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Film ed as Xerox University Microfilm s 300 North Z M b Rood Ann Arbor, M ichigan 48108 76 -56 54 STONE, Pauline Clare Terrelonge, 19491HE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CORRELATES OF INTRA-GROUP RACIAL IDENTIFICATION IN BLACK POLITICAL LEADERSHIP: BLACK ELECTED OFFICIALS IN MICHIGAN. Michigan State University, Hi.D., 1975 Political Science, general XSfOX University M icrofilm s, Ann Arbor. Michigan 40106 THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CORRELATES OF INTRA-GROUP RACIAL IDENTIFICATION IN BLACK POLITICAL LEADERSHIP BLACK ELECTED OFFICIALS IN MICHIGAN By P a u lin e C. T e rre lo n g e Stone A DISSERTATION Subm itted to M ich ig an S ta te U n iv e r s ity in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e req u irem en ts f o r th e degree o f DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Departm ent o f P o l i t i c a l Science 1975 ABSTRACT THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CORRELATES OF INTRA-GROUP RACIAL IDENTIFICATION IN BLACK POLITICAL LEADERSHIP: BLACK ELECTED OFFICIALS IN MICHIGAN By P a u lin e C. T e rre lo n g e Stone T h is re se arch focused on th e p a tte rn s o f r a c ia l I d e n t i t y among b lack e le c te d o f f i c i a l s in M ich ig an . S p e c ific a lly , i t th a t m o tiv a te d some b la ck e le c te d o f f i c i a l s r a c ia l Issues and o th e rs not to do so. in v e s tig a te d th e fa c to r s to ta k e a p o s it iv e stand on S everal p o s s ib le p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l c o r r e la te s o f t h is v a lu e syndrome ( r e f e r r e d to as b la c k conscious­ ness f o r purpose o f convenience) were examined. Using c lu s te r - a n a ly s is procedures to a r r i v e a t a s e t o f fa c to r s t h a t tapped th e u n d e rly in g meaning o f t h is form o f in tr a -g r o u p i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , a s c a le was c o n s tru c te d . The item s t h a t were In c lu d e d in t h is b lack consciousness s c a le were a t t it u d e s tow ard: 1 ) b la c k e le c te d o f f i c i a l s g iv in g p r i o r i t y to t h e i r b la ck c o n s titu e n ts ; 2 ) b la ck e le c te d o f f i c i a l s lobbying on b e h a lf o f A f r ic a ; 3 ) a m e tro p o lita n form o f government; 4 ) b la c k p o l i t i c a l caucuses; and 5 ) th e tea ch in g o f b la c k h is to r y in schools. Four m ajor hypotheses were developed to t e s t f o r fa c to r s th a t caused v a r ia tio n 1n I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f b la c k e le c te d o f f i c i a l s w ith t h e i r ra c e . F i r s t , i t was p o s ite d t h a t in c re a s in g commitment to a c a re e r as a p u b lic o f f i c i a l would be as so c ia ted w ith a d ecreasing emphasis on I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith o ne's ra c e . Second, 1 t was h ypothesized t h a t th e s tro n g e r one's commitment to p a r tis a n concerns, th e low er would be o n e's le v e l o f b la c k consciousness. Black consciousness was a ls o p re d ic te d to va ry w ith th e degree o f r a c ia l fra g m e n ta tio n In e le c t o r a l c o n s titu e n c ie s . c e r t a in s o c ia l and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s F in a lly , ( e . g . , a g e , s e x , re g io n o f s o c ia li z a t i o n , e t c . ) were proposed to be p o s s ib le c o r r e la te s o f v a r ia t io n In b la ck consciousness. The sample f o r th e study co n siste d o f 119 blacks h o ld in g e l e c t iv e o f f i c e 1n M ichigan d u rin g th e sumrter o f 1974. Chosen from a p o p u la tio n u n iv e rs e o f a p p ro x im a te ly 170 o f f i c i a l s , members o f th e sample were from a ll areas o f th e s t a t e , were both R epublican and Dem ocrat, and held o f f ic e s a t a l l le v e ls and in a l l branches o f government. No evidence was found to support th e p ro p o s itio n t h a t in c re as ed com­ m itm ent to p u b lic o f f i c e was a s s o c ia te d w ith v a r ia t io n in b la c k conscious­ ness. However, one o f the most s i g n i f i c a n t fin d in g s o f th e study emerged by a n a ly z in g t h is h y p o th e s is . T h is was th e s i g n i f i c a n t l y low er b la c k conscious le v e l o f j u d i c i a l o ffic e h o ld e r s compared to those in e x e c u tiv e , l e g i s l a t i v e , e d u c a tio n a l, and a d m in is tr a tiv e o f f i c e . T e s tin g th e h yp oth esis concerning th e e f f e c t o f r a c ia l com position o f e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t on b lack consciousness a ls o produced some s i g n i f i ­ can t r e s u lt s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t was shown th a t blacks who sought o f f i c e in d i s t r i c t s t h a t were " w h ite r" in r a c i a l com position o r a t - l a r g e , were f a r le s s l i k e l y to be b la ck conscious than those who rep resen ted p re ­ dom inantly b la ck d i s t r i c t s and w ards. The p ro p o s itio n concerning th e In t e r r e la t io n s h ip o f b la c k conscious­ ness and degree o f p a r tis a n conrnitment was n o t su p p o rted . R a th e r, th e d ata suggested t h a t blacks w ith s tro n g e r p a rtis a n t i e s were more b la c k con­ scious than those w ith o u t, alth ou gh th e evidence was somewhat In c o n c lu s iv e . The two most s i g n i f i c a n t s o c ia l and personal c o r r e la te s o f b la ck consciousness were age and s e x. Younger b la ck s and males i d e n t i f i e d w ith t h e i r race to a s ig n f ic a n t ly g r e a te r e x te n t than those who were o ld e r and those who were fe m a le . In sum, seve ra l broad conclusions may be drawn from t h is stu d y. F ir s t o f a l l , b la ck p o l i t i c i a n s a re n o t m o n o lith ic in th e degree to which they su p po rt r a c ia l is s u e s . id e n tific a tio n The source o f t h is d iv e r s i t y in in tr a -g ro u p is to be found in th e d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l they f a c e , and in t h e i r s o c io lo g ic a l h e te ro g e n e ity . s it u a t io n s which ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my s in c e re g r a t it u d e to te a c h e rs , c o lle a g u e s , fr ie n d s and fa m ily members who have c o n trib u te d to the en richm en t o f my academic c a r e e r . I t 1s d i f f i c u l t to l i s t a l l these persons in d iv id u a lly because o f space l im i t a t i o n s ; n o n e th e le s s , a few must be s in g le d out f o r s p e c ia l m ention. Every d o c to ra l s tu d e n t Is ind eb ted to t h e i r d o c to ra l com m ittee. This is no less t r u e in my own c a s e . I t is not an e x a g g e ra tio n to say t h a t w ith o u t t h e i r c o o p e ra tio n t h is th e s is would p ro b a b ly n ev er have been bro ug ht to f r u i t i o n . D r. Ooseph S c h le s in g e r helped me a t every step both by re a d in g and c r i t i c a l l y e v a lu a tin g a l l d r a f t s w ith uncommon r a p i d i t y and c a r e , and by always making h im s e lf a v a ila b le f o r personal c o n s u lta tio n . D r. A lan Grimes and D r. C h arles Press w ere v e ry kind to me th ro u g h to u t my f i v e - y e a r so jo u rn a t M ichigan S ta te . They were no le s s h e lp fu l ih th e d is s e r t a t i o n - w r i t i n g s ta g e both in t h e i r s u b s ta n tiv e c r it ic is m s and t h e i r w illin g n e s s to read and e v a lu a te th e v a rio u s d r a f t s in v e ry s h o rt p erio d s o f tim e . S p e c ia l thanks must a ls o be g iv en to D r. Mary C o rcoran , who gave in v a lu a b le m etho d olog ical a s s is ta n c e a t a tim e when she h e r s e lf was under tremendous p ressu re to com plete h e r own doc­ t o r a l d is s e r t a t io n . The f a c t t h a t I a tte n d e d g rad u ate school a t a l l was due to the ro le s played by two fo rm er m entors: D r. Selwyn Ryan, fo rm e rly o f York U n iv e r­ s i t y , T o ro n to , Canada, and D r. David B e l l , fo rm e rly o f M ich ig an S ta te 11 U n iv e r s it y . Both were re s p o n s ib le f o r rqy d e c is io n to pursue advanced study in p o l i t i c a l scien ce and both made i t p o s s ib le f o r me to do so. I am a ls o Indebted in v a rio u s ways to s e v e ra l o f my co lle a g u e s in th e C o lle g e o f Urban Development a t M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s it y , s p e c i f i ­ c a l l y , D r. Robert L. G reen, D r. Ruth H a m ilto n , D r. Homer Hawkins, and Dr. John S c h w e itz e r. Acknowledgement must a ls o be g iv en to th e p r a c t ic a l a s s is ta n c e given by s e v e ra l o f my f r ie n d s . G lo ria Simmons and E s th e r Green a s s is te d in the ty p in g and p ro o fre a d in g , r e s p e c t iv e ly . Ann Karson, my Min-h ou se c o u n s e llo r'1, lis te n e d to my c o u n tle s s com plaints and pushed me forw ard whenever my s p i r i t sagged. F in a lly , I tu rn to members o f my fa m ily . My p a r e n ts , L e s lie and P h y llis T e rre lo n g e , underwent g re a t s a c r i f i c e to g iv e me, one o f e ig h t c h ild r e n , a fir m academic fo u n d a tio n . My aunt and u n c le , K e ith and Ina R obertson, never f a i l e d to su p po rt me throughout my undergraduate and graduate c a r e e r . They and my p are n ts ta u g h t me e a r ly th e v a lu e o f "d e fe rre d g r a t i f i c a t i o n " . F i n a l l y , I must thank my husband, L o u is . Not o nly d id he bear th e d e p riv a tio n s o f being a " d is s e r a tio n widower" s t o i c a l l y , b u t h is s u p p o rt, encouragement and many kindnesses were bound­ le s s . H is b e l i e f in my a b i l i t y to "make i t " q u e n tly d id . never w avered; mine f r e ­ TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................. 11 L i s t o f T a b le s ............................................................................................................................ v i i L is t o f A ppendices.............................................................................................................. 1x Face S h e e t..................................................................................................................................... x l i CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY....................................................... 1 Statem ent o f th e Problem ....................................................................................... 10 Sum m ary............................................................................................................................ 13 O verview o f the S t u d y ............................................................................................ 15 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 21 In t r o d u c t io n .................................................................................................................. 21 The P sycho lo g ical C ontext o f Black Consciousness................................ In t r o d u c tio n ......................................................................................................... The H is t o r ic a l Development o f Black Consciousness ................... B lack Consciousness D e fin e d ..................................................................... The S o c ia l Science L it e r a t u r e . ....................................................... Black Consciousness: A T h e o re tic a l F ra m e w o rk ............................ 22 22 24 29 31 38 The P o l i t i c a l C ontext o f B lack Consciousness......................................... Commitment to an O f f ic e C a re e r.................................... R a c ia l Fragm entation in E le c to r a l C o n s titu e n c y ............................ Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t ......................................................................... P a rtis a n Commitment ....................................................................................... 42 42 49 55 58 The S o c io lo g ic a l C ontext o f B lack Consciousness ................................ S tu d ie s o f Black M i l i t a n c y ......................................................................... A tt it u d e s Toward W hites .............................................................................. Sum m ary.................................................................................................................. 62 64 67 67 CHAPTER THREE: THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY............................................................ 80 In t r o d u c t io n ........................................ .. ........................................ 80 The B lack P o l i t i c a l E l i t e 81 in M ich ig an : A B r i e f H is to ry . . . . In s tru m e n ta tio n ......................................................................................................... iv 86 V Data C o l l e c t i o n ......................................................................................................... 86 The P o p u la tio n and S a m p le .................................................................................. 87 D e f in it io n and O p e r a tio n a liz a tio n o f V a r ia b le s ....................................... Dependent V a r ia b le ........................................................................................... Independent V a ria b le s .................................................................................. 91 91 92 S tatem ent o f Hypotheses ....................................................................................... 106 O f f ic e C om m itm ent................................................................................................. 106 107 P a rtis a n Commitment ....................................................................................... 107 S o cial and Personal C h a r a c te r is tic s ................................................... CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OFTHE DATA........................................................................... 112 In tr o d u c tio n ........................................................................................................................ 112 C re a tio n o f S cale to Measure B lack Consciousness.......................................114 C lu s te r -A n a ly s is ......................................................................................................114 S cale C o n s tru c tio n .................................................................................................119 Hypothesis T e s tin g .......................................................................................................... 120 P eriod o f Time Spent in O f f i c e ......................................................................121 P o l i t i c a l Campaign E xperience ................................................................ 123 Im portance o f O f f ic e H e l d ...............................................................................125 P o l i t i c a l A m b itio n . 132 R a cial Com position o f D i s t r i c t ....................... . ..........................................133 Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t ...............................................................................136 The In t e r a c t io n o f R a c ia l Composition o f D i s t r i c t , A m bition and Black Consciousness.............................................................138 S tre n g th o f P o l i t i c a l P a rty A f f i l i a t i o n ......................................... 141 P o l i t i c a l P a rty O f f i c e ............................................................................. . . 143 P a rtis a n Vs. N o n -P a rtis a n O f f i c e ............................................. 144 E v a lu a tio n o f R e la tio n s h ip w ith P o l i t i c a l P a rty ....................... 146 P o l i t i c a l Awareness ....................................................................................... 148 Region o f S ta te Where O ffic e is H e ld ........................................................ 149 A g e ........................................................................................................................... 152 Socio-Economic S ta tu s .................................................................................. 153 Region o f S o c ia liz a t io n .............................................................................. 155 S e x .................................................................................................................................157 A P re d ic tio n Model f o r Black Consciousness....................................................159 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS OF HYPOTHESES, IMPLICATIONS ANDSUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH. . 168 In tr o d u c tio n ........................................................................................................................168 Review o f F in d in g s ...................................................................................... O ffic e Commitment ........................................................................................... P a rtis a n C oitvnltm ent........................................................... S o c ia l and Personal C h a r a c te r is tic s ................................................... 170 170 172 173 E v a lu a tio n o f F in d in g s .................................................................................................175 O ffic e C om m itm ent.................................................................................................175 177 P a rtis a n Commitment ....................................................................................... vi S o c ia l and Personal C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ............................... S um m ary............................................. . , , . 178 180 Im p lic a tio n s and Suggestions f o r Future R esearch .....................................180 Appendices..................................................................................................................................... 189 B ib lio g ra p h y ........................................................................................................................... ....... LIS T OF TABLES CHAPTER THREE: T a b le 1 . E le c t iv e O ffic e s Held by Members o f th e S a m p le .................... 90 T a b le 2. Formal Level o f O f f ic e S c a l e ............................................................. 97 T ab le 3. F un ction o f O ffic e S c a l e ...................................................................... 97 T a b le 4 . A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e S c a l e ........................................................ 98 T a b le 5 . I n t e r - I t e m C o r r e la tio n s o f SES I t e m s ...........................................104 CHAPTER FOUR: T a b le 1 . I n t e r - I t e m C o r r e la tio n C o e ffic ie n ts o f Item s in th e B lack Consciousness S c a le ..................................................................... 115 T a b le 2 . C o r r e la tio n o f Item s t h a t C lu s te re d W ith Items T h at Did N o t.............................................................................................................. 117 T ab le 3 . C o r r e la tio n o f th e Item s in the Black Consciousness S c ale W ith th e O v e ra ll S c a l e .............................................................119 T ab le 4 . Black Consciousness and Commitment to an O ffic e C a r e e r .............................................................................................................. 122 T a b le 5 . P o l i t i c a l Campaign E xp erien ce and B lack Consciousness. T ab le 6 . F un ction o f O ffic e H eld and Black Consciousness........................ 126 T able 7. F u n ctio n o f O ffic e and Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t . T able 8 . Formal Level o f O f fic e and Black C o n s c io u s n e s s ........................ 128 T ab le 9 . A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e and Black Consciousness . . . . . , . . 124 127 130 T a b le 10. C o r r e la tio n o f Item s t h a t Erased R e la tio n s h ip Between A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e Scale and B lac k Conscious­ ness ................................................................................................................... 131 Table 11. The R e la tio n s h ip o f P o l i t i c a l Am bition and Black Consciousness.................................................................................................133 v ii v iil T ab le 12. The R e la tio n s h ip o f R a c ia l Com position o f D i s t r i c t and Black Consciousness.....................................................................135 T ab le 13 . Black Consciousness and M a jo r ity Vs. M in o r ity Black D i s t r i c t s .....................................................................................................136 T ab le 14, R e la tio n s h ip o f Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t and R a c ia l Composition o f D i s t r i c t .....................................................................137 T ab le 15 . The R e la tio n s h ip o f Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t and B lack Consciousness..............................................................................138 T ab le 16 . Two-Way In t e r a c t io n o f Am bition and R a c ia l Composi­ tio n o f D i s t r i c t and Black Consciousness ............................ 139 T ab le 17 . S tre n g th o f P a rty A f f i l i a t i o n 142 T ab le 18. Type o f P a rty A f f i l i a t i o n and B lack Consciousness. T ab le 19. P o l i t i c a l P a rty O f f ic e and Black Consciousness .................. T ab le 2 0 . O f fic e Type (P a r tis a n o r N o n -P a rtis a n ) and Black Consciousness........................................................................................... 145 T ab le 21 . Age That P o l i t i c a l In t e r e s t Developed and Black Consciousness........................................................................................... 149 T ab le 2 2 . Region o f S ta te Where O f f ic e Held and Black Conscious­ ness .................................................................................................... and Black Consciousness. .. . . 143 144 151 T ab le 2 3 . Age and B lack Consciousness............................................................... 153 T ab le 24 . Socio-Economic S ta tu s and B lack Consciousness...................... 155 Table 2 5 . Region o f S o c ia liz a t io n and Black Consciousness (N orth Vs. S o u th ).................................................................................. 156 T ab le 2 6 . Region o f S o c ia liz a t io n and Black Consciousness..................157 T ab le 2 7 . Sex and B lack Consciousness............................................................... 161 Table 2 8 . M u ltip le Regression A n a ly s is o f V a ria b le s That Were S ig n if ic a n t in th e U n iv a r ia te A n a ly s is and Black Consciousness........................................................................................... 161 T ab le 2 9 . M u lt ip le R egressio n: R e la tio n s h ip o f V a ria b le s With F S t a t i s t i c s G re a te r Than 1 and B lack Consciousness. T ab le 3 0 . . 163 M u ltip le R egressio n: V a ria b le s W ith F S t a t i s t i c s That Were H ig h e r Than 2 and Black Consciousness — F in a l P r e d ic tio n Model .................................................................... 164 LIS T OF APPENDICES Appendix 1. Frequency D is t r ib u t io n o f Item s That Did Not C lu s te r 1n th e Black Consciousness S c a le ....................................................... 189 2. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f Length o f Time In P re se n t O f f ic e and Black Consciousness........................................................... 191 3. Regression E q u atio n : P e rio d o f Time in P re se n t O ffic e and B lack Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a r a c te r is tic s ........................................................................................... 192 4. C ontrol R e la tio n s h ip o f Number o f O ffic e s Held and B lack C o n s c io u s n e s s ............................. . ................................................ 193 5. R egression Equation: Number o f O ffic e s Held and Black Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic Charac­ t e r i s t i c s ......................................................................................................... 194 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f Number o f O ffic e s Sought and Black C o n s c io u s n e s s ......................................................................... 195 Regression E q uatio n : Number o f O ffic e s Sought and B lack Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a r a c te r is tic s ........................................................................................... 196 C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f P e rio d o f Time In P u b lic O ffic e and Black Consciousness ......................................................................... 197 Regression E quation: P e rio d o f Time O f f ic e Held and B lack Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ................................ .......................................................... 198 C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f P o l i t i c a l Campaign E xperience and B lack Consciousness ......................................................................... 199 Regression E q uatio n : P o l i t i c a l Campaign E x p e rien ce and B lack Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a r a c te r is tic s ........................................................................................... 200 C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f J u d ic ia l and A d m in is tr a tiv e O ffic e h o ld e rs Vs. E x e c u tiv e , L e g is la tiv e and Educa­ t io n a l O ffic e h o ld e r s .................................................................................. 201 1x X Appendix 13. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f Formal Level o f O f f i c e Held and B lac k Consciousness 202 14 . R eg ressio n E q u a tio n : Formal Level o f O f f i c e and Black Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a ra c te r­ i s t i c s ........................................................................................................................... 203 15. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f i c e and B la c k Consciousness . . . . . ............................................................. 204 R egressio n E q u a tio n : A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f i c e and B lack Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a r a c t e r is t ic s .............................................................................................. 205 C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f P o l i t i c a l A m b itio n and Black Consciousness ................................................................................................... 206 16 . 17. 18. R egressio n E q u a tio n : P o l i t i c a l A m bition and B lack Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a ra c te r­ i s t i c s ........................................................................................................................... 207 19. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f R a c ia l Com position o f D i s t r i c t and B la c k Consciousness ........................................................................... 208 R eg ressio n E q u a tio n : R a c ia l Com position o f D i s t r i c t and B la c k Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a r a c t e r is t ic s .............................................................................................. 209 C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t and B la c k Consciousness ........................................................................... 210 R egressio n E q u a tio n : Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t and B la c k Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a r a c t e r is t ic s .............................................................................................. 211 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f P a r ty A f f i l i a t e V s. NonA f f i l i a t e and B lack C o n s c io u s n e s s ....................... R eg ressio n E q u a tio n : P a r ty A f f i l i a t e s Vs. In d e p e n ­ d en ts and B lack Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demo­ g ra p h ic C h a r a c t e r is t ic s ........................................................................... 212 213 25. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f P o l i t i c a l P a rty O f f i c e and B lack C o n s c io u s n e s s .......................................................................................... 214 26 . R egressio n E q u a tio n : P o l i t i c a l P a rty O f f ic e and B lack Consciousness C o n t r o llin g f o r Demographic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .................................................................................... 27. 215 C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f P a r t is n Vs. N o n -P a rtis a n O f f ic e and B lack C onsciousness.................................................................. 21 6 xi Appendix 28. Regression E q u a tio n : P a rtis a n /N o n -P a rt1 s a n O f fic e and B lack Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a r a c te r is tic s ............................................................................................... 29. 30. 31. 217 C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f E v a lu a tio n o f R e la tio n s h ip W ith P o l i t i c a l P a rty and Black Consciousness ................................... 218 Regression E q u a tio n : E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip and B lack Consciousness C o n tr o llin g f o r Demographic C h a r a c te r is tic s .......................................................................................... 219 C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f Age o f P o l i t i c a l Awareness and Black C o n s c io u s n e s s ................................................................ 220 32. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f Region o f o f S ta te Where O f f ic e is H e ld ..................................................................................................... 221 33. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f Age and Black Consciousness . . . . 34. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f O ccupational S ta tu s and B lack C o n s c io u s n e s s ........................................................................................223 35. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f E d ucation al S ta tu s and Black Consciousness ................................................................................... 224 36. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f O ff ic e S a la ry and Black Consciousness ................................................................................................ 222 225 37. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f Region o f S o c ia liz a t io n and B lack C o n s c io u s n e s s ........................................................................................226 38. C o n tro l R e la tio n s h ip o f Sex and B lack Consciousness . . . . 39. C o r r e la tio n M a tr ix o f S ig n if ic a n t U n iv a r ia te V a r ia b le s . . . 228 40. In tro d u c to ry L e t t e r M ailed to Members o f Sample ........................ 229 41. In te r v ie w S c h e d u le ..................................................................................................230 227 The c a n d id a te f o r a s s im ila tio n alm ost always comes to t i r e o f the e x o r b ita n t p r ic e which he must pay and w hich he n ever fin is h e s owing. . . . Must h e , a l l h is l i f e , be ashamed o f what is most re a l to him , o f th e o n ly th in g s n o t borrowed? and m oreover, w i l l Must he i n s i s t on denying h im s e lf, he alw ays be a b le to stand 1t? Must h is l ib e r a ­ tio n be accomplished through sy ste m a tic s e lf - d e n ia l? A lb e r t Memmi, The C o lo n iz e r and th e C olonized T 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 124-T 25. xii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY One o f th e la s t in g e f f e c t s o f th e b la c k s o c ia l r e v o lu tio n o f th e s i x i t e s is th e in t e r s e c o n tro v e rs y t h a t p r e s e n tly rages w it h in th e b la c k community o ve r a number o f issues r e le v a n t to race r e l a t i o n s 1n A m erica. B lack o p in io n c o n tin u e s to be d iv id e d o v e r th e d e s i r ­ a b i l i t y o f " s e p a ra tio n *1 v s . " in t e g r a t i o n " , " v io le n c e " , and " b la c k i d e n t i t y " v s . " n o n -v io le n c e " vs . "American i d e n t i t y . " The c o n f l i c t o f o p in io n t h a t s u rfa c e d around th ese t h r e e issues in th e s i x t i e s was d i r e c t l y re s p o n s ib le f o r th e schisms t h a t developed in th e C i v i l R ig h ts Movement, th e a tro p h y o f some o f th e o rg a n iz a tio n s in t h a t movement,^ and a h e ig h te n e d d i v e r s i t y in a t t it u d e s w it h in th e b la c k com m unity. v a r ia tio n In t h is s tu d y , we e x p lo re th e e x te n t o f c u r r e n t in o p in io n o ve r one o f th e s e issu es — th e q u e s tio n o f "B la c k i d e n t i t y " v s . "American i d e n t i t y . " The p o p u la tio n o f i n t e r e s t re p re s e n ts a s e le c t sample o f b la c k s , th o se who h old e l e c t i v e o f f i c e in M ic h ig a n . From th e v ie w p o in t o f th e w r i t e r , in q u ir y i n t o w hether t h i s group i d e n t i f i e s as Blacks o r as Am ericans is c r i t i c a l s ta n d in g o f th e y dynamics o f Am erican p o l i t i c s . is , 2 to an u n d er­ B e la te d though i t Blacks have r e c e n t ly begun to e n t e r in t o th e aren a o f American p o l i t i c s and hopes a r e high among many t h a t th e y a r e on th e b r in k o f in h e r itin g t h e i r p la c e in th e p o l i t i c a l sun. Success in r e a l i z i n g 2 these e x p e c ta tio n s depends to no sm all degree on how th ey view them selves 1n r e la t io n to th e r e s t o f th e s o c ie ty . I f th e y seek to in flu e n c e the p o lic y making process as a r a c i a l group, th e y could c o n c e iv a b ly encounter much g re a te r o b s ta c le s to f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e i r a s p ir a tio n s than 1 f th e y a lig n them selves w ith th e more c o n ve n tio n a l I n t e r e s t groups whose ra is o n d 'e t r e 1s n o t e x c lu s iv e ly r a c i a l ; f o r example la b o r unions, p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , r e lig io u s o r g a n iz a tio n s , e tc . One ir o n ic fe a t u r e o f American p lu r a lis m 1s th a t i t has been f a r more accomodative o f group in t e r e s ts founded on economic, c u l t u r a l , n a t i o n a l i t y , o r r e lig io u s c la im s , than on those s p e d 3 f ic a lly r a c ia l. C onsequently i f b lacks become a tta c h e d to some s o rt o f c o l le c t i v e I d e n t i t y th a t s e ts them a p a rt from th e r e s t o f the s o c ie t y , w h ile c o n tin u in g t h e i r p u r s u it o f p o l i t i c a l and economic e q u a l i t y , th e system may be hard pressed to meet t h e i r demands, as the idea o f a p l u r a l i s t i c approach to th e s o lu tio n o f the r a c i a l q u e stio n American c re e d . has never become an accepted p a r t o f th e Alan S in d le r , who views a l l e th n ic groups as sh aring th e same stigm a as r a c ia l gro up s, c l a r i f i e s t h is p o in t th u s : American a t t it u d e s toward th e p la c e o f e t h n ic it y in American p o l i t i c s a re o fte n c o n tr a d ic to r y . One s tra n d , more pronounced in p o p u la r thought th an in p r a c tic e acknowledges th e p lu ra lis m o f th e U nited S ta te s and t r i e s to encourage each e th n ic group to r e t a in I t s d is tin c t iv e n e s s as i t s c o n tr ib u tio n to th is d1versely-com posed n a tio n . A nother s tr a n d , more p ra c tic e d than p reach ed , encourages e th n ic groups to shed t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s r a p i d ly , th e goal being a u niform U n ited S ta te s modeled perh ap s, on an I m p l i c i t Anglo-Saxon id e a 1 .4 While S i n d l e r ’ s argument is e s s e n t ia lly c o r r e c t , 5 we would argue 3 t h a t alth o u g h some a v e rs io n e x is ts to th e Idea o f e t h n ic it y p la y in g a p a r t 1n American p o l i t i c a l l i f e , 1 t Is a f a c t th a t o th e r hyphenated Americans h i s t o r i c a l l y have succeeded 1n c r e a tin g strong o rg a n iz a tio n s to advance t h e i r e th n ic in t e r e s t 1n p o l i t i c s . In c o u n t e r - d is t in c t io n , th e American p o l i t i c a l process has n o t accomodated group In t e r e s t s t h a t were r a c i a l l y grounded, w ith o u t according th e group sub­ o rd in a te s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l s ta tu s .6 Moylbi Amoda speaks to th e u n w illin g n e s s o f Americans 1n g en eral to ac ce p t th e Id e a t h a t r a c ia l e q u a lity should be g ra n te d w ith o u t com plete s o c ia l and c u lt u r a l a s s im ila tio n : W hile In t e g r a t io n was n o t n e c e s s a rily r a c ia l m is­ c e g e n a tio n , i t n e v e rth e le s s c a r r ie d w ith 1 t , in p o p u la r usage o f th e n o tio n , a f o r f e i t u r e o f th e e th n ic I d e n t i t y o f th e b la c k . In te g r a tio n meant c r e a tio n n o t o f a p lu r a l s o c ie ty b u t o f a homo­ genous s o c ie ty where th e standard o f homogeneity was European-Am erican. W hile In te g r a tio n may have Im p lie d " d ilu t io n " o f th e European essences, i t d e f i n i t e l y im p lie d a c u lt u r a l death f o r the 7 h is t o r ic a l A fric a n essence in the American space. The f a c t t h a t blacks may i d e n t i f y as a r a c ia l group w i l l p ro b ab ly engender q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t consequences compared to th e manner in which o th e r groups in American s o c ie ty i d e n t i f y p re ­ c is e ly because a l l o f the l a t t e r (w ith th e e x ce p tio n o f O r ie n t a ls , N a tiv e Americans and C h ica n o s), re g a rd le s s o f th e n atu re o f t h e i r p a r t ic u la r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , share th e same r a c ia l id e n tity . In fo rg in g an i d e n t i t y based on th e f a c t o f b la c k n e s s , A fro-A m erican s may be viewed as in d u lg in g in a c t i v i t i e s , i f n o t d ir e c t ly s u b v e rs iv e , a t le a s t as i l l e g i t i m a t e by o th e r in t e r e s t groups in th e s o c ie t y , who have n ever had to o rg a n ize alo ng th e lin e s o f r a c ia l o r i g i n . 4 W itness th e c o n tro v e rs ie s t h a t p re s e n tly enrage t!ie n a tio n where b lacks qua r a c ia l group, have ch allen g ed th e t r a d i t i o n a l p a tte rn s o f a llo c a t io n o f resources in the s o c ie ty , f o r exam ple, in th e issues o f a f f i r m a t i v e a c t io n , m in o r ity re p re s e n ta tio n a t p o l i t i c a l co n ve n tio n s , and th e im p o s itio n o f m e tro p o lita n p o l i t i c a l u n its in urban a re a s . The p o l i t i c a l tu rm o il spurred by these is s u e s , c l e a r ly in ­ d ic a te s t h a t th e s u b je c t o f th e i d e n t i t y o f b la c k Americans poses s e rio u s ch a lle n g e s to th e t r a d i t i o n a l alig n m en t o f in te r e s ts in th e American p o l i t y , d e s p ite i t s d iv e rg e n t in t e r e s t c la im s . p l u r a l i s t i c p rete n s io n s to t o le r a t e As noted by David and B e llu s h "th e movement toward a u n if ie d b la c k community has, in t u r n , le d to a m o b iliz a tio n o f i t s opponents and to th e kind o f p o l i t i c a l c o n tro Q versy unforseen by th e p l u r a l i s t s . " The issue o f how b la ck s i d e n t i f y is not o n ly o f in t e r e s t to those concerned w ith th e n a tu re o f American p o l i t i c a l it p lu ra lis m ; is a ls o o f immediate p r a c t ic a l concern because s tu d ie s o f b la ck r a c ia l a t t it u d e s c o n s is te n tly re p o rt blacks id e n t if y in g more and more as members o f a d i s t i n c t r a c ia l group than as Am ericans. S tu d ies a ls o show t h a t p o l i t i c a l apathy is on th e in c re a s e among t h is group. p o te n tia l These re c e n t fin d in g s suggest th a t w hatever the im pact t h a t ra c e consciousness may have on p o l i t i c s , th e p a tte rn o f high p o l i t i c a l a lie n a t io n w i l l probably n u l l i f y It. o th e r words, th e in flu e n c e o f b la c k consciousness on p o l i t i c s 1s l i k e l y to be low ered by th e growing in d iffe r e n c e o f th e b lack community to p o l i t i c a l is s u e s . In 5 But w hat a b o u t b la ck e le c t e d p o l i t i c i a n s , th o s e engaged as a c tiv e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e p o lic y -m a k in g process? microcosm o f th e l a r g e r b la c k com nunity? to p o l i t i c a l sumably, i f a p a th y t h is Are th e y a O b v io u s ly , when i t comes is h a r d ly l i k e l y to be th e case f o r p r e ­ i t w e r e , th e y would n o t hold p u b lic o f f i c e . about race consciousness? But w hat Are th e y a ls o becoming more u n if ie d in t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e i r i d e n t i t y , and in th e p ro c e s s , a r e th ey abandoning conm itm ent to th e id e a l o f b e in g e x c lu s iv e ly American? If s o , t h is developm ent w i l l r e v e rb e r a tio n s in u n d o u b ted ly cause s e v e re th e a l l o c a t i o n o f th e re s o u rc e s o f th e s o c ie t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y g iv e n th e c o n tin u a tio n o f th e h i s t o r i c a l am bivalen ce o f p o lic y makers tow ard i n t e r e s t group c la im s based on r a c i a l fo u n d a tio n s . As a consequence o f th e p o t e n t i a l p o l i t i c a l im p act o f ra c e consciousness among blacks in th e governm ental re a lm , t h is stu d y attem p ts to e x p lo r e th e e x a c t n a tu re o f b la c k in t r a - g r o u p i d e n t i ­ f i c a t i o n among a sample o f b la c k o f f ic e h o ld e r s . The f i r s t q u e s tio n t h a t we seek t o answer is t h i s : A re American b la c k s who hold e le c t iv e o f f i c e If ra c e conscious? so , a re t h e r e p a tte r n e d d i f f ­ erences in th e e x t e n t to w hich th e y embrace a b la c k id e n t i t y ? o th e r w ords, I s in tr a - g r o u p d i v e r s i t y 1n r a c i a l p a tte rn e d , o r 1s i t random? If it In id e n tific a tio n is th e l a t t e r 1 t is e x p la in e d by id io s y n c r a t ic f a c t o r s beyond th e scope o f a s tu d y such as t h i s one. The second is s u e o f I n t e r e s t concerns c o n t in u i t i e s and change in th e n a tu re o f th e b la c k p o l i t i c a l e l i t e o v e r tim e . Given th e 6 l a t t e r - d a y m e te o ric r is e to p u b lic o f f i c e by b la c k p o l i t i c i a n s , ^ i t would be v a lu a b le to f in d o u t th e e x te n t to which th e y d i f f e r from e a r l i e r b la c k p o l i t i c i a n s in t h e i r conmitment to t h e i r ra c e . To a d e q u a te ly answer t h is q u e s tio n , we have to know some­ th in g about b la c k e le c te d o f f i c i a l s o f o ld . H is to r ia n s p o in t o u t th a t excep t f o r th e b r i e f f l i r t a t i o n w ith e le c t i v e o f f i c e d u rin g R e c o n s tru c tio n , th e few b la ck p o l i t i c i a n s who succeeded in a t t a in in g p o s itio n s In government d id so m ain ly as ad ju n c ts to p o l i t i c a l machines in th e b ig c i t i e s o f th e n o r th . Handpicked by the machine because o f t h e i r m id d le -c la s s s ta tu s and con­ s e r v a tiv e p o l i t i c a l le a n in g s , b la ck p o l i t i c i a n s o f the p a s t fu n c tio n e d p r i n c ip a ll y to d e liv e r th e b la ck vo te to th e m achines' b o s s e s .^ T h e ir p re c a rio u s p o s itio n in th e machines rendered them im potent to in flu e n c e p u b lic p o lic y in a way t h a t would b rin g s ig n i­ f i c a n t b e n e fits to t h e i r b la c k c o n s titu e n ts . In S to ne's w ords, W ith is o la t e d e x c e p tio n s , b la c k p o l i t i c ia n s had r a r e ly p layed any d e f i n i t i v e r o le in th e d e t e r ­ m in a tio n o f p u b lic p o lic y , th e d is p e n s a tio n o f jo b s , th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f governm ent, th e s e le c tio n o f p o l i t i c a l c a n d id a te s , and most im p o rta n t o f a l l , th e c o n tro l o f th e e n t i r e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s . '2 Indeed, w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f a fe w , most n o ta b ly Adam C lay to n P o w e ll, 13 th e m a jo r ity f a i l e d even to e x h ib it an em pathic concern f o r th e c o n d itio n s o f d e p r iv a tio n in which th e members o f t h e i r ra ce liv e d .^ Not t h a t t h is would have made them any more pow erful in th e p a rty m achine, f o r as noted by Matthew H olden, even had th e y d e s ire d to i d e n t i f y w ith th e b la c k masses, t h e i r dependence on th e 7 machine would have rendered p u b lic e x p re s s io n o f such a d e s ir e 15 p o l i t i c a l ly s u ic id a l. T r a d itio n a l b la c k p o l i t i c s , th e n , was e s s e n t ia lly th e p o l i t i c s o f dependency and d e p r iv a tio n . Is the contem porary b lack p o l i t i c i a n a ls o unconrnltted to the In t e r e s t s o f h is ra ce as was h is predecessors? Answering t h is q u e s tio n Is Im p o rta n t because i t can shed l i g h t on w hat ty p e o f g ain s blacks may e x p e c t to re c e iv e fro m p o l i t i c s by v i r t u e o f In c re as ed b lack o f fic e h o ld in g . O b v io u s ly , an adequate answer cannot be p rovided w ith o u t data g a th e re d o ver tim e . However, an a tte m p t can be made by focusing on th e a ttitu d e s o f b lacks c u r r e n t ly h oldin g o f f i c e toward t h e i r r a c i a l i d e n t i t i e s . To ad eq u ately e v a lu a te the p o t e n t ia l p o lic y im pact o f t h is g ro u p , i t is Im p o rta n t to focus on t h e i r p e rc e p tio n s o f t h e i r i d e n t i t y r a th e r than on t h e i r o b je c tiv e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s as o f f i c e ­ h o ld e rs ( f o r example where they hold o f f i c e , the number and types o f o f f i c e they h o ld ) because the l a t t e r ty p e o f in fo rm a tio n can re v e a l very l i t t l e ab o u t whether th e group w i l l a tte m p t to use th e p o lic y process to b e t t e r the s ta tu s o f t h e i r ra c e . In t h is reg ard i t is o fte n In c o r r e c t ly assumed t h a t because b la ck s hold c e r t a in types and numbers o f o f f i c e , t h a t th e black conm unity is e x p e rie n c in g an improvement over th e p a s t in t h e i r p o l i t i c a l f o r ­ tu n e s , s p e c i f ic a l l y in th e b e n e fits t h a t accrue to them as a r e s u lt o f b reaking down h i s t o r i c a l b a r r ie r s o f r a c i a l e x c lu s io n from p o litic s . To draw a d ir e c t eq u ation between b lack access to p o lic y ­ making p o s itio n s and th e a c tu a l a tta in m e n t o f power and In flu e n c e by th e black community is both f a u l t y and m yopic. As v e r i f i e d by 8 th e e x p e rie n c e o f fo rm e rly c o lo n iz e d n a tio n s , in d ig e n iz a tio n o f a u t h o r it y Is n o t n e c e s s a r ily commensurate w ith p o l i t i c a l accoun­ t a b i l i t y , resp o nsive le a d e rs h ip , o r indigenous c o n tro l o v e r p u b lic p o l1 c y Th1s p o in t is c l a r i f i e d by th e d is t in c t io n drawn by Bone and Ranney between c a te g o ric a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l membership in a groupOn th e b as is o f t h is d i s t i n c t i o n , i t may be in f e r r e d th a t a p a r t i c u l a r group o f o ffic e h o ld e r s who share a c a te g o ric a l membership, may n o t n e c e s s a r ily p e rc e iv e t h e i r r o le s as prom oters o f t h a t g ro u p 's I n t e r e s t . A p s y c h o lo g ic a l conmitment to th e group must e n t e r in t o th e p ic t u r e . A main assumption o f t h is re se arch t h e r e f o r e , is t h a t among b la c k r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s th e f a c t o r t h a t is most l i k e l y to m o tiv a te them to adopt a "b la ck p e rs p e c tiv e " on issues would seem to be th e degree to which th ey p s y c h o lo g ic a lly i d e n t i f y w ith o th e r b la c k s . I t is assumed t h a t i f o ffic e h o ld e r s have a low sense o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e i r r a c ia l g ro up , th ey w ill h a rd ly be prompted to use t h e i r presence in th e p o lic y making arena to advance th e in t e r e s t s o f t h a t group. I t should be noted t h a t o u r argument 1s n o t t h a t a psycho­ lo g ic a l commitment to blacks is th e s o le f a c t o r t h a t w i l l d e t e r ­ mine w hether b la ck s re c e iv e fa v o r a b le p o lic y o u tp u ts from the black o ffic e h o ld in g presence. R a th e r, t h is would seem to depend on a number o f o th e r v e ry im p o rta n t fa c to r s which can be touched on o nly b r i e f l y h e re . One is th e e x te n t to which b la c k u n d e rre p re ­ s e n ta tio n in government is reduced. are s t i l l D esp ite re c e n t g a in s , blacks h e a v ily u n d errep resen ted in p u b lic o f f i c e , as a tte s te d 9 to by th e f a c t t h a t o f a p p ro x im a te ly 5 2 0 ,0 0 0 a v a i l a b l e e l e c t i v e o f f i c e s , th e y h old o n ly .01 (a b o u t 3 , 0 0 0 ) , ^ w h ile t h e i r p ro ­ p o r tio n o f th e p o p u la tio n is a p p ro x im a te ly 12%. A n o th er s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r t h a t c o u ld p o s s ib ly l i m i t th e g a in s t h a t b la ck s a c h ie v e from p o l i t i c s o f b la c k e le c te d o f f i c i a l s i s th e p re s e n t o v e rc o n c e n tr a tio n a t th e lo c a l le v e l o f governm ent. E le c tio n to lo c a l o f f i c e has both p o s it i v e and n e g a tiv e a s p e c ts . Matthew Holden p o in ts o u t t h a t w h ile lo c a l o f f i c e th e e x te n t t h a t i t o ffe rs some d eg ree o f p o l i t i c a l i s v a lu a b le to e d u c a tio n , some measure o f p o lic y In f lu e n c e , and c o u ld c o n c e iv a b ly fu n c tio n to b reak down r a c i a l a n im o s it ie s , c o n c e n tr a tio n a t t h i s l e v e l , w ith o u t r e p r e s e n ta tio n a t th e s t a t e and fe d e r a l l e v e l , may se rv e to d e p riv e b la c k s o f much needed o p p o r t u n it ie s to in flu e n c e th e p o lic y p ro c e s s . 18 T h is is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e because o f growing m u n ic ip a l dependence, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r f i n a n c ia l re s o u rc e s , upon s t a t e and fe d e r a l governm ent. R is in g c o s ts and a s h r in k in g ta x base re n d e r i n h e r i t o r s o f c e n tr a l c i t i e s f a r more in need o f i n ­ creased p u b lic e x p e n d itu re s j u s t to m a in ta in s e r v ic e l e v e l s , than th e suburban re fu g e e s d id when th ey o ccu p ied th e c i t y . if blacks rem ain p r i m a r i l y a t th e lo c a l a b le t h a t " s t a t e w h ite s , w i l l i s v e ry p rob­ l e g i s l a t u r e s , m o s tly w h ite s re p r e s e n tin g o th e r become even le s s in te r e s te d o th e r a id s to c i t i e s . " ^ th e fe d e r a l le v e l, i t M o reo ve r, le v e l. in p ro v id in g funds o r The same is t r u e f o r r e p r e s e n ta tio n a t As o f 1974 b la c k s com prised o n ly 3% o f Con­ g re s s io n a l m em bership, and few b la ck s h e ld fe d e r a l a p p o in tiv e o ffic e . As noted by W a lto n , b la ck s need t o p u t t h e i r g r e a te s t 10 e f f o r t s In to g e ttin g b la c k ca n d id a tes e le c te d and ap p o in te d to fe d e r a l o f f ic e s because both s ta te and lo c a l governments a re i n c r e a s in g ly becoming In c a p a b le o f s u p p o rtin g them selves. 20 In sum, s e v e ra l o b s ta c le s could c o n c e iv a b ly d e p riv e th e newly e le c te d crop o f b la c k p o l i t i c i a n s from making an im pact on th e n a tio n 's p o lic y process in a manner b e n e fic ia l to th e b lack e le c t o r a t e ; two o f th e most im m e d ia tely p ressin g a re t h e i r under­ re p re s e n ta tio n in o f f i c e g e n e r a lly , and t h e i r o v e rc o n c e n tra tio n a t th e lo c a l le v e l. There are many more. U n fo r tu n a te ly , the c o n s tra in ts o f t h is re se arch e f f o r t do n o t p e rm it d e t a ile d con­ s id e r a tio n o f a l l such f a c t o r s . In s te a d th e purview o f t h is re se arch is lim ite d to an a n a ly s is o f one o f th e fa c to r s which t h is re s e a rc h e r b e lie v e s to be most d e s e rv in g o f in q u ir y , namely — th e e x te n t to which b la c k incumbents i d e n t i f y w ith th e in t e r e s t s o f t h e i r r a c ia l g ro u p , a v a lu e th a t is r e fe r r e d to as b la ck con­ sciousness in the p o p u la r a r g o t. In r e s t r i c t i n g n\y focus to t h is one s u b je c t, I do not wish to be construed as sug gesting t h a t o th e r fa c to r s a re deemed to be o f les s s ig n if ic a n c e f o r illu m in a t in g the q u a li t y o f the p o lic y o u tp u ts th a t may accrue to b la c k s as a r e s u lt o f in creased p o l i t i c a l p a r t ic ip a t io n . S tatem ent o f th e Problem Two m ajor q u e s tio n s a re posed in t h is stu d y. F i r s t , what is the a c tu a l e x te n t o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f b la c k o ffic e h o ld e r s w ith t h e i r ra c e ; th a t i s , to what e x te n t do th ey embrace a c o lle c t iv e id e n tity . The second q u e s tio n , fo llo w s from th e f i r s t ; i t asks 11 w hether p o s itiv e in tr a -g r o u p i d e n t i f i c a t i o n among b la c k e le c te d o ffic e h o ld e r s is a fu n c tio n o f th e p o l i t i c a l needs th e y fa c e as p o l i t i c i a n s , o r w hether i t is an outcome o f the common sources o f group d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n among b la c k s , f o r example, a g e , s o c ia l s ta tu s , re g io n o f s o c ia li z a t i o n , e t c . In o th e r words, is atta c h m e n t to a b la c k i d e n t i t y a fu n c tio n o f co n ve n tio n a l lin e s o f s o c ia l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w ith in the b la c k com nunity, or have p o l i t i c a l fa c to r s submerged these? To a d e q u a te ly address th ese is s u e s , i t l i t e r a t u r e on e l i t e is necessary to c o n s u lt th e b e h a v io r. S everal branches o f th eo ry a tte m p t to e x p la in th e beh avio r o f American p o l i t i c i a n s . Some o f these a re in flu e n c e d by ideas o f p o s it iv e th e o ry , s p e c i f i c a l l y I t s c a rd in a l assumption t h a t s e l f In t e r e s t Is th e dom inant m o tiv a tin g stim u lu s o f p o l i t i c a l a c tio n . 21 The p ro p o s itio n s concerning the r o le o f s e l f - i n t e r e s t in o f f i c e ­ h olders have been te s te d in s e ve ra l c o n te x ts , w ith s e l f - i n t e r e s t d e fin e d as c o n tro l o f o f f i c e . 22 However, no a tte m p t has e v e r been made to employ them as guides to an understanding o f b la c k le a d e r­ ship b e h a v io r s p e c i f i c a l l y . This stu d y attem pts to b rid g e th is gap in th e l i t e r a t u r e by using the assumptions and p ro p o s itio n s o f am b itio n th eo ry to e x p la in a p a r t i c u l a r as p ec t o f black le a d e r s h ip . The s u b je c t o f concern is those fa c to r s th a t s tim u la te some black e le c te d o f f i c i a l s others not to do so. to I d e n t i f y w ith t h e i r r a c ia l g ro u p ,, and I f the assumptions o f p o s itiv e th e o ry are useful to an und erstand in g o f b lack le a d e rs h ip , i t should be found th a t b la ck incumbents i d e n t if y w ith t h e i r r a c ia l group e i t h e r in 12 s itu a tio n s where i t maximizes t h e i r p o l i t i c a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t , o r in s itu a tio n s where i t may not m axim ize t h e i r s e l f - i n t e r e s t but does not m in im ize i t e i t h e r . Low i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith o n e's group i n ­ t e r e s t should o b ta in 1n s it u a t io n s where t h is would serve to m inim ize o n e 's p o l i t i c a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t , i . e . th e chances o f r e - e le c t io n o r p o l i t i c a l advancement. The fo re g o in g p o s tu la te s appear te n a b le in l i g h t o f the assumptions o f p o s it iv e th e o ry . N o n eth eless, i t is q u ite poss­ ib le th a t th e d a ta may show la c k o f support f o r these p ro p o si­ t io n s , a f in d in g t h a t would suggest th a t fa c to r s o th e r than p o l i t i c a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t a re th e d eterm in in g in flu e n c e s o f t h is p a r t ic u la r v a lu e c o n fig u r a tio n among b lack e le c te d o f f i c i a l s . Such a f in d in g would not be s u r p r is in g sin ce n o t a l l le a d e rs h ip a t t r i b u t e th e o rie s o f im portance to the r o le o f s e l f - i n t e r e s t as the s in g le p r o p e lle n t o f le a d e rs h ip b eh av io r. A v a r ie t y o f o th e r approaches t h a t p u rp o rt to e x p la in p o l i t i c a l le a d e rs h ip have been advanced. There a re those which a re p s y c h o lo g ic a lly o rie n te d and emphasize t h a t p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r is t ic s p la y a s ig n if ic a n t r o le 1n le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r. In a d d itio n th e re a r e s o c io lo g ic a lly - OA o rie n te d th e o r ie s th a t focus h e a v ily on p re re c ru itm e n t ex p er­ ie n c e s , s o c ia l and personal background c h a r a c t e r is t ic s and i n s t i ­ tu tio n a l r o le s o u ts id e o f th e s p e c i f i c a l l y p o l i t i c a l ones. It may be found t h a t th e p o l i t i c a l environm ent does n o t c o n d itio n va ry in g le v e ls o f support f o r b la c k consciousness, hence the non­ a s s o c ia tio n o f th e s e le c te d p o l i t i c a l fa c to rs and b la c k conscious­ ness. Such a f in d in g would in d ic a te th a t fa c to r s r e la te d to a 13 p o l i t i c i a n 's p o litic a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t a re n o t c r i t i c a l d eterm in an ts o f b la ck consciousness a t t h is p o in t 1n h is to r y o r a re n o t th e o n ly ones; t h e r e f o r e , t h i s study w i l l a ls o focus on th e e f f e c t o f c e r ta in s o c ia l and p ersonal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s on th e phenomena to be e x p la in e d . I f 1 t is found t h a t black consciousness can be b es t e x p la in e d in terms o f th e s o c ia l and p ersonal background c h a r a c te r ­ i s t i c s o f th e group under s tu d y , such a f in d in g would c o rro b o ra te o th e r s tu d ie s o f b la c k consciousness which f o r th e most p a r t have re p o rte d t h a t among th e b la c k p o p u la tio n a t la rg e i t s s a l ie n t d e t e r ­ minants have been lo c a te d in th e d if f e r e i n g s o c ia l and personal e x ­ periences o f th e b la c k p o p u la tio n s s tu d ie d . Summary In sum, fo u r p o s s ib le outcomes may emerge from t h is stu d y . I t may be found t h a t 1) b la c k consciousness is r e la te d o n ly to th e p o l i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e group; 2 ) t h a t i t s c o r r e la te s a re only s o c ia l background c h a r a c t e r is t ic s ; 3 ) t h a t 1 t can be b est exp lain ed in terms o f both p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s ; and 4 ) t h a t i t is a fu n c tio n o f n e ith e r o f these two s e ts o f fa c t o r s . I f th e f i r s t fin d in g o b ta in s , t h a t i s , i f p o l i t i c a l c h a ra c te r­ i s t ic s o f f e r th e b e s t e x p la n a tio n o f th e p a tte r n o f v a r ia t io n in black consciousness, th e in fe re n c e can be drawn th a t th ese o f f i c e ­ holders have transcended th e n a tu ra l s o c io lo g ic a l lin e s o f d is ­ t in c t io n t h a t c r e a te a t t i t u d l n a l h e te ro g e n e ity in th e b la ck com­ munity a t la r g e . I t may be f u r t h e r deduced t h a t th e b la ck o f f i c e ­ h o ld er is s t r i c t l y a p o l i t i c a l a n im a l, a d o p tin g values s o le ly 14 because o f t h e i r u t i l i t y t o th e prom otion o f h is /h e r p o l i t i c a l s e lf- in t e r e s t . However, i t may be found t h a t th e p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s co n sidered reveal n o th in g about th e n a tu re o f b la ck consciousness, and in s te a d , the s o c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e group o f f e r th e g r e a te s t e x p la n ­ a to ry power ab o ut b lack incumbent I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e i r ra c e . From th is f i n d in g , th re e co nclusions may be drawn. F i r s t l y , the environm ent o f e le c t o r a l p o l i t i c s has not produced a b la c k p o l i t i ­ cia n sui g e n e ris ; i f i t had p o l i t i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n would be more c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n in in tr a -g r o u p I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Furtherm o re, i t may a ls o be concluded th a t p o l i t i c a l s e lf-in te r e s t is not a h ig h ly im p o rta n t f a c t o r u n d e rly in g th e valu es and b eh avio r o f b lack p o l i t i c i a n s a t t h is tim e , as we would have expected to f in d given th e assumptions o f th e l i t e r a t u r e . F i n a l l y , th e fin d in g t h a t black consciousness is grounded in s o c io lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n would suggest th a t th e b la ck p o l i t i c a l e l i t e is a microcosm o f th e la r g e r black community, as s tu d ie s o f the l a t t e r have c o n s is te n tly shown th a t fa c to r s such as ag e , SES, re g io n o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n , e t c . a re the p rim ary sources o f a t t i t u d i n a l d iffe r e n c e s toward r a c ia l is s u e s . The t h ir d p o s s ib le fin d in g is t h a t b la ck consciousness is the r e s u lt o f an ad m ixture o f both se ts o f fa c to r s — th e p o l i t i c a l and the s o c ia l. T h is would suggest t h a t b la ck p o l i t i c i a n s a re m o tiv ia te d both by fo rc e s r e la te d to t h e i r c a re e rs as p o l i t i c i a n s , and a ls o by fa c to rs r e la t e d to t h e i r e x is te n c e as members o f s o c ie ty . Because we b e lie v e t h a t human b e h a v io r is c o n d itio n e d by a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f fa c t o r s , we e x p e c t t h is outcome to o b ta in r a t h e r than th e o th e r 15 th re e . N o n eth eles s, th e re is the f i n a l p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t n e ith e r th e s o c ia l nor th e p o l i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e group a re assoc­ ia te d w ith in tr a -g r o u p v a r ia t io n in a t t i t u d e toward a b la c k id e n ­ tity . I f t h is is indeed th e c a s e , and the d ata a ls o re v e a ls th a t b lack consciousness tends to be h ig h ly pronounced among th e group, t h is fin d in g would be fra u g h t w ith s e rio u s p o l i t i c a l consequences. I t would in d ic a te t h a t a b la ck i d e n t i t y is d iffu s e d th ro ug ho u t a l l s t r a t a and "b lo c s " o f th e b lack p o l i t i c a l e l i t e , tra n s c e n d in g a l l p o l i t i c a l fa c tio n s and s o c ia l g ro u p in g s , uncontained by any bound­ a r i e s , and as a consequence, is t r u l y a p rim o rd ia l l i n k t h a t sub­ merges th e c o n v e n tio n a l lin e s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n g e n e r a lly found among both p o l i t i c i a n s and b la c k s . Lack o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n in race consciousness would f u r t h e r suggest t h a t contem porary b la c k p o l i t i ­ cians a re one o f th e most u n if ie d groups in the p o lic y a re n a , and given such unprecendented r a c ia l u n i t y , a group t h a t w i l l undoubt­ ed ly c h a lle n g e th e prem ises and p r a c tic e s o f th e p l u r a l i s t i c fram e­ work o f American p o l i t i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s t r a d i t i o n a l re lu c ta n c e to support c la im s by blacks to seek r a c ia l e q u a lity w ith o u t s u rre n ­ d erin g t h e i r r i g h t to a s e p a ra te r a c i a l id e n tity . Overview o f th e Study As noted b e fo r e , t h is study is concerned w ith e x p la in in g the p o l i t i c a l , s o c ia l and personal c o r r e la te s o f a v a lu e - b la c k con­ sciousness. As th e l a t t e r 1s th e p r in c ip a l dependent v a r ia b le o f th e study thorough e x p lic a tio n o f i t s meaning is necessary. Thus, 16 in th e f i r s t p a r t o f th e l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w in C h ap ter I I we w i l l a tte m p t to d e f in e th e c o n c e p t, e x p la in i t s and e x p lo re a s u it a b le t h e o r e t ic a l c o n c e p t. h i s t o r i c a l developm ent fram ework in w hich t o p la c e th e The fo cu s then s h i f t s to a re v ie w o f f i r s t , c a l , and th e n , th e s o c io lo g ic a l l i t e r a t u r e th e p o l i t i ­ t h a t may be u s e fu l as g uides to s u g g e s tib le h yp oth eses. In C h ap ter I I I , w ill be d is c u s s e d . th e d esig n o f th e s tu d y and modus o perand i A t t h is s ta g e , c o n s id e r a tio n w i l l to th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e re s e a rc h s i t e be g iv e n (M ic h ig a n ), th e c h a ra c ­ t e r i s t i c s o f th e sam p le, th e in s tru m e n ts , d a ta c o l le c t i o n p ro ­ c e d u re s , and s p e c i f ic hypotheses to be t e s t e d . The r e s u lt s as th e y a p p ly t o th e hypotheses t e s t e d , w i l l be p re s e n te d and in t e r p r e te d in C h a p te r IV . In C h ap ter V th e b ro ad er r a m if ic a t io n s o f th e fin d in g s f o r th e s tu d y o f b la c k p o l i t i c s , w i l l c o n s id e ra tio n w i l l be p ro bed. A t t h i s p o in t , be g iv en a ls o to th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e study and im p lic a tio n s and recoiranendations f o r f u t u r e re s e a rc h . 17 FOOTNOTES 1. For a d is cu ss io n o f th e fa c to r s t h a t r e n t th e C i v i l R ights Movement see For B lacks O n ly , B lack S tr a te g ie s f o r Change in Am erica. S t e r lin g T u c ke r, Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans P u b !is h in g C o ., 1 9 7 1 ; a ls o , J . H. O 'D e ll, "The Contours o f th e Black R e v o lu tio n o f th e 1 9 7 0 's ,'' Freedomways» V o l. 10 , 1 9 7 0 , p. 105. 2. For a d is cu ss io n o f th e p o s s ib le e f f e c t s t h a t th e b e la te d e n tr y o f blacks w i l l have on th e achievem ent o f gains from p o l i t i c s , see Nathan G la z e r , "Blacks and E th n ic Groups: The D iffe re n c e s and th e P o l i t i c a l D iffe r e n c e I t M akes," S o cial Problems, pp. 4 4 4 -4 6 1 ; a ls o , A lan P. S in d le r , "N egroes, E th n ic Groups and American P o l i t i c s , " C u rre n t H is t o r y , 1968, pp. 2 0 7 -2 7 4 . 3. Stephen M. David and Jewel Bel lu s h . " P lu r a lis m , Race and th e Urban P o l i t i c a l System ", in Urban P o li t i c s and P u b lic Pol i c y , ed. Stephen M. David and Paul E. Petersen (New Y o rk : P raeger p u b lis h e rs , 1 9 7 3 ). 4. A lan S in d le r . "N egroes, E th n ic Groups and American P o l i t i c s " , C u rre n t H is t o r y , 1968, pp. 2 0 7 -2 4 3 . 5. The a v e rs io n to e th n ic p o l i t i c s stems from some p e rc e iv e d c o n tra d ic tio n between i t and democracy. The most w id e­ spread c r i t i c is m a g a in s t i t is t h a t i t d e v ia te s from th e id e a l o f th e v o te r making up h is mind f r e e l y and indepen­ d e n t ly . For a d is c u s s io n o f th e fa c to r s t h a t make e th n ic p o l i t i c s an anathema to many Americans see S in d le r , op. c i t . 6. Although i t has become a c a d e m ic a lly fa s h io n a b le to c o n s id e r blacks as an e th n ic group, we p r e fe r to see them as a r a c ia l group because th e s p e c ia l s ta tu s t h a t they have In th e s o c ie ty has n o t been caused p r i n c ip a ll y because o f c u lt u r a l uniqueness, b u t because o f t h e i r r a c i a l p ig m e n ta tio n . Skin c o l o r , not c u l t u r e , has been th e p rim ary f a c t o r t h a t has d if f e r e n t i a t e d b lack from o th e rs in th e s o c ie ty . O ther Im m igrant groups (w ith th e p o s s ib le e x c e p tio n o f O r ie n t a ls , N a tiv e -A m e rle a n s , and L a tin o s ) have been th e o b je c t o f c u lt u r a l d is c r im in a t io n , not r a c i a l . For an e x c e lle n t d is c u s s io n o f th e p o l i t i c a l consequence o f th e d iffe r e n c e s between blacks and o th e r e th n ic groups, see L e s lie B url McLemore "Toward a Theory o f Black P o l i t i c s : The B lack and E th nic Models R e v is ite d ." Journal o f Black S tu d ie s , March 1972, pp. 3 2 3 -3 3 1 . 4 18 7. Amoda, M o y ib i. Black P o l i t i c s and Black V is io n , (P h ila d e lp h ia : W e s tm in is te r P re s s , 1 9 6 6 ). 8. David and B e llu s h , oj). c i t . , p . 76. 9. Growth In ra c e consciousness and b lack p o l i t i c a l a lie n a t io n from 1968 to 1974 1s documented by S h ir le y Campbell and Howard Schuman’ s study e n t i t l e d B lack R a cial A t t i t u d e s : Trends and C o m p le x itie s , I n s t i t u t e o f S o cial R esearch, U n iv e r s ity o f M ic h ig a n , Ann A rb o r, M ic h ig a n , 1974. 10. In t h is decade, th e number o f b la ck s h o ld in g e le c te d o f f i c e clim bed to p ro p o rtio n s u n p a r a lle le d in any p receed in g p e rio d o f American h is t o r y . As o f S p rin g 1974, th e n a tio n a l b lack e le c te d e l i t e numbered a p p ro x im a te ly 3 ,0 0 0 , re p re s e n tin g 45 s ta te s and th e D i s t r i c t o f Colum bia. The h i s t o r i c n a tu re o f th ese fig u r e s can be a p p re c ia te d , when i t is recognized t h a t they re p re s e n t a 152 p e rc e n t in c re a s e o v e r th e preceeding f iv e y e a rs . The group numbered 6 0 0, 1 ,1 8 5 and 2,621 f o r th e ye ars 1967, 1969, and 1973 r e s p e c t iv e ly . Focus, J o in t C enter f o r P o l i t i c a l S tu d ie s , I I , 5 (M arch, 1 9 7 1 ), p. 3 . 11. E. W. C o rn w e ll. "Bosses, M achines, and E th n ic g ro up s," Annals o f American Academy o f P o l i t i c a l and S o c ia l S c ie n c e , V o l. 353 (May 1 9 6 4 ) : pp. 2 7 - 3 4 .---------------------------------------------------- 12. Chuck Stone. D e lt a , 1968. 13. N. H ickey and E. Edwin. Adam C layton Powell and th e P o li t i c s o f Race. New York: F le e t , 1965. 14. H arold G o s n e ll. Machine P o l i t i c s , Chicago M o del. Chicago: U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago P re s s , 1937. Harold G o s n e ll, The R ise o f Negro P o li t i c s in C h icago . Chicago: U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago P re s s , 1967. 15. Mathew H olden, op . c i t . Lee D a n ie ls a ls o c o rro b o ra te s t h is view ­ p o in t. Lee D anT els, TThe P o l i t i c a l C areer o f Adam C layto n P o w ell: Paradism and Paradox" Jo u rn al o f Black S tu d ie s , V o l. 4 , December 1973, pp. 1 1 5 -1 3 9 . He d is tin g u is h e s two phases in b la ck p o l i t i c s . The f i r s t p e r io d , 1 9 0 0 -1 9 4 0 , was c h a ra c te riz e d by c lie n ta g e p o l i ­ t i c s , sym bolized by few v e r t i c a l c la s s lin k a g e s between b lack p o l i t i c ia n s and th e rank and f i l e b la c k . T h is was because o f th e c lo se t i e s o f th e b lack com nunity to w h ite p o l i t i c i a n s , and th e l a t t e r * s acceptance o f m id dle c la s s blacks o n ly . Increased c i v i l r ig h ts a c t i v i t y marked th e second p e rio d , from 1 9 40 -19 65 . During t h is p erio d o f c i v i l r ig h ts p o l i t i c s th e p re v a le n c e o f p a t r o n - c lie n t r e la t io n s h ip d e c lin e d somewhat, alth ou gh i t was s t i l l th e case t h a t o n ly a few b la c k p o l i t i c i a n s , f o r example Adam P o w e ll, could s u rv iv e p o l i t i c a l l y w ith o u t c o n s id e ra b le w h ite s u p p o rt. Both p erio d s bore s t r ik in g s i m i l a r i t i e s . The d if f e r e n c e was t h a t : B lack P o l i t i c a l Power in A m eric a, New York: 19 C i v i l r ig h ts p o l i t i c s was more o r le s s on advanced form o f c lie n ta g e p o l i t i c s even though th e p a t r o n - c lle n t r e la t io n s h ip became le s s d ir e c t les s p e rs o n a liz e d more ambiguous. But s t i l l , n e a rly a l l th e b e n e fits a c c ru in g from p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y were r e a liz e d o n ly by th e m id dle c la s s . 16. Hugh Bone and A u stin Ranney, P o lit ic s and V o te rs . New Y o rk: McGraw H i l l Book Company, Y 963, pp. 2 3 -3 9 . 17. Focus, op . c i t . 18. M atthew , Holden. 19. H. P. F riesem a. "Black C o n tro l o f C e n tra l C it ie s : The H ollow P r iz e ," AIP J o u r n a l, March 1 9 6 9 , p. 77. 20. Hanes W alto n . " P o r t r a it o f Black P o l i t i c a l S ty le s ," Black P o l i t i c i a n , F a l l , 1970. p. 10. 21. One branch o f e l i t e th e o ry t h a t a tta c h e s c r i t i c a l im portance to th e in flu e n c e o f p o l i t i c a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t on e l i t e b eh av io r is a m b itio n th e o ry . For th e best t h e o r e t ic a l in q u ir y in to p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n see Joseph A. S c h le s in g e r, A m bition and P o l i t i c s , P o li t i c a l Careers in th e U nited S ta te s . (Chicaqo: Rand M cNally & Co, 1 9 6 6 ). 22. Some o f th e most im p o rta n t works th a t t e s t th e p ro p o s itio n s o f a m b itio n th e o ry w i l l be discussed in d e t a i l h ere. O ther pieces o f research t h a t have examined th e n a tu re o f a m b itio n are J e f f F is h e l, "Am bition and th e P o l i t i c a l V o ca tio n : Con­ g re s s io n a l C h allen gers in American P o l i t i c s , " Journal o f P o l i t i c s , V o l. 3 3 , February 1971, pp. 2 5 -5 6 ; Michael L. M ezey, "Am bition Theory and the O ff ic e o f Congressman." Journal o f P o l i t i c s , V o l. 3 2 , August 1970, pp. 5 6 3 -7 3 ; Richard L Engstrom, " P o l i t i c a l Am bitions and th e P ro s e c u to ria l O f f ic e , " Jo u rn al o f P o l i t i c s , V o l. 3 3 , February 1971, pp. 1 9 0 -1 9 4 ; John W. S o u le, "F u tu re P o li t i c a l A m bitions and th e B ehavior o f Incum­ bent S ta te L e g is la to r s ," Midwest Journal o f P o li t i c a l S c ie n c e , V o l. 1 3 , August 1969. 23. See H aro ld L a s w e ll. Power and P e rs o n a lity (New York: W. W. N o rto n , 1 9 4 8 ), p. 22 ; Bernard Hennesey, " P o l i t i c a 1s and A p o li t ic a l s : Some Measurements o f P e r s o n a lity T r a i t s , " Midwest Jo u rn al o f P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e, V o l. I l l (Nov. 19 , 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 3 3 6 -5^lT; P jfu s B. Browning and H e rb e rt Jacob, "Power M o tiv a tio n and th e P o l i t i c a l P e r s o n a lit y ," Pub!1c Opinion Q u a r te r ly , V o l. 2 8 , (S p rin g , 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 7 5 -9 0 . 0£. c i t . , pp. 19 9-209. 20 24. See, f o r exam ple, Donald M atthew s, The S o cial Backgrounds o f P o l i t i c a l D ecision-m akers (Garden C i t y , New Y o rk: Doubleday 1 9 5 4 ); J* C. W ahlke, H. E u la u , W. Buchanan, and L. Ferguson, The L e g is la t iv e System (New York: John W iley and Sons, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 4 8 b -4 9 1 . CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW In tr o d u c tio n As noted b e fo re , th e stu d y o f r a c ia l consciousness o f b la c k e le c te d o ffic ia ls has d e f i n i t e im p lic a tio n s f o r th e p o lic y o utp uts t h a t blacks re c e iv e from p o l i t i c s , and is th e r e fo r e a s u b je c t w orthy o f study by p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t is t s . However, t h is does not mean t h a t our ta s k w i l l be an easy one as perusal o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on b lack le a d e rs h ip re v e a ls a general d e a rth o f s u g g e stive th e o ry to g u id e t h is re s e a rc h .^ e m p iric a l d ata on b la c k p o l i t i c a l le a d e rs h ip is hard to f i n d . Even W hile s tu d ie s o f b la ck le a d e rs h ip a re numerous, sc an t a tt e n t io n has been given to those who hold p o s itio n s o f form al governmental a u t h o r it y . This is p o s s ib ly because a number o f these s tu d ie s have been u n d er2 taken by s o c io lo g is ts . Community power s tu d ie s f o r th e most p a r t , th ey g e n e r a lly adopt th e r e p u ta tio n a l tec h n iq u e f o r le a d e rs h ip s e le c ­ t i o n , and as a r e s u l t tend to u n d e rre p re s e n t e le c te d le a d e rs in t h e i r 3 samples. W ith in th e f i e l d o f p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e s c h o la r ly in t e r e s t in blacks in e le c t iv e o f f i c e has been v e ry much la c k in g , alth ou gh th e re 1s some evidence to suggest t h a t t h is s it u a t io n is ch ang in g .^ very r e c e n t ly , th e few s tu d ie s o f b la ck e le c te d o f f i c i a l s U n til th a t were a v a ila b le were "hero s tu d ie s " , meaning t h a t th e y focused on th e p o l i t ­ ic a l s t y le o f one o r two p o l i t i c i a n s , r a t h e r than on sy ste m a tic be­ h a v io ra l p a tte rn s o f a group.® 21 22 W ith in th e past few y e a r s , some re search in t o th e personal and p o litic a l background o f b la ck o ffic e h o ld e r s has been undertaken by the J o in t C en ter f o r P o l i t i c a l S tu d ie s , W ashington, D .C . The p u r­ pose o f th e s e s tu d ie s has been m a in ly to d e s c rib e where blacks hold o f f ic e and t h e i r personal background and demographic c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . Like much c a re e r d ata re s e a rc h , th ese s tu d ie s c o n ta in a w ealth o f in fo rm a tio n , but th e d a ta has not been sy ste m a tize d in a manner t h a t would y i e l d th e beginnings o f a th e o ry o f b lack le a d e rs h ip . I f th e l i t e r a t u r e on b la c k p o l i t i c a l le a d e rs h ip is t h e o r e t i c a l ly in a d e q u a te , where do we tu rn to f in d th eo ry to g u id e t h is u n d ertakin g ? Because th e purpose o f th e study is to e x p la in th e e t io lo g y o f a value — b la c k consciousness — i t would seem t h a t a p o t e n t ia lly p ro d u c tiv e t h e o r e t ic a l framework to s t a r t w ith would be s o c ia l psy­ c h o lo g ic a l th e o rie s o f v a lu e . Once th e phenomenon t h a t we a re try in g to e x p la in has been p laced in an a p p ro p ria te th e o r e t ic a l framework, th e n , we may proceed to e x p lo re i t s personal and s o c ia l c o r r e la t e s . lik e ly p o litic a l, Thus, in th is c h a p te r th re e p r in ­ c ip a l approaches - p s y c h o lo g ic a l, p o l i t i c a l , and s o c io lo g ic a l w il l be employed to e x p lo re th e p o s sib le d e te rm in a n ts o f b lack consciousness. The P sych o lo g ical C o n text o f Black Consciousness In tro d u c tio n In re c e n t years th e study o f values and t h e i r e f f e c t s on human behavior and thought is a s u b je c t t h a t has in c r e a s i-'o ly begun to a t t r a c t th e a t t e n t io n o f s o c ia l s c i e n t is t s , probably because i t has been recog­ 23 nized t h a t a knowledge o f th e b asic assumptions o f a p eople a re in d is p e n s a b le to th e in t e r p r e t a t io n o f s o c ia l b e h a v io r. The reason why valu es a re so im p o rta n t to an und erstand in g o f b eh avio r is summarized by Bateson th u s : The human in d iv id u a l is e n d le s s ly s im p lify in g o rg a n iz in g and g e n e r a liz in g h is own view o f h is own environ m ent. He c o n s ta n tly Imposes on t h is environm ent h is own c o n s tru c tio n s and meanings; these c o n s tru c tio n s and meanings ( a r e ) c h a ra c te r­ i s t i c o f one c u ltu r e as o ver a g a in s t a n o th e r.6 The im portance o f em phasizing th e r o le o f c u lt u r e in c o n d itio n in g values a ris e s from th e f a c t t h a t th e s u b je c t o f concern in t h is study i , a v a lu e . M oreover, i t is a v a lu e t h a t is l i k e l y to be c u l t u r a l l y d e te rm in e d , t h a t i s , shared by a c e r t a in group o f people in a c e r t a in environm ent and not by o th e r s , t h a t is to s a y, i t could be construed as a "w orld vie w " ? What is unique about t h is p a r t ic u la r w orld view is t h a t i t s e x is te n c e is not in s p ire d p r i ­ m a rily by r e l i g i o n , n a tio n a l o r i g i n , c la s s p o s itio n , o r even c u l­ tu r a l uniqueness, but r a t h e r by r a c ia l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . Hence, i t c o n s is ts o f th e b e l i e f s , a t t i t u d e s , and v a lu e s o f blacks as a group, d i f f e r e n t and d i s t i n c t from o th e r groups in th e s o c ie ty . Racial o r b la c k consciousness, as we c a ll t h is w orld vie w , d i f f e r s from e t h n ic , n a tio n a l o r c la s s consciousness in th e primacy i t gives to b io lo g ic a l f a c t o r s as th e g lue t h a t binds a c e r t a in c o l l ­ e c tio n o f people to g e th e r . However, th e s h a rin g o f b io lo g ic a l conm onalties are not th e o n ly in g re d ie n ts o f t h is world v ie w ; a conmonly shared h is t o r ic a l ex p erie n c e and c u lt u r a l h e rita g e is a ls o im p o rta n t. In d ee d , i t is th e h is t o r ic a l exp erience o f r a c i a l 24 and c u lt u r a l oppression to g e th e r t h a t a re th e fo rc e s u n d e rly in g the emergence o f b la c k consciousness. To u n d erstan d , th e c u lt u r a l and r a c ia l dim ensions o f b la c k consciousness i t 1s in s t r u c t iv e to tu rn to a b r i e f re v ie w o f th e h is t o r ic development o f t h is p a r t i c u l a r value syndrome. The H is t o r ic a l Development o f Black Consciousness To understand th e contem porary p o l i t i c a l s ig n ific a n c e o f th e v a lu e , b la c k consciousness, c e r ta in h is t o r ic a l aspects o f b la c k l i f e must be grasped. P a r t i c u la r l y im p o rta n t 1s th e f a c t t h a t p r i o r to the massive d e p o p u la tio n o f A f r ic a , A fric a n s had a r ic h c i v i l i z a t i o n . o In th e e a r l i e s t p e rio d o f t h e i r so jou rn in th e U n ited S ta te s , much o f th is t r a d i t i o n a l h e r ita g e remained i n t a c t , u n t i l the need f o r g re a te r g a g r ic u lt u r a l la b o r became a p p a re n t. To j u s t i f y th e enslavem ent o f blacks to work th e p la n t a t io n s , a whole gamut o f reasons from th eo ­ lo g ic a l to b io l o g ic a l , were developed in t o comprehensive th e o rie s o f a p u ta tiv e b la c k i n f e r i o r i t y . ^ U n lik e th e case w ith o th e r e h tn ic gro up s, th e s u b o rd in a tio n o f blacks a f f e c t e d e v e ry sphere o f t h e i r liv e s — economic, c u l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l and s o c ia l. On an in d iv id u a l E q u a lly damaging, was i t s p s y c h o lo g ic a l im pact. l e v e l , many blacks in t e r n a liz e d th e n e g a tiv e s o c ie ta l images o f th em s elv es, r e s u lt in g 1n low s e lf-e s te e m , and id e a liz a t io n o f w h ite s . On a group l e v e l , r a c i s t id e o lo g ie s succeeded in accomp­ lis h in g e x a c t ly what th ey s e t out to do — b la ck i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f Ideas about t h e i r own i n f e r i o r i t y , which served to p a ra ly z e i n d i v i ­ dual i n i t i a t i v e and group a c tio n to change th e r a c ia l s ta tu s -q u o .11 This is n o t to say t h a t b la c k p ro te s t a g a in s t t h e i r c u l t u r a l , economic, p o l i t i c a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l dehum anization d id n o t o c c u r. 25 There were alw ays some who b o th p r i v a t e l y and o u tw a rd ly r e je c t e d th e I n f e r i o r stamp t h a t was a tta c h e d to b ein g b la c k , and who t r i e d to r e d e f in e the b la c k p o s it io n in th e s o c ie ty in p o s it iv e te rm s . However, a p a r t fro m M a r tin D e la n e y , Marcus Garvey and a few o th e r s , most h i s t o r i c a l movements to change s o c ie ta l images o f b la c k s , aimed a t th e e v e n tu a l a d m itta n c e o f b la ck s i n t o th e m ainstream o f th e s o c ie t y . As a p a r t o f t h is r e f o r m is t t h in k i n g , i t was g e n e r a lly b e lie v e d t h a t r a c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n would end b la c k s u b o r d in a tio n , and would be f a c i l i t a t e d if tu re . b la c k s i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e m ainstream c u l ­ In o th e r w ords, a d v o c ate s o f a change in w h ite s u p e ro rd in a te b la c k s u b o rd in a te r e la t io n s h ip s took th e m e ltin g p o t model as t h e i r id e a l o f ra c e r e l a t i o n s . T h is c lim a te o f o p in io n underwent a sudden metamorphosis in th e s i x t i e s . For th e f i r s t tim e in t h e i r h i s t o r y , a s i g n i f i c a n t p ro p o rtio n o f b la c k s began tu q u e s tio n th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f i n t e ­ g r a t io n in t o th e s o c ie t y . w ith r a c i a l r a c ia l The reasons f o r th e grow ing d isen ch an tm en t in t e g r a t io n v a r ie d ; how ever, a common concern was w hether in t e g r a t io n would n o t r e s u l t in f u r t h e r damaging e f f e c t s b la c k p s y c h o lo g ic a l developm ent i f in i t had to be ac h ie ve d a t th e p r ic e o f n e g a tio n o f th e b la c k i d e n t i t y . To c o u n te r t h is e v e n t u a l it y , a c lim a t e o f o p in io n d evelop ed to promote th e vie w t h a t th e r e was v a lu e , i n t e g r i t y and le g it im a c y in being o f A f r ic a n d e s c e n t. T h is was n o t th e f i r s t tim e t h a t a c o u n te rid e o lo g y had developed to c h a lle n g e th e id e a o f b la c k i n f e r i o r i t y . 12 What was u niqu e ab o u t t h is re n a is s a n c e o f b la c k p r id e was i t s w idespread im pact on th e p re s e n t 26 g en eratio n o f b la c k s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the young. Never on such an ex te n s iv e s c a le , had th e b la ck c lim a te o f o p in io n s h ifte d toward a p l u r a l i s t i c conception o f race r e l a t i o n s . D e fy in g th e m e ltin g pot model as im p ra c tic a l and u n d e s ira b le , i t began to a s s e rt th e need f o r b la c k s to share in th e s o c ie ty on a b a s is o f e q u a lity w h ile a t the same tim e r e t a in in g those c u lt u r a l and b e h a v io ra l norms t h a t could be regarded as d i s t i n c t i v e l y b la c k . The new mood o f th in k in g came to be c a lle d b lack consciousness. In no sm all p a r t , th e stim u lu s f o r th e spread o f black con­ sciousness came from th e le a d e rs o f th e race movement d urin g the s i x t ie s ; p a r t i c u l a r l y im p o rta n t was the o v e r t ly ra c e -o r ie n te d tu rn taken by such id e o lo g ic a l spokesmen as S to k e le y C a rm ic h a e l, H. Rap Brown, and E ld rid g e C le a v e r. The l a t t e r became household words in b la c k America as th e y openly co u rted th e b la ck masses w ith t h e i r r h e t o r ic o f b la c k n e s s . W hile th e id e o lo g ie s o f these le a d e rs e x h ib ite d d i ­ verse s ta n d s , t h e i r p r in c ip a l u n ify in g theme was — blacks should develop a sense o f group i d e n t i t y . This id ea was propagated in a v a r ie ty o f s lo g a n s , "Black Power", "Black is B e a u t if u l " , or "BackT o -A fr ic a " ; y e t , d e s p ite th e d iffe r e n c e s in meaning intended by th e purveyors o f these s lo g a n s , th e s in g le u n d e rly in g theme o f group id e n t it y rem ained. The id e a o f group i d e n t i t y co n siste d o f th r e e dim ensions. The most c i r t i c a l was th e b e l i e f t h a t b la c k and w h ite in te r e s ts were not alw ays harmonious, o r even cap ab le o f c o e x is te n c e ; and in f a c t th e y were o fte n m u tu a lly c o n tr a d ic to r y . The second dimension was a lo g ic a l e x te n s io n o f th e fo re g o in g . I t embodied 27 the n o tio n t h a t b la ck s should o rg an ize around t h e i r comnon In t e r e s t in o rd e r to make an Im pact on th e p o lic y process as a r a c ia l group. This p o in t was b e s t a r t ic u la t e d in C a rm ic h a e l's and H a m ilto n 's s tatem en t. B efo re a group can e n te r th e open s o c ie t y , i t must f i r s t c lo s e ra n k s . By t h is we mean t h a t group s o l i d a r i t y is necessary b efo re a group can o p e ra te e f f e c t i v e l y from a b a rg a in in g p o s itio n o f s tre n g th in a p l u r a l i s t i c s o c ie t y . 13 The f i n a l theme in th e idea o f a b lack i d e n t i t y was th e idea t h a t the f a c t o f b la c k n e s s , d e fin e d in terms o f p h y s ic a l p ig m e n ta tio n , should be th e r a l l y i n g p o in t f o r a l l persons o f A fric a n d e s c e n t, re g a rd le s s o f th e lin e s o f in t e r n a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o r g eo g rap h ical d iv is io n s t h a t may d iv id e them. Some may contend th a t A fr ic a n consciousness and b lack con­ sciousness a re not lin k e d ; however, t h is argument shows no a p p re­ c ia tio n o f th e i n t e r n a t io n a liz a t io n o f th e b la c k s o c ia l r e v o lu tio n th a t took p la c e in th e s i x t i e s . Never b e fo re had the idea o f a c o lle c t iv e i d e n t /t y ^ o f peoples o f A fric a n d e s c e n t made such an impact on th e th in k in g o f b la c k Am ericans, n o t in th e G arveyian sense o f p h y s ic a l r e p a t r i a t i o n , but in th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l id e a th a t th e com m onalities in th e l o t o f A fric a n s and A fro-A m ericans w arranted th e b u ild in g o f a sense o f i d e n t i t y between the two groups. C le a r ly th e impetus f o r th e b ir t h o f t h is idea had been sown two decades e a r l i e r d u rin g th e A fric a n n a t i o n a l i s t e r a . It rose to im portance in th e s i x t ie s because o f th e Increased aw are­ ness by b la c k Americans o f th e s ig n ific a n c e o f in te r n a tio n a l p o l i t i c s o f t h e i r own immediate s u r v iv a l. J . K. ObabaTa makes th is p o in t 28 th u s : "one th in g t h a t c o n trib u te d to th e new im portance o f A fr ic a in th e b la c k consciousness movement in th e s i x t ie s was th e co ld war and th e f a c t th e U .S . was faced w ith keen c o m p e titio n from th e soc­ i a l i s t c o u n trie s in th e s tr u g g le to f i l l r e t r e a t o f o ld c o lo n ia l pow ers." th e power vacuum l e f t by th e 14 I t should be noted t h a t our argument is not t h a t A fr ic a n con­ sciousness became a p a r t o f th e b la c k conscious w orld view because o f h i s t o r i c a l l y based f e e lin g s o f a m ic a b ilit y on th e p a r t o f A fro Americans f o r A f r ic a o r A fr ic a n s ; indeed some would contend th a t h i s t o r i c a l l y the l a t t e r shared th e same W estern n e g a tiv e conceptions o f A f r ic a and A fr ic a n s . R a th e r i t was th e re c o g n itio n t h a t th e in d e ­ pendent c o u n trie s o f A f r ic a could p ro v id e a tro u b le d re fo rm movement some p o l i t i c a l le v e ra g e in th e c o ld war e ra th a t was th e prim ary f a c t o r behind the movement o f blacks toward g r e a te r i n d e n t if ic a t io n w ith A f r i c a . 15 T h a t A fric a n consciousness had d e f i n i t e p o l i t i c a l r a m ific a tio n s is a tte s te d to by th e f a c t t h a t I t s main proponents were n o t s o le ly id e o lo g is ts a c tiv e in th e c i v i l r ig h ts movement, but a ls o inclu d ed members o f th e b la ck C ongressional caucus, and many b la c k p o l i t i c ia n s in th e n a tio n . The c o n te n t o f th e statem en ts made a t th e B lack P o l i t i c a l Convention in G a ry , in 1972, and a t L i t t l e Rock in 1974, in d ic a te t h a t those in th e e le c t o r a l process co n tin u e to reco g n ize th e im portance o f A fr ic a n consicousness to b la ck American p o l i t i c s . Ir o n ic a lly , i t is th e b la c k p o l i t i c a l e l i t e , more than any o th e r group o f b la ck le a d e r s , t h a t co n tin u es to propagate th e Id e a th a t b la ck consciousness e n t a i l s both dom estic and in t e r n a t io n a l dim ensions. 29 To e lim in a te th e dimension o f A fr ic a n consciousness from o n e's con­ c e p tu a liz a tio n o f b la c k consciousness, is to miss th e s u b tle nuances and uniqueness o f b la c k i d e n t i t y , as i t is d e fin e d by blacks to day. Black Consciousness D efined In th e p receding s e c tio n , c o n s id e ra tio n was g iven to a b r i e f o verview o f th e h is t o r ic a l fa c to r s th a t prompted b la ck s to develop a new sense o f awareness in th e s i x t i e s . The aim was to show th a t black consciousness emerged p r im a r ily because i t f u l f i l l e d needs o f b la c k s . c e r ta in A t t h is p o in t , 1 t may be u se fu l to s h i f t th e d is ­ cussion to a b r i e f re v ie w o f th e t h e o r e t ic a l c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n s o f b lack consciousness t h a t a re o ffe r e d by th e l i t e r a t u r e in o rd e r to gain a f u l l e r u nderstanding o f th e v a rio u s dimensions o f th e co n cept; these were adumbrated but not s ta te d w ith a n a ly t ic a l c l a r i t y in the preceding review o f th e fo rc e s and even ts t h a t gave r i s e to i t s developm ent. The f i r s t th in g t h a t we n o tic e when we look a t th e l i t e r a t u r e is t h a t v e ry l i t t l e phenomenon. s c h o la r ly c o n s id e ra tio n has been g iv e n to th is I t seems t h a t s in ce World War I I , s c h o la rs h ip on race r e la tio n s has been in flu e n c e d by th e m e ltin g pot paradigm to such an e x te n t th a t th e b u lk o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on ra c e 1s pervaded by an i n t e r - r a c i a l o r ie n t a t i o n , w ith l i t t l e a t t e n t io n d ir e c t e d to 16 i n t r a - r a c i a l group dynam ics. In d ee d , i t is h ig h ly s u rp ris in g th a t in a s o c ie ty c h a ra c te r iz e d by le g a l and de fa c to s e g re g a tio n , and ve ry v i s i b l e d i s t i n c t i v e p a tte rn s o f b la c k b e h a v io r, sch olars have r a r e ly e x p lo re d th e types o f r e la t io n s h ip th a t b la c k s have w ith each o t h e r , and th e mores and norms t h a t govern i n t r a - r a c i a l group 30 b e h a v io r. The fo llo w in g c r i t i q u e o f paradigms by Thomas Kuhn is p a r t ic u la r ly a p p lic a b le to th e In flu e n c e o f th e m e ltin g pot model on race re s e a rc h : ...o n e o f th e th in g s a s c i e n t i f i c community acquires w ith a paradigm is a c r i t e r i o n fo r choosing problems t h a t , w h ile the paradigm is taken f o r g ra n te d , can be assumed to have s o lu tio n s . To a g re a t e x te n t these a re th e o n ly problems t h a t th e community w i l l adm it as s c i e n t i f i c o r encourage i t s members to u n d e r ta k e ... (th u s ) a paradigm can in s u la te th e community from those s o c ia ll y im p o rta n t problems th a t a r e not re d u c ib le to p u z z le fo rm , because th e y cannot be s ta te d in terms o f th e conceptual and in s tru m e n ta l to o ls th e paradigm s u p p lie s .17 W ith regard to th e e x is te n c e o f b la c k consciousness, 1 t is alm ost as i f students o f race r e la t io n s have wanted to w ish away i t s e x i s t ­ en ce, because i t c o n tra d ic te d th e id e a l o f the i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f s o c ia l a c c u ltu r a tio n and s t r u c t u r a l a s s im ila t io n , a basic assum ption o f th e m e ltin g p o t paradigm. 18 In the few cases where the c o n m it- ment o f blacks to t h e i r race has been acknowledged, i t has been in te rp re te d as a tem porary a b e r r a tio n th a t would e v e n tu a lly d is ­ appear w ith the passage o f tim e . Commenting on th e norm ative b ia s e s th a t pervade th e l i t e r a t u r e on ra c e r e la t io n s , P i t t s s ta te s : The p o s s i b i l i t y th a t la r g e numbers o f b la c k s might d evelo p a s tro n g e r corrmitment to o th e r b lack peo ple than to th e n a tio n a l i d e n t i t y im p lie s a c h a lle n g e to th e id e o lo g ic a l s ta n c e o f many A m ericans, b la c k and w h ite , r a d ic a l and c o n s e r v a tiv e .T9 In sum, most o f th e research ers on b la c k l i f e in America have f a i l e d to c o lle c t and a n a ly z e d ata on th e types o f r e la tio n s h ip s among b la c k s and the s o c ia l p o s itio n s and p re d is p o s itio n s th e y hold w ith re g a rd to each o th e r; t h e i r prim e concern has been to stu d y b la c k a ttitu d e s from 31 the p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e b e a rin g they have on aspects o f th e w id e r s o c ie ty . For t h is re a s o n , th e o r e tic a l in q u ir y in to th e n a tu re o f black consciousness, and e m p iric a l In v e s t ig a tio n o f i t s d eterm in an ts is sp arse. The fo llo w in g works are the few pieces o f s i g n i f i c a n t so c ia l scien ce re s e a rc h t h a t have exp lo red th e n a tu re o f t h is phen­ omenon . The S o cial Science L it e r a t u r e A c u rs o ry o verview o f the l i t e r a t u r e on b la ck consciousness re v e a ls an unusual amount o f consensus among sch olars concerning the meaning o f th e co n cept. W hile th e re is some v a r ia tio n in th e importance t h a t is a t t r ib u t e d to p a r t i c u l a r dim ensions, p ro b a b ly as a r e s u lt o f d i f f e r e n t d is c ip lin a r y o r ie n t a t io n s , o v e r a ll th e d e f in it io n s tend to emphasize the same b a s ic p r o p e r tie s . overview o f th e l i t e r a t u r e devoted to th e s u b je c t w i l l An serve to e la b o ra te th e u n d e rly in g c o n m o n a litie s . One o f th e f i r s t works o f race r e la t io n s t h a t in v e s tig a te d the phenomenon o f b la c k consciousness was th e s o c io lo g ic a l in q u ir y o f W illia m 0 . Brown in a study e n t i t le d The N ature o f Race Consciousness (1 9 3 1 ). In t h is re s e a rc h , Brown i d e n t i f i e d two p r in c ip a l dimensions o f th e b la c k conscious w orld v ie w : 1) the tendency to view race as a s o c ia l o b je c t; 2 ) th e tendency to fe e l a sense o f commitment to o n e 's ra c e . In h is words, " th e race conscious p o s it t h e i r race as an e n t i t y to which th ey have o b lig a tio n s . They have a conscience about t h e i r ra c e . They must s e rv e i t , f i g h t f o r i t , pi be lo y a l to i t . L a te r 1n h is academic c a r e e r , a f t e r f u r t h e r e x p lo rin g th e dynamics o f segregated s o c ie t ie s , Brown added a 32 s tru c tu ra l p e rs p e c tiv e to th e fo re g o in g d e f i n i t i o n , because he adopted th e vie w t h a t ra c e consciousness was a phenomena t h a t could n o t emerge in a l l s o c ia l c o n te x ts , but r a t h e r was e s s e n t i a l l y th e c r e a tio n o f r a c ia lly s t r a t if ie d e n v iro n m e n ts . 22 Brown s t a t e d t h a t th e r a c i a l c o n f l i c t t h a t is endemic to s e g re g a te d s o c ie t ie s in c u lc a te s r a c i a l consciousness in th o se who a r e v ic t im iz e d by th e s e l e c t i v i t y and e x c lu s io n o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a tte rn s . Thus, r a c i a l consciousness is som ething beyond mere r e c o g n itio n t h a t o n e 's r a c i a l group i s d i f f ­ e r e n t from o t h e r s . R a th e r, a r a c i a l l y co n scio u s group is a s o c ia l u n i t s t r u g g lin g f o r s ta tu s in a s o c ie ty . I t i s a c o n f l i c t g ro u p , and ra c e consciousness i t s e l f is a r e s u lt o f c o n f lic t . The ra c e o f th e g ro u p , though n o t i n t r i n s i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t be­ comes an i d e n t i f y i n g sym b o l, s e rv in g t o i n t e n s i f y th e sense o f s o l i d a r i t y . 2 3 Race consciousness th en is n o t s im p ly th e way in w hich one group views i t s e l f ; 1n a d d it i o n , i t views i t s e l f 1n r e l a t i o n is th e way t h a t a su b ju g ated group to a s u p e ro rd in a te r a c i a l group. So ra c e conscious b e h a v io r is alw ays o r ie n te d to two s o c ia l o b je c ts r a t h e r than j u s t one - b la c k s and w h ite s . P i t t s r e c e n t stu d y o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l dim ensions o f b la c k consciousness a ls o emphasized th e s t r u c t u r a l out in Brown's d e f i n i t i o n . ^ p e rs p e c tiv e b ro ug ht He b eg in s by n o tin g t h a t b la c k con­ s c io u s n e s s , th e n a tu r a l outg ro w th o f c o n d itio n s o f r a c i a l in e q u a lity , re p re s e n ts an a tte m p t by b la c k s to overcome th e d is a d v a n ta g e s o f being accorded to a s ta tu s o f r a c i a l t h is p o in t , P i t t s in fe r io r ity . E la b o r a tin g on s ta te s t h a t b la c k consciousness . . . v a r ie s a lo n g a co n tin uu m ; a t one e n d , ra c e conscious persons em phasize w h ite s as th e c a te g o r ic a l 33 o p p re s s o r o r enemy o f b la ck s w h ile a t th e o t h e r extrem e th e r e la t io n s h ip between th e unequal c a te g o r ie s Is acknowledged o n ly by Im p lic a tio n The l a t t e r . I n d i v i d u a l s a re e i t h e r u n c le a r ab o u t what o r whom th e s tr u g g le 1s a g a in s t , o r , p erh a p s , c o n fid e n t t h a t th e c o m p e titio n between races 1s n o t a zero-sum game. To both P i t t s and Brown, th e n , ra c e consciousness Is a v a lu e th a t a t t r ib u t e s p rim e c u l p a b i l i t y f o r r a c i a l i n e q u a lit y to w h ite s ; m oreover, as a r e s u l t o f p e rc e iv e d a n t a g o n is t ic i n t e r e s t s between both r a c i a l g ro u p s, i t e x h o rts t h a t b la c k s d e v e lo p s tro n g group s o l i d a r i t y and p r id e . Hraba and Rhodes d e fin e b la c k consciousness in s i m i l a r te rm s . They argu e t h a t b la c k consciousness is a m u ltid im e n s io n a l v a lu e t h a t is a p ro d u c t o f th e b la c k e x p e rie n c e . The b la c k co n scio u s person 1 ) acknowledges th e e x is te n c e o f r a c i a l d e p r iv a t io n and b a r r i e r s ; 2) acknowledges t h a t th e d e p r iv a tio n and b a r r ie r s a re e x t e r n a l ly con­ t r o l l e d ; 3 ) ad vocates t h a t b lacks should be d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith th e r a c ia l s i t u a t i o n ; 4 ) recomnends t h a t b la c k s engage in c o l l e c t i v e a c tio n on b e h a lf o f b la c k i n t e r e s t s ; and 5 ) p ro fe s s e s t h a t th e in t e r e s t s o f b la c k s a r e n o t shared by w h ite s . U n lik e th e fo re g o in g t h e o r is t s who vie w b la c k consciousness from a s t r u c t u r a l p e r s p e c tiv e , Gwendolyn Wade p la c e s g r e a t e r emphasis on th e s o c io -p s y c h o lo g ic a l th an th e p o l i t i c a l th e c o n c e p t. 28 asp ec ts o f S t a r t in g from th e assum ption t h a t b la c k s have i n t e r ­ n a liz e d n e g a tiv e s o c ie t a l images o f th e m s e lv e s , she c o n c e iv e s o f b lack consciousness as a v a lu e system t h a t r e je c t s th e id e a o f in d iv id u a l and group I n f e r i o r i t y , and re p la c e s th e s e s e n tim e n ts 34 w ith p o s it iv e e v a lu a tio n o f a b la c k i d e n t i t y . Thus b la c k con­ sciousness is e x e m p lifie d in th e tendency o f a b la c k in d iv id u a l to acknowledge h is blackness m e n ta lly and p h y s ic a lly and th e p la c e o f h is o r ig in w ith o u t th e long h eld f e e lin g s o f I n f e r i o r i t y ; m oreover, i t is m a n ife sted in a manner r e f l e c t i n g a v a lu e d , r e a liz e d s e l f in c o n tr a s t to v a ry in g degrees o f a hated s e l f . 29 In sum, ac c o rd in g to t h is d e f i n i t i o n , b la c k consciousness re p re s e n ts an a tte m p t by b lacks to develop a p o s it iv e s e lf-c o n c e p t, p rid e in t h e i r h e r it a g e , in o th e r w ords, a t o t a l e lim in a tio n o f th e way in which th ey have t r a d i t i o n a l l y d e fin e d t h e i r i d e n t i t y as b la c k s . Perhaps th e most cogent and o p e r a tio n a liz a b le d e f i n i t i o n o f black consciousness i s c o n ta in e d in Edgar Epps' w ork, The In te g r a tio n is ts . 30 As in d ic a te d by th e t i t l e , Epps' p r in c ip le concern is not to d e fin e b la ck consciousness, b u t to an a ly ze th e d i f f e r e n t types o f in te g r a tio n is m to which b lacks have subscribed h i s t o r i c a l l y . Y e t, as he sets up h is a n a ly t ic a l schema i t becomes c le a r t h a t th e focus o f h is in q u ir y extends to d e t a ile d e x p lic a t io n o f th e v a rio u s dimensions o f b lack consciousness. The a n a ly s is begins w ith th e c r e a tio n o f a d is t in c t i o n between th ree id e a l typ es o f i n t e g r a t i o n i s t s : 1 ) th e ac co m o d atio n !sts ; 2) the a s s im ila t io n is t s ; and 3 ) th e c u lt u r a l p l u r a l i s t . a n a ly sis i t From Epps' is e v id e n t t h a t low b la c k consciousness is a s s o c ia te d w ith the f i r s t two id e a l ty p e s , and th e l a t t e r c a te g o ry is th e archetype o f th e b la ck conscious i n d iv id u a l. Thus i f b la ck con­ sciousness is p e rc e iv e d along a continuum , th e ac co m o d atio n ist and a s s im ila t io n is t would be placed a t th e low end o f th e s c a le , and the c u l t u r a l l y p l u r a l i s t would be lo c a te d a t th e o p p o s ite p o la r 35 extrem e. What is th e n a tu re o f t h is d is t in c t io n between low and high b lack consciousness? The d is tin g u is h in g fe a tu r e between these two id e a l types seems to be t h a t th e fo rm e r re s ts on th e premises o f th e " m e ltin g pot" paradigm , and th e l a t t e r is premised on th e assumptions o f 31 c u lt u r a l p lu r a lis m . In convergence w ith the " m e ltin g pot" m odel, the p r in c ip a l b e l ie f s a s s o c ia te d w ith low b lack consciousness a r e : 1) a b e l i e f in th e s u p e r io r it y o f European o ver non-European c u lt u r e ; 2) a b e l i e f t h a t b lacks should f in d o u t and l i v e up to th e expec­ ta tio n s o f w h ites con cern in g b la c k s ; 3 ) a b e l i e f t h a t blacks should abandon any b e h a v io r t h a t is d i s t i n c t i v e l y b la ck and s e ts them o f f from o th e r members o f th e s o c ie ty ; 4 ) a b e l i e f t h a t knowledge o f blacks elsew here o r th e b u ild in g o f lin k s w ith A fr ic a is unimpor­ t a n t ; 5 ) a b e l i e f t h a t ra ce should not be th e b as is f o r any type o f s o l i d a r i t y among b la c k s ; 6 ) and f i n a l l y , a b e l i e f in th e prim acy o f in d iv id u a l ach ievem en t, and a re lu c ta n c e to concede th e respon­ s i b i l i t y o f blacks who a c h ie ve f o r th e w e lfa r e o f those who have n o t. The b e lie f s a s s o c ia te d w ith high b la c k consciousness a re d ia ­ m e t r ic a lly opposed to those p re v io u s ly o u t lin e d , prem ised as th ey a re in the c u lt u r a l p l u r a l i s t model o f race r e l a t i o n s . The elem ent o f c u lt u r a l p lu ra lis m in t h is v ie w p o in t is seen in th e w illin g n e s s o f th e b lack conscious in d iv id u a l to l i v e among w h ite s and to in t e r a c t w ith them in schools and on th e jo b but he p re fe rs to m a in ta in h is A fric a n h e r ita g e and develop a stro n g sense o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e b la ck community and peoples o f A fric a n d escent throughout th e w o r l d . 32 36 F u rth e r e la b o r a tin g on th e n a tu re o f th e b la ck conscious person Epps notes a stro n g p re fe re n c e f o r b la c k c u lt u r a l p a tte rn s in those fa c e ts o f l i f e n o t r e la t e d to work a c t i v i t i e s , s p e c i f i c a l l y in th e fa m ily , r e lig io n and r e c r e a tio n . As an approach to s o c ia l o rg a n i­ z a t io n , th e b la c k conscious s tre s s th e b u ild in g o f e f f e c t i v e b lack o rg a n iz a tio n s and i n s t it u t io n s through group p rid e and group cohe­ siv en es s. F i n a l l y , th e re is th e b e l i e f t h a t j u s t as o th e r e th n ic groups have r e ta in e d t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e i d e n t i t i e s , c u ltu r e s and l o y a l t i e s , so should blacks have th e same o p tio n - i . e . to be a b le to share in the w e a lth and power o f the s o c ie ty w h ile r e t a in in g t h e i r s ta tu s as a d i s t i n c t e th n ic group. So f a r the d e f i n i t i o n s o f b lack consciousness t h a t have been reviewed have a l l been th e o r e t ic a l fo rm u la tio n s , some o f which were employed in subsequent e m p iric a l re s e a rc h . One study th a t attem p ted to e x p lo re the way in which blacks them selves d e fin e b la ck co n scio u s­ ness was Joyce L ad n er's study conducted in M is s is s ip p i in th e l a t e s ix tie s . 33 From in te rv ie w s w ith b la ck a d o le s c e n ts , th re e p r in c ip le dimensions o f b la c k consciousness were i d e n t i f i e d . These w ere: 1) th e idea o f community lo y a lt y to b la c k s ; 2 ) th e idea t h a t "blackness" should be re d e fin e d in p o s it iv e term s; and 3 ) th e p o l i t i c a l n o tio n th a t blacks should have an "awareness o f o n e s e lf as a removed n a tio n o f b la c k people who a re capable o f ru n ning and developing t h e i r own governm ents." From th e fo re g o in g review o f th e s c h o la r ly conceptions o f black consciousness, i t is e v id e n t th a t re g a rd le s s o f t h e i r p a r t i ­ c u la r emphases, b la c k consciousness may be conceived o f as a v a lu e 37 th a t makes norm ative judgm ents about th e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , psycho­ lo g ic a l and c u ltu r a l aspects o f b lack l i f e , in o rd e r to make b la c k s develop a sense o f peoplehood, a bond o f r a c ia l c o o p e ra tio n , t h a t would transcend h o r iz o n ta l cleavag es o f a socio-econom ic o r c u lt u r a l n a tu re , o r v e r t i c a l fis s u r e s such as those t h a t u s u a lly ensue from reg io n al o r n a tio n a l d is t in c t iv e n e s s . The s o c ia l, economic, p o l i t i c a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l dimensions o f the concept ten d to o v e rla p , but f o r purpose o f a n a ly t ic a l c l a r i t y th ey may be d is tin g u is h e d thus: 1) S o cial - Addressing i t s e l f to th e s o c ia l r e la t io n s o f th e r a c e s , the b lack conscious w o rld view advocates t h a t blacks should reco g ­ n ize th a t t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e render i t in t e r e s t s v i s - a - v i s th e w id e r s o c ie ty necessary f o r them to r e t a in a d i s t i n c t i v e p la ce in th e s o c ie ty . 2) P sych o lo g ical - The p s y c h o lo g ic a l im p lic a tio n s o f black co n scio u s­ ness a re co n tain e d in th e n o tio n th a t blacks have h i s t o r i c a l l y n o t developed p o s it iv e s e l f - o r group-im ages, and t h is must be remedied through th e c r e a tio n o f a r e d e fin e d , p o s it iv e b la c k i d e n t i t y . 3) C u ltu r a l - Ona c u lt u r a l l e v e l , b lack consciousness promotes the idea t h a t th e c u lt u r a l background o f b lacks should be viewed in p o s itiv e te rm s , and be r e c r e a te d , m a in ta in e d , and encouraged. 4) P o l i t i c a l - The p o l i t i c a l dimension o f b la c k consciousness embodies the idea t h a t th e d iv e rg e n t in t e r e s t s o f th e ra c e ren d er necessary the a llo c a t io n o f resources to blacks on a group basis because o f t h e ir s o c ia l, p sy ch o lo g ica l and c u lt u r a l d is t in c t iv e n e s s . In sum, b la ck consciousness comprises a w o rld v ie w . I t makes norm ative statem en ts about th e manner in which b lacks should view 38 the w o rld , and th e kin d o f a c t i v i t i e s in o th e r words, i t in a l l in which th e y should engage; p re s c rib e s how th e y should t h in k and a c t as blacks spheres o f t h e i r e x is te n c e . Because i t is a v a lu e i t should e l i c i t d i f f e r e n t degrees o f ad h eren ce , r e s u ltin g in i t va ry in g along a continuum from high to low. to b e h a v io r. As a v a lu e , i t should a ls o be a guide Thus to understand how i t may in flu e n c e th e behavior o f th e p a r t i c u l a r p o p u la tio n o f i n t e r e s t to us, namely b la c k o f f i c e ­ h o ld e rs , i t is necessary to p la ce i t in a t h e o r e t ic a l framework t h a t e x p la in s th e n a tu re o f v a lu e s , th e manner in which th e y o r ig in a t e , and t h e i r in t e r r e la t io n s h ip w ith and impact on human b e h a v io r. Black Consciousness: A T h e o r e tic a l Framework From th e p rec ed in g review o f p a s t e f f o r t s to d e fin e black consciousness i t has been suggested t h a t the concept is a v a lu e , and th a t i t should be placed w ith in th e framework o f v a lu e th e o ry . A survey o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on th e o r ie s o f values r e v e a ls a broad d iv e r s it y o f atte m p ted s p e c ific a t io n s o f th e term " v a lu e " , many o f which a re o f l i t t l e u tility f o r th e purposes o f t h i s s tu d y . How­ e v e r, one t h e o r e t ic a l schema th a t may p ro vid e a f r u i t f u l approach fo r an e x p lic a t io n o f b lack consciousness, is th e work o f R o llo Handy, which re p re s e n ts a sy n th e s is o f th e o rie s o f needs and v a lu e s . 34 Handy begins h is fo rm u la tio n w ith an attem p t to r i d th e concept value - o f th e a m b ig u ity th a t surrounds i t both in th e popular ve rn ­ a c u la r and s c i e n t i f i c re ta in s i t s in q u ir y . A v a lu e is d e fin e d as an o b je c t th a t s ta tu s as such re g a rd le s s o f whether i t sought a f t e r o r n o t. is p e rs o n a lly Something may be considered a v a lu e i f i t o b je c t iv e ly s a t i s f i e s a need. Handy e la b o ra te s on t h i s p o in t 39 thus: . . . i t seems to me t h a t most o f th e th in g s we m ight c a l l v a lu a b le a re a ls o th in g s th a t s a t i s f y needs (as "need" is used h e r e ). T his is n o t, o f course, to say t h a t people mean 'X s a t is f ie d a need1 when th e y say 'X is v a lu a b le ' but r a th e r th a t th e f i e l d s o f re fe re n c e a r e s i m i l a r . 35 Perhaps, t h is o b je c t iv ic a t io n o f what a v a lu e is can b e s t be i l l u s t r a t e d by exam ples. th e fe d . Food is a v a lu e f o r both th e hungry and S i m i l a r l y , a contem plated b u t unperformed a c t co u ld be c a lle d a value i f i t would s a t is f y a need when perform ed. does not mean t h a t v a lu e s a re conceived as a b s o lu te s . This W h ile they are o b je c t iv e , in th e sense th a t th e y e x i s t whether o r n o t one subscribes to them, th ey a re not a b s o lu te p r e c is e ly because th ey a re th e n a tu ra l outgrow th o f needs, and " th e re can be v a r ia t io n in needs among in d iv id u a ls , in d i f f e r e n t h is t o r ic a l p e rio d s , and in d i f f e r e n t c u lt u r a l s e ttin g s ." ^ ® U n lik e many s o c ia l needs a re b io lo g ic a l s c ie n t is t s who adhere to the b e l i e f t h a t in o r i g i n , Handy assumes th a t c u ltu r e p lays a c r i t i c a l r o le in fa s h io n in g needs and, by d e r iv a t io n , v a lu e s . R ebu tting th e p ro p o s itio n s o f those who contend th a t needs a re e n t i r e ly o rg a n is m ic , he s ta te s th a t "need is an u n s ta b le o r d is ­ turbed e q u ilib r iu m in b e h a v io r B eh avio r is taken n o t as o f the organism a lo n e , but as th e o rg a n ic -e n v iro n m e n ta l s i t u a t i o n . " 07 Based on th e fo re g o in g th e o ry o f what c o n s titu te s a v a lu e , the w r i t e r proposes t h a t b la ck consciousness should be conceived as a v a lu e , f i r s t l y because i t seems to seek to f u l f i l l fo u r impor­ t a n t needs which h i s t o r i c a l l y have been d i f f i c u l t f o r b la ck s to 40 s a t is f y . These a re : 1 ) th e p sy ch o lo g ica l need to have p o s it iv e images o f them selves; 2 ) th e s o c ia l need to d e v e lo p commitment to each o th e r ; 3 ) th e c u ltu r a l need to em ulate t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s , h e rita g e and d is t in c t i v e v a lu e s and b e h a v io ra l p a tte r n s ; and 4) th e p o l i t i c a l need to b u ild p o l i t i c a l mechanisms to a r t i c u l a t e t h e ir group in t e r e s t s . Black consciousness i s a v a lu e in Handy's sense o f th e term not o n ly because i t atte m p ts to f u l f i l l lo g ic a l, c u l t u r a l and p o l i t i c a l o f the co n cep t t h a t makes i t c e r t a in s o c ia l, psycho­ needs o f b la c k s . Another q u a l i t y a v a lu e , is t h a t one may expect to fin d v a ry in g le v e ls o f su p p o rt f o r i t . Handy assumes th a t v a r i a t i o n in s u b s c rip tio n to a v a lu e is one o f i t s most d is tin g u is h in g f e a t u r e s . The reason f o r v a r ia tio n in su p p o rt fo r any v a lu e is th a t "n o t o n ly can needs c o n f l i c t , both f o r in d iv id u a ls and f o r g ro u p s , but many a l t e r ­ n a tiv e ways o f s a tis fy in g a g iv e n need may be p o s s ib le and c o n f li c t s can als o a r i s e among a lte r n a tiv e s ." ® ® On th e b a s is o f th is s t a t e ­ ment, one would expect t h a t b la c k s w i l l not v a lu e b la ck consciousness to the same d e g re e . Some In d iv id u a ls who fe e l th e need f o r ad o p tio n o f a b la c k conscious v a lu e schema may r e f r a in fro m doing so because adherence to th e valu e may c o n f l i c t w ith th e f u l f i l l m e n t o f some o th e r need th e s a t i a t i o n o f which is more pressin g f o r those in d iv id u a ls . Or, some in d iv id u a ls may n o t f e e l th e need f o r b la c k consciousness a t a l l , and as a r e s u l t , c e r t a in groups w i l l e x h i b i t low b la ck con­ sciousness. To c l a r i f y th e reasons why a l l blacks may n o t share the same needs t h a t would g iv e r is e to u n ifo rm endorsement o f b lack consciousness, 41 we should r e c a ll Handy's previous s ta te m e n t t h a t in d iv id u a ls d i f f e r in the types o f needs t h a t re q u ire f u l f i l l m e n t because o f d iffe r e n c e s in t h e i r c u lt u r a l backgrounds. As a r e s u l t o f d i f f e r e n t s o c io -c u l- tu r a l e x p e rie n c e s , c e r t a in groups o f b la ck s may fe e l le s s o f a need to develop b lack consciousness than o th e r s . P o s s ib ly , Southern b la c k s , because o f t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l e x c lu s io n from d ir e c t p a r t i c i ­ p a tio n in th e m ainstream o f th e s o c ie ty , may e x h ib it a d i f f e r e n t type o f i d e n t i t y than t h e i r n o rth e rn c o u n te rp a r ts , a product o f the d i s t i n c t c u lt u r a l m ilie u o f the two re g io n s . S everal o th e r in ­ d ices t h a t could a c t as sources o f d i s t i n c t c u lt u r a l exp eriences among blacks a re ag e , ty p e o f comnunity re a re d in ( i . e . socio-econom ic s t a t u s , ty p e o f occupation h e ld , e tc . u r b a n /r u r a l,) These may fu n c tio n in a s im ila r manner as re g io n o f th e co u n try where one was s o c ia liz e d to g e n e ra te th e development o f d i f f e r e n t types o f needs and u lt im a t e ly v a r ia t io n in v a lu e s . A ffirm in g the p o te n tia l e f f e c t o f c u ltu r e on th e fo rm a tio n o f black consciousness, P i t t s s ta te s Consciousness is always a s o c ia l p ro d u c t___ I t is not th e p ro du ct o f in d iv id u a ls , nor does i t p e r s is t independent o f th e s o c ia l b eh avio r o f men. Consciousness emerges, i t changes, i t decl ines Black consciousness then is a value w ith v a ry in g le v e ls o f in te n s ­ i t y , a product o f th e f a c t t h a t th e needs which g iv e r is e to i t are them selves an outgrow th o f c u ltu r a l circu m stan ces; as th e c u lt u r a l exp eriences o f b lacks d i f f e r , so w i l l they in t e r n a l i z e t h is p a r t i c u l a r type o f v a lu e . th e e x te n t to which 42 If i t is assumed t h a t the source o f a l l needs i s in c u lt u r a l ex p erie n c es , then i t may be in fe r r e d t h a t th e p o l i t i c a l environm ent w ill c re a te c e r t a in typ es o f needs among those who a r e d i r e c t l y engaged in o f f i c e s e e k in g , and these w i l l generate s p e c i f i c types o f valu e o r ie n t a t io n s t h a t are not shared by those o u ts id e o f the c lim a te o f p o l i t i c s . Thus, i f Handy's th e o ry is a p p lie d to the world o f p o l i t i c s , b la c k p o lit ic ia n s should have p e c u lia r needs th a t f o s t e r th e developm ent o f d i s t i n c t i v e p o l i t i c a l v a lu e s . In order to b e t t e r u nd erstand the p o s s ib le convergences between Handy's theory o f values and th e o rie s o f o ffic e -s e e k in g b e h a v io r i t va lu a b le to tu rn to a d e ta ile d d is c u s s io n o f the p o l i t i c a l 1s co n text o f b lack consciousness. The P o l i t i c a l Context o f Black Consciousness Conmitment To An O f f ic e Career In the p rec ed in g s e c tio n the main concept o f i n t e r e s t to th is study — b lack consciousness — was p la ce d w ith in th e t h e o r e t ic a l framework o f R o llo Handy's value th e o ry . Handy's main t h e s is is th a t values d e riv e from th e needs which in d iv id u a ls h a v e , and needs a r e ^ c u lt u r a lly fa s h io n e d . At th is p o i n t , i t is im p o rta n t t h a t we consider th e re le v a n c e o f the general th e o r e tic a l fram ew ork o ffe re d by Handy to e x p la in in g th e p o ssib le source o f values among th e p a rt­ ic u la r groups o f i n t e r e s t to us in t h is study - black o ffic e h o ld e r s . A seminal work t h a t attem pts to lo c a te the fa c to rs underpin ning o ffic e -s e e k e r s v a lu e s is t h a t o f Joseph S c h le s in g e r, A m b itio n and P o litic s . I t s p r in c ip a l th e s is is t h a t th e v a lu e s , b e h a v io rs and p o lic ie s s e le c te d by p o l i t i c a l a c to rs can be e x p la in e d in p a r t a t le a s t , in term s o f what th ey seek from o f f i c e . T h at i s , a " p o l i t i ­ c ia n 's b e h a v io r is a response to h is o f f i c e g o a ls . O r, to put i t another way, th e p o l i t i c i a n as o f f ic e - s e e k e r engages in p o l i t i c a l acts a p p ro p r ia te to g a in in g o f f i c e . " 40 The argument t h a t th e need f o r o f f i c e in flu e n c e s th e v a lu e s and behaviors o f p o l i t i c i a n s is r e ite r a t e d by Downs. He s ta te s t h a t p o l i t i c ia n s n e v e r seek o f f i c e as a means to c a rr y in g o u t p a r t i c u l a r p o lic ie s ; t h e i r o n ly goal is to reap th e rewards o f h o ld in g o f f i c e per se. They t r e a t p o lic ie s p u re ly as means to th e a tta in m e n t o f t h e i r p r iv a te e n d s .4* In many ways th e p ro p o s itio n s o f Downs and S c h le s in g e r converge w ith Handy's. They seek to e x p la in the o r ig in o f o f fic e -s e e k e r s b eh av io r in terms o f th e need f o r o f f i c e , a need t h a t Is fash io n ed by the p o l i t i c a l en v iro n m e n t. Thus th ey draw a lin k a g e between needs and b e h a v io r, w h ile Handy draws a connection between needs and va lu e s. M o reo ve r, l i k e Handy, th e y s u s c rib e to th e id e a t h a t needs a re c u l t u r a l l y d e riv e d . For them, th e c lim a te o f e le c t o r a l p o lit ic s is d i f f e r e n t and d i s t i n c t from o th e r asp ects o f s o c ia l r e a l i t y , and as a r e s u l t , p o l i t i c a l a c to rs have needs unshared by those to whom o ffic e -s e e k in g is n o t im p o rta n t. However u n lik e Handy, S c h le s in g e r and Downs a r e ve ry e x p l i c i t about th e in t e r r e la t io n s h ip o f needs and v a lu e s . They in tro d u c e the n otion o f r a t i o n a l i t y in t o th e eq u atio n between th e tw o ,42 th e re b y proposing t h a t p o l i t i c ia n s * o ffic e -s e e k in g b e h a v io r is a response to t h e ir c a lc u la t io n o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l s e lf-in te r e s t. P o litic a l actors a re th e r e fo r e viewed e s s e n t i a ll y as r a t io n a l b ein g s. 44 I f these s c h o la rs a re c o r r e c t in th e l i n e th e y draw between o f f i c e needs and o f fic e - s e e k in g b e h a v io r, then i t may be deduced th a t p o l i t i c a l incumbents who a s p ir e to r e t a in o f f i c e , w i l l t r y to v a lu e those t h in g s , s e le c t p o lic ie s and behave in a fa s h io n t h a t would help them to g a in r e - e le c t io n . So, th e valu e s th ey adopt should be r e la t e d to how coirvnited they a re to o f f i c e r e t e n t io n . W hile t h is p ro p o s itio n is n o t e x p l i c i t l y s ta te d by S c h le s in g e r and Downs, i t seems to me u ia t i t re p re s e n ts an e x te n tio n o f th e arguments they put f o r t h about th e in t e r f a c e o f p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n and o ffic e -s e e k in g b e h a v io r. I f we assume t h a t p o l i t i c ia n s w h ile in o f f i c e w i l l atte m p t to e s ta b lis h consonance between t h e i r valu es and t h e i r p o l i t i c a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t , i t may be in fe r e d t h a t b la c k consciousness may be r e la te d to o f fic e -s e e k in g needs. However, i t is d i f f i c u l t to p re ­ d i c t what th is r e la t io n s h ip would be s in c e n e it h e r H a n d y's, nor Downs' and S c h le s in g e r 's t h e o r e tic a l schema make a p re c is e s t a t e ­ ment about what th e n a tu re o f th is r e la t io n s h ip m ight be. N onetheless, i f it is assumed th a t th e need f o r o f f i c e is g r e a te r among some o ffic e h o ld e r s th an o th e r s , as S c h le s in g e r im p lie s in th e d is t in c t io n he draws between p ro g re s s iv e , s t a t i c , and d is ­ c r e te a m b itio n s , th en i t would seem t h a t d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f need Jk A f o r o f f i c e would g iv e r i s e to d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f v a lu e endorsement. S ta te d d i f f e r e n t l y , i t may be assumed t h a t th e corrmitment to o f f i c e v a rie s w ith in t e n s it y among p o l i t i c a l a c t o r s , and as a r e s u lt th e e f f e c t t h a t corrinitment to o f f i c e may have on v a lu e s w i l l v a ry . This assumption is a ls o co rro b o ra te d by Handy's s ta tem en t th a t needs 45 and values a re d i r e c t l y r e la te d in v a ry in g le v e ls o f i n t e n s i t y , depending on th e i n t e n s i t y o f th e need. I f the need f o r o f f i c e is indeed s tr o n g e r among some o f f i c e ­ h o ld e rs than o t h e r s , i t would seem l i k e l y com nitted to o f f i c e w i l l t h a t those who a r e most be le s s r e l u c t a n t to g iv e p rim acy to values which a re not d i r e c t l y fu n c tio n a l o r r e l a t e d to f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e i r o f f i c e g o a ls . S o, an is s u e T ik e b la c k consciousness would p ro b ab ly g a in g re a te r s u p p o rt among those le s s c o m n itte d to p u b lic o f f i c e than th e more c o m n itte d , because th e l a t t e r group is n o t l i k e l y to e n t e r t a in p o s it iv e atta c h m e n ts to any v a lu e t h a t does n o t d i r e c t l y aim to promote th e ir p o litic a l s e lf-in te r e s t. P o s it iv e e v a lu a tio n o f b la c k con­ sciousness would r e q u ir e t h a t th e prom o tio n o f group i n t e r e s t s be g iven equal w e ig h t i f n o t prim acy o v e r prom otion o f o n e 's s e l f - i n t e r e s t ; f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h is demand, may run c o u n te r to th e p o l i ­ tic a l goals o f th o s e who a re h ig h ly com m itted to o f f i c e . to show stron g ad h eren ce to b la c k consciousness is l i k e l y S o, f a i l u r e to be more pronounced among th o s e o ffic e h o ld e r s who a r e more a tta c h e d t o p u b lic o f f i c e than th o se whose i n t e r e s t in p u b lic o f f i c e is le s s . The fo re g o in g p r o p o s itio n t h a t commitment to p u b lic o f f i c e w i l l lo w er b lack conscio u sn ess seems h ig h ly p la u s ib le on an i n t u i t i v e l e v e l ; however, one a s p e c t o f S c h le s in g e r*s th e o r y tends to underm ine th is p ro p o s itio n . T h is i s th e id e a t h a t p o l i t i c i a n s d i f f e r in t h e i r open­ ness to new id e a s , because o f t h e i r v a ry in g o f f i c e g o a ls . S c h le s in g e r c la im s th a t th e most a m b itio u s - th o se a s p ir a n ts f o r more im p o rta n t o f f i c e — tend t o be more amenable to ch an g e, than th o s e unconcerned w ith seeking o f f i c e any more ( i . e . d is c r e t e a m b itio n ) o r th o s e who 46 are s a t is f ie d w ith r e - e le c t io n to th e same le v e l o f o f f i c e ( i . e . s t a t ic a m b itio n ). The l a t t e r group is : f a r more l i k e l y to be d riv e n by immediate p re s s u re s , w hether i t be th e p ressu re o f o p in io n , p a r t y , o r s p e c ia l in t e r e s t groups. Only th e man w ith p ro ­ g re s s iv e am b itio n s is d riv e n to e x p lo re c u r r e n t p o lic ie s in th e l i g h t o f f u t u r e consequences f o r h is f u tu r e c a re e r is a t s t a k e . 4 4 A s im ila r argument is advanced by Anthony Downs in his work on b u re a u c ra c ie s . In seeking to e x p la in the reason why some b ureaucrats fa v o r in n o v a tio n more than o th e rs , Downs concludes th a t t h is is a fu n c tio n o f th e f a c t th a t not a l l th e same needs. b u rea u c ra ts share There a re those who a re m o tiva te d to seek h ig h e r o f f i c e out o f a need to ag g ran d ize t h e i r power, p r e s t ig e , e tc . These p e o p le , d esig n ated as " c lim b e r s " , a re th e ones most l i k e l y to be s u p p o rtiv e o t b u re a u c ra tic change. On th e o th e r hand, th e re are th e " c o n s e rv e rs ", a term used to d es ig n a te th o se bureaucrats to whom b u re a u c ra tic in n o v a tio n is an anathema because o f t h e i r f e a r th a t in te r fe r e n c e w ith the s ta tu s quo w i l l r e s u lt in a loss o f th e p r iv ile g e s and p re ro g a tiv e s accorded by p r e s e n tly -h e ld o f f i c e . In sum, concern f o r m axim izing s e c u r it y d riv e s co n servers to r e je c t the idea o f b u re a u c ra tic change; concern f o r m axim izin g the benef i t s o f f u tu r e o f f i c e leads c lim b e rs to support i t . 45 Support f o r th e p o s ite d t h e o r e t ic a l r e la t io n s h ip between a m b itio n and change has been found. Gordon B la c k 's study o f c i t y councilmen attem pted to t e s t th e t h e o r e t ic a l p ro p o s itio n t h a t d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n a re a s s o c ia te d w ith d i s t i n c t v a lu e o r ie n t a t io n s . 4 6 Using a sample o f c i t y counci 1p ers o n s, he dem onstrated th a t p o l i t i c i a n s were not m o n o lith ic in th e e x te n t to which they v a lu e d p o l i t i c a l 47 p re fe s s lo n a lis m . This was found to be a t t r ib u t a b le to th e d i f f e r e n t am bitions th e y had. Those who were concerned w ith a t t a in in g more im­ p o rtan t o f f i c e tended to d is p la y a more p ro fe s s io n a l o u tlo o k on p o litic s . C o n v e rs e ly , those who had no p a r t i c u l a r y e a rn in g f o r another o f f i c e showed a low le v e l o f p o l i t i c a l p ro fe s s io n a lis m . Another p ie c e o f research t h a t probed th e v a l i d i t y o f the p ro p o sitio n s o f a m b itio n th e o ry concerning o r ie n t a t io n toward change was James P ie r s o n 's study o f th e c o n f l i c t th a t developed between F e d e ra lis ts and A n t i - f e d e r a li s t s in th e 1 7 8 0 's .^ 7 The d a ta showed th a t a m b itio n was an im p o rtan t e x p la n a to ry f a c t o r o f th e d iv e rg e n t a ttitu d e s o f th e s e two groups toward th e Union. M o tiv a te d by am­ b itio n f o r n a tio n a l o f f i c e , f e d e r a lis t s supported th e new Con­ s t i t u t io n ; th e y were opposed by those who d id not d e s ir e to make a p o litic a l c a r e e r beyond the s t a t e l e v e l , th a t i s , th e unam b itio us. S c h le s in g e r and Downs' t h e o r e t ic a l p o s tu la te t h a t a m b itio n fo r more im p o rta n t o f f i c e is a s s o c ia te d w ith an openness toward change was a ls o te s te d by P r e w itt and N o w lin . 48 The d a ta , o b tain ed from c i t y c o u n c il persons in San F ra n c is c o , showed t h a t th e g r e a t­ es t support f o r a change in t r a d i t i o n a l d is t r i b u t i o n o f power between f e d e r a l , s ta te and lo c a l governm ent, came from o ffic e h o ld e r s w ith p ro g re s s iv e a m ib tio n s . Those who wished to r e t a i n o f f i c e a t the lo c a l le v e l d id n o t fa v o r th e en largem ent o f th e powers o f s ta te and fe d e ra l governm ent. The in t e r p r e t a t io n given t h is f in d in g by th e authors was t h a t an am bitiou s p o l i t i c i a n is more l i k e l y to support changes t h a t would ag g rand ize th e p r e s t ig e , p r iv ile g e s and p re ro ­ g ative s o f an o f f i c e which is lin k e d to h is p o l i t i c a l a s p ir a t io n s , since t h is c o u ld p o s s ib ly r e s u lt In an in c re a s e in h is own power 48 and p re s tig e should he g a in access to t h a t o f f i c e . From the fo re g o in g re v ie w o f th e e m p iric a l lite r a tu r e th a t te s te d th e p ro p o s itio n s o f am b itio n th e o ry , i t may be concluded th a t support f o r new id e a s is more l i k e l y to come from those who are most a m b itio u s . S ince b la ck consciousness is a r e l a t i v e l y re ce n t mode o f th in k in g among b la c k s , i t may be deduced t h a t p o s i­ t iv e attachm ent to 1 t w i l l in c re a s e as a m b itio n in c re a s e s . How­ e v e r, acceptance o f t h is hypotheses, c o n tr a d ic ts the p re v io u s ly s ta te d p ro p o s itio n t h a t commitment to o f f i c e w i l l re la te d to b lack co n sciousness, because i t am bitious a re a ls o l i k e l y be in v e r s e ly is obvious t h a t th e most to be those who a re most committed to o f f i c e . In o rd er to escape th e dilemma o f having two c o n f lic t in g hypo­ th e s e s , both o f which appear e q u a lly te n a b le , i t Is a p p ro p ria te to re c o n c ile them by b rin g in g to n o tic e one o f th e conclusions t h a t were rep o rted in th e e m p ir ic a l s tu d ie s t h a t examined S c h le s in g e r and Downs' p ro p o sitio n s about th e r e la tio n s h ip o f a m b itio n and acceptance o f change. These s tu d ie s showed t h a t th e les s am b itio u s v a lu e o f f i c e s e c u r ity and, as a r e s u l t , the m aintenance o f the s ta tu s quo; on the o th e r hand, the more am bitious v a lu e an in c re as e 1 n th e powers o f o f f i c e and a re more amenable to change; however, in each s tu d y , the changes t h a t were approved by th e more a m b itio u s were those which would f u r t h e r t h e i r p o l i t i c a l c a re e rs . From t h is i t may be deduced t h a t commitment to a p u b lic c a re e r may not n e c e s s a rily be a s s o c ia te d w ith in c re a s e d b la c k consciousness. R ather, such a s s o c ia tio n may be expected o n ly in those s itu a tio n s where b la c k consciousness could c o n c e iv a b ly fu n c tio n to advance th e 49 s e l f - i n t e r e s t o f b la c k o f f ic e h o ld e r s . Thus, our o r i g i n a l l y s ta te d hypothesis t h a t in c re a s in g commitment to a p u b lic c a r e e r w i l l be a s s o c ia te d w ith a d e c re a s in g le v e l o f b la c k consciousness re q u ire s q u a lific a tio n because in c e r t a in c ircu m s ta n ces those who a r e most committed to o f f i c e may a c t u a l l y s u p p o rt new v a lu e s w it h groupo rie n te d consequences, because th e p a r t i c u l a r v a lu e may be u sefu l to prom oting t h e i r in d iv id u a l p o litic a l in te r e s t. S o, th e propos­ i t i o n c o n ce rn in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f b la c k consciousness and comm­ itm e n t to o f f i c e may be r e s ta te d th u s : B la c k consciousness w i l l be in v e r s e ly r e la t e d to d eg ree o f commitment to p u b lic o f f i c e , e x c e p t in th o se cases where s i t u a t i o n a l f a c t o r s re n d e r i t s p o s it iv e e v a lu a t io n f u n c t io n a l to th e m a x im iz a tio n o f th e p o l i t i c a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t o f th ose most comm­ i t t e d t o p u b lic o f f i c e . One in s ta n c e when a p o l i t i c a l a c t o r may deem i t p r o f i t a b l e to change o r ad o p t new v a lu e s is when th e n a tu re o f th e e l e c t o r a l con­ s titu e n c y d ic t a t e s t h a t s u b s c r ip tio n to th e new v a lu e w ould a s s is t in th e a tta in m e n t o f c o n s titu e n t s u p p o rt, an in d is p e n s a b le p re ­ r e q u is it e to f u l f i l l m e n t o f o f f i c e needs. In o rd e r t o understand why c o n s t it u e n t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s may prompt an o f f i c e h o l d e r to adopt values t h a t in o th e r circu m s ta n ces he may n o t be i n c lin e d to do, i t is i n s t r u c t i v e to tu rn th e d is c u s s io n to an a n a ly s is o f th e e f f e c t o f c e r t a in c o n s titu e n c y f a c t o r s on le a d e r s h ip b e h a v io r. R acial F rag m e n ta tio n in E le c to r a l C o n s titu e n c y S c h le s in g e r c a l l s a t t e n t i o n t o th e f a c t t h a t th e a m b itio u s are more l i k e l y to be m in d fu l o f p u b lic o p in io n t h a t th e unam bitious because concern f o r g e t t in g e le c t e d and r e - e le c t e d m o tiv a te s p o l i t i c i a n s 50 to ta k e heed o f th e w ishes and e x p e c ta tio n s o f t h e i r c o n s t it u e n t s . The o p e ra tio n o f p o l i t i c a l government and p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n , th e n , f a c i l i t a t e s d e m o c ra tic s t a b i l i t y , even though i t may appear to be o n ly a s e l f - s e r v i n g a c t i v i t y . 49 In t h is re g a rd , S c h le s in g e r notes th a t: A p o l i t i c a l system u n a b le to k in d le a m b itio n s f o r o f f i c e is as much in d an g e r o f b re a k in g down as one u n a b le to r e s t r a i n a m b itio n s . R e p re s e n ta tiv e governm ent depends on a s u p p ly o f men so d r iv e n ; th e d e s ir e f o r e le c t io n a n d , more im p o r ta n t, f o r r e - e l e c t i o n becomes th e e l e c t o r a t e 's r e s t r a i n t upon i t s p u b lic o f f i c i a l s . P r e w itt te s te d t h is hypotheses among 435 c i t y c o u n c il men. The d a ta c o rro b o ra te d th e p o s ite d r e l a t i o n s h i p between a m b itio n and concern f o r p u b lic o p in io n . "Men w a n tin g to s ta y in o f f i c e t r e a t cam p aig n in g , the e l e c t o r a t e , and v o te r p re fe re n c e s w ith more r e s p e c t th an do men in te n d in g to le a v e o f f i c e . " 51 Because a m b itio u s p o l i t i c i a n s w i l l t r y to a n t i c i p a t e th e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i r c o n s titu e n ts to a f a r g r e a t e r degree th an th e u n a m b itio u s , t h e i r p e rc e p tio n o f c o n s titu e n ts i n t e r e s t s w ill in f lu e n c e v a lu e s a d o p te d , a c t i v i t i e s engaged i n , and p o lic y d e c is ­ ions made. A few s tu d ie s have e x p lo re d th e e f f e c t o f c o n s titu e n c y c h a ra c ­ t e r i s t i c s on th e v a lu e s and b e h a v io r o f b la c k p o l i t i c i a n s . th e most i n f l u e n t i a l p o litic s New Y o rk . One o f was James Q. W ils o n 's c o m p a ra tiv e stu d y o f b la c k in fo u r N o rth e rn c i t i e s — C hicago, D e t r o i t , Los Angeles and S e v e ra l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th ese c i t i e s w ere found to in flu e n c e th e s t y l e and s t r u c t u r e o f b la c k p o l i t i c s , f o r exam ple, 51 s tre n g th o f m achine and la b o r a c t i v i t y , ty p e o f e le c tio n s (d is tr ic t o r a t l a r g e ) , th e p a r tis a n s h ip o f e l e c t i o n s , and l a s t l y , th e r a t i o o f blacks to w h ite s in e le c t o r a l c o n s titu e n c ie s . im pact o f c o n s titu e n c y c h a r a c t e r is t ic s The p o t e n t ia l is c l a r i f i e d in th e fo llo w in g e x c e rp t by W ils o n : The p e rc e iv e d c h a r a c te r o f th e c o n s titu e n c y to w hich an e l e c t o r a l appeal must be made can c o n d itio n s e v e ra l asp ec ts o f th e cam paign. . . f u r t h e r , th e need o f th e c o n s titu e n c y c o n d itio n s th e e x t e n t to which iss u e s a r e b e lie v e d t o be r e le v a n t . . . f i n a l l y , th e n a tu re o f th e c o n s titu e n c y m o d ifie s th e q u a l i t y o f th e c a n d id a te s o f f e r e d .5 2 Of a l l c o n s titu e n c y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , one t h a t th e d a ta showed to be v e ry c r u c ia l t o e x p la in in g th e b e h a v io r o f b la c k p o l i t i c i a n s was th e r a c i a l co m p o s itio n o f th e e l e c t o r a l d i s t r i c t . was re p o rte d t h a t in r a c i a l l y d i v e r s i f i e d For ex am p le , i t Los A n g e le s , a campaign by a b la c k to w in a c i t y c o u n c il s e a t , used two d i s t i n c t ty p e s o f campaign s t r a t e g i e s , one to a t t r a c t th e w h ite v o te , th e o t h e r th e b la ck v o te . The b la c k community v o te was m o b iliz e d through th e c r e a tio n o f "Negro D em ocratic clu b s w hich demanded more Negroes in p u b lic o f f i c e . . . But in a p p e a lin g to th e e le c t o r a t e o f th e d i s ­ t r i c t as a w h o le , which has a la r g e number o f w h ite s , a s o b er "good government" p la tf o r m was d ev is ed s tr e s s in g tax es and c i t y s e r v ic e s . 53 I t is obvious t h a t th e p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v io ra l phenomena t h a t t h is p a r t i c u l a r b la c k p o l i t i c i a n was c o n fro n te d w ith was r o le s t r a in .® ^ U n lik e h is w h ite c o u n t e r p a r t, th e b la c k o f f ic e h o ld e r is commonly faced w ith two p o t e n t i a l l y competing i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s fo rc e d on him as a r e s u lt o f b e in g both b la c k and a p o l i t i c i a n . Kenneth C la r k illu m in a te s th e r o l e s t r a i n t h a t b la c k p o l i t i c i a n s may e n c o u n te r 52 when they must r e l y on both b lack and w h ite votes f o r t h e i r e le c t io n : P o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y demands t h a t th e y appeal fo r vo tes p r im a r ily in terms o f g e n e r a l, r a th e r than s p e c if ic r a c ia l is s u e s . . .Negro c a n d id a te s in th ese circu m stan ces must somehow manage th e d i f f i ­ c u l t ta s k o f running a campaign and p r o je c tin g an image as i f Am erica had in f a c t reached th e stage o f r a c ia l m a tu r ity where ra c e and c o lo r are i r r e l e v a n t and where a c a n d id a te would be judged and s e le c te d by th e e le c t o r a t e in term s o f his 55 i n t e l l i g e n c e , competence, e x p e rie n c e and i n t e g r i t y . V aluing b la ck consciousness w i l l p ro b ab ly enhance a b lack incum bent's chances f o r r e - e l e c t i o n in a d i s t r i c t t h a t is p red o m in an tly b la c k , f o r h is b la ck consciousness w i l l most l i k e l y be construed as a good in d ic a to r o f h is a c c o u n t a b ilit y . However, a r a c i a l l y mixed e le c ­ to r a te may n o t vie w b la c k consciousness in such p o s itiv e term s; in such a d i s t r i c t , w h ite s may in t e r p r e t high b la ck consciousness as a sign th a t b lack p o l i t i c i a n s w i l l p ro b ab ly not re p re s e n t in t e r e s t s o th e r than those o f t h e i r b la c k c o n s titu e n ts . T h is is p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e l y to be th e case when both r a c ia l groups have d is p a ra te s o c io ­ economic s ta tu s e s . Leaders from r a c i a l l y mixed d i s t r i c t s w i l l th e r e ­ fo re be c o n fro n te d w ith th e n e c e s s ity o f a r t i c u l a t i n g th e e x p e c ta tio n s o f both r a c ia l groups under th e t h r e a t o f evo king r a c ia l p o la r iz a t io n . This is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r b lack p o l i t i c i a n s who a re h ig h ly commit­ ted to o f f i c e . I t s im p ly would not be prudent o r r e a l i s t i c f o r a p o l i t i c ia n w ith s tro n g o f f i c e comnitment to e x h ib i t high b la c k con­ sciousness i f w h ite s compose a d i s t i n c t p ro p o rtio n o f his d i s t r i c t , fo r t h is may a lie n a t e necessary w h ite v o te s . s it e s tr a te g y and show l i t t l e But to adopt th e oppo­ concern f o r blacks o r f o r a b la c k i d e n t it y could se rv e to reduce support w ith b la c k c o n s titu e n ts . 53 Compared to those p o l i t i c ia n s who re p re s e n t d i s t r i c t s which a re alm ost homogeneously b la c k , o r alm ost w h ite , th e b la ck incumbent who faces a mixed d i s t r i c t is placed in th e p re c a rio u s circu m stan ce o f having to invoke d i s t i n c t types o f campaign a p p e a ls . Thus i t is d i f f i c u l t to p re d ic t e x a c tly what h is le v e l o f b la ck consciousness w i l l although i t is s a fe to s p e c u la te th a t i t w i l l be, p ro b a b ly be less than t h a t o f p o l i t i c i a n s from m a in ly b lack c o n s titu e n c ie s , and g re a te r than t h a t found among o ffic e h o ld e r s from p red o m in an tly w hite c o n s titu e n c ie s . In o th e r words, th e d ata should show th a t r a c i a ll y conscious incumbents re p re s e n t p red o m in a n tly b la c k d is ­ t r i c t s , and t h a t th e les s r a c i a l l y conscious hold o f f i c e in mixed o r predom inantly w h ite d i s t r i c t s . In making th e p ro p o s itio n t h a t b lack consciousness and r a c ia l composition o f d i s t r i c t w i l l be r e la t e d we do n o t w ish to convey the Im pression t h a t b la c k c a n d id a tes w ith h ig h e s t b la c k conscious­ ness w i l l a u to m a tic a lly t r a n s la t e th is in t o r a c i a l ap p eals and win the black v o te . o f p o lit ic ia n s For one, b lack consciousness is a v a lu e , and values ( l i k e everyone e ls e ) may o r may n o t be r e f le c t e d behavior a l l o f th e tim e . in However, as th e n o tio n o f p o l i t i c a l s e l f - in te r e s t is one o f th e basic assumptions o f t h is s tu d y , i t p la u s ib le to assume t h a t b lack consciousness w i l l seems be r e f le c t e d in appeals to th e e le c t o r a t e in s itu a tio n s where i t may maxim ize chances fo r g e ttin g v o te s . I f t h is assumption is v a l i d , th e d a ta o f th is study should show a d i r e c t , p o s itiv e r e la t io n s h ip between th e p ro ­ p o rtio n o f b lacks in th e e le c t o r a l c o n s titu e n c y and b la c k conscious­ ness. 54 I t should a ls o be noted t h a t w h ile p o l i t i c i a n s may t r a n s la t e black consciousness in to b e h a v io r, i t may not have the v o te -c a tc h in g e f f e c t t h a t was in te n d e d . S tu d ies o f b la c k v o tin g beh avio r have shown th a t b la c k v o te rs may n o t n e c e s s a r ily e l e c t a p a r t i c u l a r c a n d id a te sim ply because he e x h ib its a high le v e l o f b la ck consciousness. Wilson notes t h a t , "the d iv is io n s o f th e Negro comnunity along lin e s o f p a r t y , c la s s and s ta tu s a re much too profound and p e rv a s iv e to allo w f o r th e o p e ra tio n o f any such uncom plicated response as a ra ce vote."^® In a c tu a l p r a c t ic e , i t has o fte n been th e case th a t b la c k voters r e je c te d can d id ates who adopted stro n g r a c i a l appeals in t h e ir campaign p la tfo rm s . Stone e x p la in s th a t t h is is because black v o te rs have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been " p o l i t i c a l c e n tr is ts " l i k e t h e ir w h ite c o u n te rp a rts . E la b o ra tin g f u r t h e r on t h is s i t u a t i o n , he s ta te s : Even when ra d ic a l p o l i t i c a l can d id ates have appealed to th e Black in s t in c t s o f th e Black e le c t o r a te by seeking support f o r B lack n a tio n -o r ie n te d p o l i t i c s , such c a n d id a tes have been re p u d ia te d . . .w idespread evid en ce could be found o f Black Americans v o tin g f o r a w h ite c a n d id a te a g a in s t a b la c k c a n d id a te , o r o f some w h ite p o l i t i c a l m a c h in e -c o n tro lle d Black m e d io c rity being supported in p re fe re n c e to a c o m n itte d , a d r o i t Black advocate o f B lack a u t o m o n y .” In sum, b la c k consciousness may not always have a b eh av io ra l im p a c t, and when i t d oes, i t may not fu n c tio n as th e v o te -c a tc h in g mechanism th a t i t was intended to be. N o n eth eless, i t seems p la u s ib le t h a t the black o f f ic e h o ld e r in high d e n s ity b la ck d i s t r i c t s w i l l be pressured to become b la c k co n scio u s, a t l e a s t , to a g r e a te r e x te n t than those in d i s t r i c t s w ith few er b la c k s . I t a ls o seems re a s o n a b le th a t those who a re committed to o f f ic e w ill become more b la c k conscious than th e y o th e rw is e m ig h t, in d is ­ t r i c t s where th e re is a h ig h p ro p o rtio n o f b la c k s . I f t h is is the case, when the r a c ia l com position o f th e d i s t r i c t Is tak en in to acco u n t, we should f in d an in t e r a c t iv e r e la t io n s h ip between commit­ ment to p u b lic o f f i c e and r a c ia l co m p o sitio n o f the d i s t r i c t on the one hand, and b la c k consciousness on th e o th e r . we would e x p e c t to f in d In o th e r words, t h a t black consciousness in c re a s e s as the p ro p o rtio n o f blacks in a c o n s titu e n c y in c re a s e s , among th o se who are com m itted to o f f i c e . Thus, i f a m b itio n is taken as an in d ic a to r o f d egree o f o f f i c e com m ittm ent, those w ith p ro g re s s iv e and s t a t ic am bitions should show a p a tte r n o f lo w er b la c k consciousness as t h e i r c o n s titu e n c ie s become more w h ite , s in ce th e y a re l i k e l y to be In ­ fluenced by the make-up o f t h e i r c o n s titu e n c ie s . Among p o l i t i c ia n s w ith d is c r e t e am bitions however, we should e x p ec t to f in d a very d i f f e r e n t s it u a t io n . T h e ir unconcern f o r r e - e le c t io n should be r e f le c t e d in t h e i r le v e l o f b lack consciousness. R ather th an seeing a p a tte r n o f b lack consciousness in c re a s in g as th e p ro p o rtio n o f blacks in th e d i s t r i c t in c re a s e s , we should see a ve ry haphazard p a tte r n . Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t s R a c ia l com position o f an e le c to r a l c o n s titu e n c y is o n ly one o f several c o n s titu e n c y c h a r a c t e r is t ic s t h a t a re l i k e l y to im pinge on the value o r ie n t a t io n s o f b la c k o f fic e h o ld e r s . P o ss ib ly a n o th e r c r i t i c a l fa c t o r i s th e typ e o f e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t in which o f f i c e 1 s sought, th a t i s , w hether the e l e c t o r a l d i s t r i c t is an a t - l a r g e o r ward system. 56 S tudents o f urban p o l i t i c s have long been aware o f the f a c t t h a t compared to ward system s, a t - l a r g e systems a re g e n e r a lly less re sp o n tQ s ib le to th e p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c in t e r e s t s o f r a c ia l and e th n ic m in o r it ie s . A t-la rg e systems n e c e s s ita te th e seeking o f vo tes o ve r a wide geo­ graphical are a th e r e fo r e making i t im p e ra tiv e t h a t n o n -m in o rity vo tes be s o lic it e d by m in o r ity c a n d id a te s , a d i f f i c u l t ta s k in r a c i a l l y p o la rize d en viro n m e n ts . Thus even though b la c k v o te rs fre q u e n tly c o n s titu te a s i g n i f i c a n t m in o r it y , i f not a m a jo r it y in c e r ta in a r e a s , p a r t ic u la r ly in urban c e n te rs , i t is most p ro b ab le t h a t "Negro v o t e r s " , as noted by B a ile y , " w ill have th e g r e a te s t change o f in flu e n c in g a c a n d id a te 's e le c t io n i f e le c tio n s a r e by w ard.'' corroborates t h i s p ro p o s itio n . eg E m p irica l evid e n c e P a tte rs o n has documented how s e v e ra l c it ie s d ev is ed a t - l a r g e form ulas f o r th e d e lib e r a t e purpose o f r e s ­ t r i c t i n g b la c k p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n . 6® A ls o , in a study o f c i t y councils in tw e lv e Northern c i t i e s o f s iz e 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r more, Kramer observed t h a t th e number o f b la c k c i t y c o u n c il-p e rs o n s decreased in c e rta in c i t i e s when a t - l a r g e fo rm u las were d e v is e d . 61 S im ila r ly , a f t e r co n du ctin g a study o f 171 c i t y c o u n c ils , Jones concluded t h a t "while Black Americans are s e v e re ly u nd errepresen ted on c i t y c o u n c ils regardless o f e le c t o r a l system , Blacks a re more e q u ita b ly rep res en ted on c it y c o u n c ils w ith d i s t r i c t systems than on c i t y c o u n c ils w ith a t-la r g e sy ste m s ." 62 These f in d in g s suggest t h a t th e p r o b a b ilit y o f e le c to r a l success fo r black c a n d id a te s 1 s in c re as ed when o f f i c e is sought in ward systems ra th e r than a t - l a r g e system. The s it u a t io n o f b la c k s who seek o f f i c e in a t - la r g e systems seems to be analogous to those who run in r a c i a l l y 57 d iv e r s if ie d d i s t r i c t s . Both typ es o f circu m stan ces r e q u ir e th e s o l ­ i c i t a t i o n o f both m in o r ity and n o n -m in o rity v o te s . T h u s, i t expected t h a t in o rd e r to d im in is h th e t h r e a t o f r a c i a l is p o la r iz a tio n , candidates in a t - l a r g e systems w i l l be fo rc e d to to n e down o v e r t ly r a c ia l a p p e a ls , and may v e ry l i k e l y e x h ib i t a low d eg re e o f b la c k consciousness. So, ty p e o f e l e c t o r a l d i s t r i c t may be exp ected to be a s s o c ia te d w ith d i f f e r e n t l e v e ls o f b la c k co n sc io u sn es s. Up u n t i l t h is p o in t , we have d iscu ssed o n ly one c r i t e r i o n to d is tin g u is h betw een p o l i t i c i a n s w ith v a ry in g le v e ls o f commitment to p u b lic o f f i c e , namely p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n . One co u ld rank e x te n t o f o f f i c e commitment in term s o f s e v e ra l o th e r c r i t e r i a ; f o r exam ple, period o f tim e sp e n t in o f f i c e , number o f o f f i c e s sought o r h e ld , im portance o f o f f i c e h e ld , and p o l i t i c a l may campaign e x p e r ie n c e . It be assumed t h a t th e most com m itted to o f f i c e a r e o f fic e h o ld e r s who have s p e n t a long tim e in o f f i c e , sought o r h e ld s e v e ra l o f f i c e s , had p o l i t i c a l im p o rta n t. If campaign e x p e r ie n c e , and h old o f f i c e s t h is assum ption is v a l i d , th e l a t t e r ty p e o f incum bent w i l l t h a t a re more i t should be found t h a t show lo w e r b la c k consciousness than those who s o jo u rn in p u b lic o f f i c e has been o f b r i e f e r d u r a t io n , those w ith no p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e r ie n c e , th o se who have h eld and sought few o f f i c e s , and f i n a l l y , le s s e r im p o rta n c e . C o n s e q u e n tly , in a d d itio n to e x p lo r in g th e i n t e r ­ r e la t io n s h ip between p o l i t i c a l l a t t e r group o f f a c t o r s w i l l they cause v a r i a t i o n th o se who hold o f f i c e s w hich a re o f a m b itio n and b la c k c o n s c io u s n e s s , th e a ls o be examined in o r d e r to see w hether in s u s c r ip tio n to b la c k co n scio u sn ess. 58 P a rtis a n Commitment In C h ap ter I i t was noted t h a t th e c lo s e a s s o c ia tio n o f b la c k o ffic e h o ld e r s o f th e p a s t w ith urban p o l i t i c a l machines s e r io u s ly undermined t h e i r commitment to t h e i r r a c e , as w e ll as th e In flu e n c e they had 1n th e p o lic y making re a lm . B a s ic a lly , th e reason was t h a t those In c o n tro l o f p o l i t i c a l machines were not s e r io u s ly In te r e s t e d In a llo c a t in g th e reso u rces o f s o c ie ty 1 n a manner conducive to th e prom otion o f th e in t e r e s t s o f b la c k s . W hile we do n o t w ish to c r e a t e a d i r e c t s t r u c t u r a l a n a lo g y between th e o ld s t y l e p o l i t i c a l machine and p o l i t i c a l 1t p a r t ie s to d a y , may be in f e r r e d t h a t blacks w ith s tro n g p a r tis a n I n t e r e s t s may encounter c o n f l i c t s between th e Is s u e s supported by th e p a r ty w ith which th ey a re a f f i l i a t e d , and t h e i r r a c i a l commitments. If t h is 1s the c a s e , b la c k p a r tis a n s should be found to be le s s conscious th an t h e i r n o n -p a rtis a n c o u n te rp a r ts . T h is p r o p o s itio n has been e m p ir ic a lly s u b s ta n tia te d by th e lite r a tu r e . C h a rle s Dunn, in a s tu d y o f b la c k l e g i s l a t i v e b e h a v io r In th e I l l i n o i s House o f R e p re s e n ta tiv e s re p o rte d t h a t b la c k con­ sciousness tended to be low er among th o s e who were c lo s e ly a l l i e d w ith a p o litic a l p a rty . votes where r a c i a l 63 S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e d a ta showed t h a t in r o l l c a ll in t e r e s t s c o n f li c t e d w ith p a r tis a n i n t e r e s t s , sup­ p o rt f o r th e fo rm e r o v e r th e l a t t e r came p r im a r ily from th o s e le g ­ i s l a t o r s who w ere more Independent o f p o l i t i c a l p a r tie s . Thus Dunn concluded t h a t p a r t is a n t i e s ten d to r e s u l t 1 n th e s u b o rd in a tio n o f e th n ic commitments to p o l i t i c a l p a r t y d ic t a t e s . T h is stu d y w i l l a tte m p t to d is c o v e r w hether th e p re c e d in g f in d in g Is s u b s ta n tia te d in th e sample u nd er s tu d y . F i r s t o f a l l , we w i l l 59 d i f f e r e n t i a t e between p a r ty a f f i l i a t e s and In d e p e n d e n ts , and e x p lo re whether th e l a t t e r are more b la c k conscious th an th e fo rm e r. Fur­ th erm o re, g iv e n th e R ep u b lica n p a r t y 's in d if f e r e n c e to b la c k concerns in r e c e n t y e a r s , and t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to a t t r a c t a s i g n i f i c a n t p ro ­ p o rtio n o f b la c k members, i t ia te s w i l l seems p la u s ib le t h a t D em ocratic a f f i l ­ be more b lack c o n s c io u s than GOP's. The argument may also be made t h a t th e manner o f e v a lu a tin g o n e 's r e la t io n s h ip w ith p o litic a l p a r t i e s is a ls o a good in d ic a to r o f e x t e n t o f commitment to p a r t is a n i n t e r e s t s . H o ld in g p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o f f i c e may a ls o be construed as a r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t o r o f degree o f p a r tis a n coum ltm ent. A fin a l -in d ic a to r o f p a r t is a n commitment, and p ro b a b ly one t h a t 1s less r e l i a b l e than the p re v io u s th r e e concerns w h e th e r th e o f f i c e one h o ld s 1s p a r tis a n o r n o n -p a r t is a n . I t may be assumed t h a t p a r t i ­ san o f f ic e h o ld e r s w i l l have g r e a t e r p a rtis a n i n t e r e s t than non­ p a rtis a n o f f ic e h o ld e r s , and hence th e l a t t e r group w i l l e x h ib it g re a te r b la c k consciousness th a n th e fo rm e r. In th e preceeding d is c u s s io n , b lack consciousness was a n a ly ze d as a v a lu e t h a t would f u l f i l l p a r tis a n n e e d s . s p e c if ic types o f o f f i c e seeking and Whether o f f ic e h o ld e r s run in a t - l a r g e o r d i s t r i c t system s, in r a c i a l l y d iv e r s e o r homogenous d i s t r i c t s , hold high o r low o f f i c e p o s it io n s , p a r t is a n o r n o n -p a rtis a n o f f i c e , a re a f f i l i a t e d w ith d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , have d i s t i n c t ty p e s o f p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n s , have held o f f i c e many tim es o r j u s t a fe w , a l l o f th e f a c t o r s a re some th a t t h e o r e t i c a l l y may im pinge on th e e x te n t o f sub­ s c r ip t io n t o b la c k co n scio u sn ess. 60 So f a r t h is s tu d y has a tte m p ted to p ro v id e t h e o r e t ic a l j u s t i ­ f ic a t io n f o r v ie w in g b la c k le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r 1 n term s o f v a lu e th e o ry , and we have deduced c e r t a in p ro p o s itio n s ab o ut o ffic e -n e e d s and p a r tis a n commitment. been p a id so f a r h a v io r, to th e p o l i t i c a l d e te rm in a n ts o f le a d e r s h ip be­ i t would be erro neo us to conclude t h a t e x p la n a tio n s o f b eh avio r o f p o l i t i c a l ia b le s . In s p it e o f th e heavy emphasis t h a t has e l i t e s can be o f fe r e d o n ly by p o l i t i c a l the v a r­ Indeed even though S c h le s in g e r a s c rib e s g r e a t w e ig h t to th e im pact o f c a r e e r n eed s, he notes t h a t by them selves th e s e types o f fa c to r s can o f f e r o n ly lim it e d e x p la n a tio n s o f th e dynam ics o f le a d e rs h ip s t y l e . Acknowledging t h a t o th e r " n o n - p o l i t i c a l " type o f fa c to r s must be c o n s id e re d by th e s tu d e n t o f le a d e rs h ip b eh av io r he s t a t e s : We m ust n o te f i r s t t h a t th e a m b itio u s p o l i t i c i a n is an a b s tr a c tio n and t h a t a th e o ry based on such a p a r t i a l view o f w hat moves th e p o l i t i c i a n cannot e x p la in a l l o f h is b e h a v io r, even th e s p e c i f i c a l l y p o litic a l. P o l i t i c i a n s a re no more d riv e n by th e s in g le m o tiv e o f o f f i c e th an businessmen a re g uided by th e d e s ir e f o r p r o f i t o r d o c to rs by th e u rg e to h e a l. Each has a l i f e beyond h is o ccu p atio n w hich im pinges on th e way he p e r f o r m s . 64 W hile we b e lie v e t h a t a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f f a c t o r s o p e ra te to in flu e n c e the p o lic y sta n c es adopted by e le c te d o f f i c i a l s , a c u rs o ry o verview o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on p o l i t i c a l e l i t e s re v e a ls t h a t few t h e o r is t s e v e r pay a t t e n t io n to more th an a few fa c to r s a t any one tim e . For example th e re a r e c o n s titu e n c y th e o r ie s t h a t s tr e s s th e r o le p la y e d by p re s ­ sures le v ie d by c o n s t it u e n t p u b lic s such as o th e r o f f i c e h o l d e r s , i n t e r e s t g ro up s, p a r ty members and th e v o t e r s . 65 In a d d it io n , th e r e a re th e o rie s t h a t e x h i b i t a d i s t i n c t s o c io lo g ic a l o r i e n t a t i o n in the s tr e s s 61 they p la c e on personal and s o c ia l background f a c t o r s , f o r exam ple, o c c u p atio n a l d if f e r e n c e s , p re r e c ru itm e n t s o c ia l e x p e rie n c e s , s o c io ­ economic s t a t u s , e t c . 6 6 A ls o th e re 1s a group o f e l i t e t h e o r is t s which a t t r i b u t e s th e d e te r m in a n t o f le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r p r i m a r i ly to b a s ic p s y c h o lo g ic a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s such as p e r s o n a lity con­ f i g u r a t i o n s . 6^ F i n a l l y , t h e r e a re th e o rie s w ith o v e r t " p o l i t i c a l b ia s e s " , t h a t promote th e id e a t h a t th e p o l i t i c a l c u lt u r e e x e r ts d i f f e r e n t typ es o f p re s s u re s on le a d e r s , hence le a d e rs h ip dynamics must be c o n s id e re d as a f u n c t io n o f th e o p e ra tio n o f such f a c t o r s as o f f i c e p o s itio n h e ld , o f f i c e p o s itio n d e s ir e d (a m b itio n ) e t c . 68 The l a t t e r ty p e o f th e o ry was p re v io u s ly d iscu ssed 1n th e p re c e e d in g s e c tio n . I d e a l l y any e x p lo r a tio n o f th e causal d e te rm in a n ts o f b la c k con­ sciousness should g iv e c o n s id e r a tio n to a l l in th e a fo re m e n tio n e d t h e o r ie s . o f th e fa c to r s c o n ta in e d However, th e d i f f i c u l t y o f c o n s tru c ­ tin g a m u ltic a u s a l design re n d e rs i t n ecessary f o r us to l i m i t th e purview o f t h i s a n a ly s is t o a manageable number o f f a c t o r s . So f a r , d is c u s s io n has cen tered on th e p o l i t i c a l v a r ia b le s t h a t may be a s s o c i­ ated w ith b la c k co n scio u sn ess. The o th e r s e t o f fa c to r s t h a t m e r it c o n s id e ra tio n a re those t h a t concern th e s o c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f the group. It should be n o te d t h a t not a l l branches o f p o l i t i c a l le a d e rs h ip th e o ry a s c r ib e s ig n if ic a n c e to t h i s second group o f f a c t o r s , p ro bably because as p o in te d o u t by Browning and Jacob, i t is th ou gh t th a t p o l i t i c a l a c to rs w i l l more l i k e l y respond to c h a lle n g e s and o ppor­ t u n it ie s o f th e im m ediate p re s e n t than in flu e n c e s o f t h e i r d is t a n t p a s t. 6 9 N o n e th e le s s , because b la c k consciousness has n e v e r been 62 e m p ir ic a lly In v e s tig a te d In terms o f i t s may v e ry w e ll be d em o n strated t h a t I t p o l i t i c a l d e te rm in a n ts , 1 t Is a s o c ia l r a t h e r th an a p o l i t i c a l v a lu e , and 1 s th u s a fu n c tio n o f th e d i f f e r i n g s o c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e g ro u p , r a t h e r th an th e p re v io u s ly p o s ite d p o litic a l fa c to rs . To i n v e s t ig a t e w heth er t h i s is Indeed th e c a s e , i t is n ecessary to tu rn th e d is c u s s io n to th e s o c io lo g ic a l c o n te x t o f b la c k co n scio u sn ess. The S o c io lo g ic a l C o n te x t o f Black Consciousness As n oted e a r l i e r , one o f th e most d is t in g u is h in g fe a tu r e s about black consciousness as a dom inant s o c ia l v a lu e among b la ck s i s th e recency w ith which i t has ap p eared . The h i s t o r i c a l fo rc e s o f en ­ slavem ent and s e g re g a tio n to w hich b la ck s w ere exposed succeeded in accom plishing t h e i r grand d es ig n - th e i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f f e e lin g s of in f e r io r it y , i d e a l i z a t i o n o f w h ite s , and group and s e l f - h a t r e d . Kenneth C la r k , a p s y c h o lo g is t, comments on th e way in w hich th e s o c ie ta l s t r u c t u r e o f ra c is m as w e ll as in d iv id u a l a c ts o f d is c r im ­ in a tio n d e b i l i t a t e d h e a lth y p s y c h o lo g ic a l developm ent among b la c k s : Human beings who a r e fo rc e d to l i v e under g h e tto c o n d i­ t io n s and whose d a i l y e x p e rie n c e t e l l s them t h a t a lm o s t nowhere in s o c ie ty a r e th e y re s p e c te d and g ra n te d th e o r d in a r y d ig n i t y and c o u rte s y acco rd ed to o th e rs w i l l , as a m a tte r o f c o u rs e , begin to d o u b t t h e i r own w o rth . S in c e e v e ry human b e in g depends upon h is c u m u la tiv e e x p e rie n c e w ith o th e rs f o r c lu e s as t o how he should view and v a lu e h im s e lf , c h ild r e n who a r e c o n s is t e n t ly r e je c te d u n d e rs ta n d a b ly b e g in to q u e s tio n and doubt w hether t h e y , t h e i r f a m ily , and t h e i r group r e a l l y d eserve no more re s p e c t fro m th e la r g e r s o c ie t y than th e y r e c e iv e . These doubts become th e seeds o f a p e rn ic io u s s e l f - and g r o u p - h a t r e d .. . 63 C la r k 's s ta te m e n t has been c o rro b o ra te d by numerous p sy c h o lo g ic a l in v e s tig a tio n s o f b la c k s . 71 In l i g h t o f t h e i r f in d in g s , th e f a c t th a t many b la ck s have l a t e l y appeared to vie w t h e i r r a c i a l id e n tity in more p o s it iv e term s th an in p a s t tim e s , le a d s one to suspect t h a t th is change 1 n t r a d i t i o n a l p e rc e p tio n s o f th e s e l f and o n e 's group w i l l n o t be u n ifo rm th ro u g h o u t th e b la c k com m unity. Given i t s newness, one may e x p e c t t h a t b la ck s who a re more t r a d i t i o n a l i s , those who a r e more r e s i s t a n t to change) w i l l (th a t be le s s l i k e l y to be b la c k co n sc io u s; c o n v e rs e ly th e more modern, t h a t i s , those more fa v o ra b le - to change and new id e a s , w i l l be more c r i t i c a l o f the h is t o r ic a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f " b la c k n e s s ," and as a r e s u l t b la c k consciousness w i l l be more pronounced among t h i s g ro u p . comnonly acknowledged t h a t th e th r e e most c r i t i c a l It 1s in d ic e s o f t r a d ­ it io n a lis m among b la c k s a re ag e , re g io n o f c h i ld - r e a r in g y e a r s , and area o f re s id e n c e . Dwaine M arvick p o in ts o u t t h a t th e s e v a r ia b le s a c t as s a l i e n t in d ic e s o f c u lt u r a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n among blacks because th e y in d ic a t e s o c ia li z a t i o n in two d i s t i n c t types o f s o c ia l en viro n m en ts, one m odern, th e o th e r t r a d i t i o n a l . 72 Blacks in th e south ten d to be r u r a l and as a r e s u l t o f b ein g c u t o f f from the ra p id pace o f s o c ie t a l change th e y a ls o ten d to have a more tr a d ­ i t i o n a l v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n compared to t h e i r n o rth e rn c o u n te rp a rts . In th e fo llo w in g e x c e r p t W alker and Aberbach e la b o r a te on the e f f e c t th a t th e d i f f e r e n t typ es o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n e x p e rie n c e o ffe r e d by th e urban n o rth and r u r a l south have on b la c k a t t i t u d e s : L if e 1n th e N o rth e rn c i t y b rin g s to b e a r on a b la c k person fo rc e s w hich le a d him to r e j e c t th e t r a d i t i o n a l 64 s u b s e rv ie n t a t t it u d e s o f Southern N egroes. Away from th e p a r o c h ia l, o p p re s s iv e atm osphere o f th e s o u th , he 1 s born i n t o o r s lo w ly a p p ro p r ia te s th e more cosm opoli­ ta n , s e c u la r iz a t io n c u lt u r e o f th e n o r th . . .W ith tim e he grasps s u f f i c i e n t In fo r m a tio n about th e urban p a ra ­ d is e . T r a d it io n a l a t t i t u d e s o f d e fe re n c e and p o l i t i c a l p a s s iv it y fa d e as a m i l i t a n t s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l stance g ain s a p p ro v a l in th e com m unity.73 Given th e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t th e y o u n g e r, the u rb a n , and th e n o rth e rn born w i l l be more amenable to new id e as than th o se who a re o ld e r , r u r a l , and o f southern background, i t may be in f e r r e d t h a t th e fo rm er ty p e o f fa c to r s w i l l be more c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith b la c k consciousness than the l a t t e r . W h ile th e p re c e d in g h y p o th e s is seems p la u s ib le on th e o r ­ e t i c a l grounds, i t would be v a lu a b le to c o n s u lt r e le v a n t asp ects o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on b la c k r a c ia l a t t i t u d e s in o rd e r t o a s c e r t a in w hether a s im ila r s e t o f f a c t o r s have coranonly been found to be a s s o c ia te d w ith a ttitu d in a l d if f e r e n t ia t io n among b la c k s . I f th e s e fa c to r s re c u r in the l i t e r a t u r e as c o r r e la te s o f b la c k a t t i t u d e s , th en we may f e e l more secure in h y p o th e s iz in g t h a t th e y w i l l be r e la t e d to b la c k con­ sciousness. The r e le v a n t bodies o f l i t e r a t u r e t h a t w i l l be con­ s u lte d is t h a t d e a lin g w ith a t t i t u d e s toward w h ite s and toward m i l ­ ita n c y . The r a t i o n a l e f o r fo c u s in g on these two b o d ies o f l i t e r ­ a tu re w i l l be c l a r i f i e d in th e f o llo w in g d is c u s s io n . Studies o f B lack M ilit a n c y A body o f l i t e r a t u r e t h a t may suggest f r u i t f u l h yp oth esis ab o u t the typ e and d i r e c t i o n o f in flu e n c e o f s o c ia l background and demo­ g rap h ic v a r ia b le s on b la c k consciousness is t h a t w hich has examined the causal d e te rm in a n ts o f b la c k m i l it a n c y . In choosing to c o n s u lt the " p r o te s t" l i t e r a t u r e , we do n o t in te n d to convey th e im p ressio n th a t b la ck m i l it a n c y and b la c k consciousness a re v a lu e s commensurate 65 e i t h e r in c o n te n t o r mode o f e x p re s s io n . The reason f o r fo cu sin g on t h is ty p e o f l i t e r a t u r e steins from th e f a c t t h a t e m p ir ic a l I n ­ v e s tig a tio n s o f b la c k m ilit a n c y have f r e q u e n t ly dem onstrated a c lo s e convergence between s u p p o rt f o r b la c k m ilit a n c y and pronounced b la c k consciousness* a lth o u g h i t has n o t been shown t h a t b la c k co n sc io u s74 ness le a d s t o m i l it a n c y . For exam p le , Campbell e t a l , both In t h e i r 1968 and 1974 s tu d ie s o f r a c i a l a t t i t u d e s , r e p o r t t h a t su p po rt f o r m ilit a n c y is n o t v e ry h ig h among b la c k s , w h ile th e same 1 s not tru e o f a t t i t u d e s o f b la c k co n sc io u sn es s. W hile m i l i t a n t a t t it u d e s were sup po rted by o n ly a sm all segment o f b la c k s , 96% o f th e sample agreed t h a t "Negroes should ta k e more p r id e in Negro h i s t o r y , " and fo u r o u t o f te n respondents th o u g h t t h a t "Negro school c h ild r e n should study an A f r ic a n lan g u ag e . 75 In sum, w h ile b la c k m i l i t a n t s a re gen­ e r a l l y b la c k c o n s c io u s , th e b la c k co n scio u s a re o n ly r a r e l y m i l i t a n t . 7 6 In l i g h t o f th e f a c t t h a t b la c k m ilit a n c y has been p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c ia te d w ith b la c k c o n sc io u sn es s, th e l i t e r a t u r e on m i l i t a n t a t t i t u d e s may suggest f r u i t f u l p ro p o s itio n s ab o u t th e s o c ia l c o r r e la t e s o f b la ck con­ scio u sn ess. In s e e k in g to d is c o v e r th e s o c ia l fa c to r s t h a t have been found to be a s s o c ia te d w ith m i l i t a n t b e h a v io r, perhaps th e b e s t p la c e to begin is to debunk c e r t a in myths t h a t a re comnonly h e ld ab o u t b la c k m ilit a n c y . One o f th e most p r e v a le n t and erro n eo u s e x p la n a tio n s o f m i l i t a n t a t t i ­ tudes and b e h a v io r is o f fe r e d by th e so c a lle d " r iff-r iff" th e o r y , which p o s its t h a t s o c ia l d e v la n c y , c r i m i n a l i t y , forms o f em otional d is tu r b a n c e , and lo w e r so cio -eco n o m ic s ta tu s a r e a l l to m i l it a n c y . f a c t o r s r e la t e d S tu d ie s have n e v e r found su p p o rt f o r t h i s v ie w . 66 U n iv e r s a lly , th ey show t h a t m i l i t a n t s a re n o t o n ly p e r s o n a lly and s o c ia ll y a d ju s te d , b u t a ls o th e y r a t e h ig h ly on some Im p o rta n t measures o f so cio -econ o m ic ach ievem ent. F o r exam ple, Tom linson concluded from a stu d y o f Los Angeles r i o t e r s cream o f urban Negro c i t i z e n s " 77 1n g e n e r a l. t h a t th e y were " th e A ls o , Marx r e p o rte d th a t an Im p o rta n t a s p e c t o f m ilit a n c y was th e h ig h a p p r e c ia tio n o f in te lle c tu a l w o rld . 78 p u r s u its , and an uncommon I n t e r e s t In s o c ie ty and th e F i n a l l y , s e v e ra l s tu d ie s have r e p o rte d t h a t th e av erag e le v e l o f e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t o f b la ck m i l i t a n t s exceeded t h a t o f n o n - m ilit a n t s ; m oreover, m i l i t a n t s were le s s lik e ly to be unemployed or e c o n o m ic a lly a t th e v e r y bottom o f b la c k s o c ie ty than n o n - m ilIt a n t s . 79 O th e r fa c to r s t h a t w ere most s tr o n g ly a s s o c ia te d w ith b la c k m ilit a n c y were ag e , ty p e o f community re s id e d in and re g io n o f s o c ia l­ iz a tio n . From d a ta based on a n a tio n a l sam p le, Marx re p o rte d t h a t th e o ld e r showed a reduced p r o p e n s ity to be m i l i t a n t compared to th e younger. F u rth e rm o re , th e more m i l i t a n t were f o r th e most p a r t o r i g i n a l l y from the n o r t h ; th e les s m i l i t a n t from th e s o u th . Oddly enough, b la c k s from th e Deep South were found to be more m i l i t a n t than th o s e from th e Border S t a t e s . C it y l i v i n g was a ls o re p o rte d to be p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c ia te d w ith h ig h m ilit a n c y , r u r a l l i v i n g w ith low m i l it a n c y . G o ld b e rg 's study o f c o lle g e s tu d e n ts f a i l e d in g s . 80 W illis and t o r e p l i c a t e M a rx 's f i n d ­ N e it h e r re g io n o f s o c ia li z a t i o n n o r ty p e o f community w ere p o s it i v e l y a s s o c ia te d w ith m i l it a n c y . 81 The d if f e r e n c e In fin d in g s between b oth s tu d ie s Is p ro b a b ly a consequence o f th e f a c t t h a t W ill1 s and G old berg s tu d ie d a more s e le c t sample th an Marx - b la c k c o lle g e s tu d e n ts . M arx's fin d in g s should th e r e fo r e be co n sid ered more 67 r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e a c tu a l a t t i t u d e s o f b la ck s to w ard m ilit a n c y . A ll th e s tu d ie s review ed so f a r were conducted 1n th e s i x t i e s . From re s e a rc h conducted in 1 9 7 4 , Schuman and C a m p b e ll's data r e ­ p lic a te d th e f in d in g s o f th e p re v io u s decade; how ever, o f a l l th e fa c to rs t h a t p r e v io u s ly were found t o be r e la t e d t o m ilit a n c y , th e 1974 d ata showed age to be th e s tr o n g e s t background f a c t o r . In c o n c lu s io n , th e b r i e f o v e rv ie w o f s tu d ie s on m ilita n c y has suggested f i v e f a c t o r s as p o s s ib le d e te rm in a n ts o f b la c k co n scio u s­ ness. These a r e a g e , re g ip n o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n , ty p e o f community, socio-econom ic s t a t u s , and degree o f s o c ia l aw areness. I t may be recognized t h a t th e s e a re p r e c is e ly th e same f a c t o r s t h a t were con­ cluded to be l i k e l y c o r r e la te s o f b la c k consciousness in th e p re ­ vious s e c tio n . The fin d in g s o f th e e m p iric a l l i t e r a t u r e th e r e fo r e stren gth en th e lik e lih o o d t h a t o u r o r i g i n a l hypotheses concerning the in flu e n c e o f th e s e f i v e f a c t o r s w i l l However, b e fo re e x p lic a t in g In d e t a i l be found t o be v a l id . t h e i r p r e d ic te d a s s o c ia tio n w ith b la c k c o n s c io u s n e s s , 1 t may be i n s t r u c t iv e t o c o n s u lt one f i n a l body o f l i t e r a t u r e - t h a t which d e a ls w ith b la c k a t t i t u d e s toward whites - in o r d e r t o e x p lo re f u r t h e r in t o th e n a tu r e o f th e p o s s ib le s o c ia l and dem ographic c o r r e la te s o f b la ck co n scio u sn ess. A ttitu d e s Toward W hites On ap p ro ac h in g th e l i t e r a t u r e on a t t it u d e s o f b la c k s toward w hites one f e a t u r e t h a t im m e d ia te ly stands o u t 1 s th e low in c id e n c e o f a n t1- w h it e a t t i t u d e s among b la c k s . 82 The f a c t t h a t a n t i- w h it e sentim ents a r e n o t v e ry w id e ly d is t r i b u t e d among b la c k s may cause one to q u e s tio n o u r r a t io n a le f o r c o n s u ltin g th e body o f l i t e r a t u r e 68 th a t has In v e s tig a te d t h is p a r t i c u l a r ty p e o f a t t i t u d e . adm it t h a t b ein g p ro -b la c k (i.e . W h ile we b la c k c o n s c io u s ) 1 s n o t n e c e s s a r ily commensurate w ith being a n t i - w h i t e , 83 i t would seem t h a t th e r e may be some r e la t io n s h ip between th e two typ es o f a t t i t u d e s . The f i r s t i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h is ty p e o f l i t e r a t u r e Is t h a t the fa c to r s t h a t a r e re p o rte d to be r e la t e d t o a n t i- w h it e s e n tim e n ts have n o t rem ained th e same o v e r tim e . 84 Research conducted in th e p erio d from 1 9 4 5 -1 9 6 5 shows an unusual amount o f agreem ent in th e fa c to r s t h a t were found to’ be r e la t e d to a n t i - w h i t e a t t i t u d e s . The 85 C o rn ell U n iv e r s it y stu d y conducted 1 9 4 8 -1 9 4 9 , re p o rte d t h a t th e s e types o f a t t i t u d e s were most common amoung so u th e rn m ig ra n ts l i v i n g 1n th e n o r th , th e le s s e d u c a te d , th e e l d e r l y , and th e m a rr ie d . F ifte e n y e a rs l a t e r Marx re p o rte d t h a t a n t i - w h i t e a t t i t u d e s were more e v id e n t among s o u th e rn -b o rn m ig ran ts in th e n o r th , women, and those not o r ie n te d tow ard i n t e l l e c t u a l v a lu e s . Dg These fin d in g s were concordant w ith those re p o rte d by th e C o rn e ll group a decade and a h a l f e a r l i e r . However, in c o n t r a d ic tio n o f one o f th e r e s u lt s o f th e l a t t e r s tu d y , re s e a rc h in th e s i x t i e s showed t h a t th e o v e r­ whelming source o f a n t i - w h i t e a t t i t u d e s came from younger r a t h e r than o ld e r b la c k s . 87 S e v e ra l a tte m p ts have been made to e x p la in reason f o r th e s e c o n t r a d ic to r y fin d in g s . Perhaps th e most c r e d ib le is o ffe r e d by Johnson in a c r i t i q u e o f th e C o rn e ll s tu d y . 88 He d is tin g u is h e d between th e new b la c k creed s tr e s s in g i n t e g r a t i o n , m lllt a n c e , p r id e in s e l f and la c k o f p r e ju d ic e toward w h it e s , and the o ld b la c k c ree d s tr e s s in g s e l f - h a t r e d , a v e rs io n to w h ite s , avoidance and a p a th y . th e The a n t i - w h i t e a t t i t u d e s o f blacks in th e 69 1940's was r e la t e d to th e dominance o f th e o ld - b la c k creed 1n th e b lack community. A t t h a t tim e b ein g a n t i - w h i t e was p a r t and p a rc e l o f th e o ld b la c k c ree d and was hence th e “c o n s e rv a tiv e " a t t i t u d e since I t meant t h a t one accepted th e s u b o rd in a te p la c e o f b lacks in the s o c ie ty . Younger b la c k s In th e 1 9 4 0 's were le s s a n t i- w h it e p re c is e ly because th e y were more c r i t i c a l o f th e se g reg a te d s t a t u s - quo and w i l l i n g to compete w ith w h ite s r a t h e r th an w ith d ra w from them. In th e s i x t i e s * w ith th e changing s o c ia l c o n te x t o f ra c e r e ­ l a t i o n s . a n t i - w h i t e a t t i t u d e s became a le s s c o n s e rv a tiv e a t t i t u d e . In the new s o c ia l m i l i e u , th e new r a d ic a l p o s tu re was r e je c t io n o f th e i n t e g r a t i o n s t dream ; to be c o n s e rv a tiv e meant th e r e v e rs e . This re v e rs a l in fin d in g s suggests t h a t younger b la ck s have alw ays been more c r i t i c a l o f th e mode o f ra c e r e l a t i o n s in th e s o c ie ty throughout tim e , however as forms o f ra c e r e l a t i o n s have changed, so d id th e n a tu re o f t h e i r a t t i t u d e s tow ard w h ite s . p o in t in tim e * th e y w ere p ro -w h ite because t h is ch allen g ed th e s ta tu s quo; in th e s i x t i e s A t an e a r l i e r ty p e o f s e n tim e n t th e y w ere a n t i - w h i t e b e­ cause t h is c h a lle n g e d th e tre n d tow ard in t e g r a t io n in th e s o c ie t y . Summary A t t it u d e s tow ard b la c k m i l i t a n c y , w h ite s , and b la c k consciousness are n o t presumed t o be th e same e i t h e r in c o n te n t o r mode o f b e h a v io ra l e x p re s s io n . N o n e th e le s s , a f t e r re v ie w in g th e m a jo r areas o f re s e a rc h d e a lin g w ith th e s e th r e e types o f r a c i a l s e n tim e n t, i t has been found th a t th e v a lu e d if f e r e n c e s among b la c k s a r e a p p a r e n tly th e o u tg ro w th o f deep in t e r n a l c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . T h a t is to s a y , w h ile th e exp erien ce o f b ein g b la c k has fa s h io n e d a d i s t i n c t ty p e o f b la c k 70 c u ltu r e v i s - a - v i s th e w id e r s o c ie t y , r e g io n a l, g e n e ra tio n a l and socio-econom ic f a c t o r s , as w e ll as o th e r perso nal d i s t i n c t i o n s , have c re a te d h o r iz o n ta l cleavag es w it h in th e b la c k convnunlty; t h i s In tr a -g ro u p c u l t u r a l h e te r o g e n ity e x p la in s why b la ck s a re n o t more m o n o lith ic in e i t h e r t h e i r a t t i t u d e s o r b e h a v io r an d , presum ably w i l l n o t be homogeneous in t h e i r s u p p o rt o f b la c k co n sc io u sn es s. Five fa c to r s s ta n d o u t as s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e la t e s o f b la c k r a c i a l a t t it u d e s . These a r e : 1 ) a g e ; 2 ) re g io n o f c o u n try where one was re a re d ; 3 ) ty p e o f community in w hich one r e s id e s ; 4 ) so cio-econom ic s ta tu s ; and 5 ) d eg ree o f s o c ia l aw areness. The ty p e o f e f f e c t t h a t each o f these f a c t o r s may be e x p e c te d to have on b la c k consciousness 1s as fo llo w s : 1) Black o ffic e h o ld e r s who w ere re a re d in th e n o rth w i l l e x h ib i t g r e a te r b la c k conscio u sn ess th an th o se re a re d in th e s o u th ; 2) Black o f fic e h o ld e r s who l i v e in an urban community w i l l show g r e a t e r b la ck consciousness than those who r e s id e in a r u r a l en viro n m en t; 3) H ig h e r SES w i l l be more p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c ia te d w ith b la c k consciousness than lo w e r SES; 4) As age in c r e a s e s , s tr e n g th o f s u p p o rt f o r b la c k co n s c io u s ­ ness w i l l d e c re a s e ; 5) Blacks who d evelop p o l i t i c a l awareness e a r l i e r w i l l show g r e a t e r b la c k consciousness th an those who d evelop ed i t l a t e r in l i f e . 71 FOOTNOTES 1. For a d is c u s s io n o f th e n e g le c t o f b lacks in Am erican h is to r y as w e ll as s o c ia l s c ie n c e l i t e r a t u r e , see Chuck S to n e , Black P o l i t i c a l Power in A m e ric a , D e lta P u b lis h in g Company, 19^0, p. 5. 2. Some o f th e s tu d ie s t h a t f o llo w t h is o r i e n t a t i o n a r e : E la in e B urgess, Negro L ead ersh ip in a Southern C i t y , Chapel H i l l : 1962: Howard P f a u t z , "The Power S tr u c tu r e o f th e Negro Sub-Conm unlty; A Case S tu dy and a C o m p arative V ie w ,” P h vlo n , Sunnier, 1962; D a n ie l D. Thompson, The Negro L ea d e rs h ip C la s s , Englewood C l i f f s , 1963; H a ro ld Baron, "B la c k Pow erlessness in C h ic a g o ," B lack L ib e r a t io n P o l i t i c s , ( e d ) . Edward G re e r, Boston 1971. 3. For a c r i t i q u e o f th e r e p u t a t io n a l approach, see R obert D a h l, "A C r it i q u e o f th e R u lin g E l i t e M o d e l," Am erican P o l i t i c a 1 Science R eview , * 1 June 1 9 5 8 , pp. 4 6 3 -4 6 9 ; Nelson P o ls b y , "The S o c io lo g y o f Conmunity Power: A Reassessm ent," S o c ia l F o rc e s , M arch, 1 9 5 9 , pp. 2 3 2 -2 3 6 ; and Raymond W o lfin g e r , "The Study o f Community Power," Am erican S o c io lo g ic a l R eview , O ctober 1960, pp. 6 3 6 -6 4 4 . 4. For a d is c u s s io n o f th e p a u c ity o f i n t e r e s t in b la c k p o l i t i c s in th e p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e p ro fe s s io n s e e , Donald R. M atthew s, " P o l i t i c a l Science Research f o r Race R e la tio n s '1 1n Irw in Katz and P a t r i c i a G u r in , e d s ., Race and th e S o c ia l Sciences (New Y o rk : B asic Books, 1 9 6 9 ); a ls o , M ilto n b . M o r r is , The P o l i t i c s o f Black Am erica (New Y o rk: H arper & Row) 1975. 5. Examples o f these a re James Q. W ils o n , “Two Negro P o l i t i c i a n s : An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n " M idw est J o u rn a l o f P o l i t i c a l S cien ce (November 1 9 6 0 ), p p . 3 4 6 -3 4 9 ; Kenneth G. W einberg, B la c k V ic t o r y : C arl Stokes and th e Winning o f C le v e la n d { Chicago: Q u a d ra n g le , 1 9 6 8 ); John f \ B ecker and Eugene E. Heaton J r . , " E le c tio n o f S enator Edward W. B ro o ke ," P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r t e r ly , V o l. 31 ( F a l l 1 9 6 7 ), pp. 3 4 6 -3 5 8 ; Mary Dowling D a le y , "Mayor &tokes West Side S to ry " Commonweal . V o l. 91 (November 2 8 , 1 9 6 9 ), pp. 2 7 0 -2 7 1 . 6. G regory B a te s o n , " C u ltu r a l D e te rm in a n ts o f P e r s o n a lit y ," 1n P e r s o n a lit y and th e B e h a v io r D is o r d e r s , ed . J . Me V. H unt, New Y o rk : Ronald P re s s , 1 9 4 4 , V o l. I I , p . 2 7 3 . 72 7. 8 . 9. I t should be noted th a t th e Id e a th a t a l l v a lu e s a re c u l t u r a l l y d eterm in ed 1 s a c o n tr o v e r s ia l Iss u e among s o c ia l s c i e n t i s t s , as e x e m p lifie d by th e c o n tro v e rs y t h a t met " n a tio n a l c h a ra c te r e x p la n a tio n s ." N o n e th e le s s , few s o c ia l s c i e n t i s t s would r e j e c t th e v ie w t h a t c u ltu r e has a b s o lu te ly no e f f e c t on human v a lu e s . Most would a g re e th a t c u l t u r e 1s c e r t a in ly a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r e x p la in in g human b e h a v io r. B a s il D a v id s o n . The L o s t C i t i e s o f A f r i c a , (B o sto n : L i t t l e , Brown, 1 9 5 9 ); C a rte r G. Woodson. The A fr ic a n Background O u t lin e d ; o r Handbook f o r th e Study o f th e Negro, (New Y o rk : A fro -A m eric an S tu d ie s , New American L i b r a r y , I n c . 7 1 9 6 9 ). John Hope F r a n k lin , From S la v e r y to Freedom, (New York: Random House), 1 9 4 7 , pp. 4 2 -6 0 ; L . F on er and E. G enovese, S la v e ry in th e New World (Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n tic e H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 6 9 ). 10. Thomas G o s s e tt, Race: The H is t o r y o f An Id e a in America ( D a lla s : Southern M e th o d is t U n iv e r s it y P re s s , 1 9 6 3 ). 11. Abram K a rd ln e r and L. O vesey, The Mark o f O p p re s s io n , (C le v e la n d , Ohio: The W orld Book P u b lis h in g C o ., 1 9 6 2 ); Bingham D a i, "Some Problems o f P e rs o n a lity Developm ent Among Negro C h ild r e n ," P e r s o n a lit y : N a tu re , S o c ie t y , and C u ltu r e , e d . Clyde Kluckhohn (New Y o rk : A lfr e d A. K n o p f), 19 56 ; B .L. C o s lln , J . C ardw ell and R. P a ram en t, "Which Negroes P r e f e r What S k in C o lo r ? " , Paper p res en ted a t th e m eeting o f th e Eastern P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n , P h ila d e lp h ia , A p ril 1969. 12. One o f th e b e s t commentaries on the s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l s ig n ­ i f ic a n c e o f th e s o -c a lle d b la c k s o c ia l r e v o lu t io n o f th e s i x t i e s is R o b e rt A l l e n ’ s , B lack Awakening in C a p i t a l i s t America (New Y ork: D o u b led ay, 1 9 7 0 ). 13. S to k le y C arm ichael and C h a rle s H am ilto n . B la c k Power: The P o l i t i c s o f L ib e r a tio n 1n A m e ric a , New Y o rk : Random House, 1967, p p . 4 4 - 4 5 ' . -------------------------------------------------- 14. J . K. O b a b a la , "Black Consciousness and A m erican P o lic y 1n A f r i c a , " S o c ie t y , J a n .-F e b . 1 9 7 5 , pp. 6 1 -7 4 . For f u r t h e r d is c u s s io n o f th is p o in t see a ls o Rupert Emerson and M a rtin K ils o n , "The American Dilemma in a Changing W o rld : The R ise o f A f r ic a and the Negro A m e ric a ," D aedulus, V o l. 94 ( F a ll 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 1 0 5 5 -1 0 8 4 . 15. A lfr e d 0 . Hero,* "American Negroes and U .S . F o re ig n P o lic y ; 1 9 3 7 -1 9 6 7 ," Journal o f C o n f l i c t R e s o lu tio n , V o l. 13 (June 1 9 6 9 ), p p . 2 2 0 -2 5 1 ; A ls o , H a ro ld R. Is a a c s , The New World o f Negro Americans (New Y o rk : Doubleday, 1 9 6 3 ) . 73 16. F o r c r i t i c is m o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on ra c e re s e a rc h , see Dean C l n i e l , " E t h n ic it y : A N eglected Dim ension o f American H is t o r y ," M ig r a t io n Review. V o l. 3 , Summer 1969, pp. 5 8 -6 4 . W illia m E l l i s and P e te r O rle a n s , "Race R esearch: Up A g a in s t th e W a ll, in More Ways Than One", pp. 9 -2 0 "Race Change and Urban S o c ie t y , B e v e rly H i l l s , C a li f o r n ia : S ag e, 1 9 7 1 ; L7 Paul M e tz g e r, "Am erican S o c io lo g y and Black A s s im ila t io n : C o n flic t in g P e r­ s p e c tiv e s ," A m erican Journal o f S o c io lo g y . V o l. 7 6 , J a n u a ry , pp. 6 2 7 -4 7 . B. M 'tk u ls k l, "Who Speaks f o r E th n ic Am erica?" New Y ork Tim es, Septem ber 2 9 , 1970, p . 4 . 17. Thomas Kuhn, The S tr u c tu r e o f S c i e n t i f i c R e v o lu tio n s , Second E d it io n , In t e r n a t io n a l tncycloped'ta o f U n ifie d S c ie n c e , Vol . 2 , #2 . 18. I t should be p o in te d o u t t h a t th e id e a o f th e " m e ltin g -p o t" has never been r e f l e c t e d 1 n s o c ia l r e a l i t y because th e view t h a t America is a c o u n try which has s u c c e s s fu lly a s s im ila te d i t s m in o r ity groups is erro n eo u s. In d e e d , a t t h is p o in t in American h is t o r y e t h n ic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n is s t i l l p e rv a s iv e . See M ichael P a r e n t l , "E th n ic P o l i t i c s and th e P e rs is te n c e o f E th n ic I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , " American P o l i t i c a l Science R eview , V o l. 61 (S eptem ber) pp. 7 1 7 -7 2 6 . F o r an account o f th e " m e ltin g p o t" m yth, see N. G la z e r and D. M oynihan, Beyond th e M e ltin g P o t: The Negroes. P u e rto R ica n s, Jews, I t a l i a n s , and I r i s h o f New York C i t y . Cam bridge, Mass: M I t P re s s , 1 9 6 3 ; and a ls o M. S t e i n f l e l d , "Myth o f th e M e ltin g P o t," Black P o l i t i c i a n , V o l. 2 , O cto b er 1 9 7 0 , pp. 4 - 8 . 19. James P. P i t t s , "The Study o f Race C onsciousness; Conments on New D ir e c t io n s ," American J o u rn a l o f S o c io lo g y . V o l. 8 0 , November 1974, p . 6 8 T ! 20. W. 0 . Brown, "The N a tu re o f Race C o n scio usness," S o c ia l F o rc e s , V o l. 10 (O c to b e r ): pp. 9 0 -9 3 . 21. I b i d . , p. 92 . 22. W. 0 . Brown, "Race Consciousness Among South A fr ic a n N a t iv e s ," American Jo u rn al o f S o c io lo g y , V o l. 40 (M a rc h ): pp. 5 6 9 -8 1 . 23. I b i d . , pp. 5 6 9 -5 7 0 . 24. James P i t t s , o p . c i t . . pp. 6 6 5 -6 8 7 . 25. Ib id . . 26. Joseph Hraba I I I , " S o c ia liz a t io n I n t o Black Consciousness," P h .D . D is s e r t a t io n , U n iv e r s ity o f N e b ra s k a , L in c o ln , 1971. p. 6 6 8 . 74 27. Lodis Rhodes* "B lack Symbolism: A Paradigm on th e N a tu re and Developm ent o f B lack C o n s c io u s n e s s P h .D . D is s e r t a t io n * The U n iv e r s it y o f N ebraska* L in c o ln , 1 9 72 . 28. Gwendolyn Gibbs Made, "P s y c h o lo g ic a l Needs* Black C onsciousness, and S o c i a l i z a t i o n P r a c tic e s Among B la c k A do lescen ts In Nova S c o tia * Canada and M ic h ig a n , USA." P h .D . D is s e r t a t io n , M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s it y , 1972. 29. Ib id . , p. 10. 30. Edgar Epps, "The I n t e g r a t i o n s t s " in B la c k and W hite P e rs p e c tiv e s on Am erican Race R e la t io n s , e d . P. Rose, S. Rothman, and W. W ils o n , New Y o rk : O xford U n iv e r s it y P re s s , 1973. 31. For an e x p la n a tio n o f th e d if f e r e n c e between th e c u l t u r a l p l u r a l i s t and m e ltin g p o t m o d els, see M ilto n M. Gordon, A s s im ila tio n in American L i f e , New York: O xford U n iv e r s it y Press'," T U W :---------------------------------- 32. Epps, o p . c i t . , pp. 6 5 -6 6 . 33. Joyce L a d n e r, "The New Negro Id e o lo g y . . .What 'b la c k power' means to Negroes 1n M is s is s ip p i," T r a n s a c tio n , November 19 67 , V o l. 4 , p p . 7 - 2 2 . 34. R o llo Handy, Value Theory and th e B e h a v io ra l S c ie n c e s , S p r i n g f i e l d : Charles^Tficmias, 1969; and The Measurement o f V a lu e s , B e h a v io ra l S cience and P h ilo s o p h ic a l A pproaches, M1 ssourT: W arren H. G reen , I n c . , 1970. 35. Ib id . , p . 1 8 7. 36. Ib id ., p. 37. Ib id . , p. 183. 38. Handy, o p . c i t . , p . 187. 39. J. P itts , 0£ . c i t . , p. 6 7 2 . 40. Joseph S c h le s in g e r , A m b itio n and P o l i t i c s : P o l i t i c a l C areers in th e U n ite d S ta te s (C h icag o : Rand M c N a lly , 1 9 6 6 ). 41. Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory o f Democracy, New Y o rk : H arp er 1 9 5 7 , p . 28 . 42. The c o n ce p t " r a t i o n a l i t y " Is d iscu ssed In d e t a i l In W. R ik e r and P. O dershook, An In t r o d u c t io n to P o s it iv e P o l i t i c a l Theory (Englewood C H f f s : P r e n tic e H a l l , 1 9 7 3 ). 1 8 6. 75 43. P ro g re s s iv e a m b itio n s d e s ig n a te s a s p ir a t io n f o r more Im p o rta n t o ffic e . S t a t ic a m b itio n r e f e r s to a s p ir a t io n f o r c u r r e n t ly h eld o f f i c e . F i n a l l y , d is c r e t e a m b itio n In d ic a te s th e d e s ir e to cease h o ld in g o f f i c e , S c h le s in g e r , o[>. c i t . , p . 10 . 44. S c h le s in g e r , o p . c i t . , p . 2 0 9 . 45. Anthony Downs, In s id e B ureaucracy (B oston: L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1 9 6 7 ), pp. 8 7 - 8 9 . 46. Gordon B la c k , "A Theory o f P r o f e s s io n a liz a t io n 1n P o l i t i c s , ” American P o l i t i c a l S cien ce R eview , L X IV . September 1 9 70 , pp. &65T-7S:------------------------------------------- 47. James P ie r s o n , “ C areer P e rs p e c tiv e s and I n s t i t u t i o n a l Change in th e U n ite d S ta te s : The Case o f th e F e d e r a lis t s and A n t1 f e d e r a l i s t s , " Ph.D . D is s e r t a t i o n , M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s it y , 1973. 48. Kenneth P r e w it t and M il 11am N o w lin , " P o l i t i c a l A m bition s and th e B e h a v io r o f Incumbent P o l i t i c i a n s , " W estern P o l i t i c a l Q u a r t e r ly , V o l. 2 2 , June 1 9 6 9 , pp. 2 9 8 -3 0 8 . 49. S everal works have commented on th e way 1n w hich fre q u e n t e le c t io n s a c ts as a s a n c tio n on o f f i c e - h o l d e r 's b e h a v io r. See f o r exam ple, C lin to n R o s s ite r , P a r tie s and P o l i t i c s in Am erica (New York: S ig n e t Books, 1 9 6 0 ), C h ap ter 2 ; R obert A. DaliT, A P re fa c e to D em ocratic T h e o ry , C hicago: U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago P re s s , 1956. 50. S c h le s in g e r . 0 |i. c i t . , p . 2 . 51. Kenneth P r e w it t , The R e c ru itm e n t o f P o l i t i c a l L ead ers: A Study o f C l t i z e n - P o l i t i c I a n s , New"York: B o b b s -M e rr ll1 Company, 1 5 7 0 , p . 200. 52. James Q. W ils o n , "Negro P o l i t i c s in th e N o rth ," in Negro P o l i t i c s in A m e ric a , ed. H a rry B a ile y , Columbus: C h arles E. M e r i11HBooks, I n c . , 1 9 6 7 , p . 3 2 8 . 53. I b i d . , p . 328. 54. W. J . Goode, "A Theory o f R ole S t r a i n , " Am erican S o c io lo g ic a l R eview , V o l. 2 5 , pp. 4 8 3 -4 9 6 . 55. Kenneth B. C la r k , "The Negro E le c te d O f f i c i a l in th e Changing Am erican S cene," 1n B lack P o l i t i c a l L if e in th e U n ite d S t a t e s , e d . , Lenneal Henderson, San F ra n c is c o : t h a n d le r f’ u b lis h in g Company, 1 9 7 2 , pp. 1 5 8 -1 5 9 . 56. W ils o n , oj). e f t . , p . 3 2 9 . 76 57. Chuck S to n e , "B lack P o l i t i c i a n s , " 1n B la c k and W hite P e rs p e c tiv e s on Am erican Race R e la tio n s , New York: O xford U n iv e r s it y P re s s , 1 9 7 3 , pp. 1 9 0 -1 9 1 . 58. E. B a n fie ld and J . Q. W ils o n , C ity P o l i t i c s (New York: V in ta g e Books, 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 1 1 5 -1 8 6 ; Raymond E. W o lfin g e r and J . 0 . F i e l d , " P o l i t i c a l Ethos and S tr u c tu r e o f C it y Government" in R ich ard H o f f e r b e r t and I r a Sharkansky ( e d s ) ; R. L. L in e b e rry and E. P. F o w le r, "Reformism and P u b lic P o lic y 1n Am erican C i t i e s , " American P g j j c a l Science Review , V o l. 5 1 , September 1 9 6 7 , pp. 7 0 1 -7 1 6 . 59. H a rry A. B a ile y , J r . "Negro In t e r e s t Group S t r a t e g ie s ," B lack P o l i t i c a l L i f e in th e U n ite d S t a t e s , ed . Lenneal Henderson, San F ra n c is c o : C h an d ler P u b lis h in g Co. L t d . , 1 9 7 2 , p . 1 6 7. 60. E rn e s t P a tte r s o n , B lack C it y P o l i t i c s . (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1 9 7 4 ), pp. 7 0 -8 7 , 61. J . Kram er, "The E le c tio n o f B lacks to C it y C o u n c ils ," Jo u rn al o f B lack S tu d ie s , June 19 71 , pp. 4 4 3 -4 7 6 . 62. C. Jones, " S tr u c tu r a l and demographic c o r r e la te s o f b la c k membership on c i t y c o u n c ils ," Paper p re s e n te d a t Annual M eeting o f th e N a tio n a l C onference o f B la c k P o l i t i c a l S c ie n t i s t s , 1 9 7 4 , p . 2 1 . 63. C h arles W. Dunn, "B lack Caucuses and P o l i t i c a l Machines In L e g is la t iv e B o d ie s ," American J o u rn a l o f P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e , V o l. 1 7 , Feb. 1 9 7 3 , pp. 1 4 8 -1 5 8 . 64. S c h le s in g e r , o£. c i t . , p . 6 . 65. The l i t e r a t u r e d e a lin g w ith t h is s u b je c t is la r g e . The most im p o rta n t re c e n t s tu d ie s a re Frank S o ra u f, P a rty and R e p re s e n ta tio n (New York: A th e rto n P re s s , 1 9 6 2 ); Warren £ . M i l l e r and Donald E. S to k e s , "C o n s titu e n c y In flu e n c e in C o n gress," Am erican P o l i t i c a l S cien ce R eview , V o l. 5 7 , 1963, pp. 4 5 -5 6 ; Lewis A. Froman, Congressmen and T h e ir C o n s titu e n c ie s (C h icag o : Rand M c N a lly , 1 9 6 3 ). 66. A rn o ld S. Tannenbaum, "L e a d e rs h ip : S o c io lo g ic a l A spects" In t e r n a t io n a l E n cy clo p ed ia o f th e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s , V o l. 1 2 , T 96 6, p 7 1CF2T ------ 67. C e c il A. G ib b , "L e a d e rs h ip : P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s p e c ts ," In t e r n a t io n a l E n cyclo p ed ia o f th e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s , V o l. 15 65 ; p.' — --------------------------------------------- 12, 77 68. James D. B a rb e r, The Lawmaker {New Haven: Y a le U. P re s s , 1 9 6 5 ); Kenneth P r e w i t t , H ein z E u la u , and B e tty H. Z ls k , " P o l i t i c a l S o c i a l i z a t i o n and P o l i t i c a l R o le s ," P u b lic O pin io n Q u a r t e r ly , V o l. 3 0 , (W in te r 1 9 6 6 -6 7 ), pp. 5 6 9 -8 7 ! Much o f t h ls 1 1 t e r a t u r e 1s re vie w e d in Kenneth P r e w it t , " P o l i t i c a l S o c ia liz a t io n and L e a d e rs h ip S e le c t io n ," A n n als, 361 (Septem ber 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 9 6 -1 1 1 . 69. Rufus Browning and H e rb e rt Jaco b , "Power M o tiv a tio n and P o l i t i c a l P e r s o n a lit y ," P u b lic O pinion Q u a r t e r ly , V o l. 2 8 , 1 9 6 4 , pp. 7 5 -9 0 . 70. K. B. C la r k , Dark G h e tto . New Y o rk : H a rp e r & Row, 1 9 6 5 , pp. 6 3 -6 4 . 71. See th e l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w in H. Proshansky and P. Newton, S o c ia l C la s s , Race and P s y c h o lo g ic a l D evelopm ent. New York: H o lt , R in e h a r t 6 W in sto n , 1968; A lso M. R ad ke-Y arrow , J . Campbell and L. Y a rro w , " A c q u is itio n o f New Norms: A Study o f R a c ia l D e s e g re g a tio n ," Jo u rn al o f S o d a ! Is s u e s , 1 9 5 8 , V o l. 1 4 , pp. 8 -2 8 ; J . K. N orland " R a c ia l acceptance and p re fe re n c e o f n u rs e ry school c h ild r e n in a so u th e rn c i t y ! ’ M e r r ill- P a lm e r Q u a r t e r ly , 1 9 6 2 , V o l. 8 , pp. 2 7 1 -2 8 0 ; J . B ayto n, L. A u s tin , & K. B u rk e, "Negro p e rc e p tio n o f Negro and w h ite P e r s o n a lit y T r a i t s , " J o u rn a l o f P e r s o n a lity and S o c ia l Psycholooy , 1 9 6 5 , V o l. 1 , pp. 2 5 0 -2 6 3 . A ls o E. L e s s in g , & S. Z a g o rln , "B la c k Power Id e o lo g y and C o lle g e s tu d e n ts a t t i t u d e s toward t h e i r own and o th e r r a c i a l g ro u p s ," Jo u rn a l o f P e r s o n a lity and S o c ia l P s yc h o lo g y. 1 9 7 2 , V o l. 2 1 , p p . 6 1 -7 3 . 72. Dwalne M a rv ic k , "The P o l i t i c a l S o c i a l i z a t i o n o f th e Am erican N e g ro ," A n n a ls , (S e p t. 1 9 6 5 ), pp. 1 1 3 -1 2 7 . 73. J . Aberbach & J . W a lk e r. "The Meanings o f Black Power: A Comparison o f W h ite and B lack In t e r p r e t a t io n s o f a P o l i t i c a l S lo g a n ," Am erican P o l i t i c a l S cien ce R eview , V o l. 6 4 , 1970, pp. 3 6 7 -3 8 8 . 74. A re v ie w o f th e th r e e most sem inal s tu d ie s o f b la c k m ilit a n c y w i l l a t t e s t to t h i s . Caplan and P a ig e r e p o r t from two s e p a ra te s tu d ie s o f b la c k s in D e t r o it and 1n Newark t h a t th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic t h a t was most c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith b la c k m ilit a n c y was b la c k co n sc io u sn es s. M i l i t a n t s viewed t h e i r ra c e in more p o s it i v e term s th an n o n - m ilit a n t s , as evidenced by th e f a c t t h a t o n ly o n e -q u a r te r o f th e l a t t e r re g a rd ed b la ck s as more dependable th a n w h ite s , compared to o n e - h a lf o f th e fo rm e r. M ilita n ts a ls o p r e fe r r e d to be c a lle d " b la c k " r a t h e r than "negro" o r " c o lo r e d ," and gave g r e a te r s u p p o rt t o th e in tr o d u c tio n o f b la c k h is t o r y and A fr ic a n languages 1n h ig h school c u rr ic u lu m . M. Caplan and J . M. P a ig e . "A S tudy o f G h etto R io t e r s ," S c i e n t i f i c A m e ric a n , August 1 9 6 8 , p. 2 1 9 . S e v e ra l o th e r s tu d ie s showed a s i m i l a r p o s it i v e a s s o c ia tio n between b la c k m ilit a n c y and b la c k c o n sc io u sn es s. For exam ple, s e e , R e p o rt o f th e N a tio n a l A d vis o ry Commission on C i v i l D is o rd e rs , U .S . R io t C orm ission R e p o r t. 78 New Y ork: Bantam Books, I n c . , 1 9 6 8 . Also R. S e a rle s and J . A. W illia m s , "Negro C o lle g e S tu d e n t P a r t i c i p a t io n in S i t - I n s , " S o c ia l F o rc e s , 1 9 6 2 , p -2 1 5 -2 2 0 . G. M a rx , P r o te s t and P r e ju d ic e , "New Y o rk : H arp er & Row, 1 9 6 7 . 75. Campbell e t a l . (1 9 6 8 ) 76. For f u r t h e r d is c u s s io n o f t h i s p o in t see D.N o e l, "Group I d e n t i f i c a t i o n among Negroes: an e m p iric a l a n a ly s is ," Jo u rn al o f S o c ia l Is s u e s , A p r il 1 9 6 4 , V o l. 2 0 , pp. 2 1 -8 4 . 77. (1 9 7 4 ), o£. c i t . T . M. T o m lin so n , "The Developm ent o f a r i o t Id e o lo g y among urban n e g ro e s ," American B e h a v io r S c i e n t i s t , March 1 , A p r i l , 1 9 6 8 , V o l. 1 1 , pp. 2 7 - 3 ) . 78. M arx, oj>. c i t . 79. For a re v ie w o f t h is l i t e r a t u r e see Caplan and P a ig e , "The New G ehtto Man: A Review o f R ecent E m p iric a l S t u d ie s ," J o u rn al o f S o c ia l Is s u e s , V o l. 2 6 ; 1970, pp. 5 9 -7 3 . 80. M arx, op . c i t . 81. C- T . W i l l i s & F . J . G o ld b e rg , "Some c o r r e la te s o f m ilit a n c y and c o n s e rv a tis m among b la c k c o lle g e stu d en ts In th e N orth and S o u th ," P s y c h ia tr y 82. Marx found t h a t le s s than 1% e x h ib ite d a n t i - w h i t e a t t i t u d e s , as measured by s u p p o rt f o r b la c k n a tio n a lis m . M a rx , op. c i t . p . 1 7 9. A ls o , In a p o ll conducted a y e a r e a r l i e r B r in x and H a r r is re p o rte d t h a t o n ly 4% o f b la ck s fa v o re d th e B la c k Muslim movement, and as few as 11% co n cu rred th a t "Negroes should g iv e up w orking w ith w h ite s and j u s t depend on t h e i r own p e o p le .” W. B rin k and L . H a r r is , B la c k and W h ite , New Y o rk : Simon & S c h u s te r, 1966. I r o n i c a l l y , s u p p o rt f o r b la c k s e p a ra tis m was found to be s tr o n g e s t among w h it e s , r a th e r th an b la c k s . T w e n ty -th re e p e r c e n t o f th e fo rm e r and o n ly 3% o f th e l a t t e r agreed t h a t b la c k s should l i v e 1n a s e p a ra te s t a t e . On a n o th e r dim ension o f s e p a ra tis m which q u e s tio n e d e x te n t o f s u p p o rt f o r th e id e a t h a t b la c k s should be removed from th e USA, and be a llo w e d to s e t up a s e p a ra te s t a t e e ls e w h e re , s u p p o rt was e l i c i t e d from 33% o f w h it e s , and o n ly 5% o f b la c k s . 83. Making a s i m i l a r p o in t P i t t s s t a t e s : "Race p r e ju d ic e can p o s it i v e l y be a s s o c ia te d w ith ra c e c o n sc io u sn es s, but 1 t w ould be a m istake to t r e a t them as In te r c h a n g e a b le . S tudies o f r a c i a l a t t it u d e s have c l e a r l y dem onstrated t h a t n e g a tiv e f e e lin g s to w ard an o th e r group Is n o t commensurate w ith a sense o f commitment to o n e's o w n ,” James P i t t s , 0 £ . c i t . , p . 6 7 0 . 79 84. For th e agreem ent In f in d in g s see th e f o llo w in g , M. N. G rossack, "Group belongingness and a u t h o r it a r ia n is m In Southern Negroes: A re s e a rc h n o te ." P h y lo n , 1 9 5 7 , 4 6 , 1 2 5 -1 3 1 ; J . A. S t e c k l e r , " A u t h o r it a r ia n Id e o lo g y In Negro c o lle g e s tu d e n ts ," J o u rn a l o f Abnormal and S o c ia l P sycho lo g y, 1 9 5 7 , V o l. 5 4 , pp. 3 9 6 -3 9 9 ; D. L. N o e l, "Group I d e n t i f i c a t i o n among Negroes: An e m p ir ic a l a n a ly s is ," Jo u rn al o f S o d a ! Is s u e s , 1 9 6 4 , V o l. 2 0 , p p . 7 1 -8 4 . 85. The C o rn e ll Study is sunvnarlzed in a s e r ie s o f p u b lic a t io n s : N o e l, i b i d . ; R. Johnson, "Negro r e a c tio n s t o m in o r ity group s ta tu s ," in M. L. B arron ( e d . ) Am erican M l n o r l t le s ; R. M. W illia m s , S tra n g e r N ext D o o r, Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n tic e H a l l , 1964. 86. M arx, o p . c i t . 87. J e f f r e y P a ig e , "Changing P a tte rn s o f A n ti-W h ite A t t it u d e s Among B la c k s ," Black P o l i t i c a l A t t i t u d e s . Im p lic a tio n s f o r P o l i t i c a l S u p p o rt, e d . C h arles B u llo c k & H a r r e ll R o d g ers, C hicago: Markham P u b lis h in g C o ., 1 9 7 2 . A lso H arlan Hahn, "B lack S e p a r a t is t s ," J o u rn a l o f S la c k S tu d ie s , September 1 9 7 0 , pp. 3 5 -5 3 . 88. R. Johnson, "Negro R e a c tio n s to m in o r it y group s t a t u s ," In M. L. B arron ( e d . ) , A m erican M i n o r i t i e s . New York: K n o p f, 1957. CHAPTER THREE THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In tr o d u c tio n T h is re search i s designed to d e te rm in e th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between c e r t a in p o l i t i c a l , s o c ia l and p ers o n a l f a c to r s and b la c k consciousness, among b la c k e le c te d o f f ic e h o ld e r s in M ic h ig a n . The main t h e s is is t h a t th e l a t t e r v a lu e phenomena may be e x p la in e d in terms o f fa c to r s r e l a t e d to o f f ic e - h o ld in g needs and p a r tis a n comm­ itm e n ts , a n d /o r in term s o f s o c ia l and demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . To e v a lu a te th e v a l i d i t y o f t h is t h e s i s , c e r t a in hypotheses ab o ut th e r e la t io n s h ip o f th e s e fa c to r s and b la c k consciousness w i l l be t e s t e d , an alyzed and In t e r p r e t e d . In t h is c h a p te r we w i l l begin by b r i e f l y re v ie w in g th e h i s t o r ­ ic a l background o f th e p o p u la tio n s tu d ie d . The reason f o r doing th is stems from th e w r i t e r ' s c o n v ic tio n t h a t s o c ia l groups g e n e r a lly have a h is t o r y t h a t must be taken In t o acco u n t 1 n o rd e r to u n d er­ stand t h e i r contem porary c o n to u rs . s h if t s H aving done t h i s , th e focus to d e s c rib in g th e design o f th e s tu d y , th e sam ple, th e i n s t r u ­ m en tatio n which was d e v is e d to g a th e r th e d a t a , and th e a c tu a l d a ta c o lle c t io n p ro c e d u re s . In a d d it io n , th e m a jo r concepts o f th e stu d y w i l l be o p e r a t io n a lly d e fin e d and th e s p e c i f ic hypotheses to be te s te d w i l l be re v ie w e d . 80 81 The Black P o l i t i c a l E l i t e in M ich ig an : A B r ie f H is to ry That a t t i t u d i n a l h e te ro g e n e ity , ro o ted in p o l i t i c a l d i v e r s i t y , may c h a r a c te r iz e contem porary b lack p u b lic o f f i c i a l s today should not be s u r p r is in g . in M ich ig an In s p ite o f th e alm ost o n e -p a rty nature o f th e b lack v o te in th e s ta te to d a y , th e f a c t is t h a t th e s ty le o f b la c k p o l i t i c s , th e ch a llen g es i t p re s e n ts , as w e ll as th e s u b je c tiv e p o l i t i c a l p re fe re n c e s o f M ichigan b la c k s , both o f th e e l i t e and th e rank and f i l e , or c o n ten t o v e r tim e . have not rem ained c o n s ta n t, in shape I f we look back o n ly a few s h o rt decades, a f u l l e r a p p re c ia tio n o f th e h is t o r ic a l f a c to r s th a t may have con­ trib u te d to p re s e n t-d a y v a lu e -fra g m e n ta tio n among M ichigan b la c k s may be a t t a in e d . The f i r s t h is t o r ic a l f a c t th a t should be grasped is t h a t many o f the c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e black p o l i t i c a l e l i t e , as we know them today, a re o f r e l a t i v e l y re c e n t o r ig in . In f a c t , 1 t would be tr u e to say t h a t th e h is to r y o f b la ck s holdin g o f f i c e a c tu a lly begin u n t il 1948. in M ichigan d i d n ' t B efore t h is d a te , a few blacks d id hold o f f ic e ; however, i t is d is p u ta b le w hether th e y should be re g a rd ed as "black" o f f ic e h o ld e r s , because, as a tte s te d by McCree, th e s e were r e a lly " lo c a l anom alies where a Negro c i t i z e n became so th o ro u g h ly in te g ra te d in t o the community as to become f u l l y accep ted ."^ These o ffic e h o ld e rs were a ls o d i f f e r e n t from th e m a jo r ity o f l a t t e r - d a y black p o l i t i c i a n s in t h e i r Republican a lle g ia n c e s , a p ro du ct o f th e o n e-p arty c h a ra c te r o f M ic h ig a n 's p o l i t i c s up u n t i l th e 1 9 3 0 's . As noted b e fo re , 1948 marked the " o f f i c i a l " te rm in a tio n o f th e 82 e x is te n c e o f th e fo re g o in g ty p e o f b la ck o ff ic e h o ld e r . However, th e stage f o r t h is change was s e t by a s e rie s o f events th a t o c c u rre d two decades e a r l i e r . One o f th e most c r i t i c a l events was th e sudden de­ fe c tio n in 1928 o f some o f th e most d is tin g u is h e d members o f th e D e tr o it b la ck e l i t e from th e Republican to th e Democratic p a r t y because o f disenchantm ent w ith Hoover's economic p o lic ie s . T h is move c re a te d a tem porary d ls ju n c tu re between th e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y p referen ces o f th e D e t r o it b lack e l i t e and th e black e l e c t o r a t e , whose numbers were r a p id ly in c re a s in g because o f the Im pact o f th e northward m ig ra tio n from th e South. W ith th e onset o f th e D epression and growing pop ular awareness o f th e Hoover a d m in is tr a tio n 's I n d i f f ­ erence to b la ck co n cern s, what b efo re had been a mere t r i c k l e o f black rank and f i l e d e fe c tio n s from th e R e p u b lica n s, tu rn ed in t o a dram atic flo o d in to th e Dem ocratic f o l d , both w ith in th e s t a t e and n a tio n w id e . I t 1s In t e r e s t in g to note t h a t th e r a te o f d e fe c tio n o f the b la ck rank and f i l e o f t h e i r le a d e rs . from the R epublican p a rty was slo w er th an th a t R. B. Sherman notes t h a t th e re lu c ta n c e o f th e b lack masses to c u t t h e i r a lle g ia n c e to th e GOP a t f i r s t was p a r t i a l l y caused by th e In flu e n c e o f t r a d i t i o n , and more im p o rta n tly , by th e fa c t t h a t "many Negroes who were unhappy w ith Hoover were r e lu c t a n t to support R oosevelt (w h ic h ) is e a s ily u n d ersta n d ab le. T here was nothing In h is record to In d ic a te th a t he had any sp e c ia l concern O fo r o r u nderstanding o f A m erica's r a c ia l problem s' This f a c t o r may e x p la in why in th e 1932 e le c t io n s , M ich ig an blacks gave a m a jo r ity o f t h e i r votes to th e Republican p a r ty , in s p it e o f the e x h o r ta tio n o f th e b la ck e l i t e to v o te D em ocratic. However, by the n e x t e l e c t i o n . 83 these c r ie s f o r d e fe c tio n were heard p r im a r ily because o f th e a d v e n t o f th e New D e a l. The 1932 e l e c t i o n marked th e l a s t e le c t io n when th e GOP could ta k e th e b la c k v o te in M ichigan f o r g r a n te d . 4 W hile i t was o f in e s tim a b le im p o rta n c e , th e le a d e rs h ip o f th e b lack e l i t e was n o t the o n ly f a c t o r t h a t prom pted th e w h o le s a le b la c k w ith draw al fro m th e p a r ty t h a t was in s tru m e n ta l in t h e i r e m a n c ip a tio n . Undoubtedly, a c o n tr ib u t in g f a c t o r was th e re a rra n g e m e n t o f power in the in t e r n a t io n a l a re n a , and th e emergence o f b la c k n a t i o n a l i s t move­ ments in A f r i c a . These e v e n ts , a lo n g w ith o th e r o ccurren ces on th e home f r o n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e o u tla w in g o f r e s t r i c t i v e covenants in housing and th e banning o f school s e g re g a tio n , w ere la r g e ly re sp o n ­ s ib le f o r th e c r e a t io n o f a new mood o f th in k in g and q u e s tio n in g among b lacks in th e p o s t-D e p re s s io n e r a . W ith in th e s ta te o f M ic h ig a n i t s e l f , th e m ig r a tio n o f b la c k s t o th e a u to m o tiv e c e n te rs — F l i n t , P o n tia c , D e t r o i t — was perhaps th e most s i g n i f i c a n t lo c a l e v e n t th a t p r e c ip it a t e d th e ru p tu re o f t i e s w ith th e R e p u b lic a n s . Upon a r r i v a l , th e new im m igrants w ere exposed to an in te n s e process o f p o l i t i c a l d e - s o c ia li z a t i o n and r e - s o c i a l i z a t i o n iz a t io n s . by la b o r o rg an - 5 The e f f o r t o f la b o r , in p a r t i c u l a r th e UAW, to s te a l away th e b lack v o te was a s s is te d by th e f a c t t h a t w ith th e R e p u b lic a n s ' s tr e n g th rooted in th e m a n a g e ria l c la s s o f th e au to m o tiv e in d u s t r y , as w e ll as in businessm en, r u r a l fa rm e rs , sm all town d w e lle r s , and D e t r o it sub­ u r b a n ite s , th e o n ly lo g ic a l p la c e f o r u rb an , w o rk in g c la s s b la c k s was w ith th e p a r ty a l l i e d to la b o r — th e Dem ocrats.® One o th e r f a c t o r o f im p o rt t o th e change in th e p a tte r n o f Michigan b la c k p o l i t i c s was th e ascendance to o f f i c e in 1948 o f Governor Mennen W illia m s , a Dem ocratic governo r w ith c lo s e t i e s to la b o r . P r io r to W illia m s ' e le c t io n , th e s p r in k lin g o f blacks in e le c t iv e p o s itio n s was co n cen trated m a in ly in the l e g i s l a t u r e and a few a p p o in tiv e s ta te w id e p osts. R ecognizing th e v a lu e o f the black v o te as a balance o f power t h a t could determ in e Dem ocratic v ic to r ie s a t th e p o lls , W illia m s appointed b la ck s to a number o f state o f f i c e s , many o f whom subsequently sought and a t t a in e d e le c ­ to ral o f f i c e a t various le v e ls o f the o f f i c e h ie ra rc h y . The s i g n i f ­ icance o f W illia m s ' appointm ents to awakening th e p o l i t i c a l aware­ ness o f th e b la c k e le c t o r a te is documented by McCree th u s : In th e la t e sunvner o f 1950 M ichigan was e le c ­ t r i f i e d by Governor W illia m s ' appointm ent o f C h a rle s Wesley Jo n es, an o u ts ta n d in g la w y e r, to th e p o s itio n o f R e co rd er's Judge. The Negro cofrvnunlty r a l l i e d to support him; b u t d e s p ite a p rim a ry e le c tio n triu m p h , he was d e fe a te d in th e gen eral e le c t io n . In s tea d o f d isco u rag in g Negroes in t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n s , t h is 7 d e f e a t in d ic a te d th e p o s s i b i l it y o f w in n in g . The p o s s i b i l i t y th a t b la ck s could gain e l e c t i v e o f f ic e was tr a n s la te d in to r e a l i t y in subsequent y e a r s . In th e e a r l y f i f t i e s , M ichigan gave b irth to i t s f i r s t b lack congressman — D em ocratic C h arles Diggs — son o f one o f those conmunity le a d e rs who had le d the movement o f d efec tio n fro m th e Republican P a rty in the l a t e tw e n tie s . la t e r , in 1 9 6 4 , a second C ongressional o f f i c e by a b la c k . Ten years in the s ta te was a tta in e d In th e la t e s i x t i e s and e a r ly s e v e n tie s o f f i c e a tta in m e n t by blacks a c c e le ra te d . P o l i t i c a l p a rty o rg a n iz a tio n s d id n o t remain Q invnune to b la c k access. The c u rre n t mayor o f D e t r o it , a t t h a t tim e a s ta te s e n a to r , became th e n a tio n 's f i r s t b la c k Dem ocratic N a tio n a l 85 Committeeman a f t e r th e 1968 N a tio n a l C onvention. Even th e fo rm e rly " lily - w h it e " R eupblican P a rty was not a b le to escape th e r i s in g t id e o f b lack p o l i t i c a l aw areness. Although i t f a i l e d to p ro v id e the same degree o f o p p o rtu n ity f o r b lack le a d e rs h ip as th e Democrats, i t d id e le c t a b la c k V ice-ch airm an in the l a t e s i x t i e s , and nomin­ ated s e ve ra l c a n d id a te s fo r s ta te -w id e and j u d i c i a l o f f i c e s . A few o f th e p a r ty nominees f o r th e l a t t e r typ e o f o f f i c e were sub­ sequently s u c ce ssfu l a t the p o l l s ; however, o n ly one o f i t s s t a t e ­ wide nominees has e v e r gained e le c t iv e o f f i c e . (A number o f th e foreg o in g in d iv id u a ls a re s u b je c ts in t h is s tu d y 's sa m p le .) In sum, s in c e 1948 b la c k p a r t ic ip a t io n in M ichigan p o l i t i c s has In t e n s if ie d to th e p o in t where th e s ta te boasts th e h ig h e s t number o f black e le c te d o f f i c i a l s in th e n a tio n to d a y . c u rr e n tly hold o f f i c e a t n e a rly a l l branches. Blacks in Michigan le v e ls o f government and in a l l The o f f i c e s th e y h o ld a r e lo c a te d p r im a r ily in urban areas o f the s t a t e , both in s t a t e and o u ts ta te . W hile most o f th ese o f f i c e ­ holders r e ly t o some e x te n t on th e b lack v o te f o r v ic t o r y a t th e p o lls , a s ig n if ic a n t number re p re s e n t d i s t r i c t s t h a t a r e p red o m in a n tly w h ite . Furtherm ore, a few have managed to break in t o th e in n e r c ir c le s o f the Republican P a r ty , although th e m a jo r ity a re Democrats. In l i g h t o f th ese in tr a -g ro u p d iffe re n c e s in th e types and le v e ls o f o f fic e s h e ld , th e s o c ia l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n in e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t s , types o f p o l i t i c a l p a rty a f f i l i a t i o n s , e t c . , as w e ll as th e n a tu ra l so c ia l d iv e r s i t y t h a t presumably c h a ra c te r iz e s th e group, one would expect t h a t th e b la c k p o l i t i c a l e l i t e in M ichigan today is not a m o n o lith ic o r homogeneous group in terms o f t h e i r values and a t t i ­ tudes toward s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l is s u e s , o r in t h e i r p e rc e p tio n s o f them selves. The b la ck p o l i t i c i a n a s in g le ty p e . R a th e r, i t in M ichigan is u n lik e ly to be is more l i k e l y t h a t t h is c la s s o f p o l i t i ­ cians is b e s e t by v e r t i c a l and h o r iz o n ta l s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l c le a ­ vages, a product o f th e o b je c tiv e d iffe r e n c e s o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l circum stances, and t h e i r v a ry in g s o c ia l and personal backgrounds. I t is th e e x p lo ra tio n o f th e n a tu re o f t h is v a lu e d iv e r s i t y and i t s e tio lo g y t h a t comprises th e main concern o f t h is re search endeavor. In s tru m e n ta tio n The in s tru m e n t used in t h is study was an in te r v ie w q u e s tio n n a ire developed by th e re s e a rc h e r. 9 The in s tru m e n t was p re te s te d on f i v e black o f f i c i a l s who held a p p o in tiv e o f f i c e , and hence were not p a rt o f the u n iv e rs e from which th e sample was chosen.^® Data C o lle c tio n Data was c o lle c te d in personal in te rv ie w s from June to September 1974. In te rv ie w s were from h a lf-a n -h o u r to two hours in d u ra tio n , with most in te rv ie w s la s t in g one hour. A ll in te rv ie w s were conducted by the same in te r v ie w e r who was b la c k . I t is im p o rta n t to emphasize th is p o in t because surveys o f r a c ia l a t t it u d e s o f blacks and w hites have c o n s is te n tly shown t h a t th e race o f th e in te r v ie w e r a ffe c ts th e responses o f both blacks and w h i t e s . ^ S p e c if i c a l ly , th ey show t h a t black in te rv ie w e rs tend to e l i c i t more v a lid responses from black respondents than w h ite in te r v ie w e r s . Thus, th e f a c t t h a t th e i n t e r ­ viewer in t h is study was b la c k may enhance th e in t e r n a l v a l i d i t y o f the d a ta , alth ou gh i t could p o s s ib ly have biased th e responses in th e opposite d ir e c t io n . In o n ly one in s ta n c e d id th e in te r v ie w e r suspect 87 th a t th e re s p o n d e n t's v e r a c i t y was q u e s tio n a b le , and t h i s resp o nd en t was exclu d ed from th e f i n a l sam ple. The Item s 1n th e q u e s tio n n a ir e were b o th open-ended and fo rc e d m u ltip le - c h o ic e . In o r d e r to avo id th e p o s s ib le in t r u s io n o f sub­ j e c t iv e b ia s e s 1 n I n t e r p r e t i n g th e open-ended resp o n s es , co d in g o f the q u e s tio n n a ir e was u n d e rta k e n both by t h i s coder. re s e a rc h e r and a n o th e r In o rd e r to check f o r c o n s is te n c y In c o d in g , th e responses were checked once more a f t e r th e d a ta had been tra n s fo rm e d onto cards and p laced on a f i l e In th e com puter. The P o p u la tio n and Sample The u n iv e rs e from w hich th e sample f o r t h i s study was chosen co n sisted o f a l l b la ck s h o ld in g e le c te d o f f i c e A p ril 1 9 7 4 . The t o t a l u n iv e rs e o f a l l In M ich ig an as o f b la c k e le c te d o f f i c i a l s in the n a tio n is documented by s t a t e in th e N a tio n a l R o s te r o f Black E lected O f f i c i a l s p u b lis h e d a n n u a lly by th e J o in t C e n te r f o r P o l i t i ­ cal S tu d ie s , W ashington, D .C . The M ich ig an l i s t f o r 1974 c o n ta in e d the names o f 164 i n d i v i d u a l s . O r ig in a lly , to ta l u n iv e rs e o f 164; h o w ever, when i t v a r ie ty o f reasons n o t a l l th e aim was to s tu d y th e became c le a r t h a t f o r a 164 o f fic e h o ld e r s co u ld be in te r v ie w e d fo r th e s tu d y , th e d e c is io n was made to change th e d esig n to a fo rm a t th a t would p e rm it a n a ly s is o f th e re s e a rc h q u e s tio n s posed 1n C h ap ter I I . C hoice o f an a l t e r n a t i v e sam pling d es ig n was in flu e n c e d p r i n c i p a l l y by t h e o r e t ic a l and p r a c t i c a l f a c t o r s r a t h e r th an by s t a t i s t i c a l e x i ­ gencies p re s c rib e d by d e fin e d l i m i t s o f t o l e r a b l e sam pling e r r o r . Had th e concern been s o le ly w ith th e l a t t e r f a c t o r , a s im p le random 88 sample would have been chosen. In s te a d , a quota sample was chosen p rim a rily because as th e main concern o f th e stu d y was to t e s t f o r fa c to rs t h a t could e x p la in a p a r t i c u l a r value syndrome, 1 t was deemed necessary to have s u f f i c i e n t cases on each o f these fa c to r s in o rd er to t e s t f o r them. A sim ple random sample would p ro b a b ly have re s u lte d 1 n th e u n d e r-re p re s e n ta tio n o f an adequate number o f cases f o r some o f these f a c t o r s . For exam ple, a sim p le random sample would p ro b ab ly have r e s u lte d in th e in c lu s io n o f few o u ts ta te r s and the o v e r-re p r e s e n ta tio n o f i n s t a t e r s , 12 th ere b y making 1 t d i f f i c u l t fo r us to t e s t w hether in s t a t e /o u t s t a t e d iffe re n c e s a re im p o rtan t fo r e x p la in in g v a r ia tio n 1 n th e dependent v a r ia b le o f th e stu d y . In sum, th e c h ie f c o n s id e ra tio n u n d e rly in g the d e c is io n to employ a quota design was to in c o rp o ra te a broad range o f s u b je c ts in th e sample so as to a llo w f o r th e s t a t i s t i c a l te s ts o f each o f the fac to rs t h a t were p o s ite d to be t h e o r e t i c a l l y im p o rta n t. Four f a c to r s were deemed most im p o rta n t f o r s e le c tin g a balanced sam ple. The f i r s t was g eo g rap h ical lo c a tio n o f o f f i c e . As mentioned b e fo re , because the in s t a t e area c o n ta in s the h ig h e s t p ro po rtion o f b la c k e le c te d o f f i c i a l s in the s t a t e , a d e lib e r a t e attempt was made to s e le c t an adequate number o f o u ts ta te resp o nd en ts, to compensate f o r th e n a tu ra l o v e r-re p r e s e n ta tio n o f in s ta te o f f i c e holders- P o l i t i c a l p a rty a f f i l i a t i o n was an o th er c r i t e r i o n used to s e le c t s u b je c ts . Given th e predominance o f Dem ocratic b lack o f f i c e ­ h o ld ers, and th e s c a r c it y o f R e p u b lica n s, i t was deemed e s s e n tia l to s e le c t as many Republican o ffic e h o ld e r s as p o s s ib le . c r it e r io n was s e x. 13 A t h ir d The r o s te r o f M ich ig an o ffic e h o ld e r s showed 89 f a r few er fem ales than males in e l e c t i v e o f f i c e s ; so conscious e f f o r t was made to s e le c t women f o r th e sample. le v e l o f o f f i c e h e ld . The f i n a l c r i t e r i o n was E ffo r ts were made to s e le c t o ffic e h o ld e r s from f e d e r a l, s t a t e , county and m u n icip al l e v e l s , and from a l l branches o f o f f i c e — e x e c u tiv e , l e g i s l a t i v e , e d u c a tio n a l, j u d i c i a l and a d m in is tr a tiv e . The s p e c if ic o f f ic e s held by blacks in th e f i n a l sample are represented in T a b le 1. The argument may be advanced t h a t s t a t i s t i c a l te s ts in v o lv in g s ig n ific a n c e le v e ls a re not a p p ro p r ia te f o r t h i s study because the sample was s e le c te d on a quota b a s is , and was n o t o n ly t r u l y random. To counter t h is argum ent, th e p o in t may be made t h a t s t a t i s t i c a l te s ts based on p r o b a b i l is t ic assumptions may be used because, chance did p la y some p a r t in sample s e le c t io n alth o u g h th e canons o f ra n ­ domness were o n ly approxim ated. K e rlin g e r's s ta te m e n t th a t i t T h is p o in t is c o rro b o ra te d by is p o s s ib le f o r quota sam pling to "achieve re p re s e n ta tiv e n e s s , (a lth o u g h ) i t ill 4 random sam pling. la c k s th e v ir tu e s o f Secondly, i t may als o be argued th a t t h is group o f o ffic e h o ld e rs re p re s e n ts a sample o f b lack e le c te d o f f i c i a l s the n a tio n a t la r g e , and in M ich ig an over tim e . in TABLE 1 E le c tiv e O ffic e s Held by Members o f th e Sample O ffic e Number Congressman 1 S tate S enator 3 S ta te R e p re s e n ta tiv e College Board o f T ru stees Member Judge 16 6 15 S h e r if f 2 County Contnissioner 10 County R e g is te r o f Deeds 1 County C lerk 1 County A u d ito r 1 C ity Councilperson 28 Mayor 6 C ity C lerk 2 Township C le rk 5 Township T ru s te e 1 Township T re a s u re r 3 Township S u p e rv is o r 2 School Board T o ta l 16 119 D e f in it io n and O p e r a tio n a liz a tio n o f V a ria b le s Dependent V a ria b le 1) Black Consciousness. The s o le dependent v a r ia b le o f t h is s tu d y , black consciousness, is a m u lti-d im e n s io n a l concept t h a t r e fe r s to the e x te n t to which th e in d iv id u a l views commitment to an id e n t it y as a black as im p o rta n t. For purposes o f th is study t h is valu e con­ fig u r a tio n is o p e r a tio n a liz e d as a m u lt iv a r ia t e concept c o n s is tin g o f items th a t measure a t t it u d e toward a d iv e r s i t y o f s o c io - p o l it i c a l issues, a l l w ith r a c i a l r a m if ic a tio n s . In C hapter IV , th e way in which a scale was co n s tru c te d from th ese items is re p o rte d In d e t a i l . At th is stage th e aim is to b r i e f l y comnent on th e reasons why i t is b elie ve d t h a t th e f i v e items in th e s c a le a re r e l i a b l e In d ic a to r s o f the concept — b la c k consciousness. I t was p re v io u s ly s ta te d in C hapter I I t h a t b la c k consciousness is a m u lti-d im e n s io n a l concept t h a t makes norm ative statem en ts about the s o c ia l, p s y c h o lo g ic a l, p o l i t i c a l , and c u ltu r a l aspects o f b lack life . The s c a le c o n s tru c tio n procedures (o u tlin e d in d e t a i l 1n C hapter IV ) showed th a t f i v e item s may be used to e m p ir ic a lly measure b la ck consciousness. F o r tu n a te ly , each o f th e f i v e item s made p r e c is e ly the normative judgem ents about th e p o l i t i c a l , s o c ia l, p sych o lo g ical and c u ltu r a l fa c to r s t h a t the t h e o r e t ic a l l i t e r a t u r e assigned impor­ tance to in d e fin in g b la ck consciousness. 1n th e sc ale w ere: 1 The f i v e item s included ) a t t it u d e to b la c k p o l i t i c a l caucuses; 2 ) a t t it u d e to m e tro p o lita n power*5 ; 3 ) a t t i t u d e to b la c k e le c te d o f f i c i a l s g iv in g p r i o r i t y to b lack c o n s titu e n ts ; 4 ) a t t i t u d e to th e 92 teaching to b la ck h is to r y in sc h o o ls ; and 5) a t t i t u d e to b la c k Americans lob bying f o r A f r ic a . The idea t h a t th e p o l i t i c a l process should be used as an in stru m ent to advance th e s o c ia l in t e r e s ts o f b la c k s , which is assumed to be d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f o th e rs in th e s o c ie ty , is represented by item s 1 , 2 , and 3 . The e x a c t n a tu re o f th e q uestio n s concerning these item s is co n tain ed 1n s e c tio n 4 8 , 6 1 , and 47 re s ­ p e c tiv e ly o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire . p o litic a l W hile these item s a re e x p l i c i t l y in n a tu re i t is obvious th a t they a ls o r e f e r to th e s o c ia l and p sy ch o lo g ica l dim ensions o f b la c k consciousness. Im p lic itly , they address th e iss u e o f th e typ e o f s o c ia l r e la t io n s b lacks should have w ith w h ites — th e s o c ia l dimensions o f th e con cept; a ls o th ey probe th e e x te n t to which a p o s it iv e p s y c h o lo g ic a l comnitment to b lacks has been adopted — th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l component o f th e concept. The o th e r two item s in th e s c a le a re measured by s e c tio n 57 , and 75 r e s p e c tiv e ly o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire . The f i r s t seeks to d is ­ cover th e e x te n t to which th e c u lt u r a l h e rita g e o f blacks is judged to be im p o rta n t; th e second in q u ire s in to w hether r a c ia l commonal­ i t i e s a re viewed as s u f f i c i e n t grounds f o r th e fo rm a tio n o f a c o l l ­ e c tiv e i d e n t i t y . Independent V a ria b le s T h is research te s ts th re e m ajor l\ypotheses concerning b la c k con­ sciousness. One, t h a t i t is a fu n c tio n o f e x te n t o f commitment to a ca re e r as a p u b lic o f fic e h o ld e r ; tw o , t h a t i t is a fu n c tio n o f degree o f p a rtis a n commitment; and, t h r e e , t h a t i t is a fu n c tio n o f s o c ia l 93 and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . These th re e concepts w i l l be measured by a number o f v a r ia b le s , each o f which w i l l be discussed I n d i v i d ­ u a lly . Conmitment to a C areer as a P u b lic O f f i c i a l The v a r ia b le s t h a t w i l l measure th e hypotheses r e la te d to t h i s concept a r e : 1 ) le n g th o f tim e in p u b lic o f f i c e ; 2 ) le n g th o f tim e in p re s e n t o f f i c e ; 3) number o f o f f ic e s h e ld ; 4) number o f o f f ic e s sought; 5) p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e ; 6 ) 7) 8 ) 9) 1) le v e l o f o f f i c e h e ld ; p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n ; r a c i a l com position o f d i s t r i c t ; ty p e o f e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t . P erio d o f tim e in e le c t i v e o f f i c e : I n t u i t i v e l y , i t seems r e a ­ sonable to argue t h a t people who spend an extended p erio d o f t h e i r liv e s in any occupation w i l l be more com m itted to t h a t v o c a tio n th an those whose so jou rn 1n th e occupation has been s h o rte r . S im ila r ly , i t is u n l i k e ly t h a t someone who is uncorrm itted to a p u b lic c a r e e r w ill rem ain in p u b lic o f f i c e lo n g . Thus th e p e rio d o f tim e t h a t an in d iv id u a l has held p u b lic o f f i c e may be co n stru ed as an in d ic a t o r o f the e x te n t o f t h e i r commitment to p u b lic o f f i c e . For th e purpose o f t h is s tu d y , tim e sp e n t 1n p u b lic l i f e w i l l be measured in terms o f number o f years in o f f i c e , both e le c t i v e and 94 and a p p o in tiv e . The lo w e s t p o s s ib le s c o re on t h i s v a r ia b le is "1" re p re s e n tin g a p e rio d o f one y e a r o r le s s in o f f i c e . 2) Length o f tim e in p re s e n t h e ld o f f i c e : Again le n g th o f tim e spent in p re s e n t o f f i c e is a n o th e r way o f lo o k in g a t th e e x t e n t o f one's commitment t o a p o l i t i c a l t h is re s e a rc h r e f e r s held th e o f f i c e c a re e r. The c o n ce p t as used in to th e le n g th o f tim e t h a t a resp o n d en t had t h a t h e /s h e was in a t th e tim e o f th e in t e r v ie w . By t h is d e f i n i t i o n , f o r respondents who were f i r s t a p p o in te d to th e c u r r e n t ly h e ld o f f i c e and s u b s e q u e n tly sought e le c t io n to i t , the p e rio d o f tim e s e rv in g as an a p p o in te e would not be in c lu d e d in th e le n g th o f tim e in p r e s e n tly h e ld o f f i c e . on t h is ite m is 3) " I " , r e p r e s e n tin g one y e a r o r le s s in o f f i c e . Number o f o f f i c e s h e ld : T h is is y e t a n o th e r way o f v ie w in g how com m itted one is to p o l i t i c s . c re a s e s , i t The lo w e s t score As number o f o f f i c e s h e ld i n ­ is a f a i r su rm ise t h a t commitment to a p u b lic c a r e e r a ls o grows s t r o n g e r . As o p e r a t io n a liz e d , th e v a r ia b le r e f e r s p u b lic o f f i c e s h e ld , both a p p o in tiv e and e l e c t i v e . viewees h e ld a t l e a s t one e l e c t i v e o f f i c e on t h is 4) index is th e lo w e s t p o s s ib le score seems lo g ic a l As in th e p re c e d in g d i s ­ t h a t a tte m p tin g to seek o f f i c e in d ic a to r o f o n e 's commitment to o f f i c e - h o l d i n g . fe r s to th e number o f tim es t h a t an in d iv id u a l in d iv id u a ls is a f a i r The v a r ia b le r e ­ ra n f o r an e l e c t i v e p o s itio n , re g a r d le s s o f w h e th e r i t was a t t a in e d . a ll in te r ­ "1 ". Number o f tim e s o f f i c e was so u g h t: cu ssio n , i t As a l l to a l l By d e f i n i t i o n , in th e sample would have had to have sought o f f i c e a t le a s t once ( i f n o t , th e y c o u ld n o t be in th e s a m p le ). So th e 95 low est p o s s ib le sc o re on t h is measurement is 5) P o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e : in p o l i t i c a l "1 " . O ffic e h o ld e r s who p a r t ic ip a t e d campaigns b e fo re s e e k in g o f f i c e th em s elv es may be assumed to be more com m itted to p u b lic l i f e th an th o s e who d i d n ' t . A d m itte d ly , th e l a t t e r assum ption may n o t be v a l id because i t is c o n c e iv a b le t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p o l i t i c a l may lo w e r o n e 's i n t e r e s t 1 n p o l i t i c s ; how ever, t h i s be th e case among members o f t h is in a l l cases, campaigns i s u n l i k e ly to sa m p le, because as used in t h is s tu d y , t h is v a r ia b le r e f e r s o n ly to p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e engaged 1n b e fo re p ers o n a l o f f i c e was so u g h t. As a l l p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e l a t e r h e ld o f f i c e , i t persons w ith is u n l i k e ly th a t t h e i r commitment to p o l i t i c s d im in is h e d a f t e r h avin g p a r t i c i ­ pated in cam paigns. 6) Im portance o f o f f i c e h e ld : It i s common knowledge t h a t o f f i c e s d i f f e r in t h e i r im p o rta n c e , t h a t i s , in terms o f th e a u t h o r it y and th e power t h a t in h e re s in them , and th e b e n e fits t h a t th e y c o n fe r . Thus o f fic e h o ld e r s in more im p o rta n t o f f ic e s may be assumed to be more co m n itted to p u b lic o f f i c e because o f th e g a in s , p erso nal and o th e rw is e , t h a t a re o f fe r e d by th e o f f i c e compared to th o se who h o ld le s s Im p o rta n t p o s it io n s . many ways. w ill Im p o rta n c e , o f c o u rs e , can be measured in For th e purpose o f t h i s s tu d y , th re e ty p e s o f measurement be employed based on th re e d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a — fo rm al le v e l o f o f f i c e , fu n c tio n o f o f f i c e , and a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f o f f i c e . a) Formal le v e l o f o f f i c e : f e d e r a l , s t a t e , co u n ty and lo c a l le v e l. T h is r e fe r s to o f f i c e s on th e (m u n ic ip a l, to w n s h ip , school b o a rd ) The s c a le t h a t was c re a te d on th e b a s is o f t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n 96 is co n tain e d in T ab le 2. b) F u n ctio n o f o f f i c e : This r e f e r s to o f f ic e s in th e e x e c u tiv e , l e g i s l a t i v e , j u d i c i a l , e d u c a tio n a l and a d m in is tr a tiv e branches o f government. to t h is c r i t e r i o n The c l a s s if i c a t io n o f o f fic e s a c co rd in g is shown in T ab le 3 . A lthough i t may appear ambiguous, e x e c u tiv e o f f i c e is d is tin g u is h e d from a d m in is tr a tiv e o ffic e because c e r t a in o f f ic e s th a t may be th ou gh t o f as e x e c u tiv e are p u r e ly a d m in is tr a tiv e in th e power th e y c o n fe r ( e . g . , c i t y c le r k , county r e g i s t e r o f deeds) and they r e a l l y a r e not th e source o f p o lic y d e c is io n s . So, w h ile I c l a s s if y a mayoral p o s itio n as e x e c u tiv e , I c la s s ify a c i t y c le r k as a d m in is tr a t iv e ; c l e a r l y th e pow ers, p re ­ ro g a tiv e s , and r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s o f both jo b s a re very d i f f e r e n t . In o th e r w ords, t h e i r fu n c tio n s d i f f e r . c) A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f o f f i c e : This is th e most d i f f i c u l t c r it e r io n o f o f f i c e im portance to measure, because i t t i a l l y s u b je c t iv e . is essen­ N o n e th e le s s , th re e o b je c tiv e c r i t e r i a may be used f o r r a t in g o f f ic e s in term s o f t h e i r a ttr a c tiv e n e s s : 1) degree and d ir e c t io n o f movement from one o f f i c e to a n o th e r; 2) b e n e fits c o n fe rre d by o f f i c e and 3) co sts and r is k s o f o f f i c e large e le c t o r a l W h ile i t ( e . g . , s a la r y , s ta tu s , a u t h o r it y ) ; ( f o r exam ple, s h o rt vs. long term s, body vs. sm all e le c t o r a l body, e t c . ) . is not p o s s ib le to unambiguously rank a l l o f f ic e s in terms o f th e s e th re e c r i t e r i a , i t is p o s s ib le to use them to sketch some s o r t o f h ie ra rc h y . For exam ple, i t would seem p la u s ib le t h a t a g overno rship would be more a t t r a c t i v e than a lie u te n a n t g o v ern o rs h ip , th a t a s t a t e s e n a to r ia l p o s itio n would be more a t t r a c t i v e than a s ta te 97 TABLE 2 Formal Level o f O ffic e Federal U .S . S en ato r, Congressman. S ta te S e c re ta ry o f S t a t e , S ta te S e n a to r, S ta te Repre­ s e n ta tiv e , A tto rn e y G en eral, G overnor, L ieu ­ te n a n t G overnor, U n iv e rs ity Board o f T ru s te e s , Supreme Court Judge. County Com m issioner, County C le r k , County R eg is­ County t e r o f Deeds, County A u d ito r, P ro b ate Court Judge, C ir c u it C o u rt Judge, Comnunity C ollege Board o f T r u s te e s , S h e r if f . M unicipal Township S u p e rv is o r, Township C le r k , Township and Local T re a s u re r, M ayor, Township T r u s te e , C ity C o u n c il­ man, C ity C le r k , T r a f f i c R e fe re e , D i s t r i c t C o u rt Judge, M u n icip al Court Judge, C o u rt o f Common P le a s , R e c o rd e r's Court Judge, School Board. TABLE 3 Function o f O f f ic e Mayor, Township S u p e rv is o r. E xecutive L e g is la tiv e = S ta te S e n a to r, S ta te R e p re s e n ta tiv e , County Com­ m is s io n e r, Congressman, U .S. S e n a to r, C ity Councilman. J u d ic ia l S h e r i f f , Judges ( a l l ty p e s ). 98 A d m in is tra tiv e * County R e g is te r o f Deeds, County C le r k , County A u d ito r, Township C le r k , Township T ru s te e , C ity C le r k , Township T re a s u re r. Educational - U n iv e rs ity Board o f T ru s te e s , School Board, Community C o lle g e Board o f T ru s te e s . TABLE 4 A ttra c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e Most A t t r a c t iv e O f f ic e 1 - S e n a to r, Governor. 2 - S ta te Supreme C ourt Judge. 3 - L ie u te n a n t G overnor, Congressman. 4 - S ta te S e n a to r, U n iv e r s ity Board o f T ru s te e s , C ourt o f Appeals Judge. 5 - M ayor, C i r c u i t Court Judge, Re­ c o rd ers C ourt Judge. 6 - S h e r i f f , C it y C le r k , R e g is te r o f Deeds, County C le r k , C it y A u d ito r, D i s t r i c t Judge, Probate Court Judge, Court o f Common Pleas Judge. 7 - County Commisioner, C it y Councilman, Township T re a s u re r, Township C le rk , Township T ru s te e , Township Super­ v is o r , M u n icip al Court Judge, Comm­ u n ity C o lle g e Board o f T ru s te e s , School Board. Least A t t r a c t iv e O ffic e 8 - Board o f Review, C h a rte r Commissioner, B a iliff. 99 house s e a t* and t h a t a c i t y c o u n c il p o s itio n would be e v a lu a te d as more a t t r a c t i v e than membership on a school board. U n fo rtu n ­ a t e ly , 1 t Is n o t p o s s ib le to rank a l l o f f ic e s as e a s ily as th e s e . For exam ple, is a Supreme Court Judgeship more a t t r a c t i v e th an a Congressional o f f ic e ? I t is d i f f i c u l t to answer t h is q u estio n since th e re 1 s r a r e l y l i t t l e movement between th e tw o, and both confer ro u g h ly th e same b e n e f it s ; however, C ongressional o f f i c e req u ires running f o r e le c t io n every two years and th e Supreme Court ev ery ten y e a r s . T h is example dem onstrates th e in h e re n t d i f f i c u l t y 1 n a c c u r a te ly ra n k in g o f f ic e s ness. in terms o f a t t r a c t i v e ­ N o n e th e le s s , w h ile m in d fu l o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s a tte n d a n t to c re a tin g t h is ty p e o f schema, some ap p ro xim atio n may be made. Table 4 re p re s e n ts th e h ie r a r c h ic a l o rd e rin g o f o f fic e s in terms o f a ttr a c tiv e n e s s t h a t w i l l 7) P o l i t i c a l a m b itio n : be used in t h is s tu d y . As noted b e fo re , th e essence o f th e c o n c e p t, p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n , is a s p ir a t io n f o r o f f i c e . The assumption is t h a t those who a s p ir e f o r th e most im p o rta n t o f f ic e s may be deemed to be more committed to p u b lic o f f i c e , than those who p la c e t h e i r o f f i c e goals a t low er h e ig h ts . I f p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n 1s used as one in ­ d ic a to r o f e x te n t o f commitment to o f f i c e , a p ro g re s s iv e a m b itio n may be construed as a h ig h e r le v e l o f a m b itio n , and hence a h ig h e r degree o f o f f i c e commitment than s t a t i c o r d is c r e te a m b itio n s . A s t a t ic a m b itio n , in t u r n , re p re s e n ts a h ig h e r le v e l o f o f f i c e commit­ ment than a d is c r e t e a m b itio n . In t h is way p o l i t i c a l am bition may be o p e ra tio n a liz e d as an o rd in a l c o n s tru c t, a lth o u g h i t defined in c a te g o r ic a l term s. is commonly 100 8 ) R acial com position o f e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t : The r a c ia l com position o f an e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t is h yp oth esized to be r e la te d to b la ck con­ sciousness. because c o n s titu e n ts a re expected to d i f f e r in t h e i r p e r­ cep tio n s o f b la ck consciousness among t h e i r e le c te d r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s . Thus a b la ck o f fic e h o ld e r is expected to a d ju s t h is b la c k conscious­ ness to th e r a c ia l com position o f h is c o n s titu e n c y . As o p e r a tio n a liz e d fo r t h is s tu d y , r a c ia l com position o f d i s t r i c t r e f e r s to th e p ro ­ p o rtio n o f the d i s t r i c t s p o p u la tio n t h a t is b la c k . u n it o f re fe re n c e is th e d i s t r i c t ' s p o p u la tio n . Id e a lly , Note t h a t th e p o p u la tio n , not i t s v o tin g th e l a t t e r In fo rm a tio n 1s r e a l l y what was d e s ire d , however i t was le s s a v a ila b le than th e fo rm e r.^ ® The r a t i o o f blacks to w h ite 1 n o n e's d i s t r i c t was o b ta in ed from th e i n t e r ­ viewees. In a few cases where a respondent was unaware o f th e r a c ia l com position o f th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n , but was inform ed o f th e r a c ia l com position o f th e v o tin g p o p u la tio n , th e l a t t e r in fo rm a tio n was used as a s u b s titu te f o r th e fo rm e r. In th e case o f th re e respondents who d id not know e i t h e r , t h is re s e a rc h e r o b ta in e d in fo rm a tio n about th e p o p u la tio n 's r a c i a l com position from o f f i c i a l reco rd s and In c lu d ed th is in fo rm a tio n in th e in te r v ie w e e 's q u e s tio n n a ire . 9) Type o f e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t : Because o f th e f a c t th a t e le c to r a l d i s t r i c t s g e n e r a lly d i f f e r in t h e i r r a c ia l co m p o sitio n , i t is ex­ pected t h a t d i f f e r e n t typ es o f d i s t r i c t s w i l l be r e la t e d to d i f f ­ e re n t le v e ls o f b lack consciousness. two typ es : d i s t r i c t and a t - l a r g e . E le c to r a l d i s t r i c t s may be o f 101 P a rtis a n Commitment The fo llo w in g v a r ia b le s w i l l measure e x te n t o f conmi tment to p a rtis a n In t e r e s t s : 1) P o litic a l p a rty a f f i l i a t e o r n o n - a f f i l i a t e ; 2) P o litic a l p a rty o f fic e h o ld e r o r n o n -h o ld e r; 3) P a rtis a n o r n o n -p a rtis a n o f f ic e h o ld e r ; 4) E v a lu a tio n o f o n e 's personal r e la tio n s h ip w ith p o l i t i c a l p a r t ie s . 1) P o litic a l p a rty a f f i l i a t e o r n o n - a f f i l i a t e : This r e f e r s to whether one s ta te s t h a t one is a member o f a p o l i t i c a l 2) P o l i t i c a l p a rty o f f ic e h o ld e r o r n o n -h o ld e r: p a r ty . This r e fe r s to whether o r n o t one has h e ld o r co n tin ues to hold any p o l i t i c a l party o f f i c e , in c lu d in g p r e c in c t d e le g a te . I t should be noted th a t as o p e r a tio n a liz e d th e v a r ia b le does not n e c e s s a r ily r e f e r to o f fic e h eld in the p o l i t i c a l p a rty w ith which the respondent was a f f i l i a t e d a t th e tim e o f th e in te r v ie w . fo r an o f fic e h o ld e r to have h eld p o l i t i c a l L ik ew ise i t is p o s s ib le p a rty o f f i c e in more than one p a rty . As o n ly two a lt e r n a t iv e s a re p o s s ib le f o r th is v a ria b le ( e i t h e r one has h e ld p o l i t i c a l p a rty o f f i c e o r n o t) it is o p e ra tio n a liz e d as a dichotom ous, c a te g o r ic a l v a r ia b le . 3) P a rtis a n o r n o n -p a rtis a n o f fic e h o ld e r : This in d ic a t o r o f p a rtis a n commitment is o p e r a tio n a liz e d in terms o f w hether th e o f fic e h o ld e r held p a rtis a n o r n o n -p a rtis a n o f f i c e a t th e tim e o f th e in t e r v ie w . 4) E v a lu a tio n o f personal r e la tio n s h ip w ith p o l i t i c a l p a r t ie s : way o ffic e h o ld e r s r a t e t h e i r r e la tio n s h ip s w ith p o l i t i c a l The p a r tie s is a lo g ic a l in d ic a t o r o f how im p o rta n t p a r tis a n in t e r e s t s a r e to them. I t seems u n lik e ly t h a t one who e v a lu a te s t h e i r p a rty r e la t io n s h ip in 102 n e g ative terms w i l l be h ig h ly corrm itted to p a rtis a n concerns. O p e ra tio n a liz e d f o r t h is s tu d y , t h is v a r ia b le is measured by a f iv e - p o in t L ik e r t - t y p e s c a le ra n k in g p a rty r e la t io n s h ip as e x ­ c e l le n t , good, O .K ., f a i r , poor. Social and Personal Background C h a r a c te r is tic s S everal v a r ia b le s w i l l personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . These a re : 1) Region o f s t a t e where o f f i c e is h e ld ; 2) Socio-econom ic s ta tu s ; 3) Age; 4) Sex; 5) Region o f s o c ia li z a t i o n ; 6 1) be used as in d ic a to r s o f s o c ia l and ) P o l i t i c a l awareness. Region o f s t a t e where o f f i c e is h e ld : The most n o tic e a b le l i n e o f re g io n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n in M ichigan is between in s t a t e and o u ts ta te areas o f th e s t a t e . B roadly s p e a k in g , th e in s t a t e a re a en­ compasses th e la r g e s t in d u s t r ia l and urban c e n te rs o f th e s t a t e , and the o u ts ta te are a is p r im a r ily a r u r a l , fa n n in g r e g i o n . ^ In terms o f th e u rb a n /r u r a l dichotom y, in s t a t e o ffic e h o ld e r s a re l i k e l y to be more urban than r u r a l in o r i e n t a t i o n , and o u ts ta te o ffic e h o ld e r s th e re v e rs e . Most members o f th e sample a re e le c te d by c o n s titu e n c ie s in one o f th ese two re g io n s . sta tew id e o f f i c e . If The lon e e x c e p tio n a re those who hold these a re tr e a te d as a s e p a ra te c a te g o ry , the concept "re g io n o f s t a t e where o f f i c e is h e ld " may be t r e a te d as a trichotom ous c a te g o r ic a l v a r ia b le : i n s t a t e , o u ts ta t e , and s ta te w id e . 103 However, d e s p ite th e f a c t th a t the c o n s titu e n c ie s o f " s ta te w id e o ffic e h o ld e rs " a re lo c a te d n e ith e r s o le ly in s t a t e nor o u t s t a t e , these o ffic e h o ld e rs s t i l l liv e in one o f th ese re g io n s . So in a d d itio n to being tr e a te d as a s e p a ra te c a te g o ry they w i l l a ls o be in c lu d e d in the in s t a t e o r o u ts ta te c a te g o r ie s , th e re b y te s tin g th e hypotheses concerning regio n where o f f i c e 2} Socio-econom ic s t a t u s : is held in two d i f f e r e n t ways. T h is concept is commonly measured by a d iv e r s it y o f in d iv id u a l item s such as e d u c a tio n , occup ation and income, o r by a com posite o f a l l th r e e . For s e v e ra l reasons we ru le o u t th e use o f a com posite measure because a l l not a d e q u ate ly c o r r e la te d w ith each o th e r . th re e item s were The th re e measures o f SES th a t w i l l be used a re o c c u p a tio n , e d u c a tio n , and s a la r y from o f f i c e , although occupation w i l l most commonly be used. using a l l The r a t io n a le f o r th re e item s i n d i v i d u a l l y is a d e q u a te ly expressed by R obert A lfo rd th u s : Occupation can p ro b a b ly be used as a conven­ i e n t way o f m easuring s o c ia l c la s s b e h a v io r. For a com parative stu d y o f v o tin g b e h a v io r, occupation is p ro b a b ly th e best s in g le i n d i ­ c a to r . But th e e f f e c t o f o th e r s ta tu s ch arac­ t e r i s t i c s should be examined as w e ll — not to show the d e f ic ie n c ie s o f occupation as an index o f cla ss p o s it io n , but to c l a r i f y th e complex ways in which p eo p le in ro u gh ly s i m il a r pos­ it io n s may d i f f e r p o l i t i c a l l y . 18 This p o in t 1s r e it e r a t e d in The American V o t e r . The au th o rs o f th is work s t a t e th a t among th e o b je c tiv e in d ic a to r s o f c la s s "occu p ation tends to p r e d ic t p o l i t i c a l a t t it u d e s and v o tin g most e f f i c i e n t l y . " ^ In an attem p t to assess th e v a l i d i t y o f th e statem ent t h a t occupation is ju s t as good as in d ic a to r o f o th e r measure o f s o c io ­ economic s ta tu s , a c o r r e la t io n m a trix o f s e v e ra l dim ensions o f 104 socio-economic s ta tu s was drawn up. The in t e r - it e m c o r r e la t io n c o e ffic ie n ts o f th e th r e e measures o f SES vary from .2 to .4 to Since occupation and ed u ca tio n a re so h ig h ly c o r r e la te d .6. (r = .6 ) 1t seems j u s t i f i a b l e to use the fo rm e r as an in d ic a tio n o f th e l a t t e r . However, as o f f i c e s a la r y and o ccu p atio n a re not too h ig h ly c o rr e TABLE 5 I n t e r - i t e m C o rre la tio n s o f SES Ita n s S a la ry S alary Education .4 8 2 0 Education .4 8 2 0 Occupation .2 9 3 2 Occupation .2932 .6538 .65 38 la te d ( r = . 2 9 ) , t h is suggests t h a t s a la r y is a q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f eren t aspect o f SES than o ccu p atio n . 20 I t may even be argued th a t s a la ry from o f f i c e i s r e a l l y not a measure o f socio-econom ic s ta tu s a t a l l , but is r e a l l y a measure o f th e monetary v a lu e o f th e o f f i c e to th e o f fic e h o ld e r . However, 1 t is in c lu d e d in th e stu d y as an In d ic a to r o f socio-econom ic s ta tu s because i t does 1 n many In stan ces c o n trib u te to th e o v e r a ll SES o f an o ffic e h o ld e r . O ccupational s ta tu s is measured in terms o f th e tw e lv e categ o ry c la s s if ic a t io n used by th e Bureau o f th e Census. T h is index was then r e - c la s s if ie d in t o s ix c a te g o rie s a c c o rd in g to th e A lba Edwards occupational s c a le . 21 A score o f " I " In d ic a te s high SES, " 6 " i n ­ d ic a te s low SES. S a la ry is measured in terms o f th e a c tu a l s a la r y from o f f i c e 105 rep o rted In th e In te r v ie w . T h e re fo re I t 1sa continuous v a r i a b l e , ranging from ze ro to 4 0 ,0 0 0 ($ 4 0 ,0 0 0 1s th e h ig h e s t s a la r y re c e iv e d by any o f f ic e h o ld e r ) . 3) Age: Age r e f e r s to th e th a t In te rv ie w took p la c e . e x a c t age o f th e respondent a t th e tim e For purposes o f t h is s tu d y , i t is o p e r­ a tio n a liz e d both as a c a te g o ric a l c o n s tru c t and in i t s n a tu ra l con­ tinuous form . c a te g o rie s : As a c a te g o r ic a l c o n s tru c t, i t c o n s is ts o f th re e young, m id d le -a g e d , e l d e r ly . The c a te g o ry “young" encompasses respondents 35 ye ars o r under; “m id d le-ag ed " r e fe r s to respondents between 35 and 50 y e a rs o f age; f i n a l l y , " e ld e r ly " re fe rs to a l l 4) Sex: those respondents who a re o ve r 50 . Sex is o p e r a tio n a liz e d as a dichotomous c a te g o ric a l v a ria b le — males and fem ales . 5) Region o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n : T h is r e fe r s to th e area o f th e c o u n try where th e respondent spent th e f i r s t tw enty y e a rs o f l i f e . v a ria b le w i l l be o p e r a tio n a liz e d in to th re e re g io n s — "M ic h ig a n ," "the N o rth ," and " th e S o u th ." At some p o in ts in th e d ata a n a ly s is the two re g io n s , "M ichigan" and "the N o rth ," w i l l one c a te g o ry , th e re b y c r e a tin g o n ly two re g io n s , 6 ) The Age o f development o f p o l i t i c a l awareness: be c o lla p s e d i n t o "n o rth " and " s o u th ." 22 T h is v a r ia b le t e l l s something about th e fa m ily and community background o f the o f f ic e h o ld e r . The q u estion t h a t measured i t s t a te d , "At about w hat age d id you f i r s t become in te re s te d 1 n p o l i t i c a l e s t developed a t t h a t tim e?" is s u e s , and why do you th in k yo u r i n t e r ­ The answer was open-ended, and th e r e s ­ ponses were recoded in to f i v e age c a te g o rie s : 21-30 y r s ; 3 1 -4 0 y r s ; 4 1 -5 0 y r s . 1-10 y rs ; 1 1 -2 0 yes; 106 Statem ent o f Hypotheses From th e t h e o r e t ic a l d iscu ssio n o f C hapter I I , research hypotheses have been d e riv e d , and w i l l th e fo llo w in g be te s te d in the fo llo w in g c h a p te r. O ffic e Comnitment M ajor Hypothesis I : Black consciousness and degree o f o f f i c e commitment w i l l be in v e r s e ly r e la t e d . Sub-hypothesis 1: O ffic e h o ld e rs who have spent lo n g e r tim e in p res en t o f f i c e w i l l be less b la ck con­ scious than those who have been in o f f i c e a s h o rte r p e rio d o f tim e . Sub-hypothesis 2: O ffic e h o ld e rs who have been in o f f i c e lo n g e r (b oth a p p o in tiv e and e le c t i v e ) w i l l be le s s b la c k conscious than those whose sojourn in o f f i c e has been s h o rte r . Sub-hypothesis 3: O ffic e h o ld e rs who had h eld many o f fic e s would be le s s b la ck conscious than those who h a d n 't. Sub-hypothesis 4: O ffic e h o ld e rs who had sought more o ffic e s would be le s s b la ck conscious than those who h a d n 't. Sub-hypothesis 5: O ffic e h o ld e rs who hold d i f f e r e n t types o f o f f i c e w i l l show d i f f e r e n t degrees o f b lack consciousness. Sub-hypothesis 6 Sub hypothesis 7: Sub-hypothesis 8 : : O ffic e h o ld e rs who hold o f f ic e s h ig h e r up in th e o f f i c e echelon in th e form al le v e l o f o f f i c e h ie ra rc h y w i l l show low er b lack consciousness than those who hold low er le v e l o f f i c e s . O ffic e h o ld e rs in more a t t r a c t i v e o f fic e s w i l l be le s s b lack conscious than those in les s a t t r a c t i v e o f f i c e s . O ffic e h o ld e rs who a re more am bitiou s w i l l be les s b lack conscious than those who a re le s s a m b itio u s . 107 Sub- hypo 11 is 9: O ffic e h o ld e r s who hold o f fic e s in d is ­ t r i c t s w ith a high p ro p o rtio n o f blacks w i l l be more b lack conscious than those in low p ro p o rtio n b la c k d i s t r i c t s . Sub-hypothesis 10: Type o f e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t and b lack con­ sciousness w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la t e d . Sub-hypothesis 11: P o l i t i c a l am b itio n and r a c ia l com position o f d i s t r i c t w i l l i n t e r a c t i v e l y be r e la te d to b la c k consciousness. Sub-hypothesis 12: O ffic e h o ld e r s w ith p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e w i l l be le s s b la c k conscious than th o s e w ith o u t. P a rtis a n Commitment Major Hypothesis I I : Black consciousness and degree o f p a rtis a n cornnitment w i l l be in v e r s e ly r e la t e d . Sub-hypothesis 13: O ffic e h o ld e r s who e v a lu a te t h e i r p a rty r e la t io n s h ip s fa v o ra b ly w i l l be le s s b la ck conscious than those who e v a lu a te t h e i r p a r ty r e la tio n s h ip s les s fa v o r a b ly . Sub-hypothesis 14: O ffic e h o ld e r s who a re c lo s e ly a f f i l i a t e d w ith p o l i t i c a l p a r tie s w i l l be less b lack conscious than those who a re n o t. Sub-hypothesis 15: O ffic e h o ld e r s who a re Independent w i l l be more b la c k conscious than those who a re Democrats o r R epublicans. Sub-hypothesis 16: R epublicans w i l l be le a s t b lack co n scio u s. Independents more b la c k co n scio u s, and Democrats w i l l show a le v e l o f b lack con­ sciousness between th e two preceding groups. Sub-hypothesis 17: O ffic e h o ld e r s who hold p o l i t i c a l p a rty o f f i c e w i l l be le s s b lack conscious than those who d id n o t hold th is typ e o f o f f i c e . Social and Personal C h a r a c te r is tic s Major Hypothesis I I I Black consciousness w i l l be a fu n c tio n o f s o c ia l and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . Sub-hypothesis 18: O ffic e h o ld e r s w ith h ig h e r o ccup ation al s ta tu s w i l l e x h ib it g r e a te r b lack con­ sciousness than those o f low er o ccup ation al s ta tu s . 108 Sub-hypothesis 19: O ffic e h o ld e rs w ith h ig h e r o f f i c e s a la r y w i l l e x h ib it g r e a te r b la ck consciousness than those w ith lo w er o f f i c e s a la r y . Sub-hypothesis 20: O ffic e h o ld e rs w ith h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a l s ta tu s w i l l be more b la ck conscious than those o f lo w er e d u c a tio n a l s t a t u s . Sub - hypo t hes i s 21: O ffic e h o ld e rs who were re ared in th e N orth w i l l e x h ib i t g r e a te r b lack con­ sciousness than those re ared in th e South. Sub-hypothesis 22: O ffic e h o ld e rs who hold o f f i c e in s t a t e w i l l be more b la ck conscious than th ose who hold o f f i c e o u ts t a t e . Sub-hypothesis 23: O ffic e h o ld e rs who a re male w i l l b la c k conscious than fe m ales . Sub-hypothesis 24: Younger o ffic e h o ld e r s w i l l be more b la c k conscious th an those who a re o ld e r . Sub-hypothesis 25: O ffic e h o ld e rs who became in te re s te d in p o l i t i c s e a r l i e r in l i f e w i l l be more b la ck conscious than those whose p o l i ­ t i c a l in t e r e s t s developed l a t e r . be more 109 FOOTNOTES 1. Wade H. McCree, J r . "Law and P o lit ic s " in th e Negro in M ic h ig a n , M ichigan S ta te Chamber o f Commerce, June 1 9 6 8 , p. 1?. 2. Among th e notables t h a t d e fe c te d were A tto rn e y s Harold E. B led so e, and Joseph A. C r a ig e r, Reverend C harles C. Diggs S r ., and Joseph Coles. For an account o f th e p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s o f th e s e men see A Handbook on th e D e t r o it Negro. U lysees W. Boykin, M in o r it y Study A s s o c ia te s , D e t r o i t , M ich ig an , 1943. 3. Richard B. Sherman, The Republican P a rty and Black America From M cKinley to H oover, 1896-1933 ( C h a r lo t t e s v i l le : U n iv e r s it y Rres s o f Vi rg i nTa, 1 9 7 3 ). 4. Carolyn S t e ib e r , The P o l i t i c s o f Change o f M ich ig an , M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1970. “ 5. Stephen B. and Vera H. Sarasohn, P o l i t i c a l P a rty P attern s in M ichiqan ( D e t r o it : Wayne S ta te U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1957). 6 . 7. T r a d i t i o n a l l y , these two p o l i t i c a l p a r t ie s have been c h a ra c ­ t e r iz e d by deep id e o lo g ic a l d iffe r e n c e s . Norman Thomas p o in ts out t h a t th e y have d if f e r e d most s h a rp ly a b o u t economic is s u e s such as ta x e s , government fin a n c in g ; W hite and Owens note t h a t t h e i r d iffe r e n c e s "a re more pronounced th an in most s ta te s . Economic in te r e s ts d iv id e f a i r l y c l e a r ly a lo n g p o l i t i c a l l i n e s , and t h is is r e f le c te d s tr o n g ly in th e f i n a n c i a l base o f both th e Republican and Dem ocratic p a r t ie s ." N o n e th e le s s , Sarasohn and Sarasohn note th a t each p a rty attem pts to appeal to t h e i r opposing in te r e s ts in area s where t h e i r s tr e n g th is low. So, c o n c e iv a b ly , around th e in s t a t e area where Republicans s tr e n g th is low , and th e re a re many b la c k s , we should fin d some b la c k R epublicans. For a d is c u s s io n o f the d if fe r e n c e s between Republican and Dem ocratic p a r tie s in M ic h ig a n see the f o llo w in g : Stephen and Vera Sarasohn, op. c i t . , P a r t ie s and P o lit ic s in M ic h ig a n : A Symposium. M ichigan C itiz e n s h ip C le a rin g House, Ann A rbo r 1 ; R obert Lee Sawyer, The D em o cratic S tate C entral Conm ittee in M ic h ig a n , 19 49 -19 59; The Rise o f th e New P o l i t i c a l L ead ersh ip . Ann A rbor I n s t i t u t e o f P u b lic Admin1 s t r a t i o n , U n iv e rs ity o f M ic h ig a n , 1960. Wade H. McCree J r . , 0 £ . c i t . , p. 18. 110 8 . 9. Robert Lee Sawyer, J r . Dem ocratic S ta te C e n tra l C onm ittee in M ichigan 1 9 4 9 -1 9 5 9 , I n s t i t u t e o f P u b lic A d m in is tra tio n , The Un1v e r s it y o f Mi chiga n , Ann A rb o r, 1960. See Appendix 41 f o r th e in te r v ie w schedule. 10. Of these o ffic e h o ld e r s two were c i t y counci 1persons, two were school board members, and one was a d i s t r i c t ju d g e . 11. For a d is c u s s io n o f t h is problem see th e fo llo w in g : S h ir le y H a tc h e tt and Howard Schuman, "The E ffe c ts o f Black and W hite In te rv ie w e rs on W hite Responses," 1974, Unpublished p ap er. U n iv e r s ity o f M ich ig an . D aisy Quarm, "Do Black In te r v ie w e r E ffe c ts E x is t? " Unpublished p ap er. Ann A rb o r: D e t r o it Area Study, The U n iv e r s ity o f M ich ig an . Howard Schuman and Jean M. C onverse, "The E f fe c t o f Black and W hite In te rv ie w e rs on Black Responses," P u b lic O pinion Q u a rte rly 35: 4 4 -6 8 . 12. The d is t in c t i o n between in s t a t e vs. o u ts ta te M ichigan is commonly used in th e l i t e r a t u r e on M ichigan p o l i t i c s . See, f o r exam ple, Norman Thomas, "M ich ig an 's P a rty System: B lessing o r C u rs e," op. c i t . ; Stephen and Vera Sarasohn, op. c i t . , p . 112; Robert Lee S a w r y e r , J r . , op. c i t . , p. 2 . When used by these a u th o rs , th e in s t a t e are a r e fe r s to e i t h e r the Wayne County area s o le ly o r th e Wayne, Oakland and Macomb county a re a ; in o th e r w ords, i t is used to r e f e r to s o u th -e a s te rn M ich ig an . For th e purpose o f t h is stu d y , t h e r e fo r e , th e " in s ta te " area in c lu d es m e tro p o lita n D e t r o i t , Y p s ila n t i, Ann A rb o r, F l i n t , and P o n tia c . 13. In fo rm a tio n concerning who were Republicans was o b ta in e d from two o f th e o ffic e h o ld e r s who ran as R epu b lican s. This is th e only way t h a t t h is in fo rm a tio n could be o b ta in e d a p r i o r i as many o f th e b la c k Republicans in th e s t a t e hold j u d i c i a l o f f i c e , and t h e r e f o r e , are n o n -p a rtis a n . 14. Fred N. K e r lin g e r , Foundations o f B eh avio ral Research, Second E d itio n , H o lt R in eh art & Winston I n c . , 1 9 7 3 , p. 416. 15. The iss u e o f m e tro p o lita n power was in te r p r e te d as a r a c i a l issue by 94% o f the sample. The rem aining 6 % had never heard o f th e id e a . So, th e m a jo r ity o f the respondents who were co g n izan t o f th e r a m ific a tio n s o f the is s u e , were a ls o aware o f i t s r a c ia l consequences. 16. When respondents were asked about th e r a c i a l com position o f the v o te rs in t h e i r e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t s o n ly 15% re p o rte d th a t they knew t h i s . These were m ain ly s ta te l e g i s l a t o r s , con­ g ressio n al members, and c i t y councilmen who were e le c te d a t la r g e . Ill 17- The In s t a t e area encompassed the a re a 1n th e v i c i n i t y o f th e fo llo w in g c i t i e s : D e t r o i t , Y p s l l a n t l, Ann A rb o r, F l i n t , and P o n tia c . See fo o tn o te 12 . 18. R obert R. A lfo r d , P a rty and S o c ie ty (C hicago: Rand M cN ally and Companyi 1 9 6 3 ). 19. Agnus Campbell e t a l . , The American V o t e r , John W iley and Sons, 1960. See also A. H. B ir c h , Small Town Problems (London: O xford U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 1 0 4 -8 -for a b r i e f d is c u s ­ sio n o f th e problems o f c la s s ify in g occupations in to " c la s s e s " . 20. T h a t s a la r y from o f f i c e 1s not s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e la te d w ith o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s i s n o t s u rp ris in g as many o f fic e h o ld e r s who r e c e iv e l i t t l e o r no renum eration from o f f i c e , f o r exam ple, u n iv e r s it y tr u s te e members, rank h ig h ly on t h is measure o f SES. 21 . A lba E. Edwards, O ccup atio nal C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , U nited S ta te s Census. 22. S ta te s th a t are c o n s id e re d southern a r e : Alabama Arkansas W ashington, D.C. Del aware F lo r id a G eorgia Kentucky L o u is ia n a M aryland M is s is s ip p i Oklahoma N o rth C a ro lin a South C a ro lin a Tennessee Texas V i r g in i a West V ir g in ia CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF THE DATA In tro d u c tio n There were th re e p a rts to t h is a n a ly s is . F i r s t I c o n s tru c te d a scale to e m p ir ic a lly measure th e dependent v a r ia b le o f th e stu d y — black consciousness. Then, I te s te d th e hypothesis g en erated from the th e o r e tic a l d is c u s s io n o f C hapter I I . lows: fir s t, I te s te d t h is h yp o th esis as f o l ­ I looked f o r s i g n i f i c a n t , u n iv a r ia t e r e la tio n s h ip s between black consciousness and each o f th e fa c to r s presumed to a f f e c t b la ck consciousness — f o r exam ple, le v e l o f o f f i c e h e ld , p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n , age, e t c . When fa c to r s were c a t e g o r ic a l, I used a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e and T - t e s t s . When fa c to r s were co n tin u o u s, I c a lc u la te d th e c o r r e la t io n ; in a few cases where I thought i t would f a c i l i t a t e u n d e rs ta n d in g , I con­ s tru c te d a c a te g o r ic a l v a r ia b le from th e continuous m easure, and used a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e o r T - t e s t p ro cedu res. Throughout th e u n iv a r ia t e a n a ly s is , c o n tro ls were in tro d u c e d because u n iv a r ia te t e s ts a re not always a c c u ra te . f i c a n t , i t may a c t u a l ly be s p u rio u s . When a r e la tio n s h ip is s ig n i­ For exam ple, tim e sp en t in o f f ic e may be n e g a tiv e ly and s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la te d to b la c k consciousness. How­ e v e r, th e r e la t io n s h ip may n o t be as s i g n i f i c a n t as i t seems to be. It is q u ite p o s s ib le t h a t o ld e r people have le s s b la ck conscio u sn ess, and also have been in o f f i c e lo n g e r. p ickin g up th e e f f e c t o f age. So, tim e in o f f i c e may a c t u a l ly be S im ila r ly when an expected r e la t io n s h ip 112 113 is not s i g n i f i c a n t , th is does not always mean t h a t th e re is no r e l a t i o n ­ s h ip . For in s ta n c e , suppose p o l i t i c a l am b itio n and b la ck consciousness are p o s it iv e ly r e la t e d , w ith age c o n tr o lle d . By lo o k in g only a t th e r e la tio n s h ip between a m b itio n and b la ck consciousness, w ith o u t c o n t r o l­ lin g f o r ag e, t h is s i g n i f i c a n t r e la tio n s h ip would be overloo ked. I t h e r e fo r e check f o r sp u rio u s r e la tio n s h ip s in two ways. F ir s t, fo r each v a r ia b le I ask th e q u e s tio n — does c o n t r o llin g f o r any o f th e o th e r v a r ia b le s in th e study a l t e r th e u n iv a r ia t e r e la tio n s h ip w ith black consciousness very much? To do t h i s , I compute p a r t ia l c o r r e l a ­ tio n s between th e p a r t i c u l a r independent v a r ia b le one a t a tim e . perform an a d d itio n a l t e s t f o r each o f the p o l i t i c a l ask the q u e s tio n , do th e e f f e c t s o f p o l i t i c a l sciousness s t i l l holders a re a l l v a r ia b le s . I a ls o H e re , I v a r ia b le s w ith b la ck con­ hold once th e demographic c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f o f f i c e ­ c o n tro lle d ? consciousness a g a in s t a l l To answer t h is q u e s tio n , I regress b la c k th e personal and s o c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic v a r i ­ ables along w ith th e p o l i t i c a l v a r ia b le th a t is being co n sidered. A ll re s u lts from these two c o n tro l checks a re re p o rte d in th e appendices. The t e x t o n ly discusses r e s u lts which cause a s i g n i f i c a n t change in th e u n iv a r ia te r e la tio n s h ip s . In th e f i n a l stage o f th e a n a ly s is I in tro d u c e a m u lt iv a r ia t e s t a ­ t i s t i c a l method - - m u ltip le re g re s s io n — in o rd e r to b u ild a p r e d ic t io n model which w i l l p e rm it me to d eterm in e which f a c t o r s c o n jo in tly a r e th e best p re d ic to rs o f b la ck consciousness. 114 C re a tio n o f S cale to Measure Black Consciousness C lu s te r-A n a ly s is The measure o f b la c k consciousness is c r i t i c a l to t h is stu d y . While i t has been measured b e fo r e , no one has t r i e d to measure i t from a p o litic a l p e rs p e c tiv e . T h is research atte m p ts to f i l l m ethodological e x p lo ra tio n s o f th e co n ce p t. t h is gap in the In m easuring a concept two c r i t e r i a d ic t a t e th e item s t h a t should be in c lu d ed as dim ensions: nal homogeneity and d iffu s e n e s s . these c r i t e r i a in te r ­ In t h is s tu d y , I placed v a lu e on both because I wanted a concept t h a t was a r e l a t i v e l y "pure" measure o f b la c k consciousness as w e ll as one which was broad enough to in c lu d e th e s o c ia l, p s y c h o lo g ic a l, c u lt u r a l and p o l i t i c a l dim ensions th a t were suggested by th e t h e o r e t ic a l aspects. l i t e r a t u r e to be i t s s a l ie n t To ach ieve both in t e r n a l homogeneity and d iffu s e n e s s , t h e r e ­ fo re , I decided to in c lu d e in th e c o n c e p t's domain o n ly those item s th a t 1) c lu s te re d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith each o th e r to y i e ld a reaso n ab ly high r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t , and 2 ) t h a t tapped th e fo u r c r i t i c a l dimensions o f the con cept. The item s t h a t were c lu s te re d w ere: 1) A t t it u d e toward b u ssin g . 2) A t t it u d e toward segregated e d u c a tio n . 3) A t t it u d e toward community c o n tro l o f sch o o ls. 4) A t t it u d e toward te a c h in g "b lack h is to r y " in s c h o o ls . 5) A t t it u d e toward th e re tu r n o f b la ck tr a in e d g raduates to th e b la ck community. 6 ) 7) 8 ) A t t it u d e toward b la c k Americans lobbying on b e h a lf o f A f r ic a . A t t it u d e toward th e c r e a tio n o f a b la ck p o l i t i c a l p a r ty . A t t it u d e toward b la c k p o l i t i c a l caucuses. 115 9) A t t it u d e toward m e tro p o lita n power. 10) A t t it u d e toward "Black E n g lis h " . 11) A t t it u d e toward b la c k e le c te d le a d e rs g iv in g p r i o r i t y to t h e i r b la ck c o n s titu e n ts . The c lu s t e r a n a ly s is showed t h a t o f th e fo re g o in g e le v e n ite m s , f i v e c lu s te re d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . These w ere: 1) A t t it u d e toward b la c k p o l i t i c a l caucuses. 2) A t t it u d e toward m e tro p o lita n power. 3) A t t it u d e toward b la c k e le c te d o f f i c i a l s g iv in g p r i o r i t y to b lack c o n s titu e n ts . 4) A t t it u d e toward b la c k h is to r y in sc h o o ls . 5) A t t it u d e toward b la ck Americans lo b b yin g onb e h a lf o f A f r ic a . The i n t e r - c o r r e la t io n s o f these item s a re c o n ta in e d in T able 1. TABLE 1 In t e r - It e m C o r r e la tio n C o e ffic ie n ts o f Item s In th e Black Consciousness S c a le B lack Caucuses Black Caucuses P r io r ity to Blacks .41 M e tro p o lita n Power A t t it u d e to Black H is to ry .26 .22 .23 .33 .36 .2 8 .15 .9 0 Lobbying fo r A fr ic a P r io r ity to Blacks .41 Lobbyi ng fo r A f r ic a .26 .33 M e tro p o lita n Power .22 .36 .15 A ttitu d e to Black H is to ry .23 .2 8 .90 .12 .12 116 The Items t h a t f a i l e d to c lu s te r w ere: 1) A t t it u d e toward bussing. 2) A t t it u d e toward community c o n t r o l. 3) A t t it u d e toward "black E n g lis h " . 4) A t t it u d e toward b lack b u s in e s s . 5) A t t it u d e toward a black p o l i t i c a l p a r ty . ) A t t it u d e toward th e re tu rn o f b lack g raduates to th e b lack 6 com nunlty. 7) A t t it u d e toward segregated e d u c a tio n . I f a c o r r e la t io n m a trix is consul te d * some l i g h t may be shed on whyth e preceding seven items f a i l e d to c lu s t e r w ith th e o th e r fiv e . As may be gleaned from Table 2 , th e item s t h a t c lu s te re d were g e n e ra lly not s tro n g ly a s s o c ia te d w ith those t h a t d i d n 't . The reason seems to be th a t th e re was not much v a r ia tio n in th e Items th a t f a i l e d to c lu s t e r . This may be b e s t dem onstrated by an exam in atio n o f th e fre q u e n c ie s . (See Appendix 1 f o r th e frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s . ) W ith reg ard to th e bussing Is s u e , th e predom inant a t t i t u d e was fa v o ra b le . F i f t y - f i v e p erc en t fa v o re d i t s tr o n g ly , and 18% p a r t i a l l y . A m a jo r ity a ls o disapproved to some e x te n t o f segregated e d u ca tio n . F o r ty -s ix p e rc e n t were s tro n g ly a g a in s t i t , and 10% p a r t i a l l y . e v e r, 30% said th e y were p a r t i a l l y in fa v o r o f i t , How­ but t h is response was u s u a lly accompanied by th e c a v e a t, " I f 1 t was both segregated and e q u a l." Only 13% s tr o n g ly supported i t . W h ile b lack consciousness may n o t be in c o m p a tib le w ith ed u catio n al in t e g r a t io n . I t does seem to be In c o m p a tib le w ith extrem e forms o f s e p a ra tio n . Only s ix members o f th e sample (5.1% ) supported th e idea o f an a l l - b l a c k p o l i t i c a l p a r ty . 1 The m a jo r it y (94.9% ) c o m p le te ly re je c te d TABLE 2 Correlation of Items that Clustered with Items that Did Not Items That Did Not Cluster Items That Clustered Black Business Black English Return of Blacks To Community .1134 .110 -.0639 .250 -.0872 ,173 -.1890 .027 .1237 .101 -.0062 .473 .0466 .311 .0963 .149 -.1723 .039 .0811 .191 .1438 .069 -.0616 .253 -.0499 .299 -.1324 .076 -.0355 .360 .1286 .113 .1175 .103 .0889 .180 .1101 .117 -.2210 .009 ,1175 .103 -.0461 .320 .1175 .101 ,1093 .119 .0554 .284 .1395 .065 -.2025 .015 ,1093 .119 -.0798 .209 Community Control Black Party Bussing Segregated Education P riority to Blacks .0718* .091** .1984 ,016 .0709 .233 Black Caucuses .1311 .117 .0194 .417 Metropolitan Power .1496 .096 Teaching Black History Lobbying for Africa ♦Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient ♦♦Significance 118 it. The 60%, and Id e a o f conmunity in p u t in t o ed u catio n was supported by n e a rly com plete conmunity c o n tro l o f ed u ca tio n byo n ly 22%. e s t in g ly , 18% fa v o re d n e ith e r community in p u t nor c o n tr o l. In te r ­ D isap p ro val o f black E n g lish was a ls o stron g (73% ). F i n a l l y , as many as 58% favo red the idea t h a t b la c k graduates o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a l i n s t it u t io n s should not re tu r n to th e b la c k conm unity. The fin d in g s from th e c lu s t e r a n a ly s is support one o f my b a s ic arguments s ta te d In Chapters I and I I , nam ely, t h a t b lack consciousness does not r e f e r s o le ly to a t t it u d e s toward w h ite s o r th e id e a l ty p e o f race r e la t io n s . A d m itte d ly , these id eas a re i m p l i c i t l y connoted by i t ; however, in a d d it io n , i t r e fe r s more to a t t it u d e s toward o n e's group. The b lack conscious may fa v o r b u s sin g , and in te g r a te d ed u catio n because close a s s o c ia tio n w ith w h ites in c e r t a in spheres o f a c t i v i t y may n o t n e c e s s a rily be p erc eiv ed as a c h a lle n g e to th e id ea o f strong group s o l id a r i t y . To be b la c k conscious seems to im p ly th e c r e a tio n o f strong group u n it y , through f o r exam ple, b la ck p o l i t i c a l t r o lle d p o l i t i c a l caucuses, b la c k -c o n - u n i t s , ed u ca tio n t h a t teaches about the b la c k h e r i ­ ta g e , e f f e c t i v e lobby a s s o c ia tio n s , and in t e r n a t io n a l lin k a g e s among blacks. In o th e r w ords, b lack consciousness r e f e r s to th e c r e a tio n o f black p o l i t i c a l caucuses, but not a b la ck p o l i t i c a l p a rty ; c u l t u r a l l y re le v a n t c u r r i c u la , not segregated sch oo ls; lo c a l c o n tro l o f govern ­ mental u n it s , b u t not t o t a l c o n tro l o f ed u catio n by th e community. S u c c in c tly e x p res se d , b lack consciousness has more to do w ith encourage­ ment o f a d i s t i n c t i v e group i d e n t i t y than w ith t o t a l group i s o la t i o n o r group a s s im ila tio n . 119 S cale C o n s tru c tio n I used a sunvning p ro ced u re to c o n s tru c t th e b la c k consciousness s c a le . Because each o f th e f i v e Item s t h a t c lu s t e r e d had th e s tr o n g e s t b la c k consciousness response coded as " 1 " , th e summing te c h n iq u e r e s u lte d 1n th e lo w e s t p o s s ib le score on th e s c a le being 5 , th e s tr o n g ­ e s t b la c k conscious s c o re p o s s ib le ; th e h ig h e s t v a lu e on th e s c a le was 1 5 , th e w eakest b la c k co n scio u s response. 2 Two methods w ere used to ju d g e th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e s c a le . F i r s t I examined how each o f th e item s in th e s c a le c o r r e la te d w ith th e o v e r a ll s c a le . T a b le 3 in d ic a te s t h a t a l l o f th e item s were s tr o n g ly r e la t e d t o th e c o n s tru c te d s c a le . TABLE 3 C o r r e la t io n o f th e Item s in th e B lac k Consciousness S c a le W ith th e O v e ra ll S c a le Item s Black Consciousness S c a le B la c k Caucuses .5851 P r i o r i t y to B lacks .6 6 4 6 A t t it u d e to B lack H is to r y .7 9 6 2 M e tr o p o lita n Power .5 0 7 2 Lobbying f o r A f r ic a .8 3 2 6 N e xt I examined th e in t e r n a l ing a r e l i a b i l i t y c o e ffic ie n t. c o n s is te n c y o f th e s c a le by c a l c u l a t ­ The i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e l a t i o n between th e f i v e item s was h ig h enough to produce a r e l i a b i l i t y c ie n t a lp h a ) equal to th e ite m s . .7 2 , T h is r e l i a b i l i t y c o e ffic ie n t ( c o e f f l- w hich a t t e s t s to th e in t e r n a l hom ogeneity o f c o e f f i c i e n t is s u r p r is in g ly high g iv e n th e 120 d iffu s e n e s s o f th e concept t h a t was measured, th e h e te ro g e n e ity o f th e Items In c lu d e d 1 n th e co n ce p t, and th e f a c t t h a t th ey had a v a rie d f o r ­ mat. I d e l i b e r a t e l y chose to v a ry th e form at o f item s in th e c o n s tru c ­ tio n o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire in o rd e r to reduce th e u n ifo rm re s p o n s e -s e t bias th a t c o n tr ib u te s s p u rio u s ly to high in t e r - it e m c o r r e la tio n s in many in d e x e s . 4 H ypothesis T estin g This re s e a rc h is designed to determ ine th e fa c to r s th a t induce some b la ck o ffic e h o ld e r s to i d e n t i f y w ith t h e i r ra c e and induce o th e rs to avoid such i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Two se ts o f fa c to r s a r e p o s ite d to be im portant in d ic a to r s o f v a r ia t io n f ic a t io n : 1 in t h is form o f in tr a -g r o u p i d e n t i ­ ) p o l i t i c a l fa c to r s r e la te d to o ffic e h o ld in g needs and p a rtis a n a tta c h m e n t; and 2 ) s o c io lo g ic a l fa c to r s t h a t emerge from th e personal and s o c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f members o f th e group. The j u s t i ­ f ic a t io n f o r s e le c tin g these two groups o f fa c to r s was discussed in Chapter I I , te r I I I . and t h e i r mode o f o p e r a tio n a liz a tio n was presented in Chap­ In t h i s s e c tio n I a n a ly ze and in t e r p r e t th e r e la t io n s h ip between th e s e two sets o f fa c to r s and black in tr a -g r o u p i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in o rd e r to answer the fo llo w in g th re e research hypotheses. HYPOTHESIS I: The g re a te r th e commitment to a c a re e r as a p u b lic o f fic e h o ld e r , th e low er w i l l be th e le v e l o f b la ck consciousness. HYPOTHESIS I I : The g re a te r th e commitment to p a r tis a n i n t e r e s t s , th e low er w i l l be th e le v e l o f b la ck consciousness. HYPOTHESIS I I I : Black consciousness w i l l be a fu n c tio n o f s o c ia l and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . The procedure fo r te s tin g th e research hypotheses w i l l be as f o l ­ lows: fir s t, I w ill look a t th e b iv a r ia t e r e la t io n s h ip o f each 121 Independent v a r ia b le w ith b la ck consciousness; th e n , I w i l l c o n tro l f o r a l l o th e r independent v a r ia b le s in th e stu d y one a t a tim e by using p a r tia l a ll c o r r e la tio n a l t e s t s ; f i n a l l y , I w ill c o n tro l a t one tim e f o r th e measures o f s o c ia l and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , since perso nal d iffe r e n c e s a re commonly th e most s i g n i f i c a n t lin e s o f a t t i t u d i n a l d i f ­ fe r e n tia tio n . To do t h i s , I w i l l employ m u ltip le re g re s s io n p ro ce d u re s. M ajor Hypothesis I : Commitment to a c a r e e r as a p u b lic o ffic e h o ld e r w i l l be in v e r s e ly r e la t e d to b lack consciousness. The f i r s t m ajor h yp o th esis o f t h is study is th a t th e re w i l l be an in v e rs e r e la t io n s h ip between commitment to a c a re e r as a p u b lic o f f i c e ­ h o ld e r and b la ck consciousness. This stu d y measures commitment to an o f f i c e c a re e r in terms o f s tre n g th o r ty p e o f p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n , num­ ber o f o f f ic e s so u gh t, number o f o f f ic e s h e ld , p erio d o f tim e spent in e le c t iv e o f f i c e , im portance o f o f f ic e h e ld , and p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e . T h is s e c tio n e x p lo re s the u n iv a r ia t e r e la tio n s h ip o f each o f th ese fa c to r s w ith th e dependent v a r ia b le {b la c k consciousness). P eriod o f Time Spent in O f f ic e P erio d o f tim e sp ent in o f f i c e is assumed to be an in d ic a to r o f e x te n t o f commitment to a c a re e r in p u b lic o f f i c e . S p e c if ic a lly i t is expected t h a t th e lo n g e r th e p erio d o f tim e spent in o f f i c e , the lo w er w i l l be th e le v e l o f b la c k consciousness. As th e le n g th o f tim e spent in o f f i c e v a rie s from th re e months to tw e n ty -tw o years among respondents in th e sample, i t is p o s s ib le to te s t w hether v a r ia t io n in le n g th o f sojourn in o f f i c e is r e a l l y as so c ia ted w ith v a r ia tio n in b lack con­ sciousness. The n u l1-h y p o th e s is te s te d was: N u l1 -h y p o th e s is : V a r ia t io n in th e le n g th o f tim e spent in o f f i c e w i l l n o t be a s s o c ia te d w ith v a r ia t io n in e x te n t o f b la c k co n scio u sn ess. 122 The d a ta In d ic a te d t h a t th e n u ll-h y p o th e s is must be r e je c t e d . Length o f tim e spent 1n o f f i c e was w eakly b u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la te d a t the .0 5 le v e l w ith v a r ia tio n 1n b la c k consciousness. 1n o ffic e Incumbents who had been lo n g er tended to show low er b la c k consciousness than those who sp ent s h o rte r tim e In o f f i c e . I r o n i c a l l y , when t e s t s were made to d is c o v e r w hether le n g th o f tim e in p re s e n t o f f i c e was a ls o p o s it iv e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith b lack con­ scio u sn ess, no s i g n i f i c a n t r e la t io n s h ip was found (see T ab le 4 ) . This lack o f a s s o c ia tio n was n o t a lte r e d by c o n t r o llin g f o r each o f th e o th e r independent v a ria b le s in th e study one a t a tim e (Appendix 2) and f o r th e demographic v a r ia b le s (Appendix 3 ) . So, w h ile t o t a l tim e in o f f i c e is p o s it i v e l y a s s o c ia te d w ith b lack consciousness, tim e in p resen t o f f i c e is n o t. TABLE 4 B lack Consciousness and Commitment to an O f fic e C areer No. o f O ffic e s Sought No. o f Times O ffic e Sought .0162 .0244 .0754 .4 3 0 .396 .317 No. o f Years In E le c t iv e O f f ic e No. o f Years In P resen t O f f ic e Pearson r .1 6 0 8 S i g n i f i cance .0 4 0 Perhaps those who had spent lo n g e r tim e in e le c t iv e o f f i c e had sought and held more o f f i c e s o ffic e . If than those who had spent s h o rte r tim e in t h is were s o , number o f o f f ic e s so u g h t, and number o f o f fic e s h e ld should a ls o be p o s it iv e ly r e la t e d to b la c k consciousness. C o n tra ry to e x p e c ta tio n s , n e ith e r number o f o f f ic e s h e ld , nor number o f o f fic e s sought** were as so c ia ted w ith v a r ia t io n in b lack 123 consciousness. This suggests t h a t perhaps th e observed a s s o c ia tio n between b la c k consciousness and le n g th o f tim e in e le c t iv e o f f i c e is spurious. C o n tro ls were in tro d u c e d to a s c e rta in w hether one o f th e o th e r independent v a r ia b le s were c r e a tin g a sp u riou s r e la t io n s h ip . tr o l r e la tio n s h ip s a re re p o rte d in Appendix 8 . the r e la t io n s h ip to d is a p p e a r — age ( P a r t i a l The con­ Only one f a c t o r caused r = .0 8 5 0 , s ig . = .1 8 2 ) . Age is p o s it i v e l y and s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la t e d to le n g th o f tim e in o f f i c e , and to b la c k consciousness. Thus when age is c o n t r o lle d , th e r e l a t i o n ­ ship between le n g th o f tim e in o f f i c e and b la ck consciousness disappears because th e l a t t e r two v a r ia b le s share a common a s s o c ia tio n w ith age. O ffic e h o ld e rs who have been in o f f i c e lo n g e r tend to be o ld e r , and o ld e r age is a s s o c ia te d w ith lo w er b la c k consciousness. S eem ingly, th e observed r e la t io n s h ip between p erio d o f tim e 1 n o f f i c e and b la c k con­ sciousness i s a c t u a lly an age r e la t io n s h ip . When I c o n tr o lle d f o r a l l personal and s o c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s a t one tim e u s in g m u ltip le re g r e s s io n , th e o r ig in a l r e la tio n s h ip o f period o f time in o f f i c e and b la c k consciousness became more s i g n i f i c a n t . Appendix 9 re p o rts th ese f in d in g s . P o lit ic a l Campaign Experience W hile I t may not always be th e c a s e , t h is study assumes t h a t incumbents who p a r tic ip a te d in p o l i t i c a l campaigns p r io r to being elected to o f f i c e w i l l be more committed to a c a re e r in p u b lic o f f i c e than those who lacked p re v io u s campaign e x p e rie n c e . Campaign e x p e r­ ience should th e r e fo r e be a s s o c ia te d w ith lo w er b la ck consciousness than n o n -e x p e rie n c e . The n u ll-h y p o th e s is te s te d was: 124 N u ll-h y p o th e s is : There w i l l be no d if f e r e n c e in b la c k consciousness le v e ls between respondents w ith p revio u s p o l i t i c a l campaign ex p erie n c e and those w ith o u t. As T ab le 5 shows, th e fin d in g s not o n ly r e j e c t th e n u l1-h y p o th e s is , b u t show t h a t previou s campaign ex p erie n c e a c t u a l ly encourages b la ck con­ sciousness. The e x p erie n c ed in campaigns had h ig h e r le v e ls o f b lack consciousness ( X = 9 . 2 ) than those w ith o u t e x p erie n c e Of - 1 0 . 6 ) . TABLE 5 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience and B lack Consciousness Campaign Experience N Mean T Df Prob. Yes 31 9 .1 9 3 5 - 2 .2 2 5 7 .3 .031 No 88 10.5682 Perhaps t h is s u r p r is in g fin d in g may be e x p la in e d as fo llo w s . Those o ffic e h o ld e r s w ith p re v io u s p o l i t i c a l campaign ex p erie n c e a re those who may have become in te r e s te d in p o l i t i c s a t an e a r ly a g e , and age a t which one becomes in te r e s te d in p o l i t i c s in c re a s e s b lack consciousness. even w ith age o f developm ent o f p o l i t i c a l But awareness c o n t r o lle d , th e p o s itiv e a s s o c ia tio n o f campaign e x p e rie n c e and b lack consciousness remained s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 le v e l ( P a r t i a l r = .1 8 4 7 , s ig . = .0 4 7 ) . Appendix 10 shows th e c o n tro l f in d in g s . When I c o n tr o lle d f o r a l l so c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s c o n jo in t ly th e r e la t io n s h ip did become le s s s ig n if ic a n t but remained s ig n if ic a n t a t th e re p o rts these fin d in g s . .1 0 l e v e l . Appendix 11 th e 125 Importance o f O f f ic e Held Commitment to a p u b lic c a re e r was a ls o measured by im portance o f o ffic e held on th e assumption t h a t o ffic e h o ld e r s who hold more im p o rtan t o ffic e s w i l l be more committed to a c a re e r as a p u b lic o f fic e h o ld e r than o f fic e h o ld e r s who hold le s s s i g n i f i c a n t o f f i c e s . o ffic e was o p e r a tio n a liz e d in th re e d i f f e r e n t ways: Im portance o f 1 ) fu n c tio n o f o f f ic e ; 2 ) fo rm a l le v e l o f o f f i c e ; and 3 ) a ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f o f f i c e . Function o f O f f i c e : As o ffic e h o ld e r s d if f e r e d in th e fu n c tio n s they p erfo rm ed , th ese d iffe r e n c e s could be r e la te d to d i f f e r e n t types o f v a lu e - o r ie n t a t io n . I te s te d t h is h yp o th es is — b la ck consciousness v a rie s w ith fu n c tio n o f o f f i c e . Function o f o f f i c e is a c a te g o ric a l c o n s tru c t, and so one-way a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e procedures were used to te s t t h is r e la t io n s h ip . S tate d in i t s n u ll form the p o s ite d r e l a t i o n ­ ship was t h a t : N u ll-h y p o th e s is : There w i l l be no d if f e r e n c e in le v e l o f b la c k con­ sciousness among respondents in e x e c u tiv e , l e g is ­ l a t i v e , j u d i c i a l , e d u c a tio n a l, o r a d m in is tr a tiv e o ffic e s . The t e s t showed th a t fu n c tio n o f o f f i c e and b la ck consciousness were s ig n if ic a n t ly r e la t e d a t th e .0 5 le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e (se e T a b le 6 ) . As T able 6 shows, th e main cleavag e between th e f i v e o f f i c e types was between l e g i s l a t i v e , e x e c u tiv e and e d u c a tio n a l o ffic e h o ld e r s on the one hand, and a d m in is tr a t iv e and j u d i c i a l o ffic e h o ld e r s on th e o th e r . The le v e l o f b la c k consciousness o f th e l a t t e r two groups was much lower than t h a t o f th e form er th re e groups. Because o f th e s i m i l a r i t y in mean score o f j u d i c i a l and ad m in is­ t r a t iv e o f fic e h o ld e r s on th e one hand, and e x e c u tiv e , l e g i s l a t i v e and ed ucational o ffic e h o ld e r s on th e o t h e r , I c re a te d two groups. J u d ic ia l 126 TABLE 6 F u n c tio n o f O f f i c e O f f ic e F u n ctio n H e ld and B la c k C o n s c io u s n e s s N Mean E x e c u tiv e 23 9 .8 3 L e g is l a t i v e 42 9 .4 5 J u d ic ia l 17 12.00 E d u catio n 22 9 .5 4 A d m in is tr a tiv e 15 11 .87 T o ta l 119 F R a tio 3 .6 5 F Prob. .0 0 8 10.21 and a d m in is t r a t iv e o f f ic e h o ld e r s were lumped to g e th e r in t o one g ro u p , and e x e c u tiv e , l e g i s l a t i v e , and e d u c a tio n a l o f f ic e h o ld e r s in t o a n o th e r. These two groups d id d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y on b la c k consciousness as would be e x p e c te d . When c o n tr o ls were in tro d u c e d f o r each o f th e o th e r independent v a r i a b l e s , o n ly one caused th e r e la t io n s h ip to become i n s i g ­ n i f i c a n t — ty p e o f e l e c t o r a l d i s t r i c t (Appendix 1 2 ) . (P a r tia l r = .1 0 0 7 , s ig . = .1 4 0 ) Type o f e l e c t o r a l d i s t r i c t was a ls o p o s i t i v e l y r e la t e d to b la ck co n scio u sn ess; i t s s u p p res sin g e f f e c t p ro b a b ly emerged because i t accounted f o r much o f th e v a ria n c e between fu n c tio n o f o f f i c e and b la c k consciousness. T h is would su g g est t h a t one o f our two groups o f o f f i c e ­ h olders a r e e le c te d a t - l a r g e t o a g r e a t e r e x te n t than th e o th e r . Cross ta b u la tio n s o f th e two groups o f o f fic e h o ld e r s by ty p e o f e le c t o r a l d i s ­ t r a c t in d ic a te s t h a t t h i s is ind eed th e c a s e . Those in th e j u d i c i a l and a d m in is tr a tiv e branches a r e e le c te d a t - l a r g e f a r more th an th e o th e r group (T a b le 7 ) . 127 TABLE 7 F u n c tio n o f O f f ic e and Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t F unction of O f f ic e Type o f D i s t r i c t A t-L a rg e Ward T o ta l E x e c u tiv e , L e g is l a t i v e , and E d ucation al O f f ic e 59.5% (4 4 ) 40.5% (3 0 ) 62.2% (7 4 ) J u d ic ia l and A d m in is tra tiv e 95.6% (4 3 ) 4.4% (2 ) 37.8% (4 5 ) Formal Level o f O f f i c e : Im portance o f o f f i c e was a ls o o p e ra tio n ­ a liz e d in terms o f th e form al governm ental le v e l o f o f f i c e — f e d e r a l , s t a t e , c o u n ty , lo c a l and m u n ic ip a l. As each o f th ese c a te g o rie s may be considered h ig h e r th an th e one b elo w , o rd in a l s t a t i s t i c s could be used to measure i t s r e la tio n s h ip to b la c k consciousness. The r e la t io n s h ip was found to be m o d erately stro n g and s i g n i f i c a n t , but n o t in th e p re ­ d ic te d d ir e c t io n (Pearson r = .2 2 1 0 ) . As o f f i r ^ le v e l in c re a s e d , b la c k consciousness in c re as ed a ls o , a f in d in g t h a t c o n tr a d ic ts th e research hypothesis t h a t p o s ite d a decrease in b la c k consciousness as o f f i c e le v e l in c re a s e d . To a t t a i n a b e t t e r u n d erstand in g o f the changes in black consciousness from one le v e l o f o f f i c e to a n o th e r, i t is in s t r u c ­ t iv e to examine a one-way a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e te s ts o f th e same r e l a ­ tio n s h ip .^ T ab le 8 shows t h a t th e le v e l o f b lack consciousness o f o ffic e h o ld e r s a t th e county ()f = 1 0 . 4 ) , and lo c a l and m u n icip al (X = 1 0 .5 ) is alm ost th e same. le v e ls S i g n i f i c a n t l y , th e gap in mean scores between s t a t e o ffic e h o ld e r s ( JT = 8 . 7 ) and both o f th e p reced ing groups 1s alm ost two p o in ts . The low est sco re is re g is te re d by one fe d e r a l o f fic e h o ld e r in d ic a tin g th a t t h is c e l l re p re s e n ts th e h ig h e s t le v e l o f 128 TABLE 8 Formal L e v e l o f O f f ic e and B la c k C onsciousness O f fic e Level Mean N 1 5 .0 0 S ta te 18 8 .7 2 County 27 10.41 Local and M unicipal 73 10.58 Federal T o ta l black consciousness. 119 Of F R a tio 118 F P ro b . 2 .7 3 .04 7 10.21 However, because o f th e s iz e o f th e "N" in th is l a t t e r c a te g o ry , no g e n e r a liz a tio n about th e group may be made. C o n tro ls were made to in s u re th a t th e fo re g o in g r e la t io n s h ip was not a r e s u l t o f the confounding e f f e c t o f any o f the o th e r independent v a r ia b le s . Appendix 13 re p o rts these c o n t r o lle d r e la t io n s h ip s . were fo u n d . When I c o n tr o lle d f o r personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s a l l None to g e th e r th e o r ig in a l r e la t io n s h ip was o b l i t e r a t e d by th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e fo llo w in g v a r ia b le s : region o f s t a t e where o f f i c e was h e ld ; tim e th a t i n t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s developed; age; and ed u catio n . Because o f th e e f f e c t o f th e fo re g o in g v a r ia b le s th e o r i g i n a l l y s ig n if ic a n t r e l a t i o n ­ ship d e c lin e d to a F s ig n ific a n c e o f . i b 8 . Appendix 14 shows these fin d in g s . A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f i c e : Im portance o f o f f ic e was a ls o o p e ra tio n ­ a liz e d in terms o f a ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f o f f i c e s . The s c a le measuring a ttr a c tiv e n e s s had e ig h t c a te g o rie s as o r i g i n a l l y c re a te d ; however, because members o f th e sample held o f f i c e o n ly in the lo w er s i x , the two 129 uppermost c a te g o rie s were d e le te d from the s c a le . O rd in al in n a t u r e , the scale l e n t I t s e l f to c o r r e la t io n a l t e s t s , how ever, to f u r t h e r exam­ ine in te r n a l d iffe r e n c e s between th e groups, one-way a n a ly s is o f v a r i ­ ance procedures were a ls o em ployed. As w ith th e preceding s c a le t h a t measured Im p o rtan ce o f o f f i c e , th e research h y p o th e s is p o s ite d t h a t as le v e l o f o f f i c e c o r r e la tio n a l in c re a s e d , b la c k consciousness would d im in is h . For the t e s t s the n u ll-h y p o th e s is s ta te d : N u ll-h y p o th e s is 1: An in c re a s e in o f f ic e le v e l w i l l not be a s s o c ia te d w ith any changes in le v e l o f b la c k consciousness. For the a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e t e s t th e nul 1-h y p o th e s is s ta te d : N u ll-h y p o th e s is 2 : There w i l l be no d iffe r e n c e in th e mean scores on the b la c k consciousness s c a le between o ffic e h o ld e r s in each le v e l o f o f f i c e . The c o r r e la t io n a n a ly s is d id n o t support th e n u l1-h y p o th e s is ; th e r e was a weak, b u t s i g n i f i c a n t r e la t io n s h ip between b la c k consciousness and a ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f o f f ic e (Pearson r = .1 3 8 5 ). The a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e ta b le shows t h a t th e e x te n t o f change in b la ck consciousness is n o t uniform (T a b le 9 ) . Those a t th e two most a t t r a c t i v e le v e ls ten d to be more a lik e in h aving high b la c k consciousness th a n those in lo w er o f f i c e le v e ls . When I c o n t r o lle d f o r th e o th e r independent v a r ia b le s , s e v e ra l pressed th e r e la t io n s h ip below th e .1 0 le v e l (Appendix 1 5 ). sup­ These w ere: time th a t i n t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s d eveloped; type o f e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t ; sex; p a rtis a n v s . n o n p artisan o f f i c e ; and o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s . W ith th e exception o f o cc u p atio n a l s ta tu s and p a rtis a n v s . n o n p artisan o f f i c e , a l l these v a r ia b le s w ere d i r e c t l y r e la t e d to b lack consciousness in th e b iv a r la te t e s t s . developed a l l W ith the e x c e p tio n o f tim e t h a t in t e r e s t 1n p o l i t i c s th e v a ria b le s were r e la te d to th e a ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f o f f i c e 130 TABLE 9 A t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f O f f ic e and B la c k C o n scio u sn e ss A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e Most A t t r a c t iv e 1 5 .0 0 2 18 8 .7 2 3 13 4 15 11 .73 5 70 1 0 .1 0 6 __ 2 1 3 .0 0 119 10.21 F R a tio F Prob. 00 1 T o ta l s c a le . Mean o• Least A t t r a c t iv e N The c o n tro l fin d in g s emerged f o r d i f f e r e n t reasons because o f th e d iffe re n c e s in b iv a r ia t e r e la tio n s h ip s (see T ab le 1 0 ) . Type o f e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t , p o l i t i c a l p a rty o f f i c e , p o l i t i c a l cam­ paign e x p e rie n c e , s e x , form al le v e l o f o f f i c e , e v a lu a tio n o f p a rty r e la t io n s h ip , re g io n o f s ta t e where o f f i c e is h e ld , a l l erased the s ig ­ n ific a n c e o f th e r e la t io n s h ip between a ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f o f f i c e and b la c k consciousness because th e y were in te rv e n in g v a r ia b le s . Since th ey were re la te d to both v a r ia b le s , th e y had c re a te d an a r t i f i c i a l r e la tio n s h ip between them in th e b iv a r ia t e t e s t . The suppressing e f f e c t o f p a r tis a n vs. n o n -p a rtis a n o f f i c e , occupa­ t io n a l s ta tu s , and tim e t h a t in t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s developed emerged f o r d if f e r e n t reasons as th e y were not r e la t e d to both v a r ia b le s . Time t h a t in t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s developed was r e la t e d o n ly to b la c k consciousness. We can conclude th a t i t s suppressing e f f e c t was caused by th e f a c t t h a t 131 TABLE 10 C o r r e la t io n o f Ite m s t h a t Erased R e la tio n s h ip Between A t t r a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e S cale and B la c k Consciousness C o n tro l V a r ia b le Sex A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e B lack Consciousness r s ig . r s ig . .2 3 5 7 .005 .2 0 2 8 .014 P o litic a l Campaign E x p e rie n c e .1 7 3 0 .03 0 .1 9 2 4 .019 P o litic a l P a r ty O ffic e .2641 .00 8 .2 2 9 0 .007 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .1262 .08 6 .1 7 3 4 .030 -.1 5 3 9 .071 -.1 9 0 4 .020 Region Where O f f ic e Held .2 3 6 0 .005 .1 8 1 6 .025 N o n p a rtis a n v s . P a rtis a n O f f i c e .31 88 .001 .1 0 0 5 .139 Formal Level o f O ffic e .7 1 4 2 .001 .2210 .008 O ccu p atio n al S ta tu s .23 08 .0 0 8 .0 9 9 8 .141 Time I n t e r e s t 1n P o l i t i c s Developed .10 75 .12 4 .2 6 3 7 .002 Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t it in itia lly fu n c tio n e d as a c o n t r ib u t in g f a c t o r to th e b i v a r i a t e r e l a ­ tio n s h ip o f th e two v a r ia b le s ; t h e r e f o r e , c o n t r o llin g f o r th e r e l a t i o n ­ ship era s e d i t s s ig n if ic a n c e . As n e it h e r o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s nor p a r t is a n v s . n o n p a rtis a n o f f i c e were r e la t e d to b la c k c o n s c io u s n e s s , t h e i r su p pressing e f f e c t was a r e s u lt o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y h ig h c o r r e la t io n w ith th e a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f o f f i c e s c a le . o f th e s c a le . They may a c t u a l l y be c o n s id e re d to be a l t e r n a t e measures 132 C o n t r o llin g fo r a ll dem ographic c h a r a c t e r is t ic s s im u lta n e o u s ly caused th e r e la t io n s h ip to become h ig h ly I n s i g n i f i c a n t , th e re b y p ro v id ­ ing f u r t h e r reason f o r us t o co n clud e t h a t t h e r e 1 s r e a l l y no r e l a t i o n ­ ship between a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f o f f i c e and b la c k consciousness. Appendix 16 re p o rts th e s e fin d in g s . P o l i t i c a l A m b itio n P o litic a l a m b itio n is e x p e c te d to be in v e r s e ly r e la te d to b la c k consciousness. As noted 1n C h a p te r I I I , p o litic a l o p e r a tio n a liz e d e i t h e r as a c a te g o r ic a l o r r e s u l t , two ty p e s o f s t a t i s t i c a l a m b itio n can be an o r d in a l m easure; as a te s t s may be used to examine i t s s tre n g th o f a s s o c ia tio n w it h th e dependent v a r i a b l e . A n a ly s is o f ance may be used in th e s i t u a t i o n where 1 t v a r ia b le , and c o r r e la t io n a l form . i s t r e a t e d as a c a t e g o r ic a l a n a ly s is when i t Where o p e r a tio n a liz e d v a r i­ is t r e a te d in an o r d in a l in th e l a t t e r fo r m , th e nul 1-h y p o th e s is te s te d was: Nul 1- h y p o t h e s is : Changes 1n le v e ls o f p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n w i l l n o t be a s s o c ia te d w it h changes in s tr e n g th o f b la c k con­ sciousness . In I t s c a t e g o r ic a l fo rm , th e n u ll-h y p o th e s is was re v is e d to s t a t e : Nul 1-h y p o th e s is : There w i l l n o t be a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e mean s c o re on th e b lack consciousness index among o f f ic e h o ld e r s w ith p r o g r e s s iv e , s t a t i c , and d is c r e t e a m b itio n s . Both n u l1-h y p o th e s e s were s u p p o rte d . employed, In c re a s e s 1 n p o l i t i c a l R e g a rd les s o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l a m b itio n w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y to b lack consciousness {P earso n r = .0 0 7 3 ). te s t r e la t e d The a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e ta b le (T a b le 1 1 ) sheds some l i g h t on t h is la c k o f a s s o c ia tio n . The mean score o f th o s e w ith d is c r e t e a m b itio n ( T = 9 .8 7 ) was o n ly s l i g h t l y low er than th o s e w ith p ro g r e s s iv e a m b itio n (X = 9 . 9 ) , in d ic a tin g t h a t 133 TABLE 11 The R e la tio n s h ip o f P o l i t i c a l Am bition and B lack Consciousness Groups N Mean P ro g re s s iv e 46 9 .9 3 S ta tic 42 10 .7 6 D is c re te 31 9 .8 7 T o ta l 119 10.21 Df 118 F R a tio F Prob. .371 1 .00 the o v e r a ll le v e l o f b lack consciousness o f both groups was ro u g h ly th e same. The mean score f o r those w ith s t a t i c am b itio n s was about one p o in t h ig h e r (5T = 1 0 . 8 ) , suggesting t h a t those w ith s t a t ic a m b itio n may id e n t if y w ith t h e i r race to a le s s e r degree th a t those w ith p ro g re s s iv e o r d is c r e te a m b itio n s . However, given th e f a c t t h a t these d iffe r e n c e s are not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , no d e f i n i t i v e statem en t can be made. C o n tro ls were made to a s c e r ta in w hether any o u ts id e v a r ia b le s were suppressing t h i s r e la t io n s h ip . These a re re p o rte d in Appendix 17. None were fo u n d , le a d in g us to conclude th a t th e re is r e a l l y no s i g n i f i c a n t r e la tio n s h ip between b lack consciousness and a m b itio n . The c o n tr o ls f o r a l l v a r ia b le s measuring s o c ia l and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , a ls o f a i l e d to a l t e r th e n o n s ig n ific a n c e o f th e r e la t io n s h ip . Appendix 18 re p o rts these r e s u lt s . Racial Com position o f D i s t r i c t In C hapter I I , I hypothesized t h a t as th e p ro p o rtio n o f b la c k s in the e le c t o r a l c o n s titu e n c y d e c lin e d , th e le v e l o f b la c k consciousness would d ec rea se . Since r a c ia l com position o f d i s t r i c t I s a 4 co ntinuous 134 m easure, I used c o r r e la t io n a n a ly s is to t e s t t h is h y p o th e s is . In o rd e r to a s c e r ta in th e p o in ts a t which b la c k consciousness became more sharpened on th e continuum , r a c ia l com position was a ls o o p e r a tio n a l 1 zed as a trich o to m o u s, c a te g o r ic a l v a r ia b le c o n s is tin g o f th re e c a te g o rie s — lo w , medium, and high p ro p o rtio n b la c k d i s t r i c t s . Using these two m easures, two n u ll-h y p o th e s e s were te s te d . N u l1-h y p o th e s is 1: Changes in th e p ro p o rtio n o f b lacks 1n d i s t r i c t s w i l l n o t be a s s o c ia te d w ith v a r ia tio n in b la ck con­ sciou sn ess. N u ll-h y p o th e s is 2: There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e in th e mean scores o f b lack consciousness between b la c k s re p re ­ s e n tin g d i s t r i c t s w ith lo w , medium, o r h ig h propor­ t io n o f b la c k s . The d a ta d id not su p po rt e i t h e r o f th e n u ll-h y p o th e s e s . In s te a d , I found t h a t as th e p ro p o rtio n o f b lacks in e le c t o r a l c o n s titu e n c ie s in c re a s e d , th e le v e l o f b la c k consciousness in c re a s e d . T h is r e l a t i o n ­ ship was m oderately s tr o n g , and s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5 le v e l r = .2 1 5 3 ). (Pearson When I c o n t r o lle d f o r a l l o f th e o th e r independent v a r i ­ a b le s , and f o r th e demographic c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , r a c ia l com position o f d i s t r i c t s t i l l a ffe c te d b la c k consciousness (Appendix 19 and 20 respec­ tiv e ly ). One-way a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e procedures were used to e x p lo re whe­ th e r th e most s i g n i f i c a n t changes in mean score were between th e high and medium c a te g o r ie s , o r th e medium and low c a te g o r ie s . More than h a l f o f th e sample rep resen ted d i s t r i c t s where th e p ro p o rtio n o f b lacks was between 34% and 6 6 % (s e e T a b le 1 2 ). W h ile th e re was an o v e r a ll r e la tio n ­ sh ip between r a c ia l com p o sitio n o f d i s t r i c t and b lack consciousness, th e re was h a rd ly any d if f e r e n c e between o f f ic e h o ld e r s ’ b la ck conscious le v e ls in low and medium p ro p o rtio n b la c k d i s t r i c t s . On th e o th e r hand. 135 TABLE 12 The R e la tio n s h ip o f R a c ia l C o m p o s itio n o f D i s t r i c t and B la c k C onsciousness % o f D is tr ic t Black N Mean Df Low 0-33% 33 1 0 .7 9 118 Medium 33-66% 57 1 0 .4 4 High over 67% 29 9 .1 0 T o ta l 119 F Prob. F R a tio .08 2 .5 6 10.21 th e re was a sharp d iffe r e n c e between th e form er two groups and those in high p ro p o rtio n b la c k d i s t r i c t s . It is p ro bably because o f th e l a t t e r d iffe r e n c e t h a t th e d iffe r e n c e s in mean scores a re s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i­ f ic a n t a t th e . 1 0 l e v e l . The f a c t t h a t th e mean score f o r th e high p e rc e n t b la c k d i s t r i c t (X = 9 .1 0 ) was c o n s id e ra b ly lo w er than th e two p reced in g groups i n d i ­ cates t h a t b lack consciousness grew d r a m a tic a lly from medium to high black d i s t r i c t s . On a s u b s ta n tiv e l e v e l , th is suggests t h a t the w h ite presence in c o n s titu e n c ie s where th e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e is b la c k a c ts to lower b lack consciousness to alm ost th e same le v e l re g a rd le s s o f whether t h is presence is low o r medium. In o rd e r to assess whether th e s e d iffe re n c e s in su p p o rt f o r b lack consciousness were th e r e s u lt o f a m a jo r ity e f f e c t , I recomputed th e r e la tio n s h ip to compare th e d iffe r e n c e s between d i s t r i c t s black o r more w ith those th a t were 49% b la ck o r le s s . 13, th e mean score f o r th e m a jo r ity w h ite d i s t r i c t s than those in th e o ver 51% b la ck d i s t r i c t s th a t were 51 % As shown in T ab le is h ig h e r (X = 1 0 .9 0 ) (X = 9 . 7 5 ) . T h is f in d in g , 136 TABLE 13 Black Consciousness and M a jo r ity Vs. M in o r ity B lack D i s t r ic t s R a cial Composition o f D is tr ic t N M a jo r ity Black (More than 51%) 48 1 0 .9 0 M in o r ity Black (Less than 49%) 71 9 .7 5 Mean T Df Prob. 1 .9 8 117 .05 s ig n if ic a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l , in d ic a te s th a t Incumbents in m a jo r ity black d i s t r i c t s e x h ib it f a r g r e a t e r b la c k consciousness than those in m a jo r ity w h ite d i s t r i c t s . In o th e r w ords, th e re is a m a jo r ity e f f e c t . Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t I f r a c ia l com position o f d i s t r i c t was p o s it i v e l y as so c ia ted w ith black consciousness, typ e o f e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t should a ls o be r e la t e d to b la c k consciousness because e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t s g e n e r a lly d i f f e r in terms o f r a c ia l d i v e r s i t y . A t - la r g e d i s t r i c t s commonly have a lo w er c o n c e n tra tio n o f blacks than w ards. Black o ffic e h o ld e r s in the fo rm e r type o f d i s t r i c t should t h e r e f o r e e x h ib it low er b la c k consciousness than those in th e l a t t e r ty p e . T h is assumption was borne o u t by th e d a ta . T a b le 14 shows t h a t th e average p ro p o rtio n o f b la ck s in a t - l a r g e d i s t r i c t s was 41.3% and 64.1% in w ards; t h is d iffe r e n c e was h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .001 l e v e l . In view o f t h is f in d in g , I te s te d th e hypothesis t h a t ty p e o f e le c t o r a l d is ­ tr ic t w i l l be as so c ia ted w ith d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n sciousness. 1n le v e ls o f b la ck con­ S tate d in th e form o f a n u ll-h y p o th e s is : 137 TABLE 14 R e la tio n s h ip o f Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t and R a c ia l C om position o f D i s t r i c t D 1 s t r ic t Type N Mean T V a lu e A t-L a rg e 74 4 1 .3 0 -5 .5 0 Ward 45 6 4 .1 2 N u ll- h y p o t h e s is : P ro b . .001 T h e re w i l l be no d if f e r e n c e between a t - l a r g e and ward systems 1 n le v e l o f b la c k consciousness. No s u p p o rt was found f o r th e n u ll-h y p o t h e s is . Type o f e l e c t o r a l d i s ­ t r i c t was found to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to b la c k consciousness a t the .0 5 s ig n if ic a n c e l e v e l . T ab le 15 shows t h a t , as was p r e d ic t e d , th e mean sc o re o f incum bents who sought o f f i c e than th o s e who sought o f f i c e in wards 0T = 9 . 4 ) was lo w er in a t - l a r g e systems ()T = 1 0 . 6 ) , ence t h a t was s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .0 5 l e v e l . When I c o n t r o lle d f o r th e o th e r in d ep en d en t v a r i a b l e s , th e o n ly c o n tr o l r e la t io n s h ip was r a c i a l s ig . * .1 2 7 ) v a r ia b le t h a t e ra s e d th e co m p o sitio n o f d i s t r i c t (see A ppendix 2 1 ) . That r a c ia l (P a r tia l r = -.1 0 6 6 , com p o sitio n o f d i s t r i c t s e x e rte d t h i s ty p e o f e f f e c t is n o t s u r p r is in g when we r e c a l l tr ic ts d i f f e r in t h e i r r a c i a l c o m p o s itio n . a d iffe r ­ t h a t d is ­ When I c o n t r o lle d f o r a l l the p e rs o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p became even more s i g n i ­ f ic a n t (s e e Appendix 2 2 ) . 138 TABLE 15 The R e la tio n s h ip o f Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t and B la c k C o n scio u sn e ss D is tr ic t Type N Standard D e v ia tio n A t-L a rg e 74 1 0 .6 7 2 .8 6 Ward 45 9 .4 4 3 .4 6 Mean T Prob. 2 .1 0 .0 3 8 The In t e r a c t io n o f R a cial Com position o f D i s t r i c t . A m bition and b la c k Consciousness Am bition and R a c ia l Com position o f D i s t r i c t : One o f th e t h e o r e t ­ ic a l p ro p o s itio n s o f t h is stu d y is th a t p o l i t i c a l am b itio n and b la c k consciousness w i l l Chapter I I , be In v e r s e ly r e la t e d . However, as I p o in te d o u t In b la c k consciousness Is l i k e l y to become more Im p o rta n t to th e am bitious b la c k p o l i t i c i a n in circum stances where 1 t could be use­ f u l to th e f u l f i l l m e n t o f h is /h e r p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n s , f o r exam ple, when th e re is a la r g e p ro p o rtio n o f blacks in an Incum bent's c o n s titu e n c y . To e x p lo re w hether a m b itio n in te r a c t s w ith r a c i a l co m p o sitio n o f d i s t r i c t , I te s te d th e fo llo w in g n u ll-h y p o th e s is : N u ll-h y p o th e s is : A m bition and r a c ia l com position o f d i s t r i c t s w i l l not In t e r a c t 1 n a way t h a t w i l l be a s s o c ia te d w ith v a r i ­ a tio n In le v e ls o f b la ck consciousness. The data d id n o t support th e n u ll-h y p o th e s is . The a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e Q s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t showed a s i g n i f i c a n t in t e r a c t io n . .0 0 4 .) (F = 4 . 1 1 , p = As noted in T able 1 6 , among those w ith p ro g re s s iv e and s t a t i c a m b itio n s , b la c k consciousness In creased as t h e p ro p o rtio n o f b la c k s 1 n th e d i s t r i c t In c re a s e d . to th is tre n d . D is c r e te p o l i t i c i a n s , however, did n o t conform There was no g en eral d e c lin e 1n b la c k consciousness as blacks became p r o p o r tio n a te ly le s s . In f a c t , f o r t h is group th e 139 TABLE 16 Two-Way In t e r a c t io n o f A m bition and R a c ia l Com position o f D i s t r i c t and Black Consciousness CD .-j Low ** R a c ia l Com position o f D i s t r i c t A m bition Type Med. % B1 High % B1 P ro g re s s iv e X = 1 1 .3 n = 15 J = 9 .5 n = 20 X = 9 .1 n = 11 S t a t ic X * 1 1 .9 n = 9 X = 1 0 .6 n = 24 X = 10.1 n = 9 D is c re te X = n = X = 1 2 .2 n = 13 J 8 .8 9 = n = 7 .6 9 Mean Square = 3 3 .9 ; F = 4 . 1 ; Df = 4 and 1 0 1 ; P les s th an .004 r e la tio n s h ip was c u r v i li n e a r . The medium p ercen tag e b la c k c a te g o ry had a h ig h e r mean score than e i t h e r th e low o r th e high c a te g o ry . These fin d in g s in d ic a te t h a t o f fic e h o ld e r s w ith d i f f e r e n t types o f p o l i t i c a l am bition r e a c t d i f f e r e n t l y to th e ad o ption o f b la c k consciousness. Among those w ith p ro g re s s iv e and s t a t i c a m b itio n , an in c re a s e in th e p ro p o rtio n o f b lacks in th e d i s t r i c t is r e la t e d to an in c re a s e in b lack consciousness. On th e o th e r hand, p o l i t i c ia n s w ith d is c r e te am b itio n do n o t seem to be very in flu e n c e d by th e p ro p o rtio n o f b la ck s in t h e i r d is tr ic t. The l a t t e r co n firm s my b asic th e s is t h a t th e more am bitiou s (re p res en ted by p ro g re s s iv e and s t a t i c a m b itio n s ) tend to be more mind­ fu l o f c o n s titu e n t p ressu re than th e n o n -a m b itio u s . Those w ith ambi­ t io n seem to m o d ify t h e i r b la ck consciousness based on the r a c i a l compo­ s i t i o n o f th e d i s t r i c t ; th e n on-am bitious do n o t. C onclusion: The fo re g o in g s e c tio n te s ts th e m ajor h yp o th es is th a t commitment to o f f i c e reduces b la c k consciousness. S everal in t e r e s t in g 140 fin d in g s emerged. B r i e f l y s t a t e d , le v e l o f o f f i c e held was p o s it iv e ly r e la te d to b la c k consciousness, re g a rd le s s o f w hether i t was o p e ra tio n ­ a liz e d in terms o f fu n c tio n , fo rm al l e v e l , o r a t t r a c t iv e n e s s . However, in th e l a s t two in s ta n c e s , th e d ir e c t io n o f r e la tio n s h ip is c o n tra ry to the h y p o th e s is ; b la ck consciousness in c re a s e s , r a th e r than d ec rea se s, w ith h ig h e r le v e l o f o f f i c e . However, these r e la tio n s h ip s disappeared when c o n tro ls were made f o r th e v a rio u s personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic v a r i ­ a b le s , th ere b y in d ic a tin g t h a t th e o r ig in a l b iv a r ia t e r e la tio n s h ip was an a r t i f a c t o f th e e f f e c t o f s e v e ra l confounding v a r ia b le s . I a ls o found t h a t typ e o f d i s t r i c t and r a c ia l com position o f con­ s titu e n c y were s tr o n g ly a s s o c ia te d w ith d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n black consciousness. in support f o r The s h a rp e s t d iffe r e n c e was between d i s t r i c t s w ith low and medium p ro p o rtio n s o f b la c k s on th e one hand and those w ith a high p ro p o rtio n o f b la c k s . A ls o , when d i s t r i c t s t h a t were m a jo r ity black were compared w ith those which were m a jo r ity w h ite , th e le v e l o f b lack consciousness was much h ig h e r in th e fo rm er. F in a l l y , th e re search h y p o th e s is th a t am b itio n and b lack conscious­ ness would be in v e r s e ly r e la te d was n o t borne out by th e d a ta . tio n s h ip was found. No r e l a ­ However as p r e d ic te d , am b itio n and r a c ia l composi­ tio n o f d i s t r i c t were i n t e r a c t i v e l y r e la te d to b la c k consciousness. Those w ith p ro g re s s iv e and s t a t i c am b itio n s showed alm ost th e same p a t­ te rn o f change in b lack consciousness when they re p res en ted low , medium and high p ercentage b la ck d i s t r i c t s . But those w ith d is c r e te p o l i t i c a l am bitions d e v ia te d from th e fo re g o in g two groups, le a d in g to th e co n clu ­ sion t h a t th e am bitiou s a re more in flu e n c e d by c o n s titu e n c y c h a ra c te r­ i s t i c s than th e n o n -am b itio u s. 141 M ajor Hypothesis 21: P a rtis a n commitment and b la c k consciousness w i l l be in v e r s e ly r e la t e d . The p receding s e c tio n t e s t s s e v e ra l sub-hypotheses t h a t were deduced from th e m ajor hypotheses th a t In c re a s e d commitment to an o f f i c e c a re e r w i l l lessen conmltment to b la ck consciousness. A s i m ila r a rg u ­ ment may be advanced con cern in g convnltment to p a r tis a n in t e r e s t s . L ik e o f f i c e commitment, commitment to p a rtis a n in t e r e s t s may s t u l t i f y th e growth o f b la c k consciousness, p r im a r ily because b la ck s who a re s tr o n g ly p a rtis a n w i l l be faced w ith cro ss pressures from t h e i r p a rty commitments and t i . e i r r a c ia l commitments. In view o f t h i s , one would e x p e c t th e b lack consciousness o f p a rty a f f i l i a t e s , p o l i t i c a l p a rty o f f ic e h o ld e r s , those who e v a lu a te t h e i r r e la t io n s h ip w ith p o l i t i c a l p a r tie s in p o s it iv e term s , and those in p a rtis a n o f f ic e s to be lo w e r than th e b la ck con­ sciousness o f Ind ependents, th ose who have n ev er h eld p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o f f i c e , those who e v a lu a te t h e i r p a rty r e la t io n s h ip s n e g a t iv e ly , and n o n -p a rtis a n o ffic e h o ld e r s . The e f f e c t o f each o f these fo u r fa c to r s w i l l be te s te d in d iv id u a lly . S tre n g th o f P o l i t i c a l P a rty A f f i l i a t i o n I f o ffic e h o ld e r s who a re members o f a p o l i t i c a l p a rty a re more com­ m itte d to p a r tis a n in t e r e s t s than n o n -a ff 1 l i a t e s , th e n , p o l i t i c a l a f f i l ­ ia te s should e x h ib it h ig h e r b la c k consciousness than n o n - a f f i l i a t e s . This sample has two types o f p a r ty a f f i l i a t e s , Democrats and R e p u b lic a n s , in a d d itio n to a group o f In d ep en d en ts. N ul1 - h y p o th e s is : The n u ll-h y p o th e s is te s te d was: There w i l l be no d if f e r e n c e in b la c k consciousness between p o l i t i c a l p a rty a f f i l i a t e s and In d ep en d en ts. By grouping R epublicans and Democrats to g e th e r in t o one c a te g o ry , p a r ty a f f i l i a t e s , a T - t e s t was made o f th e d iffe r e n c e between t h is group and 142 Independents (T a b le 1 7 ) . There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e in mean scores f o r p a rty a f f i l i a t e s and f o r Independents. TABLE 17 S treng th o f P a rty A f f i l i a t i o n S tre n g th o f A ffilia tlo n N Mean P a rty A f f i l i a t e s 104 10.11 15 1 0 .9 3 Independents and Black Consciousness T Value - .9 5 Df Prob. 117 .343 I c a lc u la te d p a r t i a l c o r r e la tio n s between b la c k consciousness and p a rty a f f i l i a t i o n c o n t r o ll i n g f o r each o f th e o th e r independent v a r i ­ a b le s . Appendix 23 re p o rts th e r e s u lts o f these t e s t s . c o r r e la tio n s were i n s i g n i f i c a n t . and p erso nal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . A ll p a r t i a l C o n tro ls were a ls o made f o r a l l Again none o f th ese fa c t o r s s o c ia l "brought o u t" a r e la t io n s h ip between s tre n g th o f p a r ty a f f i l i a t i o n and b la c k con­ sciousness (Appendix 2 4 ) . It is als o in t e r e s t in g to look a t th e e x te n t o f d iffe r e n c e among the t h r e e groups — R e p u b lic a n s , Dem ocrats, and Independents — in t h e i r cottmitment to b lack co n sciousness. As noted in C h ap ter I I , one would exp ect t h a t among p a r ty a f f i l i a t e s , th e re would be d iffe r e n c e s in b la c k consciousness because R epublicans a re l i k e l y to be le s s b lack conscious than Democrats. In d ep en d en ts, on th e o th e r hand, should show th e h ig h ­ e s t le v e l o f black consciousness because t h e i r la c k o f p a rtis a n commit­ ment should encourage in tra g ro u p i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . th e h yp oth esis te s te d was: S ta te d 1n n u ll fo rm , 143 N u l1-h y p o th e s is : There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between R e p u b lic a n s , Democrats and Independents In le v e l o f b la c k consciousness. Again (T a b le 18) th e d a ta supported th e n u ll-h y p o th e s is . ence In mean scores o f th e th re e ty p e s o f p o l i t i c a l were not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n if ic a n t . even 1n th e p o s ite d d ir e c t io n . The d i f f e r ­ p a r ty a f f i l i a t e s In f a c t , th e d if fe r e n c e s were not W h ile R epublicans e x h ib ite d th e low est le v e l o f b la ck consciousness as p re d ic te d (X ■ 1 1 .6 ) , th e mean score f o r Democrats ( X = 9 . 9 ) was low er than t h a t o f Independents (X = 1 0 .9 ) i n d i ­ c a tin g t h a t th e l a t t e r d id not have th e h ig h e s t le v e l o f b la c k con­ sciousness as was h y p o th e s ize d . However, as these d if fe r e n c e s were not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , th e re search hypothesis was r e je c t e d . TABLE 18 Type o f P a rty A f f i l i a t i o n P a rty A ffilia tio n N Democrats 92 9.91 Republicans 12 11.58 Independents 15 10.93 119 10.21 T o ta l and Black Consciousness Mean T Df Prob. 118 1 .9 7 9 .143 P o l i t i c a l P a rty O ffic e I f h o ld in g p o l i t i c a l p a rty o f f i c e in d ic a te s strong p a r tis a n c o m n lt- ments, then incumbents who have held ( o r h o ld ) p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o f f ic e should show les s b la c k consciousness th a n those who have n o t. form o f t h i s h yp oth esis can be s ta te d : The n u ll 144 H u ll-h y p o th e s is : There w i l l be no d iffe r e n c e In b la c k consciousness between p o l i t i c a l p a rty o ffic e h o ld e r s and n o n - o f f ic e ­ h o ld e rs . Using a T - t e s t to examine t h is h y p o th e s is , I found t h a t th e n u ll-h y p o ­ th e s is was d ls c o n flrm e d (T a b le 1 9 ). P o li t i c a l p a r ty o f f i c e was p o s i­ t i v e l y r e la t e d to b la ck consciousness a t th e .05 le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e . However, p o l i t i c a l p a rty o f fic e h o ld e r s had a h ig h e r le v e l o f b lack con­ sciousness than n o n -p a rty o f fic e h o ld e r s ( 9 .5 vs. 1 1 . 0 ) . This fin d in g c o n tra d ic ts th e research h y p o th e s is . TABLE 19 P o litic a l P a rty O f fic e and Black Consciousness P a rty O ff ic e N Mean Yes 68 9 .5 No 51 1 1.0 T -2 .5 4 Df Prob. 117 .012 In tro d u c in g c o n tro ls one a t a tim e f o r o th e r independent v a r ia b le s did n o t a f f e c t t h is a s s o c ia tio n . Appendix 25 re p o rts th ese fin d in g s . C o n tro ls were a ls o made f o r p o s s ib le co n tam in ation o f th e r e la tio n s h ip by v a r ia b le s measuring personal and s o c ia l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . The o r i g i ­ nal r e la t io n s h ip ceased to be s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .0 5 le v e l but remained s ig n if ic a n t a t th e .1 0 le v e l (Appendix 2 6 ). P a rtis a n Vs. N o n -P a rtis a n O ffic e P a rtis a n o ffic e h o ld e r s a re expected to show a lo w e r le v e l o f b la c k consciousness than n o n -p a rtis a n s , because i t is assumed th a t they a re more l i k e l y to have p a rtis a n in t e r e s t s which w i l l c o n f l i c t w ith r a c ia l 145 I n t e r e s t s , and cause th e l a t t e r to be g iv e n decreased im p ortan ce. re s e a rc h hypothesis in N u l1-h y p o th e s is : its The n u ll form s ta te d : T h e re w i l l be no d if f e r e n c e in mean scores between b la c k o ffic e h o ld e r s in p a r tis a n and n o n -p a rtis a n o ffic e s . To t e s t t h is h yp o th es is th e T - t e s t s t a t i s t i c was employed. supported th e n u ll-h y p o t h e s is . The d ata Not o n ly was th e re no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­ fe re n c e in the mean s c o re o f the two ty p e s o f o f fic e h o ld e r s , b u t p a r t i sans a c t u a lly showed a h ig h e r le v e l o f b la c k consciousness than non­ p a r tis a n s (T ab le 2 0 ). TABLE 20 O f f ic e Type (P a r tis a n o r N o n -P a rtis a n ) and Black Consciousness O ffic e Type N Mean P a rtis a n 50 9 .8 4 N o n -p a rtis a n 69 10.48 T Value Df - 1 . 0 9 117 Prob. .277 C o n tro ls were made to d is co ve r w h e th e r any o th e r independent v a r i ­ a b le s were suppressing t h is r e la t io n s h ip . As re p o rte d in Appendix 2 7 , no o th e r v a ria b le s “b ro u g h t out" a r e la t io n s h ip a t th e .05 le v e l o f s ig n if ic a n c e . C o n tro ls were also made to assess w hether the la c k o f r e la t io n s h ip was an a r t i f a c t o f th e confounding e f f e c t o f the s o c ia l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n among th e group. No su p presso r v a r ia b le s were found. Appendix 28 re p o rts th e s e fin d in g s . C o n c lu s io n : The e v id e n c e concerning th e r e la t io n s h ip o f p a r tis a n comnltment t o b la c k consciousness 1s In c o n c lu s iv e . Of th e f o u r v a r i ­ ables m easuring th e co n c e p t* two were p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c ia te d w it h b la c k consciousness* and two w ere n o t In the b i v a r l a t e t e s t . c o rr e la te s w e re “ p o l i t i c a l with p o l i t i c a l p a r ty " . The p o s it i v e p a r ty o f f ic e " and " e v a lu a tio n o f r e la t io n s h ip How ever, c o n tra ry to o u r h y p o th e s is , th o s e w ith p a rtis a n com m itm ent, when measured 1 n term s o f th e l a t t e r two v a r i a b l e s , showed g r e a t e r b la c k consciousness than th o s e whose p a r tis a n commitment was le s s . As none o f th e c o n tr o l v a r ia b le s e lim in a te d th e r e la t io n s h ip of p o litic a l p a r ty o f f i c e and b la ck c o n s c io u s n e s s , we can a c c e p t w ith confidence th e r e s u lt s o f th e o r ig in a l b i v a r l a t e r e la t io n s h ip . The same cannot be s a id f o r e v a lu a tio n o f p o l i t i c a l r e la t io n s h ip . A ll o f p a rty the o th e r dim ensions o f p a r t is a n commitment, two dim ensions o f o f f i c e corrniltment, and one o f th e demographic c h a r a c t e r is t ic s e lim in a t e d th e o r i g i n a l ly s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p . th a t th e r e i s In l i g h t o f t h i s , I t w ould seem r e a l l y no r e la t io n s h ip between how one e v a lu a te s o n e 's p arty r e la t io n s h ip s and b la c k consciousness. The o t h e r two measures o f p a rtis a n commitment — p a r tis a n v s . non­ p a rtis a n o f f i c e and p a r ty a f f i l i a t e f ic a n t ly r e l a t e d vs. In d e p e n d e n t — were n o t s i g n i ­ to b la c k co n sc io u sn es s, a lth o u g h th e re was a g e n e ra l trend f o r th o s e w ith p a r tis a n in t e r e s t s (d e f in e d in terms o f th e s e two v a r ia b le s ) t o show s tro n g e r b la c k consciousness th an those w it h o u t p a r t i ­ san I n t e r e s t s . In sum, th e d a ta suggests somewhat in c o n c lu s iv e ly t h a t comnl tm ent t o p a r tis a n I n t e r e s t s does n o t re d u c e b la ck c o n s c io u s n e s s , Indeed 1 t may enhance b la c k consciousness. Major H y p o th e s is I I I : S o c ia l and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s w i l l r e l a t e d to b la ck co n sc io u sn es s. be 148 So f a r th e d is c u s s io n has c e n te re d on th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c e r t a in p o l i t i c a l l y r e le v a n t f a c t o r s and b lack co n sc io u sn es s. S o c ia l and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s have been discussed o n ly as c o n tro l v a r i ­ a b le s . In t h i s s e c t io n , I w i l l consciousness. a n a ly z e t h e i r a s s o c ia tio n w ith b la c k S ix fa c to r s w i l l be c o n s id e re d : 1 ) a g e ; 2 ) re g io n o f s o c ia li z a t i o n ; 3 ) so cio -econ o m ic s t a t u s ; 4 ) re g io n o f s t a t e where o f f i c e Is h e ld ; 5) p o l i t i c a l aw areness; and 6 ) sex. Each o f th ese f a c t o r s w i l l be analyzed I n d i v i d u a l l y . P o li t i c a l Awareness As s ta te d 1n C h ap ter I I I , p o l i t i c a l awareness may be measured in terms o f tim e t h a t I n t e r e s t 1n p o l i t i c s d evelo p ed . th a t Incumbents who became In t e r e s t e d 1 n p o l i t i c s It 1s h y p o th e s ize d e a r l y In t h e i r l i v e s w i l l show g r e a t e r b la c k consciousness th an those whose in t e r e s t developed a t a l a t e r p e r io d . N u ll-h y p o th e s is : The nul 1 -h y p o th e s is t h a t was te s te d was: V a r ia t io n 1n age a t which i n t e r e s t 1n p o l i t i c s d e v ­ e lo p e d w i l l n o t be a s s o c ia te d w it h v a r i a t i o n 1 n b la c k co n scio u sn ess. The d ata showed t h a t th e n u ll-h y p o th e s is was u n te n a b le because th e r e were s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s among persons who became In t e r e s te d 1 n p o l i ­ t ic s a t d i f f e r e n t ages (Pearson r = .2 6 3 7 ). ta b le c l a r i f i e s th e n a tu re o f t h i s th a t those who became in t e r e s te d The a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e r e la t io n s h ip In p o l i t i c a l (T a b le 2 1 ) . I t shows is s u e s under tw en ty y e a rs o f age e x h ib ite d h ig h e r b la ck consciousness than th o s e whose i n t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s d evelo p ed a f t e r t h is a g e . However, t h i s r e la t i o n s h i p i s n o t d ir e c tly lin e a r . On t h e o r e t i c a l grounds, 1 t seems p la u s ib le t h a t age when I n t e r e s t In p o l i t i c s d evelo p ed co u ld be r e l a t e d to o th e r v a r ia b le s t h a t a r e a ls o 148 So f a r th e d is c u s s io n has c e n te re d on th e I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c e rta in p o l i t i c a l l y r e le v a n t f a c t o r s and b la c k co n scio u sn ess. S o c ia l and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s have been d iscu ssed o n ly as c o n tro l v a r i ­ ab les. In t h i s s e c t io n , I w i l l consciousness. a n a ly z e t h e i r a s s o c ia tio n w ith b la c k S ix fa c to r s w i l l be c o n s id e re d : 1 ) a g e ; 2 ) re g io n o f s o c ia liz a t io n ; 3 ) socio-econom ic s t a t u s ; 4 ) re g io n o f s t a t e where o f f i c e Is h e ld ; 5 ) p o l i t i c a l aw areness; and 6 ) sex. Each o f th e s e f a c t o r s w i l l be analyzed i n d i v i d u a l l y . P o lit ic a l Awareness As s ta te d 1n C h ap ter I I I , p o litic a l awareness may be measured 1n terms o f tim e t h a t I n t e r e s t 1n p o l i t i c s d e v e lo p e d . th a t Incum bents who became In t e r e s t e d It 1s h yp o th es ize d In p o l i t i c s e a r l y 1n t h e i r liv e s w ill show g r e a t e r b la c k consciousness th an th o s e whose I n t e r e s t developed a t a l a t e r p e rio d . N u ll-h y p o th e s is : The n u ll-h y p o th e s is t h a t was te s te d was: V a r ia t io n 1n age a t w hich i n t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s dev­ elo ped w i l l n o t be a s s o c ia te d w ith v a r i a t i o n In b la c k conscio u sn ess. The d ata showed t h a t th e n u ll-h y p o t h e s is was u n te n a b le because th e re were s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e s among persons who became In t e r e s t e d in p o l i ­ tic s a t d i f f e r e n t ages (Pearson r ta b le c l a r i f i e s th e n a tu re o f t h i s th a t those who became in t e r e s te d 1n .2 6 3 7 ) . The a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e r e la t io n s h ip p o litic a l (T a b le 2 1 ) . It shows iss u e s under tw e n ty y e a rs o f age e x h ib it e d h ig h e r b la c k consciousness th an th o s e whose i n t e r e s t in p o lit ic s d evelo p ed a f t e r t h is a g e . However, t h is r e la t io n s h ip is n o t d ir e c t ly l i n e a r . On t h e o r e t i c a l grounds, 1 t seems p la u s ib le t h a t age when I n t e r e s t 1n p o l i t i c s d evelo p ed co u ld be r e l a t e d to o th e r v a r ia b le s t h a t a re a ls o TABLE 21 Age T h a t P o l i t i c a l I n t e r e s t D eveloped and B la c k C o n s c io u s n e s s Age Groups N Mean Under 9 14 9 .5 7 10-11 35 8 .8 9 2 0 -2 9 30 1 0 .4 3 3 0 -3 9 29 1 1 .5 5 Over 40 10 1 0 .7 0 Df F R a tio F Prob. 3 .4 0 .012 117 associated w ith b la c k co n scio u sn ess, and w hich are a c t u a lly c r e a t in g a spurious r e la t io n s h ip between age t h a t I n t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s d evelo p ed and b lack co n scio u sn ess. S everal v a r i a b l e s , in c lu d in g so cio -eco n o m ic s ta tu s , ag e , and r e g io n o f co u n try w here s o c ia liz e d , e t c . , w ere con­ t r o lle d f o r in o r d e r to observe w h e th e r th e y were a c tin g as con fou nd ing v a ria b le s . The v a r i a b l e — e v a lu a tio n o f o n e 's r e la t io n s h ip w it h p o l i ­ t ic a l p a r t ie s — e ra s e d th e r e la t io n s h ip (s e e Appendix 3 1 ) . The l a t t e r v a ria b le was r e la t e d t o b la c k consciousness in the b iv a r la t e t e s t , but not r e la te d to tim e o f developm ent o f p o l I t i c a l .0 3 9 1 ). T h e re fo re I t s awareness (P e a rs o n r * c o n tro l e f f e c t p ro b a b ly emerges because i t acting as a c o n t r ib u t o r y preced ing v a r i a b l e . Is I t c o n trib u te s to v a r i a ­ tio n in b la ck consciousness along w ith tim e o f development o f p o l i t i c a l awareness, a n o th e r p re c e d in g v a r ia b le . Region o f S ta te Where O f f ic e is Held Whether an o f f i c e h o l d e r holds o f f i c e In s ta te , o u ts ta te , o r s ta te ­ wide was p o s ite d t o be a s s o c ia te d w ith d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f b la c k w 150 consciousness. In s t a t e o f fic e h o ld e r s were ex p ec te d t o have a h ig h e r le v e l o f b la c k consciousness th an o u t s ta te o f f i c e h o l d e r s , because o f th e s o c ia liz in g e f f e c t o f th e h ig h ly u rb a n . I n d u s t r i a l en viron m ent o f t h i s p a rt o f th e s t a t e . Because s ta te w id e o f fic e h o ld e r s c o n s t it u t e a some­ what ambiguous c a te g o r y , i t was d i f f i c u l t to p r e d ic t w h e th e r t h e i r le v e l o f b la c k consciousness would be h ig h e r o r lo w e r th a n t h a t o f o f f i c e ­ holders from th e two o t h e r re g io n s . However, g iv e n th e f a c t t h a t a l l the s ta te w id e o f f ic e h o ld e r s w ere u n iv e r s it y board o f t r u s t e e members, 1t was i n f e r r e d t h a t th e y would have v e ry h ig h so cio -econ o m ic s t a t u s , and as a r e s u l t , would p ro b a b ly be more p o s i t i v e l y p red isp o s ed tow ard high b la c k co n scio u sn ess. T h u s, t h e i r le v e l o f b la c k consciousness should be as high o r h ig h e r th a n I n s t a t e o f f ic e h o ld e r s . R e sta ted 1n th e form o f a n u ll- h y p o t h e s is : N u ll-h y p o th e s is : T h e re w i l l be no d if f e r e n c e in ie v e l o f b la c k con­ sciou sn ess between i n s t a t e , s t a te w id e , and o u ts ta te o f f ic e h o ld e r s . The n u ll-h y p o th e s is was r e je c t e d because t h e r e were s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­ ences between th e th r e e groups 1n le v e l o f b la c k consciousness (T a b le 2 2 ). O u ts ta te o f f ic e h o ld e r s w ere th e l e a s t b la c k co n scio u s (X = 1 1 .1 2 ) as was p r e d ic te d . The s ta te w id e group were th e most b la c k conscious (T = 7 . 6 ) ; a g a in t h i s was p r e d ic te d . The mean sc o re o f th e in s t a t e o ffic e h o ld e r s In d ic a te d t h a t th e y were p laced m id-way between both o f the fo re g o in g groups ( X = 9 . 6 ) . The most n o te w o rth y f e a t u r e o f t h i s f in d in g was t h a t s ta te w id e o f fic e h o ld e r s were much more b la c k conscious th an o f fic e h o ld e r s from e it h e r In s t a t e o r o u t s t a t e . Some may argu e a g a in s t t r e a t i n g th e f iv e s ta te w id e o f f ic e h o ld e r s as a s e p a ra te c a te g o r y , because th ese o f f ic e h o ld e r s , even though th e y a r e e le c te d s t a te w id e , h o ld o f f i c e TABLE 22 R e g io n o f S ta te Where O f f ic e H e ld and B la c k C o n s c io u s n e s s Groups H Mean Df In s t a t e 68 9 .6 3 118 O u ts ta te 46 1 1 .1 2 6 7 .6 0 119 10.21 S ta te w id e T o ta l 1n F P rob. F R a tio 5 .4 2 .0 0 8 a p a r t i c u l a r area o f th e s t a t e , and t h e r e f o r e should be In c lu d e d 1 n e ith e r th e I n s t a t e o r o u t s t a t e c a te g o r ie s . When 1 d id t h i s , a weak s ig n if ic a n t r e la t io n s h ip w ith b la c k consciousness s t i l l h eld (Pearson r * .1 6 8 8 ). When I c o n t r o lle d f o r each o f th e o th e r in d ep en d en t v a r i a b l e s , o n ly one reduced th e r e la t io n s h ip to In s ig n if ic a n c e (beyond th e .10 time t h a t I n t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s d evelop ed (s e e Appendix 3 2 ) . cates two p o in ts . p o lit ic a l le v e l) T h is I n d i ­ F i r s t , th o s e 1n o u t s t a t e o f f i c e became In t e r e s t e d Is s u e s l a t e r 1n l i f e th en th o s e 1n I n s t a t e o f f i c e . la tio n o f th e two Item s s u p p o rts t h is (P earson r * — 1n The c o r r e ­ .3 9 1 6 , s ig . = . 0 1 5 ) . This Is n o t s u r p r is in g s in c e o u ts ta t e r s a r e expected t o be more r u r a l , and r u r a l i t e s g e n e r a lly become p o l i t i c a l l y aware l a t e r th a n u r b a n it e s . g Second, s in c e tim e t h a t I n t e r e s t In p o l i t i c s developed I s s i g n i f i c a n t l y re la te d to b la c k c o n sc io u sn es s, and to re g io n o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n , i t s suppressing e f f e c t on th e b i v a r l a t e r e la t io n s h ip o f re g io n o f s o c i a l i ­ za tio n and b la c k consciousness was due t o th e f a c t t h a t a l l ables were m u l t l c o l l I n e a r . th re e v a r i ­ 152 Age For both p o l i t i c a l and s o c io lo g ic a l re a s o n s , age was expected t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s o c ia te d w ith b la c k co n scio u sn ess. The h yp o th esis th a t In c re a s in g age would be a s s o c ia te d w ith d e c re a s in g b la c k con­ sciousness was te s te d 1 n two ways; f i r s t , w ith age o p e r a tio n a liz e d s t r i c t l y as a c o n tin u o u s v a r i a b l e , and second, w ith age as a t r l c h o t o mous, c a te g o r ic a l v a r ia b le . A g a in , th e r a t io n a l e f o r o p e ra tio n a l1 z 1 n g the v a r ia b le In nom inal as w e ll as c o n tin u o u s terms was to e x p lo re th e exact n a tu re o f th e r e s u l t s y ie ld e d by s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s a p p ro p r ia te to continuous m easures; in t h i s c a s e , c o r r e l a t i o n a n a ly s is . A one-way a n a ly ­ s is o f v a ria n c e t e s t was used to t e s t th e e f f e c t o f age as a t r i c h o t o mous, c a te g o r ic a l v a r i a b l e on b la c k co n scio u sn ess. The n u ll-h y p o th e s e s a p p ro p ria te t o each ty p e o f te c h n iq u e w e re : N u ll-h y p o th e s is 1: Changes in age w i l l n o t be a s s o c ia te d w ith changes i n le v e ls o f b la c k co n sc io u sn es s. N u ll-h y p o th e s is 2: T h e re w i l l be no d if f e r e n c e 1n th e mean scores o f b la c k o f fic e h o ld e r s who a r e between 20 and 3 5 , 35 and 5 0 , and o v e r 5 0 . The d a ta r e fu te d th e n u ll-h y p o th e s e s . The c o r r e la t io n t e s t showed t h a t age was s i g n i f i c a n t l y alth o u g h very w ea kly r e la t e d to b la c k consciousness a t th e .0 5 le v e l = .1 8 4 4 ). (Pearson r The a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e t e s t o f th e d if f e r e n c e 1n means between th e th r e e age c a te g o rie s r e fu te d th e p re v io u s f i n d i n g , and, in s te a d , supported th e n u ll-h y p o th e s is . As In d ic a te d In T a b le 2 3 , age and b la c k consciousness were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d . The d if f e r e n c e 1n fin d in g s 1s a fu n c tio n o f how I measured th e v a r i a b l e s . tr1 chotonvized, th e f i n e r v a r ia t io n s a r e b lu r r e d . When age i s In s p i t e o f th e d i f ­ fe re n c e 1 n s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e f i n d in g s , th e a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e t a b l e 153 TABLE 23 Age and Black Consciousness Age N Mean Young 14 10.21 M id d le Aged 60 9 .7 0 O ld e r 45 1 0 .8 9 119 10.21 T o ta l sheds l i g h t on d if f e r e n c e s F R a tio 1 .8 6 F P ro b . .1 6 0 in le v e l o f b la c k consciousness among d i f f e r ­ ent age g ro u p s , in fo r m a tio n t h a t cannot be a t t a in e d from th e c o r r e la t io n te s t. It shows t h a t th e "m id d le -a g e d " group have th e lo w e s t le v e l o f black consciousness (IT = 9 . 7 ) . S u r p r is in g ly , th e d if f e r e n c e 1 n th e mean score between th o se who a r e younger (X = 1 0 . 2 ) and th ose who a r e o ld e r (X * 1 0 .8 ) i s n e g l i g i b l e , o n ly . 6 . When I c o n t r o lle d f o r th e o th e r independent v a r ia b le s in th e s tu d y , none reduced th e r e la t io n s h ip to in s ig n if ic a n c e (A ppendix 3 3 ) . Socio-Economic S ta tu s One o f th e most c o n s is te n t fin d in g s o f a t t i t u d i n a l s tu d ie s o f blacks Is t h a t as b la c k s a c h ie v e h ig h e r SES th e y ten d to be le s s suppor­ tiv e o f th e s ta tu s quo. So one would e x p e c t t h a t as le v e l o f b la c k con­ sciousness In c r e a s e s , so w i l l so cio -econ o m ic s t a t u s . R e s ta te d 1n t e s t ­ able fo rm , th e n u l1-h y p o th e s is t h a t te s te d th e a s s o c ia tio n o f SES w ith black consciousness s t a t e d : N u ll-h y p o th e s is : Changes in le v e l o f SES w i l l n o t be a s s o c ia te d w ith changes 1 n le v e l o f b la c k co n scio u sn ess. As In d ic a te d In C h ap ter I I I , so cio -econ o m ic s ta tu s may be opera­ tio n a liz e d 1 n s e v e ra l d i f f e r e n t ways because o f th e v a r io u s c r i t e r i a th a t may be used to measure i t . In t h i s stu d y th re e ty p e s o f v a r ia b le s were used to measure t h i s c o n s tr u c t: 1) o ccu p atio n ( a p a r t from o f f i c e - h o ld in g ); 2 ) Income from o f f i c e ; and 3 ) e d u c a tio n . As can be observed from T a b le 2 4 , none o f th e m easures o f SES were s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s o c ia te d w ith b la c k consciousness so th e n u l 1 -h y p o th e s is was accep ted . T h is f in d in g may seem s u r p r is in g 1n view o f th e f a c t t h a t a l l th re e measures o f SES were c lo s e ly c o r r e la te d w ith th e a t t r a c t i v e ­ ness o f o f f i c e s c a le , w hich I t s e l f was r e la t e d to b la c k co n scio u sn ess. Using o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s as an I n d i c a t o r o f SES, I c o n t r o lle d f o r th e e f f e c t o f a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f o f f i c e , as w e ll as a l l o th e r Independent fa c to rs o f th e a n a ly s is ; o n ly one o f them changed th e r e la t io n s h ip to the p o in t w here i t (see Appendix 3 4 ) . became s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 le v e l o f s ig n if ic a n c e T h is was r a c i a l c o m p o s itio n o f d i s t r i c t . As r a c ia l composition o f d i s t r i c t Is h ig h ly r e la t e d to SES, and a ls o t o b lack consciousness, t h i s In d ic a te s t h a t 1 t 1s a c t u a lly fu n c tio n in g as an I n t e r venlng v a r ia b le between th e two o th e r v a r ia b le s . When I c o n t r o lle d f o r the r e l a t i o n o f e d u c a tio n and s a la r y r e s p e c t iv e ly w ith b la c k conscious­ ness, th e b i v a r l a t e fin d in g s d id n o t become s i g n i f i c a n t (Appendices 35 155 TABLE 24 S o c io -E c o n o m ic S ta tu s and B la c k C o n scio u sn e ss SES N r Prob. O f f ic e S a la ry 119 .0 4 8 2 .301 O ccupation 119 .0 9 9 8 .140 E d u catio n 119 -.0 4 3 1 .321 Region o f S o c ia liz a t io n The l i t e r a t u r e on b la c k a t t i t u d e s suggests t h a t s o c ia li z a t i o n in the n o rth produces d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s th an s o c ia li z a t i o n In th e so u th among b la c k s . I e x p lo re d th e re g io n a l e f f e c t s on b la c k consciousness using two " re g io n o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n " v a r ia b le s . v a r ia b le , able: One was a dichotom ous " n o rth " vs. " s o u th " ; in a d d it io n , I used a trlch o to m o u s v a r i ­ " M ic h ig a n " , " n o r th " , and " s o u th " . These two d i f f e r e n t v a r ia b le s produced two d i s t i n c t n u l 1 -h y p o th e s e s : N u ll-h y p o th e s is 1: T h e re w i l l be no d if f e r e n c e 1n th e mean sc o res o f b la c k consciousness between respondents in th e n o rth and th e s o u th . Table 25 d em o n strates la c k o f su p p o rt f o r th e f i r s t n u ll-h y p o t h e s is . The s o u th e rn -re a re d had a lo w e r le v e l o f b la c k consciousness th a n t h e i r northern c o u n te r p a r ts , a d if f e r e n c e which was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e . 1 0 l e v e l . When c o n tr o ls were made f o r th e p o s s ib le co n ta m in a tin g e f f e c t o f other v a r ia b le s in th e s tu d y , two measures o f Im portance o f o f f i c e erased th e r e la t io n s h ip below th e the fo rm a l le v e l o f o f f i c e .1 0 le v e l (A ppendix 3 7 ). These w ere s c a le and th e a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f o f f i c e s c a le . The b i v a r l a t e c o r r e la t io n o f each o f th e s e l a s t two v a r ia b le s and re g io n 156 TABLE 25 Region o f S o c i a l i z a t i o n and B la c k Consciousness (N o rth Vs. S o u th ) Region N Mean T V a lu e Df P ro b . N o rth 95 1 0 .0 0 0 -1 .4 6 117 .0 6 8 South 24 11.04 1 o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t . In th e case o f th e fo rm a l h ie ra rc h y scale th e Pearson c o r r e la t io n c o e f f i c i e n t was equal to .2011 , s i g . = .017; in th e r e l a t i o n to th e a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f o f f i c e s c a le i t was .2 2 0 4 , s ig . - .0 1 1 . These l a t t e r fin d in g s In d ic a t e t h a t o f f ic e h o ld e r s re ared in th e n o r th had more Im p o rta n t o f f ic e s th an th o s e o f s o u th e rn back­ ground. Thus th e su p presso r e f f e c t o f th e Im p o rtan ce o f o f f i c e v a r ia b le s In d ic a te t h a t a l l th re e v a r ia b le s — b la c k c o n sc io u sn es s, re g io n o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n , and Im p ortan ce o f o f f i c e — a r e h ig h ly I n t e r c o r r e l a t e d w ith each o t h e r . To f u r t h e r e x p lo re w h e th e r th e s o c i a l i z i n g e x p e rie n c e o f fe r e d by M ich ig an , d e v ia te d from t h a t o ffe r e d 1n th e o th e r two re g io n s (th e n o rth and th e s o u t h ) , a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e p ro cedu res w ere employed to t e s t whether t h e r e were s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe r e n c e s In mean sco re betw een blacks reared 1n M ic h ig a n , th e n o rth (o u ts id e M ic h ig a n ) and th e s o u th . The n u ll-h y p o th e s is te s te d was: N u ll-h y p o th e s is : Table 26 s u p p o rts There 1s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e 1n b la c k conscious­ ness between b lacks re a re d In M ic h ig a n , th e n o r t h , and th e s o u th . th e n u l1-h y p o th e s is . W h ile th e r e was a g e n e ra l tre n d fo r b la c k consciousness t o d im in is h th e c lo s e r one g o t t o th e s o u th , these d if f e r e n c e s were n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t. 157 TABLE 26 R e gion o f S o c i a l i z a t i o n and B la c k C o n scio u sn e ss Region H Mean M ichigan 72 9 .9 North 23 1 0 .2 South 24 1 1 .0 119 1 0 .2 T o ta l F R a tio F Prob. 1 .097 .33 7 Sex Black fem ales have been found 1n s e v e ra l s tu d ie s to be le s s open to change In the s ta tu s quo th an b la c k m a les . s iz e d t h a t fem ales w i l l I t was th e r e fo r e h yp o th e­ e x h ib i t le s s b la c k consciousness than m ales. R estated in the form o f a n u ll - h y p o th e s is : N u ll-h y p o th e s is : I t i s h y p o th e s ize d t h a t th e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e 1 n b la c k consciousness between m ales and fe m a le s . As t h is Independent v a r ia b le 1s n o m in a l, th e T - t e s t s t a t i s t i c was used to measure I t s e f f e c t on th e dependent v a r i a b l e . T a b le 27 In d ic a te s th a t th e re was no s u p p o rt f o r th e nul 1 -h y p o th e s is . TABLE 27 Sex and B lack Consciousness Sex N Mean Males 97 9 .9 Females 22 1 1 .5 T V a lu e -2 .2 4 Df Prob. 117 .027 158 Females had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r mean s c o re CT = 1 1 .5 ) th an males ( T » 9 . 9 ) , In d ic a tin g t h a t b la c k consciousness was more pronounced f o r men. P o s s ib ly t h i s a p p a re n t d if f e r e n c e between males and fem ales 1s n o t a c t u a lly th e r e s u l t o f I n t r i n s i c d if f e r e n c e s In b la c k consciousness between both g ro u p s , b u t r a t h e r a p ro d u c t o f th e e f f e c t o f some o th e r v a r ia b le t h a t was In some way c r e a tin g th e p e rc e iv e d r e l a t i o n s h i p . Thus we c o n tr o lle d f o r s e v e ra l o th e r v a r ia b le s on w hich m ales and fem ales would l i k e l y d i f f e r as w e ll as a l l discussed 1n th e a n a ly s is . o th e r ind ep en d en t f a c t o r s t h a t were These fin d in g s a r e re p o rte d 1n Appendix 3 8 . None s e rio u s ly a l t e r e d th e o r i g i n a l l y found r e la t io n s h ip between sex and b lack consciousness. C onclusion: The fin d in g s co n cern in g th e a s s o c ia tio n o f demographic c h a r a c t e r is t ic s and b la c k consciousness re v e a l o n ly two v a r ia b le s t h a t are d i r e c t l y r e la t e d t o b la c k consciousness — age and s e x . Age t h a t In t e r e s t 1 n p o l i t i c s d evelo p s 1 s a c o n t r ib u t in g f a c t o r ; a lo n g w ith e v a lu ­ a tio n o f p a rty r e la t io n s h ip 1n b la c k co n scio u sn ess. {a p o l i t i c a l v a r i a b l e ) , 1 t e x p la in s v a r ia t io n Region where o f f i c e i s h e ld was r e la t e d to black co n scio u sn ess, b u t c o n t r o llin g f o r tim e when i n t e r e s t In p o l i t i c s developed erased th e r e l a t i o n s h i p , s u g g e s tin g t h a t t h e r e Is a degree o f m u ltic o l l i n e a r i t y among a l l th re e v a r i a b l e s . (n o rth vs. so u th ) was a s s o c ia te d w ith v a r i a t i o n Region o f s o c ia li z a t i o n in b la c k conscio u sn ess, but c o n t r o llin g f o r Im p o rtan ce o f o f f i c e e ra s e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p . The l a t t e r v a r ia b le was r e la t e d to b la ck consciousness and re g io n o f s o c ia liz a t io n In th e b i v a r l a t e t e s t s , th u s , a l l so c lo s e ly c o r r e la te d t h a t I t ia t e r e la t io n s h ip . th re e v a r ia b le s a re is Im p o s s ib le to d is c e rn a d i r e c t b lv a r - A l l we can conclude I s t h a t th o se re a re d 1 n th e north tend to h o ld h ig h e r o f f i c e and o f f ic e h o ld e r s h ig h e r In th e o f f i c e 159 h ie ra rc h y ten d to be more b la c k c o n sc io u s. F i n a l l y , socio-econom ic statu s and b la c k consciousness a r e In no way r e l a t e d . A P r e d ic tio n Model f o r Black Consciousness In th e p re c e d in g s e c tio n s I examined th e r e la t io n s h ip o f b la c k con­ sciousness w it h a w ide range o f Ind ep en d en t v a r i a b l e s . In d ic a te d s e v e ra l p o l i t i c a l T h is a n a ly s is and s o c io lo g ic a l f a c t o r s t h a t were asso­ c ia te d w ith b la c k co n scio u sn ess. As th e s e r e la t io n s h ip s were weak to moderate 1 n most In s ta n c e s , 1 t 1 s d i f f i c u l t t o a s c e r t a in which o f th e fa c to rs a re th e b e s t p r e d ic t o r s o f b la c k co n sc io u sn es s. to p ic , I w i l l To e x p lo re t h i s a tte m p t In t h is s e c tio n o f th e d a ta a n a ly s is to b u ild a p re d ic tio n m o d e l, u sin g m u lt ip le re g re s s io n te c h n iq u e s . In th e f i r s t s te p , v a r ia b le s t h a t were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la t e d to black consciousness a t some s ta g e o f th e u n i v a r i a t e a n a ly s is w ere e n te re d in to th e p r e d ic t io n e q u a tio n , 1 n o rd e r to d is c o v e r th e ones t h a t y i e l d the h ig h e s t s ig n if ic a n c e . The v a r ia b le s were e n te r e d in th e f o llo w in g o rd e r: Group 1 ) The s o c ia l and p ers o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a r ia b le s t h a t were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la t e d t o b la c k consciousness 1 n th e b l v a r l a t e t e s t s , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f e d u c a tio n . E d u catio n was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la t e d to b lack co n sc io u sn es s, b u t was In c lu d e d 1n th e p r e d ic t io n e q u a tio n , because o f th e s u b s ta n tiv e Im p o rtan ce o f in c lu d in g a measure o f SES. Education was chosen r a t h e r th an o cc u p atio n because o c c u p a tio n was h ig h ly c o rre la te d w it h th e a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f o f f i c e s c a le (one o f th e v a r ia b le s 1n Group 4 ) , and I wanted t o a v o id th e problem o f m u l t ic o l l I n e a r l t y . The demographic v a r ia b le s t h a t w ere e n te re d I n t o th e e q u a tio n w e re : 1) age t h a t I n t e r e s t 1n p o l i t i c s d e v e lo p e d ; 2 ) s e x ; 3 ) ag e; 4 ) re g io n 160 where o f f i c e was h e ld (s in c e th is was a c a te g o r ic a l v a r i a b l e , a dutrany v a r ia b le was c r e a te d ; and 5 ) e d u c a tio n . Group 2) The p o l i t i c a l v a r ia b le s t h a t were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la t e d to b la c k consciousness In th e b lv a r la t e te s t s a f t e r having c o n t r o lle d fo r a l l 1) th e demographic v a ria b le s s im u lta n e o u s ly . These v a r ia b le s w ere: p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e ; 2) p e rio d o f tim e 1 n p u b lic o f f i c e ; 3) j u d i c i a l and a d m in is t r a t iv e o f f ic e h o ld e r s v s . a l 1 o th e r ty p e s o f o f fic e h o ld e r s ; 4 ) r a c i a l com position o f d i s t r i c t ; d is tr ic t; 6 ) p o litic a l 5 ) ty p e o f e le c t o r a l p a r t y o f f i c e ; and 7 ) e v a lu a tio n o f p o l i t i c a l p a rty r e la t io n s h ip . Group 3) The p o l i t i c a l v a r ia b le s t h a t were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la te d to b la c k consciousness In th e b lv a r la t e t e s t a f t e r c o n t r o ll i n g f o r a l l the o th e r Independent v a r ia b le s 1n th e s tu d y one a t a tim e . v a r ia b le t h a t met t h i s Group 4 ) c r i t e r i o n was fo rm a l The o n ly le v e l o f o f f i c e . The p o l i t i c a l v a r ia b le s t h a t were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la t e d in th e b lv a r la t e t e s t b e fo r e c o n tro ls w ere made. o f f ic e measure was th e o n ly v a r ia b le t h a t f e l l When th ese v a r ia b le s were a l l th a t th e F s t a t i s t i c s The a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f in t o t h is c a te g o ry . in th e e q u a tio n , th e r e s u lt s showed ranged from le s s th a n 1 to more th an 9 (T a b le 2 8 ) . In o rd e r to b u ild a parsim onious m o d el, I d ecided to e lim in a t e a l l v a r ia b le s w ith F s t a t i s t i c s th e less than 1 , p ro v id e d t h a t th e v a r ia b le was not h ig h ly c o r r e la te d w it h any o th e r v a r i a b l e , as high i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f two v a r ia b le s 1n t h e e q u a tio n may have c re a te d a low F s t a t i s t i c each o f them. The c o r r e l a t i o n m a trix o f a l l th e v a r ia b le s fo r (Appendix 39) showed t h a t two p a ir s o f v a ria b le s w it h low F s t a t i s t i c s w ere Indeed h ig h ly I n t e r c o r r e l a t e d . These were a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f o f f i c e and form al le v e l o f o f f i c e ( r = . 7 ) ; and, the I n s t a t e and o u ts ta te v a r ia b le s (r - 161 TABLE 28 M u lt i p l e R egression A n a ly s is o f V a r ia b le s T h a t Were S i g n i f ic a n t 1n th e U n iv a r ia te A n a ly s is And B lack Consciousness F Time t h a t I n t e r e s t 1n P o lit ic s Developed Age 7 .7 0 .5 2 8 F S1g. Beta E la s tic ity .0 0 7 .2 4 0 .17 3 .47 0 .0 7 0 .101 J u d ic ia l/A d m in is t r a t iv e O ffic e 6 .7 0 .011 .2 8 8 .053 Sex 2 .5 3 .11 5 -.1 4 8 - .0 9 6 Education -.1 9 5 .66 2 -.0 4 4 - .0 2 9 .001 .97 8 -.0 0 3 -.0 0 1 O u ts ta te O f f ic e -.6 8 9 .40 8 -.0 9 1 ..0 0 6 Racial Com position of D is tr ic t 9 .3 9 .00 3 -.3 1 1 - .1 9 5 .474 .07 4 .02 7 .1 5 3 .067 In s ta te O f f ic e Period o f Time in O f f ic e .5 1 7 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip 2 .6 5 .106 P o l i t i c a l P a rty O f f ic e 1 .3 7 .244 -.1 1 1 - .0 3 9 Type o f E le c to r a l D is tr ic t 1.71 .194 -.1 5 3 -.0 6 0 P o li t i c a l Campaign Experience 2 .1 3 .147 -.1 2 5 -.0 2 2 Formal Level o f O f f ic e .2 4 2 .62 4 .071 .0 9 7 A ttra c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e .3 1 2 .86 0 -.0 2 3 - .0 3 7 M u ltip le R = .6 0 5 6 A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Df O v e ra ll R Square = .3 6 6 9 R egressio n = 14 F S ig . Std. Dev. = 2.681 R esid u al = 104 F = 3 .9 8 = .00 0 162 .9 ). The l a t t e r r e la tio n s h ip was p ro bably caused by th e f a c t t h a t th e two v a ria b le s were a c t u a lly dummy v a r ia b le s th a t had been cre a te d from the o r ig in a l v a r ia b le — re g io n o f s o c ia liz a t io n . To s o lve th e problem o f m u lti col l i n e a r i t y , I ra n th e re g re s s io n ag ain , le a v in g o u t th e a ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f o f f i c e v a r ia b le and th e I n s t a t e v a ria b le . However, a f t e r doing t h i s th e form al le v e l o f o f f ic e and o u t - s ta te v a r ia b le s f a i l e d to a c h ie v e F s t a t i s t i c s h ig h e r than 1. fo re e lim in a te d them , as w e ll as a l l tic s low er than 1. I th e re ­ th e o th e r v a r ia b le s w ith F s t a t i s ­ The v a r ia b le s t h a t were e lim in a te d were: 1) a g e ; 2) e d u c a tio n ; 3 ) In s ta te o f f i c e ; 4 ) o u ts ta te o f f i c e ; 5 ) period o f tim e In o f f i c e ; and 6 ) form al le v e l o f o f f i c e . I ran th e re g re s s io n a n a ly s is tw ic e a g a in ; once w ith the v a r ia b le s w ith F s t a t i s t i c s g r e a te r than 1 b u t le s s than 2 ; th e second tim e w it h only v a r ia b le s w ith F l s g r e a te r th an 2. Each tim e , th e v a ria b le s were entered In th e o rd e r o f t h e i r F s ig n ific a n c e ; t h a t I s , the most s i g n i ­ fic a n t were e n te re d f i r s t . The r e s u lts o f th e f i r s t run showed t h a t the v a r ia b le s w ith F s t a t i s t i c s between 1 and 2 became I n s ig n if ic a n t (Table 2 9 ) . f ic a n t . A ll th e v a ria b le s w ith F 's g r e a te r th an 2 remained s i g n i ­ As th e l a t t e r v a r ia b le s were th e ones In c lu d e d 1n my second run, th e fin d in g s o f th e second re g re s s io n run re p re s e n t the c o n s tru c te d p re d ic tio n model (T a b le 30 shows th ese f in d in g s ) . As may be observed from T a b le 3 0 , th e square m u lt ip le c o r r e la t io n 2 c o e ff ic ie n t (R ) 10 In d ic a te s t h a t 3 2 * o f th e v a ria n c e In black c o n s c io u s - ness can be accounted f o r by s ix p r e d ic to r (In d e p e n d e n t) v a ria b le s .3 2 2 3 ). (R - C o n jo in t ly , these v a r ia b le s y i e ld a m u lt ip le R o f .5 6 7 8 , w it h a lev el o f s ig n ific a n c e o f . 0 0 0 , w hich In d ic a te s a m oderate to stro n g r e la tio n s h ip , and a high le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e . TABLE 29 M u lt i p l e R e g re s s io n : R e la tio n s h ip o f V a ria b le s W ith F S t a t i s t i c s G r e a te r Than 1 and B la c k Consciousness F F S1g. Beta E la s tic ity 1 0 .0 4 .002 .256 .18 5 Racial Com position of D is tr ic t 8 .0 0 .0 0 6 - .2 5 8 -.1 6 1 E v a lu a tio n o f P o l i t i c a l P arty R e la tio n s h ip 4 .4 8 .0 3 7 .189 .083 P o li t i c a l Campaign Experlence 3.01 .0 8 6 - .1 4 2 - .0 2 6 Sex 3 .2 9 .0 7 2 -.1 5 1 - .0 9 7 1 5 .5 5 .000 .359 .06 6 1.21 .2 7 3 - .0 9 9 - .0 3 5 1 .9 4 .1 6 6 - .1 3 6 - .0 5 3 Time t h a t I n t e r e s t 1n P o lit ic s Developed J u d ic ia l/A d m in 1 s t r a t i ve O ffic e P o li t i c a l P a r ty O f f ic e Type o f E le c t o r a l D is tr ic t M u ltip le R = .5 8 1 8 A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e R Square = .3385 R egression = Std. Dev. = 2 .6 5 Of 8 O v e r a ll F S1g. The v a r ia b le s in iny p r e d ic tio n model a r e th e r e f o r e : F ■ 7 .0 3 5 = .0 0 0 1 ) r a c ia l com position o f d i s t r i c t ; 2 ) s e x ; 3 ) e v a lu a t io n o f p a rty r e l a t i o n s h i p ; 4) p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e ; 5 ) j u d i c i a l vs. a l l o th e r o f f i c e ty p e s 6 and a d m in is t r a t iv e o f f i c e ( e x e c u tiv e , l e g i s l a t i v e , e d u c a t io n a l) ; and ) age t h a t In t e r e s t 1n p o l i t i c s d e v e lo p e d . By lo o k in g a t th e sig n o f the B s c o re f o r each o f th e s e v a r ia b le s In T a b le 3 0 , we can deduce th e fo llo w in g fin d in g s : 164 TABLE 30 M u lt ip le R eg ressio n : V a r ia b le s W ith F S t a t i s t i c s T h at Were H ig h e r Than 2 and B lack Consciousness — F in a l P r e d ic tio n Model F F S ig . 6 .1 6 .0 1 5 - .2 0 6 - .1 2 9 1 4 .2 0 .0 0 0 .317 .05 9 Sex 3 .4 2 .0 6 7 - .1 5 4 - .0 9 9 Time t h a t I n t e r e s t in P o lit ic s Developed 9 .9 3 .002 .252 .182 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip 6 .6 9 .011 .210 .09 2 P o li t i c a l Campaign Experience 3 .6 3 .0 5 9 - .1 5 6 -.0 2 8 Racial Com position o f D is tr ic t J u d ic ia l/A d m in is t r a t iv e O ffic e M u ltip le R = .5 6 7 8 A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e R Square = .3 2 2 3 R egression = Std. Dev. = 2 .6 6 R e sid u a l 1) - Beta Df 6 O v e r a ll F S1g. F = 8 .8 8 = .00 0 112 O ffic e h o ld e r s who developed I n t e r e s t in p o l i t i c a l in l i f e E la s tic ity is s u e s e a r ly a re more b la c k conscious th an th ose whose i n t e r e s t dev­ elo p e d l a t e r . 2) As th e p ro p o rtio n o f blacks in o f f i c e h o l d e r 's e l e c t o r a l d i s ­ t r i c t in c re a s e s * th e le v e l o f b la c k consciousness a ls o in c re a s e s . 3) O ffic e h o ld e r s who e v a lu a te t h e i r p a r ty r e la t io n s h ip s fa v o r a b ly show h ig h e r b la c k consciousness th a n th ose who g iv e a le s s p o s i­ t i v e e v a lu a t io n . 4) O ffic e h o ld e r s w tth p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e show g r e a t e r b la c k consciousness than th ose w it h o u t . 5) Females a re le s s b la c k conscious th an males 165 6 ) J u d ic ia l and a d m ln ls t r a t iv e o ffic e h o ld e r s a r e le s s b la c k con­ s c io u s than o f fic e h o ld e r s In e x e c u tiv e , l e g i s l a t i v e o r educa­ tio n a l o f f ic e . In sum, th e b la c k conscious o f f ic e h o ld e r 1s most l i k e l y to r e p r e ­ sent a p re d o m in a te ly b la c k d i s t r i c t , e v a lu a te p a r ty r e la t io n s h ip s f a v o r ­ a b ly , have had p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e r ie n c e , have d ev elo p ed an I n t e r e s t In p o l i t i c a l Iss u e s e a r l y 1 n l i f e , t i ve o f f i c e , and be m a le . h o ld n o n - ju d ld a l and non-adm 1 n 1 s t r a ­ 166 FOOTNOTES 1. The p red o m inant reason g iv e n was t h a t 1 t would not be v i a b l e o r p r a c t ic a l t o c r e a t e a b la c k p a r ty . 2. The item s In th e s c a le w ere a l l m u lt ip le c h o ic e w ith th e number o f p o s s ib le responses ra n g in g from th re e t o f i v e . 3. The purpose o f c a lc u la t in g a r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t I s to th e I n t e r n a l c o n s is te n c y o f a s c a le , t h a t I s , th e e x te n t t o Item s In th e s c a le a r e homogeneous. The c a lc u la te d r e l i a b c o e f f i c i e n t t e l l s how much v a ria n c e o f th e t o t a l v a ria n c e sured v a r i a b l e I s " t r u e ” v a r ia n c e . 4. The term "response s e t" r e f e r s to th e g e n e ra l tendency t o a g re e o r d is a g re e w ith q u e s tio n n a ir e Ite m s , re g a rd le s s o f t h e i r c o n te n t. For a d is c u s s io n o f th e problem o f u n ifo rm response b ia s , see F red K erl i n g e r , Fou nd atio ns o f S o c ia l and B e h a v io ra l Research (New Y ork: H o lt , R in e h a r t and W in s to n , 15*73), p . 4 8 2 . 5. When I c o n t r o lle d f o r th e r e la t io n s h ip o f number o f o f f i c e s held and b la c k consciousness by a l l the o th e r v a r ia b le s , none b ro u g h t th e b lv a r la t e r e la t io n s h ip I n t o s ig n ific a n c e (s e e Appendix 4 ) . C o n tro l­ lin g f o r th e dem ographic c h a r a c t e r is t ic s a ls o f a i l e d t o make th e r e la t io n s h ip s i g n i f i c a n t (Appendix 5 ) . 6 . 7. assess which th e ility o f a mea­ When I c o n t r o lle d f o r th e r e la t io n s h ip between number o f o f f i c e s sought and b la c k consciousness by a l l th e o th e r In d e p e n d e n t v a r i ­ ab les In th e s tu d y , th e o n ly v a r ia b le t h a t made th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5 le v e l was p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o f f i c e (Appendix 6 ) . T h is would su g g est t h a t number o f o f f i c e s sought 1s s t r o n g ly r e la te d to p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o f f i c e , and th e l a t t e r 1 s a c tin g as an In te r v e n ­ ing v a r i a b l e . The b l v a r i a t e c o r r e la t io n o f number o f o f f i c e s sought and p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o f f i c e I s s i g n i f i c a n t enough to w a r r a n t drawing t h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (P ea rs o n r ■ .3 2 4 , s 1 g . = .0 0 8 ) . I t a ls o sug­ gests t h a t o f f ic e h o ld e r s who h e ld p o l i t i c a l p a rty o f f i c e had held more p u b lic o f f i c e s . When I c o n t r o lle d f o r th e dem ographic c h a r­ a c t e r i s t i c s u s in g m u l t ip l e re g re s s io n a n a ly s is , th e b l v a r l a t e r e l a ­ tio n s h ip rem ained I n s i g n i f i c a n t (Appendix 7 ) Throughout th e d a ta a n a ly s i s , one-way a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e t e s t s w i l l sometimes be re p o rte d alo n g w ith c o r r e l a t i o n r e s u l t s because th e l a t t e r t e s t s t a t i s t i c o n ly g iv es an u n d ersta n d in g o f th e o v e r­ a l l r e l a t i o n s h i p , and does n o t a llo w us t o see where s i g n i f i c a n t changes 1n th e o v e r a ll r e la t io n s h ip a c t u a l l y tak es p la c e . Through a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e p ro ce d u re s we can more r e a d ily d is c e r n th e 167 In t e r n a l d iffe r e n c e s between th e v a r io u s groups on a c o n tin u o u s , dependent v a r ia b le . 8 . To t e s t th e In t e r a c t io n s between th e s e v a r ia b le s , th e F in n m u l t l v a rla n c e program was used because 1 t c o r r e c ts f o r unequal c e l l s iz e s . 9. I t Is g e n e r a lly found t h a t r u r a l1 t e s become p o l i t i c a l l y aw are l a t e r in l i f e than u r b a n it e s . See Norman N1e and Sydney V e rb a , P a r t i c i ­ p a tio n In A m erica: Pol 1t l c a l Democracy and S o cial E q u a lit y (New York: H arp er and fcow, 1 9 7 2 ). 10. The squared m u lt ip le c o r r e la t io n c o e f f i c i e n t , R , sometimes c a lle d th e c o e f f i c i e n t o f m u l t ip l e d e te r m in a tio n re p re s e n ts th e p r o p o r tio n o f v a ria n c e accounted f o r by th e p r e d ic t o r s (th e in d ep en d en t v a r i ­ a b le s ) in th e re g re s s io n e q u a tio n . 2 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS OF HYPOTHESES, IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH In tr o d u c tio n T h is re s e a rc h study In v e s tig a te d th e degree o f d i v e r s i t y 1n I n t r a ­ group I d e n t i f i c a t i o n among b la c k e le c te d o f f i c i a l s concern was t w o - f o ld . F ir s t, 1n M ic h ig a n . I e x p lo re d th e e x t e n t t o which th is group was m o n o lith ic 1 n t h e i r p e rc e p tio n s o f t h e i r r a c i a l I d e n t i t y , a valu e which f o r s h o rt-h a n d purposes was c a lle d b la c k c o n s c io u s n e s s . examined c e r t a i n The Then I fa c to r s t h a t c o u ld p o s s ib ly a c c o u n t f o r v a r ia t io n in th is typ e o f v a lu e c o n fig u r a t io n . To p u t th e problem In an a p p r o p r ia te t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew ork, I began w ith R o llo H andy's th e o ry o f v a lu e s which s t a r t s fro m th e prem ise t h a t the source o f v a lu e s may be lo c a te d In th e needs o f In d iv id u a ls . Because o f d iffe r e n c e s In c u lt u r a l e x p e rie n c e s , th e needs o f In d iv id u a ls a re o fte n d i s s i m i l a r and as a r e s u l t v a lu e s d i f f e r . Based on t h is p ro p o s i­ tio n co n ce rn in g th e source o f v a lu e d if f e r e n c e s , I I n f e r r e d t h a t s in c e black consciousness was a v a lu e , v a r i a t i o n In s u p p o rt f o r 1 t would emerge from d if f e r e n c e s in needs t h a t d i f f e r e n t groups o f b la c k s had. As the p o p ulatio n o f I n t e r e s t to us 1 n t h i s study com prised e le c t e d o f f i c i a l s , I co n su lted t h e o r ie s o f le a d e r s h ip b e h a v io r t h a t ad d ressed th e Issue o f how th e en viro n m en t o f e le c t o r a l p o litic s Im pacts on o ffic e -s e e k e r s beha­ v io r , s p e c i f i c a l l y th e works o f S c h le s ln g e r and Downs. Assuming t h a t 169 p o l i t i c ia n s have p e c u lia r needs as a r e s u lt o f t h e i r o v e r r id in g concern f o r o ffic e -s e e k in g and o f f ic e - h o ld in g , these au th ors propose t h a t p o l i ­ t ic ia n s a d ju s t t h e i r o ffic e -s e e k in g b e h a v io r in such a way to f u l f i l l t h e i r o f f i c e g o a ls . From the l a t t e r p r o p o s itio n , which has been v a l i ­ dated 1n s e ve ra l e m p iric a l s tu d ie s , I drew th e in fe re n c e t h a t values o f o ffic e h o ld e r s n o t e x p l i c i t l y concerned w ith g a in in g o f f i c e could a ls o be a ff e c t e d by th e need f o r o f f i c e . Assuming t h a t needs f o r o f f i c e v a ry , as im p lie d by S c h le s ln g e r and Downs,^ I f u r t h e r in fe r r e d t h a t degree o f need f o r o f f i c e degree o f s u b s c rip tio n (o r o f f i c e commitment) would be r e la t e d to th e to th e v a lu e , b la c k consciousness. The l a t t e r comprised th e f i r s t o f th e th re e m a jo r p ro p o s itio n s t h a t I e le c te d to examine in t h is stu d y . In a d d itio n to th e preceding p r o p o s itio n , I a ls o p o s ite d an o th e r p o litic a l f a c t o r t h a t would be a s s o c ia te d w ith v a r ia t io n 1 n b la c k con­ sciou sn ess, namely degree o f p a rtis a n commitment. san and r a c ia l Assuming t h a t p a r t i ­ in t e r e s t s were not l i k e l y to be harmonious, b u t would o fte n c o n f l i c t , I proposed th a t b la c k o ffic e h o ld e r s w ith c lo s e p a rtis a n in te r e s ts would be le s s b la c k conscious than those w ith o u t. T h is was the second m ajor p ro p o s itio n te s te d . F i n a l l y , m in dfu l o f th e f a c t t h a t o ffic e h o ld e r s a re both s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l a c to r s , and t h a t some th e o rie s o f le a d e rs h ip emphasize th e s o c ia l and personal dim ensions o f le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r, I a ls o i n v e s t i ­ gated w hether s o c io lo g ic a l and demographic d iffe r e n c e s were a s so c ia ted w ith v a r i t l o n in b la c k consciousness. In te s tin g f o r these l a t t e r c o rr e ­ la te s o f b la c k consciousness, I was a ls o e x p lo rin g w hether b la c k con­ sciousness was s t r i c t l y a p o l i t i c a l u tilita r ia n v a lu e th a t was adopted f o r th e reason t h a t i t f u l f i l l e d c e r t a in p o l i t i c a l needs; 1 f th e 170 l a t t e r was th e c a s e * i t would n o t be In flu e n c e d by th e s o c ia l and p e rs o ­ nal d is t in c t io n s t h a t comnonly acco u n t f o r a t t i t u d l n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n among b la c k s . tic a l" In summary, 1n a d d it io n to th e two afo re m e n tio n e d " p o l i ­ h yp o th es es , th e t h i r d m a jo r h yp o th es is o f th e s tu d y s ta te d t h a t th e r e would be an i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c e r t a in s o c ia l and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s w it h b la c k co n sc io u sn es s. To p ro p e rly e v a lu a te th e e v id e n c e r e le v a n t to each o f th ese t h r e e h yp o th es es , i t may be h e lp fu l to b r i e f l y re v ie w th e fin d in g s f o r each o f th e sub-hypotheses t h a t w ere t e s t e d . Review o f F in d in g s O f f ic e Commitment M a jo r H ypo th esis I B lack consciousness and d e g re e o f o f f i c e com m it­ ment w i l l be in v e r s e ly r e l a t e d . S u b -h y p o th e s is 1: O ffic e h o ld e r s who have sp e n t lo n g e r tim e in p r e ­ s e n t o f f i c e w i l l be le s s b la c k conscious th an th ose who have been in o f f i c e a s h o rte r p e rio d o f tim e . F in d in g : S u b -h yp o th es is 2: F in d in g : S u b -h yp o th es is 3: F in d in g Not s u p p o rte d , r = .0 1 6 2 , s i g . ■ .4 3 0 . When con­ t r o l s were made, th e r e l a t i o n s h i p d id n o t become s ig n ific a n t. O ffic e h o ld e r s who have been in o f f i c e lo n g e r (b o th a p p o in tiv e and e l e c t i v e ) w i l l be le s s b la c k conscious th an those whose s o jo u rn in o f f i c e has been s h o r t e r . Not s u p p o rte d , r = .1 6 0 8 , s i g . = .0 4 0 . D e s p ite i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p d is ap p e ared when age was in tro d u c e d as a c o n tr o l v a r ia b le In d ic a t in g t h a t th e l a t t e r v a r i a b l e had c re a te d a s p u rio u s r e la t io n s h ip . O ffic e h o ld e r s who had h eld many o f f ice s would be le s s b la c k conscious than th o s e who h a d n 't. Not s u p p o rte d , r = .0 2 4 4 , s i g . * .3 9 6 . The r e l a ­ tio n s h ip rem ained I n s i g n i f i c a n t even a f t e r con­ t r o l s w ere made. 171 Sub-hypothesis 4: F in d in g : S ub-hypothesis 5: F in d in g : S ub-hypothesis 6 : F in d in g : Sub-hypothesis 7: F in d in g : Sub-hypothesis 8 : F in d in g : S ub-hypothesis 9: O ffic e h o ld e r s who had sought more o f fic e s would be le s s b la c k conscious th an those who h a d n 't. Not s u p p o rte d , r = .0 7 5 4 , s i g . ■ .3 1 7 . The in tr o d u c tio n o f c o n tro ls d id n o t "b rin g o u t" a s i g n i f i c a n t r e la t io n s h ip . O ffic e h o ld e r s who hold d i f f e r e n t types o f o f f i c e w i l l show d i f f e r e n t degrees o f b la c k conscious­ ness. S u p p o rted , F = 3 .6 5 , F Prob * .0 0 8 . J u d ic ia l and a d m in is tr a tiv e o ffic e h o ld e r s w ere much le s s b la c k conscious than e x e c u tiv e , l e g i s l a t i v e and educa­ t io n a l o ffic e h o ld e r s C o n tro ls f o r demographic v a r ia b le s re v e a le d th a t a d m in is t r a tiv e o f f i c e ­ h o ld ers w ere n o t " r e a lly " a d i s t i n c t i v e group as they f i r s t seemed to be. How ever, j u d i c i a l o f fic e h o ld e r s continued to be d i s t i n c t from o th e r types o f o ffic e h o ld e r s in h avin g much low er b lack consciousness. O ffic e h o ld e r s who hold o f f i c e s h ig h e r up in the o f f i c e ech elon in th e fo rm al le v e l o f o f f i c e h ie ra rc h y w i l l show low er b la c k consciousness than th o se who hold low er le v e l o f f i c e s . Not su p p o rte d . The h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t b iv a r ia t e r e la t io n s h ip ( r = . 2 2 1 0 , s i g . = .0 0 8 ) was erased when c o n tro ls were made f o r demographic ch arac­ te r is tic s . O ffic e h o ld e r s in more a t t r a c t i v e o ffic e s w i l l be le s s b la c k conscious than th o s e in les s a t t r a c ­ tiv e o ffic e s . Not su p p o rte d . The w eakly s i g n i f i c a n t b iv a r ia t e r e la t io n s h ip ( r * .1 3 8 5 , s i g . = .0 6 7 ) which showed in c re a s e s in b la c k consciousness w ith h ig h e r o f f i c e l e v e ls , was e ra s e d when c o n tro ls were made f o r o th e r independent v a r ia b le s . O ffic e h o ld e r s who are more a m b itio u s w i l l be le s s b la c k conscious than those who a re less a m b itio u s . Not s u p p o rte d , r = .0 0 7 3 , s i g . = .4 6 9 . None o f th e c o n tro l v a ria b le s c re a te d a s ig n if ic a n t r e l a ­ tio n s h ip . O ffic e h o ld e rs who hold o f f ic e s 1n d i s t r i c t s w ith a high p ro p o rtio n o f b lacks w i l l be more b la ck conscious than those In low p ro p o rtio n b la ck d is ­ tr ic ts . 172 F in d in g : Sub-hypothesis 10: S u p p o rted , r = .2 1 5 3 , s ig . ■ .0 0 9 . As was e x p e c te d , c o n t r o llin g f o r ty p e o f e le c t o r a l d is ­ t r i c t o b lit e r a t e d th e r e la t io n s h ip . However, t h i s m e re ly re in fo rc e d our h yp oth esis t h a t th e number o f b lacks In a d i s t r i c t a f f e c t s th e b la ck consciousness o f o f fic e h o ld e r s . Type o f e le c t o r a l d i s t r i c t and b la c k conscious­ ness w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la t e d . F In d in g : S u p p o rted , T - 2 . 1 0 , prob. * .0 3 8 . O ffic e h o ld e rs in a t - l a r g e d i s t r i c t s were much le s s b la c k con­ scio u s than those in wards. As was e x p e c te d , the c o n tro l v a r ia b le , r a c ia l com position o f d i s t r i c t , o b lit e r a t e d the r e la t io n s h ip . Again t h is c o n tro l f in d in g re in fo rc e d o u r b e l i e f t h a t o ffic e h o ld e r s in d i f f e r e n t typ es o f d i s t r i c t s were l i k e l y to v a ry in t h e i r b la c k consciousness. Sub-hypothes is 11: P o l i t i c a l am b itio n and r a c ia l com position o f d is ­ t r i c t would i n t e r a c t i v e l y be r e la te d to b lack consciousness. F in d in g : S u pp orted , F = 4 . 1 1 , pro b. - .0 0 4 ; o ffic e h o ld e r s w ith p ro g re s s iv e and s t a t i c am b itio n s showed a g en eral decrease in b la c k consciousness as d is ­ t r i c t s became le s s b la c k in r a c ia l co m p o sitio n . O ffic e h o ld e r s w ith d is c r e te p o l i t i c i a n s d id not conform to t h is tr e n d ; t h e i r p a tte r n o f b lack consciousness was v e ry haphazard when r a c ia l com­ p o s it io n o f d i s t r i c t was taken in to acco u nt. Sub-hypothesis 12: F in d in g : O ffic e h o ld e r s w ith p o l i t i c a l campaign ex p erie n c e w i l l be les s b la c k conscious than those w ith o u t. S u pp orted , T = - 2 . 2 0 , pro b. = .0 3 1 . Although the r e la t io n s h ip was s i g n i f i c a n t , c o n tra r y to p re d ic ­ t i o n , those w ith p o l i t i c a l campaign ex p erie n c e were more b lack conscious than those who had not been in v o lv e d in p o l i t i c a l campaigns. The oppo­ s i t e had been p r e d ic te d . P a rtis a n Commitment Major H ypothesis I I : B lack consciousness and degree o f p a r tis a n conrnitment w i l l be in v e r s e ly r e la t e d . Sub-hypothesis 13: O ffic e h o ld e r s who e v a lu a te t h e i r p a r ty r e l a t i o n ­ sh ip s fa v o ra b ly w i l l be les s b la c k conscious than th o se who e v a lu a te t h e i r p a rty r e la tio n s h ip s less fa v o r a b ly . 173 F in din g: Not supported. The s i g n i f i c a n t b iv a r ia t e r e l a ­ tio n s h ip ( r = .1 7 3 4 , s ig . = .0 3 0 ) was erased when c o n tro ls were made f o r o th e r independent v a r ia b le s , le a d in g us to conclude t h a t th e re r e a l l y was no r e la t io n s h ip . Sub-hypothesis 14: O ffic e h o ld e rs who a re c lo s e ly a f f i l i a t e d w ith p o l i t i c a l p a r t ie s w i l l be less b la c k conscious than those who a r e n o t. F in d in g : Not su p po rted, T = 1 .9 7 9 , p ro b . = .1 4 3 . Sub-hypothesis 15: O ffic e h o ld e rs who a re Independents w i l l be more b la ck conscious than those who a re Democrats o r R e p u b lica n s. F in d in g : Not su p p o rted , T = - . 9 5 , pro b. = .3 4 3 . Sub-hypothesis 16: Republicans w i l l be le a s t b la ck co n scio u s, In d e ­ pendents more b la c k co n scio u s, and Democrats w i l l show a le v e l o f b lack consciousness between th e two preceding groups. F in din g: Not su p p o rte d , T = 1 .9 7 9 , prob. = .1 4 3 . Sub-hypothesis 17: O ffic e h o ld e rs who hold p o l i t i c a l p a rty o f f i c e w i l l be le s s b la c k conscious than those who d id not hold t h is typ e o f o f f i c e . F in d in g : S upported, r = - 2 . 5 4 , prob. = .0 1 2 . Although th e r e la tio n s h ip was s i g n i f i c a n t , th e n a tu re o f th e fin d in g s c o n tra d ic te d the h y p o th e s is . P o litic a l p a rty o ffic e h o ld e r s showed h ig h e r b la c k co n scio u s­ ness than those who h a d n 't h e ld p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o ffic e . So c o n tr a d ic tin g o u r p r e d ic tio n s , those w ith p a rtis a n comnitment a c t u a lly show h ig h e r b la c k consciousness. S o cial and Personal C h a r a c te r is tic s M ajor Hypothesis I I Sub-hypothesis 18: F in d in g : Sub-hypothesis 19: : Black consciousness w i l l be a fu n c tio n o f s o c ia l and personal c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . O ffic e h o ld e rs w ith h ig h e r o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s w i l l e x h ib it g r e a te r b la c k consciousness than those o f lo w er o c c u p atio n a l s ta tu s . Not su p p o rted , r = .0 9 9 8 , s ig . = .1 4 0 . O ffic e h o ld e rs w ith h ig h e r o f f i c e s a la r y w i l l e x h ib it g r e a te r b la c k consciousness than those w ith low er o f f i c e s a la r y . 174 F in d in g : Not s u p p o rte d , r = .0 4 8 2 , s i g . = .3 0 1 . S u b -h yp o th es is 20: O ffic e h o ld e r s w ith h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a l s ta tu s w i l l be more b la c k conscious th an th ose o f lo w e r edu­ c a tio n a l s t a t u s . F in d in g : Not s u p p o rte d , r = - . 0 4 3 1 , p ro b . = .3 2 1 . S u b -h y p o th e s is 21: O ffic e h o ld e r s who w ere re a re d in th e N o rth w i l l e x h i b i t g r e a t e r b la c k consciousness than those re a re d in th e S outh. F in d in g : S u p p o rte d , T = - 1 . 4 5 , p ro b . = .0 6 8 . N o rth e rn e rs showed h ig h e r b la c k consciousness th an S o u th e r­ n e rs ; how ever, th e c o n tro l r e s u lt s showed im p or­ ta n c e o f o f f i c e to be a c o n t r ib u t in g f a c t o r . S u b -h yp o th es is 22: O ffic e h o ld e r s who hold o f f i c e in s t a t e w i l l be more b la c k conscious th an th o s e who hold o f f i c e o u ts ta te . F in d in g : S u p p o rte d , r = .1 6 8 8 , s ig . = .0 3 5 . Time t h a t i n t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s was a confounding f a c t o r . S u b -h y p o th e s is 23 : O ffic e h o ld e r s who a r e m ale w i l l be more b la c k conscious th an fe m a le s . F in d in g : S u p p o rte d , T = - 2 . 2 4 , p ro b . = .0 2 7 . S u b -h yp o th es is 24: Younger o f fic e h o ld e r s w i l l th an th o se who a re o ld e r . be more b la c k conscious F in d in g : S u p p o rte d , r = .1 8 4 4 , s ig . = .0 2 2 . S u b -h y p o th e s is 25: O ffic e h o ld e r s who became in t e r e s t e d in p o l i t i c s e a r l i e r in l i f e w i l l be more b la c k conscious than th o s e whose p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s developed l a t e r . F in d in g : S u p p o rte d , r = .2 6 3 7 , s ig . = .0 0 2 . The v a r ia b le m easuring " e v a lu a tio n o f p a r ty r e la t io n s h ip " was a c o n t r ib u t in g f a c t o r . The fo re g o in g sumnary o f th e s p e c if ic fin d in g s o f t h is stu d y re v e a ls s ix v a r ia b le s t h a t were i n d i v i d u a l l y r e la t e d to b la c k c o n sc io u sn es s, th r e e v a r ia b le s t h a t were c o n t r ib u t in g f a c t o r s , and two t h a t in t e r a c t e d w ith each o t h e r to e x p la in v a r i a t i o n ual f a c t o r s w ere: 1) in b la c k co n scio u sn ess. The s ix i n d i v i d ­ fu n c tio n o f o f f i c e ; 2 ) p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e r­ ie n c e ; 3 ) r a c i a l co m p o sitio n o f d i s t r i c t ; 4 ) p o l i t i c a l p a r t y o f f i c e ; 175 5 ) ag e; and 6 ) s e x . o f s t a t e where o f f i c e The th re e c o n tr ib u tin g v a r ia b le s w ere: 1) re g io n i s h e ld ; 2 ) tim e t h a t i n t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s d e v e l­ oped; and 3 ) e v a lu a tio n o f p o l i t i c a l p a r ty r e la t io n s h ip s . two fa c to r s t h a t in t e r a c t e d w ith each o th e r in r e l a t i o n F i n a l l y , th e to b la c k con­ sciousness w ere p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n and r a c i a l co m p o sitio n o f d i s t r i c t . E v a lu a tio n o f F in d in g s O f f ic e Conrnitment Very l i t t l e e v id e n c e was found to s u b s ta n tia te th e p r o p o s itio n t h a t degree o f commitment to o f f ic e - h o ld in g was a s s o c ia te d w ith v a r i a t i o n in b la c k co n scio u sn ess. O nly one f a c t o r — p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e — was i n d i v i d u a l l y r e la t e d to b la c k co n scio u sn ess; how ever, c o n tra r y to p r e d ic t io n s * th o s e who had p o l i t i c a l campaign e x p e rie n c e w ere more b la c k conscious th a n th o s e la c k in g in t h is ty p e o f e x p e rie n c e . None o f th e o th e r fa c t o r s te s te d f o r s u b s ta n tia te d th e h y p o th e s is t h a t o f f i c e commit ment was a s s o c ia te d w it h v a r i a t i o n form al in b la c k co n sc io u sn es s. For exam ple, le v e l o f o f f i c e h eld was n o t a s s o c ia te d w ith v a r i a t i o n co n sciousness. in b la c k W h ile th e b i v a r i a t e t e s t s d id in d ic a te an in c re a s e in b la c k consciousness as le v e l o f o f f i c e h e ld decreased ( I had p re d ic te d th e o p p o s ite ) c o n tr o ls f o r th e demographic c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o b lit e r a t e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p . S i m i l a r l y , th e b i v a r i a t e t e s t o f a t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f o f f i c e showed t h a t b la c k consciousness in c re a s e d as th e le v e l o f o f f i c e h eld in c re a s e d ( a g a in , th e re v e rs e was h y p o th e s iz e d ); h ow ever, c o n tro ls reduced th e r e l a t i o n s h i p to i n s ig n if ic a n c e . The o n ly c l e a r f in d in g t h a t emerged from lo o k in g a t im p ortan ce o f o f f i c e concerned th e " fu n c tio n o f o f f i c e " v a r i a b l e . H e re , we saw a re m arkab le d if f e r e n c e between th e le v e l o f b la c k consciousness o f 176 j u d i c i a l and o th e r typ es o f o f fic e h o ld e r s . 2 W hile we la c k evidence to support th e Idea t h a t b la c k o ffic e h o ld e r s become le s s b la c k conscious as th e y ach ieve h ig h e r o f f i c e , th e re i s stron g evidence to in d ic a te t h a t those who assume j u d i c i a l p o s itio n s a r e f a r less b la c k conscious than o th e r types o f o f fic e h o ld e r s . Whether j u d i c i a l o ffic e h o ld e r s reduce i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e i r race a f t e r a t t a in in g th is p a r t i c u l a r o f f i c e , or a re t h is way b e fo re becoming j u d i c i a l by th e d a ta ; however, i t o f f i c i a l s cannot be answered is a q u e s tio n t h a t should be co n sidered in fu tu r e re s e a rc h . F i n a l l y , no evid en ce was found t o s u b s ta n tia te th e hypotheses t h a t p o l i t i c ia n s w ith high am bition s were le s s b lack conscious than t h e i r less am b itio u s c o u n te rp a rts . However, h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s emerged among o ffic e h o ld e r s w ith d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f a m b itio n when p o l i ­ t i c a l a m b itio n and r a c i a l composition o f d i s t r i c t were an a ly zed in r e l a ­ tio n to b la c k consciousness. By i t s e l f , r a c ia l com position o f d i s t r i c t and b la c k consciousness were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d . As was h y p o th e s ize d , th e re was a general decrease in b la c k consciousness as d i s t r i c t s became " w h ite r " in r a c ia l co m p o sitio n . However when p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n and r a c i a l com position o f d i s t r i c t were an alyzed in terms o f t h e i r j o i n t r e la tio n s h ip w ith b lack consciousness, i t became e v id e n t t h a t b la c k consciousness decreased when d is tr ic ts became " w h ite r" in r a c ia l com p o sitio n o n ly among those who were a m b itio u s ( i . e . , those w ith p ro g re s s iv e and s t a t i c a m b itio n s ). co u nter d i s t i n c t i o n , non-am bitious o f fic e h o ld e r s ( i . e . , In th o se w ith d is ­ c re te a m b itio n s ) showed an e n t ir e ly d i f f e r e n t p a tte rn o f change in black consciousness; t h e r e was no g e n e ra l decrease in b la c k conscious3 ness as d i s t r i c t s became le s s b la c k . The haphazard change in b lack 177 consciousness in the n on -am bitio u s c a te g o ry , suggests th a t th e absence o f concern f o r o f f i c e makes one o b liv io u s toward th e r a c ia l com position o f o n e 's d i s t r i c t . Thus, th e fin d in g t h a t th e am bitiou s showed p a t­ tern e d changes in t h e i r b la ck consciousness as d i s t r i c t s ' r a c ia l m ix­ tu r e changed and th e non-am b1tious d i d n ' t , supports S c h le s ln g e r's p ro ­ p o s itio n th a t am b itio n f o r o f f i c e m o tiv a te s p o l i t i c i a n s to be v e ry s o li t ic io u s o f t h e i r c o n s titu e n t 's i n t e r e s t , because c o n s titu e n t p r e f e r ­ ences a re c r i t i c a l d e te rm in a n ts o f w hether th e y r e a l i z e t h e i r o f f i c e g o a ls . None o f the o th e r measures o f o f f i c e commitment in d ic a te d t h a t 4 those more committed to o f f i c e were le s s b la c k conscious. Given th e s p a r s it y o f f in d in g s , and th e f a c t t h a t th o se r e la tio n s h ip s t h a t were s i g n i f i c a n t a c t u a lly showed th a t o f f i c e comnitment enhances b la c k con­ scio u sn ess, th e p o s ite d in t e r r e la t io n s h ip o f b la c k consciousness and o f f i c e commitment is u n te n a b le . What d id emerge from e x p lo rin g t h is issue was t h a t commitment to o f f i c e and c o n s titu e n c y c h a r a c t e r is t ic s tend to a f f e c t each o th e r ; and a ls o , t h a t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e e le c ­ t o r a l d i s t r i c t are a s s o c ia te d w ith b la ck consciousness. In summary, th e make-up o f c o n s titu e n c ie s seems to be v e ry Im p o rta n t to und erstand in g b lack le a d e rs h ip b e h a v io r. P a rtis a n Commitment A b s o lu te ly no evid en ce was found to s u b s ta n tia te th e t h e o r e t ic a l p ro p o s itio n th a t b la c k o ffic e h o ld e r s who have stro n g p a rtis a n a t ta c h ­ ments w i l l abandon t h e i r commitment to t h e i r ra c e . O f th e fo u r in d ic e s o f p a r tis a n commitment t h a t were c o n s id e re d , o n ly one emerged as s i g n i ­ f i c a n t l y r e la te d to b la c k consciousness a f t e r c o n tro ls were made — " p o l i t i c a l p a rty o f f i c e . " However, c o n tra r y to our p r e d ic t io n , p o l i t i c a l 178 p a rty o f fic e h o ld e r s were more b la c k conscious than those who h a d n 't h eld p o l i t i c a l p a rty o f f i c e . s id e re d " p o l i t i c a l This fin d in g Is ve ry r e v e a lin g because I con­ p a rty o f f ic e " to be one o f th e b es t in d ic e s o f degree o f p o l i t i c a l p a r ty atta ch m e n ts . in th e I l l i n o i s I t a ls o c o n tra d ic ts th e study o f blacks l e g i s l a t u r e , undertaken by Dunn, which found t h a t b lack le g is la t o r s w ith p a r tis a n t i e s were le s s r a c i a l l y conscious than those la c k in g in these t i e s . None o f th e o th e r measures o f p o l i t i c a l p a rty attachm ents were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la t e d to b la ck consciousness, a lth o u g h a l l suggested t h a t th e most b la c k conscious o f fic e h o ld e r s a re those w ith c lo s e p a r t i ­ san com nitm ents. P o l i t i c a l p a rty a f f i l i a t e s , p a r tis a n o f fic e h o ld e r s , and those who e v a lu a te d t h e i r p a rty r e la tio n s h ip s p o s it iv e ly a l l showed h ig h e r b la ck consciousness than In d ep en d en ts, o ffic e h o ld e r s in non­ p a rtis a n o f f i c e , and those who e v a lu a te d t h e i r p a r ty r e la tio n s h ip s in les s p o s it iv e term s. W hile th ese d iffe r e n c e s were not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , th e n a tu re o f th e fin d in g s tend to d is c o n firm th e p ro p o s i­ t io n t h a t c lo s e attach m ent to p o l i t i c a l p a r tie s reduces b la c k i n t r a ­ group i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . S o c ia l and Personal C h a r a c te r is tic s The s o c io lo g ic a l fa c to r s t h a t most c le a r ly d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b lack o ffic e h o ld e r s in t h e i r a t t i t u d e toward t h e i r race were age and sex. The data showed th e o ld e r and fem ale as le s s b lack conscious than th e younger and the m ale. These fin d in g s had been p re d ic te d . Age a t which In t e r e s t in p o l i t i c s d ev elo p ed , re g io n o f s o c ia li z a t i o n , and re g io n where o f f i c e was h e ld seemed to be im p o rta n t in d iv id u a l c o r r e la te s o f a t t i t u d i n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , u n t i l c o n tro l v a r ia b le s were in tro d u c e d . In each in s ta n c e , th e n a tu re o f th e c o n tro l fin d in g s in d ic a te d t h a t these 179 v a ria b le s were a c t u a lly c o n tr ib u tin g f a c t o r s ; by them selves th e y appear to e x p la in v a r ia tio n In b la c k consciousness, but a c t u a lly do so o n ly In c o n ju n c tio n w ith o th e r f a c t o r s . In th e case o f th e v a r ia b le "age t h a t in t e r e s t 1n p o l i t i c s d e v e l­ oped," th e o th e r c o n tr ib u tin g f a c t o r was e v a lu a tio n o f p a rty r e l a t i o n ­ sh ip s . T h is means t h a t th o se who became in te r e s te d 1n p o l i t i c s e a r l i e r in l i f e , a ls o tend to e v a lu a te t h e i r p a rty r e la tio n s h ip s more fa v o ra b ly and to be h ig h ly b la ck conscious. The d ata showed t h a t d iffe r e n c e s in b la c k consciousness may a ls o be e x p la in e d in term s o f both re g io n o f s o c ia liz a t io n and im portance o f o f f i c e to g e th e r. Those b om in the south g e n e r a lly hold lo w er le v e ls o f o f f i c e and a ls o tend to be le s s b lack co n scio u s. This fin d in g suggests t h a t n o rth e rn e rs have had a d i s t i n c t advantage over so u thern ers in access to high le v e l governmental p o s itio n s . could be high SES. An example o f such an advantage I f t h is was th e c a s e , c o n t r o llin g f o r occupation and ed u catio n should reduce th e r e la tio n s h ip o f re g io n o f s o c ia liz a t io n and b lack consciousness to in s ig n if ic a n c e ; as th e y d id n o t, th e f a c t th a t n o rth e rn e rs hold h ig h e r o f f i c e than so u th e rn ers is not a r e s u l t o f t h e i r having the advantage o f h ig h e r SES. The d a ta do not p ro v id e a c lu e to why t h is should be th e c a s e ; however, i t co u ld p o s s ib ly be t h a t those reared in th e n o rth were more aware o f th e w orkings o f the p o l i t i c a l process as th e y have had th e r i g h t to v o te f o r a much lo n g e r tim e than blacks in th e south. G re a te r knowledge o f th e p o l i t i c a l system may have helped them to clim b up th e o f f i c e h ie ra rc h y a t a f a s t e r pace than those who grew up in th e south. F i n a l l y , re g io n o f s t a t e where o f f i c e was h eld and tim e t h a t i n t e r ­ e s t in p o l i t i c s developed c o n jo in t ly account f o r v a r ia tio n in b la c k 180 co n sciousness. Those who h o ld o f f i c e In s t a t e became in t e r e s t e d in p o l i ­ t ic s e a r l i e r th an those who h o ld o f f i c e o u t s t a t e , and th e y a ls o show a c o m p a ra tiv e ly h ig h le v e l o f b la c k consciousness. T h is fin d in g s u rp ris in g s in c e th e I n s t a t e / o u t s t a t e d i s t i n c t i o n is commensurate w ith the u r b a n /r u r a l dichotom y. Is n o t I n s t a t e r s a re c lo s e r to th e more " u rb a n iz e d area o f th e s t a t e , " and u r b a n ite s u s u a lly become in t e r e s t e d in p o l i t i c s e a r lie r 1n l i f e th an r u r a l i t e s , and in a d d it i o n , a r e g e n e r a lly more amenable t o new id e as than r u r a l I t e s . As b la c k consciousness i s a r e l a ­ t i v e l y new mood o f th in k in g among b la c k s , i t in s t a t e r s would e x h ib it i t is to be exp ected t h a t to a g r e a te r e x te n t th an o u t s t a t e r s . Surrroary In summing up th e fin d in g s o f t h is s tu d y , th e c o n c lu s io n may be drawn t h a t b la c k consciousness may be e x p la in e d in term s o f both p o l i ­ t i c a l and s o c io lo g ic a l f a c t o r s . o f fic e h o ld e r s Thus i t cannot be s a id t h a t b la c k i d e n t i f y w ith t h e i r ra ce o n ly because o f th e p o l i t i c a l u t i l i t y o f such i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . R ath er th e d a ta suggests t h a t b la c k consciousness i s a fu n c tio n o f c o n s titu e n c y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p a r tis a n comni tm e n ts , o f f i c e commitments and s o c ia l and p e rs o n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . I t is im p o s s ib le to s in g le o u t one f a c t o r as more im p o rta n t than th e o th e rs . Im p lic a tio n s and S u g g estio n s f o r F u tu re Research S e v e ra l o f th e fin d in g s o f t h is s tu d y , i f over tim e , s u g g e s t c e r ta in c r i t i c a l p o litic s . th e y c o n tin u e to h old p ro sp ects f o r th e f u t u r e o f b la c k One o f th e most s i g n i f i c a n t from a p o lic y r e le v a n t p ersp ec­ t i v e , is th e d if f e r e n c e in b la c k consciousness between j u d i c i a l types o f o f f ic e h o ld e r s . and o t h e r Throughout American h i s t o r y , r a c i a l te n s io n s 181 have been c o n ta in e d p r i n c i p a l l y by w h ite p o lic e and re s o lv e d by w h ite ju d g e s . For t h i s re a s o n , b la c k s have c o n tin u o u s ly sought to r e c e iv e equal j u s t i c e u n d er th e la w , through b e t t e r r e p r e s e n ta tio n in th e area o f law e n fo rc e m e n t. Recent in c re a s e s in b la c k ju d g e s , s h e r i f f s and p o lic e should t h e r e f o r e p o rte n d a fundam ental m o d ific a tio n in th e t r a d i ­ t io n a l ty p e o f j u s t i c e accorded t o b la c k s . The fin d in g s o f ray s tu d y , how ever, c a u tio n s us to tem per o u r o p tim ism ab o ut th e changes t h a t may be b ro ug ht ab o ut by th e emergence o f more e q u it a b le b la c k r e p r e s e n ta tio n in law e n fo rc e m e n t. b la ck c o n s c io u s , a t The f a c t t h a t th e s e in d iv id u a ls a re n o t h ig h ly l e a s t in could p o s s ib ly in d ic a t e t h a t com parison to o th e r ty p e s o f o f f i c e h o l d e r s , th e co n ta in m e n t and r e s o l u t i r . i o f r a c i a l c o n f l i c t may n o t be q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t in c h a r a c te r from tim e s p a s t, even w ith th e e n try o f b la c k s in t o th e law en fo rce m e n t re a lm . th e o th e r hand, one c o u ld argu e t h a t w h ile b la c k On law en fo rce m e n t o f f i ­ c i a l s a r e n o t com m itted to b la c k concerns in com parison to o th e r b la c k o f f ic e h o ld e r s , th e y may y e t be more s e n s it iv e to th e problems o f t h e i r race than w h ite o f f ic e h o ld e r s . s till A b la c k d e fe n d a n t, f o r exam p le, may sta n d a b e t t e r chance o f r e c e iv in g equal j u s t i c e b e fo re than a w h ite ju d g e . ab la c k The p o in t was c o g e n tly exp ressed by one ju d g e in th e sample th u s : I do n o t p e rc e iv e my r o l e as a b la c k ju d g e to be th e d e fe n d e r o f th e b la c k m an's cau se. 1 am a ju d g e f i r s t and fo re m o s t and t h e r e f o r e am n o t in flu e n c e d by r a c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s . H ow ever, compared to what o b ta in e d in th e p a s t, b e fo re th e ad ven t o f b la c k ju d g e s l i k e m y s e lf, a b la c k d e fe n d a n t w i l l r e c e iv e b e t t e r j u s t i c e b e fo re me. You s e e , I i n t e r p r e t th e law e q u a lly f o r a l l ; ray w h ite c o lle a g u e s have two s e ts o f la w s , one f o r th e r i c h , one f o r th e p o o r, and one f o r w h ite s , a n o th e r f o r n o n -w h ite s . In summary, th e low b la c k consciousness o f j u d i c i a l o f f i c i a l s two p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r th e f u t u r e . sug gests I t co u ld in d ic a t e th e c o n tin u a tio n 182 o f past p ra c tic e s o f i n s e n s i t i v i t y to th e problems o f b la c k s ; o r more o p t i m i s t i c a l l y , i t could mean t h a t blacks w i l l re c e iv e more e q u ita b le j u s t i c e , d e s p ite th e ap p aren t d iv o rc e o f b la c k ju d g e s , s h e r i f f s , e t c . , from b la c k Is s u e s . As my sample excluded w h ite j u d i c i a l o ffic e h o ld e r s i t to c o n c lu s iv e ly i n f e r w hether blacks w i l l is im possible r e c e iv e b e t t e r tre a tm e n t from having re p re s e n ta tiv e s in t h e i r ra c e in j u d i c i a l o f f i c e . N o n eth eles s, the s i g n i f i c a n t l y low er b la c k consciousness o f th e j u d i c i a l gro up , sup­ p o rts a re c e n t statem en t by S t. C l a i r Drake concerning th e p o te n tia l impact o f th e d iv e r s i t y in typ es o f b la c k p o l i t i c i a n s on b la c k p o l i t i c s in th e s e v e n tie s : I t is l i k e l y t h a t a t th e n a tio n 's c a p it a l and in n o rth e rn s ta te s th e power s tr u c tu r e o f re p re s s iv e r ig h t-w in g governments would i n s t a l l a token re p r e ­ s e n ta tio n o f c o n s e rv a tiv e blacks in some h ig h -le v e l posts in a m y u n i t s , p o lic e fo r c e s , a d m in is tr a tiv e c a d re s , and th e j u d i c i a r y . . . The iro n y o f D ra k e 's statem en t is the heavy emphasis placed on conserva­ t i v e blacks f i l l i n g j u d i c i a l and law enforcem ent p o s itio n s . The data from t h is study suggests t h a t h is p re d ic tio n may a lre a d y have been v a lid a te d in M ich ig an . A nother s ig n if ic a n t fin d in g o f t h is re se arch is th e f a c t th a t so many o f th e o ffic e h o ld e r s in th e sample re p re s e n te d areas t h a t were extrem ely heterogenous in r a c i a l com p o sitio n . the sample were e le c te d by d i s t r i c t s T h ir t y - t h r e e members o f les s than o n e -th ir d b la c k . Pos­ s ib ly t h is means t h a t th e w h ite community is becoming more re c e p tiv e than in tim es p ast to the in c lu s io n o f blacks in p o l i t i c s . I f t h is is indeed th e c a s e , th e prospects f o r blacks a c h ie v in g r a c ia l e q u a lit y through th e e le c t o r a l approach a re very b r ig h t . On th e o th e r hand, i t 183 may sim ply mean th a t w h ites a re w i l l i n g to ac c e p t a few b lacks 1 n p o s i­ tio n s o f a u t h o r it y w ith o u t ac co rd in g t o t a l e q u a lit y to the group. l a t t e r more c y n ic a l view is b a s ic a lly the p o s itio n o f D rake. The He s ta te s th a t: These e le c t o r a l v i c t o r ie s may portend a fu tu r e s it u a ­ t io n in which the w h ite p u b lic w i l l respond to b lack le a d e rs h ip as i t has to Jewish le a d e rs h ip in the past — t h a t i s , choose an in d iv id u a l in whom th e y have c o n fid e n c e d e s p ite t h e i r p re ju d ic e d a t t it u d e s toward th e e th n ic group from which he comes, b u t remain d is ­ in c lin e d to have any in tim a te s o c ia l r e la tio n s h ip s w ith him o r members o f h is e th n ic group. In summary, one can contend t h a t th e e le c tio n o f b lacks in w h ite d is ­ tr ic ts in d ic a te s a re d u c tio n o f th e s a lie n c e o f racism in the s o c ie ty ; o r less o p t i m i s t i c a l l y , i t may sim ply mean th e w h ite e le c to r a te w i l l support a few b la c k s in p o lic y -m a k in g p o s itio n s , b u t w i l l not neces­ s a r ily condone f u l l r a c ia l e q u a lit y . The l a t t e r view is more te n a b le than the fo rm er in l i g h t o f th e fin d in g th a t th o se black p o l i t i c i a n s who re p re s e n t w h ite areas tend to reduce t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e i r race as t h e i r d i s t r i c t s become w h ite r in r a c i a l com p o sitio n . I f w h ite v o te rs had reached th e p o in t where they had become o b liv io u s to r a c ia l d is t in c t i o n s , t h is p a tte r n would be le s s s a l i e n t . I t s presence dem onstrates t h a t f o r b la c k lea d e rs to g et e le c te d in in te g ra te d neighborhoods t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e ir race must be low ered. I t a ls o suggests t h a t th e chances f o r suc­ cessful e le c t io n to o f f ic e o f a h ig h ly black conscious can d id ate a re lowered in a p re d o m in a tly w h ite d i s t r i c t and enhanced in a d i s t r i c t w ith a high p ro p o rtio n o f b la c k s . The fo re g o in g e x p la n a tio n t h a t black o ffic e h o ld e r s a d ju s t t h e i r id e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e i r ra ce to s u it the com position o f t h e i r co n stituency is b u ttre s s e d by th e f a c t th a t t h is p a tte r n was observed 184 o n ly among th e a m b itio u s , not th e n o n -a m b itio u s . Im p o rta n t In American p o l i t i c s , i t If race was no lo n g e r is u n lik e ly t h a t we would observe the am b itio u s a p p a re n tly paying g r e a t a t t e n t io n to c o n s titu e n c y ch arac­ t e r i s t i c s , and th e non-amb1 tio u s n o t doing so. W hile th e p reced ing argument Is te n a b le , th e p ro p o s itio n could a ls o be advanced t h a t th e in c re a s e o f b la c k consciousness as d i s t r i c t s become b la c k e r sim p ly re p re s e n ts th e a tte m p t by b lack p o lic y -m a k e rs in poorer d i s t r i c t s to s u b s titu t e p s y c h o lo g ic a l rewards f o r more ta n g ib le p u b lic o u tp u ts . T h is p o in t is suggested by W alton in h is a tte m p t to account f o r th e d i v e r s i t y in in tr a -g ro u p i d e n t i f i c a t i o n among b la c k o f fic e h o ld ­ e rs . He argues t h a t b la c k o ffic e h o ld e r s who cannot d e l iv e r ta n g ib le m a te ria l rewards to c o n s titu e n ts w i l l f a ilin g s a tte m p t to compensate f o r t h e i r by e x h ib it in g sen tim en ts o f stro n g s o l i d a r i t y w ith t h e i r con­ s t it u e n t s . In o th e r w ords, th ey w i l l e x h ib i t high b la c k consciousness as a p s y c h o lo g ic a l p a y o ff f o r t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to d e l iv e r m a te r ia l improvements. The p rec ed in g p ro p o s itio n becomes more p la u s ib le when cognizance is taken o f th e economic geography o f M ic h ig a n . The areas o f th e s ta t e w ith th e la r g e s t c o n c e n tra tio n o f b la c k s a re th e i n n e r - c i t i e s , and these are a ls o some o f th e le a s t prosperous area s o f th e s t a t e . Given t h is c o r r e la tio n between r a c ia l d e n s ity and economic p ro s p e r ity o f d i s t r i c t s , the fin d in g t h a t b la c k o ffic e h o ld e r s i d e n t i f y most w ith t h e i r race in d i s t r i c t s where b lacks a re p l e n t i f u l may be a fu n c tio n o f th e f a c t t h a t these o ffic e h o ld e r s a re sim ply s u b s t it u t in g high b la ck consciousness f o r t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to d e l iv e r necessary economic improvements to t h e i r d is ­ tr ic ts . In W a lto n 's w ords, these typ es o f b la ck p o l i t i c i a n s who cannot d e liv e r on t h e i r p u b lic p o lic y promises w i l l "seek to answer th e needs 185 o f th e b lack convnuntty w ith v e rb ia g e and promises - - phrases and slogans to re p la c e programs and a c tio n s th ey cannot c a rr y o u t . ' * 7 The preceding argument t h a t v a r ia t io n in b la ck consciousness 1s r e la te d to p o l i t i c i a n s ' I n a b i l i t y to d e liv e r p u b lic p o lic ie s was sug­ gested by th e f a c t t h a t " w h ite r" areas o f th e s t a t e a re g e n e r a lly more prosperous than " b la c k e r" a re a s , and a ls o by my fin d in g s th a t b lack o ffic e h o ld e r s from " w h ite r" d i s t r i c t s a re le s s b la c k conscious than those from " b la c k e r" d i s t r i c t s . To e x p lo re the v a l i d i t y o f t h is propo­ s it io n one could c r e a te an index o f economic p r o s p e r ity o f e le c to r a l d i s t r i c t s and r e l a t e t h is to le a d e rs h ip a t t i t u d e toward b la ck conscious­ ness. W hile t h is procedure could p o s s ib ly c r e a te an e c o lo g ic a l f a l l a c y , by r e la t in g these a t t it u d e s to th e economic index i t may be p o s s ib le to d is c o v e r w hether one i d e n t i f i e s more w ith o ne's race because o f one's a b i l i t y to d e liv e r th e necessary p u b lic p o lic y to them , o r w hether i t re p re s e n ts an a tte m p t to make one seem more " r e p r e s e n ta tiv e " to o ne's c o n s titu e n ts . Of c o u rs e , th e re is always th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t both fa c to r s are o p e r a tiv e . Another v e ry s i g n i f i c a n t fin d in g o f t h is study was th e f a c t th a t h o ld ers o f p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o f f i c e i d e n t i f i e d more w ith t h e i r race than those who h a d n 't. The n a tu re o f th e d ata does n o t a llo w us to draw c a u s e -e ffe c t in fe re n c e s . N o n e th e le s s , i t would be in t e r e s t in g to d is ­ cover w hether th e developm ent o f b lack consciousness preceded o r fo llo w e d e le c tio n to p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o f f i c e ; in o th e r w ords, does high b la c k con­ sciousness m o tiv a te one to become more in v o lv e d in p a r tis a n p o l i t i c s , o r does one become more b la ck conscious as a r e s u lt o f being in v o lv e d in p a rtis a n p o l i t i c s . 186 I t would a ls o be in t e r e s t in g to f in d o u t i f th e p a rty in which o f f ic e s were h e ld made a d if f e r e n c e in commitment to b lack consciousness. Do p o l i t i c a l p a rty o ffic e h o ld e r s in the Republican p a rty i d e n t i f y w ith t h e i r ra c e to th e same e x te n t as Dem ocratic p a r ty o ffic e h o ld e rs ? My study could not answer t h is q u e s tio n as o n ly two o f th e tw e lv e Repub* 1 leans In th e sample had e v e r h eld p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o f f i c e . Another im p lic a tio n o f t h i s research t h a t should be addressed con­ cerns th e p o s s ib le e f f e c t o f th e d iv e r s i t y o f b la c k p o l i t i c i a n s ' a t t i ­ tudes towards t h e i r race on th e b la c k community. I f nothing e l s e , t h is study c l e a r l y dem onstrates t h a t th e value h e te ro g e n e ity t h a t c h a r a c te r ­ iz e s b lack o f fic e h o ld e r s is h e a v ily in flu e n c e d by c o n s titu e n c y ch arac­ te r is tic s . I t may th e r e fo r e be deduced t h a t p o l i t i c a l a lie n a t io n w i l l be g r e a te r among those b la ck s in in te g r a te d d i s t r i c t s than those in more h e a v ily b la ck d i s t r i c t s . However, in l i g h t o f th e s o c ia l and economic d e p riv a tio n s faced by blacks in many h ig h ly p op ulated b lack area s o f the s ta te , i t is a ls o p o s s ib le f o r th e b la ck v o te r to be more a lie n a te d in th e l a t t e r typ e o f area than in more in te g r a te d a r e a s , d e s p ite th e p o s i­ t iv e a t t it u d e s o f re p r e s e n ta tiv e s in these areas toward t h e i r ra c e . If the b la c k p u b lic o f f i c i a l can d e l iv e r q u a li t y o u tp u ts , th e b la ck s in h is d i s t r i c t may not a tta c h im portance to w hether he i d e n t i f i e s w ith h is race o r n o t; and hence, th ey may not be a lie n a te d from p o l i t i c s in s p ite o f the low b la c k conscious o f f ic e h o ld e r . In t h is re g a rd , i t w i l l be in t e r e s t in g to lo o k a t th e a t t it u d e s o f blacks in those p a rts o f the south where some b la c k o f f i c i a l s have re c e n tly sought rapprochement w ith fo rm e rly outspoken s e g r e g a tio n is t w h ite p o l i t i c i a n s . An example would be C h arles Evers o f F a y e tte , M is s is s ip p i, and Johnny Ford o f Tuskegee, b la c k mayors who both supported 187 George W allace f o r Governor o f Alabama. Campbell and Feagin in a r e c e n tly p u b lis h e d a r t i c l e p o in t o u t t h a t these two b la c k o f f i c i a l s have brought s u b s ta n tia l and p r iv a t e g ra n ts . improvements to t h e i r communities through fe d e r a l o I t would be in fo rm a tiv e to e x p lo re w hether d e l i ­ ve ry o f these m a te r ia l b e n e fits has m o l li f i e d th e disenchantm ent o f b lack v o te rs toward th e p o lic y stances o f these two men, i f th e re was d is a p p ro v a l o f t h e i r endorsement o f W a lla c e . indeed A g a in , fu tu r e research needs to be done co n cern in g th e p e rc e p tio n s o f th e b lack e le c ­ to r a t e toward th e d if f e r e n t typ es o f b la ck p o l i t i c ia n s which t h is study has documented to e x i s t . The f i n a l im p lic a tio n o f t h i s study has to do w ith th e o p p o rtu n ity s tr u c tu r e f o r b la ck s r a th e r than w ith a t t it u d e s s p e c i f i c a l l y . The d ata from my study suggest th a t w h ile M ichigan has th e h ig h e s t number o f b lacks in e le c t iv e o f f i c e in th e n a tio n , i t is q u e s tio n a b le w hether th e problems o f blacks a t la rg e can be solved in th e near f u tu r e through th e e le c t o r a l approach. Review o f th e two scales m easuring im portance o f o f f i c e re v e a ls t h a t th e overwhelm ing m a jo r ity o f b lacks hold o f f i c e in th e low est echelons o f the o f f i c e h ie r a r c h y , in d ic a tin g t h a t l i k e e ls e ­ where in th e n a tio n , blacks have n o t y e t a tta in e d p o s itio n s o f power and p re s tig e in e le c t o r a l p o l i t i c s . M oreover, t h e i r c o n c e n tra tio n in urban areas means t h a t th e y are faced w ith th e tremendous problems o f urbanism — p o v e rty , slummism, c rim e , e t c . Given th e tasks th e y fa c e , and t h e i r o v e r-c o n c e n tra tio n in p o s itio n s la c k in g in re a l power p o t e n t i a l , i t 1s q u e s tio n a b le w hether the b la c k convnunity w i l l re c e iv e a n y th in g more than c a t h a r t ic s a t is f a c t io n from seein g members o f t h e i r ra c e 1 n p u b lic view . As noted by W a lto n , "b lack p o l i t i c i a n s w ith o u t power, o r o u ts id e th e lo c i g o f power, a re j u s t as bad as no b la c k p o l i t i c ia n s a t a l l . " 188 FOOTNOTES 1. T h is assumption is s u b s ta n tia te d by th e d is t in c t io n t h a t S c h le s in g e r makes between p ro g re s s iv e , s t a t i c and d is c r e te a m b itio n s , and Downs between c lim b e rs and co n servers. . A t f i r s t in s p e c tio n i t seemed t h a t a d m in is tr a tiv e o f f i c i a l s were ve ry much l i k e j u d i c i a l o f f i c i a l s , in th e low le v e l o f b la c k con­ sciousness t h a t both groups showed in comparison to e x e c u tiv e , l e g i s l a t i v e , and e d u c a tio n a l o f fic e h o ld e r s . However, a f t e r con­ t r o l s were made, i t was f ir m ly e s ta b lis h e d th a t j u d i c i a l o f f i c i a l s comprised a group by them selves. 3. Those in medium p ro p o rtio n b lack d i s t r i c t s e x h ib ite d th e lo w est le v e l o f b la ck consciousness, and th o se in high and low p ro p o rtio n b la c k d i s t r i c t s showed a le v e l o f b la c k consciousness t h a t was alm ost th e same. 4. N e ith e r number o f o f f ic e s held nor number o f o f fic e s sought were as so c ia ted w ith b la c k consciousness. 5. S t . C l a i r D rake, "Prospects f o r th e F utu re" in Key Issues in th e A fro-A m erican E x p e rie n c e , V o l. I I , ed . Nathan Huggins, M a rtin K ils o n , and David Fox (New York: H a rc o u rt Brace Jo v an o v ic h , I n c . , 1 9 7 1 ), p. 285. 2 6 . 7. 8 . 9. I b i d . , pp. 300-301 Hanes W alto n , Black P o l i t i c s : A T h e o r e tic a l and S tr u c tu r a l A n alysis (New York: J . B. L ip p in c o tt Company, 1 9 7 2 ), p . 202. David Campbell and Joe F eagin, "B lack P o li t i c s in the S outh: A D e s c r ip tiv e A n a ly s is ," Journal o f P o l i t i c s , V o l. 37 (F e b ru a ry 1 9 7 5 ), pp. 1 2 9 -1 6 3 . Hanes W alton , op. c i t . , pp. 2 0 7 -2 0 8 . APPENDICES 189 APPENDIX 1 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF ITEMS THAT DID NOT CLUSTER IN THE BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS SCALE Bussing S tro n g ly Favor P a r tia lly Favor 54.6% (5 9 ) P a r tia lly Oppose S tro n g ly Oppose 13.9% (1 5 ) 18.5% (2 0 ) 13.0% (1 4 ) Segregated Education S tro n g ly Favor P a r tia lly Favor 13.4% (1 6 ) 30.3% (3 6 ) P a r tia lly Oppose 1 0 . 1% (12) Black P o l i t i c a l S tro n g ly Favor S tro n g ly Oppose P a r tia lly Favor 46.2% (5 5 ) P a rty P a r tia lly Oppose S tro n g ly Oppose 5.1% (6 ) 94.9% (112) Black G raduates Should Return to B lack Community Return to Black Corrmunity No P re feren ce Should Not Return To Black Community 58.1% (6 1 ) 25.0% (2 6 ) 17.1% (1 8 ) 190 APPENDIX 1-C o ntin ued Conrnunity C ontrol o f Education T o ta l Community C ontrol Community In p u t No Community In p u t o r Control 2 2 .0% 60.0% (7 0 ) 18.0% (2 1 ) (2 8 ) Black E n g lis h P a r tia lly Support Support 2 0 .2% 6.7% (8 ) Oppose 73.1% (8 7 ) (2 4 ) Black Businesses S tro n g ly Support P a r tia lly Support 38.6% (4 4 ) 38.6% (4 4 ) P a r tia lly Oppose 16.0% (1 9 ) S tro n g ly Oppose 6 . 8% (8 ) 191 APPENDIX 2 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF LENGTH OF TIME IN PRESENT OFFICE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C ontrol V a r ia b le P a r t ia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness -.0 0 2 3 115 .491 O ccupational S tatu s .0129 115 .445 S a la ry .0120 115 .449 Education .0151 115 .431 -.0 4 9 6 115 .298 Region O f fic e Held .0089 115 .463 Region o f S o c ia liz a t io n .1332 115 .3 6 2 Sex .0133 115 .494 P o l i t i c a l A m bition .0157 115 .434 D i s t r i c t 's R a c ia l Composition .0082 115 .461 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f ic e -.0 7 7 7 115 .203 Number o f O ffic e s Sought -.0 2 1 2 115 .411 Number o f O ffic e s Held .0205 115 .4 1 4 P o l i t i c a l P a rty O f fic e .0531 115 .285 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .0056 115 .477 P a rtis a n vs. N o n -P a rtis a n O f f ic e .0404 115 .333 P a rty A f f i l i a t e v s . N o n -A ffi1 i a te .034 115 .471 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Epxerience .0008 115 .497 A ttra c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e .0499 115 .297 Formal Level o f O f f ic e .0741 115 .214 Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t .0308 115 .371 P o l i t i c a l P a rty A ffilia tio n .0230 115 .403 Age APPENDIX 3 REGRESSION EQUATION: PERIOD OF TIME IN PRESENT OFFICE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Period of Time In Present Office F RATIO F SIG. Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age Education Sex Michigan Reared Southern Reared .184 2.837 .257 1.666 1.813 4.137 6.193 2.225 1.628 .668 .095 .613 .200 .181 .044 .014 .139 .205 BETA -.040 -.155 .058 .147 .293 .463 .231 .141 .126 ELASTICITY -.017 -.100 .022 .023 .111 .105 ,167 .204 .083 Instate Office MULTIPLE R * .447 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F = 3.021 R SQUARE .200 REGRESSION = F SIG. * STD. DEV, = 2.931 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 = .003 193 APPENDIX 4 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF NUMBER OF OFFICES HELD AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C o n tro l V a r i a b le P a rtia l r Of S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .0711 115 .22 2 O c c u p a tio n a l S ta tu s .0241 115 .399 S a la r y .0108 115 .454 E d ucation .0279 115 .383 -.0 0 6 6 115 .472 Region O f f i c e Held .0531 115 .285 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .0412 115 .330 Sex .0740 115 .2 1 4 .02 49 115 .3 9 5 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Com position .0289 115 .375 Length o f Time i n P re s e n t O f f i c e .0274 115 .385 -.0 6 5 4 115 .242 Number o f O f f i c e s Sought .0146 115 .4 3 8 P o litic a l .0212 115 .3 0 3 E v a lu a t io n o f P a r ty R e la t io n s h ip .0401 115 .3 3 5 P a r t i s a n vs. N o n -P a rtis a n O f f i c e .0146 115 .4 3 8 P a r ty A f f i l i a t e v s . N o n -A f f1 1 i a t e .0222 115 .4 0 7 P o l i t i c a l Campaign E x p e rie n c e .0301 115 .374 A ttra c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e .5160 115 .276 Formal L evel o f O f f i c e .0531 115 .2 8 5 Type o f E le c to ra l .0077 115 .4 6 8 Age P o litic a l Am bition Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e P a r ty O f f i c e D is tr ic t APPENDIX 5 REGRESSION EQUATION: NUMBER OF OFFICES HELD AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS ■1 i f Number Of Offices Held Sex Michigan Reared Southern Reared F RATIO .874 3.500 .288 2.248 F SIG. .352 .064 .593 BETA .087 -.176 ELASTICITY .048 -.113 MULTIPLE R = .452 R SQUARE = .205 STD. DEV. - 2.922 I l- l !■ ' Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age Education 3.408 1.245 6.576 1.473 1.493 .137 .068 .267 .012 .227 .224 .061 .171 .425 .247 .238 .110 ,121 .023 .026 ,096 .094 .172 ,159 .080 Instate Office DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F = 3.117 REGRESSION = F SIG, RESIDUAL 9 = 109 = .002 195 APPENDIX 6 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF NUMBER OF OFFICES SOUGHT AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS Control V a r ia b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .0791 115 .19 9 Occupational S tatu s .0762 115 .208 S a la ry .0674 115 .236 Education .0731 115 .217 Age .0224 115 .406 Region O f f ic e Held .1220 115 .096 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .0743 115 .213 Sex .0928 115 .16 0 P o l i t i c a l Ambition .0765 115 .207 D i s t r i c t ' s Racial Composition .0848 115 .18 2 Length o f Time in Present O f f ic e .0766 115 .206 - .0 1 2 4 115 .44 8 Number o f O f f ic e s Held .0729 115 .21 8 P o litic a l .1533 115 .048 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .0823 115 .1 8 9 P a rtis a n vs. N o n -P artisa n O f f i c e .0878 115 .174 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e .0858 115 .179 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .0902 115 .167 A t t r a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e .1179 115 .103 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .1163 115 .106 Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t .0986 115 .146 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f ic e P a rty O f f i c e APPENDIX 7 REGRESSION EQUATION: NUMBER OF OFFICES SOUGHT AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Number Of Offices Sought F RATIO Instate Office Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age Education Sex Michigan Reared Southern Reared .958 3.310 1.800 .222 4.144 1.460 5.914 1.045 1.946 F SIG. .330 .072 .183 ,639 .044 .230 .017 .309 .166 BETA .093 -.168 .151 .054 .462 .264 .225 .096 .139 ELASTICITY .029 -.108 .023 .020 .105 .100 .162 .139 .091 MULTIPLE R = .453 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F s 3.128 R SQUARE REGRESSION = F SIG. = .205 STD. DEV. = 2.920 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 = .002 197 APPENDIX 8 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF PERIOD OF TIME IN PUBLIC OFFICE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C o n tro l V a r i a b l e P a rtia l r Of S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .1 7 0 9 115 .033 O ccup atio nal S ta tu s .1 6 1 7 115 .041 S a la r y .1 5 4 3 115 .049 E ducation .1 6 3 0 115 .040 Age .0 8 5 0 115 .182 Region O f f i c e Held .1 8 4 3 115 .024 Region o f S o c ia liz a tlo n .1 9 4 8 115 .018 Sex .1 9 8 5 115 .016 P o l i t i c a l A m bition .1 6 0 7 115 .042 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Composition .1 6 6 4 115 .037 Length o f Time in P re s e n t O f f i c e .1 7 7 4 115 .028 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e .1 7 1 6 115 .033 Number o f O f f i c e s Sought .1 4 3 0 115 .063 P o litic a l .1 8 5 0 115 .023 E v a lu a tio n o f P a r t y R e la t io n s h ip .1 6 1 7 115 .041 P a r t is a n vs. N o n -P a rtis a n O f f i c e .1 7 3 9 115 .031 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e .1 8 2 2 115 .029 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .1 5 5 5 115 .048 A ttra c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e .2 0 4 4 115 .014 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .2 0 5 5 115 .014 Type o f E le c to ra l D i s t r i c t .1 5 6 5 115 .046 P o l i t i c a l P a r ty A ffilia tio n .1 7 1 2 115 .03 2 P a rty O ffic e APPENDIX 9 i REGRESSION EQUATION: PERIOD OF TIME OFFICE HELD AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age Education .938 3.295 6.447 .002 1.325 .062 .335 .072 .013 .969 .252 .050 .214 .209 .407 .230 .004 .112 .019 .033 .079 .092 .166 .006 .073 Period Of Time Office Held Sex Michigan Reared Southern Reared Instate Office 4.923 4.752 .201 3.543 F SIG. .029 .031 .655 BETA .233 -.201 ELASTICITY .084 -.129 F RATIO MULTIPLE R » .483 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F * 3.678 F SIG. R SQUARE = .233 REGRESSION = STD. DEV. = 2 .8 6 9 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 = .000 199 APPENDIX 10 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGN EXPERIENCE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C o n trol V a r ia b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .1847 115 .024 Occupational S tatu s .1845 115 .024 S a la ry .1971 115 .017 Education .1911 115 .0 2 0 Age .1887 115 .021 Region O f f i c e Held .1802 115 .026 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .1991 115 .016 Sex .2099 115 .012 P o l i t i c a l Am bition .1941 115 .019 D i s t r i c t ' s R a cial Composition .2333 115 .006 Length o f Time 1n Present O f f i c e .1918 115 .0 2 0 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e .1881 115 .02 2 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought .1985 115 .016 P o litic a l .1528 115 .051 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .1738 115 .031 P a rtis a n vs. N o n -P artisa n O f f ic e .1830 115 .02 5 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N on-P arty A f f i l i a t e .1724 115 .032 A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e .1727 115 .03 2 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .1468 115 .058 Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t .1939 115 .019 P a rty O f f i c e APPENDIX 11 REGRESSION EQUATION: POLITICAL CAMPAIGN EXPERIENCE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Political Campaign Experience Instate Office Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age Education Southern Reared 3.101 3.530 2.155 .298 2.787 2.495 5.993 2.039 1.524 .081 *063 .145 .586 .098 .117 .016 .159 .220 8ETA -.153 -.171 .164 .061 -.161 -.159 .224 .125 .120 ELASTICITY -.028 -.110 .025 .023 -.010 -.061 .162 .181 .079 F RATIO F SIG. MULTIPLE R * *470 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F 8 3.425 F SIG, R SQUARE = .220 REGRESSION = STD. DEV =2.892 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 = .001 200 Sex Michigan Reared 201 APPENDIX 12 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF JUDICIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICEHOLDERS VS. EXECUTIVE, LEGISLATIVE AND EDUCATIONAL OFFICEHOLDERS C o n tro l V a ria b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .1996 116 .01 6 O ccupational S tatus .1667 116 .03 6 S a la r y .1774 116 .02 8 Education .1730 116 .031 Age .1544 116 .0 4 8 Region O f f ic e Held .1479 116 .05 5 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .1898 116 .0 2 0 Sex .1242 116 .091 P o l i t i c a l Ambition .1730 116 .031 D i s t r i c t ' s Racial Composition .1402 116 .06 5 Length o f Time in P re se n t O f f ic e .1731 116 .031 Length o f Time i n P u b lic O f f ic e .1690 116 .03 4 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought .1736 116 .031 Number o f O ffic e s Held .1733 116 .031 P o litic a l .1499 116 .05 3 E v a lu a tio n o f P a r ty R e la tio n s h ip .1557 116 .0 4 9 P a r t is a n vs. N o n -P a rtis a n O ffic e .1687 116 .0 3 4 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n -A ffilia te .1631 116 .03 9 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experien ce .1658 116 .03 7 A t t r a c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e .1624 116 .0 4 0 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .1313 116 .07 9 Type o f E le c to ra l D is t r ic t .1007 116 .1 4 0 Party O f f i c e 202 APPENDIX 13 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF FORMAL LEVEL OF OFFICE HELD AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C o n tro l V a ria b le P a rtia l r Awareness Df S ig . .226 115 .00 8 O cc u p atio n a l Status .219 115 .009 S a la r y .234 115 .006 E ducation .218 115 .010 Age .219 115 .009 Region O f f i c e Held .209 115 .012 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .209 115 .0 1 2 Sex .198 115 .017 P o l i t i c a l Ambition .223 115 .00 8 D i s t r i c t ' s Racial Com position .216 115 .01 0 Length o f Time in P r e s e n t O f f ic e .232 115 .006 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f ic e .255 115 .003 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought .220 115 .009 Number o f O f f ic e s Held .237 115 .005 P o litic a l .1657 115 . 038 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .192 115 .019 P a r t is a n v s . N o n -P a rtis a n O ffic e .217 115 .010 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n -A ffi1ia te .191 115 .0 2 0 P o l i t i c a l Campaign E x p e rien ce .183 115 .025 A ttra c tiv e n e s s of O ffic e .176 115 .029 Type o f E le c to ra l .1575 115 .04 5 .217 115 .0 2 0 P o litic a l P a rty O ff ic e D is tr ic t P o l i t i c a l P a rty A ffil ia tio n APPENDIX 14 REGRESSION EQUATION: FORMAL LEVEL OF OFFICE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Age Education 2,229 1.650 6.613 2.416 1.440 .463 .138 .202 .011 .123 .233 .159 .084 -.153 -.134 .237 .137 .118 .025 .032 -.058 -.009 .171 .199 .077 Sex Michigan Reared Southern Reared 1.923 2.394 2.019 ,543 F SIG. .168 .125 .158 BETA .135 -.142 ELASTICITY .184 -.091 F RATIO Instate Office MULTIPLE R = .461 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F = 3.262 R SQUARE * REGRESSION - F SIG. STD. DEV. - 2 .9 0 8 .212 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 = .002 203 Outstate Office Age of P olitical Awareness Formal Level of Office 204 APPENDIX 15 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF ATTRACTIVENESS OF OFFICE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C o n tro l V a r i a b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .1 1 4 8 115 .109 O ccu p atio n a l S ta tu s .1 1 9 2 115 .101 S a la r y .1 8 7 0 115 .02 2 E d ucation .1317 115 .079 Age .1347 115 .074 Region O f f i c e Held .1001 115 .142 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .1 2 2 9 115 .094 Sex .0953 115 .154 P o l i t i c a l Am bition .1419 115 .064 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Composition .1648 115 .0 3 8 Length o f Time i n P re s e n t O f f i c e .1461 115 .0 5 8 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e .18 76 115 .02 2 Number o f O f f i c e s Sought .1651 115 .038 Number o f O f f ic e s Held .13 87 115 .0 6 8 P o litic a l .0859 115 .179 E v a lu a t io n o f P a r t y R e la t io n s h ip .11 93 115 .1 1 0 P a r t i s a n vs. N o n -P a rtis a n O f f i c e .1129 115 .113 P a r ty A f f i 1 i a te vs. N o n - A f f i l a t e .1265 115 .088 P o l i t i c a l Campaign E x p e rie n c e .1088 115 .11 2 -.0 2 8 3 115 .381 .1 1 5 8 115 .107 P a rty O f f i c e Formal Level o f O f f i c e Type o f E le c to ra l D i s t r ic t APPENDIX 16 REGRESSION EQUATION: ATTRACTIVENESS OF OFFICE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Attrac­ tiveness of Office F RATIO Instate Office Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age Education Southern Reared .454 2.917 1.868 .229 3.138 3.738 6.063 1.948 1.488 F SIG. .832 .090 .174 .633 .079 .056 .015 .166 .255 BETA -.022 -.158 .155 .055 -.188 -.203 .229 .125 .122 ELASTICITY -.036 -.102 .024 .021 -.072 -.013 .165 .181 .080 MULTIPLE R = .446 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F = 3.002 R SQUARE * REGRESSION = F SIG. STD. DEV. = 2.93 .199 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 = .003 205 Sex Michigan Reared 206 APPENDIX 17 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL AMBITION AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS Df S ig . -.0 1 9 115 .422 Occupational S ta tu s .00 4 115 .483 S a la ry .024 115 .398 Education .003 115 .487 Age -.0 2 8 115 .383 Region O f f ic e Held -.0 2 4 7 115 .396 Region o f S o c ia liz a tlo n -.0 0 3 4 115 .486 Sex .009 115 .463 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Composition .021 115 .412 Length o f Time i n Present O f f i c e .006 115 .475 -.0 0 3 4 115 .486 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought .0147 115 .468 Number o f O f f ic e s Held .009 115 .463 P o l i t i c a l P a rty O f f i c e -.0 3 0 115 .373 E v a lu a tio n o f P a r t y R e la tio n s h ip - .0 1 0 115 .457 .00 4 115 .485 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n -A ffilia te -.0 0 2 4 115 .490 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience -.0 2 7 115 .389 A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e -.0 3 2 115 .366 Formal Level o f O f f i c e -.0 3 2 115 .365 .002 115 .489 -.0 0 2 4 115 .490 Control V a r ia b le P a rtia l P o l i t i c a l Awareness Length o f Time in P u blic O f f ic e P a rtis a n vs. N o n -P artisa n O f f i c e Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t P o l i t i c a l P a rty A ffilia tio n r APPENDIX 18 REGRESSION EQUATION: POLITICAL AMBITION AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age Education Southern Reared .254 2.754 1.863 .210 1.663 4.024 6.149 2,226 1,486 .615 .100 .175 .648 .200 .047 .015 .139 .225 BETA -.045 -.153 .154 .052 .281 .457 .230 .134 .121 ELASTICITY -.033 -.098 .024 .020 .107 .104 .166 .194 .079 F RATIO F SIG. Instate Office MULTIPLE R = .447 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F = 3.031 R SQUARE - REGRESSION = F SIG. STD. DEV. = 2.93 .200 RESIDUAL 9 - 109 * .003 207 Sex Michigan Reared Political Ambition 208 APPENDIX 19 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF RACIAL COMPOSITION OF DISTRICT AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS Control V a r ia b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness - .2 2 5 5 115 .008 Occupational S tatu s -.2 5 9 9 115 .003 S a la ry - .2 1 1 9 115 .011 Education -.2 3 7 3 115 .006 Age -.2 1 9 8 115 .009 Region O f f ic e Held - .1 7 5 3 115 .03 0 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n - .2 1 0 4 115 .012 Sex - .2 6 1 5 115 .003 P o l i t i c a l Ambition -.2161 115 .010 Length o f Time in Present O f f i c e -.2 1 4 9 115 .011 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f ic e - .2 1 9 4 115 .009 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought - .2 1 8 6 115 .009 Number o f O ffic e s Held -.2 1 5 8 115 .010 P o litic a l - .2 1 9 6 115 .009 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip - .2 1 7 6 115 .010 P a rtis a n vs. N o n -P artisa n O f f ic e - .2 0 4 5 115 .014 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e - .2 1 2 4 115 .011 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience -.2 5 2 1 115 .004 A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e -.2 3 2 1 115 .006 Formal Level o f O f f i c e - .2 1 0 3 115 .012 .1474 115 .057 P a rty O f f i c e Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t APPENDIX 20 REGRESSION EQUATION: RACIAL COMPOSITION OF DISTRICT AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Sex Michigan Reared Southern Reared 8.374 4.265 1.328 .085 .005 .041 .252 BETA -.276 -.184 ELASTICITY -.174 -.119 F RATIO F SIG. Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age 6.729 5.094 6.248 1.967 .205 .771 .011 .026 .014 ,164 .652 .126 .032 .579 .500 ,224 .120 .045 .019 .012 .131 .190 .161 .174 .029 Instate Office MULTIPLE R = .505 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F = 4.156 R SQUARE = .255 REGRESSION = F SIG. STD. DEV. = 2 .8 2 7 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 = .000 Education 209 Racial Composition of D istrict 210 APPENDIX 21 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF TYPE OF ELECTORAL DISTRICT AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS Control V a r i a b l e P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness - .1 7 4 7 115 .03 0 Occupational S ta tu s -.2 0 2 5 115 .015 Salary -.1 8 8 2 115 .0 2 2 Education -.1 9 4 6 115 .018 Age -.1 6 7 2 115 .03 6 Region O f f i c e Held - . 1 592 115 .044 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n - .2 2 5 9 115 .06 8 Sex - .1 9 1 5 115 .020 P o l i t i c a l A m bition -.1 9 0 3 115 .02 0 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Composition - .1 0 6 6 115 .127 Length o f Time in Present O f f i c e - .1 9 2 2 115 .019 Length o f Time in Public O f f i c e - .1 8 6 9 115 .022 Number o f O ffic e s Sought -.1 8 9 1 115 .021 Number o f O f f ic e s Held -.1 8 9 1 115 .021 P o litic a l -.1 8 9 1 115 .021 E v alu a tio n o f P arty R e la t io n s h ip - .1 7 9 7 115 .027 P a rtis a n vs. N on-P artisan O f f i c e - .1 6 6 4 115 .037 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e - .1 7 2 5 115 .032 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience -.1 9 1 9 115 .0 2 0 A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O ff ic e - .1 8 7 9 115 .022 Formal Level o f O f f i c e - .1 8 8 2 115 .022 P a rty O f f ic e APPENDIX 22 REGRESSION EQUATION: TYPE OF ELECTORAL DISTRICT AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Type of Electoral D istrict Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age 4.959 2.233 5.700 1.211 .859 .072 .028 .138 .019 .273 .356 .074 ,206 -.210 -.151 .218 ,097 .091 .028 .032 -.013 -.057 .157 .140 .060 Sex Michigan Reared Southern Reared 4.226 2.817 .437 3.290 F SIG. .042 .096 .510 BETA .187 -.151 ELASTICITY .074 .098 F RATIO Instate Office MULTIPLE R = .478 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F = 3.581 R SQUARE REGRESSION = F SIG. - .228 STD. DEV. = 2.878 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 = .001 Education 212 APPENDIX 23 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF PARTY AFFILIATE VS. NON-AFFILIATE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C ontrol V a r ia b le P a rtia l r Df S ig. P o l i t i c a l Awareness .0598 116 .261 O ccupational S tatu s .10 04 116 .140 S a la ry .0982 116 .146 Education .0916 116 .162 Age .0855 116 .179 Region O f f i c e Held .0789 116 .198 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .0803 116 .194 Sex .1142 116 .110 P o l i t i c a l Ambition .0875 116 .173 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Composition .0800 116 .195 Length o f Time in P resent O f f i c e .0880 116 .172 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e .1065 116 .126 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought .0990 116 .144 Number o f O f f ic e s Held .08 98 116 .167 P o litic a l .0239 116 .399 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .0208 116 .412 P a rtis a n vs. N o n -P artisa n O f f i c e .0630 116 .250 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .0572 116 .270 A t t r a c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e .0622 116 .252 Formal Level o f O f f ic e .0367 116 .347 Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t .0726 116 .218 P a rty O f f ic e APPENDIX 24 REGRESSION EQUATION: PARTY AFFILIATES VS. INDEPENDENTS AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Party A ffiliates Vs. Inde­ pendents F RATIO Instate Office Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age Education Sex Michigan Reared Southern Reared .167 2.999 .241 1.769 3.865 3.037 5.834 2.028 1.486 F SIG. .683 .086 .625 .186 .052 .084 .017 .157 .225 BETA .036 -.160 .056 .150 -.189 -.178 .225 .126 ,121 ELASTICITY .004 -.103 .021 .023 -.012 -.068 .162 .183 .079 MULTIPLE R = .447 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F * 3.019 R SQUARE = .200 REGRESSION = F SIG. STD. DEV. = 2.931 RESIDUAL 9 * 109 = .003 214 APPENDIX 25 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL PARTY OFFICE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C ontrol V a r ia b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .211 115 .012 Occupational S ta tu s .224 115 .00 8 S a la ry .239 115 .005 Education .226 115 .00 8 Age .259 115 .003 Region O f f ic e Held .200 115 .01 6 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .222 115 .009 Sex .220 115 .009 P o l i t i c a l Ambition .231 115 .007 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Composition .233 115 .006 Length o f Time in P resen t O f f i c e .234 115 .006 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f ic e .246 115 .004 Number o f O f fic e s Sought .265 115 .002 Number o f O f f ic e s Held .229 115 .007 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .1742 115 .031 P a rtis a n vs. N o n -P artisan O f f i c e .211 115 .012 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e .204 115 .014 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .198 115 .017 A t t r a c t i veness o f O ffic e .2026 115 .015 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .1765 115 .029 Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t .195 115 .01 8 APPENDIX 26 REGRESSION EQUATION: POLITICAL PARTY OFFICE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Political Party Office Outstate Offi ce Age Education Sex Michigan Reared Southern Reared 3.520 2.682 .182 1.340 1.531 2.997 5.801 3.127 1.600 .063 .104 .671 .240 .219 .086 .018 .080 .209 BETA -.168 -.148 .048 .132 .265 .394 .220 ,157 .123 ELASTICITY -.060 -.096 .018 .020 .101 .089 .159 .227 .081 F RATIO F SIG. Instate Office Age of Political Awareness MULTIPLE R = .473 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F = 3.483 R SQUARE = .223 REGRESSION = F SIG. STD. DEV. = 2.887 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 = .001 216 APPENDIX 27 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF PARTISAN VS. NON-PARTISAN OFFICE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C o n trol V a r ia b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .125 115 .09 O ccupational Status .125 115 .089 S a la ry .097 115 .149 Education .110 115 .119 Age .120 115 .100 Region O f f i c e Held .1310 115 .080 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .085 115 .183 Sex .119 115 .101 P o l i t i c a l Ambition .100 115 .141 D i s t r i c t ' s R acial Composition .073 115 .216 Length o f Time in P re se n t O f f ic e .107 115 .126 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f ic e .121 115 .098 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought .110 115 .119 Number o f O ffic e s Held .099 115 .146 P o litic a l .045 115 .317 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .040 115 .333 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e .093 115 .158 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .080 115 .195 A t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f O ffic e .0600 115 .261 - .0 9 1 9 115 .163 Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t .036 115 .351 P o l i t i c a l P a rty A ffilia tio n .055 115 .279 P a rty O f f ic e Formal Level o f O f f ic e APPENDIX 28 REGRESSION EQUATION: PARTISAN/NON-PARTISAN OFFICE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Partisan/ Non-Partisan Office Sex Michigan Reared F RATIO .754 2.953 .189 1.576 2,918 1.066 F SIG. .387 .089 .665 .212 .090 BETA -.080 .157 .050 .422 ELASTICITY -.021 .101 ,019 .022 Southern Reared Instate Office Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age Education 6.163 2.297 1.155 .304 .015 .132 .285 .404 .234 .230 .135 .108 .092 .089 .166 .195 .071 MULTIPLE R = .451 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F = 3.010 R SQUARE = .204 REGRESSION - F SIG. STD. DEV. = 2 .9 2 3 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 * .002 218 APPENDIX 29 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF EVALUATION OF RELATIONSHIP WITH POLITICAL PARTY AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C o n tro l V a r ia b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .180 115 .026 O ccupational S ta tu s .177 115 .028 S a la r y .184 115 .029 Education .171 115 .033 Age .197 115 .017 Region O f f i c e Held .178 115 .028 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .171 115 .034 Sex .176 115 .029 P o l i t i c a l Ambition .174 115 .031 D i s t r i c t ' s R acial Composition .176 115 .029 Length o f Time i n P re se n t O f f i c e .173 115 .032 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f ic e .174 115 .031 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought .176 115 .029 Number o f O f f ic e s Held .176 115 .029 P o litic a l .086 115 .178 P a r tis a n vs. N o n -P a rtis a n O f f i c e .1476 115 .057 P a r ty A f f i l i a t e vs . N o n - A f f i l i a t e .152 115 .052 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .152 115 .052 A t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f O ffic e .159 115 .044 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .134 115 .075 Type o f E le c to ra l D i s t r ic t .162 115 .042 P a rty O f f i c e APPENDIX 30 REGRESSION EQUATION: EVALUATION OF PARTY RELATIONSHIP AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROLLING FOR DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS Evaluation of Party Relationship Sex Michigan Reared Southern Reared Instate Office Outstate Office Age of Political Awareness Age Education 3.318 2.960 1.042 .005 1.309 3.234 6.150 2.585 1.842 F SIG. .071 .088 ,310 .947 .255 .075 .015 .111 .178 BETA .161 -.156 .116 .008 .247 .407 .227 .141 .132 ELASTICITY .071 -.100 .018 .003 .094 .092 ,164 .204 .087 F RATIO MULTIPLE R = .471 DEGRESS OF FREEDOM OVERALL F s 3.455 R SQUARE - REGRESSION = F SIG. STD. DEV. = 2.890 .222 RESIDUAL 9 = 109 * .001 2 20 APPENDIX 31 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF AGE OF POLITICAL AWARENESS AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C o n tro l V a r i a b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . O c c u p a tio n a l S ta tu s .256 115 .003 S a la r y .278 115 .0 0 2 E d u c atio n .261 115 .003 Age .2 5 9 115 .003 Region O f f i c e Held .224 115 .0 0 8 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .277 115 .0 0 2 Sex .230 115 .0 0 7 P o l i t i c a l A m bition .264 115 .0 0 2 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Com position .272 115 .00 2 Length o f Time in P resen t O ffic e .263 115 .003 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e .2 7 0 115 .0 0 2 Number o f O f f i c e s Sought .265 115 .0 0 2 Number o f O f f i c e s Held .265 115 .0 0 2 P o litic a l .2 4 8 115 .0 0 4 E v a lu a t io n o f P a r t y R e la t io n s h ip .00 2 115 .2 6 8 P a rtis a n vs. N o n -P a r tis a n O f f i c e .273 115 .0 0 2 P a rty A f f i l i a t e v s . N o n - A f f i 1 i a te .276 115 .0 0 2 P o l i t i c a l Campaign E x p e rie n c e .2 5 8 115 .0 0 3 A ttra c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e .253 115 .0 0 3 Formal L evel o f O f f i c e .2 6 8 115 .0 0 2 Type o f E le c to ra l D i s t r ic t .253 115 .0 0 3 P o l i t i c a l P a rty A ffilia tio n .272 115 .0 0 2 P a rty O ffic e 221 APPENDIX 32 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF REGION OF STATE WHERE OFFICE IS HELD Control V a r i a b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .1134 115 .112 O ccupational S ta tu s .1711 115 .033 S a la r y .2242 115 .008 Education .1767 115 .029 Age .1664 115 .037 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .1922 115 .019 Sex .1652 115 .038 P o l i t i c a l Am bition .1831 115 .025 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Composition .1309 115 .08 0 Length o f Time i n Present O f f i c e .1811 115 .026 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e .2026 115 .015 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought .2048 115 .014 Number o f O f f ic e s Held .1875 115 .022 P o litic a l .1417 115 .064 E v a lu a tio n o f P a r t y R e la tio n s h ip .1863 115 .023 P a r t is a n vs. N o n -P artisa n O f f i c e .1997 115 .016 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e .1785 115 .028 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .1685 115 .035 A t t r a c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e .1548 115 .04 8 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .1665 115 .037 Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t .1485 115 .056 P a rty O f f i c e 222 APPENDIX 33 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF AGE AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS Control V a r ia b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .1779 115 .0 2 8 Occupational S tatu s .1723 115 .032 S a la ry .1786 115 .028 Education .1818 115 .025 Region O f f i c e Held .1694 115 .034 Region o f S o c ia lIz a tio n .1761 115 .02 9 Sex .1671 115 .03 6 P o l i t i c a l Am bition .1863 115 .023 D i s t r i c t ' s R acial Composi t i o n .1897 115 .021 Length o f Time 1n Present O f f i c e .1901 115 .021 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e .1246 115 .091 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought .1702 115 .034 Number o f O f f ic e s Held .1829 115 .025 P o litic a l .2217 115 .00 9 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .2064 115 .013 P a rtis a n vs. N o n -P artisa n O f f i c e .1953 115 .01 8 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e .1775 115 .02 8 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .1805 115 .026 A t t r a c t i veness o f O f f ic e .1816 115 .02 6 Formal Level o f O f f ic e .1817 115 .025 Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t .1602 115 .04 9 P a rty O f f i c e APPENDIX 34 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF OCCUPATIONAL STATUS AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS Control V a r ia b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .076 115 .209 S a la ry .019 115 .101 Education .095 115 .155 Age .075 115 .213 Region O f f ic e Held .79 115 .200 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .113 115 .113 Sex .016 115 .434 P o l i t i c a l Ambition .099 115 .143 D i s t r i c t ' s Racial Composition .179 115 .027 Length o f Time in Present O f f i c e .1994 115 .144 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f ic e .101 115 .139 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought .100 115 .141 Number o f O ff ic e s Held .200 115 .143 P o l i t i c a l P a rty O f f i c e .088 115 .173 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .106 115 .127 P a r tis a n vs. N o n -P artisa n O f f ic e .125 115 .090 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e .141 115 .08 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .083 115 .187 A t t r a c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e .070 115 .226 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .095 115 .155 Type o f E le c t o r a l D i s t r i c t .1218 115 .096 P o l i t i c a l P a rty A ffilia tio n .136 115 .072 224 APPENDIX 35 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF EDUCATIONAL STATUS AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS Control V a r i a b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .0149 115 .437 Occupational S ta tu s .0294 115 .377 S a la ry -.0 7 5 8 115 .209 Age - .0 2 9 7 115 .376 .0054 115 .478 -.0 6 7 1 115 .237 .0230 115 .403 P o l i t i c a l Am bition -.0 4 2 6 115 .325 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Composition - .1 1 0 7 115 .118 Length o f Time in Present O f f i c e - .0 4 2 7 115 .324 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e - .0 5 0 9 115 .293 Number o f O f fic e s Sought -.0 3 8 8 115 .339 Number o f O f f ic e s Held -.0 4 5 2 115 .315 P o litic a l -.0 2 4 4 115 .397 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip -.0 3 3 2 115 .362 P a r tis a n vs. N o n -P artisa n O f f i c e - .0 6 2 4 115 .252 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e -.0 7 9 2 115 .199 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience - .0 3 6 2 115 .350 .0014 115 .495 Formal Level o f O f f i c e -.0 1 9 1 115 .421 Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t - .0 5 9 2 115 .263 Region O f f i c e Held Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n Sex P a rty O f f i c e A t tr a c tiv e n e s s o f O ffic e 225 APPENDIX 36 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF OFFICE SALARY AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS Control V a r i a b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .1018 115 .138 O ccupational S ta tu s .0814 115 .192 Education .0788 115 .200 Age .0123 115 .448 Region O f f i c e Held .1419 115 .064 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .0488 115 .301 Sex .0928 115 .160 P o l i t i c a l A m bition .0535 115 .284 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Composition .0284 115 .381 Length o f Time 1n Present O f f i c e .0469 115 .308 -.0 1 5 1 .436 Number o f O f f ic e s Sought 115 * .0918 115 .159 Number o f O f f i c e s Held .0430 115 .323 P o litic a l .0842 115 .184 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .0784 115 .201 P a rtis a n v s . N o n -P artisa n O f f i c e .0414 115 .329 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e .0540 115 .282 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .06 48 115 .244 A tt r a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e .1356 115 .073 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .0917 115 .163 Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t .0379 115 .343 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e P a r ty O f f ic e 226 APPENDIX 37 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF REGION OF SOCIALIZATION AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS Control V a r i a b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .1593 115 .044 Occupational S ta tu s .1436 115 .062 S a la ry .1335 115 .076 Education .1427 115 .063 Age .1214 115 .097 Region O f f i c e Held .1476 115 .057 Sex .1411 115 .065 P o l i t i c a l Am bition .1332 115 .077 D i s t r i c t ' s R a c ia l Composition .1251 115 .090 Length o f Time in Present O f f i c e .1364 115 .072 Length o f Time in P u b lic O f f i c e .1731 115 .031 Number o f O ffic e s Sought .1327 115 .077 Number o f O f f ic e s Held .1373 115 .070 P o litic a l .1202 115 .099 E v a lu a tio n o f P a rty R e la tio n s h ip .083 115 .129 P a rtis a n vs. N o n -P artisa n O f f i c e .1218 115 .096 P a rty A f f i l i a t e vs. N o n - A f f i l i a t e .1196 115 .100 P o l i t i c a l Campaign Experience .1929 115 .063 A ttr a c tiv e n e s s o f O f f ic e .1170 115 .105 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .1110 115 .117 Type o f E le c to r a l D i s t r i c t .1812 115 .026 P a rty O f f i c e APPENDIX 38 CONTROL RELATIONSHIP OF SEX AND BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS C o n tro l V a ria b le P a rtia l r Df S ig . P o l i t i c a l Awareness .154 115 .049 O ccupational Status .178 115 .028 S a la r y .217 115 .01 Education .200 115 .016 Age .187 115 .022 Region O f f i c e Held .188 115 .021 Region o f S o c ia liz a tio n .208 115 .013 P o l i t i c a l Ambition .203 115 .015 D i s t r i c t ' s Racial Composition .252 115 .004 Length o f Time in P re s e n t O ff ic e .203 115 .015 Length o f Time in P u b lic O ffic e .233 115 .006 Number o f O f f i c e s Sought .210 115 .012 Number o f O ffic e s Held .214 115 .011 P o litic a l .193 115 .019 E v a lu a t io n o f P a r t y R e la tio n s h ip .205 115 .014 P a r t i s a n vs. N o n -P a rtis a n O f f ic e .2123 115 .011 P a r ty A f f i 1i ate vs . N o n - A f f i l i a t e .229 115 .008 P o l i t i c a l Campaign E x perien ce .219 115 .009 A t t r a c t iv e n e s s o f O ffic e .177 115 .029 Formal Level o f O f f i c e .177 115 .029 Type o f E le c to ra l .203 115 .014 .234 115 .006 Party O f f i c e D is tr ic t P o l i t i c a l Party A ffilIa tio n APPENDIX 39 CORRELATION MATRIX OF SIGNIFICANT UNIVARIATE VARIABLES T u > 01 o r 44- P C O c o ■rP <0 U 3 ■o LlI « 01 cn < Age Pol. Int. Dev. Age 0) cn < .04 .04 Jlid./Ad. Office -.03 Sex -.19 -.11 Education -.19 -.07 Instate Office "O 3 *3 aL ? C LlI o C l Ul o 4) • r« a. E <0 V > 01 - I * P u 10 L- I- o a. Lu o P P « .11 .07 .12 .03 .03 Cl >> J» .00 .47 10 .13 .15 -.04 .03 -.16 .32 21 -.01 .39 -.10 .21 -.01 .30 -.15 -.15 .23 -.05 .32 Dist. Racial Comp. .03 .00 -.16 -.18 Per. of Time in Ofc. .03 .47 Eval. Party Rel. ,04 -.10 -.13 .01 -.18 -.15 01 .06 -.01 .27 .21 -.28 .04 06 .08 .11 01 .20 -.20 .04 -.11 -.32 .09 -.24 -.18 -.32 -.12 12 .02 .16 ,16 -.39 -.17 .01 01 .01 -.45 -.15 -.04 .10 01 .08 -.04 .04 -.17 -.25 .27 .90 .21 .90 .27 .27 -.32 .32 -.15 .04 .11 -.12 .01 .21 -.01 -.06 .01 -.12 -.01 .01 .13 -.01 .06 ,08 .01 .08 .39 -.01 -.04 -.10 -.06 -.15 .10 -.28 ,15 > * • r— 0) w >r P P O P O -.07 -.10 -.11 .01 -.07 P tn •rQ » L. L. (O a « L. V a X u 4O 4O .30 -.11 .10 Pol. Camp, Exper. 4 p LlI • 04 -.13 .31 -.10 -.05 .11 'r U to at ee. ■ P V) ■r a « p u 0) r— .03 .32 Type Elect. Dist. 4) E h4O C *r* • a> (J •r~ 44O >» P L. (0 a. .03 .23 -.13 c LH r— tO O -.19 -.31 -.05 -.11 -.13 Pol. Party Ofc. P tn 4- .03 -.19 -.05 Outstate Office ■ur44O 41 P ID P (A P 3 O a. oi .20 .02 -.42 .16 -.45 -.04 ,08 -.22 .04 .16 -.15 ,13 .04 .08 -.13 -.22 ,42 .08 -.20 .09 .08 -.06 .21 .13 ,20 -.29 -.25 .43 .14 -.01 ,20 -.01 Formal Level of Ofc. .12 .03 ,21 -.15 -.11 -.24 -.39 -.04 -.17 ,21 -.29 .43 -.24 Attract, of Office .03 .03 -.01 -.24 -.32 -.18 -.17 .13 -.25 .14 -.17 .10 -.25 .24 -.24 -.17 ,71 .71 229 APPENDIX 40 INTRODUCTORY LETTER MAILED TO MEMBERS OF SAMPLE Dear I am a b la c k p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t in the Department o f P o l i t i c a l Science a t M ich ig an S ta te U n i v e r s i t y , and am p r e s e n t ly conducting a study in v o lv in g a l l black e le c t e d o f f i c i a l s in M ic h ig a n . As you a r e p ro b ab ly aw are, M ichigan leads th e n a t io n in having th e h ig hest number o f b la ck e le c te d o f f i c i a l s . The purpose o f my study is to assess th e g a in s t h a t blacks can expect from t h i s increase in p o l i ­ t i c a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , and to make p r o je c tio n s about th e impact t h a t the in c re as e in b la c k s 1 n p o lic y making p o s itio n s w i l l have on the p o l i t i c s o f th is s ta te . I b e lie v e t h a t t h i s study w i l l f i l l a gap in the f i e l d o f American p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e , and j u s t as im p o r t a n t ly , be v a lu a b le to persons l i k e y o u r s e l f in vo lved i n th e a c tu a l d e c is io n making process o f government. As a b lack o f f i c e h o l d e r , yo u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e study is needed to make i t comprehensive and co m p lete. W ith in th e n e x t th re e weeks, I w i l l be c o n ta c tin g you by te le p h o n e , and, h o p e f u lly , we can arrang e a personal i n t e r v i e w a t your convenience. The i n t e r v i e w w i l l not ta k e more than 45 m in u te s . I would l i k e to assure you t h a t a l l in fo rm a tio n gathered in th e study and the i d e n t i t i e s o f respondents w i l l be kep t com pletely c o n f i ­ d e n tia l. In a d d i t i o n , a summary o f the o v e r a ll f in d in g s w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e to y o u , w ith the hope t h a t i t may prove u s e fu l to you i n yo u r c a re e r as a p u b li c s e rv a n t. S in c e re ly , P a u lin e Stone PS/nriv 230 APPENDIX 41 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE Date o f I n t e r v ie w _____________________________ P lace o f I n t e r v ie w ____________________________ Name o f O f fic e h o ld e r __________________________ O f f i c e Held ____________________________________ P a rtis a n ________ N o n -P a rtis a n _________ Sex ___ P a r t - t im e O f f i c e ________ F u ll-tim e O ffic e 1. The f i r s t q u estio n I would l i k e to ask you concerns the tim e and circum stances when you f i r s t became in t e r e s t e d in p o l i t i c a l iss u e s . How o ld were you when t h i s happened, and how d id i t happen? 1) Age t h a t respondent f i r s t became i n t e r e s t e d in p o l i t i c s ) Circumstances t h a t made the respondent i n t e r e s t e d in p o l i t i c s . 2 2. How o ld were you when you f i r s t became i n t e r e s t e d in running f o r p u b lic o f f i c e ? Age t h a t respondent f i r s t became i n t e r e s t e d in running f o r p u b lic o f f i c e ________ 3. What caused you to become in te r e s te d in running f o r yo u r f i r s t pub­ l i c o ffic e ? 4. How o ld were you when you f i r s t a t t a in e d p u b lic o f f i c e ? years 5. How o ld were you when you got e le c te d to t h i s o f fic e ? years 6 . How o ld a re you now? years 7. — . For how long have you held t h i s o f f i c e ? months years 231 8 . Is t h i s the o n ly e l e c t i v e p u b lic o f f i c e t h a t you have held? Yes 9. No Could you l i s t a l l the e l e c t i v e o f f i c e s t h a t you have held in o rd e r from th e f i r s t to the l a s t , and s t a t e how long you held each as w e ll as your reason f o r le a v in g . Name O f f i c e 1 Period o f Time Reason f o r Leaving ) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 10. Have you ev er held any a p p o in tiv e o f f i c e ? Yes ________ 11. No Could you l i s t a l l th e a p p o in tiv e o f f i c e s t h a t you have held from th e f i r s t to the l a s t , and s t a t e how long you h eld i t f o r and who a p p oin ted you to i t . Name O f f i c e Period o f Tenure Person Who Made Appointment 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 12. Have you ever held o f f i c e in any p o l i t i c a l p arty ? Yes 13. No What p a rty o f f i c e s have you h e ld , in what p a rty were th ey held and f o r how long d id you hold them? Name O f f ic e P o litic a l P a rty 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 14. Have you e v e r been a member o f any la b o r union? Yes No Period o f Tenure 232 15. What unions were you a member o f and f o r how long? Name o f Union Period o f Membership 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 16. Did you e v e r h o ld o f f i c e in any union? No ________ Yes 17. What o f f i c e s d id you h o ld , i n w hat union were th e y h e l d , and f o r how long were you a union o f f i c e h o l d e r ? Name o f O f f i c e 1 Name o f Union P e rio d o f Tenure ) 5) 4) 5) 18. Did you e v e r run f o r p u b lic o f f i c e w h i l e h o ld in g union o f f i c e ? Yes ________ 19. No Which union o f f i c e d id you h o l d , what p u b lic o f f i c e d id you run f o r and d id you w in th e o f f i c e ? Name Union O f f i c e Name P u b l i c O f f i c e R e s u lts 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 20. Did you e v e r run f o r p u b lic o f f i c e w h ile h o ld in g p a r t y o f f i c e ? Yes 21. No What p a r t y o f f i c e d id you h o l d , w hat p u b lic o f f i c e d id you run f o r and what were th e r e s u lt s ? Name P a r t y O f f i c e Name P u b lic O f f i c e R e s u lts 1) 2) 3) 5 22. } Have you e v e r been In v o lv e d i n any o t h e r ty p e o f union a c t i v i t y ? Yes No 233 23. Can you d e s c rib e what o th e r type o f union a c t i v i t y you were in v o lv ed in? 24. Were yo u r p aren ts a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s I n any union? Yes ________ 25. No ________ What union were th e y a c t i v e in? Name o f Union 26. U 4) 2) 3) 5) 6) Have you ever run f o r a p u b lic o f f i c e which you did n o t win? Yes ________ No ________ I f n o , go to q u e s tio n 29. 27. I f y e s , what o f f i c e d id you run f o r and why do you t h in k t h a t you d id not win? Name o f O f f i c e Reason f o r Not Winning 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 28. In each o f the fo re g o in g cases, what was th e r a c i a l your opponent? id e n tity o f 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 29. Do you in te n d t o c o n tin u e holding p u b lic o f f i c e , o r would you l i k e to r e tu r n to p r i v a t e l i f e ? 1) Remain in p u b lic o f f i c e ________ 2) Return to p r i v a t e l i f e ________ I f 2 , go to q u e s tio n 33. 30. Do you in te n d to run f o r t h i s o f f i c e a g a in o r do you want to run f o r some o th e r o f f i c e ? 1) Run f o r same o f f i c e ________ 2) Run f o r an o th e r o f f i c e ________ 234 31. Do you t h in k you w i l l fu tu re ? run f o r a n o th e r o f f i c e in the more d is t a n t Yes ________ No_________ I f no, go to q u e s tio n 34. 32. Which o f f i c e s would you l i k e most to run f o r in o rd e r o f s tro n g e s t preference? O f f ic e s A s p ire d For 1 ) 2) 3) 4) 5) Go to q u e stio n 34. 33 . Why do you in te n d to r e t u r n to p r i v a t e l i f e ? Reason: 34. With which p o l i t i c a l Democrat ________ 35. p a r ty a re you p r e s e n t ly a f f i l i a t e d ? Republican ________ Has your p o l i t i c a l p a r ty a f f i l i a t i o n Yes ________ O ther_________ ever changed? No_________ I f no, go to q u e s tio n 38. 36. I f y e s , what p o l i t i c a l p a r t y d id you p re v io u s ly belong to? Democrat ________ Republican Other ________ 37. Why d id you change p o l i t i c a l p a r t ie s ? 38. Is th e re any reason why you a re p r e s e n tly a f f i l i a t e d w ith t h a t party? Reason: 39. Have you ever sought o f f i c e in any p o l i t i c a l Yes ________ party? No_________ I f no, go to q u e s tio n 45. 40. I f y e s , what o f f i c e s d id you seek in which p a r t y , and were you suc­ c e s s fu l? 235 Name o f O f f ic e 1 Name o f P a rty R e s u lts ) 2) 3) 4) 5) 41. When you sought each o f the fo re g o in g o f f i c e s , what was the r a c i a l i d e n t i t y o f your opponent? 25)! 42. When you sought each o f the fo re g o in g o f f i c e s , were th e re some groups w it h i n th e p a r t y t h a t favored your candidacy and some t h a t opposed i t ? Yes No I f no, go to q u e stio n 45. 43. Which groups favored your ca n d id a c y , and which opposed i t ? Groups That Favored Your Candidacy Groups T h a t Opposed Your Candidacy 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 44. Why do you t h in k each o f the fo re g o in g groups supported/opposed yo u r candidacy f o r p a r t y o f f i c e ? Reason f o r groups which opposed you: Reason f o r groups which supported you: 45. How would you e v a lu a te your p re s e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith the p o l i t i c a l p a r t y w ith which you a re a f f i l i a t e d ? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) E x c e lle n t ________ Good ________ O.K. ________ F a i r ________ Poor D o n 't Know ______ Not a p p lic a b le 236 I would now l i k e to ask y o u r opinion on c e r t a i n Issues t h a t one sometimes hears a g r e a t d eal o f t a l k ab o ut nowadays. 46. Some people say t h a t b la c k o f f i c e h o l d e r s should re p re s e n t th e I n t e r e s t s o f a l l t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s , w h i l e others d is a g re e and s t a t e t h a t th e black o f f i c e h o l d e r should focus s o le ly on iss u e s t h a t p e r t a i n d i r e c t l y to b la c k s . Do you b e lie v e t h a t you should g iv e p r i o r i t y to your b la c k c o n s titu e n ts ? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) S tr o n g ly agree ________ Agree ________ Undecided _______ Oppose ________ S tro n g ly oppose ________ D o n 't know Not a p p lIc a b le 47 . Why do you ta k e t h a t p o s itio n ? 48. What do you th in k o f th e id e a o f b la ck o f f i c e h o l d e r s form ing b la c k p o l i t i c a l caucuses? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) S t r o n g ly support ________ Support ________ I n d i f f e r e n t to the id e a ________ Oppose ________ S tr o n g ly oppose ________ D o n 't know Not a p p lic a b le 49. Why do you ta k e t h a t p o s it io n ? 50. Are you p r e s e n tly a member o f any b la c k caucuses? Yes ________ No_________ I f no, go t o question 52. 51. What b la c k caucuses a r e you a member o f and do you hold any o f f i c e o r p o s it i o n in i t ? Name o f Black Caucus P o s itio n 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 52. Were you e v e r a member o f a black caucus? Yes I f no, go to question 54. No 237 53. What b lack caucuses were you a member o f and d id you hold any o ffic e ? Name o f Black Caucus O f f i c e Held 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 54. What do you t h in k o f th e Michigan Democratic Black Caucus? 55. How would you sum up y o u r e v a lu a tio n o f the M ichigan Black Caucus? 1) ) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 2 Very fa v o r a b le ________ Favorab le ________ I n d i f f e r e n t to i t ________ U n favo rab le Very u n f a v o r a b l e _____ D o n 't know Not a p p lic a b le 56. Why do you view the o r g a n iz a t io n 1n t h a t way? 57. How im p o rta n t i s i t to teach the b la ck h is t o r y in schools? 1) ) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 2 Very im p ortan t ________ Im p o rta n t ________ D o e s n 't make any d i f f e r e n c e ________ Unim portant ________ Very unim portant ________ Don11 know ________ Not a p p lic a b le ________ 58. Why do you have t h a t o pin io n ? 59. Do you support th e idea t h a t blacks g ra te d s e ttin g ? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) should be educated 1n an i n t e ­ S t r o n g ly support ________ Support ________ I n d i f f e r e n t ________ Oppose ________ S t r o n g ly oppose ________ D o n 't know ________ Not a p p lic a b le ________ 60. Why do you have t h a t opinio n? 61. What do you th in k o f th e idea o f m e tro p o lita n 1) S tro n g ly support ________ 2) Support ________ government? 238 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) I n d i f f e r e n t ________ Oppose _ _ _ _ _ S tro n g ly oppose ________ D o n 't know Not ap p lic ab T e 62. Why do you view t h a t form o f government in t h a t way? 63. Would you fa v o r a s e p a ra te p o l i t i c a l f o r blacks? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) p a rty S tro n g ly fa v o r ________ Favor ________ I n d i f f e r e n t ________ Oppose ________ S tro n g ly oppose ________ D o n 't know Not a p p lic a b le 64. Why do you view s e p ara te p o l i t i c a l 65. Do you t h in k t h a t blacks should co n tin ue to g iv e most o f t h e i r sup­ p o rt to th e Democratic P a r t y , o r do you th in k th ey should d iv id e t h e i r votes between both p a r t ie s ? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 66. p a rtie s in t h a t way? Support Democrats o n ly Support both Democrats and Republleans ________ Support Republicans o n ly ________ D o n 't know Not a p p lic a b le Do you t h in k communities should have t o t a l c o n tro l over e d u c a tio n , community in p u t o n ly , o r no c o n tro l a t a l l ? 1) ) 3) 4) 5) 2 T o ta l community c o n tr o l ________ Community in p u t No community c o n t r o l _____ Don’ t know Not a p p lic a b le 67. Why do you view th e is s u e o f community c o n tro l in t h a t lig h t ? 68. Do you t h in k t h a t blacks who graduate from c o lle g e s and u n iv e r ­ s i t i e s should re tu rn to th e b lack community? 1) Should r e t u r n to b la c k community ............... 2) No p re fe re n c e ( o r should be an in d iv id u a l d e c is io n ) _____ 3) Should not re tu r n to b lack conmunity _ 69. What do you th in k o f bussing to improve the ed u c a tio n o f blacks? 239 70. How would you sum up y o u r a t t i t u d e toward bussing? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 71 . S t r o n g ly f a v o r ________ F avor ________ I n d i f f e r e n t ________ Oppose ________ S t r o n g ly oppose ________ D o n 't know Not a p p l i c a b l e Some p eo p le say t h a t b la c k s should r e t a i n t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e s p e a k in g ; o th e rs d is a g r e e . Do you f a v o r t h e idea o f b la c k s in g t h e i r d i a l e c t ? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) way o f re ta in ­ S u p p o rt ________ I n d i f f e r e n t ________ Oppose ________ D o n 't know Not a p p l i c a b l e 72. Why do you say th a t? 73. T h e r e 's a l o t o f t a l k nowadays about c r e a t i n g black-owned business e n te rp ris e s . What i s y o u r o p in io n on t h i s issue? 74. How would you sum up y o u r a t t i t u d e toward b la c k business? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 75. What do you t h in k o f b la c k Americans t a k i n g a p o s it io n on U. S. p o l i c y toward A f r ic a ? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6 ) 7) 76. S t r o n g ly support ________ S u p p o rt ________ I n d i f f e r e n t ________ Oppose ________ S t r o n g l y oppose ________ D o n 't know Not a p p l i c a b l e S t r o n g l y su p po rt ________ S upport ________ I n d i f f e r e n t ________ Oppose ________ S t r o n g l y oppose ________ D o n 't know Not a p p l i c a b l e What i s th e r a c i a l B lack ________ % 77. breakdown o f y o u r c o n s titu e n c y ? W hite % What do you t h in k should be th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between b la c k s U. S. and A fr ic a n s ? 1n th e 240 78. What i s your occupation ( a p a r t from o f f i c e ) ? 79. What i s your p res en t income from o f f i c e ? 80. What i s your t o t a l 81. What i s the h ig h e s t l e v e l o f ed ucation 82. What i s the h ig h e st le v e l o f ed ucation t h a t y o u r f a m ily income? t h a t youa tta in e d ? p aren ts a tt a in e d ? F a th e r: M o th e r: 83. What was your p a re n ts ' occupations? F a th e r: M o th e r: 84. 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