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Xerox University M icrofilm s 300 North Zaab Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 4S108 I 76-27,115 JOHNSON, Joan T h o m a s e n a Jackson, 1948- A F F I R M A T I V E A C T I O N EM P L O Y M E N T PROGRAMS: HOW BL ACK S E M P L O Y E D AT M I C H I G A N STATE U N I V E R S I T Y A N D V O C A T I O N A L R E H A B I L I T A T I O N SE RVI C E S U N D E R S T A N D THE P ROGRAM A N D PE RCE I V E IT AS A F F E C T I N G T H E I R CAREERS. M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y , Ph.D., 1976 Education, a d m i n i s t r a t i o n Xerox University Microfilms , Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 (e )C o p y rig h t by JOAN THOMASENA JACKSON JOHNSON 1976 AFFIRMATIVE ACTION EMPLOYMENT PROGRAMS: HOW BLACKS EMPLOYED AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION SERVICES UNDERSTAND THE PROGRAM AND PERCEIVE IT AS AFFECTING THEIR CAREERS By Joan Thomasena Jackson Johnson A DISSERTATION Subm itted to Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity in p a r t i a l f u lf i l l m e n t o f the requirem ents f o r th e degree o f DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department o f A d m in is tra tio n and H ig h er Education 1976 ABSTRACT AFFIRMATIVE ACTION EMPLOYMENT PROGRAMS: HOW BLACKS EMPLOYED AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY AND VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION SERVICES UNDERSTAND THE PROGRAM AND PERCEIVE IT AS AFFECTING THEIR CAREERS By Joan Thomasena Jackson Johnson The purpose o f t h is p ro je c t was to study th e p ercep tion s and understandings Blacks employed a t M ichigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity (MSU) and M ich ig an 's V o ca tio n a l R e h a b ilita tio n S ervices (VRS) have con­ cern in g A ffir m a tiv e A c tio n Employment Programs (AAEP). The study was designed to determ ine 1 f th e p ercep tion s and understanding o f AAEP were d if f e r e n t between Black fem ales and Black m ales, Blacks under 30 years o f age and Blacks o ver 30 years o f age, Blacks who hold higher ranks as opposed to those who f i l l low er ranks a t t h e i r re s p e c tiv e employment s it e s , Blacks who were employed a t t h e i r present place o f employment in 1972 as opposed to those employed elsewhere and Blacks employed 1n 1976 by MSU as opposed to those employed by VRS. Only those Blacks who held appointments w ith in th e ten u re system a t MSU and those VRS employees w ith a C iv il S e rv ic e r a tin g o f 9 and above were asked to p a r t ic ip a t e 1n th is study. Joan Thomasena Jackson Johnson F ollow ing a d e c is io n to use a q u e s tio n n a ire as the research In s tru m e n t, a s e rie s o f questions were developed concerning the s tu d y 's Independent v a ria b le s o f age, sex, p lace o f employment 1n 1972 when AAEP was Implemented, c u rre n t jo b placement and c u rre n t rank. These questions were combined w ith 40 L 1 k e rt-ty p e items which were designed to measure th e s tu d y 's dependent v a r ia b le s , namely, understanding o f AAEP and percep tion o f I t s impact on in d iv id u a l c a re e rs . The L ik e r t instru m ent was co n stru cted on th e basis o f survey research techn iqu es. This Instrum ent was subjected to r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y stu d ie s which showed th e scales to have a r e l i a b i l i t y o f .8842 and c r ite r lo n -p e r s o n v a l i d i t y scores o f a dimension to show th a t r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y were in su red . The L ik e r t p o rtio n o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire was d iv id e d in to two p a rts . Scale I measured how much su b jects understand about AAEP. This was the s tu d y 's f i r s t dependent v a r ia b le . Scale I I was designed to measure th e p ercep tio n o f s u b je cts reg ard ing AAEP's impact on in d iv id u a l c a re e rs . This was th e s tu d y 's second dependent v a r ia b le . Scale I was composed o f 12 items and Scale I I was composed o f 28 Item s. The Instrum ent was m ailed along w ith a cover l e t t e r e x p la in ­ ing th e purpose o f th e study to 131 persons who met th e c r i t e r i a o f th e study. A t o t a l o f 102 q u e stio n n aire s (77.9% ) were re tu rn e d . A ll were usable. Responses were coded and punched onto IBM card s. The cards were fed in to MSU's CDC 6500 computer using th e S t a t i s t i c a l Package Joan Thomasena Jackson Johnson fo r S o cial Sciences program. In a d d itio n to computing demographic data concerning th e Independent v a ria b le s o f ra n k , age, sex, c u rre n t place o f employment and p la ce o f employment in 1972, the fo llo w in g analyses were done: mean le v e l o f understanding su b jects have o f AAEP, mean p ercep tio n o f Impact o f AAEP on in d iv id u a l c a re e r le v e ls , ANOVA's between th e dependent v a ria b le s and each independent v a r i ­ a b le and m u ltip le reg ressio n analyses o f r e la tio n s h ip s between dependent and Independent v a r ia b le s . The data a n a ly s is , whether by sim ple comparison o f means, a n a ly s is o f variance o r m u ltip le regressio n a n a ly s is , was c o n s is te n t 1n in d ic a tin g th e fo llo w in g : 1. Respondents do understand the form al body o f laws and convnunlcations known as AAEP. 2 . Respondents do not p erceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs . 3 . Persons employed a t MSU have a h ig h e r le v e l o f under­ standing o f AAEP than persons employed a t VRS. 4 . Persons holding h ig h e r ranks a t t h e i r re s p e c tiv e places o f employment have a h ig h e r le v e l o f understanding about AAEP than persons who hold low er f a c u lt y o r C iv il S e rv ic e ranks. 5. When scores f o r le v e l o f understanding and percep tion o f impact scales are combined, o n ly rank is s i g n i f i c a n t . Persons who hold h ig h e r ranks a t both employment s ite s d i f f e r s ig n if ic a n t ly from those who hold low er ranks. Joan Thomasena Jackson Johnson 6. Almost o n e -th ird o f th e sample o ffe re d u n s o lic ite d com­ ments about p o s sib le n e g ative e ffe c ts o f AAEP. E xplan atio ns fo r s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s were o ffe r e d and suggestions f o r fu tu re research p ro je c ts were presen ted . I have a dream that my children will one day live in a nation where they will not he judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. — M artin Luther King, J r . August 28 , 1963 i i DEDICATION To Vem and K obie, the sources o f my m otivate ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The w r it e r wishes to express her a p p re c ia tio n to those who aided d i r e c t l y and i n d ir e c t ly in t h is stu d y. Special acknowledgment is due th e fo llo w in g : To my Black b ro th e rs and s is te r s who took t h e i r v a lu a b le tim e to p a r t ic ip a t e as research s u b je c ts ; To D r. P h ilip Cusick who was d ir e c t o r o f my d o c to ra l program, co-chairman o f t h is research p ro je c t and provided va lu a b le in s ig h t which enabled us to le a rn and grow from th e experience we shared; To D r. Joseph M cM illan who was co-chairm an o f t h is d is s e r ta ­ tio n and, in a d d itio n , as Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity 's A ffir m a tiv e Action o f f i c e r provided v a lu a b le in s ig h ts and co n tin u a l encourage­ ment; To D rs. James C o s ta r, D o zie r Tho rn ton , and John Suehr who, as members o f th e d is s e r ta tio n c o n m itte e , were a v a ila b le to o f f e r a s s is ta n c e , suggestions, and c o n s tru c tiv e c r it ic is m ; To my fa m ily — V e m , K obie, my mother M ild re d T ic e , my Uncle and A u n t, Emmitt and Evelyn W alker— who have to know how much I a p p re c ia te t h e i r support and understanding; To Mary Jane and W ally K e lle r who always b e lie v e d in me and, l ik e my frie n d s John and Mary Dojka o ffe re d continued encouragement and tau g ht me about brotherhood. I am g r a t e f u l. 1 v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................... v i i i Chapter I . THE NATURE OF THE P R O B L E M ...................................................... Purpose .............................................................................................. ................................................................................. D e fin itio n s .................................................. Federal Government A ctions S u m m a ry ........................................................................................ V o catio nal R e h a b ilita tio n S ervices and A ffir m a tiv e A c t i o n ........................................................... . Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity and A f f ir m a t iv e A ctio n C u rren t Economic F actors ......................................................... ............................................................. E x p lo ra to ry Questions Summary.............................................................................................. . I I . A REVIEW OF THE L IT E R A T U R E ...................................................... P u rp o s e .............................................................................................. P re c ip ita n ts o f A ffir m a tiv e A ctio n L e g is la tio n . . ............................................... ............................................................. Educational O p p o rtu n itie s Academic Achievement Economic P recursors and Consequences Sex D i s c r i m i n a t i o n ............................................................. L i t i g a t i o n ........................................................................................ R e s e a r c h ........................................................................................ Summary.............................................................................................. . . . . I I I . DESIGN OF THE S T U D Y ................................................................... The P o p u l a t i o n .......................................................................... S e le c tio n and D e s c rip tio n o f the Instrum ent C onstruction o f th e I n s t r u m e n t ........................................ P re te s t o f the I n s t r u m e n t ............................................... Measuring R e l i a b i l i t y Q u e stio n n aire V a l i d i t y .................................. ...................................................... A d m in is tra tio n o f th e Q u e stio n n aire ........................... D e s i g n .............................................................................................. ................................................................... T e s ta b le Hypotheses Scale I : U n d e rs ta n d in g ...................................................... Scale I I : P ercep tio n o f AAEP as Having . . . . . . Impact on C a r e e r s ............................................................. v 1 1 3 5 16 16 22 28 33 37 38 38 39 41 42 43 48 53 57 64 66 66 68 71 72 72 75 77 79 80 80 82 C h a p te r General Hypotheses ............................................................ A n a l y s i s ....................................................................................... S u n m ary .............................................................................................. IV . DATA A N A L Y S I S ................................................................................ O v e r v i e w ....................................................................................... Demographic D a t a .......................................................................... Subscale I : S ubjects Do Understand AAEP . ................................ ..................................................... .............................................. .................................................... E x p lo ra to ry Question E x p lo ra to ry Question E x p lo ra to ry Question E x p lo ra to ry Question I I I I I I IV . . . Subscale I I : S ubjects Perceive AAEP to Have an Impact on T h e ir Careers ...................................................... I E x p lo ra to ry Question ..................................................... I I E x p lo ra to ry Question ..................................................... I I I E x p lo ra to ry Q uestion .............................................. IV ..................................................... E x p lo ra to ry Question .................................................... E x p lo ra to ry Question V .................................................... E x p lo ra to ry Question VI .............................................. E x p lo ra to ry Question V II E x p lo ra to ry Question V I I I .............................................. IX .................................................... E x p lo ra to ry Question AN0VA I : S u b je c ts ' Understanding o f AAEP AN0VA I I : S u b je c ts ' Perceptions o f AAEP . . . Page 84 85 86 87 87 87 88 90 90 91 96 100 100 100 101 102 102 106 110 112 116 120 Impact on C a r e e r .......................................................................... 122 AN0VA I I I : S u b je c ts ' Understanding and P ercep tio n Scales Combined ............................................... ............................................... 124 126 M u ltip le Regression Analyses The N u ll H y p o th e s e s ...........................................................................128 128 S cale I : Subjects Do Understand AAEP . S cale I I : S ubjects Perceive AAEP to A ffe c t . . . C a r e e r s ........................................................................................ 128 Dependent V a ria b le I 129 129 Dependent V a ria b le I I 130 A d d itio n a l Data: Conments Sum m ary..................................................................................................... 130 ............................................................ ...................................................... ............................................... V. S U M M A R Y ..................................................................................................... 133 C o n c l u s i o n s ........................................................................................ 133 D is c u s s io n ...............................................................................................136 141 144 S u b tle Forms o f Racism Comment Im p lic a tio n s f o r Future Research .................................. .................................. v i APPENDICES................................................................................................................147 A. COVER LETTER............................................................................................ 148 B. Q U E S TIO N N A IR E ......................................................................................150 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 157 Page vl 1 LIST OF TABLES Nonwhite R ep resen tatio n in Occupations in Which M a jo rity Are Not High School Graduates (Thousands o f M ales, 2 5 -6 4 , 1960) .................................. P re te s t Item V a rian ce ................................................................... D eterm in atio n o f T est V ariance Data .................................. C r ite rio n -P e rs o n a l V a lid it y Scores .................................. Employment S ta tu s 1n 1972 and 1976....... .................................. Access to Em ployer's AAEP Statem ent Frequency Data C o rrec t Id e n t if ic a t io n o f AAEP O f f ic e r Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................................... Knowledge o f H irin g o f U n q u a lifie d Persons Frequency Data .......................................................................... Knowledge o f Requirement o f P r e f e r e n t ia l Treatm ent Frequency Data .......................................................................... Knowledge o f T im etab les fo r H irin g Requirement Frequency Data .......................................................................... Knowledge o f Sanctions f o r Noncompliance Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................................... Knowledge o f T a rg e t P opulation o f AAEP Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................................... Knowledge o f Employer Compliance Frequency Data Knowledge o f M in o r ity R a tio Data A c c e s s ib ility Frequency Data .......................................................................... Knowledge o f P a rt-T im e Work Requirement Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................................... Knowledge o f P ro visio n s fo r C h ild Care Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................................... vl 11 45 74 75 76 89 90 91 92 92 93 94 95 95 96 97 98 T a b le 4 .1 3 Knowledge o f T ra in in g f o r P rospective Employees Frequency D a t a ........................................................................... 4 .1 4 Understanding o f AAEP Frequency Data .................................. 4 .1 5 AAEP and Job S t a b i l i t y Frequency D a t a ...................... 100 Page 98 99 4 .1 6 AAEP and Recruitm ent and H irin g Frequency Data . . 101 4 .1 7 AAEP and Promotion Frequency D a t a .................................... 101 4 .1 8 AAEP and S a la ry Frequency D a t a .......................................... 102 4 .1 9 AAEP and P ro fes sio n a l M e ttin g Attendance Frequency D a t a ...................................................................................103 4 .2 0 AAEP and Advanced T r a in in g Frequency Data . . . . 4.21 AAEP and Leave B e n e fits Frequency Data . . . . . 103 104 4 .2 2 P ercep tio n o f N o n d isc rim in atio n Regarding Job B e n e fits Frequency Data ...................................................... 105 4 .2 3 A ssistance from AAEP O f fic e Frequency Data . . . . 105 4 .2 4 Perceived White B e lie fs Regarding Recruitm ent Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................106 4 .2 5 Perceived White B e lie fs Regarding M orale Problems Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................107 4 .2 6 Perceived B e lie fs o f W hites F ee lin g S a c r ific e d Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................107 4 .2 7 Perceived White B e lie fs o f AAEP as Econom ically Harmful Frequency Data ............................................................. 108 4 .2 8 P ercep tio n o f W hites' D e s ire to Discuss Issues Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................109 4 .2 9 P ercep tio n o f W hites' D e s ire to Discuss "Reverse Racism" Frequency D a t a .................................................................... 109 4 .3 0 P ercep tio n o f AAEP as P ro v id in g Future Oppor­ t u n it ie s Frequency D a t a ............................................................. 110 4.31 P ercep tio n o f AAEP as P ro v id in g Personal Enrichment Frequency Data ...................................................... I l l i x Page P ercep tio n o f AAEP as Causing W hites to Perceive Competency Frequency Data . . . . . . . . . 111 Percep tio n o f AAEP as Enhancing A p p re c ia tio n o f Respondent Frequency Data ...................................................... 112 P ercep tio n o f AAEP as In c re as in g Black Employment Frequency Data .......................................................................... 113 P ercep tio n o f AAEP as Helping Blacks to Be T reated More Favorably Frequency Data ......................................... 113 P ercep tio n o f AAEP P o lic y Changes Needed Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................................... 114 P ercep tio n o f AAEP as R equ iring M o d ific a tio n o f Q u a lific a tio n s Frequency Data ......................................... 115 P ercep tio n o f AAEP as Needing to Usurp Management P re ro g a tiv e s Frequency Data ............................................... 116 P ercep tio n o f E ffe c ts o f Forced Im plem entation Frequency Data .......................................................................... 117 P ercep tio n o f th e P o s s ib ilit y o f an Open System Frequency Data .......................................................................... 117 P ercep tio n o f Being S tig m atized by AAEP Frequency D a t a ..................................................................................................... P erception o f Support fo r AAEP Frequency Data . P ercep tio n o f AAEP Impact on C areer Frequency Data ANOVA A n aly sis o f Dependent V a ria b le I ........................... M u ltip le C la s s if ic a t io n A n a ly s is : Dependent V a ria b le I ....................................................................................... ANOVA A n alysis o f Dependent V a ria b le I I ........................... 118 118 119 120 121 122 M u ltip le C la s s if ic a t io n A n a ly s is : Dependent V a ria b le I I ................................................................................ 123 ANOVA A n a ly s is o f Dependent V a ria b le s I and I I Combined ....................................................................................... 124 x T ab le Page 4-49 M u ltip le C la s s ific a tio n A n alysis: Dependent V a ria b le s I (Understanding) and I I (P e rc e p tio n ) Combined ............................................................... 125 4 .5 0 M u ltip le Regression C o rre la tio n C o e ffic ie n ts . , - 127 x i CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM Purpose The purpose o f t h is p ro je c t is to study the p ercep tio n s and understanding Blacks employed a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity (MSU) and M ich ig an 's V ocational R e h a b ilita tio n S e rvic es (VRS) have concerning A f fir m a t iv e A ction Employment Programs (AAEP). Furtherm ore, t h is study is designed to determ ine i f the p ercep tio n s and understanding o f AAEP is d if f e r e n t between B lack fem ales and Black m ales, Blacks under 30 years o f age and Blacks over 30 ye ars o f age, Blacks who hold h ig h e r ranks as opposed to those who f i l l low er ranks a t t h e i r re s p e c tiv e employment s i t e s , Blacks who were employed a t t h e i r c u rre n t p lace o f employment in 1972 as opposed to those employed elsew h ere, and Blacks employed in 1976 by MSU as opposed to those employed by VRS. Only those Blacks who hold appointments w ith in the ten u re system a t MSU and those VRS employees w ith a C iv il S e rv ic e r a tin g o f 9 and above w i l l p a r t ic ip a t e In t h is study. The need f o r t h is study is p re d ic a te d on the b e l i e f th a t employment d is c rim in a tio n in t h is n a tio n based on c o lo r , sex, n a tio n a l o r i g i n , creed and r e lig io n co n tin ue to be u b iq u ito u s d e s p ite th e presence o f an arsenal o f fe d e ra l and s ta te laws which u n e q u ivo ca lly e s ta b lis h th e i l l e g a l i t y o f employment d is c rim in a tio n in most employment s e ttin g s . The n a tio n 's a tte n tio n was focused 1 2 on t h is r a c ia l and sexual d is c rim in a tio n p a r t ic u la r ly fo llo w in g World War I I because o f th e e f f o r t s o f th e C iv il Rights movement and women's l i b e r a t i o n . Although th e l i t e r a t u r e Is ju s t beginning to In c lu d e s tu d ie s o f th e fe d e ra l government's le g a l bases fo r ensuring e q u a lity o f o p p o rtu n ity in employment, th e re is l i t t l e e m p iric a l data concerning th e re a c tio n s and b e lie fs o f Blacks who a lle g e d ly a re to p r o f i t from AAEP's a c tio n o rie n te d requirem ents o f employers to r e c r u i t , t r a i n , and promote m in o rity group members. I t is th e purpose o f t h is study to examine AAEP as i t p e rta in s to one sample o f B la c k s , nam ely, those employed by two la rg e work u n it s , one a s ta t e u n iv e r s ity and an o ther a s ta te s e rv ic e agency. The purpose o f t h is ch ap ter is f iv e fo ld : 1. To p resen t d e f in it io n s o f terms to which th e re 1s fre q u e n t re fe re n c e ; 2 . To d e s c rib e and examine th e fe d e ra l and s ta te laws and o th e r governmental a c tio n s which led to and include AAEP; 3 . To examine th e two s ta te em ployers, Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity and V o catio n al R e h a b ilita tio n S e rv ic e s , in terms o f t h e ir p o s itio n and p o lic y statem ents concerning AAEP; 4. To d es crib e th e c u rre n t pressures engendered by the n a tio n 's recessio n which co m p licate and u ltim a te ly hamper many em ployers' attem pts to Implement AAEP as the general r u le w ith in the c o m p e titiv e la b o r fo rc e ; 5. To p resen t th e questions t h is study was designed to answer. 3 D e fin itio n s A ffir m a tiv e A ction Employment Proqram(s) o r AAEP: R e c ru it­ ment, t r a i n i n g , and employment programs designed to c re a te f a i r employment p ra c tic e s on th e b asis o f m e rit f o r members o f m in o r itie s and women. Equal Employment O p p o rtu n ity Laws: Laws designed to improve o p p o rtu n itie s f o r employment and promotion o f members o f m in o r itie s and women. A f fir m a t iv e A c tio n : The term used to r e f e r to steps employers ta k e to in su re th a t persons p re v io u s ly und er-rep resen ted in employment a re given o p p o rtu n ity fo r placem ent. M in o r ity Group Meiribers: Members o f e th n ic groups considered to be m in o rie s a re B lack-A m ericans, M exican-Am ericans, American In d ia n s , and O r ie n ta ls . Equal Employment O p p o rtu n ity Conmission: The five-m em ber fe d e ra l commission charged w ith a d m in is tra tio n o f th e Equal Oppor­ t u n it y Act o f 1972. V o ca tio n a l R e h a b ilita tio n Services o r VRS: V o catio nal R e h a b ilita tio n S e rv ic e s , one d iv is io n o f th e Michigan Department o f E ducation, is a s ta te -w id e agency charged w ith h elp in g a d u lts w ith p h y s ic a l, e m o tio n a l, and in t e ll e c t u a l d i s a b i l i t i e s a t t a in th e g re a te s t v o c a tio n a l achievement o f which they are capable. This goal is achieved through optim al medical r e s to r a tio n fo llo w e d by jo b t r a in in g and placement. VRS is funded by both s ta te and fe d e ra l money and is given i t s support and charge through th e Smlth-Fess Act o f 1920, th e B a rd e n -L a F o lle tte A ct o f 1953, P u b lic Law 565 o f 1954, A P ublic Law 333 o f 1965, P u b lic Act 90-341 o f 1968 and P u b lic Act 93-112 o f 19 73 .1 C iv il S ervice Cotm ission: The h ir in g arm o f th e Michigan s ta te government which has ju r is d ic t io n over h ir in g and promotion o f a l l VRS employees. Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity : MSU, one o f the n a tio n 's o rig in a l land grant c o lle g e s , Is located in East Lansing, Michigan. The u n iv e rs ity is comprised o f 17 c o lle g e s : A g ric u ltu re and N atural Resources, A rts and L e tte r s , Business, Corrmunication A r ts , Education, Engineering, Human Ecology, Human M edicine, J u s tin M o r r i l l , James Madison, Lyman B rig g s, N atu ral Science, O steopathic M ed icine, Social Science, U n iv e rs ity C o lle g e , Urban Development, and V e te rin a ry M edicine. P e rce p tio n : The mental process by which the nature o f an o b jec t 1s recognized through the a s s o c ia tio n o f a memory o f It s other q u a lit ie s w ith sp ecial senses b rin g in g i t a t the tim e to con- sciousness. 2 In th is stu d y, the p rin c ip a l processes which probably have been sim ultaneously a c tiv a te d to r e s u lt in a perceptual response are the vis u a l and a u d ito ry ones. C o n tra c to rs : Those employers who re ce ive fed eral d o lla rs . For the purpose o f th is stu d y, both MSU and VRS are c o n trac to rs. ^Adam Zawada, e d . , R e h a b ilita tio n o f the Severely Disabled (C h arle sto n , W. V a .: West V ir g in ia U n iv e rs ity Press, 1 9 7 3 ), pp. 56- 57. 2 L. E. H ln sie and R. J. Campbell, P s y c h ia tric D ic tio n a ry (New York: Oxford U n iv e rs ity Press, 1 9 7 3 ), p. 553. 5 S t a t i s t i c a l Package f o r th e S o cial Sciences (SPSS): An in te g ra te d system o f computer programs designed f o r the a n a ly s is o f s o c ia l sciences d a ta . The exp erim en ter is provided w ith a la rg e number o f s t a t i s t i c a l techniques commonly used in th e s o c ia l s c i­ ences, e . g . , d e s c r ip tiv e s t a t i s t i c s , frequency d is t r ib u t io n , cross­ ta b u la tio n s , c o r r e la tio n s , a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e and m u ltip le re g r e s s io n .1 ANOVA: An SPAA program subprogram which provides analyses o f v a ria n c e fo r f a c t o r ia l designs. I t allow s f o r up to f i v e fa c to rs in each design. ? Federal Government Actions I t is co n ceivab le th a t many persons are unaware o f the lo n g , o fte n b i t t e r l e g is l a t i v e b a ttle s waged to guarantee equal r ig h ts f o r a l l American people. There a r e , a f t e r a l l , 13 major pieces o f le g is la t io n enacted since th e C iv il War which p e r ta in , d ir e c t ly o r i n d i r e c t l y , to th is s tu d y 's to p ic . There als o are fo u r a c tio n s by th e e x e c u tiv e branch o f the fe d e ra l government and one from th e ju d ic ia l branch o f the fe d e ra l government which combine to form AAEP. As noted by th e Carnegie Council on P o lic y S tudies 1n H ig h er E ducation, AAEP has engendered "passion s, id e o lo g ie s , strong o pinions and e s ta b lis h e d In te r e s ts surrounding c o n s id e ra tio n o f ^N. H. N ie , C. H. H u l l, Jean J e n k in s , K arin S te ln b re n n e r, and D. H. B ent, S t a t i s t i c a l Package f o r the S o cial Sciences (New York: M c G ra w -H ill, 1 9 7 5 ), p. 1. 2 Jae-On Kim and F. J . Kohout, "A n alysis o f V arian ce and C ovariance: Subprograms ANOVA and ONEWAY," in N. H. N ie e t a l . , S t a t i s t i c a l Package f o r the S o cial Sciences (New York: M cG ra w -H ill, I 9 7 S ) , pp. 3 9 6 - 4 2 T . ----------------------------------------- 6 every aspect o f i t . " ^ In agreeing w ith th e a s tu te co u ncil on th e "explosiveness o f th e is s u e ," i t seems im p e ra tiv e th a t th e fe d e ra l and s ta te laws le a d in g to and In c lu d in g AAEP be reviewed so th a t the r a t i o n a l , d is p a s s io n a te , le g a l framework and background o f th e pro­ gram be a v a ila b le 1n one resource f o r exam ination. No such compre­ hensive l is t in g o f the governmental laws and re g u la tio n s was found by t h is w r it e r . The C iv il R ights le g is la t io n and ju d i c i a l a c t upon which A ffir m a tiv e A ction le g is la t io n has been b u i l t w i l l be l i s t e d and described b r i e f l y in th e ch ro n o lo g ica l o rd er o f passage and e n a c t­ ment. The f i r s t s e rie s o f fe d e ra l government a c tio n s in c lu d e : C iv il R ights Acts o f 1866 Fourteenth Amendment to th e U nited S ta te s C o n s titu tio n C iv il R ig h ts A ct o f 1870 C iv il R ig hts Act o f 1871 (No. 1) C iv il R ig hts Act o f 1871 (No. 2 ) C iv il R ig hts Act o f 1875 N in eteen th Amendment to th e U n ited S ta te s C o n s titu tio n F a ir Labor Standards Act o f 1938 Brown v. Board o f Education (1954) C iv il R ig hts Act o f 1866: T h is le g is la t io n focused on the em ancipation o f s la v e s . C itiz e n s o f the U nited S ta te s were guaran­ teed the r ig h t to own, buy, s e ll and tra d e p ro p e rty and were given th e r ig h t to i n h e r i t , to c o n tra c t, and the r ig h t to sue.^ Fourteenth Amendment to th e U nited S tates C o n s titu tio n ( 1 8 6 8 ): By th is a c t a l l U nited S ta te s c itiz e n s were guaranteed th e ^Carnegie Council on P o lic y S tudies in H ig h er E ducation , Making A ffir m a tiv e A ctio n Work in H ig h er Education (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass P u b !ic a tio n s » 1 9 7 5 ), p. x l . 2C 1vil R ights Act o f 1866, 14 S t a t . , 27. 7 r ig h t to l i f e , l i b e r t y , and p ro p e rty . Blacks were given th e r ig h t to vo te .^ (Women were n o t .) C iv il R ights A ct o f 1870: This a c t re a ffirm s th e p ro p e rty and v o tin g rig h ts o f a l l c it iz e n s re g a rd les s o f " ra c e , c o lo r o r previou s c o n d itio n o f s e rv itu d e ." 2 C i v i l R ights Act o f 1871 (No. 1 ) : This a c t amends th e 1870 a c t p e rta in in g to v o tin g rig h ts by c a llin g f o r th e appointm ent o f o f f ic e r s to guard th e p o lls , prevent fr a u d , and re g u la te v o tin g h o u rs .3 C i v i l R ights Act o f 1871 (No. 2 ) : In an attem p t to s p e ll out s p e c ific s o f the 14th Amendment, t h is a c t speaks to th e issue o f s e iz u re o f p ro p e rty , t e s t if y i n g a t t r i a l s , in flu e n c in g ju r o r s , p re ­ v e n tin g persons from v o tin g , and, in g e n e ra l, enforces th e 14th Amendment.4 C i v i l Rights Act o f 1875: This a c t c a lls fo r th e equal use o f In n s , th e a te r s , and p u b lic tra n s p o rta tio n and equal and exact j u s t ic e f o r a l l c it iz e n s reg ard less o f ra c e , c o lo r , o r r e lig io u s o r p o l i t i c a l persuasion. 5 N in eteen th Amencfcnent to th e U nited S ta te s C o n s titu tio n ( 1 9 2 0 ) : Women a re guaranteed th e r ig h t to vo te. U n it e d S ta te s C o n s titu tio n , 14th Amendment, 1868. ^ C lv il R ights Act o f 1870, 16 S t a t . , 140. 3C i v i 1 R ights Act o f 1871 (No. 1 ) , 16 S t a t . , 433. 4C iv 1 l R ights Act o f 1871 (No. 2 ) , 17 S t a t . , 13. 5C 1 v il R ights Act o f 1875, 18 S t a t . , 335. ^U nited S ta te s C o n s titu tio n , N in etee n th Amendment, 1920. 8 F a ir Standards A ct o f 1938: This a c t c a lle d f o r th e estab ­ lishm ent o f f a i r la b o r standards in employment, wages, s a la r ie s , and in t e r s t a t e commerce.^ Brown v. Board o f Education (1 9 5 4 ): This is th e landmark d ecision o f the U nited S ta te s Supreme Court which outlaws seg reg atio n in p u b lic schools o f t h is n a tio n . The p r in c ip le "sep arate but equal" was reversed because i t deprived Black students o f equal p ro te c tio n as guaranteed by th e 14th Amendment. 2 In n o tin g Brown v. Board o f E ducation , i t is in s t r u c t iv e to review th e h is to ry o f one coirment Supreme Court C h ie f J u s tic e Earl Warren made in o ffe r in g th e C o u rt's d e c is io n to s t r ik e down laws c a llin g fo r school seg reg atio n according to ra c e . The statem en t is : Whatever may have been th e e x te n t o f psychological knowledge a t th e tim e o f Pless.y v. Ferguson, t h is fin d in g (by th e Kan­ sas co u rt 1n Brown th a t segregation denotes i n f e r i o r i t y and dim inishes le a rn in g m o tiv a tio n ) a u th o r ity . Any language in Plessy v. Ferguson c o n tra ry to th is fin d in g is r e je c te d . is amply supported by modem Plessy v. Ferguson was a case concerning th e law in L o u isian a which 4 re q u ire d people to occupy segregated r a ilr o a d cars according to race. As such, i t was one o f a v a s t body o f laws 1n e x is te n c e In th e South since th e time o f th e B lac ks ' re le a s e from bondage. In upholding Plessy v. Ferguson, J u s tic e Henry B. Brown w rote the m a jo r ity opinion ^ F a ir Labor Standards Act o f 1938, P u b lic Law 718, 52 S t a t . , 1060. 2 Brown v. Board o f Education o f Topeka, 347 U.S. 4 8 3 , 98 L. Ed. 873, 74 S. C t. 686 (1 9 5 4 ). 3 p. 705. Richard K lu g e r, Sim ple J u s tic e (New York: Knopf, 1 9 7 6 ), ^Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1 8 9 6 ). 9 u s in g w ords w hich most B la c k s respond t o w it h a p le th o r a o f f e e lin g and a t t it u d e s ranging from In c r e d u lit y to re v u ls io n . Me c o n s id e r the u n d e rly in g f a lla c y o f th e p l a i n t i f f ' s argu ­ ment to c o n sist 1n th e assumption th a t th e enforced sep ara­ tio n o f th e two races stamps th e co lo red race w ith a badge I f t h is be so, i t 1s not by reason o f any­ o f i n f e r i o r i t y . th in g found in th e a c t but s o le ly because th e co lo red race chooses to put th a t c o n s tru c tio n upon i t . * In th e one d is s e n tin g o p in io n . J u s tic e John M, Harlan responded to th is r a c i s t statem ent w ith : The w h ite race deems i t s e l f to be th e dominant race In t h is in p re s tig e , c o u n try . And so i t i s , e d u c a tio n , in w ealth and power . . th e C o n s titu tio n , in th e eyes o f the la w , th e re is in t h is co u ntry no s u p e rio r, dom inant, ru lin g c la s s o f c it iz e n s . There is no caste system here. Our C o n s titu tio n is c o lo r ­ b lin d and n e ith e r knows nor to le r a te s classes among i t s c it iz e n s .^ in achievem ents, But in th e view o f in . . In m a te ria ls c u r r e n tly being p u b lis h e d , th is is r e fe r r e d to as the " c o lo r -b lin d clause" in th e C o n s titu tio n . Reference to 1t is in th is sense: the C o n s titu tio n is supposed to be c o lo r -b lin d but now the fe d e r a l government has entered in to "th e most d e c is iv e pub- l i e a c tio n s e v e r taken to overcome su b o rd in atio n and caste systems" using " c o lo r and group consciousness w ith a vengeance."4 B efo re co n tin u in g w ith a d e s c rip tio n o f C iv il R ights le g is ­ l a t io n , i t is im portant to note th a t subsequent fe d e ra l government action s a re the most re le v a n t to the c u rre n t study. The ^ K lu g e r, op. c i t . , p. 30. 2I b i d . , p. 82. 3 Nathan G la z e r, A ffir m a tiv e D is c rim in a tio n (New York: Basic Books, 1 9 7 5 ), p. 7. 4 I b i d . , p. 31. 10 aforementioned l e g i s l a t i o n g ra d u a lly merged in to AAEP, the p rep a ra­ tio n and enactment o f which cres ted in th e 1960s and e a r ly 1970s. They are as fo llo w s : Executive Order No. 10925 (1961) Executive Order No. 11114 (1963) Equal Pay Act o f 1963 The C i v i l Rights Act o f 1964 Executive Order No. 11246 ( 1 9 6 5 ) , as amended in Execu­ t i v e Order No. 11375 (1968) Comprehensive Health Manpower T r a in in g Act o f 1971 U.S. Department o f Labor, Revised Order No. 4 (1971) Equal Employment O pportunity Act o f 1972 Education Amendments o f 1972, T i t l e IX The C i v i l Rights Act o f 1964 should be considered the key piece o f l e g i s l a t i o n in t h i s m a tte r and th e Department o f L ab or's Revised Order No. 4 is th e major compliance ord er w ith sanctions f o r noncompliance c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e d . A b r i e f summary o f these ac tio n s is as fo llo w s : Executive Order No. 10925 ( 1 9 6 1 ) : D is c rim in a tio n because o f ra c e , c o l o r , cre e d , an d /o r n a tio n a l o r i g i n was declared by P re s id e n t Kennedy to be c o n tra ry to c o n s t it u t io n a l p r in c ip le s o f the U n ited S ta te s . D is c rim in a tio n in a l l aspects o f fe d e r a l government employ­ ment and by government c o n tra c to rs was d e fin e d as i l l e g a l . ^ Executive Order No. 11114 ( 1 9 6 3 ) : P re sid en t Kennedy issued t h is o rd e r to r e in f o r c e p r in c ip le s a r t i c u l a t e d in Executive Order No. 10925. In a d d it i o n , sanctions f o r noncompliance were s p e c i f ie d . 2 Equal Pay Act o f 1963: This is one o f the many amendments to the F a i r Labor Standards Act o f 1938. For the f i r s t tim e , equal ^Executive Order No. 10925, 26 Fed. Reg. 1977 (1 9 6 1 ). ^Executive Order No. 11114, 28 Fed. Reg. 6485 (1 9 6 3 ). 11 pay f o r equal work f o r both sexes is s p e c if ie d . A ls o , f o r th e f i r s t tim e , "teachers on a l l le v e ls " are granted p ro te c tio n .^ The C i v i l Rights Act o f 1964: This is the major piece o f l e g i s l a t i o n p e r t in e n t to th e study o f A f f i r m a t i v e A c tio n . In a d d i­ t io n to ( a ) en fo rc in g the c o n s t it u t io n a l r i g h t to v o te , (b ) p ro v id ­ ing the U nited S ta te s D i s t r i c t Courts a u t h o r it y to provide r e l i e f in cases o f d is c r im in a tio n in p ub lic accommodations, (c ) preven ting d is c r im in a tio n 1n f e d e r a l l y a s s is te d programs, and (d) a u th o r iz in g the A tto rn ey General to i n s t i t u t e s u its to p r o te c t c o n s t it u t io n a l r ig h t s in p u b lic e d u ca tio n , a comnission o f Equal Employment Oppor­ t u n i t i e s was e s ta b lis h e d . This p a rt o f th e a c t 1s r e f e r r e d to as T i t l e V I . Key pro visio ns o f T i t l e VI a re as fo llo w s : a. I t s h a ll be unlawful employment p r a c t i c e f o r an employer ( 1 ) to f a i l o r refu s e to h ir e o r to discharge any I n d i ­ vidual o r otherw ise to d is c r im in a te ag a in s t any In d iv id u a l w ith respect to h is compensation, term s, c o n d itio n s , o r p r i v i l e g e s o f employment because o f such i n d i v i d u a l 's ra c e , c o l o r , r e l i g i o n , sex, o r n a tio n a l o r i g i n o r ( 2 ) to l i m i t , segregate o r c l a s s i f y h is employees in any way which would d e p riv e o r tend t o dep rive any I n d i ­ vid u a l o f employment o p p o r tu n itie s o r otherw ise a d v ers ely a f f e c t h is status as an employee, because o f such i n d i v i d u a l 's ra c e , c o l o r , r e l i g i o n , sex o r n a tio n a l o r i g i n . b. c. I t s h a ll be an unlawful employment p r a c t ic e f o r any employment agency to f a i l or refu s e to r e f e r f o r employ­ ment o r otherw ise to d is c r im in a te a g a in s t any In d iv id u a l because o f ra c e , c o l o r , r e l i g i o n , sex o r n a tio n a l o r i g i n , o r to c l a s s i f y o r r e f e r to employment any In d iv id u a l on th e basis o f his ra c e , c o lo r , r e l i g i o n , sex, o r n a tio n a l o r i g i n . I t s h a ll be unlawful employment p r a c t i c e f o r a la b o r o rg a n iz a tio n 1 Equal Pay Act o f 1963 (P u b lic Law 8 8 - 3 3 ) , 77 S t a t . 56 (1 9 6 3 ). 12 (1 ) to exclude or to expel from i t s membership o r o ther­ wise to d is c rim in a te against any In d iv id u a l because o f ra c e , c o lo r , r e l i g i o n , sex, or n atio n al o r ig in . (2) to l i m i t , segregate o r c la s s if y i t s membership or to f a l l o r refuse to r e f e r fo r employment any i n d i ­ vidual o f employment o p p o rtu n itie s o r would l i m i t such employment o p p o rtu n itie s or otherwise adversely a f f e c t his status as an employee o r as an a p p lic a n t f o r employment because o f such i n d iv id u a l's race, c o lo r , r e l i g i o n , sex or n ational o r ig in or (3) to cause o r attempt to cause an employer to d is ­ c rim in a te against an in d iv id u a l se ctio n . in v i o la t i o n o f th is I t sh a ll be an unlawful employment p ra c tic e f o r any employer, lab o r o rg a n iz a tio n , or j o i n t labor-management committee c o n tr o llin g apprenticeship o r other t r a in in g o r r e t r a in i n g , inclu d in g o n -th e -jo b t r a in in g programs to d is c rim in a te ag ain st any in d iv id u a l because o f his race, c o lo r , r e l i g i o n , sex, or n ation al o r ig in in admis­ sion t o , o r employment i n , any program es tab lish ed to provide apprenticeship o r o ther t r a i n i n g . ' d. A major section to T i t l e V I , namely section 7 0 4 (b ), reads: I t shall be an unlawful employment p ra c tic e f o r any employer, lab o r o rg a n iz a tio n , or employment agency to p r i n t , or publish o r cause to be p rin te d or published any n o tic e o r a d v e rtis e ­ ment r e l a t i n g to employment by such employer o r membership in o r any c l a s s if i c a t io n o r r e f e r r a l f o r employment by such a labor o rg an iza tio n or r e l a t i n g to any c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o r r e f e r ­ r a l f o r employment by such an employing agency, any p refe re n c e, l i m i t a t i o n , s p e c if ic a t io n , o r d is c r im in a tio n , based on ra c e , c o lo r , r e l g i o n , sex, or n ation al o r i g i n , except th a t such a notice o r advertisement may in d ic a te a p refe re n c e, l i m i t a t i o n , s p e c i f ic a t i o n , d is crim in atio n based on r e l i g i o n , sex, or n ational o r ig in when r e l i g i o n , sex, and n ation al o r ig in is a bona f i d e occupational q u a li f i c a t io n fo r employment. in d ic a tin g Another major section is section 705 which creates an Equal Opportunity Commission to enforce T i t l e VI pro visio ns. The law became e f f e c t i v e one year from the enactment date o f July 2, 1964. U n i t e d States Congress, 88th Congress, Public Law 88-352, 7152, 78 S ta t. 24 1, 1964. 13 Executive Order No. 11246 (1965)^ and Executive Order No. 11375 (1968) : These ex ec u tiv e orders p r o h ib it d is c r im in a tio n on the 2 basis o f ra c e , c o l o r , r e l i g i o n , n a tio n a l o r ig in and sex by a l l i n s t i ­ t u t i o n s , in c lu d in g h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , who have c o n tra c ts w ith the f e d e r a l government. A l l employees a re covered by n o n d is crim in atio n requirements in regard to h i r i n g , upgrading, s a l a r i e s , f r in g e b e n e f i t s , t r a i n i n g , and o th e r c o n d itio n s o f employment. S p e c i f i c a l l y , i n s t i t u t i o n s which re c e iv e a t l e a s t $1 0,0 00 in fe d e r a l c o n trac ts must not d is c r im in a te a g a in s t any employee o r job a p p lic a n t and p r iv a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s employing more than 50 persons and re c e iv in g a t le a s t $50,000 in fe d e ra l monies must have a w r it t e n A f f i r m a t i v e Action plan on f i l e . Punishment f o r noncompliance could lead to suspension o r c a n c e lla tio n o f c o n tra c t money and, f u r t h e r , th e i n s t i t u t i o n could be assigned a "non-rewardable" s ta tu s which would deny i t access to f u tu r e government c o n tra c ts as long as d is c r im in a tio n p e rs is te d . 3 The reader i s r e fe r r e d to Nash f o r a comprehensive review o f t h i s o rd e r's impact on AAEP. Comprehensive H e alth Manpower T ra in in g Act o f 1971: By t h is a c t women were guaranteed equal access to schools o f m edicine, ^Executive Order No. 11246, 30 Fed. R eg., 12319 (1 9 6 5 ). Q uite fr e q u e n tly one reads "E xecutive Order No. 11246 (as amended)." The amendment re fe re n c e is to Executive Order No. 11375 which included sex as a basis o f d is c r im in a tio n . ^Executive Order No- 11375, 32 Fed. R e g ., 14305 (1 9 6 8 ). 3 P eter Nash, " A ff ir m a t iv e Action Under Executive Order 11246," New York U n iv e r s it y Law Review 4 6 , 21 ( A p r il 19 , 1971): 225- 261. 14 osteopathy, d e n t is t r y , v e te r in a ry medicine, optometry, pharmacy, p o d ia try , p ublic health and o th e r a n c il l a r y health t r a in in g programs.^ United States Department o f Labor, Revised Order No. 4 , 1971: This o rder is considered to be the cornerstone f o r the com­ pliance e f f o r t s o f the U.S. O f f ic e o f C i v i l Rights in regard to AAEP. The 14th Amendment to the C o n s titu tio n p ro h ib ite d employment d is ­ c rim inatio n by governmental u n its . The C iv il Rights Act o f 1964 p ro hibited employment d is c rim in a tio n by p riv a te employers, lab or unions, and employment agencies but no act provided e f f e c t i v e mechanisms f o r enforcing t h is p r o h ib it io n . Revised Order No. 4 d ic ta te s the th re e basic requirements which c o n tra c tin g agencies must comply w ith under th is o rd er. 2 These requirements are: (a ) to perform an an alysis o f m in o rity u t i l i z a t i o n in a l l job c a te g o rie s ; (b) to e s ta b lis h goals and tim etables to co rre c t d e f ic ie n c ie s , these must be separate f o r women and m in o r itie s ; (c ) to develop data c o lle c t io n systems and re p o rt­ ing plans documenting progress 1n achieving a f f i r m a t i v e ac tio n goals. In a d d it io n , th is o rder requires p u b lic a tio n o f the AAEP p o lic y , development o f programs to a t t a in g o a ls , and appointment o f an Equal Employment Opportunity O f f ic e r a t each i n s t i t u t i o n o r job s i t e . ^ U .S ., Congress, House Comprehensive Health Manpower T r a in ­ ing Act o f 1971, 92nd Congress, 1st Session, 1971. 2 U.S. Department o f Labor Revised Order No. 4 , 41 Fed. Reg., 60-2 (19 71 ). 15 Equal Employment O pp ortun ity Act o f 1972: This a c t amends p ortio ns o f the C i v i l Rights Act o f 1964 by fo rb id d in g d is c r im in a tio n in h i r i n g , f i r i n g , l a y o f f , r e c a l l and re c r u itm e n t, wages, condi­ tio n s o f employment, promotional o p p o r t u n it ie s , assignment, sick le a v e , v a c a tio n , o v e rtim e , in s u ra n c e , h e a lth b e n e f i t s , o r a d v e r tis in g employment preferences on the basis o f c o lo r , r e l i g i o n , sex, and n a tio n a l o r i g i n . This a c t a ls o expanded the enforcement powers o f the Equal Employment O pportunity Commissions. In r e a l i t y , t h is act p u lls to g e th e r a l l previous AAEP l e g i s l a t i o n . ^ The Education Amendments o f 1972, T i t l e I X : This a c t pro­ h i b i t s d is c r im in a tio n under any education program o r a c t i v i t y re c e iv in g fe d e ra l f i n a n c i a l as sistan ce and inclu d es p r iv a t e and p u b lic schools, elementary and secondary schools, vo catio n al schools, c o lle g es and p ro fe s s io n a l schools. The prim ary statement o f th is act is : "No person in the U n ited States s h a l l , on the basis o f sex, be excluded from p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n , be denied the b e n e fits o f , or be subjected to d is c r im in a tio n under any education program o r a c t i v i t y re c e iv in g Federal f i n a n c ia l a s s is ta n c e ." P a r e n t h e t i c a l l y , major p u b lic brouhaha concerning t h i s a c t involves p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f females in a t h l e t i c s but th e coverage is much broader than th a t . 2 ^Equal Employment O pportunity A c t, P u b lic Law 9 2 -2 6 1 , 92nd Congress, 1972. ^Educational Amendments o f 1972, T i t l e I X , Sec. 9 0 1 ( a ) , 373 (June 2 3 , 1972). Summary 16 Federal laws and action s c u lm in a tin g in th e Equal Employ­ ment O pportunity Act o f 1972 embody two concepts: p r o h ib it io n o f employment d is c r im in a tio n f o r a l l persons re g a rd les s o f sex, c o l o r , n a tio n a l o r i g i n , ra c e , and r e l i g i o n and more than employment neu­ t r a l i t y must be assured by employers. A d d itio n a l e f f o r t s must be made to r e c r u i t , employ, and promote q u a l i f i e d members o f groups fo rm e rly excluded. "The premise o f t h is concept, A f f i r m a t i v e A c tio n , is t h a t unless p o s it i v e a c tio n is undertaken to overcome the e f f e c t s o f system atic i n s t i t u t i o n a l forms o f exclusion and d is c r im in a t io n , a benign n e u t r a l i t y in employment p ra c tic e s w i l l tend to p erpetuate th e s ta tu s quo ante i n d e f i n i t e l y . " ^ The next p o rtio n o f t h is p re s e n ta tio n o f background m a te r ia ls examines how the two t a r g e t populations o f the stu d y , MSU and VRS, have responded to fe d e r a l government ru le s and r e g u la tio n s . Vocational R e h a b i l i t a t i o n S ervices and A f f i r m a t i v e Action Vocational R e h a b ilit a t io n S ervices is an agency charged w ith h elp in g d is a b le d in d iv id u a ls r e tu r n to co m p e titive employment. As a branch o f the Michigan Department o f Education, VRS is a govern­ mental u n it whose h i r i n g and personnel p ra c tic e s a r e c o n t r o lle d by the Michigan C i v i l S ervice Coimiission. VRS can d ev is e as many p o l i ­ c ie s as 1t wants in regard to employment p ra c tic e s but nothing changes the f a c t t h a t C i v i l S e rvic e i s the s t a t e 's h i r i n g arm and, ^ . S . Department o f H e a lth , Education, and W e lfa r e , Higher Education G u id e lin e s , Executive Order 11246 (Washington, D .C .: The Department, 1 9 7 2 ), p. 3. 17 as such, is d i r e c t l y in c o n tro l o f implementation o f AAEP. As noted in Van R ip e r's ^ exhaustive stutjy o f the c i v i l s e rv ic e system, t h i s u n it was developed to guarantee governmental h ir in g p ra c tic e s based on m e rit as opposed to p o l i t i c a l patronage; m e r it has been d efined as performance on supposedly o b je c t iv e t e s t s developed, a d m in is te re d , and scored by C i v i l S e rv ic e . Because o f a v a r i e t y o f problems and even p e rio d ic abuses o f the system, an atte m p t was made by Michigan C i v i l S e rvic e to e v a lu ­ ate persons and rank them on o th e r than formal exam inations. By way o f example, previous experience was evaluated and given a "score" which became p a rt o f the a p p lic a n t 's employment f i l e . Michigan C i v i l S e rvic e als o c re a te d a r u le la b e le d " th re e plus one" which is an attem pt to expand the employer's p rero g a tiv es in s e le c t in g persons from C i v i l S e rvic e r o s t e r s , th a t i s , th e employer can s e le c t one o f the top th re e on the r o s t e r or one o th e r not in the top th re e . 2 Such changes have not been accepted f r e e l y , and in f a c t , are probably going to be l i t i g a t e d unless issues are resolved by th e newly appointed S ta te Personnel D i r e c t o r , Richard Ross. At t h is t im e , Michigan VRS employes approxim ately 1,200 p e r­ sons in i t s 7 regions and 34 d i s t r i c t s . A ll persons, a g a in , hold C i v i l S e rvic e rank which means t h a t the h is t o r y o f AAEP f o r VRS begins w ith in s tr u c tio n s from th e Governor to th e C i v i l S e rvic e "*P. P. Van R ip e r , H is to ry o f th e United S ta te s C i v i l S e rv ic e (New York: Harper and Row, 1958). 2 J u l i e L eh r, "Expanded C e r t i f i c a t i o n f o r C i v i l S e rv ic e Urged," Lansing S ta te J o u r n a l. November 2 7 , 1974, p. D-4. 18 Convnission fo llo w e d by a d i r e c t i v e from the Superintendent o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n , Department o f E ducation, and, u l t i m a t e l y , a p o s itio n paper from the A s s is ta n t Superintendent o f Pu blic In s t r u c t io n f o r VRS. F i r s t o f a l l , th e re is Executive Order 1971-8 which was presented by Governor W illia m M i l l i k e n on September 2 1 , 1971. B r i e f l y , t h i s p o lic y statem ent c a r e f u l l y d efin e d steps each s ta te agency would tak e to insure not only re c ru itm e n t and employment o f m in o r ity group members but a ls o placement in re s p o n s ib le , decision making, " s ta tu s " p o s itio n s . Each department head was to develop and m aintain an AAEP plan and the C i v i l S e rv ic e Commission was to provide le a d e rs h ip in e r a d ic a tin g " t h i s most c r i t i c a l so cial problem" b y, among o th e r steps: in s u re t h a t ru le s and re g u la tio n s s e t t in g standards and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r employment w it h in the c l a s s i f i e d s e rv ­ ic e s h a ll not u t i l i z e t e s t in g procedures which have been l e g a l l y constructed to the disadvantage o f m in o r it ie s and have c o n trib u te d to th e e lim in a tio n o f a com paratively high percentage o f m in o r itie s from jo b placement and pro m o tio n .1 Secondly, th e re is Equal O pportunity Rule 1 .2 a . On Septem­ ber 2 2 , 1971, th e Michigan C i v i l S e rvic e Commission adopted an Equal O pportunity Rule as in s tru c te d to do so by the Governor. Each department o f s t a t e was ordered to do as fo llo w s : A. Designate a person to assume t o t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the c o o rd in a tio n and implementation o f the departm ent's Equal O pportunity components and job c a te g o rie s . ^W. C. M i l l i k e n , "Equal Employment O pportunity 1n S ta te Government," S ta te o f Michigan Executive D i r e c t i v e 8 , September. 1971. 19 B. Develop goals and o b je c tiv e s f o r the e f f e c t i v e u t i l i z a ­ t io n and employment o f m in o r it ie s and women throughout the d epartm ent's o rg a n iz a tio n a l components and jo b c a te g o rie s . C. E s ta b lis h r e a l i s t i c tim e ta b le s f o r ac h ie vin g goals and o b je c tiv e s s e t f o r t h in the departm ent’ s Equal Employ­ I d e a l l y , th e tim e ta b le s ment O pp ortun ity Action Plan. should be developed to accomplish goals w it h in th re e years. D. Analyze th e problems which serve as impediments to the departm ent's a b i l i t y to achieve e q u a l i t y o f o p p o rtu n i­ t i e s f o r m i n o r it i e s and women. E. Define s p e c i f i c ac tio n s o r approaches the department w i l l use as a v e h ic le f o r ach ieving m u tu a lly agreed upon goals and o b je c tiv e s . P. Develop a system to measure and ev alu ate th e e f f e c t i v e ­ ness o f the departm ent's Equal O pportunity Action Plan. G. A llo c a te s u f f i c i e n t resources f o r the e f f e c t i v e admin­ i s t r a t i o n o f the departm ent's Equal Employment Oppor­ t u n i t y A c tio n Plan. H. Set a t a r g e t date f o r completion o f development o f the Equal Employment O pportunity A ctio n plan by January 1, 1 9 7 2 .1 Next in chro n olo gical o rd e r is the S ta te o f M ichigan, Department o f Education AAEP D i r e c t i v e o f A p r il 2 8 , 1972. Dr. John P o r t e r , M ichigan's Superintendent o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n , d efined in t h i s document how the Department o f Education would implement th e Governor's program. This d i r e c t i v e was addressed to the S ta te Board o f Education and in a d d itio n to s p e llin g out s t a f f i n g needs and p attern s by years up to 1977, the fo llo w in g plan was described: A. Department supervisors and a d m in is tra to rs a t a l l le v e ls w i l l p e rs o n a lly review and be provided a copy o f the equal employment p o lic y and they w i l l be expected to ^State o f M ich ig an , Department o f C i v i l S e r v ic e , "Equal Opportunity Rule 1 .2 a Memorandum," September 2 2 , 1971. 20 work w ith d ilig e n c e and good f a i t h to make the p o lic y an In te g r a l p a r t o f the o v e r a ll management philosophy. B. Employment a t a p ro fess io n al le v e l is p ro h ib ite d u n t i l the Deputy Superintendent has been assured by the Personnel D ir e c t o r t h a t th e re are no q u a l i f i e d women an d /o r m in o rity candidates w ith comparable q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n sid e ra tio n f o r the p o s itio n . This p o lic y w i l l be con­ tin u e d and v ig o ro u s ly enforced. C. The Department o f Education w i l l review a l l h ir in g p rac­ t i c e s and q u a lif ic a t io n s /r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r I n i t i a l e n try and promotion and determine whether such p ra c tic e s and systems contain u n r e a l i s t i c jo b requirements which tend to e lim in a t e c o n s id e ra tio n o f q u a l i f i e d candidates o r make d is c r im in a tio n p o s sib le o r l i k e l y . D. The Department o f Education w i l l exp lo re a l l possible means to i d e n t i f y necessary resources to provide sp ecial programs f o r t r a i n i n g , e d u c a tio n , and support f o r a l l s t a f f w ith o u t regard to r a c e , c o l o r , r e l i g i o n , sex, o r n a tio n a l o r i g i n . E. The Department o f Education w i l l communicate to a l l employees th e importance o f compliance by in c o rp o ra tio n o f the AAEP in p u b lic a t io n s , o r i e n t a t i o n f o r a l l new employees and o th e r programs conducted. F. The Department o f Education w i l l maximize the d i s t r i b u ­ t i o n o f vacancy announcements, in c lu d in g on a r e g u la r basis those media and agencies t h a t serve women and m in o r ity communications. In a d d it i o n , special r e c r u i t ­ ment v i s i t s w i l l be scheduled a t u n i v e r s it i e s and o th e r a p p ro p ria te I n s t i t u t i o n s where capable candidates are e n r o lle d . G. The Department o f Education a d m in is tra to rs w i l l be encouraged to m aintain system atic contacts w ith m in o r ity and human r e l a t i o n s o rg a n iz a tio n s leaders and spokesmen to encourage r e f e r r a l o f q u a l i f i e d m in o r ity candidates. H. The Department o f Education w i l l insure t h a t s t a f f make-up w i l l r e f l e c t re p re s e n ta tio n o f q u a l i f i e d women and m in o r it ie s a t a l l le v e ls . I . The Department o f Education w i l l increase i t s p a r t i c i p a ­ t io n in community a c tio n programs r e la t e d to educational p ra c tic e s which w i l l i d e n t i f y th e Department o f Education as an equal o p p o rtu n ity employer. This Includes personal 21 appearances by department a d m in is t r a t iv e s t a f f as w ell as the d es ig n a tio n o f o th e r department personnel who can speak and a c t e f f e c t i v e l y in the s t a t e community. J. The Department o f Education i s co n siderin g the ap p o in t­ ment o f a f u l l - t i m e Human R e la tio n s O f f i c e r who w i l l be under th e d i r e c t su p ervisio n o f th e A s s is ta n t S uperin­ In a d d itio n tendent f o r School and Conmunity A f f a i r s . to th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f m o n ito rin g the Department's AAEP, t h i s appointee w i l l a ls o be resp o nsib le f o r moni­ t o r in g equal o p p o rtu n ity employment compliance w ith regard to Federal procedures r e la t e d to vario us Federal a p p ro p ria te s to the Department. K. The Department o f Education w i l l conduct e x i t in te rv ie w s to determine whether tu rn o v e r is due to c o n t r o ll a b l e c o n d itio n s which may be included in the A f f i r m a t i v e Action Program.1 F i n a l l y , th e re is the Vocational R e h a b ilit a t io n Services A f f ir m a t iv e Action Employment Program f o r Equal Employment Oppor­ t u n i t y . In a d d itio n to a ff ir m in g i t s p o lic y o f equal employment, t h a t i s , o f re c r u itm e n t, h i r i n g , and promotion w ith o u t regard to ra c e , creed, c o l o r , n a tio n a l o r i g i n , o r age except where sex o r age is a bona f i d e occupational q u a l i f i c a t i o n , t h i s p o lic y statement proposed the fo llo w in g A f f i r m a t i v e Action steps: A. Endeavor t o achieve g r e a te r re p re s e n ta tio n in th e pro­ fe s s io n a l a d m in is t r a t iv e , and management p o s itio n s by r e c r u i t i n g a t m in o r ity c o lle g e s and areas where m in o rity a p p lic a n ts are a v a i l a b l e w ith the goal o f having re p re ­ s e n ta tio n o f m in o r ity employees in agency o f f i c e s to the same degree as m in o r it ie s are represented in the conmunity. B. V.R.S. w i l l have a f u l l time C i v i l Rights Coninittee which w i l l determine compliance, provide t r a i n i n g to agency s u p e rv is o rs , review and analyze p e r t in e n t data o f Education AAEP P la n ," A p r il 2 8 , 1972. W. P o r t e r , "Recommended A ctio n Regarding the Department 22 on personnel a c tio n s , p la in t s o f r a c i a l d is c r im in a t io n , propose recommenda­ tio n s f o r a t t r a c t i n g , r e t a i n in g and upgrading m in o r it ie s in the agency, and t r a i n supervisors to keep abreast o f community n ee d s .1 In v e s t ig a t e and r e a c t to com­ In suranary, the S ta te o f M ic h ig a n ’ s V .R .S . through d i r e c t i v e s emanating from th e Governor's o f f i c e has d efin e d how AAEP w i l l be implemented. As opposed to the p o lic ie s o f MSU to be next review ed, VRS does not have autonorny in i t s employment p r a c t ic e s . I t can d e fin e p o lic y and philosophy but is s u b se rv ie n t t o the C i v i l S e rv ic e Commission in terms o f r e c r u i t i n g , h i r i n g , and promoting. F u r th e r­ more, as a s ta t e employee w ith modest a d m in is t r a t iv e d u tie s w ith VRS, t h is w r i t e r has noted: 1. The S ta te o f Michigan does not have an AAEP o f f i c e r . VRS has an a d m in is t r a t iv e a s s is t a n t assigned to handle the VRS AAEP along w ith many o th e r s t a f f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . 2. The S ta t e o f Michigan does not p ublish i t s AAEP p o lic y in documents r e a d i ly a c c e s s ib le to s t a t e employees. 3. The S t a t e o f Michigan does not pub 1 ish AAEP s t a t i s ­ t i c s and re p o rts in documents r e a d i ly a c c e s s ib le to s t a t e employees. Why these fa c to r s a re t r u e is unknown to the w r i t e r . Michigan S t a t e U n iv e r s ity and A f f i r m a t i v e Action Michigan S ta t e U n i v e r s i t y , as w ell as o t h e r la r g e Michigan u n i v e r s i t i e s , r e c e n t ly completed l i t i g a t i o n where i t s autonomy from s t a t e re g u la tio n s was a f fir m e d . I t is n o t , th e n , compelled to ^R. F. Peckham, "Department o f Education, V .R .S . A f f i r m a t i v e Action Program f o r Equal Employment O p p o rtu n ity ," Memorandum, J u ly 2 7 , 1972. 23 fo llo w s ta te d ir e c tiv e s on issues as is VRS. S p e c i f i c a l l y , re cru itm e n t, h i r i n g , and promotion p o lic ie s are developed a t a u n iv e rs ity -w id e le v e l but implemented uniquely by each department. Because o f departmental id io s y n c ra s ie s , h ir in g and promotion issues tend to be f a r more complex and f a r less uniform f o r MSU's 5,000-plus employees than f o r the VRS s t a f f . MSU, l ik e VRS, however, is covered by AAEP. The h is to ry o f i t s involvement w ith t h is programning is as fo llo w s : One and a h a l f years before the s t a te o f Michigan ac ted , MSU i n i t i a t e d a n t i - d is c rim in a tio n p o lic ie s and A f fir m a tiv e Action programs. The pur­ pose o f these programs as described in A r t i c l e 1 o f the MSU A n ti-D is c rim in a tio n P o lic y and Procedures reads: The Board o f Trustees of M.S.U. re a ffirm s i t s commit­ ment to a p o lic y o f no d is c rim in a tio n on the basis o f race, creed, eth n ic o r i g i n , or sex and estab lished the fo llo w in g procedures to prevent such d is c rim in a tio n in accordance w ith due process w ith in the u n iv e r s ity conmunity. so, the Board o f Trustees recognizes th a t i t is not enough to proclaim th a t we do not d is c rim in a te against m in o rity groups. The U n iv e rs ity must also s t r iv e a c t iv e ly to b u ild a conmunity 1n which opportunity is equalized and use i t s f a c i l i t i e s and human resources to develop the s k i l l s and o p p ortun ities o f th e members o f a l l groups so they may plan responsible and productive ro les in s o c ie ty . This p o lic y is re lev an t to a l l aspects o f the u n iv e rs ity in c lu d in g the choice o f contractors and suppliers o f goods and s e rv ic e s . In doing The Board d ir e c t s the establishment o f the Committee Against D isc rim in atio n and the A n ti-d is c r im in a tio n J u d ic ia l Board to carry out t h is p o licy in the manner o u tlin e d below. The Board also d ire c ts a l l u n its o f the U n iv e rs ity to take appro priate action immediately to implement th is p o lic y and procedures.* ^ S t a f f, "M.S.U. A n ti-D is c rim in a tio n and A ff ir m a tiv e Action P o lic ie s ," Michigan S ta te News, November 21, 1974, p. 12. 24 This statem ent is published an n u a lly in the MSU F aculty Handbook and 1n th e Student Handbook. The e n t i r e t e x t is published as a separate pamphlet a v a i l a b l e to the e n t i r e campus. Furtherm ore, the U n iv e r s it y has f i l e d an annual AAEP re p o rt w ith the Chicago Regional O f f ic e o f the U.S. Department o f H e a lt h , Education and W elfare beginning in September, 1970, and t h is m a te ria l is a v a i l a b l e to th e p u b lic . The Coirmittee Against D is c rim in a tio n publishes an annual re p o rt o f i t s a c t i v i t i e s as does the O f f ic e o f Equal Oppor­ t u n i t y Programs. By way o f example, 13 a r t i c l e s were published regarding a n t i - d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a c tio n s in the MSU S ta te News between 7 /0 1 /7 0 and 7 /0 1 /7 1 . F i n a l l y , the U n iv e r s ity p e r i o d i c a l l y compiles s t a t i s t i c a l data f o r study by i t s a d m in is tra to rs regarding m in o r ity s t a f f members and obeys th e laws by p u b lis h in g in the student newspaper the U n i v e r s i t y 's AAEP ( a t a cost o f $ 1 ,00 8 on November 2 , 1974). The O f f ic e o f Equal O pportunity Programs was e s ta b lis h e d in 1972 as the campus agency responsible f o r c o o rd in a tin g equal o p p o rtu n ity a c t i v i t i e s . Subsequently ( 1 9 7 3 ) , the o f f i c e was t i t l e d Department o f Human R e la tio n s , a d iv is io n o f the Vice P re sid en t f o r U n iv e r s it y R e la tio n s ' o f f i c e . This o f f i c e ' s estab lishm en t was mandated by law and s p e c i f i c a l l y re q u ire s : . . he o r she should be given the necessary top manage­ . ment support and s t a f f i n g to execute the assignment. should be a person knowledgeable and s e n s it iv e to the problems o f women and m in o r ity groups a u t h o r it y and s t a f f should be accorded th e p o s itio n to ensure the proper implementation o f the program.' . and necessary . . This ^Executive Order No. 11246 as amended, op. c i t . , p. 15. 25 As a p a r t o f the re o r g a n iz a tio n o f the O f f ic e o f Equal O p p ortun ity, the Committee A g ain st D is c rim in a tio n was given extended powers: Any person o r persons having knowledge o f p ro h ib ite d d is ­ c r im in a tio n but w ith o u t a personal g riev an ce , s h a ll have the r i g h t to f i l e w ith th e CAD r e c i t i n g fa c ts o f such a lle g e d d is c r im in a tio n and re q u esting c o r r e c t iv e a c tio n in the same manner as a person aggrieved. Such complain­ ant s h a ll have th e same r i g h t as an aggrieved person to an appeal 1n th e same manner to the A n t i-D is c r im in a t io n J u d ic ia l Board. Such appeals to be e n t i t l e d to co n sid e ra­ t i o n , s h a ll s p e c ify th e t im e , the p la c e , and th e exact n atu re o f the a lle g e d d is c r im in a tio n ; s h a ll s p e c if ic terms the i n d i v i d u a l , group, o rg a n iz a tio n o r o f f i c e b e lie v e d by the complainant to be resp o nsib le f o r the a lle g e d d is c r im in a t io n ; and s h a ll s p e c ify the remedy being sought by the com plainant. Reports on these p e t i ­ tio n s and a c tio n s s h a ll be included in the r e p o r t to th e P resid en t and to the Board o f T r u s t e e s . ' i d e n t i f y in An A n t i- d is c r im in a t io n J u d ic ia l Board was e s ta b lis h e d and r e g u la r reports a re made a v a i l a b l e in c lu d in g the nature o f c la im s , number o f cases, basis f o r d is c r im in a t io n , a d m in is t r a t iv e u n it y in v o lv e d , and d is p o s itio n o f claim s. The MSU Board o f T ru s te e s ' ac tio n s in 1970 were tim e ly as noted by the f a c t t h a t i t s s i s t e r u n i v e r s i t y , the U n iv e r s it y o f M ichigan, was c i t e d in O ctober, 1970, by the Chicago O f f i c e f o r C i v i l Rights and underwent what has been described as a "traum atic 2 compliance re v ie w ." The U n iv e r s it y was ordered t o : 1. Achieve s a la r y e q u ity between males and females. ^Board o f T ru s te e s , MSU A n ti-D is c r im in a tio n P o li c y , A r t i c l e I I , C-3. 2 "Sex D is c rim in a tio n : Campuses Face C ontract Loss Over HEW Demands," Science (November 2 0 , 1970): 834-835. 26 2. Compensate through payment o f back wages, each female employee who lo s t wages through d is c rim in a ­ tio n at the U n iv e rs ity o f Michigan. 3. Achieve a positio ns. r a t i o o f female employees in academic 4. 5. Increase the Ph.D. programs. r a t i o o f female admissions to a l l Increase the p a r tic ip a t io n o f women on comnittees which involve the se lec tio n and treatment o f employees both academic and nonacademic. 6. Develop and issue a w r itt e n statement on nepotism which w i l l assure uniform treatm ent of tandem teams throughout the U n iv e rs ity . 7. Analyze past e ffe c ts o f nepotism and r e t r o a c t iv e l y compensate (t o October 12, 1968) any person who has su ffered d is c rim in a tio n . 8. Assure th a t female ap plicants f o r nonacademic employment receive consideration f o r employment comnensurate w ith t h e i r q u a li f i c a t io n s . 9. Assure th a t a l l female employees be given p r i o r i t y consideration f o r promotions to higher level p o s i­ tion s f o r which they q u a lif y . Again in 1975 the U n iv e rs ity o f Michigan made headlines when a fe d e ra l grant o f $485,000 from the U.S. Department o f H e a lth , Education and W elfare was w ithheld because o f continuing a lle g e d noncompliance with AAEP. In th is s p e c ific instance, the issue involved the f a i l u r e o f the College o f A rts and Sciences to h ir e a Black fem ale, Dr. Jewel Cobb, as Dean o f the College. She had been approved f o r appointment by Michigan's Board o f Regents but neg otiatio ns w ith the College and the Department o f Zoology f a i l e d to r e s u lt in an appointment s a tis fa c to r y to Dr. Cobb.^ MSU was ^ S t a f f , "Michigan Held on Non-Compliance," Lansing S ta te Jo u rn a l, May 18, 1975, p. A-3. 27 warned June, 1975, t h a t funding o f th re e fe d e ra l c o n tra c ts might be w ith h e ld because AAEP agreements were not in o rd e r. HEW delayed a c tio n a g a in s t MSU and 30 u n i v e r s it i e s a f t e r a U n iv e r s it y spokes­ person (Robert P e rrin o f MSU) complained o f the a b b re v ia te d period given u n i v e r s it i e s (two weeks) to comply w ith "sweeping new ru le s . According to th e Carnegie Council on P o lic y Studies in Higher Education, A f f ir m a t iv e A ctio n is today one o f the most im portant issues before the h ig her education conmunity. the l i f e changes o f many in d iv id u a ls and the degree o f Independence o f h ig h e r education from in c re a s in g govern­ mental c o n tro ls . I t involves the highest p r i n c ip l e s o f o f academic and p o l i t i c a l im portant i n t e r e s t groups, and the q u a l i t y o f p u b lic a d m in is tra tio n in an im portant area o f a c t i o n . 2 l i f e , the goals and t a c t i c s o f I t a f f e c t s Review o f MSU's involvement w ith AAEP has shown development o f a p p ro p ria te p o l i c i e s , appointment o f an AAEP o f f i c e r , and p u b li ­ c a tio n o f p e r t in e n t documents. As in the case o f VRS, nothing noted in any o f the documents reviewed speaks to the "human is s u e ," th a t i s , how do employees fe e l about AAEP? What impact is i t b elie v e d to have on t h e i r careers? What c o n tr ib u tio n can an employee make to implementation o f the re g u latio n s ? N e ith e r do the laws take in to account the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a severe economic d e c lin e which would have widespread im p lic a tio n s f o r a l l employers and employees and possibly c o n trib u te s i g n i f i c a n t l y to noncompliance. Discussion o f th is issue fo llo w s . ^ S t a f f , "H.E.W. Ease A f f i r m a t i v e Action Requirement," MSU News B u l l e t i n , Ju ly 3 , 1975, p. 4. 2 Carnegie Council on P o lic y Studies in Higher Education, Making A f f ir m a t iv e Action Jossey-Bass P u b lic a tio n s , 1 9 7 5 ), p. 3. Higher Education (San Francisco: 28 C urrent Economic Factors In e v a lu a tin g th e impact o f AAEP on m in o r itie s as w e ll as employers, one cannot ignore th e r e a l i t y o f the c u rre n t economic recession our n atio n is ex p erie n c in g . Readers o f lo c a l and n a tio n a l newspapers can r e a d i ly f i n d m a te ria ls addressed to the issue o f how la y o f f s and te rm in a tio n s are to be handled, t h a t i s , on th e usual " la s t h ir e d , f i r s t f i r e d " s e n io r i t y basis or on the basis o f the requirements o f c e r t a in AAEP. A spate o f such a r t i c l e s appeared in area newspapers beginning in the f a l l o f 1974 and addressed the issue o f how i n d u s t r i a l and governmental AAEP would be a f f e c t e d by such cutbacks.^ H i s t o r i c a l l y , the p r i n c ip l e follow ed in times o f recession has been " l a s t h ir e d , f i r s t f i r e d " but since 1972 AAEP has been 1n e f f e c t w ith programs which re q u ire e s ta b lis h in g o f d i f f e r e n t balances o f non-Whites and fem ales. Such in d iv id u a ls tend to f a l l under the " l a s t h ired " r u b r ic . T h e re fo re , members o f m in o r ity groups and women have become p i t t e d a g a in s t a much hallowed p r i n c i p l e o f c o l­ l e c t i v e bargaining because s t a te and fe d e ra l laws now p ro te c t t h e i r jobs as opposed to those o f White males employed f o r lo n g e r periods. M arily n Bender, "Job D is c rim in a tio n : 10 Years L a t e r , " New York Times, November 10 , 1974, pp. El and 5; W illia m Chapman, "Last H ir e d , F i r s t F ire d Rule Under F i r e , " Lansing S ta te J o u rn a l, November 17, 1974, p. A22; James K i l p a t r i c k , "Dichotomy in C i v i l R ig h ts ," D e t r o it Free P ress, November 19, 1974, p. A9; W illia m Raspberry, " D is c rim in a tio n v. S e n i o r i t y , " Lansing S ta te J o u r n a l, February 14, 1975, p. A6; A lb e r t Shanker, " A f f ir m a t iv e N a ti onaT Leadership Toward Equal O p p o rtu n ity ," New York Times, November 10, 1974, p. E l5; Chuck S tone, "Quotas Become an Issue P o l i t i c a l l y , Econom ically," D e t r o i t Free P ress, December 24 , 1974, p. A13; and P h i l i p Hager, "Workers With S e n io r it y B a t t l e M in o r ity T h r e a t," Lansing S ta te J o u r n a l, A p r il 2 7 , 1975, p. E l l . 29 Furthermore, companies are caught between two co n tracts: (1) the contract a r riv e d a t through c o lle c t iv e bargaining c a l li n g f o r la y o ffs according to s e n io r i t y and (2 ) contracts reached through neg otiatio ns w ith the fe d e ra l government which re q u ire p r e f e r e n tia l employment o f non-Whites and females since 1972. This l a t t e r population is saying t h e i r jobs must be pro­ tected because they have not been employed long enough to q u a lif y f o r s e n io r it y . White males, on the o th e r hand, say s e n io r it y must reign regardless o f th e upsetting o f r a c i a l balances.^ I t is obvious non-White males and females w i l l be the f i r s t to be d is ­ charged i f s e n io r it y ru les are implemented whereas the converse is tru e i f AAEP is not abolished during the current employment c r i s i s . A prophetic warning about j u s t such a c r i s i s re la te d to the tenuous nature o f Black employment gains was made by Rogers and Bullock in 1972, t h a t i s , before the current recession. 2 3 The Supreme Court o f the United States has ruled th a t AAEP p rin c ip le s w i l l be upheld in respect to h ir in g p ractices but the fa r-re a c h in g and co n tro ve rsia l questions regarding the v a l i d i t y o f company and union s e n io r i t y systems was not a p art o f t h is decision. ^Rone Tempest, "Bias Complaints from Whites Mount," D e tr o it Free Press, December 15, 1974, p. A3. ^H. R. Rogers and C. S. B ullock, I I I , "Black Employment: The Last Hired and F i r s t F ir e d ," in Law and Social Change (New York: McG raw -Hill, 1 9 7 2 ), pp. 113-137: ^J. P. Mackenzie, "Court Backs Bias Victim s' Job S e n io r it y ," The Washington Post, March 25 , 1976, p. A1. 30 Although both MSU and VRS c u r r e n t ly a re coping w ith budgetary problems by f r e e z in g a c t io n s , th a t i s , not f i l l i n g posi­ tio n s vacated by r e t ir e m e n ts , r e s ig n a t io n s , o r d e a th s , the p ossi­ b i l i t y o f governmental u n its and u n i v e r s it i e s having to fo rce cutbacks o f s t a f f is not to be discounted. 1 In t h i s regard Wicker 2 has quoted a Harvard Dean’ s warning to h is f a c u l t y regarding forced re d u c tio n o f f a c u l t y , and Southern I l l i n o i s U n iv e r s it y had the dubious d i s t i n c t i o n o f being the f i r s t u n i v e r s it y to be d is ­ cussed in th e n a tio n a l media when i t d id , in f a c t , re le a s e tenured f a c u l t y because o f economic issues. There is another aspect o f th e AAEP c o n tro ve rsy . Questions are being ra ise d about implementation o f AAEP w ith o u t regard to the q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f newly employed m i n o r it ie s and fem ales. "Reverse d is c r im in a tio n " and "reverse racism" a re now prominent terms in the vocabulary o f many Americans. 3 A re c e n t r u l in g o f the New York State D iv is io n o f Human Rights went beyond th in k in g and f e e l i n g ; namely, an appointment o f a female Puerto Rican was o verturned and a White male assigned as a p r in c ip a l o f a predominantly Puerto Rican school. 4 L ik e w is e , in M ich ig an 's Ingham County C i r c u i t C o u rt, ^ S t a f f , "S tate H ir in g P o lic y C a lle d Too A g g res siv e," Lansing S tate J o u r n a l, December 11 , 1974, p. B1. 2 Tom W icker, " A f f ir m a t iv e A c tio n Needed," New York Times, January 1 2 , 1975, p. E l9. ^Tom W icker, "The Real Reverse o f Racism," New York Times, January 1 9 , 1975, p. E l9. 4 S t a f f , "Bias Comes F u ll C i r c l e ; Reverse B ia s ," New York Times, January 12, 1975, p. D15. 31 the Michigan Employment S e c u rity Commission was ordered to promote a White Male who had been by-passed in fa v o r o f a Black female in 1972.^ F i n a l l y , in Montgomery, Alabama, the N atio n al Education Association j u s t f i l e d s u i t in a fe d e r a l d i s t r i c t co u rt asking the judge to reopen nine s t a f f p o s itio n s r e c e n tly f i l l e d by Blacks. The s u i t a lle g e s t h a t the Blacks were appointed w ith o u t concern f o r q u a li f i c a t io n s and requests t h a t teachers be s e le c te d on the basis o f co m p e titive te s ts on a n o n ra cial b a s is . 2 The N a tio n a l Education A sso ciatio n has been, o f course, the i n s t ig a t o r o f numerous s u its in the l a s t decade designed to open teaching p o s itio n s to Blacks. Now i t is asking th e co u rts to pro­ t e c t Whites. The conundrum o f the NEA is shared by o th e r o rg a n iza ­ t io n s . In Michigan p o s sib ly the best example o f t h i s is the p o s itio n in which the S ta te P o lic e fin d s i t s e l f . I t is being sued in the Grand Rapids Federal D i s t r i c t Court by a White male who a lle g e s "reverse d is c r im in a tio n " because he was not s e le c te d as a r e c r u i t w h ile Black males are accused o f being accepted w ith lower q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . S im ultaneously, the S ta te P o lic e are being sued by a Black male f o r f a i l u r e to comply w ith AAEP. Probably th e most thorough— and s c a th in g --d is c u s s io n o f issues p e r tin e n t to t h i s controversy concerning s e n i o r i t y r i g h t s , reverse d is c r im in a t io n , and the primacy o f the in d iv id u a l versus ^ S t a f f , "White Aide Wins Bias S u it Against S ta te Job Agency," D e t r o it Free P ress, August 30, 1975, p. 2A. ^ S t a f f , "N.E.A. Sues to P ro te c t Jobs o f W h ite s ," New York Times, November 3 0 , 1975, p. B56. 32 redress o f past d is c r im in a to r y p ra c tic e s in v o lv in g e th n ic and so c ia l groups is provided by G la ze r. His p re s e n ta tio n o f the White e th n ic p o l i t i c a l re a c tio n to AAEP is the most p e n e tra tin g a n a ly s is o f t h i s issue. I t is his conclusion t h a t AAEP has grave p o l i t i c a l consequences which t a k e , p r i m a r i l y , the form o f in creasin g re s e n t­ ment between groups. He is t o t a l l y p e s s im is tic about AAEP as an Instrum ent f o r m inim izing and e v e n tu a lly p rev en tin g d is c r im in a tio n in American employment.^ In a d d itio n to the issues o f how the c u rre n t depressed economic co n d itio n s and j u d i c i a l c o n f l i c t s w i l l a f f e c t AAEP, th ere continues to be concern about the f a i l u r e o f employers to reach AAEP 2 h ir in g g o a ls , a problem exacerbated in p a r t by past f a i l u r e o f i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r education to accept q u a l i f i e d m in o r ity s tu - 3 dents in to graduate programs. One must conclude th a t many Ameri­ cans are r e s i s t i n g change in employment p r a c t i c e s , sometimes o v e r t l y , sometimes c o v e r t ly . I t is th e purpose o f t h i s research to study the p erc ep tio n and consequences o f AAEP on one p ortio n o f t h a t AAEP t a r g e t ^ G lazer, op. c i t . ^ S t a f f , "AA Report M ixed," MSU News B u l l e t i n , January 16, 1975, p. 4 ; Peggy G ossett, "M.S.U. F a lls S h o rtT o f AA G oal," MSU S ta te News, January 8 , 1975, p. A1; S. F. W alton, "Black Studies and AA," The Black S cho lar VI (1 9 7 4 ): 21 -3 1 ; S t a f f , "Bias Plays Big P a rt in " H i r i n g , 11 LansTng S ta te J o u rn a l, December 18, 1974, p. D3. 3 Anna Jackson, "Tokenism or T o ta l Involvement?" P ro fes sio n a l Psychology V, 4 (1 9 7 4 ): 4 2 9 -4 3 3 ; Preston V a l i e n , "The Progressive Role o f Blacks in Higher Ed ucation ," Report o f the F i r s t N a tio n a l Congress o f Black P ro fe s s io n a ls in Higfier E d u c atio n , 1973. 33 * p o p u la tio n , namely, Black employees o f two work u n i t s , a study which has not been done and which m e rits examination since i t is r e a d ily apparent t h a t the stakes are h ig h , namely, modify employment procedures o r r i s k lo s in g fe d e ra l d o lla r s w h ile being h u m iliated p u b lic ly f o r being in contempt o f the laws o f th e land. The funda­ mental questions t h is study seeks to answer is t h i s : I f employers do obey AAEP l e g i s l a t i o n , does i t accomplish in the p erception o f Blacks what i t proposes to do? The questions designed to provide enlightenm ent on t h is p o in t a re l i s t e d in th e next s e c tio n . E x p lo rato ry questions AAEP l e g i s l a t i o n could be considered as an a u t h o r i t a t i v e communication emanating from a formal o rg a n iz a tio n (U n ite d States Government, Department o f H e a lth , Education and W e lfa re ) to mem­ bers o f the o rg a n iz a tio n ( a l l agencies and work u n its which accept fe d e ra l monies). According to t h i s model presented by B le e c h e r,1 th e re are two types o f a u t h o r it y in such a s i t u a t i o n , the o b je c tiv e and the s u b je c t iv e . The o b je c tiv e aspect concerns the n atu re o f the coimiunlcation w h ile the s u b je c tiv e r e fe r s to th e personal acceptance o f the a u t h o r i t a t i v e communication by in d iv id u a ls . 2 B le e c h e r's work, based on Barnard's t h e o r i z i n g , sta tes t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l 's a b i l i t y to fo llo w a u t h o r i t a t i v e orders w i l l ^H. B leech er, "The A u th o rita tiv e n e s s o f M ich ig an 's Educa­ t io n a l A c c o u n ta b ility Program" (Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s it y , 1974). 2 C. Barnard, The Functions o f the Executive (Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e r s it y Press, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 165. 34 depend on (1 ) the r e c i p i e n t 's understanding o f the o rd e r, (2 ) th e r e c i p i e n t 's b e l i e f t h a t th e o rd er is c o n s is te n t w ith the purposes o f the o r g a n iz a t io n , ( 3 ) the order is perceived as com­ p a t i b l e w ith h i s / h e r personal i n t e r e s t s , and ( 4 ) he or she is p h y s ic a lly and m e n ta lly ab le to fo llo w the o rd e r. I t is the purpose o f t h i s study to determine how much p e r­ sons d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by AAEP know about the l e g i s l a t i o n ( o b je c t iv e aspect) and how th e y b e lie v e i t has in fluen ced t h e i r careers (sub­ j e c t i v e a s p e c t). I t is r e a d ily ap p a re n t, fu rth e rm o re , t h a t these two aspects o f the Bleecher model are the dependent v a ria b le s in t h is study. The questions asked to make the model s p e c i f ic to VRS and M5U Blacks a re : 1. How informed are su b je cts about AAEP as i t per­ ta in s t o t h e i r p lace o f employment? ( a ) Have subjects had d i f f i c u l t y examining t h e i r employers' w r i t t e n AAEP statements? (b) Are subjects f a m i l i a r w ith the person in charge o f AAEP implementation a t t h e i r place o f employment? (c ) Are subjects aware o f the changes a f f e c t i n g t h e i r employers as a r e s u l t o f AAEP? (d) Do su b jects recognize th a t measures suggested as p o s sib le methods f o r employers to u t i l i z e to improve m in o r it y re p re s e n ta tio n in t h e i r work fo rc e a re not re q u ire d by AAEP? 2. What a re the s u b je c ts ' perceptions o f AAEP's impact on t h e i r careers and liv e s ? (a ) Were subjects helped by AAEP in terms o f job s e c u rity ? 35 (b) Were subjects helped by AAEP in terms o f i n i t i a l re cru itm e n t and h irin g ? ( c ) Were subjects helped by AAEP in terms o f pro­ motions? (d ) Were su bjects helped by AAEP in terms o f s a la r y adjustments? (e ) Were su b jects helped by AAEP in terms o f f r i n g e b e n e fits ? ( f ) Do su b jects perceive w h ite members o f t h e i r employment u n its as b e lie v in g t h a t AAEP is a p o s it iv e experience and program f o r both the employer and employee? (g ) Do su bjects f e e l t h a t they as w e ll as Blacks in general have been helped by AAEP? (h ) Do subjects fe e l t h a t AAEP i s being implemented a t t h e i r p lace o f employment? ( i ) Do subjects themselves accept th e p r i n c ip l e o f AAEP as a p o s it iv e fo rc e in t h e i r liv e s ? To an alyze data in terms o f the s tu d y 's f i v e independent v a ria b le s o f sex, ra n k , present p o s it io n , p o s itio n in 1972 when AAEP was 1n f u l l f o r c e , and ag e , the fo llo w in g questions w i l l be asked: 1. 2. 3. 4 . Is th e re s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e understand­ ing o f AAEP by Black females compared to Black males? Is th e re s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in the understand­ ing o f AAEP by Blacks who hold h ig h e r ranks {Pro­ fe s s o r o r C i v i l S e rvic e 1 4 -p lu s ) versus those in C i v i l S e rv ic e 9 and 10 o r In s tru c to rs ? Is th e re s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e in the understand­ ing o f AAEP by Blacks who are employed a t MSU as opposed to those employed by VRS? Is th e re s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e understand­ ing o f AAEP by Blacks employed a t t h e i r present employment s i t e in 1972 as compared t o those employed elsewhere in 1972? 36 5. Are th e re s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe r e n c e s in the under­ standing o f AAEP by Blacks who are o ld e r than 30 years o f age and those who are younger than 30? 6. 7* 8. Is th e re s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between the percep­ t io n s o f Black males and Black females in regard to AAEP's impact on in d iv id u a l careers? I s th e re s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e perception o f Blacks who hold higher ranks (P ro fe s s o r o r C i v i l S e rv ic e 1 4 -p lu s ) versus those in C i v i l S e rv ic e 9 or In s tru c to rs h ip s in regard to AAEP's impact on i n d i ­ vid ual careers? Is th e re a s ig n if ic a n c e in the p ercep tion o f Blacks who are employed a t MSU versus those employed a t VRS in regard to AAEP's impact on in d iv id u a l careers? 9. Are th e re s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s in perceptions between Blacks employed a t t h e i r present employment s i t e in 1972 as compared to those employed elsewhere in 1972? 10. Are th e re s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s in the perceptions o f subjects le s s than 30 years o f age and those over 30 years o f age in terms o f AAEP's impact on i n d i ­ vid ual careers? These research questions w i l l be t r a n s la t e d i n t o t e s t a b le hypotheses f o r s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly sis in Chapter I I I . I t i s im portant to conduct t h i s study f o r two major reasons: F i r s t , the t a r g e t population o f t h is l e g i s l a t i o n is m in o r ity people but no e m p iric a l data e x is ts t o describe how e f f e c t i v e 1t has been from the p ercep tion o f one p a r t o f the t a r g e t p o p u la tio n , namely, Blacks employed in w h i t e - c o l l a r o r p ro fess io n al le v e l jo b s . Secondly, th ere is no e m p iric a l data known to e x i s t which in d ic a te s i f one portion o f th e t a r g e t p op ulatio n even understands what the l e g i s l a ­ tio n re q u ire s . In an i n d i r e c t fa s h io n , i t is also p o s sib le t h a t an alysis o f d ata w i l l in d ic a te the existence o f p o s sib le unintended 37 e f f e c t s o f the l e g i s l a t i o n , e . g . , e s c a la tio n o f more s u b tle forms o f r a c i a l d is c r im in a t io n . The fin d in g s have im p lic a tio n s f o r o th e r groups such as women and various e th n ic p opulations. The Blacks stu d ie d h ere, then, can serve as a model f o r o th e r groups in government employment and, h o p e fu lly , can help those o f us in a d m in is t r a t iv e p o s itio n s to b e t t e r u t i l i z e a p p ro p r ia te a d m in is tr a tiv e p r in c ip le s in attem p tin g to e ra d ic a te d is c r im in a tio n in p u b lic p o lic y and personnel p r a c tic e s . Summary This study o f how Black f a c u l t y members a t MSU and Black p ro fession al s t a f f a t VRS p erceive AAEP needs to be done because o f the p a u c ity o f in fo rm a tio n found addressed to the issue o f how one p ortio n o f the t a r g e t population to which AAEP i*-, addressed under­ stands the leg al requirements and how the l e g i s l a t i o n is perceived as a f f e c t i n g t h e i r c a re e rs . In t h i s i n i t i a l c h a p te r, a review o f the l e g i s l a t i o n and o th e r fe d e ra l governmental a c tio n s which com­ p ris e AAEP has been presented. Factors r e la te d to the economic recession c u r r e n t ly being experienced in t h is n atio n have been discussed as they r e l a t e to compliance and noncompliance w ith AAEP and as they b rin g to the general p u b lic 's a t t e n t i o n t h a t jobs f o r m in o r it ie s may mean c e r ta in s a c r i f i c e s f o r White p eo ple, e s p e c ia lly White males. F i n a l l y , the employers o f the Blacks stu d ie d in t h is p r o je c t have been described in terms o f the development o f t h e i r AAEP plans. CHAPTER I I A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Purpose In o rd e r to comprehend why AAEP seemed necessary, a presen­ t a t i o n w i l l be made in t h is ch apter o f m a te r ia ls showing the fa c to r s leading to enactment o f AAEP. Court cases based on the l e g i s l a t i o n also w i l l be presented as w i l l the meager research done thus f a r on questions p e r ta in in g to AAEP. The reader w i l l note t h a t th e re is no em pirical data to speak o f concerning how Blacks employed in a governmental agency o r u n i v e r s it y f a c u l t y b e lie v e AAEP to in flu e n c e t h e i r careers and th e re is no data a t a l l to i n d ic a te e x a c tly what Blacks in such work s ta tio n s b e lie v e AAEP to be. F i n a l l y , a key A ff ir m a t iv e A ction o f f i c e r a t a major u n i v e r s it y has spoken o f the need f o r a d m in is tra to rs to have data which t h i s p r o je c t can provide.^ The purpose o f t h i s c h a p te r is t h r e e f o l d : 1. To d escrib e the economic, edu catio nal and employ­ ment issues which p r e c ip it a t e d AAEP. 2. To l i s t examples o f l i t i g a t i o n s , e s p e c ia lly those which preceded 1972 AAEP. 3. To examine research generated by AAEP. ^Personal communication, Dr. Joseph M c M illa n , December 3 , 1974. 38 39 P r e c ip it a n ts o f A f f i r m a t i v e A ctio n L e g is la tio n U nderlying AAEP 1s th e hypothesis t h a t achievement d i f f e r ­ ences between r a c i a l , e t h n ic , r e l i g i o u s , and sexual groups can be e ra d ic a te d i f changes are made in the e x te rn a l environment o f such groups. T his assumption suggests th a t th e re is a n a tu ra l e q u a l i t y o f a b i l i t y which has been fragm ented, e x p lo ite d , and sometimes even destroyed by n e fa rio u s fo rce s in the environment, the most g la r in g example o f which is d is c r im in a t io n . For Blacks the read er w i l l recognize t h a t one special stim ulus complex p e r t a in s , namely, Ameri­ can Blacks were held in s la v e ry in t h is country f o r two and o n e -h a lf ce n tu rie s where they w ere, w ith few e x ce p tio n s , kept i l l i t e r a t e , p ro p e rty le s s , and w ithout jo b s k i l l s . F am ilies were separated by t h is peonage system^ and governmental agencies designed to h e lp , e . g . , w e lfa r e o r g a n iz a tio n s , were perceived as m otivated to crush personal a s p i r a t i o n , the r e s u l t being the s o -c a lle d "slum m e n t a l it y ." There a r e , o f course, seemingly p r in c ip le d persons w ith academic and occupational s ta tu s who cannot accept the hypothesis t h a t removing e x te rn a l b a r r i e r s such as d is c r im in a to ry p ra c tic e s in employment and education w i l l a l t e r d ra m a tic a lly the w e ll-b e in g o f Blacks in p a r t i c u l a r . 2 Jenson questions whether Blacks have the C. C. K i l 1ingsworth, "Jobs and Incomes f o r Negroes," in I . Katz and P a t r i c i a Gurin ( e d s . ) . Race and th e Social Sciences (New York: Basic Books, 1 9 6 9 ), pp. 1974-273. 2 A. R. Jensen, Educational D iffe re n c e s (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1974). 40 same I n t e l l e c t u a l endowment as Whites whereas Katz and Gurin^ point to data which suggests t h a t p e r s o n a lit y a t t r i b u t e s , a t t i t u d e s and values set the Black in d iv id u a l a p a r t from his White c o u n te rp a rt. Moynihan studied Black f a m ilie s and aroused co n siderable contro­ 2 versy and an im o sity w ith in the Black community when he used emotion- laden terms such as a " ta n g le o f pathology" when d e s c rib in g Black fa m ilie s and when he suggested t h a t a m a jo rity o f Blacks a re products o f i l l e g i t i m a c y , a re reared in fa th e r le s s homes and engage in c rim in a l a c t i v i t i e s , a l l Blacks are employed as p r o s t i t u t e s , h u s t le r s , e n t e r t a in e r s o r a t h le t e s i f employed a t a l l , and so f o r t h . I t is because o f w r itin g s l i k e t h is t h a t the cu rren t g en eration of Blacks p ro d u c tiv e ly employed in the co m p e titive la b o r m a rk e t, e s p e c ia lly those holding appointments in i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r edu­ c a t io n , a re lo a th e to p a r t i c i p a t e in research e f f o r t s designed to i s o l a t e and c l a r i f y v a ria b le s which could lead to a Psychology of 3 Blackness. Despite such sampling problems, i t is s t i l l in s t r u c t iv e to examine several o f the b a r r ie r s o r fa c to rs which seem to have a bearing on the academic and vocational achievements o f Blacks. ^1. Katz and P a t r i c i a Gurin ( e d s . ) , "Personal D iffe r e n c e s ," Race and the Social Sciences (New York: Basic Books, 19691. d d . 3 5 2 - 3 8 7 .--------------------------------------------- 2 D. P. Moynihan, The Negro Fam ily: A Case f o r N a tio n al A ction (Washington, D .C .: U.S. Department of Labor, 1 9 6 5 ). 3 W. Moore and L. H. W a g s ta ff, Black Educators in White Col­ leges (San Francisco: "Wnite Research in Black Communities: When Solutions Becomes a Part o f the Problem," Journal o f Social Is s u e s 29, 1 (1 9 7 3 ): 4 1 -4 4 ; D. W. Sue and S. Sue, "Ethnic M i n o r i t i e s : Resistance to Being Researched," P ro fes sio n a l Psychology 3 , 1 (1 9 7 2 ): 1 1 -1 7 . Jossey-Bass, 1 9 7 4 ), p. 15; W. F. B r a z z i e l , 41 Educational O p p o rtu n itie s The c l a s s ic document d e s c rib in g and a n a ly zin g the e f f e c t s o f r a c ia l I s o l a t i o n on educational achievement o f Blacks is the Coleman r e p o r t.^ A tte n tio n w i l l be given to t h i s re p o rt because many experts b e lie v e th a t th e re is . . no i n s t i t u t i o n more c e n tra l to the process o f in c lu s io n ( o f Blacks in to American 2 s o c ie ty ) than p u b lic ed u c a tio n ." The consequences o f t h i s d i s ­ c rim in a tio n 1n te r n s o f vocational parameters has been described by C r a in .^ The more s a l i e n t points o f the Coleman re p o rt concerning s e g r e g a tio n /r a c ia l is o la t io n a re : Ninety-seven percent o f Black f i r s t graders in th e urban south were atte n d in g predominantly Black schools in 1965. Seventy-two percent o f Black youths In the urban north were in predominantly Black schools in 1965. S i m i l a r fig u re s were found to e x is t f o r White c h ild re n in 1965; namely, 80 percent o f White c h ild re n in both the f i r s t and t w e l f t h grades were in 90 to 100 percent White schools. 4 At t h a t tim e , Coleman's fig u re s In d ic a te d t h a t segregation was in c re as in g as did the f i g ­ ures o f the U nited States Commission on C i v i l Rights^ which to n , D .C .: U.S. Government P r i n t in g O f f i c e , 1 9 6 6 ). Coleman, E q u a lity o f Educational O pportunity (Washing­ 2 T. E. P e ttig re w , "The Negro and Education: Problems and in I . Katz and P a t r i c i a Gurin ( e d s . ) , Race and th e Proposals," Social Sciences (New York: Basic Books, 1 9 6 9 ), pp. 49-112. 3 R. C r a in , "School In t e g r a t io n and Occupational Achievement o f Negroes," American Journal o f Sociology (1 9 7 0 ): 593-606. 4 Coleman, op. c i t . , pp. 3 - 7 . 5 United S ta te s Conmission on C i v i l R ig h ts , 1 (1 9 6 7 ), p. 8 . 42 reported t h a t Black elementary en ro llm en t had doubled over the period o f 1950 to 1965 y e t th e number in predominantly Black schools had t r i p l e d . More c u rre n t data supporting e s c a la tio n i s a v a i l a b l e from Chicago. Twenty-two o f i t s high schools are 99 percent B lac k, one is 99 percent W h ite, and e ig h t a re more than 95 percent Black or White. Seventy-two percent o f Chicago's students a re Black o f Spanish speaking. According to King's a n a ly s is o f t h i s d ata: In 1966 i t s schools were becoming more t i g h t l y segregated. Today Chicago's 530,000 p u p ils are even more t i g h t l y segre­ gated as more than 10,000 w h ite students have been le a v in g th e c i t y each y e a r . Both elementary and high school s tu ­ dents are f a l l i n g below the n a tio n a l average in reading and a r ith m e tic s k i l l s . * Academic Achievement The Coleman re p o rt found achievement d iffe r e n c e s a t a l l aca­ demic le v e ls but p a r t i c u l a r l y in the upper grades. By way o f example, in the n o r th e a s t, Black students in the t w e l f t h grade were found to fu nctio n 3 . 3 years below Whites on stand ard ized achievement t e s t s . Blacks in th e n in th grade were 2 .4 years behind Whites and Blacks in the s ix t h grade were 1 .6 years below the median White scores. K illin g s w o r th comnented, " I t was reasonable to assume th a t these achievement d iffe re n c e s are not a recent development." 2 ^S. S. King, "Chicago Seeking New School Head," New York Times, J u ly 6 , 1975, p. B40. 2 K illin g s w o r t h , op. c i t . , p. 294. 43 I t was t h i s kind o f data which gave impetus to th e d e v e l­ opment o f compensatory programs l i k e Head S t a r t and e s c a la te d demands by many d i f f e r e n t people f o r f u l l s c ale p u b lic school in te g r a t io n . Economic Precursors and Consequences Bergman^ reviewed data and th e o rie s concerning employment d is c r im in a tio n . A t t e n t io n was d ir e c te d to years w e ll past th e emancipation o f s la v e s . Beginning in 1922, f o r example, th e o rie s were presented which attempted to e x p la in lower pay scales f o r 2 Blacks in t h is n a tio n . Edgeworth is quoted as a t t r i b u t i n g lower pay to the f a c t t h a t Blacks are crowded i n t o a co m p a rativ ely small number o f low -payin g, u n s k ille d and s e m i- s k ille d jo b s . Taussig responded to the issue o f why such jobs d id not a c t u a l l y pay work­ men more since t h e o r e t i c a l l y th e re should be the p r i n c i p l e o f supply and demand h e re , t h a t i s , fewer people want t h i s kind o f work and those who do accept such p o s itio n s , a c c o rd in g ly , should be paid more. His response was th a t c e r t a in groups, in t h i s case B lacks, simply a re not p erm itted to compete f o r more p leasan t jobs and, t h e r e f o r e , a re crowded in to the same jobs Edgeworth described. ^Barbara Bergman, "The E ffe c ts on White Incomes o f D is ­ c rim in a tio n in Employment," Journal o f P o l i t i c a l Economy 79 (1 9 7 1 ): 294-313. 2 F. Y. Edgeworth, "Equal Pay to Men and Women," Journal o f Economics 32 (1 9 2 2 ): 4 3 1 -5 7 , as reviewed in Bergman, op. c i t . , p. 294. 3 F. W. T a u s s ig , P rin c ip le s o f Economics (New York: Mac­ m i l l a n , 1 9 2 3 ), as reviewed in Bergman, op. c i t . , p. 294. 44 Bergman had no d i f f i c u l t y s u b s ta n tia tin g t h a t Blacks continue to be o v e r-re p re s e n te d in th e lowest p o s itio n s o f the co m p etitive la b o r m a rk et's h ie ra rc h y . She then asked th e question: What are the economic consequences o f t h i s d is c r im in a tio n and what losses might Whites in c u r i f in t e g r a t i o n o f employment were to occur? There were r is k s involved in such a study. She weighed them and decided: I f losses were not la r g e ( f o r W h ite s ), data w it h which to a l l a y fe a rs and promote f a i r e r arrangements would be p ro vid e d . I f losses were going to be severe, th e knowledge would be used "in planning economic p o lic ie s which would make t r a n s i t i o n le s s p a i n f u l , in c lu d in g p o s sib ly measures to compensate the l o s e r s . " 1 Her major conclusion was t h a t ending employment d is c r im in a tio n would not have a major e f f e c t on ra te s o f pay f o r W hites. Whites a t th e lowest end o f the education continuum would experience the most d e le te rio u s e f f e c t s . Perhaps T ab le 1 best d e p ic ts those occupations which would be opened to Blacks were t o t a l job in te g r a t io n to occur. The re a d e r's a t t e n t io n i s drawn to the f i r s t l i s t i n g s , Occupations Where Negroes Are Underemployed (see Table 1 ) . Other researchers on t h i s to p ic o f occupational and remunera- t io n b e n e fits f o r Whites a t the expense o f Blacks in c lu d e Glenn 4 and Krueger. K illin g s w o rth examined t h i s issue and commented: 3 Bergman, op. c 1 t . , p. 295. ^ I b i d . , p. 296. 3 N. D. Glenn, "Occupational B e n e fits to Whites from the Sub­ o rd in a tio n o f Negroes," American Sociology Review 28 (1 9 6 3 ): 443-48. 4 A. 0. Krueger, "The Economics o f D is c r im in a tio n ," Journal o f P o l i t i c a l Economy 71 (1 9 6 3 ): 48 1 -8 7 . TABLE 2 .1 .—Nonwhite Representation in Occupations fn Which M ajority Are Not High School Graduates (Thousands of Males, 25-64, I960). Number of Workers (A ll Races)3 Nonwh1tesa Nonwhites Expected Number Actual Number Occupations Where Negroes Are Underrepresented Occupation Farmers and farm managers Carpenters Electricians Foremen (n.e.c.)*5 Locomotive engineers Machinists Mechanics and repairmen Automobile mechanics and repairmen Painters, construction and maintenance Plumbers and p ip e fitte rs Toolmakers, diemakers, and setters Other construction craftsmen Other metal craftsmen Other p rin tin g craftsmen A ll other craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers Mine operatives and laborers (n .e .c .) Protective service workers A ll other farm laborers and foremen 1,818 775 319 1,052 50 444 1,926 581 339 295 167 306 399 108 957 278 586 39 124 40 7 20 0 12 117 45 25 11 0 17 22 2 47 16 25 3 199 85 26 88 5 40 189 61 38 29 13 34 40 8 92 36 50 4 Actual Less Expected Nonwhites -75 -45 -19 -68 - 5 -28 -72 -16 -13 -18 -13 -17 -18 - 6 -45 -20 -25 - 1 TABLE 2.1.--Continued. Occupation Bus drivers Number o f Workers (A ll Races)3 Actual Number Nonwhites3 Expected Number Nonwhites Actual Less Expected Nonwhites Occupations Where Negroes Are Within 10% o f Expected Employment Other specified operatives and kindred workers Operatives and kindred workers (n .e .c.) Barbers 148 2,711 2,789 137 14 283 317 13 Occupations Where Negroes Are Overrepresented Shipping and receiving clerks Brickmasons, stonemasons and t i l e setters Cement and concrete finishers Plasterers Truck and tra c to r drivers A ll other service workers including private household Farm laborers, wage workers Laborers, except farm and mine 200 172 42 45 1,350 1,298 632 2,341 24 23 13 7 201 414 178 681 15 284 320 14 19 19 5 5 159 157 106 324 - 1 - 1 - 3 - 1 + 5 + 4 + 8 + 2 +42 +257 +72 +357 3U.S. Bureau o f the Census, U.S. Census of Population: 1960, Occupation by Earnings and Education (Washington, O.C.: Government P rinting O ffice, 1963). n.e,c. = not elsewhere c la s s ifie d . 47 The f a c t t h a t Negroes 1n th e middle le v e ls o f educational a tta in m e n t, t h a t i s , nine to tw elve years o f sc h o o lin g , s u f f e r th e highest le v e ls o f unemployment ra te s and t h a t Negro c o lle g e graduates s u f f e r d is p r o p o r t io n a t e ly high ra te s r e l a t i v e to w h ite s , are th e most d is tu r b in g aspects o f Negro unemployment p a tte rn s in v e s t an equal number o f years o f t h e i r l i v e s in formal ed u ca tio n , the r e s u lts are h ig h ly unequal employment s e c u r i t y . 1 When Negroes in terms o f . . . . W illia m s ' study o f Black middle and upper le v e l executives updates K illin g s w o r th 's m a t e r ia l ; he re fu te s the p o in t t h a t the problem is r e la te d to t h e i r being r e l a t i v e l y few p ro p e rly tr a in e d Black admin­ i s t r a t o r s : " . . . these i n d i v i d u a l s , when th ey a r e ready to func­ t i o n , r e a l l y do not have anywhere to go. They a re lim it e d in the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p o s itio n s and the m o b il i t y o f p o s i t i o n s . ” 2 Rogers and Bullock a ls o examined Black employment w ith special a t t e n t io n given to governmental p ra c tic e s a t both the s t a te and fe d e ra l l e v e l s . "By 1970 m in o r it ie s s t i l l held few o f the b e t - t e r Federal jobs {le s s than 2%)" and " s t a t e and lo c a l governments have done very l i t t l e to change employment p ra c tic e s o r a t t r a c t m in o r itie s to government se rv ices and in many cases are o v e r t ly 4 d is c r im in a tin g ag ain st m i n o r i t i e s . " D e w itt is somewhat more o p t i ­ m is tic but s t i l l cautious in regard to Black o p p o r tu n itie s a t a l l p o s itio n s on the employment la d d e r. 5 ^ K illin g s w o r th , op. c i t . , p. 231. 2 C. W illia m s , "Employing the Black A d m in is tr a to r ," Public Personnel Management ( M a r c h /A p r il, 1975): 76. 3 Rogers and B u llo c k , op. c i t . , p. 119. 4 I b i d . , p. 124. 5 Karen D e w itt, "Black Employment: B e t t e r But Not Yet F a i r , " Black E n t e r p r is e , March, 1974, pp. 24 -25 . Sex D is c rim in a tio n 48 A s tin and Bayer most e f f e c t i v e l y describ e how women f a r e in higher education as compared to t h e i r male co u n te rp arts .^ In terms o f a l l academic rewards such as ra n k , te n u r e , s a l a r y , teaching lo a d s , nonteaching r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , a d v is in g and academic work s e t t i n g , the authors had no d i f f i c u l t y p o in tin g to employment d is c r im in a tio n up to 1972. This conclusion was based on em p iric al data and l i t e r a t u r e reviews. In a d d itio n to documenting the disadvantaged p o s itio n o f the female employed in academe, they describ e how sex d is c rim in a tio n begins e a r l y in the fe m a le 's l i f e , as did Rosenkrantz e t a l . The l a t t e r studied sex r o le stereotypes and s e lf-c o n c e p ts and t h e i r v a lu a t io n , t h a t i s , how behaviors " s t e r e o t y p i c a ll y asso­ c ia te d w ith m a s c u lin ity are s o c i a l l y d e s ir a b le compared w ith those 2 associated w ith f e m i n i n i t y . " A more recent review o f these Issues w ith sp e c ia l a t t e n t i o n to th e sp e cial problems o f Black women and w ith a broader coverage o f the employment s ta tio n s is provided by Pendergrass e t a l . 3 Proposals f o r e f f e c t i n g change in o th e r than leg al ways a re beginning to appear as evidenced by the work o f Ko tzin. 4 ^Helen A s tin and A. E. Bayer, "Sex D is c rim in a tio n in Academe," Educational Record 53 (1 9 7 2 ): 101-18. 2 R. Rosenkrantz, Susan V o g e l, Helen Bee, and Inge Broverman, "Sex Role Stereotypes and Self-Concepts in College S tu d e n ts ," Journal o f Consulting and C l i n i c a l Psychology 32, 3 (1 9 6 8 ): 293-99. V i r g i n i a Pendergrass, E lle n Kimmel, Joan J o e s tin g , Joyce Peterson, and E n dilee Bush, "Sex D is c rim in a tio n Counseling," Ameri­ can Psychologist 3 1 . 1 (1 9 7 6 ): 3 6 -4 6 . 4 M iria n K o tz in , "Women, L ik e Blacks and O r i e n t a l s , " Media and Methods (March 1972): 18-22. 49 Most work on th e issue o f sex d is c r im in a tio n addresses i t s e l f to u n i v e r s it y employment a t th e f a c u l t y l e v e l . U n iv e r s it ie s are being asked to deal w ith the two-pronged problem o f r e c t i f y i n g job d is c r im in a tio n f o r females w h ile addressing research s k i l l s to e r a d ic a tio n o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l sexism w hich , among o th e r th in g s , " r e s t r i c t s the goals and a s p ir a tio n s o f women compared to men and which ta k e place b e fo re women accept appointments on academic This same p o in t has been made by Goodman and Gold- 2 1 f a c u l t i e s . " 3 s t e i n . More data is a v a i l a b l e from a 1969 study o f c o lle g e p o si- tio n s by the U.S. Cormission on C i v i l R ights. 4 Blacks had 2 .2 p e r­ cent and women 19.1 percent o f c o lle g e and u n iv e r s it y p o s itio n s . This kind o f data led Barnes to conclude t h a t equal o p p o rtu n ity r e a l l y does not e x i s t In higher e d u ca tio n . 5 The sexual d is c r im in a tio n issue is complicated by a n t i - nepotism ru le s which by 1970 were s t i l l being enforced by 55 percent o f the 454 i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher education studied by Oltman.® ^Astin and Bayer, op. c i t . , p. 117. 2 L. V. Goodman, "Women's New Found Muscle," American Educa­ tio n , December 1972, in s id e cover. 3 Jinny G o ld s te in , " A f f ir m a t iv e A ctio n : Equal Employment Rights f o r Women in Academia," Teachers Colleqe Record 74 (1973): 395-422. 4 United S tate s Commission on C i v i l R ig h ts , Statement o f A f f i r m a t i v e Action f o r Equal Employment O p p o rtu n itie s by the United S tate s Commission on C i v i l Rights (Washington, D .C .: U.S. Govern­ ment P r in t in g O f f i c e , 1969). 5 F. J . Barnes, "Equal O pportunity in Higher Education ," Journal o f Negro Education 37 (1 9 6 8 ): 3 1 0 -1 5 . ^R. M. Oltman, "Campus— 1970— Where Do Women Stand?" American A sso ciatio n o f U n iv e r s it y Women's Journal 64 (1 9 7 0 ): 1 4 -1 5 . 50 This is a curious f in d in g given the f a c t t h a t Dolan and D a v is 's e a r l i e r study sample o f 285 c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s rep o rted only 26.3 percent having a n ti-n e p o tis m re g u la tio n s and 18 .2 percent “become r e s t r i c t i v e in some s i t u a t i o n s . " 1 In o th e r words, Dolan and Davis found less than 50 percent o f t h e i r sample having a nepo­ tism b a r r i e r whereas ten years l a t e r Oltman seems to be re p o rtin g j u s t the o p p o s ite . A r a th e r strong polemic regard ing t h i s and o th e r issues regarding employment o f women in c o lle g e s and u n iv e r- 2 si t i e s was presented by Fley fo llo w in g C o lleg e and U n iv e r s it y Business’ s o u t l in e o f what steps would have to be taken i f i n s t i ­ tu tio n s were to make a f i r m conmitment to sexual e q u a l i t y in empl oyment. ^ Other data comes from D u lle a concerning p u b lic school edu­ c a tio n . She noted t h a t men occupy 80 percent o f elem entary school p rin c ip a ls h ip s in t h i s n atio n (up from 41 p ercen t in th e 1940s and 69 percent in the 1960s ) w h ile 98 percent o f a l l secondary school p rin c ip a ls h ip s are held by men and 99 p ercen t o f a l l su p erin ten d ­ e n t's p o s itio n s are occupied by males. One wonders, p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y , E l e a n o r Dolan and M argaret D a v is , "A nti-N epotism Rules in American Colleges and U n i v e r s i t i e s : T h e ir E f f e c t on th e F ac u lty Employment o f Women," The Educational Record 4 1 , 2 (1 9 6 0 ): 288-294. 2 Jo Ann F le y , "The Time to Be P ro p e rly V ic io u s ," J ournal o f the N a tio n a l A sso ciatio n f o r Women Deans, A d m in is tra to rs , and Counselors (W in te r 1974): 53-58 3 " P o lic ie s and P ra c tic e s Should R e f le c t C o lle g e Commitment to E q u a lit y ," C ollege and U n iv e r s ity Business 48 (1 9 7 0 ): 79-81. ^Georgia D u lle a , "Women in Classrooms, Not th e P r i n c i p a l 's O f f i c e , " New York Times, J u ly 13, 1975, p. D9. 51 what t h i s says to the 26 percent o f Columbia U n iv e rs ity 's doctoral students in Educational A dm inistration who are females.^ Epstein has studied Black females defined as "professionals" In the occupational w orld. 2 Although th e re have been Impressive gains in the t r a in in g and employment o f Black females f o r the pro­ fessions, e . g . , between 1960 and 1970 female a r c h ite c ts increased in numbers from 0 to 107, attorneys from 222 to 497, and physicians 3 from 487 to 1,8 5 5 , the author had no d i f f i c u l t y documenting the Black fem ale's unique d is t in c t io n o f facing "double d is c r im in a tio n ." The m a jo r ity o f her sample began t h e i r employment in "protected work s e t t in g s ," namely, governmental u n it s , p u b lic health c l i n i c s and the l i k e where s a la r ie s are le s s , status is in q uestion , and advancement p o s s i b i l i t i e s minimal. Epstein noted t h a t Black females sometimes did r e l a t i v e l y b e tte r than Black male professionals possibly because Black females h i s t o r i c a l l y had had more access to White s o c ie ty . Black females pay a p ric e f o r t h is status d i f f e r e n t i a l w ith Black males, namely, fewer Black females marry and those th a t do have higher divorce ^National Education Association Research D iv is io n , "Status o f Public School Teachers, 1965," NEA Research B u lle t in 43 (1 9 6 5 ): 43. 2 Cynthia Ep stein , "Black and Female: The Double Whanmy," Psychology Today (August 1973): 57-61 , 89. 3 E p s te in , op. c i t . , p. 57. 52 rates than the re s t o f the p o p u la tio n .1 Dynamics causing such male-female d is tre s s are a r t ic u la t e d by Pendergrass e t a l . 2 Abzug has presented o th e r data about m in o rity females, Her statement demands p a r t i c u l a r emphasis: But w hile our leg al protections have grown s tro n g e r, we have been g r e a tly remiss 1n using them. Our f a i l u r e is r e f le c te d in the continuing d is p ro p o rtio n ate economic s ta ­ tus o f m in o r itie s . The median income o f Black fa m ilie s has remained In the range o f 55 to 50% o f the w hite fa m ily Income since World War I I . the Black median fa m ily income dropped from 61 to 59% o f th a t o f whites. In f a c t , from 1970 to 1972, The human costs o f our f a i l u r e to end employment d i s ­ crim in a tio n is in c a lc u la b le . We have no s t a t i s t i c a l mea­ sure f o r the f r u s t r a t io n and anger or loss o f se lf-e ste em suffered by those o f our c it iz e n s who know they have been denied a f a i r and equal chance to support themselves and t h e i r fa m ilie s . M in o rity women are a t the bottom o f the occupational ladder. T w e n ty -fiv e percent o f non-white women a re in the lowest paying occupation as p riv a te household workers. Non-white women make up h a l f o f a l l women in th is occupa­ t io n . On the o th e r hand, in 1971, only 31% o f non-white women held w hite c o l l a r jobs w hile 60.5% o f a l l women workers held such jobs. M in o rity women also earn considerably less and s u f f e r higher unemployment than any other worker. median annual incomes f o r f u l l - t i m e workers were as f o l ­ lows: white males = $9 ,3 7 3 ; Black males = $6,598; w h ite females = $5,490; Black women = $4,674. The unemployment ra te f o r men in 1972 was 4.9% compared w ith 6.6% f o r a l l women and 8.7% f o r m in o rity women. Black teenage women had an unemployment r a t e o f 36%. And those fig u re s have increased very considerably in the recent period o f a c c e l­ erated unemployment. ^ In 1970, C y n th ia Epstein, "Successful Black Professional Women, American Journal o f Sociology 78 (1972): 78-89. 2 3 Pendergrass e t a l . , op. c i t . , pp. 43-45. B e lla Abzug, "Women M in o r itie s and A ffir m a tiv e A c tio n , New York Times. Novenber 7 , 1973, p. A27. 53 L i t i g a t i o n Passing l e g i s l a t i o n o r issuing e x e c u tiv e orders has not pro­ vided s tr a ig h tfo r w a r d , unquestioned s o lu tio n s to the problems o f unemployment d is c r im in a t io n . To begin w i t h , enforcement o f th e laws has not been widespread. T i t l e V I I o f the 1964 C i v i l Rights Act contains weak enforcement powers, a s i t u a t i o n Executive Order 11246 was to c o r r e c t. According to Rogers and B u llo c k , compliance is not being enforced because compliance agencies a re u n d e rs ta ffe d o r enforcement machinery is i n f i n i t e l y complex an d /o r o f f i c e s entrusted w ith enforcement dawdle in t h e i r a t t e n t i o n to the is s u e s .1 The p o in t o f " t r y in g to k i l l an elephant w ith a f l y sw atter" v ia the C i v i l Rights Act o f 1964 and Executive Order 11246 a ls o was documented in a 1970 U.S. Commission on C i v i l Rights re p o rt. 2 N e v e rth e le s s , one can f in d a lengthy l i s t i n g o f co u rt ru lin g s concerning various aspects o f compliance. I l l u s t r a t i o n s o f le g a l opinions d e liv e r e d up to 1971 are as fo llo w s : Bowe e t a l . v. C o lg a te-P a lm o live Company : 3 Employer's r ig h ts to s e t , in good f a i t h , employment requirements based on sex was a ffirm e d . In t h i s case, the company had a 35 pound maximum weight l i f t i n g r e s t r i c t i o n f o r females and a s e n i o r i t y l i s t segrega­ ted by sex (so sometimes females w ith more s e n i o r i t y than men were R o g ers and B u llo c k , op. c i t . , p. 133. 2 U.S. Commission on C i v i l R ig h ts , Federal C i v i l Rights Enforcement E f f o r t (Washington, D .C .: Government P r in tin g O f f i c e , 1970). 3 Bowe e t a l . v. C o lg a te-P a lm o live Company, 272 F. Supp., 332 (19 67 ). 54 l a i d o f f f i r s t ) . The judge ruled t h a t i t was not p r a c t i c a l f o r a p la n t e x e c u tiv e to assess physical a b i l i t i e s and c a p a b i l i t i e s f o r each female on each general la b o rin g j o b . Furthermore* i t was determined t h a t issues r e la t e d to the s e n i o r i t y system would be negotiated o u ts id e the c o u r t 's j u r i s d i c t i o n . C la rk v. Hayes In t e r n a t io n a l C o rp o ra tio n ^ : A f f i r m a t i v e Action plans were not to be adm inistered in d isregard to th e issues o f e f f i c i e n c y and a b i l i t y , an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n which 1s not f u l l y understood to t h i s day since opponents o f the program con­ tin u e to speak o f AAEP as ig n o rin g q u a l i f i c a t i o n s in the i n t e r e s t o f c o lo r , sex, r e l i g i o n , n a tio n a l o r i g i n * and race. Georgia Power Company v. Equal Employment O pportunity Com- 2 mission : This r u l i n g held t h a t companies can be re q u ire d to preserve s t a t i s t i c a l data about AAEP u t i l i z a t i o n up to f i v e ye ars. Another AAEP s u i t ag a in s t t h is company was r e c e n tly s e t t l e d f o r two m i l li o n d o l l a r s . Meeks v. Southern B e ll Telephone, Cheatwood v. South 4 Central B ell Telephone^: These decisions c a lle d f o r th e h ir in g o f ^Clark v. Hayes I n t e r n a t io n a l C o rp o ra tio n , 0. C. A l a . , 295, F. S upp., 803 (1 9 6 8 ). 2 Georgia Power Company v. Equal Employment O pportunity Com­ mission, 295, F. Supp., 950 412 F. 2nd 426 (1 9 6 8 ). 3 S t a f f , "Court Orders Back Pay f o r Victim s o f Job B ia s ," D e t r o it Free P re ss, June 2 6 , 1975, pp. 1 -2 . 4Weeks v . Southern B e ll Telephone, 70 LRRM 2483, I FEP Cases, 656 (1 9 6 9 ). 5 Cheatwood v. Southern B e ll Telephone, U .S .D .C .M ., A l a . , 2 FEP Cases, 33 (1 9 6 9 ). 55 women d e s p ite how strenuous the work was, the n ig h t hours one had to work, and r u r a l canvassing. R osenfield v. Southern P a c i f ic Company1 : The Bowe e t a l . v. C o lgate-P alm olive was o v e rtu rn e d , t h a t i s , a C a l i f o r n i a law regu­ l a t i n g w eight l i f t i n g and hours worked f o r females was d eclared i 11ega1. Jackson v. V e ri-F r e s h P o u ltry : The r e l ig i o u s iss u e— as 2 addressed in t h i s case. A Seventh Day A d v e n tis t had been f i r e d f o r re fu s in g to work on Saturday. The company was declared in v i o la t i o n o f AAEP. C la rk v. Bethlehem S tee l Corporation : R a c ia lly n e u tra l 3 p o lic ie s were p ro h ib ite d sin ce they tend to have d is c r im in a to ry e f f e c t s . C la rk v. D illo n : L ik e C lark v. Bethlehem S t e e l , r a c i a l l y 4 n e u tra l p o lic ie s were p r o h ib ite d . C o n tra c to rs ' A sso ciatio n o f Eastern Pennsylvania v. U.S. S ecre tary o f Labor : F a i l u r e to meet AAEP goals may not be d is c r im in a ­ 5 t o r y i f th e re is a p au city o f m in o r it ie s present in the conrnmity. ^Rosenfield v. Southern P a c if ic Company, C.A. 9 , 3 FEP Cases, 604 (1 9 7 1 ), 2 Jackson v. V e ri-F r e s h P o u lt r y , 687 (1 9 6 9 ). I n c . , C.A. 6 , 2 FEP Cases, 3 C lark v. Bethlehem Steel C o rp o ra tio n , D.C. N .Y ., 313 F. Supp., 977 (1 9 7 0 ). 4 C lark v. D i l lo n Supply Company, C .A .N .C ., 429 F. 2nd 800 (1 9 7 0 ). 5 C o n tra c to rs ' A sso ciatio n o f Eastern Pennsylvania v. U.S. S e c re ta ry o f Labor, D.C. P . A . , 311 F. Supp., 1002 (1 9 7 0 ). 56 Sprogls v. United A i r l i n e s ^ : F i r i n g o f a m a rrie d steward­ ess was found to be unlawful since the same requirement was not made f o r male stewards. Griggs v. Duke Power Company : The employer was held to be 2 d is c rim in a to ry when employment was denied Black males on the basis o f performance o f v o c a tio n a l a p titu d e te s t s which had not been shown to have p r e d i c t i v e v a l i d i t y f o r th e jobs the men sought. This r u lin g has relevance to s t a t e employees, th e m a jo r it y o f whom are h ired and promoted on th e basis o f t e s t performance. Tests have to show t h a t they are j o b - r e l a t e d by p r o fe s s io n a lly ac ce p ta b le methods. Armstead v. S t a r k v i l l e M unicipal School D i s t r i c t : The school board was declared d is c r im in a to ry ag a in s t Blacks f o r ty in g appointments to possession o f an M.A. degree and s p e c i f i c scores on the GRE. N e ith e r c r i t e r i a could be shown as r e la t e d to jo b performance. As p ointed out by th is d e c is io n and vario us e x p e rts , t e s t performance, e s p e c ia lly t h a t based on c u rre n t a v a i l a b l e general t e s t in g in s tru m e n ts , i s unlawful as a f i x e d measure o f jo b capa­ b i l i t y . ^ ^ p r o g i s v. U nited A i r ! i n e s , I n c . , D.C. 1 1 1 ., 307 F. Supp., 959 (1 9 7 0 ). 2 Griggs v. Duke Power Company, U.S. Sup. C t . , 3 FEP Cases, 175 (1 9 7 1 ). 3 Armstead v. S t a r k v i l l e Municipal School D i s t r i c t , 325 F. Supp., 560 (1 9 7 2 ). 4 R. C h alt and A. Ford, "Can Colleges Have Tenure and A f f ir m a ­ t i v e A c t io n , Too?" The C hronicle o f H ig h e r Education, October 1, 1972, p. 16. 57 In th e most re ce n t Supreme Court d ecisio n re g a rd in g AAEP, the Court ru le d th a t v ic tim s o f h ir in g d is c r im in a tio n are e n t i t l e d to s e n i o r i t y d a tin g from th e employer's re fu s a l to h ir e them because o f d is c r im in a tio n based on se x, ra c e , e th n ic o r i g i n , r e l i g i o n , and/ or age. The Court ru led t h a t v ic tim s o f d is c r im in a tio n were to be advanced o ve r workers h ire d a f t e r th e date v ic tim s were denied employment even i f the r e s u l t o f s a id h ir in g would cause “arguably innocent" f e l l o w workers to be bumped. The d e c is io n was by a 5 to 3 vote o f a Court g e n e ra lly b e lie v e d to be c o n se rv ative .^ Resea rch AAEP l e g i s l a t i o n p e r t in e n t to t h i s th e s is has been in e f f e c t only since 1972. With p u b lic a tio n lags in combination w ith the time and e f f o r t re q u ire d to produce research data f o r p u b li c a t i o n , i t is not s u r p r is in g t h a t th e re is l i t t l e formal research on th e to p ic thus f a r . The major data a v a i l a b l e i s in the form o f unpublished doctoral d is s e r t a t i o n s . The fo llo w in g are i l l u s t r a t i v e . Whitehead : This work 1s a d e s c r ip t iv e l i b r a r y study o f 2 C iv il Rights l e g i s l a t i o n and e x e c u tiv e o rd e rs , trends in fe d e ra l laws, and examples o f u n i v e r s i t i e s which were under review by v a r i ­ ous re g io n a l o f f i c e s o f C i v i l R ights. Included among h is many conclusions were the f o llo w in g : ^John P. M ackenzie, "Court Backs Bias V ic tim s ' Job S e n i o r i t y , " The Washington P o s t, March 2 5 , 1976, p. A l . ^J. C. Whitehead, "The Development o f a Model f o r E s ta b lis h ­ ing and M a in ta in in g an A f f i r m a t i v e Action Employment Program f o r Public I n s t i t u t i o n s o f H ig h e r Education" (Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Uni­ v e r s ity o f U ta h , 1972). 58 1. P u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig her education which do not comply w ith th e laws can expect severe san ctio n s. 2 . There i s a need f o r comprehensive g u id e lin e s o f p o lic y and procedure. 3. P u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r education must i d e n t i f y and c o r r e c t d is c r im in a to r y p o lic ie s and procedures. F u r th e r , they must tak e a f f i r m a t i v e ac tio n s to insure t h a t a p p lic a n ts are employed and t h a t employees are t r e a t e d during t h e i r employment w ith o u t regard to ra c e , c o lo r , r e l i g i o n , sex, or n a tio n a l o r i g i n . 4. The need f o r p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher education to comply w ith the a f f i r m a t i v e a c tio n o b lig a t io n is the r e s u l t o f strong n a tio n a l p o lic y to c o r r e c t the n a tio n a l embarrassment o f women and m in o r ity exclusion from job o p p o r tu n itie s . 5. AAEP re q u ire s c o n tin u a l m o n ito rin g and e v a lu a tio n .^ McCIure : McClure d id an e m p iric a l study o f the a t t i t u d e s 2 o f p u b lic school superintendents on one aspect o f AAEP, namely, sex d is c r im in a tio n . She found "a r a t h e r wide divergence o f a t t i t u d e s and opinions" among her sample and i d e n t i f i e d a v a r i e t y o f "p a tte rn s o f re s is ta n c e to and p a tte rn s o f endorsement o f h y p o th e tic a l a f f i r m a t i v e a c tio n g u id e lin e s " which she hoped would be o f use to re g u la to ry and s o c ia l agencies which would want to e f f e c t change. Various s t r a t e g ie s were described which could be used w ith W h ite h e a d , op. c i t . , pp. 155-160. 2 G ail McClure, " A ttitu d e s o f School Superintendents Toward A f f ir m a t iv e A ctio n G uidelines f o r E lim in a tin g Sex Stereotypes in Schools" (Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e r s it y o f Iowa, 19 73 ). 59 superintendents based on th e degree o f re s is ta n c e to AAEP. One p a r t i c u l a r l y e n lig h te n in g aspect o f t h i s th e s is is a lengthy l i t e r a t u r e review which includes s c h o la rly jo u r n a ls as w e ll as the popular p re s s , e . g . , M c C a ll's Magazine. Gercinel 1 : One o f W hitehead's recomnendations supported the AAEP r u l e about ap p oin tin g an Equal Employment O pp ortun ity O f f i c e r . Genmell proceeded to examine ca re er p a tte rn s o f such o f f i c e r s hold­ ing appointments in c o lle g es and u n i v e r s it i e s and to analyze the kinds o f s k i l l s they used in t h e i r work. Of 218 i n s t i t u t i o n s con­ t a c te d , 38 had no o f f i c e r , 68 had f u l l - t i m e o f f i c e r s and 65 had p a r t -t im e o f f i c e r s . Forty-seven co lleg es and u n i v e r s it i e s d id not respond. Some o f the points made in t h i s study in c lu d e: E f f o r t s have been made to appoint o f f i c e r s who are p a r t o f the t a r g e t group (women o r m i n o r i t i e s ) ; the mean age o f th e o f f i c e r s was 39.1 ( f u l l - t i m e ) and 45.1 ( p a r t - t i m e ) ; the la r g e s t group (4 0 .6 peren t) had M.A. degrees; th e la r g e s t percentage o f degrees were in education w ith business o r economics being the second most frequ en t degree h e ld ; only s ix o f f i c e r s brought any AAEP experience to the j o b ; 3 9 .7 percent had o th e r a d m in is t r a t iv e e x p erie n c e; s a la ­ r ie s were c o m p e titiv e w it h in th e i n s t i t u t i o n s although i t is o f co n siderable i n t e r e s t and p r e d ic ta b le t h a t th e lowest s a la r ie s were paid to female o f f i c e r s ; o f f i c e r s perceived t h e i r chairmen, p r e s i­ dents, deans, e t c . , as being s u p p o rtiv e ; and f a c u l t y and students ^Suzanne Gernnell, " A f f ir m a t iv e A ction O f f ic e r s in Higher Education" (Ed.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Indiana U n i v e r s i t y , 1974). 60 were rated as supportive o n ly h a l f o f the tim e . "Misunderstanding o f a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n , f e a r o f loss o f jobs on th e p a r t o f w h ite males and t r a d i t i o n a l f e a r o f change were th e most o fte n repo rted reasons f o r la c k o f support." Ashmore^: This w r i t e r stu d ie d AAEP Implementation 1n the Los Angeles County Public Schools. He found t h a t m in o r it ie s were not f a i r l y represented in th e sch oo ls, school a d m in is tra to rs were not 1n f u l l agreement w ith AAEP, and q u a l i f i e d females and m in o r i­ t i e s were not being r e c r u it e d in a vigorous manner and v ia the media and m o d a litie s a v a i l a b l e . 2 Kruger : A ttitu d e s o f s e le c te d f a c u l t y and a d m in is tra to rs a t the U n iv e r s it y o f Texas were studied by Kruger. Females and m in o r itie s in her sample were more p o s itiv e toward AAEP, they were more convinced t h a t d is c r im in a tio n continues In th e employment market, and m ales, regardless o f departmental a lle g ia n c e s and c r e ­ d e n tia ls did not d i f f e r in t h e i r views o f AAEP. I t is im portant to note t h a t Kruger has sampling problems which make i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and g e n e r a liz a t io n o f data d i f f i c u l t . There were only 10 m in o rity fem ales on campus so t h a t group was lumped w ith White females. There were 26 m in o r it y males, 9 o f whom were Black. Kruger, then, i s t a l k i n g about 19 B lacks, 10 o f whom ^W. R. Ashmore, " A f f i r m a t i v e Action Programs: Implementation in School D i s t r i c t s " (Ed.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s it y o f Southern C a l i f o r n i a , 1974 ). 2 Peggy Kruger, " A ttitu d e s o f Faculty and A d m in is tra to rs Toward A f f i r m a t i v e Action 1n H ig h e r Education" (Ph.D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n iv e rs ity o f Texas a t A u s t in , 1974). 61 are c a te g o rle d w ith females in general and 9 o f whom are included w ith O r ie n t a ls , Mexican-Americans and American In d ia n s . I t is d i f f i c u l t i f the sample is homogenous and e s p e c ia ll y in l i g h t o f the f a c t t h a t m in o r it ie s o th e r than Blacks a r e not known to share a h is t o r y o f s la v e ry . Johnson1 : T h is d is s e r t a t i o n addressed i t s e l f to AAEP and VRS. Johnson (no r e l a t i o n to th e present w r i t e r ) found th e re was an increase in m in o r it ie s and female personnel w it h in VRS in M ich ig an , most o f them were in th e lower C i v i l S e rvic e ra n k s, th ere was Improved promotional p o t e n t ia l f o r m in o r it ie s and th e re were increased complaints o f d is c r im in a t io n . The r e s u lt s concerning h ig h e r numbers o f m in o r it ie s and females in VRS employment cannot be considered as a m ajor breakthrough in race r e la t io n s since the changes were m in is cu le and d id not hold up in the y e a r f o llo w in g the In c re a s e . Johnson's study does provide a review o f the C i v i l S ervice system and M ich ig an 's VRS, m a te ria l not described in o th e r d is s e r t a tio n s . A recent book by Moore and Wagstaff^ d e t a i l s in co n sid e ra b le length r e s u lt s o f a study o f 3 ,2 2 8 Black educators employed in both tw o-year and fo u r -y e a r c o lle g e s . Since the data i s not presented in a research r e p o r t , nowhere can one f in d copies o f e i t h e r the research instru m ent, a q u e s tio n n a ire , o r systemized responses o r ^ i n d a C. Johnson, " A f f ir m a t iv e Action 1n a Governmental Agency: M ichigan's V o cational R e h a b ilit a t io n S ervices" (Ed.D. d i s ­ s e r t a t i o n , Western Michigan U n i v e r s i t y , 1974). 2 Moore and W ag staff, op. c i t . 62 methods o f s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is upon which th e book's many conclu­ sions a re based. The work demands a t t e n t io n , however, as i t Is the o n ly m a te ria l found which focuses on B lacks' p ercep tio n o f AAEP 1n regard to u n iv e r s ity appointm ents. The m a te ria l presented is a lu c id argument f o r AAEP, t h a t i s , i t shows t h a t AAEP does not " s tr ik e a t the very h e a rt o f h ig h e r le a rn in g ," ^ i t does not usurp 2 u n iv e rs ity p re ro g a tiv e s in regard to personnel p o lic ie s , and i t shows th a t Blacks who a re e n te rin g th e academic m arketplace a re not u n q u a lifie d and incom petent. 3 P o in ts have been made th a t h ig h e r 4 education is not a business to be run l i k e an "autom otive p la n t" and, th e r e fo r e , AAEP would le a d "in e x o ra b ly to the h ir in g o f u n q u a li- fie d persons f o r ir r e le v a n t reasons." 5 According to Moore and W a g s ta ff, th e re is no data to support th is kind o f statem ent and d ata to be s tu d ie d co m p aratively is not supportive o f th e p o in t o f incompetence. For example, 80 percent o f Blacks employed in u n iv e r s it ie s have not w r itte n a book. However, 70 percent o f non-Blacks a ls o have never p ublished a book. The 70 percent d iffe r e n c e (degree o f s ig n ific a n c e unknown) p a lls con­ s id e ra b ly when one r e a liz e s th a t the Black sample was composed o f ^M. M. T od orovich , "T o ta l A ffir m a tiv e A ction Would S tr ik e a t the Very H eart o f H igher L e a rn in g ," The C h ro n ic le o f H igher Educa­ t i o n , October 15, 1973, p. 11. 2 C h a lt and Ford, op. c i t . , p. 75. "^Moore and W a g s ta ff, op. c i t . , p. 75. 4 R. P e r r in s , "Computing M in o r it ie s ," Change, September 1972. 5 E. Goodman, "The Return o f th e Quota System," New York Times Magazine. September 10, 1974, p. 114. 63 young persons (55 percent under age 40) and o n ly o n e -th 1 rd (n = 593) held Ph.D. degrees, th e usual In d ic a to r o f research e x p e rtis e and fin a n c ia l support c a p a b i l i t y . 1 2 S o w e ll's re c e n tly published a n a ly s is o f two surveys pro­ duced by the American Council on Education in 1968-69 and 1972-73 represents a r e b u tta l o f s o rts to Moore and W a g s ta ff. He sought to answer two q u e s tio n s : How much d is c rim in a tio n was th e re 1n h ig h e r education employment b efo re AAEP, and how b e n e fic ia l has AAEP been? I t 1s im portant to note th a t th e surveys on which a very e la b o ra te an alysis was done by Sowell in v o lv e data c o lle c te d a t o r b e fo re the tim e o f the m ajor impetus o f AAEP. Sowell suggests th a t th e re was no d is c rim in a tio n in h ig h er education as evidenced by h is d ata which fin d s th a t Black and fem ale academicians have few e r d o c to ra te degrees and hold degrees in areas which h i s t o r i c a l l y have o ffe r e d lower s a la r y , nam ely, ed u c a tio n , s o c ia l sciences and th e h u m an ities . He also re p o rts th a t women hold ap p ro xim ately 10 percent o f a l l Ph.D. degrees and 20 percent o f a l l fa c u lty p o s itio n s and, th e r e fo r e , are o v e r-re p re s e n te d in terms o f q u a lif ic a t io n s . L ik e w is e , he s ta te s th a t Blacks hold less than 1 p ercen t o f the P h .D .'s but occupy 2 p e r­ cent o f th e f a c u lt y p o s itio n s . His conclusion is th a t Blacks and women are re je c te d in academe not because o f em ployer d is c rim in a ­ tio n but because o f la c k o f q u a lif ic a t io n s . He b e lie v e s AAEP has not changed th e percentages o f m in o r itie s (in c lu d in g fem ales) ^Moore and W a g s ta ff, op. c i t . , p. 135. 2 Thomas S o w e ll, " A ffir m a tiv e A ction R econsidered," The P u b lic In t e r e s t , W in te r 1976. 64 employed in c o lle g e s and u n iv e r s it ie s (up to 1972) but has cost an e x o rb ita n t amount o f money f o r Im plem entation ( a lle g e d ly th e U ni­ v e r s ity o f M ichigan spent $350*000 f o r c o m p ila tio n o f s t a t i s t i c a l m a te ria ls a lo n e ) and has re s u lte d in consequences which a re "poison­ ous in the long ru n . W hile doing l i t t l e o r nothing to advance the p o s itio n o f m in o r itie s and fem ales, i t c rea tes th e im pression th a t hard-won achievements o f these groups a re co n ferred b e n e fits " which perpetuates racism . His is a strong polemic w ith what appears to have obvious lo g ic a l d e f i c i t s but i t is re p re s e n ta tiv e o f what many Blacks have known f o r decades about th e s o p h is try In vo lved in d is ­ c r e d itin g plans which a re designed to in crease o n e's freedom o f choice— i f one is B lack. Sunmary The economic, v o c a tio n a l, and sexual v a ria b le s which con­ tr ib u te d s i g n i f i c a n t l y to th e development o f a strong fe d e ra l p o lic y a g a in s t employment d is c rim in a tio n were review ed. Several o f the re c e n t c o u rt a c tio n s which were a p a rt o f th e 1972 AAEP le g is la t io n were noted. F in a l l y , research addressed to several aspects o f AAEP has been l i s t e d . There is only one study which explores how Blacks fe e l about AAEP and th is was done b e fo re the 1972 le g is la t io n and focused only on B lack c o lle g e -le v e l f a c u lt y . Most o f th e research has been done b e fo re the 1974 recession and recessions h i s t o r i c a l l y have been th e "bane o f progress f o r s o c ie ty 's underclasses" sin ce the "w h ite m a jo r ity can be nudged 65 toward th e n o tio n o f sp e cial o p p o rtu n ity f o r those who have been s p e c ia lly v ic tim iz e d when th e sp e cial o p p o rtu n ity does not cost them a n y th in g ." 1 R a s p b e rry , op. c i t . , p. A6. CHAPTER I I I DESIGN OF THE STUDY Overview The purpose o f th is p r o je c t is to study th e perceptions and understanding Stacks employed a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity (MSU) and M ich ig an 's V o catio n al R e h a b ilita tio n Services (VRS) have concerning A ffir m a tiv e A ction Employment Programs (AAEP). T his ch ap ter contains d e s c rip tio n s o f th e p o p ulatio n s tu d ie d , the c o n s tru c tio n , f i e l d te s tin g and a d m in is tra tio n o f the q u e s tio n n a ire used to c o lle c t d a ta , the research d e s ig n , and a n a ly s is procedures used. The P o pu lation To id e n t if y th e knowledge about and impact o f AAEP in Blacks employed on MSU's f a c u lt y o r the p ro fe s s io n a l s t a f f a t VRS, two groups o f Black in d iv id u a ls were s tu d ie d . They were: 1. F u ll-tim e fa c u lty members a t Michigan S ta te U ni­ v e r s ity whose appointments are w ith in th e ten u re t r a c t . 2 . F u ll-tim e employees o f M ich ig an 's VRS who hold a C iv il S e rv ic e rank o f 9 o r above. Names o f Black fa c u lt y members m eeting these c r i t e r i a a t MSU were supplied by Dr. Joseph M c M illa n , A s s is ta n t V ic e -P re s id e n t f o r U n iv e rs ity R e la tio n s and D ir e c to r o f Human R e la tio n s a t MSU. Names o f Black VRS s t a f f w ith a p p ro p ria te C iv il S e rv ic e ra tin g s 66 67 were su p p lied by D r. Donald G a lv in * A s s is ta n t Superintendent o f E ducation , S ta te o f M ich ig an , and D ire c to r o f V o catio nal R e h a b ili­ ta tio n S e rv ic e s . Since th e re a re r e l a t i v e l y few Black in d iv id u a ls who have a tta in e d fa c u lty rank a t MSU o r p ro fe s s io n a l C iv il S e rv ic e rank a t VRS, th e d ecisio n was made to in c lu d e a l l persons who met the c r i t e r i a in t h is research p r o je c t. The n f o r MSU was 49 and f o r VRS, 8 2 . The t o ta l sample was 131. The w r it e r has no in te n tio n o f attem p tin g to g e n e ra liz e to a l l Blacks employed in th e c o m p e titiv e la b o r market o r even to a l l Blacks holding w h it e - c o lla r and p ro fe s s io n a l le v e l p o s itio n s In government o r u n iv e r s it ie s . I t would seem th a t even w ith the most rig o ro u s sampling techniques and in f e r e n t ia l s t a t i s t i c s , gen­ e r a liz a t io n s based on th is p r o je c t's data would be p recario u s given th e f a c t th a t th e S ta te o f M ichigan is g e n e ra lly recognized as a l i b e r a l s ta te which gives c a re fu l a tte n tio n to fe d e ra l laws o f a C i v i l Rights n a tu re . Furtherm ore, Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity can be considered an in s t it u t io n o f h ig h e r education w ith a somewhat ra th e r unique p ro sp ec tiv e regarding employment o f Blacks given th e obvious fa c ts o f a Black p res id e n t and a Black c o lle g e adm inistered by a Black dean. This is in d ir e c t c o n tra s t to data summarized by Barclay^ regarding Black males o fte n being in e x e c u tiv e p o s itio n s w ith few r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s and very l i t t l e actu al p o lic y making power. 1Dolores B a rc la y , "Black Executives Find T h e ir P o sitio n s Lack Real Power," Lansing S ta te J o u rn a l, March 1 0 , 1976, p. D6. 68 T h e re fo re , a tte n tio n was focused on two work samples In Michigan and the d ec is io n was made to use th e la r g e s t sample pos­ s i b le , t h a t 1s, a l l persons who a re Black and hold c e rta in ranks a t MSU and VRS. By u t i l i z i n g sy ste m a tic sampling techniques or s t r a t i f i e d samples, few er su b jects would have been needed. How­ e v e r, fo llo w in g Borg and G a ll's general r u le , " , . . th e la r g e r th e sample, the less l i k e l y is th e research to o b ta in n e g a tiv e re s u lts o r accept th e n u ll hypothesis when i t is a c t u a lly fa ls e ," ^ a l l Blacks were included in th e pool o f p o te n tia l s u b je c ts . S e le c tio n and D e s c rip tio n o f th e In stru m ent The f i r s t d ec is io n made in regard to a te s tin g instrum ent was th a t i t would be a q u e s tio n n a ire . Based on o th e r research endeavors, th e w r i t e r s e le c te d a q u e s tio n n a ire because (1 ) i t was considered by her to be th e most e f f i c i e n t method o f reaching a la rg e s ta tew id e group, (2 ) i t p e rm itte d th e use o f both o ne-item te s ts f o r c o lle c t in g demographic data as w ell as items which would produce s tru c tu re d responses to a llo w f o r more a c c u ra te ta b u la tio n and a n a ly s is o f d ata and, (3 ) u n lik e the in te r v ie w , i t would p ro vide anonymity to th e respondent. In accep tin g th e q u e s tio n n a ire as th e 2 research t o o l, Borg and G a ll's and B abbie's survey research 3 techniques concerning c o n s tru c tio n , d eterm in atio n o f v a l i d i t y and (New York: David McKay, 1 9 7 1 ), p. 123. R. Borg and M eredith G a l l , Educational Research, 2nd ed. 2 3 Borg and G a ll, op. c i t . E. R. B ab b ie, Survey Research Methods (B elm ont, C a l i f . : Wadsworth P u b lish in g C o ., 1 9 7 3 ). 69 r e l i a b i l i t y , p re te s tin g and a n a ly sis o f question n aires provided th e framework f o r the a c t i v i t i e s to be described in t h is chapter. Besides a cover l e t t e r requ esting p a r tic ip a tio n and describing the w r i t e r 's commitment to persons cooperating w ith th is study (Appendix A ) , a q u estio n n aire designed to p rovide data con­ cerning various demographic m atters was constructed. The demographic data r e la t e almost in to ta l to th e stu d y's independent v a ria b le s o f age* sex, where employed when AAEP was Implemented, c u rre n t job placement and c u rre n t rank. Other data s o lic ite d concerned m a rita l status and educational c re d e n tia ls w ith the thought th a t they might provide a d d itio n a l in fo rm atio n which could be useful in analyzing and expanding b asic re s u lts . I n i t i a l l y two very d if f e r e n t questionnaires were developed to e l i c i t m a te ria l concerning th is stu d y's dependent v a ria b le s , understanding o f AAEP and perception o f i t s impact on each in d i­ vidual 's c a re e r. The f i r s t q u e stio n n aire developed employed open- ended questions re q u irin g an essay response. Development o f questions f o r th is instrum ent was based on the w r i t e r 's knowledge of AAEP as garnered from personal exp erie n c e, her understanding o f the l i t e r a t u r e , and c o n su lta tio n s w ith a person working as an AAEP o f f ic e r , D r. Joseph M cM illan. A second q u estion n aire based on the L ik ert^ method o f c o l­ le c tin g data was constructed. Items selected f o r t h is i n i t i a l ^R. L ik e r t , "A Method o f C onstructing an A ttitu d e S c ale," in M. Fishbeln ( e d . ) , Reading in A ttitu d e Theory and Measurement (New York: John W ile y , 19 67 ), pp. 90-185. 70 o b je c tiv e q u e stio n n aire were p rim a rily m o d ific a tio n s o f those used by Kruger.^ There were 45 items on th is L ik e r t scale. Four B lacks, one fem ale and one male each from MSU and VRS, p a rtic ip a te d 1n a p i l o t study which required t h e i r completing both questionnaires and responding to an in te rv ie w w ith th is w r it e r . 2 As a re s u lt o f t h e i r 100 percent concordant response in fa v o r o f the L ik e r t in stru m ent, the decisio n was made to proceed w ith the refinem ent o f a L ik e r t q u e s tio n n a ire . This decisio n was made not only because o f th e respondents' preference f o r the L ik e r t ques­ tio n n a ire . The w r it e r observed th a t the L ik e r t scales were much e a s ie r to ta b u la te and score because L ik e r t scales provide fo r unambiguous o r d in a lit y o f response categ o ries and lend themselves to a s tra ig h tfo rw a rd method o f index co n stru c tio n . The l a t t e r is accomplished by assigning a number in d ic a tin g r e la t iv e stren gth o f agreement to d e c la ra tiv e statem ents. In th is p a r t ic u la r study the numbers one to fo u r were assigned. One was assigned to "stro n g ly a g re e ,” two to " a g re e ,” th re e to "d is a g re e ," and fo u r to "s tro n g ly d is a g re e ." No n e u tra l category such as "no opinion" was included a t the recommendation o f th e w r it e r 's advisory corrmittee. The response categ o ries u t il i z e d took in to account the d ire c tio n o f K r u g e r , op. c i t . , pp. 200-202. 2 This f i r s t p il o t sample group also reviewed each item w ith the w r it e r w ith th e focus being c l a r i t y , p e rtin e n c e , and in te rp re ­ ta tio n . As a r e s u lt o f th is c o n s u lta tio n , 23 items were e lim in a te d and 6 were r e w ritte n . 71 th e item and provided a t o ta l score f o r th e several responses to in d iv id u a l v a ria b le s .^ L ik e r t scales a ls o perm it c o lle c tio n o f la rg e amounts o f data per Item , th a t i s , two items a re s u f f ic ie n t to c o n s titu te a r a tin g scale i t s e l f and these s c a le s , in t u r n , can be combined w ith o th e r types o f items to c o n stru c t in d ic e s . 2 C o n stru ctio n o f th e Instrum ent The f i n a l q u e s tio n n a ire used in t h is study was composed o f two p a r ts . Scale I and S cale I I . Scale I items were adapted 1n p a rt from K ruger's L ik e r t in stru m en t. Her instrum ent u t i l i z e d 44 v a lid a te d item s. A ll 44 items were adapted f o r use in th e p i l o t study designed to determ ine whether an essay o r o b je c tiv e in s t r u ­ ment would be s e le c te d . Twelve o f these 44 items were s e le c te d f o r Scale I which was designed to measure th e dependent v a r ia b le : The su b jects can and do understand AAEP. S cale I was designed to measure l i t e r a l , f a c t u a l, and d e s c rip tiv e understanding o f th e a c t e s p e c ia lly as le a rn e d from p u b lic a tio n o f th e AAEP statem ent by th e employer. Scale I I was designed to measure the second dependent v a r i ­ a b le: AAEP does have an impact on an in d iv id u a l's c a re e r. Twenty- e ig h t items were s e le c te d on th e basis o f t h e i r a b i l i t y to measure i f th e subjects fe e l AAEP is needed, i t has been u seful to them and i t has been h e lp fu l in terms o f re c ru itm e n t, prom otion, s a la ry and o th e r fr in g e b e n e fits . Nine o f th e 28 items were adapted from ^Babbie, op. c i t . , pp. 2 6 9 -7 0 . 2 B le e c h e r, op. c i t . , p. 96. 72 Kruger*s q u e s tio n n a ire . A d d itio n a l ite m s , a g a in , were devised in accordance w ith what th e w r i t e r knows to be tru e about AAEP and w ith th e ad vice o f psych olo gists f a m ilia r w ith a t t it u d e s c a le development and a u n iv e rs ity -b a s e d AAEP o f f i c e r . 1 These a d d itio n a l items were added to Scale I I . S cale I was composed o f 12 items and Scale I I o f 28 f o r the s t a t i s t i c a l p r e te s tin g . P re te s t o f th e Instrum ent This 4 0 -ite m q u e s tio n n a ire was p re te s te d according to p r in - c ip le s a r t ic u la t e d by 8 a b b ie. F o rty Blacks e n ro lle d in graduate programs a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity were asked to complete the q u e s tio n n a ire and m ail i t to th e a u th o r. T w e n ty -fiv e (63 p e rc e n t) d id . Measuring R e l i a b i l i t y The responses o f th e p i l o t sample were hand-scored and recorded so th a t the most w id e ly used technique f o r computing r e l i ­ a b i l i t y , the s p l i t - h a l f method, could be u t i l i z e d . For t h is stu d y, Cronbach's c o e f f ic ie n t Alpha ( a ) , a g e n e r a liz a tio n o f th e Kuder- Richardson KR-20 fo rm u la , was used. 3 1Reference is to D rs. A. K ir k , M. K e lle r and J. M cM illa n . 2 B abbie, op. c i t . , pp. 2 0 6 -8 . ^ W illia m Mehrens and I r v i n Lehman, Measurement and E valu ­ a tio n in Education and Psychology (New York! H o lt , R in e h a rt and W inston, 1 9 7 3 ), pp. 11 3-1 6; W illia m Mehrens and Robert E b e l, P rin c ip le s o f E ducational and P sychological Measurement, S e le c te d headings (New York: H o lt , R in e h a rt and W inston* 1 9 7 4 ), pp. 132-66. 73 i k a - i t - t t [ ’ ES2 i - o where k = number o f items 2 S . = item v a ria n c e 2 a = t e s t v a ria n c e With item n = 33 and p i l o t sample = 2 5 , in d iv id u a l item varian ce is provided in T able 3 .1 . The form ula f o r d eterm in in g item varian ce was^: j i n where n = number o f people X.j *= score f o r item i th across a l l people The form ula f o r t e s t v a ria n c e was : 2 z 2 _ ( I X) 2 x i n n where = t e s t score f o r th e i^*1 person, n = number o f people. ^Mehrens and Lehman, op. c i t . 2 Ib id . TABLE 3 . 1 . — P re te s t Ite m V a ria n c e . 74 Item Number Item V arian ce Item Number Item V arian ce 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 .6000 1.5264 .3200 .6976 .4576 3.4944 .4096 .9424 .7504 .5344 .3200 .8416 .6336 .7584 .8000 .8416 .9344 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 .4896 .4800 .8416 .8064 .7200 .5856 .5856 .6656 .9824 .6976 .8000 1.2000 .4800 .6656 .4736 .9600 Item Variance E = 2 6 .29 6 The p re te s t item v a ria n c e data is presented in T ab le 3.1 whereas th e data f o r d e te rm in a tio n o f t e s t v a ria n c e is provided in Table 3 .2 . R e l i a b i l i t y o f the s c a le was determ ined to be .8 8 4 2 , a very high r e l i a b i l i t y as evidenced by Adorno's statem en t: " . . . i t is 75 TABLE 3 . 2 . — D eterm in atio n o f T es t V ariance D ata. Person Score (X ) X2 Person Score (X ) X2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 122 14,884 85 85 85 71 90 107 103 108 98 87 109 107 7 ,2 2 5 7,225 7 ,2 2 5 5,041 8 ,1 0 0 11,449 10,609 11,66 4 9 ,6 0 4 7,569 11,881 11,449 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 106 116 93 88 95 85 122 79 118 91 105 89 11,236 13,456 8 ,6 4 9 7,744 9,0 2 5 7,225 14,884 6,241 13,924 8,281 11,025 7,921 n = 25 ZX = 2,444 I X 2 =*243,536 doubtful th a t any s c a le measuring d iv e rs e p o lItic a l-e c o n o m ic Ideology could o b ta in an average r e l i a b i l i t y o f much o ve r .8 0 ."^ Q uestion n aire V a li d it y In o rd er to determ ine 1 f t h is q u e s tio n n a ire had v a l i d i t y , th a t 1 s , 1 t measured what I t purports to measure, c r ite r io n -p e r s o n W. Adorno, Else F re k e l-B ru n s w lk , D. J . Levinson, and R. N. S an fo rd , The A u th o rita ria n P e rs o n a lity (New York: H arper and Row, 1 9 5 0 ), p. Y59, as quoted In B le e c h e r, op. c i t . , p. 111. 76 comparisons were done using th ree persons known to t h is w r it e r to have d is p a ra te views about AAEP. Person 1 = A Black housewife not involved in C iv il Rights a c t i v i t i e s , not employed in th e co m p e titive lab o r m arket, and m arried to an in d iv id u a l who is employed In a placement which is not a ta rg e t o f AAEP. Person 2 = A Black female employed In a s itu a tio n where AAEP is not a p p lic a b le . However, she was a c tiv e in the C iv il Rights movement during her co lleg e years (1 9 60 s). Person 3 = A Black male who adm inisters a C iv il Rights o rg a n iz a tio n . He is deeply committed to e f f e c t ­ ing change in the system v ia l e g is l a t i v e and p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s . I f the two scales o f the q u e stio n n aire have em p irical v a l i d i t y , the assumption was made th a t th e re should be c le a r d iffe re n c e s in scores received by the th re e respondents. The re s u lts o f the c rite rio n -p e rs o n study are presented in Table 3 .3 . High scores In d ic a te a lack o f understanding o f AAEP or a perception o f no ap p re ciab le e f f e c t o f such le g is la t io n on one's l i f e . Low scores in d ic a te an understanding o f AAEP and a perception th a t i t has an in flu e n c e on one's c a re e r. Middle range scores in d ic a te TABLE 3 . 3 . — C rite rio n -P e rs o n V a lid it y Scores. . , Scale P0S? lS le Low Score Person 1 2 Person Person 3 Po“ ^ le High Score S<”( Understanding) Scale I I (P erception o f E ffe c ts ) 12 28 39 98 29 67 16 45 48 112 77 a p a r t ia l f a m i l i a r i t y w ith AAEP and a b e l i e f th a t i t has moderate in flu e n c e on one's c a re e r. I t can be seen from in s p e c tio n o f the scores th a t scores a re d is tu rb e d in a p re d ic ta b le way an d , th e re ­ fo re , c o n s titu te a measure o f v a l i d i t y . A d m in is tra tio n o f the Q u estio n n aire The f i r s t p i l o t sample assembled t o a s s is t th e w r i t e r in determ ining what type o f instru m ent to be used was composed to Black frie n d s employed in a p ro fe s s io n a l c a p a c ity a t e i t h e r MSU o r VRS. The second p i l o t sample consisted o f graduate stu d en ts in seminars tau g ht by a member o f th e w r i t e r 's committee. T h is group o f Blacks completed th e q u e s tio n n a ire f o r r e l i a b i l i t y s tu d ie s . The t h r e e - p ilo t sample co n sisted o f Black frie n d s o f the w r i t e r known to have d is p a ra te opinions about AAEP. These in d iv id u a ls provided responses to the q u e s tio n n a ire which were used in v a l i d i t y s tu d ie s . The p op u latio n s e le c te d f o r f i n a l exam ination on an in s t r u ­ ment determined to be r e l i a b l e and v a lid co n sisted o f a l l Black fa c u lty a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity who hold appointm ents w ith in the ten u re system. Included in th is f a c u lt y group were s e ve ra l high le v e l a d m in is tra to rs who, although not involved c u r r e n t ly in a c tiv e classroom assignm ents, do hold f a c u lt y rank. Examples o f such in d iv id u a ls would be th e p re s id e n t o f the u n iv e r s ity and one c o lle g e dean. The u n iv e r s ity n^ was 49. A ll Black VRS employees holding a C i v i l S ervice rank o f 9 and above were included in t h is sample. U n lik e th e u n iv e r s ity sample which resid es w ith in th e G re a te r Lansing a re a , th e VRS 78 sample resides In the lower peninsula o f Michigan w ith the g re a te s t concentration o f in d iv id u a ls liv in g in the D e tr o it area. The to ta l VRS sample was 82. M a te ria ls were m ailed to each member o f the population a f t e r re c e ip t o f a l i s t i n g o f names from ap p ro p ria te o f fic e r s in t h e ir place o f employment. For Michigan S ta te Uni v e rs ity , names could not be submitted u n til the w r it e r had sought and received approval o f the study from Dr. Paul L. D re s s e l, A s sista n t Provost f o r I n s t i ­ tu tio n a l Research. With the q u estio n n aire was the cover l e t t e r requesting p a r tic ip a tio n (Appendix A ). W ith in one week 63 q uestionnaires out o f 131 had been returned by m a il. W ithin two weeks 18 more had been subm itted. W ithin th re e weeks 21 more were m ailed to the experim enter f o r a return o f 102 o r 78 percent. Seven phone c a lls were received a t the w r it e r 's home regarding reasons why the question n naire was not being re tu rn e d . Two le t t e r s were received from high u n iv e rs ity o f f i c i a l s in d ic a tin g th a t the demand on them fo r p a r tic ip a tio n in such studies was such th a t they follow ed an i n f le x ib le p o lic y o f not completing any form f o r any person fo r any reason. Two meet­ ings were held w ith spokespersons from regional o ffic e r s o f VRS who wanted to discuss AAEP as i t p ertain ed to them and who wanted the w r it e r to provide documents s p e llin g out. t h e i r rig h ts and re s p o n s ib ilitie s under the le g is la t io n . Of the 131 persons asked to p a r tic ip a te in th is study, 102 persons returned completed ques­ tio n n a ire s , two wrote le t t e r s o f r e fu s a l, seven phoned to ex p la in noncompliance, and 18 others expressed t h e ir i n a b i l i t y to p a r tic ip a te 79 through spokespersons a t t h e i r VRS o f f ic e s . A t o t a l o f 120 responded In some fash io n to th e q u e s tio n n a ire , th e n , w ith o n ly 11 nonrespondents. No attem p t was made to s o l i c i t a response from these 11 not o n ly because q u e s tio n n a ire s had not been coded so as to a ffo rd c o n f id e n t i a l it y , but als o because sample s iz e s t a t is t i c s in d ica te d th a t the number o f re tu rn e d q u e s tio n n a ire s was more than adequate f o r sampling purposes.^ Des i qn This p ro je c t is a d e s c r ip tiv e q u e s tio n n a ire study designed to in v e s tig a te the percep tion s and understanding Blacks employed a t MSU and VRS have concerning AAEP. As l is t e d in E x p lo ra to ry Ques­ tio n s , Chapter I , the s p e c ific questions asked were: Does t h is sam­ p le understand in an o b je c tiv e , fa c tu a l manner what AAEP re q u ire s? Do the s u b je cts b e lie v e AAEP has an impact on t h e i r careers? These are th e s tu d y 's two dependent v a r ia b le s . They a re examined in terms o f the s tu d y 's f i v e independent v a ria b le s : 1. Sex w ith two le v e ls , fem ale and m ale; 2. Age w ith two le v e ls , under 30 and o ver 30 years o f age; 3. Rank in 1976 w ith two le v e ls , low and h ig h; 4. P lace o f employment in 1972 w ith two le v e ls , same employment s i t e o r employment elsew here; 5. Place o f employment in 1976 w ith two le v e ls , VRS and MSU. ^ L e s lie K ish , Survey Sampling (New York: W ile y , 19 6 5 ). 80 Respondents' understanding o f AAEP is measured by S cale I o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire w h ile S cale I I measures p ercep tio n o f impact on one's c a re e r. Understanding was demonstrated i f over h a lf o f th e sample responded c o r r e c tly to 75 percent o f th e items on Scale I . Scale I I was accepted as in d ic a tin g p ercep tio n o f impact on one's c areer i f over 50 percent o f the sample responded c o r r e c t ly to 75 percent o f th a t s c a le 's item s. Omission o f ite m s , had th ey occurred, would have been scored as in c o r re c t. S t a t i s t i c a l analyses w i l l in d ic a te how le v e ls o f independent v a ria b le s a re r e la te d to each o th e r and to th e dependent v a r ia b le s . Scale I : Understanding T e s ta b le Hypotheses The hypothesis te s te d f o r th e independent v a ria b le "sex'1 is : H0 : Mf - Mn The number o f fem ale su b jects who understand AAEP is th e same as the number o f males who understand AAEP, a g a in s t: Hi : Mf * ^ The number o f fem ale subjects who understand AAEP is not the same as the number o f males who understand AAEP. The hypothesis te s te d f o r the independent v a ria b le "age" is : H0 : M-3 0 = M+30 The number o f persons under 30 who understand AAEP is the same as the number o f persons over 30 who understand AAEP, 81 a g a in s t; H1 : M-3 0 ** M+30 The number o f persons under 30 who understand AAEP is n o t th e same as th e number o f persons o ver 30 who understand AAEP. The hypothesis te s te d f o r th e independent v a r ia b le "rank" is : H0 : Mlo - Mh1 The number o f persons holding low ranks who understand AAEP is th e same as the number o f persons holdin g h ig h e r ranks who understand AAEP, a g a in s t: H1 : Mlo * Mh i The number o f persons holding low ranks who understand AAEP is not th e same as the number o f persons holding h ig h e r ranks who understand AAEP. The hypothesis f o r the independent v a r ia b le "place o f employ­ ment in 1972" is : H0 : Mcu ■ Me l The number o f persons employed in t h e i r c u rre n t employ­ ment s it e who understand AAEP is th e same as th e number o f persons who were employed elsewhere in 1972, ag a in st: H1 : Meu * " e l The number o f persons employed in t h e i r c u rre n t employ­ ment who understand AAEP is not th e same as the number o f persons who were employed elsewhere in 1972. The hypothesis f o r th e independent v a r ia b le " c u rre n t p lace o f employment" is : 82 H0 : \ - Mv The number o f persons employed a t VRS who understand AAEP is th e same as the number o f persons employed a t MSU who understand AAEP, against: H1 : I n * Mv The number o f persons employed a t VRS who understand AAEP is not th e same as the number o f persons employed a t MSU who understand AAEP. Scale I I : Perception o f AAEP as Having Impact on Careers The hypothesis f o r the independent v a ria b le "sex" is : The rumber o f females who perceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r careers is the same as the number o f males who perceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs , against: H0 : Mf The number o f females who perceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r careers o f males who p erceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e ir c a re e rs . is not the same as the number The hypothesis fo r the independent v a ria b le "age" is : H0 : M-30 M+30 The number o f persons under 30 who perceive AAEP as having an Impact on t h e i r careers is the same as the number o f persons over 30 who perceive AAEP as having an Impact on t h e ir c a re e rs , a g a in s t: 83 H1 : M-3 0 ^ M+30 The number o f persons under 30 who p e rc e iv e AAEP as having an Impact on t h e i r ca reers is not th e same as th e number o f persons over 30 who p e rc eiv e AAEP as having an Impact on t h e i r c a re e rs . The hypothesis f o r th e independent v a r ia b le "rank" i s : H0 : Mlo = Mhi The number o f persons holding low ranks who p e rc e iv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs is th e same as th e number o f persons holding high ranks who p e r­ c e iv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs , a g a in st: H1 : Mlo * Mh1 The number o f persons holding low ranks who p erc eiv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r ca re e rs is not th e same as th e number o f persons holding high ranks who p e rc e iv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs . The hypothesis te s te d f o r th e independent v a r ia b le "place o f employment in 1972" is : H0 : Mcu ■ Mel The number o f persons employed a t t h e i r c u rre n t employ­ ment s i t e who p e rc e iv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r ca re ers is th e same as th e number o f people employed elsew here in 1972 who p erceive AAEP as having an Impact on t h e i r c a re e rs , ag a in st: H1 : Mcu * Me l The number o f persons employed a t t h e i r c u rre n t employ­ ment s i t e who p e rc e iv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs 1s not th e same as the number o f people employed elsew here in 1972 who p erceive AAEP as having an Impact on t h e i r c a re e rs . 84 The hypothesis te s te d f o r the independent v a r ia b le "cu r­ re n t place o f employment" is : H0 •• M* - "v The number o f people employed a t VRS who p e rc eiv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r ca reers th e number o f people employed a t MSU who p e rc eiv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs , is the same as a g a in st: H, = Mm t My The number o f people employed a t VRS who p e rc e iv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r ca reers is not th e same as th e number o f people employed a t MSU who p e rc e iv e AAEP as having an im pact on t h e i r c a re e rs . General Hypotheses The general hypotheses te s te d were: H0 : Mu - Mdu Black employees h o ld in g p ro fe s s io n a l c o l l a r p o s itio n s a t MSU or VRS understand AAEP, le v e l o r w h ite- ag ain st: H1 : \ * Meu Black employees h o ld in g p ro fe s s io n a l c o l l a r p o s itio n s a t MSU o r VRS do not understand AAEP; le v e l o r w h ite- and a g a in s t: Hn : Mn = 0 p np 81ack employees holding p ro fe s s io n a l c o l l a r p o s itio n s a t MSU o r VRS p e rc e iv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs , le v e l o r w h ite- Black employees holding p ro fe s s io n a l c o lla r p o s itio n s a t MSU o r VRS do not p e rc e iv e AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs . le v e l o r w h ite - A ll hypotheses in v o lv e a t w o - ta ile d t e s t p < .0 5 ; th a t i s , the n u ll hypothesis w i l l be supported i f th e re is no d iffe re n c e in the populatio ns a t a p r o b a b ility le v e l o f less than .0 5 . A n aly sis With th e i n i t i a l assistan ce o f Mr. E ric Gordon, Research C o n s u lta n t, C ollege o f E ducation, M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity , the w r it e r learn ed how to use IBM keypunch technique whereby a l l responses to the q u e s tio n n a ire were coded in num erical form and punched onto IBM ca rd s. The cards then were fe d in to MSU's CDC 6500 computer using th e S t a t i s t i c a l Package f o r S o c ia l Sciences. The computer was asked to compute: 1. Demographic data concerning the independent v a ria b le s o f ra n k , age, sex, c u rre n t place o f employment and p lace o f employ­ ment in 1972. 2. S u b je c ts ' understanding o f AAEP as measured by ques­ tio n n a ir e items 1 through 12. 3. S u b je c ts ' percep tion o f AAEP's impact on in d iv id u a l careers as measured by q u e s tio n n a ire items 13 through 40. (F o r 1 , 2 , and 3 th e fo llo w in g were p ro vided: mean, median v a ria n c e , standard d e v ia tio n , mode, frequency d a ta , and standard e rro rs . A c tu a lly , much more data was provided but not found useful e . g . , skewness, k u r to s is , and vario us p erc en tag e s.) 86 4 . An ANOVA on (a ) understanding o f AAEP; (b ) p erc ep ticn ■ o f AAEP's e ffe c ts on c a re e rs , and (c ) a combination o f scores on th e understanding and p erc ep tio n scales by sex, ra n k , ag e , c u rre n t place o f employment and p lace o f employment in 1972. 5. M u ltip le reg ressio n analyses o f re la tio n s h ip s between dependent and independent v a r ia b le s . Although m u ltip le regressio n analyses a re done f o r a v a r ie t y o f reasons,^ the purpose o f th is p a r t ic u la r s e rie s o f analyses was to e v a lu a te th e c o n trib u tio n s o f a s p e c ific v a r ia b le o r s e t o f v a r ia b le s . Summary In t h is ch a p te r p re s e n ta tio n has been made o f th e popula­ tio n s tu d ie d , how a t e s tin g instrum ent was s e le c te d , how th e te s tin g Instrum ent was co n stru cted and f i e l d te s te d f o r v a l i d i t y and r e l i ­ a b i l i t y purposes, how th e instrum ent was a d m in is te re d , how the study was designed, and how th e data produced from the instru m ent was analyzed. In th e ch ap ter to fo llo w th e re w i l l be a p re s e n ta tio n o f the re s u lts o f t h is study and an a n a ly s is and in t e r p r e ta tio n o f the r e s u lts . Jae-On Kim and Frank J . Kohout, " M u ltip le Regression A n alysis: Subprogram R egressio n," Package f o r th e S o cial Sciences (New York: M c G ra w -H ill, 1 9 7 5 ), p. 321. in N. H. Nie e t a l . , S t a t i s t i c a l CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS Overview In th is ch ap ter data w i l l be presented and analyzed in terms o f (1 ) demographic m a te ria ls concerning th e independent v a ria b le s o f rank, sex, age, c u rre n t place o f employment and p lace o f employment in 1972; (2 ) s u b je c ts 1 understanding o f AAEP as measured by q u e stio n ­ n a ire Items 1 through 12; (3 ) s u b je c ts ' p erceptions o f AAEP's Impact on in d iv id u a l careers as measured by q u e s tio n n a ire items 13 through 4 0 , and (4 ) the ANOVA on understanding o f and p ercep tio n o f impact o f AAEP by sex, ra n k , ag e , place o f employment in 1972 and c u rre n t place o f employment. Levels o f s ig n ific a n c e re g a rd in g th e dependent v a ria b le o f understanding AAEP and p ercep tio n o f i t s impact on one's c a re e r w i l l be presented. Unintended e f f e c t s , i f any, w i l l be id e n t if ie d . Demographic Data The m a te ria l o f a demographic n a tu re , th a t i s , th a t which describes th e respondents to th e q u e s tio n n a ire , is as fo llo w s : Sex_: S ix ty -tw o o f the respondents were males and 40 were fem ales. Place o f Employment in 1972: T h irty -o n e o f th e subjects were employed a t MSU, 34 were employed a t VRS, 11 were in t r a in in g programs and 26 were employed a t o th e r places besides MSU o r VRS. 87 88 Current Employment S i t e : T h irty -n in e o f the respondents work a t MSU and 63 a re employed a t VRS. Educational C re d e n tia ls : Tw enty-three in d iv id u a ls hold bachelor’ s degrees, 35 have m aster's degrees, 21 have m aster's degrees plus d octorate coursework, 31 have d o c to ra te s , 1 has an educational s p e c ia lis t degree and 1 person chose not to respond regarding what educational degree, i f any, had been a tta in e d . Age o f Respondents: T h ir ty -th r e e o f the respondents are between th e ages o f 2 0 -2 9 , 39 are between the ages o f 3 0 -3 9 , 24 are are between the ages o f 4 0 -5 9 , and 6 are begween th e ages o f 50-59. M a r ita l S ta tu s : Nineteen c u rre n tly are s in g le , 66 are m arried, 4 have lo s t t h e i r spouses by death and 13 are c u rre n tly divorced o r separated. Employment Rank: This data is best presented in ta b u la r form (T ab le 4 . 1 ) . In Table 4 . 1 , the category Other holds an ii which is d if f e r e n t from data categ o rized under Place o f Employment in 1972. Eleven persons in d icated placement in tr a in in g programs and 26 s ta te d th a t they were employed a t a v a r ie ty o f o ther places fo r an ji o f 37. The d iffe re n c e o f 12 is accounted fo r by the fa c t th at e ig h t o f the subjects were employed a t VRS but below a C iv il Service rank o f 9. L ikew ise, fo u r were employed a t MSU but were not in the tenure stream. Subscale I : Subjects Do Understand AAEP This subscale is designed to measure the fa c tu a l understand­ ing o f Barnard's p r in c ip le : Black employees can and do understand AAEP. TABLE 4.1 . — Employment S ta tu s in 1972 and 1976. 89 Rank In s tru c to r A s s is ta n t P ro fesso r Associate P ro fesso r Professor C iv il Service 9 C iv il S ervice 10 C iv il S ervice 11 C iv il S ervice 12 C iv il S ervice 13 C iv il S ervice 15+ O ther: 1972 1976 2 16 11 2 14 5 2 1 0 0 49 1 20 13 6 30 18 6 4 3 1 0 T ra in in g Employment elsew here MSU but not in ten u re t r a c t VRS but C.S. rank < 9 11 26 4 8 102 102 In p resen tin g the computer data supporting th e f a c t th a t Blacks who p a r tic ip a te d in th is study do understand AAEP, th e re f i r s t w i l l be an a n a ly s is o f th e s u b je c ts ' responses to each item o f Scale I . The e x p lo ra to ry question w i l l be l i s t e d w ith Roman numerals. Under each e x p lo ra to ry question w i l l be th e q u e s tio n n a ire items r e la tin g to th e e x p lo ra to ry q u e stio n . They w i l l be lis t e d w ith A rab ic num erals. 90 E x p lo ra to ry Question I Have s u b je c ts had d i f f i c u l t y in examining t h e i r em ployer's w r itte n AAEP statem ent? As noted in T ab le 4 . 2 , th e m a jo r ity o f respondents had access to the statem ent (6 6 .7 p e rc e n t). TABLE 4 . 2 . — Access to Employer's AAEP Statem ent Frequency D ata. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly disag ree A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 24 44 22 12 102 2 3 .5 43.1 2 1 .6 1 1 .8 100.0 2 3 .5 6 6 .7 8 8 .2 1 0 0 .0 Mean Median Mode 2 .2 1 6 2 .1 14 2 .0 00 Std. E r r . S td. Dev. Variance .093 .940 .884 E x p lo ra to ry Question I I Are su b jects f a m il i a r w ith th e person in charge o f AAEP im plem entation a t t h e i r place o f employment? According to data in T able 4 . 3 , fewer than h a lf o f th e sample knew th e AAEP o f f i c e r a t t h e i r place o f employment. T h is t a b le , however, needs conment. Of the persons in d ic a tin g th a t th ey knew the in d iv id u a l, 43 percent o ffe re d th e in c o rre c t name. Only fo u r in d iv id u a ls a t VRS knew the c o rre c t name whereas 21 o f th e u n iv e r s ity sample l is t e d th e c o rre c t o f f i c e r . 91 TABLE 4 . 3 . — C o rrec t Id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f AAEP O f f ic e r Frequency D ata. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly d is ag re e A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 26 18 31 27 102 2 5 .5 1 7 .6 3 0 .4 2 6 .5 100.0 2 5 .5 43.1 7 3 .5 100.0 Mean Median Mode 2 .5 7 8 2 .3 2 6 3 .0 0 0 S td . E r r . S td . Dev. V arian ce .113 1.138 1 .2 90 E x p lo ra to ry Question I I I Are su b jects aware o f the changes a f f e c t in g t h e i r employer as a r e s u lt o f AAEP? Several o f th e items p e rta in to t h is question and w i l l be ta b u la te d in o rd e r o f t h e i r appearance on the q u e stio n ­ n a ir e . 1. AAEP re q u ire s th e h ir in g o f m in o rity people to meet quotas even i f th e p ro s p e c tiv e employees are not q u a l i f i e d . AEEP does not re q u ire th e h ir in g o f u n q u a lifie d persons so a response in d ic a tin g d is a g re e or s tro n g ly d is ag re e in d ic a te s th a t th e employee understands t h is p a rt o f AAEP. According to Table 4 . 4 , th e vast m a jo rity o f respondents have th e c o rre c t in fo rm a tio n about quotas (8 9 .2 p e rc e n t). 2 . I f th e re are several a p p lic a n ts f o r a p o s itio n and one a p p lic a n t is a member o f a m in o rity group o r a woman, th is person must be given p r e fe r e n tia l tre a tm e n t. Table 4 .5 shows th a t TABLE 4 . 4 . — Knowledge o f H irin g o f U n q u a lifie d Persons Frequency D ata. Category la b e l £ ^ c y R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency S trongly d isag ree Oisagree Agree S tro n g ly agree 60 31 8 3 102 5 8 .8 3 0 .4 7 .8 2 .9 100.0 5 8 .8 8 9 .2 97.1 100.0 1.549 Mean Median 1.350 1.000 Mode S td. E rr . S td. Oev. Variance .076 .766 .587 TABLE 4 . 5 . — Knowledge o f Requirement o f P r e fe r e n tia l T reatm ent Frequency D ata. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n gly d isag ree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 13 38 35 16 102 12.7 3 7 .3 34 .3 15.7 100.0 12,7 5 0 .0 8 4 .3 100.0 Mean 2.529 Median 2 .5 00 2 .0 00 Mode S td. E r r . S td. Dev. Variance .090 .909 .826 93 the sample was s p l i t in i t s understanding o f t h is req u irem en t, th a t i s , 50 percent recognized i t to be tru e and 50 percent re je c te d i t as f a ls e . 3 . Tim etables f o r com pletion o f h ir in g goals and o b je c tiv e s are not re q u ire d by AAEP. The c o rre c t response to t h is question is a n e g ative one o f e it h e r d isag ree o r s tro n g ly d is a g re e . From Table 4 .6 th e m a jo r ity o f respondents in d ic a te th a t they understand th is p a rt o f the prograiraning (7 5 .5 p e rc e n t). TABLE 4 . 6 . — Knowledge o f Tim etables f o r H irin g Requirement Frequency Data. Category Label Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency S tro n gly disag ree Disagree Agree S tro n g ly Agree 43 34 19 6 102 4 2 .2 3 3 .3 1 8 .6 5 .9 1 0 0 .0 4 2 .2 7 5 .5 94.1 100.0 Mean Median Mode 1.882 1.735 1.0 00 S td. E rr. S td . Dev. Variance .091 .915 .838 4 . At t h is p o in t th e re are no sanctions fo r noncompliance i f my employer does not meet AAEP req u irem en ts. A sample response o f 6 1 .8 percent to s tro n g ly d isag ree and d is ag re e in d ic a te s under­ standing o f th is fa c e t o f AAEP, as shown in T ab le 4 .7 . 94 TABLE 4 . 7 . — Knowledge o f S a n c tio n s f o r N oncom pliance Frequency D a ta . Category Label A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency S trongly d is a g re e Disagree Agree S tro n gly Agree 30 33 28 11 102 2 9 .4 3 2 .4 2 7 .5 1 0 .8 1 0 0.0 2 9 .4 6 1 .8 8 9 .2 100.0 Mean Median Mode 2 .1 96 2.1 3 6 2.0 0 0 S td . E rr. S td . Dev. V arian ce .098 .985 .971 5. AAEP focuses p r im a r ily on h e lp in g members o f th e fem ale sex fin d employment w ith members o f r a c ia l groups re c e iv in g second­ ary c o n s id e ra tio n . This was recognized as a f a ls e statem ent by 74.5% o f th e sample, as shown in Table 4 .8 . 6. My employer is in f u l l compliance w ith AAEP as evidenced by no com plaints having been forthcom ing from th e fe d e ra l government about employment p ra c tic e s . Respondents d is ag re e w ith t h is s t a t e ­ ment (8 2 .4 p e rc e n t cum ulative frequency; T ab le 4 . 9 ) . 7. The r a t i o o f m in o r itie s a t my p lace o f employment as determined by m in o rity u t i l i z a t i o n stu d ies is known to me. An assump­ tio n has to be made in in t e r p r e tin g responses to t h is item . The sample In d ic a tin g knowledge o f such data was r e l a t i v e l y small (2 .1 6 p e rc e n t). Furtherm ore, o f th is p ercen tag e, only 7 (3 2 .8 p erc en t) 95 TABLE 4 . 8 . — Knowledge o f T a rg e t P o p u la tio n o f AAEP Frequency D ata. Category Label Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency S trongly disag ree Disagree Agree S tro n gly agree 28 48 18 8 102 2 7 .5 47.1 1 7 .6 7 .8 100.0 2 7 .5 7 4 .5 92 .2 100.0 Mean Med i an Mode 2.059 1.979 2 .0 0 0 S td. E rr . S td . Dev. Variance .087 .877 .769 TABLE 4 . 9 . — Knowledge o f Employer Compliance Frequency D ata. Category Label Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency S tro n gly d isag ree Disagree Agree S tro n gly agree 38 46 14 4 102 3 7 .3 45.1 13.7 3 .9 10 0.0 3 7 .3 8 2 .4 96.1 100.0 1.843 Mean Median 1.783 2 .0 00 Mode S td. E rr . S td. Dev. Variance 080 805 648 96 knew the c o rre c t s t a t i s t i c s , as can be seen in Table 4 .1 0 . The assumption which seems reasonable to make is th a t th is data is not re a d ily a v a ila b le to employees. TABLE 4 . 1 0 . — Knowledge o f M in o rity R a tio Data A c c e s s ib ility Fre quency Data. Category Label Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency 5 17 37 43 102 4 .9 16.7 36.3 42.2 100.0 4 .9 21.6 57.8 100.0 Mean 3.157 Median 3.284 4.0 00 Mode Std. E rr. Std. Dev. Variance .087 .876 .767 Exploratory Question IV Do subjects recognize th a t measures suggested as possible measures f o r employers to improve m in o rity re p res en tatio n in t h e ir work fo rce are not required by law? Three q u e stio n n aire items re fe r to th is question. 1. My employer is required to o f f e r p a rt-tim e employment o p p o rtu n itie s to members o f m in o rity groups i f th is is the only way to increase m in o rity rep resen tatio n in the work fo r c e . Respond­ ents recognized th is as in c o rre c t (8 8 .2 p e rc e n t). 97 TABLE 4 , 1 1 . — Knowledge o f P a rt-T im e Work R equirem ent Frequency D a ta . Category Label A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency S tro n g ly d isag ree Disagree Agree S tro n g ly agree 41 49 10 2 102 4 0 .2 4 8 .0 9 .8 2 .0 1 0 0.0 4 0 .2 8 8 .2 9 8 .0 10 0 .0 Mean Median Mode 1.735 1.704 2 .0 0 0 S td . E r r . S td. Dev. V arian ce .071 .717 .513 2 . My employer is re q u ire d to provide c h ild -c a re f a c i l i t i e s fo r c h ild re n o f m in o rity In d iv id u a ls i f th is is th e only way to increase m in o rity re p re s e n ta tio n in the work fo r c e . This was recognized as being untrue by 94.1 percent o f th e sample (see Table 4 .1 2 ) . 3 . The fe d e ra l government is re q u ire d to provide t r a in in g programs a t my place o f employment f o r upgrading c r e d e n tia ls o f p ro sp ective Black employees. T able 4 .1 3 shows t h a t the respondents know th a t t h e i r employers a re not re q u ire d to p ro vid e t r a in in g f o r p ro sp ective employees, as in d ic a te d by a s tro n g ly d is a g re e /a g re e response le v e l o f 8 2 .4 p ercen t. 98 TABLE 4 . 1 2 . — Knowledge o f P ro v is io n s f o r C h ild Care Frequency Data. Category Label Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency S trongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree 54 42 4 2 102 52.9 4 1 .2 3.9 2 .0 100.0 52.9 94.1 98.0 100.0 Mean Median Mode 1.549 1.444 1.000 Std. E rr . Std. Dev. Variance .066 .669 .448 TABLE 4 . 1 3 . — Knowledge o f T ra in in g f o r Prospective Employees Fre­ quency Data. Category Label Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree 40 44 14 4 102 39.2 43.1 13.7 3 .9 100.0 39.2 82.4 96.1 100.0 Mean Median Mode 1.824 1.750 2.000 S td. E rr . Std. Dev. Variance .081 .813 .662 99 In terms o f Dependent V a ria b le I , Black employees a t MSU and VRS do understand AAEP, th e data is c le a r . As can be noted in Table 4 .1 4 , 75 percent (read as 7 4 .5 p erc en t) achieved a score o f 27 o r le s s . The c r i t e r i o n i n i t i a l l y is accepted as in d ic a tin g th a t respondents d id , in f a c t , understand AAEP was th a t 50 percent o f the sample would achieve a score o f 75 percent " c o r r e c t." In th is study 75 percent achieved such a r a t in g . TABLE 4 . 1 4 . — Understanding o f AAEP Frequency Data. Total Score 12-15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34-48 Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulativ Frequenc> 0 1 0 1 2 2 6 16 7 11 9 9 12 12 4 4 2 2 2 0 0 .0 1.0 0 .0 1 .0 2 .0 2 .0 5 .9 15.7 6 .9 1 0 .8 8 .8 8 ,8 1 1 .8 1 1 .8 3 .9 3 .9 2 .0 2 .0 2 .0 0 .0 0 .0 1 .0 1 .0 2 .0 3 .9 5 .9 11 .8 2 7 .5 3 4 .3 45.1 53.9 6 2 .7 74.5 8 6 .3 9 0 .2 94.1 96.1 9 8 .0 100.0 100.0 102 100.0 700 Subscale I I : Subjects P erceive AAEP to Have an Impact on T h e ir Careers Has AAEP had an impact on th e ca reers o f th e sample studied? Nine s p e c ific questions and the q u e s tio n n a ire items which are responsive to them are presented in the ta b le s to fo llo w . E x p lo ra to ry Question I Mere su b jects helped by AAEP in terms o f jo b s t a b i l i t y , one example o f which would be fa v o ra b le ten u re a c tio n ? A m in o rity o f subjects agreed w ith th e q u e s tio n n a ire item d e a lin g w ith th is point (2 9 .4 p e rc e n t). TABLE 4 . 1 5 . —AAEP and Job S t a b i l i t y Frequency D ata. Category Label S trongly agree Agree Disagree S tro n gly d is a g re e Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 1 29 31 41 102 1 .0 2 8 .4 3 0 .4 4 0 .2 100.0 1 .0 29 .4 5 9 .8 100.0 Mean 3 .0 98 Median 3.177 4.0 0 0 Mode S td . E rr . S td . Dev. Variance .084 .850 .723 E xp lo rato ry Question I I Were su b jects helped by AAEP in terms o f i n i t i a l r e c r u i t - ment and h ir in g ? Only 3 7 .3 percent o f th e sample b e lie v e d AAEP to be h e lp fu l in regard to i n i t i a l employment procurement. 101 TABLE 4 . 1 6 . — AAEP and R e c ru itm e n t and H ir in g Frequency D a ta . Category Label S trongly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly d isag ree A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 9 29 24 40 102 8 .8 2 8 .4 2 3 .5 3 9 .2 10 0 .0 8 .8 3 7 .3 6 0 .8 1 00.0 Mean 2.931 Median 3.042 4 .0 00 Mode S td . E r r . S td . Dev. Variance .101 1 .0 17 1.035 E x p lo ra to ry Question I I I Were su b jects helped by AAEP in terms o f promotions? Only a to ta l o f 1 4 .7 percent o f th e e n t ir e sample f e l t promotion was in flu e n ce d by AAEP. TABLE 4 . 1 7 . — AAEP and Promotion Frequency D ata. Category Label Strongly agree Agree Disagree S tro n gly d is ag re e A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 5 10 33 54 102 4 .9 9 .8 3 2 .4 5 2 .9 1 0 0 .0 4 .9 1 4 .7 47.1 10 0.0 3.333 Mean Median 3 .5 5 6 4 .0 0 0 Mode S td . E r r . S td . Dev. V arian ce .084 .848 .719 102 E x p lo ra to ry Q u e s tio n IV Were su b jects helped by AAEP in terms o f s a la ry adjustments? Only s ix persons o r 5 .9 p ercen t o f th e sample f e l t AAEP was in s t r u ­ mental in s a la ry m a tte rs . TABLE 4 . 1 8 . — AAEP and S a la ry Frequency D ata. Category Label S tro n gly agree Agree Disagree Strongly d isag ree — Absolute Frequency 1 1 --L R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 0 6 26 70 102 0 .0 5 .9 2 5 .5 6 8 .5 100.0 0 .0 5 .9 3 1 .4 1 0 0 .0 Mean 3.627 Median 3.771 4 .0 00 Mode S td . E r r . S td . Dev. V arian ce .059 .590 .355 E x p lo rato ry Question V Were su b jects helped by AAEP in terms o f fr in g e b e n e fits ? Four q u e s tio n n a ire items p e rta in d ir e c t l y to t h is question and one is in d ir e c t ly re la te d to i t . 1. AAEP has made i t p o s s ib le fo r me to a tte n d more p ro - fes sio n a l m eetings— a t no personal expense— than I d id b e fo re AAEP was in p rogress. Respondents could not agree w ith t h is statem en t. 103 TABLE 4 . 1 9 . — AAEP and P ro fe s s io n a l M e e tin g A tte n d a n c e Frequency D a ta . Category Label S trongly agree Agree Disagree S trongly d isag ree A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 0 7 34 61 102 0 . 0 6 .9 3 3 .3 5 9 .8 100.0 0 . 0 6 .9 4 0 .2 100.0 3.529 Mean Median 3.664 Mode 4 .0 0 S td . E r r . S td . Dev. V ariance .062 .625 .390 2 . AAEP has made i t p o ssib le fo r me to tak e advance t r a in i n g , e . g ., u n iv e r s ity coursework, d urin g work hours. S ubjects d id not fin d th is to be tr u e f o r th e most p a r t. TABLE 4 . 2 0 . — AAEP and Advanced T ra in in g Frequency D ata. Category Label Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly d is a g re e A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 2 15 25 60 102 2 . 0 14 .7 2 4 .5 5 8 .8 100.0 2 . 0 1 6 .7 4 1 .2 100.0 Mean 3.402 Median 3.650 4.000 Mode S td . E r r . S td . Dev. V arian ce ,080 .812 .659 104 3. AAEP has o ffe re d me more lib e r a l vacation or leave time than my colleagues have. Respondents were almost unanimous (11 = 99) in t h e ir re je c tio n o f th is statem ent. TABLE 4 . 2 1 . — AAEP and Leave B e n e fits Frequency Data. Category Label Strongly agree Agree Disagree S trongly disagree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency 0 3 26 73 102 0 .0 2 .9 2 5 .5 7 1 .6 100.0 0 .0 2 .9 2 8 .4 10 0.0 Mean Median Mode 3.686 3.804 4 .0 00 S td. E rr . S td. Dev. Variance .052 .526 .277 4. I have not been d iscrim in ated ag a in st a t my c u rre n t place o f emplo_yment in t e r ms o f s a la r y , te n u re , promotions, and other frin g e b e n e fits . Table 4 .2 2 shows th a t th e m a jo rity o f respondents agree w ith th is statem ent (6 7 .6 p e rc e n t). 5. The AAEP O ffic e a t my place o f employment has been h elpfu l to me when I requested a i d . The m a jo rity o f respondents have not requested a id (r^ = 72) and, th e re fo r e , respond to th is item w ith disagreement (Table 4 .2 3 ) . 105 TABLE 4 . 2 2 . — P ercep tio n o f N o n d isc rim in atio n Regarding Job B e n e fits Frequency D ata. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree 01 sagree S trongly disag ree A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 11 58 10 23 102 1 0 .8 5 6 .9 9 .8 2 2 .5 100.0 1 0 .8 6 7 .6 7 7 .5 100.0 Mean 3 .6 27 Median 3.771 4 .0 0 0 Mode S td. E rr . S td . Dev. V arian ce 059 596 355 TABLE 4 . 2 3 . — A ssistance from AAEP O ffic e Frequency Data Category Label S trongly agree Agree Disagree S tro n gly d isag ree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency 5 25 28 44 102 4 .9 2 4 .5 2 7 .5 43.1 100.0 4 .9 2 9 .4 56 .9 100.0 3 .0 8 8 Mean Median 3 .2 5 0 4 .0 0 0 Mode S td. E rr . Std. Dev. Variance .093 .935 .87 3 106 E x p lo r a to r y Q u e stio n V I Do su b jects p e rc e iv e White members o f t h e i r employment u n its as b e lie v in g th a t AAEP Is a p o s itiv e ex p erie n c e and program f o r th e fu tu re employer and employees? Four q u e s tio n n a ire items a re d ir e c t l y responsive to t h is e x p lo ra to ry question and two are i n d i r e c t l y r e l a ­ ted to i t . 1. White employees a t my p lace o f employment fe e l th a t AAEP is c re a tin g serious re c ru itm e n t problems f o r our departm ent and, d ir e c t ly o r i n d i r e c t l y , f o r them. A t o t a l o f 6 7 .6 p ercen t o f the sample b e lie v e th is to be tr u e . TABLE 4 . 2 4 . — Perceived W hite B e lie fs Regarding R ecruitm ent Frequency Data. r'fciii.ur l ^ > i ■■ . .g— u Category Label S trongly agree Agree Disagree S tro n gly disag ree A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 19 50 29 __ 4 102 1 8 .6 4 9 .0 2 8 .4 3 .9 100.0 18.6 6 7 .6 96.1 100.0 Mean 2.176 Median 2.1 4 0 2.000 Mode S td . E rr. S td. Dev. Variance .077 .776 .602 2 . White employees in my place o f employment fe e l th a t AAEP is c re a tin g m orale problems f o r our employer and, d ir e c t ly o r I n d i­ r e c t l y , f o r them. Table 4 .2 5 contains the re s u lts f o r t h is item . 107 TABLE 4 . 2 5 . -- P e rc e iv e d W hite B e lie f s R e ga rdin g M o ra le Problems Frequency D ata. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly disag ree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 11 58 33 0 102 1 0 .8 5 6 .9 3 2 .4 0 .0 100.0 1 0 .8 6 7 .6 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 Mean 2 .2 1 6 Median 2 .1 9 0 2 .0 0 0 Mode S td . E r r . S td . Dev. Variance .062 .623 .389 3. White employees a t mv p lace o f employment f e e l th a t White males are being s a c r ific e d in th e la b o r market ini th e in t e r e s t o f improving the m a r k e ta b ility o f Blacks A m a jo r ity o f respondents b e lie v e s th a t W hite employees do have th is f e e lin g . TABLE 4 . 2 6 . — P erceived B e lie fs o f Whites F e e lin g S a c rific e d F re - quency Data. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S trongly disag ree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 25 49 23 5 102 2 4 .5 4 8 .0 2 2 .5 4 .9 1 0 0.0 2 4 .5 7 2 .5 95.1 10 0.0 Mean 2 .0 7 8 Median 2.031 2 .0 0 0 Mode S td . E rr. S td . Dev. Varian ce .081 .871 .667 108 4. W hite employees a t my p lace o f employment fe e l th a t AAEP Is econom ically harmful to our employer and, d ir e c t ly and i n d i r e c t l y , to them. A t o t a l o f 7 6 .5 percent o f th e sample was in agreement w ith t h is statem en t. TABLE 4 . 2 7 . — Perceived W hite B e lie fs o f AAEP as Econom ically Harmful Frequency Data. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n gly d isag ree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 19 59 23 1 102 1 8 .6 5 7 .8 2 2 .5 1 .0 100.0 1 8 .6 7 6 .5 9 9 .0 100.0 Mean 2 .0 5 9 Median 2.0 4 2 2 .0 0 0 Mode S td. E rr . Std. Dev. V arian ce .067 .672 .452 5. White co lleag u es are co m fo rtable in discussing AAEP w ith me o r in my presence Only a t o t a l o f 2 8 .4 percent o f the sample fe e ls th a t th is statem ent is a c c u ra te , as shown in Table 4 .2 8 . 6. White co lleag u es a re com fortable in discussing th e notion o f "reverse racism" in my presence o r w ith me. T ab le 4 .2 9 reveals th a t th e vast m a jo r ity o f respondents fin d th is not to be tru e . 109 TABLE 4 . 2 8 . — Perception o f W hites' Desire to Discuss Issues Fre­ quency Data. Category Label Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency 3 26 43 30 102 2 .9 2 5 .5 4 2 .2 2 9 .4 100.0 2 .9 2 8 .4 70.6 100.0 Mean 2.9 80 Median 3.012 3.000 Mode Std. E rr . Std. Dev. Variance .081 .820 .673 TABLE 4 .2 9 .— Perception o f W hites' Desire to Discuss "Reverse Racism" Frequency Data. Category Label Strongly Agree Agree Disagree S trongly disagree Absol ute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency 9 18 37 38 102 8 .8 17.6 36,3 37.3 100.0 8 .8 2 6 .5 6 2 .7 100.0 Mean 3.020 Median 3.149 4.000 Mode S td. E rr . Std. Dev. Variance .094 .954 .911 110 E x p lo r a to r y Q u e stio n V I I Do su b jects fe e l th a t th ey as w e ll as Blacks In general have been helped by AAEP? There are f i v e q u e s tio n n a ire items p e r t i nent to t h is e x p lo ra to ry q u e s tio n . 1. AAEP w i l l provide g re a te r employment o p p o rtu n itie s f o r members o f my race who have ye t to e n te r the jo b m a rk e t. The m a jo r ity o f respondents agree w ith t h is statem ent (6 9 .6 p e rc e n t). TABLE 4 . 3 0 . — P ercep tio n o f AAEP as P ro vid ing F u tu re O p p o rtu n itie s Frequency Data. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly disag ree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 6 65 16 15 102 5 .9 6 3 .7 1 5 .7 14.7 100.0 5 .9 6 9 .6 8 5 ,3 100.0 2 .3 92 Mean Median 2.192 2 .0 0 0 Mode Std. E r r . S td . Dev. V arian ce .080 .810 .657 2. AAEP has c o n trib u te d p o s it iv e ly to th e personal e n ric h - ment o f my l i f e . As seen in T ab le 4 .3 1 , only a t o t a l o f 2 7 .5 p e r- cent o f the sample can agree w ith t h a t statem ent. 3. AAEP has helped my co lleag u es to p e rc e iv e me as a compe te n t em ployee. Table 4 .3 2 shows t h a t only 9 1 .2 p e rc e n t o f th e sample was in disagreem ent w ith th a t s ta tem en t. I l l TABLE 4 . 3 1 . — P e rc e p tio n o f AAEP as P r o v id in g P e rso na l E n richm e nt Frequency D ata. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly disag ree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 2 26 39 35 102 2 .0 2 5 .5 3 8 .2 3 4 .3 100.0 2 .0 2 7 .5 6 5 .7 100.0 Mean 3 .0 4 9 Median 3 .0 9 0 3.0 0 0 Mode S td . E r r . S td . Dev. Variance .082 .825 .681 TABLE 4 . 3 2 . — P ercep tio n o f AAEP as Causing Whites to Competency Frequency D ata. P erceive Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly disag ree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 0 9 48 45 102 0 .0 8 .8 47.1 44.1 100.0 0 .0 8 .8 55 .9 10 0.0 Mean 3 .3 5 3 Median 3 .3 7 5 3 .0 0 0 Mode S td. E r r . Std. Dev. Variance .063 .639 .409 112 4. AAEP has helped my colleagues to a p p re c ia te me more as a person. Disagreement w ith t h is statem ent to ta le d 9 2 .8 p ercen t o f the sample. TABLE 4 . 3 3 . — P ercep tio n o f AAEP as Enhancing A p p re c ia tio n o f Respondent Frequency Data. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly d is ag re e A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency 0 8 45 49 102 0 .0 7 .8 44.1 4 8 .0 1 0 0 .0 0 .0 7 .8 5 2 .0 100.0 Mean Median Mode 3 .4 0 2 3 .4 5 6 4 .0 0 0 S td. E r r . S td . Dev. V arian ce .063 .633 .401 E x p lo ra to ry Question V I I I Do s u b je cts fe e l t h a t AAEP is being implemented in t h e i r place o f employment? F ive q u e s tio n n a ire items provide answers to th a t q u estio n . 1. AAEP has meant more jobs f o r Blacks a t my p la c e o f employment. T ab le 4 .3 4 shows t h a t alm ost h a lf o f th e sample agreed w ith th is item {4 6 .1 p e rc e n t). 2 . Blacks in general a t my place o f employment have been tre a te d more fa v o ra b ly since 1972. Although th e re is p a r t ia l agreement about more jo b o p p o r tu n itie s , T a b le 4 .3 5 in d ic a te s th a t 113 TABLE 4 . 3 4 . — Perception o f AAEP as Increasin g Black Employment F re - quency D ata. Category Label “ I q i ^ c y R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulatlve Frequency Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree 9 38 28 27 102 8 .8 37.3 27.5 26.5 100.0 8 .8 46.1 73.5 100.0 Mean 2.716 Median 2.643 2.000 Mode Std. E rr. Std. Dev. Variance .095 .958 .918 TABLE 4 . 3 5 . — Perception o f AAEP as Helping Blacks to Be Treated More Favorably Frequency Data. Category Label Strongly agree Agree Di sagree S trongly disagree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency 3 29 38 32 102 2 .9 28.4 37.3 31.4 100.0 2 .9 31.4 68 .6 100.0 Mean 2.971 Median 3.000 3.000 Mode Std. E rr. Std. Dev. Variance .084 .850 .722 114 the respondents do not fe e l t h a t Blacks have been tr e a te d more fa v o ra b ly w ith a sample response o f but 3 1 .4 percent in concordance w ith t h a t statem ent. 3 . Procedures and p o lic ie s which in t e r f e r e w ith AAEP im plem entation a t MSU, e . g . . nepotism , should be p r o h ib ite d . Pro­ cedures and p o lic ie s which i n t e r f e r e w ith AAEP im plem entation a t VRS, e . g . , performance on C iv il S e rv ic e t e s t s , should be p ro h ib ite d . Responses to these two statem ents were combined to show t h a t the m a jo r ity o f respondents agree w ith th a t change. TABLE 4 . 3 6 . — P ercep tio n o f AAEP P o lic y Changes Needed Frequency D ata. C ategory Label A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency S tro n g ly disagree Disagree Agree S tro n g ly agree 4 38 36 24 102 3 .9 3 7 .3 3 5 .3 2 3 .5 10 0.0 3 .9 4 1 .2 76.5 100.0 Mean Median Mode 2 .7 8 4 2 .7 5 0 2 .0 0 0 S td . E rr . S td . Dev. V arian ce .084 .852 .725 4 . Statements having to do w ith m o d ific a tio n o f q u a li f i c a ­ tio n s a ls o were combined f o r a n a ly s is , namely: In an e f f o r t to in crease p o s s ib ilit y f o r employment among B lacks, u n iv e r s ity departments should h ir e ABD's or t h e i r own d o c to ra te graduates b efo re h ir in g n o n m in o ritie s w ith doctorates completed a t o th e r 115 u n iv e r s itie s and VRS should h ir e Blacks w ith o u t p ro fe s s io n a l t r a i n ­ in g . place them on OJT programs sponsored by d i s t r i c t managers, and e v e n tu a lly p lace them in p o s itio n s now reserved f o r persons w ith c e r ta in types o f u n iv e r s ity t r a in i n g . Disagreement w ith such proposals to ta le d 6 3 .7 percent o f the sample. TABLE 4 . 3 7 . — P erception o f AAEP as R eq u irin g M o d ific a tio n o f Q u a li­ fic a tio n s Frequency D ata. Category Label Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cum ulative Frequency S tro n g ly d isag ree Disagree Agree S tro n g ly agree 12 53 22 15 102 1 1 .8 5 2 .0 21 .6 14 .7 100.0 1 1 .8 6 3 .7 8 5 .3 100.0 Mean Median Mode 2.392 2.2 3 6 2.0 0 0 S td . E r r . S td . Dev. Variance .087 .881 .775 5 . In terms o f c e r ta in forms o f punishment f o r not im ple­ menting AAEP, two more questions were combined, namely: D ep art­ ments which h is t o r ic a l l y have not h ire d Blacks should have r e c r u itin g and h ir in g p re ro g a tiv e s withdrawn and D i s t r i c t managers who have refused to h ir e Blacks f o r p ro fe s s io n a l s t a f f p o s itio n s should be fo rced to accept t r a n s f e r o f Black VRS employees from o th e r d i s t r i c t s . The m a jo r ity o f the sample (6 8 .6 p e rc e n t) accepted these statem ents. 116 TABLE 4 . 3 8 . — P e rc e p tio n o f AAEP as Needing to Usurp Management P re ro g a tiv e s Frequency D ata. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly d isag ree A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency 30 40 29 3 102 2 9 .4 3 9 .2 2 8 .4 2 .9 1 0 0 .0 2 9 .4 6 8 .6 97.1 100.0 2.0 49 Mean Median 2.0 2 5 2.0 0 0 Mode S td . E rr . S td . Dev. V arian ce .083 .837 .701 E x p lo ra to ry Question IX Do su b jects themselves accept the p r in c ip le o f AAEP as a p o s itiv e fo rc e in t h e i r liv e s ? The la s t fo u r q u e s tio n n a ire items p e rta in to t h is q u estio n . 1 . Although the goal o f in c lu d in g m in o r itie s in the system is d e s ir a b le , th e forced ' ..piemen t a t ion o f AAEP is d e trim e n ta l to the reachin g o f th is g o a l. Only 14 o f th e sample agreed w ith th a t statem en t, as in d ic a te d in T ab le 4 .3 9 . 2 . W ithout AAEP th e system would n a t u r a lly open up to include and reward more members o f m in o rity groups. T ab le 4 .4 0 shows th a t o n ly 12 su b jects agreed w ith th a t statem en t. 117 TABLE 4 . 3 9 . — Perception o f E ffe c ts o f Forced Implementation Fre­ quency D ata. Category Label Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency S tro n g ly disagree Disagree Agree S tro n gly agree 41 47 12 2 102 4 0 .2 46.1 11.8 2 .0 100.0 4 0 .2 8 6 .3 9 8 .0 100,0 Mean Median Mode 1.755 1.713 2.000 S td. E rr. Std. Dev. Variance .073 .737 .543 TABLE 4 . 4 0 . — Perception o f the P o s s ib ilit y o f an Open System F re­ quency D ata. Category Label Absolute Frequency R e la ti ve Frequency Cumulative Frequency S tro n gly disagree Disagree Agree S tro n g ly agree 55 35 5 7 102 5 3 .9 3 4 .3 4 .9 6 .9 100.0 53.9 88.2 93.1 100.0 Mean 1.647 Median 1.427 1.000 Mode Std. Err.. Std. Dev.. Variance .085 .863 .745 3. AAEP has h u rt me p ro fe s s io n a lly as I am now b elie ve d to be a s t a t i s t i c f o r governmental purposes instead o f a competent pro­ fe s s io n a l . Almost o n e -q u a rte r o f th e sample b elie ve s th is to be tru e . 118 TABLE 4 . 4 1 . — P e rc e p tio n o f B eing S tig m a tiz e d by AAEP Frequency D ata. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly d is ag re e Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency C u n u lative Frequency 7 16 53 26 102 6 .9 15 .7 5 2 .0 2 5 .5 100.0 6 .9 2 2 .5 7 4 .5 100.0 Mean 2.961 Median 3 .0 2 8 3 .0 00 Mode S td . E rr. S td . Dev. Variance .082 .832 .692 4 . I support AAEP u n eq u ivo cally, T h re e -q u a rte rs o f the sample agreed w ith t h is strong statem ent {7 3 .5 p e rc e n t). TABLE 4 . 4 2 . — P erception Of Support f o r AAEP Frequency D ata. Category Label S tro n g ly agree Agree Disagree S tro n g ly disag ree Absolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulative Frequency 33 42 18 9 102 3 2 .4 4 1 .2 1 7 .6 8 .8 1 0 0.0 3 2 .4 73.5 9 1 .2 100.0 Mean Median Mode 2.029 1.929 2 .0 0 0 S td . E r r . S td. Dev. V ariance .092 .928 .861 In terms o f Dependent V a ria b le I I , AAEP is p erceived as having an impact on in d iv id u a l c a re e rs , m a te ria ls presented in 119 T ab le 4 .4 3 show t h is not to be th e case. According to the s tu d y 's d esig n , 50 percent o f th e s u b je cts had to achieve a score o f 75 p er­ cent o f th e "c o rre c t" responses. S e v e n ty -fiv e p ercen t achieved such a r a tin g 1n th e d ir e c tio n o f in d ic a tin g th a t they d id not as a group p erceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs . TABLE 4 . 4 3 . — P ercep tio n o f AEEP Impact on C areer Frequency D ata. Category Label A bsolute Frequency R e la tiv e Frequency Cumulativ Frequency 28-63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 8? 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96-112 0 2 2 1 3 1 2 2 8 6 5 5 4 8 10 5 4 3 5 3 5 2 4 5 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 1 1 0 102 0 .0 2 .0 2 .0 1 .0 2 .9 1 .0 2 .0 2 .0 7 .8 5 .9 4 .9 4 .9 3 .9 7 .8 9 .8 4 .9 3 .9 2 .9 4 .9 2 . 9 4 .9 2 .0 3 .9 4 .9 0 .0 0 .0 2.G 2 .9 0 .0 0 .0 0 ,0 1 .0 1 .0 0 .0 100.0 0 .0 2 .0 3 .9 4 .9 7 .8 8 .8 1 0 .8 1 2 .7 2 0 .6 2 6 .5 3 1 .4 3 6 .3 4 0 .2 4 8 .0 5 7 .8 6 2 .7 6 6 .7 6 9 .6 7 4 .5 7 7 . 5 8 2 .4 8 4 .3 8 8 .2 93.1 93.1 93.1 95.1 9 8 .0 9 8 .0 9 8 .0 9 8 .0 9 9 .0 1 0 0 .0 100,0 120 ANOVA I : S ubjects' Understanding o f AAEP The purpose o f th is an alysis o f variance is to determine i f there is a re la tio n s h ip between the dependent v a ria b le o f understand­ ing AAEP and the independent v a ria b le s o f age, sex, ra n k , c u rren t place o f employment, and place o f employment in 1972. The data is presented in Table 4 .4 4 . As in d icated by th is t a b le , th e re are only two d iffe re n c e s in regard to the independent v is -a -v is the dependent v a ria b le o f understanding AAEP, namely, place o f employment and cu rren t rank. The s ig n ific a n c e s are .017 and .00 1. Table 4 .4 5 to fo llo w shows the d ire c tio n o f these d iffe re n c e s , namely, persons who TA8LE 4 . 4 4 . — ANOVA A nalysis o f Dependent V a ria b le I . Source o f V a ria tio n Mean Square F S ig n ific a n c e o f F Main E ffe c ts Sex Place o f employment 1972 place o f employment Rank Age 2-Way In te ra c tio n s Sex-Place (1976) Sex-Rank Sex-Place (1972) Sex-Age Place-Rank Place-P lace (1972) Place-Age Rank-Place (1972) Rank-Age Place (1 9 7 2 )-Age Residual ( e r r o r ) 61.373 2.333 52.497 2.794 129.960 .724 7.131 3.436 4.308 5.659 6.390 7.316 .083 .075 33.470 1.512 2.159 9.051 6.781 .258 5.800 .309 14.358 .080 .788 .380 .476 .625 .706 .808 .009 .008 3.698 .167 .239 .001 .999 .017 .999 .001 .999 .999 .999 .999 .999 .999 .999 .999 .999 .055 .999 .999 121 TABLE 4 . 4 5 . - - M u l t ip i e C la s s if ic a t io n A n a ly s is : Dependent V a r i­ ab le I . * V a ria b le and Category Unadjusted DEV and ETA Adjusted DEV and ETA Sex Female Male Place o f Employment MSU VRS Rank Low High Place o f Employment (1972) Same placement D i ffe r e n t p1 a cemen t Less than 30 Over 30 M u ltip le R2 M u ltip le R .265 .515 Grand Mean 25.12 .83 .54 - -1 .5 8 .98 1 .00 -2 .0 9 .76 .70 - 1.34 .64 - .20 .37 .43 .22 .27 .21 .13 - -1 .1 7 .73 .86 -1 .8 0 - .21 .19 .15 .07 - .05 .27 .37 .06 .03 ♦N eg ative scores a re th e ones to a tte n d to in in te r p r e tin g Table 4 .4 5 . The s ig n if ic a n t ones a re < -1 .2 5 o r , s p e c i f ic a l l y , -1 .5 8 f o r MSU (P lac e o f Employment) and -2 .0 9 f o r High (R ank). 122 work a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity have a b e t t e r understanding than those who a re employed by VRS and persons h o ld in g h ig h e r ranks a t both places o f employment have a b e tte r understanding o f th e pro­ gram than those who hold low er ranks. ANOVA I I : S u b je c ts 1 P erceptions o f AAEP Impact on C areer The purpose o f t h is a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e is to determ ine i f th e re is a r e la tio n s h ip between th e dependent v a r ia b le , percep­ tio n o f impact o f AAEP on in d iv id u a l c a re e rs , and the Independent v a ria b le s o f age, sex, ra n k , c u rre n t place o f employment and p la ce o f employment in 1972. There a re no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s when the le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e is .0 5 . TABLE 4 . 4 6 . — ANOVA A n aly sis o f Dependent V a ria b le I I . Source o f V a r ia tio n Mean Square F S ig n ific a n c e Main E ffe c ts Sex Place (1976) Rank Place (1972) Age 2-Way In te ra c tio n s Sex-Place (1976) Sex-Rank Sex-Place (1972) Sex-Age Place (1976)-R ank Place (1 9 7 6 )-P la c e (1972) Place-Age Rank-Place (1972) Rank-Age Place (1 9 7 2 )-Age Residual T o tal ( e r r o r ) 28.696 .057 23.743 53.910 .347 34.149 31.147 69.520 54.532 64.144 60.506 15.999 10.874 5.418 1 .498 4 .0 8 0 27.79 0 46.89 8 44.437 .612 .001 .506 1.1 50 .007 .72 8 .664 1.482 1 .1 6 3 1.3 68 1 .290 .341 .232 .116 .032 .087 .593 .999 .999 .999 .287 .999 .999 .999 .225 .287 .244 .258 .999 .999 .999 .999 .999 .999 123 T ab le 4 .4 7 provides a m u ltip le c la s s if ic a t io n a n a ly s is o f Dependent V a ria b le I I . There are no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s as i ll u s t r a t e d below. TABLE 4 . 4 7 . — M u ltip le C la s s ific a t io n A n a ly s is : Dependent V a r i­ a b le I I . V a ria b le and Category Unadjusted DEV and ETA A djusted DEV and ETA Sex Female Male Place o f Employment (1976) MSU VRS Rank Low High - .27 .17 1.04 .64 - .27 .56 - Place (19 72 ) Same employment D if f e r e n t placement - .39 .36 Age Less than Over 30 30 M u ltip le R^ M u ltip le R .032 .179 Grand Mean 77.17 -1 .1 4 .54 .03 .02 - .79 .49 - .56 - 1 .1 6 - .07 .07 -1 .0 4 .5 0 .00 .09 .12 .01 .11 .03 .12 .06 .06 .12 124 ANOVA I I I : S ubjects* Understanding and P ercep tio n Scales Combined When Dependent V a ria b le s I and I I a re combined, th e re Is one s ig n if ic a n t d if fe r e n c e , namely, rank as shown in T ab le 4 .4 8 . This in d ic a te s th a t persons holding h ig h e r ranks a t both MSU and VRS have a g re a te r understanding o f AAEP and als o p e rc e iv e i t as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs . TABLE 4 . 4 8 . --ANOVA A n alysis o f Dependent V a ria b le s I and I I Combined. Source o f V a ria tio n Mean Square F S ig n ific a n c e o f F Main E ffe c ts Sex Place (1976) Rank Place (1972) Age 2-Way In te r a c tio n s Sex-Place (1976) Sex-Rank Sex-P lace (1972) Sex-Age Place (1976)-R ank Place (1 9 7 6 )-P la c e (1972) Place (1976)-A g e Rank-Place (1972) Rank-Age Place (1972)-A g e Residual ( e r r o r ) Total 90.40 9 9.052 10.095 399.034 11.16 8 31.219 2 7 .63 0 74.240 95.259 17.982 82.74 9 69.64 7 6 .0 04 8 .4 77 15.177 .001 7.443 47.909 4 8 .00 5 1.887 .189 .211 8 .3 2 9 .233 .652 .577 1 .5 5 0 1 .9 8 8 .375 1.727 1.4 5 4 .125 .177 .317 .000 .155 .104 .999 .999 .005 .999 .999 .999 .214 .159 .999 .189 .229 .999 .999 .999 .999 .999 According to data shown in Table 4 .4 9 , persons employed in the h ig h e r ranks a t both VRS and MSU have a b e t t e r understanding o f AAEP and p e rc eiv e i t as having an impact on t h e i r c a re e rs . 125 TABLE 4 . 4 9 . — M u ltip le C la s s ific a tio n A n a ly s is : Dependent V a r i­ ables I (U nderstanding) and I I (P e rc e p tio n ) Combined. V a ria b le and Category Unadjusted DEV and ETA Adjusted DEV and ETA Sex Female Male Placement (1976) VRS MSU Rank Low High Placement (1972) Same placement D if f e r e n t placement Age Less than 30 Over 30 M u ltip le R2 M u ltip le R .093 .305 .77 .50 - - .66 .41 1 .34 -2 .8 0 .31 .29 - .17 .08 - .09 .08 .28 .04 .02 .40 .26 - - .52 .32 1.51 -3 .1 6 - .42 .39 -1 .0 0 ,48 - .05 .06 .32 .06 .10 126 The m u ltip le c la s s if ic a t io n a n a ly s is and ANOVA I I I , th e n , both show rank as th e o n ly independent v a r ia b le r e la te d to th e depend­ e n t v a ria b le s o f understanding AAEP and p e rc e iv in g i t as having an impact on c a re e rs . M u ltip le Regression Analyses Table 4 .5 0 presents regressio n c o r r e la tio n c o e ff ic ie n ts which a re most p e rtin e n t to t h is study. Comparison o f th e ANOVA data and th e m u ltip le reg ressio n c o rr e la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts in d ic a te s th a t p lace o f employment in 1976 and rank a re th e two independent v a ria b le s which are c o rr e la te d s ig n if ic a n t ly w ith Dependent V a ria b le I (u n d erstan d in g ) and rank is the only independent v a r ia b le to c o r r e la te s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith a combination o f th e two dependent v a ria b le s (understanding and p e rc e p tio n ). There a re no s ig n if ic a n t c o r r e la tio n s in regard to the perception sc a le ju s t as th e re were no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s in a l l the s t a t i s t i c stu d ie s done on th a t s c a le . There is a ques­ tio n in th is regard about th e f a c t th a t S cale I and I I had d i f f e r ­ e n t numbers o f items (12 and 2 8 ) . I t is p o s s ib le th a t refin em en t o f the scales in terms o f numbers alone would produce d if f e r e n t r e s u lt s . P a r e n th e t ic a lly , i t should be noted th a t the v a r ia b le “degree" was included in th e m u ltip le reg ressio n data and a n a ly s is . In fo rm atio n about degree le v e l was e l i c i t e d but was not e i t h e r a dependent o r independent v a r ia b le in t h is p a r t ic u la r study. TABLE 4.50.—M ultiple Regression Correlation Coefficients. PI ace Rank Degree . 38404 .12624 .23211 .25172 .70636 .40959 Employment (1972) .21656 .44096 .26053 .50036 Employment (1976) .11191 .43349 .37134 .49957 -.74151 Age Total .13129 .50100 .34387 .52351 -.33847 .46757 -.09006 -.07513 -.28045 -.06871 -.09590 -.04356 -.01743 Understanding -.19854 -.36898 -.42868 -.41869 -.17459 -.21698 -.27456 .34339 Perception .03229 .12317 -.05845 ,15873 -.19117 .05670 .11847 ,85065 -.17513 128 The N ull Hypotheses Scale I : Subjects Do Under­ stand AAEP 1. The number o f female subjects who understand AAEP is the same as the number o f male subjects who understand AAEP. Supported (p .9 9 9 ). 2. The nwnber o f subjects under 30 who understand AAEP is the same as the number o f subjects over 30 who understand AAEP. Supported (p . 9 9 9 ). 3. The number o f subjects holding low ranks who understand AAEP is the same as th e number o f subjects holding higher ranks who understand AAEP. Rejected (p .0 0 1 ). 4. The number o f persons employed in t h e ir c u rre n t employ­ ment s it e who understand AAEP is the same as the number o f persons who were employed elsewhere in 1972. Supported (p .9 9 9 ). 5. The number o f persons who are employed a t VRS who understand AAEP is the same as the number o f persons employed a t MSU who understand AAEP. Rejected (p .0 1 7 ). Scale I I : Subjects Perceive AAEP to A ffe c t Careers 1. The number o f female subjects who p erceive AAEP to have an impact on t h e i r careers is the same as the number o f males who perceive AAEP to have an impact on t h e ir careers. Supported (p .9 9 9 ). 2. The number o f persons under 30 who perceive AAEP to have an impact on t h e ir careers is the same as the number o f 129 persons over 30 who perceive AAEP to have an impact on t h e ir careers. Supported (p .9 9 9 ). 3. The number o f persons holding low ranks who perceive AAEP to have an impact on t h e i r careers is the same as the number o f persons holding higher ranks who perceive AAEP to have an Impact on t h e i r careers. Supported (p .2 8 7 ). 4 . The number o f persons employed in t h e ir c u rre n t employ­ ment s it e who perceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e i r careers is th e same as the number o f persons employed elsewhere in 1972 who perceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e ir c a re e rs . Supported (p .9 9 9 ). 5. The number o f persons employed a t VRS who perceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e ir careers is the same as th e number o f persons employed a t MSU who p erceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e ir c a re ers. Supported (p .9 9 9 ). Dependent V a ria b le I Black employees who hold w h ite -c o lla r or professional le v e l p o s itio n s a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity and Vocational R e h a b ilita ­ tio n Services understand AAEP. Supported (p .9 9 9 ). Dependent V a ria b le I I Black employees who hold w h it e -c o lla r or p ro fession al le v e l p o s itio n s a t Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity and Vocational R e h a b ilita ­ tio n Services perceive AAEP to have an impact on t h e ir c a re ers. Rejected ( p .0 0 5 ). 130 A d d it io n a l D a ta : Comnents There were le s s than 30 a d d itio n a l comments to th e ques­ tio n n a ir e . Most involved strong n e g a tiv e statem ents about p erc eiv ed re s is ta n c e o f employers to AAEP {n_= 7 ) . A ty p ic a l comnent In v o lv e d the b e l i e f t h a t MSU's power s tr u c tu r e had developed a "Black c o l­ lege" (C o lle g e o f Urban Development) to assuage i t s c o lle c t iv e conscience. Two o th e r persons commented on th e b e l i e f th a t AAEP is a sham in th e sense o f not e n fo rc in g th e le g is l a t i o n . The comnents in d ic a te d th a t th e respondents perceived the le g is la t io n as pro­ v id in g f o r p u n itiv e a c tio n s in th e fac e o f noncompliance but not p ro vid in g a stron g enough fe d e ra l p o lic e fo rc e to do o th e r than p e r io d ic a lly make inadequate e f f o r t s a t enforcem ent. In a d d itio n , 19 persons comnented in what appeared to be strong language about AAEP having an e f f e c t o f e s c a la tin g racism but in s u b tle form . Examples o f such corrmentary would be: " I have a jo b and ten u re but graduate students are encouraged not to s e le c t me as d ir e c t o r o f t h e i r programs." " I am appointed w ith depressing r e g u la r it y to every . . . com nittee a t th is u n iv e r s it y ." " I am switched from caseload to caseload depending on which re q u ire s th e most e f f o r t o r is th e le a s t re w ard in g ." " I am expected to handle a caseload w ith m ostly Black c l i e n t s . " Summary In t h is ch ap ter a p re s e n ta tio n has been made o f th e data d erived from a q u e s tio n n a ire which was designed to determ ine how much Black w h it e - c o lla r and p ro fe s s io n a l le v e l employees a t MSU and 131 VRS know about AAEP and i f they b e lie v e AAEP to have an impact on in d iv id u a l c a re e rs . Data was analyzed by Michigan S ta te U n iver­ s i t y 's CDC 6500 computer. Analyses provided included frequency o f responses to each response, th re e ANOVA s tu d ie s , and a m u ltip le regression a n a ly s is . In a d d itio n , a d d itio n a l comments made by subjects were sunxnarized. The data an alysis whether by sim ple comparison o f mean responses, a n a ly s is o f variance or m u ltip le regression a n a ly s is was co n sisten t in in d ic a tin g the fo llo w in g : 1. Respondents do understanding th is formal body o f laws and conmunications known as AAEP. 2. Respondents do not perceive AAEP as having an impact on t h e ir cu rren t careers. 3. Persons employed a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity have a higher le v e l o f understanding o f AAEP than persons employed a t Vocational R e h a b ilita tio n S ervices. 4 . Persons holding h ig her ranks a t t h e ir re s p e c tiv e places o f employment have a h ig her le v e l o f understanding about AAEP than persons who hold th e lower fa c u lty o r C iv il S ervice ranks. 5. When scores fo r Scale I and I I are combined, the only Independent v a ria b le which has s ig n ific a n c e ( p<-05) is rank. 6. Of th e respondents, 2 8 .5 percent commented on nega­ t iv e perceptions about aspects o f AAEP which were not included as response items in th is study's q u e s tio n n a ire . Reference is to 132 comnents about employer re s is ta n c e , poor enforcement o f th e laws by a p p ro p ria te governmental u n its and an e s c a la tio n o f more s u b tle forms o f racism . Chapter V w i l l inclu d e conclusions o f th is s tu d y , a d is ­ cussion o f various is s u e s , and suggestions f o r fu tu r e research p ro je c ts . CHAPTER V SUW1ARY Conclusions A f t e r th e w r i t e r had developed a p re lim in a ry aim o f study­ ing A f fir m a t iv e A c tio n , a comprehensive review o f re le v a n t l i t e r a ­ tu re and c o u rt cases was done so as to determ in e th e h is t o r ic a l background o f p resen t laws governing f a i r employment. The p r e c ip i- ta n ts o f these laws were als o researched. D en ial o f educatio nal o p p o r tu n itie s , d iscrep an cies in le v e ls o f ed u catio n al achievement between ra c e s , economic fa c to r s in v o lv in g la c k o f o p p o rtu n ity fo r g a in fu l employment in o th e r than u n s k ille d and s e m i-s k ille d jo b s , and jo b d is c rim in a tio n because o f sex were d e fin e d and examined as th e m ajor precursors o f AAEP. Doctoral theses devoted to various aspects o f AAEP were examined as were th e few e m p iric a l research s tu d ie s which have stu d ied t h is program. G ra d u a lly , p attern s o f consensus, p a tte rn s o f re s is ta n c e , and p attern s o f r e la tio n s h ip emerged. From t h is l ib r a r y research came the o b servatio n th a t no previous in v e s tig a to r had questioned one p o rtio n o f the ta r g e t p op u latio n to which AAEP is d ir e c te d , namely, B lacks. Because the w r i t e r Is employed in a s itu a tio n where jo b counseling and p lace­ ment o f persons w ith vario us p h y s ic a l, e m o tio n a l, and in t e lle c t u a l problems a re th e m ajor goals and because she serves a caseload 133 134 which in clu d es a high number o f B la c k s , th e d e c is io n was made to study AAEP as i t r e la te d to B lacks. The s p e c ific purpose o f th is study was to in v e s tig a te how Blacks employed in w h it e - c o lla r and p ro fe s s io n a l le v e l p o s itio n s a t HSU and VRS understand A ffir m a tiv e A ctio n laws and to determ ine i f they p e rc eiv e AAEP to have an Impact on t h e i r c a re e rs . In o rd er to e x p lo re views and response p a tte rn s o f th e sub­ je c ts through u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e d e s c rip tiv e method o f re s e a rc h , a panel o f Blacks was assembled to help s e le c t the most e f f e c t iv e research to o l to use in measuring a ttitu d e s and understanding. A L ik e r t q u e s tio n n a ire was determined to be the most e f f i c i e n t and in fo rm a tiv e type o f instrum ent and 40 item s determ ined to meet r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y c r i t e r i a were developed, f i e l d te s te d and adm in istered to a l l Blacks employed w ith in the ten u re stream a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity and a l l Blacks employed by V o catio nal R e h a b ilita tio n who hold C iv il S ervice ranks o f 9 or above. A t o t a l o f 131 q u e stio n n aire s were m ailed to th is pool o f subjects and 102 (7 7 .9 p e rc e n t) were re tu rn e d . A ll were completed appro­ p r ia t e ly and were used in the stu d y. The q u e s tio n n a ire was d iv id e d in to two s c a le s . S cale I contained 12 items designed to measure fa c tu a l understanding o f AAEP. S cale I , th e n , was devised to measure Dependent V a ria b le I : Subjects do understand AAEP. Scale I I contained 28 items and was designed to provide data f o r Dependent V a ria b le I I : Subjects p e rc eiv e AAEP as having an impact on In d iv id u a l c a re e rs . 135 The independent v a ria b le s in t h is study were age, sex, ran k, p lace o f employment in 1972, and c u rre n t place o f employment. Three ANOVA's were run by th e Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity CDC 6500 computer to determ ine what r e la tio n s h ip s , i f any, th e re were between th e dependent v a ria b le s o f understanding AAEP and percep­ tio n o f i t s impact on ca re ers and these f i v e independent v a ria b le s . The computer a ls o provided a m u ltip le re g res sio n c o r r e la tio n ch a rt in v o lv in g these same independent and dependent v a r ia b le s . In a d d itio n to th e analyses o f v a ria n c e and c o r r e la tio n s , the computer provided a wide v a r ie ty o f demographic in fo rm a tio n about th e sample as w e ll as an item a n a ly s is o f th e samples' responses to each q u e s tio n n a ire item . Regardless o f th e type o f s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is done on the q u e s tio n n a ire d a ta , the r e s u lts were c o n s is te n t in in d ic a tin g a t a s ig n ific a n c e le v e l o f p < .0 5 th a t: 1. Respondents do understand AAEP. 2. Respondents, w h ile b e lie v in g in AAEP, do not p erc eiv e i t as in flu e n c in g t h e i r careers in e it h e r a n e g ative or p o s itiv e degree. 3. Respondents employed a t MSU have a h ig her le v e l o f understanding o f AAEP than respondents who a re employed by VRS. 4. Respondents employed a t both VRS and MSU who hold the h ig her employment ranks know more about AAEP than respondents working a t both s ite s who hold low er f a c u lt y o r C iv il S e rv ic e ranks. 136 5. I f Scales I and I I a re combined, the o n ly independent v a r ia b le which has s ig n ific a n c e is ra n k , th a t i s , persons employed a t e i t h e r VRS o r MSU know more about AAEP and p e rc e iv e i t as having a g r e a te r impact on t h e i r careers i f they hold h ig h e r as opposed to low er rank. Discussion Barnard b e lie v e s th a t communications a re l i k e l y to be implemented i f (1 ) th e communication is understood; (2 ) the conrnuni- c a tio n is not in c o n s is te n t w ith the purposes o f th e o rg a n iz a tio n to which th e r e c ip ie n t o f th e communication belongs; (3 ) the com­ m unication is c o n s is te n t w ith what th e r e c ip ie n t b e lie v e s to be h is /h e r in te r e s t s ; and (4 ) the r e c ip ie n t is a b le from both the p h ysical and mental standpoints to comply? In t h is study AAEP is a kind o f comnunication and th e question was asked about how w e ll i t is understood by persons whom i t is intended to a s s is t in the form o f increased m a r k e ta b ilit y o f s k i l l s in the c o m p e titiv e la b o r m arket. Understanding from B a rn ard 's p o in t o f view includes an o b je c tiv e aspect and a s u b je c tiv e a s p e c t. O b je c tiv e understanding was measured by Scale I o f t h is study whereas s u b je c tiv e under­ stand ing was measured by S cale I I , R esults in d ic a te th a t o b je c t iv e ly r e c ip ie n ts do understand th e comnunication b u t, s u b je c tiv e ly , th ey need to r e je c t i t as th e major fo rc e in t h e i r p a r t ic u la r jo b p la c e ­ ment. C lo ser exam ination o f the v a r ia b le s in vo lved in th is ^C. Barnard, The Functions o f th e E xecutive (Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1966). 137 understanding and p e rc e p tio n , th e s tu d y 's independent v a r ia b le s , show t h a t those who hold h ig h e r ranks a t e it h e r VRS o r MSU have a b e tte r understanding o f AAEP than those who hold th e lower f a c u lt y ranks and C i v i l S e rv ic e p o s itio n s . F u r th e r, those employed a t MSU have a b e t t e r understanding than respondents who work f o r VRS. In studying these s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e s , i t appears th a t one could have p re d ic te d th a t MSU respondents would be b e t te r Inform ed. As c a r e f u lly noted in C hapter I , the U n iv e r s ity has been co n scientio us in p r in tin g i t s AAEP p o lic ie s and s tu d ie s in a v a r i ­ e ty o f forms in c lu d in g th e student newspaper. F a c u lty a l l have access to va rio u s handbooks and handouts which a ls o o u t lin e in c a re fu l terms e x a c tly what th e law o f th e U nited S ta te s , M ich ig an , and Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity is in terms o f AAEP. F in a l l y , a l l p o s itio n s a t MSU have to be a d v e rtis e d in the f a c u lt y newspaper. Very c le a r ly i t is s ta te d th a t "M ichigan S tate U n iv e r s ity Is An Equal O p p o rtu n ity Em ployer." To not be inform ed, th e n , would seem to re p re s e n t an a c t o f alm ost d e lib e r a te negligence i f one is a member o f the Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity f a c u lt y . V o catio n al R e h a b ilita tio n S e rvic es represen ts a d if f e r e n t approach to d issem in atio n about AAEP. As an employee o f VRS, t h is w r it e r has never seen an AAEP p o lic y sta te m e n t, o n ly re fe re n c e to p o lic ie s and documents dissem inated among the p ro fe s s io n a l s t a f f who do not hold m anagerial posts. This governmental u n it does hold AAEP b rie fin g s f o r d i s t r i c t supervisors and d i s t r i c t su p erviso rs may, in tu r n , review p o lic ie s and statem ents in s t a f f m eetings. To be 138 informed i f one is not an executive a t VRS is d i f f i c u l t a t b e s t. The reasons f o r t h is a re not known to th e w r it e r . There is another reason why VRS s t a f f may not be as informed as MSU fa c u lt y . A ll h irin g in s ta te government is done by th e C iv il Service Department. S t a f f a t VRS who do not hold managerial p o s itio n s a re not involved in any concrete way w ith recruitm ent and h ir in g . On the o th e r hand, u n iv e rs ity f a c u lt y , depending on departmental p o lic y o fte n do p a r tic ip a te in personnel s e le c tio n m atters in c lu d in g in te rv ie w in g and voting on appointment m atters. To not be aware o f personnel re g u la tio n s lik e AAEP in the face o f an appointment in a department where one has such d u tie s is d i f f i c u l t to comprehend. In considering the very c le a r d iffe re n c e s in comnunication about le g a l a u th o r ity , th e work o f Weber becomes p e rtin e n t. He is an a u th o rity on o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tru c tu re s who b elie ve s b u rea u c ra tic o rg an izatio n s are dominant because o f t h e ir e ffic ie n c y in techno­ lo g ic a l ways. He also s ta te s , "B ureaucratic a d m in is tra tio n means fundam entally the e x e rc is e o f control on the basis o f knowledge."^ I t seems to th is w r it e r th a t his th e o rie s and a n a ly s is can be expanded ap p re ciab ly to s ta te agencies: "Bureaucracies means fundam entally the ex ercise o f control on the basis o f knowledge o f i t s executives and employees a lik e ." O therw ise, th e re are many p o s s ib ilit ie s fo r communication to be fragmented and ill-u n d e r s to o d , fo r morale prob­ lems to develop, and f o r people a t both the execu tive and employee ^M. Weber, "L e g itim a te A u th o rity and B u r e a u c r a c y i n D. S. Pugh ( e d . ) , O rg an ization Theory (B a ltim o re , Md.: Penguin Books, 1 9 7 1 ), p. 27. 139 le v e l to be confused. In t h is research e f f o r t i t is c le a r th a t one o f th e b ureaucracies is not a b le to comnunicate e f f e c t i v e l y about one body o f le g a l m a te ria ls which c o n s titu te s AAEP. P o ssi­ b ly th e re would be a d iffe r e n c e in a number o f parameters as so c i­ ated w ith t h is s tu d y 's independent v a ria b le s i f th e VRS sample knew more about AAEP. Understanding o f AAEP was r e la te d to p lace o f employment in 1976 and a ls o to rank. Persons holding h ig h e r ranks a t both VRS and MSU had a h ig h e r le v e l o f understanding than persons employed a t low er ranks. I t is d i f f i c u l t to an a ly ze th is s i g n i f i ­ cant d iffe r e n c e except through co n s tru c tio n o f f u r t h e r hypotheses. One wonders, by way o f exam ple, i f persons h o ld in g h ig h e r ranks have had a much more obvious s tru g g le to a t t a in t h e i r p o s itio n s . In tro s p e c tio n would lead us to b e lie v e th a t being h ire d a t any employment s it e from th e low est o f th e manual la b o rin g s lo ts to the highest e x e c u tiv e p o s itio n in vo lves a c e r ta in amount o f job te n u ity . Undoubtedly in s p e c tio n o f employment records a t both MSU and VRS would in d ic a te th a t th e re i s , however, a h ig h e r a t t r i ­ tio n r a te in th e low er ranks than in th e h ig h e r ranks and, th e re ­ fo r e , those who have a tta in e d these h ig h e r ranks may have had to f a m ilia r iz e themselves w ith a l l aspects o f C i v i l Rights in c lu d in g AAEP a t one p o in t o r an o th er. One a ls o might hypothesize th a t persons holdin g th e h igher ranks have more understanding o f the laws because they a re in vo lved in implementing i t , th a t i s , h ig her ranked VRS employees a re involved in personnel m atters whereas, as ju s t n o ted , low er ranked 140 pro fession al s t a f f are n o t. L ik e w is e , many o f the h ig h e r ranked MSU respondents are in vo lved 1n re c ru itm e n t a c t i v i t i e s and a t le a s t one respondent is the MSU A f f i r m a t i v e A ction o f f i c e r . Hypotheses about h ig h e r ranked in d iv id u a ls having been involved in th e C i v i l R ights a c t i v i t i e s o f th e 1960s might be made but i t would seem t h a t the independent v a ria b le s o f both "age" and "place o f employment in 1972" would have r e f le c t e d t h i s f a c t o r were i t the c r u c ia l determ inant o f the rank d i f f e r e n t i a l . Barnard, in another c o n te x t, has discussed the need f o r executives to be, above a l l e l s e , lo y a l and dominated by the " o rg a n iz a tio n a l p e r s o n a lit y ." ^ I f those holding h ig h e r ranks a t MSU and VRS inclu d e a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f in d iv id u a ls who are "e x e c u tiv e s ," p o s s ib ly a t l e a s t a p o rtio n o f the rank d i f f e r e n t i a l would be ex p la in ed on the basis o f those in d iv id u a ls r e f l e c t i n g t h e i r domination by the " o rg a n iz a tio n a l p e r s o n a lity " which must by law enforce AAEP. This i s a m atter which would need em pirical study. As discussed by Perrow, th ere a re many o th e r f a c t o r s studied 2 by management a u t h o r i t i e s , s o c io lo g is ts , and i n d u s t r i a l psycholo­ g is ts which might e x p la in t h i s rank d i f f e r e n t i a l . A l l r e q u ire a kind o f deductive reasoning o r co n siderable g e n e r a l iz a t io n . An example would be the b e l i e f t h a t those who perform b e t t e r on the ^Chester Barnard, "The Executive Fun ction s," in D. S. Pugh ( e d . ) , O rg an iza tio n Theory (B a ltim o re , M d .: Penguin Books, 1 9 7 1 ), p. 170. 2 Charles Perrow, Complex O rg a n iza tio n s : A C r i t i c a l Essay (G lenview , 1 1 1 .: S c o tt, Foresman and C o ., 1972 ). 141 job (and thus a t t a i n h ig h e r rank) have s tro n g e r p o s itiv e a t t i t u d e s about th e o rg a n iz a tio n and i d e n t i f y more in te n s e ly w ith i t . Again, the o r g a n iz a tio n s ' requirement o f adherence to AAEP would lead one to suspect t h a t the employees who hold such strong a t t i t u d e s and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n have (1 ) a t t a in e d higher rank in the o rg a n iz a tio n and ( 2 ) more c lo s e ly r e f l e c t the o r g a n iz a tio n s ' ideology. Evidence f o r such reasoning needs to be c o lle c te d in f u tu r e research. Subtle Forms o f Racism Coiranent Over o n e -q u a rte r o f the sample appears to be concerned w ith AAEP as not being enforced o r implemented a n d /o r have th e n o tio n t h a t l e g i s l a t i o n p r o h ib it in g o v e rt acts o f employment d is c r im in a tio n w i l l lead o nly to e s c a la tio n o f su b tle forms o f a c ts , a t t i t u d e s , and b e l i e f s designed to show p re ju d ic e a g a in s t and segregate people on the basis o f skin c o lo r . This w r i t e r has no way o f knowing on an o b je c t iv e le v e l what credence to give to such statem ents. To begin w i t h , most o f the conments were o f a p r e d ic t iv e n a tu r e . Those which were sta te d as f a c t o ffe re d no evidence f o r ra tio n a l examina­ tio n . P ossibly the best response one can o f f e r to a n x ie ty about AAEP h avin g, in many re s p e c ts , the opposite e f f e c t s o f what i t s designers intended is to look a t the f i r s t book published on th e to p ic . Reference is to Nathan G la z e r's A f f i r m a t i v e D is c r im in a t io n .^ The t i t l e is suggestive o f th e a u th o r's major t h e s is , namely, AAEP is d is c r im in a tio n . Before presenting documentation o f the book's ^ G la z e r, op. c i t . 142 th e s is , i t might be i n s t r u c t iv e f o r the reader to know t h a t Nathan Glazer is a Professor o f Education and Social Structure a t one o f our n a tio n 's most p re s tig io u s u n i v e r s i t i e s , namely, Harvard. Per­ sons holding f a c u lt y rank a t such i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher le a rn in g tend to comnand a t te n tio n to a degree u s u a lly not affo rd ed scholars a t o th e r colleges and u n iv e r s it ie s ; e . g . , t h is book has been reviewed in the New York Times and f o r several weeks reposed on the 11st o f "hig hly recommended" books in the book review se ctio n o f th at newspaper. Glazer uses what seems to be h ig h ly inflanm atory language In his c r i t i q u e o f AAEP. AAEP is a "scheme" based on "estimates" o f u n d e r u t iliz a t io n . AAEP uses "strange" d e fin it io n s o f d is - i c rim in a tio n . The fo llo w in g possibly is the most t e l l i n g paragraph; i t is q u ite another to be asked to f i g h t I f more Blacks were given these jo b s , perhaps less would be on the s t r e e t s , o r drug a d d ic ts , or k i l l i n g unoffend­ ing shopkeepers. I t is one th in g to be asked to f i g h t d is c rim in a tio n ag ain st the competent, hard working and law -ab id in g ; d is c rim in a tio n against the less competent or incompetent and c r im in a lly in c lin e d . The s t a t i s t i c a l emphasis ( o f AAEP) leads to the l a t t e r . Undoubtedly even those o f le s s e r competence and crim inal incorporated in to so ciety but one wonders whether t h is burden should be placed on laws against d is c rim in a tio n ^ on account o f ra c e , c o lo r , r e l i g i o n , o r n ational o r i g i n . in c li n a t i o n must be I t seems c l e a r th a t Blacks seeking e n try to a jo b market they once were excluded from f o r reasons too numerous and complex to d e lin e a te a re — in G la ze r's th in k in g — a l l (1 ) incompetent and/or (2) c r im in a lly in c lin e d . No o b je c tiv e evidence supporting such h b i d . , p. 67. 2 I b id . 143 r h e t o r ic 1s presented. Furthermore, th e re is nothing in any AAEP l e g i s l a t i o n even suggesting t h a t u n q u a lifie d people be given any s t a tu s , l e t alone p r i o r i t y s ta tu s . This kind o f p u b lic a tio n from people assumed by th e p u b lic to be c r e d i b l e involves a kind o f in f e c t io u s process. G la z e r , by way o f example, is an e d i t o r o f The P u b lic I n t e r e s t . In the l i t e r a t u r e review presented in t h i s t h e s i s , a scathing study o f AAEP by Sowell was presented (see page 6 3 ). This i s a new a r t i c l e p rin te d by The Public I n t e r e s t . AAEP, l i k e the 1960's controversy over th e i n h e r i t a b i l i t y o f IQ, may have spawned a new a s s a u lt on Blacks. In 1960 th ey are b elieved to have a g e n e tic c o n trib u tio n to g iv e t o t h e i r c h ild re n which i s less than the White man's g i f t to h is c h ild r e n . In the 1970s Blacks have jobs because the law re q u ire s employers t o h ir e them and people l i k e G la zer seem to th in k the doors are being opened only to th e incompetent and c r i m i n a ll y i n c li n e d . H o p e fu lly , o b jec­ t i v e research to fo llo w w i l l o f f e r a more p o s it iv e and d is p a ss io n ate a n a ly s is o f AAEP. In undertaking a research p r o je c t on AAEP, t h is w r i t e r has learned t h a t one p o rtio n o f the t a r g e t p opulation o f AAEP Is eager to p a r t i c i p a t e in a study o f the t o p i c . Evidence supporting t h is point i s th e f a c t t h a t over 75 percent o f the sample completed the q u e s tio n n a ire w ith ou t any fo llo w -u p l e t t e r s o f encouragement and many persons d i r e c t l y comnunicated by telephone o r l e t t e r s to th e w r i t e r about various aspects o f the study and the to p ic being examined. As noted, approxim ately o n e -q u a rte r o f the sample has 144 strong fe e lin g s o f concern about th e l e g i s l a t i o n in terms o f issues l i k e poor enforcement, minimal e f f o r t to implement the la w , and e s c a la tio n in acts perceived as s u b tle forms o f racism. The w r i t e r a ls o learned t h a t Blacks w ith education have come to an understanding o f AAEP and they do support i t . However, i t is c l e a r t h a t th e respondents to t h is study cannot say t h a t AAEP has had an impact on t h e i r c a r e e r s . In re ad in g statements such as those o f G la ze r and S o w e ll, one is b e t t e r ab le to a p p re c ia te the re s is ta n c e to AAEP as an im portant f a c t o r in one's own l i f e . Im p lic a tio n s f o r Future Research One suspects t h a t th e major populatio ns which p r o f i t from p r e f e r e n t i a l h ir in g are those (1 ) b e t t e r q u a l i f i e d and ( 2 ) seeking p o s itio n s w ith e i t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r education o r the gov­ ernment where AAEP is more l i k e l y to be implemented. T h e re fo re , i t would be o f considerable i n t e r e s t to expand t n is study by making in q u ir y o f Blacks a t both lower le v e ls o f employment and those who are employed in in d u s try , e s p e c ia lly th e h ig h ly te c h n ic a l indus­ t r i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s d e a lin g w ith f in a n c e , the l a t t e r being placements notorious f o r r a c i s t p r a c tic e s . I t also would be o f in t e r e s t to do more in te n s iv e e x p lo ra ­ tions w ith Blacks who responded to t h i s research p r o je c t in regard to the r a t h e r puzzling p o in t o f supporting AAEP u n e q u ivo ca lly w h ile not b e lie v in g i t has been h e lp fu l to them. This would seem to c a l l f o r c l i n i c a l studies to determine a t what p o in t p rid e demands th a t one disavow as sistan ce from a governmental program as a f a c t o r 145 in one's success as opposed to one's in d iv id u a l e f f o r t s and a b i l i t i e s being the sole determinants o f one's achievements. AAEP is a response to pervasive d is c rim in a tio n in American l i f e which appears to be deeply embedded in both American in d iv id u a ls ' behavior and America's i n s t i t u t i o n s . Accordingly, the most d i r e c t , ex ten sive, and o b lig a to ry remedies have been formed in to law. No law, however, w i l l e f f e c t change in people and in s t it u t io n s who are re s o lu te ly opposed to every advance by m in o r itie s unless those per­ sons who adm inister the programs are committed in d iv id u a ls who (1) have the power to a tta c k d is c rim in a to ry p ractices and (2) do not shirk from so doing. Studies o f those who adm inister AAEP seem c a lle d f o r and th is would Include not j u s t AAEP o f f i c e r s but a l l persons in personnel p o s itio n s . There is a need to i d e n t i f y under what conditions personnel s t a f f s w i l l accept the a u th o rita tiv e n e s s o f AAEP and implement i t as a m atter o f course in t h e i r d a ily a c t i v i t i e s . One th in k s o f Bleecher's work regarding teach ers' acceptance o f orders from super­ visors to act on various matters such as assessment and account­ a b i l i t y . ^ This would be a study o f a d m in is tra tiv e procedures which make i t possible fo r people to do what they are asked or required to do e f f i c i e n t l y and e f f e c t i v e l y . In regard to AAEP, th e re is evidence th a t personnel managers do understand the d ic ta te s o f the law but from the point o f understanding on th e re is considerable d iv e r s i t y o f opinion and a c tio n . ^Bleecher, op. c i t . 146 F i n a l l y , in terms o f t h i s s p e c if ic study herein being re p o rte d , the q u e s tio n n a ire items could be r e f in e d and probably should be expanded i f f u r t h e r stu d ies o f AAEP are to be done w ith q u e stion n aires as th e major research t o o l . The f i r s t step would be to do i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e la tio n s to determine i f th e re are items which c o n s is te n tly measure the same piece o f in fo rm a tio n . The Alpha f o r Scale I in t h is study was .21370, .60585 f o r Scale I I and .43394 f o r combined s c a le s . The r a t h e r a p p re c ia b le d iffe r e n c e s between th e two scales probably is due to d iffe re n c e s in item s iz e and t h i s could be a subject o f f u r t h e r in q u ir y . APPENDICES APPENDIX A COVER LETTER 148 APPENDIX A COVER LETTER 2211 B a r r i t t S t r e e t Lansing, Michigan 48812 Dear : In 1972 th e United States Government passed l e g i s l a t i o n mandating the development o f A f f i r m a t i v e Action Employment Programs (AAEP) f o r any employer who receives fe d e r a l d o l l a r s . This l e g i s l a t i o n re q u ire s th a t employers do more than ensure employment n e u t r a l i t y w ith regard to ra c e , c o l o r , r e l i g i o n , sex, and n a tio n a l o r i g i n . AAEP re q u ire s th a t a d d it io n a l e f f o r t s be made to r e c r u i t , h i r e , and promote members of groups excluded p rev io u sly from employment f o r reasons o f d i s ­ c r im in a tio n . We Blacks are one p o rtio n o f th e t a r g e t p op ulatio n covered by AAEP. No stu d ies o f an e m p iric a l n a tu re have been done to exp lo re how we fe e l about t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n . As p a r t o f njy d o c to ral program a t Michigan S ta te U n i v e r s i t y , I am desirous o f doing t h i s study but need your help. I need you to complete the enclosed q u e s tio n n a ire a t your e a r l i e s t possible convenience. Please re tu rn i t completed in the envelope enclosed f o r your use. My comnltment to you is as fo llo w s : A l l responses w i l l be con­ sidered c o n f id e n t ia l and p r i v i l e g e d . You need not use your name i f you so d e s ir e b u t, 1 f you do, you can t r u s t t h a t you w i l l not be quoted in th e th e s is o r elsew here. Furtherm ore, upon completion o f the stu d y, r e s u lt s a re a v a i l a b l e to you. Please in d ic a te on the q u e stio n n aire i f you want feedback and i t w i l l be forthcoming. I f you have any questions about the study, my m o tiv a tio n , the use to which your responses w i l l be made, please c a l l me a t 517:489-6333 any weekday evening a f t e r 6:00 P.M. o r any weekend from 8 :0 0 A.M. to 6:00 P.M. Thank you very much f o r h elp in g me in t h is e f f o r t to understand how selected Blacks fe e l about A f f i r m a t i v e Action Employment Programs. Yours t r u l y , Joan T. Johnson 149 APPENDIX B QUESTIONNAIRE 150 APPENDIX B QUESTIONNAIRE A. I d e n t i f y i n g D a ta : 1. Name (O p tio n a l) _____________________________________________ 2. Female ______ Kale___ 3. Place o f Employment: M .S .U ._____ V . R . S . ___ 4. C i t y o f Residence ______________________________ 5. F a c u lty Rank: I n s t r u c t o r ______ A s s is ta n t Professor_____ Assoc. Professor ____ P ro fes so r_____ 6. V .R .S . C i v i l S e rvic e Rank: 9 _____ 10 11 12 13 _____ 14 15+ ___ 7. What is the hig hest c o lle g e degree you have obtained: B a c h e lo r Masters _____ Masters Plus Doctorate Educational S p e c i a l i s t ___ 8. Where were you employed in 1972: M .S .U .___ V .R .S . ___ Not employed ___ O ther (P lease s p e c ify ) ___________________ 9. I f employed in 1972, what was your rank o r C i v i l S ervice r a t in g : ______________________________________________________ 10. Age: 20-29 ___ 30-39 _____ 40-49 50-59 ___ 60-69 ___ 70+ ___ 11. M a r it a l S ta tu s : S in g le M arried Widow/Widower Divorced o r Separated ___ 151 152 DIRECTIONS: You are given fo u r p o s s ib le choices i n d ic a t in g whether you S tro n g ly Agree, Agree, D isa g ree , o r S tro n g ly D isa­ gree w ith th e fo llo w in g statements about A ffirm a tT v e A ctio n Employment Programs (AAEP). Please mark the category which best represents your o p in io n . B. General In fo r m a tio n : I t Is not d i f f i c u l t to examine my employer's AAEP and w r i t t e n p o l i c i e s . ___ ___ ___ __ SA A D SD I know who th e D ir e c t o r o f A f f ir m a t iv e A ction is a t my place o f employment. 1. 2. The name is __________________________________ . 3. AAEP re q u ire s the h ir in g o f m in o r ity peoples to meet quotas even i f the pro sp ective employees a re not q u a l i f i e d . 4. I f th e re are several a p p lic a n ts f o r a p o s i­ t i o n and one a p p lic a n t is a member o f a m in o r ity group o r a woman, t h i s person must be given p r e f e r e n t i a l tre a tm e n t. 5. My employer is in f u l l compliance w ith AAEP as evidenced by no complaints having been forthcoming from the fe d e r a l government about employment p ra c tic e s . 6. My employer i s re q u ired to o f f e r p a r t -t im e employment o p p o r tu n itie s to members o f m in o r it y groups i f t h i s is th e o nly way to increase m in o r it y re p re s e n ta tio n in the work fo r c e . 7. My employer i s re q u ire d to pro vide c h i l d ­ care f a c i l i t i e s f o r c h ild r e n o f m in o rity In d iv id u a ls i f t h i s is the o nly way to increase m in o r it y re p re s e n ta tio n in the work fo rc e . 8. Tim etables f o r completion o f h ir in g goals and o b je c tiv e s a re not re q u ire d by AAEP. 9. The fe d e r a l government is re q u ire d to pro­ v id e t r a i n i n g programs a t my place o f employment f c r upgrading c r e d e n tia ls o f p ro sp ec tiv e Black employees. 153 SA A D SD 10. At t h is p o in t th ere are no sanctions f o r non- compliance i f my employer does not meet AAEP requirements. ___ ___ ___ __ 11. AAEP focuses p r im a r ily on helping members o f the female sex fin d employment w ith members o f r a c ia l groups re ce ivin g secondary con­ s id e r a tio n . 12. The r a t i o o f m in o r itie s a t my place o f employ­ ment as determined by m in o rity u t i l i z a t i o n studies is known to me. The r a t io is ______________________________ C. Personal Im p lic a tio n s : 13. AAEP has helped my ca re er in terms o f job s t a b i l i t y , e . g . , favorab le tenure a c tio n . 14. AAEP has helped my care er in terms of my being r e c r u ite d and h ired because o f the program. 15. AAEP has helped my care er in terms o f my being promoted. 16. AAEP has made i t possible f o r me to attend more professional meetings-~at no personal expense— than I did before AAEP was in progress. 17. AAEP has made i t possible f o r me to take advanced t r a i n i n g , e . g . , u n iv e rs ity coursework, during work hours. 18. AAEP has o ffe re d me more l i b e r a l vacation o r leave time than my colleagues have. 19. AAEP has provided me with more p o s itiv e s a la r y adjustments than my colleagues received. 20. The AAEP o f f i c e a t my place o f employment has been helpful to me when 1 requested a id . I requested a id because I have never requested aid 154 21. I have not been d is c rim in a te d a g a in s t a t my c u rre n t place o f employment in terms o f s a l a r y , te n u r e , promotions and o th e r f r in g e b e n e f it s . 22. AAEP has c o n trib u te d p o s it i v e l y to the per­ sonal enrichment o f my l i f e . 23. AAEP has helped my colleagues to perceive me as a competent employee. 24. AAEP has helped my colleagues to a p p re c ia te me more as a person. 25. AAEP has meant more jobs f o r Blacks a t my place o f employment. 26. Blacks in general a t my place o f employment have been t r e a t e d more fa v o r a b ly since 1972. 27. AAEP w i l l provide g r e a t e r employment oppor­ t u n i t i e s f o r members o f my race who have y e t to e n te r th e jo b market. 28. White colleagues a re com fortable in discus­ sing AAEP w ith me o r in my presence. 29. White colleagues a re com fortable in d i s ­ cussing the n o tio n o f "reverse racism" n^y presence o r w ith me. in 30. White employees a t my place o f employment f e e l th a t AAEP is econom ically harmful to our employer and, d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y , to them. 31. White employees a t my place o f employment f e e l t h a t AAEP i s c r e a tin g serious r e c r u i t ­ ment problems f o r our department and, d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , f o r them. 32. White employees a t my place o f employment f e e l t h a t AAEP is c r e a tin g morale problems f o r our employer and, d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , f o r them. 33. White employees a t my place o f employment f e e l th a t White males are being s a c r i f i c e d in the la b o r market in the i n t e r e s t o f improving th e m a r k e t a b i l it y o f Blacks. 155 SA FOR UNIVERSITY FACULTY ONLY; 34. Procedures and p o lic ie s which i n t e r f e r e w ith AAEP implementation a t M .S .U ., e . g . , nepo­ tis m , should be p ro h ib ite d . __ 35. In an e f f o r t to increase p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r employment among B lacks, u n i v e r s it y d e p a r t­ ments should h i r e ABD's or t h e i r own d o c to ra te graduates b efo re h ir in g n o n -m in o ritie s w ith d octorates completed a t o th e r u n i v e r s i t i e s . __ 36. Departments which h i s t o r i c a l l y have not h ire d Blacks whould have r e c r u i t i n g and h i r ­ ing p rero g a tiv es withdrawn. __ FOR V .R .S . STAFF ONLY: 34. Procedures and p o lic ie s which i n t e r f e r e w ith AAEP implementation a t V . R . S . , e . g . , p er­ formance on C i v i l S e rv ic e t e s t s , should be p r o h ib ite d .______________________________________ ___ 35. V .R .S . should h ir e Blacks w ith o u t p ro fe s ­ sio n a l t r a i n i n g , place them on OJT programs sponsored by D i s t r i c t managers, and eventu­ a l l y place them in p o s itio n s now reserved f o r persons w it h c e r t a in types o f u n iv e r s it y t r a i n i ng. 36. D i s t r i c t managers who have refused to h i r e Blacks f o r p ro fe s s io n a l s t a f f p o s itio n s should be fo rced to accept t r a n s f e r o f Black V.R.S. employees from o th e r d i s t r i c t s . FOR M.S.U. AND V .R .S . STAFF; 37. Although the goal o f in c lu d in g m in o r it ie s in the system is d e s ir a b le , the forced implemen­ t a t i o n o f AAEP is d e trim e n ta l to the reaching o f t h is g o a l. 38. Without AAEP the system would n a t u r a l l y open up to include and reward more menribers o f m in o r ity groups. 156 39. AAEP has hurt me p r o f e s s io n a lly as I now am b e lie v e d to be a s t a t i s t i c f o r governmental purposes instead o f a competent p ro fe s ­ s io n a l , 40. I support AAEP u n e q u iv o c a lly . COMMENTS OR QUESTIONS: BIBLIOGRAPHY 157 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Adorno, T. W.; Frekel-Brunsw ik, Else; Levinson, D. J . ; and Sanford, R. N. The A u th o rita ria n P e r s o n a lity . New York: Harper and Row, 1950. Babble. E. R. Survey Research Methods. Belmont, C a l i f . : Wadsworth Pub!ishing Co. , 1973. Barnard, C. The Functions o f the Executive. Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e rs ity Press, 1966. Borg, W. R . , and G a l l , M. D. Educational Research. 2nd ed. New York: David McKay, 1971. Carnegie Council on Po licy Studies in Higher Education. Making A ff ir m a t iv e Action Work in Higher Education. San Fran­ cisco: Jossey-Bass P u b lic a tio n s , 1975. Coleman, J. E q u a lity o f Educational O pp ortun ity. 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