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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 1 :i 76-5537 GOSTICK, Rita Marie, 1946AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES OF CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND SERVICES FOR WCMEN IN SELECTED MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1975 Education, administration Xerox University Microfilms ,Ann Arbor, Michigan 48108 (e) Copyright by RITA MARIE COSTICK 1975 AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES OF CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND SERVICES FOR WOMEN IN SELECTED MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES By Rita Marie Costick A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1975 ABSTRACT AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES OF CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND SERVICES FOR WOMEN IN SELECTED MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES By Rita Marie Costick The purpose of this study was twofold: first, to describe the nature and scope of special programs and services for women presently available in Michigan’s twenty-nine coraiiunity colleges; and second, to explore in-depth the developmental processes involved in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of programs and services designed especially for women in four selected Michigan community colleges. An additional purpose of the research was to identify stages and specific steps which appear to be critical (according to the four selected programs) in successful program development for women, utilizing Ronald G. Havelock's six stage guide to innovation'*' as a point of comparison. Descriptive research methods including questionnaires and on-site interviews were utilized in the study. The results of the study are as follows: Part A: 1. Survey of Women's Programs in Michigan Coimrunity Colleges Twenty-two of the 29 Michigan community colleges have at least one person who has accepted a measure of responsibility for developing women's programs. 2. Twenty-five of the 29 colleges reported offering some type Rita Marie Costick of special program/service for women. The most widely offered programs are self-awareness courses such as "Investigation into Identity" and conferences/workshops, followed by women's studies courses, personal counseling, vocational testing, and financial aid. 3. All but three colleges reported initiating special programs for women for the first time in the 1970's. 4. Financial support was earmarked specifically for women's pro­ grams in seven of the 25 colleges reporting special programs. Part B: Selected Women's Programs: Development A Report of Six Stages of Program 1. Utilizing a questionnaire derived from Havelock's change model, two of the four selected women's program directors carried out every item listed in each of the six theoretical stages of program development. A third director had accomplished every step of Stages II, III, IV, and VI. The fourth director had not implemented several steps ranging throughout Stages I, III, TV, V, and VI. 2. Recommendations were made by the selected program directors to assist others presently engaged in the planning/implemen­ tation of continuing education programs for women. areas discussed included: Major relationship with client system; objectives; resource acquisition; program implementation; evaluation; and interpersonal/individual skills. 1Ronald G. Havelock, ’Hie Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, 1973). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express sincere thanks to Dr. Max Raines for his enthusiastic support and encouragement throughout an extensive graduate program. Appreciation is also expressed to Dr. Mel Buschman, Dr. Barrie Thome, and Dr. C. L. Winder for their personal concern and professional involvement in a somewhat non-traditional educational experience. This exceptional group of true educators greatly facilitated the positive growth and development of the candidate. Further thanks go to Pat Sweet for her patience and fortitude in typing and retyping the lengthy manuscript. Special gratitude is felt for a special friend and consistently helpful critic, Don Ward. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS....................................................iii LIST OF FIGURES................................................... viii LIST OF APPENDICES................................................. ix Chapter I. II. INTRODUCTION.............................................. 1 Need for the Study........................................ Purpose of the Study...................................... Limitations of the Study.................................. Definitions of Terms...................................... Organization of the Study ............................. „ . 1 2 4 5 6 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Part A: CONTINUING EDUCATION: IDENTIFIED NEED AND PROGRAM RESPONSE.................................................. 7 Overview of Societal Conditions Facilitating 7 Continuing Education.................................... Changes in the Lives and Roles of W o m e n .................... 12 The Family Cycle. .......................................14 Labor Force Participation................................ 16 Participation in Formal Education ...................... 18 Summary of Significant Changes Affecting Women's Lifes. . 19 Literature Related to Continuing Education Programs for W o m e n .................................................21 Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) Computer Search Findings.................................22 Major Bibliographies' Citations ........................ 23 Women's Bureau Reports.....................................25 Midwestern Universities Study of Comprehensive Women's Programs.........................................27 New York Guidance Center Appraisal........................ 30 National Survey of Continuing Education Programs for W o m e n ...............................................32 Multi-Faceted Women's Center Conference Proceedings . . . 34 Summary of Literature Related to Continuing Education Programs for Women.......................................35 iv Chapter II. Page Part B: MODELS FOR CHANGE: AN OVERVIEW OF MAJOR SCHOOLS OF T H O U G H T .......................................... 36 Introduction .............................................. The Research, Development and Diffusion ... The Social Interaction Perspective ........................ The Problem-Solver Perspective.............................. The Concept of Linkage .................................... Guidelines for the Practitioner.............................. III. 36 39 47 51 59 64 PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY.................................. 69 O v e r v i e w............. ................................ ... . 69 ............ 70 Development of the Research Instruments. Scale of Innovation: Ordering of Developmental Stages • • 70 Questionnaire and Interview G u i d e .........................72 Summary of Methodology for Data Acquisition.................. 74 IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Part A: SURVEY OF MICHIGAN COMMUNITY CO L LEGES.............. 82 Introduction .............................................. Personnel Related to Programs and Services ................ Continuing Education Programs/Services Available for Women . Program Longevity............................................ Budget Allocations ........................................ 82 82 88 92 93 Part B: SELECTED WOMEN'S PROGRAMS: A REPORT OF SIX STAGES OF PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT............ 94 Introduction................................................ 94 Ordering of Developmental Stages .......................... 94 Stage I: Building a Relationship with the Client System and with the Larger Social Environment........................ 99 Identified Clients; Involved Clients in Program Development.............. 99 Determined Community Norms/Values......................... 103 Established Support/Linkages within the C o l l e g e ......... 106 Established Support/Linkages within the Larger Social Environment............................................. 110 Formulated an Official Advisory Board of College and Community Representat ives............................... 113 Stage II: Diagnosing the Clients' Needs; Establishing Goals..................................................... 115 Identified the Clients' Needs .......................... 115 Established Goals, Obtainable Objectives, Priorities . . . 117 Stage III: Acquiring Resources Essential to Meeting Clients' N e e d s ......................... 120 v Page Chapter Obtained Adequate College R esources....................... 120 Developed an Awareness of Community/CollegeResources . . .121 Developed an Awareness of State/NationalResources.......... 123 Stage IV: Determining Programs and Services to Be Made Available to Clients..................... .. ..............126 Assessed Program Possibilities with Help of Clients and Other S o u r c e s ............................................126 Determined a Method for Making Decisions about Specific Programs/Services........................................126 Determined Clients Can Meet Program Cost................... 130 Stage V: Implementing Special Programs and Services for W o m e n ................ 131 Determined Values/Beliefs/Persons/within the Community/ College Potentially Favoring/Opposing the Women's P r o g r a m .......... 131 Discussed the Women's Program with Influential Community/College M e m b e r s ................................132 Provided Interpretive Materials, Person-to-Person Contact with Potential Clients............................ 133 Stage VI: Stabilizing (Insuring the Continuance of) the Women's Program . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 135 Established Mechanism to Insure the Formal, Periodic Evaluation and Revision of the Overall Women's Program. . 135 Created Regularly Scheduled Opportunities for Interaction and Communication........................................ 137 Encouraged Client Participation in Dec is ion-Making......... 138 Developed Institutional Support . . . . . ................ 139 Summary of Program Development Stages . ................... 141 The Future of Special Programs and Services for Women . . . . 142 Recommendations for Women's Program Planners ............... 144 Stage I: Relationship with Client System ................ 144 Stage II: Objectives...................................... 145 Stage III: Resource A c q u i s i t i o n ..........................145 Stage V: Program I m p l e m e n t a t i o n..........................146 Stage VI: Evaluation.................................... 146 Interpersonal/Individual S k i l l s ............................146 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER S T U D Y ............................................ 148 S u m m a r y ...................................................... 148 Purpose of the Study.................. 149 Methodology................................................ 150 Findings of the S t u d y ...................................... 151 Conclusions.................................................. 153 Part A: Survey of Michigan's Community C o l l e g e s ......... 153 Part B: Selected Women's Programs..........................154 Guidelines for Women's Program P l a n n e r s ..................... 161 Building a Relationship with the Client System and with the Larger Social Environment .......................... 163 vi Chapter Page Diagnosing the Clients' Needs; Establishing Goals... ...... Acquiring Resources Essential to Meeting Clients' Needs . . Determining Programs and Services to Be Made Available to C l i e n t s ............................................ 164 Implementing Special Programs and Services for Women. . . . Stabilizing (Insuring the Continuance of) the Women's P r o g r a m .............................................. 164 Critical issues for Women's Program Planners' Consideration . Building Relationships. . ................................ Diagnosing Needs; Establishing Goals.................... 165 Acquiring Resources ...................................... Determining Programs/Services ............................ Stabilizing the P r o g r a m ................................ 166 Implications of this Study and Suggestions for Further R e s e a r c h .............................................. 167 BIBLIOGRAPHY 163 163 164 165 165 166 166 ................................................ 169 APPENDICES.................................................. 174 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Stages Typically Included in Models of Change/ with Three Schools of Research ........................ 41 2. The Research, Development and Diffusion Perspective. . . . 42 3. Research, Development and Diffusion Change Models........ 44 4. The Social Interaction Perspective...................... 48 5. Social Interaction Change Models ........................ 49 6. The Need Reduction C y c l e ................................ 53 7. The Problem-Solver Perspective.......................... 54 8. Problem-Solver Change M o d e l s ............................ 56 9. The Linkage Process...................................... 61 10. Stages Typically Included in Models of Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge .............................. 68 11. Methodology for Data Acquisition........................ 74 12. Personnel Related to Programs and Services for Women in Michigan Community Colleges........................ 83 Location of Women's Programs in Michigan Community Colleges.............................................. 86 Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women in Michigan Community Colleges........................ 90 Scale of Innovation: Ordering of Developmental Stages by Selected Michigan Community College Women's Program Directors...................................... 97 13. 14. 15. viii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A. Letter to Continuing Education Directors and Questionnaire Regarding Program Content ................ Page 174 B. Selected Program Participants........................... 177 C. Letter to Selected Women’s Program Directors and Scale of Innovation: Ordering of Developmental Stages . . ..1 7 9 D. Letter to Selected Women’s Program Directors and Questionnaire Regarding Developmental Steps ............ E. Interview G u i d e ......................................... 193 F. Revised Questionnaire Regarding Developmental Steps. . . . 184 197 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Need for the Study Increasing numbers of community colleges within the state of Michigan are recognizing the importance of developing special programs to meet the unique educational needs of diverse populations including women, retirees, and veterans. While there has been a major attempt nationally to provide information on the content of continuing education programs for women, * considerably less effort has been devoted to publicizing the process required to establish successful programs. 7 There appears to be a vacuum of available knowledge regarding the "planned change process" among institutions charged with the administration of such programs, with a consequent lack of specific guidelines for those individuals charged with program development. Women’s Bureau, Employment Standards Administration, U. S. Department of Labor, "Continuing Education for Women: Developments," 1974. Current Women's Bureau, Employment Standards Administration, U. S. Department of Labor, Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women, 1971. 2 A notable exception is the outline developed by Dr. Max Raines, Professor of Administration and Higher Education at Michigan State University, entitled "Process Goals in the Establishment of Comprehensive Women's Programs" presented at the Multi-Faceted Women's Center Conference, the Continuum Center, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, October 23-25, 1973. 1 2 Greater intentionality in program planning, implementation, and evaluation is needed. Cross-fertilization of ideas and the mutual sharing of a knowledge base regarding theories applicable to the process of planned change would greatly facilitate the advancement and institu­ tionalization of continuing education programs for women, as well as for other populations with unique needs. Leadership is required to meet the following needs related to more deliberate program development: 1. Information about the nature and scope of continuing education programs for women presently available within community colleges. 2. A knowledge of developmental stages and steps that appear to be necessary for ongoing women’s programs within conmunity colleges. 3. A base of understanding regarding theoretical models for the implementation of planned change. Purpose of the Study The contemporary educational variables of equality of educational opportunity and lifelong learning have joined together in the movement for continuing education for women. The community college has a significant role in creatively meeting the established needs of adult women who are seeking new life alternatives via formal educational institutions. as an agent; Being locally-based, the community college has credibility it is easily accessible to clients, and it is low-cost. It has the ability to function as a catalyst in the change process, coordinating the efforts of many agencies/organizations/institutions to provide special programs for women. 3 The purpose of this study is twofold: first, to describe the nature and scope of special programs and services for women presently available in Michigan's twenty-nine communty colleges; and second, to explore in-depth the developmental processes involved in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of programs and services designed especially for women in four selected Michigan community colleges. Specifically, the objectives of the study are to: 1. Present a descriptive overview of the nature and scope of programs and services presently being provided for women in Michigan's twenty-nine community colleges. 2. Explore in-depth the developmental processes of the four most comprehensive continuing education programs for women in Michigan's community colleges, as measured by a combination of factors: the number and type of programs and services offered, the number of staff and their workload, and access to institutional resources. a. Determine the stages in program development through which these four programs have gone, utilizing Havelock's six stage guide to innovation* as a point of comparison. b. Determine what steps within each stage of program development the selected programs have implemented, specific steps being derived from Havelock's manual on innovation. 4 3. Compare the findings from the four selected programs within Havelock's theoretical change model. 4. Recommend stages and specific steps in Havelock's model which appear to be critical (according to the selected programs) in successful program development for women. 3 Ronald G. Havelock, The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, 1973). ^Ibid. 4 Limitations of the Study The purpose of this study is to describe the nature and scope of all continuing education programs for women in Michigan's community colleges, focusing on four programs for a more in-depth analysis. There is no attempt to evaluate the content of these programs on the specific developmental stages and steps implemented based on their ultimate value to the client. There is an attempt to describe the developmental processes engaged in by the four selected programs, utilizing Havelock's^ model for planned change as a structural framework for gathering information as well as a point of comparison. Because of time, employment, and financial restraints, it is not feasible to study the developmental processes of all identified contin­ uing education programs for women in Michigan's community colleges. Therefore the results will be limited by the small number of programs explored in a comprehensive manner. A further limitation derives from the relatively short history of the programs studied. Programs offering a wide variety of programs and services for women have been in existence nationally only since the early 1960's, ^ and within the state of Michigan, program longevity is even less. Therefore any findings regarding developmental processes will be tempered by the lack of historical precedence. ^Ibid. ^Women's Bureau, Employment Standards Administration, U. S. Depart­ ment of Labor, "Continuing Education for Women: Current Developments," op. cit., p. 1. Definition of Terms Comprehensive Continuing Education Program for Women Such a program is designed to maximize and facilitate the learning opportunities of the adult woman, placing an emphasis on the total person. A coup rehensive program covers many of the following basic features: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Strong emphasis on education and job counseling Individual assessment and counseling Group orientation and support Information about opportunities for training and employment Liberal provision for transfer of credit Flexible scheduling of courses at convenient hours Enrollment on a part-time basis Limited course loads Course content and methodology oriented for adults Financial assistance, especially for part-time study Provision of job leads or referral services Continuing Education.8 Lifelong Learning.9 Recurrent Education.19 These are terms used to denote the concept of education being continuous throughout life. The emphasis is on an individual's ability to become a self-directed learner seeking new knowledge and skills both inside and outside formal educational institutions. The community and its many agencies, institutions, and workplaces become legitimate avenues for non-traditional learning. ^Ibid., p. 3. 8 The Carnegie Commision on Higher Education, Toward a Learning Society, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973), pp. 79-100. g Theodore M. Hesburgh, Paul A. Miller, Clifton R. Wharton, Jr., Patterns for Lifelong Learning, (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1973), pp . ix-'9 . The Second Newman Report: National Policy y d Higher Education, Report of a Special Task Force to the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1973), pp.43-48. 6 Reentry Woman. Mature Woman. Adult Woman. Relatively synonomous within the continuing education frame­ work these terms designate a woman generally at least 21 years of age who reenters formal education after a period of time when she has been engaged in alternative activities, such as being gainfully employed, caring for a home and family, and/or doing volunteer work. Organization of the Study In Chapter II the review of related research and literature is found. Part A of Chapter II contains an overview of societal conditions which have facilitated the growth of continuing education opportunities for all persons, and a closer look at the changes in the lives and roles of women which have created special needs for their recurrent education. A review of literature related to continuing education programs and services for women is also located in Part A. In Part B of Chapter II, an overview of the major schools of thought regarding models for planned change is provided. Such an overview is essential for gaining a theoretical basis upon which to describe the developmental processes which have been, and are being, implemented by the selected continuing education programs for women in Michigan community colleges. Chapter III contains the methods and procedures utilized in conducting the study. The findings are documented in Chapter IV, and the summary, critique of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations are found in Chapter V. Bibliography and Appendijc follow. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Part A: CONTINUING EDUCATION: IDENTIFIED NEED AND PROGRAM RESPONSE Overview of Societal Conditions Facilitating Continuing Education The past ten tumultuous years in our America’s history have produced a multitude of significant societal and cultural changes which have etched their impressions on nearly every facet of contemporary life. Consider for a moment the legal, educational, social, and political impact of the major social movements of our time: Civil Rights, Sexual Revolution, Human Potential, Women's Liberation. Such movements have served to elucidate the diversity existent within our mass-induced cultural mores. The strive toward homogeneity, as most clearly illustrated in our philosophical "melting pot" heritage, is now being countered by the recognition of a more humanistic philosophy of the worth of individual difference. Such diversity of individual need, experience, and goals commands "in kind" response by the institu­ tions of our society. One of the most critical of these institutions, the post-secondary educational system in our country, is now being challenged by numerous national commissions, task forces, and committees to intentionally re-evaluate its goals and purposes as we approach the 7 8 year 2000.^ Furthermore, an increasingly heterogeneous clientele has obligated progressive institutions to analyze their own educational philosophy as it is manifest in educational practice. As we view the purposes of higher education historically, it is obvious that the current demand for equality of opportunity and diversity of educational expression go against the foundations of the American educational heritage. The Second Newman Report 2 delineates three eras of social purpose in higher education; these periods may shed some light on the nature of our contemporary educational transi­ tion: 1. Aristocratic period. Hie long period following the founding of the first colleges in this country was devoted essentially to receiving the children of the well-to-do and making them a competent class of business leaders, professionals, teachers, clergy, and government officers. By 1900, only about one in twenty-five young Americans entered college. 2. Meritocratic period. By the 1930's American colleges increasingly sought to select able students whatever their background, and make them a new elite regardless of color or religious or economic differences, but not regardless of ability. The concept of merit became closely tied to that of ability as measured by narrowly academic forms of grading and testing. ^The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, The Purposes and the Performance of Higher Education in the United States (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973). The Second Newman Report: National Policy and Higher Education, Report of the Special Task Force to the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1973). 2 The Second Newman Report, op. cit., pp. 1 - 3 . 9 3. Egalitarian period. By the middle of the 1960's, higher education began moving into an era characterized by the belief that "...every person shall have the opportunity to become all that he or she is capable of becomming... Knowledge is essential to individual freedom and to the conduct of a free society...education is the surest and most profitable investment a nation can make.3 If the equalitarian era is to become fully-functioning and oper­ ationalized within our society, then new dimensions of institutional response must be formulated. our traditional underpinnings. Non-traditional modes must supplement "Changing educational patterns caused by the changing needs and opportunities of society" must be implemented.^ In order to determine the nature of such changing patterns, The Commission on Non-Traditional Study was established in 1971 under the joint auspices of the College Entrance Examination Board and the Educational Testing Service with a grant from the Carnegie Corporation. In an attempt to define the unique qualities of non-traditional study, the Commission members agreed that non-traditional study was more of an attitude than a system. "This attitude puts the student first and the institution second, concentrates more on the former's need than on the latter's convenience, encourages diversity of individual opportunity rather than uniform prescription, and deemphasizes tine, space, and 3 'Daniel P. Moynihan, "The Impact on Manpower Development and the Employment of Youth," in Universal Higher Education, Earl J. McGrath, Editor, p. 66 as quoted in The Second Newman Report, ibid., p.3. 4 Samuel B. Gould, K. Patricia Cross, Editors, Explorations in Non-Traditional Study (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1972), p.1. 10 even course requirements in favor of competence and, where applicable, performance. It has concern for the learner of any age and circumstance, for the degree aspirant as well as the person who finds sufficient reward in enriching life through constant, periodic, or occasional study Consequently education becomes a "lifelong process unconfined to one's youth or to campus classrooms."^ The undeniable need and desire for educational experiences on a lifelong continuum is well-documented 7 in Cross and Valley's book on non-traditional programs. In a national study of American adults between the ages of eighteen and sixty, 77 percent of the nearly 2000 respondents reported interest in learning more about some subject or pursuing some skill; 31 percent were engaged in some form of adult learning; and 95 percent of the present g learners wished to continue their learning. It is apparent that demand for education among adults is growing. "The sheer size of the pool of 'adults' in the most educationally active age group 20 to 29 continues to increase--from 30.9 million ^The Commission on Non-Traditional Study, 1974, p.ix as quoted in K. Patricia Cross, John R. Valley and Associates, Planning NonTraditional Programs (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1974). p.ix. ^Cross and Valley, op. cit., p.l. 7 Cross and Valley, op. cit. 8 Abraham Carp, Richard Peterson, Pamela Roelfs, "Adult Learning Interests and Experiences" in Cross and Valley, op. cit., p.15. 11 in 1970 to an anticipated 40.5 million by 1980."^ in somewhat older adults as well. Hie trend continues More than 1.5 million adults over 35 are now going back to school to learn about new developments in their field, to obtain the necessary credentials for a different type of work,1^ to explore new dimensions of themselves through further education, or for a wide variety of personal/social reasons. 9 U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1971, pp.13-14, as quoted in The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, Toward a Learning Society (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973), p.79. 10 "Adult Education is Booming Field," in Guidepost (of the Personnel and Guidance Association), February 11, 1974, p.2. 12 Changes in the Lives and Roles of Women In 1913, historian H. J. Mozans, Ph.D., wrote these comments about women of ancient Greece 11 : It is interesting to speculate about what Greece could have become had she developed her women as she developed her men. Never in the history of the world were there in any one city so many eminent men -- poets, orators, statesmen, artists, sculptors, archietcts, philosophers -- as there were in Athens, and yet not a single native-born Athenian woman ever attained the least distinction in art, science or literature. We cannot conceive for a moment that Greece's fertility in great men and barrenness in women was due to the fact that the mothers of such illustrious men were ordinary housewives and entirely devoid of the talent and genius which gave immortality to their distinguished sons . . . The women in Greece, there can be no doubt about it, were as richly endowed by nature as were the men, and only lacked the opportunities that men enjoyed to achieve, in every sphere of intellectual activity, a corresponding measure of success. This lack of opportunity for intellectual and educational pursuit based on one's talents, interests, and abilities was obviously not unique to ancient Greek civilization. Our own nation, founded on democratic ideals (however unrealized) of freedom, equality, and justice, nevertheless denied such opportunity to over one-half of the American population. In fact, the amount of education once permitted to women (usually very little) was only that deemed necessary for housewifery. When eighteenth century educators, like Benjamin Rush, advocated that women's education be broadened, their rationale was that some education in moral philosophy, history, literature and the sciences would prepare H.J. Mozans, Woman in Science (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1913), as quoted in Ruth Helm Osborn, "Developing New Hori zons for Women," Adult Leadership, April, 1971, p.326. 13 girls to participate more effectively in the education of their sons and to be more worthy companions for their husbands in lonely colonial homes. 12 The education of women then was historically an education designed to enhance the male population rather than to realize the individual potential of woman as person. this philosophy rather poignantly: Jean Jacques Rousseau stated 13 The whole education of women ought to be relative to men. To please them, to be useful to them, to make themselves loved and honored by them, to educate them when young, to care for them when grown, to counsel them, to console them, and to make life sweet and agreeable to them -- these are the duties of women at all times and what should be taught them from their infancy. Woman as wife, mother, and keeper of the home remained the only legitimate pursuit regardless of individual need, desire, or capacity. History does not remain constant; on the contrary, it is constantly evolving, responding to societal forces, keeping the pulse of its heritage. Women were finally "given" admission to schools of higher education.^ Women were finally "given" the right to vote. And since that time, women have increasingly entered the mainstream of American life -- even if it has been through the back door, in the back seat, and at the bottom of the list. 12 Benjamin Rush, "Of the Mode of Education Proper in a Republic", Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1786, as noted in "Education, Vocation and Avocation in Women’s Lives" by Esther M. Westervelt in What is Happening to American Women, Anne Frior Scott, Editor, (Atlanta, Georgia: Southern Newspaper Publishers Association Foundation, 1970) , p.58. 13 Quoted in Robin Morgan, Editor, Sisterhood is Powerful Vintage Books, 1970), p.33. (New York 14 Oberlin was the first college to admit women in 1837, as noted in Thomas Woody, A History of Women’s Education in the United States (New York: Octagon Books, Inc., 1966), p.231. 14 In 1957 the National Manpower Council published a report entitled Womanpower. The Council sub&antiated the earlier work of the Committee on the Education of Women of the American Council on Education; both discovered the lives of American women appeared to have changed in the numerous ways. 15 Women were marrying earlier, having children earlier, and living longer...The middle class woman found herself at about age 40 with children in high school or college already partially launched into lives of their own and no longer in need of her hourly attention...She was not required to provide essential goods and services for her home; business, industry, and public agencies made these available...Many of her neighborhood roles had been abolished by the profession­ alization of social services... In short, at the prime of her physical powers with more than half of her adult life ahead of her she found herself without a job. The Family Cycle It is apparent that the rapidly changing social, technological, and economic conditions in our society are significantly altering the lives of American women. Such forces include new controls over parenthood, an increasing proportion of highly educated women who marry, and increas­ ing numbers of women who choose to create differing patterns of work and family commitments at successive periods of adulthood. X6 The timing of the "family cycle" has changed dramatically over the past several decades as age of marriage has dropped, as fewer children are born and spaced closer together, as longevity of both sexes and consequently the duration of marriage has increased. 15Westervelt, op. cit., pp.62-63. 16B e mice L. Neugarten, "Education and the Life-Cycle", School Review, February, 1972, pp.209-216. 15 Evelyne Sullerot in Woman, Society and Change has summarized the demographic changes which have significantly effected the family cycle of women throughout the world. 17 1. The life-span of women has been considerably extended since the beginning of the century in developed countries they have added an average between twentyfive and thirty years to their expectation of life. [Life expectancy for females in the U.S. today is approximately 74 yearsI8]. 2. They outlive men and are consequently more numerous among the over-forties. Therefore the percentage of widows is constantly increasing. 3. They marry younger. [At present the average age of first marriage for women in the United States is 21.5 years19]. 4. They no longer die in childbirth and hardly ever lose children in infancy. 5. Their fertility lasts longer than even menstruate at an earlier age and begin later in life, and yet their fertility reproductive and sexual activities are dissociated. 6. They have, particularly since 1960, tended to bear their children increasingly in their early youth and decreasingly after thirty years of age. 7. Approximately half of them, and more than half in some countries, have completed their family by the time they reach the age of twenty-six or seven. Thus when the youngest child starts school, the mother still has forty years of life before her, whereas her grandmothers only had a before: they the menopause is lower. Their increasingly 17 Evelyne Sullerot, Woman, Society and Change McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1971), pp.74-75. 18Ibid., p.49. 19Ibid., p.55. (New York: 16 life expectation of forty-five years in all. [The average American woman gives birth to her last child when she is 30 years old.20] 8. The period of their life devoted to maternity in relation to total life expectancy is shrinking... At present the years devoted to maternity hardly add up to a seventh of a woman's total life-span. The changes delineated by Sullerot are truly revolutionary. It is apparent that the longest phase of a woman's life is that which follows the completion of her family- - that is if, in fact, she chooses to have children at all. The implications for women's continuing education are significant in light of these new developments in the family cycle. Labor Force Participation Changes in labor force participation by women -have also been dramatic. In 1920 women composed 20% of all workers; today they are 38 and their numbers total 31.5 million. During this time the profile of the average woman worker has changed from the 28 year-old single factory worker to the 39 year-old married woman in a variety of occupations. Of particular significance is the fact that in 1970, half of all women 35 to 64 years of age were in the labor force, as compared with one out of four in 1940. 21 20 "The Average American Woman's Lifeline", Feminine Focus, Intercollegiate Association of Women Students, March, 1970. 21 Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, "Women Workers Today", 1971. 17 Millions of the women who are in the labor force work to support themselves or others. In 1970, this was true of most of the 7 million single women workers, and nearly all of the 5.9 million women workers who were widowed, divorced, or separated from their husbands. In addition, the 4.4 million married women workers who had husbands with incomes of less than $5,000 in 1969 almost certainly worked because of economic need. 22 Even though women work for the same reasons men work, both rates of unemployment and comparative earnings reflect a pattern of discrimin­ ation agains women. In 1971, women had an unemployment rate of 5.9 percent while for men, it was 4.4 percent. The median earnings for women (full-time, year-round workers) were only three-fifths those of men -- $5,323 and $8,966s respectively in 1970. Consequently women working in 1970 earned only 59.4 percent of the salaries of men, while in 1955, they received 63.9 percent. 24 This gap reflects primarily differences in the occupational distribution of women and men and in the types and levels of jobs held within each occupation. For example, in 1972 34.7 percent of the female labor force were ’’clericals" (secretaries, stenographers, typists, etc.); 17.5 percent were in service work and another 13.3 percent operated 22Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, "Why Women Work", 1971. 23Women Workers Today, op. cit. 2^Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, "Fact Sheet on the Earnings Gap", 1971. 18 machines. Consequently over 64 percent of the female labor force is concentrated in low paying jobs. Furthermore, sex segregation (the percentage of male or female employment in an occupation) and sex concentration (the percentage of the male or female labor force in a 25 particular occupation) have increased over the past ten years. ‘ Participation in Formal Education Increasing numbers of women are continuing their formal education. In the fall of 1969, women college students numbered 3,222,000 than four times greater than 1950. 26 -- more During this period the population of women aged 18 - 21 increased less than 60 percent. The marked gain in school attendance extended to adult women as well. Between 1950 and 1969, school enrollment rose from 26,000 to 311,000 among women 25 27 to 29 years of age and from 21,000 among women 30 to 34 years. 25 Robin L. Bartlett and Collete H. Moser, "Women and Work: Female Segregation and Sex Concentration in the Work Force," Nebraska Journal of Economics and Business, Autumn 1974, pp.75-91. ^U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, "Opening Fall Enrollment in Higher Education, Report of Preliminary Survey, 1969." OE-54003-69A as quoted in Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women, Women's Bureau, Employment Standards Division, U.S. Department of Labor, 1971. p.2. 27 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: Current Population Reports, P-20, No. 206, quoted in Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women, op. cit., p.2. 19 Summary of Significant Changes Affecting Women’s Lives As we have looked at the changing roles and occupations of women it is apparent that a myriad of significant social forces have radically altered her contemporary lifestyle and consequently her life options. Biological, legal, sociological, psychological, economic, and educational factors have joined together to produce a world of new horizons, creative potentialities never before possible. Perhaps most facilitative of these new options are the following conditions: Biological: The ability to control fertility through highly reliable contraceptive measures and the availability of legal abortion. Legal: Legislation which prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in employment and educational opportunities: The Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, Executive Order 11246 as Amended, and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. Sociological: The Women's Liberation Movement and ’'consciousness raising" in all facets of American life; the legitimation of alternative (to the nuclear family) lifestyles, including increased divorce rates and consequent increase in femaleheaded households; the emphasis on zero population growth as a prerequisite for global survival; the organization of national groups to facilitate woman's full participation in American life (National Organization for Women, Women's Equity Action League). Psychological: The "discovery" and rejection of the rigid socialization process which systematically reinforces restrictive, dogmatic sex role stereotypes which stultify the positive growth and creative individual potential of both sexes; the recognition of the physical, mental, and 28 Alice S. Rossi, Ann Calderwood, Editors, Academic Women on the Move (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1973), pp.457-460. 20 and emotional competence of women. Economic: The increasing number of women in the labor market; increasing numbers seeking to enter traditionally maledominated fields. Educational: The increasing numbers of women seeking additional formal education on many levels, including college and advanced degrees; the advancement of women's active involvement in school, college, and university athletics. Numerous societal conditions have thus precipiated the need for specialized continuing education programs and services for women. In many cases, the pressures of fulfilling the traditional role of wife and mother have resulted in women dropping out of formal education at marriage and/or childbirth. While still part of formal education, inadequate or stereotypic counseling services may have prevented her from developing a meaningful career plan based on her unique abilities and interests. Consequently she may be poorly prepared to enter the labor market when she wishes to choose that direction. Discrimination in employment and educational opportunities may have caused her to enter an occupation in which she finds little personal meaning, fulfillment, or opportunity for advancement. In other instances women have intentionally chosen life patterns which include periods of time exclusively devoted to care of home and family. Once children are in school or grown up, these women expect to return to educational and/or employment activities. Still other women desire to change vocations at some point in their careers, and thus require educational training and retooling. Thus both societal and personal forces are providing a unique thrust toward women's reentry into formal educational institutions. 21 Specialized programs to meet designated needs can play a significant role in facilitating a positive entrance and sustaining a growthproducing existence within the new world of continuing education, learning for a lifetime. Literature Related to Continuing Education Programs for Women The purpose of this study was to explore the developmental processes of selected continuing education programs for women and to compare what is being done in the field with a theoretical model for planning, implementing, and evaluating planned change. Consequently, the literature reviewed is related to the process by which continuing education programs programs for women are established. There are four major dimensions by which the literature regarding continuing education programs for women may be viewed: Materials may be either descriptive, making no attempts to measure value, or evalua­ tive, intending to make a judgment. Such materials may deal with the content of programs for women, or with the process by which programs are developed and stabilized. Publications and unpublished writings in the field generally focus on some combination of these four elements, with the majority of works centering on the description of program content. 22 Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) Computer Search Findings An Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) computer search 29 produced fifty citations on continuing education programs for women within college or university settings. The vast majority of these sources reported descriptive information regarding the content of specific continuing education programs for women. Several entries described the nature of continuing educaction for women outside of the United States, and consequently outside the purview of this researcher1s immediate interest. Additional citations described the characteristics of the mature woman reentering a formal educational institution after a period of absence. A limited number of entries in the ERIC listing consider in-depth the broader societal issues related to the continuing education of women (i.e. changing lifestyles of women, changing attitudes and beliefs 30 about women's potential). Only one source attempted to evaluate the nature and purpose, i.e. content, of women's continuing education 29 Initiated by the researcher in December, 1974, at the Michigan State University Main Library, East Lansing, Michigan. 30 Note especially Kathryn L. Mulligan, "A Question of Opportunity: Women and Continuing Education," (Washington, D.C.: National Advisory Council on Extension and Continuing Education, 1973). Mary Dublin Keyserling, "Continuing Education for Women--A Growing Challenge," paper presented at the Twenty-Second National Conference on Higher Education, Chicago, Illinois, March 7, 1967. 23 programs nationally. 31 No source addressed the issue of the specific process by which women's programs have been (or should be) established, either in terms of description or evaluation of that process. Major Bibliographies' Citations Two major bibliographies on the continuing education of women were consulted in a further attempt to identify studies on the process of program development for women. Selected Annotated Bibliography Continuing Education for Women: A 32 lists 72 annotated entries, one of which critically evaluates the content of the whole field of continuing education nationally. 33 A limited number of publications report an 34 evaluation of a particular program’s content, while the majority of entries deal with characteristics, needs, motivations of the reentry 31 Elizabeth Merideth and Robert Merideth, "Adult Women's Education A Radical Critique," Journal of NAWDC (National Association of Women Deans and Counselors), Spring, 1971, pp.Ill-120. 32 Jeanne Spiegel, Editor, Continuing Education for Women: A Selected Annotated Bibliography (Washington, D .C .: Business and Professional Women's Foundation, 1967). 33 Freda H. Goldman, A Turn to Take Next; Alternative Goals in the Education of Women (Brookline, Massachusetts: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults at Boston University, 1965). 34 Sarah Lawrence College, Center for Continuing Education and Community Studies, Work in Progress, Third Report, December, 1964September, 1966 (Bronxville, New York, 1967). 24 36 woman35 and with continuing education as a societal issue. 37 A second bibliography. Women's Higher and Continuing Education, includes a critical review of the growth of continuing education m 1960's by Carole Leland.38 the One of the most insightful reviews of the development of continuing education for women 39 concludes with the author stating she is "disquieted about the state of women’s continuing „40 education for the following reasons. 1 The structure of women’s continuing education tends for the most part to reinforce the illusion that there is an inevitable conflict between women's domestic roles and their activities outside the home. 35B e m a r d Asbell, "Housewives on Campus: 'I Feel Alive Again’ McCall's, v.91, no. 2, November, 1963, pp.136-137. 3^"The University, Adult Education, and a Changing Society, Proceedings of the 9th Annual Seminar, Kellogg Center for Continuing Education, Michigan State University (East Lansing, Michigan. Michigan State University, 1966) 37Esther Manning Westervelt, Women's Higher and_Continugg Education: An Annotated,Bibliojgrag y .with SelecteOglerepgiilon Related"Aspects of Women's L i v e s (New Y o r k . C o l l e g e Entrance Examination Board, 1971), pp.46-51. 38Carole Leland, "Structures and Strangers in Higher Education" in An Imperative for the Seventies: Releasing Creative Women Power (St. LouisTMissouri: University of Missouri at St. Louis, Extension Division, 1969), pp.15-18. 39Esther Manning Westervelt, "Education, Vocation and Avocation in W o m e n s 5 v “ n Anne Firor’scott, Editor, What is g f f l g g j a American Women (Atlanta, Georgia: Southern Newspapers Publishers Association Foundation, 1970), pp.67-93. 40Ibid, p.87-88. 25 2. The structural distance between these programs and the centers of operations of the institutions within which, or with which, they operate greatly decrease their poten­ tial effectiveness in changing policy and practice, as well as strengthening the beliefs of administrators and faculty that adult women are more conflicted and hampered in the pursuit of their education than other students. 3 Women's continuing education programs have been slow to recognize that many women must combine paid employment with domestic responsibilities. Since the eighteenth century innovations in women's education have been directed primarily toward the middle classes. Continuing education should be regarded as a necessity, not a luxury, and administered and financed accordingly. 4 . The continuing trend toward over-emphasis on the vocational uses of continuing education can rapidly obliterate its much-needed contribution to the capacity for wiser and more effective social and political participation and greater job in living. 5. Our reluctance to provide essential auxiliary services must be overcome. Such services are needed in conjunction with continuing education programs to ease the educational progress of mature women, e.g. child care facilities, easy accessibility of reserve library books, laboratory space, practice studios. Westervelt raises some key issues that, as yet, have not received adequate discussion in the literature. Women's Bureau Reports A forerunner in the dissemination of program content infoimation is the Women’s Bureau, United States Department of Labor. A 1971 publication41 describes approximately 450 programs for mature women known to be in operation at that time. "Questions for Program Planners" 4 -Stamen's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, Continuing Ediication Programs and Services for Women, Pamphlet 10 (revised), 1971. 26 are listed in the pamphlet's appendix, a limited attempt to communicate some critical factors in program development without benefit of further explication. A later document of the Women's Bureau entitled "Continuing AO Education for Women: Current Developments' emphases and developments. describes new program Examples of new departures or further A 7 refinement of earlier innovations follow: Career Development for Employed Women Women in Management and Supervision Efforts to Reach Youth Women’s Studies, Centers, and Caucuses Design for Self-Guidance Child Care Facilities Programs for Community Action Special Programs for Special Groups: Low-Income Women, Single Women, Women Offenders, Union Women, Wives of Executives No attempt is made to evaluate either content or process. The major purpose of this publication is to share ideas for the development of new programs and services. 42 Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, "Continuing Education for Women: Current Developments," 1974. ^Ibid, pp.4-8. 27 Midwestern Universities Study of Comprehensive Women*s Programs An unpublished dissertation entitled An Analysis of Comprehensive Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women at Selected Midwestern Universities 44 was concerned with a wide variety of aspects of fouruniversity programs. of both The research investigated dimensions the content and the process of the identified programs. of the programs were identified, as well as problems encountered. majorpurpose of the Strengths A study was to propose a recommended plan for continuing education programs for women at the college level. Descrip­ tive research methods including a questionnaire and on-site interviews were utilized. After an analysis of the findings, the following plan was recommended.^ 1. Establishment of the program: At least one year should be allowed for planning a special program before implementing the plan. Initiative for establishing the program should come from an office within the university best suited to act as a center of responsibility for returning women students. An Advisory Committee of informed persons relative to women's programs should be utilized. Numerous government agencies and foundations are additional sources of aid in the initial phase of the program which should be utilized. 2. Objectives: As soon as a program has been initially approved, a clear statement of objectives should be written. The advisory committee and others at the college or university responsible for the continuing education of women should participate in the formulation of objectives in order to give the program a broad base of support. The keystone objectives of counseling and flexibility of existing institutional rules and regulations should be among the objectives of the program. Harry Calvin Mayhew, "An Analysis of Comprehensive Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women at Selected Midwestern Universities, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation (Muncie, Indiana: Ball State University, 1970). Programs studies were: University of Wisconsin, University of Minnesota, University of Michigan, and Oakland University. 45Ibid, pp.229-234. 28 3. Evolution of the program: The educational planning and employment of women are continually changing. This makes a women's program more subject to the need for flexibility and adaptability than many standard programs. The women's program should be planned with the expectation and allowance for future change. 4. Curriculum: There is little, if any evidence on an intellectual basis which indicates that most women should receive different curricular offerings than men or younger students. On the contrary, evidence indicates that due to high motivation older women often achieve higher academically than their younger counterparts. Basically, then, the curriculum should consist of the regular offerings of the college or university. However, some modifications might well be made in behalf of mature women students in regard to curricular offerings. Convenient scheduling of classes and scheduling in block time are desirable. Other curricular offerings might be desirable due to women's special interests, or psychological and social needs. 5. Job placement: The economic factor is one of the major considerations in the education of women. The more education a woman has the greater the likelihood that she will be employed; this has a clear implication for colleges and universities. The number of women in their middle years who are seeking employment is increasing at a more rapid rate than for other age groups. The need for jobs is tremendous for older women and job placement should be incorporated into the program. Contacts should be maintained with the university placement office as well as with private agencies and individual employers. 6 . Advising: Advising and counseling should be the keystone to a special program for women. There should be a centrally located and visible center where women can come for initial guidance and counseling. Contact should be maintained with the regular university testing and counseling bureau and other offices where clients can be referred to for additional or supplemental help. 7. Child care: A women's center should provide child care facilities and services for women with children in close proximity to where they will attend classes. Since a high number of older women returning to school have young children, such services are mandatory for many women if they are to continue their education. 8 . Financial aid: Scholarships, fellowships, and other forms of financial aids for the part-time mature woman student are in critical shortage. Programs should seek support for additional sources of funds for older women who must attend school on a part-time basis. 29 9. Clients served: Any program for the continuing education of women should extend its services to men also. Although the difference in the life cycles of women are judged sufficiently different from men to justify such a program, men have many similar problems which could be met by the program. Also, the services of the program, especially advising, should be extended to women not formally enrolled. 10. Organization and administration: It probably does not matter under what office of the college or university the program is organized. However, the program should consist of an office centrally located which is visibly accessible to returning women students. The office should be separate, but related to, the regular guidance function of the institution. 11. Recruitment: An effort should be made to extend the program beyond the university campus through neighborhood centers and other devices. Information relative to the program should be made available to interested persons and prospective clients should be encouraged to take advantage of the offerings. 12. Inter-institutional cooperation: Colleges and universities should cooperate with other institutions in fostering the continuing education of women. Effort should be extended to ease transferring from one college to another. There should be an exchange of information and publications among institutions with special women's programs. Also, information related to the offerings of colleges and universities in close proximity should be made available to women clients. 13. Communication: There should be a publicity campaign initiated in order to make the offerings of the program known to interested persons. The various public media should be utilized, as well as available organs within the university, such as alumni magazines and other publications. A monthly newsletter should be published by the program for prospective women clients and other interested persons. There should also be a Coordinating Committee on the campus of individuals responsible for various aspects of women's education to enhance communication. 14. Research: There is a unique opportunity in these programs for research on women's interests and needs in continuing their education. Such opportunity usually goes unexplored, but an effort should be extended. A questionnaire should be furnished to each client who uses the services of the program as one source of descriptive statistics. 30 15. Staff for the program: There should be an Advisory Corronittee of informed persons relative to women’s programs and their advice and counsel should be utilized. There should also be a Coordinating Committee within the college or university in order to enhance communication. There should be a full-time Director of the women's program who is adequately experienced in advising and guidance. Additional personnel should also be counseling-oriented and should be persons with whom mature women can relate. 16. Financing: The services of the program should be extended to clients without a fee charged, regardless whether or not a woman is enrolled. Financial support for adult education has traditionally been at the bottom of priorities at colleges and universities. The expense of the women's program should be provided by the college or university. There are various excellent sources of outside support for such programs which should be explored, such as government agencies and foundations Private contributions are often extended to such efforts and should be solicited. 17. Facilities: The women's program should be housed in a visibly accessible office provided by the college or university It should be centrally located on the campus with adequate parking facilities. The facility should provide an informal area exclusively where women can study, socialize, or relax. A vocational library should also be maintained. New York Guidance Center Appraisal A comprehensive and landmark study in the evaluation of continuing education programs for women, An Appraisal of the New York State Guidance Center for W o m e n ^ by Max Raines, documents the impact of the New York program upon its clients, as well as the operations of the Center. ^ M a x Raines, An Appraisal of the New York State Guidance Center for Women (Albany, New York: State University of New York, 1070). 31 The appraisal was based on data from several sources: follow-up interviews with 95 randomly selected clients; questionnaires from 55 separate organizations, agencies, and institutions in Rockland County; opinionaires from former and current staff members at the Center; personal interviews with state and local leaders and officials as well as Center staff; observation of the daily operation of the Center over a seven week period; 47 and review of earlier Center reports and research studies. Utilizing the various sources of data, the researchers determined that the program of the New York Guidance Center has: 48 1. Had a positive impact on the vast majority of its counseling clients. 2. Provided excellent information services regarding career opportunities. 3. Stimulated an increased percentage of college attendance among adult women. 4. Succeeded in being accepted and understood by other agencies. 5. Experienced difficulty in defining its role in job placement. 6 . Found it difficult to attract male clients. Operationally the Center has: 1. 2. 3. 4. Had superior professional leadership. Made effective use of part-time professional counselors. Enjoyed sufficient and economical management. Found that a graduated fee structure has seemingly enhanced the completion of the counseling process even though it may have reduced intake of new clients. 5. Emphasized record keeping to an extent less feasible in nonpilot centers. 6 . Operationally maintained career-oriented counseling without drifting unnecessarily toward psychotherapy. 47Ibid., p.57. 4^Ibid., p.3. 32 7. Experienced sane promising results in its effort to implement the outreach function. The purpose of the Raines' study was to appraise the New York program's inpact on clients, its effectiveness in relating to the community, and its operational (management) procedures. It was not the intent of the research to evaluate the developmental steps (in the planned change process) through which the program had evolved. National Survey of Continuing Education Programs for Women A 1974 national survey of the programs of continuing education for women (CEW), sponsored by the Memphis State University Division of Program Development, Public Service and Continuing Education, reported "Perceptions of Needs of and Delivery of Services for Women in Re-entry."^ A five-part questionnaire was sent to 300 colleges and universities. One-hundred and three questionnaires were returned from 40 states and two Canadian provinces. The questionnaire combined questions about CQ content and process with the following results: QUESTION: What would you consider to be the first and second most important components in establishing a CEW program? RESPONSE: A. 49 Of first importance (listed by numbers of responses) Dona K. Maybry, "Perceptions of Needs of and Delivery of Services for Women in Re-entry," Unpublished report (Memphis, Tennessee: Division of Program Development, Public Service and Continuing Education, Memphis State University, 1974). ^Ibid, p.3. 33 Support services - confidence building, counseling, study skills Being aware of needs of women in the community Support from top management levels in the institution Understanding instructors and non-threatening environment Adequate publicity - getting the message out to all women Dedicated director and staff Program and schedule flexibility Adequate funding for the program including marketing Establishing realistic educational experience B. Second in importance Concerned woman director with authority and support from administration and faculty Counseling services -- testing and guidance Financial aid Supportive programming to meet actual needs Flexibility in types of programming and in time scheduling Adequate publicity Understanding instructors and non-threatening environment Advisory committees A physical facility for women to identify with Adequate staff and budget QUESTION: Do you have any comments you would like to share with others attempting to establish or improve their CEW program? RESPONSE: (In order of importance according to responses) Structure a counseling program geared to the unique needs of adult women Establish a resource center for career and educational information Offer workshops designed to encourage women to re-enter and to develop rusty skills Develop programs to provide women with marketable skills Make efforts to insure that community needs are being met Obtain support of faculty and administration Insist on a comprehensive marketing program Be aggressive in securing adequate funding from the institution Utilize women to design, implement, and instruct the programs -- as role models for women returning 34 Innovate - don't be afraid to try something new Develop an effective network of communication with other institutions - particularly in your immediate area - for the growth and development of all working in CEW Multi-Faceted Women's Center Conference Proceedings "The Proceedings of the Multi-Faceted Women's Center Conference," presented by the Continuum Center, Oakland University, 51 report the only attempt uncovered to suggest a framework by which the process of program development for women might be viewed. Dr. Max Raines, Professor of Higher Education at Michigan State University, delineated the following Process Goals in a prepared conference presentation: 52 Defining community needs from a feminist perspective Setting priorities Devising strategies and programs Developing organization patterns Training staff Establishing organizational patterns Interpreting programs Obtaining resources Developing constituencies Resolving conflicts Evaluating programs 51 Held in Rochester, Michigan, October 25-27, 1973. 52 Reprinted from the "Proceedings of the Multi-Faceted Women's Center Conference," Ibid. 35 Summary of Literature Related to Continuing Education Programs for Women Research has established that the majority of written materials related to women's continuing education programs have as their primary focus the description of the various program components: clients served, specific programs/services offered, management/operational procedures. Considerably fewer studies have attempted to evaluate the inpact of a particular program on its clients, and the effectiveness of its various offerings/services. There appears to be a relative vacuum of printed information regarding the developmental processes through which successful continuing education programs for women have traveled. A single attempt has been made to describe process goals relevant to such 53 programs, but no study has been identified which proceeds to evaluate either the validity of these established goals, or the viability of a different developmental process yet to be examined. " Ibide 36 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Part B: MODELS FOR CHANGE: AN OVERVIEW OF MAJOR SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT Introduction The purpose of this section of the literature review is to present a framework for analyzing the process of change as it is manifested in continuing education programs for women. The development of such specialized programs and services to meet the needs of a particular population, i.e.,women, necessitates an intentional process of moving away from the status quo which has been identified as ’’planned change ."1 Any successful attempt to alter existing structures, whether they be attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors within persons, institutions, or systems, requires an exceptional degree of understanding and insight into the manner in which change is accomplished. When controversial issues (such as the appropriate "place" and "roles" for women in modern society) are attached to highly visible programs (e.g., Women's Centers), then desired change or innovation must be intentional, thoughtful, purposeful and "rational" in the eyes of the administrative power structure. Such program development is a complex, intricate task. When change is planned and successfuly implemented and stabilized, it is usually not by accident; more often a high level of sophistication about the required process maximizes the probability of lasting results. 1Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson, Bruce Westley, The Dynamics of Planned Change (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1958). 37 Because the facilitation of planned change is multi-faceted, with so many interesting avenues worthy of exploration, it is important to suggest some framework upon which to travel. Hopefully the presentation of various theoretical models of change will provide a kind of road map for our eventual progression through the myriad of actions and activities in which the women’s programs in this study have engaged. As the major schools of thought regarding planned change are discussed, some basic terminology should be defined. The components of the decision to make a deliberate effort to improve the system include the change agent (a professional person who attempts to influence adoption decisions in 2 a direction that s/he feels is desirable ) and the client system (client referring to individuals or groups the change agent is trying to help, the system referring to the interacting components of the com­ munity which seem to have common goals and are trying to work together to achieve those goals ). Planned change is thus defined as an intentional and collaborative process involving change agent and client systems. ’’These systems are brought together to solve a problem or more generally to plan and attain an improved state of functioning in the client system by utilizing and applying valid knowledge."^ 2 Everett Rogers, Diffusion of Innovation Press of Glencoe, 1962), p.254. (New York: The Free ^Ronald G. Havelock, A Guide to Innovation in Education (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Center for Research on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1970), p.39. ^Robert Chin, "Some Ideas on Changing" in Richard I . Miller, Editor, Perspectives on Educational Change (New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts, 1967), p.333. 38 The planning of innovation on a concrete level could be enhanced by providing practitioners in the field a firm grounding in the theoretical frameworks which underly various orientations toward facilitating change. Ronald G. Havelock published such a study on planned change in 1971.^ Some 4,000 sources which focused on the processes of change, innovation, and knowledge utilization were identified and selectively reviewed. The research which Havelock reviewed on the stages of planned change has involved many different types of innovations as well as diverse populations who are to adopt the innovation. It is under­ standable, then, that different authors propose conceptualizations of the change process which contain differing elements. Apparent discrepancies among classifications "should not necessarily be regarded as disagree­ ments, but rather, it should be recognized that different authors are considering different types of change processes and different portions of the change process."^ Although three distinct ways of viewing the planned change process emerged from Havelock's extensive analysis, he emphasizes, "...we do not perceive any underlying disagreement among theorists of the three schools which we have outlined...differences in the way in which the change 5Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation through Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge (Sin Arbor, Michigan: Center for Research on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1971) 6Ibid., p.10-27 39 process is described by the various authors reflect the fact that the change process may legitimately be viewed from different and distinctive 7 perspectives." The general models of knowledge dissemination and utilization identified by Havelock are as follows: 8 1. The Research, Development and Diffusion Perspective (R, D § D) 2. The Social Interaction Perspective (S-I) 3. The Problem Solver Perspective (P-S) In an effort to describe the relationship among the three models in the total process of change, Havelock has graphically placed each one on a continuum of stages, which moves through research, development, diffusion and adoption. (See Figure 1) The Research, Development and Diffusion Perspective The Research, Development and Diffusion Perspective is illustrated in Figure 2. The figure following delineates the central authors of this approach and the specific components of the phases of innovation as each views them. (See Figure 3) 7Ibid., p.10-70. 8Ibid., pp. 10-30-10-70. 40 FIGURE 1: Stages Typically Included in Models of Change within Three Schools of Research Reprinted from Havelock, 1971, op.cit., p.10-28. Stag es in Deve lopment S ta g e s in Re searc h School o f Research r I--------------- 1 S o cial In te ra c tio n (S -I) I j De ve lopment Assumed Research i Assumed h- S tag es in D i f f u s i o n and A d o p tio n Some Di f f u s i o n A c t i v i t y Assumed Awareness i-------- 1 In te res t L E v a lu a tio n [T ria l A d o p t io n Research Development & Di f f u s ion (R .06 0) RESEARCH Basic S c i e n t i f i c I n q u i r y ; Inves t i g a t e P r o b le m s ; G a t h e r D a ta DEVELOPMENT i n v e n t 6 Design E n g i n e e r S Package T est 6 E va lu a te DIFFUSION Promote S ervice 1nform N urture ‘ De monstra te ADOPT 1ON T ra in Awareness In te re s t . H e lp Eva 1u a t i o n T ria l fn s ta lla tio n A d o p tio n In s ti tu tio n a liz a tio n Need ■-i I B a s ic Researc h Assumed P ro b le m S o lv e r (P - S ) I______ __ a Sea rc h f o r S o l u t i o n s E s t a b l i s h Goals and P r i o r i t i e s Weigh & E v a l u a t e Possible S o l u t i o n : Di agnosi s E s t a b l i sh R e la tio n s h ip w i t h O u t s id e Exoert S e l e c t B e st A l t e r n a t i v e P la n s fo r Im p le m e n t a t io n ^ jln s t a l la tio n E v a lu a tio n R e v isio n In s ti tu tio n a liz a tio n Change R e l a t i o n s h i p Termi n a te d FIGURE 1 (P o s s ib le D iffu s io n I t o O th e rs __________ Basic Applled Research Research Development and Testing Prototypes H ajor Points Stressed: Spokesmen: Prototypes: Hass Production and Packaging Planned Hass Dissemination A c t!v i tie s R ational Process Planning Necessary Di vi sion o f Labor High investment pays o f f in q u a lit y , q u a n tity , long term b e n e fit, and capacity to reach mass audience. Henry H. B r ic k e ll, David C la rk , Egon Guba In d u s tria l R6D, U.S. A g ric u ltu ra l Research and Extension System FIGURE 2: The Research, Development and Diffusion Perspective Reprinted from Havelock, 1971, op. cit., p. 11-6. •p* to 43 FIGURE 3: Research, Development and Diffusion Change Models Reprinted from Havelock, 1971, op. cit., p.10-40. 1 F ie ld , Y ea r A u th or, Bi b l i o . # P h a s e s 1. Educ. 1966 Guba £ C lark #7131 Hopkins £ C lark #3586 Educ. 1966 ! 1 ! Have lock £ Benne #3872 in d u s­ try B ric k e ll #0845 #0875 Educ. 1964 1966 H e a th e r s #0872 Educ. 1967 1366 Educ. Mi les #6056 1964 G a lla g h e r C u l­ tu re 1964 rwyerson Fads £ K atz 1957 [#1720 #2613 J | j Research 2; Development I n v e n t i o n 1 Desi sn New S o l u- ' e n g in e e r tio n to 1 in n o vatio n O p e r a t i n g | package P ro b le m , i Inn o vate i 1. Researc h 2 . D e v e 1opment Conduct 1 I n v e s t i - ' G a th e r I n v e n t ' E n g in e e r Test £ bas i c | g ate 1 o perasol upackages e v a l uat€ £ p co­ so l u to is s c i e n - | Educa1 tio n a l tio n s tific t i o n a l l y | and to i grams for | £ p r o in q u ir y o r i e n t e d j p la n n h g opera­ education grams tin g 1 pro blem s . d a t a 1 1 prob­ > 1 lems 3. Devel­ 4 . E n g in ­ 5 . Manu­ 1. B a sic 2 . A p p Ii e d Research Researc h opment e e r i n g fa c tu r ­ and f o r man­ ing Design u factu r­ ing 1. Desi in 2 . E v a l­ u atio n (B a sic Research ) ~ ~ '•*- r D e v e lo p m e n t: In v e n tio n o r £ E n g i n e e r in g T e s tin g 1 .Task 2 . D e v e 13 . Con­ stru c t £ A n a ly - opment jis of a T e s t Pro­ (B a sic R e s e a r c h ) ^ - ' ” des ign totype Models ! . Desi gn ( R e s e a r c h , D e v e lo p m e n t , I n v e n t i o n , D i s c o v e r y , e t c . ) 1. 1n n o v a t i on New c u lt u r a l e le m e n t made a v a ila b le 1. D i s c o v e r y o f p o t e n t i a l fad s ness 1 c o n v ic | . tio n 'H elp ' In v o lve 1T r a i n i In t e r - . vene 4 . A d o p tio n T ria l ' In s ta l1 la tio n 1 1 1 i 1 3 . D iffu s io n In fo rm j Demon' T r a i n T a r g e t System target i s tr a t e 1 in use o f s o l u t i o n s syste m 1 s o lu tio n s 1 and programs ' £ p ro g ra m s 1 i I i 1 i ■ 1 6. D i s t r i b u t i o n 3. D iss e m in a tio n and L abel 1 ing and P ac ka g in g 4. D i s s e m in a t i o n J In s ti, tu tio n ga 1i z a 1tio n 1S e r v i c e £ nur­ t u r e in,s t a l l e d is o l u • tio n s I t i i £ In s ta lla tio n i j 1 2. Loca1 3. Local E valuaAwareness tio n In te re s t 2. D iss em in atio n I n n o v a t i o n i s sh ared 2. Pro m o tion 3- la b e llin g 4 . D is s e m in a tio n FIGURE 2 I aware- 21 ■ t 1 3. D iffu s io n D is s e m in - 1 Demonate i s tra te crea te i b u ild 4. L o c a l, T r i a l ' (A d o p tio n ) 1 1 i 3 . In te ­ g ra tio n 5 . LOSS ; o f u n i­ queness; 6 . Death by D i so ! accfr.t \ 45 q in Evolved first by Brickell , and later by Clark and Guba , R,D § D is the most systematic conceptual categorizations of processes related to educational innovation^. This perspective posits a user population which can be reached effectively and influenced through a process of dissemination which has been preceded by a comprehensive process of research and development; thus there is a rational sequence in the evolution and application of an innovation. 12 Long term massive planning is assumed along with a division of labor consistent with the logical order of events. passive but rational consumer. The user is a High initial development costs are accepted in exchange for anticipated long-term qualitative benefits. Several variations are found within the R D § D model including the "system analysis" approaches to innovation. 13 o Henry M. Brickell, Organizing New York State for Educational Change (Albany, New York: Commissioner of Education, State Education Department, 1961). 10 David L. Clark and Egon G. Guba, Innovation in School Curricula (Washington, D.C.: The Center for the Study of Instruction, National Education Association, 1965). ^Ronald G. Havelock, Training for Change Agents, A Guide to the Design of Training Programs in Education and Other Fields (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Center for Research on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1972), p.9. 12Havelock, 1971, op. cit., p.11-15. ^■^Havelock, 1972, op. cit., pp.9-10. 46 The following propositions may be derived from the R D § D 14 Perspective: 1. Successful innovation usually requires formal planning, short-term and long-term. 2. Innovation is made more effective if there is a rational division of labor to carry out the necessary functions of diagnosis, information retrieval, research, development, and application. 3. Effective utilization of complex innovations must be preceded by coherently coordinated research, development, and evaluation. 4. Innovation is more effective when innovators start out by stating their objectives or desired outcomes in in behavioral terms. 5. Innovation is more effective when evaluation, preferably in formal quantitative terms, is employed at each step of development, diffusion, and installation. 6. Innovation is more effective when it is guided by an analysis of the cost-to-benefit ratio of specific alternatives. The R D § D model has prototypes in a variety of fields including education, industry, defense, space and agriculture. It appears to be a particularly popular and appropriate model for dealing with issues of dissemination and utilization at the broader systematic and policy levels because it subdivides the knowledge flow system nearly into different functional roles which exist within different subcultures (e.g., the research community, the product organizations, the consumer). 14Ibid., pp.12-15. ^Havelock, 1971. op. cit., p. 11-6. 15 47 The R, D § D model has been criticized as being "over-rational, excessively research-oriented, and inadequately user-oriented. . The Social Interaction Perspective The social interaction perspective has its origins in anthropological studies of the diffusion of cultural traits. The existence of an innovation capable of being diffused is assumed as a precondition for any analysis of the diffusion process. Consequently, S-I researchers "are relatively indifferent to the value of the innovation or to the type of scientific and technical know-how that might have gone into its original development and manufacture.” 17 Havelock has noted the tendency of S-I researchers to choose innovations which appear in a concrete form, ready for diffusion, such as new drugs or fertilizer. "The preference stems from the most out­ standing characteristic of the S-I schools, their thoroughly empirical research orientation: if the innovation is a stable element which we can easily identify as a constant, the task of measuring its flow 1° through a social system over time is made considerably easier." ° Thus S-I theorists study the pattern of flow and the effects of social structure and social relationships and groupings on the fate of innova­ tion. Figure 4 illustrates the major types of phenomena studies by this group of researchers. authors in the field. 16 17 18 Ibid., p.11-7. Ibid. Ibid. Figure 5 identifies the major Social Interaction User O rg a n iza tio i 0 associations Major Points Stressed: Personal Relationships Group Memberships and Id e n tific a tio n s Soclal S tru c tu re - Power and Influence Structures P ro x im ity , Cosmopoliteness Opinion Leadership S tru c tu re Spokesmen: E v erett Rogers, James Coleman, E lih u K atz, Herbert M enzel, Richard Carlson, Paul Mort P rototypes: D iffu s io n o f innovations in farm p ra c tic e s , spread o f new drugs among physicians. Key: FIGURE 4: The Social Interaction Perspective Reprinted from Havelock, 1971, __ *. _ i i o O p. C i t . , p . 1 1 -8 . o 0 In d iv id u a ls in the »o social system. ^ F,ow of new know,ed9eJ Formal o rg an iza tio n al stru ctu res i Inform al stru c tu res . F ie ld Year Rogers A g ric. 1962 #182 k L io n berg er A g ric . I960 #1036 B e a l, Rogers ( Bohlen Ag r i c . 1957 #3561 Wi Ikenlng Agri c. 1953 #2876 Author Phases B ib lio # 1. 2. Awareness K Awareness 1. Awareness 1. W ilkening Agric. 1962 #6369 Holmberg An t h r o . I960 Rogers §1824 Med. Soc. 1966 #3576 Ci ted i n Coleman, et a l . Awareness 1. A v a ila ­ b i l i t y of Information 2. ; In te re s t E v a lu a tio n 2I n fo rm a tio n 3. A p p li c a ­ t i o n (Mental t r i a l , D e c i­ sion to t r y ) 2. 3* O b ta in in g Info rm at ion Awareness In te re s t 2. In terest T ria l It. 3. Decision Making or App!i cat ion j Adoption 5. T ria l Adoption t1 A. It. T ria l T ria l 3. E v a lu a tio n [(Mental T r i a l ) Adoption 5. Acceptance or Adoption 6. 5. I 3. 5. C o n viction and T r i a l 2. I n t e r e s t or In fo rm a tio n Awareness 1. It. 3. Eva lua t ion A. Adoption 5. T ria l FIQJRE 5: Social Interaction Change Models Reprinted from Havelock, 1971, op. cit., p. 10-31. Acceptance to 7.In te g ratio n into Rout i ne sa From the theory and the considerable quantity of empirical research identified with the S-I tradition, six major points may be derived. These are: (1) that the user or adopter belongs to a network of social relations which largely influences his adoptionbehavior; (2) that his place in the network (centrality, peripherality, isolation) is a good predictor of his rate of acceptance of new ideas; (3) that informal personal contact is a vital part of the influence and adoption process; (4) that group membership and reference group identifications are major predictors of individual adoption, and (5) that the rate of diffusion through a social system follows a predictable S-curve pattern (very slow beginning followed by a period of very rapid diffusion, followed in turn by a long late-adopter or 'laggard' period)." 19 20 The following propositions may be derived from the S-I Perspective: 1. Effective dissemination and utilization are facilitated by informal opinion leaders, particularly when these opinion leaders are innovative in orientation and have considerable influence over a large number of colleagues. 2. The adoption of new ideas and practices is strongly influenced by the perceived norms of the user's professional reference group. If the new behavior is seen as desirable or representative of the best practice 'in my profession,' it is more likely to be adopted. 3. Informal person-to-person contact is an important factor in effective dissemination, particularly when the user is at the trial stage. 4. Individual adoption behavior follows a sequence which includes the steps of initial awareness, interest, evaluation, and trial. 5. Users who have close proximity to resources are more likely to use them. 19 Havelock, 1972, op. cit., p.15. 20Ibid., pp.17-20. 51 6 . To achieve utilization, a variety of messages must be generated pertaining to the same innovation and at the potential user in a purposeful sequence on a number of different channels in a number of different formats. The resource system must act synergistically, bringing together a variety of messages and focusing them in combination, in sequence, and in repetition upon tEe potential user. Since 1943, over 1000 empirical studies have been done from the Social - Interaction Perspective. The S-I orientation remains the strongest of the three approaches reviewed here in terms of empirical research support. Nevertheless, several areas have been inadequately studies from the S-I perspective, including 1) the processes related to invention, research, and development of innovation; 2) the translation, transformation, and adaptation of innovations as they are diffusing through the system; 3) the processes of maladoption, inadequate or innappropriate adoption, and rejection of innovations; and 4) the psychological processes inside the user-adopters as they attempt to utilize new knowledge. 21 The Problem - Solver Perspective This orientation maintains the primary assumption that innovation is a part of a problem-solving process which goes on inside the user. Consequently the change process is usually seen as a "patterned sequence of activities beginning with a need, sensed and articulated by the client, which is translated into a problem statement and diagnosis. When he has thus formulated a problem statement, the client-user is able to conduct ^Havelock, 1971, op. cit., p.11-11. 52 a meaningful search and retrieval of ideas and information which can be used in formulating or selecting the innovation. Finally the user needs to concern himself with adapting the innovation, trying out and evaluating its effectiveness in satisfying his original need.” 22 This "Need Reduction Cycle" is graphically explained in Figure 6 . The focus of the P-S perspective is the user and what s/he does about satisfying her (his) needs. consultative or collaborative. The role of outsiders becomes The outside change agent may assist in this process by 1) providing new ideas and innovations specific to the diagnosis, or by 2) providing guidance on the process of problem solving at any or all the indicated stages. Figure 7 illustrates this realtionship and identifies the major points stressed within this approach. The most significant researchers within the Problem-Solving School are delineated by Havelock in Figure 8 . 22 Havelock, 1972, op. cit., p. 6 . 53 Successive stages In th is model g e n e ra lly fo llo w the psychological theory o f need red u ctio n through p ro blem -solving s im ila r to the one posed e a r l i e r In th is chapter In discussions o f the DSU process In sid e the In d iv id u a l Derson. The process can be depicted as a cycle composed o f fiv e stages as " fib r e s t a . t n . t n , w ith “ U " »nd c o n b ly d ln , w ith " l b ' . T h . f i f t h , , w (a p p lic a tio n o f a s o lu tio n ) leads to a reduction o f the o rig in a l need lb I f the s o lu tio n Is r ig h t . I f I t Is not rig h t then presumably stage la Is r e in it ia t e d and the c yc le Is repeated u n t i l a s o lu tio n which Is t r u ly needreducing Is discovered. la . F e lt Need lb . Need Reduction 5. Application of Solution k. Choice o f S o lu tio n 2 . A rtic u la te d as a Problem 3. Search fo r So lu tio n s The model is a general one and could apply to a process In s id e a s in g le person, o r In s id e a group, an o r g a n iz a tio n , a community, o r s o c ie ty as a whole As viewed by th is model, the problem so lve rs may a ls o be o u ts id e s p e c ia lis ts ("change a g e n ts ", "resource persons". be w i l l a c t In a two-way re c ip ro c a l and c o lla b o ra tiv e manner I f they are to be e ffe c tiv e . FIGURE 6 : The Need Reduction C$cle Reprinted from Havelock, 1971, op. cit., p. 2-41. USER f Outside Process Consultant ,Change-Agent Major Points Stressed: The User's Need is the Paramount C onsideration Diagnosis is P a rt o f the Process The Outsider is a C a ta ly s t Consultant o r C o lla b o ra to r but the User must fin d the S o lu tio n H im self o r See i t as His Own In te rn a l Resources should be f u l l y U tiliz e d S e lf - i n i t i a t e d Change has the Firmest M o tiv atio n al Basis and the Best Prospects fo r Long-Term Maintenance Spokesmen; Goodwin Watson, Ronald L ip p it t , Herbert Thelen, Matthew M ile s , Charles Jung Prototypes; O rg an izatio n al s e lf-re n e w a l, mental h e a lth c o n s u lta tio n . FIGURE 7: The Problem-Solver Perspective Reprinted from Haveloclc, 1971, op. cit., p.11-12. FIGURE 8 : Problem-Solver Change Models Reprinted from Havelock, 1971, op. cit., p.10-56. Author, Biblio.* Lewi n i #1362 Lippi tt, Watson £ West ley #13^3 Mann £ Wi11iams #5227 Field, Year Social Change Soc ia 1 Change 1958 1. Unfreezing 1. Deve1op 2. Establish a need for Change Relationship Change Indus­ try I960 1. Equi 1itr rium before change Thelen #3692 Educ. 1367 1.Decide on Variables Watson #6366 Social Change 1966 t. Felt Dissatis­ faction j 2. Prelimin1 ary Planning 1.Cri tici sra Mi les & Lake #3871 Educ. 1967 1.Ciarify Ex.pectations about Program 2.Collect Information Watson #6195 Educ. 1967 1.Sensing Jung £ Lippitt #3922 Educ. 1967 1.Identifi­ cation of the con­ cern Jacobs #1781 Educ. 1966 1 3- Detailed Preparation 2.Construct Force Field Analysis 3a.Decide what needs to be done 3b.Decide on first action target 3c.Set up change agent communications 6.Make first action explicit Se.Consider condi tions 5b.Define roles Macken­ Educ. 1966 zie #1196 1.Formulate pbjectives Phases 2‘ Moving 6. Examine Alternative Routes JJ 3. Diagnosis £ Goals; Establish Goals & | of client Intentions of Action j problems B | 2.Diagnosis 3- 5.Transform Intentions into Change Efforts 6.Installa­ tion and Testing 5.Conversion Freezing 6. Genera 1i- 7.Termi nate Change Re­ zation £ Stabi1iza- lationship tion 6.Stabi 1ization 7.Equi1ibrlum after chanqe 5c. Act 6.Revi se Force Field Decide on next target — repeat cycle IS.Adaptatior Evaluation Revi sion 3-Consi der whole system 6.Creative Oesign 5.Force Field Analysis 6.Reduce Resistance 7.Participation 8.Temporary System 9.Leaders and Consultants 2.Proposals 3.Development & Clarification 6.Action on Proposal s for Change of proposals J. Implementa­ 6.Evaluate, review, reformu­ tion of late proposals Decision 5.Comparison of proposals 5.Carry out 6.Institu­ 3.Formulate Goals Plans tional ize 6a.Problem Sen sing b.Diagnosing c.Set change target £ Objec­ tives d.Locate £ invent solutions e.Weigh cost and gain f.Decide on alternative g.pjan to Implement 2.Screening 3.Diagnosis am Force Field Analysis 6.Inventing 5.Weighing 6.Deciding 3.Formulation of objectives 2.Diagnosis. 6.Feasibi1ity Testing of Retrieve Action Alternatives; Training; Knowledge £ Evaluation Derive 1n i­ pt ications 2.0ctermination of Feasible Structures £ Programs 3.Establish priorities, Determine Procedures for implementing; plan time phasing FIGURE 8 i1. 1 Spread of new I ideas tcj others 7.Phase out COPED 8.Assess 9.Feed­ back ! 10.Dis­ seminate 7.Introduce 8.Operate 9.Evaluate 10.Revise 5a.Adopt ion 6.Implemen­ tation 5-Evaluation, Refinement Revi sion 5b. Diffus­ ion 57 The Problem - Solving approach is founded on the early work of Kurt Lewin. In a pioneering analysis of the process of change in individual and group performances, Lewin suggested three aspects of successful change: unfreezing (if necessary) the present level, moving to the new level, and freezing group life on the new level. 23 Lippitt, Watson, and Westley expanded Lewin's three dimensions into five general phases of the change process:^ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Development of a need for change ("unfreezing") Establishment of a change relationship Working toward change ("moving") Generalization and stabilization of change ("freezing") Achieving a terminal relationship The following propositions may be derived from the Problem Solver Perspective: 25 1 . The user's need is the paramount consideration in any planned change activity. 2. User's needs cannot be served effectively until an effort has been made to translate and define those needs into a diagnosis which represents a coherent set of problems to be worked on. 3. User-initiated change is likely to be stronger and more long lasting than change initiated by outsiders. 23 Kurt Lewin, "Frontiers in Group Dynamics", Human Relations, 1947, 1 , p.34 as noted in Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson, Bruce Westley, The Dynamics of Planned Change (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., Inc. 1958), p.129. 24 Lippitt, Watson, Westley, op cit., p.130. ^Havelock, 1972, op. cit., pp.7-9. 58 4. The user system should have an adequate internalized problem-solving strategy, i.e., an orderly set of processes Tor need sensing and expression, diagnosis, resource retrieval and evaluation. 5. Change agents work more effectively if they employ a non-directive strategy. 6 . Change agents are primarily helpful as process consultants and trainers, helping users understand the human relations of decision-making and changing. These six major propositions within the P-S perspective make it a valuable model of dissemination and utilization, but it is not without its weaknesses. Three shortcoming have been delineated: excessive strain on the user. There is some question about the capacity of the typical user to innovate. resources. 1) It puts 2) It minimizes the role of outside There appears to be inadequate consideration and appreciation of the scope, variety and wealthy potential of external resources. 3) It does not provide an adequate model for mass diffusion and utilization. There seems to be no clearly worked out strategy for following the P-S model which allows new ideas to disperse through a population of users in a reasonable period of time.2*’ It is apparent that the three models presented by Havelock are not necessarily mutually exclusive; they can be viewed as complementary in the total process of planned change. the models has been noted: Several points of overlap among 27 2*Wvelock, 1971, op. cit., pp.11-14, 11-15. 27Ibid., p.10-70. 59 1. The S-I model may be viewed as a detailed analysis of one phase (adoption) of the R, D § D model. 2. The P-S model may, in some instances, be considered as one type of "development" procedure which could take place in the R, D $ D sequence. The evolution of an effective innovation, as described by the R, D § D school, requires that the developers seek out a "sample" receiver group from the potential target population and that they collaborate with this group in the testing and redesign process. Hence, during the development and evaluation phases, the R, D § D model recapitulates the P-S process. 3. Finally, P-S theorists are sometimes concerned that effective solutions which have been developed to meet the needs of one receiver should be diffused to others who have similar problems. . . "the spread of new ideas to others" . . . [is seen by some P-S theorists] as taking place in exactly the same way as the S-I theorists [see it]. The Concept of Linkage Havelock notes that each of the three perspectives toward dissemination and utilization of knowledge discussed provides valuable insights and guideposts for developing a comprehensive view of the whole, but each has significant shortcomings when viewed separately. A single perspective which brings together the strongest features of each of these orientations is needed. He states, "We are not sure that we are yet ready and able to bring about this synthesis, but . . . we will put forth the concept of 'linkage1 as a possible and integrating idea."28 The concept of linkage begins with a focus on the user as problem- 28Ibid., p.11-15 60 solver. Consider the internal problem-solving cycle depicted in Figure 6 (see above): an initial felt need leads into a diagnosis and problem statement, working through search and retrieval phases to a solution, and finally the application of that solution. A critical addition in the linkage model, as seen in Figure 9, is that the user must be meaningfully related to outside resources. Linkage to More Remote Resources Sim ulation o f User's Si tu a t ion In te rn a l Problem Solving Cycle THE RESOURCE ^ SYSTEM THE USER SYSTEM From the Linkage P e rs p e c tiv e : 1. Resource system must re c a p itu la te or adequately sim ulate the user's problem -solving process. 2. The user must be able to understand (and sim ulate) the research, development, and evaluation processes employed by the resource system in the fa b ric a tio n o f s o lu tio n s . 3. Resource and user must provide re cip ro c al feedback. 1). Successful linkage experiences b u ild channels fo r e f f ic ie n t dissemination. FIGURE 9: The Linkage Process Reprinted from Havelock, 1971, dp. cit., p. 11-16. 62 The following statement characterizes the nature of the Linkage Model. The user must make contact with the outside resource system and interact with it so he will get back something relevant to help him with the solution process. The user must enter into a reciprocal relationship with the resource system; this means that something must be going on inside the resource system that corresponds to what is happening in the user. In effect, resource systems and resource persons must simulate or recapitulate the need-reduction cycle of the user: they should be able to (1) simulate the user's need; (2) simulate the search activity that the user has gone through; and (3) simulate the solution-application procedure that the user has gone through or will go through. It is only in this way that2g the resource person can have a meaningful exchange with the user. Linkage is not simply a two person interaction. The resource person, in turn, must have access to more distant and more expert resources than just herself (himself), as indicated at the left hand side of Figure 9. The resource person must be able to call on specialists to assist in the effort to help the client. Therefore, a method must be established to facilitate the communication of the resource person's need for knowledge thus recreating the initial problem-solving cycle. 30 It is possible to identify and differentiate within our total society a variety of knowledgebuilding, knowledge-disseminating, and knowledge-consuming subsystems, each with its own distinctive protective skin of values, beliefs, special language, and normative behaviors . . . the prime task of knowledge utilization is to bring these great subsystems into effective linkage with each other; the kind of reciprocal simulation-and-feedback relationship which we have described above needs to be^fstablished at the interface between systems. As noted by Loomis, linkage between systems is the essential process in any effort at 29 Ibid. 3QIbid., p.11-17. 31 Matthew B. Miles, Editor, Innovation in Education (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964), p.653, as quoted in Havelock, 1971, op. cit., pp.11-17. 63 planned social change. 32 Several propositions may be derived from the Linkage View of Change. 33 1. To be truly helpful and useful, resource persons must be able to simulate (understand) user's problem-solving processes. 2. To derive help from resource persons (and resource systems) the user must be able to simulate resource system processes, e.g., to appreciate research knowledge, he must understand how research knowledge is generated and validated. 3. Effective utilization requires reciprocal feedback. 4. Resource systems need to develop reciprocal and collaborative relationships not only with a variety of potential users but also with a large diverse group of other resource systems. 5. Users need to develop reciprocal and collaborative relations with a variety oiresource systems (cosmbpoiiteness -- "the degree to whidi anindividual's orientations is external to a particular social system --" ” 6 . A willingness to listen to new ideas (openness) is an important prerequisite to change. to resource persons and to users. This applies both "The linkage model seems to emphasize factors that must be considered within and among the research component, the communication network, and the user. those components." It does not seem to attend to other aspects of 35 32 Havelock, 1971, op. cit., p.11-17. 33 Havelock, 1972, op. cit., pp.26-29. 34 Rogers, op. cit., p.17. 35William J. Gephart, Univesity of Wisconsin, as quoted in Havelock, 1972. op. cit., p.26. 64 Guidelines for the Practitioner Once a thorough grounding in the research and theory on dissemination and utilization (D $ U) has been achieved it is important to translate this information into a concrete format which the practitioner in the field (i.e., the Director of Continuing Education Programs and Services 36 for Women) may utilize. Havelock has delineated the following guidelines: 1. Define the elements in the situation. 2. Define your own role. 3. Make a diagnosis of each element. 4. Define your own perspective toward change. 5. Monitor your progress. 37 Specific details are spelled out in the following paragraphs. 1 . Define the ELEMENTS A first step in improving D § U is gaining a clear perspective on what is going on. Answers should be outlined for each of the following questions: a. Who or what is the resourcesystem? b. Who is the user (client,consumer, target group)? c. Who are the relevant others in the user's social environment (opinion leaders, reference groups, influentials, defenders )? d. What is the message (information, knowledge, services, products)? e. What is the medium? f. What is the strategy? audience or Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for innovation through Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge (Ann Arbor, Michigan:Center for Research on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1971), pp.11-39 -- 11-42. 37Adapted from Havelock, Ibid. 65 2. Define and Diagnose Your Own Role It is important for the D § U change agent to have an accurate understanding of her (his) own role in the process. Two major important questions arise: 3. a. Is this role viable? Can you handle the problems of overload and marginal ity that may be associated with it? Do you have the requisite skills and experience to bring it off successfully? b. How are you related institutionally to the resources and user systems? Does your organizational base give you adequate visibility and legitimacy in the eyes of the resource and user? Make a Diagnosis of Each Element in the Activity Having defined each element, the change agent should procede to take an inventory on each one. 4. Select a D § U Perspective It should be helpful for the D § U agent to identify and select . . . the generalized perspective(s) toward change as a framework within which to build her (his) own strategy. Each of the four perspectives previously discussed is probably suitable for different change agent styles in different settings and circumstances. 5. Plan a Coherent Strategy Using the selected perspective as a guide but not a limitation, the change agent should plan a strategy which best fits the situation. A good strategy should probably account for each of the steps in Havelock's Model as illustrated in Figure 10. 6. Monitor Your Progress Coherent step-by-step planning and execution make the task of process evaluation considerably easier. There should be continuous monitoring of the process so that the change agent can benefit from learning of mistakes and successes along the way, thus allowing the possibility of changing and improving activities while they are still going on. 66 Figure 10 visualizes the components of the stages typically included in models of dissemination and utilization of knowledge. 38 It is interesting to note the similarities between Havelock's Model for Planned Change and the various other schools of research. 39 ■^Adapted from Ronald G. Havelock, Ibid., p.10-28. 39 Havelock's Model taken from Ronald G. Havelock, The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, 1973), p.39. FIGURE 10: Stages Typically Included in Models of Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge Information derived in part from Havelock, 1971, op. cit., p.10-28. Common Stages Research I. II. III. Development Social Interaction Research Development § Diffusion Problem Solver Building a Relationship with Client Diagnosing the Problem Acquiring Relevant Resources [Research Assumed] Basic Scientific Choosing the Solution [Development Assumed] [Basic Research Assumed] Diagnose Need Establish Rela­ tionship with Outside Expert Establish Goals and Priorities Search for Solu­ tions Weigh § Evaluate Possible Solutions Select Best Alternative Havelock's Model for Planned Change IV. Inquiry Investigate Problems Gather Data Invent § Design Engineer § Package Test § Evaluate Plan for Imple­ mentation Diffusion V. Installing (Diffusing) the Innovation into Client System [Some Diffusion Activity Assumed] Promote Inform Demonstrate Train Help Service Nurture Installation Evaluation Revision Adoption VI. Stabilizing the innovation Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Institutionali­ zation Change Relation­ ship Terminated Possible Diffusion to Others FIGURE 10 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES Overview Descriptive research methods were utilized in the study. The initial instrument, an eight-item questionnaire, was developed to determine an overview of the nature and scope of special programs and services presently available to women in Michigan's twenty-nine community and junior colleges listed in the 1974-75 Directory of Michigan Institutions of Higher Education, published by the Michigan Department of Education. Representatives of fifteen colleges responded to the survey at the first conference of all persons concerned with women's programming in community colleges in Michigan, held at Lansing Community College on February 13, 1975. Personal letters were then sent to the directors of continuing education (or other similar position) at the remaining fourteen colleges requesting them to participate in the study by completing the one-page questionnaire. Eleven questionnaires were returned by mail; a follow-up telephone call secured responses from the remaining number. From the returned questionnaires and from personal discussion with the program directors present at the Lansing Community College Conference, four community college programs were selected for further study. Since the additional study emphasized developmental stages and steps in program development, it was felt that the most 70 comprehensive programs would provide the most complete picture of such processes within programs of continuing education for women. Consequently the programs to be studied further were selected on the basis of a combination of three factors: 1) the number and scope of programs and services offered, 2) the number and workload of staff, and 3) the access to institutional resources. The women's programs at the following colleges were selected for more complete study: Grand Rapids Junior College, Lansing Community College, Macomb County Community College, and Mott Community College. Development of the Research Instruments Scale of Innovation: Ordering of Developmental Stages Utilizing the stages of change strategy delineated in Havelock's six-phase model cited in Figure 10, a research instrument was constructed and administered to the four selected women's program directors. The purpose of the instrument was to identify the following factors: 1. What specific stages of Havelock's theoretical change model have been implemented by each program? 2. In what order were the various stages of change accomplished? 3. What specific stages have not yet been actualized? Utilizing Havelock's basic terminology,^ the researcher selected key phrases representing the six stages of planned change. The following listing shows Havelock's model as it was translated for use Ronald G. Havelock, The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, 1973). 71 in describing the developmental processes implemented by selected women's program directors. II. III. IV. Havelock's Model Research Instrument Building a Relationship with Client Built a relationship with the person to be served by the women's program (clients) Diagnosed the clients' needs Diagnosing the Problem Acquiring Relevent Resources Acquired resources essential to meeting clients' needs Choosing the Solution Determined programs and services to be made available to clients V. Installing (Diffusing) the Innovation into the Client System Implemented special programs and services for women. VI. Stabilizing the Innovation Stabilized (insured the continuance of) the Women's Program The descriptive phrases delineated in the right-hand column above were printed on adhesive labels and listed in alphabetical order, on the right-hand side of an 8 1/2 x 11 page. Program directors were asked to order the stages on the left-hand side of the page as they had actually been implemented by the current program director, her colleagues, or her predecessors. Stages not yet perceived to be accomplished were to remain on the right-hand side of the page. The ordering scale instrument was mailed to program directors; and was the first item received related to the study. It was hoped that the directors, naive to Havelock's model, would be relatively 72 uncontaminated in their attempt to order the stages as they had in fact been achieved. It was hoped that the directors.' initial ordering of the stages might give insight into their current perception of the planned change process and the manner in which they had actually proceeded in program development. While Havelock has postulated a particular sequence of events in program planning, implementation, and evaluation, he offers a cautionary not to be considered in the ultimate interpretation of the results of the ordering scale instrument. Not every one of these stages is necessarily a part of every innovative process however, nor will they always occur in this particular order. The different "stages" often occur simultaneously and the final objective may be achieved by a process which does not follow a clear-cut developmental sequence . . . the interrelationship among stages [is apparent] . . . and . . . each function deserves some consideration at every temporal phase of a project.2 Questionnaire and Interview Guide The questionnaire and subsequent interview guide were developed from the six stage model and specific steps outlined in Havelock's manual, The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education. The six page questionnaire was mailed after the researcher received the program director's ordering of the major stages of change. The questionnaire was designed to determine what steps in the process of 2 Ronald G. Havelock. A Guide to Innovation in Education (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, Center for Research on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge, University of Michigan), 1970, p. 11. ^Havelock, op. cit., 1973. 73 program development had been achieved, and required only that the respondent check whether or not a particular step had been implemented. It was the purpose of the follow-up interview to determine the content of the steps completed, or in the process of being completed, by each program, as well as to determine the manner in which specific steps had been accomplished. An additional purpose of the interview was to identify any major stages or steps not mentioned in the questionnaire which the program director had implemented. A summary of methodology for data acquisition is presented in Figure 11. Specific items on the questionnaire and interview guide were distilled from the discussion of the stages in Havelock's manual on innovation. 4 Questionnaire items believed by the researcher to be most critical to the successful development of women's programs were generated from the six stages. Many items on the questionnaire are tasks that require continuous work; they are ongoing processes that are never really "achieved" (e.g., identifying clients, determining needs, revising programs). However, the purpose of the questionnaire was to determine whether specific steps had been attempted at all, recognizing the process nature of program development. A brief description of each stage as Havelock^ views it may be helpful in understanding the general content of each of the phases of program development. Specific questionnaire items derived by the researcher which attempt to measure the implementation of each stage follow. Items reflect the checklist format. 4Ibid. '’All discussion of stages in Chapter III is derived from Havelock, op. cit., 1971. Specific titles used to designate stages are Havelock's own terminology. 74 Summary of Methodology for Data Acquisition The process of procurring data can be illustrated in a four-step pyramid; specificity increases as one progresses through the steps. Information on right side of pyramid denotes the manner in which data was acquired. Interview: Clarification § Amplification of Developmental Steps^ Step 4 Sample: Sample: Step 2 Mailing 4 Ordering of Developmental Stages via Scale of Innovation Sample: Step 1y 4 Questionnaire: Developmental Steps Step 3 On-Site Visitation 4 Questionnaire re: Nature 5 Scope of Women's Programs Population: FIGURE 11: Mailing 29 Methodology for Data Acquisition Lansing Community College Conference § Mailing 75 Stage I: Building a Relationship The first thing the successful change agent needs to develop is a viable relationship with the client system or a solid base within it. A secure and reasonably well-delineated helping role is an essential place from which to start.6 This is where any innovation or change effort should begin. A strong, creative relationship can carry a change program through the most difficult obstacles. While innovation is generally difficult it can become impossible if there is a bad relationship between the change agent and his [her] client. Your relationship with a prospective client system must be carefully planned and thought through if you are going to succeed with a project . . . If you know where you stand with a client and if you know how (s)he sees you, you will be in a better position to adopt and enhance this relationship as the change effort progresses.? The following questionnaire items demonstrate the range of Stage I activities. 1. Identified the persons you intend to serve, your clients or "target group", (e.g., a professional women, ADC mothers, blue-collar workers, all community women and men). 2. Determined other groups to whom your direct clients are related, (e.g., church groups, professional organizations, civic groups, community agencies) 3. Identified influential persons in the clients' environment, (e.g., formal opinion leaders such as the YWCA director; informal leaders) 4. Determined the norms of the community in terms of shared beliefs, values, and rules of behavior. ^Ibid., p. 12. ^Ibid., p . 39. 76 5. Determined that sufficient support is present to make your position as director or coordinator of Women's Programs viable, (i.e., Are there adequate finances? Facilities? Staff? Administrative support?) 6. Established linkages with other members of the college including faculty, administrators, counselors, and students. 7. Gained the support of the College President and other influential administrators. 8. Gained the support of the College Board of Trustees. 9. Enlisted the support of one or more clients to work with you who have had experience in program development. 10. Established linkages outside the college.(e.g. clubs, churches, other institutions of higher education, business, industry, professional groups) 11. Formulated an official advisory group to the Women's Program which includes representatives of various segments of the college and of the community. 12. Generated open but realistic expectations about the capabilities of the Women's Program, (i.e., Have you established that you are not the Miracle Worker?) Stage II: Diagnosis: From Pains to Problems to Objectives Once established in the client system, the change agent must turn to the problem at hand. [S]he must find out if the client is aware of his [her] own needs and if the client has been able to articulate his [her] needs as problem statements.8 Diagnosis is a systematic attempt to understand the present situation. A good diagnosis is a description of the client's problem which includes the essential details of symptoms, history, and possible causes. You will probably begin this diagnostic stage with the client's "pain"--his [her] feeling of need--as the most obvious fact. As you begin to work on diagnosis, however, you help the client to articulate that need. . . When diagnosis is complete, that original need should have been transformed ^Ibid., p. 12. 77 into a defined problem stated in such a way that both g you and your client can work rationally on its solution. Questionnaire items related to Stage II are as follows: 1. Identified the clients1 need jointly with the clients. 2. Identified which needs have the greatest potential to be met through the Women's Program. 3. Determined the clients' general goals. 4. Worked with clients to establish obtainable objectives. 5. Established priorities for working toward goals and objectives. Stage III: Acquiring Relevant Resources With a well-defined problem, the client system needs to in be able to identify and obtain resources relevant to solutions. Resources come in many forms: they may be available as print materials, people or products. Knowing when, where, and how to acquire them are essential skills for the change agent to have and to pass on to his [her] clients. Before you can make intelligent decisions and choices about what changes should be made and how to make them, you and your client should have an adequate understanding of . . . what,., is available, and what is potentially relevant and useful. Questionnaire items derived include: 1. Developed an awareness of potential resources within the community (and outside of it) which might help to provide solutions to expressed needs. 2. Subscribed to newsletters, periodicals, magazines, books, pamphlets, etc. to become informed about new developments in continuing education/women's programs. 3. Attended meetings/conferences regarding developing programs for women. ^Ibid., p. 59. 10Ibid., p. 12. 11Ibid., p. 77. 78 4. Visited other continuing education/women’s programs, and/or talked over the phone with other continuing education/women's program staff. 5. Developed an awareness of the types of information services and centers available for educators (especially in continuing education or women’s programs), where they are located, and how they can be contacted. 6. Been able to obtain adequate college resources (personnel, budget, facilities) in order to develop the type of women’s program necessary to meet diagnosed needs. Stage IV: Choosing the Solution With a defined problem and a lot of relevant information, the client needs to be able to derive implications, generate a range of alternatives, and settle upon a potential solution.12 With a problem and a lot of relevant information, the client needs to be able to derive some implications and settle upon a potential solution. This is the most creative and interesting rask in the process of change, but it is a task most change agents know little about. Some will leave the client at this point, assuming that (s)he knows what is best for him(her)self and knows how to pick out the best solution when (s)he has retrieved all the "facts” and has a good diagnosis. This is not a safe assumtion, however. Very few people are really skilled at generating solution ideas and choosing even when they have a clear idea of what they n e e d . ^ Questionnaire items related to this stage include: 1. Read published materials on continuing education programs/women's programs. 2. "Brainstormed" possible types of programs with a small group of clients. 3. Tried out programs/services for clients on a trial basis before implementation on a large scale. ^Ibid., p. 13. 79 4. Determined a method for evaluating trial usage. 5. Determined a method for deciding whether or not offer particular programs/services. 6. Revised programs/services on the basis of trial usage. 7. Determined that clients can meet the dollar cost and human costs (in time and commitment) required to participate in the Women's Program. 8. Determined that there is sufficient numbers of staff who are adequately trained, as well as adequate resources (facilities, materials, etc.), to make the Women's Program successful. Stage V: to Gaining Acceptance Every good solution needs adaptation and needs to be reshaped to fit the special characteristics of the client. [It is important to] consider how initial acceptance of innovations can be generated, and how the client may be able to develop attitudes and behavior supportive of the innovation.14 At this point the groundwork has been laid for actual installation of the innovation in the client system. Now is the time for transforming intentions into actions. This is the heart of the plan for change; during this phase all the preparatory work is put to the test, and it is in this phase that you find out whether or not you have a workable solution that can be accepted and used effectively by all the members of the client system.15 Several activities suggested by this stage are represented by the following items. 1. Determined what values, beliefs, interests, needs, circumstances common to the community might potentially oppose or inhibit the acceptance of the Women's Program. 2. Determined what values, beliefs, interests, needs, circumstances common to the community might potentially favor or facilitate the acceptance of the Women's Program. 14Ibid., p. 13. 15Ibid., p. 121. 80 3. Identified a list of key persons within the community who might oppose or inhibit the acceptance of the Women's Program. 4. Have you identified a list of key persons within the community who might favor or facilitate the acceptance of the Women's Program. 5. Discussed the Women's Program with persons in the community who are known to have a commitment to new ideas. 6. Pursuaded community leaders to publically endorse the Women's Program. 7. Provided written-oral presentations, films, pictures in order to interpret the purposes and functions of the Women's Program. 8. Provided group discussions, conferences/workshops, person-to-person contact with clients in order to facilitate understanding and eventual utilization of the Women's Program. 9. Formally evaluated the Women's Program. 10. Stage VI: Redesigned or restructured the Women's Program on the basis of evaluation in order to make it more acceptable to clients. Stabilizing the Innovation and Generating Self-Renewal Finally, the client needs to develop an internal capability to maintain the innovation and continue appropriate use without outside help. The change agent encourages members of the client system to be their own change agents and to begin to work on other problems in a similar way. As this self-renewal capacity begins to build, it allows the gradual termination of the relationship so that the change agent can ^ move on to other projects, other problems, and other clients. Questionnaire items are delineated as follows: 16Ibid., p. 13. 81 1. Established mechanisms to insure the periodic evaluation of the Women's Program. 2. Created a "maintenance" mechanism whereby mistakes and breakdowns in communication with the Women's Program can be corrected. 3. Established a mechanism whereby the Women's Program can be reshaped to meet the changing needs of clients or a changing clientele. 4. Provided rewards (financial aid, recognition) to clients who have helped develop and maintain the Women's Program. 5. Encouraged clients to become increasingly influential in decision-making regarding the goals and objectives of Program. 6. Developed institutional support (finances, personnel, facilities) for the maintenance and further development of the Women's Program. 7. Set aside time and resources on a regular basis to think about the future and to draw up tentative programs to meet future needs. 82 CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Part A: SURVEY OF MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES Introduction The findings of the questionnaire survey of Michigan’s twentynine community colleges are reported in this section in descriptive terms. Results give insight into the numbers and roles of staff presently involved in special programs/services for women; the type of offerings provided; length of time special programs have been available; and budget allocations. Personnel Related to Programs and Services Figure 12 presents an overall picture of the personnel related to Women’s Programs at all twenty-nine Michigan Community colleges. Three community colleges have secured the services of full-tin© Women's Program Coordinators: Lansing, Macomb County, and Schoolcraft. Fifteen additional colleges have provided personnel part-time to work with women’s programs. Ten of these persons have been hired specifically to coordinate a special program for women, one of whom works with the full-time Director at Lansing Community College. The other six colleges have full-time continuing education or community services directors who incorporate activities especially related to women into ongoing responsibilities. Four community colleges have a designated person to coordinate women's activities/programs in addition PERSONNEL s ------------- X § Full-Time'*' q Part-Time^ i Other3 *—< X X X X X X X ^Over-Tims4 X X X X X X X X X X X X X 1 •>Part-Time X X X X X g Full-Time X X Part-Time X Work-Study Student(s) X Volunteer(s) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X S’ H* C+ 03 0 PUBLIC COMMITY COLLEGE X Alpena X Bay de Noc X C. S. Mott X Glen Oaks X Gogebic Highland Park Jackson Kalamazoo Valley Kellogg o X Kirtland 1 3 X Lake Michigan I Lansing Mid Michigan VI X Monroe County ►1 Montcalm § I I8 f 1 3 5 SNorth Central Mich Oakland St. Clair County a w> Schoolcraft West Shore If 1 I 3 & St X X X * a n X Grand Rapids Jr. X X X X Henry Ford X X X X X X Instructor(s) for Special Classes X || || || 1 X X § Full-Time Child Care Worker(s) X .... FIGURE 12: Personnel Related to Programs and Services for Women in Michigan Oamomity Colleges Full-time indicates that 1001 of a full-time position is devoted to a women's programs and services. Person designated to work specifically with women's programs and services on a part-time basis. ^Full-time continuing education/consnunity services director who incorporates women's programs intonether activities. 4Over-time indicates that time given to coordination of women's program is in addition to other full-time counselors. fDelta reported 1 additional staff person who works with ADC mothers. W o m b re p o rte d 2 full-time secretaries and 2 full-time counselors. Southwestern reported 1 additional staff person who coordinates a consumer education and home life improvement project. 84 to other full-time responsibilities: St. Clair County. Henry Ford, Jackson, Kellogg, and Consequently we find that 22 of the 29 Michigan community colleges have at least one person who has accepted some responsibility for developing and implementing special programs/services for women. It is inportant to note here that although 22 colleges reported having personnel related to the development of special programs/ services for women, this does not mean that an officially-sanctioned and supported "Woman's Program" exists in all these institutions. Some personnel do function within an autonomous program which has 1 delineated specific goals and objectives for women's programs/services. Other personnel operate from a different perspective where providing programs/services for women is an integrated part of a larger unit, and there is no desire at present to create an independent Women's Program with its own identity. Immediate supportive staff for women's programs is not as evident. Only one program in the state reported full-time secretarial staff for the women's program alone: Macomb County has two full-time secretaries. Seven additional colleges reported part-time secretarial help for the women's program. This may not be a totally accurate picture, however, as five of the six continuing education/community services directors, who devote some time to women's programs, did not * Independently structured women's programs with their own identity (e.g./'Women's Resource Centei"),staff, and access to institutional resources have been established at Lake Michigan, Grand Rapids, Schoolcraft, Mott, Lansing, and Macomb County as indicated in Figure 13. 85 FIGURE 13: Location of Women's Programs* in Michigan Community Colleges Map reprinted from the 1974-75 Directory of Michigan Institutions of Higher Education, published by the Michigan Department of Education, p. 14. ^Programs which are independently structured with their own identity (e.g., "Women's Resource Center"), facilities, staff, and access to institutional resources. Public Community Colleges ONTONAGON BARAGA gogeb/ c ALGER DELTA E M M E T \C H L 21 CM&RLEVm\ ' ~1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. f’ ir^ab^O N TeioR -W PEN * —T R<1ST ■ £NC* : AN IM ' I Alpena Community College Bay de Noc Comm. College L e tt ANA C.S. Mott Community College 1K A L K A S K A C R AW PV R dT O S C O D A f "ALCO NA Delta College ^ Z trse Glen Oaks Community College IOSCO 't e e m e 'x e o r d ^'m i s s a u n e e ^r o s c o m - \~OCEMAW Gogebic Community College ANISTEE Grand Rapids Jr. College Henry Ford Community Coll , _ [____ __J_____ ______ uasonT l a k e ' T o 'sc e o l a 'Y ~ c l a r e \ g l a d w i 'n ^ a r e n a c Highland Park Comm. Coll. Jackson Community College 17 HUROV Kalamazoo Valley Comm. Col NEW AYG O ^MECOSTA ' IS A BBEELLL ^ M I D L A N D O CEANA Kellogg Community Coll. TU SCO LA I S A N IL A C Kirtland Comm. College Lake Michigan College T o r at t o r ^ s a c i n a w M O N TCALM U U SK E Lansing Community College aw 19 Macomb County Comm. Coll. L A P E IR KENT I U Mid Michigan Comm. College h > > c l a ir IO N IA • C L IN T O N S W A W A S -. TTAWA I sa\ Q ) Monroe County Comm. Coll. Montcalm Community College I |__ J__ f O A K L A N D MACOMB Muskegon Community College IN C H A M JJVINGSTON > EATON BARRY A LLE G AN North Central Michigan Coll Northwestern Michigan Coll. _________ L i Oakland Community College J A C K S O N t» A S H T E N A W ‘€ 2 % VAN B U R E N [KALAMAZO O C A L H O U N St. Clair County C.C Schoolcraft College 1 M ONROt B R A N C H ^ W L L S D A iI. L tN A \» e £ ST J O S F Southwestern Michigan Coj/1. BER8l£N\ Washtenaw Comm. Coll. Wayne County Comm. Co West Shore Comm. Coll. © FIGURE 13: Location of Women’s Programs* in Michigan Coimnunity Colleges ! j_.L_.L_ 87 report having secretarial services for the women's program. Although it is assumed they would be able to use their own secretary's help as needed for women's programs, such an arrangement was not mentioned on the returned questionnaire. Two colleges reported full-time counselors: Grand Rapids and Macomb County, where two full-time counselors participate in the women's program. Part-time counselors were reported at Lake Michigan, Monroe County, and Montcalm County. As with secretarial services, the counseling services represented by these figures may not communicate the situation as it exists in reality. Some women's programs have counselors assigned especially to work with the clients served by that program for a specified period of time. Other programs reported special counseling services for women, but did not report a counselor specifically assigned to work with the women's program. Thus the concept of whether or not a woman's program itself has a counselor appears to vary among colleges. Seven colleges reported having the services of work-study students to assist with women's programs/activities. a source of personpower. Six listed volunteers as Instructor(s) for special classes (e.g., Self-Awareness Courses) were noted at nineteen colleges. Child care facilities and the necessary personnel were reported at nine community colleges. 88 Continuing Education Programs/Services Available for Women The literature on continuing education for women has identified several specific program/services which may be provided by comprehensive programs. Participants were asked to identify which of the following programs/services their institution presently provides especially for women (although they may be also available to men). Self Awareness Courses Conferences/Workshops for Women Personal Counseling Vocational Tes ting/Guidance Financial Aid Women's Studies Courses Refresher courses Other (Rap Groups, Film, etc.) Child Care Vocational Placement Women's Resource Center Regularly Scheduled Gatherings for Women Vocational Placement Community Outreach Programs Women's Library or Reading Room The results of this survey are shown in Figure 14. Programs and services are listed in order of frequency of occurrence among the twenty-nine colleges. A word of caution is in order as one attempts to interpret this figure. Some offerings were clearly developed and specially designed for women, such as self-awareness courses like "Investigation into Identity" and "Who am I?"; Brown Bag lunches for the reentry woman student; and programs to reach women receiving ADC (Aid to Dependent Children). Other programs/services were designed for both sexes but may especially or traditionally affect women such as child care, women's studies courses, film series, and discussion groups. Still other programs/services are available to both sexes, but may also have a special focus for women; for example, personal counseling, vocational testing/guidance, financial aid, refresher courses, and vocational placement. 89 FIGURE 14: Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women in Michigan Community Colleges PROGRAM/ SERVICE Self-Awareness Courses X !X X Conferences/Work­ shops for Women X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Vocational Test­ ing Guidance X X X X X X X X . X i Financial Aid X . X X 1 X X x Refresher Courses X Other {Rap Groins, Film series, etc.) X X X Women's Resource Center X Regularly Scheduled Gatherings for Women X X X X Vocational Placement X X X X X X X Coanasiity Outreach PrograuB X X X X X X X X X X X 5 3 t- § O. a O (TO GO X X X X X s era o n c g c u X 5 1- rt CD > p V g rt r* 1 T3 O »g 2 o c i (PUBLIC s X X X £ era X X brand Rapids Jr. Henry Ford Highland Park Jackson TO X X X X Kalamazoo Valley & a Macomb County wsr o 3 Monroe County Montcalm North Central Michigan Northwestern Michigan Oakland St. Clair County Schooleratt Southwestern Michigan Wayne County west Shore sr rt X X X 1 X X X X X X X X Women's Library or Reading Roan FIGURE 14 X X X Child Care X X Personal Counseling Women's Studies Courses X X X X X X X X Hi It is this last grouping that may present some problems in interpretation. When asking survey participants whether their institution provided financial aid, for example, especially for women, this researcher had in mind scholarships, fellow(sister?)ships, work-study positions, etc. that were designated specifically for women, as the Mildred Erickson Fellowship for mature women students at Michigan State University. Regarding special counseling services for women, this generally means providing a woman counselor trained in understanding some of the concerns/fears of returning women students, as well as some of the biases against women which the traditional community college vocational curriculum has perpetuated. It was not possible to be completely sure from the returned questionnaires whether special services in counseling, vocational guidance, etc. had been established, or whether women simply had access to such services with no regard for unique needs they might have. Consequently the large number of institutions identified as offering these services especially for women may be somewhat inflated. Looking at the overall picture of the state's community colleges in Figure 14, it is apparent that twenty-five of twenty-nine colleges reported offering some type of special program/service for women. Fifteen colleges provide five or more offerings for women, and ten or more are available at four colleges. The most widely-offered programs are self-awareness courses and conferences/workshops (provided by 16 colleges). Women's studies courses (by 12 colleges) follow behind personal counseling (by 15) vocational testing (by 14), and financial 92 Ten colleges offer refresher courses. Child care, vocational placement, and other programs such as film series and rap groups are each made available by nine colleges. Eight institutions provide a women's resource center; eight have regularly scheduled meetings for women. Community outreach programs have been established by seven colleges, while four provide a women's library or reading room. Program Longevity The concept of a "Women's Program" or "Women’s Resource Center" is a relatively new one in Michigan's community colleges. However, special programs/services have been made available to women for many years. St. Clair County Community College reported first offering such programs twenty-one years ago. Delta College reported its first programs were provided in 1967; Monroe County began special offerings in 1968. All other colleges initiated programs/services especially for women in the seventies. West Shore offered programs in 1970. Lake Michigan and Montcalm began their programs for women in 1971; Grand Rapids, Schoolcraft, Wayne County, Southwestern Michigan and Muskegon in 1972; Bay de Noc, Jackson, Mott, Northwestern Michigan, Oakland, and Washtenaw in 1973; and Glen Oaks, Lansing, Macomb County, and North Central Michigan in 1974. 2 Mott Community College housed a federally-funded program for women earlier in the seventies, but its present program was first funded by the College in 1973. 93 Budget Allocations Budgets reported for Women's Programs and Services ranged from zero to over $80,000, with an emphasis on zero. Twenty-one of the twenty-nine colleges indicated no budget had been earmarked specifically for women's programs. independent budgets: Only three programs in the state reported Macomb County, $88,000, includes salaries, facilities, etc; Lake Michigan, $12,000, includes salary other expenses; and Schoolcraft, $3,000 plus salaries. The four other programs which had financial support designated for women's programs gained funds through a variety of campus units: Mott through the Vice President; Lansing through the Student Development Fund; Grand Rapids through Continuing Education; and Orchard Ridge through the Dean. Because these programs gained financial support through other institutional budgets (and because generally no specific budget was reported), it is difficult to isolate exact resources for specialized programs and services for women. 94 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Part B: SELECTED M E N ' S PROGRAMS: A REPORT OF SIX STAGES OF PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT Introduction The data presented in this section is based on responses from the directors of the selected Women's Programs noted in Chapter III. Respondents will anonymously be referred to as College A, College B, College C, and College D. The collection of information involved three phases which are reported in this chapter: 1) ordering of program development stages, 2) responding to a questionnaire, and 3) participating in a follow-up interview to clarify and expand the steps in the development of the women's program which had been implemented, as well as to give direction and recommendation for future program planners. Ordering of Developmental Stages The selected program directors ordered an alphabetized listing of Havelock's six stages of innovation as they believed they had actually implemented them. None had had any prior knowledge of the model. Although some stages more obviously occurred toward the beginning of the planned change process and others more clearly toward the end, an exact placement of stages in a concrete, sequential order was difficult for all the respondents. The directors indicated that they were doing all the items concurrently and found an ordering of processes more theoretical than practical. 95 As shown in Figure 15, none of the program directors reported having implemented the stages of planned change exactly as the model would suggest. College A closely approximated Havelock's Model, but interchanged Havelock's Stage III (Acquired Resources) and Stage IV (Determined Programs). The Director also designated that Stage VI (Stabilized the Program) had not yet been implemented as she was not certain that she wanted to "insure the continuance of the Women's Program" as such. She stated that perhaps in its present form the program should not be institutionalized to become part of the ongoing structure of the College. The Director reported the program may eventually be transformed into a Human Development Program which would serve a broader segment of community needs. College C also reported a mode of operations similar to the theoretical model, while interchanging Stage I (Built a Relationship with Clients) with Stage II (Diagnosed the Clients' Needs). The orderings by College B and College D reflect a somewhat different orientation to program development. The College B Director sequenced the first three stages differently from the model, placing Stage I (Built a Relationship with Clients) in the number three spot while locating the last three stages the same. Havelock's Stage I was also positioned in an alternative manner by College D's Director, who placed it in the number six slot. College D represents the greatest divergence from the model, concurring with it only on the placement of Stage II (Diagnosed the Clients' Needs). FIGURE 15: Scale of Innovation: Ordering of Developmental Stages by Selected Michigan Community College Women's Program Directors Havelock's Model adapted from Ronald G. Havelock. A Guide to Innovation in Education. (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, Center for Research of Utilization of Scientific Knowledge, University of Michigan ), 1970. Selected Michigan Community Colleges College B College C Built a Relationship with Clients Diagnosed the Clientsr Needs Diagnosed the Clients' Needs II. Diagnosed the Clients' Needs Diagnosed the Clients' Needs Deteimined Programs Built a Relation­ and Services to Be ship with Made Available Clients Diagnosed the Clients' Needs III. Acquired Resources Essential to Meeting Clients' Needs Determined Programs and Services to Be Made Available Acquired Resources Built a Relation­ ship with Clients' Essential to Meet­ ing Clients' Needs Stabilized the Program IV. Determined Programs and Services to Be Made Available Acquired Resources Essential to Meetin Clients' Needs Acquired Resources Essential to Meet­ ing Clients' Needs V. Implemented Special Programs and Services Implemented Special Programs and Services Implemented Special Implemented Special Programs and Programs and Services Services Determined Programs and Services to Be Made Available Stabilized the Program Built a Relationship with Clients Havelock's Model* College A I. Built a Relationship with Clients VI. Stabilized the Program FIGURE 15 Determined Programs and Services to Be Made Available Stabilized-the Program College D Implemented Special Programs and Services Acquired Resources Essential to Meet­ ing Clients' Needs 98 The information gained by this procedure may prove interesting as one reads the rest of the data presentation. The perceived differences in mode of program development and implementation and their possible consequences to program functioning will become more chrystallized as a fuller picture of actual steps taken materializes. 99 Stage I; Building a Relationship with the Client System and with the Larger Social Environment Identified Clients; Involved Clients in Program Development College A 1. 2. B Identified the persons you intend to serve, your clients or "target groups" (e.g., professional women, ADC mothers, blue-collar workers, all community women and m e n . 3) Y Y Enlisted the support of one or more clients to work with you who have had experience in program development. Y YY C D Y IP N Each of the four selected programs have intentionally identified, or are in the process of identifying, the persons to be served. However, each emphasized that the clientele is always changing, and should in no way be viewed as static. All programs were initially designed to serve primarily women. Questionnaire items listed in this section reflect wording revised after the follow-up interviews. The content of the original questions has not been changed; items have only been reworded for clarity. The order in which some of the questions appear in this section has also been revised from the original questionnaire, again for the sake of making a more lucid presentation of the data. The response of each college (A, B, C, and D) will be noted after each item from the questionnaire. "Y" (Yes) designates that the program director checked the item as having been accomplished; "N" (No) means that the item was not checked and thus not as yet achieved; "IP” means a particular item is currently in the process of being accomplished for the first time. The accuracy of these three designations (Y, N, IP) was carefully assessed by the researcher during the follow-up interviews. 100 College C services a highly diversified clientele; the Women's Program also serves a heterogeneous population. At the program's inception, clients were determined by a questionnaire sent to College students to find out what population seemed to need special programs/ services. Also influential was an extensive survey of conmunity women who attended a local conference on women. From these sources and further assessment of the community, three primary groups of clients have been identified: 1. Low-income white and minority women 26 years and older who are returning to school for training/retraining related to employment. 2. Women of middle and high income brackets who are attempting to reevaluate their lives via self-awareness seminars. 3. Increasing numbers of blue-collar low-income women and ADC mothers (receiving Aid to Dependent Children), who are being reached through a variety of programs centered in their own community locales. College A similarly has a multi-racial heterogeneous student population. Clients are primarily women students returning to formal education after a period of absence. Both middle and lower economic levels are represented in this group. TVo other groups of women are also served: those persons not presently enrolled in the College, and professional women. Since 50% of the student body is female, it was felt returning women students might require some extra help. program was designed to meet women's The needs by facilitating the various resources of the College and community to respond more affirmatively to those identified needs. College B's Women's Center is intended to serve all the women of the College's geographic community. ethnic women (Polish, Italian). Clients are primarily working class Some are returning to formal education, but the majority are not as yet enrolled at the College. As the College B's Program was being developed, the President of the College stated a firm position that the Women's Resource Center was to serve all women in the inmediate geographic area. The College enrollment has been highly dominated by men, and there was a desire to help more women return to college, thus increasing the College's headcount and state aid. The Center for Women at College D serves predominantly middle-class Caucasian women seeking programs to facilitate self-actualization. Single parents have also been identified as clients; to a lesser extent, lower-economic women and those receiving ADC are also served by the program. These clients were determined by the program coordinators in part because these were the women to whom they felt they could best relate. The Women's Program Advisory Board is now in the process of clarifying specifically the program clientele. As has been noted, all programs were originally designed to serve women. However, all four programs have male participation in varying degrees even though in most cases, program participants are almost exclusively female. Most frequently men join in Women's Studies Courses offered through college divisions, short-term workshops and conferences. Additionally, some courses offered through the Women's Programs are intentionally designed for both sexes and result in a more active 102 male involvement. These include such topics as -'Communication Skills for Couples","Parents and Children Together" at College B; "Transactional Analysis and Parenting", "Parent-Child Communication" at College D; "Alone Again9’ for widows and widowers at College C; and "Non-Sexist Communication" at College A. A program exclusively for men entitled "Second Wind", a course which helps men interested in changing their H v e s in some significant way, was recently implemented College C. With regard to client participation in formulating and implementing the Women's Program, three of the four programs had enlisted the help of clients within the women's program; College D had not, as yet, enlisted the assistance of clients who have had previous experience in program development. However, the roles which clients play vary somewhat among the colleges. Unique to College A is the concept and existence of a sorority for older, returning women students. In addition to having their own meetings and planning their own activities, sorority members advise the Women's Center on their needs and program desires. Clients also contribute as members of the other groups advising the Program. But as far as utilizing "volunteer" services of clients for actual program implementation or other "work" of the program, the Director is firmly opposed. "No other administrative unit in this College runs on volunteer power and there’s no reason for this one to", she declared. The Director of the College C Program shares a similar view regarding volunteers, saying, "Any women who work for the Program should be hired and paid." Volunteers were utilized for the first few weeks of the program, but not since. While clients actively involve themselves 103 in an advisory capacity, both formally and informally, all persons who work for the Program are reimbursed. A different viewpoint is presented by the Director at College B who has had extensive volunteer help from clients throughout the development of the Program (as yet only six months old). Because of this active interest, the Director is considering moving to the use of volunteer workers in specialized capacities. For example, volunteers might be trained to run particular activities such as values clarification exercises within ongoing groups or as a single event. Determined Community Norms/Values 1. Determined the norms of the community in terms of shared beliefs, values, and rules of behavior. A B C D Y Y Y Y All program directors have identified community norms, values, and rules of behavior which may inpact directly or indirectly on their program development. The influence of such mores appears to vary from conmunity to community. For example, local norms and values are highly influential in developing programs at College B, and are well-defined and well-known to community members. A heavily Polish and Italian residential area, many community college students are the first generation to pursue higher education. The father is generally the dominant force and personality in the household. According to the Women's Center Coordinator, the fathers generally do not approve of their daughters attending college, let alone the mothers. Consequently the College has been called a "seminary" by male students, reflecting the relatively small female enrollment. The community values further dictate that everyone in the family work outside the home in order to provide an "upwardly mobile" family income and an ability to buy the house lived in. Community norms and values appear to be undergoing significant change in College C's community. A large Dutch and sizeable Polish population has felt the brunt of "ethnic jokes" and other such putdowns as part of its history. It appears to the Program Director, however, that a new community pride has recently arisen which has produced a revitalization of community groups as well as Renaissance of the Arts. People are moving back into the inner city and taking a new look at its possibilities. Some of this new pride may have had a positive inpact on the development of programs which facilitate new learning opportunities for women. Two sets of community norms are intentionally represented in the College D's program. The Program Coordinators (one full-time, one part-time) have distinctly different views regarding program orientation for women which are also reflected in the community. One is "adult enrichment-oriented'' in terms of providing programs such as "Focus on Entertaining" and "Focus on a New (Physical) You". The other coordinator is more "self actualization-oriented*' in terms of providing courses with a more internal focus, such as "Women's Search for Meaning" and "Assertiveness Training for Women". Thus programs/courses are developed for a variety of women seeking different perspectives for their own education. 105 Community norms and values also appear to have some inpact on the College A Program. It is located in a highly industrial, largely blue-collar working-class community. Consequently many of the program participants are seeking concrete experiences which will help them increase their ability to gain the necessary further education to successfully enter the job market. According to program directors, the most common way of determining community norms and values is to live in the community college’s district, in the geographic area it has been mandated to serve. The Directors of Colleges A, C, and D's Programs have been residents of their community for numerous (up to eighteen) years. Awareness and understanding of community norms/values/rules of behavior had been clearly established before their acceptance of a position related to women's programs. Director of College B's Program became a resident of her present community at the same time she obtained the position as Director of the Women's Program. Educational values can be inferred from each college's catalog and from its statement of goals and objectives. Faculty, administrators, and students can also be helpful in articulating community philosophy. Outside of the institution, diverse community persons and members of clubs, agencies and organizations can also identify rules of behavior and norms/values held by the general conmunity. 1. 2. 3. A B C D Established official/unofficial linkages with other members of the College including faculty, administrators, counselors, and students. Y IP Y IP Gained the support of the College President and other influential administrators. Y N Y N Gained the support of the College Board of Trustees. Y N Y N The establishment of a broad-based support system and interpersonal/ inter-unit linkages within the educational institutions was viewed as very important by all four program directors. College C and College A, the most long-lived programs, appear to have strongest institutional support. Both the College C and the College A Women's Program Directors had formerly been members of their college ’s faculty, and had established numerous linkages among the facuity-administrator-counselor ranks before assuming a role associated with Women's Programs. Strong support from higher level administration and faculty was present with both programs from the beginning at both colleges. At College C the Dean (President) of the College believed the program was very important; it was also supported fully by the Board of Education. (College C is part of a K-14 system and therefore has no independent Board of Trustees). Important linkages, both formal and informal, were established early in the process of program development, and have been deemed essential by the Program Director. 107 The College C Director believes highly valuable the time spent talking with various members of the Board of Education, as well as the Superintendent of Schools. She stated that she let them know what was happening in their community, and eventually secured the support of several members. At College A, the Director noted significant adminis­ trative support. During initial program development, the Vice President arranged for her to meet with the College administrative staff. She was also invited, and did meet with, the President, the Board of Trustees, and Cabinet members (high-ranking administrators) to describe the Women's Program. Other meetings were arranged with the Dean of Students and her staff, and with all faculty members at a Col lege-wide session. Students and counselors were also contacted early in the program development sequence at both College A and College C, thus the Program Directors have established formal/informal linkages with representatives of each component of the academic community. The College D and College B programs have a somewhat different background. Let us first look at the situation at College B. The Program Director came to College B in October, 1974, after some two years experience as Coordinator of Women's Programs at another community college in Michigan. Thus she not only began her position in the institution as an "new" person, but also entered an unknown community at the same time. Under pressure to "produce", to show evidence of a real need for women's programs, the Program Director found it difficult to spend adequate time essential for developing important linkages within the College. 108 Initial support from the College President dissipated when the President recently resigned. His successor has not yet been named. Support from the Board of Trustees is also somewhat tenuous in that the initial request for Women's Center's funds passed the Board by only a 4 to 3 margin. The Women's Program Director feels basically ignored by the College Administration. Out of 62 administrators, only 7 are women, and not all of them are supportive of the concept of special programs/services for women. A good deal of "paranoia" appears to be presently existent, as individuals worry about the forthcoming administrative regrouping which will result when a new president is hired. Consequently internal support is slow in coming as persons do not want to commit themselves to what may be an unpopular or even defunct program. Linkages with counselors at College B have had mixed results. In one case, a full-time women counselor has been assigned to the Women's Center; reportedly this arrangement has worked out very well. In other areas, official linkages with counselors have not worked as well as hoped. Part of the full-time hours of six different counselors were to be assigned to the Women's Center, creating the equivalent of a full-time counselor. The Director feels these counselors are not committed to the idea and are not as supportive as they might be. Occasionally the Women's Program Director, herself a trained counselor, is invited to counselor staff meetings, but is not permitted to attend on a regular basis. 109 Communication has also been difficult to establish with strongly-influential, unionized faculty. There has been some concern over the Women’s Program Director hiring non-faculty personnel for special workshops and classes. According to the faculty contract, faculty members are supposed to have first priority to teach any continuing education courses offered by the College. Technically the Women's Center’s Programs do not come under Continuing Education, but some problems of interpretation and of Women’s Center's Directorfaculty relationships have developed. Despite the concerns mentioned, some positive linkage and personal friendships have been established with faculty at College B. The Director has made herself available to speak in classes and to provide additional resource information to faculty. In this way, linkage has been created with students. Students are also met through their visits to the Women’s Center as well as through their participation in classes and in programs. The full-time Program Coordinator at College D began her work less than a year ago in September, 1974. As with the College B program, there appeared to be some pressure toward immediate "production” to legitimize the existence of a special center for women. In this instance the push was towards implementing classes which would generate student credit-hours and thus additional state aid. Consequently, the establishment of intra-College linkages has not been as high a priority as it might have been under different circumstances. As a full-time administrator, the Program Coordinator was initially interviewed by the College President. Any additional communication with the President and with the Board of Trustees has not, as yet, been established. 110 Linkages with faculty, administrators, counselors, and students are in the process of being developed. Women faculty were sent a questionnaire asking if they would be interested in teaching for the Women's Program, and if so, what type of course they might like to provide. Contact has been initiated and communication is being established with the Chairpersons of the Social Science and Management Divisions. Counselors are housed in the same general location--in the Student Development Services Division--and consequently interpersonal contact has been more easily established. Liasons have also been established with the College Student Government in the form of co-sponsorship of particular programs/activities related to women; e.g., sponsoring "The Woman Play"; developing and administering a Child Care Need Survey. Established Support/Linkages within the Larger Social Environment 1. 2. 3. A B Determined other groups to whom your direct clients are related (e.g.,church groups, professional organizations, civic groups, community agencies). Y Y Identified influential persons in the client system (e.g., persons within the YWCA, Professional Women's Organizations, AAUW) . Y Established official/unofficial linkages outside the College (e.g., clubs, churches, other institutions of higher education, business, industry, professional groups). Y C Y ___ IP IP D Y Y_ Y Y Y Ill All four programs had identified, or were in the process of identifying, groups and individuals who were particularly influential within the client system. This was accomplished primarily through the program director's and their staffs' preexisting knowledge of their community as well as by seeking out groups/individuals obviously related to the client, such as the YWCA. Influential groups noted were: By College A: National Organization for Women (NOW) College A Education Association College A Women’s Commission Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA) American Association of University Women (AAUW) Michigan Education Association (MEA) By College B: Catholic Church Women's Organizations League of Women Voters Community Mental Health Inter-Agency Council City Libraries Michigan State University Extension Service By College C: YWCA AAUW League of Women Voters Junior League City-Sponsored Women's Resource Center Local Colleges Women's Programs Church Women United City Council for Ecumenicism City Arts Council By College D: Catholic Social Services Community Mental Health Work Incentive (WIN) Program Michigan Women's Commission 112 Potentially influential individuals (locally-based) were identified as: By College A: Women Staff Members of Area College (s) Continuing Education Personnel at College Members of Local Women's Clubs By College B: Women Physicians, Attorneys Members of Businesswomen's Organizations By College C: Community Women Elected to Public Office School Board Members Advisory Council Members for Area Business/Organizations Presidents of various Women's Organizations Businesswomen PTA Members Superintendent of Schools By College D: Local Newspaperwomen Local Women Union Representatives State Women's Commission Members Representatives of The Work Incentive (WIN) Program Community support firmly established among as many dimensions as possible appears to be important to all four programs. Groups and individuals previously identified as being influential in the client system were sought out as potential supporters of the Women's Program. The College A Program outlined the importance of not alienating any group, regardless of their goals and purposes. Informal and formal linkages with local clubs, agencies, churches, and women's groups have generally been, or are being, established by all programs. At College D, official linkage has been set up between the Women's Program and all Coordinators of Adult Education 113 Programs in the area in an attempt to determine what special programs the Women's Program might offer to off-campus units. College B is presently exploring association with city libraries, Community Mental Health, Inter-Agency Council (representing all social agencies), and Michigan State University Extension Service. One effective way of instituting contact with groups outside the college appears to be the program director1s own membership in various clubs, agency councils, and organizations. College C's Director warns, however, that the time devoted to these contacts must be carefully watched or "One's entire life could be spent in meetings". Formulated an Official Advisory Board of College and Community Representatives 1. Formulated an official advisory group to the Women's Program which includes representatives of various segments of the College and of the community. A B C D Y Y Y Y Each program director felt an advisory group which represented various segments of the college-community environment was essential to the optimal functioning of the total Women's Program. Prior recognition of influential favorable persons appeared to be helpful in determining the exact composition of the advisory board or council. The College D Advisory Board consists of fifteen women, representing both community and college. Members include political and cultural leaders; personnel from the local newspaper, a City Union, 114 the Michigan Women's Commission, the Work Incentive (WIN) Program; and students of varying ages. The Advisory Board actively meets once a month as a unit, with working committees (for Long-Range Planning and for Financial Aid) meeting additionally. The College B initial Advisory Board consisted of some thirty-five members, all women with the exception of one or two men. Members included community attorneys, physicians, businesswomen, and College students and faculty. This group has not been active beyond providing the initial thrust which resulted in the funding for the Women's Center. Efforts to restructure and revitalize the Advisory Board are currently underway. The Advisory Council at College C consists of a cross-section of College and community women, and is composed of twelve persons. It is an actively functioning group meeting informally twice each semester (12-15 week period). The advisory situation at College A is slightly different from the other colleges mentioned in that there are actually several different groups which all advise the Women's Center Director. They are: 1) A special Advisory Board for the Management Program for Women, offered through the College in conjunction with the Women's Center. 2) The Conmunity College Women1s Commission, an activist group of College staff, faculty, students, and administration. 3) A student sorority of approximately 50 members, which serves in an advisory capacity to the Women's Center. The Program Director intends to establish an additional group next fall--a small informal advisory board of College students and faculty along with conmunity persons. 115 Stage II Diagnosing the Clients1 Needs; Establishing Goals All four programs have implemented, or are in the process of implementing, each step listed under Stage II regarding assessed needs, established goals and objectives, and determined priorities. As conditions change and designated objectives are met, the process recycles itself and needs must be reassessed, new goals and objectives outlined, new priorities delineated. All directors appeared to be investing considerable energy in these demanding tasks. Identified the Clients1 Needs 1. Identified the clients' needs jointly with the clients. A B C D Y Y Y Y A variety of techniques have been developed by programs to attempt to accurately determine need. At College D the following methods have been used: 1. A class sponsored by the Center for Women entitled "Focus on Change"--measures student need each term, requesting suggestions for future classses/programs. 2. Community/College survey--done as needed to assess demand for a particular type of program/service being considered by the Women's Program, e.g., Child Care Need Survey. 3. Agency/organization requests--e.g., Social Service Agency reports they believe there is a need for a class on child abuse. 4. Advisory Board input--particularly the work of the Long Range Planning Committee is utilized to help determine client need. 116 5. Client input--one-to-one interactions and counseling provides insight into client need. 6. Student requests--suggestions for particular classes/ programs reflect need. Initial client needs were determined at College B by several means: 1. Survey of women faculty members asking them what needs they though existed among Community/College women. 2. Survey of College B students. 3. Conference of students, faculty, and other college personnel to prioritize 80 items representing possible needs. 4. Study of mothers in College B ’s county to determine their needs. Assessment of client need continues after the program has been established with information gained on both the Women's Resource Center's intake form and on the evaluation form for the Center's classes. Client needs were originally established at College C on the basis of two surveys: one of community persons, another of students. Additional information was gained by talking with students in College classes, and by meeting with individuals and small groups of potenlial clients. At College A, the Program Director met with numerous groups of women, both large and small, in a variety of places, to determine client need. The various advisory groups helped to establish need and a special program called "Campus Chats" helped to further identify client needs. 117 Established Goals, Obtainable Objectives, Priorities 1. 2. 3. 4. A B C D Generated open but realistic expectations about the capabilities of the Women's Program to meet identified needs. Y Y Y IP Identified which specific needs have the greatest potential to be met through the Women's Program. Y Y Y IP Worked with clients to establish goals and obtainable objectives. Y Y Y Y Established priorities for working toward goals and objectives Y Y Y IP All program directors stressed the importance of setting out to accomplish specific tasks. If goals are too broad and concrete objectives unclear, they believe real problems ensue. A foreseeable result of taking on unrealistic expectations is that clients are disappointed and the program director exhausted. "Avoid trying to do too much too quickly" . . . is College C Director's warning, "Avoid the Superwoman Syndrome". According to the College B Program, it is also vital to determine to which of many identified needs the Women's Program will respond. In her particular situation, the Director felt she had to deal at the moment with the needs which could be most immediately met by the Women's Center's Programs. Consequently, needs requiring extensive planning, such as child care facilities, would not be addressed at this point in time. 118 At College B, goals and specific objectives were determined in consultation with individuals and groups of clients with significant input from the Program Director as regards the particular types of objectives she felt she could facilitate. The Advisory Board ranked all gathered information on client need and produced a list of the Top Ten, to which specific program responses and concrete objectives were generated. Priorities for program implementation were established in part on the basis of the need to produce highly visible programs with a high pay off in a relatively short time. The Program Director’s job and the continuance of the Women's Center appear to be directly correlated to immediately measureable program results. At College A, the Vice President (to whom the Women's Center Director is responsible) insisted at the outset that the Center Director determine specific program objectives and establish priorities for their implementation. The Director met with clients, with community persons, and with personnel of other women's programs in the state, and eventually established clear-cut behaviorally written objectives, which were systematically undertaken in order of priority. Specific objectives in behavioral terms were generated by the Program Director at College C in response to identified needs. Priorities were initially established with the help of the Advisory Board, and on the basis of the number of times a particular need was mentioned in the assessment surveys, as well as the viability of program response to that need. The Long-Range Planning Committee of the Advisory Board at College D is in the process of determining goals, objectives, and priorities for 119 programs/services to be offered by the Center for Women. Goals and objectives selected by the Women's Program, however determined, must have the official support of the Chairperson of the Student Development Services Division, the person to whom the Women's Program Coordinators are directly responsible. This position is presently undergoing a change of personnel; the new chairperson and her/his educational philosophy is yet to be known. Presently, however, there is a high priority placed on the production of credit classes by the College adminis tration. 120 Stage III: Acquiring Resources Essential to Meeting Clients* Needs Obtained Adequate College Resources 1. Secured adequate College resources (personnel, facilities, budget) in order to develop the type of program necessary to meet designated goals and objectives. A B C D Y Y Y N Obtaining resources adequate to meet established needs has been a critical area for all programs studied. Although each program director believes the program can continue with present levels of funding, more resources are needed. It was the general consensus of the directors that at least one full-time program coordinator and one full-time secretary was essential to begin program implementation. After programs are established, additional college resource needs become apparent. College D's Program presently could use more space for classes; a private office for the full-time program coordinator; and additional support staff including another counselor, a secretary specifically for the Center, and work-study personnel. The College A Program Director will move to a full-time position in July, 1975. To date, it has been a part-time position combined with college teaching. A full-time assistant to the Director has been requested for the fall, along with the continuance of the present full-time secretary and one additional secretary. College C is also requesting additional program staff person for the fall to complement the present staff of part-tine program coordinator 121 (combined with duties as Director of Continuing Education), full-time counselor, and full-time secretary. College B is at present fairly satisfied with the resources at its disposal. Besides a full-time program director, there are two full-time secretaries and two full-time counselors on the staff. Additional College resources include two facilities which house the Women's Program and an independent program budget. It appears that College C has the clearest access to institutional resources. The Director's position as full-time Director of Continuing Education is an ongoing responsibility which assures her primary linkage to funds needed to implement programs for women. College A's Women's Program is expanding, but its Director's operation as a full-time administrator is just now getting underway. Although the College B Program Director is presently satisfied with the concrete resources at her disposal, the Program's future is uncertain. The budget for the coming academic year is not yet finalized, and the exact role of the Program, as viewed by the new College administration, is yet to be established. The College D Director is entering her second year as a full-time administrator for the Women's Program; she believes resources at present are inadequate, but hopes to gain additional support for the coming year. Developed an Awareness of Community/College Resources 1. Developed an awareness of resources within the conmunity and within the College which might help to provide solutions to expressed needs. A B C D Y Y______Y Y 122 All four programs have invested significant amounts of time developing an awareness of potential resources within the community which might help to provide solutions to expressed needs. Since the College C, College A, and College D Program Directors had all been residents of their communities for many years before taking their current positions, they already had considerable working knowledge of potential resources. The Director at College D further developed her resource base by participating in a area ad hoc group of women in the helping professions, and by requesting members input on courses they might want to teach. In order to determine what faculty resources might be available a questionnaire was sent to all College D women faculty to determine their teaching interests related to the Center for Women. At College A, the Director requested help from the College Task Force for International Women's Year. Each member was asked to list potential resources from the College or community. The Director1s membership and active participation in various community organizations/ agencies and long-term personal friendship within the community greatly facilitated the development of an extensive resource base. A similar condition exists at College C. Additionally, there are many resources in the local area that deal specifically with women's concerns. For example, there is a city Women's Resource Center, the Encore Program for Women at a nearby college, and the Women's Program at another college, also in the immediate area. Consequently a great deal of resource sharing exists among the various programs. 123 Advisory Board members to the College C Program have also been an important source of resource information. The College B Program is currently in the process of assessing potential community and College resources. As the Director is new to the community, this task has been a little more difficult and timeconsuming. The Advisory Board has been a helpful source of resource information, as has the Inter-Agency Council, in which representatives of all community agencies have provided knowledge of numerous resources. Developed an Awareness of State/National Resources 1. 2. 3. 4. Attended meetings/conferences regarding the development of continuing education/women's programs._________________________________ A B C D Y __ Y Y Y Visited other continuing education/ women’s programs, and/or talked over the phone with other continuing education/women's program staff. Y Y Y Y Developed an awareness of the types of information services and centers available for educators (especially in continuing education or women's programs), where they are located, how they can be contacted. Y Y Y Y Subscribed to newsletters, periodicals magazines, books, pamphlets, etc. to become informed about new developments in continuing education/women's programs. Y Y Y Y One of the most widely-utilized methods of developing an under­ standing of women's programs in general, and relevant resources in particular apparently is to attend conferences and meetings on the development of continuing education/women's programs. All four program 124 directors reported that especially in initial program planning, this type of attendance is vital. Many good ideas are exchanged, and it also can be a "rejuvenating" experience to share with others similarly engaged. All directors had talked with other women's program directors at conferences/meetings or on the phone. Three of the four visited other women's programs early in their own planning. The College C Director visited Miami Dade's Center for the Continuing Education Women, Oakland University's Continuum Center, and Western Michigan University's Continuing Education Program for Women. College A's Director visited women's programs at the University of Michigan, Michigan State, and Grand Rapids, while College B's Director went to see programs at Delta College, Oakland University, and the University of Michigan. Knowledge of information services and centers available for educators also ranked as important with the four Program Directors. The Director at College C has found useful information frequently is obtainable through Women's Divisions or Caucuses of major professional organizations such as the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, the American Management Association for Women Administrators, the Michigan Community Schools Education Association, and the Michigan Women's Commission. Local and regional education associations can also be an important source of materials. College A's Director has gathered printed resources from "every conceivable source" and has found valuable materials from the following organizations: KNOW, Inc.; Association of American Colleges, Project on the Status and Education of Women; Resource Center on Sex 125 Roles in Education of the National Foundation for the Improvement of Education; the Feminist Press; United States Women's Bureau; National Education Association; and Women's Equity Action League. "Catalyst", vocational/career materials for mature women planning to return to school, was also found to be useful. The Director at College B also mentioned KNOW, the Women's Bureau, and the Association of American Colleges as valuable sources. Additional materials have been found from the American Education Association, Continuing Education Division; the American Association of Higher Education, Caucus on Women; and the Women's Action Alliance. The Women's Equity Action League was identified by the Director at College D. Newsletters, magazines, periodicals, books and pamphlets were mentioned by the program directors as further sources of information and help. newsletter. All four Directors mentioned Woman Today as an important Other publications suggested by Program Directors included: The Spokeswoman (by Colleges A, B, C) Women Studies Newsletter (by College A) Civil Rights Digest (by College A) Ms . (by College A, D) Community and Junior College Journal (by College C) Women's Survival Book (by College B) American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, Newsletter on Women's Programs (by Colleges B, C) 126 Stage IV: Determining Programs and Services to Be Made Available to Clients Assessed Program Possibilities with Help of Clients and Other Sources A 1. 2. B C Brainstormed possible types of programs/ services with a small group of clients Y YY Y Read published materials on continuing education programs/women's programs. Y Y Y D Y Each program director reported having spent time reading materials about continuing education/women's programs in order to gain insight into what might be successfully offered at her particular college. All directors have also brainstormed possible types of programs with small groups of clients, including representatives from the Advisory Boards. Determined a Method for Making Decisions about Specific Programs/Services 1. 2. 3. 4. A B C D Determined a method for deciding what particular programs/services should be offered. Y Y Y IP Tried out programs/services for clients on a trial basis before implementation on a large scale. Y Y Y Y Determined a method for evaluating trial usage. Y Y Y N Revised programs/services on basis of trial usage. Y Y Y N Three of the four program directors reported they had an established method of determining what particular programs and services should be offered through their divisions. The fourth director, from College D, 127 stated the staff and Advisory Board were now in the process of selecting such a method. At College C, the Advisory Board, the clients, and the Program staff jointly determine what programs/services will be offered. Since the Women's Program Coordinator is also Director of Continuing Education at the College, the general Continuing Education guidelines are followed. The general policy regarding prospective activities is that if there is a demonstrated need, and if resource persons can be obtained, then the program will be offered. All new programs at College C are tried out first on a trial basis. persons (12-15) sign up for for the first time. At the If enough a group or class, then it is offered end of the experience, an evaluation is done with the instructor and clients. If the response is favorable, it will be offered again. A similar condition exists at College B where the Advisory Board and Program Director jointly determine what particular programs to offer based on previously determined goals and objectives. selected to be implemented all begin on a trial basis. Programs If individual response is favorable, and if adequate numbers of persons continue to participate in the program, then it will be continued. Even programs which initially do not have sufficient client response may be offered another time at College B, however, if the Director believes there is a real need, but clients for some reason have just not responded. For example, the Director is aware of many widows in the community, and yet a program on "Widowhood" had a poor turnout. again, but plans to publicize it in a new way. She plans to offer it 128 College A and College B utilize the same method of determining programs in that College A also selects particular offerings based on whether or not they are congruent with the goals and objectives previously established by the Women's Center Director and the various advisory groups. Requests for courses or activities which cannot be undertaken by the College A Women's Center are referred to other agencies/organizations/units/groups deemed more appropriate; thus in this instance the Women's Center acts as a referral service. For example, all academic Women's Studies courses are offered through the academic division, the Women's Center serving as a liason between interested persons and the appropriate academic unit to help get desired classes started. Publicity, scheduling of classes, and other mechanics are handled through the offering division. Proposed courses which are of current goals and objectives determined to be within the framework of the College A Women's Center are discussed with the Program Planner of the College Continuing Education office. As is the situation at other colleges, if adequate numbers of persons sign up for a class, and if participant response is favorable, then the class or program would be offered again. The Advisory Board and the Program Coordinators atCollege D are presently working to establish specific guidelines, and the rationale for those guidelines, to provide a formal structure by which particular programs/services will be selected and implemented within the Center's operation. The current criteria for determining what activities/programs/ services to offer appears to the Center Coordinator to be some combination of the following forces: — i 129 Current clientele Potential clientele Availability of instructors "Public Relations" purposes Political nuances Instructor initiative Community request The Director believes that the task of the Advisory Board and the Program staff is to sort through the various means of determining program content, and to establish structured, intentional guidelines for future development. While specific criteria are being formulated at College D, more informal means of determining program offerings are currently in operation. Classes have been freely tried out on a trial basis utilizing the philosophy "We’ll try it, and if it goes, we'll keep it in." This has resulted in some concern on the Program Director’s part, in that, there may be pressure to maintain courses with the Center's offerings because they draw students when they may not necessarily fit within the Center's goals and purposes. College A, College B, and College C Program Directors all described offerings as being in a constant process of revision. The content of the various classes/programs is generally revised based on participant feedback. If necessary, different resource personnel are obtained before offering the experience again. New materials are frequently developed and utilized, and when necessary, a program title is changed and/or new content is introduced. 130 Determined Clients Can Meet Program Cost 1. Determined that clients can meet the dollar cost and and human costs (in time and commitment) required to participate in the Women's Program. A B C D Y Y Y Y_ In general, costs to clients participating in Women's Programs at the four colleges are kept to a minimum. offerings which have no charge. All programs have some In part, these include counseling services, some conferences and workshops, Brown Bag lunches, and plays. In some instances there is a nominal fee for programs/ conferences. Classes and seminars offered through the colleges, both credit and no-credit, vary in cost to the participant. At College A, the cost is $5-6; at College C, $10; at College D, $7 per credit; and at College B, costs vary up to $15. Special provisions are made at College A, College C, College B for women who are unable to pay required fees. At College A, women on ADC can obtain special funds for college tuition expenses from the City Department of Social Services. 131 Stage V : Implementing Special Programs and Services for Women Potentially Favoring/Opposing the Women's Program 1. 2. 3. 4. A B C D Determined what values, beliefs, interests, needs, circumstances common to the community/College might potentially favor or facilitate the acceptance of the Women's Program. Y Y Y Y Identified key persons within the community/College who might favor or facilitate the acceptance of the Women's Program. Y Y Y Y Determined what values, beliefs, interests, needs, circumstances common to the community/College might potentially oppose or inhibit the acceptance of the Women's Program. Y Y Y IP Identified key persons within the community/College who might oppose or inhibit the.acceptance of the Women's Program. Y Y Y N All four program directors had identified, or were in the process of identifying, persons and forces within the community and within the college which were potentially favorable to the existence and continuance of the Women's Program. In effect, this was done as the program directors were learning about their communities, seeking advisory board members and program resources. Persons/forces opposing the Women's Programs were also discovered by the same process of interaction with community and college members. 132 Discussed the Women’s Program with Influential Community/Co liege Members A 1. 2. B C D Discussed the Women's Program with persons in the community/College who are known to have a commitment to new ideas. Y Y Y N Talked with community/College leaders who then publically endorsed the Women's Program. Y Y Y N Program Directors at College A, College B, and College C have spent considerable time meeting with community and college individuals and groups, focusing especially on those known to be progressive and interested in supporting new ideas and projects. The College C Director met with numerous groups and organizations to talk about women returning to school. Groups have responded by providing financial support for the Women's Program, designated as scholarships for women reentering college. The support of community and College groups has also been gained by College A's Director. Persons she contacted were interested in activities of the Women's Center, became involved, and ultimately supported the unit publically. As College B, the Director has sought out diverse community groups including some considered traditionally conservative. Contacts have included the Rotary Club, PTA Groups, Real Estate Organizations, the City Women's Forum, and Community Social Services. 133 Provided Interpretive Materials, Person-to-Person Contact with Potential Clients 1. 2. A B C D Provided written/oral presentations, films, pictures in order to interpret the purposes and functions of the Women's Program. Y Y Y Y Provided group discussions, conferences/workshops, person-to-person contact with potential clients in order to facilitate understanding and eventual utilization of the Women's Program. Y Y Y Y A wide variety of publicity methods have been utilized by the Women's Programs. Specific methods were determined primarily on the basis of what techniques (such as TV and newspapers) would be most familiar to potential clients, and to which potential clients would most likely favorable respond. Of further consideration was the geographic location of potential clients, and where they might spend time (e.g., shopping malls, churches, beauty parlors). A solid knowledge of the local media is essential to the successful advancement of programs, according to the program directors. Positive newspaper coverage has been essential for all programs. The College C Director's extensive familiarity with the media in the local community facilitated her obtaining a week-long use of a local television show to discuss women's issues and upcoming programs sponsored by the Women's Program. She also noted the importance of a colorful, well designed program brochure. The Director at College A noted the importance of establishing liasons with newspersons and seeking out feminist reporters/media 134 personnel who would serve as Women's Program advocates. Inviting women journalists, for example, to participate in a day-long conference or workshop has been a helpful way of generating support. College B offers a unique way to get its message out. Information booths and a video-tape on the Women’s Center are located in a community shopping mall. Word-of-mouth appears to be a significant communication method, with referral by friends ranking high among the ways persons learn about the program. Brochures and announcements are mailed to local beauty salons and placed on library bulletin boards. College D ’s Director listed some additional ways Women's Center activities are publicized: radio announcements; paid aids in local newspaper; informational brochures sent to community social and mental health agencies, churches, organizations; and via a Women's Center newsletter, Focus on Women, mailed to students in Women's Center courses and other community and College persons. 135 Stage VI: Stabilizing (Insuring the Continuance of) the Women’s Program Established Mechanism to Insure the Formal, Periodic Evaluation and Revision of the Overall Women's Program 1. 2. A B C D Established a mechanism to insure the formal, periodic evaluation of the total Women's Program. Y N Y N Established a mechanism whereby the Women's Program can be reshaped to meet the changing needs of clients or a changing clientele (e.g., periodic surveys, meetings, conferences). Y Y Y N Modes of evaluation and the extent to which total programs versus individual offerings have been evaluated varies among four colleges. Obviously programs in operation longer (College A, College C) have had more time for overall program evaluation than have the not-yet-yearold Women's Centers at College B and College D. At College A, the Director reported that all continuing education classes (including those initated by the Women's Center) are evaluated by their instructors at the end of each session. Women's Studies courses are evaluated within the offering units. In terms of the total program, the Director has thus far assembled one report for the Vice President. This document is a report of the Women's Center progress to date on the specific objectives established at the onset of the program. Overall evaluation is thus based on the degree to which designated goals and objectives have been met. Future evaluation along similar lines will continue to be implemented. 136 Additionally, the advisory groups have been requested to evaluate the total Women's Program informally, and to make recommendations. College C's Women's Program offerings are also evaluated on a regular basis by clients. An annual report prepared by the Director describes to what extent designated goals and objectives of the total Program have been achieved. The Director stated that now, after nearly three years of operation, it is time to formally evaluate the total program. Clients will be invited for discussion; it is projected that an evaluation instrument will be developed with the help of the Advisory Council. At College D, individual courses offered through the Women's Center are evaluated by a "Student Evaluation Form" utilized in all classes taught within the Student Development Services Division. Presently there is no formal evaluation of the overall Women's Program and no definite plans for such. The Long-Range Planning Committee of the Advisory Board may eventually suggest a mode of program evaluation. Conferences, classes, seminars, workshops are each formally evaluated at the end of the sessions(s) at College B. Both the instructor and the program content/methods are evaluated by participants. No mechanism has as yet been established for formal, overall program evaluation. 137 Created Regularly Scheduled Opportunities for Interaction and Comnunication A 1. 2. B C D Created regularly scheduled opportunities for interaction and communication among the various persons involved in the Women's Program (e.g., program staff, clients, Advisory Board members). Y Y Y Y Set aside time and resources on a regular basis to think about the future and to draw up tentative programs to meet future needs. Y Y Y Y A variety of maintenancemechanisms which help to insure ongoing communication and understanding of changing needs/clientele have been created at College A. Program Director: The following sessions are attended by the weekly meetings with College's Women's commission; bimonthly meetings with the Client Sorority; frequent contact (2-3 times per week) with College Continuing Education personnel; meeting as needed/suggested with Vice President/Administrative Staff; regular meetings of YWCA, AAUW, Michigan Women's Studies Commission; informal meetings on a regular basis with individual and small groups of clients. The College C Director has scheduled similar opportunities to keep her informed and up-to-date on Women's Center activities and future needs: monthly meetings with Program counselor and secretary; bi-semester meetings with seminar staff; once-semester meetings with Advisory Council; bi-monthly meetings with Chairperson of Advisory Council. The full-time and the part-time Program Coordinators meet weekly with the Chairperson of the Student Development Services Division 138 at College D. The Program Advisory Board meets once a month, with working subcommittees meeting at additional times. At College B, the Director schedules regular sessions with Program counselors and secretaries. The Advisory Board meets on a monthly basis. Additionally scheduled times for future planning are viewed as most important by the Director at College C. She believes planning time is invaluable; it must be scheduled in or it will be lost. She especially noted the importance of shutting the office door, giving yourself a needed opportunity to "recycle your brain". Both the College A and College D programs have incorporated future planning time into already scheduled sessions. At College B, June has been set as a time to sit down with program staff and plan for the future. Encouraged Client Participation in Decision-Making 1. 2. A B C D Encouraged clients to become influential in decis ion-making regarding the goals and objectives of the Women's Program. Y Y Y N Facilitated meaningful rewards (e.g., press recognition, verbal affirmation) for clients who have helped develop and maintain the Women's program. Y N Y N All programs involved clients in some aspects of program development. College A, College B, and College C especially mentioned encouraging clients to become increasingly influential in decision­ making regarding the goals and objectives of the Women's Program. College A with its large group of organized clients (as members of the Sorority) has the largest number of clients giving input on a regular basis. 139 College B, College C, and College A each noted that clients who had helped develop and maintain the Women’s Program had been personally rewarded in several ways. Some had gained recognition through newspaper and other media coverage; others had received verbal recognition and affirmation from program participants and staff. Developed Institutional Support 1. Developed institutional support (budget, personnel, facilities) for the maintenance and further development of the Women’s Program. A B C D Y N Y Y The degree of institutional support in terms of both maintenance and development varies among the four institutions. College A has secured institutional support for the further development of its Women’s Center. The Director’s position will be moved from a part-time to full-time capacity beginning July 1, 1975. Additional support personnel are also projected in an Assistant Director and second secretary. The College C Director also foresees expansion in the Women's Program in the coming year. It is hoped that an additional program coordinator, part-time, will be hired in the fall. Additional space is also being requested. The College D Coordinator believes that institutional support has been evidenced by her position being newly created in the fall of 1974. However, a budget allotment for needed additional staff and office space has not yet been approved. 140 The situation at College B is uncertain at the moment as regards the maintenance beyond this year's budget, and the further development of the Program. No funds have as yet been secured for the expansion of the Program, and the '75-76 year's budget has not yet been finalized. 141 Summary of Program Development Stages In terms of the overall questionnaire, it is interesting to note that the directors at College C and College A each checked every item listed in each of the six stages. Both of these directors had several months planning time before any programs were implemented. Each director had been a faculty member and community resident for many years before assuming a role related to Women1s Programs. Consequently several steps in Stages I, II, III, and V had previously been dealt with, especially as regards community values and norms; potential community resources; and linkages with faculty, administrators, and students. Since these two programs also have the greatest longevity of the four studied, (College A, approximately two years; College C, nearly three years) it is not surprizing that they have begun formal evaluation and institutional stabilization of the Women's Program as delineated in Stage VI. The Director at College B checked each item in Stages II, III, IV, and V. Several items in Stage I and Stage VI have not yet been accomplished. Because of the way the Director perceived her task ("immediate production"), she reported intentionally concentrating most of her efforts in actual program implementation. The importance of Stage I activities was noted by the Director, however, and future efforts will be devoted, in part, to establishing a more solid relation­ ship with the client system and with the larger social environment. With the Program's short existence, (six months), Stage VI activities have not been a high priority, primarily because there has not been sufficient time. 142 At College D, the Director has also had a short time (eight months) to develop and implement the Women's Program. were unchecked in Stages I, III, IV, V, and VI. Several items Many items were noted "in process" meaning that specified steps had not been completed, but were being considered at the moment. Stage VI items, as with College B, had not achieved a high level of priority. Because of the pressure to "produce" a highly visible program, extensive energy has not been invested in less apparent activities, such as devising a mechanism for overall program evaluation. None of the four program directors suggested any additional steps or stages that should be included in program development, nor did they suggest that any of the steps or stages presented in the questionnaire were unimportant or undesirable in the process of develop­ ing Women's Programs. The Future of Special Programs and Services for Women When asked about the future of "special" programs for women only, program directors unanimously hoped that such programs will not be necessary forever. All project a time in the future (however distant) when women will have the educational/social equality of opportunity which will make programs designed to meet "special" needs based on sex and sex-related role conditioning unnecessary. To paraphrase College D's Director: Only when the day comes that women are truly equal to men in our culture will special programs for women no longer be necessary. Women today are a d isadvantaged majority who are in a process of transition. New options are open­ ing up for them not previously available; educational institutions and women's programs can facilitate the pro­ ductive actualization of those options. 143 As women begin to change the definition of what it means to be a woman, so men will need to figure out new ways to be men. But until the time we arrive at a society which esteems interpersonal relationships, human(e) values, and homemaking skills as humanizing forces which are normative in our culture, we will require special programs for the "special (perhaps societally-imposed) needs of women. College A's Director agrees: The Women's Center seems to be necessary as long as we're not meeting the needs of women in all areas within the institution. Right now there seems to be a need to make some changes for women. NOW. How long is it going to take to make those changes?... I don't know. When our whole attitude changes in athletics.. .when we have women in key positions in administration.. .when we have courses that are no longer courses that are dictated b ^ men for men, then the Women's Center should not exist. We ought to put ourselves out of business as such, I suppose. The Director at College C and College B each predicted the eventual integration of women's programs which presently exist independent of other units into a broader structure within the institution. At College C, this might mean ultimate integration into the Continuing Education Division; at College B, the concept of "Community Resource Center" is already being preferred to "Women's Resource Center". At College A as well, a recent publicity brochure issued from the Women's Center was labeled from the "Human Development Program". Although all programs initially designated women as their primary focus and target population, each are considering additional ways in which men might also be served. The Director at College B noted, "More and more courses/programs are being developed which intentionally included both sexes. Certainly with the next few years we would hope to move toward specialized community services for all persons". 144 College C's Director seemed to concur by her statement, "We are slowly moving toward services that include both women and men". While the College C and College B Directors seemed to project a program of community-oriented services for all adults, the College A Director appeared to be concerned less with developing a comprehensive community services program and more with helping each unit within the institution become increasingly aware of, and responsive to, the needs of women. Although the difference in perspectives may be more apparent than real, there does seem to be a basic distinction in future direction. Recommendations for Women's Program Planners Stage I : Relationship with Client System 1. Provide at least one year for adequate planning and developing relationships within client system before actual program is implemented for client use. (B)4 2. Spend time learning the community. Learn formal and informal networks present in the community and in the College. (C) 3. Build a wide support network. "Have a whole army of women behind you"; the support of a wide range of women is imperative. (C) 4. Build broad base of support in the community. Extensive time is needed to meet with community and college groups. (B) 5. Invest energy early in program development making contacts and establishing liasons with College and community persons. (D) 6. Develop a functioning advisory council. Include women and men from diverse groups within the College and the community. (C) ^Letters designate the College from which recommendation came. Recommendations were made by the Women's Program Director. 145 7. Initiate contact with the President and with members of the Board of Trustees. Let them know what the Women's Program is doing. (D) 8. "Sit and plot with (at least) one other feminist who has resources". Sometimes your total support group only needs to be one other person with whom to share. (A) Stage II: Objectives 1. Establish specific objectives and priorities for the program. (A) 2. Understand the Women's Program staff's inability to meet all the needs communicated by clients. Set realistic expectations and priorities. (B) 3. Limit objectives. 4. Work on one objective at a time. (A) Stage III: Establish concrete goals. (B) Resource Acquisition 1. Obtain full-time administrator and adequate support services in the beginning of program development. (A) 2. Hire the Women's Program Director as an administrator, rather than providing release time for someone employed in another capacity (e.g., as a counselor or faculty member). (B) 3. Provide the services of "committed" counselors, who are sensitive to the needs of the older student and to women's concerns. (B) 4. Take time to select supportive staff for the Women's Program. Especially critical is a secretary with a pleasant tone of voice and friendly personality who can relate well to all groups of women, and who can articulately explain what the Women's Program is attempting to accomplish. (B) 5. Avoid use volunteers to staff office. unit runs on volunteers") • (A) 6. Learn what groups (or resources) you can effectively utilize to meet the Women's Center goals. Learn what groups may easily be alienated. (Avoid alienating anybody!) (A) 7. Cultivate effective resource people. staff beyond the College. (C) ("Ho other administrative Develop potential 146 8. Visit women's programs in other places. Go to at least one fairly comprehensive conference before you start a program. Do a lot of reading. (C) 9. Learn about budgets. Take a class in business if necessary. Be fiscally responsible; be able to talk effectively about financial matters. Avoid such stereotypes as "a woman cannot even balance her own checkbook". (C) 10. Stage V: Spend time to understand the whole process of budget development. (B) Program Implementation 1. Avoid concentrating all your efforts in program development in "highly visible products" such as numerous classes for credit. (D) 2. Develop a Women's Program newsletter. (A) Stage V I : Evaluation 1. Provide adequate time for planning and evaluation. Constantly evaluate and reevaluate what programs/services you are offering in light of changing needs and desires of clients, as well as in view of a changing clientele. (C) 2. Prepare a thorough yearly report once the Women’s Program is implemented. "I don't know where I'm going until I know where I've been" is an important model to follow. Reports should go to important people in the College structure including the direct supervisor, and College Dean (President). It pays off to give the facts; let people know what you've done. It also is a rewarding experience for the program staff and creates an important sense of accomplishment. (C) Interpersonal/Individual Skills 1. Be prepared to deal with interpersonal problems which will inevitably develop in any program. Other members of the Women's Program staff or College administration may have to be constructively confronted when such problems occur. You must be an effective active listener and learn to send "I" messages that accurately reflect your feelings and thoughts. (C) 2. Listen. You may have the best ideas in the world, but they will not be implemented if the people they are intended to serve don't want or need them. (C) 147 3. Build on people's strengths. Approach participatory leadership from a positive viewpoint. Avoid emphasizing weaknesses. (C) 4. Break any umbilical cords between yourself and your clients. "Independency training" is where it's at. Be caring and warm, but facilitate positive self-growth and autonomy in the clients. Women returning to school and making new decisions about their lives "need a lot of love, and a lot of leaving alone". (C) 5. Expect and respect individual difference in clients. Women are entitled to disagree. (Afterall, men can constructively disagree. Why shouldn't women be afforded the same opportunity?) (C) 6. Be honest about where you are. If you want to be called Ms., okay. If you want to be called Mrs., that's okay too. Don't put your value system on others. Don't expect people to adopt your system of values. (C) 7. Recognize that you're not going to be praised; you're going to get flack.Maintain your sense of humor. (A) 8. Avoid feeling you need to be in control of everything. more important to inspire other people to do things on their own. (C) 9. Delegate responsibility. Don’t fall into the trap of doing everything. What would happen if you left the program? If you have created your own wonderful world, what happens if the "bubble bursts?" (C) 10. It's Know about the history of the Women's Movement. Read the major works in the field. You don't have to agree with all of it, but you ought to understand it. (C) CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Summary The past ten tumultuous years in America's history have produced a multitude of significant societal and cultural changes which have etched their impressions on nearly every facet of contempory life. The major social movements of our time (Civil Rights, Sexual Revolution, Human Potential, Women's Liberation) have recognized a humanistic philosophy of the inherent worth of all individuals, and the necessity to value diversity in a complex, pluralistic universe. In response to increasing heterogeneity, post-secondary educational institutions have been mandated to provide expanded opportunities for non-traditional learners and others who perceive education continuing as a lifelong process. Significant among non-traditional learners are mature women return­ ing to formal education after a period of time engaged in alternative activities. As increasing numbers of such women join the student ranks, it is apparent that the traditional roles and occupations of women are being challenged. A myriad of significant social forces have radically altered woman's contemporary life style and consequently her life options. Biological, legal, sociological, psychological, economic, and educational factors have coalesced to produce a world of new horizons, 148 149 creative potentialities never before possible. The variables of equality of educational opportunity and lifelong learning have joined together in the movement for the continuing education of women. The community college has a significant role in creatively meeting the established needs of adult women who are seeking new life alternatives via formal educational institutions. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was twofold: first, to describe the nature and scope of special programs and services for women presently available in Michigan's twenty-nine community colleges; and second, to explore in-depth the developmental processes involved in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of programs and services designed especially for women in four selected Michigan community colleges. Several dimensions of the total state's community college offerings were viewed as important to define: personnel related to women's programs and services; continuing education programs and services available for women; program longevity; and budget allocations. The description of the four selected programs was to provide considerable information regarding stages of program development as related to Havelock's six stage model of planned change; the future of women's programs; and recommendations for women's program planners. An additional purpose of the study was to recommend stages and specific steps in Havelock's model which appear to be critical (according to the selected programs) to successful program development for women. 150 Methodology The twenty-nine community colleges listed in the 1974-75 Directory of Michigan Institutions of Higher Education, published by the Michigan Department of Education, were included in the first part of this study. Questionnaire data was obtained through the Michigan Community College Conference on Women's Programming held at Lansing Community College in February, 1975, and through a mailing to schools not participating. Follow-up telephone calls produced a 100 per cent return. Subsequently four continuing education programs for women were selected for further study emphasizing specific stages and steps in program development. Selection was determined on the basis of a combination of three factors: 1) the number and scope of individual programs and services offered, 2) the number and workload of staff, and 3) access to institutional resources. This component of the study involved the use of three instruments derived from the six stage model of planned change developed by Ronald G. Havelock in The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education*- : An ordering scale to determine in which sequence program directors had implemented particular theoretical stages of development; a questionnaire to assess what steps in stages of program development had been accomplished; and an interview guide to expand and clarify the questionnaire. The ordering scale and questionnaire were separately mailed to program directors; an _ on-site interview followed. . Ronald G. Havelock, The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, 1973). 151 Findings of the Study Part A: Survey of Womenfs Programs in Michigan Community Colleges. Three coirmunity colleges have secured the services of full-time program coordinators; fifteen additional schools have provided personnel part-time to work with women’s programs; four ether institutions have persons coordinating women’s activities/programs on an overtime basis. In total, 22 of the 29 Michigan community colleges have at least one person who has accepted some responsibi1ity for women's programs. Twenty-five of the twenty-nine colleges reported offering some type of special program/service for women. The most widely offered programs are self-awareness courses such as "Investigation into Identity” and conferences/workshops, followed by women's studies courses, personal counseling, vocational testing, and financial aid. Three programs reported providing special programs for women before 1970. Every other college reported special programs beginning in the 1970's. All of the independently structured women's programs with their own facilities, staff, and access to institutional resources indicated special programs/services originated in the seventies: Lake Michigan in 1971; Grand Rapids and Schoolcraft in 1972; Mott in 1973; and Lansing and Macomb County in 1974. Financial support was earmarked specifically for women's programs in seven of the twenty-five colleges reporting special programs. Budgets independent of other institutional units, ranging from 3,000 plus salaries to $88,000 inclusive of salaries, were reported at three colleges. 152 Part B: Selected Women’s Programs: Program Development. A Report of Six Stages of Program directors, naive to Havelock’s model of innovation, sequenced six theoretical stages of program development in the order in which they believed they had actually implemented them. Two directors closely approximated Havelock's ordering, with each interchanging two of the stages. A third director ordered the first three stages differently from the model, but concurred on the last three. The fourth director’s placement coincided with the model's in one instance, but generally diverted from the theoretical ordering. In regard to the questionnaire derived from Havelock's model, two of the four women's program directors had carried out every item listed in each of the six theoretical stages of program development. A third director had accomplished every step of stages II, III, IV, and V. The fourth director had not implemented several steps ranging throughout Stages I, III, TV, V, and VI. Program directors unanimously hoped that "special" programs designed for women will not be necessary forever. All project a time in the future when women will have the educational/social equality of opportunity which will make programs designed to meet "special" needs based on sex and sex-related role conditioning unnecessary. Recommendations were made to assist others presently engaged in the planning/implementation of continuing education programs for women. Major areas discussed included: relationship with client system; objectives; resource acquisition; program implementation; evaluation; and interpersonal/individual skills. 153 Conclusions Part A: Survey of Michigan1s Community Colleges Several conclusions regarding the nature and scope of special programs and services for women can be derived from the information gained from the questionnaire survey of Michigan's twenty-nine community colleges. Inquiry was related to the areas of personnel, programs/services available, program longevity, and budget allocation. 1. Providing special programs and services for women is a newly emerging dimension of Michigan community colleges that has an extensive base of interest from urban to rural institutions. 2. Although 22 of the 29 colleges have at least one person who has accepted some responsibility for developing women's programs, only three such persons are employed full-time to do so. Consequently it may be concluded that financial affirmation of such programs as institutional priorities is extremely limited. 3. In those colleges where financial support is given for program directors, either full-time or part-time, support services necessary for qualitative program development are virtually nonexistent , thus under­ mining the basic viability of such operations. 4. Specific program offerings evidence the diversity of interests among a heterogeneous clientele, as well 154 as the similarities perhaps exacerbated by a multiple of social forces including the Women's Liberation Movement. Significant numbers of clients across the state are expressing a common need for self-awareness courses which are designed to facilitate self-exploration regarding lifestyle, roles, expectations, and the purpose of one's existence--a need for self-direction with a longterm heritage just now gaining legitimacy. 5. Declining college enrollments coupled with a depressed economy have forced institutions of higher education to seek "new" students not previously served. The emergence of special programs and services for women in Michigan's community colleges in the seventies is, in part, a product of the attempt to reach a new clientele. Part B: Selected Women's Programs Conclusions may be drawn from the three phases of data acquisition regarding the extent to which practitioners in the field concurred with Havelock's theoretical model for program development as communicated through an ordering scale, questionnaire, and interview guide formulated by the researcher. Conclusions derived from the ordering scale are presented first, followed by a stage by stage appraisal of the questionnaire and interview findings. 155 Ordering of Developmental Stages. The sequence in which the program directors reported that they had implemented the theoretical stages of innovation appears to be indicative of actual steps taken, as well as the way each director viewed her role as program developer. For example, College C and College A began the development process by Diagnosing Needs (Stage II) and Building Relationships (Stage I). This period of time was essential, they believed, for planning and preparation before implementation. Consequently actual program delivery had a firm foundation upon which to stand. In contrast, College D indicated the first stage in its program development was Implementing Special Programs and Services for Women, Stage V in Havelock's model. The data collected from College D supports this view of "producing programs" as the first priority. Building Relationships was placed last (Stage VI) in order of stages accomplished. The Director reported that she believed more time should have been spent earlier in developing relationships as how she felt the need to "back track" and establish essential linkages. College B ’s Director expressed similar concern over not having had adequate time early in the process to build relationships both within the college and within the coranunity, and indicated most of the building of important liasons had gone on after clients’ needs had been diagnosed and special programs and services had been determined. The following conclusions are suggested from these findings: 1. The instrument for determining the order in which stages of program development had been implemented did, in fact, reflect the manner in which the program directors had 156 proceeded, as well as the way they perceived their task (i.e., "to produce immediate programs/services for women" compared to "to build a Women's Program".) 2. Although stages may be slightly reordered, Havelock's general sequence of particular stages coming earlier in the process of program development, and others coming later appears to be affirmed by program directors. Building of Relationship with the Client System and with the Larger Social Environment. All Stage I activities identified by the questionnaire were believed to be significant in establishing women's programs on a film foundation by the four directors. Two items related to Stage I were not yet achieved by two program directors, a third was not yet accomplished by one director, and three items were not yet completed by the remaining director. Conclusions related to specific tasks involved in this stage follow. 1. New clientele for women's programs are constantly emerging. The process of determining who the clients are requires increasing sophistication. 2. It is important to understand and respect (although not necessarily accept) community norms/values and their potential impact on the women's program. 3. The solid support of the College President and Board of Trustees is essential for program survival and ultimate program expansion. 157 4. A wide network of intra-college communication facilitates program implementation on the multiple levels that require institutional support and active cooperation and involvement. 5. A broad-base of community involvement and interaction is required to gain access to potential clients, as well as to gain needed acceptance and credibility with the entire client system. 6. A working advisory group is prerequiste to effective program planning and implementat ion. A representative cross-section of the college and community should probably not exceed fifteen in number in order to be optimally functional. Diagnosing the Clients1 Needs; Establishing Goals. This was the only one of the six theoretical stages in which each program director had implemented, or was in the process of implementing, each of the steps indicated on the questionnaire derived from Havelock's model. The following conclusions are suggested: 1. Clients' needs and goals should be determined jointly with the client; new assessment tools to more accurately measure needs are required. 2. Failure to set intentionally concrete goals, establish obtainable objectives, and realistically order priorities early in the developmental process can result in programmatic fragmentation and loss of direction. 158 Acquiring Resources Essential to Meeting Clients' Needs. Three program directors indicated they had carried out all steps related to resource acquisition; the fourth had accomplished all but one step. Specific statements can be generated from the available data on Stage III: 1. Gaining adequate college resources in terms of staff, facilities, and program budget is one of the most difficult concerns facing emerging women's programs. 2. The acquisition of college resources including appropriate support services is essential to program survival. 3. An extensive awareness of community and college resources, in terms of persons and materials, enhances the probability of adequately and appropriately meeting diverse clients' needs. 4. Familiarity with state and national resources (information services; newsletters, periodicals; conferences, meetings; other women's programs) can aid program developers to both determine and implement special programs and services for women. Determining Programs and Services to Be Made Available to Clients. Three program directors reported all steps identified in the question­ naire related to Stage IV had been completed; the fourth had implemented or was in the process of implementing all but two of the items. Several conclusions can be drawn regarding the determination of programs: 159 1. Client participation is essential to the decision-making process. 2. If particular programs/services to be offered are not selected on the basis of previously established goals and objectives, then decision-making may be prefidious, perpetuating an unsystematic, almost random approach to program implementation. 3. When appropriate (e.g., for courses, seminars), trial usage of programs/services on a limited basis will help to determine potential problems, and allow for revision before introduction to larger or additional groups of clients. 4. Programs and services should be within the budget of intended clients; special provisions may be required for those who cannot afford to pay when a cost is involved. Implementing Special Programs and Services for Women. All items representing this fifth stage of development were checked as having been accomplished by three of the four directors. The fourth director had completed, or was in the process of completing, all but three of the eight steps listed. 1. Several conclusions may be cited A force field analysis (identification of forces favoring versus forces opposing the women's program) can be useful in understanding the community/college environment. Knowing your "allies" can facilitate program development. 160 2. Public affirmation of the women's program by influential or well-known women and men can provide a powerful modeling effect for potential clients. 3. All conceivable forms of communication techniques may be tried in order to innovatively advertise women's programs; however, newspapers and word-of-mouth appear to remain most effective. Stabilizing (Insuring the Continuance of) the Women's Program. Two program directors reported implementing all questionnaire items related to Stage VI, a third did not check three of the seven items, and the fourth indicated four statements had not been accomplished. The findings indicate: 1. Total program evaluation based on established, predetermined criteria is essential for determining past achievement and future direction. 2. Time invested in intentional planning for the program's future is critical to long range program survival. 3. Evaluation is needed to begin to assess the impact of the women's program on its clients. 4. Structured opportunities for open comnunication among all persons involved in the women's program (e.g., staff, clients, advisory board members) helps maintain a well-functioning operation. 161 Guidelines for Women’s Program Planners A multitude of conclusions were drawn after having had contact with over twenty persons involved in developing special programs and services for women in Michigan's community colleges. Additionally the concrete and in-depth information gained from the four selected Women’s Programs and the author's own biases are incorporated into the following statements regarding the overall value of Havelock's model for planned change, as well as the relative importance of each of the six stages of program development as interpreted through the research questionnaire. 1. Havelock's model of innovation has significant value for those engaged in program planning, implementation, and evaluation. The model as communicated through the research instrument utilized in this study appears to reflect all important phases of program development. 2. Stage I (Building Relationships) and Stage II (Diagnosing Needs; Establishing Goals) appear to be the two categories of activities most critical for program success. Programs must thoroughly accomplish steps within these stages before the actual implementation of special programs/services. 3. Stage III (Acquiring Resources) appears more than other stages to be going on at every phase of the planned change process. It does not appear to be uniquely a discrete stage (as in I and II); however, 162 if adequate resources, especially financial support from the college, are not secured, program development will be severly limited. 4. Stage IV (Determining Programs) and Stage V (Implementing Programs) activities are important in selecting an appropriate response to diagnosed needs which will be accepted by the clients. Additional work is needed on the questionnaire instrument to more accurately reflect the content of these stages. Presently there appears to be seme overlap and intersection of activities involved in these two stages. If the foundation Stage I and II are well accomplished, and resources are adequate, then Stage IV and V activities will be greatly facilitated. 5. Stage VI (Stabilizing the Program) activities are ultimately significant if the women’s program is to continue on its own or be integrated eventually into the total college. Stage VI endeavors do not necessarily require a high priority in initial program development; however, if plans for projected overall program evaluations are not made relatively early in the process, the implementation of this necessary component may be jeopardized. The following recommendations represent what are believed to be the most important elements of each stage as presented through the questionnaire. 163 Building a Relationship with the Client System and with the Larger Social Environment 1. Provide adequate time (6 months--1 year) for planning and developing relationships within the client system before actual program is implemented for client use. 2. Initiate contact with the College President and Board of Trustees. program. 3. Explain the goals and objectives of the Cultivate their active support. Establish liasons within the college with students, faculty, counselors, administrators. Find out how the women's program can serve them and vice versa. 4. Analyze the community--its norms, values, rules of behavior--and try to understand the people who live there. 5. Establish a functioning advisory group of diverse community and college persons, preferably no more than fifteen in number. Diagnosing the Clients' Needs; Establishing Goals 1. Diagnose needs with clients (a la the problem-solving approach). 2. Translate client needs into behaviorally defined objectives 3. Limit objectives to those which can realistically be met by the women's program. 4. Order priorities for program development and implementation Acquiring Resources Essential to Clients' Needs 1. Obtain full-time program director, full-time secretary, 164 and adequate support services at the outset of the program. 2. Cultivate effective resource persons. Develop potential staff beyond the college. 3. Utilize all available resources: read about women’s programs attend conferences/meetings on continuing education/programs for women. Determining Programs and Services to Be Made Available to Clients 1. Select particular programs and services to be offered on the basis of previously established goals and objectives. 2. Utilize clients, advisory board members, program staff, and outside resource materials to select which type of programs might facilitate outlined goals and objectives. 3. Test out projected programs/services on a trial basis when possible before implementation to clients on a large scale; revise accordingly. Implementing Special Programs and Services for Women 1. Assess what persons/forces within the college/conmunity are favorable to the women's program. Utilize such persons in all phases of program development. 2. Determine what persons/forces within college/community oppose the women’s program and why. If misunderstanding causes opposition, additional interpretive strategies aimed at particular groups/individuals may be helpful. 165 3. Provide person-to-person contact with clients, as well as media approaches such as radio, TV, and newspapers, in communicating about the women’s program. Stabilizing (Insuring the Continuance of) the Women's Program 1. Evaluate the total program in light of original goals, purposes, and objectives. Give thought to the process by which these were attempted to be achieved. 2. Evaluate future proposals for activities in view of changing needs/desires of clients, while being aware of a potentially changing clientele. 3. Invest intentional time with program staff, clients, advisory board in planning for the future. 4. Prepare a thorough year-end report; send it to all influentials in the college. Communicate succintly what you have achieved, and whom it has affected. Critical Issues for Women's Program Planners' Consideration Building Relationships 1. Will the women's program serve men as well as women? 2. Will the program serve predominately white, middle class clients or will it also address the needs of minorities, the undereducated, and/or lower income persons? Diagnosing Needs; Establishing Goals 1. What is the overall purpose of the women's program and what specific needs will it intend to meet? 166 2. How will the program determine what needs can be most effectively met by the women’s program vis a vis other community/college programs which serve the same clientele? Acquiring Resources 1. How will the women's program gain adequate college resources in a period of economic decline and budget cutting? 2. Will the program charge fees for certain programs/services such as counseling? 3. To what extent will the program seek funding outside the institution? In what ways would outside funding effect the long-range viability and purpose of the program? Determining Programs/Services 1. How will programs/services to be offered be determined? 2. By what process will offerings be revised to reflect changing needs/changing clientele? Stabilizing the Program 1. In what manner will the overall women's program be evaluated? 2. Will the program exist independently or will it be initially or eventually incorporated into other college units such as continuing education or community services? 167 Implications of this Study Suggestions for Further Research Havelock's six stage model of innovation appears to be of considerable value as a structural framework from which to view educational program development in general. Many persons interested in a systematic approach to program implementation might find it useful, including those providing special programs and services for other populations with unique needs, such as veterans or retirees. The content explicated in the questionnaire, specifically formulated to reflect activities related to developing women's programs, also may have significant utility for other planners. With minor adaptation, the instrument could be utilized by many persons involved as agents in the process of planned change. Several implications for future research are generated from this study. The following are some of the possibilities for continued exploration in the processes of program development: 1. A study of other comprehensive continuing education programs for women recognized as being "successful" by some measure in order to test the validity of the questionnaire regarding developmental steps implemented. 2. Additional study of Havelock's model resulting in a more accurate reflection of his theory in questionnaire items. 3. A study of "unsuccessful" continuing education programs for women to determine if there are additional items within each stage which are critical to program success, as well as to gain further insight into the validity of 168 Havelock’s theory as it is represented in the questionnaire. 4. A study which would involve present program developers in an in-service training experience related to understanding Havelock's model and its implications for their own programs. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Brickell, Harry M. Organizing New York State for Educational Change. Albany, New York: Commissioner of Education, State Education Department, 1961. Clark, David L. and Guba, Egon G. Innovation in School Curricula. Washington, D.C.: The Center lor the Study of Instruction, National Education Association, 1965. Cross, K. Patricia, Valley, John R., and Associates. Planning Non-Traditional Programs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1974. Goldman, Freda II. A Turn to Take Next; Alternative Goals in the Education of Women. Brookline, Massachusetts: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults at Boston University, 1965. Gould, Samuel B, and Cross, Patricia K. eds., Explorations in Non-Traditional Study. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1972. Havelock, Ronald G. A Guide to Innovation in Education. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Center for Research on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1970. _______.Planning for Innovation through Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Center for Research on Utilization Scientific Knowledge, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1971. ______ .The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, 1973. _______ .Training for Change Agents. A Guide to the Design of Training Programs in Education and other Fields. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Center for Research on Utilization of Scientific Knowledge, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1972. 169 170 Hesburgh, Theodore M . , Miller, Paul A., Wharton, Clifton R . , Jr. Patterns for Lifelong Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1973. Lippitt, Ronald, Watson, Jeanne, and Westley, Bruce. The Dynamics of Planned Change. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1958. Miles, Matthew B. ed., Innovation in Education. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964. Morgan, Robin, 1970. ed., Sisterhood is Powerful. New York: Rogers, Everett. Diffusion of Innovation. New York: of Gencoe, 1962. Vintage Books, The Free Press Rossi, Alice S. and Calderwood, Ann. eds., Academic Women on the Move. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1973. Spiegel, Jeanne, ed., Continuing Education for Women: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Washington7~D^C7: Business and Professional Women's Foundation, 1967. Sullerot, Evelyne. Woman, Society and Change. New York: Book Company7 1971. McGraw-Hill Westervelt, Esther Manning. Women's Higher and Continuing Education: An Annotated Bibliography with Selected References on Related Aspects of Women's iivesi New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1971. Woody, Thomas. A History of Women's Education in the United States. New York: Octagon Books, Inc., 1966. Articles and Periodicals Asbell, Bernard. "Housewives on Campus: 'I Feel Alive Again*." McCalls, v. 91, no. 2 (November, 1963) pp. 136-137. "Adult Education is Booming Field." Guidepost of the Personnel and Guidance Association, (February 11, 1974). "The Average Woman's Lifeline." Feminine Focus of the Intercollegiate Association of Women Students, (March,1970). 171 Bartlett, Robin L. and Moser, Collete H. "Women and Work: Female Segregation and Sex Concentration in the Work Force." Nebraska Journal of Economics and Business, (Autumn, 1974) pp. 75-91. Chin Robert. "Some Ideas on Changing." In Richard I. Miller ed., Perspectives on Educational Qiange . New York: AppletonCentury-Crofts, (1967) pp. 325-3471. Leland, Carole. "Structures and Strangers in Higher Education." In An Imperative for the Seventies: Releasing Creative Woman Powers St. Louis, Missouri: University of Missouri at St. Louis, Extension Division, (1969), pp. 15-18. Merideth, Elizabeth and Meredith, Robert. "Adult Women's Education: A Radical Critique." Journal of NAWOC (National Association of Women Deans and Counselors), (Spring, 1971) pp. 111-120. Moynihan, Daniel P. "The Impact on Manpower Development and the Employment of Youth." In Earl J. McGrath ed., Universal Higher Education, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (1972). Neugarten, Bernice L. "Education and the Life-Cycle." (February, 1972) pp. 209-216. School Review, «T5 Osborn, Ruth Helm. "Developing New Horizons for Women." Adult Leadership, (April, 1971) pp. 326-328, 350, 351, 360. Wells, Jean A. and Magruder, Harriet G. "Education Programs for Mature Women.” The Education Digest, (January, 1972) pp. 42-45. Westervelt, Esther M. "Education, Vocation and Avocation in Women's Lives." In Anne Firor Scott ed., What is Happening to American Women. Atlanta, Georgia: Southern Newspaper Publishers Association Foundation (1970) pp. 57-93. Reports The Carnegie Commision on Higher Education. The Purposes and the Performance of Higher Education in the United States. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973. The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. Toward a Learning Society. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973. Keyserling, Mary Dublin. "Continuing Education for Women— A Growing Challenge". Paper presented at the Twenty-Second National Conference on Higher Education, Chicago, Illinois, March 7, 1967. 172 Mulligan, Kathryn L. "A Question of Opportunity: Women and Continuing Education." Washington, D.C.: National Advisory Council on Extension and Continuing Education, 1973. Raines, Max. An Appraisal of the New York State Guidance Center for Women. Albany, New York: State University of New York, 1970. Process Goals in the Establishment of Comprehensive Women's Programs." Presentation at the Multi-Faceted Women's Center Conference, the Continuum Center, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, October 23-25, 1973. The Second Newman Report: National Policy and Higher Education. Report of a Special Task Force to the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1973. "The University, Adult Education, and a Changing Society." Proceedings of the 9th Annual Seminar, Kellogg Center for Continuing Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, 1966. U. S. Department of Labor. Employment Standards Administration. Women's Bureau. Continuing Education for Women: Current Developments, 1974. _______.Women's Bureau. Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women, Bulletin No. 10 (revised)'. Washington, D.C.: 1968. _______ .Women's Bureau. Fact Sheet on the Earnings Gap. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. .Women's Bureau. Why Women Work. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. _______ .Women's Bureau. Women Workers Today. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. .Work in Progress, Third Report, December 1964 - September, 1966. Bronxville, New York: Sarah Laurence College, Center for Continuing Education and Community Studies, 1967. 173 Unpublished Materials Maybry, Dona K. "Perceptions of Needs of Delivery of Services for Women in Re-entry." Unpublished Report. Memphis, Tennessee: Division of Program Development, Public Service and Continuing Education, Memphis State University, 1974. Mayhew, Harry Calvin. "An Analysis of Comprehensive Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women at Selected Midwestern Universities." Unpublished Ed. D. thesis, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, 1970. APPENDICES 174 APPENDIX A LETTER TO CONTINUING EDUCATION DIRECTORS QUESTIONNAIRE REGARDING PROGRAM CONTENT 175 M IC H IG A N STATE U N I V E R S IT Y east l a n s in g • M ic h ig a n 48823 COLLEGE OF E D U C A T IO N • ER IC KSO N H ALL February 21, 1975 Dear I am presently pursuing a doctoral dissertation directed by Dr. toe Raines, Professor of Adminis trat ion and Higher Education at Michigan State University, on "Programs and Services for Women in Michigan Community Colleges". Consequently, I am attempting to gather some basic information on the nature and scope of such programs. The enclosed brief questionnaire has been developed in an effort to gain a more accurate picture of programs and services designed for women (although they may also be available to men) presently being offered within Michigan’s community colleges. Do you have anyone at Community College presently in charge of coordinating programs for women (either full-time or part-time)? If so, could you please forward this form to that person? If not, could you fill out any items which are applicable to your institution? (For example, item 6 designates a variety of programs and services which your college may provide especially for women, even if no formal program has been established.) If you have no programs or services at this time which are especially designed for women, please note this on the questionnaire and return it in the enclosed envelope by March 4, 1975. Your time and cooperation is most appreciated. Best of luck in your continuing efforts at Community College. Let us hope that the Winter frost soon breaks forth and allows real Spring flowers to emerge! Sincerely yours, 7%jU, Ty. Rita M. Costick Instructor, College of Education Ph.D. Candidate, Administration and Higher Education Enclosure: Questionnaire RMC/pjs 176 PROGRAMS AND SERVICES FOR WOMEN IN MICHIGAN COMMUNITY AND JUNIOR COLLEGES Name ____ ______________________________ ___ ________________ _ Office Address Title ___________________ Office Phone_____________ Institution___________________ Does your institution presently provide any prograns and/or services especially designed for women? Yes _____ No _______ 1. How long has your institution provided special programs and/or services for women?_________________________ _____________ ________ 2. Your position relating to women's programs/services is presently: Other (Please Specify)____ Full-time ____ Half-time 3. What is your approximate budget (for women's programs and services) for the present year? If you do not presently have a budget specifically earmarked for women's programs/services, do you have any access to institutional resources (eg. personnel, money for materials, etc.)? Please briefly describe ________ ___________ 4. At your institution, do you have any other paid staff working to help provide programs and/or services for women? (Include secretarial staff, work-study students, etc.) Yes No ___ If so, how many? ____ What is each persons role? (Please briefly describe) _____________________________________ ________ ___________ 5. To what extent are you presently utilizing volunteer workers? 6. Please check the programs and services your institution presently provides especially for women (although they may be also available to men): Personal Counseling _____ Vocational Testing and/or Guidance _____ Financial Aid _____ Vocational Placement _____ Child Care _____ Women's Studies Courses _____ Community Outreach Programs __ Regularly scheduled gatherings especially for women _____ 7. Self-awareness Courses (such as Investigation Into Identity)_ Women's Resource Center _____ Women's Library or Reading Room _____ Conferences/Workshops designed especially for women _____ Refresher Courses _____ Other (Please Specify) _____ Are you presently offering any additional programs/services designed especially for the female student aged 18-22 (such as "Life Span Planning", "Career Preparation", etc.) or for the woman over 65? Please briefly describe._____________________ ______________________ 177 APPENDIX B SELECTED PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS 178 SELECTED PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS Name 1. 2. 3. 4. Kathleen Asher Nancy Dufour Anne Mulder Mila UnderhillPrice Title Institution Interview Date Director, Women's Center Programs C. S. Mott Conmunity College 4/28/75 Coordinator, Women's Resource Centers Macomb County Conmunity College 4/30/75 Coordinator, Women's Programs Grand Rapids Junior College 4/ 2/75 Coordinator, Learning 5 Career Center for Women Lansing Conmunity College 2/25/75 179 APPENDIX C LETTER TO SELECTED WOMEN'S PROGRAM DIRECTORS SCALE OF INNOVATION: ORDERING OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES 180 M IC H IG A N STATE U N I V E R S IT Y COLLEGE OF E D U C A T IO N • BRICKSON H ALL bast la n sjn g • M ic h ig a n 48823 ^ 2 1 4 April 7, 1975 Ms. Nancy Dufour Coordinator, Women’s Resource Center Macomb Community College 14500 Twelve Mile Road Warren, Michigan 48093 Dear Nancy, Your help in this study of ''Comprehensive Continuing Education Programs and Services for Women in Michigan Coimunity and Junior Colleges” is most appreciated. You are joined by Kathleen Asher of Mott Coimnunity College, Anne Mulder of Grand Rapids Junior College, and Mila Underhill-Price of Lansing Community College. The ultimate purpose of the study is to develop recommendations and guidelines for the effective planning, implementation, and evaluation of continuing education programs for women. Information gained will be synthesized into a brief, readable, pragmatic paper which will be disseminated to coimnunity college women's programs throught the state. Your assistance and expertise as a practitioner is being sought in the following ways: 1. To complete the enclosed "Scale of Innovation: Ordering of Developmental Stages” and return it in the enclosed envelop at your earliest convenience. 2. To complete a relatively brief questionnaire regarding "Developmental Steps” which you, your colleagues, and/or your predecessors have implemented within the women's program. This questionnaire requires only a check-off procedure on your part- -no writing is requested. This form should reach you by April 21, 1975. 3. To participate in an interview which will serve to clarify the questionnaire, and to provide further information on the process by which you accomplished specific steps in program development. Your knowledge from the field is invaluable to those now undertaking, or planning to undertake, a similar venture in program development for women. Hopefully you will find the "theory" of planned change, which is presented through the structure of the questionnaire and follow-up interview, enlightening and useful in your work. 181 Ms. Nancy Dufour April 7, 1975 Page two The combined knowledge and insight of theory and practice should serve to facilitate more effective program development for women throughout the entire state. Your contribution to this endeavor is most valued. Again thank you and best of luck in doing the real thing in the coining months! Cordially yours, y?i. Rita M. Costick Instructor, College of Education Ph.D. Candidate, Administration § Higher Education Enclosure Interview Date: Time: Wednesday, April 30, 1975 1:00 p.m. Please contact me if any problems arise: RMC/pjs 517-353-8763 182 Directions for the SCALE OF INNOVATION: ORDERING OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES Six descriptive phrases on gummed labels are listed in alphabetical order on the right-hand side of the follow­ ing page. Please order these phrases (which represent ’'theoretical" stages in program development) in the order in which you, your colleagues, and/or your predecessors have actually implemented than. Place the first phrase which was implemented at the top of the left-hand side of the page, the second below it, etc. Labels peel off easily and can be moved around as you determine your ordering. Any phrases which have not been implemented, please allow to remain on the right-hand side of the page. After you have completed the ordering, please return the page to Rita M. Costick in the enclosed envelop at your earliest convenience. Thankyou. 183 SCALE OF INNOVATION: ORDERING OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES Acquired resources essential to meeting clients* needs Built a relationship with the persons to be served by the Women's Program (clients) Determined the programs and services to be made available to clients Diagnosed the clients' needs Implemented special programs and services for women Stabilized (insured the continuance of) the Women's Program 184 APPENDIX D LETTER TO SELECTED WOMEN'S PROGRAM DIRECTORS QUESTIONNAIRE REGARDING DEVELOPMENTAL STEPS 185 M IC H IG A N STATE U N IV E R S IT Y east l a n s in g • Mic h ig a n 4882j COLLEGE OF E D U C A T IO N • EIUCKSO N HALL April 18, 1975 TO: Kathleen Asher, Nancy Dufour, Anne Mulder, Mila Underhill -Price FROM: RE: Rita M. Costick Questionnaire pertaining to "Steps in Program Development." The following questionnaire has been developed from research on "the process of planned change", i.e., the process by which an intentional, systematic effort is made to attain an improved state of functioning in a client system. There is currently a wealth of information in the literature attempting to help practitioners become more effective change agents. I have pulled together the ideas of one author in particular, and have expressed in the form of a checklist questionnaire for program developers the steps that are believed to facilitate the process of planned change. It is important to keep the "theoretical" nature of this questionnaire in perspective: the steps listed are possible steps in program development; it would be quite unusual for any program to have accomplished all, or even most, of them. It is more probable that any given program may have had the staff, resources, time, and opportunity to achieve only a few of these steps. The major purpose of this study is not to measure programs on the basis of how many steps have been achieved, but rather to learn about the process by which the specific steps implemented by each program were actually acomplished. Consequently, the follow-up interview is essential for the purpose of clarifying and providing further informa­ tion on the manner in which particular steps were carried out. The checklist questionnaire simply helps to establish a beginning point for that discussion. Your input is most valuable; I hope you will find the process of thinking over the various possible "theoretical" steps a helpful one in your own work. I look forward to talking with each of you in person. Thank you for your continued and helpful involvement. RMC/pjs 186 QUESTIONNAIRE Directions: RE: STEPS IN PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT Please check only those items which you, your colleagues, and/or your predecessors have actually implemented within the Women's Program, and which you can document with specific illustrations in the follow-up interview. After completion, please keep (do not return) the questionnaire so that it may be utilized during the scheduled interview. Thank you! 187 Building a Relationship with the Client System Please check if you have: 1. Identified the persons you intend to serve, your clients or "target group", (e.g. professional women, ADC mothers, blue-collar workers, all community women and men). 2. Determined other groups to whom your direct clients are related, (e.g. church groups, professional organizations, civic groups, community agencies) 3. Identified influential persons in the clients1 environment, (e.g. formal opinion leaders such as the director; informal leaders) 4. Determined the norms of the community in terms of shared beliefs, values, and rules of behavior. 5. Determined that sufficient support is present to make your position as director or coordinator of Women's Programs viable. (i.e., Are there adequate finances? Facilities? Staff? Administrative support?) 6. Established official linkages with other members of the college including faculty, administrators, counselors, and students. 7. Gained the support of the College President and other influential administrators. 8. Gained the support of the College Board of Trustees. 9. Enlisted the support of one or more clients to work with you who have experience in program development. 10. Established official linkages outside the college. (e.g. clubs, churches, other institutions of higher education, business, industry, professional groups) 11. Formulated an official advisory group to the Women's Program which includes representataives of various segments of the college and of the community. 12. Generated open but realistic expectations about the capabilities of the Women's Program, (i.e. Have you established that you are not the Miracle Worker?) 13. Other (Please Specify) 188 Diagnosing the Clients' Needs; Establishing Objectives Please check if you have: 1. Identified the clients' needs jointly with the clients. 2. Identified which specific needs have the greatest potential to be met through the Women's Program. 3. Determined the clients' general goals. 4. Worked with clients to establish obtainable objectives. 5. Established priorities for working toward goals and objectives. 6. Other (Please Specify) __________________________________ 189 Acquiring Resources Essential to Meeting Clients’ Needs Please check if you have: 1. Developed an awareness of potential resources within the community (and outside of it) which might help to provide solutions to expressed needs. 2. Subscribed to newsletters, periodicals, magazines, books, pamphlets, etc. to become informed about new developments in continuing education/women's programs. 3. Attended meetings/conferences regarding developing of continuing education/women's programs. 4. Visited other continuing education/women's programs. 5. Developed an awareness of the types of information services and centers available for educators (especially in continuing education or women's programs), where they are located, and how they can be contacted. 6. Been able to obtain adequate college resources (personnel, budget, facilities) in order to develop the type of program necessary to meet designated own goals and objectives. 7. Other (Please Specify) 190 Determining the Programs and Services to be Made Available to Clients Please check if you have: 1. Read published materials on continuing education programs/women's programs. 2. "Brainstormed" possible types of programs with a small group of clients. 3. Tried out programs/services for clients on a trial basis before implementation on a large scale. 4. Determined a method for evaluating trial usage. 5. Determined a method for deciding whether or not to offer particular programs/services. 6. Revised programs/services on the basis of trial usage. 7. Determined that clients can meet the dollar cost and human costs (in time and commitment) required to participate in the Women's Program. 8. Determined that there is sufficient numbers of staff who are adequately trained, as well as adequate resources (facilities, materials, etc.), to make the Women's Program successful. 9. Other (Please Specify) _______________________________ 191 Implementing Special Programs and Services for Women Please check if you have: 1. Determined what values, beliefs, interests, needs, circumstances common to the community might potentially oppose or inhibit the acceptance of the Women’s Programs. 2. Determined what values, beliefs, interests, needs, circumstances common to the community might potentially favor or facilitate the acceptance of the Women’s Program. 3. Identified a list of key persons within the community who might oppose or inhibit the acceptance of the Women's Program. 4. Identified a list of key persons within the community who might favor or facilitate the acceptance of the Women's Program. 5. Discussed the Women's Program with persons in the community who are known to have a commitment to new ideas 6. Pursuaded community leaders to publically endorse the Women's Program. 7. Provided written-oral presentations, films, pictures in order to interpret the purposes and functions of the Women's Program. 8. Provided group discussions, conferences/workshops, person-to-person contact with clients in order to facilitate understanding and eventual utilization of the Women's Program. 9. Formally evaluated the Women's Program. 10. Redesigned or restructured the Women's Program on the basis of evaluation in order to make it more acceptable to clients. 11. Other (Please Specify) ___________________________________ 192 Stabilizing (Insuring the Continuance of) the Women's Program Please check if you have: 1. Established mechanisms to insure the periodic evaluation of the Women's Program. 2. Created a "maintenance" mechanism whereby mistakes and breakdowns in communication within the Women's Program can be corrected. 3. Established a mechanism whereby the Women's Program can be reshaped to meet the changing needs of clients or a changing clientele. 4. Provided concrete rewards (financial aid, recognition) to clients who have helped develop and maintain the Women's Program. 5. Encouraged clients to become increasingly influential in decision-making regarding the goals and objectives of Women's Program. 6. Developed institutional support (finances, personnel, facilities) for the maintenance and further development of the Women's Program. 7. Set aside time and resources on a regular basis to think about the future and to draw up tentative programs to meet future needs. 8. Other (Please Specify) 193 APPENDIX E INTERVIEW GUIDE 194 INTERVIEW GUIDE Stage I: Building a Relationship with the Client System 1. Who are your clients? By what process or mechanism did you determine who your clients would be? 2. What are the norms, values, and rules of behavior within your community which might effect the Women's Program? How did you determine community norms? 3. What is your relationship with the College President and Board of Trustees? If you have gained their support, how did you do so? 4. What is your relationship with college faculty, administrators, and counselors? 5. Who are the influential persons in your community? How did you identify them? 6. What are the influential groups? How were they determined? 7. If you have an advisory board, of whom is it composed? How did you select these persons? Stage II: Diagnosing the Clients' Needs; Establishing Objectives 1. By what method(s) did you determine clients' needs? 2. How did you determine goals and objectives? 3. How did you establish priorities? Stage III: Acquiring Resources Essential to Meeting Clients' Needs 1. By what process have you obtained adequate resources (personnel, budget, facilities) from the college? 195 2. How did you determine potential resources within the community and the college? 3. What state/national resources have you found most helpful? Stage IV: Determining the Programs and Services to be Made Available to Clients 1. What are the criteria by which particular programs/ services are offered and maintained? How was this criteria determined? 2. What method have you determined for evaluating trial usage? 3. What are the costs to participate in various components of the Women’s Program (e.g., for counseling, workshops, conferences, classes)? Stage V: Implementing Special Programs and Services for Women 1. How did you determine what values/beliefs/persons in the community and college might potentially favor or oppose the Women's Program? 2. In what ways have you discussed the Women's Program with influential community members? 3. What publicity approaches have you utilized? How were your methods determined? Stage VI: 1. Stabilizing (Insuring the Continuance of) the Women's Program How do you evaluate the overall Women's Program? Do you evaluate the content? How? Do you evaluate your own process of program development and implementation? How? 2. What mechanisms have you established to maintain ongoing communication (to help prevent potential problems, breakdowns)? 196 3. In what ways are clients influential in decision-making about the Women's Program? 4. How have clients who have helped to develop and maintain the Women's Program been rewarded? 5. To what extent has the Women's Program gained institutional support for its maintenance and further development? How has this been accomplished? The Future of Special Programs and Services for Women 1. What do you believe is the future of "special" programs and services for women? 2. Do you anticipate serving men more intentionally at some point in the future? Recommendations for Women's Program Planners 1. If you were to start all over again, what would you do differently? 2. What recommendations would you make for others involved in developing women's programs? APPENDIX F REVISED QUESTIONNAIRE REGARDING DEVELOPMENTAL STEPS WOMEN’S CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND SERVICES QUESTIONNAIRE RE: STEPS IN PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT The following document was revised based on feedback from four selected Women's Program Directors: Kathleen Asher, Mott Community College; Nancy Dufour, Macomb County Community College; Anne Mulder, Grand Rapids Junior College; and Mila UnderhillPrice, Lansing Community College. It is suggested as a program development tool for those persons interested in, or presently engaged in, developing special programs and services for women in a college or university environment. © R i t a M. Costick, 1975. All rights reserved. 199 Building a Relationship with the Client System* Please check if you have: 1. Identified the persons you intend to serve, your clients or "target group" (e.g., professional women, ADC mothers, blue-collar workers, all community women and men). 2. Enlisted the support of one or more clients to work with you who have experience in program development. 3. Determined the norms of the community in terms of shared beliefs, values, and rules of behavior. 4. Established official or unofficial linkages with other members of the college including faculty, administrators, counselors, and students. 5. Gained the support of the College President and other influential adminis trators. 6. Gained the support of the College Board of Trustees. 7. Determined other groups to whom you direct clients are related (e.g., church groups, professional organizations, civic groups, community agencies). 8. Identified influential persons in the client system (e.g., persons with the YWCA, Professional Women’s Organizations, AALIW). 9. Established official or unofficial linkages outside the college (e.g., clubs, churches, other institutions of higher education, business, industry, professional groups). 10. Formulated an official advisory group to the Women’s Program which includes representatives of various segments of the college and of the community. *Client System refers to the identified clients and all persons in the community intending to serve these clients. 200 Diagnosing the Client's Needs; Establishing Objectives Please check if you have: 1. Identified the clients' needs jointly with the clients. 2. Generated open but realistic expectations about the capabilities of the Women's Program to meet identified needs. 3. Identified which specific needs have the greatest potential to be met through the Women's Program. 4. Worked with clients to establish goals and obtainable objectives. 5. Established priorities for working toward goals and objectives. 201 Acquiring Resources Essential to Meeting Clients* Needs Please check if you have: 1. Secured adequate college resources (personnel, budget, facilities) in order to develop the type of program necessary to meet designated goals and objectives. 2. Developed an awareness of potential resources within the community (and within the college) which might help to provide solutions to expressed needs. 3. Attended meetings/conferences regarding developing of continuing education/women's programs. 4. Visited other continuing education/women's programs, and/or talked over the phone with other continuing education/women's program staff. 5. Developed an awareness of the types of information services and centers available for educators (especially in continuing education or women's programs), where they are located, and how they can be contacted. 6. Subscribed to newsletters, periodicals, magazines, books, pamphlets, etc. to become informed about new developments in continuing education/women's programs. 202 Determining the Programs and Services to Be Made Available to Clients Please check if you have: 1. "Brainstormed" possible types of programs with a small group of clients. 2. Read published materials on continuing education programs/women's programs. 3. Determined a method for deciding what particular programs/services should be offered. 4. Tried out programs/services for clients on a trial basis before implementation on a large scale. 5. Determined a method for evaluating trial usage. 6. Revised programs/services on the basis of trial usage. 7. Determined that clients can meet the dollar cost and human costs (in time and commitment) required to participate in the Women's Program. 203 Implementing Special Programs and Services for Women Please check if you have: 1. Determined what values, beliefs, interests, needs, circumstances common to the community/college might potentially favor or facilitate the acceptance of the Women’s Program. 2. Identified key persons within the community/college who might favor or facilitate the acceptance of the Women's Program. 3. Determine what values, beliefs, interests, needs, circumstances common to the community/college might potentially oppose or inhibit the acceptance of the Women's Programs. 4. Identified key persons within the community/college who might oppose or inhibit the acceptance of the Women's Program. 5. Discussed the Women's Program with persons in the community/college who are known to have a commitment to new ideas. 6. Talked with community/college leaders who then publically endorsed the Women's Program. 7. Provided written/oral presentations, films, pictures in order to interpret the purposes and functions of the Women's Program. 8. Provided group discussions, conferences/workshops, person-to-person contact with potential clients in order to facilitate understanding and eventual utilization of the Women's Program. 203 Implementing Special Programs and Services for Women Please check if you have: 1. Determined what values, beliefs, interests, needs, circumstances common to the community/college might potentially favor or facilitate the acceptance of the Women's Program. 2. Identified key persons within the community/college who might favor or facilitate the acceptance of the Women's Program. 3. Determine what values, beliefs, interests, needs, circumstances common to the community/college might potentially oppose or inhibit the acceptance of the Women's Programs. 4. Identified key persons within the community/college who might oppose or inhibit the acceptance of the Women's Program. 5. Discussed the Women's Program with persons in the community/college who are known to have a commitment to new ideas. 6. Talked with community/college leaders who then publically endorsed the Women's Program. 7. Provided written/oral presentations, films, pictures in order to interpret the purposes and functions of the Women's Program. 8. Provided group discussions, conferences/workshops, person-to-person contact with potential clients in order to facilitate understanding and eventual utilization of the Women's Program. 204 Stabilizing (Insuring the Continuance of) the Women’s Program Please check if you have: 1. Established a mechanism to insure the formal, periodic evaluation of total Women’s Program. 2. Established a mechanism whereby the Women's Program can be reshaped to meet the changing needs of clients or a changing clientele (e.g., periodic surveys, meetings, conferences). 3. Created regularly scheduled opportunities for interaction and communication among the various persons related to the Women's Program (e.g., program staff, clients, advisory board). 4. Set aside time and resources on a regular basis to think about the future and to draw up tentative programs to meet future needs. 5. Encouraged clients to become increasingly influential in decision-making regarding the goals and objectives of Women's Program. 6. Facilitated meaningful rewards (e.g., press recognition, verbal affirmation) for clients who have helped develop and maintain the Women's Program. 7. Developed institutional support (finances, personnel, facilities) for the maintenance and further development of the Women's Program.