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75-7175
GRANT, Francis M . , 1939A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PERCEPTIONS AND
EXPECTATIONS OF THE MICHIGAN EDUCATION
ASSOCIATION BY BLACK AND WHITE URBAN
TEACHERS.
Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1974
Education, social sciences
Xerox University Microfilms tAnn Arbor, Michigan 4B106

(5)

Copyright by
FRANCIS M. GRANT
1974

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PERCEPTIONS AND EXPECTATIONS
OF THE MICHIGAN EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BY
BLACK AND WHITE URBAN TEACHERS
By
Francis M. Grant

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Elementary Education
1972

ABSTRACT
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PERCEPTIONS AND EXPECTATIONS
OF THE MICHIGAN EDUCATION ASSOCIATION BY
BLACK AND WHITE URBAN TEACHERS
By
Francis M. Grant

This study was designed to determine if signifi­
cant differences existed between Black and White urban
teachers with regard to their perceptions and expectations
for the leadership behavior of the Michigan Education
Association.

The research was based on the premise that

the above groups have different perceptions of problems
and expectations and that because of the difference ,
there is conflict of opinion, confusion, and misunder­
standing regarding the role played by the M.E.A.
The perceptions of problems and expectations of
the M.E.A. was measured by an instrument developed by
Francis M. Grant.

The instrument is designed to obtain

data which show the relationship among teachers, the
role of teachers' organizations, how they operate and
how teachers think they should function.
The data to be collected from teachers were of
three general types:

Francis M. Grant
Socio-economic

1.

e.g., age, sex, marital
status, number of depen­
dents, total income and
other personal character­
istics.

Socio-psychological

2.

e.g., indices of satis­
faction, commitment,
consensus, tension, and
conflict, and issues for
negotiation.

Occupational Information

3.

e.g., educational attain­
ment, work role, work
load, membership in
occupational association
and participation in that
association.

Analysis of the data was done by using the multi­
variate analysis of variance test (programmed by Jeremy
Finn).

Results were deemed significant at the .05 level

of confidence.
The following conclusions were made as a result
of this study:
1.

There is a significant difference in the perception
of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by Black
and White teachers in regard to culture diversity
being reflected in curriculum materials.

2.

There is no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to the
elimination of racial and ethnic biases in hiring
of teachers by Boards of Education.

Francis M. Grant
3.

There is a significant difference in the perception
of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by Black
and White teachers in regard to the elimination
of standardized tests based solely on White
middle-class standards.

4.

There is no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to empha­
sizing humanism in education.

5.

There is a significant difference in the perception
of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by Black
and White teachers in regard to establishing new
methods and procedures for selecting and pro­
cessing candidates for M.E.A.'s central staff.

6A.

There is a significant difference in the perception
of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by Black
and White teachers in regard to establishing
new local association priorities, as they relate
to students involved in curriculum planning.

6B.

There is a significant difference in the perception
of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by Black
and White teachers in regard to establishing new
local association priorities, as they relate to
teachers involved in programs at all levels of
instruction.

Francis M. Grant
There is no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to whether
the M.E.A. takes a stand on political issues.
8

.

There is a significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to requiring
ethnic studies as a prerequisite for permanent
certification.

9.

There is no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to acting
on individual needs in children.

10A.

There is a significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to establishing
better methods and procedures for evaluating
educational programs.

10B.

There is a significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to assuring
Blacks representation in the evaluating of edu­
cational programs.

Francis M. Grant
11.

There is a significant difference in the perception
of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by Black
and White teachers in regards to establishing
educational standards that maximize the learning
potential of each child.
An implication of the study is that the Michigan

Education Association should attempt to determine the
causes of the perceptual inconsistencies among the members
in order to reduce potential conflict and attain group
effectiveness in goal achievement.

It is suggested that

further research could be structured to measure observed
and expected behavior of M.E.A. using the ethnic groups
as dependent variables, using nonmembers' responses to
compare to member responses, and that these studies be
made periodically to see if the same perceptions and
expectations hold for a given time period.

Dedicated with love to—
Justine Grant, Colette Grant,
Joseph Grant, Craig Zackery,
Georgia and Henry Walker, Ida
and James Bell, Rachel Middleton,
Henry Whitten and family, Marvin
Grant and family, Charlene
Snowden and family.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The greatest: of appreciation is extended to Dr.
Donald Nickerson, my doctoral committee chairman, for
his guidance and patience throughout my doctoral program.
A very special thanks is extended to Dr. Philip
Marcus for his support and assistance, Dr. Joseph McMillan,
and Dr. Louis Romano for their assistance as members of
the committee.
Also a thank you to the school officials and
teachers in the city where this study was conducted.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
I.

Page

INTRODUCTION .................................

1

Statement of the P r o b l e m ............... .
Significance of the Study................
Rationale ................................
Purpose of the S t u d y ...................
Definition of Terms......................
Hypotheses................................
Limitations of the Study . . . . . .
Outline of the Study . . . . . . .
II.

5
5
6
7
7
11
14
14

REVIEW OF THE L I T E R A T U R E ....................

16

Professional Concerns of Teachers . . .
Professional Concerns of Nurses.
. . .
Professional Concerns of Engineers.
. •
Summary...................................
III.

19
32
55
77

THE RESEARCH PROCEDURE.......................

83
83
84
84
85
87
87
87
88

Design of the Study......................
Description of the Urban School System .
Population and Sample . . . . . . .
Instrumentation ..........................
Data C o l l e c t i o n ..........................
Treatment of D a t a ......................
Data A n a l y s i s ..........................
Summary...................................
IV.

ANALYSIS OF THE D A T A .......................
Testing of Hypotheses .
Summary.

V.

.

.

.

.

.

89

.

90
104

IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND
REFLECTIONS................................
Recommendations of the Study.
. . . .
R e f l e c t i o n s .............................
Recommendations for Further Research . .
iv

106
-

108
109
113

Page
APPENDICES
Appendix
A.

Hypotheses, Letter, and Teacher Question­
naire ...................................

114

Tables.......................................

124

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................

132

B.

V

LIST OF TABLES
Table
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6A.
4.6B.
4.7.
4.8.
4.9.
4.10A.
4.10B.
4.11.

Page
Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . .

.

90

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 2 .............................

91

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 3 .............................

92

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . . . .

93

.

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 5 .............................

95

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 6A
.......................

96

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 6B
. . . . . . . .

97

.

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 7 .............................

98

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 8 .............................

99

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 9 .............................

100

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 1 0 A ..........................

101

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 1 0 B ..........................

102

Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 11

103

vi

Table
B.l.
B.2.
B.3.
B.4.
B.5.
B.6.
B.7.
B.8.

Page
Means for expectations of Black and White
t e a c h e r s ................................
Means for perceptions of Black and White
t e a c h e r s ............................ .
Cell means, difference, and standard
deviations of expectation
. . . .

124
.

.

125
126

Cell means, difference, and standard
deviations of perceptions
.............

127

Percentage of responses for Black per­
ception test.............................

128

Percentage of responses for White per­
ception test................................

129

Percentage of responses for White expec­
tation t e s t ................................

130

Percentage of responses for Black expec­
tation t e s t ................................

131

vii

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

This study is designed to determine if significant
differences exist between the perceived role and expected
role of the Michigan Education Association as viewed by
Black and White teachers of an affiliate/ in a large
industrial city.

The M.E.A, has the responsibility of

serving approximately 78/000 members of which 3/000 are
Black.

If the M.E.A. is to serve as an agent to different

ethnic groups and affiliates, then it is important that
the perceptions and role expectations of its members
be conceptualized by M.E.A. for greater effectiveness.
Most urban communities are becoming populated
with Black families and teachers who actively demand
increased educational services relevant to their needs
and aspirations.

As the Black urban population increases,

demands will become more vocal and eruptive? therefore,
it must be recognized that the M.E.A.'s job can best be
done with an awareness of the concerns of Black teachers
as members.

1

2
The M.E.A. in its 1971 Fall Representative
Assembly adopted the following goals and objectives for
its members.
GOAL As

TO UNIFY MICHIGAN TEACHERS IN AN EFFECTIVE STATE,
AfcP NATIONAL ORGANIZATION

Objective 1.

To strengthen continually the network of
effective local affiliates and members.
Objective 2,
To enroll 100% of the public K-12, community
college, and junior college teachers before
September, 1976.
Objective 3,
To strengthen and formalize relationships
with the Michigan Federation of Teachers.
Objective 4,
To secure bargaining rights in four of the
seven major public universities before
June, 1974.
GOAL B: TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
AND CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION IN MICHIGAN SCHOOLS
Objective 1. To assure that every K-12 classroom is
staffed with a qualified teacher.
Objective 2
To achieve an effective teacher influence
in the preservice and inservice education
of teachers.
Objective 3
To provide professional consultation and
clearing-house services regarding improve­
ment of school curriculum and teacher par­
ticipation in educational decision-making
at all levels of instruction, including
teacher preparation.
Objective 4. To develop and establish improved practices
in teacher evaluation.
Objective 5. To develop meaningful guidelines for the
use of paraprofessionals.
TO EXERT LEADERSHIP IN SOLVING CONTEMPORARY
GOAL Ci
SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND TO PROTECT THE CIVIL At*D
HUMAN RIGHTS OF EDUCATORS AND STUDENTS
Objective- 1. To identify and resolve racism in the
schools.
Objective 2. To prevent disruptive school crises and
mitigate those which occur.
Objective 3. To initiate and support legislation funding
the exchange of teachers and students
among urban, suburban, and rural school
districts for the purpose of providing
instructive intergroup experiences, and to
negotiate opportunities for inter-district
exchange of teachers and students.

3
Objective 4.

To prepare teaching unite appropriate for
secondary level students designed to pro­
vide an understanding of their rights, such
manuals to be ready for use in twelve
school districts on a pilot basis by
September 1, 1973.
Objective 5. To solicit state and federal resources
to train and retrain teachers through
inservice education to better function in
a multi-ethnic school environment.
GOAL Ds TO ADVANCE AND PROTECT THE PROFESSIONAL AND
ECONOMIC RIGHTS AND INTERESTS OF MEMBERS
Objective 1. To guarantee adequate retirement provisions
for Michigan teachers.
Objective 2. To provide members with comprehensive
liability insurance.
Objective 3. To assure equity for MEA-NEA members as
provided by Constitution, statute# and
contract in matters related to their pro­
fessional employment.
Objective 4. To assure that every local association
enjoys the right to engage in good faith
collective negotiations as provided by law.
Objective 5. To prepare for state area or regional bar­
gaining for Michigan K-12 teachers, thereby
guaranteeing economic equity and job
security.
GOAL E: TO ACHIEVE AND MAINTAIN AN OPTIMAL FINANCIAL
BASE FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN
Objective 1. To provide an adequate tax base as a source
of revenue for public education.
Objective 2.
To secure adoption of an omnibus state
aid bill which meets the specifications
as are adopted by the Representative
Assembly and/or the Board of Directors.
Objective 3
To supplement NEA's efforts to achieve
broad, general federal support for the
public schools.
Objective 4
To secure legislation to provide a community
college system which shall be available to
every resident of the State of Michigan.
Objective 5. To provide leadership, representation and
coordination for MEA-MAHE units in lobby­
ing for the appropriations to their respec­
tive institutions.
Objective 6. To provide consultation services to local
associations regarding their effective
participation in local millage elections.
Objective 7. To secure monies to establish programs for
all children with learning disabilities.

4
GOAL F :

TO INCREASE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EDUCATORS’
INFLUENCE ON PUBLIC AFFAIRS AND PUBLIC"OPINION
Objective 1. To encourage the effective participation
of MEA-NEA members in public affairs.
Objective 2. To educate MEA-NEA members regarding their
rights and opportunities as citizens in
the operations of political parties and
in the elective procedure of the state.
Objective 3. To provide local associations with con­
sultations in developing comprehensive
public relations programs.
Objective 4. To cultivate increased public exposure of
MEA-NEA as an expert and public-spirited
voice on school problems.
Objective 5. To maintain continuous and effective
relationships with other associations of
educators (MASA, MAESP, MASSP, etc.).
Objective 6. To maintain continuous and effective
relationships with lay organizations
(MASB, CAPE, Farm Bureau, etc.).
Objective 7. To maintain continuous and effective
relationships with the legislature, the
Governor, the State Board of Education,
and other governmental agencies.!
Knowledge of the perception of problems and
expected role of the M.E.A. may assist in improving the
level of service to local associations and its members.
With role knowledge comes cooperative behavior and
satisfaction since each member is likely to behave in
terms of the expectations each holds of the other's
position.

It is important that these members' perceptions

of the role of M.E.A. be conceptualized by the M.E.A. for
further effectiveness.
The M.E.A. serves as an agent to different ethnic
groups.

If they are to help each group achieve pre­

determined goals, it is necessary for them to effect

11971 M.E.A. Fall Representative Assembly, "Goals
and Obj ective Brochure."

5
cohesive relationships.

They must identify potential

conflicts between ethnic groups with regard to children,
jobs, and education and reduce the conflict-producing
items.

Therefore, an assessment of the perception of

problems and expectations of the role M.E.A. plays with
Black and White members is important.
Statement of the Problem
The problem will be to determine whether a sig­
nificant difference exists between Black teachers and
White teachers with regard to their perceptions and
expectations of the M.E.A.
Significance of the Study
Black teachers are a very important component in
the financial composition of teacher associations.

As

their numbers increase so does their financial contri­
bution.

These contributions are made primarily through

the means of dues.

The average dues a teacher pays

today is approximately $100 per year.

According to

Black teachers interviewed by the researcher, from
Flint, Kalamazoo, and Grand Rapids, funds over the past
years have not been spent for Black student and teacher
concerns.

These teachers are convinced that dues are

being received without providing equal representation.
Voices of discontent are calling for accounta­
bility or withdrawal.

It is suggested by the teachers

6
previously mentioned that since Black teachers are not
receiving the kind of benefits relevant to the welfare
of both students and themselves, forming a Black teachers'
association may be in their best interest.
Teachers' associations must represent the interest,
needs, and aspirations of all their members.

If they are

going to be more attuned to these responsibilities,
attention must be given to problems of White and Black
teachers respectively and collectively.
Rationale
The importance of research in the area of role
expectations has been intensified in the last decade
because of the increased concerns regarding the role
teacher associations should play in relation to teachers,
students, and education in general.

It is necessary that

social scientists and educators attempt to understand
and lessen the gap between needs, aspirations, and goals.
Inferences from research indicate that teachers
have the following feelings regarding teacher associations.
Teacher associations should be abolished; teacher associ­
ations are company unions; and teacher associations
should be changed.

Contacts between rank and file

groups have done little to bring about better communi­
cations and cohesiveness.

Both groups know little of

what to expect of each other.

Frequently, we find

organizations that exist for a long period of time but

7
show little improvement in their ability to work success­
fully in achieving group goals.

It is then that that

organization is challenged to lead the members into
relevant productivity, thus, its role becomes better
understood by members of the group.
Any study of role theory must seek information
relative to the job involvement, the personal interpre­
tation, and the interpersonal relationships that exist
in the situation.

Here we are interested in the general

expectancies and perceptions that teachers have of the
working role of their association.

This study focuses

on the Michigan Education Association.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine by
research if significant differences exist between the
perception of problems and role expectations of Black
and White teachers in relation to professional roles
and responsibilities of the M.E.A.
Definition of Terms
A Teacher.— A teacher is defined as anyone
possessing a valid teaching certificate and who is
responsible for teaching pupils as a profession.

8

Expected Behavior.— The expected behavior is the
desired activities and programs of the M.E.A. as described
by the teachers and members.

Stogdill refers to this
2
kind of behavior as "ideal" behavior.
Role.— A role is defined as "a set of expectations
applied to an incumbent of a particular position.

It is

an organized pattern of expectancies that relates to the
tasks, demeanors, values, and reciprocal relationships
to be maintained by persons occupying specific membership
positions and fulfilling desirable functions in any group.
A role is also "a pattern of behavior which the person
builds up in terms of what others expect of him."

4

In

generalized terms role refers to "two or more persons
coming into contact with each other over a sufficient
length of time and each begins to have certain expec5
tations as to how the other will act or behave."

2

Ralph M. Stogdill, "Manual for the Leader
Behavior Description Questionnaire, Form XII," An Experi"
mental Revision (Columbus, Ohio: Bureau for Business
Research / College of Commerce and Administration, the
Ohio State University, 1963).
3
E. Hartley and R. Hartley, Fundamentals of
Social Psychology (New York: A. Knopf , 1952) , p. 3*86.
4
Kimball Young, Personality and Problems of
Adjustment (2nd e d . ; New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,
1932), p. 125.
5
Elmer Ferneau, "Which Consultant?"
trators Notebook, Vol. 11, No. 8, p. 1.

Adminis­

i

9
Perceptions.— Perception is defined as the
ability "to become aware of through the senses, as of
sight, hearing, etc.; acquire a mental impression of,
from immediate presentations of sense modified by the
reactions determined by attention, interests, previous
experience, etc." **
Role Conflict.— "Any situation in which the
incumbent of a focal position perceives that he is con7
fronted with incompatible expectations."
Members.— is defined as each of the persons
composing a society, party, community, or organization.
M.E.A.-"Michigan Education Association.
Perceived Behavior.— The perceived behavior is
the actual leadership activities of M.E.A. as described
by themselves and their teachers.

Stogdill refers to
Q

this type of behavior as "real" behavior.

g
Winston Dictionary (College ed.; New York:
John C. Winston Co., l945), p. 719.
7
Neal C. Gross, Ward S. Mason, and A. W. McEachern,
Exploration in Role Analysis (New York: John Wiley and
Sons, 1958), p. 243.
0

Stogdill, o£. cit.

10
Culture Diversity .— To show difference, unlike­
ness, variety, multiformity, or a point of difference
Q
in cultures.
Biases.— To influence, usually unfairly prejudice;
warp. 10
Environmental Factors.— The aggregate of sur­
rounding things, conditions, or influences that contribute
to bring about any given result.^-1
Humanism in Education.— Any system or mode of
thought or action in which human interests predominate
12
in education.
Human Relations.— Of, pertaining to, or charac­
teristic of man; an existing connection, the various
connections in which persons are brought together as
by common interests. 13
Human Awareness.— Refers to an i n d i v i d u a l s sense
of recognition of something.

To be awake or awakened to

an inner realization of a fact, a truth, a condition.14
g

The American College Dictionary, e d . by C . I*.
Barnhart and Jess Stein (New Yorks
Random House, 1963),
pp. 295, 354.
10Xbid., p. 118.

11Ibid., p. 402.

12lbid., p. 588.

13ibid.

14Ibid., pp. 87, 587.

11
Students.— One who is engaged in or given to
study.

One who is engaged in a course of study and

instruction, as at a college, university, or professional
15
or technical school.
Dues.— A payment due, at, a charge, a fee, etc.
Fringe Benefits.— Accessory or supplementary.1-5
Quality of Education.— A characteristic, innate
or acquired, which in some particular determines the
nature of education.
Test Variables.— Symbols which may represent
any one of a given set of objects on a test.

The try

out of a suspected third factor by holding it constant
to see whether this affects the association between
A & B.17
Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A, by
Black and White teachers in regard to culture diversity
being reflected in curriculum materials.

15Xbid., p. 1209.
16Ibid., pp. 489, 113.
17

(New York:

Robert C. Weiss, Statistics in Social Research
John Wiley & Sons, inc., 1968), p. 3775*1

12
Hypothesis 2 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to the elimination
of racial and ethnic biases in hiring of teachers
by Boards of Education.
Hypothesis 3 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to the elimination
of standardized tests based solely on White middleclass standards.
Hypothesis 4 :
There will be no significant difference in the per
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to emphasizing
humanism in education.
Hypothesis 5 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to establishing
new methods and procedures for selecting and pro­
cessing candidates for M.E.A.'s central staff.
Hypothesis 6A:
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to establishing
new local association priorities as they relate to
students involved in curriculum planning.
Hypothesis 6B:
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to establishing
new local association priorities, as they relate to
teachers involved in programs at all levels of
instruction.

13
Hypothesis 7 :
There will be no significant difference dr. the per
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to whether the
M.E.A. takes a stand on political issues.
Hypothesis 8 :
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to requiring
ethnic studies as a prerequisite for permanent
certification.
Hypothesis 9 :
There will be no significant difference in the per
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to acting on
individual needs in children.
Hypothesis 10A;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to establishing
better methods and procedures for evaluating edu­
cational programs.
Hypothesis 1 0 B ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to assuring
Blacks representation in the evaluating of edu­
cational programs.
Hypothesis l i t
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regards to establishing
educational standards that maximize the learning
potential of each child.

14
Limitations of the Study
1.

The study will be limited to schools and teachers
in the educational systems designated,

2.

Teachers included in the study will be full-time
teachers from grades K-12.

Their levels of

teaching experience range from less than one
year to more than five years.
3.

The responses of teachers will be based upon
their experiences with teachers' associations
at the building level and in the school system
in which they are teaching at the time the study
was conducted.

4.

The study limits its focus to the M.E.A. and
teachers of a large industrial city in Michigan.

5.

This study is subject to all of the limitations
inherent in the use of a questionnaire adminis­
tered by mail or teacher's meetings as a datagathering instrument.
Outline of the Study
The dissertation is organized into five chapters.

In Chapter I the background for the study has been
described, the rationale behind the study has been out­
lined in some detail, the problem as well as the basic
hypotheses has been stated, the scope and limitations of

15
the study have been briefly outlined, and a list of
definitions of terms has been included along with
methods and procedures to be used*
Chapter II will contain a review of literature
related to the concerns members of the teaching, nursing,
and engineering profession have for their organizations.
In the third chapter the instrumentation used in
conducting the study will be presented.

In addition

the statistical design and basic assumptions underlying
the design will be discussed.
The data will be analyzed and discussed in
Chapter IV.
Chapter V will contain the summary and con­
clusions of the study.

CHAPTER XI
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The review of the literature for this study
centers around the perceptions that teachers, nurses, and
engineers have for their professional organization.
These groups are contrasted to show that teachers are
not alone in expressing concerns for the role of their
organization; nurses and engineers express concerns
similar in nature which are also due to conflict in
opinions, perceptions, and expectations.

Each group

is working to develop a vital organization and profession.
Teacher concerns were centered around three main
areas:

proper representation and efforts on behalf of

the members, development of internal structure for over­
all effectiveness, and fair and equal treatment for
minorities.

The first concern was one regarding the

quality and type of representation provided for its
members.

Charges arising from members are that M.E.A.

locals are not aggressive in their fight for membership
benefits; that coercion by administration is responsible
for M.E.A. locals membership; that M.E.A. locals will
not answer questions asked by their members; that M.E.A.
16

17
state and local leadership does not provide proper edu­
cational, social, or political stimulus for members; that
dues are too high and members are not receiving adequate
representation for the amount of dues presently paid.
The second area of concern was in regard to the
effectiveness of M.E.A.'s internal structure.
members it is questionable.

To some

Xt is maintained that there

is membership duplication and overlapping, internal dissention, misuse of members and the public by not providing
proper information, and complying with Boards of Education
leaving members and the public voiceless.
instituted by M.E.A. are ineffective.

Urban programs

M.E.A. officials

spent most of their time participating in social activi­
ties instead of working for the benefit of association and
members, and that N.E.A. - M.E.A. locals are pragmatic,
they appear busy and active but little is seen of end
results.
The third and final area of concern was in regard
to integration.

Minority members felt they should have

a voice in writing their own goals.

The M.E.A. should stop

speaking for minorities and should hire minority group
members to speak for themselves.

The N.E.A., M.E.A., and

local affiliate should assist in the struggle for inte­
gration by using the full potential of their offices to
aid in the implementation of the 1954 Supreme Court decree.

18
Nurses concerns regarding the professional role
their association should play centered around two main
areas:

membership benefits and developing procedures,

policies, and goals for a strong unified association.
Members felt uninformed on salary goals and
benefits; they felt more communication would eliminate
the gap between them and association officials? they
felt more members should be solicited and worked with
by association officials to eliminate fear and apathy
regarding collective negotiations, and that the public
should be informed of the groups present nature to gain
support for its future goals.

Finally, nurses felt that

state labor relations acts and other statutes should be
examined by legal counsel to determine whether discrimi­
nation exists against nurses.
Concerns about professional association status
were that the American Nurses' Association be concerned
about the professional ethics of its professional group;
that ANA and hospital officials work jointly in develop­
ing grievance procedures? that ANA work with members to
formulate goals, policies, and procedures.

Finally,

members felt that ANA should control local units to
synthesis efforts in their own behalf.
Engineers concerns regarding the professional
role their association should play centered mainly in one
area, that of forming a union that represented the goals

19
and aspirations of its members.

Engineers felt that

unions of professional personnel have fashioned a form
of unionism which does not represent a choice between the
guild and trade union and that consultation, as a means
of discussion and termed "collective bargaining," be
eliminated in the best interest of the union and members.
As can be seen teachers are not alone in their
concern regarding the professional role and responsi­
bilities of their professional organizations.

Nurses

and Engineers also have views that parallel those of
teachers.

The concerns of all three groups are an

effort to make their professional association a better
working and more viable unit.
Professional Concerns of Teachers
The first area to be considered centers around
teachers' concerns regarding the quality and type of
representation provided for its members by the association.
Charges were that M.E.A. was not aggressive enough in
behalf of its members, that there is administration
coercion to get members for M.E.A., that N.E.A. - M.E.A.
locals will not answer questions asked by its members,
that M.E.A. does not provide educational, social, or
political stimulus for members, that dues are too high
and M.E.A. does not provide adequate representation for
the amount of dues presently paid*

20
Moskow states that as it is organized now the
N.E.A. can never be an effective organization for repre­
senting teachers in negotiations with school boards.
The average teacher currently pays $10 national dues,
$10 state association dues, and approximately $2 local
dues.

This dues structure is top heavy.

Because the

bulk of the funds must be expended at the local level,
if the school district is too small for sufficient
money to be accumulated, then possibly county or even
state associations will have to direct negotiations.
Moskow continues by stating that at present, the Urban
Project has approximately twenty-five staff persons who
have been attempting to service from Washington the local
and state associations.

After two years of traveling

the country, the Urban Project staff is finally beginning
to realize that its task is impossible.

Unable to serve

effectively in this way the thousands of school districts
in the United States, the N.E.A. has begun to allocate
funds directly to state and local associations.

Finally

Moskow states that traditionally, local education associ­
ations have been inept in improving teacher welfare.
For example, in a 1959 N.E.A. survey of the activities
of local education associations, 80 per cent of the
local associations reported that they sent two or fewer
communications to their school board during the past
year.

Ninety per cent of the local associations said

21
they received two or fewer communications from the school
authorities.

As expected, 75 per cent of the associations

reported that they spent the majority of their time par­
ticipating in social activities.1
"Membership apathy and oligarchical control," to
Blau and Scott the most formidable obstacles to successful
mutual benefit associations, were overwhelmingly char­
acteristic of the education associations throughout the
premilitant period.

So long as these characteristics

prevailed, all-inclusiveness was acceptable.

Unfor­

tunately, even though they had contributed significantly
to improved public support of education both financially
and otherwise, the associations had failed to make
substantial progress towards the establishment of
public school teaching as a true profession.

Further­

more, the salaries of teachers were still below the
wages paid many tradesmen and craftsmen.
Jonson writes that the opportunity to see the
N.E.A. program is complicated by the fact that much of its
effectiveness is not viewed directly, but is reflected

M. H. Moskow, "Teacher Organizations: An Analy­
sis of the Issues," Teacher College Recording, LXVI (Fall,
1965) , 453-63.
^Jack F. Parker, "Let's Abolish the N.E.A.,"
Phi Delta Kappan, XLIX (June, 1968), 567-71.

22
in the more closely witnessed activities of local and
3
state associations.
A New Jersey schoolman charged, "the . . . N.E.A.
has failed to develop adequate standards for entrance and
continuance in the profession; has failed to stand up
to otar critics effectively and has actually assisted
the profession's decline in the public eye."^
Morse advocates that teachers' associations
cooperate with superintendents and boards of education
in solving problems on teachers' salary schedules and
teacher tenure to give the public a "square deal."

5

Turner believes, "to meet the problems and chal­
lenges of the future, N.E.A. must set goals now."®
The second area of concern is

in regard to the

effectiveness of M.E.A.'s internal structure; charges
were that M.E.A. has membership duplication and

3
K. Jonson, "Images of M.E.A.," Minnesota Journal
of Education, XLIV (March, 1964), 11.
4
K. Jonson, "Most Teachers Will Not Join Unions,
Administrators Believe and Hope," National School, XLIX
(May, 1962), 69-81.
®G. D. Morse, "Are Teacher's Associations Playing
the Game Squarely?" American School Board Journal, CXLVII
(October, 1963), 13-lTI
g

Goals?"

E. Turner, "What Do You Think About N.E.A.
N.E.A. Journal, L (October, 1961), 68.

23
overlapping t internal dissension, misuse of members and '
public in effective urban programs and too much social­
izing.
Rice states that the weakness of N.E.A. is not
in its cause.

As a professional organization it is

vulnerable because of the imbalance in its own internal
structure— and this includes its relationship to its
many "departments" and "affiliates."

Rice further

states that the N.E.A. is a hodgepodge of 8,000
affiliates with memberships that duplicate and overlap.
Many of these groups compete with each other for power
and privileges within the national association.

Finally,

Rice states, N.E.A. is weakened by internal dissension.
A powerful element of its leadership disagrees with the
old adage that "you can't have your cake and eat it,
too."

These individuals want the help and support of

the state associations, especially in membership recruit­
ment for the national association and in lobbying
activities on Capitol Hill.

But they want to curb the

power and influence that state associations might exert
within the N.E.A. structure by dimming the state association's voice at the Representative Assembly.
Wirth states that in urban communities the group
affiliated with the National Education Association has
7
A. H. Rice, "Does N.E.A. Need To Be Reorganized?"
Nations School, LXXIV (September, 1964), 14.

24
not been aggressive enough.

That the gains already made

are the work of aggressive unionists and that local N.E.A.
units are riddled by the senile, the bootlickers and the
timid.

The phrase is "company union."

P

While writing about the conflict between the
union and N.E.A., Betchkal states that union members
scoffed at N.E.A. efforts to win teacher benefits.
Grumbled one:
to do."

"What N.E.A. has done we've forced them

"We provided the thrust and N.E.A. tries to

take the credit," asserted another American Federation
of Teacher's representative, "claiming that the union's
aggressive efforts have forced N.E.A. to do likewise
or lose members."

g

Brown believes that the ability of a teachers’
union or association to adjust problems of working con­
ditions and professional status is a more severe test
of its effectiveness as an organization than its ability
to secure raises in salary.

Salary is extremely important,

but the issues are much easier to understand; and it is
easier to get support for higher salaries, within the
organization and outside it.

Problems of working con­

ditions and professional status deal with intangibles.

8R. M. Wirth, "Let's Be Sane About Unions,"
Michigan Education Journal, XL (October, 1962) , 204-05.
g

J. Betchkal, "N.E.A. and Teacher Unions Bicker
and Battle for Recognition," Nations School, LXXIV
(August, 1965), 35.

25
They usually only involve a few people at a time, and
their solution requires a great deal of dogged and
unrewarding work.

Those who serve teachers in this area

know that they are contributing as much to the wholesome
development of children as the curriculum theorists and
that working conditions for teachers are learning con­
ditions for children.^-0
Megel labels the N.E.A. as a "company union";
he then attempts to document his argument that adminis­
trator coercion is responsible for most of the N.E.A.
membership.

He presents examples of teacher contracts

and salary schedules which contain clauses requiring
membership in educational associations.

He quotes from

administrator bulletins to teachers urging them to join
educational associations, and he then questions the
mystique of a voluntary membership of 100 per cent.
After giving several other examples, he restates the
A.P.T.'s position on the freedom of teachers to join
organizations of their own c h o o s i n g . ^
A member confused about M.E.A.'s role and the
type of benefits she should receive for her dues wrote
the following:

J. Bowen, "Better Working Conditions, Better
Education," The American Teacher (February, 1961), pp. 13
i4.
^ M o s k o w , o p . cit.

26
I am a new teacher beginning my teaching career.
As a part of my orientation, I was told that I must
join my professional organization— the N.E.A.
I
have done so. However, 1 have been unable to find
out just what I will receive in return for my
membership dues and loyalty.
In reply to my
inquiries, I have received vague generalities
and high-sounding propositions which sound to me
like avoidances of issues.
it seems to me that
all of the things attributed to your organization
in my state— North Carolina— are actually the work
of legislators.
Specifically, all of the benefits
which North Carolina teachers have received in the
past few years are the work of our governor.
Another thing which distresses me is th^- discontent
or skeptical attitudes of older teachers toward
your organization.
If these teachers who have
been in the profession for many years are uncertain
about your organization, it makes me feel even less
secure.
Specifically, without any generalities or
vagueness, could you tell me what your organization
does that no other association representing teachers
can do? I am very much interested in this because
I intend to make a career of teaching.
I would
appreciate a reply.12
Nation Schools states the following questions
that both N.E.A. and A.F.T. should answer to their members:
1.

Teacher contracts commonly give more experienced
teachers the right to demand transfers.

Thus,

they draw experienced teachers from the most
difficult assignments in inner-city schools.
Are teacher organizations willing to accept and
encourage seniority provisions that will prevent
experienced teachers from leaving those schools
that need them the most?

12M. H. Moskow, "Why Belong to N.E.A.," N.E.A.
Journal, LIII (November, 1964), 35-37.
i

27
2.

The new teacher militancy points toward a greater
role for teachers in policy development and other
forms of school decision making.
ready for this?

But are they

What does the teaching profession

recommend in the way of professional preparation
and inservice training to fit teachers for this
new responsibility?

Does it assume that teachers

need no special preparation?
3.

To what extent are organized teacher groups
encouraging experimentation with new approaches
to teacher training and teacher certification?
Shouldn't they encourage more flexible certifi­
cation requirements?

4.

What do N.E.A. and A.F.T. get from state and
local affiliates that can be called professional
improvement?

5.

How can the teaching profession do a better job
of converting schools from fortresses that wall
out the community into open-door facilities that
encourage the community to come and go?

6.

How can we get the teaching profession to develop
a hierarchy within its ranks?

The typical sys­

tem of promotions assumes that all teachers have
the same skills and deserve the same rewards.
How can the profession be encouraged to adapt

28

the best aspects of the system used in colleges,
where the strongest teachers receive larger
responsibilities and rewards, while other teachers
accept lower positions on the departmental ladder?
7-

What are teaching organizations doing now to get
their members ready for the school of the year
2000, when the teacher probably will no longer
be the pupil's source of information?

8.

How do teacher groups reconcile the educational
needs of children with organizational needs when
they apply strikes or sanctions?

9.

Are teacher groups satisfied they have struck
a fair balance between teacher prerogatives and
responsibilities?

10.

To what extent do teacher groups express their
concern for dropouts in imaginative programs
that show teachers how to exert themselves on
behalf of potential dropouts?

The way these

questions are answered by N.E.A. and A.F.T.
unquestionably will determine the character
of American education for the next generation.
More often than not, a profession gets the kind
of national leadership its members deserve.

So

far, we're glad that all the returns are not in

13M. H. Moscow, "Will N.E.A. and A.F.T. Answer
These Questions," Nation School, XXCI (May, 1968), 51.

29
The third area of concern was in regard to inte­
gration:

minority members feit they should have a voice

in writing their own goals and that M.E.A. should hire
minority group members to speak for themselves.
Mr. Smith (Black) states,
I wish N.E.A. would take a firm stand with its
affiliates and insist that they comply with federal
guidelines on equal-opportunity hiring practices.
Also, I would hope that N.E.A. would not do busi­
ness with any company that is not an equal-opportunity
-employer. The number of minority-group teachers in
the United States should reflect the minority-group
population of the country; then, in turn, represen­
tation in the Assembly needs to reflect both minority
group teachers and population.
Since at present the proportion of minority-group teachers
does not really reflect the minority-group population, the
writer would have to say that he agrees with Tony.
Minority-group representation in the Assembly cur­
rently should reflect the number of minority peoples
in the U.S. population. However, overall X think
there has been quite an improvement on this matter of
minority representation in the N.E.A. Representative
Assembly in recent years. This is especially true
for the delegations from the Southern states.
But
this is not always the case with delegations from
other sections of the country.
I would hope that
state associations, with N.E.A. prodding, would make
a greater effort to include blacks and other minoritygroup members in their delegations.14
Groff states that "Since 1954, the N.E.A. has
used few of its various good offices to aid in the imple­
mentation of the Court*s decree.'

Furthermore, it has

stated that it opposes action by the Federal government

14P. J. Groff, "The N.E.A. and School Desegre­
gation," Journal of Negro Education, XXVI (Spring, 1960),
!81-90.

30
in the matter.

As late as I960, it regarded integration

as an "evolving process" in which "all the problems of
desegregation in our schools are capable of solution at
state and local levels."

The repeated instances of

resistance by southern states and communities to Federal
court orders to integrate their schools, the civil dis­
order that is involved, and the need for threatened or
actual intervention by the Federal government apparently
have done little to alter the N.E.A.'s convictions.

Its

resolutions since 1954 ring with the sounds of high
ideals.

These translate, however, into wishful common­

places, carefully broad and bland, seemingly predeter­
mined not to offend the southern white membership.

For

instance, all concerned with the problem of integration
are asked "to promote good will,"

"to maintain free

public education," "to support democratic principles,"
"to respect the law," "to protect individual rights,"
"to recognize the dangers of unlawful protests of
judicial decrees," and so on.

Never, however, has there

been a biting call to action to breathe some life into
these precepts.

In short, the N.E.A. has given little

to the cause of desegregation either through the weight
of its membership, the respect for its seniority, the
persuasion of its intellect, or the sweep of its numerous
publications.

Never before the 195 4 Supreme Court

decision did the N.E.A. give support to the attempts

31
at legal action by the defenders of distressed Negro
pupils and their Negro teachers.

On no occasion were

local chapters rebuked or suspended for practicing
racial segregation in their membership.

Moreover, if

serious attempts ever were made to write a nonsegregation
amendment into the N.E.A. national constitution,
apparently such drafts were firmly tabled.

The N.E.A.

gave no documentation on the issue or information as to
its beliefs on the evils of segregation to the Supreme
Court while this body was deliberating on the segregation
issue. 15
Helen Bain of the N.E.A. led a discussion with
three members of minority groups.

These members told

what criticism they have of the N.E.A.

Mr. Norwood

(Indian) stated.
In my opinion, we have far too many Indian experts
when we should have more expert Indians. This is
the crux of our problem. Our people have leadership
potential within them right now; and if they were
given the proper positions, they could lead our
people in Indian education.
If the N.E.A. is going
to formulate policy for Indian education, I think
N.E.A. should ask the opinions of Indian education
consultants and leaders. We should have represen­
tatives at every N.E.A. conference so we can keep
our ideas before the Association.16

15Ibid., p. 185.
Bain, "What Do You Want From N.E.A.?"
Today's Education, LX (January, 1971), 26-29.

32
Mr. Sarinana (Mexican American) states,
My people are extremely concerned that Mexican
Americans speak for us and not so many of these
so-called experts who have written master's or
doctoral theses about educational needs of Mexican
Americans, based on very slanted information.
Often these studies aren't only highly inaccurate
but highly insulting and don't represent the
point of view of the contemporary Mexican American
community.
In our case, we have such a small
number of Mexican American teachers working in the
local affiliates that our people will never be
fairly represented if that is the route we must
take. Instead, I think representation should be
based on the number of Mexican Americans in the
U.S. population. We've got approximately 15
million people in this country. Neither the N.E.A.
nor the California Teachers Association has done
an adequate job of providing the Mexican American
teacher with services or of getting him involved
in decision making. Neither has the American Feder­
ation of Teachers.
Many of my close friends who
are professionals have told me, "You're wasting
your time trying to get us involved in professional
organizations,
our problems are unique, and they
don't do anything for us."17
Professional Concerns of Nurses
Concerns of nurses regarding the professional
role their association should play centered around two
main areas:

membership benefits and developing pro­

cedures, policies and goals for a strong unified associ­
ation .
Members felt uninformed on salary goals and bene­
fits; they felt more communication would eliminate the
gap between them and association officials; they felt
more members should be solicited and worked with by

17Ibid., p. 27.

33
association officials to eliminate fear and apathy
regarding collective negotiations; that the public
should be informed of the professions present nature
to gain support for its future goals.

Finally, nurses

felt that state labor relations acts and other statutes
be examined by legal counsel to determine whether dis­
crimination exists against nurses.
The central dilemma of the nurses is that
Section 2(2) of the Taft-Hartley Act excludes from
coverage employees of hospitals operated on a nonprofit
basis.

Thus these employees are prohibited from

requesting representation elections, filing unfair
labor practice charges with the National Labor Relations
Board, and from having recourse to any federal agencies.
The ANA and its state affiliates strongly endorse the
necessity and propriety of these rights.

The ANA views

the exemption provision as being discriminatory and
restrictive.

The net result is that regarding nurses

who work in nonprofit hospitals, the ANA must look to
state laws for protection in implementing its collective
bargaining program. 18
As individuals, nurses have an obligation to
participate responsibly in establishing terms and
conditions of employment.
18

State nurses' associations

H. Bain, "Collective Bargaining and the Hos­
pital," selected references, Princeton University (Jan­
uary, 1969), p. 240.

34
have a concomitant obligation to promote and protect the
economic and general welfare of nurses and to assume
active leadership in the organization of local units.
SNAs must be prepared to publicize collective bargaining to
members, nonmembers, the public, and employers.

Section

economic security committees must be prepared to use it
intelligently as they develop employment standards in
their states.

Members of local units must acquaint them­

selves with its contents and decide how to use it in draw­
ing up their salary proposals.

As a pronouncement from on

high, it will die with tomorrow's headlines; as a tool
for improving our economic well-being and securing the
quality and quantity of nursing care Americans should
expect, it will grow in usefulness only as you and I
19
are prepared to know and support it.
The nurses' professional organization, as is the
case with most professional organizations, contains the
entire hierarchy of professional positions, from the
general duty nurse to the nursing director.

As indicated

above, the top positions in the professional organization
tend to be filled by nurses who occupy the top positions
in the hospitals.

Few if any labor laws in the private

or public sector allow supervisory personnel to be
members of the same bargaining unit as those whom they
supervise.

Therefore, when the professional organization

19Ibid., p. 4

35
wishes to act as bargaining agent, it must generally
establish a sub-organization from which supervisory
nurses are excluded.

In many instances there may be

difficulty in developing leadership for these smaller
units, particularly where the excluded supervisory
nurses have provided the past leadership in the pro­
fessional organization.

In the initial period of

organization this may present problems.

However, it

does not appear to create any serious difficulties over
a longer period, as leadership can be developed.

20

Most nurses do not think that ANA alone should
determine standards for the nursing profession.
Nine out of ten nurses want to work with other
nurses to obtain higher salaries and better occupational
conditions, and most think it is professional for nurses
to try to increase their salaries.
Most of the nurses

(69%) studied in Illinois.

There are two hospital schools in Champaign-Urbana, the
major city in District 15? and it appears that both
members (41%) and exmembers

(63%) tend to be graduates

of these schools, but nonmembers

(24%) do not.

21

20
Gerald W. Cormick, Collective Bargaining Exper­
ience of Canadian Registered Nurses'", pT 678.
21

Margaret K. Chandler and Philip Marden, "Members,
Nonmembers, and Exmembers," University of Illinois Bulle­
tin (June, 1961), pp. 6, 10,"12, 13.

36
The professional nursing association has an
obligation to seek improvements in nursing, not only for
the profession, but for the public as well.

Improvements

in employment conditions for any group of nurses, such as
those in public employment, will have an effect on the
employment conditions of all nurses and on nursing care.
The association believes that improvements in the economic
welfare of nurses are necessary if the profession is to
attract and retain persons who can provide the nursing
22
care which the public requires.
What kind of organization is ANA?

All three

groups of nurses identify ANA most strongly with another
association of professional employees, the National
Society of Professional Engineers.
But when asked what they think ANA should be
like, members are very different.

Half of them favor

as first choice the image of a stronger association of
independent professionals, the American Medical Associ­
ation.

Half of the nonmembers and exmembers favor the

NSPE model as first choice.

In general, the image of

ANA as a union is not popular.

It is the first choice

rating of 15 per cent of the members, 13 per cent of the
23
exmembers, and 20 per cent of the nonmembers.

22Margaret K. Chandler and Philip Marden, "The
Nurse as a Public Employee," American Nurses1 Association
(New York, February, 1965), p. 15.
21

JCormick, o£. cit. , p. 10.

37
Analysis of interview reports and an inventory of
opinions reveal that members are better informed about
services and programs of ANA than nonmembers and exmembers
are, but that even many members lack information.
All but 13 of the 200 nurses interviewed know
that only R.N.'s can belong to ANA.

However, from that

point on, only one-third or less of the exmembers or
nonmembers know anything at all about specific services,
programs, or policies of ANA.
Less than one in five of nonmembers and exmembers
know that ANA has legislative and economic security pro­
grams, whereas two members out of five know that those
programs exist.
One member in three knows how ANA officers are
elected:

by the House of Delegates.
Three members out of four do not know that ANA

has a legislative body— the House of Delegates.
Sixty per cent of the members know that the nurse
must request it if information about her is to be sent
to a prospective employer by the Professional Counseling
and Placement Service.
The most frequent source of information about ANA
for nonmembers is a source now remote— their nursing
school.

For members and exmembers it is journals and

pamphlets.

38

When the researchers compared nurses' knowledge
of ANA by field of practice, the obvious prediction that
teachers would excel proved correct.

Public health
24
nurses know almost as much as teachers.
Members are the most enthusiastic.

Over half

of them strongly favor programs for (in order of pref­
erence) racial equality, mandatory licensure of practical
nurses, economic betterment, research to improve nursing
practice, public relations, meeting with hospital admin­
istrators to improve occupational conditions and salaries,
professional counseling and placement, and insurance.
Exmembers are the most restrained group.

Only

one program— nursing research— is strongly favored by
25
more than half of the exmembers.
Two basic needs appeared when interviewers asked
the members what they think should be done to improve
programs of the professional association.
First of all, they want better communicationss
"I wish there was some way they (the Association)

could

get nurses on a local level to stimulate individual
nurses to become more aware of the total program."
Others phrased desire for more personal contact
with the professional organization*

"I don't feel very

close to it."

25Ibid., p. 12.

39
Of
the lowest

all the programs,public relations receives
average grade for performance-

This rating

seems to be primarily a reflection of a desire for more
activity in this area, with a kind of implicit wish that
the initiative in public relations should come from
someone besides rank and file members— from program
leaders The second basic need is summed up as a desire
for more organizational authority and strength/ espe­
cially for more power to achieve salary and other
related professional goals:

"We need more members, a

more cohesive group." 2 6
Dr.Burling suggests
actively concerned

that ANA should be more

regarding the administration ordering

members of a professional group to behave in ways that
are contrary to their professional ethics.

He sees the

time as being right around the corner when there is going
to be a professional ethic which will enable the per­
sonnel to say, "that cannot be done, that is unethical."
An example was presented by Dr. Burling where the hos­
pital administration makes distinctions between the
employee*s representatives and the employees themselves;
obviously, the representatives, and the statements they
make, are not really what the employees feel.

This adds

fuel to the idea that "well, if we can only communicate

26Ibid., p. 13.

40
directly with our employees and eliminate the outsiders—
the pressures from professional groups or other groups
representing our employees— then we will get along much
27
better.”
Dr. Burling also suggests that ANA and hos­
pital officials work jointly in developing grievance
procedures and answer such questions as, who is to par28
ticipate? How are problems to be handled?
Anne Zimmerman also thinks the ANA should help
nurses overcome one of their most difficult problems
interfering with unity— the attitude that it is unpro­
fessional to talk about salaries and conditions of
employment.

Nurses think it is undignified for them

to take part in collective action.

There are all kinds

of statements to support this position— from religiousaffiliated groups, professional groups, scholars who
write on the subject.

But deep down underneath, the

nurse's attitude that this might bring disfavor from
her colleagues, her supervisor, her employer, or the
community is the most difficult of all.
afraid, and rightfully so, unfortunately.

Nurses are
They are

afraid they will be isolated by contemporaries who
27
American Nurses' Association, Economic Security
Conference, Economic Security Unit, ""Panel on Factors in
Personnel Administration in Hospitals" (New York, October,
1961) , p. 2.
28

American Nurses1 Association Convention Bulletin
(4 5th), the House of Delegates and Sections (1966), p. 28.

41
don't approve, afraid of disapproval by their immediate
supervisors, and afraid of losing their jobs.

She states

that for collective bargaining to become truly insti­
tutionalized in the nursing profession, several problem
areas will require attention:
1.

The continued opposition of most hospital
employers to all forms of meaningful bargaining
with nurses remains the single greatest obstacle
to implementation of the Economic Security Pro­
gram.

Hospital employers, in my opinion, have

been even less willing to accept joint decision­
making than have school boards in their relations
with teachers.
2.

The apathy and lack of economic sophistication
on the part of many practicing nurses remains a
problem.

In spite of the recent upsurge in

activity many nurses are unwilling to do anything
of a positive nature to promote collective bar­
gaining.

It is not so much that they oppose

bargaining, rather they do not understand it
and frequently appear unwilling to learn.

Women,

generally, have not made good collective bargaining
material.

In an occupation consisting almost

entirely of women many of these difficulties
become amplified.

42
3.

The absence of effective economic muscle, a sine
qua non of bargaining, plays into the hands of
reluctant employers.

It shows up both in seeking

recognition as bargaining agent and in negotiations.
The ANA voluntarily relinquished the strike.
has found no substitute.

It

Its main assumption,

that it would place an increased moral responsi­
bility on hospitals to recognize and bargain with
nurses' organizations voluntarily, has not appeared
to have much effect.
4.

The ANA and its state affiliates suffer from a
number of organizational weaknesses.

These range

from the lack of financial resources to inadequate
communication among the different levels of the
organization.

Of major importance is the practice

of state affiliates of not entering a local situ­
ation until a clear expression of interest and
willingness to support a bargaining program is
evident.

The crucial role of the "organizer"

whose usefulness has been so amply demonstrated
in traditional unionism is not adequately appre­
ciated.
5.

To the ANA collective bargaining is only one
aspect of its Economic Security Program, and the
Economic Security Program is only one part of its
total program for the economic and professional

43
enhancement of the nurses' situation.

Xt is

possible the ANA is trying to do too much, with
the result that no part of its program is receiv­
ing adequate attention.

If collective bargaining

is to be the chief means for the improvement of
nurses' economic and professional status, then the
ANA would do well to curtail those programs that
compete with, and in some cases conflict with, its
collective bargaining objectives.

Proliferation

of tactics and programs has tended to dilute the
resources of the organization and make many nurses
uncertain of what the ANA is committed to accom­
plish.
This listing of strengths and weaknesses in col­
lective bargaining is by no means intended as exhaustive.
The main prerequisites for effective bargaining in the
nursing profession are, in my judgment, well established.
Favorable enabling legislation, of the type provided
most other categories of employees, would go far toward
making genuine bargaining a reality with a consequent
improvement in the economic and professional situation
29
of nurses employed in hospitals.
In San Francisco 2,000 registered nurses out of
3,700 employed in 33 different hospitals submitted their

29 American Nurses' Association, Economic Security
Conference, op. cit., p . 23.

44

resignations because of the failure of the hospital
association and the California Nurses' Association (CNA)
to agree on wages.

A compromise was reached short of an

actual walkout, but many nurses felt that their negoti­
ators should have held out for more money.

Barely one-

half of the over 1,000 nurses who attended the ratifi­
cation meeting supported the agreement.

Throughout the

summer, in many communities in and out of California,
mass meetings of nurses, as well as walkouts, both active
and threatened, were common.
In the face of this militancy, hospital associ­
ations sought to maintain a united front and were severely
critical of those hospitals unilaterally giving salary
increases above the agreed-upon rate.

At the same time

unions were putting out feelers to test the depth of the
nurses* dissatisfaction with existing conditions.

The

large Los Angeles local of the Retail Clerks Union estab­
lished the Registered Nurses Guild of Southern California
to organize nurses.

Calling for a union approach to

nurses' problems, the local criticized the efforts of
the California Nurses' Association.

Many registered

nurses feel that the CNA has consistently failed to dis­
charge its obligations in securing for them professional
recognition and adequate salary rates.

There is little

evidence that the Retail Clerks are meeting with much
success.

In 1951 Harold and Audrey Sheppard were able

45
to state:

"Paternalism certainly characterizes a major

portion of the relationship between the nurse and her
employer, although nurses may be reluctant to recognize
or admit this fact.

To the objective observer, however,

it is obvious that many members of the nursing profession
are satisfied to accept uncritically the subordinatedependent position in an authoritarian relationship." 30
The second area of concern was regarding the pro­
fessional association's status, charges were that ANA be
concerned about the professional ethics of its professional
group and that ANA hospital officials work jointly in
developing grievance procedures and that ANA does not work
with members to formulate goals, policies, and procedures.
The professional nurse has a two-fold responsi­
bility.

First, they are concerned with the health needs

of the public.

According to a recent International

Labor Office (I.L.O.) report, "nurses supply the most
exacting coup rehensive and responsible care of a nursing
nature available in a given country including those com­
petent in research, consultation, education, and planning

30
Archie Kleingartner, Nurses1 Collective Bargaining and Labor Legislation (University of California,
p. 244. --- - - - - - - - -

46
of Health programs.

Second, nurses have a responsibility

for the welfare of their group and for their own personal
welfare.
The American Nurses' Association (ANA) serves as
an agent for over 200,000 nurses in the United States.
The association is composed of 54 constituent states and
territorial associations.

Its purpose is to foster high

standards of nursing practice, promote the professional
and educational advancement of nurses to the end that
all people may have better nursing care.

In 1946, the

ANA established an Economic Security Program which has
since been adopted by all constituent state and terri­
torial associations.

Basically it is a program to

improve the employment conditions of nurses through
group action such as collective bargaining.
Even though the ANA serves as a functioning
organization for nurses, there are still conflicts
within its ranks regarding the role ANA should assume.
One argument, neither a specific strength nor
weakness but frequently presented, is that collective
bargaining and professionalism are incompatible, and in
this case, that the ANA is destined to become just
another union, forsaking the loftier mission of a true
professional organization.

Jack Barbash, Professor of

^ International Labor Office Report (New York,
October, 19(59) , p. 15'.

47
Economics at the University of Wisconsin, has stated
with specific reference to teachers, but of equal rele­
vance to nurses, that:

"The dignity, status and scien­

tific competence that go with being a professional cannot
be fully realized unless, in the first instance, the pro­
fessional has a measure of economic and personal security
on the job."3^
A platform adopted at a major official policies
meeting set forth the following resolutions for improve­
ment within the A N A ’s structure:

"Resolved, that ANA

give top priority to a program interpreting a strong
nationwide public information campaign stressing the
shortage of nurses, low salaries and unsatisfactory
employment practices; and be it further resolved, that
a thorough investigation be made relative to utilizing
available public service time of major communication
media, including both television and radio network
..33
programs."
Factors that affect the SNA policy on promoting
state labor laws are:

32

"Spot Check of Current Hospital Nursing Employ­
ment Conditions," American Nursing Association (New York,
February, 1951), pi 242.
33"Major Official Policies Relating to the
Economic Security Program," American Nurses1 Association
(New York, 1965), p. 12.

48

1.

Professional nurses have the same need as other
employed persons to have full freedom of associ­
ation, actual liberty of contract, and freedom to
designate representatives of their own choosing
for purposes of collective bargaining.

2.

Existing state laws, state labor relations acts
and other statutes should be examined by legal
counsel to determine whether discrimination
against nurses exists.

3.

The inclusion of provisions which exempt nonprofit
hospitals from the operation of labor laws denies
the benefit of legal recourse to nurses employed
in these hospitals, when it is needed in the
course of the development of state economic
security programs.

4.

To facilitate collective bargaining between nurses
and their employers, comprehensive labor relations
acts should be promoted in states that have no
labor relations laws.

5.

Where nurses are excluded from using the orderly
machinery established by the law, and employers
refuse to recognize the practice and procedure of
collective bargaining by refusing to meet and bar­
gain collectively with duly chosen representatives
of their employees, such action by employers leads

49
-to unrest and to disputes between nurses and their
employers, and endangers the quality of nursing
service for the public.
6.

Employers who have no statutory obligation to
bargain will frequently refuse to do so unless
subject to strong economic pressure from their
employees.

Nonprofit hospital employers are,

in 3tates that prohibit strikes, immune from such
pressures.

It is, therefore, important to see

that state laws require such employers, as well
as other employers of nurses, to bargain with
their employees.
7.

The promotion of legislation which will give pro­
tection to nurses in the exercise of these basic
rights is necessary to the development of sound
relationships between nurses and their employers.

8.

Professional nurse members of ANA have voluntarily
relinquished the right to strike.

Therefore, the

need for legal protection is particularly impor­
tant.
Some considerations for ANA and SNA's contemplat­
ing legislative action are:

"3 Vl

"Labor-Management Relations, Laws as They
Affect the Economic Interest of Nurses," American Nurses'
Association (New York), pp. 3-4.

50
1.

The ANA and the SNA should have an ongoing
economic security program before taking the
initiative in sponsoring labor legislation.
The law is a tool for making the program more
effective and should be sought only when the
need for such a law has been experienced.

2.

When labor-management legislation is initiated
under other sponsorship, the SNA should give
serious consideration to supporting proposals
which will assist nurses in the promotion of
state economic security programs and to opposing
proposals which would have a deterrent effect
on their state programs.

3.

Because such legislation affects employee groups
other than nurses, the SNA-ANA will need to deter­
mine the attitude of these groups.

The SNA-ANA

should understand that the introduction or support
of such legislation may necessitate working with
other organizations such a3 other professional
groups, municipal employee groups, labor unions,
et cetera, with which the SNA-ANA may not have
previously worked.
4.

Before and during any SNA-ANA active labor legis­
lation program, an extensive educational program
among the nurses of the state must be carried on

51
by the SNA-ANA in order to equip the nurses to
interpret this activity to, and solicit the
support of, not only the legislators but also
other individuals and groups in the local com­
munity and the state.
5.

The SNA-ANA should be assured that legal counsel
retained for this type of legislation has a broad
35
understanding of industrial and labor relations.
To bring about improvements of the status, privi­

leges , and economic conditions of registered nurses under
national and state labor laws, ANA works through its
Government Relations Department on federal legislation
and encourages SNA's to work on state legislation.

Among

its legislative goals are:
1.

Removal of nonprofit hospitals from their exempt
status in Section 2(2) of the Labor-Management
Relations Act (Taft-Hartley).

This provision

exempts nonprofit hospitals from the obligation
to bargain collectively with their employees.
To date, only ten jurisdictions have labor
relations laws requiring nonprofit hospitals to
negotiate with employees on salaries and other

35Ibid., p. 4.

52
employment conditions.

They are:

Connecticut,

Hawaii, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mon­
tana, New York, Oregon, Puerto Rico, and Wisconsin.
2.

Mandatory coverage for unemployment compensation
for employees in nonprofit hospitals.

According

to a U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics study in
July, 1966, the proportion of registered nurses
not covered by unemployment insurance was 89 per
cent in nongovernment hospitals and 83 per cent
in state and local government hospitals.
3.

Mandatory (not voluntary) Social Security coverage
for all nurses, including those in nonprofit
employment.

BLS data indicate that at least

10 per cent of the nurses in nongovernment
hospitals have no coverage.
4.

Uniform mandatory coverage of Workman's Compen­
sation Laws.

Coverage in any private employment

is elective in nearly half the states.
5.

Provision for more liberal tax deductions for
working women paying the cost of child care.

6.

Liberal provisions for tax deductions for edu­
cational expenses.

To meet these challenges, to improve the economic and
employment conditions of registered nurses, the ANA and

53
the SNA's continuously engage in activities seeking the
improvement of patient care and the betterment of the
36
status of the registered nurse.
Nurses' salaries in such a committed nation,
according to Sister Delphine, should reflect the value
of their service to society, their investment in edu­
cation, and their worth in relation to other professions
and occupations.

She sees the low economic status of

nurses as a deterring factor in recruitment of young
people into the profession and discourages qualified
nurses remaining in nursing practice.

It is imperative

for the health of the nation that the nursing profession
increase in both quantity and quality to meet the expansion
of demand and new knowledge.

Sister Delphine recommends

that state nurses associations inform their membership,
the employers of nurses, and the public of this national
salary goal and, using all methods consistent with the
ANA Economic Security Program and work toward its imple­
mentation.

She also recommends that the resolution on a

national salary goal for entrance into nursing be amended
by deleting the words "in 1966,” and by striking out the
37
figure $6,500 and inserting the figure $7,200.
Sister

36
"Economic Fact Sheet of the Nursing Profession,"
American Nurses' Association, New York,.
37
American Nurses' Association (New York, May,
1963) , p. 3.

54
Delphine states that it is amazing how little nurses
know of their rights and privileges as employees.

They

understand the role in which they function— that of an
expert in the field of nursing care and a member of the
profession; but they really do not understand their
second role; that of an employee of an agency or insti­
tution.

Nurses need to overcome this lack of understand­

ing not only because lack of information contributes to
lack of courage but also because uninformed courage is
really worse than none at all.
To enhance their professional standards, nurses
must also improve their economic status.

Achieving new

economic status may well require the development of dif­
ferent institutional arrangements.

Nurses working through

their professional associations must seek out solutions
or a series of solutions to the economic problems, which
beset the professional nurse.

In a free society, the

decision to improve their economic status will be made
38
by the nurses themselves.
Anne Zimmerman sees the ANA as being a significant
factor in eliminating this problem along with the problem
of unity.

Anne Zimmerman also states that nurses suffer

from a lack of legislative protection.

A number of

nurses resent this and wish the ANA would take steps
38

American Nurses1 Association, "Economic Security
Conference, Economic Security Unit" fNew York, 1963),
P. 29.

55
against it.

They want laws that would protect them in

their right to work, and the elimination of the six-day
law (which requires everyone to work six days before a
day of rest).
Anne Zimmerman suggests that nurses should develop
leadership within their own ranks, with the help of ANA,
to curtail nurses from being successfully encouraged to
join other organizations, touted as substitutes for
39
membership by other professional organizations.
Professional Concerns of Engineers
The definitive history of engineering unionism
has still to be written.

The following summary will

suffice for the purposes of this paper.
1.

Most of these unions were founded during 19431947 as a means of keeping engineers out of the
CIO, which was then seeking bargaining units
encompassing all employees.

They were largely

instigated by traditional professional organi­
zations such as the American Society of Civil
Engineers and the American Chemical Society,
doubtless with willing acquiescence by employers.
2.

Section 9(b) 1 of the Taft-Hartley Act, which
was passed in 1947, prohibited the blanketing

39Ibid., pp. 5-10

56
of professionals against their will in the same
bargaining unit as other employees.

Thus, engi­

neers no longer had reason to fear being swallowed
up by production unions.

With their original

reason for existence gone, some engineering
unions fell apart.
3.

The unions that remained took moderate positions,
in the hope that relations with management would
be friendly.

But when managements, in general,

ignored the moderate approach, a number of the
unions began using tougher tactics.

In 1953

one union resorted to strike action to buttress
its demands, and from then on there have been a
number of strikes.
4.

Individual units began exchanging information
regarding salaries as early as 1948.

Several

early attempts to form national organizations
were failures but the ESA, a loosely knit national
organization, was founded in 1952.

It grew until

by 1956, its peak year, it claimed 30,000 members.
5.

From the beginning there were internal struggles,
ostensibly over the question of whether unions
should include nonprofessional technical employees
and over the relative weight to be given to
organizing new unions as against educational or

57
lobbying activities, but in a larger sense over
whether engineering unions should pattern them­
selves after professional societies or after tra­
ditional trade unions.
The more union-oriented faction lost out and
left ESA to form the short-lived Engineers and
Scientists Guild.

Eventually several dissenting

groups joined the 1UE, which in 1961 represented
about 3,500 engineers and scientists.
6.

The issue of including nonprofessionals in the
bargaining unit led to a Supreme Court ruling and
new elections at Western Electric, where certifi­
cation was lost and Westinghouse, where it was
retained.

7.

The loss of membership and internal quarrels led
to the demise of ESA in 1961.

By 1961 unions had

lost their certification at Western Electric,
Minneapolis - Honeywell, and Sperry, among the
major employers (and in August, 1963, the Western
Electric union lost in a comeback attempt by a
top-heavy 4,375 to 2,582 margin).

Unions con­

tinued to represent certain portions of the
engineering work force at Boeing, Lockheed,
Douglas, RCA, Westinghouse, Shell Oil of Indiana,
Tidewater Oil, Boston Edison, and Pacific Gas and
Electric, among others.

In addition, engineers

58
at Bell Laboratories and General Electric were
represented by "sounding boards" which lacked
NLRB certification and did not negotiate con­
tracts.

Union membership of scientists and engi40
neers has recently been estimated at 23,000.
Back in 1957, engineering unions were among the
"white hopes" of the labor movement.

Of approximately

500,000 engineers in the United States, professional
engineering unions already claimed to represent 45,000
while industrial unions such as the IUE and the UAW
claimed another 10,000.

Over 25,000 engineers belonged

to the Engineers and Scientists of America (ESA) , a
loose federation of engineering unions.

If engineers,

among the most "white-collar" of white-collar employees,
could be organized— so many unionists argued— then whitecollar organization generally would be easy.

Few subjects

commanded greater interest among students of the union
movement.
Today the ESA is dead.

Unions at Sperry, Western

Electric, and Minneapolis Koneywell, which together repre­
sented 10,000 engineers, have lost their NLRB certifi­
cation.

No group of engineers of any importance has

been organized since 1951.

"The leadership of the

^^George Strauss, Professionalism and Occupational
Associations (California Hall, 1967) , p. 52l.

59
engineers1 union movement is demoralized and defeatist.
The movement is shredded with personal animosities and
conflicting views of policy matters."
Why this dramatic change in fortunes?
seem to be a number of reasons.

There

The union movement gen­

erally has lost strength in recent years.

Management is

taking a strong stand in many industries.

Engineering

salaries are no longer declining, as compared with sala­
ries in other occupations.

But the heart of the problem

is that engineers' unions just have not been successful
in selling themselves to engineers.
Why not?

At first glance the answer seems simple.

Engineers' unions were founded originally, for the most
part by fluke, not because engineers wanted to be
unionized, but because they wanted to be protected from
being swallowed up by production unions.

Further— it

may be claimed, engineers are really management-oriented—
they have middle-class orientation and see their future
as rising through management ranks.

Once the CIO danger

had passed, it was natural for their interest in unions
to wane.
To a large extent this analysis is valid.

To be

sure, many engineers partly identify with management and
this identification inhibits their acceptance of unionism.
Yet even where unions successfully loosen their engineers'
ties to management, another problem arises:

there are

60
real conflicts between the engineer's interest as an
employee and his interest as a professional, and every
engineering union must decide to what extent it will
serve as a normally employee-oriented union and to what
extent it will act as a'professional association.

It

is the thesis of this article that these decisions are
not easy to make and that the resulting conflicts have
contributed to the decline in engineering union strength.

41

Industrial engineers are also making strides in
the hospital field.

They have been brought in in an

attempt to control the price of hospital service by
developing greater efficiencies within the hospitals.
Most often, they are committed to streamlining or sim­
plifying the work being done, to saving time, to saving
personnel.

In hospitals, they are not just concerned

with the laundry, or the kitchen, or the housekeeping
functions; they are also involved with patient care and
other services, including nursing.

When a hospital tries

to offset some of the cost of improved wage and benefit
programs by introducing operating efficiencies, problems
42
may arise to give you real concern.

A

1

George Strauss, Professionalism of EmployeeOriented Dilemma for Engineering Unions (Cairfornia Hall,
1964), pp." 5 1 9 - 3 3 . --- -------- -------A

Joel and Glen Seidman, "Unionized Engineers and
a Case Study of a Professional Union,” Journal of Business
(July, 1964), 238.
i

61

As one former engineering union official put it:
All other units (other than Arma and Boeing) are
walking the high wire being pulled to the left by
those urging more militancy— to the right, by
those desiring more professionalism. So long as
the balance is maintained the show goes on. . . .
The real battle rages not at the membership meet­
ings, but in the minds of men who want to be
powerful yet professional.
Thus, engineers differ among themselves as to
their interests, and many feel somewhat uncertain and
ambivalent as to what they really want.

This uncertainty,

it is hypothesized, makes it difficult for engineering
unions to frame their objectives in a way which will
appeal to all engineers. 43
Occupational associations promote professionalism:
they help protect the occupation's autonomy and raise
its status.

These professional objectives are often

more objectionable to management than are purely eco­
nomic demands.

Thus a company representative spoke of

how his engineering union "threatens teamwork with
accounting, operating personnel, and other management
people . . ."
Whether occupational associations become increas­
ingly powerful would seem to depend on several factors.
Foremen's clubs, professional associations, and some
engineering unions would find it hard to exist without
management's tolerance and support.

Generally, management

4^Bernard Goldstein, The Perspective of Unionized
Professionals (Rutgers, 1959), p. 369.

62
is pleased when employees take part in such extracurricular
activities and feels that such organizations are desirable
from a morale standpoint.

Perhaps were managements more

aware of the long-run implications of professionalism
they might withdraw their support.

But as the factors

making for professionalism become increasingly prevalent,
employees may come to think of the opportunity to take
part in occupational associations (even on company time)
44
as a fringe benefit or even as a vested right.
Some engineers are assigned to advanced research
projects and their work resembles that of the pure scien­
tist.

Others hold management or quasi-management positions.

Still others perform routine drafting functions or are
trouble shooters in a manufacturing plant.
there are subtle status distinctions:

In addition,

design engineers

and electrical engineers are near the top in terms of
prestige, while industrial engineers are at the bottom.
Engineers differ, too, in educational background.
Many hold advanced degrees.

Others hold the title "engi­

neer," but have received their training on the job or
have attended a few years of a night-college program.
Engineers differ greatly both in the nature of
their work and in their identification with either

Bernard Goldstein, "Unionism As A Social Change,
The Engineers* Case,” Monthly Labor Review (April, 1963),
p. 365.

63
management or their profession.

Policies which are

appropriate to one group may be completely inappropriate
45
with others.
The engineer's dilemma is that, to a greater or
lesser extent, almost every engineer is uncertain of his
role.

Is he professional?

Is he management?

Or is he

merely a worker?
Certainly his training and his title make him a
professional.

As a professional he has a mission to

push back the frontiers of knowledge.

He is partly

bound by values (professional standards) other than
those of the organization for which he works.

He seeks

his rewards primarily in terms of approbation from other
professionals, rather than from within the organization
itself.

He aims to set his own rules and to be judged

by other professionals.
But the engineer also feels some identification
with management, whether he is formally classified as
management or not.

His job permits some discretion

(often less than he wants}, and his middle-class
upbringing leads him to seek material rewards.

In

most companies the only way to get ahead, in terms of
both prestige and earnings, is to be promoted through the
ranks of management.

^ G e o r g e W. Zinke and Earl Madsen, Unions of Professional: Prototypes for Coming Decades? (University
of Colorado, 1967) , p. 1*5.

64
Finally, in moments of discouragement, the engi­
neer may feel like a factory worker.

Often he works in

a large drafting room, and he may be subject to factory­
like discipline (sometimes he must check with his boss
before leaving the area and may have his coffee breaks
carefully times).

His discretion may be quite limited;

he may work on a tiny part of a total project and feel
that he is making little contribution to knowledge.

He

may recognize that as an employee he is dependent on
management and that, to some extent, he has the same
economic interests as other employees.

And so he seeks

salary increases, overtime payments, protection against
arbitrary acts of management, and so forth. 46
It has been suggested here that professional
employees, because of their location in society, are
more strongly imbued with certain values, generally
accepted as characteristic of the middle class, than
are industrial workers.

As a consequence, they give

meanings to various aspects of trade unionism that are
significantly different from those generally held by
wage workers.
The engineers define collective bargaining as
a process of exchange whereby two parties present facts
that must be evaluated in an attempt to reach a mutually
beneficial contract.

Ideally, it is not a power struggle,

46Ibid., p. 13.

65
though the engineers will grant that the employer often
behaves as though it were.

Their union provides an

instrument whereby management may be kept better informed
of their needs and, being informed, will more easily
be able to provide an appropriate work atmosphere, to
their mutual advantage.

The grievance procedure exists

to deal with group problems that require company-wide
decisions, and, if necessary, to protect the small
minority not capable of defending their own self-interest.
It is an open question as to where this particu­
lar case stands in relation to unions of professionals
that are independent but include nonprofessional employees,
and unions of professionals that are affiliated with the
AFL-CIO.

Whether this perspective is valid for all pro­

fessionals in unions, regardless of type, or reflects
only the values of those in this particular kind of
union is not known.

But the data clearly suggest that

to attribute trade union values to trade union members,
without allowing for the variety of reference groups to
which they may be oriented, is to oversimplify the task
of understanding American trade unionism.
To the observer, the membership of these engineers
in a union might appear inexplicable.

From the point of

view of the act xs in the situation, there is no such
problem.

Their :rnion was formed in part as a reaction

to post-war compary personnel policies, but also in part

66
as a defense against threatened organization by AFL-CIO
unions.

To most of the engineers, their organization is

different— it is a professionally oriented, voluntary
association, democratic in structure, with dedicated
local leadership, and committed to the improvement of
the lot of both employer and employee.

Membership in

such an organization is entirely consistent with their
outlook.47
Those who oppose engineering unions stress the
incompatibility of professionalism and unionism.

Edi­

torials and articles appearing in society journals suggest
that unions may be proper for manual workers, but not for
professional persons whose interests are much more
closely identified with management than with labor.
There is an implied— if not direct— accusation that the
engineer who joins a union lowers the dignity of the
profession and degrades himself.

The imputations are the

same whether the engineer affiliates with a union that
takes in nonprofessionals or joins one of the unions
that restrict membership to professional persons? in
both cases the societies insist that unionization has
brought the engineer closer to the status of a production
worker.^®
i pi

"Success and Failure in Organizing Professional
Engineers," Industrial Relations Research Association

(1964), pp. m - w :
48 Allen W. Walz, "Unionization of Engineers and
Professional Employees-Management*s Viewpoint," The Con­
ference Board Management Record (August, 1955) , fTI 377T

67
Conflict split the ESA and played a major role
in the three elections which led to decertification.
As stated by one of the protagonists the issue was
between:

. . . two distinct groups of feuding fathers.

One essentially wanted to form a national labor union
for engineers; the other wanted to form an engineering
professional society that would sequester the collective
bargaining franchises and place them in cold storage.
One group wanted an organization to enhance reputation;
the other simply wanted some control over the work
situation.

*

The split between the opposing groups may not
have been as clear as the above statements suggest.
Nevertheless there were significant differences among
engineering unions and their members as to whether these
unions should function as other unions did— or whether
they should be primarily professional associations.

49

Salary administration presents a series of cri­
tical dilemmas for engineering unions.

Almost every

engineering union avowedly supports the principle of
allowing people to rise on the basis of individual merit.
Yet the traditional union objective is to get more money
for its members on a collective basis; thus, as we shall
see, one of the unintended consequences of the engineering
unions' concern with salary administration is to place

68
pressure on management to move toward salary equality.
Thus the conflict between the principles of individualism
and equality in salary administration has bedeviled every
50
engineering union.
It was found that unionized engineers at the two
sites did not differ markedly from their nonunion col­
leagues with reference to certain background social
characteristics.

Nor did the two groups differ on the

basis of a general political orientation.

However, there

were significant differences between members and nonmembers
with regard to degree of satisfaction with the job and
company, feelings of conflict between professionalism
and unionism, attitudes toward unionism in general, and
attitudes toward the particular unions involved.

Thus,

engineers who were union members were more likely to be
dissatisfied with their work environment, to regard
joining a professional union as compatible with pro­
fessionalism, and to have a more positive attitude
toward unionism, as well as toward the union in their
company and its leadership.51
The engineer, because of his socio-economic
position, is even more sensitive to the expectations of
his reference group, the middle class of the community
in which he resides.

Though a process of diffusion has

51Ibid.

69
occurred whereby the grievance machinery has nominally
become a part of his culture, the engineer views it as
an alien importation.
To many union leaders, the grievance procedure
is the heart of the union's activity on behalf of its
members.

Among the engineers studied, however, relatively

little use is made of this device.

Of those interviewed,

only one had filed a grievance, and this was part of a
group grievance.

During the period May, 1952, through

August, 1956, a total of 31 grievance cases were pro­
cessed, though not all were settled.

A total of 31

grievances over a period of 4 years in a plant averaging
about 1,000 engineers is small by comparison with the
typical experience among industrial workers.
The attitude of the engineers studied can be
pointed up in two ways.

The following respondent is

critical of the engineers in this regard:
Trouble is, engineers are kind of funny at times.
They'll make a lot of noise, and gripe. You ask
them to sit down and spell out their grievances
and sign their name, why, they back away. . . .
There have been several occasions when they could
have used it, but just never did. They were
afraid, or something.
They're different, I
guess, that's all.
Too much of an individualist.
Thus, the engineers themselves are reluctant to be put in
a position where differences with their superordinates
will become formalized.

One Board member, during an

interview, told a long story of how he had carried a
grievance all the way up the line— on his own.

When

70
asked why he did not use the grievance procedure, he said
that he was able to handle his own problems, the grievance
machinery was for those who were too timid to protect
52
their own interests.
A second source of insight into this matter is
revealed by the king of Grievance Committee that is
found desirable.

For example, asked whether he thought

the Grievance Committee was important, a respondent said:
I think so.
I don't think they're too forward.
I personally know a few members of the Grievance
Committee and they seem to have picked out fellows
that are well educated, very conscientious.
They're
able to talk to management on their own level.
. . . They seem to weed out the grievances. They
feel there must be some justification for a grievance
and not just any old thing.
So they've been doing
a good job, I think.
Clearly, the conception here is of a responsible,
business-like approach, so that the handling of grievances
will not come to be a matter of conflict between engineers
and management.

There is no desire for a militant

Grievance Committee, ever on the watch for an infringe­
ment on the rights of its constituents.

The engineers

look upon this machinery as a last line of defense,
rather than as a first line.

There is a desire for an

organization somewhere in the background, in the shadow of
which they can operate with greater feelings of security. 53
52
"Success and Failure in Organizing Professional
Engineers," o£. cit., p. 324.
53Ibid., p. 325.

71
Most trade unionists hold that true collective
bargaining is not possible unless workers have the right
to strike and are prepared to do so.

Among the engineers,

there is widespread antagonism towards the union movement
because of its use of the strike, and strong feelings
against the use of the strike weapon by their own union.
Of the thirty respondents who discussed the possible use
of the strike in their own situation, only two took the
position that a union had to be willing and prepared to
strike in order to carry on effective collective bar­
gaining.

Only seven of the thirty were of the opinion

that it would be possible to get the engineers out on
strike under any condition.
Of the respondents, twenty-one took the position
that either they or the engineers at large would not
accept the strike as a legitimate means by which to
compel management to accept the union point of view.
The theme that force and violence had to be avoided
and that the way to settle disputes was to meet at the
negotiating table was basic in the rejection of the
strikes
I don't believe too much in strikes. . . . Maybe
it's because most of the strikes I've read about
were actually directed by other unions and they
used goon tactics, and stuff like that. X
don't believe in any violence, and it seems
there's always violence connected with strikes.
So I don't approve of strikes. Actually, I

72
think the Company is starting to see things more
our way and I think anything we do can be talked
over at the negotiating table instead of going
out on strike.54
There was the feeling, among both members and
officers, that engineers were too conservative to engage
in strike behavior or, more critically, that they were
afraid of strikes and violence.

As a member of the

leadership group put it:
. . . I don't think a strike would be successful
at all. . . . I've heard some of the fellows say,
"Well, let's go out and stay out until they give
in to us." Well, I'd ask them, "How long would
you be willing to stay out?"
"Oh, a week." I'd
say, "Yeah, that's the hell of it. After two or
three weeks, if we had to be out longer than that,
the only ones who would be out would be the
officers and the fellows who have carried the
ball all the way."55
The attitude of the engineers to the strike weapon
is consistent with their basic approach— an approach
based on conciliation, avoidance of publicly observable
conflict, and a faith in the ultimate triumph of facts
and reason in the collective bargaining process.

The

industrial worker, by and large, maintains a somewhat
skeptical attitude towards management, and while he cer­
tainly does not enjoy striking, he is prepared to accept
it as the ultimate trade union weapon.
feel otherwise.
clash of swords.

The engineers

They prefer the clash of words to the
This avoidance of out-and-out conflict.

5^Ibid., p. 327.

55Ibid., p. 324.

73
the reliance on conference and persuasion, these, too,
seem to reflect an acceptance of middle-class perspective
on the handling of relations between groups.
The available evidence indicates that while a
majority of union members will agree that their union
should provide them with information concerning candi­
dates and issues, only a minority are in favor of any
more vigorous union involvement in politics.

The engi­

neers studied were even less inclined to see political
action as a legitimate activity on the part of their
organization.

The dominant attitudes of these engineers
56
were neatly forecast by McConnell.
Throughout its history the Association has been
a "pure” professional union; its membership has been of
high professional societies.
The Association, whose members are employed
either in research and development or in engineering,
has never called or even formally threatened a strike,
and in any event, without cooperation from the plant
unions, would be powerless to shut down the refinery or
even to cause the company any significant loss of pro­
duction.

The company, moreover, operates other refineries

whose professional employees are not unionized, and it
could make good from these sources any production loss
caused by strike action at this facility.
56Ibid., p. 325.

Without the

74
strike weapon, the Association obtains salary increases
that follow the contract gains made by the union of pro­
duction workers at its plant, which in turn follows the
industry-wide pattern.

Nevertheless, the Association

raises with management, as vigorously as it can, matters
of interest to the professional employees.

While it

probably lacks the power to increase the size of the
bargaining package, it has been able to alter the dis­
tribution to the greater satisfaction of its members and
to achieve other benefits. 57
Although the Association, with its NLRB certifi­
cation and collective bargaining functions, is unques­
tionably a union, its limited economic power, its
restricted scope of operations

(for example, almost

no grievance processing), and its function as an agency
of communication give it some of the earmarks of the
"sounding-board" type of organization found elsewhere
among professionals.
Over the years the Association, without benefit
of any type of union security provision, has enjoyed the
support of an overwhelming majority of the engineers and
chemists for whom it bargains.

When the study was con­

ducted, approximately 80 per cent of the 500 professionals
within the bargaining unit were members of the organi­
zation.

Since only about 160 were in the unit when the
c7

^'Seidman, o p . cit., p. 240.

75
Association was formed, the great majority of the pro­
fessionals had found the Association well established
as their bargaining agent when they entered the company's
employ.

They knew of the grievances that had led to the

formation of the Association only by hearsay.
Responses of the professional workers indicated
general satisfaction with their job and with the company,
a view supported by a low turnover rate.

The engineers

and scientists liked the company's generally high salary
level and working conditions, the facilities provided
for their use, the quality of their colleagues and
supervisors, the independence afforded them, the variety
in their work, and the research orientation of the com­
pany.

On the other hand, many of them disliked the

company's geographical location, and also its large size
and top-heavy supervisory structure in the research and
58
engineering departments.
Of the forty-seven members or officers of the
Association who gave their reasons for joining, or the
circumstances under which they joined, only one-fourth
responded in terms of a belief in professional unionism
in particular or unionism in general.

An equal number

said that they wanted to have a voice in the organization
that represented them, and nine simply went along with
the group.

Almost as many were impressed with the

58lbid., p. 239

76
standing or accomplishments of the Association, and the
remainder liked its stand on particular issues or
reported that they had been "talked into" joining by
59
enthusiastic members.
Of the sixty-eight professional employees inter­
viewed, only seven, all of them nonmembers, felt that
the Association had no achievements worthy of mention.
Eleven others— four nonmembers, five rank-and-file mem­
bers, and two officers or active members— believed that
its accomplishments did not amount to much.

The remain­

ing fifty respondents, including five nonmembers, thirty
rank-and-file members, and fifteen officers or active
members, all credited the Association with accomplish­
ments of considerable importance, although their degree
of enthusiasm varied.
The nonmembers who viewed the Association as of
little or no value argued, in part, that the achievements
for which it took credit would have come anyway, though
perhaps the process was sometimes speeded up by the
Association's pressure.

Some of them viewed the organi­

zation's claims as greatly exaggerated, or found its
achievements of trivial importance.

One looked upon

the Association as ineffective with regard to the level
of salaries, asserting that the professionals got the
same increases in pay as the union of production workers?

59Ibid., p. 243

77
another took the view that the company should have
freedom to determine salaries and that the dissatisfied
should go elsewhere.
Summary
The literature review indicates that teachers,
nurses, and engineers have concerns regarding the
role their unions should assume in their behalf.
Teacher concerns w ere;

that the N.E.A. was a

company union; that N.E.A. has assisted the profession's
decline in the public eye; that N.E.A. effectiveness is
not viewed directly; that M.E.A. locals do not give the
public a square deal by cooperating with Boards of Edu­
cations; that M.E.A. is vulnerable because of the
imbalance in its internal structure; that memberships
duplicate and overlap; that M.E.A. is weakened by
internal dissension; that M.E.A. is not aggressive
enough in behalf of its members; that administrator
coercion is responsible for most of the M.E.A. local
membership; that dues are top-heavy; that urban projects
are ineffective; that a majority of M.E.A. associations
spent 75 per cent of its time participating in social
activities; that M.E.A. goals be clearly defined and
visible; that M.E.A. 's local associations are usually
pragmatic; that M.E.A. answer questions asked by its

60Ibid., p. 249.

78
members; that N.E.A. - M.E.A. local associations adjust
problems of working conditions and professional status;
that N.E.A. ask opinions of Indian education consultants
and leaders before formulating policy; that N.E.A. use
the full potential of its various offices to aid in the
implementation of the 1954 court decree; that N.E.A.
remove membership apathy and oligarchical control as
obstacles to successful mutual benefit for associations;
that N.E.A. let Mexican Americans speak for Mexican
Americans and not its Mexican American experts; that
N.E.A. take a stand with its affiliates and insist they
comply with federal guidelines on equal opportunity
hiring practices; that N.E.A. include Blacks and other
minority group members in their delegation to N.E.A.
Representative Assembly; and that N.E.A. get Mexican
Americans included in decision making.
Nurses * concerns w e r e ;

that ANA's state associ­

ations inform membership, employers of nurses and public
of their national salary goal and use all methods con­
sistent with its Economic Security Program toward its
implementation; that ANA develop leadership within its
own ranks; that ANA be more concerned regarding the pro­
fession ethics of its professional group; that ANA and
hospital officials work jointly in developing grievance
procedures; that ANA help nurses overcome attitudes of
fear regarding their job which interferes with unity;

79
that ANA solve problems interfering with collective bar­
gaining becoming institutionalized; that ANA discharge
its obligations in securing professional recognition and
adequate salary rates; that ANA look to state laws for
protection in implementing its collective bargaining
program; that ANA is destined to be just another union
because collective bargaining and professionalism are
incompatible; that ANA improve the economic and employ­
ment conditions of registered nurses, to meet, set goals;
that ANA have an ongoing economic security program before
taking the initiative in sponsoring labor legislation;
that an extensive education program among nurses be
carried on by ANA-SNA in order to equip nurses to inter­
pret, solicit, and support legislators, individuals,
and local and state groups; that ANA-SNA promote and
protect the economic and general welfare of nurses and
to assume active leadership in the organization of local
units; that ANA develop leadership for smaller units when
the professional organizations wish to act as bargaining
agents; that existing state laws, state labor relations
acts, and other statues be examined by legal counsel
to determine whether discrimination exists against
nurses; that ANA not be the sole determiner of standards
for the nursing profession; that ANA provide better
communication, personal contact, more organizational
authority and strength, more members, a more cohesive

80
group; that ANA give a program interpreting a strong
nationwide public information campaign stressing the
shortage of nurses, low salaries and unsatisfactory
employment practices and that ANA provide organization
information to members and nonmembers to increase their
awareness.
Engineers1 concerns were :

Unions of professional

personnel have fashioned a form of unionism which is
compatible with respective, contextually defined selfconcepts of professionalism and which does not only
represent a choice between the guild and the trade union.
These unions all desire to bargain with management but
do not wish to resort to the strike as an incident in
the collective bargaining process.

As a result, they

have chosen a technique of discussion which may be char­
acterized as "consultation," but which cannot be termed
collective bargaining as it is practiced by conventional
trade unions.

The success of this newly emergent process

of consultation— of mutualistic rule-making— thus hinges
on the success of the professional and his management to
accommodate with one another facing only the pressures
generated by the intimate knowledge o f the affairs of
each other.

In a sense, this is both a strength and a

weakness of the form of unionism created:

a strength,

because only this form of union can meet the demands
of contextually defined self-concepts of professionalism,

81
absent which there would probably be no self-organization‘
or employee representation at the firm; a weakness,
because organizational goal achievement depends solely
upon the union's ability to educate management to the
point where it will recognize the validity of the spe­
cifics of the union's position.
The "weakness" of the unions tactical position
can be discounted to some extent because consultation
is both a means and an end for some organizations.
Therefore, consultation which may not result in total
success in achieving all the goals of the union, or which
may not achieve most of the union's goals, may be success­
ful from the union's standpoint if it creates an under­
standing on management's part of the need to meet differentiational status interests of the membership of
the wage-conscious unions.
The presently organized unions of professional
personnel are prototypes of unionization in coining
decades.

They meet the problem of unionization versus

professionalism by choosing new union tactics and strate­
gies compatible with professionalism, thus, paradoxically,
eliminating the distinction between professionalism and
unionization.
It is important that professional employees such
as teachers, nurses, and engineers shake loose from
habitual modes of thought concerning the legitimacy of

the present work structure, the nature of professionalism,
the question of power, and the use of collective action.
Thus, the purpose of challenging discussions on the
autonomy question, on bureaucratic structure, on pro­
fessionalism, and on a larger role in society is to help
unsettle minds and create openness to new ideas.

The

problem of organizational effectiveness would look very
different if a supportive outlook emerged which incor­
porated the notion of a larger, more responsible role
and which legitimized behavior required to secure and
act the role.

CHAPTER III
THE RESEARCH PROCEDURE

The basic procedure employed in the design of
this study included the selection of the sample, designing
the study, collection of the data, analysis of the data,
formulation of discussions and recommendations.
Design of the Study
This study is comparative in nature.

Its causal-

comparative method is aimed at the discovery of possible
causes for the variables being studied by comparing sub­
jects from a random population.

It further attempts to

determine differences between defined groups or selected
variables.
This study was designed to determine the dif­
ference in the perception of problems and the expected
role of M.E.A. by Black and White teachers.

The research

was based on the premise that the above groups hold dif­
ferent perceptions and expectations, which cause con­
flict of opinion, confusion, and misunderstanding regard­
ing the role M.E.A. is to play as a professional associ­
ation.
83

84
A large industrial city in Michigan was selected
in which local teachers were affiliated with an M.E.A. ,
local and state organization.
Description of the Urban School System
The school system in the large industrial city in
this study consisted of 55 schools——4 high schools, 8
junior high schools, and 43 elementary schools.

There

are 45,236 students of which 18,999 are Black.
The system employs 1,975 school teachers of
which 496 are Black.
Population and Sample
The population used in this study were Black and
White teachers of a large industrial city in Michigan.
A minimum of 200 subjects were sampled for proper sta­
tistical analysis.
The sample consisted of 124 White subjects and
76 Black, who were chosen randomly from the teaching
population.
200 returned.

Over 350 questionnaires were sent out and
Several follow-up attempts were made to

collect the data through personal visits.
Teachers were selected from two high schools:
Northwestern and Southwestern.

Both of which are located

on the outer perimeters of the city; predominately
staffed by White teachers.

Six elementary schools

located in the inner city; staffed predominately by

85
Black teachers.

Selection was made in an effort to get

a cross section of Black and White responses ranging from
elementary to high school.
Instrumentation
The instrument was devised to show the degree to
which Black and White teachers perceive the hypotheses
of this study to be a problem and the degree of satis­
faction with the efforts of M.E.A. in eliminating the
problem.

It was also devised to show differences in

Black and White responses in an effort to see if Blacks
and Whites hold the same perceptions and expectations.
It measures such factors as:
(1) student, teacher involvement in curriculum plan­
ning and formulation of programs;
(2) ethnic studies as means for permanent certifi­
cation ;
(3) humanism in education;
(4) biases in hiring practices by local boards;
(5) standards of educational testing;
(6) action on individual needs of child;
(7) methods and procedures for evaluating edu­
cational programs and processing M.E.A. staff
candidates;

86
(8) equal representation in program evaluation;
(9) educational standards that maximize each child's
learning potential.
Teachers indicate their perceptions of problems
and satisfactions by responding to one of five classifi­
cations; very serious problem, quite a serious problem,
problem, not a serious problem, and not a problem.
The scoring on the questionnaire ranged from 1 - 5 .
The closer to one the more positive the responses and
the more negative responses being closer to five.
Additional data collected were of three general
types:
1.

Socio-economic

e.g./ age, sex, marital
status, number of depen­
dents , total income and
other personal charac­
teristics.

2.

Socio-psychological

e.g., indices of satis­
faction, commitment, con­
sensus, tension, and con­
flict, and issues for
negotiation.

3.

Occupational Information

e.g., educational
attainment, work role,
work load, membership
in occupational
association and
participation in that
association.

A sample of the instrument and hypotheses tested in this
study are located in Appendix A.

87
Data Collection
A visit was made to each school in which there
were participating teachers.

The principals were informed

of the study, purpose of the study, and staff partici­
pation was solicited.

Agreements were sought to admin­

ister the instrument in teachers' meetings wherever
possible; in other cases the instrument and a selfaddressed envelope with a cover letter were left in each
participating teacher's mailbox.

The results were col­

lected one week later and letters of of reminder were
sent to those failing to return the data in the allotted
time.

Scoring procedure was determined with the assis­

tance of the Research Bureau of Michigan State University.
Treatment of Data
The questionnaire was constructed to utilize IBM
processing procedures.
for machine tabulation.

The data were scored and coded
It was processed through the use

of a digital computer Mistic (Michigan State Illiac Com­
puter) .
Data Analysis
The hypotheses were stated in their null or test
form.

The analysis of the data for this study was done

by the "Finn1' routine which is a multivariate analysis
of variance test.

This program was developed by Jeremy

Finn, Department of Educational Psychology, State

University of Buffalo.
variances

The program is entitled "multi-

univariate and multivariate analysis of

variance and covariance.
June, 1968."

A Fortan IV Program Version 4,

Hypotheses were tested at the Michigan

State Computer Center.
Summary
In this chapter, the research procedures were
described.

They consisted of the design of the study,

selection of a school system, determining the population
and sample, selection of an instrument, administration
of the instrument, collection of data, and data analysis.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

The purpose of this study was to determine if
significant differences exist between the perceptions
and role expectations of Black and White teachers in
relation to professional roles and responsibilities of
the M.E.A.
A questionnaire of thirteen general items

(socio­

economic, socio-psychological, and occupational infor­
mation) and thirteen specific items

(hypothesis tested)

were administered and scored on return as to the positive
and negative effect of the responses.
questionnaire ranges from 1 - 5 .

The scoring on the

The closer to one the

more positive the responses and the more negative ones
being closer to five.
Each hypothesis is stated in null or test form
and accompanied by the results of the multivariate analy­
sis of variance.

The level of rejection for the hypothe­

sis is alpha level of .05.

A hypothesis is rejected when

a response pattern is significantly greater than .05
margin of error.

89

90
Testing of Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1 :
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and the expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to culture
diversity being reflected in all curriculum materials.
TABLE 4.1.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 1
Mean for
Perception
Test
Perception
of Problem

Mean for
Expecta­
tion Test

2.48

Expected
Role

3.10

Black
Cell
X

White
Cell
X

2.26

2.61

.34

3.11

3.09

.021

Cell
Difference

The F-ratio for the multivariate test of Hypothesis 1 shows that significant results for the perception
test were obtained p < (0.0450).

Significant results

for the expectation test were not obtained p > (0.9127).
The null is rejected for perception test but confirmed
for expectation test.
Findings for Hypothesis 1 indicate that 38.16 per
cent of Blacks saw quite a serious problem and 45.45 per
cent of Whites saw quite a serious problem.

Expectation

results reveal that 40.26 per cent of Blacks were very
greatly satisfied, and 37.19 per cent of Whites were
somewhat satisfied.

91
More Whites saw a greater need for cultural
diversity in curriculum materials and seem to be less
satisfied than Blacks.

Large numbers of both groups

seem to contradict themselves by seeing a problem and
then expressing satisfaction with that problem.
Results of multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 1 are shown in Table 4.1.
Hypothesis 2 :
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to the elimination
of racial and ethnic biases in hiring of teachers by
Boards of Education.
TABLE 4.2.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 2
Mean for
Perception

Perception
of Problem

Mean for
Expectation

2.48

Expected
Role

3.20

Black
Cell
X

White
r ,,
Cell
Differenoe
X

2.18

2.75

1.32

3.52

3.00

1.39

Hypothesis 2 was accepted p < (0.0033) for the
perception test and accepted p < (0.0106) for the
expectation test.
Results of the multivariate analysis of variance
for Hypothesis 2 are shown in Table 4.2,

92
The findings for Hypothesis 2 indicate that
35.06 per cent of Blacks saw a very serious problem in
the perception test whereas 33.88 per cent of Whites
saw quite a serious problem.

Results of expectation

test show that 35.06 per cent of Blacks were somewhat
satisfied.

Both groups are aware that a problem exists

in this area and seem somewhat dissatisfied.
Hypothesis 3 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to the elimination
of standardized tests based solely on White middle
class standards.
TABLE 4.3.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 3
Mean for
Mean for
Perceptions Expec­
tations
Perception
of Problem
Expected
Role

2.38
3.36

Black
Cell
X

White
Cell
X

2.00

2.62

.62097

3.56

3.24

.323

Cell
Difference

Significant statistical results were obtained by
the multivariate analysis of variance for the perception
test of Hypothesis 3 p < (0.0020)r but not obtained for
expectation test p > (0.1328).

The null was rejected

for the perception test but accepted for expectation test.

93
Data reveal that 36.36 per cent of Blacks saw a
very serious problem and 28.93 per cent of Whites saw a
problem in the perception test.

Expectation test results

reveal that 32.47 per cent of Blacks were slightly satis­
fied and 38.84 per cent of Whites to be somewhat dis­
satisfied.

There was no significant difference in the

perception test, but significant difference in the expec­
tation test.

Although both groups of teachers see a

problem to a serious problem, and they appear to be
slightly to somewhat satisfied.

There is an apparent

inconsistency in the response pattern for Hypothesis 3.
Results of Hypothesis 3 are shown in Table 4.3.
Hypothesis 4 :
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by Black
and White teachers in regard to emphasizing humanism
in education.
TABLE 4.4.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 4
Mean for
Mean for
Perceptions Expec­
tation
Perception
of Problem
Expected
Role

2.64
3.13

Black

White

2.44

2.75

31

3.26

3.04

214

94
The multivariate analysis of variance for Hypothe­
sis 4 shows no significant results for perception test
p > (0.1349) and no significant results for expectation
test p > (0.3048).

The null was rejected for both the

perception and expectation test.
Data findings of perception test show that 51.95
per cent of Blacks saw a very serious problem and 26.45
per cent of Whites saw a problem.

Also, 26.45 per cent

of Whites saw no serious problem.
Findings for expectation test show 40.26 per cent
of Blacks slightly satisfied and 43.80 per cent of Whites
somewhat satisfied.

Again large numbers for each group

perceive a problem to a serious problem and appear to be
somewhat to slightly satisfied.

Again there is an

apparent contradiction.
Hypothesis 5 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and the expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to establishing
new methods and procedures for selecting and pro­
cessing candidates for M.E.A.'s central staff.
The multivariate analysis of variance for Hypothe­
sis 5 reveals significant results for perception test p
< (0.0122), but no significant results for expectation
test p > (0.9372).

The null hypothesis was rejected for

the perception test but confirmed for the expectation
test.

95
TABLE 4,5.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 5

Mean for
Perceptions

Perception
of Problem

J or
ta£ion

2.53

Expected
Role

3.30

Black
Cell
X

White
Cell
X

Cell
Difference

2.18

2.75

.565

3.28

3.30

.061

Perception test data show that 24 .79 per cent of
Blacks saw a problem and 24.79 per cent of Whites saw a
problem.
Expectation test data show 29.87 per cent of
Blacks slightly satisfied and 35.54 per cent of Whites
somewhat satisfied.

The same response pattern again

appears for Hypothesis 5 as in Hypothesis 4.
Results are shown in Table 4.5.
Hypothesis 6A;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and the expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to establish­
ing new local association priorities as they relate
to students involved in curriculum planning.
Hypothesis 6 shows significant results for the
perception test p < (0.0161) and no significant results
for test of expectation p > (0.1013) when analyzed by
the multivariate analysis of variance.

Hypothesis 6A

96
rejected in null form for test of perception but
accepted for expectation test.
TABLE 4.6A.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 6A
Mean for
Mean for
Perceptions * £ • £

Perception
of Problem

2.96

Expected
Role

3.50

filack

White

,,
DifSSno.

^

^

2.67

3.13

.466

3.69

3.37

.318

The data reveal that 24.68 per cent of Blacks
saw a very serious problem and 22.31 per cent of Whites
saw a problem.
The data for the expectation test reveal 28.57
per cent of Blacks somewhat satisfied, 28.57 per cent of
Blacks not satisfied at all, and 28.10 per cent of Whites
somewhat satisfied.

Both groups had a similar response

pattern in Hypothesis 6A as they did in Hypotheses 1, 2,
3, 4, and 5.

Both groups perceived a problem to a

serious problem.

Blacks were equally divided between

somewhat, somewhat satisfied, to not satisfied at all.
Whites also responded to somewhat satisfied.
contradiction is apparent.
See Table 4.6A for results.

Again a

97
Hypothesis 6 B :
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and the expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to establish­
ing new local association priorities, as they relate
to teachers involved in programs at all levels of
instruction.
TABLE 4.6B.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 6B

Mean for
Perception

Perception
of Problem

Mean for
Expec­
tation

2.53

Expected
Role

3.57

Black
Cell
X

White
Cell
X

2.27

2.68

.409

3.50

3.61

.112

Cell
Difference

Hypothesis 6B was not confirmed p < (0.0429) for
the perception test, but confirmed p > (0.05552) for the
expectation test.
Data findings reveal that 24.68 per cent of
Blacks saw a problem and 33.88 per cent of Whites saw
a problem.
Expectation findings reveal that 35.06 per cent
of Blacks were not satisfied at all and 29.75 per cent
of Whites somewhat satisfied and 29.75 per cent of Whites
slightly satisfied.

Each group perceived a problem for

Hypothesis 6B; Blacks were not satisfied at all with the
problem whereas Whites were slightly satisfied.
See results in Table 4.6B.

98
Hypothesis 7 1
There will be no difference in the perception of
problem and the expected role of M.E.A. ,by Black
and White teachers in regard to whether the M.E.A,
takes a stand on political issues.
TABLE 4.7.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 7

Mean for
Perception

Perception
of Problem

Mean for
Expecta£lon

2.85

Expected
Role

3.30

Black
Cell
x

White
Cell
x

,

2.71

2.94

.233

3.11

3.41

.300

Difference

The results of the multivariate analysis of
variance for Hypothesis 7 reveal no significant results
for perception test p > (0.2965) and no significant
results for test of expectation p > (0.1558).

The null

hypothesis is accepted for both the perception and expec­
tation test.
The data show that 37.66 per cent of Blacks saw
a very serious problem and 27.27 per cent of Whites saw
quite a serious problem.
Expectation test results show that 33.77 per cent
of Blacks were slightly satisfied and 32.23 per cent of
Whites slightly satisfied.
Hypothesis 7 shows evidence of a contradiction
that also appears in Hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6B.

99
Seeing a very serious to quite a serious problem but
responding to be slightly satisfied with the problem,
this contradiction holds for Blacks and Whites alike.
See results in Table 4.7.
Hypothesis 8 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and the expected role of M.E.A..
by Black and White teachers in regard to requiring
ethnic studies as a prerequisite for permanent cer­
tification.
TABLE 4.8.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 8
M
Perception

Perception
of Problem
Expected
Role

Mean for
- g -

2.83
3.59

Black

White
«L1

.
^

2.21

3.20

.999

3.82

3.44

.385

The null hypothesis is not accepted for perception
test p > (0.0001) but accepted for expectation test p
< (0.0627).

Evidence in the multivariate analysis of

variance suggests that significant results were obtained
for the perception test and not obtained for the expec­
tation test.
Of the Blacks, 27.27 per cent saw a problem and
26.45 per cent of Whites saw a problem in the perception
test.

Of the Blacks, 33.77 per cent were somewhat
t

100
satisfied and 30.58 per cent of Whites were not satisfied
at all for expectation test.
pattern to Hypotheses

1,

This is a similar response

2, 3, 4, 5, 6B, and 7.

See results in Table 4.8.
Hypothesis 9 t
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and the expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to acting on
individual needs in children.
TABLE 4.9.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 9

Mean for
Perception

Perception
of Problem

Mean for
Expec­
tation

2.42

Expected
Role

3.41

Black
Cell
X

White
Cell
X

2.31

2.49

.176

3.44

3.29

.148

Cell
Difference

Hypothesis 9 was accepted p > (0.2884) for the
perception test and accepted p > (0.4533) for the expec­
tation test.
Data results show that 19.48 per cent of Blacks
saw quite a serious problem and 28.93 per cent of Whites
saw no serious problem.
Expectation results show 48.05 per cent of Blacks
were not satisfied at all and 32.23 per cent of Whites
somewhat satisfied.

101
The response pattern for Black and White teachers
in Hypothesis 9 indicates that Blacks saw quite a serious
problem whereas Whites saw no problem.

Blacks were not

satisfied at all with the problem whereas Whites were
somewhat satisfied with the existing status.
Hypothesis 10A;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and the expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to establish­
ing better methods and procedures for evaluating
educational programs.
TABLE 4.10A.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 10A

Mean for
Perception

Perception
of Problem

Mean for
Expec­
tation

2.25

Expected
Role

3.29

Black
Cell
X

White
Cell
X

1.93

2.44

.509

3.50

3.16

.338

Cell
Difference

The null Hypothesis 10A was not confirmed for per­
ception test p < (0.0044) but confirmed for expectation
test p > (0.5165).

Significant results were obtained for

perception test but not obtained for expectation test.
Findings of data reveal that 33.77 per cent of
Blacks saw a very serious problem and 37.19 per cent of
Whites saw a problem.

102
Findings of expectation test show 40.26 per cent
of Blacks were not satisfied at all and 29.75 per cent
of Whites were somewhat satisfied.

Both groups recog­

nized that a problem to a serious problem existed for
Hypothesis 10A.

Blacks were not satisfied with the problem

whereas Whites were slightly satisfied, implying an incon­
sistency in the response pattern.
See results in Table 4.10A.
Hypothesis 10B;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and the expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to assuring
Blacks representation in the evaluating of edu­
cational programs.
TABLE 4 .10B.— Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 10B

Mean for
Perception

Perception
of Problem
Expected
Role

Mean for
Expec­
tation

2.43
3.38

Black
Cell
X

White
Cell
X

2.13

2.62

.489

3.51

3.30

.206

Cell
Difference

The F-ratio for the multivariate test of this
hypothesis shows that significant results were obtained
for the perception test p < (0.01716) but not obtained
for expectation test p > (0.1174).

The null for

103
Hypothesis 10B was not accepted for test of perception
but accepted for test of expectation.
The perception test data reveal that 44.16 per
cent of Blacks saw a very serious problem and 35.54 per
cent of Whites saw quite a serious problem.
Expectation test results reveal that 35.06 per
cent of Blacks were not satisfied at all and 34.17 per
cent of Whites somewhat satisfied.

Response pattern for

Hypothesis 10B is identical to Hypothesis 10A, with the
exception of Whites feeling somewhat satisfied in
Hypothesis 10B to feeling slightly satisfied in Hypothe­
sis 10A.

Whites also had the similar contradiction in

their response pattern.
Hypothesis 1 1 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and the expected role of M.E.A.
by Black and White teachers in regard to establish­
ing educational standards that maximize the learn­
ing potential of each child.
TABLE 4.11.--Multivariate analysis of variance for
Hypothesis 11

Mean for
MSan for
Perceptions

Perception
of Problem
Expected
Role

2.24
3.35

S1??* J"*“ e
Ce^
Ce£ X

Cell
Difference

1.94

2.41

.471

3.50

3.54

.145

104
The results of the multivariate analysis of
variance for Hypothesis 11 reveal that results for the
perception test were significant p < (0.0124), however,
results of the expectation test were not significant p
> (0.3365).

Hypothesis 11 was not confirmed for the per­

ception test but confirmed for the expectation test.
Data results show that 44.16 per cent of Blacks
saw a very serious problem and 34.71 per cent of Whites
saw a problem for the perception test.
Results of the expectation test show that 37.66
per cent of Blacks were not satisfied at all and 28.93
per cent of Whites slightly satisfied.

Large numbers

from both groups saw a problem to a very serious problem.
Blacks were not satisfied at all with this problem, how­
ever, Whites were slightly satisfied.
See results in Table 4.11.
Summary
While analyzing the data sheet, a pattern or
direction was noticed which verified the assumption that
teachers share conflict in opinions, perception of
problems, and expectations in regard to their profes­
sional organization.
Scores for perception of problems were closely
grouped with the White group having larger cell means for
each hypothesis.

However, the standard deviation of the

means was no more than 1.5.

105
Scores for expected role showed Whites to have
a larger cell mean in Hypotheses

5,

6B, and 7.

Blacks

had a higher mean in Hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 4, 6A, 8, 9,
10A, 10B, and 11.

The standard deviation of the means

again varied no more than 1.5.
Large numbers of both groups showed inconsistent
response patterns by perceiving a problem and stating
satisfaction.

This was apparent in Hypotheses 1, 3, 4,

5, 6A, 7, and 8.

Whites had additional inconsistent

responses in Hypotheses 6B, 10A, 10B, and 11.

Blacks

were inconsistent in Hypotheses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6A, 6B,
1,

8, and consistent in 9, 10A, 10B, and 11.
Hypothesis 9 showed that Whites saw no problem

on individual needs of children and were satisfied.
Blacks saw a serious problem and were not satisfied.
Although responses were consistent, they were different.

CHAPTER V
IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS,
AND REFLECTIONS

This study was designed to determine if signifi­
cant differences exist between the perceived role and
expected role of the Michigan Education Association as
viewed by Black and White teachers of an affiliate, in
a large industrial city.
Findings imply that there is conflict in the role
projected by M.E.A. to what is perceived by Black and
White teachers.

Each group has perceptions and expec­

tations that may or may not be consistent with estab­
lished goals of the M.E.A. or the goals of each other.
Other findings show that teachers differ significantly
in their perception of problems and expectations; indi­
cations of significant Black/White perceptual differences
show the amount Black/White teachers differ in regard to
Hypothesis 4, emphasizing humanism in education; Hypothe­
sis 7, whether the M.E.A. takes a stand on political
issues, and Hypothesis 9, acting on the individual needs
in children.

Indications of significant Black/White

106

107
expectational differences show in Hypothesis 1 cultural
diversity being reflected in curriculum materials;
Hypothesis 3, the elimination of standardized tests based
solely on White middle class standards; Hypothesis 4,
emphasizing humanism in education; Hypothesis 5, estab­
lishing new methods and procedures for selecting and pro­
cessing candidates for M.E.A.'s central staff; Hypothe­
sis 6A, establishing new local association priorities as
they relate to students involved in curriculum planning;
Hypothesis 6B, establishing new local association priori­
ties as they relate to teachers involved in programs at
all levels of instruction; Hypothesis 7, whether the
M.E.A. takes a stand on political issues; Hypothesis 8,
requiring ethnic studies as a prerequisite for permanent
certification; Hypothesis 9, acting on individual needs
in children; Hypothesis 10A, establishing better methods
and procedures for evaluating educational programs;
Hypothesis 10Br assuring Blacks representation in the
evaluating of educational programs; and Hypothesis 11,
establishing educational standards that maximize the
learning potential of each child.

Indications of no

significant Black/White perceptual difference show in
Hypothesis 1, Hypothesis 3, Hypothesis 5, Hypothesis 6A,
Hypothesis 6B, Hypothesis 8, Hypothesis IDA, Hypothesis
10B, and Hypothesis 11.

Indication of no significant

Black/White expectational difference shows in Hypothesis
2 only.

108
Findings also show that there is variance in the
perceptions and expectations between Blacks and Blacks
and between Whites and Whites.

Also, findings show that

there is variance between Black and White perceptions
and expectations as separate groups.

Further the find­

ings show to what intensity Black and White teachers feel
their perceptions and expectations to be significant.
Finally, findings of this study indicate that variance
between Black-Black and White-White and Black-White
perceptions and expectations may be due to difference
in attitudes, values, standards, philosophy, and beliefs.
These attitudes, values, standards, philosophy, and
beliefs influence the quality and kinds of education
received by the child.
Results of Black-White percentages of the expec­
tation and perception tests are in Tables B-16 through
B-19.
Recommendations of the Study
Recommendations as a result of this study are
based on problems indicated by the review of the
literature and analysis of the results.
1.

The M.E.A. should investigate and attempt to
eliminate the perceptual and expectational dif­
ferences among Black teachers.

109
2.

The M.E.A. should investigate and attempt to
eliminate the perceptual and expectational dif­
ferences among White teachers.

3.

The M.E.A. should investigate and attempt to
eliminate the perceptual and expectational dif­
ferences between Blacks and Whites as two groups
working together in a joint process.

4.

The M.E.A. should investigate and attempt to
eliminate the perceptual and expectational dif­
ferences of Blacks and Whites in relation to the
projected role of the M.E.A.

5.

The M.E.A. should take steps to eliminate the
conflict-producing items between Blacks and
Whites respectively and as a joint group to
attain effectiveness in goal achievement.

6.

Effort should be made to reinforce items and areas
where no significant differences appear between
the perceptions and expectations of Blacks and
Whites individually and as a joint group.
Reflections
It is the opinion and belief of the author of

this study that the M.E.A. should make greater efforts
to work for the benefit of children as well as its
members.

Attempts should be made to determine the

110
cause and effect of the perceptual and expectational dif­
ferences among its members in order to reduce the
potential conflict-producing items necessary to attain
group effectiveness in goal achievement.
There should be greater work to instill more
cultural diversity in school curriculum materials in an
effort to familiarize children with their own culture
and the culture of others.

Careful consideration should

be given to values, attitudes, and beliefs children bring
to school so that they are not alienated from the learning
process.

All effort should be made to assist each child

in feeling good about himself.
Assistance should be given to teacher training
institutions in efforts to make courses in ethnic studies
a prerequisite for certification.

Teachers holding per­

manent certificates should be encouraged to familiarize
themselves with current educational issues and innovations.
In-service workshops, conferences, and seminars should be
provided for school districts to acquaint teachers with
knowledge, skills, and techniques in communicating across
cultural lines.
The M.E.A. should work jointly with local school
boards to eliminate racial and ethnic biases in hiring.
M.E.A. should take a stand to assure its members that
unfair practices will not be tolerated within its own
organization or in local school districts.

Ill
Efforts should be made to establish more humanism
in education in the form of intensive in-service workshops
geared toward the understanding of children's feelings,
emotional problems, and affective aspects of education.
Also, emphasis should be placed on understanding the
feelings and emotions of teachers.
New methods and procedures should be established
for selecting and processing candidates for the organi­
zation's central staff.

Methods and procedures should be

established that will include minorities as a part of the
selection process and give them a voice in speaking and
planning educational programs relevant to their needs and
aspirations.
Efforts to eliminate cultural bias in testing
should be made as well as establishing educational cri­
teria which reflect the values, beliefs, cultural, and
learning experiences of all children.

Strict attention

should be given to existing tests that stereotype and
stigmatize children's efforts.
Students should be involved in curriculum plan­
ning and evaluation.

Recommendations and a course of

action should be presented to local school districts
to assist in developing and assuring student involvement.
Teachers should be involved in planning and evalu­
ating educational programs since the teacher is the one
who makes any program a success.

Efforts should be made

112
to halt the rapid turnover of educational programs by
giving the teacher a greater voice and role.
The M.E.A. should take definite stands on politi­
cal issues pertaining to education in an effort to ser­
vice children and members and not adjust itself solely
to organizational matters.

The M.E.A. should establish

itself as a strong educational lobbying agent in local,
state, and national affairs.
Leadership should be provided to members and
school officials in focusing on individual needs of chil­
dren.

Workshops, conferences, and seminars should be

designed to assist teachers in gaining information regard­
ing differences in children's rates of learning, their
ability to learn, their capacity for learning, and the
time needed for learning.
Methods and procedures should be established that
assure proper representation of students, teachers, and
minorities in program evaluation.

Efforts should be

undertaken to make future programs more relevant, com­
prehensive, and effective.
Finally, because the M.E.A. has become a large
complex educational agency and the association attempts
to speak for the education profession in the legislature,
through its publications, and among the other professions
and learned societies, better method's of communicating
with its members should be established to assist in

113
conceptualizing the respective role responsibilities and
to help produce greater achievement of association goals
and objectives.
Recommendations for Further Research
1.

The instrument should be used to test if there
is a significant difference in the perceived and
expected role of M.E.A. using the ethnic groups
as dependent variables.

2.

A similar study should be made periodically to
see if the same perceptions and expectations hold
for a given time period.

3.

A study should be conducted with teachers who are
nonmembers to identify their perceptions of the
M.E.A. and then compare these perceptions to
those who are members.

4.

The internal structure of the M.E.A. should be
further studied to eliminate conflict-producing
items so it can become a better working associ­
ation in behalf of its members.

5.

A similar study should be conducted in cities
where the M.E.A. is the sole bargaining agent.

6.

Teacher training institutions should be studied to
determine the extent they are meeting the needs of
the public educational system.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
HYPOTHESES, LETTER, AND
TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE

APPENDIX A
HYPOTHESES
Hypothesis 1 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to culture
diversity being reflected in curriculum materials.
Hypothesis 2 :
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to the elimination
of racial and ethnic biases in hiring of teachers by
Boards of Education.
Hypothesis 3 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to the elimination
of standardized tests based solely on White middle
class standards.
Hypothesis 4 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to emphasizing
humanism in education.
Hypothesis 5 s
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to establishing
new methods and procedures for selecting and pro­
cessing candidates for M.E.A.'s central staff.

114

115
Hypothesis 6A :
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to establishing
new local association priorities as they relate to
students involved in curriculum planning.
Hypothesis 6B i
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to establishing
new local association priorities, as they relate to
teachers involved in programs at all levels of
instruction.
Hypothesis 7 s
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to whether the
M.E.A. takes a stand on political issues.
Hypothesis 8 ;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to requiring
ethnic studies as a prerequisite for permanent cer­
tification.
Hypothesis 9 :
There will be no significant difference in the per
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to acting on
individual needs in children.
Hypothesis lOAi
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to establishing
better methods and procedures for evaluating edu­
cational programs.

116
Hypothesis 10B;
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regard to assuring
Blacks representation in the evaluating of edu­
cational programs.
Hypothesis 11:
There will be no significant difference in the per­
ception of problem and expected role of M.E.A. by
Black and White teachers in regards to establishing
educational standards that maximize the learning
potential of each child.

117
April 10, 1972
Dear Teacher:
This questionnaire is devised to obtain data which will
tell us what perceptions and role expectations teachers
hold for the Michigan Education Association.
It will
provide data on how Michigan Education Association operates
in this district and how its members think it should
function. This study is being conducted by members of
M.E.A. and Michigan State University. The questionnaire
is anonymous and confidential; no one in your school o r "
district will ever see your answers. No person or scKool
will ever be identified in any w a y .
We all know that major changes are occurring in education.
Unfortunately, the pace of developments has far outstripped
our knowledge and, all too frequently, people must act with­
out adequate information.
This study will provide some
data upon which action can be taken by persons in education
and the M.E.A. Your honest and thoughtful answers to the
questions asked will give us much of this needed information.
This study has the approval and support of Michigan Edu­
cation Association officials on the state level in Michigan
and on the local levels in cities where the research is
being conducted.
Thank you in advance for completing this questionnaire.
Your contribution to this research will be greatly appre­
ciated by all persons connected with education.
Sincerely,

Dr. Donald Nickerson
Associate Professor

Francis M. Grant
Doctoral Candidate
AC 517 355-8080
DN

118
EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION STUDY
Department of Sociology
Michigan State University
Teacher Questionnaire
1.

In what grades are you teaching? (Include any pre-first
grade under "K." Please circle all the grades in which you
are teaching this year.)
K

2.

1

2

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

What isyour employment status in
CHECK ONE.
a.
b.

11

12

this school system?

I have a regular full-time appointment with tenure.
I have a regular full-time appointment but not on
tenure.
I am a substitute teacher part-time,

c.
3.

3

Counting the present year, what is the total number of years
of full-time teaching experience you have had?
(Consider
counseling as teaching experience.)
(Write in number)
I have had ___ years of full-time teaching experience.

4.

Are you a member of an affiliate of M.E.A.?

CHECK ONE.

Yes___
No___
4a.
4b.
4c.

How many years have you been a member?
(Write in
number ___ years).
Have you held an office in the local organization?
CHECK ONE
Yes___ No
Have you held an office in the state organization?
CHECK ONE
Yes
No

5.

Counting the present year, what is the total number of years
of full-time teaching experience you have had in this school?
(Consider counseling as teaching experienced) (Write in
number) ________

6.

In your opinion, how beneficial will collective negotiations
be to teachers?
(CHECK ONE)
definitely
beneficial

probably
probably have
beneficial no effect one
way or the
other

probably
not
beneficial

definitely
not
beneficial

119
7.

To what extent do you consider each of the following
problem?
(CHECK ONE ON EACH LINE.)
Very
serious
problem

a. Culture diversity
being in all cur­
riculum materials
b. Ethnic and racial
bias in hiring of
teachers by Board
of Education
c. Test being based
solely on White
middle class
standards
d. Lack of humanism
in education
e. Methods and pro­
cedures used in
selecting and pro­
cessing candidates
for M.E.A. central
staff
f. Students not being
involved in cur­
riculum planning
g. Teachers not
involved in edu­
cational programs
h. Lack of stand on
political issues
i. Ethnic studies being
necessary as pre­
requisite for per­
manent certifi­
cation
j . Lack of action on
the individual
needs of child

Quite a
serious
problem

Problem

Not a
serious
problem

Not
a
problem

120
Very
serious
problem

Quite a
serious
problem

Problem

Not a
serious
problem

Not
a
problem

k. Methods and pro­
cedures used for
evaluating edu­
cational programs
1. Blacks receiving
equal represen­
tation in evalu­
ating educational
programs
m. Lack of educational
standards that
maximize the learn­
ing potential of
each child
9.

How satisfied are you with the efforts of M.E.A. on each of
the following? CHECK ONE ON EACH LINE.
Very
greatly
satisfied

a. Promoting cul­
ture diversity in
all curriculum
materials
b. Eliminating racial
and ethnic biases
in hiring by
Board of Education
c. Eliminating test
based on solely
on White middle
class standards
d. Emphasizing
humanism in
education
e. Establishing new
methods and pro­
cedures used in
selecting and
processing candi­
dates for M.E.A.'s
central staff

Greatly Somesatis- what
fied
satisfied

Slightly
satisfied

Not
satisfied at
all

121
Very
greatly
satisfied
f. Getting students
involved in cur­
riculum planning
g. Getting teachers
involved in edu­
cational pro­
grams
h. Whether the
M.E.A. takes a
stand on politi­
cal issues
i . Requiring ethnic
studies as a pre­
requisite for
permanent cer­
tification
j . Establishing
better methods
and procedures
for evaluating
educational pro­
grams
k. Guaranteeing Blacks
equal represen­
tation in evalu­
ating educational
programs
1. Establishing edu­
cational standards
that maximize the
learning potential
of each child
m. Acting on indi­
vidual needs of
each child

Greatly
satisfied

Somewhet
satis­
fied

Slightly
satisfied

Not
satis­
fied at
all

122
9.

How old were you on your last birthday?

CHECK ONE.

(a) Under 26
(b) 26-35
(c) 36-45
(d) 46-55
(e) 56-65
(f) 66 or older
10.

What is the highest college degree you hold?
(If you hold
a degree not listed below, check the one that is most
nearly equivalent to the one you hold. Do not report
honorary degrees.)
CHECK ONE.
a .____
b .____
c .____
d .____
e .____
f .____

11.

No degree
A degree based on less than four years' work
Bachelor's degree
Master's degree
Education Specialist
Doctor's degree

To what ethnic group or race do you belong?

CHECK ONE.

a .____ White
b .____ Negro/Black
c .____ Indian
d ._____Mexican American
e ._____Oriental
f .____ Other
12.

Suppose you could go back in time and start college over?
in view of your present knowledge, would you enter the
field of education again? CHECK ONE.
Yes
No_____

13.

In what size town or city did you live while attending high
school?
(If you lived in more than one, check the one where
you spent most of that time.) CHECK ONE.
a .____
b .____
C.
d.
e.
f .____
g .____

Under 2,000
2,000 to 4,999
5,000 to 9.999
10,000 to 49,999
50,000 to 99,999
100,000 to 499,999
500,000 and over

123
14 -

What was your father1s occupation when you were in high
school?
(If your father was deceased or retired, please
give his usual line of work.)
Be specific as possible. _____ ___________________________
In what kind of business was that?

15.

Please indicate your sex and marital status.
a .____
b .____
c .____
d .____
e .____
f .____

16.

CHECK ONE.

Man, unmarried
Man, married
Man, widowed, divorced, or separated
Woman, unmarried
Woman, married
Woman, widowed, divorced, or separated

Which of the following most nearly describes your present
position in this school? CHECK ONE.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Classroom teacher, teaching all or nearly all sub­
jects to one class.
Classroom teacher, teaching a few subjects to
several different classes.
Classroom teacher, teaching many different subjects
’to several different classes.
Specialist (e.g., librarian, counselor, nurse, psy­
chologist, etc.) giving less than half-time to
classroom teaching.
Teaching principal.
Other (please write in)

APPENDIX B
TABLES

APPENDIX B

TABLE B-.l.— Means for expectations of Black and White teachers

H y p o th e s is

M eans

S ta n d a rd
e rro r o f
th e m ean

T o f th e
m ean

P o r th e
m ean

X

3 -1 0 5 0 0

0 .0 9 5 5

3 2 .5 2 1 6

1 0 5 7 .6 5 7 3

II

3 -2 0 5 0 0

0 .0 9 8 8

3 2 .1 * 3 5 5

1 0 5 2 .0 6 3 1 *

I I I

3 .3 6 5 0 0

0 .1 0 4 5

3 2 .2 1 1 0

1 0 3 7 .5 1 *8 1 *

IV

3 .1 3 0 0 0

0 .1 0 1 3

3 0 .8 9 0 6

9 5 4 *2 2 7 9

V

3 .3 0 0 0 0

O .lO lj.2

3 1 .6 7 1 * 0

1 0 0 3 ,2 9 1 7

V I-A

3 .5 0 0 0 0

0 .0 9 6 2

3 6 .3 9 0 7

1321* . 861*1

V I- B

3 .5 7 0 0 0

0 .0 9 2 6

3 0 .5 6 7 1 *

11*87.1*1*07

V II

3 .3 0 5 0 0

O .1 O 2 0

3 2 .1 5 7 6

103 l * . l l l * l

V III

3 .5 9 0 0 0

0 .1 0 0 5

3 5 .7 0 4 1

1 2 7 4 .7 810

IX

3 . 1*1000

O . I O 83

3 1 .5 0 1 1

9 9 .3 2 0 4

X-

3 .2 9 0 0 0

0 .1 0 1 * 8

3 1 .3 9 1 2

9 8 5 .4 0 4 6

X -3

3 .3 8 5 0 0

0 .1 0 1 * 1

3 2 .5 1 1 * 9

1 0 5 7 .2 2 0 5

XX

3 .3 5 5 0 0

0 .0 9 6 1

31*. 9 0 0 5

1 2 1 8 .0 1 * 2 1

124

125

TABLE B.2.— Means for perceptions of Black and White teachers
Hypothesis

Means

Standard
error of
t h e mean

T of the

F of t h e

m e an

m ean

2 ,^ 8 0 0 0

0 .0 8 4 8

2 9 .2 5 9 8

8 5 6 .1 3 4 3

I I

2 ,5 3 5 0 0

0 .0 9 4 0

2 6 .9 6 4 9

7 2 7 .1 0 7 7

I I I

2 ,3 9 0 0 0

0 .0 9 7 9

2 4 .3 6 4 9

5 9 3 -6 4 9 9

IV

2 .6 4 0 0 0

0 .1 0 0 8

2 6 .2 0 0 6

6 0 6 .4 7 3 2

V

2 .5 3 5 0 0

0 .1 1 0 0

2 3 .0 4 1 3

5 3 0 .9 0 0 1

>

2 .9 6 0 0 0

0 .0 9 4 3

3 1 .3 9 9 9

9 8 5 .9 5 2 5

V I-B

2 .5 3 0 0 0

0 .0 9 0 2

2 5 .7 6 3 1

6 6 3 .7 3 7 7

V II

2 .0 5 5 0 0

0 .1 0 8 1

2 6 .2 p .9 0

6 9 7 .9 6 5 3

V III

2 .8 3 0 0 0

0 .1 0 9 6

2 5 .8 1 7 5

6 6 6 •5 4 3 1

IX

2 .4 2 5 0 0

0 .0 8 0 3

3 0 .1 8 5 1

9 1 1 .1 3 9 2

X -A

2 .2 5 0 0 0

0 .0 8 7 3

2 5 .7 6 5 9

6 6 3 .0 7 9 7

X -7 B

2 .4 3 5 0 0

0 .1 0 0 4

2 4 .2 5 2 P

5 8 8 .2 5 9 3

XI

2 .2 4 0 0 0

o.oyiy

2 4 .3 6 1 8

5 9 3 .4 9 8 8

<•
M1

I

126

TABLE B.3.— Cell means, difference, and standard deviations of
expectation
Hypothesis

Black
X

I

‘ White
X

Difference

Standard
Deviation

3 *0 9 6 7 7

.0 2 1 6 5

1 .3 5 0 2 1 9

11

3 .5 2 6 3 2

3 .0 0 8 0 6

.5 1 8 2 6

1.3971+01+

III

3 *5 6 5 7 9

3 . 21+191+

.3 2 3 8 5

1 .1 + 7 7 3 9 2

XV

3 .2 6 3 1 6

3.01 1.8 39

- 211+77

1 .1 + 3 2 9 5 7

V

3 . 2 6 9 l|-7

3 *3 0 6 1 + 5

.0 1 6 9 8

1 .1 + 7 3 3 0 2

VI- A

3 .6 9 7 7 3 7

3 -3 7 9 0 3

*31831+

1 .3 5 9 8 7 0

VI-B

3 *5 0 0 0 0

3 .6 1 2 9 0

.1 1 2 9 0

1 .3 0 9 0 7 2

VII

3 . 1161+2

3 *1 + 1 9 3 5

.3 0 0 9 3

1.1+531+57

VIII

3 .6 2 6 9 5

3-1+1+355

.3651+0

1.1+21971+

IX

3 -W 3 7

3 .2 9 0 3 9

. 11+690

I .530688

X-A

3 .5 0 0 0 0

3 .1 6 1 2 9

.3 3 6 7 1

1 .1 + 8 2 1 6 9

X-B

3 .5 1 3 1 6

3 *3 0 6 1 + 5

.2 0 6 7 1

1 . 1+72202

XI

3 .5 0 0 0 0

3.351+31+

. 11+516

1 .3 5 9 1 + 9 1

+

127

TABLE B.4.— Cell means, difference, and standard deviations of
perceptions
H y p o th e s is

B la c k
X

W h it e
X

D iffe r e n c e

S ta n d a rd
D e v ia tio n

I

2 .2 6 3 1 6

2 .6 1 2 9 0

.3 4 9 7 4

1 .1 9 o 6 5 9

I I

2.1814.21

2 .7 5 0 0 0

-5 6 5 7 9

1 .3 2 9 5 1 6

I I I

2 .0 0 0 0 0

2 .6 2 0 9 7

.6 2 0 9 7

1 -3 6 4 3 2 5

IV

2 .1 4 4 7 3 7

2 .7 5 6 0 6

.3 1 0 6 9

1 .4 2 4 9 7 5

V

2 .1 8 4 2 1

2 .7 5 0 0 0

-5 6 5 7 9

1 .5 5 5 9 1 8

V I- A

2 .6 7 1 0 ^

3 .1 3 7 1 0

.4 6 6 0 5

1 .3 3 3 1 4 9

V I- B

2 .2 7 6 3 2

2 .6 8 5 4 8

.4 0 9 1 6

1 .3 6 8 7 9 2

V II

2 -7 1 0 5 3 .

2 .9 4 3 5 5

.2 3 3 0 2

1 .5 2 o 2 8 4

2 .2 1 0 5 3

3 .2 0 9 6 0

-9 9 9 1 5

1 .5 5 0 1 9 9

2 .3 1 5 7 9

2.4.9191).

.1 7 6 1 5

1 .1 3 6 1 4 7

1 .9 3 4 2 1

2 .4 4 - 3 5 5

•5 0 9 3 4

1 .2 3 4 9 6 0

X -B

2 .1 3 1 5 6

2 .6 2 0 9 7

.4 6 9 3 9

I . 41980&

X I.

1 .9 4 7 3 7

2 .4 1 9 3 5

.4 7 1 9 8

1 .3 0 0 3 2 9 .

V III
IX
X

- A

128

TABLE B.5.— Percentage of responses for Black perception test
hyp'othesls

very
serious
problem

Quite a
serious
problem

iProblem

I

3 0 . 26#

3 8 . 16 #

1 1 .8 1 |#

II

3 5 .0 6 #

3 1 . 17 #

I I I

3 6 .3 6 #

IV

'

Not a
serious
problem

Not a
problem

'flo
response

1 3 . 16 #

3 -9 5 #

2 .6 3 #

1 6 .8 8 #

1 0 .3 9 #

6 .4 9 #

0 .0 0 #

1 8 . 18 #

2 4 . 66 #

1 0 .3 9 #

5 .1 9 #

5 -1 9 #

5 l •95#

1 2 . 99 #

9 .0 9 #

1 4 .2 9 #

6 .4 9 #

5 .1 9 #

V

2 8 .5 7 5 *

2 7 . 27 #

.2 0 . 78 #

1 0 .3 9 #

.1 0 .3 9 #

2 .6 0 #

V I-A

24* 68#

2 2 . 08 #

2 2 .0 6 #

1 0 .3 9 #

1 0 .3 9 #

1 0 .3 9 #

V I- * B

1 9 *4 8 #

2 2 . 08 #

2 4 . 68 #

1 8 .1 8 #

1 1 .6 9 #

3 -9 0 #

V II

3 7 .6 6 #

2 3 . 38 #

1 9 .4 8 #

7 .7 9 #

9 .0 9 #

2 .6 0 #

V III

1 8 .1 8 #

1 6 .8 8 #

2 7 .2 7 #

1 4 .2 9 #

1 4 .2 9 #

9 .0 9 #

IX

3 0 .9 6 #

1 9 .4 8 #

1 5 .5 8 #

9 .0 9 #

1 1 .6 9 #

5 .1 9 #

X -A

3 3 .7 7 #

1 4 .2 9 #

3 2 .4 7 #

1 6 .8 8 #

1 . 30 #

1 .3 0 #

X -3

4 4 * 16 #

1 6 .8 8 #

2 2 . 08 #

5 .1 9 #

6 .4 9 #

5 -1 9 #

XI

4 4 -1 6 #

1 8 .1 8 #

1 4 .2 9 #

7 .7 9 #

1 0 .3 9 #

5 .1 9 #

129

TABLE B.6.— Percentage of responses for White perception test
V e ry
s e r io u s
p r o b le m

Q u ite a
s e r io u s
p r o b le m

P r o b le m

Not a
s e r io u s
p r o b le m

Not a
p r o b le m

X

3 0 .5 0 #

4 -5 .4 5 # *

U j-.O S #

7 .1 *4 #

2 .1 *8 #

0 .0

II

1 1 *.8 B #

3 3 -8 0 # v

2 3 .1W !

2 3 ,9 3 #

3 .3 1 #

1 .6 5 #

III

1 6 .5 3 5 6

1 6 .5 3 #

2 8 . 10 #

2 8 .9 3 #

5 .7 9 #

lp-1355

IV

1 0 .1 8 #

1 9 .8 3 #

26.lj.555

2 6 .1 * 5 # *

1 * .1 3 #

lj..9 6 i5

V

ll* .8 0 #

1 7 .3 6 #

2 1 |..7 9 #

2 3 .9 7 #

1 1 .5 7 #

7 -W 5

V I-A

1706#

3 4 .0 5 #

2 2 .3 1 5 5

2 0 .6 6 #

1 1 *.8 8 #

10.71(55

V I-*

8 .2 6 #

1 3 . 22 #

3 3 .8 8 5 5

2 8 .1 0 #

1 2 .1 *0 #

1J..1355

1 9 .8 3 #

2 7 .2 7 #

2 3 .9 7 5 5

1 1 .5 7 #

1 5 .7 0 #

1 .6 5 #

V III

8 .2 6 #

1 4 .0 5 #

26.lj.555

2 3 .9 7 #

1 7 .3 6 #

9 .9 2 J J

IX

9 .9 2 #

1 3 . 22 #

19.& 3 55

2 3 .9 3 #

2 2 . 31 #

5 . 79j5

X -A

2 2 .3 1 #

2 3 .9 7 #

3 7 .1 9 5 5

1 2 .1 *0 #

3 .3 1 #

.8355

X -B

1 5 .7 0 #

3 5 .5 1 *#

2 9 .7 5 5 5

8 ,2 6 #

6 .6 1 #

lj-1 3 5 5

XI

1 8 .1 8 #

16-. 5 3 #

3l»-.71S5

11*. 0 5 #

1 0 .7 4 #

5 .7 9 ^

V II

No
re s p o n s

130

TABLE B.7.— Percentage of responses for White expectation test
H y­
p o th e ­
s is

V e ry
g r e a tly
s a tis fie d

G r e a tly
s a tis fie d

Some­
what
s a tis ­
fie d

S lig h tly
s a tis ­
fie d

I

2 1 .4 9 ^

2 3 *9 7 #

3 7 .1 9 #

1 0 .7 9 #

4 -1 3 #

2 .4 8 #

II

4 .9 6 #

5 l.2 l|#

1 5 .7 0 #

1 4 . 88 #

4 .9 6 #

III

8 .2 6 #

1 3 * 22 #

3 8 . 8 l| #

1 8 .1 8 #

1 5 .7 0 #

5 .7 9 #

IV

4 .1 3 #

7 .4 4 #

4 3 .0 0 #

1 2 . 40 #

2 4 .7 9 #

7 .4 4 #

V

S .7 9 J5

1 5 .7 0 #

3 5 .5 4 #

1 9 .0 1 #

1 7 .3 6 #

6 .6 1 #

V I-A

4 *1 3 #

1 1 .5 7 #

2 8 ,1 0 #

2 3 .9 7 #

2 4 .7 9 #

7 .4 4 #

V I- E

4 .9 6 ? !

9 .9 2 #

2 9 .7 5 #

2 9 .7 5 #

2 0 .6 6 #

4 -9 6 #

V II

1 .6

1 1 -5 7 #

2 8 .1 0 #

2 3 .9 7 #

3 2 .2 3 #

2 .4 8 #

V III

7 .4 4 * !

7

3 0 .5 6 #

2 3 . lit#

2 8 .1 0 #

3 .3 1 #

IX

5 .7 9 #

7 -4 4 # -

3 2 .2 3 #

2 2 . 31 #

2 7 .2 7 #

4 .9 6 #

X-sA

4*135»

1 1 . 57 #

2 9 .7 5 #

2 3 .1 4 #

2 6 .4 5 #

4 .9 6 #

X- B

8 . 26 #

9 .0 9 #

3 4 -7 1 #

2 1 .4 9 #

1 9 .8 3 #

6 .6 1 #

XI

3 .3 1 #

1 3 . 22 #

2 6 . 45 #

2 8 .9 3 #

2 1 .4 9 #

6 .6 1 #

5%

8 .26%

*44#

w 'o t
s a tis ­
fie d
at a ll

iJo
re s p o n s e

131

TABLE B.8.— Percentage of responses for Black expectation test
Hot
satis­
fied
at all

s is

Greatly
Very
satisfied
greatly
satisfied

Some­
what
satis­
fied

Slightly
satis­
fied

I

40 * 2 6 #

1 4 *2 9 #

9 .0 9 #

1.19%

1 2 .9 9 #

3 5 .0 6 #

1 6 .8 8 #

2 3 .3 0 #

9 .0 9 #

2 3 .3 0 #

2 3 .3 0 #

3 2 .4 7 #

5 .1 9 #

2 7 .2 7 #

1 6 .8 8 #

4 0 .2 6 #

1.19%

.Hy­

pothe­

1 5 *5 8 #

6 . 149%

No
response

II

9.09%

III

3.90%

IV

6 . 14.9%

V

6.1+9%

16,38%

2 4 . 68 #

1 5 .0 0 #

2 9 .8 7 #

6 .4 9 #

v i-ji

9.09%

1 0 .3 9 #

2 8 .$ 7 #

1 6 .8 8 #

2 8 .5 7 #

6 .4 9 #

VI-'B

2.60%

5 .1 9 #

1 8 . 18 #

3 2 .4 7 #

3 5 .0 6 #

6 .4 9 #

VII

10.39%

9 .0 9 #

2 9 .8 7 #

1 4 .2 9 #

3 3 .7 7 #

2 . 60 #

VIII

1 0 . 39 %

3 .9 0 #

3 3 .7 7 #

1 9 .4 8 #

2 2 . 08 #

1 0 .3 9 #

IX

2.60%

9 .0 9 #

1 5 .5 0 #

1 9 :4 8 #

4 8 .0 5 #

5 .1 9 #

X-A

6.k9%

3 .9 0 #

1 8 .1 8 #

1 8 .1 8 #

4 0 .2 6 #

1 2 .9 9 #

X-B

6 . 149%

5 .1 9 #

2 2 . 08 #

23.36%'

3 5 .0 6 #

1.19%

XI

1.19%

5 .1 9 #

2 2 . 08 #

1 9 .4 8 #

3 7 .6 6 #

7 .7 9 #

11.69%
1 . 30%

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