is known o f e i t h e r ( 1 ) the r e l a t i o n s h i p of v i o l a t i o n s to

accidents or ( 2 ) the e f f e c t o f enforcement on the commission of
violation s.

52

These two issues represent major subordinate problems

in review o f the study hypothesis and did in f lu e n c e the design con­
s t r a i n t s stru ct u re d f o r the i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
I t is a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t the r e s u l t s o f the experiment w i l l
be a p p lic a b l e to r u r al county communities o f t h i s s t a t e and perhaps
ot h er s t a t e s as w e l l .
Study Design S p e c i f i c a t io n s
The s p e c i f i c op era tion al purpose o f the experimental p r o je c t
was to combat the upward trend o f t r a f f i c accid e n ts , with p a r t i c u l a r
emphasis on f a t a l crashes and r e s u l t i n g f a t a l i t i e s , through the use
o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement p r a c t i c e s .

I t was planned to accomplish

t h i s goal by i d e n t i f y i n g several r u r a l geographical areas or segments
o f highway where f a t a l accident experience was unusually high.

The

accident data were then analyzed to determine in which o f these areas
the most good could be accomplished by i n i t i a t i n g a s e l e c t i v e
enforcement program.
Sample S e le c t io n Process
The s t a t e o f Michigan is made up o f 83 counties.

Obviously,

the resources a v a i l a b l e to conduct the experimental study were not
s u f f i c i e n t enough, nor would i t otherwise be f e a s i b l e to consider
implementing a program in a l l 83 cou ntie s.
52

Fennessy, op. c i t . , p. 134.

T h ere fo re, some form of

41
choice had to be introduced to s e l e c t those s i t e s where best retu rn
on the p r o j e c t investment could be secured.
The experimental county choices made were based upon the
a n aly sis o f accident data from the universe o f counties.

The f i r s t

step was to s t r a t i f y the counties i n t o population groupings:

less

than 3 0 ,0 00; 30,000 to 50,000; 50,000 to 100,000; 100,000 to 200,000;
and the balance, over 200,000.

So t h a t counties would be compared which

had s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a l l counties w ith a density o f less than
30,000 were e li m in ate d (39) as i t was f e l t t h a t t r a f f i c volumes in
these counties would not be s u f f i c i e n t to measure change a n t i c i p a t e d
by the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the s e l e c t i v e enforcement independent v a r i a b l e .
Even i f change could be observed as a r e s u l t o f t h i s study in these
spa rsely populated co u n tie s , t here was considerable question t h a t
the numbers change would be s u f f i c i e n t to prove s t a t i s t i c a l
cance.

s ig n ifi­

By removal o f the l i g h t l y populated co u n tie s , chances were

decreased o f f a i l i n g to include in the experimental group members
from the universe which would be the most susceptib le to the e x p e r i­
mental independent v a r i a b l e .

One other county was e lim in a te d and

t h a t was to remove Wayne, which is Michigan's most populous county.
This was done because o f the very h ig h -d e n s ity population f a c t o r
which obviously makes i t urban, r a t h e r than r u r a l .
Candidate experimental counties were then chosen from the
remaining four groups of counties:

3 0,0 0 0 -5 0 ,0 0 0 (eighteen

c o u n tie s , see Appendix A - l ) ; 50 ,00 0-10 0,0 00 (nine c ou ntie s , see
Appendix A - 2 ) ; 100 ,0 00-20 0 ,0 00 ( e i g h t c o u n tie s , see Appendix A - 3 ) ;
and above 200,000 ( e i g h t cou nties, see Appendix A - 4 ) .

The

42
p r i n c i p a l c r i t e r i o n used f o r s e le c tio n o f candidate counties was
r u r a l f a t a l acciden ts .

Accident experience was compared by county on

the basis o f an average o f f i v e years o f f a t a l accident experience and
on r u r a l f a t a l i t i e s f o r the years 1970, 1971, and January through July
of 1972.

The counties which c o n s i s t e n t l y deviated above the mean

average f a t a l accident experience in a l l

three o f these comparison

periods were given conside ra tio n f o r tre a tm ent, but a primary considera­
t io n was given f o r the accident experience in January through J u l y ,
1972.
In a d d it io n to f a t a l acciden t experience, such f a c t o r s as
cooperation from the c o u r t s , prosecutors, news media, and also the
e xte n t o f county residency o f those involved in f a t a l
given c on sideratio n in the s e l e c t io n process.

crashes were

Candidate counties

became those which had a high p o s i t i v e d e v i a t i o n from the mean and
were considered app ro priate areas to work in l i g h t o f the p re li m in ary
in d i c a t i o n o f support shown by the c o u r t s , prosecutors, and press.
The r e l a t i v e p o s itio n in g o f counties in ranking order with
the worst accident experience l i s t e d f i r s t is shown in Table 4 f o r
the e v a lu a t io n o f the 1972 d e v ia t i o n from the mean accident experience.
The r e l a t i v e ranking of counties when weighing t h e i r
average mean d e v i a t i o n experience f o r the t hre e acciden t p e r io d s -1968-1972 county f a t a l ac cidents; 1970 and 1971 r ural f a t a l acciden ts;
and 1972, January through J u l y , r u r a l f a t a l a ccidents— i s shown in
Table 5.
I t should be noted t h a t a l l counties l i s t e d in Table 4 are
included in Table 5, except S a n il a c .

TABLE 4 . - - T r a f f i c Crash E x p e r i e n c e - S t a n d a r d Mean D e v i a t i o n , 1972
(January through J u l y ) Rural F a t a l Crashes, Ten Host Serious
Counties.

County
1. Saginaw

KEY:

S t . Mean Dev.
+2 . 7

Cont rol vs.
Experi ment al County
No. 2 c o n t r o l

county

2. Cass

+2.3

Experi ment al

3.

Hillsdale

+1 . 9

Experi ment al county

4.

Eaton

+ 1.7

Experi ment al count y

5.

St. C l a i r

+ 1. 7

Experi ment al county

6.

Livingston

+ .9

No. 2 c o n t r o l

county

county

7. Washtenaw

+ .8

8.

S a n il a c

+ .8

No. 2 c o n t r o l

9.

Berrien

+ .6

Experi ment al

10.

Tuscola

+ .6

Experi ment al county

-county
county

C o un t y - - Mi c hi ga n county.
S t . Mean Dev. - - S t a n d a r d mean d e v i a t i o n v a l u e s .
Cont rol vs. Experi ment al C o u n t y - - S t o tu s of county during
experiment.

TABLE 5 . - - T r a f f i c Crash E x p e r i e n c e - S t a n d a r d Mean D e v i a t i o n , Aggregate
f a t a l Crash Experi ence 1968- 1972; Rural f a t a l Crash 19701971; and J a n u a r y - J u l y 1972 Rural F a t a l Crashes; Twelve
Most Serious C oun t ie s.

S t . Mean Dev.

Co nt ro l vs.
Experi ment al County

1. Sag inaw

+ 1 .7

No. 2 c o n t r o l county

2. Tuscola

+ 1 .7

Experi ment al county

3. Cass

+ 1. 6

Experi ment al county

4 . Monroe

+ 1.1

5. Huron

+1 .1

No. 2 c o n t r o l

6.

+1 . 0

No.

County

Lapeer

. 7. Washtenaw

county

2 c o n t r o l county
--

8.

H illsdale

+ .9

Experi ment al county

9.

Eaton

+ .8

Experi ment al

+ .7

Experi ment al county

11 . L i v i n g s t o n

+ .7

No. 2 c o n t r o l

12. B e r r i e n

+ .7

Experi ment al county

10.

KEY;

+ .9

--

St.

C lair

county

county

C o un t y - - Mi c hi ga n count y.
S t . Mean D e v . - - S t a n d a r d mean d e v i a t i o n v a l ue s.
Cont rol vs. Experi ment al C o u n t y - - S t a t u s o f county d u r i ng
e xp er ime nt .

44
It

is important to note t h a t the experimental choices when

examining the 1972 f a t a l accident experience are ranked 2 , 3 , 4 , 5,
9 , 10, in orde r o f problem s e v e r i t y .

More i m p o r ta n tly , when reviewing

the rankings in the o v e r a l l t hre e period e v a l u a t i o n , i t is apparent
t h a t the experimental and No. 2 counties are e q u ally well represented
in the top 12 problem cou ntie s.

This r e f l e c t s likene ss o f the two

groups in terms of problem s e v e r i t y and makes the No. 2 choices
lo g i c a l

s e le c ti o n s f o r con trol purposes.
Counties under con sidera tio n were also p l o t t e d , based upon a

c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n study done f o r each o f the c ou ntie s, on the types o f
accidents they had experienced in the past f i v e years .

In t h i s

c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , c on sideratio n was given to the acciden t rate s based
upon the number o f ve hicle s r e g i s t e r e d in the county, the number
o f miles driven, and road mileage in each county.

Appendix B contains

the six experimental county graphs used f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s .

The data

from these studies corroborates the fin d in g s of the county accident
s e v e r i t y study j u s t described f o r s e l e c tio n o f the experimental
counties.
In a d d i t i o n to the comparisons o f f a t a l

accident experience,

other parameters considered in experimental county s e le c t i o n
included a review o f the percentage o f d r i v e r s who had been d r inkin g
in f a t a l

and personal i n j u r y a c c i d e n ts , percentage o f d r i v e r s who

resided in the county where the accident occurred, and the r a t e o f
c on v icti o n f o r d r i v i n g under the in f lu e n c e o f l i q u o r a r r e s t s by p o lic e
in 1971 (see Appendix C).

In a d d i t i o n , a study was made o f the

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f f a t a l accidents by time o f day and day o f week to

45
the accidents in v o lv in g d r in k in g d r i v e r s (see Appendices D and E).
These data were reviewed as c o r r o b o r a t iv e support f o r the choices
t h a t became apparent from the accident and c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n studie s .
The accident an a ly s is was done to lead to the problem counties and
the subsequent a n a ly s is was completed to more s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f y
the problem w i t h i n the experimental county choices and f u r t h e r to
insure t h a t no p a r t i c u l a r problems were apparent which would suggest
t h a t a s e l e c t i v e enforcement program would not work.
of a ll

On the basis

the above c o n s id e r a tio n s , the f o l lo w in g counties were selected

as experimental counties f o r the s e l e c t i v e enforcement p r o j e c t :
Cass, Tuscola, H i l l s d a l e , Eaton, St. C l a i r , and B e r rie n .

These six

choices were among the top ten o f 43 counties placed under considera­
t io n in terms o f s e v e r i t y o f problem.
A schedule f o r pa trol assignments was provided f o r each
county (e xp e rim e n t a l) based upon h i s t o r i c a l

d a t a , which ind ic ate d

the percentage o f accidents i n v o lv in g d r i n k in g d r i v e r s and the
percentage o f f a t a l accidents t h a t had occurred during the hours o f
the scheduled pa trol

assignment (see Appendix F ) .

Experimental County Study Design
The normal a ccident experience in Michigan ind ic ate d a high
incidence of ca s u a lt y accidents during the n ig h t and e a r l y morning
hours on weekends and ho lid a y s .

The r a t e o f involvement o f d r in k in g

d r i v e r s and accidents during these hours was also very high.

53

As a

consequence, special a t t e n t i o n was designed a t the outset to d i r e c t
53

Fennessy, op. c i t . , p. 2.

46
resources toward t h i s r e l a t i v e l y small percentage o f the d r i v i n g
population who were involved in a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y high percentage
o f the c a s u a lt y accide n ts .

Another advantage of deploying p o lic e

resources during t h i s ni g httim e period was t h a t t r a f f i c d e n sity
was lower and d r i v i n g behavior would be more obvious to the p o li c e
observer.
Personnel deployed to the areas of high accident experience
were Michigan State Troopers assigned on an overtime basis .
were a l l

They

volunteers who had expressed i n t e r e s t in the study p r o j e c t .

O f f i c e r s a t or near the counties selected f o r the experiment were
given the option o f working on F r i d a y , Saturday, o r Sunday when these
days were t h e i r normally scheduled pass days.

They were not permitted

to work overtime on a day they had a lready worked.

O f f i c e r s were

expected to t r a v e l to and from t h e i r temporary work s t a t i o n on t h e i r
own time.
Se le ction o f the personnel to be deployed was the responsi­
b i l i t y of the d i s t r i c t commander in whose d i s t r i c t the selected high
a cciden t county o r counties were located.
The work s t a t i o n where the o f f i c e r was permanently assigned
c a r r i e d the hours o f t h e i r men on the Post D a ily Report (see Appendix
G) even though the o f f i c e r worked out side his post area on t h i s
project.

These overtime hours were to be charged as overtime f o r

purposes o f the special s e l e c t i v e enforcement p r o j e c t and were to
be paid from the Federal Highway Safety Demonstration P r o j e c t awarded
to Michigan.

47
The Post {duty s t a t i o n ) where the o f f i c e r was normally
assigned also had the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f providing a copy o f each
o f f i c e r ' s d a i l y r e p o r t (see Appendix H) to the S e le c t iv e Enforcement
Section of the Sa fety and T r a f f i c D iv i s io n which had r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r the s t a f f supervision of the experimental p r o j e c t e f f o r t .

The

Post o f the o f f i c e r s working on t h i s p r o j e c t als o provided the patr ol
v e h ic le and, whenever p o s s ib l e , the v e h ic le was equipped w ith an
e l e c t r o n i c speed timing device.

Whenever the s h i f t to be worked

included two or more hours o f d a y l i g h t , each o f f i c e r would work alone
during the d a y l i g h t hours and then p a i r up during hours o f darkness
in compliance w ith departmental p o l i c y .
O f f i c e r s assigned to the p r o j e c t were not given duties other
than t r a f f i c

patrol.

Complaints received or o r i g i n a t e d by p r o j e c t

o f f i c e r s were turned over to r e g u l a r post p a t r o ls as e x p e d itio u s ly
as possible.
Post and D i s t r i c t Commanders maintained t h e i r r e g u l a r schedule
of p a t r o l s in the experimental counties with the understanding t h a t
t h i s special s e l e c t i v e enforcement program was designed to complement
t h e i r normal schedule o f a c t i v i t y and not intended to be a s u b s t i t u t e
f o r normal pa trol a c t i v i t y .

S h e r i f f departments operating in the

experimental counties were als o encouraged to do the same.

This

r o u t in e pa trol a c t i v i t y was monitored by the Safety and T r a f f i c
D i v is io n to insure t h i s important control measure, i . e . , t h a t p r o je c t
a c t i v i t i e s were indeed in a d d itio n to normal pa trol a c t i v i t i e s .
D i s t r i c t Commanders who had experimental counties in t h e i r
j u r i s d i c t i o n had the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r coordinating w ith and seeking

48
the cooperation o f other p o lic e agencies, prosecutors, and d i s t r i c t
judges in the experimental areas.

Arrangements f o r lo cal news

coverage were also the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the D i s t r i c t Commander who
secured assistance from the Safe ty and T r a f f i c D iv is i o n when req uired.
Time accounting f o r the o f f i c e r s working on the p r o j e c t was
administered by the Business Ad m inis tra tion D i v i s i o n , Budget, and
Fin anc ia l Control Section o f the Michigan S tate P o lic e .

The o f f i ­

ce rs ' time was c a r r i e d on the bi-w e ek ly attendance r ep ort (see
Appendix I ) o f the o f f i c e r ' s home post and was designated as overtime.
A d d i t i o n a l l y , a copy o f each o f f i c e r ' s d a i l y r e p o r t was forwarded
to the S e l e c t i v e Enforcement Section where the e n t r i e s o f a c t i v i t y
were retaine d f o r a n a l y s i s .

The hours of each o f f i c e r were provided

on a bi-w eekly basis to Business Ad m in is tra tio n along with the name,
social s e c u r i t y number, and c i v i l
S e l e c t iv e Enforcement Section .

se rv ice c l a s s i f i c a t i o n code by the

This was done to provide a means f o r

r e t r i e v i n g work a c t i v i t y f o r a n a ly s is purposes.
The Safety and T r a f f i c D iv i s io n had r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the
s e l e c tio n o f the c r i t i c a l

areas to be worked and to provide the

necessary information f o r s e l e c t i v e enforcement p a t r o l l i n g .

Informa­

t io n regarding accident loca tion s by highway, v i o l a t i o n s involved
in the a c c id e n ts , time of day, and day o f week was provided by the
Data Processing D i v is io n and analyzed by the Safe ty and T r a f f i c
D i v i s i o n and disseminated to the D i s t r i c t Commanders.

Arrest

info rmation was als o ta bula te d and c o r r e l a t e d with t h i s acciden t
experience.

Arre sts made by o f f i c e r s assigned to t h i s p r o j e c t had

special desig nation so they could be r e t r i e v e d from the computer f o r

49
a n a ly s is .

Safety and T r a f f i c also provided the Business Ad minis tra tion

with the necessary info rm ation to dispense and account f o r the payment
of the r e l a t e d funds on t h i s p r o j e c t .
The Saf ety and T r a f f i c D i v i s i o n prepared spot maps o f each
selected county with the f a t a l accidents f o r the years 1970, 1971,
and p a r t i a l

1972.

The spot maps were d e liv e r e d to the D i s t r i c t Com­

mander along with an ana ly s is o f the f a t a l accident and a r r e s t
experience.
Control County Study Design
In a d d itio n to these prime choices, f i v e other counties
(Huron, S a n i la c , Saginaw, L iv i n g s t o n , and Lapeer) were selected
r epresenting a problem n e a r ly as severe as in the f i r s t s i x .

These

counties were going to be used in the event t h a t the resources were
made a v a i l a b l e to extend the p r o j e c t beyond the s ix c ou nties , but more
im p o r t a n t l y , to be used as control counties in e s t a b li s h i n g a means
f o r o f f s e t t i n g the b i a s , i . e . , extreme accident e xpe rie nc e, used in
the choice o f the s ix experimental cou ntie s.

Further control was

introduced by i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of ot h er control counties.

In one group,

f i v e o th er counties (Arenac, I s a b e l l a , Montcalm, A lle g a n , and Ottawa)
were selected which had no boundary in common with e i t h e r the e x p e r i ­
mental or the f i v e t h a t c l o s e l y resembled the experimental counties.
Consequently, i t was u n l i k e l y t h a t the saturated pa tr o l a c t i v i t i e s
in the experimental counties would a f f e c t these cou ntie s.

There was

also a f o u r t h group o f control counties (Midland, Bay, Shiawassee,
C l i n t o n , B arry , Van Buren, Calhoun, St. Joseph, and Branch) o f which
s ix had some boundary touching an experimental county.

Three o f these

50
counties were a djacent to a county in the second group i d e n t i f i e d as
c lo s e ly resembling the prime six chosen f o r the experiment.

Before-

d u r i n g - a n d - a f t e r a n aly sis o f the accident experience in the control
counties was designed to help o f f s e t sampling e r r o r .
Experimental Varia bles
Given those locatio n s f o r treatment or c o n t r o l , the general
independent v a r i a b l e consisted o f the special enforcement e f f o r t , as
measured by t r a f f i c c i t a t i o n s issued and other contacts f o r moving
violations.

Concomitantly, the general dependent v a r i a b l e was

t r a f f i c crashes.

Analysis was planned f o r i d e n t i f y i n g fun ctio n a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s between enforcement and accident measures in a b e f o r e d u r i n g - a n d - a f t e r treatment paradigm.

Figure 2 l i s t s the experimental

measures and shows the data source o f each.
S t a t i s t i c a l An alysis o f Data
Relatio nships between the independent and dependent v a r i a b l e s
were explored using t i m e - s e r i e s and c ro s s -s e c t io n a l analy sis techniques.
The t i m e - s e r i e s a n a l y s i s , con centrating on v a r i a t i o n s in
t r e a t e d county accident experience b e f o r e - d u r i n g - a n d - a f t e r s e l e c t i v e
enforcement t r e a t m e n t , is intended to i d e n t i f y i n t e r r u p t i o n s in the
aggregate and i n d i v id u a l treatment cou ntie s' accident experience
a t t r i b u t a b l e to the s e l e c t i v e enforcement e f f o r t s .

Graphical

presentatio n and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f those t i m e - s e r i e s i n t e r r u p t i o n s
were followed by e v alu a tio n o f acciden t experience changes using
p r o b a b i l i t y bands e s ta b lis hed around the f o u r - y e a r experience o f the
t r e a t e d counties p r i o r to the experimental period.

These bands were

51

V a r i a b l e and Measure

Data Source

Independent V a r i a b l e (Enforcement):
Number o f a r r e s t s f o r hazardous moving
violations
1.
2.
3.

Weekend
Weekday
Alcohol involvement

C i t a t i o n records
C i t a t i o n records
C i t a t i o n records

Number o f enforcement man-hours
1.
2.

Weekend
Weekday

O f f i c e r d a i l y reports
O f f i c e r d a i l y reports

Car hours on patr ol

O f f i c e r d a i l y reports

Car hours per D . U . I . L . a r r e s t

O f f i c e r d a i l y reports

Number o f l i q u o r inspections

O f f i c e r d a i l y reports

Other pa trol and complaint a r r e s ts

O f f i c e r d a i l y reports

Number o f verbal warnings

O f f i c e r d a i l y repor ts

Number o f ve hic le s inspected

O f f i c e r d a i l y reports

Dependent V a r i a b l e ( A c cid ents):
Number o f f a t a l accidents and f a t a l i t i e s
1.
2.

Weekend
Weekday

Accident reports
Accident rep orts

Number o f accidents inv o lv ing d r i n k in g
1.
2.

Weekend
Weekday

Figure 2 . — Experimental Va ria ble s L i s t .

Accident repor ts
Accident reports

52
s et to i d e n t i f y excursions from mean values expectable only 5% o f the
time in a predicated d i r e c t i o n , i . e . , + 1.64 standard de via tion s with
a one t a i l e d t e s t .

While a more conservative l e v e l might be p a l a t a b le

to s t a t i s t i c i a n s , t h i s one t a i l e d

.05 confidence le v e l was d e l i b e r a t e l y

selected to minimize chances of a Type I I experimental e r r o r , i . e . ,
concluding t h a t s e l e c t i v e enforcement as a l i f e

saving response is

i n e f f e c t i v e when in f a c t i t is e f f e c t i v e .
Cr os s-section al an aly sis involved Chi-square e v a lu a t io n of
a cciden t experience o f t r e a t e d versus n o n -tre a te d con trol counties in
the immedaitely befor e and during periods o f the experiment, i . e . ,
calendar year 1972.

This t r a d i t i o n a l experimental procedure was

used to assure t h a t some u n i d e n t i f i e d f a c t o r was not a c ti n g in
common across a l l

s i m i l a r cou ntie s , t r e a t e d and u n t re a t e d .

This

control analy sis was i n s t i t u t e d , o f course, to i d e n t i f y the presence
o f such g e n e ra l , un controlled f a c t o r s t h a t would tend to obscure
or exaggerate the e f f e c t o f experimental s e l e c t i v e enforcement in
the t r e a t e d countie s.
As used in the ana ly s is described in Chapter I V , t h i s tim e s eri e s and c ro s s -s e c t io n al an aly sis paradigm was implemented in an
attempt to use acceptable p r o b a b i l i t y expressions in e v alu a tin g
measured accident experience as a f u n ction of normal versus
e xperim en ta lly-in du ced v a r i a t i o n s in the experimental counties.
Confounding V a r ia b le s
T r a f f i c s a f e t y is influenced by many d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d community s e rv ic e s .

The e x te n t to which each o f the s e r v i c e s ,

e . g . , d r i v e r e du catio n, t r a f f i c c o u r t s , t r a f f i c engineering d r i v e r

53
l i c e n s i n g , emergency medical s e r v i c e s , e t c . , a f f e c t t r a f f i c crash
accident countermeasures could obviously in flu e n c e the hypothesis
being i n v e s t i g a t e d .
These contaminating v a r i a b l e s were c o n t r o l l e d by attempting
to minimize change o f the t r a f f i c s a f e t y systems in the experimental
counties to only those associated w ith the s e l e c t i v e enforcement
element.

F u r t h e r , nineteen control counties were selected which had

s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to minimize in fe re n c e drawn from the e x p e r i ­
mental counties t h a t might have occurred by chance.
To f u r t h e r minimize the e f f e c t s o f the uncon tro lled v a r i a b l e s ,
post ana ly s is o f the acciden t experience during the y ea r o f 1973
was r e l i e d on to add a dimension o f control

in accounting f o r the

e f f e c t s caused by the a d d i t i o n a l enforcement a c t i v i t y during the
period o f the experiment in 1972.
Although i t is most d e s i r a b l e in any c o n t r o l l e d experimental
study to l i m i t the e xte n t o f the v a r ia b le s t h a t would be introduced
to change the e x i s t i n g system, i t should be pointed out t h a t , in
a d d i t i o n to the element o f s e l e c t i v e l y applying the enforcement t a c t i c ,
ot h er supportive kinds o f actions were i n i t i a t e d which might have had
a bearing on the outcome o f the experiment.

For example, pa trol

o f f i c e r s were i n s t r u c t e d to make con tact w ith d r in k i n g establishments
were a l c o h o l i c beverages were being served in an e f f o r t to discourage
excessive d r in k in g by patrons who intended to d r i v e t h e i r cars and,
f u r t h e r , to discourage bartenders from serving patrons to the e x te n t
t h at they might have had the p o l ic e not made the v i s i t .

Another very

important support component t h a t was developed during the design o f

54
the experimental e f f o r t s was to make contact w ith the news media,
prosecutors and court o f f i c i a l s , c i v i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and g e n e r a l ly
the c i t i z e n s o f the communities in v o lv e d , to appris e them as to the
nature o f the program.

This was done to insure t h a t these necessary

support components would be o p e r a t iv e during the study and in support
o f the p o lic e mission associated w ith the s e l e c t i v e enforcement
effo rt.
Although these supportive elements are considered to be very
important to the p r i n c i p a l s e l e c t i v e enforcement e f f o r t , they could
be considered contaminants to the p r i n c i p a l

independent v a r i a b l e

being intro du ced, namely, s e l e c t i v e enforcement.
Data C o ll e c t i o n
Data f o r study a n a ly s is were c o ll e c t e d by the Sa fe ty and
T r a f f i c D i v i s i o n o f the Michigan Sta te P o lic e .

D i s t r i c t Commanders

c o lle c t e d manpower data o f the s p e c i a l l y assigned patrolmen through
the use o f the e x i s t i n g d a i l y a c t i v i t y r e p o r t in g system o f the d e p a rt­
ment.

Accident data were c o l l e c t e d through e x i s t i n g r ep ortin g

procedures esta b lishe d by law.

Enforcement data were computed from

d a i l y a c t i v i t y sheets, and then a l l data were encoded f o r computer
storage and subsequent r e t r i e v a l and a n a l y s i s .
D e lim it in g Factors
In a system as complex as t r a f f i c s a f e t y , i t
to s u f f i c i e n t l y c on tro l or account f o r a l l

is very d i f f i c u l t

the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t

occurred during the course o f an experiment.

This is not to apo logize

f o r lack o f r i g o r in s t r u c t u r i n g the experiment, but to more

55
a p p r o p r ia t e ly acknowledge t h a t the fin d in g s must be considered in
l i g h t of the con tr ols t h a t were introduced and to r e a l i z e t h a t condi­
tions were op erating concomitantly which were not properly c o n t r o l l e d .
In Michigan, po lic e j u r i s d i c t i o n s

( s t a t e , county, c i t y ,

township) are not c l e a r l y de lin ea te d to the e xte n t th a t d u p li c a t io n
of coverage o f p o lic e resources to the same j u r i s d i c t i o n a l areas is
avoided.
tional

This has both advantages and disadvantages from an opera­

sta n dp oin t.

U n f o r t u n a t e ly , t h i s s i t u a t i o n does complicate

s t r u c t u r i n g experimental condition s t h a t would be most d e s i r a b l e f o r
research purposes.

Michigan s h e r i f f agencies operated in both the

experimental and control counties during the i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Attempts

to introduce c on tro l f o r t h i s v a r i a b l e were d i f f i c u l t as enforcement
data f o r comparable periods from one county to another were incon­
s i s t e n t or l a c k in g .

I t was observed, but not documented, t h a t s h e r i f f

enforcement increased in the experimental counties during the i n v e s t i ­
g a t io n .

This e f f e c t was not measurable, but might have been a

contaminating f a c t o r in the

outcome o f the study.

The design did not s t r u c t u r e f o r measuring the s a tu ra t io n
coverage required to cause a change in the f a t a l acciden t experience.
As a r e s u l t , the fin din gs cannot speak to the degree o f manpower
adjustment t h a t i s necessary to c re ate change or a t what l e v e l of
enforcement a po int o f diminish ing returns is reached.
The deployment schedules were designed to place p o li c e
resources in the r u r a l areas o f the experimental counties.

Design

c on s ideratio n was not given to the type of road systems in the
counties or what types would be given p r i o r i t y a t t e n t i o n .

This was

56
precluded because o f the lack of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n in our s t a t e - w id e
accident lo c a t io n system.

Spot maps were used to d i c t a t e deployment

schedules r a t h e r than road types or volume o f t r a f f i c on these
various road systems.
It

is the or iz ed t h a t p o li c e t r a f f i c enforcement e f f o r t s

a f f e c t the d r i v i n g behavior o f the motoring p u b l ic .

This i n v e s t i ­

gation did not measure before and a f t e r behavior c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
the motoring p u b l i c , so i t cannot be determined i f the saturated
p a tr o l coverage a f f e c t e d the d r i v i n g population as a whole, or j u s t
de v ia n t behavior which causes f a t a l t r a f f i c crashes.
Michigan is a s t a t e a f f e c t e d by an assortment of demographic
co n d itio n s .

These were not c o n t r o l l e d because i t was f e l t t h a t both

the experimental and control counties would be a f f e c t e d e q u a lly
because o f t h e i r prox im ity to each other and, f u r t h e r , because o f
l i m i t a t i o n o f funds to properly control these f a c t o r s .
Many v a r ia b le s were i d e n t i f i e d during the course of t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n as having an in flu en ce on the t r a f f i c s a fe t y system.
Change in the t r a f f i c f a t a l accident experience could have been
caused by an adjustment to one, or a combination, o f these components
o f the s a f e t y system.

To pr op e rl y control these would have been

impossible w i t h i n the c o n s t r a in t s imposed by the resources a v a i l a b l e
f o r t h i s study.

What was attempted was to make note of any s i g n i f i ­

cant change in these component sub-system and insure t h a t they could
be weighed in the f i n a l an aly sis o f the i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Because o f the

short du ra tion o f the experiment, the chances o f these changes

57
occurring were l i m i t e d .

F u r t h e r , i t was observed t h a t no major changes

were introduced during the experimental period.
E f f o r t s to measure the proportion o f p o li c e o f f i c e r time
devoted to p r e v e n t a t i v e pa trol a c t i v i t y and time spent during a t r a f f i c
contact were not made.

This was avoided because the a c t i t y r ep o r t in g

system used during the experiment was not s u f f i c i e n t l y d e t a i l e d to
permit study o f these two a c t i v i t i e s .

F u rt h er , ana ly s is o f the types

o f t r a f f i c c o n ta c t s , i . e . , a r r e s t , warning, and f o r what types of
v i o l a t i o n s , was not made, which could support a formula o f t r a f f i c
contact a c ti o n t h a t w i l l produce a s p e c i f i c r e s u l t .

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n

does, however, r e p o r t the rat e s o f t r a f f i c contacts by type.
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n also had the l i m i t a t i o n o f applying appro­
p r i a t e sample s e le c ti o n techniques.

Choices were based upon counties

which had the most serious t r a f f i c f a t a l acciden t problem and were
in a p o s i tio n to support an a c t i v e enforcement program.

Random

s e le c t io n would have strengthened the r i g o r o f the design o f t h i s
study; however, the purpose o f the demonstration dimension o f t h is
e f f o r t was to place resources where they could conceivably do the
most good.

The county w ith the most serious crash problem was not

selected as an experimental s i t e in every case.

This is important to

understand, f o r i t lessens the bias somewhat o f the choices t h a t
were f i n a l l y made.

With such biased sampling, "regression to the

mean" suspicions could cloud i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s .

However, use

o f counties w ith accident experience s i m i l a r to t r e a t e d counties as
non-treatment con tro ls was intended to minimize t h i s "mean regression"
effect.

58
O f f i c e r s who were assigned in the experimental counties
were not n e c e s s a r ily average or high t r a f f i c contact producers as
o r i g i n a l l y designed in t h i s study.

Adjustment to t h i s c r i t e r i a had

to be modified f o r reasons o f f a ir n e s s to a l l

department members.

Any s t a t e p o l ic e o f f i c e r was e l i g i b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e .
Supervision in the experimental counties was not completely
uniform.

I t was learned h a l f way through the study t h a t one e x p e r i ­

mental county was not r e c e iv in g s u f f i c i e n t enforcement a c t i v i t y
comparable to the o t h e r t r e a t e d cou ntie s.

A c r i t i q u e of t h i s matter

re s u lte d in c lo s er a t t e n t i o n to the m atte r o f supervision.
experience also provided a suggestion f o r a minimal

The

level o f enforce ­

ment a c t i v i t y b u t , because i t was j u s t a s in g le county experience,
substantive conclusions could not be defended.
The term "hazardous moving v i o l a t i o n " has a common meaning
among the p o l ic e d i s c i p l i n e , but i t should be in d ic a te d t h a t any
d r i v e r behavior coupled w i th the proper circumstance could be
disastro us whether i t be hazardous or non-hazardous.

For purposes

o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h i s v a r i a b l e was not accounted f o r ot h er than
to suggest t h a t the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the type o f moving v i o l a t i o n
would l i k e l y hold in both the experimental and control counties.
Summary
This chapter has d e a l t w ith the methodology used f o r con­
ducting t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Design considerations were explained

along w ith s t r a t e g i e s t h a t were executed during the course o f the
study to adhere to these c o n s t r a i n t s .

Chapter IV w i l l

present the

59
data c o l l e c t e d during the study and describe the an aly sis treatment
t h a t was given to these d a t a .

S t a t i s t i c a l comparisons w i l l be

made o f the experimental counties w ith con trol counties in terms
o f the e f f e c t the independent v a r i a b l e , s e l e c t i v e enforcement,
had on t r a f f i c

fa ta litie s .

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

This chapter presents the data associated with t h i s study
and i t s a n a l y s i s .

Findings are reported f o r the enforcement a c t i v i t y

(independent v a r i a b l e ) and t r a f f i c crashes (dependent v a r i a b l e ) .
Tim e-series and c r o s s -s e c t io n a l analyses are presented f o r i n t e r p r e ­
t a t i o n o f these da ta.

Other miscellaneous v a r i a b l e analyses are

also presented along w ith a summary o f the ana ly s is cha pter.
Independent V a r i a b l e Analysis (Enforcement)
The independent v a r i a b l e in t h i s study was enforcement.

It

was measured by recording the number o f c i t a t i o n s issued by the
s p e c i a l l y deployed p o lic e resources in six experimental Michigan
counties (Cass, Eaton, B e r r i e n , H i l l s d a l e , St. C l a i r , and Tuscola).
Deployment schedules were c a r e f u l l y designed to c r e a t e the
impression o f omnipresence o f the p o lic e during the periods o f the
week when ther e were high in c id ents of f a t a l

t r a f f i c crashes.

Addi­

t i o n a l l y , concern was focused on those offenses known to be over
represented as c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s in t r a f f i c crashes.

In t h i s

study, alcohol was i d e n t i f i e d as the predominant c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r
and deployment was concentrated on those periods o f the week when
these in c id e n ts were most l i k e l y to occur.

60

61
Review o f the crash problem by day o f week revealed a heavy
concentration o f f a t a l crashes on weekends.

Alcohol was also

determined to be a f a c t o r in a la r g e number of these weekend accidents.
For these reasons, and to insure s u f f i c i e n t s a t u r a t i o n , the s p e c i a l l y
deployed p o lic e resources were used only on weekends.

A lso , deploy­

ment was l i m i t e d to the r u r a l areas o f the experimental cou ntie s.
Michigan's f a t a l crash experience has c o n s i s t e n t l y r e f l e c t e d t h a t a
predominant share of our f a t a l i t i e s occur in r u r al areas o f the s t a t e .
However, a g rea t m a j o r i t y o f t o t a l accidents occur in the urban area.
I t was als o t a c t i c a l l y convenient to hold to the r u r a l deployment
p r a c t i v e , as t h a t is the primary work j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the Michigan
State P o li c e .
A review of the data in Table 6 reveals t h a t t he re was a sub­
stan tial

increase or surge in the t r a f f i c a r r e s t a c t i v i t y of the

Michigan Sta te Police in the experimental counties during the
period August through December, 1972, when compared with the l i k e
period in 1971.
Table 6 i n d ic a te s t h a t t r a f f i c a r r e s t s rose from a t o t a l of
12,994 in 1971 f o r the months o f August-December to a t o t a l of
24,461 f o r the same period in 1972, representing an increase o f 88%.
The 1972 t r a f f i c a r r e s t t o t a l f o r the treatment period consisted of
13,767 a r r e s t s being produced by the e x i s t i n g pa trol personnel
normally assigned to the experimental c o u n t i e s , which represents an
increase o f 5.9% over the a r r e s t p r o d u c t i v i t y o f the e x i s t i n g p o li c e
resources deployed in these counties in 1971.

The 10,694 t r a f f i c

a r r e s t s produced by the s p e c i a l l y deployed experimental po lic e

62
TABLE 6 . --M ichigan S tate Police T r a f f i c A r r e s t A c t i v i t y , 1971-1972
(August-December).
Experimental Counties: B e r r ie n , Cass
Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , St. C l a i r , and Tuscola.
County

1971

1972
E x i s t . Patrol

1972
S.E. P roje ct

1972 Total
S.E. & E x i s t .

%
Increase

Berrien

5,590

5,256

2,873

8,129

45.4

Cass

884

1,002

1 ,042

2,044

131.2

Eaton

939

1 ,928

2,187

4,115

338.2

H illsdale

1 ,275

1 ,290

636

1 ,926

51.0

St. C l a i r

3,764

3,445

2,169

5,614

4 9 .0

Tuscola

542

846

1 ,787

2,633

385.7

Total

12,994

13,767

10,694

24,461

88.2

KEY:

S.E. P r o j e c t — T r a f f i c a r r e s t a c t i v i t y f o r s e l e c t i v e enforcement
personnel assigned to experiment.
E x i s t . P a t r o l - - T r a f f i c a r r e s t a c t i v i t y f o r Michigan S tate P o lice
personnel r e g u l a r l y assigned to the experimental counties.
1972 Total S.E. & E x i s t . - - T h e combined t r a f f i c a r r e s t enforcement
a c t i v i t y produced by the s e l e c t i v e enforcement and
e x i s t i n g deployed Michigan S tate P o lice resouces.
% Increase— Determined by adding the 1972 e x i s t i n g enforcement
and the s e l e c t i v e enforcement p r o j e c t a c t i v i t y and com­
paring w ith 1971.

resources accounted f o r n e a r l y the whole change or increase of
enforcement a c t i v i t y during the treatment period.
I t a lso is i n t e r e s t i n g to note in Table 6 the g re a t variance
in the percentage increase changes when analyzing enforcement a c t i v i t y
f o r the six cou ntie s.
385.7% is dramatic.

The range o f percentage change from 45% to
The two counties t h a t had the biggest percentage

increases in enforcement a c t i v i t y t o t a l s - - E a t o n , 338.2%, and Tuscola,
385.7%--rec eiv ed a s u b s ta n tia l boost from the e x i s t i n g deployed forces.

63
In Eaton County the e x i s t i n g pa trol f orc e a c t i v i t y rose from 939
t r a f f i c a r r e s t s i n 1971 to 1 ,928 in 1972, more than doub ling , and in
Tuscola County the change was from 542 to 846 a r r e s t s , an increase
o f 56%.
The balance o f the fou r counties remained f a i r l y constant.
Analysis of the t r a f f i c a rr e s ts of the special p o lic e resources i n d i c a ­
ted t h a t ther e was an important change in a r r e s t a c t i v i t y during the
experimental per iod.

Arrests s h i f t e d from 37% o f those c i t a t i o n s being

issued on weekends before the experiment (January to J u l y , 1 97 2 )t o 6 2 %
during the treatment period (August-December, 1972).

These data are

presented in Table 7.
TABLE 7 . --M ic higa n State P o lic e T r a f f i c Arrests A c t v i t i e s :
Weekend vs.
Weekday, January-July 1972, August-December 1972, Experimental
Counties ( B e r r i e n , Cass, Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , St. C l a i r ,
Tuscola).
J a n . - J u l y 1972

Aug.-Dec . 1972

County
Weekend

Weekday

Weekend

Weekday

Berrien

41.0%

59.0%

56.5%

43.5%

Cass

44.7%

55.3%

63.5%

36.5%

Eaton

44.1%

55.9%

67.7%

32.3%

H illsdale

30.9%

69.1%

51.8%

48.2%

St. C l a i r

34.0%

66.0%

56.0%

44.0%

Tuscola

22.7%

72.3%

76.7%

23.3%

Average
Percentage

37.06%

62.94%

62.03%

37.91%

KEY:

Weekend--From 6:00 P.M. Friday to 12 Midnight Sunday.
Weekday--Balance o f week.

64
This is evidence t h a t the increased enforcement s a tu ra t io n
coverage changed the e x i s t i n g weekend-weekday enforcement p a t t e rn as
was scheduled in the design s t r a t e g y .
Table 8, Michigan S tate Police Fatal Crash Reduction Program
Patrol A c t i v i t y Comparisons, August-December 1972, r e f l e c t s the work
a c t i v i t y accomplishments o f the s e l e c t i v e enforcement personnel in
each o f the s ix experimental counties during the treatment period.
Several aspects o f the po lice a c t i v i t y are d e t a i l e d in a d d i t i o n to
j u s t t r a f f i c off ense a rr e s ts because i t was f e l t a t the design
stage o f t h i s study t h a t these r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s might possibly
help ex p la in v a r i a t i o n s in the success o f the s e l e c t i v e enforcement
t a c t i c in the res p e c tiv e experimental counties.

In a l l cases, in

Table 8 , these a c t i v i t i e s were r e l a t e d to "car hours" per contact.
Dr ivin g Under the In flu en ce o f Liquor ( D . U . I . L . ) a r r e s t
a c t i v i t y was singled out because t h i s was a s p e c i f i c t a r g e t a c t i v i t y
o f the p r o j e c t .

I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e c a r hours per D . U . I . L .

contact va rie d from 18 to 45.4 even though t h i s was a t a r g e t a c t i v i t y .
Other pa trol and complaint a r r e s t s were observed during the
study to account f o r any over-emphasis o f a c t i v i t y t h a t was not
t r a f f i c related.

The range o f d i f f e r e n c e was 8.7 to 48.1 car hours

per con ta c t.
Liquor inspection o f d r in k in g establishments were recorded
during the study because o f the emphasis given to the d r in k in g d r i v e r
problem.

The "car hour" contact r a t e v arie d from 3 . 4 to 1 4 .1 .

TABLE 8 . —Michigan State Police Fatal Crash Reduction Program Patrol A c t i v i t y Comparisons, August-December 1972, Experimental
Counties (B errien , Cass, Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , S t. C l a i r , Tuscola).
Car
Hours per
D .U .I.L .
Arrest^

Other
Patrol
and Comp.
Arrests

Car
Hours
per O.P.
and C.A.5

Car Hours
per Liquor
Inspection'

Car
Hours per.
Verbal,
Warning

County

Berrien

3,349.5

80

41.9

91

36.8

310

10.8

2,873

1.2

3,175

Cass

1,635.5

36

45.4

34

48.1

116

14.1

1,042

1.6

1,647

Eaton

2 ,471.5

67

35.9

104

23.8

232

10.7

2,187

1.1

2,224

1.1

H ills d a le

1,109

38

29.2

61

18.2

329

3.4

636

1.7

1,086

1.0

St. C la ir

1,923

107

18.0

220

8 .7

279

6.9

2,169

Tuscola

2,198

87

25.3

76

29.0

422

5.2

1,787

12,686.5

415

Totals
Averages

D .U .I. L .
Arrests^

----------------------- ------- „--------------------

1,688

586
30.6

Liquor
Inspection^

21.6

T ra ffic
Offense
Arrests

Car
Hours per
Offense
Arrest

Car
Hours on
P a t r o l1

.89
1.2

2,326
1,786

1.1
.99

.83
1.2

12,244

10,694
7.5

Verbal
Warning1®

1.2

^Total hours of t r a f f i c patrol by county by p ro ject s elective enforcement personnel f o r each of the experimental counties.

2

Arrests made by experimental county s e le c tiv e enforcement personnel for d rivin g while under the influence of in to xicating
liq u o r ( D . U . I . L . ) .

3

Car hours on patrol by p roject sele c tiv e enforcement personnel for each D . U . I . L . a r r e s t .

^All other patrol and complaint a r r e s t s , other than t r a f f i c offense a r r e s t s , made by the p ro ject s e le c tiv e enforcement
personnel.

5

Car hours on patrol by p roject s elective enforcement personnel fo r other patrol and complaint a rre s ts .

^Inspections made by p ro ject s e le c tiv e enforcement personnel o f bars and co cktail lounges.
^Car hours on patrol by p ro ject s e le c tiv e enforcement personnel fo r each liq u o r inspection.
D

Number o f t r a f f i c offense arrests or c it a t io n s issued by project s e le c tiv e enforcement personnel.
g
Car hours on patrol by p ro ject sele c tiv e enforcement personnel f o r each t r a f f i c offense a r r e s t .
^Number o f verbal warnings issued by project s e le c tiv e enforcement personnel.
^ C a r hours on patrol by p roject s e le c tiv e enforcement personnel f o r each verbal warning.

c
Ul

66
T r a f f i c offense a r r e s t s were the p r in c i p a l p o l ic e a c t i v i t y
emphasized during the study.

The "car hour" contact r a t e ranged from

.89 to 1.7 f o r each of these a r r e s t s .
Verbal warnings represented a s u b s ta n tia l enforcement commit­
ment during the study pe riod.

It

is important to s i n g l e out t h i s

a c t i v i t y because i t c o n s t i t u t e s such a considerable portion o f the
p o li c e e f f o r t in most p o l ic e agencies.

The "car hour" contact r a t e

f o r verbal warnings ranged from ,83 to 1 . 2 .
Technology to s in g le out which o f these t r a f f i c r e l a t e d
enforcement a c t i v i t i e s

is most productive in c o n t r o l l i n g e r r a n t

d r i v i n g behavior is not a v a i l a b l e as has been developed in Chapter I I .
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g , however, to make note of the t o t a l average contact
per car hour o f pa trol f o r a l l o f the c ate g orie s o f pa trol a c t i v i t y
d e t a i l e d in Table 8.

This con tact r a t e is obtained by accumulating

the enforcement contact t o t a l s as d e t a i l e d in Table 8 f o r each
county by type and d i v i d i n g by the t o t a l ca r hours on p a tr o l f o r
each o f the countie s.

This c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s in the f o llo w in g

county "car hour"-per

tra ffic

contact r a t e (see Table 9 ) .

The counties were n e arly equal w ith the exception of St. C l a i r
which had a more fre q uent t r a f f i c con tact r a t e than the balance o f the
experimental cou ntie s.
These data are provided to c h a r a c t e r i z e the enforcement
a c t i v i t y t h a t took place during the experiment.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , data

f o r these s p e c i f i c enforcement a c t i v i t i e s f o r previous years were not
a v a i l a b l e f o r making comparative s t u d ie s .

They were recorded, how­

e v e r, to p r o f i l e the t r a f f i c enforcement experience with d e t a i l

not

67
TABLE 9 . — Michigan S ta te P o lic e Car Hour Per T r a f f i c Contact,
August 1972-December 1972, Experimental Counties ( B e r r i e n ,
Cass, Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , St. C l a i r , Tuscola).

County

per yr a f f i c Contact

Berrien

.51

Cass

.56

Eaton

.51

H illsdale

.51

St. C l a i r

.37

Tuscola

.52

normally associated w ith s e l e c t i v e enforcement p r o j e c t s .

Most com­

monly " t r a f f i c a r r e s t s " are the only data a v a i l a b l e f o r study purposes.
To f u r t h e r attempt to s o r t out the t r a f f i c r e l a t e d work of
the s p e c i a l l y assigned s e l e c t i v e enforcement personnel, an examination
was made of t h e i r c r im in a l a r r e s t a c t i v i t y which is presented in
Appendix J.

These c rim in al a r r e s t a c t i v i t i e s are l i s t e d a l p h a b e t i c a l l y

and f o u r o f the l i s t were considered to be r e l a t e d to t h i s p r o j e c t :
"consuming; drunk and d i s o r d e r l y ; minors in possession; and v i o l a t i o n
o f c o n t r o l l e d substances a c t .

The experimental cou ntie s ' p r o d u c t i v i t y

during the p r o j e c t period in these a c t i v i t i e s is shown in Table 10.
The range o f a r r e s t s by county f o r these fou r c rim in a l offenses
is from 21 -132.

In analyzing the e f f e c t o f the independent v a r i a b l e

o f enforcement these data might have been an in f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r , but
t h i s cannot be documented.

68
TABLE 1 0 . — Michigan S ta te P o lice Criminal Arre sts f o r T r a f f i c Related
Offenses, P r o j e c t S e l e c t i v e Enforcement Personnel, AugustDecember 1972, Experimental Counties ( B e r r i e n , Cass, Eaton,
H i l l s d a l e , St. C l a i r , Tuscola).
Consuming

County

Drunk and
D is o r d e r ly

Minor in
Possession

V i o l . Cont.
Subst. Act

Total

Berrien

8

21

10

7

46

Cass

0

3

7

11

21

Eaton

1

14

9

36

60

H illsdale

2

8

5

23

38

St. C l a i r

40

25

41

26

132

Tuscola

1

21

4

6

32

Total

52

92

76

109

329

The data in t h i s section show t h a t while highly v a r i a b l e
between the t r e a t e d c o u n t ie s , the enforcement e f f o r t as c h a rac te riz ed
by t r a f f i c a r r e s t f o r moving v i o l a t i o n s p r i n c i p a l l y , increased
s u b s t a n t i a l l y over the normal e x i s t i n g e f f o r t .

The section t h a t

follow s r e l a t e s t h a t e x tr a (enforcement) e f f e c t to measured v a r i a t i o n s
in the dependent v a r i a b l e , accident experience.
Dependent V a r i a b l e Analysis (Accidents)
The dependent v a r i a b l e , t r a f f i c f a t a l i t i e s , was examined
during the a n a ly s is phase of t h i s study using two basic s t a t i s t i c a l
processes, t i m e - s e r i e s and c ro s s -s e c t io n a l a n a l y s i s .

These techniques

allowed f o r the study o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the dependent and
independent v a r ia b le s from two d i f f e r e n t perspectives.

69
Time-Series Analysis
The t i m e - s e r i e s an alysis provided an ana ly s is o f the v a r i a t i o n s
in acciden t experience b e f o r e , d u r in g , and a f t e r s e l e c t i v e enforcement
trea tm e nt.

The purpose o f t h i s a n aly sis is to search out i n t e r r u p t i o n s

in the aggregate and i n v id id u a l

treatment co u n tie s ' accident experience

a t t r i b u t a b l e to the s e l e c t i v e enforcement e f f o r t s when comparing the
p r o j e c t year experience w i th the previous f o u r - y e a r average experience
f o r the same time frames:

b efo re , d u r in g , and a f t e r the treatment

per iod.
These i n t e r r u p t i o n s or accident experience changes were e v a l u ­
ated using p r o b a b i l i t y bands es ta blishe d around the f o u r - y e a r average
accident experience o f the t r e a t e d counties p r i o r to the experimental
p r o je c t period y e a r.

These bands were e s ta b lis hed to i d e n t i f y v a r i ­

ations from the mean values expectable only 5‘i o f the tim e , i . e . ,
± 1.64 standard d e v i a t i o n s .

Table 11 presents the f a t a l i t y counts

on which these comparisons of monthly experience during the experiment
year and average experience (and v a r i a t i o n ) during the four p r i o r
years (1968-1971) 1n the s ix experimental counties were based.
f i g u r e 3 (on page 71) r e f l e c t s g r a p h i c a l l y that rudimentary
tirne-series a n a l y s i s .

F a t a l i t i e s are presented on the o r din a te and the

months of the year are r e f l e c t e d on the abscissa.
reveals the t r a f f i c
A p r il

The dotted l i n e

f a t a l i t y experience during the p rojec t y e a r ,

1972-March 1973, and the s o l i d l i n e represents the f o u r- y e a r

average f a t a l i t y experience summed by month f o r the l i k e period of
months.

The v a r i a t i o n in p r i o r years ' experience is shown by the

vertical

li n e s through the f o u r- y e a r average data p o in t s , with the

TABLE 11.--Monthly F a t a l i t y Counts, Means, and Standard Deviations for the Four-Year Period
Preceding the Experimental Treatment Year, Experimental Counties {Berrien, Cass,
Eaton, H il ls d a le , St. C l a i r , Tuscola).
Month
Prior Year
Dec

dan

Feb

Mar

39

10

12

11

17

9

21

14

10

14

12

27

23

14

11

11

7

13

21

15

17

15

11

26

15

16

19.8

17.8

20.8

17.8

22.2

11.5

14.8

11.8

14.5

3.9

3.5

6.8

5.5

10.0

1.5

6.5

3.1

2.1

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

1968-69

23

18

28

16

18

13

1969-70

10

23

18

26

20

28

1970-71

5

13

25

20

12

1971-72

9

14

12

17

11.8

17.0

20.8

6.8

3.9

6.2

i

May

CM
CM

Nov

Apr

Mean
Standard
deviation

Note:

The sequence of months has been rotated for convenient placing of the treatment period
(August-December) between the "before" and "after" periods discussed in the text.

71

40

• 4 - Y r . Average
— o '72-'73

35 ■

1.64<j { 4 - Y r , A v e r a g e )

Fatalities

20-

A p r.

Hay

June
Before

July

Aug.
j

Sept.

Oct.

No

Experimental Period

Dec.

Jan.

Feb
After

Figure 3 . — Comparison o f Treatment Year F a t a l i t i e s w ith Average
F a t a l i t i e s i n the Four Years Preceding the Treatment Year.

Ma'r.

72
excursion o f each l i n e showing the l i m i t s d e f in in g 90% o f the expected
values f o r each o f the averages, i . e . , the + 1.64 standard d e v i a t i o n
values from Table 11.

Note also the notations d e f i n i n g the three

periods o f the treatment y e a r — "before" t re a t m e n t , "during" tre a tm ent,
and " a f t e r " tre a tm e n t.
Insp ection o f t h i s f i g u r e reveals t h a t the "before" t r a f f i c
f a t a l i t y experience during the p r o j e c t year exceeds the f o u r - y e a r
average experience f o r a l l

o f the "before" designated months.

Note

t h a t the July treatment year experience exceeds the standard d e v i ­
a t i o n band es ta blishe d a t the .05 confidence le v e l

(± .164 standard

deviatio n ).
The "during" period (August-December) f o r the p r o j e c t year
r e f l e c t s a drop in f a t a l i t i e s f o r each o f the months below the
f o u r - y e a r average trend l i n e .

This drop to below-average experience

is d r a m a t i c a l l y demonstrated in the f i g u r e between July and August,
the f i r s t month o f the "during" treatment period .
The " a f t e r " period ( January-March) shows a r e t u r n o f the
f a t a l i t y experience during the p r o j e c t year to s l i g h t l y above the
average f o u r - y e a r f a t a l i t y experience.
This f i g u r e suggests t h a t the "during" period o f the p r o je c t
year was associated with a dramatic decrease in t r a f f i c

fa ta litie s

from the immediately "before" period and also when comparing the
"during" period of the p r o j e c t year with the f o u r - y e a r average period
f o r the same months.

The J u ly 1972 p r o j e c t year t r a f f i c

fa ta lity

d e v i a t i o n from the f o u r - y e a r average beyond the standard d e v i a t io n
band e sta b lis he d f o r t h i s a n a ly s is points to a trend s i g n i f i c a n t l y

73
beyond what could be expected by chance alone and makes dramatic the
severe drop in t r a f f i c f a t a l i t i e s associated with the treatment
period.
In order to ev a lu a t e these f a t a l i t y experience d i f f e r e n c e s
between the three time periods in t h i s time s e r i e s , the p r o j e c t y ea r
( b e f o r e , d u rin g , and a f t e r ) and the same time periods o f the previous
four y e a r s , a Chi-square ana ly s is was done on the f a t a l i t i e s sums.
Table 12 shows the grouped f a t a l i t y data and the Chi-Square a n aly sis
resu lts.
Table 12 also shows t h a t t he re is a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between the p r o j e c t year experience and the f o u r - y e a r experience a t
p r o b a b i l i t y le v e l

s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r than p = .02 when examining these

comparisons f o r the b e f o r e , d u r in g , and a f t e r periods.
Insp ection o f Table 12 reveals t h a t the g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n
o
to t h a t x came from the g re a te r -t h a n - e x p e c te d f a t a l i t i e s in the
"before" period and the le s s -t han -e x p ecte d f a t a l i t i e s

in the "during"

period f o r the p r o j e c t y e a r.
There can be no question t h a t the p r o j e c t year broken in t o
the t hre e groups, " b e f o r e ," "d urin g," and " a f t e r , " was associated w ith
a f a t a l i t y crash experience t h a t deviated s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h i s
f o u r - y e a r average exper ience! however, the e f f e c t s o f the "before"
and "during" p r o j e c t year periods are confounded.

Thus, e i t h e r o f

two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s is e q u a lly l i k e l y from t h i s t i m e - s e r i e s a na ly s is:
1.

The "before" t r a f f i c f a t a l i t y crash experience during

the p r o j e c t year as shown in Figure 3 was a s i g n i f i c a n t departure
from the average and the drop in f a t a l i t y experience in the "during"

TABLE 12.—Chi-Square Analysis of Project Year F a ta litie s Versus F a ta litie s in the Four Preceding Years.
"During" (Aug-Dee)

Total observed

Expected

C o n t ri b .

Observed

.87

164

168.2

.10

801

87

73.9

2.33

70

87.3

3.42

47

42.8

.41

204

211

2

430

364

=

7.73, df = 2, P

=

.02

Observed—Number of f a t a l i t i e s .
Expected— Frequency you would predict given the row and column t o t a ls .
x2 Contrib.--Cel1 contribution to total x sum.
Total Observed—Total f a t a l i t i e s .

X^

X

C o n t rib .

i

Expected
342.8

2

Observed
360

Expected

.60

x2

KEY:

Total
Observed

290.1

Observed
Project year

(Jan-Mar)

277

1

Four prior years

" t 4fter"

X

C o n t ri b .

1

"Before" (Apr-Jul)

1,005

75
period can be a t t r i b u t e d simply to the reg ression- to-the-mean
phenomenon, or
2.

The s e l e c t i v e enforcement ex erc is e did have an impact

t h a t reversed the trend t h a t was being experienced in the "before"
period .
Cross-Sectional Analysis
This ana ly s is was designed to ev aluate the accident experience
of t r e a t e d versus no n-tre ate d control counties in the immediate
" b e f o r e , " " d u r in g ," and " a f t e r " periods of the experiment.

The six

experimental counties were compared w it h the three other groups o f
counties p r e vio u sly i d e n t i f i e d on pages 49 and 50.
Inspection o f Figure 4 provides graphic i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the
number o f f a t a l i t i e s f o r each o f the four groups o f counties f o r the
" b e f o r e ," " d u r in g ," and " a f t e r " periods.
This f i g u r e shows t h a t each o f the c on tro l county groups had
a general fu n ctio n o f increasing f a t a l i t y experience in the "during"
period over the "before" p e r io d , followed by a decrease to a lower
l e v e l during the " a f t e r " perio d .

Note, however, in the case of the

experimental counties t h a t a monotonic fun ction is in evidence s t a r t i n g
with a high "before" experience and p ro g re ss iv ely decreasing t r a f f i c
f a t a l i t y experience f o r the "during" and " a f t e r " periods.
As was done w ith the previous t im e - s e r i e s d a t a , a Chi-square
a na lys is was conducted w ith these " b e f o r e , " " d u r in g ," and " a f t e r "
da ta .

This a n a l y s i s , shown in Table 13 (on page 7 7 ) , r es u lte d in a

= 8 .5 0 proving not s i g n i f i c a n t .

I t should be noted t h a t the

76

90 1

•

70

*

^ ^ ✓ ' t e s s pure

Fatalities

80

Experimental

Pure
30

-

Before

During

A fter

Figure 4 . — Combined F a t a l i t y Experience o f the Experimental
Counties and the Three Control County Groups During the Three Periods
o f the P r o j e c t .

•

jQ

X

Observed

Expected

87

76.2

1.52

70

79,4

1.10

47

48.4

.04

204

Alternate

51

57.9

.83

64

60.3

.23

40

36.8

.28

155

Nearby

38

40.8

.19

39

42.4

.28

32

25.9

1.45

109

Distant

68

69.1

.02

81

72.0

1.14

36

43.9

1.42

185

Total observed

244

254
X2

KEY:

2

Expected

Experimental

2

Observed

I.
-M

X

Co n tri b .

"A fter1
11 (Jan-Mar)

Expected

"During" (Aug-Dee)

Observed

"Before" (Apr-Jul)
Co ntri b .

TABLE 13.--Chi-Square Analysis o f Experimental Counties’ F a ta litie s Versus F a ta litie s in the Control
County Groups During the Project Year.

155

= 8.50, df = 6 , p = NS

Observed—Number of f a t a l i t i e s .
Expected—Frequency you would predict given the row and column totals.
X Contrib.—Cell contribution to total
sum.
Total observed—Total f a t a l i t i e s .

C

o
o

Total
Observed

CM
X

653

78
g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n to the x

2

sum was the data associated with the

"before" period o f the experimental counties.
Several f u r t h e r analyses o f the data were attempted to search
out oth er f i n d i n g s .

One o f these attempts involved co ll a p s in g the

data from Table 13 i n t o a six c e l l t a b l e con s is ti n g of the three
time periods times the sums of f a t a l i t i e s across a l l

three o f the

control county groups and the experimental county f a t a l i t i e s .
data combinations and the r e s u l t i n g x

These

2

are shown in Table 14.
2
As in d ic a te d in Table 14, the x did not reach a s i g n i f i c a n t

level.

Note, however, the major c o n t r ib u t io n s to t h a t Chi-square

were from the "before" and "during" periods in the experimental
counties.
S till

another a n aly sis in t h i s search process matched the

experimental w i th the a l t e r n a t e or "number two" cou ntie s.

As developed

in the study design section o f t h i s r e p o r t in Chapter I I I ,

the a l t e r ­

nate counties were very s i m i l a r as a group to the experimental group,
e s p e c i a l l y w ith regard to t h e i r ranking in t r a f f i c f a t a l i t y s e v e r i t y .
A Chi-square an a ly s is associated w ith the three time periods and
f a t a l i t y experience o f the experimental group versus the number two
county group produced a x

= 3.61 with two degrees o f freedom.

This

value is associated w ith a p r o b a b i l i t y s l i g h t l y in excess o f p = .1 0 ,
suggesting, but not proving, s i g n i f i c a n c e .
A f u r t h e r a n a ly s is o f these two groups using the same s t a t i s ­
tica l

t e s t i n g technique but w ith Berrien county removed from the

experimental group r es u lte d in x

= 8.55.

This value with d f = 2,

is associated w ith a p r o b a b i l i t y o f p = .0 1 , which provides conclusive

TABLE 1 4 .—Chi-Square Analysis o f Experimental Counties’ F a ta litie s Versus F a ta litie s in All Control
Groups During the Project Year.

2
X Co ntrib .

Observed

Expected

87

76.2

1.52

70

79.4

1.10

47

48.4

.04

204

157

167.7

.68

184

174.6

.51

108

106.5

.02

449

Control

Total observed

244

254

155

X2 = 3.87, df - 2, p = NS

KEY:

Observed— Number of f a t a l i t i e s .
Expected—Frequency you would predict given the row and column t o t a ls .
x2 Contrib.— Cell contribution to total x sum.
Total Observed-Total f a t a l i t i e s .

2

Total
Observed

x

Observed

Experimental

X" Co n trib .

Counties

Expected

C o n t rib .

"After " (Jan-Mar)

Expected

"During" (Aug-Dee)

Observed

"Before11 (Apr-Jul)

653

80
evidence t h a t these two comparable county groupings did have s i g n i f i ­
c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f a t a l i t y experiences during the thr ee time periods.
In t h a t a n a l y s i s , the x

2

value came mainly from the "before" and

"during" experience o f both county groupings, w ith the experimental
counties showing a f a t a l i t y decrease and the control counties an
increase when going from "before" to " d u r in g ."

I t should be r e i t e r a ­

ted why Be rrie n county was removed from t h i s e x p lo r a t io n a n a ly s is .
H a l f way through the experiment t h i s county was i d e n t i f i e d as one
where the independent v a r i a b l e was not being implemented with any
sufficiency.

This was corrected through supervisory emphasis, but

the f a t a l i t y experience did not improve as was pre dicte d which led to
t h i s d e f i c i e n c y discovery.
As a f u r t h e r attempt to i d e n t i f y what t h i s d i f f e r e n c e is
a t t r i b u t e d t o , another more precis e method was used (student "t "
d i s t r i b u t i o n t e s t ) t o compare f a t a l i t i e s o f the experimental counties
w ith the number two a l t e r n a t i v e group.

These data and t h e i r a n aly sis

are presented in Table 15.
This a n a ly s is shows t h a t the primary f a c t o r in the graphical
and a n a l y t i c d i f f e r e n c e s between the experimental and most s i m i l a r
group o f control counties is l a r g e l y due to the extremely high f a t a l i t y
experience in the experimental counties in the "before" period.
Miscellaneous V a r i a b l e Analysis
In a d d it i o n to the primary f in d i n g s discussed above, some
l i m i t e d a n a ly s is was possible with weekend versus weekday accident
experience and w i th a l c o h o l - r e l a t e d a cc id en ts .

81

TABLE 15 . - - " t " - T e s t Evaluation o f F a t a l i t y Experience o f Experimental
Counties Versus A l t e r n a t e Control Counties During the
P r o je c t Year.
Before

During

A fter

Experimental counties
Berrien

14

28

10

Cass

21

11

6

Eaton

14

7

5

H illsdale

15

3

6

St. C l a i r

11

6

15

Tuscola

12

15

5

Mean

14.5

11.7

7.8

Standard

d e v ia t io n

3.2

8.2

3.6

Standard

error

1.4

3 .7

1.6

7

8

8

A l t e r n a t e counties
Huron
Lapeer

10

9

7

Liv in gs ton

12

13

6

Saginaw

13

27

14

Sanilac

9

7

10.2

12.8

8.0

Mean

5

Standard

deviation

2.1

7 .4

3.2

Standard

error

1.1

3 .7

1.6

1.79

5.22

2.2 7

Standard e r r o r o f mean d i f f .
t

2.40

df

10

10

10

p

< .05

NS

NS

82
Rec allin g t h a t the special enforcement e f f o r t was concentrated
on weekends, the expe cta tio n was t h a t maximal

impact, i . e . , f a t a l

accident and f a t a l i t y red u ctio n s , would be experienced on weekends
during the treatment period w ith some le s s er impact during a ssoc i­
ated weekday periods a t t r i b u t a b l e to some d i f f u s i o n e f f e c t .
The data shows, however, t h a t g r e a t e r prop ortio na te impact
was experienced on weekdays.

In the experimental c ou ntie s , weekend

f a t a l crashes decreased from an average o f 8 . 5 per month "before"
enforcement to an average o f 7 . 2 "during" t r ea tm e n t— a 15% decrease.
In c o n t r a s t , weekday f a t a l crashes f o r the same time periods f e l l
from 9 .2 per month to 6 . 6 - - a decrease o f 28%.

Sim ilarly, f a t a lit ie s

decreased 24% f o r weekends, but 38% f o r weekday periods.

These

f in d in g s suggest a delayed, d i f f u s e e f f e c t of special enforcement
t h a t may exceed the immediate, r e a l - t i m e e f f e c t .
As discussed e a r l i e r , d r in k in g d r i v e r s were a special
of the enforcement e f f o r t .

target

While the enforcement data presented

e a r l i e r show a r r e s t s concentrated on d r in k in g o ffens es , review o f the
a l c o h o l - r e l a t e d accident data shows unc erta in r e s u l t s .

G e n e r a lly ,

"had-been-drinking" a ccident r ep o r t no tatio n s increased "during" the
experimental pe riod.

However, t h a t increase was less during the

weekend enforcement periods than during the associated weekday periods.
Weekday d r i n k i n g - r e l a t e d accidents increased from an average o f 52.5
per month "before" the experiment to 6 4 . 8 "during" t r e a t m e n t , f o r an
increase of 23%.

On the ot h er hand, weekend d r i n k i n g - r e l a t e d crashes

rose from 46.8 to 5 4 . 0 , an increase o f only 15%.

While hardly

c o n c lu s iv e , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e in weekday versus weekend experience

83
suggests t h a t the weekend enforcement e f f o r t served to suppress the
d r i n k i n g - i n v o l v e d acc id e n t r a t e .
But even t h a t t e n t a t i v e conclusion f a l t e r s when the mixed
exper ience o f the i n d i v i d u a l

experimental counties is reviewed.

For

weekends, f o u r counties ( B e r r i e n , Cass, S t . C l a i r , and Tuscola)
showed red uc tion s in d r i n k i n g crashes during the e xpe riment, w h ile
the o t h e r two counties (Eaton and H i l l s d a l e ) showed i n cre as es .

For

weekdays, the same f o u r - c o u n t y group showed increases in "had-beend r i n k i n g " a c c i d e n t s , w h il e Eaton had no change and H i l l s d a l e showed a
dramatic decrease.

Thus, the r a t e r ed u c tio n associated w ith the

weekend enforcement e f f o r t appears mainly a t t r i b u t a b l e to the extreme
" b e f o r e - d u r in g " experiences in H i l l s d a l e county.

No c l e a r con c lusio n,

t h e r e f o r e , is po ss ib le on the impact o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement on
a l c o h o l - r e l a t e d creashes in the experimental c o u n t ie s .
Summary
The independent v a r i a b l e (enforcement) and dependent v a r i a b l e
( a c c i d e n t s ) were analyzed in the experimental c ou ntie s during the
t re a t m e n t period to measure the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between these two
variables.
A n a ly s is showed t h a t t h e independent v a r i a b l e (enforcement)
increased s u b s t a n t i a l l y over the e x i s t i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y o f the e n f o r c e ­
ment personnel assigned permanently t o the experimental c o u n t ie s .
These increases v a r ie d d r a s t i c a l l y , however, in the s i x experimental
counties.

84
The f a t a l i t y accident experience was s i g n i f i c a n t l y impacted
during the experimental period ; however, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s change
is confounded by the f a c t t h a t the immediate "before" acciden t e x p e r i ­
ence in the experimental counties was extremely high.

As a r e s u l t ,

even though the improvement was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , one o f two
conclusions is l i k e l y :
1.

That the reduction was the r e s u l t o f the extremely
high "before" f a t a l i t y experience r etu rn in g to
normal, or

2.

The s e l e c t i v e enforcement e f f o r t impacted the
f a t a l i t y experience in the experimental cou nties.

Chapter V presents an overview of the study and i t s fin din gs
with items o f discussion which r e s u lte d from the research process
associated with t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, AND
IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Summary
This study in v e s t ig a t e d the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the p o li ce
t r a f f i c services t a c t i c o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement and i t s
tra ffic fa ta litie s .

impact on

The r e l a t i o n s h i p was i n v e s t ig a t e d w ith focus on

the independent v a r i a b l e o f enforcement a c t i v i t y as d e li n e a te d by
where, when, and to what e x te n t i t was a p p l i e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y to the
t r a f f i c v i o l a t i o n o f d r i v i n g w hile under the influe n ce o f a l c o h o l.
The s e l e c t i v e enforcement treatment was scheduled in six
experimental counties in Michigan during the weekend o n ly , over a
five-month p e r io d , August through December, 1972.

Nineteen oth er

counties were i d e n t i f i e d as control counties and separated i n t o thr ee
groups.
The Michigan S tate Po lice were selected to provide the s a t u r a ­
ted enforcement a c t i v i t y in the six experimental counties which were
c a r e f u l l y selected on the basis o f the s e v e r i t y of t h e i r r u r a l
t r a f f i c f a t a l crash exper ience.

O f f i c e r s were assigned to these

counties on an overtime basis to supplement the e x i s t i n g or ongoing
enforcement e f f o r t .

The troopers worked on t h e i r days o f f to pro­

vide the added p o li c e coverage.

85

86
The added p a t r o l coverage increased enforcement s a t u r a t i o n by
88% in the experimental cou ntie s.

This s a t u r a t io n produced a s h i f t in

the e x i s t i n g enforcement p a t t e r n from 37% of t r a f f i c a r r e s t s occurring
on the weekend to 62%.
In a d d i t i o n to the s e l e c t i v e enforcement v a r i a b l e , a t t e n t i o n
wasgiven to the m atte r

o f in v o lv in g the c o u r t s , prosecutors, and

news media to insure t h a t the program had the backing o f the communi­
t i e s w i t h i n the experimental counties.
The dependent v a r i a b l e , t r a f f i c f a t a l i t i e s , was s i g n i f i c a n t l y
impacted in the experimental counties during the treatment period when
compared with the BEFORE period during the p r o j e c t year and f o u r - y e a r
average experience p r i o r to the p r o j e c t y e a r.
in the c on tro l counties

Accident experience

also changed, but not as d r a m a t i c a l l y .

Tim e-series and c ro s s -s e c t io n a l analyses were completed on
the accident data f o r the experimental and control cou ntie s.

The

t i m e - s e r i e s a n aly sis showed t h a t there was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between the p r o j e c t year experience and the f o u r - y e a r average experience
a t the p = ,02 confidence l e v e l .

However, t h a t f in d i n g is confounded.

Thus, e i t h e r o f two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s is e q u a lly l i k e l y .
Findings
1.

The "before" period o f the p r o j e c t year de via te d so
d r a s t i c a l l y from the average t h a t the improvement
could be a t t r i b u t e d to the phenomenon o f regression
to the mean.

2.

The enforcement e f f o r t "during" the treatm ent period
did impact the f a t a l i t y experience in the e x p e r i ­
mental c o u n tie s .

In the c r o s s -s e c t io n al analy sis where the experimental
county group was compared with t hree other c on tro l groups, the
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is produced an assortment o f mixed f in d i n g s .
1.

A Chi-square a naly sis o f the fou r groups produced a
s i g n i f i c a n c e a t the p = .10 le v e l when compared with
each o t h e r which is not w i t h i n the confidence l i m i t s
o f a c c e p t a b i l i t y developed f o r t h i s study.

2.

When comparing the experimental group with the group
most l i k e i t s e l f , less one of the experimental coun­
t i e s where adequate enforcement was not implemented,
s i g n i f i c a n c e was determined a t the p = .01 l e v e l .

3.

Using the " t " - t e s t s t a t i s t i c comparing the same two
county groups, as i d e n t i f i e d above, i t was determined
when comparing the "before" accident experience f o r
the p r o j e c t year t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was
noted a t the .05 confidence l e v e l .

The major f i n d i n g o f the study was t h a t the a n a ly s is was
unable to r e j e c t the nu ll hypothesis t h a t the a d d it i o n a l enforcement
e f f o r t did not m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t the f a t a l i t y crash experience in the
experimental cou ntie s.
However, e x c lu siv e o f these s t a t i s t i c a l

fin d in g s in measuring

the f a t a l i t y r eversal experience, caution should be exercised in t h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to avoid making a Type I I e r r o r , i . e . , concluding t h a t
s e l e c t i v e enforcement as a l i f e
in f a c t i t

is e f f e c t i v e .

saving response is i n e f f e c t i v e when

In e f f e c t , the study produced f u r t h e r sug­

g e stive evidence to encourage more c o n t r o l l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h i s
very important p o l ic e t a c t i c .
Conclusions
The emphasis given to op e ra tio n a l con sid eratio ns in the design
of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e s u l te d in confounding the r e s u l t s produced
by the experiment.

Choosing the experimental counties on the basis o f

88
the s e v e r i t y o f t h e i r r u r a l f a t a l i t y crash experience served to
address a serious problem and not an average or r e p r e s e n t a t iv e problem
which would have been more a p p ro p r ia te f o r s c i e n t i f i c a n a ly s i s .
During the study, a measurable reduction in the r u r a l
f a t a l i t y experience in the experimental counties was observed.

It

cannot be said w ith conclusiveness t h a t i t was the independent v a r i ­
able o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement t h a t produced i t or whether i t was the
r e s u l t o f an extremely bad accident experience r etu rn in g to i t s
normal or more average experience.

One group o f control counties

which had an accident experience s i m i l a r to the experimental group
did not show as good an improvement which provides f u r t h e r
suggestive im p li c a tio n s t h a t the p o s i t i v e f a t a l i t y reduction e x p e r i ­
ence in the experimental counties was produced by the s e l e c t i v e
enforcement tre atm ent.
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the impact o f the special s e l e c t i v e
enforcement e f f o r t i s confounded by the reasonable op eration al con­
s i d e r a t i o n s used in the s e le c t io n o f the experimental counties.
T h e r e f o r e , the ana ly s is is unable to r e j e c t the nu ll hypothesis:
The s e l e c t i v e deployment o f t r a f f i c law enforcement
resources, c oncentra ting on the d e t e c t i o n and c i t a ­
t i o n o f t r a f f i c law v i o l a t i o n , does not s i g n i f i c a n t l y
impact the f a t a l i t y t r a f f i c acciden t experience o f a
t r e a t e d area.
I t should be emphasized t h a t e xclusive o f these s t a t i s t i c a l
f i n d i n g s , p o l i c e a d m in is t ra t o r s should consider the demonstrated
f a t a l i t y r eversal associated w ith t h i s study as p o t e n t i a l l y s i g n i f i ­
cant and d e s i r a b l e .

While r e s u l t s could be explained by a regression

to the mean phenomenon, i t should be mentioned t h a t t h a t conclusion

89
is p r o b a b l i s t i c ; t h e r e f o r e , c a u tio n has to be e x erc is e d t o avoid com­
m i t t i n g a po s sible Type I I

s tatis tic a l

e r r o r , which is to r e j e c t a

f i n d i n g t h a t might have s u b s ta n tiv e m e r i t .
Discussion
The t h e s i s advanced in the beginning o f t h i s study suggested
t h a t c on clu sive evidence is la c k in g to support the con te n tio n t h a t a
red uc tio n in unsafe d r i v i n g behavior w i l l

r e s u l t in a red uc tio n of

t r a f f i c a ccidents and t h a t the enforcement o f t r a f f i c
r e s u l t in some d e c l i n e in unsafe d r i v i n g .

laws does

In s p i t e o f t h i s la c k o f

c on c lusiv e e v id en ce, p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s contend t h a t improved
enforcement e f f o r t s w i l l mean

fewer

accidents based on the premise

t h a t many a ccidents are caused by d r i v e r s who do not obey t r a f f i c
laws and codes.
Such g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s are based more upon e x p e r t judgment
than on e m p ir ic a l evidence.

The r e s u l t s of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n do not

g iv e much added e m p i r ic a l evidence to support c o n c l u s i v e l y the theory
advanced by t h i s

investigation .

What i t does is a f f o r d those in

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s it i o n s f u r t h e r encouragement f o r implementing
soundly conceived s e l e c t i v e enforcement programs.

In s p i t e o f the

f a i l u r e o f t h i s p r o j e c t to be s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n v in c in g , the trends
and a s s o c ia t io n s developed in Chapter IV lend f u r t h e r evidence t h a t
the s e l e c t i v e enforcement countermeasures choice can, and in t h i s
case probably d i d , produce a f a v o r a b l e change in a c c id e n t e xpe rienc e.
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n a ls o pointed t o the need f o r con ti n u in g
the m a t t e r o f producing s t a t i s t i c a l l y adequate evidence t h a t w i l l
more c l e a r l y d e l i n e a t e the m e r it s o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement

90
countermeasure programs.

The p o l ic e t r a f f i c services funct ion o f the

t r a f f i c s a f e t y system c o n s ti t u t e s a s i g n i f i c a n t share of the expendi­
tures a l l o c a t e d f o r p r o t e c t in g the motoring p u b l i c .

To continue to

invest huge sums o f human and f i n a n c i a l resources without the b e n e f i t
o f such necessary technology as s e l e c t i v e enforcement borders on the
realm o f i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
O f f i c i a l s responsible f o r the management of the highway
s a f e t y system need to be convinced t h a t c e r t a i n aspects o f the problem
can be a t t r i b u t e d to a c e r t a i n d e f ic ie n c y in remedy design.

Until

t h i s can be achieved from research d a t a , d i f f i c u l t y can be expected
in m a t e r i a l l y a l t e r i n g the e x i s t i n g system f o r in t ro d u c tio n o f new
and perhaps more e f f e c t i v e countermeasure a c t i v i t y .
More s c i e n t i f i c evidence is also needed to account f o r changes
when they occur in the t r a f f i c crash experience.

The technology

sought to e s t a b l i s h the b e n e fit s o f the s e l e c t i v e enforcement counter­
measures w i l l a s s i s t responsible decision makers in adj u s ti n g police
resources to meet the changing needs.
This p r o j e c t should not be measured completely on the basis
o f the r e j e c t i o n o f the basic hypothesis.

Too l i t t l e

is known, as

documented by the s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t review o f p o lic e t r a f f i c services
contained in Chapter I I , to be sure t h a t the c r i t e r i a f o r ev aluating
t h i s study was pr op erly i d e n t i f i e d in the hypothesis t h a t was
developed.

The hypothesis represented the u l t i m a t e e f f e c t the study

was attempting to demonstrate; however, to be s a t i s f i e d t h a t the
s e l e c t i v e enforcement countermeasure could produce t h is u lt im a t e
c a u s e / e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p was purely s p e c u la tiv e .

We know only

91
t h a t suggestive evidence points to t h a t p o t e n t i a l

b e n e f i t , and t h i s

study produces f u r t h e r suggestive thoughts along these l i n e s .
It

is als o important t o mention t h a t the National Highway

T r a f f i c S a f e ty Ad mins tration did an a n a l y s i s o f t h i s study and d e t e r ­
mined t h a t the r e s u l t s were indeed s i g n i f i c a n t .

I t should be

i m p o r t a n t l y no ted , however, t h a t t h e i r a n a l y s i s l e f t out B erri en
county because o f the problem i d e n t i f i e d about h a l f way through the
experiment w i t h the d e l i v e r y o f the enforcement independent v a r i a b l e
in t h a t county.

Reductions in both f a t a l crashes and f a t a l i t i e s

were found to be s i g n i f i c a n t in t h e i r r e v i e w . 54
Another prominent review o f t h i s p r o j e c t , completed by the
Insurance I n s t i t u t e f o r Highway S a f e t y , r e s u l t e d in opposite conclusions.

55

T h e i r p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i o n s to the study had to do w it h the

methodology designed f o r s e l e c t i o n o f the experimental c o u n t ie s .
They a t t a c k the s t r a t e g y o f choosing those cou nties w ith a severe
problem as not a l lo w in g f o r a s c i e n t i f i c basis from which o b j e c t i v e
conclusions could be drawn.

F u r t h e r , they argued t h a t reductions

experienced could be accounted f o r by "r e g re s s i o n - to -t h e - m e a n phe­
nomenon" or a r e t u r n o f an unusual experience to the average j u s t
by chance a lo n e .

Control countie s were chosen in t h i s study to

compensate f o r t h i s la c k o f proper r i g o r in design so t h a t a t the
same time a most serio us problem was being e v a l u a t e d , the d e l i v e r y
cd
" F ata l Crash Reduction Program," A Demonstration P r o j e c t ,
Department o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , N atio nal Highway S a f e ty A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
Fe bru ary, 1973, p. 2.
RR

"FARE B u i l t on F a u l t y Foundation,
Status R e p o r t , Insurance
I n s t i t u t e f o r Highway S a f e t y , May 5 , 1974, V o l. 9 , No. 1 0, p. 3.

92
o f an a p p r o p r i a t e remedy might be i n s t i t u t e d .

It

is i n t e r e s t i n g to

note t h a t t r a f f i c f a t a l i t i e s were reduced below the mean in the
experimental c ou ntie s and the same did not occur as c o n s i s t e n t l y in
the co n tr o l c o u n t ie s .

I t i s als o qu e stio na ble whether the "r e g re s s io n -

to- the-mean" argument a p p lie s in t h i s study case, as the technique is
most a p p l i c a b l e when t h e r e is e r r a t i c
analyzed.
fa lls

It

f l u c t u a t i o n in the data being

is qu estio nab le whether or not t r a f f i c crash experience

in the e r r a t i c c a t e g o r y , but i t does not seem t o .
One f a c t o r t h a t added an i n t e r e s t i n g dimension t o t h i s study

was t h a t t h r e e o f the experimental countie s were again the sub jects
o f f u r t h e r enforcement treatm ent du rin g periods o f 1973 and t h r e e were
n o t.

A review o f the experience during the perio d o f August through

December, 1973, rev ea led t h a t two o f the counties t h a t had r ec eiv ed
the enforcement coverage during the 1973 period had a b e t t e r f a t a l and
f a t a l i t y crash experie nc e.

In those c ou ntie s not t r e a t e d in 1973,

two became worse and one b e t t e r .
In another a n a l y s i s o f t h i s study, i t was determined t h a t
. . . the experimental counties d i f f e r markedly from each o f
the o t h e r t h r e e co n tr o l groups o f c o u n t i e s , both in the con­
t r a s t between d e v i a t i o n s from averages during the experimental
p e r i o d , August through December, 1972, compared to January
through J u l y , 1972, and in the consistency o f the d e v i a t i o n s .
The r e p o r t f u r t h e r concluded t h a t the d i r e c t i o n o f d e v i a t i o n
from averages f o r the No. 2 c o n tr o l c ou ntie s a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r to
those o f the experimental group.

The p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e was t h a t

^ W i l l i a m H. Peckham, "Experimental Rural T r a f f i c P a t r o l , "
Crminal J u s t i c e Data C e n te r , A n alysis S e c t i o n , Michigan S t a t e
P o l i c e , February 15, 1973, pp. 3 - 8 .

93
the p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f not being due t o chance were g e n e r a lly much
lower than f o r the experimental cou ntie s .
The pure counties showed a p r o b a b i l i t y pa tte rn f a r more
i r r e g u l a r than the experimental counties f o r both f a t a l crashes/
fa ta litie s .

The same basic f in d i n g was noted f o r the less pure

cou ntie s.
Since the conclusion o f t h i s study, two subsequent s e l e c t i v e
enforcement programs have been i n i t i a t e d by the Michigan S ta te P o lic e .
In both these e f f o r t s , s i m i l a r p o s i t i v e r e s u lt s occurred in reducing
the trend in the f a t a l i t y accident experience.
P r o j e c t success f o r t h i s study was measured in an aggregate
way and, although t h i s is the t e s t a p p ro priate f o r the circumstances,
there is much to be said f o r p r o j e c t r e s u l t s by examination of each
o f the counties i n d i v i d u a l l y and then attempting to suggest why these
d i f f e r e n c e s might have occurred.
Reductions in f a t a l accidents and f a t a l i t i e s were experienced
in the counties o f Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , and S t . C l a i r .

The r e s u l t s in

Cass and Tuscola counties were fa vo ra b le but did not r e f l e c t as much
improvement.

The r e s u l t s in Be rrien county were less than s a t i s f a c t o r y .

Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , and St. C l a i r
Counties
The combined f o u r - y e a r averages f o r the f i r s t seven months
in the counties o f Eaton, H i l l s d a l e , and St. C l a i r were 36 r u r a l
f a t a l accidents and 43.25 r u r a l f a t a l i t i e s , combined across these
thre e c o u n tie s .

During the f i r s t seven months o f 1972, these same

counties had recorded a t o t a l o f 68 r u r a l f a t a l accidents and 75 r u r a l

94
fa ta litie s .

The f o u r - y e a r averages f o r the months o f August through

December in these same counties were 29.75 r u r a l f a t a l accidents and
37.75 r u r a l f a t a l i t i e s .

During these same months o f 1972, there were

16 f a t a l accidents and 16 f a t a l i t i e s

in these t hre e c ou ntie s.

These

s t a t i s t i c s reveal t h a t during the f i r s t seven months o f 1972 there
was an increase o f 32 r u r a l

fatal

accidents and 32 r u r a l f a t a l i t i e s

as compared to the f o u r - y e a r average which represents percentage
increases o f 8 8 .9 and 7 4 . 0 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
reductions in r u r al

By c o n t r a s t , the re were

f a t a l accidents during the August-through-December

period from the f o u r - y e a r average o f 29.75 to 16 in 1972 and in r u r a l
f a t a l i t i e s from the f o u r - y e a r average o f 37.75 to 26 in 1972.

The

percentage reductions were 46.2 and 5 7 . 4 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Reviewing the programs in the counties o f Eaton, H i l l s d a l e ,
and St. C l a i r , there appeared to be f a c t o rs in common t h a t seemed to
c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y to t h e i r success.

In each of these c ou ntie s ,

e x c e l l e n t news coverage was r ec e iv e d , both before the programs were
i n i t i a t e d and during the period the programs were in o p e ra tion .

The

news media were present a t each meeting held in these counties p r i o r
to the inceptio n o f the program.

These meetings included a gathering

of law enforcement o f f i c e r s , prosecutors, and d i s t r i c t judges in the
county a f f e c t e d , as well as meetings arranged by the Michigan Women
f o r Highway Safety which a ls o involved the above public o f f i c i a l s .
During the period the program was in o p e r a t i o n , the news media
released r e g u l a r progress rep or ts r e l a t i n g to the accident experience
and the presence of the a d d i t i o n a l p a tr o l u n i t s .

95
Another f a c t o r t h a t unquestionably influenced the program in
these t hre e counties was the enthusiasm o f the Michigan S t a t e Po lice
cormanding o f f i c e r s o f the posts and d i s t r i c t s

involved.

In each

case the pa tr o l a c t i v i t y was very good and the q u a l i t y o f the r ep o r t in g
o f the a c t i v i t y and the time accounting was unusually good.

In

a d d i t i o n to the e x c e l l e n t enforcement a c t i v i t y o f the State P o l i c e ,
the Eaton County S h e r i f f attended the meetings p r i o r to the s t a r t
o f the program and assigned as many o f his o f f i c e r s as possible to
pa trol during the hours when and where most f a t a l accidents were
oc cu rr ing .

T h e ir drunk d r i v i n g a r r e s t s increased s u b s t a n t i a l l y

during t h i s period and probably c o n tr ib u te d to the improved accident
experience in Eaton county.
Tuscola County
Tuscola county has t r a d i t i o n a l l y had the highest or one of
the highest r u r a l death ra t e s in the s t a t e during recent years.
This special enforcement program was very well recieved by the
public o f f i c i a l s

in the county and also had very good news coverage.

The D i s t r i c t Commander was e n t h u s ia s t ic about the program and the
a c t i v i t y o f the pa tr o l u n i t s was very good.

This program had a very

bad s t a r t , as there were six r u r a l f a t a l accidents with s ix f a t a l i t i e s
during August.

One o f the f a t a l accidents occurred on August 2,

1972, which was a c t u a l l y p r i o r to the beginning o f the program which
s t a r t e d August 4 , 1972.

Although Tuscola county had an increase of

three f a t a l accidents during the five-month period as compared with
the f o u r - y e a r average, t here was a reduction o f 1.5 f a t a l i t i e s as
compared w ith the f o u r - y e a r average.

There was a c t u a l l y a reduction

96
in both f a t a l accidents and f a t a l i t i e s a f t e r the f i r s t month o f the
program.
Cass County
Cass county recorded a s l i g h t reduction in f a t a l i t i e s , but an
increase in f a t a l acc id e n ts .

Cass and Berrien counties are located

side by side and are both in the same S ta te Police d i s t r i c t .

Both

o f these counties were low in enforcement a c t i v i t y as compared with
the ot h er fou r counties in the program.

Comparison studies p r i o r to

the beginning o f the program i n d i c a t e t h a t d r in k in g d r i v e r s were
involved in 60% of the f a t a l accidents in Cass county and t h a t most
of the accidents were one-car accidents which normally involve a
high percentage o f d r in k in g d r i v e r s .

In s p it e of the apparent

d r in k in g d r i v e r problem in Cass county, the special enforcement o f f i ­
cers only a rr e ste d a drunk d r i v e r f o r every 45 .4 car hours on p a t r o l .
This was the poorest r a t e o f any o f the counties.

Berrien county

had the second worst r a t e with an average o f one drunk d r i v e r f o r each
41 .9 car hours on p a t r o l .

The average r a t e f o r the other four counties

was a drunk d r i v e r a r r e s t f o r each 25.8 car hours.

Berrien and Cass

county p a t r o l s also had the poorest r a t e of "other pa trol and complaint
a rr e s ts " per car hour on pa trol and the lowest r a t e o f l i q u o r estab­
lishment inspections per car hour when compared w ith the oth er four
counties.

With t h i s program predicated on the d r in k in g d r i v e r and

f a t a l a ccident problem, shortocmings in D . U . I . L .

enforcement, l i q u o r

in s p e cti o ns , and the "other pa trol and complaint a r r e s t " categories
should, and a p p a re n tly d i d , r e f l e c t in the u l t i m a t e success o f the
program in these cou ntie s.

The "other pa trol and complaint a rr e s t s "

97
in clu de those a r r e s t s t h a t a re not a p a r t o f the v e h i c l e code except
those a r r e s t e d on open t r a f f i c w a rr a n t s .

These a r r e s t s are considered

to be very important as app roxim ate ly 60% in v o lv e e i t h e r alcohol or
n a r c o t ic s and could w ell have r e s u l t e d in the subje ct d r i v i n g a
v e h i c l e w h ile his a b i l i t y was impaired or i nflue n c ed had he not been
apprehended.
B e r ri e n County
B e r rie n county was the only experimental county where t h e r e
was an increase in f a t a l i t i e s .

The law enforcement c o n s id e r a ti o n

described p r e v i o u s ly was probably a f a c t o r in the increase in f a t a l
accidents and f a t a l i t i e s

in Berrien county.

However, t h e r e was also

another element t h a t c e r t a i n l y deserves an e x p l a n a t i o n .

B e r rie n

county recorded an e x c e p t i o n a l l y high number o f what would normally
be considered unusual f a t a l
county recorded 28 r u r a l

accidents f o r a r u r a l

a re a .

f a t a l accidents and f a t a l i t i e s

August-through-December program.

This t o t a l

B e r ri e n
during the

included seven pe d e str ia n

f a t a l i t i e s , one farm t r a c t o r f a t a l i t y on a roadway t h a t did not
i n v o l v e a road v e h i c l e , and one f a t a l i t y

in v o lv in g a snowmobile and

a car.
M u ltip le F a t a litie s
There was a very low r a t i o o f m u l t i p l e f a t a l i t i e s during the
fiv e-m o nth period in the s i x c ou ntie s involved in the s p ec ial e n f o r c e ­
ment program.

There were 68 s i n g l e f a t a l i t y accid e n ts and one double

f a t a l i t y during the f iv e - m o n t h program.
1.01 f a t a l i t i e s

This amounts to a r a t e o f

per f a t a l a c c id e n t during the program as compared to

98
a r a t e o f 1.15 during the f i r s t seven months o f 1972.

The r u r a l

s t a t e - w id e r a t e f o r 1972 was 1.16 f a t a l i t i e s per f a t a l ac cident.
There is no way o f determining what e f f e c t , i f any, the
special enforcement program had on t h i s extremely low r a t e o f m u l t i ­
ple f a t a l i t i e s .

However, i t would appear ther e was a s u f f i c i e n t number

o f f a t a l accidents during t h i s period to determine t h a t the proba­
b i l i t y o f t h i s reduction being a m atte r o f chance alone is very small.
The p u b l i c i t y given the program both before and during the p r o j e c t
period plus the e x tr a enforcement could well have created an aware­
ness in the general d r i v i n g population o f the problem o f the drinkin g
d r i v e r to the e x te n t t h a t most motorists were d r i v i n g d e f e n s iv e l y to
avoid involvement in an accident w ith a drunken d r i v e r .
T r a d i t i o n a l l y a high percentage o f m u ltio p le f a t a l i t y
accidents occur on weekends and invo lve d rin k in g d r i v e r s .

The

special enforcement program was assigned to combat these f a c t o rs and
could well have been p a r t i a l l y responsible f o r the very low f a t a l i t y
r a t e per f a t a l a cc id e n t.
Miscellaneous
In a d d i t i o n to rev ers ing the s p i r a l i n g upward trend in f a t a l
accidents and f a t a l i t i e s

in the s ix county area p r i o r to t h i s program

to a reduction during the program, there
well

was a side b e n e f i t t h a t may

r e s u l t in a f u t u r e saving o f l i v e s .
Many times o f f i c e r s on patrol become discouraged and wonder

i f they are accomplishing anything by enforcing t r a f f i c laws.

I t was

brought to the a t t e n t i o n o f p r o j e c t personnel by the commanding
o f f i c e r s in a t l e a s t two o f the counties

t h a t they could d e t e c t an

99
enthusiasm in the troopers toward t r a f f i c law enforcement by t h e i r
having p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h i s program and having observed the reduction
in f a t a l accidents and f a t a l i t i e s

that resulted.

I t was f e l t t h a t

being able to measure the reductions t h a t were app arently a d i r e c t
r e s u l t of t h e i r s e l e c t i v e enforcement e f f o r t s w i l l

provide m otivation

f o r the f u t u r e .
I t is important to make note o f the f a c t t h a t the county t h a t
had the best crash reduction experience also did so well when measured
on a l c o h o l - r e l a t e d crim in a l a r r e s t s .

The present s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t in

a l c o h o l , in r e l a t i o n to highway s a f e t y , suggests t h a t the social prob­
lem o f alcohol beyond i t s involvement with t r a f f i c

is probably the

more basic causal f a c t o r and perhaps i t s involvement w ith t r a f f i c
only symptomatic o f t h i s broader social

ill.

is

F u r t h e r , although other

forms of drugs have not been i s o l a t e d as a major c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r
in f a t a l crashes, i t seems important to make mention o f the f a c t t h a t
the county whose enforcement performance was the best made a con­
s id e r a b le number of these contacts when compared to t h e i r partne r
experimental counties.
S u r p r i s i n g l y , d r in k in g accidents were not m a t e r i a l l y impacted
during the weekend deployment schedule.

However, the r a t e o f

increase was less during the weekend when compared to the weekday.
In e i t h e r case, the change was not s i g n i f i c a n t , but i t was o f concern
to note t h a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r aspect o f the problem did not seem to
be a f f e c t e d too d r a m a t i c a l ly and suggests perhaps t h a t the alcohol
component portion o f the problem i s much broader than j u s t being
associated w it h highway s a f e t y .

100

The variance o f enforcement coverage points to one o f the
most perplexing issues fa cing p o li c e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

Not only is the

matter o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement and i t s e f f e c t s o f concern, b u t,
i m p o r t a n t ly , to what l e v e l o f s a t u r a t io n must t h i s countermeasure be
introduced to c r e a t e t h a t desired e f f e c t , o r , j u s t as im p o r t a n t l y ,
a t what le v e l w i l l
effect.

i t lose i t s e f f i c i e n c y in producing t h i s important

I t would appear t h a t the enforcement level

d r a m a t i c a l l y before an e f f e c t can be expected.

has to be increased

But i t is not c l e a r

from t h i s study the le v e l a t which the return s begin to di m inish .
This study was g r e a t l y encouraged by a h i s t o r y o f Michigan
S ta te P o lice t r a f f i c enforcement experience which has tremendous
suggestive i m p l i c a t i o n s .

Examining the enforcement and accident

experience c o r r e l a t i o n f o r the period 1954 through 1972 o f f e r s corrob­
o r a t i v e help to decision makers who are considering p u r s u it o f the
s e l e c t i v e enforcement highway s a f e t y countermeasure.

For these many

y e a rs , i t shows t h a t when t r a f f i c enforcement a c t i v i t y is high,
acciden t experience is g e n e r a lly low.
In Chapter I ,

See Figure 5.

referen ce was made to the problem o f highway

sa fe t y and t h a t perhaps remedies w i l l

have to go beyond the highway

s a fe t y system, as the basic problems do not n e c e s s a rily lend them­
selves to s o lu tio n w i t h i n the framework o f the highway s a f e t y system.
In Michigan, one o f the c o n s is te n t v a r i a b l e s in s o c ie ty t h a t c o r r e ­
la t e s w ith the t r a f f i c crash problem is associated w ith employment
trends.

Figure 6 v i v i d l y demonstrates t h i s i n t e r e s t i n g c o r r e l a t i o n .
Another important question t h a t was being observed during the

study was to note the d i f f u s i o n e f f e c t t h a t the enforcement a c t i v i t y

101

c
n
so
CO

o

CO

in

O
o

o
o

o
o

&
D_ O
<l> tA O m
♦J u k- n

3 w o

o
o

U
1
"!^ Q.►
—
+-> o

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o

o
m
0>

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o
cn

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o
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o
r->.

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O
ir>
10

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o
f-i

o
o

o
o

Figure 5 . - - S t a t e P o lic e Patrol Hours— T r a f f i c F a t a l i t y Comparison,
1954 Through 1972.

102

Figure 6 . - - T r a f f i c

F a t a l i t y Vs. Employment Trends, 1952-74.

103
executed during the weekend might have had on the crash experience
during the week.
As noted e a r l i e r , the crash experience was b e t t e r during the
week when the enforcement e f f o r t was less concentrated.

The issue

t h a t becomes apparent i s whether or not the weekend enforcement e f f o r t
had the e f f e c t o f impacting the f a t a l crash experience during the week.
L i t e r a t u r e support f o r t h i s c a r r y - o v e r e f f e c t is not s u b s t a n t i a l .

The

most recent work on t h i s matter was completed on three enforcement
pr oje cts sponsored by the National Highway T r a f f i c Saf ety Administra­
t io n in t hree la rg e urban communities.

The suggestive f in d i n g in

these p r o je c t s was t h a t t he re was no d i f f u s i o n e f f e c t o f the en forcement a c t i v i t y beyond the treatment period .

57

The observation of the

personnel managing t h i s Michigan study, however, was t h a t the e f f e c t
did in f a c t c a rr y over.

They had no way of e x p la in in g the otherwise

good success o f the enforcement a c t i v i t y .
Im p lic ati o n s f o r Further Research
The p o lic e t r a f f i c services sub-system component c o n s t it u t e s
a major p o rt ion o f the whole t r a f f i c s a fe t y system.

A p r o j e c t io n

study o f highway s a f e t y needs f o r a t e n - y e r p e r io d , 1967-1977, in
fact,

indicated t h a t 51% o f a l l

f u t u r e highway s a fe t y resources would

be needed to properly implement the provisions o f the p o lic e t r a f f i c
services standard.^®
57Anonymous, "Evaluation o f S e l e c t i v e T r a f f i c Enforcement Pro­
grams," PRC Public Management Ser v ic e s , I n c . , Final Report, Contract
No. D0T-HS-268-2-517, May, 1974.
CO
"Estimate of the Cost o f Carrying Out the Provisions o f the
Highway Safe ty Act o f 1966," a r ep o r t to the Congress from the Secre­
t a r y o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , October, 1968, U.S. Dept, o f T r a n s p o r t a t io n , p. 12.

104
The magnitude o f the work to be done in the po lice t r a f f i c
fu n c t io n a l area points to the need f o r insurin g t h a t adequate mechanisms
be employed f o r monitoring the e f f e c t s o f t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t commitment.
To continue t r a d i t i o n a l

i n a t t e n t i o n to the matter o f e va lu atin g the

e f f e c t s o f the p o lic e in control o f the motoring public would be a
d is s e r v ic e to the p u b l i c , f o r i t does c o n s t i t u t e such a l a r g e expense
to the American taxpayer.
The im p lic a ti o n s of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n reported in t h i s study
o f f e r more suggestive support f o r the pr oposition t h a t the p r a c ti c e
of s e l e c t i v e enforcement produces a d i r e c t c o n t r i b u t io n in the
reduction o f the t r a f f i c crash problem.

As has been pointed o u t , the

r i g o r o f t h i s study does not a llow f o r conclusiveness in supporting
s c i e n t i f i c a l l y t h i s suggestive p r o p o s i t io n .

At the l e a s t , i t suggests

t h a t e x te nsiv e work is needed to close the loops t h a t have been
i d e n t i f i e d in the section o f the study t h a t speaks to i t s l i m i t a t i o n s .
The f in din gs are suggestive enough to encourage t h a t f u r t h e r work be
i n i t i a t e d to pursue the basic concept stru ct u re d in t h i s study.
It

is obvious t h a t pr operly designing a study to adequately

account f o r the v a r i a b l e s t h a t operate in the t r a f f i c s a f e t y system
w i l l be expensive.

Those who choose to f u r t h e r examine the basic

p r opos it ion o f t h i s study must be prepared to accept the f a c t t h a t
designing f o r con tro l o f a p p ro p r ia te v a r ia b le s w i l l

be c o s t l y , but

necessary to produce much needed technology in p o lic e t r a f f i c
s ervic es.
A l o g i c a l f i r s t step in designing la rg e scale t r a f f i c acciden t
countermeasure programs is to implement p i l o t proje cts t h a t have

105
a p p r o p r ia t e e v a l u a t i o n pr ovis io ns designed i n t o them.

Only a f t e r

such a d e l i b e r a t e process where countermeasure programs have been
proved t o be e f f e c t i v e i s i t a p p r o p r i a t e t o g iv e high emphasis p r i o r i t y t o the widespread implementation o f such known successes.

59

I m p l i c a t i o n s are made throughout t h i s study t h a t o f f e r sug­
gestions f o r s tre ng thenin g methodological design f o r f u t u r e e f f o r t s
in measuring the e f f e c t s o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement programs.

Many o f

the l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s study were acknowledged and i d e n t i f i e d

in

advance o f the study a n a ly s is process contained in Chapter IV.

How­

e v e r , several f u r t h e r con taminating elements were i d e n t i f i e d as a
r e s u l t o f the a n a ly s i s process.

These are o f f e r e d to a s s i s t those

who r e p l i c a t e t h i s e f f o r t w it h s i m i l a r research p r o j e c t s .
P r o j e c t Management
More a t t e n t i o n should be placed upon the management aspects
o f the d e l i v e r y o f a successful s e l e c t i v e enforcement e f f o r t :

con­

t r o l s to measure le a d e r s h ip a t t i t u d e and e f f e c t i v e n e s s , manpower
a l l o c a t i o n te ch niq ues , and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , f i r s t l i n e sup ervis ory
a t t e n t i o n to the q u a l i t a t i v e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f the s e l e c t i v e e n f o r c e ­
ment p a t r o l u n i t s .
Personnel T r a in in g
T r a i n i n g o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement personnel should be c a r e ­
f u l l y accounted f o r in subsequent research a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s p o li c e
^9A l l a n F. W il li a m s and Leon S. Robertson, "The Fatal Crash
Reduction Program: A R e - e v a l u a t i o n , " The Insurance I n s t i t u t e f o r
Highway S a f e t y , Washington, D . C . , 1974, p. 12.

106
tactic.

Pre- and p o s t- e v a lu a t io n o f the le v e l o f competency p r i o r

to the o f f i c e r s being assigned to t h i s enforcement a c t i v i t y would
a s s i s t in a p p r o p r i a t e l y designing in the f u t u r e to provide p o lice
o f f i c e r s who can e f f e c t i v e l y render t h i s p o lic e s e r v ic e .
Equi pment
I t is important to be able to i s o l a t e the e f f e c t s of equip­
ment t h a t is used in a s e l e c t i v e enforcement e f f o r t .

Does the use

o f vascar, r a d a r , and ot h er speed measuring devices g r e a t l y c o n t r ib u t e
to the e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f the t r a f f i c p a t r o l o f f i c e r ?
tific

Does the sc ien­

alcohol breath t e s t i n g equipment m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t the

p r o d u c t i v i t y o f the pa tr o l o f f i c e r ?

Can video tape a s s i s t in

corrobo rating on-view observations o f the o f f i c e r which might
encourage more a t t e n t i o n to marginal d r i v i n g behavior?
Data Base
Extreme caution is o f f e r e d to those who propose to conduct
s c i e n t i f i c research in the s e l e c t i v e enforcement element of po lic e
t r a f f i c services to insure t h a t study areas are chosen a p p r o p r i a t e l y
f o r s t a t i s t i c a l and op era tio n al a n a l y s i s .

P o t e n t ia l study s i t e s

should be considered to insure adequacy o f numbers.

They can be

secured by working in areas o f s u f f i c i e n c y in acciden t d e n s ity or by
scheduling the experiment over a period o f s u f f i c i e n t du ra tion to
a llow f o r the accumulation o f s u f f i c i e n t numbers to insure a basis
f o r proper a n a l y s i s .

The l i t e r a t u r e is loaded w ith intances o f

in a p p r o p ria t e design a t t e n t i o n to t h i s important m atter.

107
S e l e c t i v e Enforcement A c t i v i t y
I t can be observed by review o f the data ana ly sis in
Chapter IV t h a t enforcement a c t i v i t y consists o f an assortment o f
public c o n ta c t s , i . e . , a r r e s t s , warnings, in s p e c ti o n s , oth er complaint
a r r e s t s , c rim in al r e l a t e d a r r e s t s , and D . U . I . L .

arrests.

I t was

the oriz e d t h a t D . U . I . L . a r r e s t s were a very important enforcement
a c t i v i t y to emphasize because o f the p a r t i c u l a r nature of the
f a t a l i t y problem in the experimental cou ntie s.
This study did not measure the e f f e c t t h a t each o f the
various a c t i v i t i e s might have had on the t r a f f i c f a t a l i t y problem.
Problem D e f i n i t i o n
This study focused on t r a f f i c

fa ta litie s .

There are other

commonly i d e n t i f i e d categorie s o f t r a f f i c crashes, i . e . , personal
i n j u r y and property damage.

The e f f e c t o f s e l e c t i v e enforcement on

these o th er types o f crashes should be a subject o f f u r t h e r i n v e s t i ­
g a t io n .
P o lice J u r i s d i c t i o n
In t h i s study the m atte r of overlapping p o lic e j u r i s d i c t i o n
was i d e n t i f i e d as a confounding v a r i a b l e a t the design stages of
development.

F u rt h er experimentation should be designed to avoid t h i s

contaminate f o r the response from ot h er p o lic e agencies p a t r o l i n g the
same area could be a very i n f l u e n t i a l
tiv ity .

f a c t o r in enforcement produc­

In Michigan the re was no way to avoid t h i s s i t u a t i o n .

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C a l i f o r n i a High­
C a l i f o r n i a High­

APPENDICES

121

APPENDIX A
FATAL ACCIDENT COMPARISONS
BY COUNTY

122

Appendix A - l .

Fatal Accident Comparisons by County, 30.000-50,000 Population.

Avg.
Fat.
5 Yrs.

Avg.
Rate
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St.Dev.
From
Mean

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1970

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1971

Avg.
Rural
Fat.
70/71

ural
Fat.
Rate
Per
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St.Dev.
From
Mean

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1972

Rural
Fat.
Rate
Per
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St.Dev
From
Mean

County

Pop.

Total
Fat.
5 Yrs.

Alpena

30.7

43

8.6

.280

-1.1

8/11

6/6

8 .5

.277

- .8

6/6

.195

- .1

Chippewa

32.4

45

9.0

.278

-1.1

10/13

4/4

8.5

.262

- .9

4/4

.123

- .7

Huron

34.1

86

17.2

.504

+ .8

19/22

16/21

21.5

.630

+ 1.9

8/10

.293

+ .6

Houghton

34.7

43

8 .6

.248

- 1 .3

5/6

10/10

8 .0

.231

- 1 .2

2/3

.086

-1 .0

Sanilac

34.9

71

14,2

.407

+ .0

15/21

9/10

15.5

.444

+ .5

11/11

.315

+ .8

Delta

35.9

56

11.2

.312

- .8

6/6

8/9

7.5

.209

-1 .3

6/7

.195

- .1

H ills d a le

37.2

84

16.8

.452

+ .4

12/13

12/12

12.5

.336

- .4

13/17

.457

+1.9

Branch

37.9

66

13.2

.348

- .5

7/8

15.20

14.0

.369

- .1

6/6

.158

- .4

Barry

38.2

84

16.8

.440

+ .3

11/18

11/16

17.0

.445

6/8

2.09

- .0

Grd. Traverse

39.2

62

12.4

.315

- .8

8/9

8/10

9 .5

.242

-i.i

3/3

.077

-1.1

G ra tio t

39.2

83

16.6

.423

+ .2

15/20

12/12

16.0

.408

+ .2

10/11

.281

+ .5

Montcalm

39.7

85

17.2

.433

+ .2

15/15

10/11

13.0

.327

- .4

4 /5

.125

- .7

Cass

43.3

117

23.4

.540

+ 1.1

17/21

21/28

24.5

.566

+1.4

16/22

.508

+2.3

Isab ella

44.6

67

13.4

.300

- .9

6/7

12/18

12.5

.280

- .8

6/6

.135

- .6

Ionia

45.9

83

16.6

.362

- .4

14/16

14/18

17.0

.370

- .1

7/7

.153

- .5

St. Joseph

47.4

120

24.0

.506

+ .9

18/23

16/25

24.0

.506

+ .9

9/9

.190

- .2

Clinton

48.5

100

20.0

.412

+ .1

18/19

18/18

18.5

.381

- .0

2/2

.041

- 1 .4

Tuscola

48.6

175

35.0

.720

+2.7

19/34

24/27

30.5

.628

+1.9

12/14

.288

+ .6

‘

.405 Mean
.118 St. Dev.
.028 St. Err.
Source:

.384 Mean
.130 St. Dev.
.031 S t. E rr.

.213 Mean
.125 St.Dev.
.030 S t .E r r .

"Fatal Crash Reduction Program," Federal A pplication fo r Highway Safety Funds, Michigan Department o f State P o lic e ,
O ffic e o f Highway Safety Planning, Lansing, Michigan.

Appendix A-2.

Fatal Accident Comparisons by County, 50,000-100,000 Population.

Total
Fat.
5 Yrs.

Avg.
Fat.
5 Yrs

Avg.
Rate
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St.Dev.
From
Mean

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1970

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1971

Avg.
Rural
Fat.
70/71

Rural
Fat.
Rate
Per
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St.Dev.
From
Mean

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1972

Rural
Fat.
Rate
Per
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St.Dev.
From
Mean

County

Pop.

Lapeer

52.3

137

27.4

.524

+1,4

16/19

23/29

24.0

.459

+1.1

9/11

.210

+ .5

Van Buren

55.2

132

26.4

.470

+ .8

24/28

14/17

22.5

.400

+ .5

8 /8

.142

- .6

Livingston

59.0

135

27.0

.458

+ .6

18/23

25/28

25.5

.432

+ .8

13/14

.237

+ .9

Shiawassee

53.1

111

22.2

.352

- .6

15/22

19/20

21.0

.333

- .2

7/8

.127

- .8

Midland

63,8

95

19.0

.298

- 1 .3

7/7

13/17

12.0

.188

-1 .6

5/10

.157

- .4

Marquette

64.7

91

18.2

.281

- 1 .5

12/15

11/12

13.5

.209

- 1 .4

3/5

.077

- 1 .6

Allegan

66.6

123

24.6

.369

- .4

15/17

15/21

19.0

.285

- .6

8/12

.180

0

Eaton

68.9

148

29.6

.430

+ .3

19/26

21/26

26.0

.377

+ .3

19/20

.290

+1.7

Lenawee

81.6

190

38.9

.466

+ .7

31/41

30/33

37.0

.453

+1.1

14/16

.196

+ .3

.405 Mean
.084 St.Dev.
.028 S t .E r r .

Source:

.348 Mean
.100 St.Dev.
.033 S t .E r r .

.180 Mean
.063 St.Dev.
.021 S t .E r r .

"Fatal Crash Reduction Program," Federal Application fo r Highway Safety Funds, Michigan Department of State Po lice,
O ffic e o f Highway Safety Planning, Lansing, Michigan.

Appendix A -3.

Fatal Accident Comparisons by County, 100,000-200,000 Population.

Total
Fat.
5 Yrs.

Avg.
Fat.
5 Yrs.

Avg.
Rate
Thou.
Pop.

t or St.Dev.
From
Mean

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1970

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1971

Avg.
Rural
Fat.
70/71

Rural
Fat.
Rate
Per
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St.Dev,
From
Mean

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1972

Rural
Fat.
Rate
Per
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St.Dev
From
Mean

County

Pop.

Bay

117.3

179

35.8

.305

- .2

19/21

29/34

27.5

.234

- .2

6/8

.06B

- 1 .2

Monroe

118.5

277

55.4

.468

+2.1

40/49

40/45

47.0

.397

+1.8

17/19

.160

+ .5

St. C la ir

120.2

207

41.4

.344

+ .2

26/31

22/22

26.5

.220

- .3

25/27

.225

+1.7

Ottawa

128.2

167

33.4

.261

- .8

23/25

31/35

30.0

.234

- .2

14/16

.125

- .1

Calhoun

142.0

217

43.4

.307

- .2

31/32

22/24

28.0

.197

- .6

13/19

.134

+ .0

Jackson

143.3

199

39.8

.278

- .6

22/27

37/40

33.5

.238

- .1

15/18

.126

- .1

Muskegon

157.4

188

37.6

.239

-1 .2

19/22

16/19

20.5

.130

- 1 .4

7/9

.057

- 1 .4

Berrien

163.9

300

60.0

.366

+ .6

53/61

45/47

54.0

.329

+ 1.0

25/27

.165

+ .6

.321
.071
.025

Source:

Mean
St.Dev.
S t .E r r .

.247 Mean
.084 St.Dev.
.030 S t .E r r .

.133 Mean
.055 St.Dev.
.019 S t .E r r .

"Fatal Crash Reduction Program," Federal Application fo r Highway Safety Funds, Michigan Department of State P o lic e ,
O ffic e of Highway Safety Planning, Lansing, Michigan.

Appendix A -4.

Fatal Accident Comparisons by County, Over 200,000 Population.

Total
Fat.
5 Yrs.

Avg.
Fat.
5 Yrs.

Avg.
Rate
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St.Dev.
From
Mean

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1970

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1971

Avg.
Rural
Fat.
70/71

Rural
Fat.
Rate
Per
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St.Dev.
From
Mean

Rural
F .A ./
Fat.
1972

Rural
Fat.
Rate
Per
Thou.
Pop.

+ or St,Dev
From
Mean

County

Pop.

Kalamazoo

201.6

231

46.2

.229

+ .1

22/29

34/39

34.0

.169

+ .1

13/14

.069

+ .1

Saginaw

219.7

336

67.2

.306

+1.3

41/46

55/71

58.5

.266

+1.3

21/28

.127

+2.7

Washtenaw

234.1

321

64.2

.274

+ .8

57/71

49/57

64.0

.273

+1.4

20/21

.090

+ .8

Ingham

261.0

180

36.0

.138

-1 .4

27/30

19/20

25.0

.096

- .9

5/6

.023

- 1 .9

Kent

411.0

435

87.0

.217

- .1

34/42

44/51

46.5

.113

- .6

14/17

.041

- .8

Genesee

444.3

621

124.2

.280

+ .9

68/77

78/99

88.0

.198

+ .5

28/34

.077

+ .5

Macomb

625.3

470

94.0

.150

-1 .2

40/45

41/46

45.5

.073

- 1 .2

22/25

.040

-1.1

Oakland

907.9

890

178.0

.196

- .4

99/109

92/103 106.0

.117

- .6

48/53

.058

- .3

.224 Mean
.063 St.Dev.
.022 S t .E r r .

Source:

.163 Mean
.077 St.Dev.
.027 S t .E r r .

.066 Mean
.032 St.Dev.
.011 S t .E r r .

"Fatal Crash Reduction Program," Federal Application f o r Highway Safety Funds, Michigan Department of State P o lic e ,
O ffic e of H"ghway Safety Planning, Lansing, Michigan.

APPENDIX B
EXPERIMENTAL COUNTY TRAFFIC
CRASH CHARACTERIZATION

127

State

State

107287
1364.7

332015
813. B

u

o

i

128

I
Q

h-*

County
Experience
161400 Population 1970
1912 Road Miles 1968

3649
3602
3680
3990
3700
3783

13064
12490
13067
13689
11939
11251

6159
5981
6224
6791
6918
6987

27.7
25.6
28. B
30.0
26.2
25.0

57.3
51. 3
55.6
60,9
SI.5
49.0

58
65
67
54
62
51

118 B

6487
6232
6796
7563
6671
6497
21.0

1823
1933
2113
1948
1B99
53.6
51.6
53.4
54.6
53.9
57.0

13.2
12.7
14.0
11.5
12.0

4.5
4.0
3.9
4 .6
3.7
3.5

16.1
15.5
16.5
16-4
15. B
16.3

Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities

1966
1967
196B
1969
1970
1971
1972

2972
2916
2849
2961
3019
2799

Injuries
Injuries
Inj uries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
injuries

1966
1967
1968
1969
19 70
1971
1972

64.4
61.8
61.8
64 .6
63.3
61.8

Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
19 70
1971
1972

18.9
18.1
17.6
17.3
16.9
15.7

1 .A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I .A./R.V.
1 .A./R.V.

1966

F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

1967

1968
1969
1970
1971

1972

.570
.620
.602
.612
.554
.500

.267
.332
.318
.320
.282
.240

75.2
74.1
75.5
77.4
74.3
78.1

64. B
64.6
67.0
55.8
52.5

123.1
119.5
118.1
121.4
120.9
110.5

Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdH
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM

1966
19 67
1968
19 69
19 70
19 71
19 72

.77B
.757
.760
.735
.684
.630

.399
.379
.376
.426
.321
.300

.979
1.086
1.006
.764
.943
.830

FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

23.4
22.7
23.7
23.8
22.4

22.1

36.1
34.6
33.7
33.1
32.3
30.2

IA/RV/RdM
lA/RV/RdM
lA/RV/RdH
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
lA/RV/RdM
lA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
i9 69
1970
1971
1972

.512
.568
.526
.399
.493
.430

I

68.2

21.9
21.5
22.7
19.6
18.7

22.8

•figures represent

S " 1 io*luc
bource:

BERRIEN COUNTY

David K. Damkot and W illia m T. P o llo c k , Dev e l oumi*nt o f Highway S a fe ty Pro(jram and Pr o j e c t E v a lu a tio n C r i t e r i a AccYiient Experience C h aracter! n a tio n ,
Hf’fjltwdy T a Y ety TlesearclfTnlfr. 1 t u t e , The U n iv e rs i ty o f fa i chTgan,
nTrhoF,
M ichigan, November, 1 9 7 1 .

State

li

1072B7

State

I

a

a

129

County
u> Experience

332015
013. B

426 81
1192

3649
3602
3680
3990
3730
3783

13064
12490
13067
13689
11939
11251

1115
1194
1450
1545
1579
1654

27.7
25.6
20. B
30.0
26.2
25.0

57.3
51.3
55.6
60.9
51.5
49.0

24
14
26
28
21
20

1188
1823
1933
2113
1948
1899

6487
6232
6796
7563
6671
6497

53.6
51.6
53.4
54.6
53.9
57.0

21.0
13.2
12.7
14.0
11.5
12.0

16.1
15.5
16.5
16.4
15.8
16.3

4.5
4.0
3.9
4.6
3.7
3.5

,.570
.620
.602
.612
.554
.500

1364.7

Population 1970
Road Miles 1968
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities

1966
1967
1968
1969
19 70
1971
1972

742
729
668
785
755
702

Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

45.5
49.0
56 .0
56.7
55 .8
56.2

Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V,
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V,
Acc/R.V.

1966
1967
1960
1969
1970
1971
1972

18.1
17.9
15.9
17.5
17.3
15.9

I.A./R.V.
I,A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
1.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
19 70
1971
1972

.267
.332
.318
.320
.282
.240

.693
.451
.733
.881
.600
.710

F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

75.2
74. 1
75. 5
77.4
74.3
78.1

68.2
64. 8
64.6
67.0
55.8
52.5

54.2
58.0
66.7
67.6
66.4
67.2

Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

.778
.757
.760
.785
.684
.630

.399
.379
.376
.426
.321
.300

.826
.538
.874
1.051
.715
.850

FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

23.4
22.7
23.7
23.8
22.4
22.8

22.1
21.9
21.S
22.7
19.6
18.7

21.6
21.3
19.0
20 .9
20 .6
19.0

lA/RV/RdM
lA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1960
1969
1970
1971
1972

E
P

I

•figures represent
times 10

Source:

CASS COUNTY
David K. Damkot and W illia m T. P o llo c k , Development o f Highway S a fe ty Pro~
g r am and P r o je c t E v a lu a tio n C r i t e r i a Accident Experience C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n ,
Highway S a fe ty Research I n s t i t u t e , th e U n iv e r s it y o f M ichig an , Ann A rb o r,
M ichigan, November, 1971.

130
County
Experience

State
V

State
o

1072B7
1364.7

332015
813. a

68352
1348

3649
36 02
3690
3990
3700
3783

13064
12490
13067
13689
11939
11251

1694
1793
19 SB
2318
2198
23B2

27.7
25.6
28.8
30.0
26,2
25.0

57.3
51.3
55.6
60.9
51.5
49.0

23
17
4B
27
28
29

1188
1823
1933
2113
1948
1B99

64B7
6232
6796
7563
6671
6497

53.6
51.6
53.4
54.6
53.9
57.0

21.0
13.2
12.7
14.0
11.5
12.0

16.1
15.5
16. 5
16.4
15.8
16.3

4.5
4.0
3.9
4.6
3.7
3.5

.570
.620
.602
.612
.554
.500

.267
.332
.318
.320
.282
.240

75.2
74.1
75. 5
77,4
74.3
78.1

68.2
64. B
64.6
67.0
55.8
52.5

.778
.757
.760
.785
.684
.630

.399
.379
.376
.426
.321
.300

23. 4
22.7
23.7
23. B
22.4
22.8

22.1
21.9
21.5
22.7
19.6
18.7

•figures represent
actual value
times 101

Source:

w

F
r£
C

£

)

Population 1970
Road Miles 1968
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents

1966
1967
1960
1969
1970

1971
1972

Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities

1966
1967
I960
1969
1970
1971
1972

905
1033
1129
1270
1172
1224

Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries

1966
1967
19 6 B
1969
19 70
1971
1972

50.6
52.5
54.8
59.1
52 .9
52.5

Acc/R.v.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
ACC/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.

1966
1967
1960
1969
1970
1971
1972

15. B
18.1
18.3
18 .9
16.2
16.6

1 .A./R.V.
I .A./R.V,
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.

1966
1967
196B
1969
1970
1971
1972

.537
.497
.909
.611
.505
.510

F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V,
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

60.1
72,1
73.8
79.6
71.3
71. B

Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

.724
.670
1.225
.624
.681
.690

FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

21.3
24.4
24.7
25.5
21.B
22. B

IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

EATON COUNTY

David K, Damkot and W illia m T. P o llo c k * Development o f Highway S a fe ty Pro­
gram and P r o je c t E v a lu a tio n C r i t e r i a A c c id e n tE x p e r ie n c e C h a r a c t e r iz a t io n ,
Highway S a fe ty Research I n s t i t u t e , The U n iv e r s it y o f M ichigan, Ann Arbor,
M ichigan, November, 1971.

State

ti

107287
1364.7

State
□

332015
813.8

131

i
a

u

I]

County
Experience
36599
1372

3649
3602
36 80
3990
3780
3783

13064
12490
13067
13689
11939
11251

106B
1179
1315
1369
1352
1376

27.7
25.6
28.8
30.0
26.2
25.0

57.3
51.3
55.6
60.9
51.5
49.0

10
26
11
21
14
12

1188

6487
6232
6796
7563
6671
6497
21.0

1823
1933
2113
1948
1899
53.6
51.6
53. 4
54.6
53.9
57.0

13.2
12.7
14.0
11.5
12.0

tl 6 . 1
15.5
16.5
16.4
15.8
16.3
.570

.620
.602
.612
.554
.500

.267
.332
.318
.320
. 2B2

.240

Population 1970
Road Miles 1968
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accldcnt3
Accidents

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

531
475
604
560
572
516

Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

45.1
48.5
52.5
53.6
51. B
50.7

Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
ACC/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
AcC/R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

14.2
12.5
14.0
13.0
13.6
12.5

I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I .A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

.422
.B21
.319
,5B7
.498
.440

F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.

4.966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

75.2
74.1
75.5
77.4
74.3
78.1

64. B
64.6
67.0
55. B
52. 5

61.9
66.4
72.0
73.6
71.1
70.5

Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

.778
.757
.760
.705
.684
.630

.399
.379
.376
.426
.321
.300

.579
1.126
.438
.80 6
.683
.620

FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

23.4
22.7
23.7
23.8
22.4

22.1

19.5
17.2
19.2
17. B
IB.7
17. 4

IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
19 70
1971
1972

22.8

68.2

21.9
21.5
22.7
19.6
18.7

•figures represent
times !o?luo
HILLSDALE COUNTY
Source: David K. Damkot and W illia m T. P o llo c k , Deve l o pment o f Highway S a fe ty Pro­
gram and P r o je c t E v a lu a tio n C r i t e r i a Accident Expe rien ce C h a r a c t e r i z a t io n ,
Highway S a fe ty Research I n s t i t u t e , The U n iv e r s it y ^ o f M ichigan, Ann A rbor,
M ichigan, November, 1971.

I
fif

I
Q

132

C ounty

State
u

State
a

107287
1364.7

332015
813.8

118776
1967

3649
3602
3680
3990
37BQ
3783

13064
12490
13067
136B9
11939
11251

4158
4212
4410
4554
4244
4361

27.7
25. 6
28.8
30.0
26.2
25.0

57.3
51.3
55.6
60.9
51.5
49.0

1188
1823
1933
2113
1948
1899

64B7
6232
6796
7563
6671
6497

1923
1973
1963
2145
1826
1963

Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries

1966
1967
1968
1969
19 70
1971
1972

53.6
51.6
53.4
54.6
53.9
57.0

21.0
13.2
12.7
14.0
11.5
12.n

66.3
66.7
66.7
64.3
58.6
57.6

Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
ACC/R.V.
Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

16.1
15.5
16.5
16.4
15.8
16.3

4.5
4.0
3.9
4.6
3.7
3.5

18.2
18.8
18.4
IB.5
16.3
16.3

I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I .A./R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
19 70
1971
1972

.570
.620
.602
.612
.554
.500

.267
.332
.318
.320
.2B2
.240

.574
.522
.650
.578
.427
.400

F,A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

75.2
74.1
75.5
77.4
74.3
78.1

6B.2
64. B
64.6
67.0
55.8
52.5

130.4
131.2
131.1
126.4
115.2
114.2

Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdH
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

.778
.757
.760
.785
.684
.630

.399
.379
.376
.426
.321
.300

1.129
1.027
1.279
1.138
.840
,790

FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

23.4
22.7
23.7
23.8
22.4
22.8

22.1
21.9
21.5
22.7
19.6
18.7

35 .B
37 .0
36.2
36.4
32.1
32.3

IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

Experience

mJLm

•figures represent
actual value
times 10*

Source

!

David
V
Q V IU

Population 19 70
Road Miles 1968
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

42 Patalities 1966
35 Fatalities 1967
55 Fatalities 1968
46 Fatalities 1969
36 Fatalities 19 70
33 Fatalities 1971
Fatalities 1972

i

E h

ST. CLAIR COUNTY

K,
m T.
Puo,l lo c k , Development ~o f ~Highway
r\ . Damkot
u a m n u i and
umu W
n iililii a
m...
•• .
'/.
J S
r ~a‘f e
I t y ■ Pr_oI-- v a-lu a t io
- n C
- r•i t e r i■a A
* ccid
^ en t E x p e r i e n c e Charac
gram and P r o j e c t E
C h a ra c te riza tio n
Highway S a f e t y Research I n s t i t u t e , The U n i v e r s i t y o f M ic h ig a n , Ann A r b o r ,
M ich ig an , November, 1971.

S ta te

S ta te

U

a'

107287
1364.7

332015
813.8

3649
3602
3680
3990
3780
3783

13064
12490
13067
13689
119 39
11251

27.7
2S.6
2 8 .a
30.0
26.2
25.0

57.3
51.3
55.6
60.9
51.5
49.0

1188
1B23
1933
2113
1948
1899

6487
6232
6796
7563
6671
6497

>53.6
51.6
53.4
54.6
53.9
57.0

2 1 .0
13.2
12 .7
14.0
11.5
12.0

16.1
15.5
16.5
16.4
15.8
16.3

I
a

133
£T

i
a

K)

Q

County

ExporiencQ
48285 Population 1970
1850 Road Miles 1968
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents
Accidents

1966
1967
196B
1969
1970
1971
1972

Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities
Fatalities

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
19 71
1972

Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries
Injuries

1966
1967
1968
1969
19 70
1971
1972

15.5 Acc/R.v.
27.0 Acc/R.V.
39 .4 Acc/R.V.
37.0 Acc/R.V.
36 .3 Acc/R.V.
35.0 Acc/R.V.
Acc/R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
19 70
1971
1972

4.5
4.0
3.9
4.6
3.7
3.5

6.2
9.9
12.9
12 .2
12.6
11.6

I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.
I.A./R.V.

1966
1967
19 6 B
1969
19 70
1971
1972

.570
.620
.602
.612
.554
.500

.267
.332
.318
.320
.282
.240

.B50
.886
.886
1.087
.581
.700

F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.
F.A./R.V.

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

75.2
74.1
75.5
77.4
74.3
78.1

68.2
64.8
64.6
67.0
55.8
52.5

28.6
49 .9
72.8
65.5
67.2
64.7

Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM
Acc/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

.778
.757
.760
.785
.684
.630

.399
,379
.376
.426
.321
.300

1.573
1.639
1.639
2.012
1.075
1.300

FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM
FA/HV/RdM
FA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

23.4
22.7
23.7
23.8
22.4
22.8

22.1
21.9
21.5
22.7
19.6
18.7

11.5
IB.3
23.9
22.6
23.3
21.5

IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdH
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM
IA/RV/RdM

1966
1967
196B
1969
1970
1971
1972

* f i g u r o s xeprese
a c t u a l v a lu e

times 10'

Source:

454
762
1155
1156
1186
1198

&

28
26
37
48
34
27
356
448
661
650
645
621

C

!i

TUSCOLA COUNTY

Davi d K. Damkot and W i l l i a m T. P o l l o c k , Development o f Highway S a f e t y P r o ­
gram and Pr o j e c t Ev a l uat i o n C r i t e r i a A cc i d en t E x pe r i en ce C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n ,
Highway S a f e t y Research I n s t i t u t e , The U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n , A n n T r b o r ,
M i c h i g a n , November, 1971,

APPENDIX C
COMPARISON OF COUNTIES WITH HIGH
FATAL ACCIDENT EXPERIENCE

134

APPENDIX C
COMPARISON OF COUNTIES WITH HIGH FATAL ACCIDENT EXPERIENCE
Percentage o f Accidents In v o lv in g Drinking D r iv e r s , Percentage o f D riv e rs
Residing in County Where Accident Occurred, and Percentage o f Conviction
o f S ta te P o lic e D . U . I . L . A r r e s t s .

County

% o f Accidents
In v o lv in g
Drinking D riv e rs
Fa ta ls
In ju ry
1971-72
1971-72

Percentage o f D rivers
Residing in County
Where Accident Occurred
Fa ta ls
In ju r y
1971-72
1971-72

% Conviction
of D .U .I.L .
A rre s ts
S ta te P o lic e
1972

Huron

37 .5

30.7

8 0 .6

70 .9

61

Sanilac

53.3

3 0 .0

83 .3

62.2

72

H ills d a le

4 5 .5

24.4

8 0 .0

66.3

50

Barry

6 2 .5

21 .5

56.3

57.8

100

G r a t io t

23.1

22.5

54.1

61.9

60

Cass

6 0 .0

26.6

58.5

53.9

81

Tuscola

32 .4

16.3

56.5

69.3

71

L ivin gston

35 .5

25.2

57.1

55.2

54

Eaton

57.6

24.9

48 .8

65 .0

74

Lenawee

55 .0

24.7

74 .5

74 .4

78

Monroe

30 .6

2 6 .8

64 .9

68 .3

71

S t. C l a i r

4 5 .5

26.1

77 .4

79 .0

90

B errien

4 5 .0

22 .4

67 .5

77 .8

85

Saginaw

33.8

18.7

6 7 .0

82 .4

40

Washtenaw

56.7

20.4

4 9 .0

69 .3

82

Genesee

4 2 .0

20.7

77 .7

8 6 .8

55

Source: "F ata l Crash Reduction Program," Federal A p p lic a tio n f o r Highway
S afety Funds, Michigan Department o f S ta te P o lic e , O f f ic e o f
Highway S a fe ty Planning, Lansing, Michigan.

135

APPENDIX D
DATA EXAMPLE:

RURAL TOTAL ACCIDENTS BY TIME OF DAY,

DAY OF WEEK (DRINKING INVOLVED)

136

APPENDIX D
DATA EXAMPLE:

RURAL TOTAL ACCIDENTS BY TIME OF DAY,

DAY OF WEEK (DRINKING INVOLVED)
Cass County, January-May, 1972.
Time o f Day

Total

Mon.

Tues.

Wed.

0 0 0 0 to 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 to 0 2 0 0

15 (13%)
9 ( 8 %)
16 (14%)
12 ( 1 0 %)

2

2

1

2
2

2
1

2
2

0200 to 0300
0300 to 0400
0400
0500
0900
0700

to
to
to
to

0500
0600
0700
0800

2
1
2
1

( 2 %)
( 1 %)
( 2 %)
( 1 %)

0800 to 0900
0900 to 1000
10 0 0 to 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 to 1 2 0 0

1

( 1 %)

1

( 1 %)

2

( 2 %)
(3%)
(3%)

1200
1300
1400
1500

to
to
to
to

1300
1400
1500
1600

1600
1700
1800
1900

to
to
to
to

1700
1800
1900
2000

2 0 0 0 to 2 1 0 0
2 1 0 0 to 2 2 0 0

2200 to 2300
2300 to 0000
Total

4
3
2

4
5
3

( 2 %)
(3%)
(4%)
(3%)

(5%)
7 ( 6 %)
7 ( 6 %)
12 ( 1 0 %)
6

115

1
1
1

F ri.
2
1
1

Sat.

Sur

5

2

2

5
5

3
7

1

1
1

1

1
1

1
1
1
2

1
1

1
1
2
1

1
1
1
1
1
2
2
12

(10%)
Source:

Th urs.

1
1
10

(9%)

1
1
1
8

(7%)

4
3
8

(7%)

1
2

17
(15%)

3
4
1

1

1
2
1
2

4
1
1

24
36
(31%) (21%)

“Fatal Crash Reduction Program," Federal A p p lic a tio n f o r Highway
S a fe ty Funds, Michigan Department o f S ta te P o lic e , Of f i c e of
Highway S a fe ty Planning, Lansing, Michigan.
137

APPENDIX E
DATA EXAMPLE:

RURAL FATAL ACCIDENTS BY

TIME OF DAY, DAY OF WEEK

138

APPENDIX E
DATA EXAMPLE:

RURAL FATAL ACCIDENTS BY

TIME OF DAY, DAY OF WEEK
St. C l a i r County, 1971/J a n u a ry -J u n e , 1972.
Total

Time o f Day
0 0 0 0 to 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 to 0 2 0 0
0 2 0 0 to 0300

0300 to 0400

Mon.

Tues.

Wed.

6 %)
1
2%)
6 ( 2%)
1
2 %)

Thurs.

F ri.

3

Sat.

Sun.

1

2
1
1

4

1
1

0500
0600
0700
0800

1
1

2%)
2%)

1

2%)

0800 to 0900
0900 to 10 0 0
1 0 0 0 to 11 0 0
1 1 0 0 to 120 0

2
1
1
2

4%)
2%)
2%)
4%)

1 2 0 0 to 1300

4

8 %)

1

2

1

1300 to 1400
1400 to 1500
1500 to 1600

3
3

6%)
6%)

1

1
1

1

1700
1800
1900

1

2000

7

2 0 0 0 to 2 1 0 0
2 1 0 0 to 2 2 0 0
2 2 0 0 to 2300

2
2

2%)
6 %)
2%)
( 5%)
4%)
4%)

2300 to 2400

2

4%)

Time not stated

1

2 %)

0400
0500
0600
0700

1600
1700
1800
1900

to
to
to
to

to
to
to
to

Total
Source:

3
1

49

1
1
1
1

1
1
1

1

1

1

1

1
1

2
1

1

2

1
2

1

1
1

1
1

2
1

3
( 6 %)

4
( 8 %)

3
( 6 %)

10

( 2 0 %)

4
( 8 %)

13
12
(25%) (27%)

"Fatal Crash Reduction Program," Federal A p p lic a tio n fo r Highway
Safety Funds, Michigan Department o f S ta te P o lic e , O f f ic e o f
Highway S a fe ty Planning, Lansing, Michigan.
139

APPENDIX F
MANPOWER DEPLOYMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL COUNTY
STATE POLICE PERSONNEL

140

141

Total

T ot a l
County

Men

Of f i c e r s

S h i f t Hours

Hours

Assigned

Cass

Tuscola

Hillsdale

Eaton

S t. C lair

6

8

6

8

10

T o t al
Source:

12

50

1 of

F at al
Accident s
Occurri ng
During
Hours o f
Speci al
Patrols
1971-1972

2
4
2
4
4

1
8
6
8
2

Fri
Fri
Sat
Sat
Sun

-

9 pm F r i
4 am Sat
2 am Sun
4 am Sun
10 pm Sun

144

50'.

36'

8
4
4
4
4

5 pm F r i
6 pm Sat
7 pm Sat
3 pm Sun
6 pm Sun

-

3 am Sat
3 am Sun
4 am Sun
7 pm Sun
10 pm Sun

184

51".

44',

2
4
6

5 pm F r i
3 am Sat
7 pm F r i - 5 am Sat
5 pm Sat - 3 am Sun

120

48",

32.

4
4
4
4
il

5
7
5
6
1

pm
pm
pm
pm
pm

Fri
Fri
Sat.
Sat
Sun

„
-

200

50.

42.

2
4
4

F ri
Fri
Fri
Sat
Sat
Sat
Sun
Sun

_ 10 pm F r i

4
4
4
6

2 pm
7 pm
8 pm
12 n
7 pm
0 pm
4 pm
6 pm

200

53,

41

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

1
7
9
1
7
8
1
3
6

pm
pm
pm
pm
pm
pm
pm
pm
pm

Fr i
Fri
Sat
Sat
Sat
Sat
Sun
Sun
Sun

-

2

B e r r i en

Man

X of
Accident s
Involving
Drinking
Drivers
Occurri ng
During Hours
of Special
Patrols-1972

pm
pin
pm
pm
pm

3
5
3
4
6

am
am
am
am
pm

Sat
Sat
Sun
Sun
Sun

-

3 am Sat
4 am Sat
H pm Sat
3 am Sun
4 am Sun
8 pm Sun
- 10 pm Sun
9
3
5
o
3
4
5
7
9

pm
am
am
pm
am
am
pm
pm
pm

Fr i
Sat
Sat
Sat
Sun
Sun
Sun
Sun
Sun

240

5>:,

31

1 ,088

53’:

37

" F a t a l Crash Reduction Program," Federal A p p l i c a t i o n f o r Highway S a f e t y Funds.
Mi chi gan Department o f S t a t e P o l i c e , O f f i c e o f Highway S a f e t y P l a n n i n g ,
L an si ng , Mi ch ig an .

APPENDIX G
MICHIGAN STATE POLICE POST
DAILY REPORT

142

143

ud

i

a iv

M I CH I G A N S T A T E P O L I C E POST D A I L Y f t t P O R T

r n

O at*

UCN

This Mcnlh

UAH HOURS

A s s ig n e d

O n D u ty

* ................. *

F ro m u l h c i p o s t ! ,

............

A t o t h e r p o a t a , , .......................

O t h e r T r a f f i c Wo r k

C o m p l a i n t S . 1 - 3 , 4 i n c l . ft 3 . S * S , f

S i c k or A c c i d e n t ............

C o m p l a i n t 3 S-3. 7 incl .

...............
t h i * Month , __

Complaint ^ ( i

T V i t M'. n l h

COMPLAINT RECORD

. . . . . . . .

.................... ...
................ . . . . . . . . .

O l h r r F i r e M a r a h a ) Wo r k . . . . . . .
C i v i l D e f e n s e W' oi k

,

C o m m . R e l a t i o n * , J u v , Wor k

From olhrr posts , , . ,
O lh i'r i i t m M a i n n i i r r r ^

K r p n r l Writing
Thi* klonlh

MI LEAGE

T
r**lfic p
a
lro
) .. ,
T
raffic ro
m
p
la
in
t
Other enmpliiinl .

.

p e a k A « i i Er t ment

.. . ,

A d m i n , fit S u p e r v i s i o n
T r a in in g ...,....,.,... . . . . . . .
F atiRur

<Hhi i . . . ..............
Tntal

, ..................... . . .

C o m p l a i n t 1 fit 2 . . * * * .................

Comptainl 4

Con-. pl a i ni m r c f i ' t v i i l

.

O n P a a a ...........................................

i ToU)
JM a n D a y i

T o t a l ..... ........

Traffic P a t r o l

___

.

■
.......................

Other D u l y
Total

......

................

. ■■ ■. . .
T h i* V ,nth

P A T R O L RECORD

F IL E CLASS <
t ill- C lflk *

COMPLAINTS RECEIVED
T M a I 'a ie

1

______

T h l i M o n th

C a r E ( o u t t un P a t r o l . . , . .

\I

T r a f f i c o f f e n s e Arreata . .

lK

Other Patrol Arn-*tn

'1

Cara Aaaialei!

............... . . ,

Cara [nv talivaleil . . . . . . .
%4

property I n i p i 'i h n r i i

5 S

l.iqunr In sp ection* . . . . . .

. ...

V r r t m l Warnings
C) i her p e r f o r ma n c e *
Tuti il \
Total

* k

.. .. ..

M * incl., . . .

............................

, , , . ,

T R A F F I C P A T R O L M I L E A G E A N D H O URS f l V T Y P E O F H I G H W A Y

T r |>r - I

11..di-

|

U.in IlL'ura
T hi * Daw

T h i* M^nlh

Cat
T h li l l i t f

'

T h i » Mu nth

T h i* M *n ih

F r e e wav
flihcr Trunkl m e .
C-.unU

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APPENDIX H
MICHIGAN STATE POLICE OFFICER'S
DAILY REPORT

144

145

M IC H IG A N S T A T E P O L I C E O F F I C E R ' S D A I L Y R E P O R T

LTD-1 <H*t «4I1
N a m * a rw l M a iih

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ARRESTS

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T r a f f ic O ffe n ce A r r r a t t . . . . . . .

O t h r r P a tr o l A i r r t l t . . . . . . . . . .
O l h r r T r a f f i c Work <al v u u r l . p r o K c c u l o r a , p I c , . o n t r a l l u ' t
C o m p l a i n t i F i l t 1 tl * » s< . V l * , V - l int. I. jV
C o m p l y m l i F i l f <-tw» s ,1 *• - \ . 7 im- I. 1
C o m p l a i n ! i F » l r f l u n s J At
C o m rla m ! c K ilf f I
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3.9.

O lh r i C o m p la in t A r r r a t t
*

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PATROL PERFORMANCE

t .

Cara A a m iu rd

.............

Ki)»* t l a i ' ’. I' ..... .

O l h r r p ; t K . \ | j r i h a l W ur k

. . .

Cjra ] n s r a l » K « l t f d . . . . . .
Propciiv [riapc-ction* . . . .

. , .

C i m I D r i c n t t ’ W i > r k .....................................

.....

Lmuur [ntpi'rtiuni

Y r r h t i l U J f r tiri|t*

O m n n r u t y K c l a l i o r i - * J u m m l i - Work

............... . .............

K r p t i r l W u J j n tf

Total

,

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O th rr Duty

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T i n « il »«»».«.

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...............
CO MP L AI N T RECORD

...........

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pati^ui* ttuik

. . , . .

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O l h r r P«*rformahi-t* . . . . . .

P r a k Aa Bifinm c-m
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. . . . . . . . . .

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M IL E ACE

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APPENDIX I
DEPARTMENT OF STATE POLICE
ATTENDANCE REPORT

146

DEP ART MENT

OF STATE P OL I CE

ATTENDANCE

REPORT

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APPENDIX J
OTHER PATROL AND COMPLAINT ARRESTS,
SELECTIVE ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS

148

149

Ot he r P a t r o l and Compl ai nt A r r e s t s ,

S e l e c t i v e Enforcement O f f i c e r s , August-Deceinber, 1972.

Of fe n se

Berrien

A s s au l t
Assaulting a police o f f i c e r
A s s a u l t w i t h a dea dl y weapon
A.W. O.L.
Bench w a r r a n t
Breaking and e n t e r i n g
C a r r y i n g concealed weapon
Consuming
Contempt and p e r j u r y
C o n t r i b u t i n g to d el i nq ue nc y o f minor
Curfew v i o l a t i o n
D i s g u i s i n g w i t h i n t e n t to i n t i m i d a t e
Drunk and d i s o r d e r l y
Escaped from B . T . S .
F ireworks
Fleeing
F ur n i s h i ng t o minors
Gross indecency
l n s an i ty
In t e r f e r in g with police o f f i c e r
Larceny
Li t t e r i n g
Malicious destruction of property
Minors in possession
Parole v io la t io n
Possession of a blank p i s t o l
Possession of s t o l e n p r o p e r t y
P r ob at i on v i o l a t i o n
Rape
Resisting a rre s t
Runaway
5hoplifting
T r a f f i c warrant
Uncased gun
U n l a w f u l l y d r i v i n g s t o l e n auto
V i o l a t i o n o f c o n s er v a t i o n law
V i o l a t i o n o f c o n t r o l l e d substances a c t
V i o l a t i o n o f snowmobile laws
Source:

Cass

Eaton

Total
2
1
1

1
1
1
5
8

2
21

3

1

1

3

1
1

2

8
1
1
1
1

1
2

1
40

1

3

2

14
n
c

8

25

3

21
I

1

1

1
4

2

2
1

8

3

1
2

1
2

3

10

7

9

1
2

5

1
3
2
6
41

2

1
4

2
4

1

1

7

1
1
2
25

7

6

11
1

Mi chi gan S t a t e P o l i c e , East L an si ng , Mi ch ig an .
r e p o r t s , August-Deceinber, 1972.

1
2
29
2

36

1

3

4

28

2
23
2

1
1
26
12

Project o ffic e r s '

2
1
2
1
10
1
17
52
1
6
1
2
92
3
2
1
19
1
1
2
8
9
6
76
1
1

1
1
3
6

6
27

1
1
1
a

2
95
8
1
3
109
42

daily a c tiv ity