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Filmed as Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 76-5562 HADDOCK, Kenneth Charles, 1940SOCIOECONOMIC DETERMINANTS OF ELDERLY NEEDS SATISFACTION IN LANSING, MICHIGAN. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1975 Social Geography Xerox University Microfilms, © Ann Arbor, M ichigan 48106 Copyright by KENNETH CHARLES HADDOCK 1975 SOCIOECONOMIC DETERMINANTS OF ELDERLY NEEDS SATISFACTION IN LANSING, MICHIGAN By Kenneth Charles Haddock A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Geography 1975 ABSTRACT SOCIOECONOMIC DETERMINANTS OF ELDERLY NEEDS SATISFACTION IN LANSING, MICHIGAN By Kenneth Charles Haddock The present study examines a number of elements which function as determinants of elderly needs satis­ faction in Lansing, Michigan. Needs satisfaction means the attainment of basic necessities by older persons; these necessities are defined as food, clothing, shelter, medical attention, and social participation, i.e. having visitors and visiting out, and attendance at group activies. Specific objectives are the characterization of the elderly in terms of demographic, social, and eco­ nomic variables; an examination of the factors affecting the degree of connectivity between older individuals and their environment; and the advancement of recommendations for the improvement of the accessibility of services for the elderly. It is hypothesized that the manner and degree to which the elderly achieve their needs are related to various demographic, economic, and social characteristics to their degree of accessibility to services; and to so­ cial bonds which the elderly have formed. To test the hypotheses a sample of elderly persons was selected and Kenneth Charles Haddock interviewed. This was accomplished by identifying the "older" areas of the city and choosing three census tracts using the criteria of numbers of older persons, socioeco­ nomic status, accessibility to public transportation, and location relative to the central business district. Selec­ tion of the sample population consisted of a randomization procedure designed to produce a minimum 10 percent sample of the elderly in each of three census tracts. Information was obtained by interview based on a lengthy questionnaire designed to elicit both objective and subjective data. One hundred fifty-three question­ naires were collected and the data analyzed by nonparametric statistical techniques, chi-square and rank order correlation, as well as tabular and graphic methods. The sample population consists largely of females, 62.7 percent, and contains a majority of married individ­ uals, 48.4 percent, though widowed persons, mainly women, comprise a significant portion of the sample, 37.3 percent. Mobility of the elderly was found to depend largely upon the automobile; in turn, sex plays a role in the availabil­ ity of the automobile, for 82.5 percent of the males drive, whereas only 36.5 percent of females are drivers. public transportation is insignificant; Use of 87.6 percent re­ sponded that they use public transportation less than once per year. Significant relationships were also found to Kenneth Charles Haddock exist between the mobility of the elderly and age, health, and income. Examination of service needs reveals that most visit their doctors two or more times per year; in addi­ tion, income bears a significant relationship to the fre­ quency of visiting the doctor. The patterns of movement of older persons from each of the three tracts to physi­ cian sites are analyzed to discern the influences of dis­ tance and locational considerations on doctor usage. Most of the elderly are able to fulfill their shopping needs for groceries and other items with the auto­ mobile driven by oneself or others as the dominant mode of transportation to the store. Age, health, and income sig­ nificantly affect the frequency of shopping by the elderly and mapping the locations of, and flow patterns to stores frequented by the elderly reveals directional preferences in the utilization of space, The social life of the elderly is quite active, with 71.9 percent visiting others at least once per month, and 91.5 percent receiving visitors in their homes. Age, income, marital status, and, to a lesser degree, health significantly affect the frequency of visits made by the elderly. The availability of the automobile also appears to be an important factor in the success or failure of elderly social life. This latter observation is confirmed Kenneth Charles Haddock by the fact that 76.4 percent of the elderly traveling to clubs do so by automobile. However, only 4 3.1 percent of the elderly belong to clubs and the majority hold only one membership and attend once per month. Attendance at senior centers is minimal, only 4.6 percent attend and the majority of those not attending respond that they are not interested in attending. The automobile plays a significant role in the mobility scheme of the elderly and is a dominant element in the process of needs satisfaction. The availability of the automobile tends to mitigate distance and loca­ tional considerations in the achievement of needs satis­ faction. A number of recommendations are made regarding the improvement of public transportation for the elderly. These suggestions consider both the need for a total as­ sessment of the potential passenger market among the el­ derly, as well as the need for improvements in transpor­ tation availability for the general public. In viewing possibilities for further study, it is suggested that geographers can contribute to the process of theory build­ ing in gerontology. One area suggested for study is the determination of the effects of socioenvironmental factors upon the adjustments of the elderly to their environments. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this research was made possible through the assistance of many persons. Appreciation is particularly extended to the older citizens of Lansing whose cooperation made the study possible. Mr. David Pur­ vis of the Planning Department, City of Lansing, and Miss Carol Rapson, Program Supervisor, Lansing Parks and Recre­ ation Department, were both particularly helpful in provid­ ing data on the elderly community. Thanks is also offered to all the individuals in the various agencies in the Lansing area who provided information and gave of their time to as­ sist in this study. Appreciation is deeply extended to the members of my dissertation committee, especially Dr. Robert N. Thomas, Chairman, who provided much personal guidance; also to Dr. Georg Borgstrom, Dr. Gary Manson, and Dr. J. Allan Beegle who helped to provide the impetus to initiate the study. Thanks is also give to Sioux Remer for her cartographic assistance. Lastly, special thanks goes to my wife Arlene, whose assistance, encouragement, and fortitude greatly con­ tributed to the completion of this study. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF T A B L E S .......................................... V LIST OF F I G U R E S ..................................... . . x CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . Elderly Defined ............................... The Aging P r o c e s s ................. ................................... Objectives Theories on Aging ............................ Literature Review ............................ Geographic Literature ...................... Sociological, Gerontological, and Other Literature ........... Hypotheses . . . . . . . II. 1 2 4 6 8 11 11 12 22 P R O C E D U R E S ....................................... 24 Lansing's Elderly Population ............... 24 N u m b e r s .......................... 24 D i s t r i b u t i o n ............................ . . 26 Selection of the Sample Population ......... 28 Tract S e l e c t i o n .............................. 28 The S a m p l e .................................. 33 ......... 35 Selection of Questionnaire Items The I n t e r v i e w ................................ 36 III. SOCIOECONOMIC AND TRANSPORTATION CHARACTER­ ISTICS OF THE SAMPLE P O P U L A T I O N ................. 38 Subpopulation Analysis of Socioeconomic Characteristics ............................ 43 Transportation Habits of the Sample Popula­ tion ......................................... 57 Transportation Habits of the Sample Sub­ populations ........... 64 iii IV. SERVICE NEEDS OF THE E L D E R L Y ................ 86 Visiting the D o c t o r ......................... 86 Variations in Visiting the Doctor Due to Socioeconomic Factors . . . . . ......... 93 Distance and Locational Considerations . . 96 Health: Final Comments .................... 10 4 Interaction Due to S h o p p i n g ................ 10 5 Summation of Shopping Characteristics . . . 105 Shopping: Detailed Analysis ............. 115 V. SOCIAL PARTICIPATION OF THE A G E D ........... 139 Interaction Resulting From Visiting ......... ......... Visiting Out: Detailed Analysis Participation in Group Activities ........... Summary of Membership and Participation . . Analysis of Group Activity Data ........... ............. Attendance at Senior Centers VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............... 139 143 153 153 160 168 173 ....................... 173 Recurrent Themes Tract 7 in P e r s p e c t i v e ................ . 174 The Automobile and Needs Satisfaction . . . . 175 Additional Considerations .................... 177 A Diagrammatic Presentation of Elderly Needs S a t i s f a c t i o n ...................... 180 Recommendations ............................... 182 D i s t a n c e .................... ........... 18 3 Routing/Scheduling ........................ 184 Suggested Alternatives for Public Trans­ portation ................................. 18 5 Implications for Theories of Aging . . . . . 187 Further Research ............................. 190 A P P E N D I X ................................................193 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................... 202 iv LIST OF TABLES 1. 2. 3. United States Population Aged 65 and Over, 1900-1970 1 Selected Characteristics: Population, 1910-1972 5 United States Characteristics of Lansing's Elderly Population by Selected Census Tracts .................... 29 Housing and Income Characteristics of the Population, Lansing, Michigan by Selected Census Tracts ................................. 31 5. Marital Status of the Sample Population 40 6. Income Characteristics of the Sample Popula­ tion ..............................................41 7. Composition by Sex of the Three Study Areas and of the Three Sample Populations ............. 44 8. Age Characteristics of the Subpopulations 44 9. Marital Status of the Three Subpopulation G r o u p s ............................................45 10. Length of Residency of the Three Subpopula­ tions ........................................... 47 11. Income Characteristics of the Three Subpopula­ tions ............................................50 12. Income Crosstabulated by Marital Status for the Three S u b p o p u l a t i o n s ............................ 50 13. Employment Characteristics of the Three Sub­ populations ..................................... 52 14. Educational Attainment by Sex of Respondents and Spouses in the Three Population Sub­ groups ........................................... 54 4. v . . . . ... 15. Self-Assessment of Health by the Subpopulation G r o u p s .............................................56 16. Frequency of Car Use by the E l d e r l y .............. 59 17. Reasons Given by the Sample Population for Not Using Public Transportation .................. 60 18. Responses to Questionnaire Item 73: How Far is it to the Nearest Bus S t o p ? .................... 61 19. Estimated Time to Nearest Bus S t o p ................ 63 20. Responses to the Question: Do You Drive an A u t o m o b i l e ? ...................................... 66 21. Marital Status Crosstabulated by Driving S t a t u s ............................................. 66 22. Age Crosstabulated by Driving Status ........... 23. Crosstabulation of Health by Driving Status for the E l d e r l y ...................................... 69 24. Income Crosstabulated by Automobile Ownership for the Sample P o p u l a t i o n ...................... 71 25. Frequency of Automobile Usage in the Three Sample Tracts ................................. 72 Persons Identified as Automobile Drivers by the Respondents in the Three Sample Areas . . . . 74 26. 68 27. Reasons Cited for Not Using Public Transpor­ tation .............................................76 28. Estimated Distance to the Nearest Bus Stop . . . 29. Estimated Travel Time to the Nearest Bus Stop 30. The Use of Walking as a Means of Transporta­ tion ............................................... 81 31. Crosstabulation of Health by Frequency of W a l k i n g ........................ 77 . 79 83 32. Crosstabulation of Age by Health for the Sample P o p u l a t i o n ..................................... 8 5 33. Frequency of Visiting the D o c t o r .................. 88 vi 34. 35. Mode of Transportation Employed to Reach Doctors' Offices ............................... Distance Traveled to Reach Doctors' Offices . . 89 91 36. Frequency of Visiting the Doctor Crosstabulated by Age and Controlling for S e x .................. 94 37. Frequency of Visiting the Doctor Crosstabulated by Self-Assessed Health ...................... 38. 97 Locations and Numbers of Doctors Visited by the Sample Population .............................. 100 39. Distance Traveled to the Grocery Store ......... 40. Mode of Transportation Utilized for Grocery S h o p p i n g ......................................... 108 41. Frequency of Shopping Trips for Items Other Than F o o d ....................................... Ill 42. Distance Traveled for "Other" Shopping ......... 43. Frequency of Grocery Shopping Crosstabu.lated by A g e ........................................... 116 44. Frequency of "Other" Shopping Crosstabulated by A g e ........................................... 118 45. Frequency of Grocery Shopping Crosstabulated by H e a l t h ....................................... 120 46. Frequency of "Other" Shopping Crosstabulated by H e a l t h ....................................... 121 47. Frequency of Grocery Shopping Crosstabulated by I n c o m e ....................................... 123 48. Frequency of "Other" Shopping Crosstabulated by I n c o m e ....................................... 125 49. Mode of Transportation Utilized for Grocery Shopping Crosstabulated by Frequency of and Distance to Shopping Facilities .............. 134 50. Mode of Transportation Utilized for "Other" Shopping Crosstabulated by Frequency of and Distance to Shopping Facilities ............. 51. 106 112 136 Persons Visited by the E l d e r l y ................... 140 vii 52. Visitors Received by the E l d e r l y ................. 141 53. Frequency of Visiting Out by the Elderly . . . . 54. Mode of Transportation Utilized in Visiting O u t ..............................................144 55. Locales Visited by the E l d e r l y ....................144 56. Frequency of Visiting Out Crosstabulated by Mode of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n .......................... 146 57. Mode of Transportation Used to Visit Out Cross­ tabulated by Locales V i s i t e d ................... 146 58. Frequency of Visiting Out Crosstabulated by A g e .............................................. 147 59. Frequency of Visiting Out Crosstabulated by I n c o m e ........................................... 148 60. Frequency of Visiting Out Crosstabulated by H e a l t h ........................................... 150 61. Frequency of Visiting Out Crosstabulated by Marital Status ................................. 142 152 62. Number of Group Memberships Held by the E l d e r l y ......................................... 154 63. Types of Organizational Memberships 64. Frequency of Attendance at Organizational F u n c t i o n s ....................................... 156 65. Mode of Transportation Utilized in Traveling to Organizational Activities .................... ........... 155 157 66. Travel Distance to Organizational Activities 67. Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by A g e ..............................................161 68. Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by H e a l t h .......................... 161 Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by Marital S t a t u s ...................... 162 69. 70. . . 159 Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by 71. Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by S e x .............................................. 164 72. Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by E d u c a t i o n ....................................... 167 73. Reasons Given for Not Attending Senior Centers . 170 74. Factors Cited as Responsible for Limiting Recreational Activities ...................... ix 172 LIST OF FIGURES 1. Location Map of Lansing, M i c h i g a n ............ 25 2. Lansing— Aging I n d e x ............................ 27 3. Lansing: 4. Educational Levels of the Subpopulation Groups 5. Travel Distance 6. Travel Time to Nearest Bus S t o p ................... 63 7. Distance to Nearest Bus Stop for the Three Subpopulations ................................. City Bus Routes— Summer, 1973 . . . . 32 . 53 to Nearest Bus S t o p .............. 61 78 8. Travel Distance to the D o c t o r ................. 92 9. Locations of Doctors Utilized by the Elderly . . 99 10. Travel Distance for Grocery Shopping ........... 107 11. Travel Distance for "Other" Shopping ........... 113 12. Shopping Facilities Frequented by the Elderly 13. Travel Distance to C l u b s ....................... 158 14. A Diagrammatic Representation of Elderly Needs S a t i s f a c t i o n ............................... . . 181 x . 127 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION During the period 1900 to 1970 the elderly popula­ tion of the United States increased from three million to twenty million, and in percentages, from 4.1 percent to 9.9 percent of the nation's total population (Table 1). 1900 76 212 168 3 083 939 4.1 1910 92 228 531 3 953 945 ■£> • U> % of Total 1920 106 021 568 4 939 7 37 4.7 1930 123 202 660 6 644 378 5.5 1940 132 165 129 9 036 329 1950 151 325 798 12 294 698 1960 179 323 175 16 559 580 9.2 1970 203 211 9.26 20 065 502 9.9 • Aged 65 and Over 00 Total Population • Year 00 Table 1.— United States Population Aged 65 and Over, 1900-1970 Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Population: 1970 General Popula­ tion Characteristics, Final Report PC(1)-B1 United States Summary (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1971), p. 276. 2 Present indications are that the elderly may comprise 16 percent of the population by the year 2000.^ As a large and growing part of the United States population, the el­ derly and their problems warrant the attention of social scientists; towards this goal the present study investi­ gates the interrelationships between Lansing's elderly and their environment. Elderly Defined Aging is the product of complex biological, socio­ logical, and psychological processes which make its assess­ ment difficult, and categorizing an individual as elderly or aged is largely an arbitrary decision. Age 65 is com­ monly employed in population studies in the United States as the line of demarcation between those who are designated as old and the rest of the population. The present study is no exception; the elderly are defined as those indi­ viduals aged 65 and over. The Social Security Administration's choice of age 65 as the age of retirement with full benefits and the subsequent adoption of this standard by private pen­ sion plans has probably been the most influential factor 2 in bringing age 65 into common usage. The influence ■^■John D. Rockefeller 3rd. , Population and the American Future, The Report of the Commission on Popula­ tion Growth and the American Future (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972), p. 62. 2 Arnold M. Rose and Warren A. Peterson, eds., Older People and Their Social World; The Subculture of the Aging (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 1965), p. 12. 3 which the age of retirement exerts in the designation of the aged can be seen in the dependency ratio employed by demographers: P + P ^ ^ ^ ■ = --0-19 65+ x 100 dependency ratio =--------20-64 The ratio assumes the age group 20 to 64 to be the produc tive segment of society and those under 20 and 65 or over to be the dependent segment. However, social attitudes also play a large role in the definition of elderly in this instance, for not all individuals aged 65 and over are dependents, nor are all individuals aged 2 0 to 64 pro ductive. This tendency to associate old age with a change in the individual's way of life, that is from worker or producer to nonworker or retiree, may be spoken of as a change in the life cycle. The concept of the life cycle is based on the idea that: Like other species, man is subject to the processes of bodily growth, maturation to adulthood, slow de­ cline in vigor, and eventual death. This physiolog­ ical life cycle is paralleled by a rather elaborate set of cultural prescriptions of behavior that are appropriate for each of the physiological stages.3 The rationale for choosing individuals aged 65 and over as the subject population therefore, rests on the assumption that age 65 initiates the retirement years York: 3 Donald J. Bogue, Principles of Demography John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1969), p. 150. (New 4 for many individuals. Retirement marks a new way of life, and it is the fulfillment of life needs in this new stage of life with which this study is concerned. The Aging Process The aging of the United States population, defined as an increase in the proportion of aged individuals, in the last seventy years is largely attributable to falling birth rates, and not increased longevity as one might first 4 assume. Declining mortality or— which is the equivalent— increasing expectation of life, accelerates popula­ tion growth with respect to all age groups and not merely with respect to the segment at advanced ages. A relative slowing down of population growth in the younger age groups can, however, result from a de­ cline in the birth rate. Birth rates, and not death rates, are the major determining factor of population structure.5 Some indications of the effects that these processes have had on the aging of the United States population can be discerned by examining trends in births, deaths, and life expectancy during the present century. In the year 1900 the crude birth rate was 32 per 1,000, the crude death rate 17 per 1,000, and life expectancy 47 y e a r s .^ 4 Edward G. Stockwell, "The Changing Age Composi­ tion of the American Population," Social Biology 19 (March 1972): 1-8. 5 United Nations, "The Cause of the Aging of Popu­ lations: Declining Mortality or Declining Fertility," Population Bulletin of the United Nations, no. 4 (Decem­ ber 1954) , p. 30. ^Rockefeller, Population and the American Future, p. 17. 5 By 1970 the birth rate dropped to 18.2, the death rate stood at 9.4 and life expectancy climbed to 70.8 years (Table 2). Significantly however, while both birth and Table 2.— Selected Characteristics: tion, 1910-1972 United States Popula­ Year Crude Birth Rate (Rate Per 1,000 Population) Crude Death Rate (Rate Per 1,000 Population) Expectation of Life at Birth (In Years) 1910 30.1 14.7 51.6* 1920 27.7 13.0 54.1 1930 21. 3 11.3 59.7 1940 19.4 10.8 62.9 1950 24.1 9.6 68.2 1960 23.7 9.5 69.7 1970 18.2 9.4 70.8 1971 17. 3 9.3 71.1 1972 15.6 9.4 Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 197 3 , 94th ed. (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 197 3), pp. 51, 57; and *Donald J. Bogue, Principles of Demography (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1969), p. 572. death figures declined and the number of elderly increased between 1900 and 1970 (Table 1), death rates have remained nearly constant since 1950 while birth rates, except for the post-World War II "baby boom," have continued to fall. 6 In fact, the preliminary figure for 1972 of 15.6 births per 1,000 population surpasses the previous low of 18 per 1,000 reached during the depression era. These figures tend to verify that during the present century decreasing fertility rather than increased longevity or decreasing mortality account for the rise in the proportion of elder­ ly in the United States population. In addition to the preceding factors, immigration must also be considered as it affects the aging of the population. Immigration is generally age selective for those in their younger years, thereby tipping the balance towards a younger population. The significant reduction in migration to the United States since the 1920's, how­ ever, has minimized the impact of this process in maintain7 ing a youthful population. This helps to account for the sharp rise in the number of elderly after the 19 30 censal period (Table 1). Objectives Increases in the numbers and percentages of the el­ derly have not always been accompanied by social legisla­ tion necessary to deal with the problems which are unique to this segment of the population. Consequently, the el­ derly have, in instances, become more vociferous and may 7 Clyde V. Kiser, "The Aging of Human Populations: Mechanisms of Change," in Population and Society, ed. Charles B. Nam (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1968), p. 368. 7 be emerging as a viable minority group or subcultural ele­ ment. Evidence to support this contention is sought in such matters as elderly voting behavior and the organiza­ tion of pressure groups favorable to legislation beneficial g for the aged. An extensive literature has been produced noting the minority status of the elderly and some of the factors 9 responsible for their position in society today. In addi­ tion, the compilation of reports such as that of Project FIND where many aged have been found living in shameful conditions, indicates that much remains to be done, includ­ ing simply assessing the status of the elderly in society The objective of the present study is to achieve an understanding of how the elderly in the city of Lansing, g Rose and Peterson, Older People; and Stanton T. Dietrich, "Senior Citizens: A Potential Minority Group," Research Reports in Social Science 12 (August 1969) : 32-46. 9 Representative of these are the following: J. Scott Francher, "American Values and the Disenfranchise­ ment of the Aged," Eastern Anthropologist 22 (JanuaryApril 1969): 29-36; James E. Birren, "The Abuse of the Urban Aged," Psychology Today 3 (March 1970): 36-38, 76; Thomas Tissue, "Downward Mobility in Old Age," Social Problems 18 (Summer 1970): 67-77; Erdman B. Palmore and Frank Whittington, "Trends in the Relative Status of the Aged," Social Forces 50 (September 1971): 84-91; Keith Berwick, "The 'Senior Citizen1 in America; A Study in Un­ planned Obsolescence," The Gerontologist 7 (December 1967): 257-60. "^National Council on the Aging, Inc., The Golden Years . . . A Tarnished M y t h , The Project FIND Report (Wash­ ington, D. C . : The National Council on the Aging, Inc., 16 January 1970). 8 Michigan fulfill their needs for basic necessities. Neces­ sities are interpreted to include food, clothing, shelter, medical attention, and social participation, i.e. having visitors and visiting out, and attendance at group activi­ ties. The satisfaction of these needs requires interaction between the elderly and elements of their environment; therefore the attainment of the overall objective must be defined in terms of specific objectives. The first specific objective of this study is to examine various demographic, social, and economic variables which characterize the in­ dividual elderly person. The second specific objective is to view the factors which affect the degree of connectivity between the elderly and their environment. The third spe­ cific objective of this study is to make recommendations to improve the accessibility of services for the elderly. Theories on Aging This study is concerned with an examination of the aged population of Lansing rather than the aging of the population. The distinction between the population, i.e. the aged, and the process of growing old, i.e. aging, is made preparatory to a discussion of current theories on aging. There are at present two prevailing theories on success ful aging; each purports to show how aging individ­ uals establish an equilibrium between themselves and their environment in adapting to old age as a stage in human 9 development. The "disengagement theory" states: "... normal aging is a mutual withdrawal or 'disengagement' be­ tween the aging person and others in the social system to which he belongs— a withdrawal initiated by the individual himself, or by others in the system." ory" states: 11 The "activity the­ "Successful aging means the maintenance as far and as long as possible of the activities and attitudes of middle age." 12 The latter theory concedes that disengage­ ment occurs but it is regarded as contrary to the will of the individual; society withdraws from the individual rather than each mutually withdrawing from the other. 13 A basic flaw of the "disengagement theory" is that normal aging is defined on the basis of individuals in good health who are self-supporting. Therefore, no con­ sideration is given to the elderly poor or to those suffer­ ing from ill health. Cumming recognized this error but failed to resolve the situation. 14 "^Elaine M. Cumming, "New Thoughts on the Theory of Disengagement," in New Thoughts on Old A g e , ed. Robert Kastenbaum (New York: Springer Publishing Company, Inc., 1964) , p. 3. 12 Robert J. Havighurst, "Successful Aging," The Gerontologist 1 (March 1961): 8. 13 Ibid., p. 9. See also Golant's protracted dis­ cussion of theories on aging: Stephen M. Golant, The Resi­ dential Location and Spatial Behavior of the Elderly: A Canadian Example, Department of Geography, Research Paper No. 14 3 (Chicago: Department of Geography, University of Chicago, 1972), pp. 5-11. 14 Cumming, "Theory of Disengagement," p. 24. 10 The polarity of the two prevailing approaches sug gests that some middle ground be sought between them: Persons with an active, achieving, and outwarddirected life style will be best satisfied with a continuation of this style into old age with only slight diminution. Other persons with a passive, dependent, home-centered life style will be best satisfied with d i s e n g a g e m e n t . 15 Nonetheless, neither singly nor conjunctively have these theories been found to provide adequate explanation of ad justments to aging in all cases. Gubrium has suggested an interesting alternative to the two prevailing theories. He presents a "socio- environmental" perspective which: assumes that the environment of action for the aged is two-sided and consequently is built on the inter­ relationship of two contextual dimensions. . . . The first of these is social referring to the norma­ tive effects of social homogeneity, residential prox­ imity, and local protectiveness. The second [is] . . . the "individual context" indicating those ac­ tivity resources such as health, solvency, and social support [e.g. having a living spouse] that influence behavior flexibility.16 It is not the purpose of the present study to ex­ tend the literature on the theories of the aging process, though some implications for these theories may present themselves in the course of the study. 15 16 Havighurst, "Successful Aging," p. 12. Jaber F. Gubrium, "Toward a Socio-Environmental Theory of Aging," The Gerontologist 12, Part 1 (Autumn 1972): 281-82. 11 Literature Review Considerable literature focuses on numerous aspects of the aging process and the aged. The emphasis here, how­ ever, is on that literature which is consistent with the aforementioned objective, namely to examine the effects of various social, economic, and demographic characteristics upon the ways in which the elderly satisfy their needs. Towards this goal the ensuing discussion will focus on two literatures: geographic literature, and gerontological and other literature relevant to this study. Geographic Literature Few works in geography focus on the elderly as the object of study. S i m k m s and Schnell 17 concentrated on the aged population of Pennsylvania, mainly from the view of the effects of migration on factors such as sex ratios and age structure. Little else has been readily available until the publication of Golant's work on locational and 17 Paul D. Simkins, "Distribution of the Aged in Pennsylvania," Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 38 (1964): 183-87; Paul D. Simkins, "Sex Ratios of the Older Population of Pennsylvania and the Role of Migration," Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 40 (1967): 123-28; George A. Schnell, "Geographic Association Between Migration and Selected Aspects of Age Structure," Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 43 (1969): 153-56; George A. Schnell, "Popula­ tion Growth, Migration and Economic Health: The Aged in Pennsylvania," Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 44 (1970): 23-26; George A. Schnell, "Factors Affecting Recent Trends of the Aged Population: A Case Study," Aging and Human Development 1 (1970): 219-30. 12 spatial behavioral aspects of the elderly population in metropolitan Toronto. 18 Golant found that though the elderly are more spa­ tially concentrated within the metropolitan area, particu­ larly in the inner city than are other age groups, elderly spatial location cannot be characterized by any one particu­ lar model of spatial structure. While there is a relation­ ship between elderly residential location and the age of the metropolitan subarea, the construction of apartments permits the aged a latitude of residential choice independ­ ent of the downtown area. Further, the residential location of the aged is related to variables defining residential cost, the neighborhood, and accessibility to transportation and shopping. Sociological, Gerontological, and Other Literature Because this study examines elderly interaction, i.e. the degree of elderly activity evinced in and inte­ gral to the process of needs satisfaction, attention must be directed both to individuals as well as to those ele­ ments which facilitate or impede their interaction with the environment. Characterization of individuals can be 18 Stephen M. Golant, The Residential Location and Spatial Behavior of the Elderly: A Canadian Example, De­ partment of Geography, Research Paper No. 14 3 (Chicago: Department of Geography, University of Chicago, 1972). 19Ibid., pp. 139, 193. 13 made along the lines of social, economic, and demographic variables. These variables not only characterize indi­ viduals but bear directly upon their relationships with their environment. Therefore, sociological and gerontolog­ ical literature is reviewed to examine the effects of char­ acteristics such as age, sex, health, marital status, in­ come, education, employment status, and living arrangements upon aged i n d i v i d u a l s.^ Previously a rationale was advanced for the choice of age 65 as the lower limit for the study population. In the process of establishing this age criterion it was shown that interrelationships exist between age and social and economic factors. The individual possesses various charac­ teristics, for example, health, income, and employment status, which change as the person grows older. Therefore it is important to consider the degree of interrelatedness between age and these characteristics. 20 Race would also be of concern, however, the number of black elderly in Lansing as of 1970 was only 452, 7.54 percent of Lansing's black community, 4.09 percent of the city's total elderly, and only .34 percent of the city's total population. The chances therefore of obtaining any sizable sample of black elderly in a ran­ domized study is negligible. And further, the black pop­ ulation is concentrated in census tracts ranking low on their numbers of senior citizens and consequently are external to the tracts selected for sampling. U. S. De­ partment of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Population and Housing: 1970 Census Tracts, Final Report PHC (1)-106 Lansing, Michigan SMSA (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972). 14 Differences in life expectancy, now nearly 74 years for females and 67 years for males, indicate that sex is an important consideration in studies of the elder­ ly. Simply stated, females live longer than males. "At ages 65 to 69, there are 120 women per 100 men; after 85, there are 160 women per 100 men. The average for the total 65+ group is 135 women per 100 men." 21 In addition to this numerical imbalance, the varied life experiences of men and women equip them with differing resources to approach the problems of old age. Closely related to the survival rate of women is the discrepancy in the number of widows versus the number of widowers in the later years, a ratio of nearly four to one. However, while widowhood does represent the marital status for a significant portion of the older population, marital status in general must be examined. Marital status appears to influence the social relationships and recrea­ tional activities of older individuals. Since people tend to associate with others who play similar roles, marital status is an important deter­ minant of interpersonal relations. Married couples tend to associate with married couples and to parti­ cipate in those activities which require a partner. . . . The older bachelor (and the old maid) must rely for his interpersonal relations upon persons who share his marital status, or on members of his 21 Herman B. Brotman, "The Elderly as a Signifi­ cant Population Group," in Transportation and Aging: Selected Issues, ed. Edmund J. Cantilli and June L. Shmelzer (Washington, D. C .: Government Printing Office, 1972), p. 11. 15 family. . . . Widowhood produces significant changes in one's interpersonal relations. The widowed per­ son does not fit in socially with married couples, even those who were close friends before the death of the spouse. [However] . . . widows seem to make successful adjustments more often than widowers. As a rule, widows are more gregarious and more ready to participate in social activities than are w i d o w e r s . 22 It should be noted here that in general older people tend to belong to fewer organizations than younger persons, and where memberships are retained older persons are less active than in former years. Senior centers do not com­ pensate for the decline in organizational memberships and only a minimal number of persons aged 65 and over partici­ pate in them. Rather, older individuals concentrate on family ties and friendships instead of group memberships. 23 The participation of an individual in any activity is largely regulated by one's health. Health status is among the most important attributes of the older individual, for the activity level of the older person " . . . tends to be positively associated with health, a quality that is itself likely to deteriorate with age." 24 The older per­ son who has good health is fortunate, for it would be the 22 Herman J. Loether, Problems of Aging: Sociolog­ ical and Social Psychological Perspectives (Belmont, California: Dickenson Publishing Company Inc., 1967), pp. 16-17. 23 (New York: 24 Irving Rosow, Social Integration of the Aged The Free Press, 1967), pp. 20-21. Matilda White Riley et al., Aging and Society, vol. 1: An Inventory of Research Findings (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1968), p. 416. 16 unusual individual who would indicate that activities are not limited by some physical impairment. "The consider­ able need of older people for medical care is reflected in the fact that over two-thirds of them visit a physician at least once within a year." role here, 25 In addition, sex plays a for older women make more visits to the doctor per year than do older men. 26 In dealing with today's senior citizens it must be kept in mind that they grew to maturity in a social system which has undergone considerable change. For example, the median school years completed for Americans in 1940 was less than nine years whereas the corresponding figure for 1970 was twelve years. "Fifty percent of today's over 65 group never went beyond elementary school. elderly never went to school at all." 27 A million Sex status has also affected the educational attainment of the older in­ dividual. In the past greater percentages of females than males completed eight years of education, and in general, female attendance through high school exceeded male 25 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel­ fare, Public Health Service, Health in the Later Years of Life: Selected Data From the National Center for Health Statistics (Washington, D~! C .: Government Printing Office, 1971), p. 40. ^ I b i d . , p. 42. 27 Robert J. Havighurst, chairman, "Research and Development Goals in Social Gerontology," The Gerongologist 9, Part 3 (Winter 1969): 6. 17 attendance. At the college level however male graduates 28 outnumbered females. Since education and income are closely allied, one might suspect from the preceding discussion that the income levels of many elderly are not satisfactory: "... pover­ ty is the way of life for 3 out of 10 people 65 and over— m contrast to 1 out of 9 younger people." 29 In 1968 51 percent of unrelated individuals 65 and older had incomes under $1,500 (in 1966 the poverty level was $1,565; in 1969 it was $1,600) and only 13.5 percent of families with heads 65 and older and 2.4 percent of individuals 65 and older had incomes of $10,000 or more. 30 For most individuals retirement and old age mean a marked reduction in income and changes in one's way of life. Reduced income can affect the individual's diet, housing, health care, and degree of social integration. It is quite likely that those at the lower end of the economic spectrum are most affected. But it must also be noted that downward mobility can occur among those who have higher incomes be­ fore retirement for many persons with middle-class backgrounds can be found on public assistance rolls. 28 31 Bogue, Principles of Demography, pp. 195-96. 29 National Council on the Aged, Inc., The Golden Y e ars, p. 1. ^ I b i d ., p p . 1-2. 31 Thomas Tissue, "Downward Mobility in Old Age," Social Problems 18 (Summer 1970): 67. 18 Employment among the elderly has declined in re­ cent years, a phenomenon largely associated with the push for early retirement. Those who do work account for a significant portion of total elderly income: . . the largest single source of the $45 billion that comprises the income of the elderly is from earnings from employment, this represents a source for only about 20% of aged individuals." 32 This means that the other 80 percent consists of retirees or nonworkers dependent on other sources of income. Recent figures indicate that about 90 percent of Michigan's elderly receive Social Security, 5.5 percent re­ ceive Old Age Assistance, with earnings, pensions, annui­ ties, and assistance from relatives accounting for other 33 income. Many elderly find some relief from their economic burdens through ownership of their own homes. Typically the older person is often a long-time resident of a given neighborhood and owns a mortgage-free home, though in many cases repairs and housework may s u f f e r . ^ Older individuals tend to live independently but they often do live close enough to children and relatives so that they can visit 32 Havighurst, "Social Gerontology," p. 6. 33 . Michigan Commission on Aging, An Assessment of the Status and Needs of Michigan's Elderly, DSS Publica­ tion 165 (Lansing: Department of Social Services, State of Michigan, 1972), p. 14. 34 Riley, Research Findings, p. 128. 19 them and call upon them for help. 35 As the individual's . independence begins to erode, through age— or health— related changes, the local environment begins to assume greater importance. Up to a point the individual may adapt by reducing his needs and his behavioral range." 36 Consequently the degree of interaction with the environ­ ment diminishes until the point is reached where the el­ derly may no longer fend for themselves and a reassessment must be made of their living arrangements. Among the methodological problems of dealing with elderly living arrangements which bear investigation are "the range of 'immobilities' (levels of function) of aging groups. . . . [and] Characteristics and use patterns of varied transportation modes, public and private, by specific age and social subgroups within the population." 37 Type and availability of transportation plays a major role in the individual's relationship with the environment: 35 38 Loether, Problems of A g i n g , p. 44. 36 M. Powell Lawton, "Ecology and Aging," in Spatial Behavior of Older People, ed. Leon A. Pastalan and Daniel H. Carson (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan-Wayne State University Institute of Gerontology, 1970), p. 54. 37 Havighurst, "Social Gerontology," pp. 13, 14. 38 Louis E. Gelwicks, "The Older Person's Relation With the Environment: The Influence of Transportation," in Transportation and Aging: Selected Issues, ed. Edmund J. Cantilli and June L. Shmelzer (Washington, D. C. Government Printing Office, 1972), pp. 19-22. 20 Transportation is the mediator between the person and much of his environment. It determines whether the community is a useless facade or a dynamic social sys­ tem. Housing, medical, financial, and recreational services for older people are useful only to the ex­ tent that transportation is workable— for the people who need and want the services. Informal social con­ tacts with family members and friends are possible only if access to these other persons is available. Lack of appropriate transportation constricts the life-space of any person, limits his capacity for self-maintenance, restricts his activities and his contacts with other people, and may contribute to his disengagement or alienation from society, and his ex­ perience of anomie.39 Carp notes that little is known of the transpor­ tation habits, needs, preferences, and problems of the elderly, and that studies are needed now so as to provide answers for future transportation services. Among the variables she deals with in her approach to these problems are " . . . age, sex, marital status, income, distance from children, distance from public transportation, access to automobile, location in the city, age of neighbors, and ethnic composition of the neighborhood."4^ Carp found that most trips outside the home by the elderly take less than fifteen minutes travel time each way, though the elderly leave their homes only infrequently. 41 Additional Frances M. Carp, "The Mobility of Retired People," in Transportation and Aging: Selected Issues, ed. Edmund J. Cantilli and June L. Shmelzer (Washington, D. C.: Gov­ ernment Printing Office, 1972), p. 25. 40 Ibid., pp. 26-27; see also Frances M. Carp, "Correlates of Mobility Among Retired Persons," in Proceed­ ings of the 2nd Annual Environmental Design Research Associ­ ation Conference, ed. John Archea and Charles Eastman (Pittsburgh, P e n n . : October 1970). 41 Stated. Ib i d ., p. 33. 21 findings show that walking was not a favored means of transportation, and the automobile, while providing more transportation than any other means of locomotion, was still limited in its availability to the elderly.42 Utilization of transportation facilities by the elderly occurs at other than peak hours because trips made by the aged are generally for nonwork purposes. 43 It has also been shown that tripmaking is positively associated with income and negatively associated with density. 44 Further, both automobile ownership and driver licensing decrease with decreasing income. 45 Certain barriers to the mobility of the elderly in Michigan have been identified: 1. Financial— The elderly are frequently limited in their selection of transportation modes by (a) cost of existing forms of public transportation, (b) their inability to pay for private transpor­ tation. 2* Physical— The elderly are limited in their use of transportation by (a) distance to nearest boarding point for public transportation, (b) configurations of existing vehicles, (c) personal discomfort, (d) inability to operate private vehicles.46 42Ibid., pp. 35-36. 43 Norman Ashford and Frank M. Holloway, "Transpor­ tation Patterns of Older People in Six Urban Centers," The Gerontologist 12 (Spring 1972): 47. 44 Joni K. Markovxtz, "Transportation Needs of the Elderly," Traffic Quarterly 25 (1971): 243-44. 45I b i d ., p. 241. 46 . Mxchxgan Commission on Aging, Toward a National Policy on A g i n g , DSS Publication 130 (Lansing: Department of Social Services, State of Michigan, 1971), p. 87. 22 In urban areas bus service has been largely curtailed or abandoned; existing service is infrequent and scheduled on main arteries, thus limiting access. 47 This was the situation in Lansing where bus service at the time of this study was only available Monday through Friday on main ar­ teries with schedules ranging in excess of an hour between departures and service after 7:00 P.M. being virtually non­ existent. Hypotheses Based on the preceding review of the literature and consistent with the objectives of this study, it is hypothesized that the manner and degree to which the el­ derly achieve their needs are related to: 1. 2. Demographic, economic, and social characteristics: a. age— the inevitable decline in general health with age suggests an inverse relationship be­ tween age and needs satisfaction. b. health— health directly affects mobility and social participation: the predicted direction of association is positive. c. income— the higher one's income the greater the range of options: a positive or direct relationship exists between the achievement of needs and income. Accessibility to services in terms of: a. modes of transportation— -the greater the num­ ber of transportation options open to the in­ dividual (assuming good health) the greater 47 Michigan Commission on Aging, Michigan's El­ d e r l y , p. 22. 23 the potential for mobility. All transporta­ tion modes should show a positive relation­ ship to needs satisfaction with access to the automobile showing the strongest relationship. b. 3. distance constraints— distance limits each individual to some degree in the achievement of goals; a negative or inverse relationship exists between elderly satisfaction and dis­ tance constraints. Social bonds: a. marital status— the presence of a mate is or­ dinarily a positive inducement to social par­ ticipation; the absence of one should not show a negative relationship but it may weaken the degree of positive association. b. kinship/friendship— the proximity of relatives and/or friends provides the possibility for social participation: the predicted direction is positive. CHAPTER II PROCEDURES Lansing's Elderly Population Data procurement for this study depended on the formulation and administration of a questionnaire to a sample of elderly individuals within the Lansing Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA). The goal of examin­ ing an urban subject population led to the limitation of the study area to the city of Lansing. Numbers The city of Lansing forms the core for a tri-county SMSA composed of Ingham, Eaton, and Clinton counties ure 1). (Fig­ According to the 1970 U. S. census the city had a population of 131,546, of whom 11,0 34 or 8.38 percent were 65 years of age and over.'*' The percentage represen­ tation of elderly for the city approximates the percentage representation for elderly in the state, 8.48 percent, and surpasses the 6.87 percent representation of the ■*"U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau 6f the Cen­ sus, Census of Population and Housing: 1970 Census Tracts, Final Report PHC(1)-106 Lansing, Michigan SMSA (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972), p. 1. 24 25 Location Map of LANSING, M ICHIG A N CLINTON 30 60 C it y o f 90 * L A N S IN G MILES EATON D e tr o it Sioux Remer -1974 Figure 1 26 elderly for the Lansing SMSA. A probable explanation for the lower percentage representation of elderly in the Lansing SMSA versus the state of Michigan is the attrac­ tion of the area's industries for younger employment seekers along with some out-migration of elderly individuals. 2 In addition, the presence of Michigan State University in the city of East Lansing appears to contribute to a further dilution of the elderly presence. The population of East Lansing in 1970 was 47,540, but only 1,574 or 3.3 percent 3 were aged 65 and over. Distribution As a rule, the concentrations of elderly within the city of Lansing occur in central rather than peripheral locations. The situation is clearly discernible when mapping the aging index, which differentiates the relative age of an area by establishing a ratio of the number of persons 65 years of age and over per 100 children under the age of 15 (Figure 2). The average aging index for Lansing is 27.50, therefore those census tracts falling above this level are relatively older than the rest of the city. 2 Michigan Commission on Aging, An Assessment of the Status and Needs of Michigan's Elderly, DSS Publica­ tion 165 (Lansing: Department of Social Services, State of Michigan, 1972), p. 12. 3 Bureau of the Census, Population and Housing, p. 1. 27 L a n s in g — Aging Index 31.02 i i|H| ■XvX’Xv! I t Lansing v/.y// AGING INDEX Census Tract Boundary 2 Census Tract Number City Boundary LT. * 0 imi leiiiinii ■» I Lansing Township Parts of Lansing not included in study area Some peripheral tracts with low population of elderly not shown Figure 2 5 5 .0 0 and over j | ff| B j§ 41.25 - 5 4 .9 9 i H 2 7 . 5 0 - 41.24 I*' :' ' . 13.75 - 27 .4 9 I I 0 .0 0 - 13 7 4 I 1 28 Selection of the Sample Population By using the central business district cated in tract 14 as a reference point, (CBD) lo­ it is possible to identify three clusters of tracts which fall at a level of 50 percent or more above the Lansing average aging index. These clusters are: Tracts 4, 6, and 7 to the north of the CBD; Tracts 9, 10, 11, and 13 to the east of the CBD; and Tracts 19, 20, 22, 23, and 24 located to the south of the CBD (Table 3 and Figure 2). The identification of these clusters provided the basis for the selection of the sample population. Tract Selection One tract was selected from each of the tract clusters, resulting in three groups within the sample. Selection of three sample tracts provides variations in the locations of the sample population relative to the CBD. Further, the three population subgroups possess locational diversity regarding various service facilities within the city. The rationale is that if an elderly person lives, for example, in the southeastern part of the city, the individual's immediate range of service options and loca­ tions is different from the range of such options and lo­ cations available to an individual in any other quadrant of the city. In addition to areal diversity, the selection of the sample tracts was guided by the desire to seek subjects 29 Table 3.— Characteristics of Lansing's Elderly Population by Selected Census Tracts Tract Number No. of Elderly % Elderly Aging Index 4 525 12.71 43.71 6 451 15.56 108.41 7 445 12.44 58.63 9 262 12.97 50.00 10 405 13.23 51.86 11 604 11.94 51.01 13 199 10.80 48.18 19 90 9.51 86.54 20 626 11.65 41.82 22 294 13.25 56.43 23 618 13.69 56.03 24 601 13.84 49.10 11,034 8.38 27.50 City Total Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Population and Housing: 1970 Census Tracts, Final Report PHC(1)-106 Lansing, Michigan SMSA (Washington, D. C . : Government Printing Office, 1972), Table P-l, pp. 1-10. from various socioeconomic and transportation environments. The socioeconomic standing of the elderly population with­ in any census tract can only be inferred from available census material. Tracts selected as the sample test areas for this study were 7, 10, and 23. 30 i i i Tract 23, located in the tract cluster south of the CBD, has a high absolute number of elderly, and ranks high both in terms of percent elderly and the aging index (Table 3). In terms of socioeconomic status, this tract can best be characterized as an area consisting largely of single family dwelling units with a median income close to the city median of $11,000 (Table 4). In addition, public transportation is available to residents of this area along three major arteries (Figure 3). Of the three tracts under consideration north of the CBD, Tract 7 offered the most interesting potential 4 for study. In contrast to Tract 23, the housing situation is largely multiple dwelling units and the median income of $8,562 is below the city level (Table 4). By selecting a tract that contains considerable multi-unit housing, the chances of including within the sample a number of elderly individuals who would be living alone in rental quarters would be improved. Bus service is available with two lines passing through the tract (Figure 3), and the proximity of Tract 7 to the CBD suggested that walking should also be a consideration in assessing the transportation environment of this area. 4 Tract 6 was eliminated as a possible choice due to the presence of Oliver Tower, a senior citizen's hous­ ing project, which accounts in part for the large number of elderly in this tract. 31 Table 4.— Housing and Income Characteristics of the Popu­ lation, Lansing, Michigan by Selected Census Tracts No. of Units in Structure as % of Total Units 2 3 or 1 more Median Income of Families and Unrelated Individuals in 1969 Tract Number Total No. of Housing Units 4 1 378 85.2 9.4 5.4 11 704 6 1 572 25.8 21.0 53.2 10 064 7 1 680 27.4 28.4 44.2 8 562 9 684 93. 8 4.2 2.0 10 603 10 1 137 90.7 3.3 6.0 10 661 11 2 031 49.5 20.2 30.3 8 994 13 920 25.1 18.4 56. 5 8 295 19 582 12.2 5.5 82.3 8 700 20 2 162 48. 0 21.1 30. 9 9 500 22 812 94.3 4.3 1.4 11 702 23 1 641 92.4 4.2 3.4 11 429 24 1 545 85.0 12.6 2.4 11 247 45 269 72.2 9.4 18.4 City Total 11 000 (approx.) Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Population and Housing: 1970 Cen­ sus Tracts, Final Report PHC(1)-106 Lansing, Michigan SMSA (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972), Table P-4, pp. 31-40, Table H-2, pp. 11-20. 32 Sheridan Rd. G • vZI SAGINAW MICHIGAN AVE. CEDAR 2* a Holmes Rd. Reo Rd. M iller Rd. Figure 3 33 In contrast to Tract 7, the selection of Tract 10 as the third sample area was made in large measure due to the absence of public transportation facilities. Lying to the east of the CBD, Tract 10 is joined to the downtown business area only by a tenuous thread of public transpor­ tation passing through the southern third of the tract (Figure 3). Therefore distance precludes walking as an important means of interaction with downtown facilities. While not ranking highest in absolute numbers of elderly, Tract 10 ranks highest in the aging index and percent of elderly of the tracts considered in this section of the city (Table 3). The housing environment is dominantly single unit and the income level is close to the city median (Table 4). The Sample To secure the information necessary to test the hypotheses of this study, a 10 percent sample of the el­ derly population of each of the three tracts was to be obtained. Where possible, the interviewee was to be the head of the household but if he or she were absent, another respondent, normally a spouse, who was a permanent member of the household could answer the questionnaire. However, all respondents had to be at least 65 years of age. The projected sample sizes for the three tracts were respec­ tively 44, 40, and 62 individuals for Tracts 7, 10, and 23. 34 Selection of the individuals to be interviewed was a difficult process. Unfortunately no comprehensive list of individuals aged 6 5 and over is available for Lansing. To locate the elderly within the census tracts reference was made to the block statistics data from the 1970 census. These data provide figures on the individuals aged 62 and over expressed as percentages of the total popu­ lations of each block within a given tract. If it is as­ sumed that a number of these individuals have survived to 1973 and remain in the original enumeration locations, this information can be used as an indicator of the areal locations of elderly within census tracts. To locate respondents each block within a given tract was numbered. Numbers were drawn from tables of random numbers until as many "strikes" were made as there were numbers in the required sample population for the tract. If the block statistics indicated a zero elderly population for a block selected by this process, a new number was drawn. In addition, during the field phase of the study, replacements were drawn when original selec­ tions produced no interviews. Random numbers between one and four were also selected to determine the side of a block on which to initiate the interview process. There was no practical way beyond this point to randomize fur­ ther the search for the elderly individual. 35 After the first few days of interviewing it was found that refusals were rather frequent; a number of blocks selected yielded no interviews at all. It was de­ cided as a matter of field expediency that if a block produced an interview, then interviewing on that block was not to be broken-off immediately. Instead, if possible another interview was conducted on the same block. As a result, while the process of randomization allowed equal opportunity for the representation of all areas of a given tract in the sample, the actual representation of a particu lar tract section was largely dependent upon the variabil­ ity of the refusal rate. Selection of Questionnaire Items The core of the interview was the completion of a questionnaire (Appendix) over five pages in length and containing eighty items, a number of which have multiple entries. In its original form the questionnaire contained ninety items but a pilot survey resulted in some refine­ ments and deletions. A number of the items included in the questionnaire were included as a result of the review of the literature while others were formulated to ascer­ tain the specifics of, and variables regulating, elderly interaction in Lansing. In constructing the interview schedule, an attempt was made to gather as much material as possible yet to do it in the shortest amount of time. Consequently, many 36 items were arranged in scales or categories which simply required a circle to indicate the respondent's reply. Other items required filling in a blank, some with pre­ determined c o d e s . Interpretation was requested on various items and in some cases, these called for the recording of comments, for example items 64, 65, and 75A (Appendix). The most comprehensive items in the questionnaire were those designed to measure interaction and elderly mobility 5 in general, shopping, and social participation. The Interview The first procedure in approaching a possible sub­ ject was the presentation of identification. This was followed by an explanation of the purposes of the study, with emphasis placed on the value of each interviewee's contribution not only to the present study but also to possible future provisions of services for the elderly community. There were a number of refusals, some of which seemed to arise from an apprehension of a stranger at the door. For this reason, it became necessary to enlist the writer's wife in the survey process in order to complete the interviews according to schedule. However, most in­ dividuals were courteous when approached, though there 5 As an attempt to gather information which would be of benefit to the Lansing Parks and Recreation Depart­ ment, the section on recreation included a subsection, items 53 to 59, on the use of the senior centers sponsored by the department. 37 were a few who were adamant in their refusal to even hear the explanation of the study. Two of the most common excuses for declining the interview were: "Oh, I don't think you would be interested in me," and "If it isn't going to help me directly, then I am not interested." It was not possible to ascertain any particular patterns among the individuals declining the interview except for one group, those individuals living with their children. These people as a rule conveyed the impression that they had what they needed and do not con­ sider it necessary to discuss their situation with an out­ sider. Interviewing occurred during a five week period from June to July, 197 3; in general it was carried on dur­ ing the daytime but call backs resulted in some evening interviewing; Sunday interviewing was avoided. An average interview lasted between 45 and 60 minutes, the variation due to the problem of keeping the subject's attention on the questionnaire. Only a few interviews were terminated prior to the completion of the questionnaire. During the course of the study it became necessary to modify the amount of information gathered on patterns of mobility. This was necessary as the length of the questionnaire and its many specific questions tended to make some respondents restless. The results of the field work were the collection of 153 completed questionnaires which form the data for the study. CHAPTER III SOCIOECONOMIC AND TRANSPORTATION CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE POPULATION The initial section of this chapter focuses on a summation of social and economic characteristics of the sample population. This is followed by a detailed analy­ sis of the data for the three subpopulations. This two stage process of analysis characterizes the sample in terms of the aforementioned characteristics and reveals spatial variations of selected characteristics among the subpopulation groups. The projected 10 percent sample of elderly in the three tract areas was slightly exceeded. Final counts of usable questionnaires from the three tracts are 45 for Tract 7, 44 for Tract 10, and 64 for Tract 23. The per­ centages of elderly individuals represented by the sample are actually larger, for many of those interviewed are married and various items on the questionnaire indicate characteristics of both respondent and spouse. The proportionate representations of males and females in the collected sample closely parallel their actual distribution in Lansing's senior population. 38 39 Females comprise 60.8 percent of the city's elderly com­ munity and equal 62.7 percent of the sample population, while males account for 39.2 percent of the former and comprise 37.3 percent of the latter.^ In actual figures, the breakdown by sex is 57 males and 96 females. Ages of the respondents range from 65 to 94 years, with a mean of 73.06 and a median of 71.95 years. Of the 73 spouses for which age data are available, the range is from 51 to 8 9 years of age, with a mean of 68.7 6 and a median of 69.4 years. By sex, the composition for the 73 spouses is 26 females and 47 males. In response to the question concerning the indi­ vidual's status as head or nonhead of the household, all 57 males interviewed answered in the affirmative. 96 females, Of the 32 listed themselves as nonheads and 64 de­ clared themselves as heads. The latter figure is largely attributable to the large number of widowed females in the sample population. Regarding marital status, the highest percentage of individuals are married and living with their spouses. Married individuals account for 48.4 percent of the total sample, while widowed individuals account for 37.3 percent of the sample. The remaining 14.4 percent of the sample . S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Population and Housing; 1970 Census Tracts, Final Report PHC(1)-106 Lansing, Michigan SMSA (Washington, D. C . : Government Printing Office, 1972), Table P-l, p. 1. 40 is equally divided between the two categories, singlenever married and divorced (Table 5) . Table 5.— Marital Status of the Sample Population Marital Status Males Total o, No. Females *o No. % No. % Single 11 7.2 1 9.0 10 90. 9 Divorced 11 7.2 4 36.4 7 63. 6 Widowed 57 37.3 5 8.8 52 91. 2 Married 74 48.4 47 63.5 27 36. 5 The incomes of the sample population range from 4 individuals with annual incomes between $1,000 and $1,499, to 16 with annual incomes of $10,000 or more. Both the mean and median incomes fall within the $3,000 to $3,999 range (Table 6) . As was expected, few individuals are employed; only 10 or 6.5 percent considered themselves full-time workers and 4 listed themselves as part-time workers. A similar situation exists with regard to the employment status of spouses. Only 5 are employed full-time and another 6 are employed part-time. The majority of those interviewed identified them­ selves as homeowners: 135 answered in the affirmative, while only 18 responded negatively. Most individuals also 41 Table 6.— Income Characteristics of the Sample Population Income Level No. % o • 1 —1 (less than $1,000) 0 2.0 ($1,000- 1,499) 4 2.6 3.0 ($1,500- 1,999) 16 10.4 4.0 ($2,000- 2,499) 16 10.4 5.0 ($2,500- 2,999) 14 9.2 6.0 ($3,000- 3,999) 18 11.8 7.0 ($4,000- 4,999) 21 13.7 8.0 ($5,000- 9,999) 48 31.4 9.0 ($10,000 and over) 16 10.4 claim clear title to their homes, for 121 responded that they owe no rent and/or mortgage payments; 32 acknowledged that they do incur monthly housing costs. For those who do pay these monthly costs, the rental category between $100 and $149 was typical, for this level represents not only the most commonly incurred rent, but also includes the mean and median rental costs reported by the inter­ viewees . Many of the respondents are long time residents of their homes. The sample ranges from one year of resi­ dence up to 7 5 years; the mean number of years of resi­ dence is 24.4 years and the median is 22.9 years. Only 42 28.1 percent of the sample or 43 individuals have lived at their place of residence for 10 years or less. The educational levels of the sample population range from 1 individual reporting no formal education up to a high of 19 years. The mean number of years of educa­ tion reported is 10.90 and the median, 11.09 years. Both of these figures are below the city median of 12.2 years 2 and the SMSA figure of 12.4 years. The figures for the spouses of those married give a range of third grade level through to sixteen years of education for the responses in this category. Mean and median years of education com­ pleted for spouses are 11.31 and 11.70 respectively. The last item to be considered in this section is the health status of the elderly. Health is based on the individual's own assessment of how he perceives himself and is rated on a scale of 1 to 4: and 4=excellent. l=poor, 2=fair, 3=good, The number of individuals rating them­ selves within each of the above categories are: poor, 43 (28.1%) excellent. fair, 81 (52.9%) good, and 22 7 (4.6%) (14.4%) These self-evaluations of health may seem overly favorable, but they are consistent with previous 3 studies. Such ratings appear to be a balancing of two elements: 2Ibid., Table P-2, p. 11. 3 National Council on the Aging, Inc., The Golden Years . . . A Tarnished Myth, The Project FIND Report (Washington, D. C . : The National Council on the Aging, Inc., 16 January 1970), p. 51. 43 An OP's [older person's] perception of his health seems to be based only in part upon his actual physical con­ dition. Although there is a correlation between selfevaluation and medical evaluation of an individual's health, self-ratings tend, on balance, to be the more favorable of the t w o .4 Subpopulation Analysis of Socioeconomic Characteristics The preceding summation of socioeconomic character­ istics provides an overall view of the sample population. Following is a detailed analysis of these characteristics as they occur among the three subpopulations. In some cases comparisons between the individual tracts and the total group are appropriate, whereas in other instances, it will be more appropriate to compare each tract to the other two. The sex composition of the three subpopulations reveals an inordinately large sample of females in Tract 7. This can be explained by referring to Table 7, which shows that in the actual elderly population of Tract 7, females hold a better than 2 to 1 margin over males, com­ prising 68.5 percent of the elderly population. Of the three samples, Tract 10 comes closest to matching the pro­ portionate representation of males and females in the ac­ tual tract population. 4 Matilda White Riley et a l . , Aging and Society, vol. 1: An Inventory of Research Findings (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1968), p. 293. 44 Table 7.— Composition by Sex of the Three Study Areas and of the Three Sample Populations Elderly Population Total Sample o, 'o No. M F M Tract 7 140 305 31.5 Tract 10 173 232 Tract 23 237 381 No. F % M F 68.5 11 34 24.4 75.6 42.7 57. 3 18 26 40.9 59.1 38. 3 61.7 28 36 43.4 56. 3 M F The three tract samples show some variability in the respondents' ages, Tract 7 being the "oldest" of the three (Table 8). The median for this tract is higher than the median for the total sample population, 71.95 years. Little variability is found among the median ages of spouses. Table 8.— Age Characteristics of the Subpopulations Age of Respondent Mean Age Spouse 1s Age Median Age Range Mean Age Median Age Range Tract 7 74.40 73.91 65-90 69.77 69.25 58-89 Tract 10 72.09 70.50 65-94 68.81 69.25 55-86 Tract 23 72.79 71.30 65-92 68.48 69.62 51-85 45 Regarding the marital status of the three subpopu­ lations, the summary data reveal that Tract 7, in contrast to Tracts 10 and 23, is dominated by individuals belonging to one of the various "singles" categories (Table 9). Table 9.— Marital Status of the Three Subpopulation Groups Single Divorced Widowed Presently married Tract 7 No. o. "o Males Females 8 17.8 1 7 4 8.9 1 3 24 53. 3 2 22 9 20.0 7 2 13 29.5 3 10 27 61.4 14 13 20 31. 3 38 59.4 26 11 Tract 10 No. % Males Females 2 4.5 --- 2 2 4.5 1 1 Tract 23 No. % Males Females 1 1.6 --1 5 7.8 2 3 21 Another characteristic which tends to distinguish Tract 7 from the rest of the sample is the number of renters found 46 in the tract. In response to the question "occupant's status," all interviewees in Tracts 10 and 23 claimed to be homeowners, while in Tract 7, 18 individuals or 40 per­ cent identified themselves as nonowners. All of the indi­ viduals identifiable as renters are also classified as nonmarrieds, and of the 18 so classified, 15 live by them­ selves. These findings substantiate the original view that, in selecting Tract 7 as a sample area, a number of elderly individuals would be found living alone in rental quarters. Most persons interviewed either live only with their spouse if married, or live alone if unmarried. and 8 on the questionnaire Items 7 (Appendix), which deal with others living in the household, elicited few positive re­ sponses. The number responding positively to these items in the three tracts are respectively 6, 6, and 2 for Tracts 7, 10, and 23. Responses denoting marital status also largely define the individual's role within the household. By sex, the number of heads of households for the three tracts are: Tract 7, 11 males and 2 8 females; Tract 10, 18 males and 12 females; and Tract 23, 28 males and 25 fe­ males. In Table 9, it is evident that the sum of the fe­ males in the nonmarried categories equals or approximates the preceding actual figures for female heads. The slight discrepancy between the two sets of figures is the result of some nonmarried females living with other persons whom they consider to be the household head. Regardless of 47 marital status, all male respondents categorized themselves as household heads. Length of residency also deserves consideration, for the figures show that the average senior citizen has lived in the present house for a considerable length of time. The low showing for Tract 7 on the median years of residency most likely results from the large number of rent­ al units in the area. Nevertheless, half of the individ­ uals in Tract 7 have lived in the area 15 years or longer and in Tracts 10 and 23, half the populations have resided at their locations for 25 years or more (Table 10). These figures verify what other studies have shown, i.e. that older people tend to remain immobile, particularly if they are homeowners. Table 10.-— Length of Residency of the Three Subpopulations Length of Residency (in years) Mean Median Range Tract 7 21.42 15.31 1-75 Tract 10 25.54 24.50 1-51 Tract 23 25.71 26.00 1-54 5Ibid., p. 131. 48 Why the elderly remain fixed at their present loca­ tions is beyond the scope of this study. However, one plausible explanation which can be suggested lies in the concept of place utility as set forth by Wolpert: "Place utility . . . refers to the net composite of utilities which are derived from the individual's integration at some g point in space." Basically place utility consists of evaluating a person's advantages and disadvantages through his occupancy of a particular site. During the course of the present study a number of individuals mentioned the benefits derived by their proximity to various services and facilities. While others noted that they would like to move, but giving up the advantages of a mortgage-free home for other living arrangements would be beyond their finan­ cial capabilities. There are, of course, economic implications im­ plicit in both long term residency as it relates to homeownership and the concept of place utility. Therefore at this point the income characteristics of the subpopulations will be considered (Table 11). The most conspicuous fact arising from a comparison of the three tracts is that, while the mean and median incomes for Tracts 10 and 2 3 are £ Julian Wolpert, "Behavioral Aspects of the Deci­ sion to Migrate," in Population Geography: A Reader, ed. George J. Demko, Harold M. Rose, and George A. Schnell (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1970), p. 301. 49 nearly equal, Tract 7 falls well below them. The low show­ ing for Tract 7 is most likely related to the larger number of individuals placing in the various "singles" categories in regards to marital status. Evidence to support this supposition can be seen in Table 12, where income levels are cross tabulated with marital status. A fairly clear breaking point seems to be evident between the income cate­ gories 6 and 7. Widows, the most numerous of the nonmarried individuals, generally are found at the income levels 6 and below, while married individuals are strongly represented in the income levels 7 and above. Applying the poverty thresholds for 1969, as em7 ployed by the U. S. Bureau of the Census, to Table 12 pro­ duces some disheartening observations. 3 ($1,500-1,999) Taking income level as the poverty level cutoff for all "singles" categories and level 4 ($2,000-2,499) as the cutoff level for "marrieds," we find 10, 5, and 5 persons respectively in Tracts 7, 10, and 23 at or close to the poverty level for single individuals, while only 2 married respondents fall close to the poverty level for the three tracts combined. 7 Poverty thresholds in 1969 for nonfarm individ­ uals are: all unrelated individuals 65 years and over— male head, $1,773, female head, $1,751; all two person families with head 65 years and over— male head, $2,217, female head, $2,202. U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of Population: 1970 Social and Eco­ nomic Characteristics, Final Report PC(1)-C1 United StatelT Summary (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972), Appendix B, p. App-30. 50 Table 11.— Income Characteristics of the Three Subpopu­ lations Tract 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 iiiuume Xjt;vex o. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (less than $1,000) ($1,000-1,499) ($1,500-1,999) ($2,000-2,499) ($2,500-2,999) ($3,000-3,999) ($4,000-4,999) ($5,000-9,999) ($10,000 and over) Mean income level Median income level — -■- 2 8 7 6 7 2 11 2 *5 Q. "O No. --- 4.4 17.8 15.6 13.3 15.6 4.4 24.4 4.4 mmmtum 1 4 3 2 7 5 16 6 2.3 9.1 6.8 4.5 15.9 11.4 36.4 13.6 6.7 7.5 5.5 5.4 O. ■O No. 1 4 6 6 4 14 21 8 1.6 6.3 9.4 9.4 6.3 21.9 32.8 12.5 6.7 7.3 Table 12.— Income Crosstabulated by Marital Status for the Three Subpopulations Income Level Marital Status 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Tract 7 Single Divorced Widowed Married 1 1 - 1 1 6 - 3 4 - 1 5 - 1 5 1 1 1 2 3 6 1 1 Tract 10 Single Divorced Widowed Married 1 - 1 3 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 3 4 12 6 Tract 2 3 Single Divorced Widowed Married — 1 - 4 - 5 1 3 3 1 1 2 3 3 8 1 2 18 1 1 6 51 These findings are not uncommon; if anything, the numbers of elderly found in this study at poverty level underrepresent the actual economic conditions of the el­ derly population in general. States " . . . For example, in the United poverty is the way of life for 3 out of 10 people 65 and over— in contrast to 1 out of 9 younger peog pie." Furthermore, the elderly population, widows and members of minority groups are disproportionately repre­ sented in this deprived group. Out of every 100 persons over 65, 57 are women of whom 31 are widows. Twenty-nine are living alone or in the homes of others. Close to 60 percent of the older women living alone or with non-relatives live in poverty (2.1 million out of 3.6 million in „ 1966), and another 10 percent are on the borderline. For the most part, the income levels indicated in the preceding analysis represent retirement incomes. As was previously noted, only a handful of employed elderly were encountered during the field work. A summation of elderly employment characteristics for the three subpopula tions are presented in Table 13. Other studies have discussed the correlation be­ tween income and employment characteristics of a subject population and educational attainment, demonstrating the positive relationship between education and income. In ^National Council on the Aged, Inc., The Golden Years, p. 1. 9 Ibid. 52 Table 13.— Employment Characteristics of the Three Sub­ populations Respondents Employed Full­ time o Tract 7 3 Tract 10 Tract 23 Spouses Employed Parttime o, "o Full­ time % Parttime 6.7 2 4.4 - ----- _ 5 11.4 - --- 2 4.5 5 11.4 2 3.1 2 3.1 3 4.7 1 1.6 'O % ----- the present case it should be pointed out that the income received by female widowed respondents bears little rela­ tionship to educational achievement. Nor is there neces­ sarily a direct relationship between the educational achieve­ ments of married female respondents and the incomes support­ ing them and their spouses. Therefore the following dis­ cussion of educational characteristics does not attempt to relate education to income. There are some differences between the educational levels of the subpopulations, particularly between Tract 10 and the other two areas (Figure 4). Both the mean and median years of school completed in Tract 10 are a year above the values for the other two tracts (Table 14). The explanation for the difference becomes apparent when the sexual composition of the three subpopulations is viewed relative to educational attainment. In Table 14, the data 30 Tract Key Percent 25- 20 7 10 23 - 15- 10 - 5- 0 - 7 8 9 - 11 12 13 - 15 16 and over Years of School Completed Figure 4.— Educational Levels of the Subpopulation Groups Table 14.— Educational Attainment by Sex of Respondents and Spouses in the Three Population Subgroups Years of School Completed 0-8 Tract 7 Respondents M % 5 33.3 9-12 F 10 1 L Spouses % M % 66.7 3 15.8 100.0 1 13-16 F Q. % M % F 16 84.2 3 33.3 6 66.7 20.0 4 80.0 1 33. 3 2 66.7 *6 Tract 10 Respondents 9 64.3 5 35.7 6 42.9 8 57.1 1 8.3 11 91.7 Spouses 5 55.6 4 44.4 5 45.5 6 54.5 3 42.9 4 57.1 13 56.5 10 43.5 9 36.0 16 64.0 4 28.6 10 71.4 3 60.0 2 40.0 7 29.2 17 70.8 1 14.3 6 85.7 Tract 2 3 Respondents Spouses Note: Mean years completed— Tract 7, 10.6; Tract 10, 11.7; and Tract 23, 10.6. Median years completed— Tract 7, 10.3; Tract 10, 11.8; and Tract 23, 10.7. 55 represented in Figure 4 are presented according to sex, along with data for the educational attainment of spouses. The data on spouses are limited due to the number of re­ spondents who are widowed, divorced, or single, and is further limited by some respondents who failed to supply the required information. A close inspection of Table 14 reveals that the one year advantage that Tract 10 holds over the other two areas is the result of the large number of females complet­ ing 13 or more years of education. However, it is more important to note that the overall educational attainment for females is higher than it is for males. This relation­ ship also holds among the spouses when they are differen­ tiated by sex. Only in Tracts 10 and 23, at the educational level, grades 0-3, do males surpass females. The above findings are consistent with previous observations which have shown that in the past females generally had a better chance to complete both 8th grade and high school, although more males received a college education. not evident in the present sample: The latter is the total number of respondents completing 16 years or more of education in the sample is 17, 9 females and 8 males. The last characteristic to be considered in this section is health, based on the individual respondent's self-evaluation. Health data for the three subpopulation groups reveal some interesting variations. The greatest 56 difference occurs between Tract 10 and the other two areas, where 70.5 percent of the respondents in Tract 10 rated themselves to be in good health. This concentration of responses in one category results in Tract 10's population rating lowest on the other three health categories. Tracts 7 and 23 are fairly comparable with respect to their per­ centage ratings for the categories fair and good but differ strongly on the remaining two categories. Percentagewise, Tract 7 has nearly twice as many persons who rate them­ selves in poor health than does Tract 2 3 and Tract 2 3 has nearly twice as many elderly who rate themselves in excel­ lent health than in Tract 7 (Table 15). Table 15.— Self-Assessment of Health by the Subpopulation Groups Health Status Fair Poor % Tract 7 4 00 • No. Tract 10 1 Tract 2 3 Total No. Good % No. Excellent % NO. % 14 31.1 22 48.9 5 11.1 2.3 9 20.5 31 70.5 3 6.8 2 3.1 20 31.3 28 43.8 14 21.9 7 4.6 43 28.1 81 52.9 22 14.4 The column totals in Table 15 suggest that few in­ dividuals in the entire sample regard themselves as being 57 in poor health and that the majority consider themselves in good health. There are no significant departures from these findings according to sex or age differences. One may conclude that the discussion in the initial section of this chapter dealing with the optimism of the elderly in rating their own health applies in this study as well. Transportation Habits of the Sample Population Having detailed the socioeconomic characteristics of the sample, it is necessary to apply these to an analy­ sis of the transportation habits of the elderly in order to discern what effects socioeconomic standings have upon their spatial interaction. As in the analysis of socio­ economic characteristics, the discussion of transportation habits is divided into two main sections: an introductory summation for the sample population as a whole, and an analytical study of the three population subgroups. The items discussed below are drawn from the transportation check list at the end of the questionnaire (Appendix). These items represent the overall transportation habits of the elderly. The sample population is divided almost equally between those who drive and those who do not: 71 indi­ viduals or 46.4 percent of the elderly are nondrivers while 82 persons or 53.6 percent do drive. Sex plays an important role in differentiating drivers from nondrivers. 58 Whereas 63.5 percent of the females interviewed, 61 out of 96, said that they do not drive, only 17.5 percent of the males, 10 out of 57, listed themselves as nondrivers. In response to the question, "Do you own or have access to a car?", 62 persons or 40.5 percent responded no, while 91 or 59.5 percent answered yes. Access meant auto­ mobile ownership by either the individual or the spouse. The difference between the 82 listing themselves as drivers and the 91 owners is due to 9 married females whose hus­ bands own c a r s . As to the frequency of car use, the responses covered the entire range from never to daily use, with daily usage being the most frequent. Frequency of car use by sex reveals that males drive more frequently than fe­ males, a finding not unexpected, considering the dominance of males responding positively to the question of driver status (Table 16) . Self-sufficiency in automobile use appears as the most important category when the question is asked as to who ordinarily drives the car when the respondent utilizes private transportation. Over half of the sample population, 59.5 percent or 91 individuals, responded that the driving was done by themselves or by their spouses. Friends are the second most important drivers, with 24 individuals or 15.7 percent of the sample indicating this category. Children follow closely after friends in importance, 21 59 Table 16.— Frequency of Car Use by the Elderly Frequency Total No. Males Females 0.0 Never 2 - 2 1.0 Less than once per month 7 2 5 2.0 Monthly 7 1 6 3.0 Few times per month 5 - 5 4.0 Weekly 20 7 13 5.0 Few times per week 32 6 26 6.0 Daily or nearly so 80 41 39 153 57 96 Total responses for 13.7 percent, and exceed other relatives by over 4 percent. However, if children and other relatives are considered together in an overall category as family, then this combined figure of 35 individuals or 22.9 per­ cent would place this category in second place ahead of friends. Of the remaining 3 persons, 1 rides with a lodger and therefore does not fit into the preceding categories, and 2 individuals said they never ride in a car. In response to the question regarding use of pub­ lic transportation, 134 persons or 87.6 percent of the sample responded that they use the bus less than once per year. Only 5 individuals or 3.3 percent use the bus at least one or more times per week, 8 persons or 5.2 percent 60 use it one or more times per month, and 6 persons, percent, use it less than once per month. 3.9 When asked why they don't use the bus, the most frequent answer was that they have their own cars and therefore do not need the b u s . The second most frequent response falls into the category dealing with scheduling of services and accessibility to bus service. A total of 41 individuals indicated that one or both of these problems account for their failure to utilize public transportation (Table 17). Table 17.— Reasons Given by the Sample Population for Not Using Public Transportation o. *o No. Reasons 15 9.8 Expense 2 1.3 2.0 Dislike or no need 9 5. 9 3.0 Access/scheduling 41 26.8 4.0 Boarding problems/health 22 14. 4 5.0 Has own car 64 41.8 0.0 N/A 1.0 For nearly 59 percent of the sample population the distance to the nearest bus stop is 2 blocks or less and another 13.1 percent live within 3 blocks. Based on the sample only 17 percent of the elderly live as far as 4 or 5 blocks from bus service (Table 18 and Figure 5). Table 18.— Responses to Questionnaire Item 73: it to the Nearest Bus Stop? Distance From Bus Stop How Far is No. % o • o No response 17 11.1 1.0 Within 1 block 60 39.2 2.0 Within 2 blocks 30 19.6 3.0 Within 3 blocks 20 13.1 4.0 Within 4 blocks 14 9.2 5.0 Within 5 blocks 12 7.8 40 35 30 25 20 - 15 10 - 1 2 3 4 5 Distance in Blocks Figure 5.— Travel Distance to Nearest Bus Stop 62 Responses to the question regarding the estimation of the time it would take to walk to the nearest bus stop reveal that of those responding, over 75 percent of the elderly estimate that the nearest bus stop is a ten minute or less walk away. or less And 54.2 percent estimate a walk of 5 minutes (Table 19 and Figure 6). Two types of transportation remain to be discussed: walking and taxicabs. Only 54 or 35.3 percent of the re­ spondents said that they consider walking to be an important means of transportation for themselves and 99 individuals or 64.7 percent do not consider walking important. In actual practice however, some of those who do not consider walking important do use it to get around, for 51.7 percent of the total sample population responded that they walk to reach a destination at least once per month; on the basis of a frequency of one or more times per week, the percentage is reduced to 41.2 In response to the inquiry concerning impediments to walking, 58.2 percent of the sample, or 89 persons, said they have none, and 41.8 percent or 64 individuals responded in the affirmative. Based on the preceding figures, it appears that more individuals are capable of walking than do, particularly in light of the fact that some of those who walk also suffer from physical impediments. As a means of transportation, the taxicab ranked low in usage by the elderly. Well over half, 64.7 percent, 63 Table 19.— Estimated Time to Nearest Bus Stop Time o. No. ~o o • o No response 25 16.3 1.0 Up to 5 minutes 83 54.2 2.0 Up to 10 minutes 36 23.5 3.0 Up to 15 minutes 7 4.6 4.0 Over 15 minutes 2 1.3 55 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 10 15 15& Time in Minutes Figure 6.— Travel Time to Nearest Bus Stop over 64 said they never use cabs, and 24.8 percent use them less than once per month. This means that only 10.5 percent or 16 people use them at least once per month and of these, only 5 or 3.3 percent use taxis one or more times per week. Cost was the basic factor given for infrequent use of taxis. Transportation Habits of the Sample Subpopulations The initial presentation of transportation charac­ teristics reveals that on the whole, the automobile is the most important means of transportation for the elderly. In the following analysis, the emphasis is on variations in transportation characteristics among the subpopulations. Particular attention is directed to relationships between transportation habits and those socioeconomic characteris­ tics which are responsible for, or at least affect, the usage of various means of transportation by the sample pop­ ulation. An interesting pattern emerges when the responses to the question on driving are tabulated (Table 20). There is little difference between the percentage figures for drivers in Tracts 10 and 23, but there is a sizable dif­ ference between the two tracts and Tract 7. The initial analysis pointed out that differences in sex appear to have a bearing on the individual respond­ ent's status as driver or nondriver. Crosstabulating sex 65 by driver's status reveals that there is a high degree of relationship between the two variables. Table 20 shows that the percentage of males who do drive greatly exceeds the percentage of female drivers in Tracts 7 and 23, with a lesser difference evident in Tract 10. Since there are many widows in Tract 7 and because a greater number of widows were encountered in Tract 2 3 than in Tract 10, mar­ ital status also must be examined for possible relation­ ships to the respondent's driving status. The results of crosstabulating marital status by driving status show that for the sample as a whole, pro­ portionately more married respondents drive than do members of any of the "singles" categories. At the subpopulation level, the chances of one's driving are greatest for mar­ ried persons in each of the three areas, except in Tract 23, where the proportion of married drivers is exceeded by the proportion of divorcees who drive (Table 21). The preceding analysis leads to the conclusion that the chances for an individual to be a driver are largely determined by sex and marital status. With the exception of single— never married females who represent a small per­ centage (6.5%) of the study population, the group singled out as being least likely to drive are widowed females who are also likely to be characterized by low income status. Another factor to consider in relationship to driving is age. In approaching this study it was hypothesized Table 20.— Responses to the Question: Do You Drive an Automobile? Drive Males Yes o. o Females Q. O No % Yes No a O Yes % Q. No 'O Tract 7 16 35.6 29 64.4 9 81.8 2 18.2 7 20.6 27 79.4 Tract 10 28 63.6 16 36.4 13 72.2 5 27.8 15 57.7 11 42.3 Tract 23 38 59.4 26 40.6 25 89.3 3 10.7 13 36.1 23 63.9 Table 21.— Marital Status Crosstabulated by Driving Status Respondent Drives Total Sample Tract 7 Yes 10 1 8 - 1 1 1 - 4 7 2 2 1 1 1 4 Widowed 37 20 18 6 5 8 14 6 Married 20 54 1 8 9 18 10 28 Divorced Yes Tract 23 No Single No Tract 10 No Yes No Yes 67 that age would show an inverse relationship with the means of achieving needs satisfaction. Driving oneself is one of the means, therefore, it is hypothesized that an in­ verse relationship exists between age and driving: the null hypothesis is that there are no significant differ­ ences in driving due to age. The results of crosstabu- lating age by driving status for the total sample (Table 22), tested by chi-square analysis at the .01 level of sig­ nificance, yields a chi-square of 16.35057 with 4 degrees of freedom which is significant at the .0026 level. There­ fore the hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis rejected. Crosstabulations of these two variables for the three subpopulations cannot be tested by chi-square analy­ sis. However, the data compiled in Table 2 2 indicate that the overall trend within the individual tracts is towards a decrease in driving with age. The final factor to be considered regarding driving status is the health of the individual. that health directly affects mobility. driving is the means of mobility tested. It is hypothesized In this instance, The null hypothe­ sis is that there is no relationship between health and driving. Driving is selected as the measure of mobility because it is representative of the individual's own ability, whereas frequency of car use (to be discussed later) in­ cludes automobile transportation provided by others, and therefore is not directly dependent upon the respondent1s own physical limitations. Table 22.— Age Crosstabulated by Driving Status Drive Total Sample No Age Tract 7 Yes No Tract 10 Yes No Tract 23 Yes No Yes ------------------------------------------------------------------------------NO. % NO. % NO. % NO. % No. % No. % NO. % No. 65-69 16 32.0 34 68.0 4 36.4 7 63.6 5 31.3 11 68.8 7 30.4 16 69.6 70-74 25 48.1 27 51.9 10 66.7 5 33.3 7 41.2 10 58.8 8 40.0 12 60.0 75-79 9 37.5 15 62.5 5 62.5 3 37.5 1 16.7 5 83.3 3 30.0 7 70.0 80-84 13 72.2 5 27.8 9 100.0 2. 100.0 4 57.1 3 42.9 8 88.9 _L 1 11.1 _L 85 and over 1 50.0 1 X 50.0 3 100.0 4 100.0 69 The results of crosstabulating health by driving status for the sample population, tested by chi-square analysis, yields a significance level of 0.1852. Since the .05 level was selected to test for significance, the hypothesis must be rejected and the null hypothesis ac­ cepted. However, it is noted that, while statistically the hypothesis must be rejected, it appears from Table 23 that the expected direction of relationship holds, that is, as health increases, the number driving increases. At the subpopulation levels the hypothesis is rejected for Tract 23, where a chi-square of .54043 is significant at the .9099 level. Chi-square analyses for Tracts 7 and 10 are not feasible; however, data for both of these tracts in­ dicate a tendency towards the expected relationship. Table 23.— Crosstabulation of Health by Driving Status for the Elderly* Driving Status Health No No. Yes Q, "O No. % Poor 5 71.5 2 28.6 Fair 24 55.8 19 44.2 Good 34 42.0 47 58.0 Excellent 8 36.4 14 63.6 Total 71 46.4 82 53.6 *Chi-square=4.82398 with 3 degrees of freedom; significance=0.1852. 70 There is considerable variation among the rates of car ownership in the three tracts, with the greatest differences between Tract 7 and the other two areas. Tract 7 ranks lowest on car ownership, with only 16 individuals or 35.6 percent of the sample population owning cars; Tract 10 ranks highest, with 33 persons, equal to 75 per­ cent of the sample, owning cars; and Tract 23 trails Tract 10 by nearly 10 percent, having 42 owners representing 65.6 percent of the tract population. The automobile provides its owner with the greatest range of transportation options. Because auto ownership is a function of one's economic capacities, it is suggested that the relationship between income and automobile owner­ ship can be tested as a corollary of the hypothesis that the higher one's income the greater his range of options (automobile ownership) in achieving needs satisfaction. The null hypothesis is that there is no relationship be­ tween income and car ownership. The results of crosstabu­ lation tested by chi-square analysis using the .01 level of significance, show that there is a highly significant relationship between income and car ownership for the pop­ ulation sample as a whole, therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected (Table 24). While it is not feasible to apply chi-square analysis to the individual tracts, tabulation of the data suggests that the relationship between income Table 24.— Income Crosstabulated by Automobile Ownership for the Sample Population* Car Ownership Level Total Sample No Tract 7 Yes %Yes No Yes 1 25.0 2 — 8 - 2 3 3 16 4 13 3 18.8 6 1 5 6 8 57.1 4 6 8 10 55.6 7 4 17 8 10 9 Total — Tract 10 %Yes No Yes 1 Tract 23 %Yes No Yes 100.0 1 — 4 - %Yes 4 - 14.3 2 1 33.3 5 1 16.7 2 33.3 - 2 100.0 2 4 66.7 4 3 42.9 1 6 85.7 3 1 25.0 81.0 1 1 50.0 - 5 100.0 3 11 78.6 38 72.2 4 7 63.6 3 13 81.3 3 18 85.7 2 14 87.5 — 2 100.0 1 5 83.3 1 7 87.5 62 91 (40.5%)(59.5%) * Chi-square=53.56651 with 7 degrees of freedom; significant at the .001 level. 72 and car ownership is quite evident for Tracts 7 and 2 3 but less clear in the case of Tract 10 (Table 24). Having discerned that automobile ownership is higher in Tracts 10 and 2.3 than in Tract 7, it is no sur­ prise that the frequency of automobile usage in the former is weighted more heavily toward the daily to weekly cate­ gories than in the latter (Table 25). Frequency of car Table 25.— Frequency of Automobile Usage in the Three Sample Tracts Tract 10 Tract 7 Tract 23 Usage No. % No. No. Q. 1 1.6 2.3 1 1.6 --- 2 3.1 - --- % — 'Q 0.0 (N/A) 1 2.2 1.0 (Less than 1/month) 5 11.1 2.0 (1/month) 5 11.1 3.0 (2/month) 3 6.7 2 4.5 4.0 (1/week) 6 13.3 5 11.4 9 14.1 5.0 (2/week) 11 24.4 12 27.3 9 14.1 6.0 (Daily) 14 31.1 24 54.5 42 65. 6 1 — use includes all individuals traveling by car whether they own the vehicle or not. Therefore a more discerning view of the effects of automobile ownership upon the frequency of car use is obtained by referring to the raw data. This reveals that all individuals owning cars use them more than 73 once a week and most use them daily. Only one individual uses a car as infrequently as once per week. This finding is consistent with Carp's study in which she notes that daily driving of an automobile is consistent with automo­ bile ownership. Hidden within the aspect of the frequency of car use is the identification of the driver. Simply noting that there are more car owners in Tracts 10 and 2 3 than in Tract 7 does not account for the individual responsible for providing the transportation for the elderly person. Data disclosing the importance of various persons serving as automobile drivers for the elderly in the sample popu­ lation are found in Table 26. When it comes to designating the individual who does most of the driving, Tract .10 can best be described in terms of self-reliance; the explanations for Tracts 7 and 2 3 however, are not quite as simple. With 6 5.6 per­ cent of the respondents in Tract 2 3 identifying themselves or their spouses as the main driver, the weight of this item cannot be ignored. But it must be noted that there is nearly a uniform division between the remaining cate­ gories: friends account for 15.6 percent and relatives ^ F r a n c i s M. Carp, "Correlates of Mobility Among Retired Persons," in Proceedings of the 2nd Annual En­ vironmental Design Research Association Conference, ed. John Archea and Charles Eastman (Pittsburgh, P e n n . : October 1970), p. 178. 74 Table 26.— Persons Identified as Automobile Drivers by the Respondents in the Three Sample Areas Tract. 7 0 N/A 1 Other per­ son 2 Other rela­ tive Tract 10 No. % 1 2.2 — % No. o, --- 1 1.6 No. — Tract 23 "D --- — --- 1 2.3 3 6.7 5 11.4 6 9.4 3 Child 13 28.9 3 6.8 5 7.8 4 Friend 12 26.7 2 4.5 10 15.6 5 Self or spouse 16 35.6 33 75.0 42 65.6 (combining children and other relatives) percent. account for 17.2 On the other h a n d , only 35.6 percent of the re- spondents in Tract 7 identified themselves or a spouse as the main driver. Friends assume an important position in this tract, accounting for 26.7 percent of the drivers, but even more important than friends are children, account­ ing for 28.9 percent of the drivers. In most instances children or relatives identified as drivers do not live with the elderly respondents. The importance of the automobile as a means of transportation is most evident when viewing alternate means of transportation. Use of the bus as a means of 75 transportation was found to be negligible for the overall population. On the subpopulation level bus usage is nearly nonexistent in Tract 10, where only three people out of the forty-four respondents admitted to bus usage and only one of them uses it at least once per month. The situation is not much better in Tract 7, where 37 out of 45 individuals never use the bus and only 3 out of 8 users of bus service utilize this service more than once per week. Tract 23 is quite similar to Tract 7; 57 persons never use the bus and only 2 of the 8 patrons use it at least once per week. Various reasons were given by the respondents as to why they do not use the b u s . The most obvious perhaps is simply that they have their own cars and therefore do not need buses. The strongest response on this particular item occurs in Tract 10, where over half of the respondents said that car ownership negates the need for public trans­ portation (Table 27). In Tract 10 as well as in the other two areas, the second most important reason cited is the category of problems relating to accessibility and schedul­ ing. Actually, the chief problem involved in this item is scheduling, not accessibility; most of the elderly know where the buses are but not when they run. The third most frequently mentioned factor for not using the bus falls into a general category of health reasons, in particular physical impairments in boarding the bus. 76 Table 27.— Reasons Cited for Not Using Public Transportation Tract 7 Tract 23 Tract 10 Reason Given No. % No. % No. O *. 6 0 N/A 6 13.3 2 4.5 7 1 Expense 1 2.2 1 2.3 - 2 Dislike 5 11.1 2 4.5 2 3.1 3 Accessibil­ ity and/or scheduling 11 24.4 9 20.5 21 32.8 9 20.0 7 15. 9 6 9.4 13 28.9 23 52. 3 28 43.8 4 5 Boarding problems (health) Has own car 10. 9 By their own estimates, many of the individuals living in the three sample tracts live within one block of the nearest bus stop. In fact, the majority, i 81.1 per' cent, of the respondents in Tract 7 live one block or less away from public transportation. Extending travel distance to two blocks takes in 89.2 percent of the respondents in Tract 7, 42.5 percent in Tract 10, and 67.8 percent of the respondents in Tract 23. A three block limit produces no changes in Tract 7, brings the total for Tract 10 to 55.0 percent and increases the percentage representation for Tract 23 to 93.2 percent (Table 28 and Figure 7). 77 Table 28.— Estimated Distance to the Nearest Bus Stop Tract 7 D IU L -J S . Tract 10 Tract 2 3 LJA. O % No. % N/A 4 N/A 5 N/A 30 81.1 9 22.5 21 35.6 3 8.1 8 20.0 19 32.2 5 12.5 15 25.4 7 17.5 3 5.1 11 27.5 1 1.7 40 100.0 59 100.0 0 No response 1 Within 1 block 8 2 Within 2 blocks 3 Within 3 blocks 4 Within 4 blocks Q. No. No. 'O — 4 10.8 5 5 or more blocks Total respondents 37 100.0 The preceding reveals that in both Tracts 7 and 2 3 better than two-thirds of those interviewed live within two blocks of public transportation and therefore are located within a relatively convenient distance of that transpor­ tation. Apparently a distance of one to two blocks is the critical distance for the elderly bus u s e r . ^ A travel distance of two blocks accounts for the majority of the 19 people in the sample who said that they used the bus: 9 travel one block, 6 travel two blocks, 1 travels three blocks, 2 travel four blocks, and 1 travels five or more blocks. 11 Riley, Research Findings, p. 128. f: 78 Tract 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 g s s a 20% 10 % l=Block Distance Figure 7.— Distance to Nearest Bus Stop for the Three Subpopulat ions • , 79 Time was used as a check on distance to see which might be more accurate in measuring the elderly individ­ ual's judgment of the accessibility of public transporta­ tion (Table 29). The results of time estimates to the nearest bus stop and the distance estimates are quite com­ patible. The percentage figures for those gauging the travel to the bus stop as one to two blocks come very close to equaling in total percentages the estimates for five minutes of travel, particularly for Tracts 10 and 23. Likewise, the sum of the percentage figures for a travel distance of three to four blocks closely approaches a travel time of ten minutes (Table 29). Table 29.— Estimated Travel Time to the Nearest Bus Stop Time (in minutes) Tract 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 No. % No. % No. % 0 No response 11 N/A 8 N/A 6 N/A 1 5 or less 27 79.4 16 44.4 40 69.0 2 Up to 10 5 14.7 14 38.9 17 29. 3 3 Up to 15 1 2.9 5 13.9 1 1.7 4 Greater than 15 1 2.9 1 2.8 Total respondents 34 36 58 80 Of the two remaining modes of transportation , the taxicab and walking, little need be said of the former due to the relatively infrequent use it receives by the elder­ ly. The most frequent use of the taxi is in Tract 7 where automobile ownership is lowest. Here only 12 persons use the taxi as frequently as once per month and only 2 indi­ viduals use cabs one or more times per week. Walking is important as an alternate form of transportation for some of the elderly. Slightly over one-third of them consider walking to be an important means of transportation. At the subpopulation level the highest positive percentage rating, 48.9 percent, occurs in Tract 7 where automobile usage is lowest and the lowest rating, 20.5 percent, oc­ curs in Tract 10 where automobile usage is highest. Tract 23 ranks on an intermediary position between Tracts 7 and 10, with 35.9 percent considering walking to be important. Respondents were also asked how frequently they walk to reach a destination, that is walking for a purpose and not for pleasure. The responses to this item show that walking as a means of transportation is most impor­ tant to the elderly in Tract 7 and least important to those in Tract 10 (Table 30). Asked if they have any physical impediments to walking, 25 persons or 55.6 percent of the respondents in Tract 7 answered in the affirmative. Tract 10 ranks second, with 17 people, 38.6 percent, answering 81 Table 30.— The Use of Walking as a Means of Transportation Tract 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 Frequency No. 0 Never 1 Q, O ' No. % No. % 15 33.3 24 54.5 29 45.3 Less than 1/month 2 4.4 2 4.5 2 3.1 2 1/month 1 2.2 3 6.8 4 6.3 3 2/month 1 2.2 1 2.3 6 9.4 4 1/week 7 15.6 8 18.2 7 10.9 5 2/week 11 24.4 4 9.1 9 14.1 6 Daily 8 17.8 2 4.5 7 10.9 yes, and Tract 2 3 ranks third, with only 34 .4 percent , 22 individuals, reporting impediments. Based on Table 30 and the preceding figures on impediments it appears that there are a number of persons in Tract 7 who walk, though suffer­ ing some degree of physical discomfort. Impediments imply a situation of less than optimum health, therefore the hypothesis that health directly af­ fects one's degree of mobility was tested by entering the variables for health and frequency of walking into rank order correlation, Kendall's tau. Significance was tested at the .05 level using a one-tailed test with the result that the coefficient of correlation, at this level. 0.1044 is significant Therefore the hypothesis must be accepted 82 and the null hypothesis, that health does not affect mobil­ ity, rejected. Performing similar tests for the three subpopulations causes acceptance of the null hypothesis for Tracts 10 and 23, but the null hypothesis is rejected for Tract 7, for which the coefficient of correlation of 0.2033 is significant at the 0.024 level. A good indication as to why Tract 7 stands apart from the rest of the sample population on the relationship of health to walking may be gained from Table 31. The single most important fact about Table 31 appears to be the variability of the individual tract responses on the health category good. Only 18.2 percent of the respondents in Tract 7 fail to walk, and 77.3 percent of them walk at least once per week. Neither of the other tracts comes close to matching this performance. The question of age as it relates to walking also needs to be addressed. Therefore, as a test of the hy­ pothesis that an inverse relationship exists between age and the means of achieving needs satisfaction as measured by frequency of walking, the two variables were cross­ tabulated and the results tested by chi-square analysis. Failure to attain significance at the 0.05 level of sig­ nificance with a chi-square of 7.63 with 8 degrees of free­ dom for the sample population causes the acceptance of the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between age and the use of walking as a means of achieving needs Table 31.— Crosstabulation of Health by Frequency of Walking Frequency of Walking Total Sample 0* 1 Tract 7 2 0 Tract 10 2 1 0 1 Tract 23 2 0 2 1 Poor No. % 4 --- 3 2 --- 57.1 --- 42.9 50.0 --- 2 1 1 1 50.0 100.0 50.0 50.0 Fair No. % 25 4 14 8 --- 6 6 2 1 11 2 7 58.1 9.3 32.6 57.1 --- 42.9 66.7 22.2 11.1 55.0 10.0 35.0 34 8 39 4 1 17 17 2 12 13 5 10 42.0 9.9 48.1 18.2 4.5 77.3 54.8 6.5 38.7 46.4 17.9 35.7 11 4 7 3 1 1 2 ---- 1 6 3 5 50.0 18.2 31.8 60.0 20.0 20.0 66.7 ---- 33.3 42.9 21.4 35.7 Good No. % Excellent No. % 'ft 0=never walks or less than once per month; 1= once to a few times per month; 2=walks at least once per week. 84 satisfaction. Neither the total sample population nor the subpopulation groups show a consistent relationship be­ tween age and walking. It appears that regardless of age, as long as the need exists for the elderly to get out and around, and they have their health, they will walk to reach a destination. A last factor to consider is the relationship be­ tween age and health. The normal expectancy is that the aging process leads to the eventual deterioration of physi­ cal well-being, therefore health should decrease with age. However, based on the sample population, the relationship between age and health is inconclusive. For example, Table 32 shows that nobody between the ages of 75-79 considered themselves to be in poor health, and as many people, per­ centagewise, between the ages of 85 and 94 considered them­ selves in excellent health as those between the ages of 65 and 69. Similar conditions exist at the subpopulation levels. A partial explanation as to why an inverse rela­ tionship was not found to exist between age and health per­ haps lies in the nature of the measurement of health by self-assessment. As was previously noted, the elderly tend to be quite optimistic in rating their health. Part of that optimism evinced in this study was the comparison a number made when responding to the question on health: 85 "For someone my age, I guess I can say that I am in good (fair, excellent) health." Table 32.— Crosstabulation of Age by Health for the Sample Population Health Poor Age Fair No. Good % No. Excellent % No. % No. % 65-69 2 4.0 11 22. 0 26 52.0 11 22. 0 70-74 2 3.8 15 28.8 29 55.8 6 11. 5 75-79 - 10 41.7 13 54. 2 1 4.2 80-84 2 11.1 4 22.2 10 55.6 2 11.1 85-94 1 11.1 3 33. 3 3 33. 3 2 22.2 CHAPTER IV SERVICE NEEDS OF THE ELDERLY The previous chapter has provided the data neces­ sary to characterize the elderly sample regarding their socioeconomic backgrounds and transportation habits. In this and the following chapter selected aspects of elderly inter­ action are considered. This chapter focuses on interac­ tion resulting from service needs: visiting the doctor, shopping for groceries, and other shopping needs. Chapter V deals with interaction resulting from social participa­ tion. Visiting the Doctor The initial section of this discussion presents a summary of the responses to the questionnaire items dealing with visits to the doctor; data for both the total sample and the subpopulations are presented. This is fol­ lowed by a section which considers the possible influences of socioeconomic variables upon variations in health re­ lated interaction among the three subpopulations. In response to the question, "Do you have a regu­ lar doctor?", 138 of the 153 respondents, or 90.2 percent, 87 answered yes; 15, or 9.8 percent said no. Asked how fre­ quently they see their doctors, the majority answered a few times per year or more often, though there are a sub­ stantial number who see their doctors only once a year or less frequently. Fifteen individuals said that they never see a doctor and the consensus among the fifteen is that if they needed a doctor they would go to the emergency room of one of the local hospitals. At the subpopulation level the numbers of individ­ uals per tract not having a regular doctor are 7, 5, and 3 for Tracts 7, 10, and 2 3 respectively. Frequency of visit­ ing the doctor among the three tracts reveals that except for minor differences, Tracts 10 and 2 3 are quite similar regarding their percentage distributions of respondents in the various frequency categories. Tract 7 shows some siz­ able digressions from the figures for Tracts 10 and 2 3 in a few categories. Collectively, for the frequencies rep­ resenting multiple visits to the doctor per year, the tracts are quite similar in total percentages (Table 33). For the total sample, the majority of individuals who visit doctors travel by automobile and over 50 percent drive themselves or ride with a spouse who drives. Rela­ tives, particularly children, are more important than friends in providing transportation for the elderly when they travel to their doctors. 88 Table 33.— Frequency of Visiting the Doctor Tract 7 Sample NO. % NO. Q ". 6 Tract 10 Tract 2 3 NO. % No. % 0 Never 15 9.8 5 11.1 3 6.8 7 10.9 1 Less than once/year 25 16.3 8 17.8 8 18.2 9 14.1 2 Once/year 24 15.7 5 11.1 8 18.2 11 17.2 3 Few times per year 71 46.4 18 40.0 22 50.0 31 48.4 4 Monthly 12 7.8 6 13.3 2 4.5 4 6.3 5 Few times per month 5 3.3 2 4.4 1 2.3 2 3.1 Weekly 1 0.7 1 2.2 6 — --- -- — . At the subpopulation level driving oneself ranks highest in Tract 7 among the modes of transportation but at a considerably lower level than in the other two areas. Walking, taxi, and bus together account for 44.5 percent of all individuals traveling to their doctors. For Tracts 10 and 23 the automobile is the most important mode of transportation but there are variations between the two tracts regarding who drives the automobile (Table 34). In traveling to the doctor the average interviewee, in the distance categories 1 to 7, moves a distance of just over two miles. At the extremes, 13 people travel Table 34.— Mode of Transportation Employed to Reach Doctors' Offices Total Sample No. Tract 7 % NO. % Tract 10 Tract 23 NO. % No. 0 N/A 15 9.8 5 11.1 3 6.8 7 10.9 1 Taxicab 13 8.5 7 15.6 2 4.5 4 6.3 2 Bus 8 5.2 5 11.1 1 2.3 2 3.1 3 Walk 9 5.9 8 17 .8 1 1.6 4 Ride with a relative 6 3.9 Ride with a child 13 8.5 6 Ride with a friend 8 5.2 Drive self or with spouse 81 52. 9 5 6 7 — 3 6.8 3 4.7 13.3 2 4.5 5 7.8 1 2.2 1 2.3 6 9.4 13 28.9 32 72.7 36 56.3 90 one-half mile or less and 3 persons travel over six miles. Over 80 percent of the respondents fit into the three dis­ tance categories denoting a minimum travel of one-half mile and a maximum travel distance of three miles (Table 35) . Diversity in the preceding patterns is evident at the subpopulation level (Figure 8). In Tract 7 there is a sizable percentage of those who travel .5 mile or less to reach the doctor, explainable by the fact that most of these individuals also utilize walking as their mode of transportation. Coupling the percentage totals for cate­ gories 1 and 2 accounts for over 50 percent of the respond­ ents and indicates a mean travel distance to the doctor of under two miles for this tract (Table 35). Tract 10 comes closest to matching the mean dis­ tance traveled for the total sample. The most noticeable fact about this tract is that over 70 percent of the re­ spondents fall into the two categories representing a range of travel from .6 to 2.0 miles. For Tract 23, the three categories representing a travel range of 1.1 to 4.0 miles account for 80.6 percent of the respondents. The large number of respondents in the greater distance categories account for an average travel distance to the doctor of nearly three miles (Table 3 5). I F; 91 Table 35.— Distance Traveled to Reach D octors’ Offices Total Sample No. Tract 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 o, *o NO. "o NO. % No. Q. “O 0 N/A 15 N/A 5 N/A 3 N/A 7 N/A 1 Up to 1/2 mile 13 9.6 9 23.7 1 2.4 3 5.3 Up to 1 mile 30 22.0 13 34.2 14 34.1 3 5.3 Up to 2 miles 37 27.2 5 13.2 15 36.6 17 29.8 Up to 3 miles 31 22.8 7 18.4 7 17.1 17 29.8 Up to 4 miles 16 11.8 3 7.9 1 2.4 12 21.0 Up to 5 miles 5 3.7 1 2.6 2 4.9 2 3.5 Up to 6 miles 1 0.7 _L 1.8 Over 6 miles 3 2.2 2 3.5 Missing data 2 N/A 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 — 1 2 N/A 2.4 Total Sample 40 - ------- Tract 7 Tract 10 35 Tract 23 Percent 30 25 20 VO 15 10 5 A over 6 1/2 Distance in Miles Figure 8.— Travel Distance to the Doctor 93 Variations in Visiting the Doctor Due to Socioeconomic Factors Beyond the simple summations of data presented for the preceding variables, it is necessary to discern what, if any, relationships exist between these variables and the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents. The ini­ tial focus is on variations in the frequency of visiting the doctor, which may be attributable to socioeconomic factors; in addition, attention is directed to the factor of travel distance between the respondent and the doctor. In the previous chapter differences in sex were shown to play an important role in discerning the inter­ relationships between a number of variables. The impor­ tance of variations in sex is also noted when the frequency of visiting the doctor is crosstabulated by sex. These re­ sults reveal that if elderly individuals are considered as percentages of their respective sexes, then for the fre­ quency category of visiting the doctor two or more times per year, males exceed females by 71.9 percent to 50.0 percent. But females as a percent of the category visit­ ing the doctor two or more times per year exceed males by 53.9 percent to 46.1 percent. In general, these observa­ tions are found to exist at each of the age categories in Table 36 and similar patterns are observable at the sub­ population level. Married persons visit their doctors more frequently, exceeding all other categories by over 20 percent except teste.-,-.. Table 36.— Frequency of Visiting the Doctor Crosstabulated by Age and Controlling for Sex Age Fre­ quency** 0 F T M F T M F T M F T 5 2 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 5 1 4 1 4.8 3.3 10.0 18 % % 85 & over M "O 2 80-84 75-79 T* o, 1 70-74 65-69 27 4 10.0 14 20.0 46.7 14 13 70.0 43.3 14 3 11 10.0 9 17 18 80.9 60.0 7 33.3 26.7 5 14 7 7 ---- 5 8 70.0 46.7 2 6 66.7 40.0 ---- F 1 ---- 16.7 3 ---- 33.3 20.0 46.7 14.3 36.7 35 2 6.7 M 2 1 66.7 16.7 5 1 4 33.3 66.7 *T=Total. **0=never goes; year. l=once per year or less frequently; 2=two or more times per 95 for the single— never married. The percentage figures for visiting the doctor two or more times per year are 6 7.6 percent for marrieds, 47.4 percent for widows, 45.5 per­ cent for divorcees, and 6 3.6 percent for never marrieds. The relationship between being married and frequency of visiting the doctor is also the dominant pattern at the subpopulation level. The reason why marrieds see their doctors more of­ ten may be economic in nature. Previously it was shown that marrieds often have higher incomes than many in the "singles" categories. Perhaps the higher incomes of mar­ ried persons do affect their frequency of visits to the doctor. In order to test the possible relationship be­ tween income and visiting the doctor, it is hypothesized that a positive relationship exists between the frequency of visiting the doctor and income. The two variables, frequency of visiting the doctor and income, were entered into rank order correlation, Kendall's tau and the coeffi­ cient tested for significance using a one-tailed test at the .05 level. As a result of the above processes, a coefficient of rank order correlation of 0.133 was obtained for the total sample population which is significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected and the hypothesis supported. At the subpopulation level a nega­ tive coefficient is derived for Tract 7, -0.1046, and is 96 not significant at the .05 level; therefore the null hy­ pothesis of no relationship must be accepted for Tract 7. For both Tract 10, coefficient=.226, and Tract 23, coefficient=.252, significance at the .05 level is established and the null hypothesis is rejected for these tracts. Another variable which must be discussed is the health of the elderly person. If it is assumed that in­ dividuals in poorer health see their doctors more often than individuals in better health, then this inverse re­ lationship should be apparent in Table 37. An examination of the table does tend to verify the assumption of a nega­ tive relationship. It is evident that the overall trend in category 2, representing multiple visits to the doctor, is toward fewer visits as health status improves. Con­ versely for visiting the doctor only once per year the overall trend is towards percentage increases. Therefore, the basic relationship appears to be that as health status, as reported by the individual, improves, the frequency of visiting the doctor decreases. Distance and Locational Considerations Visiting the doctor implies that distance must be negotiated between the individual's home and the doctor's office. The distance traveled depends on a number of factors; of considerable importance is the proximity of the doctor to the respondent's location, that is, the Table 37.— Frequency of Visiting the Doctor Crosstabulated by Self-Assessed Health Health Frequency 0 Poor Fair Good 1 14. 3 2 4.7 9 11.1 3 13.6 o *o 1 14.3 9 20. 9 27 33. 3 12 54.5 Two or more times/year % 5 71.4 32 74.4 45 55.6 7 31.8 43 100.0 81 100.0 22 100. 0 Never g. *o 1 2 Once/year or less frequently Total Q. "O 7 100.00 availability of services. Excellent But equally important is the use of the available services or simply, the selectivity of the respondent in choosing which doctor to patronize. It has already been noted that the lowest mean distance traveled to the doctor occurs in Tract 7. This is partly explainable by the proximity of some of the respond­ ents to their doctors. The resultant short trip distances enables a number of these respondents to utilize walking as a means of transportation to the doctor. But regard­ less of the number walking, use of the automobile is the dominant form of transportation to the doctor in Tract 7. A review of Tables 34 and 35 indicates that the high 98 availability of the automobile precludes considerations of distance as a barrier when traveling to the doctor. In order to discern some of the factors which ac­ count for distance traveled to the doctor, Figure 9 and Table 38 are presented for analysis. By this means it is possible to focus on aspects of the locations of the doc­ tors utilized by the sample and further to differentiate patterns of utilization of the various doctors by respond­ ents from the three subpopulations. Inspection of the data for Tract 7 shows that of the four doctors located at three points within the tract, only the two doctors located at point 1 are visited by tract residents. A total of 23 respondents visit 12 doc­ tors located at points 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 16, all of which are within or slightly over one mile distance from Tract 7. In addition, the inclusion of locations 10 and 12 with 6 and 8 doctors respectively, accounts for 7 more respondents, a total of 30 or 78.9 percent of the total number. The remaining 8 individuals travel to different locations which account for a total of 11 doctors. result of the preceding analysis, As a it is shown that while ranking lowest in traveling to the doctor by automobile, the respondents in Tract 7 do visit 16 of the 29 locations indicated in Figure 9. The main elements characterizing the patterns of doctor utilization by the residents of Tract 7 appear to be first, a bias towards the downtown L o c a tio n s o f D o c to rs U tiliz e d by the E ld e rly C L IN T O N CO. EATON CO. INGHAM CO Lansing Township i j— l I ! U L < LLTjd 7 W JAVA .'3 J ^ lt 4 |\ \ / : / j i i I i ' '! Ir a A \ ! / / ! t - ^ Y _ /\i East Lansing r s I Delta Township Meridian Township Direction o f T ra v e l fro m Lansing T ra c t Center ----------- T - 2 3 C ity Boundary • — • — C ounty Boundary • Figure 9 P h ys ic ia n ’s O ffic e 100 Table 38.— Locations and Numbers of Doctors Visited by the Sample Population Location Number of doctors Number visiting location Tract 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 2 1 2 5 2 2 1 - — 2 3 1 - — 1 4 2 6 5 1 1 6 2 5 7 1 7 3 3 1 1 8 1 1 1 9 1 - 3 6 10 6 4 8 3 11 1 - — 12 8 3 10 11 13 1 1 — — 14 1 — — 15 1 1 - 16 1 2 — 17 2 1 — 18 1 1 — 19 1 - — 1 20 1 - — 1 21 2 - 22 2 23 1 1 - 24 1 1 1 1 25 1 - 1 2 26 1 - — 27 1 1 — 2 3 — — — 2 — 1 — 2 — 2 1 — 1 — 2 3 — 101 Table 38.— Continued Location Number of doctors Number visiting location Tract 7 28 2 1 29 1 - 30* 1 - Tract 10 — 5 Doctor's name not given - 2 Total 51 45 4 1 2 — 1 Travel to doctors be­ yond scope of Figure 9 Do not have a doctor Tract 23 — 1 4 3 7 — — 44 64 *Individual retired, location not indicated in Figure 9. 102 area, doctor locations 1, 4, 5, 6, and 7, areas easily reached by walking, bus, or taxi. Second, the residents of Tract 7 tend to travel to locations where more than one doctor is established, particularly locations 1, 4, 6, 10, and 12. The respondents in Tract 10 travel to 12 locations, fewer than traveled to by the residents of Tract 7. One important factor is the peripheral location of Tract 10 relative to many of the doctor locations which results in more individuals having to travel further for doctor ser­ vices than those in Tract 7. Another factor is the use of services at locations 10 and 12 by Tract 10 respondents: a total of 18 people or 46.1 percent of the sample travel to these two locations. viduals, In addition, a total of 13 indi­ 33.3 percent, utilize doctors at sites 1, 4, 6, and 7, all in the downtown area. The locations of the doctors most frequented by Tract 10 residents result in a general pattern of east to west movements by those seek­ ing doctor services, with the exception of the strong at­ traction for the cluster of 8 doctors at location 12 to the north of the tract (Figure 9 and Table 38). It is evident from Table 38 that the respondents in Tract 23 travel to more locations for doctor services than do individuals in the other two tracts. The 57 per­ sons who have doctors travel to 22 of the 29 indicated locations; in addition, 4 persons travel to locations . « 103 beyond the scope of Figure 9. A number of patterns are decipherable within the overall movement of people out­ ward from Tract 23. Use of doctors in downtown locations is not strong; a total of only 9 people, 15.8 percent, travel to downtown locations. A definite bias exists in travel to the northeast quadrant of town; locations 9, 10, 11, and 12 account for 22 persons, 38.6 percent of the total sample. Lastly, sites 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, and 28, all within two miles of the tract, account for 17 persons, 29.8 percent of the total (Figure 9 and Table 38) . The preceding discussion has indicated some of the patterns of travel to doctors discernible in the three tracts due to locational factors. These factors do not answer the question as to why an individual goes to a par­ ticular doctor nor is the answer to this question a specific goal of this study. However, in the course of the inter­ views, this question was asked and it elicited a variety of responses. The most frequently heard response was that the individual has been going to the particular doctor for a long time. Other reasons given include death of one's doctor resulting in either a transfer of records to another doctor, or seeking a new doctor on the basis of recommenda­ tions by friends or relatives. A few individuals indicated that they have continued to use a doctor since moving from one part of the city to another, or that they chose a doctor because he is in the local area. 104 Health: Final Comments There are a number of items in the questionnaire designed to provide further information on the health of the respondents and to ascertain their knowledge of selected health supportive services in Lansing (Appendix). The fol­ lowing is presented as a summation of the responses to these items and is not intended to present a case by case analysis of respondents' needs. Only a handful of persons responded that they do have financial problems in obtaining certain items or ser­ vices such as eyeglasses, dentures, hearing aids, and the services of a foot doctor. Only a few persons admitted to dietary inadequacies but others through their answers re­ garding the number and frequency of meals, which in cases were few in number, engendered some suspicion as to the validity of their responses. Services, specifically Meals on Wheels and the federal food stamp program, are fairly well known within the elderly community. A few individuals were encountered who use or have used Meals on Wheels and nearly all seemed favorably impressed by the program. In addition, most people, were receptive to the possible use of this program if necessary. However, only four people are using food stamps and few others have investigated the possibility of obtaining the stamps. Nearly all said they knew about food stamps but for various reasons did not participate in the program. 105 Interaction Due to Shopping Along with medical services, the acquisition of food is among the most urgent needs for the elderly person as well as for any individual. In this section of the chapter shopping trips of the elderly are discussed, focus ing first on grocery shopping, then on other shopping. As in the discussion on doctor visitations, an initial over­ view of the variables that deal with shopping trips is pre sented, followed by a second section that focuses on an in-depth analysis of relationships between shopping trips and selected socioeconomic and transportation characteris­ tics . Summation of Shopping Characteristics Grocery Shopping The majority of the elderly shop one or more times per week: 60.8 percent said that they shop for food once per week and 2 2.9 percent shop for food more than once a week. An additional 9.8 percent shop a few times per month, and only 6.5 percent shop as infrequently as once per month. No major variations occur in these patterns at the subpopulation level. The majority of respondents travel one mile or less to do their grocery shopping. Twelve persons have their groceries delivered to them either by relatives or by friends. The mean trip distance for grocery shopping (distance categories 1 through 7) is one mile for the 106 sample as a whole. At the subpopulation level respondents in Tract 7 travel on the average .95 mile, and respondents in Tract 10 travel .75 mile. The mean travel distance for Tract 23 is 1.4 miles which is considerably greater than the distance traveled in the other two tracts (Table 39 and Figure 10). Table 39.— Distance Traveled to the Grocery Store Tract 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 u x b uanut: (miles) NO. Q. *o NO. O. ■o NO. % NO. % 0 Delivered 12 7.8 8 17.8 2 4.5 2 3.1 1 0-.25 11 7.2 7 15.6 2 4.5 2 3.1 2 .26-.50 44 28.8 12 26.7 20 45.5 12 18.8 3 .51-1.0 41 26.8 6 13.3 17 38.6 18 28.1 4 1.1-2.0 18 11.8 3 6.7 — 15 23.4 5 2.1-3.0 15 9.8 4 8.9 — 11 17.2 6 3.1-4.0 5 3.3 4 8.9 — 1 1.6 7 4.1-5.0 1 0.7 8 5.1 & over 5 3.3 Missing 1 0.7 9 — 1 — --- 1 2.3 2.2 2 4.5 -- — — --- 2 3.1 1 1.6 The automobile is the dominant form of transpor­ tation utilized to gain access to grocery stores. Whether an individual drives oneself or rides with another, 79.1 Percent 30 25 20 107 15 10 5 1/4 i i 1/2 1 2 3 4 5 Distance in Miles Figure 10.— Travel Distance for Grocery Shopping over 5 108 percent of the respondents, 121 persons use the automobile for grocery shopping. Walking as a means of travel to the grocery store accounts for only 15 respondents but it is the single most important means of transportation after driving. ping. Only one person uses the bus for grocery shop­ Perhaps this is understandable by considering the fact that many elderly have problems boarding the bus them­ selves, much less with bundles in their arms! are little used by the elderly population Taxicabs (Table 40). Table 40.— Mode of Transportation Utilized for Grocery Shopping Total Sample No. % No. 1 Taxi 4 2.6 2 Bus 1 0.7 15 9.8 4 Ride with relative 5 3.3 5 Ride with child 10 6.5 4 6 Ride with friend 17 11.1 7 Drive self or with spouse 89 8 Delivered 12 3 Walking Tract 10 Tract 23 % NO. No. % 6.7 1 1 1.6 Tract 7 3 % 2.3 3 6.8 6 9.4 2 4.5 3 4.7 8.9 2 4.5 4 6.3 8 17.8 2 4.5 7 10.9 58.2 16 35.6 32 72.7 41 64.1 7.8 8 17.8 2 4.5 2 3.1 6 13.3 109 The importance of the automobile for grocery shop­ ping is evident at the subpopulation level. There is an increase in the use of the automobile in Tracts 7 and 23 compared to automobile use in the same tracts for trans­ portation to the doctor (Tables 34 and 40). Use of the automobile is virtually the same in Tract 10 for both gro­ cery shopping and travel to the doctor. Secondary grocery shopping From the data gathered on grocery shopping, it is possible to define a variable that measures the importance of walking to local stores as a means of supplementing regular grocery shopping. to this item than expected. Fewer people responded positively Only 29 persons, 19 percent of the total sample, indicated that they walk to a store for food needs at least once in two weeks. Of these 29, 24 walk one-quarter mile or less and the remaining 5 walk one-half mile or less. The stores that these respondents walk to are generally small neighborhood stores, dairy and grocery stores. By tracts the sample breaks down to 16, 2, and 11 respectively for Tracts 7, 10, and 23. Tract 7 has the highest percentage of elderly walking to the store, 35.5 percent of the sample population. A partial explanation for the observed differences lies in the availability of shopping facilities within or immediately adjacent to the w. 110 three tracts. Tract 7 lies in an old area of Lansing that contains many small stores serving the local population. Tract 10, on the other hand, only has stores along Michi­ gan Avenue and one small variety store located within the tract. Since Michigan Avenue lies through the lower por­ tion of the tract, most of the residents do not have im­ mediate access to these stores. It must also be pointed out that Tract 10 is the tract with the highest percentage of drivers while Tract 7 has the lowest percentage. Location of shopping facilities also appears to be a factor in Tract 23. Most of the available shopping in this tract is found along South Cedar Street where some stores have closed in the last few years according to sev­ eral respondents. One example is a supermarket previously located on Cedar which has moved to South Washington and Mt. Hope, still within the tract, but according to some respondents, it is now beyond their range of walking. In addition to locational considerations, there are a number of other factors which may influence the capacity of, and the need for, the elderly to supplement their regular grocery shopping; health, income, frequency of grocery shopping, and others. It is not the purpose here to pursue the possible interrelationships of these variables to secondary grocery shopping. Rather, the basic purpose of this discussion has been to indicate an additional facet of elderly interaction. Ill Other Shopping Responses to the question regarding shopping for items other than food indicate that almost 70 percent of the elderly do shop at least once per month, and the major ity of shoppers shop two or more times per month 41). (Table Most noticeable at the subpopulation level is the high percentage of the respondents in Tract 10, 34.1 per­ cent, who are weekly shoppers. Tract 10 has well over twice as many shoppers in this category as Tract 7 and is well above Tract 23. The presence of the Frandor shopping area, encompassing a large number of stores and situated just to the east of Tract 10, is a factor in explaining the high frequency of weekly shopping trips in Tract 10. Table 41.— Frequency of Shopping Trips for Items Other than Food Total Sample Tract 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 No. % No. No. % No. % 0 Do not shop or less than monthly 45 29.4 14 31.1 11 25.0 20 31.3 1 Monthly 34 22.2 11 24.4 5 11.4 18 28.1 2 Biweekly 33 21.6 12 26.7 9 20.5 12 18.8 3 Weekly 34 22.2 6 13.3 15 34.1 13 20.3 7 4.6 2 4.4 4 9.1 1 1.6 4 More than once/week % 112 Computation of an average travel distance for the elderly shopper is not feasible because the large number of individuals in distance category 8 for whom the full travel range is not stated cannot be ignored in determin­ ing the mean travel distance (Table 42). However, based on the data in Table 42, it is safe to conclude that the average distance traveled for "other" shopping well ex­ ceeds the average for grocery shopping, though as Table 42 and Figure 11 show, there are considerable variations in the distance traveled by shoppers for the sample as a whole. Table 42.— Distance Traveled for "Other" Shopping Total Sample Tract 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 No. % NO. 25.0 20 Miles Q “5. No. % NO. 45 29.4 14 31.1 1 0-.25 2 1.3 2 4.4 2 .26-.5 8 5.2 3 .6-1.0 22 14.4 9 4 1.1-2.0 17 11.1 3 5 2.1-3.0 12 7.8 — 6 3.1-4.0 16 10. 5 10 22.2 7 4.1-5.0 6 3.9 4 25 16.3 3 0 N/A 8 5.1 & over — 11 — g *. o 31.3 — 6 13.6 2 3.1 20.0 11 25.0 2 3.1 6.7 3 6.8 11 17.2 i 2.3 11 17.2 — 6 9.4 8.9 — 2 3.1 6.7 12 10 15.6 27.3 Total Tract 7 30 Tract 10 Tract 23 Percent 25 20 15 113 10 5 I I 1/4 1/2 1 2 3 4 5 Distance in Miles Figure 11.— Travel Distance for "Other" Shopping over 5 114 Variations in travel distance are further accentu­ ated at the subpopulation level. Tract 7 is the only tract in which individuals travel .25 mile or less to shop, and Tract 7 also has a greater percentage of respondents than the other two tracts, over half the total, traveling more than three miles to shop. Tract 10 respondents, for the most part, travel two miles or less to shop; however, due to the 12 individuals in category 8, Tract 10 has the high­ est percentage of the three tracts for individuals travel­ ing more than five miles to shop. Most individuals in Tract 2 3 travel 1.1 miles or more to shop and the average trip distance for Tract 2 3 is the highest average distance traveled for shopping of the three tracts (Figure 11). Mobility for most shoppers is provided by the auto­ mobile. Of the 108 individuals who do shop, 71.3 percent drive themselves or ride with their spouses, and an addi­ tional 11.1 percent shop by riding with others. is used by 7.4 percent, 5.6 percent walk, The bus 3.7 percent use taxis, and .9 percent have items delivered. Variations in the modes of travel at the subpopu­ lation level show that Tract 7 respondents are less re­ liant upon the automobile driven by themselves and more reliant upon other means of transportation. Of the 31 shoppers in the tract, 45.2 percent drive themselves or ride with their spouses. Most of the individuals in the nondriving categories of the total sample population are 115 found in Tract 7: 3 of the 4 taxi riders, 6 of the 8 bus riders, and 4 of the 6 walkers. The remaining 3 individuals ride with others. Tract 1 0 's population is highly oriented towards the automobile; 28 of the 33 shoppers drive themselves or ride with their spouses. Of the remaining 5 individ­ uals, 1 walks and the rest ride with others. In Tract 23 the orientation is also strongly towards the automobile driven by one's self or spouse: pers fit into this category. 81.4 percent of the shop­ An additional 11.6 percent ride with others, 1 person uses the taxi, and 2 ride the bus. Besides the 43 persons who travel to shopping facil­ ities, 1 individual in this tract utilizes deliveries as a means of obtaining nonfood items. Shopping: Detailed Analysis The preceding summation of data focuses on three basic factors: the distance, the frequency, and the mode of travel utilized for shopping by the elderly. Tabula­ tion of the data reveals that a number of variations occur in these three factors among the members of the sample body. In order to provide explanations for these differ­ ences, it is necessary to seek interrelationships between these three elements and various characteristics of the elderly. 116 Frequency of shopping A basic factor explicit in both the "disengagement" and "activity" theories of aging is that as the individual ages the number and frequency of activities decreases. This suggests that both age and health might be related to the shopping activities of the elderly. To test for a possible relationship between age and needs satisfaction, as measured in terms of frequency of shopping, it is hy­ pothesized that an inverse relationship exists between fre­ quency of shopping and age. Rank order correlation, Kendall's tau, yields a significant relationship between frequency of grocery shop­ ping and age test. (Table 43) at the .05 level using a one-tailed The coefficient of rank order correlation of -0.1053 is significant at the .026 level, which allows the accept­ ance of the hypothesis. However, the relationship is not significant at the subpopulation level, though the direc­ tion of relationship is as expected. Table 43.— Frequency of Grocery Shopping Crosstabulated by Age Age Frequency 65-69 Monthly 70-74 75-79 80-84 85 & over 6 10 6 1 2 Weekly 31 27 13 15 7 Daily 13 15 5 2 - 117 Testing the hypothesis for "other" shopping (Table 44) yields significance at the .05 level for the total sample using Kendall rank order correlation. The correla­ tion coefficient of -0.2198 is significant at the .0005 level. Rank order correlation applied at the subpopulation level yields significance for two of the three subpopulation groups. Tract 7 yields a coefficient of -0.2909 which is significant at the .0025 level, and Tract 23 has a coeffi­ cient of -0.1904, significant at the .013 level. The co­ efficient of -0.1524 for Tract 10 fails to yield signifi­ cance (.072) at the .05 level. The results of this analysis indicate that the hypo­ thesis of an inverse relationship between age and frequency of "other" shopping is statistically significant for the total sample and for the Tract 7 and Tract 2 3 subpopula­ tions. For Tract 10 the null hypothesis of no relationship between age and frequency of shopping trips must be ac­ cepted, though it is noted that an inverse relationship is also evident for this tract. The predicted inverse relationship between fre­ quency of shopping and age is more in evidence for "other" shopping than it is for grocery shopping. planation lies in the factor of need. the elderly must eat. A partial ex­ Regardless of age, Shopping for other items is not as pressing a matter, as evidenced in the summary data by the number of respondents who do not shop as frequently as once per month (Table 41). 118 Table 44.— Frequency of "Other" Shopping Crosstabulated by Age Frequency Age 65- 69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85 & over Total Sample 8 16 4 9 8 One or more times/month 27 18 16 5 1 One or more times/week 15 18 4 4 - 0 Does not shop 1 2 Tract 7 0 Does not shop 2 4 1 6 1 1 One or more times/month 5 9 6 2 1 One or more times/week 4 2 1 1 - - 3 2 Tract 10 — 0 Does not shop 2 6 1 One or more times/month 7 2 4 1 - One or more times/week 7 9 2 1 - 2 Tract 23 4 6 3 3 4 One or more times/month 15 7 6 2 - One or more times/week 4 7 1 2 - 0 Does not shop 1 2 119 In general, it might be assumed that the better one's health, the greater the individual's opportunity for mobility. Therefore, it is hypothesized that a di­ rect relationship exists between frequency of shopping, as a measure of mobility, and health status. hypothesis is that no relationship exists. The null Testing of the hypothesis is by rank order correlation, Kendall's tau, at the .05 level of significance with a one-tailed test. Frequency of grocery shopping correlated with health for the total sample yields a coefficient of rank order correlation of .1228, significant at the .012 level (Table 45). However, of the three subpopulations, only Tract 10 yields a significant correlation coefficient, .2109, significant at the .022 level. Therefore, the re­ search hypothesis of a direct relationship between fre­ quency of shopping and health status is only acceptable for the population as a whole and for Tract 10. The null hypothesis of no relationship must be accepted for Tracts 7 and 23. Frequency of "other" shopping correlated with health (Table 46) yields a coefficient of rank order corre­ lation of .2104 for the total sample, which is significant at the .0005 level. Significance and acceptance of the hypothesis is also the case for the three subpopulations: Tract 7, coefficient=.2284, significance .014; Tract 10, 120 Table 45.— Frequency of Grocery Shopping Crosstabulated by Health Health Frequency Poor Fair Good Excellent Total Sample Monthly 1 10 13 1 Weekly 5 26 46 16 Daily 1 7 22 5 Tract 7 — Monthly 1 5 6 Weekly 2 7 13 3 Daily 1 2 3 2 Tract 10 Monthly Weekly 1 Daily — 2 3 6 18 2 1 10 1 3 4 1 13 15 11 4 9 2 Tract 23 Monthly Weekly Daily |._ 2 121 Table 46.— Frequency of "Other" Shopping Crosstabulated by Health Frequency Health Poor Fair Good Excellent Total Sample 0 Does not shop 4 14 23 4 1 One or more times/month 3 22 35 7 7 23 11 2 One or more times/week Tract 7 0 Does not shop 3 5 5 1 1 One or more times/month 1 6 14 2 3 3 2 3 8 5 6 2 1 17 1 2 One or more times/week Tract 10 0 Does not shop 1 One or more times/month 1 2 One or more times/week — Tract 23 0 Does not shop 1 6 10 3 1 One or more times/month 1 11 15 3 3 3 8 2 One or more times/week 122 coefficient=.220, significance .018; and Tract 23, coeffi­ c i e n t s 1988, significance .010. sis, where As in the previous analy­ frequency of shopping is correlated with the variable age, a stronger coefficient is obtained when the variable under question, health in this case, is correlated with "other" shopping than with grocery shopping. Income is another variable which might be expected to affect an individual's shopping habits. Either by it­ self, or through related effects such as automobile owner­ ship, income provides the individual with a range of op­ tions for the achievement of needs, a range which increases as income increases. It is hypothesized therefore that a direct relationship exists between income and frequency of shopping. Testing is by rank order correlation at the .05 level of significance with a one-tailed test. Correlating the frequency of grocery shopping with income for the total sample yields a coefficient of rank order correlation of .1867, significance=.0005 (Table 47). At the subpopulation level significance is obtained for Tract 10 with a coefficient of .1799, significance=.042; and Tract 23 with a coefficient of .1753, significance= .02. Significance is not achieved for Tract 7, causing the rejection of the hypothesis and the acceptance of the null hypothesis that no relationship exists between grocery shopping and income. 123 Table 47.— Frequency of Grocery Shopping Crosstabulated by Income Frequency Income 1* 2 3 4 5 6 Total Sample Monthly Weekly 2 10 1 1 9 2 16 14 16 18 24 5 2 6 1 2 15 9 1 3 - 1 6 - — 2 2 — 3 - 7 3 — 6 3 — 3 2 12 11 2 2 7 4 Daily Tract 7 Monthly 1 7 — Weekly 7 5 6 Daily 2 1 1 Tract 10 Monthly 1 Weekly 4 — Daily — 1 2 3 6 — 5 Tract 23 Monthly Weekly Daily — , 3 5 — — 4 7 2 — *1=0 to $1,999; 2=$2,000 to 2,999; 3=$3,000 to 3,999; 4=$4,000 to 4,999; 5=$5,000 to 9,999; 6=$10,000 or more. 124 A coefficient of rank order correlation .2651, sig nificance=.0005, is derived for the total sample when the frequency of "other" shopping is correlated with income (Table 48). Significance is also achieved for two of the three subpopulations; Tract 7 has a coefficient of .496 9, significances 0005 and Tract 10 has a coefficient of .2922 significance=.0025. Failure to achieve significance for Tract 2 3 causes the acceptance of the null hypothesis of no relationship for this tract. It appears in the above analysis that income is more strongly associated with the frequency of "other" shopping than it is with the frequency of grocery shopping Once again it seems that it is a universal need among the elderly to shop for food, except delivered to them. for those who have food Shopping for other items perhaps is more in the nature of an outing than a seeking for essen­ tial items. Distance and locational considerations In addition to frequency of shopping, attention is directed to further considerations of travel distance to shopping sites. The initial discussion of travel dis­ tance for grocery shopping indicated that respondents in Tract 10 have the lowest average distance traveled for grocery shopping, followed closely by Tract 7, with re­ spondents in Tract 2 3 traveling the greatest distance 125 Table 48.— Frequency of "Other" Shopping Crosstabulated by Income Income Frequency 1* 2 3 4 5 6 Total Sample 16 9 4 4 10 2 1 One or more times/month 3 13 10 11 22 8 2 One or more times/week 1 8 4 6 16 6 0 Does not shop Tract 7 0 Does not shop 8 2 3 1 One or more times/month 2 10 3 1 1 2 One or more times/week — — 2 — 1 - 5 1 5 1 4 - 5 1 Tract 10 — 0 Does not shop 3 2 1 One or more times/month 1 1 6 2 One or more times/week 1 2 1 3 7 5 5 1 2 5 2 2 — Tract 23 0 Does not shop 5 1 One or more times/month — 2 1 9 12 6 2 One or more times/week — 5 2 3 4 - *1=0 to $1,999; 2=$2,000 to 2 ,999; 3= $3,000 to 3, 999; 4==$4,000 to 4,999; 5=$5,000 to 9,999 ; 6=$10 ,000 or more 126 (Table 39). To a large degree the variations in these travel distances are explainable in terms of the locations of shopping facilities relative to the three study areas (Figure 12). Tract 10, as indicated in the discussion of fre­ quency of shopping, is advantageously located with re­ spect to the Frandor shopping area. The elderly have a choice of three supermarkets within the Frandor area. On a straight line basis all locations in Tract 10 are within one mile or less of the Frandor area. Another store that is the focus for considerable local shopping trips is situated just north of the tract on Grand River Avenue and is just one mile from the extreme southern boundary of Tract 10. It is the proximity of these stores which basically explains the pattern of travel distance, where only three respondents in Tract 10 are shown to travel further than one mile for grocery needs (Table 39 and Figure 12). All but 12 of the Tract 10 respondents travel three miles or less for "other" shopping (Table 42). Frandor accounts for many shopping trips and the downtown area is also within the three mile range. Of the 12 per­ sons exceeding the five mile travel distance, most travel east to the shopping complex on East Grand River Avenue in Okemos (Meridian Township) composed of Meridian Mall, Meijer, and K-Mart. Two individuals mentioned traveling Shopping F a c ilitie s Frequented by the E lderly CLINTON CO. EATON CO * INGHAM CO. i J Lansing Township j J Imile East Lansing Delta Township Meridian Township F lo w S tre n g th : % U tiliza tio n by T r a c t P o pu latio n L a n s in g 30% r and over 20 - 29% 10 - 1 9 % 0 - 9% ------------------- C ity |• o Figure 12 • boundary County boundary Shopping fa c ility 128 Key to Locations 1 Frandor 2 M i k e 's Shop Rite 3 Downtown-Washington Mall Area 4 Meridian Mall Area 5 Meijer on South Cedar Street 6 Lansing Mall Area and Meijer on West Saginaw Avenue 7 Beeman's Grocery and North Lansing Area 8 A & P on Willow Street 9 Kroger on North Grand River Avenue 10 Intersection of Waverly Road and West Avenue Saginaw 11 Local Shopping Tract 7-West Saginaw Avenue Area 12 Tom's Shop Rite 13 Logan Shopping Area 14 K-Mart and Wrigley on South Cedar Street 15 Colonial Village Shopping Area 16 East Lansing-Jacobson's 17 Foster's Drug 18 Denstaedt's Shop Rite 129 to Meijer on South Cedar Street and a few also travel to Lansing Mall beyond the western perimeter of the city. There is a strong bias towards travel to the east of the sample area by those who shop at a frequency of once a month or more often (Figure 12). This bias appears to result from the proximity of shopping facilities east of the tract, to the ease of accessibility by road to shopping sites east of Tract 10, and to the stated dislike by many of the elderly for downtown shopping. This dislike for the downtown area is largely due to structural changes down­ town and to problems encountered by the elderly in parking their cars. There are parking ramps available but many said they do not like to use them. Further analysis of travel distance for grocery shopping in Tract 7 reveals that 55.6 percent of the el­ derly travel one mile or less for groceries and only 1 person exceeds a travel distance of five miles (Table 39). The majority of grocery shoppers focus on three stores, one within the tract and two just north of it. All three of these stores are within a mile or less, straight line distance, of any point within the tract. For grocery shopping other than these three stores, a few individuals travel to various stores along West Saginaw Avenue at and to the west of its intersection with Waverly Road. The closest of these stores is a maximum travel distance of 2.8 miles from Tract 7. Four persons also travel east 130 to the same grocery store noted in Tract 10 on Grand River Avenue to the north of the tract. The straight line dis­ tance to this store is 2.4 miles, and one person travels to the cluster of shopping areas in Okemos on East Grand River Avenue, accounting for the one person traveling over five miles. The strongest focal point for grocery shopping in Tract 7 is the northern edge of the tract, with minor tendencies for shopping trips westward along Saginaw Ave­ nue and to the east along Grand River Avenue (Figure 12). For "other" shopping there is a basic division between those traveling two miles or less and those travel­ ing three miles or more (Table 42). Two respondents travel .25 mile to shop, the first to a series of small stores to the west of the tract along West Saginaw Avenue and the second to the northeast section of the tract and extending into Tract 2, to shopping facilities along Grand River Avenue. A total of 12 respondents travel between .6 and 2.0 miles to downtown shopping facilities, that is they travel to stores located within Tract 14. Of the 17 indi­ viduals who exceed three miles travel distance, 14 travel to the vicinity of Lansing Mall on the west side of the city; the other 3 travel to stores in the Meridian Mall section of Okemos. Travel bias expressed by the desig­ nated shopping locations for Tract 7 residents is basically in two directions: first, to the west of the tract along 131 Saginaw Avenue, and second, to downtown facilities, basically stores along Washington Avenue (Figure 12). The initial analysis of travel distance revealed that respondents in Tract 23 travel the greatest average distance for grocery shopping (Table 42). A total of 50 percent of the sample travels one mile or less to shop, while 40.6 percent travel up to three miles, and 6.3 per­ cent exceed three miles travel distance. The bulk of those traveling one mile or less, 29 out of 32 persons, travel to two supermarkets, one within the tract and the other just to the south of the tract. Both of these mar­ kets are located at a maximum travel distance of just under 1.4 miles of any point in Tract 23. Shopping trips for most persons who travel between 1.1 and 4.0 miles focus upon various markets in the South Lansing area. A number of stores located to the southwest of the tract, at the intersection of South Washington and Logan with Holmes Road, collectively referred to as the Logan area, lie at an average maximum distance from Tract 2 3 of 2.0 miles, and these stores account for 13 respondents (Figure 12). Additional shopping facilities are located to the south of the tract, along South Cedar Street with one site, K-Mart and Wrigley, located 2.5 miles south of the northern boundary of Tract 23 and the second locus, Meijer, situated 3.3 miles south of the boundary. Together the two locations account for 13 additional respondents. 132 Two other locations within a maximum travel range of three miles from the tract are Frandor and the Colonial Village shopping area, west of the tract on West Mt. Hope Road. The two persons who exceed five miles travel dis­ tance shop out of town, one in Grand Ledge and the other in East Lansing. Beyond the local shopping areas, there is a tendency on the part of elderly grocery shoppers in Tract 2 3 to shop in the South Lansing area. The strongest vectors of travel are to the southwest to the Logan shop­ ping area and to the south to Meijer (Figure 12). Respondents in Tract 2 3 also travel the greatest average distance for "other" shopping (Table 42). Only 4 persons, representing 6.2 percent of the total, travel one mile or less to shop, by frequenting in-tract facili­ ties along Cedar Street or the drugstore adjacent to the northeast corner of the tract along Mt. Hope. Many of the 28 persons, 4 3.8 percent, traveling between 1.1 and 4.0 miles, shop at the Logan area, the two locations along South Cedar Street, Frandor, and downtown Lansing, all of which fall within four miles travel distance. The two persons in the distance category 4.1 to 5.0 miles, shop in East Lansing, and the remaining 12 individuals in the category 5.1 miles and over, travel to either Lansing or Meridian Mall. The pattern for "other" shopping in Tract 23 indicates the same bias as for grocery shopping, to the south and southwest. But to this can be added an 133 eastward tendency towards the Meridian Mall area, a grav­ itation to the downtown area, and a weaker but viable tend ency towards Lansing Mall (Figure 12). The role of the automobile Having evaluated aspects of both frequency of and distance to shopping activities, the one variable that re­ mains which appears to link the two is the mode of trans­ portation available to the individual elderly person. In the original hypotheses, distance is seen to bear an impor tant relationship to elderly needs satisfaction. However, following the analyses of the effects of age, health, and income upon frequency of shopping trips, and the relation­ ships between distance traveled to shop and location of shopping facilities, the constraining effects of distance seem less important than the mode of transportation avail­ able to the elderly. If the frequency of shopping trips is viewed in terms of the mode of transportation, it can be shown that the automobile is the elderly person's main means of satisfying shopping needs. Not only does the automobile provide the means of transportation out, but in most cases it is the means of transportation associated with the greatest distances traveled for shopping 50) . (Tables 49 and Table 49.— Mode of Transportation Utilized for Grocery Shopping Crosstabulated by Frequency of and Distance to Shopping Facilities Taxi Bus Walk Relative Child Friend Drive-self Tract 7 Frequency Monthly Weekly Daily - — — 3 - - - 4 2 — - 6 - ~ — - - - — — — — 3 1 — 5 3 — 2 9 5 1 1 2 3 3 1 1 6 2 2 6 Tract 10 Frequency Monthly Weekly Daily Distance Up to 1 mile 1.1 to 3 miles 3.1 to 5 miles Over 5 miles 1 - - - — — - 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 - 2 — — 2 - 1 - 3 20 9 16 14 1 - - - - 2 - - - - - - - — - - - - 1 2 134 Distance Up to 1 mile 1.1 to 3 miles 3.1 to 5 miles Over 5 miles 2 1 Table 49.— Continued Taxi Bus Walk Relative Child Friend Drive-self Tract 23 Frequency Monthly Weekly Daily Distance Up to 1 mile 1.1 to 3 miles 3.1 to 5 miles Over 5 miles - — — 1 — - 1 — — - 3 3 3 4 2 - — 1 - 1 1 1 3 - 2 3 1 4 26 11 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 7 12 11 11 Table 50.— Mode of Transportation Utilized for "Other" Shopping Crosstabulated by Frequency of and Distance to Shopping Facilities Taxi Bus Walk Relative Child Friend Drive-self — 2 1 — — — 9 5 Tract 7 Frequency Monthly Weekly 1 2 - — 6 — 3 2 4 1 1 5 - - - - 1 - - - - - - 2 1 — — — — — 10 3 Tract 10 Frequency Monthly Weekly Distance Up to 1 mile 1.1 to 3 miles 3.1 to 5 miles Over 5 miles - - — - 1 1 — — 1 2 — — - - 1 2 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - — - - - 12 16 12 4 - 12 136 Distance Up to 1 mile 1.1 to 3 miles 3.1 to 5 miles Over 5 miles 2 1 Table 5 0.— Continued Taxi Bus Walk Relative Child Friend 1 2 Drive-self Tract 23 Frequency Monthly Weekly - - 1 2 - 1 2 2 — - - - - - - - - - - - — — — 2 1 - 1 1 — 27 8 3 18 7 7 137 Distance Up to 1 mile 1.1 to 3 miles 3.1 to 5 miles Over 5 miles - 138 Within the general category of travel by automo­ bile, driving one's self is the dominant form of automo­ bile transportation. In nearly all instances, those who drive or ride with their spouses dominate each of the fre­ quency and distance categories in Tables 49 and 50. In view of the importance of the automobile, it is suggested that due to the interrelatedness of variables, the analy­ sis of the relationships between frequency of shopping trips and age, health, and income is also to a degree a measure of the relationships between the three variables and the availability of the automobile. CHAPTER V SOCIAL PARTICIPATION OF THE AGED In addition to interaction resulting from the sat­ isfaction of service needs, this study also directed at­ tention to interaction resulting from social participation by the elderly. Social participation refers to leisure time activities of the elderly; visiting and participating in group activities. The objective in dividing leisure time activities into two categories is to differentiate interaction at the personal level, i.e. visiting, from interaction due to participation in group activities. Interaction Resulting From Visiting To handle the data on the individuals visited by the elderly, the variable "visout" was defined, which distinguishes the types of persons visited by the elderly at a frequency of at least once per month. Compilation of the data for this variable reveals that 28.1 percent of the respondents do not meet the minimum frequency require­ ment, and that there is a near uniform distribution of respondents for the three categories of persons visited. At the subpopulation level the highest number of nonvisitors 140 are found in Tract 7, 16 of the 45 respondents. Tracts 7 and 10 are nearly similar in the percentages falling into each category of types of persons visited. Tract 23, however, differs from Tracts 7 and 10 in that more indi­ viduals visit friends rather than family and Tract 2 3 also has a high percentage representation for category 3, mixed— friends and family (Table 51). Table 51.— Persons Visited by the Elderly Total Sample No. Tract 7 % No. % Tract 10 Tract 23 No. No. % % 0 N/A 43 28.1 16 35.6 13 29.5 14 21.9 1 Friends 37 24.2 8 17 .8 10 22.7 19 29.7 2 Family 37 24.2 13 28.9 13 29.5 11 17.2 3 Mixed 36 23.5 8 17.8 8 18.2 20 31. 3 Not all of the individuals indicated above as being nonvisitors should be regarded as social isolates, or devoid of social contact at the personal level. respondents were also asked if people visit them. The Based on a frequency of at least once per month, only 8.5 percent of the elderly said that they do not have visitors. Ten people were identified as not having visitors nor visit­ ing others and therefore may be regarded as being somewhat isolated from society, especially since 6 of the 10 do not belong to any social groups either. 141 In contrast to the near uniform distribution of the types of individuals visited by the elderly sample as a whole (Table 51), a high percentage of the sample iden­ tified their visitors in as belonging to category 3, mixed. At the subpopulation level the mixed category dominates, though it is closely rivaled by category 1, friends, in Tract 23 (Table 52). Table 52.— Visitors Received by the Elderly Tot*-a I „ , Sample Tract 7 % No. No. 0 N/A 13 7 15.6 1 2.3 5 OO • No. % in • 00 Tract 23 No. 1 Friends 40 26.1 7 15.6 9 20.5 24 37.5 2 Family 29 19.0 12 26.7 9 20.5 8 12.5 3 Mixed 70 45.8 19 42.2 25 56.8 26 40.6 1 0.7 1 1.6 9 Missing % Tract 10 _ _ % Analysis of the frequency of visiting out by the elderly shows that of those who do visit out, most do so more than once per month. Only 19 persons of the total sample visit out just once per month, whereas 90 persons make multiple visits per month. At the subpopulation level the frequency distributions for the three tract populations are fairly similar in regards to categories 1, 2, and 3. 142 The greatest difference occurs in category 4, daily visit­ ing, where Tract 7 ranks far below the other two tracts (Table 53). Table 53.— Frequency of Visiting Out by the Elderly Sample No. Tract 7 % No. % Tract 10 Tract 23 No. No. % % 0 N/A 43 28.1 16 35.6 13 29.5 14 21.9 1 Monthly 19 12.4 6 13.3 7 15.9 6 9.4 2 Bimonthly 26 17.0 8 17.8 6 13.6 12 18.8 3 Weekly 36 23.5 12 26.7 8 18.2 16 25.0 4 Daily 28 18.3 2 4.4 10 22.7 16 25.0 Missing 1 0.7 1 2.2 — — The automobile provides the means of transporta­ tion for the majority of those who visit out, 82 of 109; most of those traveling by car drive themselves or ride with their spouses. Walking follows the automobile in importance as a means of transportation for visiting out. Nobody uses the bus and only one person uses a taxicab when visiting out. The first main variance occurring in the modes of transportation at the subpopulation level is that over half of those who walk are located in Tract 23. Second, more respondents ride with their children in Tract 143 7 than in the other two tracts. Third, the lowest repre­ sentation of drivers is found in Tract 7 (Table 54). To establish a measure of the degree of mobility of the elderly, the locations visited were placed in one of four categories: local, defined as being within the respondent's tract area; within the city; out of town, that is beyond Lansing's corporate boundaries; and mixed, representing equal distribution of within city and out of city travel. Compilation of the data for locales visited indicates that over 50 percent of the respondents confine their visits to the city of Lansing, with nearly 25 per­ cent staying in their local areas. Only 8.5 percent of the elderly are mobile enough to fit into the fourth cate­ gory (Table 55). Variations are minimal at the subpopulation level from the overall patterns of the total sample with two exceptions: first, there is a low percentage, 2.2 per­ cent, of those in Tract 7 who fall into category 4, mixed; and second, there is a high representation for category 4, 15.9 percent, in Tract 10. Visiting Out: Detailed Analysis The preceding summation of data provides an over­ all view of the patterns of visiting by the elderly. In order to derive a fuller understanding of these patterns it is necessary to seek interrelationships among the vari­ ables defining visiting out, and also between these variables 144 Table 54.— Mode of Transportation Utilized in Visiting Out Total Sample No. 0 N/A Tract 7 No. NO. 43 28.1 1 0.7 2 Bus — 3 Walk 26 17.0 4 Ride with relative 3 2.0 5 Ride with child 14 9.2 17.8 6 Ride with friend 2 1.3 2.2 63 41.2 13 28.9 1 0.7 1 2.2 1 Taxi 7 Drive self or with spouse 9 Missing Tract 10 16 35.6 13 — Tract 23 No. 29.5 14 21.9 1 1.6 — 13.3 6 13.6 14 21.9 2.3 3.1 6.8 4.7 1.6 21 47.7 — 29 45.3 — ------------- Table 55.— Locales Visited by the Elderly Locale N/A No. % Local City 43 38 46 28.1 24.8 30.1 Out of City 12 7.8 Mixed Missing 13 1 8.5 0.7 145 and others which define various social characteristics of the sample population. As indicated by the data in Table 54, the avail­ ability of the automobile as a mode of transportation is once again an important factor in explaining a facet of elderly interaction. If the frequency of visiting out is considered in relationship to the mode of transportation used, proportionately more people who walk visit out more than once per month than do people who drive or ride in a car (Table 56). However, if the element of distance is considered, as defined by locale visited, then all 26 in­ dividuals who walk are found to visit out only in their own areas, whereas those who drive themselves or ride with others have a greater range of travel available to them (Table 57) . The frequency of visiting out is also considered in terms of its relationships to the age, income, and health characteristics of the sample population 58 and 59). (Tables Use of rank order correlation, Kendall's tau, to measure these relationships yields significant findings at the .05 level for age and income. The correlation co­ efficient for age, -.1537, is significant at the .0025 level and the coefficient for income, the .0005 level. .1937, is significant at Therefore the hypotheses of an inverse relationship between the frequency of visiting out and age and of a direct relationship between visiting out and income can be accepted. 146 Table 56.— Frequency of Visiting Out Crosstabulated by Mode of Transportation Modes of Transportation** Fre­ quency* 0 1 2 0 43 - - 1 — 1 - 2 — - - *0=N/A; l=once/month; 3 4 — 5 6 - 7 — _ 1 2 8 25 1 6 7 56 2 2=more than once/month. **0=N/A; l=taxi; 2=bus; 3=walk; 4=ride with a rela­ tive; 5=ride with child; 6=ride with friend; 7=drive self or with spouse. Table 57.— Mode of Transportation Used to Visit Out Cross­ tabulated by Locales Visited Modes of Transportation** Locale Visited* 0 1 0 43 _ 1 — — _ 3 — 1 — *l=local; (2 and 3). _ - 2 4 2 - 3 _ _ _ 26 _ - 4 _ — _ 1 7 7 6 _ 3 — 5 _ 2 - 4 - 2 11 34 - 7 - 11 2=within city; 3=out of city; 4=mixed **0=N/A; l=taxi; 2=bus; 3=walk; 4=ride with a rela­ tive; 5=ride with child; 6=ride with friend; 7=drive self or with spouse. 147 Table 58.— Frequency of Visiting Out Crosstabulated by Age Age Frequency 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85 & over Total Sample 0 N/A 11 13 6 9 4 1 Once/month 5 9 1 1 3 2 More than once/month 34 30 16 8 2 Tract 7 0 N/A 3 2 2 8 1 1 Once/month 1 3 1 - 1 2 More than once/month 7 10 4 1 ... 1 - 2 - 1 5 2 - 3 1 1 1 1 5 2 Tract 10 0 N/A 4 6 1 Once/month 2 4 2 More than once/month 10 7 — Tract 23 0 N/A 4 5 1 Once/month 2 2 2 More than once/month 17 13 — 7 148 Table 59.— Frequency of Visiting Out Crosstabulated by Income Income* Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 6 14 2 Total Sample — 0 N/A 8 12 7 1 Once/month 5 3 4 1 5 1 2 More than once/month 7 15 7 20 28 13 Tract 7 0 N/A 5 4 4 — 1 Once/month 1 2 2 — 2 More than once/month 4 7 1 3 — — 2 1 7 1 2 Tract 10 0 N/A - 3 1 — 7 1 Once/month 3 1 1 — 2 2 More than once/month 2 1 5 5 — 4 7 Tract 23 0 N/A 3 1 Once/month 1 2 More than once/month 1 5 — 7 2 — 4 — — 1 1 3 1 13 14 8 *1=0 to $1,999; 2=$2,000 to 2,999; 3=$3,000 to 3,999; 4=$4,000 to 4,999; 5=$5,000 to 9,999; 6=$10,000 or more. 149 There are variations among the subpopulations re­ garding the level of significance attached to the correla­ tion coefficients. For age, the coefficient of -.3622 for Tract 7 yields significance at the .0005 level, while the coefficients -.0582 and -.0665 respectively for Tracts 10 and 23 are not significant at the .05 level, though they do show the expected direction of association 58). (Table The subpopulation analysis for income reveals that only Tract 23, with a coefficient of rank order correla­ tion of .2991, yields significance at the .05 level n i f i c a n c e s 0005) . (sig­ However, a general trend towards the predicted direct relationship between the two variables can be seen in the data in Table 59. In contrast to the findings for age and income, rank order correlation for the frequency of visiting out and health is not significant for the total sample. At the subpopulation level only Tract 10, with a correlation coefficient of .2269, yields significance at the .05 level (significances 015), which allows acceptance of the hypothesis of a direct relationship between the two vari­ ables . One factor accounting for the lack of a strong association between health and the frequency of visiting out appears to be that, regardless of the self-assessment of health status by the elderly, more individuals visit out at a frequency of more than once per month (Table 60). 150 Table 60.— Frequency of Visiting Out Crosstabulated by Health Health Frequency Poor No. Fair % No. Good o. "o No. Excellent % Q. No. 'o Total Sample 0 N/A 1 Once/month 2 More than once/month 5 1 71.4 14.3 12 4 27.9 9.3 19 10 23.8 12.5 7 4 31.8 18.2 1 14.3 27 62.8 51 63.8 11 50. 0 Tract 7 0 N/A 1 Once/month 2 More than once/month 3 1 75.0 25.0 3 2 21.4 14.3 8 1 38.1 4.8 2 2 40.0 40.0 9 64.3 12 57.1 1 20.0 Tract 10 0 N/A 1 Once/month 2 More than once/month 1 100.0 — 3 2 33.3 22.2 9 5 29.0 16.1 - 4 44.4 17 54.8 3 100.0 ■ Tract 23 0 N/A 1 Once/month 2 More than once/month 1 1 6 30.0 2 4 7.1 14.3 5 2 35.7 14.3 14 70.0 22 78.6 7 50.0 50. 0 — - 50.0 151 In order to test the hypothesis that the presence of a mate is a positive inducement to social participation the variables defining the frequency of visiting out and marital status were crosstabulated and entered into chi-square analysis testing for significance at the .05 level. The results of crosstabulation indicate that mar- rieds visit out more frequently than respondents in all other categories. The chi-square for the total population of 16.83 with 6 degrees of freedom is significant at the .009 9 level. Therefore the null hypothesis of no relation ship between the frequency of visiting out and marital status can be rejected. Computation of chi-square for the subpopulations is not feasible due to insufficient data; however, the indicated relationship is discernible for Tracts 7 and 23 but less clear for Tract 10 (Table 61). Indirectly the significance demonstrated for mari­ tal status and frequency of visiting out is a measure of the importance of the automobile. In Chapter III it was shown that 7 3 percent of married respondents also drive (Table 21). By considering the mode of transportation utilized to visit out in terms of marital status, it is found that 7 3 percent of all individuals who travel by driving themselves or riding with their spouses are also married. Therefore while being married bears a relation­ ship to visiting out, being married also is a measure of the availability of the automobile as a means of transpor­ tation for visiting out. 152 Table 61.— Frequency of Visiting Out Crosstabulated by Marital Status Marital Status Frequency Single No. Divorced % No. % Widowed No. % Married No. Total Sample 0 N/A 1 Once/month 2 More than once/month 5 1 45.5 9.1 1 4 9.1 36.4 20 10 46. 5 17.5 17 4 23.3 5.5 5 45.5 6 54.5 27 47.4 52 71.2 1 12.5 — Tract 7 0 N/A 1 Once/month 2 More than once/month 5 - 62. 5 3 37.5 2 50. 0 10 4 41.7 16.7 2 50. 0 10 41.7 7 87.5 Tract 10 0 N/A 1 Once/month 2 More than once/month 1 50. 0 1 50.0 3 3 23.1 23.1 10 2 37.0 7.4 1 50. 0 1 50.0 7 53.8 15 55.6 — — Tract 23 0 N/A 1 Once/month 2 More than once/month — 1 100.0 1 1 20.0 20. 0 7 3 35.0 15.0 6 2 15.8 5.3 3 60.0 10 50.0 30 78.9 153 Participation in Group Activities The second facet of elderly leisure time activities under examination concerns their participation in the or­ ganizations to which they belong. Initial consideration is given to a summary of the variables defining aspects of membership and participation in these organizations. This is followed by further analysis focusing on variations in attendance within the sample population. Summary of Membership and Participation In response to the question on club memberships, 43.1 percent of the sample population answered in the af­ firmative and 56.9 percent answered negatively. The struc­ ture of club memberships at the subpopulation level re­ veals that the Tract 7 population exceeds the percentage of club members for the total population, 51.1 percent, Tract 10 falls well below the total sample, 34.1 percent, and Tract 2 3 parallels the total sample, 43.8 percent. Of the 66 individuals professing club memberships, 42 or 6 3.6 percent belong to only one organization, where­ as the remaining 24 persons belong to two or more groups. The highest percentage for single group membership is found in Tract 7 and the lowest in Tract 2 3 (Table 62). As for the types of groups the elderly belong to, slightly more participate in church-related groups, 42.4 percent, than in social or fraternal organizations, 37.9 154 Table 62.— ■Number of Group Memberships Held by the Elderly Total Sample Number No. Tract 7 o. *o No. O, O Tract. 10 Tract 2 3 No. % No. % 0 87 N/A 22 N/A 29 N/A 36 N/A 1 42 63.6 19 82.6 11 73.3 12 42.8 2 15 22.7 2 8.7 2 13. 3 11 39. 3 3 5 7.6 1 4.3 3 10.7 4 2 3.0 1 4.3 1 6.7 — 6 1 1.5 ----- 1 6.7 — 9 1 1.5 1 3.6 percent. — The remaining 19.7 percent belong to both types of organizations. Only Tract 10 at the subpopulation level varies considerably from the membership pattern for the overall sample; in this tract over twice as many per­ sons belong to church-related organizations than to social and fraternal groups (Table 6 3). The majority of those attending clubs travel to meetings of their organizations only once per month.'*' ■'"For purposes of calculations, the three variables measuring the frequency of attendance at, the travel dis­ tance to, and the mode of transportation utilized to reach clubs are all based on the club most frequented by the respondent. In cases where two or more clubs are attended equally, the one which is furthest away is used as the standard for measurement. 155 Table 63.— Types of Organizational Memberships r p Q +• a I , Sample No. Tract 7 O. *o Tract 10 No. % No. Q. *o Tract 23 q. "O No. 0 None 87 N/A 22 N/A 29 N/A 36 N/A 1 Church 28 42.4 11 47.8 7 46.7 10 35.7 2 Social/ fraternal 25 37.9 11 47.8 3 20.0 11 39.3 3 Mixed (1 and 2) 13 19.7 1 4.3 5 33.3 7 25.0 Nearly equal numbers attend a few times per month or weekly, and only one person attends organizational gatherings more than once per week. Monthly attendance is typical at the subpopulation level, with nearly equal percentages attend­ ing at this frequency in each of the tracts (Table 64). For those traveling to organizational functions, the automobile is the most important means of transporta­ tion, being utilized by all but 9 of the 65 individuals traveling to functions. 2 The automobile driven by oneself or spouse dominates the various categories of automobile use, followed at a distant second by riding with friends; 2 There are 66 persons who attend club functions, But one individual hosts club meetings in her home and therefore is not included in analyses of distance and transportation. 156 Table 64.— Frequency of Attendance at Organizational Func­ tions . Total Sample Tract. 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 Frequency o, "o No. No. % No. % No. % 0 Nonattender 87 N/A 22 N/A 29 N/A 36 N/A 1 Monthly 46 69.7 14 60. 9 12 80.0 20 71.4 2 Biweekly 10 15.2 6 26.1 3 20.0 1 3.6 3 Weekly 9 13.6 3 13.0 6 21.4 4 More than once/week 1L _ 1.5 1 3.6 — subpopulation analysis reveals the dominance of the former in each of the three tract areas (Table 65). The travel distances for respondents attending club functions range from one-quarter mile or less to more than five miles. However, the average distance traveled is 1.1 miles and the median travel distance falls into category 4, 1.1 to 2.0 miles. Distance category 4 also represents the mode for the total sample and, by slim margins, for the Tract 10 and 23 subpopulations. Noticeable at the subpopulation level is the near uniform distribution of respondents for distance categories 1 through 8 (Figure 13 and Table 66). 157 Table 65.— Mode of Transportation Utilized in Traveling to Organizational Activities Total Sample Tract 7 o. *o Tract 10 Tract 23 No. % No. 29 N/A 36 N/A 1 6.7 4 14.3 O, "O No. % NO. 88 N/A 23 N/A 1 1.5 1 4.5 3 Walk 8 12.1 3 13.6 4 Ride with relative 1 1.5 1 4.5 5 Ride with child 1 1.5 1 4.5 6 Ride with friend 17 26.2 6 27.3 4 26.7 7 25.0 7 Drive self or with spouse 37 56.9 10 45.4 10 66.7 17 60.7 0 N/A 1 Taxi 2 Bus 30 Total Tract Tract 10 25 Tract 23 Percent 20 s 15 158 10 \ 5 1/4 1/2 1 2 3 4 Distance in Miles Figure 13.— Travel Distance to Clubs 5 l over 5 Table 66.— Travel Distance to Organizational Activities Distance (in miles) Total Sample Tract 7 Tract 10 Tract 23 No. % No. % No. % No. % 88 N/A 23 N/A 29 N/A 36 N/A N/A 1 Up to 1/4 7 11.5 2 9.5 1 7.1 4 15.4 2 Up to 1/2 11 18.0 5 23.8 3 21.4 3 11.5 3 Up to 1.0 6 9.8 3 14. 3 1 7.1 2 7.7 4 1.1 to 2 .0 14 23.0 4 19.0 4 28.6 6 23.1 5 2.1 to 3.0 9 14.8 3 14.3 2 14.3 4 15.4 6 3.1 to 4.0 4 6.6 2 9.5 1 7.1 1 3.8 7 4.1 to 5.0 5 8.2 2 9.5 2 14.3 1 3.8 8 5.1 & over 5 8.2 5 19.2 9 Missing data 4 N/A 2 N/A 1 N/A 1 N/A 159 0 160 Analysis of Group Activity Data Based on the foregoing summation of data, it is possible to profile a typical elderly club member as a monthly participant in one organization, who travels to activities by automobile for a distance of about one mile. However, while providing information of this nature, the summary does not supply data as to the specific variables which characterize the individual club attender. There­ fore the following analysis explores the relationships between the differentials in organizational participation and variables which characterize the individual elderly respondent. Because the objective of this study is to examine elderly interaction, the analysis focuses on the variables defining actual participation in club activities, rather than memberships which define potential and often non­ fulfilled interaction. In accordance with this rationale, the frequency of club attendance was entered into cross­ tabulations with a number of variables defining the socio­ economic characteristics of the sample population and these were tested by chi-square analysis or Kendall's rank order correlation. The results of these procedures reveal that the hypothesized direct relationships between frequency of club attendance and health, income, and marital status, and the inverse relationships between frequency of club attendance and age all fail to achieve significance at the .05 level (Tables 67 through 69). 161 Table 67.— Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by Age* Age Frequency 65- 69 No. 70 -74 % No. 75-79 Q. 'O 80-84 85 & over No. % No. % No. % N/A 30 60.0 26 50.0 13 54.2 10 55.6 8 88.9 Monthly 13 26.0 21 40.4 6 25.0 6 33.3 - ---- 7 14.0 5 9.6 5 20.8 2 11.1 1 11.1 More than 1/month *Kendall coefficient=- 0.0186 with N of 153, significance=.366. Table 68.'— Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by Health* Health Frequency Poor NO. N/A Good Fair % No % No. Excellent % No. % 100.0 23 53.5 45 55.6 12 54.5 Monthly ------ 13 30.2 26 32.1 7 31.8 More than 1/month ------ 7 16.3 10 12.3 3 13.6 7 *Kendall coefficient=0.0496 with N of 153, significance=.182. 162 Table 69.— Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by Marital Status* Marital Status Frequency Single No. % Divorced Widowed No. No. % Married % No. % N/A 6 54.5 8 72.7 29 50.9 44 59.5 Monthly 4 36.4 3 27.3 19 33.3 20 27.0 More than 1/month 1 9.1 9 15.8 10 13.5 *Chi -square=3.452 with 6 D. F . , significance=0.7504 The only exception to this finding occurs in Tract 7 where a positive relationship, significance=.008, exists between the frequency of club attendance and income 70). (Table A probable explanation lies in the importance of the automobile as the chief means of transportation to club functions. Whereas the elderly in Tracts 10 and 23 are quite similar, the elderly in Tract 7 rank lowest of the three subpopulations for mean income, number of automobile owners, and the amount of automobile usage. Yet Tract 7's population is equally dependent upon the automobile as the chief means of transportation to club activities as are the populations of the other two tracts (Table 65). There­ fore, since there is a positive association between income and automobile ownership, the positive association between Table 70.— Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by Income Income* Frequency 1 No. 2 Q. *6 3 No. Q. *o NO. 4 % No. 5 o. o No. 6 Q, *o No. Q. ~o Total Sample 15 75.0 18 60.0 8 44.4 11 52.4 26 54.2 9 56.3 Monthly 2 10.0 10 33.3 6 33.3 9 42.9 13 27.1 6 37.5 More than once/month 3 15.0 2 6.7 4 22.2 1 4.8 9 18.8 1 6.3 N/A 163 Kendall coefficient=.0710 with N of 153; significance=.096. Tract 7 N/A 8 Monthly More than once/month 80.0 — 2 20.0 6 46.2 3 42.9 1 50.0 3 27.3 1 50.0 6 46.2 2 28.6 1 50.0 4 36.4 1 50.0 1 7.7 2 28.6 4 36.4 Kendall coefficients 2464 with N of 45; significance=.008. *1=0-$1,999; 2=$2,000-2,999; 6=$10,000 or more. 3=$3,000-3,999; 4=$4,000-4,999; 5=$5,000-9,999; 164 income and frequency of attendance may in part be an in­ direct measure of automobile ownership in Tract 7. In addition to the above variables, the preponder­ ance of females versus males, 51 percent to 29.8 percent, belonging to clubs suggests that sex be considered in re­ lationship to frequency of club attendance. Crosstabulating the two variables and testing by chi-square analysis re­ veals that there is a significant difference, .0336, with­ in the sample population between the sexes regarding their frequency of attendance at organizational functions 71). (Table Significance however is not obtainable at the sub­ population level. Table 71.— Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by Sex Sex Frequency Males Females No. %a %b No. %a %b N/A 47 49.0 N/A 40 70.2 N/A Once/ month 35 36.5 71.4 11 19.3 64.7 Two or more times/ month 14 14.6 28.6 6 10.5 35. 3 cL Percent of total number; chi-square=6.7846. Percent omitting nonparticipants. 165 The significance between the frequency of attend­ ance and sex must be considered further. If attention is focused only on the individuals who attend clubs, it is found that the 11 males who attend once per month repre­ sent 64.7 percent of all male attenders and that the 35 females attending once per month represent 71.4 percent of all female attenders (Table 71). The difference between the two percentage figures for actual attendance is con­ siderably less than the differences apparent in Table 71 where all three of the categories denoting degree of par­ ticipation in club activities are considered together. This finding indicates that while for the sample popula­ tion there appears to be a significant difference among males and females regarding their degree of participation in club activities, this significance diminishes when rates of attendance are compared only for those who actually participate in activities. When the two variables are considered in this manner, the results are not inconsistent 3 with previous findings. An additional variable to consider in relation­ ship to the frequency of club attendance is education, for it has been demonstrated that a positive relationship 4 exists between education and membership numbers. In 3 Matilda White Riley et al., Aging and Society, vol. 1: An Inventory of Research Findings (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1968), p. 506. 4Ibid., p. 505. 166 the present case, a positive relationship is hypothesized to exist between the frequency of elderly attendance at organizational meetings and the level of educational at­ tainment within the sample population. Use of rank order correlation, Kendall's tau, testing for significance at the .05 level demonstrates that a positive relationship exists between the two variables, and that the relation­ ship holds for Tracts 10 and 2 3 at the subpopulation level (Table 72). In addition to frequency of attendance, the roles of distance and available modes of transportation must be considered in the present analysis. An important aspect of club attendance was revealed in the summation of group activities where it is shown that all but 9 of the indi­ viduals who travel to clubs, do so by automobile (Table 65). A closer view of this data reveals that the 8 individuals who walk to club functions are all women and of the 8 only 1 is married. While this sample is small, it does sug­ gest that women are more likely to walk to club functions than men and that married women are less likely to walk than are women who are not married. A final observation that can be made regarding travel distance to club activities concerns the ease of access to the automobile represented by those who drive themselves or ride with their spouses. If travel distance is divided into two categories, one mile or less and over 167 Table 72.— Frequency of Club Attendance Crosstabulated by Education Years of Education Frequency 9-12 1-8 No. % NO. 13 and above o, "O o. No. ■© Total Sample N/A Monthly More than once/month 34 14 66.7 27.5 33 18 56.9 31.0 19 14 44.2 32.6 3 5.9 7 12.1 10 23.3 Kendall coefficient=0.18 63; significance= .0005, one missing observation • Tract 7 N/A Monthly More than once/month 7 7 46.7 46.7 10 5 52.6 26.3 5 2 45. 5 18.2 1 6.7 4 21.1 4 36.4 Kendall coefficient=0.0945; significance= .180 . Tract 10 N/A Monthly More than once/month 12 2 85.7 14.3 9 4 64.3 28.6 8 6 50.0 37.5 — ---- 1 7.1 2 12.5 Kendall coefficient=0.2941; significance= .0025. Tract 23 N/A Monthly More than once/month 15 5 68.2 22.7 14 9 56.0 36.0 6 6 37. 5 37.5 2 9.1 2 8.0 4 25.0 Kendall coefficient=0.2241; significance=.0045? one missing observation. 168 one mile, these individuals are found to dominate both categories but particularly the latter one. In the first instance they represent 56.2 percent of all persons who travel by car. But they only represent 37.5 percent of all persons traveling one mile or less, being closely rivaled by those who walk who, in turn, represent 33.3 percent of the total. However, for the distance category of over one mile, those who drive themselves represent 72.2 percent of all who travel by car and they also rep­ resent 70.3 percent of all persons in the category. There­ fore it appears that ease of accessibility to the auto­ mobile influences the distance that the elderly will travel 5 for club activities. Attendance at Senior Centers In addition to the participation data already con­ sidered, attention was also directed during the course of the study to gather information on the use of senior cen­ ters by the elderly. At the time of the study the Lansing Parks and Recreation Department had seven such centers in operation providing various activities for persons in the age category 55 and over. 5 Provision was made within the Cutler found that the availability of personal transportation plays an increasingly important role in elderly participation in voluntary associations as dis­ tance increases between the locus of the individual and the activity site. Stephen J. Cutler, "The Effects of Transportation and Distance on Voluntary Association Par­ ticipation Among the Aged," International Journal of Aging and Human Development 5 (Winter 1974): 90. 169 questionnaire, items 53-59 (Appendix), for the collection of data concerning those who attend the centers as well as to ascertain the reasons for not going on the part of nonattenders. The results of the survey indicate that only 7 persons, 4.6 percent, of the 15 3 individuals interviewed attend the senior centers. While this figure appears small, it is consistent with previous findings in which elderly participation in senior centers often runs below 10 perg cent. In addition to the 7 persons who were found to at­ tend one or more times per month, a handful of others said that they had gone once or twice but had not attended re­ cently or were no longer interested in participating. The failure to attend the centers is not due to a general lack of knowledge among the elderly as to the existence and functions of the centers, for 88.9 percent of the elderly said that they do know about the centers (Table 73). Asking the respondents why they do not attend the centers elicited a variety of responses. By far the most dominant answer, given by 71.2 percent of those who do not attend, is simply one of no interest in the centers. Use of the term "no interest" is a generalization including ^For example: Frances M. Carp, "The Mobility of Retired People," in Transportation and Aging: Selected Issues, ed. Edmund J. Cantilli and June L. Shmelzer (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972), p. 32, and Riley, Research Findings, pp. 508-509. 170 Table 73.— Reasons Given for Not Attending Senior Centers Reason 0 No. Do not know about the centers Q. "o 17 11.6 1 Health 8 5.5 2 Lack of transportation 3 2.0 3 Not interested 104 71.2 4 Others 14 9.6 a number of responses which by implication on the part of the respondents clearly implies a lack of desire to associ­ ate themselves with the centers. generalized in this way were: Some of the responses too many other things to do; too young to sit around and play cards; have thought about going but not yet; and simply not interested (Table 73) . Included in the category "other" reasons (Table 73) are a few individuals who expressed a desire to at­ tend but either lack the means of transportation or do not have anybody to go with and will not attend alone. a point of personal observation, it is felt that trans­ portation probably plays a somewhat larger role in nonattendance than Table 7 3 indicates. The 7 persons at­ tending the centers either drive themselves or ride with As 171 friends and some of the individuals falling into the various categories in Table 73 either directly indicated or implied that in some way transportation restricts their mobility. Nonetheless other interests are the dominant factor in governing nonattendance. Further impetus is given to the conclusion that many are simply not interested in the senior centers when the responses to the following question are considered: Is there any particular factor which limits your partici­ pation in recreational facilities within Lansing? For 105 individuals, 68.6 percent of the sample, responded that they do not feel limited in any way. One might therefore conclude that many of the 104 professing no interest in senior centers constitute the majority of the 105 persons feeling no limitations on their activities. And they feel no limitations because they have enough activities to keep them occupied (Table 74). Of the remaining 48 individuals who do feel limi­ tations on their activities, nearly one-half, 2 3 persons, mentioned health as the constraining factor. Income was only mentioned by 3 persons, and transportation, public and private, constitutes the constraining factor for only 9 individuals (Table 74). The major observation that can be made concerning Table 74 is that 105 persons do not consider themselves limited. Their feeling of no constraint is probably 172 Table 74.— Factors Cited as Responsible for Limiting Recreational Activities Factor No. % 105 68.6 Finances 3 2.0 2 Public transportation 7 4.6 3 No automobile 2 1.3 4 Health 23 15.0 5 Limited opportunities 1 0.7 6 Others 12 7.8 0 Does not feel limited 1 largely due to the availability of the automobile. This assumption is made on the basis that consistently throughout this paper whenever the mode of transportation has been considered for any specific purpose, the automobile has proven to be the means of transportation most often em­ ployed by the elderly. It is the automobile that provides the greatest degree of transportation flexibility for the elderly as well as for any individual. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study has focused on two objectives: an examination of the demographic, first, social, and economic variables characterizing the elderly; and second, a view of factors regulating the means and degree of elderly mobility within the urban environment. In the following discussion the findings of this study are reviewed as a step towards the development of a diagrammatic representation that de­ picts the process by which the elderly satisfy their needs. Achievement of this goal will contribute to the attainment of the third objective, the advancement of recommendations to improve the accessibility of services for Lansing's el­ derly. Recurrent Themes The uniqueness of Tract 7 relevent to Tracts 10 and 23, and the central place occupied by the automobile in the mobility needs of the elderly are two related and recurrent themes that warrant further consideration. The continual emergence of these two findings during the study suggests that it is now possible to initiate the development of a 173 174 generalized overview of the process of elderly needs satis­ faction beginning with these two themes. Tract 7 in Perspective The objective in the selection of three sample areas was to attain some variability within the subject population regarding their demographic, ic status. social, and econom­ Summation of the data relevant to these vari­ ables in Chapter III, revealed the success of this inten­ tion with the greatest differences occurring between Tract 7 and the other two tract populations. In particular, the Tract 7 population has the high­ est number of females an (Table 7), the highest mean and medi­ ages for respondents tage of widows incomes (Table 8), the greatest percen­ (Table 9), and the lowest mean and median (Table 11). In fact, Tract 7 is an area dominated by nonmarried females, a total of 32 of the 45 respondents. Of these, widows comprise the greatest number, and represent 48.9 percent of the tract sample. 22 of the 3 2 Further, a relationship between income and marital status is apparent in the tract as there are 10 nonmarried persons with in­ comes below the poverty level, twice as many as the other two tracts. All of the 10 are women, 7 are widows, divorced, and 1 is single-never married. 2 are In general, the basic factors distinguishing Tract 7 from the other two tracts are low income and a large number of nonmarried fe­ males . 175 The Automobile and Needs Satisfaction A summary view of the transportation habits of the elderly made in Chapter III, also revealed that Tract 7 stands apart from the other two tract areas. In particu­ lar, while it is found that females are less likely to drive than males, the females in Tract 7 have the lowest percentage representation of female drivers in the three tracts (Table 20). As previously concluded in the analy­ sis of Table 21, widowed females as a group are those least likely to drive and are also more likely to be char­ acterized by low income. Automobile ownership was found to be significantly related to income for the total sample and while there were insufficient data to test the relationship at the sub­ population level, the tabulated data tend to verify the sug gested relationship (Table 24). Tract 7, with the lowest income level, was found to rank lowest in auto ownership. Consequently, use of the automobile in Tract 7 is lowest of the three subpopulations for the frequency categories weekly to daily (Table 25). However, due to the availabil­ ity of friends or relatives serving as drivers (Table 26), the elderly in Tract 7 retain a moderate degree of mobil­ ity by automobile. to the attainment of The importance of friends and relatives elderly needs satisfaction through out this study by the functioning of the former as auto­ mobile drivers appears to substantiate the untested 176 hypothesis that the presence of relatives and/or friends provides the possibility for elderly social participation. The lower availability of automobiles for the el­ derly in Tract 7 is reflected in the greater usage of al­ ternate means of transportation; of particular note is walking. Nearly 50 percent of the respondents in Tract 7 reported walking to be an important means of transporta­ tion, whereas only 20.5 percent and 35.9 percent respec­ tively for Tracts 10 and 23 considered walking to be an im­ portant means of transportation. Reliance of the elderly upon the automobile for the achievement of needs satisfaction became more appar­ ent following the examination of elderly mobility in Chap­ ters IV and V. The importance of the automobile was de­ tectable not only in the percentages responding that the car was their chief means of conveyance, but additionally, in a number of interrelationships between the availability of the auto and elderly activities. In particular the frequency of, and distance trav­ eled for shopping was related to the availability of the automobile. This is evidenced in Tables 49 and 50, where it is apparent that those individuals who drive themselves or ride with their spouses dominate the frequency and dis­ tance categories. The majority of elderly utilize the auto­ mobile when visiting out and as Tables 56 and 57 show, the use of the auto is reflected in the distance traveled by 177 the older person when visiting out. The two tables show that walking is also an important mode of transportation for visiting at a frequency of more than once per month, but when locale (distance) is considered, the automobile provides a much greater degree of mobility. A similar conclusion was also reached regarding the role of the automobile in the distance traveled by the elderly for club activities. Additional Considerations While the focus of discussion has been upon the central role of the automobile in the achievement of el­ derly needs satisfaction, other variables must be included in order to understand this process. Of particular inter­ est are those variables which were found to bear signifi­ cant relationships to needs satisfaction within the con­ text of the hypotheses tested.^ Income was found to bear a positive relationship to the frequencies of visiting the doctor, grocery shop­ ping , "other" shopping , and visiting out. Income was also found to bear a significant relationship to frequency of club attendance in Tract 7 only, and the speculation was made that the relationship is an indirect measure of auto­ mobile ownership. This same speculation may also be an ^Unless otherwise indicated, the total sample. significance refers to 178 explanatory factor in some or all of the preceding cases, such as visiting out, where auto ownership could provide a greater degree of mobility to the owner than to the nonowner . Testing for the effects of age upon the achievement of needs satisfaction revealed an inverse relationship to driving, indicating a loss of mobility with increasing age. Frequency of activities was also found to decline with age, as inverse relationships were disclosed between the frequencies of visiting out, grocery shopping, "other" shopping, and age. The results of testing the effects of health, as measured by self-assessment, on needs achievement indi­ cated that, in general, health directly affected the d e ­ gree of elderly activities. Testing the effects of health upon means of mobility revealed a positive relationship between walking and health. However at the subpopulation level only Tract 7 showed a significant relationship for the two variables, indicating the importance of walking as a mode of transportation for Tract 7's elderly population. Direct relationships were demonstrated between frequencies of grocery shopping and "other11 shopping, and health. An inconclusive result was obtained in testing for a signifi­ cant relationship between the frequency of visiting and health. Significance was not obtained for the total sam­ ple but was found at the subpopulation level for Tract 10 179 only (Table 60). Why this particular situation exists is difficult to explain; possibly different results might have been obtained with a larger sample. Marital status was found to bear a positive rela­ tionship to the frequency of visiting out. It was observed (Table 61) that married persons tend to visit out more fre­ quently than nonmarried persons. Once again it is suggested that the automobile, more readily available to married per­ sons, underlies the observed relationship. Testing for dif­ ferences between the sexes regarding their frequency of at­ tendance at club functions indicated that, based on those who actually attend, there was little difference between the sexes. The variable sex was not tested for any other formal relationships during the study, but due to the strong association between being a male and being a driver, it is logical to conclude that sex does play a part in the mobil­ ity habits of the elderly. The last formalized relationship tested for signif­ icance in the study was that between education and fre­ quency of elderly attendance at club meetings. While a significant relationship was demonstrable for these two variables, any relationship of education to other aspects of elderly needs satisfaction remain speculative for the time being; consequently, education is omitted from fur­ ther consideration in the present discussion. 180 A Diagrammatic Presentation of Elderly Needs Satisfaction The preceding summation of data indicates a number of elements that influence the participation of the elder­ ly in various activities. To a large degree successful completion of these activities is found to depend on the availability of transportation; in turn, transportation basically equates to the availability of the automobile. Because of this relationship, the automobile occupies a prominent role in elderly needs satisfaction. Figure 14 portrays the set of linked variables which are major elements in the achievement of needs sat­ isfaction. The frame surrounding the variables indicates the extent of the elderly activity field resulting from the interplay of the variables. Transportation is represented in the diagram by the automobile and walking, which jointly define the most common means of mobility. Since the auto­ mobile occupies a major position in the mobility scheme of the elderly, it seems appropriate to distinguish between simple availability of the automobile and the ownership and operation of the vehicle as well. The association between walking, and distance and locational considerations is a reciprocal process, in which the basic relationship is such that walking is used to overcome distance, but distance, by virtue of its magnitude, may preclude walking as a viable mode of transportation. Activity Field Sex Automobile Driving Automobile Ownership Automobile Availability Age Other Drivers Walking Marital Status An Inverse Relationship Figure 14.— A Diagrammatic Representation of Elderly Needs Satisfaction 182 Some of the elements in the diagram bear negative relationships to others and therefore to the achievement of needs satisfaction. This is true in the case of age which shows an inverse relationship to auto driving. But more important is the indicated negative relationship be­ tween the availability of the automobile and distance and locational considerations in the achievement of needs sat­ isfaction. This conclusion is based on the observation that use of the automobile tends to mitigate these factors as barriers to elderly mobility, although the locations of older persons do to a degree exhibit an influence on pat­ terns of elderly mobility (Figures 9 and 11). Recommendations The diagram of elderly needs satisfaction suggests the importance of the automobile for their mobility. Conse­ quently, recommendations concerning services for the elder­ ly focus on the aspect of transportation, for this is a major factor in the scheme of needs achievement. Use of the automobile diminishes elderly depen­ dence upon public transportation, which is quite evident in the fact that only 8.5 percent of older persons use a bus at least once per month. The reason most often cited for not using public transportation, beyond the fact of hav­ ing their own automobiles (41.8%), is the problem of access to and scheduling of services (Table 17). Nearly 27 percent 183 of the elderly said that they do not use buses because they have to travel too far to reach them, they may not be sure where they run, they do not wish to go where the buses go, or they have to wait too long for the bus once they reach the stop. This last condition is exacerbated by inclement weather. The following analysis attempts to gauge the valid­ ity of these claims and reconcile them to some proposals for the provision of public transportation in Lansing. A cautionary observation in approaching this analysis is the fact that many of the elderly who offered their opinions as to the ills of the urban transportation network were them­ selves not committed in principle to public transportation. Rather, they implied that even if public transportation were available they would continue to use their automobiles as a matter of convenience. Distance Previously it was found that over two-thirds of the residents in Tracts 7 and 23 live both within 2 blocks of a bus stop and 5 minutes walking time to that stop. Resi­ dents of Tract 10 have the poorest access in terms of dis­ tance and time to the bus, only 42.5 percent are within 2 blocks and 44.4 percent within 5 minutes walking time of the nearest stop (Tables 28 and 29, and Figure 7). Col­ lectively, 58.8 percent of the sample population lives within 2 blocks of a bus stop and 54.2 percent within 5 minutes walking time of that stop Figr.es 5 and 6). (Tables 18 and 19, and It appears that there are many elderly individuals who live beyond a 1 to 2 block distance which is also the distance previously indicated as the optimum travel distance for elderly access to public transportation. Routing/Scheduling A major difficulty facing the potential elderly bus rider is knowledge of bus routes and the frequency of service along the routes. This type of data was available from the Capitol Area Transportation Authority if one 2 wished to travel to the downtown area to obtain it. The schedule available at the time of the study showed frequen­ cies of departures ranging from 20 minutes to 50 minutes, with most routes scheduled for 40 minute departures. A major disadvantage of the bus system noted by the elderly, and easily seen in Figure 3 is the north-south orientation of bus service in the city. Some individuals in Tract 23 mentioned the loss of east-west service within the tract, indicating that discontinuance of this service forced them into alternative means of transportation. Another major failing of the bus system is the lack of nighttime and 2 A written request to the Capitol Area Transporta­ tion Authority for an updated schedule was not answered. Based on this experience one may ask what response the el­ derly person would have to a request for information. 185 weekend service. Overall, the complaints of the elderly about routing and scheduling appear justified. Suggested Alternatives for Public Transportation The question of improving bus service for the elder­ ly perhaps lies first in a comprehensive survey of the el­ derly community to ascertain the potential passenger ma r ­ ket. If the lack of elderly patronage is symptomatic of a more general problem with the transportation system, i.e. a low rate of patronage in general, then the solution does not lie in a narrow focus on the problems of the elderly alone. Rather, the emphasis must be on a general improve­ ment in service for the community as a whole. Towards this end some positive approaches beneficial both to the elderly and the public in general might be: 1. Rerouting and rescheduling of service so as to pro­ vide a greater degree of crosstown (east-west) routes and to provide more frequent service, includ­ ing evenings and weekends. 2. Replacing or supplementing the larger diesel buses with minibuses equipped so as to allow ease of boarding for the older person. 3. Purchasing minibuses in sufficient quantity to pro­ vide for more frequent service than that evident in this study. 4. Disseminating routing and scheduling information. This could be accomplished in a number of ways 186 3 such an occasional publication in the newspaper; posting a route map and schedule at selected stops in weatherproof housings, in stores and markets, and within the buses where maximum exposure to the public would be assured. Copies of the information should be available for individuals who desire such at points other than the headquarters of the trans­ portation authority. 5. Boarding and discharging passengers in a more flex­ ible manner by placing stops in the centers of blocks rather than the general practice of locating stops on corners. 6. Providing benches and/or shelters at stops where warranted by passenger volume. Shelters could be constructed of transparent materials to reduce the risk of criminal incidents. While the preceding suggestions offer no assurance of in­ creased usage of public transportation, they are measures designed to make the system more attractive to the riders and to make the riders more knowledgeable about the system. The interaction of attractiveness and information may re­ sult in greater use of public transportation. An alternative to an extensive revamping of public transportation, in case that the potential for elderly patronage is assessed to be too low, is the introduction of a limited transportation network based on minibuses or vans catering to a specific clientele. Specifically it is suggested that: 3 This would require special thought to the visual acuteness of the older person. Publication of the routing system of the short lived Model Cities Minibus program in the newspaper at the time of the field work resulted in a map at a size too small for many elderly to read; in addi­ tion it was printed upside down. 187 1. A list of potential subscribers for this system should be compiled as part of a general transpor­ tation survey of the elderly community. 2. Equipment for the system should be purchased ac­ cording to the volume of subscribers. 3. Subscribers should be charged for the system ac­ cording to their ability to pay up to a maximum level.| Pickup should be on a point to point basis.^ 4. Control of the system should be under existing authority to avoid the proliferation as far as possible of bureaucratic red tape which would in­ crease system costs. The aforementioned objectives of the two alterna­ tive transportation systems stem from a synthesis of obser­ vation, subjective comments of the elderly respondents, and previous studies of the transportation problems of the el­ derly. As such they do not offer a definitive statement on the cure of transportation ills but offer some positive ideas towards the rectification of the problem. Implications for Theories of Aging It was not the intention of this research to ex­ tend the literature on the theories of the aging process. 4 This means that some may ride free while others may pay. However, this would be consistent with the at­ titudes of many elderly who reject service out of hand as charity, thereby preserving their dignity. 5 Individuals who require door to door service are beyond the projected scope of this system. Their needs can only be met by other means, such as radio dispatched units which are free to respond to specific individual require­ ments. This is a time consuming process which is benefi­ cial only to a few persons at any point in time, whereas the above proposals are meant to function for a greater number. 188 However, it appears that some observations relative to these theories may be made on the basis of the present study. Many of the individuals constituting the sample population appeared to pursue active, outgoing lives with­ in the limits set by restraining factors such as health, in come, and available transportation. Consequently, their de sires and activities were much the same as those of indi­ viduals at younger ages. On the other hand, some persons encountered in the course of interviewing were restricted in their degree of social integration. These individuals were largely isolated because they generally lived alone and had few or no relatives and friends in Lansing or its environs. Their isolation was made more complete in some cases by physical handicaps, which limited their activi­ ties, and in most cases, accessibility to the automobile was severely curtailed. In cases where these people were capable of attending activities such as Senior Centers, their will to attend was dampened by the fact that they did not wish to go alone; since they were socially iso­ lated they did not attend. Environmental considerations were mentioned by a few individuals as constraining factors on their degree of activities. In particular, fear of crime was mentioned by some individuals as a factor restricting their nighttime activities. Individuals in Tract 7 seemed particularly 189 aware of this situation. One respondent noted that the age composition of the neighborhood was shifting towards a more youthful population with which the individual did not feel comfortable. The overall impression of the sample population is that they intend to pursue as many activities as they can, for as long as they can. Hence the "activity theory" ap­ pears to be more descriptive of the sample population than "disengagement". Perhaps through a choice of terminology this appears to be an endorsement of the "activity theory" as the theory most descriptive of the aging process. This however is not the intent, nor is it necessarily fair to judge the effectiveness of either theory in its ability to interpret the life situation of the present study population without fuller knowledge of their earlier lives. Rather, it is suggested that, based on the overall impression of the sample population in this particular study, the pur­ suance of activities more than the termination of activi­ ties appears to describe the goals of the subject popula­ tion. There are many factors that underlie the activi­ ties of the elderly, gauged here by the process of elderly needs satisfaction: distance and locational considerations of stores, doctors' offices, clubs, homes of friends and relatives, etc.; available means of transportation; income; marital status; and perception of the environment. The 190 multiplicity of elements entering into the activities pursued by the elderly, particularly as discussed in this study, suggests that geographers can contribute to the pro­ cess of theory building in gerontology. Their role is de­ fined by the traditional attention of geographers to spatial variations in the distribution of phenomena. Therefore what is needed for geographers to deal with the issue of the aged in contemporary society is not a new methodology but rather a new perspective. The present study has found that transportation is an important element in the achievement of elderly needs satisfaction in Lansing and also that access to and the availability of transportation is related to both location­ al considerations, as well as to variations in the socio­ economic and demographic characteristics of the elderly. The availability of transportation is an important element in the determination of elderly morale, and morale is an influential factor in the successful adjustment of older persons to their environments. Hence, consideration of transportation is integral to the formulation of theories of successful aging. Therefore it is suggested that the present study, while not directly formulating theory, does contribute data for the theory building process. Further Research The present study has viewed one aspect of elderly life style, the manner of and the degree to which older 191 persons are able to obtain the goods and services neces­ sary to satisfy their needs. A number of variables have been shown to interact so as to produce some degree of needs satisfaction, with accessibility to the automobile being a prominent factor in this process. From the study, it has been possible to derive a diagrammatic representa­ tion of the process of needs satisfaction, which may be representative of basic elements that enter into the older person's successful attainment of goods and services. The present study has been made on the basis of a sample population from three areas of Lansing. It is sug­ gested that the area of transportation use be examined fur­ ther by studying the elderly population in other areas of the city. As this study has shown, the actual usage of public transportation by older people of diverse socioeco­ nomic backgrounds is low, and, if we take many of the sam­ ple population at their word, potential usage is also low. However, it is possible that demand for and use of public transportation is higher in other sections of the city. If so, it remains for further research to decide the issue and to uncover possible modifications to the findings of the present study. In addition to the preceding specific course of ac­ tion for future research, there is the wider issue of what additional courses of action remain for further study re­ garding the older person in society. One answer lies in 192 the analysis of the implications of the present study for the theories of aging. This implies that geographers have a role to play in the determination of the effects of socioenvironmental differences on the adjustments of the el­ derly to their environments and hence to the degree of sat­ isfaction with their life styles. It is only recently, as the paucity of literature reveals, that geographers have become interested in the elderly. Perhaps the events of the 1960's captured the imagination of many in the field, so that studies of other groups were pursued as timely topics. However, the recent drop in fertility suggests that population growth is at least temporarily near a halt, and some attention should be directed towards the problems of the aged. This is particularly relevant when one con­ siders that the cohorts of the "baby boom" era will be ap­ proaching and swelling the ranks of the elderly at the turn of the 21st century. APPENDIX APPENDIX ELDERLY INTERACTION QUESTIONNAIRE LANSING, MICHIGAN Location: Tract Block Number General Characteristics* 1. Sex of respondent 2. Race 3. Age of respondent_________ (specific age if possible) 1. Cau. 1. 2. 3A. Age of spouse 4. 80-84 1. 65-69 2. 70-74 5. 85-89 3. 75-79 6. 90-94 male Negro 2. 3. female other(specify) 7. 95-99 4. Marital status 1. single— never married 2. now married— living with spouse 3. now married— separated 4. widowed 5. divorced 5. Status of respondent 1. head of household of head 3. other(specify) 6. Number of children______________ (specify) 7. Number of children living at home_____________ (specify) 8. Number of others living in household (specify number and relationships) 9. Length of residency________________________ (specify) 2. *If individual responding is married, then ask data for questions specifying spouse. 193 wife 194 10 . Former residency and length of occupancy __________________________________ (specify locationto be answered only if subject has moved to pres­ ent location since 1970 census) 11 . Occupant's status 1. owns home 2. rents 3. boards/rooms 4. lives with child/relative 5. lives with friend 6. other (specify) 12. Rental or mortgage cost 0. N/A (owns home) 1. less than $40 2. $40-59 3. $60-79 13. Value-owner occupied unit (assessed value) 0. N/A 5. $15,000-19,999 1. less than $5,000 6. $20,000-24,999 2. $5,000-7,499 7. $25,000-34,999 3. $7,500-9,999 8. $35,000-49,999 4. $10,000-14,999 9. $50,000 or more 14. Number of rooms 15. Kitchen facilities 16. In general would you say that you are with your present living arrangements. 1. satisfied 2. undecided 3. dissatisfied 17. Are you employed (respondent) time work 3. no (specify-exclude bathroom) 1. yes 17A. Is your spouse employed? time work 3. no 18. (monthly basis) 4. $80-99 8. $250 or more 5. $100-149 9. no cash rent 6. $150-199 7. $200-249 2. yes-shared 0. N/A 1. yes 1. yes 3. no 2. yes-part 2. yes-part Occupation or former occupation _______________________ (specify)(code according to census classification) 18A. Spouse's occupation ____________________________________ 19. Present annual income (joint if married)(monthly in­ come in parentheses) 1. 0-$999 (0-83) 6. $3,000-3,999 (251-333) 2. $1,000-1,499 (84-125) 7. $4,000-4,999 (334-416) 3. $1,500-1,999 (126-166) 8. $5,000-9,999 (417-833) 4. $2,000-2,499 (167-208) 9. $10,000 or more (834 or 5. $2,500-2,999 (209-250) more) 195 20. Source(s) of income (joint if married) 1. social security 6. income/self employed 2. pension 7. rent/boarders' fees 3. savings/interest 8. other 4. salary 5. welfare and/or public assistance (OAA) 21. Education__________________(specify years completed) 21A. Spouse's education_____________________ Health Data 22. How would you assess your general health? 1. excellent 3. fair 2. good 4. poor 23. Do you have a regular doctor? 24. If yes, name and location 25. Is there any particular reason why you go to this doctor? 26. If #23 is no: sult a doctor 27. What mode of transportation do you usually use to reach the doctor (code sheet— A ) ? 28. How frequently do you visit a doctor? 1. one or more times a week 6. at least once every 2. a few times a month two years 3. once a month 7. at intervals great4. twice yearly er than two years 5. once a year 8. never go 9. other (specify) 29. Are there any particular problems from visiting the doctor when you 1. no 4. 2. expenses 3. lack of transportation 5. 30. In general would you say that you are______________ with the availability and services of your doctor. 1. satisfied 2. undecided 3. dissatisfied 1. yes 2. no what do you do when you wish to con­ (explain) which prevent you wish? doctor has busy schedule physical impairments 196 (Items 31-41 need not be used if they obviously do not ap­ ply to subject) 31. Are there any corrective devices or physical aids which you need or desire but which are unavailable to you be­ cause of cost? 1. yes (specify) 2. no 32. Do you have any problems in preparing your daily meals? 1. yes (specify) 2. no 33. If answer is yes, do you have anybody to help you? 0. N/A 1. yes (ask who) 2. no 34. How many meals do you normally eat during the day? _____________________________ (specify) 35. Do 36. Do you participate in the mobile food program, times called 'meals on wheels'? 1. yes 2. no 37. Are you aware of this program? 38. Would you use this program if it were made available to you? 0. N/A 1. yes 2. no 39. Do 40. Are you aware of the food stamp program? you feel that your diet is 1. adequate you Shopping Data 41. use food stamps? 1. yes 2.inadequate some­ 2. no 1. yes 2. no 1. yes 2. no (refer to code sheet) Where do you normally do most of your shopping? to three locations) Purpose_____________ Location___________Why there.____ MT (up F TT Groceries Other shopping (specify type) 42. In general would you say that you are__________________ with your present accessibility to shopping facilities. 1. satisfied 2. undecided 3. dissatisfied 197 Socialization 43. (refer to code sheet) Visits by children, other relatives, and friends. Please indicate the three individuals (couples or families) who visit you most frequently. Individual Location F 44. Please name the people whom you visit with most fre­ quently (up to three, include children, relatives, and friends) Location & Individual Estimated Distance F MT TT 45. In general would you say that you are___________________ with your present level of socialization, that is, your opportunity to visit your friends and have them visit you. 1. satisfied 2. undecided 3. dissatisfied Recreation 46. Do you belong to any clubs or special groups? 1. yes 2. no (If answer to #46 is no, go to item 53) 47. Name(s), location(s), and affiliation(s) of clubs and/ or special groups. Name & Location 48. Affiliation Does the organization sponsor outings? 0. N/A 1. yes 2. no FA MT TT 198 49. If yes, do you go on these trips? 0. N/A 1. yes 2. no 50. How frequently? 0. N/A 1. fairly often 2. once ina while 3. never 51. When was the last time you went on one of these trips? 0. N/A 3. this past month 1. within the last week 4. specify 2. in the last few weeks 52. Where did you go on your last trip? 53. Do you attend any of the senior centers sponsored by the Lansing Parks and Recreation Department? 1. yes 2. no 54. Do you know about the senior centers? 55. If 0. 1. 2. 3. 1. yes 2. no answer to #53 is no, why don't you attend? N/A 4. distance and/or not interested time involved no means of transportation 5. specify physical impairments (Answer #56-59 only if #53 is yes) 56. If answer to #53 is yes, how frequently do you attend? (code sheet— B)_________________ ____ 57. Where is the center located? 58. How do you get there? 59. How long does it take you to get there? C ) ____________________ 60. Do you get out and around Lansing for recreational purposes other than those already discussed? 1. yes 2. no 61. If yes, where do you go? Name & Location (code sheet— A) (code sheet— (up to three sites) _______________Purpose____________ F MT TT 199 62. Is there any particular factor which limits your par­ ticipation in recreational facilities within Lansing? 0. does not feel limited 4. health 1. lack of finances 5. limited opportunities 2. transportation problems6. other (specify) public 3. no automobile 63. In general are you ______________ with the recreational facilities available for Lansing's senior citizens. 1. satisfied 2. undecided 3. dissatisfied 64. Are there any particular recreational opportunities which you would like to see Lansing provide for senior citizens? 65. In addition to the above recreational services, are there any other types of services you would like to see made available to senior citizens? Transportation Check Sheet 66. Respondent drives 1. yes 2. no 67. Respondent owns or has access to a car? 1. yes 68. How frequently do you ride in a car? 69. Who does most of the driving when you travel in a car? 0. N/A 4. other relative 1. self 5. friend 2. spouse 6. other (specify) 3. son/daughter 70. How frequently do you use the bus? 71. If 0. 1. 2. 72. If uses bus: do you use the tokens available for senior citizens? 1. yes 2. no 2. no (code sheet— B) (code sheet— B) no, why don't you use the bus? N/A 3. scheduling not accessible 4. physical handicap/boarding expense difficulties 5. other (specify) 200 73. How far is it to the nearest bus stop__________(specify) 74. How long does it take you to walk to the bus stop ______________ (specify) 75. Have you used any of the new minibuses the city re­ cently put into service? 1. yes 2. no 75A. If yes, which line did you ride on and what do you think of these new services? 76. Doyou ever use a taxi? 1. yes 2. no 77. How often would you say that you use a taxi? sheet— B)_____________________ 78. How often do you walk to reach a destination? sheet— B)_____________________ 79. Do you consider walking to be an important means of transportation for yourself? 1. yes 2. no 80. Is there anything in particular which might hinder your use of walking as a means of transportation? 1. no 3. don't like to walk 2. physical impairments 4. other (specify) (code (code 201 Field Coding for the Interview Schedule A. Mode of Travel 0 1 2 3 4 B. = = = = = 5 = ride with child 6 = ride with friend 7 = drive self or with spouse 8 = delivered 9 = other (specify) (F) and Frequency of Attendance N/A (not applicable) less than once/year once/year more than once/year monthly Travel Time 0 1 2 3 (MT) N/A (not applicable) taxi bus walk ride with relative Frequency Data 0 1 2 3 4 C. = = = = = 1,2 (FA) 5 6 7 8 few times/year weekly few times/week daily or nearly so 4 5 6 7 up to 20 minutes up to 25 minutes up to 30 minutes over 30 minutes (TT) = N/A (not applicable) = 5 minutes or less = up to 10 minutes = up to 15 minutes Various data coded under this system were recoded during summation and analysis. 'In some instances responses were recorded at length. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Periodicals Ashford, Norman, and Holloway, Frank M. "Transportation Patterns of Older People in Six Urban Centers." The Gerontologist 12 (Spring 1972): 43-47. Berwick, Keith. "The ’Senior Citizen1 in America; A Study in Unplanned Obsolescence." The Gerontol­ ogist 7 (December 1967): 257-60. Birren, James E. "The Abuse of the Urban Aged." Psychology Today 3 (March 1970): 36-38, 76. Cutler, Stephen J. "The Effects of Transportation and Distance on Voluntary Association Participation Among the A g e d ." International Journal of Aging and Human Development 5 (Winter 1974): 81-90. Dietrich, T. Stanton. "Senior Citizens: A Potential Minority Group." Research Reports in Social Science 12 (August 1969): 32-46. Francher, J. Scott. "American Values and the Disenfran­ chisement of the Aged." Eastern Anthropologist 22 (January-April 1969): 29-36. Gubrium, Jaber F. "Toward a Socio-Environmental Theory of Aging." The Gerontologist 12, Part 1 (Autumn 1972): 281-84. Havighurst, Robert J. "Successful Aging." The Gerontologist 1 (March 1961): 8-13. ________ , chairman. "Research and Development Goals in Social Gerontology." The Gerontologist 9, Part 3 (Winter 1969): 5-15. Markovitz, Joni K. "Transportation Needs of the Elderly." Traffic Quarterly 25 (1971): 237-53. 202 203 Palmore, Erdman B . , and Whittington, Frank. "Trends in the Relative Status of the Aged." Social Forces 50 (September 1971): 84-91. Schnell, George A. "Factors Affecting Recent Trends of the Aged Population: A Case Study." Aging and Human Development 1 (1970): 219-30. _________. "Geographic Association Between Migration and Selected Aspects of Age Structure." Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 43 (1969): 153-56. _________. "Population Growth, Migration and Economic Health: The Aged in Pennsylvania." Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 44 (1970): 23-26. Simkins, Paul D. "Distribution of the Aged in Pennsyl­ vania." Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 38 (1964): 183-87. ________ . "Sex Ratios of the Older Population of Pennsyl­ vania and the Role of Migration." Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 40 (1967): 123-28. Stockwell, Edward G. "The Changing Age Composition of the American Population." Social Biology 19 (March 1972): 1-8. Tissue, Thomas. "Downward Mobility in Old Age." Social Problems 18 (Summer 1970): 67-77. United Nations. "The Cause of the Aging of Populations: Declining Mortality or Declining Fertility." Population Bulletin of the United Nations, no. 4 (December 1954), pp. 30-38. Books and Documents Bogue, Donald J. Principles of Demography. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1969. New York: Brotman, Herman B. "The Elderly as a Significant Popu­ lation Group." In Transportation and Aging: Selected Issues, pp. 10-13. Edited by Edmund J. Cantilli and June L. Shmelzer. Washington, D. C, Government Printing Office, 1972. 204 Carp, Frances M. "Correlates of Mobility Among Retired Persons." In Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Envi­ ronmental Design Research Association Conference, pp. 171-81. Edited by John Archea and Charles Eastman. Pittsburgh, Penn.: October 1970. ________ . "The Mobility of Retired People." In Trans­ portation and Aging: Selected Issues, pp. 23-41. Edited by Edmund J. Cantilli and June L. Shmelzer. Washington, D. C . : Government Printing Office, 1972. Cumming, Elaine M. "New Thoughts on the Theory of Dis­ engagement." In New Thoughts on Old A g e , pp. 318. Edited by Robert Kastenbaum. New York: Springer Publishing Company, Inc., 1964. Gelwicks, Louis E. "The Older Person's Relation With the Environment: The Influence of Transportation." In Transportation and Aging: Selected Issues, pp. 19-22. Edited by Edmund J. Cantilli and June L. Shmelzer. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972. Golant, Stephen M. The Residential Location and Spatial Behavior of the Elderly: A Canadian Example. Department of Geography, Research Paper No. 143. Chicago: Department of Geography, University of Chicago, 1972. Kiser, Clyde V. "The Aging of Human Populations: Mechan­ isms of Change." In Population and Society, pp. 361-72. Edited by Charles B. Nam. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 196 8. Lawton, M. Powell. "Ecology and Aging." In Spatial Be­ havior of Older People, pp. 40-67. Edited by Leon A. Pastalan and Daniel H. Carson. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan-Wayne State University, Institute of Gerontology, 1970. Loether, Herman J. Problems of Aging: Sociological and Social Psychological Perspectives. Belmont, California: Dickenson Publishing Company, Inc., 1967. Michigan Commission on Aging. An Assessment of the Status and Needs of Michigan's Elderly. DSS Publication 165. Lansing: Department of Social Services, State of Michigan, 1972. 205 _________. Toward A National Policy on A g i n g . DSS Publi­ cation 130. Lansing: Department of Social Ser­ vices, State of Michigan, 1971. National Council on the Aging, Inc. The Golden Years . . . A Tarnished M y t h . The Project FIND Report. Wash­ ington, D. C.: The National Council on the Aging, Inc., 16 January 1970. Riley, Matilda White; Foner, Anne; Moore, Mary E.; Hess, Beth; Roth, Barbara K . ; Johnson, Marilyn E.; and Schein, Virginia E. Aging and Society. Vol. 1: An Inventory of Research Findings. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1968. Rockefeller, John D., 3rd. Population and the American Future. The Report of the Commission on Popula­ tion Growth and the American Future. Washington, D. C . : Government Printing Office, 1972. Rose, Arnold M . , and Peterson, Warren A., eds. Older People and Their Social World: The Subculture of the Aging. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 1965. Rosow, Irving. Social Integration The Free Press, 1967. of the A g e d . New York: U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Cen­ sus of Population: 1970 General Population Char­ acteristics, Final Report PC(1)-B1 United States Summary. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. Census of Population: 1970 Social and Economic Characteristics, Final Report PC(1)-C1 United States Summary. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1972. . Census of Population and Housing: 1970 Census Tracts, Final Report PHC(1)-106 Lansing, Michigan S M S A . Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Of­ fice, 1972. _ _ . Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1973. 94th ed. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1973. 206 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service. Health in the Later Years of Life; Selected Data From the National Center for Health Statistics. Washington, D. C.: Gov­ ernment Printing Office, 1971. <# Wolpert, Julian. Migrate." 298-306. Rose, and Hill Book "Behavioral Aspects of the Decision to In Population Geography: A Reader, pp. Edited by George J. Demko, Harold M. George A. Schnell. New York: McGrawCompany, 1970. General References Periodicals Albrecht, Ruth E. "The Sociological Impact of Aging in Present Day Culture." Journal of the American Physical Therapy Association 48 (October 1968): 1123-1128. Birren, James E. "Research on Aging; A Frontier of Science and Social Gain." The Gerontologist 8, Part 1 (Spring 1968): 7-13. "The Aged in Cities." The Gerontologist 9, Part 1 (1969): 163-69. Carp, Frances M. "Research Studies on the Aged." Welfare in Review 5 (May 1967): 14-19. ________ . "The Mobility of Older Slum-Dwellers." The Gerontologist 12 (Spring 1972): 57-65. ________ ., ed. "Transportation." The Gerontologist 12, Part 2 (Summer 1972); 11-16. Chevan, Albert, and O'Rourke, John F. "Aging Regions of the United States." Journal of Gerontology 27 (January 1972): 119-26. Cutler, Stephen J. "The Availability of Personal Trans­ portation, Residential Location, and Life Satis­ faction Among the Aged." Journal of Gerontology 27 (July 1972): 383-89. 207 Goldscheider, Calvin. "Differential Residential Mobility of the Older Population." Journal of Gerontology 21 (January 1966): 103-108. Hepler, Harold R . , ed. "A Coordinated and Supplementary Bibliography on the Sociology of the Elderly." Sociological Symposium, no. 2, supplement (Spring 1969), pp. 179-221. Lawton, M. Powell, ed. "Housing." The Gerontologist 12 Part 2 (Summer 1972): 3-10. Lawton, M. Powell; Kleban, Morton H.; and Singer, Maurice. "The Aged Jewish Person and the Slum Environment." Journal of Gerontology 26 (April 1971): 231-39. Palmore, Erdman B. "Variables Related to Needs Among the Aged Poor." Journal of Gerontology 26 (October 1971): 537-41. Rosenberg, George S. "Age, Poverty, and Isolation From Friends in the Urban Working Class." Journal of Gerontology 23 (October 1968): 533-38. Schooler, Kermit K. "Effect of Environment on Morale." The Gerontologist 10, Part 1 (Autumn 1970): 194-97. Seligman, Ben B. "The Poverty of Aging." (March-April 1968): 138-46. Dissent 15 Shanas, Ethel. "The Sociology of Aging and the Aged." Sociological Quarterly 12 (Spring 1971): 159-76. Wheeler, James O. "The Spatial Interaction of Blacks in Metropolitan Areas." Southeastern Geographer 11 (November 1971): 101-12. Wheeler, James O . , and Stutz, Frederick P. "Spatial Dimensions of Urban Social Travel." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 61 (June 1971): 371-86. Books and Documents Demko, George J.; Rose, Harold M . ; and Schnell, George A. Population Geography: A Reader. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 197 0. 208 Field, Minna. The Aged/ The Family/ and the Community. New York: Columbia University Press, 1972. Kiraldi, Louis. Gerontology: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Materials Available in Dwight B. Waldo Library. Western Michigan University: Committee on Gerontology, Summer 1970. Roller, Marvin R. Social Gerontology. House, 1968. New York: Random Lenzer, Anthony, and others. Michigan's Older People, Six Hundred Thousand Over Sixty F i v e . Ann Arbor: State of Michigan Legislative Advisory Council on Problems of the Aging, 1958. Niebauch, Paul L . , and Pope, John B. Elderly in Older Urban Areas; Problems of Adaptation and the Effects of Relocation. Philadelphia: Institute of En­ vironmental Studies, University of Pennsylvania, 1965. Oppenheim, A. N. Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Pub­ lishers, 1966. Osterbind, Carter C., ed. Feasible Planning for Social Change in the Field of A g i n g . Gainesville: Cen­ ter for Gerontological Studies and Programs, Uni­ versity of Florida Press, 1969. Palmore, Erdman B. "Measuring the Quality of Life Among the Elderly." In Independent Living for Older People, pp. 98-107. Edited by Carter C. Osterbind. Gainesville: Center for Gerontological Studies and Programs, University of Florida Press, 1972. Richardson, I. M. Age and N e e d . Livingston Ltd., 1964. Edinburgh: E. & S. Rosenberg, Morris. The Logic of Survey Analysis. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Publishers, 1968. Rosset, Edward. Aging Process of Population. Pergamon Press, 1964. Oxford: Stutz, Frederick Paul. "Spatial Analysis of Urban InterResidential Social Trip Flows." Ph.D. disserta­ tion, Michigan State University, 1970. 209 Systems Research Incorporated. Towards An Integrated System for the Delivery of Human Services in Lansing/ Michigan— A Plan for Implementation. Pre­ pared for Lansing Planning Department, Lansing, Michigan, 18 February 1973. (Mimeographed.) Tibbitts, Clark, ed. Handbook of Social Gerontology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1960. U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Census of Housing: 1970 Block Statistics, Final Report HC(3)-125 Lansing, Michigan Urbanized Area. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. _ . Census of Population: 1970 General Population Characteristics, Final Report PC(1)-B24 Michigan. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. So­ cial and Rehabilitation Service Administration on Aging. Older Americans Act of 1965 as Amended: Text and History. Washington, D. C . : Government Printing Office, 1970. White House Conference on Aging, 1971. Section Recommenda­ tions on Housing. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. _ . Section Recommendations on Income. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. _________. Section Recommendations on Physical and Mental He a l t h . Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. _________. Section Recommendations on Planning. Washington D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. _________. Section Recommendations on Retirement Roles and Activities. Washington, D. C.: Government Print­ ing Office, 1971. _________. Section Recommendations on Transportation. Wash ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1971. Young, Pauline V. Scientific Social Surveys and Research. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1966.