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AN ALTERNATIVE SECONDARY T E A C H E R ED U C A T I O N
PROGRAM AT M I C H I G A N STATE UNIVERSITY:
PRELI M I N A R Y STUDY

By

Carol A. Norris

A DISSERT A T I O N

Submitted to
M i c higan State U n i v e r s i t y
in partial fulfillment of the r e q u irements
for the degree of

D OCTOR OF P H I L O S O P H Y

Department of Secondary E d u c a t i o n and C u r r i c u l u m

1976

AB S T R A C T
A N A L T E R N A T I V E SECONDARY T E A C H E R ED U C A T I O N
P R O G R A M A T M I C H I G A N STATE UNIV E R S I T Y :
P RELIMINARY STUDY

By
Carol A. Norris

The s tudy was a n attempt to identify and g e n e r a l l y d e s c r i b e the
f r esh m e n and s o p h o m o r e students actively e nrolled in an a l t e r n a t i v e
s e condary teacher e d u c ation p r o g r a m at M i c h i g a n S tate University.
Purpose of the study w a s to describe the c h a r a c teristics of

the

students who h a v e opted for a n alternative p r e p a r a t o r y p r o g r a m so as to
provide a ntecedent inform a t i o n for future e v a l u a t i o n p urposes assoc i a t e d
with the program.
The popula t i o n d e s c r i p t i o n included b a s i c per s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s ­
tics, p rior w o r k experiences, level of professional c ommitment
plans),

(career

attitudes toward education and teaching, p e r s o nality, degrees

of o p e n n e s s / cl osedness of b elief systems and a t t i t u d e s / p e r c e p t i o n s of
p r o gram and staff at M i c h i g a n State University.

A total of 139 per s o n s

completed v a r ious instruments w h i c h i n c l u d e d :
K erlinger Education Scale VI,

the Rokeach,

th e C a t t e l l 16 P. F.,

a Personal Background Q u e s tionnaire and an A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n Scale.
P rocedures u t i lized for tabulation of da t a included a nalysis of
variance, correlation matrix,
Helmert contrasts.

T h e Hoyt R e l i a b i l i t y and a factor analysis w e r e

conducted for o n e instrument,
by the author.

cumulative scores, frequency, percent, and

the A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n Scale, d e signed

U nless otherwise noted, the

.05 l e v e l of p r o b a b i l i t y was

Carol A. Norris
adopted as the c r i t e r i o n of significance.
P opulation studied ranged from u nder 18 to over 22 years of age.
Of these, 103 w e r e female and 36 w e r e ma l e respondents,
w e r e married.

two of w h o m

Less than 10% w e r e re p r e s e n t a t i v e of ethnic minorities.

Most lived in standard m e t r o p o l i t a n and/or sub u r b a n communities.
Eighty p e rcent or m o r e of the students had entered M S U h a v i n g
had prior volunt e e r - t y p e experiences; b e t w e e n 75-80% of the students
had also had prior paid w o r k and other l e a d e r s h i p - b u i l d i n g experiences.
Interest i n b e c oming a m i d d l e or h i g h school teacher rang e d f r o m
passive to v e r y interested.

Interest in b e c o m i n g a teacher w a s i n i t i a l l y

high, but as the student projected h i m / h e r s e l f into the f u t u r e r o l e of
teaching,

the d e g r e e of interest (commitment) decreased.

B e t w e e n 31%

and 39% of the students did not p e r c e i v e themselves r e m a i n i n g in teaching.
In decreasing levels of support, other students w e r e rated as
most often helpful,

followed b y teaching faculty, gr a d u a t e assistants,

U n i v e r s i t y C o llege faculty, and d o r m advisors.

R e v i e w of h i g h factor

loaded items on the A / P Scale indicated that s tudents g e n e r a l l y p e r c e i v e d
the unive r s i t y staff as competent, p e r s o n a l l y interested in their w e l l ­
being, and generally available as a r e s o u r c e person.

T h e s e attitudes,

therefore, affect their d e c i s i o n to r e m a i n at M i c h i g a n State U n i versity.
W i t h i n the context of one a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the C a t t e l l 16 P. F . ,
students w e r e found to b e m u c h like other college students of the same
a ge range.
Students w e r e found to b e neit h e r ex t r e m e l y p r o g r e s s i v e nor
traditional in their attitudes toward education;
other college students nationwide.

they clos e l y a p p r o x i m a t e

Carol A. Norris

Sixty percent or m o r e of the students tended to score on the
openminded end of the R o k e a c h D o g m a t i s m Scale.

Students w e r e nei t h e r

extremely o p e n or closed in their b e l i e f systems;

they w e r e c o m p a r a b l e

to other students nationwide.
Helmert Contrasts to test three h y p o t h e s i s imply that the
groups w e r e essentially alike (freshmen v e r s u s s o p h o m o r e ) .

These

contrasts lend additional support to earlier g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s d r a w n
from the data analysis.
The f o l l owing findings w e r e d r a w n f r o m the data:
1.

SEPP students are not si g n if i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t w i t h res p e c t

to their attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, b a s i c p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s ­
tics, and socio-economic b a c k g r o u n d s f r o m the n o n - S E P P students.
2.

Both SEPP and n o n -SEPP students ar e n o t s i gnificantly d i f ­

ferent from other colleg e - a g e studen t s n a t i o w i d e w i t h resp e c t to their
attitudes, beliefs, basic p e r s o n a l i t y characteristics.
3.

B o t h SEPP and n o n -SEPP s t udents are similar to other

practicing teachers described in the litera t u r e i n terms of their socio
economic backgrounds.
4.

SEFi' students do n o t a p p e a r to ha v e the d e gree of commi t m e n t

to becom i n g and staying a teacher to the same d e g r e e as do the n o n - S E P P
students.
5.

SEPP and n o n -SEPP student s g e n e r a l l y pe r c e i v e the u n i v e r s i t y

community to b e h e l p f u l to them.

Stu d e n t s studied chose to stay at

M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y p a r t i a l l y for this reason.
Thirty-four r e c o m m endations f or a d d i t i o n a l conside r a t i o n w e r e

Carol A. Norris

provided.

These recommendations a d d r e s s a d d i t i o n a l a ntecedent

information as well as p r o g r a m considerations.

B a s i s for the

r ecommendations was drawn f r o m b o t h the d a t a an a l y z e d and the
literature reviewed.

FOREWORD

Typically,

secondary teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s ha v e followed a

standard format in m o s t public and priv a t e c o lleges and universities.
The student undertakes a substantive con t e n t m a j o r in a d i s c i p l i n e such
as English,

Social Studies,

minors in "content" fields.

or Physical Education;

and one or m o r e

The can d i d a t e then u n d e r t a k e s basic

professional courses in such areas as E d u cational Psychology,

Learning

Theory, Princi ples of Secon d a r y E d u c a t i o n as we l l as a general met h o d s
course in Secondary Education.

F o l l o w i n g is a special m e t h o d s course

in the teaching of his/her m a j o r subject and a term of student teaching.
There are existent f e w a lter n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s

to that described.

One of those is the Secondary E d u c a t i o n Pilot P r o g r a m at M i c h i g a n State
University.
I n this study the alternativ e p r o g r a m w as d e s c r i b e d and the
participants were investigated

to de t e r m i n e w h e t h e r or n ot they d i ffered

significantly f r o m those students co n c u r r e n t l y e n rolled in the t r a d i ­
tional p reservice p r o g r a m at M i c h i g a n State University.
The p u rpose of the study was

to ide n t i f y a n t e c e d e n t c h a r a c t e r i s ­

tics of the p r o g r a m p a rticipants w h i c h m i g h t be u s e f u l

in at least two

major considerations;
1.

The d evelopment of selec t i o n cr i t e r i a for p r e s e r v i c e
programs,

and

2.

The d e v e l o p m e n t of baseline d a t a w h i c h m i g h t be u t i l i z e d
for additional research purposes,

i n c l uding desc r i p t i v e

and e valuative studies.
It was m y p r i v i l e g e to w o r k c l o s e l y w i t h the Dir e c t o r of the
program, his graduate assistants and instructor,
themselves.

and w i t h the students

T heir c ooperation has h e l p e d m a k e this study possible.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful a p p r e c i a t i o n is ex tended to Dr.
patience,

Samuel S. Corl w h o s e

confidence and insight h e l p e d m a k e a difficult

A s chairman of the doctoral g u i d a n c e committee,

task easier.

h is encouragement has

b e e n invaluable.
A special note of thanks is directed to Dr. Peter G. Haines and
Dr. John Schweitzer whose standards of excell e n c e and integrity c o n ­
stantly imposed n e c e ssary q u ality restr a i n t s on the development of the
study.
Additional
H.

thanks

Kruger whose expertise,

contributed to the study.

to both Dr. Charles A.
encouragement,

Blackman and Dr. Daniel

and constructive cr i t i c i s m

T o each of these committee members, m y

especial thanks.
To an unnamed group of "sign i f i c a n t o t hers," my h e a rtfelt
appreciation.

The o m m i s s i o n of thei r names is o n l y as it can be,

for

e a c h is significant in a separate and distinct manner, perh a p s u n k n o w n
to them.
To yet another u n n a m e d g roup who share all,

or part,

of m y

space, m y deepest grati t u d e for t h e i r faith and confidence.
Finally,

to those w h o k n o w m e well,

and w h o will u n d e r s t a n d

b ecause they do, "many thanks" and "v i a con d i o s . "

Carol A. N o r r i s
February,

1976

life

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF

T A B L E S .............................................................

x

L I S T OF

F I G U R E S ............................................................. x ii

C hapter
1.

INTRODUCTION T O THE S T U D Y .......................
Introduction

1

...............................................

Statement of the P r oblem

. . . . ........................

2

O v e r v i e w of the S t u d y ......................................

2

PURPOSE OF THE S T U D Y .................................
Assumptions on Which Study is Based

2.

1

3

.....................

9

NEED F O R THE S T U D Y ...........................................

12

IMPORTANCE OF THE S T U D Y ......................................

18

LIMIT A T I O N S OF THE S T U D Y ...................................

19

DEFIN I T I O N OF T E R M S ...........................................

24

G ENERALIZABILITY

.................................

26

S U M M A R Y .........................................................

27

. . . . .

R E V I E W OF R E L A T E D R E S E A R C H

.................................

28

I n t r o d u c t i o n ...............................................

28

PART 1:

T E ACHER E D U C A T I O N .................................

An Overview

................

The Professional Sequence:

T r a d i t i o n and Options

Summary of Teacher Educa t i o n

v

30
31

. . .

.............................

35
41

Chapter

Page
Student T e a c h i n g ..............................

42

Self-Concept

50

...............................................

Contemporary C r i t icism of T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n as
Rationale for C h a n g e .....................
A LTERNATIVE T E A C H E R E D U C A T I O N P R O G R A M S

52

...................

57

Summary, Part 1 .............................................

74

PART 2:

T E A CHING AS A P R O F E S S I O N ......................

T e a c h i n g as a Career - O c c u p a t i o n a l Choice

. . . . . .

The N ature of Interests in O c c u p a t i o n a l Choice
O ccupational Success

...........

Self-Concept/Attitudes

. . . . . .

P e rsonality
PART 3:

. .

76
85

. . . .

90
92

...................

.

96

........................................... 102

R E V I E W OF L I T E R A T U R E - E V A L U A T I O N ................... 104

Summary of E v a l u a t i o n M o d e l s and Pre c e p t s
Applic a t i o n of Evalu a t i o n M o d e l s
T e acher E d u c ation

................

108

to

........................................

109

S U M M A R Y .............................................................. Ill
3.

R E S EARCH P ROCEDURES OF T H E S T U D Y ............................... 114
Introduction

...............................................

Identification of the P o p u l a t i o n

.......................

114
114

Selection of the P o p u l a t i o n ................................. 115
D E SCRIPTION OF THE P O P U L A T I O N ................................. 120
Withdrawing

(Official "Drop")

SEPP Students

.............

The A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n S c a l e .....................

121
122

Item C o n s t r u c t i o n ............................................. 124

vi

Chapter

Page
R e l i a b i l i t y .................................................... 124
Factor A n a l y s i s ..................
Tests for Validity/Re l i a b i l i t y

125
...................... 128

S u m m a r y ...........
4.

FINDINGS

129

.................................................. 130

D e m o g r a p h i c Data SEPP and N o n - S E P P ..............

130

Student Experi e n c e s

140

. . . .

...............................

Career Plans (Interest/Commitment to Teaching)
Summary of Demogr a p h i c Info r m a t i o n
Cattell

. . . .

145

.....................

148

16 P. F .............................................. 148

Interp r e t a t i o n of Facto r Score M e a n and
S tandard D eviations

......................................

151

Other F i n dings U nique to 16 P. F.M e a n S c o r e s ........... 156
Ke r l inger A (Progressivism)
(Traditionalism)

Scale - Student Scores

R o k e a c h Student Scores
A / P Scale,

and K e r l i n g e r B
..............

....................................

159
163

Item and Sum M eans and Standard

D e v i a t i o n .................................................... 167
Helmert Contrasts
SUMMARY OF C H A P T E R 4
5.

SUMMARY,

...............................

................. .......................169

F I N DINGS A N D R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S

I n troduction

169

......................

172

...............................................

172

S U M M A R Y .......................................................

172

Statement of the P r o b l e m .................................

vii

172

Chapter

Page
Purpose of the Study

............................... 172

Study D e s i g n

.

173

P opula t i o n in the S t u d y ...................................... 173
Instrumentation and Data A n a l y s i s .....................

174

A s s u m p t i o n s .................................................... 174
Limitations

................................... ..

Personal Information

..........................

175

. . . . .

177

Career P l a n s ...............................................
A ttitude/Perceptions

180

............................

183

Personality F a c t o r s ...........................
Attitudes Toward E d u c a t i o n

................................

Openness/closedness of B e lief System
Helmert Contrasts

185

. . . ....

. . .

186
187

............................................

187

F I N D I N G S ......................................................... 188
RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................

189

CLOSING S T A T E M E N T .........................................
B IBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................
A PPENDIXES

200
202

............................................................... 216

A.

SEPP SPECIFIC P R O G R A M C O M P O N E N T S ................................217

B.

SPECIAL L E T T E R T O N O N - S E P P ED 200 S T U D E N T S ..................... 222

C.

CONTACT T O SEPP S T U D E N T S ......................................... 224

D.

CONTACT L E T T E R T O N O N - S E P P STUDENTS

E.

SAMPLE RETURN,

F.

A T T I T U DE/PERCEPTIONS SCALE

............................

STAMPED SELF-AD D R E S S E D P O S T C A R D

226

...............

228

.....................................

230

viii

Chapter

Page
............................

238

........................................

245

G.

PERSONAL BACKGROUND Q U E STIO N N A I R E

H.

SPECIAL CONTACT L E T T E R

I.

A/P SCALE F A C T O R M A T R I X .

ix

......................................247

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Number of Responses by SEPP and N o n - S E P P Students
Based on Original Enrol l e e s ....................................

117

Summary of R e s ponse and Usabl e R e s p o n s e s by
Population Groups .............................

................

119

Enrollment Status of F r e s h m e n and So p h o m o r e SEPP Students at
Time of Conclusions of the Study (March, 1975)
. . . . . .

121

A ttitude/Perception Scale:
V a r i m a x R o t a t e d Factor
M a t r i x Compared to M e a n and Standard D e v i a t i o n
............

126

Summary of D emographic Data on E d u c a t i o n a l and Personal
Characteristics by P o p u l a t i o n G r o u p s
........................

131

Summary of D e mographic Data o n R e s i d e n t i a l C haracteristics
.................................... . . .
by Population Groups

134

Summary of D e mographic Data on R e s i d e n t i a l I n f ormation
Based on Head of Household by P o p u l a t i o n Groups ............

137

Employment, Income and E d u c a t i o n of Head of Household
by Population Groups
.....................
. . . . . . . . .

139

Number of Students Having Volunteer, Work, and L eadership
Experiences Prior to A t t e n d i n g M i c h i g a n State
University by P o p u l a t i o n G r o u p s ...............................

141

Perceptions of D egree of H elp f u l n e s s P r o v i d e d by
University Community by P o p u l a t i o n G r o u p s ...................

143

Summary of Degree of Interest (Career Plans) by
P opulation Groups ...............................................

146

Cell Means and Standard Devia t i o n s for SI, S2 and NS on
16 P. F. Scores Compared to C o l l e g e Stud e n t Norms .........

149

C omparison of SI, S2 and NS R e s p o n s e s to F a c t o r I
(Tough— Tender Minded) W i t h M e a n and Standard
Deviation of Other College Students ..........................

153

x

Page

Table
14.

C omparisons for SI, S2 and NS Responses to F a c t o r
(Conservative - Experimenting) W i t h M e a n and
Standard Deviations for Other College Students

...........

155

15.

F r e q uency D i s tribution of Kerlinger A Scores for
SI, S2, NS ( P r o g r e s s i v i s m ) ...................................... 160

16.

Comparisons for SI, S2 and NS M e a n and Standard
Deviations on Kerlinger "A" (Progressivism)
Scores w i t h M e a n and Standard D e v i a t i o n of
College Students' Norm
........................................

161

17.

F r e q u e n c y Distribution of Kerlinger B Scores for
SI, S2, NS ( T r a d i t i o n a l i s m ) ...................................... 162

18.

Comparisons- for SI, S2 and NS M e a n and Standard
Deviations on Kerlinger "B" (Traditionalism)
Scores w i t h M e a n and Standard D e v i a t i o n of
College Students' Norms ........................................

164

19.

F r e q u e n c y D i stribution of R o k e a c h Scores for SI,S2, N S . . .

165

20.

C omparisons of SI, S2 and NS M e a n and Standard
D e v i a t i o n on R o keach Scale w i t h M e a n and Standard
D e v i a t i o n of College Student N o r m s
. . . . . . . . . . . .

166

A / P Score Item and Sum Score, M e a n and Standard
D e v i a t i o n for SI, S2, N S Groups Combined
. . . . . . . . .

168

21.

22.

Helmert Contrast for SI, S2, NS Responses To
Kerlinger (A and B), R o k e a c h and A /P Scale S u m .............. 170

23.

Helmert Contr a s t for SI, S 2 and NS R e s p onses to
Cattell 16 P. F ..................................................... 171

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure
1.

2.

3.

Page
A C o m p a r i s o n of SEPP and the Regular T e a c h e r
Educa t i o n Program at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y

............

5

A L a y o u t of Statements and D a t a to be C o l l e c t e d
by the Evaluator of an Educational P r o g r a m . . . . . . . .

10

A R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the Proces s i n g of D e s c r i p t i v e Da t a

11

xii

. . .

Chap t e r

1

INTRODUCTION TO T HE STUDY

Introduction
Large numbers of persons interested in teaching in the secondary
schools of our n a t i o n enroll annuall y in a colleg e - d e g r e e p r o g r a m of
teacher preparation.

T h a t p r o g r a m t r a d i t ionally incorporates b o t h a

subject m a t t e r and profes s i o n a l sequence a c c ompanied by a student
teaching experience,
degree.
program.

and cumulating w i t h the award of a b a c h elors

C e r t i f i c a t i o n to teach is an integral and assumed part of the
There are, however,

those individuals w ho for reas o n s best

k n o wn to themselves m a y opt for an alte r n a t i v e experience,

pr o v i d i n g

such experience is available.
At M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y an alte r n a t i v e secondary e d u c a t i o n
preservice p r ogram has b e e n inaugurated and is n o w e n t e r i n g its third
school year.

Since the p r o g r a m has had no formal evaluation,

it was

deemed beneficial to the teacher edu c a t i o n p r o g r a m that m o r e be k n o w n
about the antecedent c h a r a cteristics of those persons n o w pr e p a r i n g for
secondary certi f i c a t i o n via the alternative program.
scrutiny include their r e c e p t i v i t y to ideas,
basic personal characteristics,
teaching as a career,

Items n e e d i n g

analysis of preservice,

factors a f f e c t i n g their choice of

their degree of. p r o f e s s i o n a l commitment,

perceptions of the alter n a t i v e p r o g r a m and o ther information.

1

their

2

S tatement of the Problem
This study was an attempt to i d entify and g e n e r a l l y describe
the freshman and sophomore students w ho w e r e actively enrolled in an
alternative secondary teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m at M i c h i g a n State
U niversity up to and including the w i n t e r term of 1975 (ending March,
1975).
The study did not include students w h o had p a r t i cipated in the
program,

but w e r e no longer active participants.

T h o s e students for

wh o m only partial information was av a i l a b l e were also e xcluded from
the study.
D escri ption of the p o p u l a t i o n of this study included (1) basic
personal socio-economic characteristics,
family income,

su c h as age, m a r i t a l status,

(2) degree of profess i o n a l commitment,

p e r sonality characteristics.

O ther phas e s of the study dealt w i t h (1)

attitudes and perceptions of the p r o g r a m p a r t i c i p a n t s
State University in general,

and (3) basic

toward M i c h i g a n

These factors are d e s c ribed as o p enness or

closedness of belief system and degrees of tr a d i t i o n a l i s m or progressivism.

O v e r v i e w of the Study
The study concentrated on a d e s c r i p t i o n of these students
c u r rently enrolled in the Secondary E d u c a t i o n Pilot P r o g r a m at M i c h i g a n
State U n i v e r s i t y d u r i n g the school y e a r 1974-1975.

T hese students are

d e s cr i b e d and compared to other students at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y as
w e l l as n ationally by u t i l i z i n g d a t a d r a w n from three documents,
P. F.,

the Rokeach,

and the Kerli n g e r E d u c a t i o n Scale VI.

the 16

Students were

a d d i ti o n a l l y described through infor m a t i o n g athered v i a the A t t i t u d e /
P e r c e p t i o n Scale and a Personal Back g r o u n d Questionnaire.

3

The intent of the study was to describe the students to the
extent

that the information could be u t ilized as prel i m i n a r y or a n t e c e ­

dent information in further studies,

par t i c u l a r l y of an evaluative nature.

T h e study d e s i g n was formula t e d u t i l izing the Stake Model as a
guide.

The Model is further describ e d w i t h i n C h a p t e r 1.

Emphasis is

centered on the descriptive data p o r t i o n of the M o d e l in w h i c h the
"intended antecedents" become the basis for c o m p a r i s o n wi t h " o b served
antecedents", w h i c h are,

in turn,

reference p o ints for "transactions"

and "outcome" descriptions.

PURPOSE OF T H E STUDY

R i s i n g student costs and social demands h a v e caused some teacher
education institutions to reevaluate their programs.

As a result,

efforts are being made in some quarters to substan t i a l l y alter the natu r e
of teacher education.

One such effort includes w o r k being done at

Mic h igan State U n i v e r s i t y through the Secondary E d u c a t i o n P ilot Program.
The program includes b e g i nning to w o r k wi t h the p reservice student at
the freshman level and throughout h i s / h e r p reservice program,
than at the junior-senior
service programs.

level as is typical of most,

The program,

rather

if not all, p r e ­

as de s c ribed by the Director,

r epresents

a significant departure from the usual secondary teacher e d u c ation p r o g r a m
found in A m e r i c a n colleges and universities.

While the traditional

professional program u s ually consists of four courses;
psychology, methods,

educational

student teaching and social foundations,

this p r o ­

gram spreads the same credit load over four years such that a student

4

who enrolls as an entering freshman p artakes of some segment of his
professional development every term in r e s idence

(See F i gure

1).

Significant elements of the a l t ernative p r o g r a m are a heavy
emphasis on field based components of a v a r i e t y of types,

c omprising a

m in imum of nearly 900 hours of profe s s i o n a l contact w i t h students as
opposed to the usual average of about 400 hours,

the a d v i s e m e n t and

support for personal growth of students duri n g the f o u r - y e a r u n d e r ­
graduate program,

and the opportunit y to test out career choices m u c h

earlier than is usually the case.
The types of experience under the d i r e c t i o n of college p e r s onnel
include w e ekend camping laboratories w i t h a d o l e s c e n t and college y o u n g
people,

teacher aide positions in schools,

m e n t during summers,

teaching skills

camp and r e c r e a t i o n p l a c e ­

laboratories,

in week-long concentrated laboratory settings,

leadership training

student t eaching and

regular instructional settings.
The program arises out of b as i c h u m a n i s t i c and p e r c e p t u a l
p sychology and philosophy,

but also a ttempts

sciences into the curriculum,

creatin g a " c o n f l u e n t " m o d e l of personal,

academic and pr ofessional growth.
standard to the program,

to i n t e g r a t e the behav i o r a l

En t r y and ex i t b e h a v i o r s are n ot

but individual to the student,

however care­

fully specified and identified for ea c h p e r s o n in the program.

Students

are also involved in continual integr a t i o n of a c a d e m i c l e arning and
p r o f essional applic a t i o n through the m o d u l e s of e x p e r i e n c e each term,
and through the advisement of individual students and small groups.

In

m a n y cases students are encouraged to take r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for sections

F i g u r e X:
A C o m p a r i s o n of SEPP and the R e g u l a r Teacher
E d u c a t i o n P r o g r a m at M i c h i g a n S tate U n i v e r s i t y
Year

Term

C o u r s e or P r o g r a m M o d u l e
SEPP

Clinical

Cr.

None

Intro,

W

None

P e r s o n a l D i m e n s i o n s of
Se c o n d a r y Teaching

x 22

2

S

No n e

Se c o n d a r y Y o u t h Culture

x48

2

None

E l e c t i v e Field Experience-*-

xl20

F

None

A d o l e s c e n t Educ, Psych,

W

None

W o r k s h o p s in S e c ondary Ed,

S

None^

A l t e r n a t i v e S c hool Organiz. x 40

1

Sometime this year
students u s u a l l y
elect The Xndiv.
& the School

L e a d e r s h i p T raining Wrshp,
T e aching Skills L a b .

xlOO
x4 0

4

In t e r p e r s o n a l Relations
Lab:
T h e Third W o r l d
Adolescent

x48

1

C l i n i c a l Internship

x4 0 0

£

Jr.

Cr.

F

Summer

Soph.

Clinical

Pn

Fr,

C o u r s e or P r o g r a m M o d u l e
R e gular P r o gra m

x 3 20

to Sec. E d u c a t i o n

1

2
X*var.

2

5

w

10

■
i
l

l

Term

Y ear

Sr:.

Course of P r o g r a m M o d u l e
Regular Program

C li n i c a l

F

Teaching M e t h o d s

*
x v ar

W

Student Teaching

x4 0 0

S

School and Society

*
x var

If c h osen b y Student
Either during year or d urin g summer,

Cr,

5
15
5

C o u r s e or P r o g r a m M o d u l e

C linical

Cr.

Educ. A ct i v i t i e s Wkshp.

*
x var

2

Subject A r e a M e t h o d s

x*var

2

Social Found, of Educ.

1

TOTAh C L INICAL HOURS:
see d e s c r i p t i o n

R e g u l a r P r o g r a m ............ 420 m i n i m u m
SEPP
818 m i n i m u m

^ Some students elect T h e Indivi d u a l and the School
as early as the Sophomore Year.

c
J A p o rtion is labora t o r y setting

Source:

Secondary E d u c ation P il o t Program:

F ocus on the P r o g r a m (Student Handbook), p. 14, 1974.

of the program,

and have a n integral part in e v a l u a t i o n and rev i s i o n

of program segments.
Additi o n a l l y the p r o g r a m is conceived as p r o v i d i n g for internal
renewal and experience for students as they are u tilized as student
advisors,

group leaders,

staff perso n s and counselors.

Such p o s i tions

are m a d e available to students as they are deemed ready for them by the
p rofessional staff.
Specific p r o gram components are a d d i t i o n a l l y d e s c ribed in detail
in A p p e n d i x A.
The p r ogram involves students f r o m all a cademic m a j o r fields w ho
enter the university as freshmen w i t h an e d u c a t i o n a l career in mind.
One purpose of the study w a s

to d e s c r i b e the chara c t e r i s t i c s of

the students who have opted for an a l t e r n a t i v e p r e p a r a t o r y program.
attempting such description,

In

antecede n t i n f o r m a t i o n can be m a d e available

as baseline m a t erial for future p r o g r a m p l a n n i n g and evaluation,

parti­

cularly in individual student counsel i n g w i t h respect to career choice.
Descri p t i o n of antecedent i n f o r m a t i o n can answer such basic
questions as:
1.

W h a t are the p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the alternative

preservice student?
2.

Are there wide variances

in f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d of these

students?
3.

Are the alternative teacher e d u c a t i o n students traditional or

progressive in their attitudes toward education?
4.

Do the teacher e d u c a t i o n students d i f f e r in their degr e e of

openness or closedness of b elief systems?

8

5.

In terms of career choice,

does the a l t e r n a t i v e teacher

education student have a long-term commitment to b e c o m i n g a teacher?
6.

Does the alternative teacher e d u c a t i o n student v i e w the

university p r e s e r v i c e program/person n e l as h a v i n g b e e n hel p f u l to them?
The study addresses a d escri p t i o n of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of teacher
education students enrolled in an alternative program.

These character­

istics are d r a w n from five areas:
1.

Person a l i t y

2.

Socio-economic background

3.

Attitudes

4.

O p e n ness/closedness of b e l i e f system

5.

C areer choice

toward educati o n and the teacher e d u c a t i o n pro g r a m

This study represents an attempt to address

the q u e s t i o n of

whether or not an alternative teacher ed u c a t i o n p r o g r a m provides a forum
w h i c h encourages b e t t e r understandin g of oneself as a p o t ential

teacher,

and the clari f i c a t i o n of career options.
The study will focus on attitudes toward e d u c a t i o n and M i g h i g a n
State University.

These attitudes are reflected

istics of flexib i l i t y or dogmatism,
system,

thro u g h the c h a r a c t e r ­

openness or c losedness of beli e f

and attitudes/perceptions of M i c h i g a n State University.
The conceptual model from w h i c h the s tudy w as des i g n e d was

that

specified in the SEPP proposal to the M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y C u r r i c u l u m
Committee.

■^Samuel S. Corl, "The Professional E d u c a t i o n of H i g h School and
Junior H i g h School Teachers at M i c h i g a n State Unive r s i t y :
A Proposal"
(East Lansing, Michigan:
M i c h i g a n State University, 1972), p. 12.
( M i m eo g r a p h e d . )

By utilizing a historical case m e t h o d study approach,

the Stake

Model was proposed as appropriate for use in e v a l u a t i n g the experimental
program.

Antecedent information w a s d e s c ribed as including the general

goals and objectives of the p r o g r a m as we l l as the nature of the student
p opulation involved.
Thus, a second m a j o r p u r p o s e of the study was to prov i d e a n t e ­
cedent information on the nature of the student p o p u l a t i o n involved in
the SEPP program so as to fulfill the early r e q uirement for that i n f o r ­
m a t ion w i t h i n the context of the Stake M o d e l and w i t h i n the context of
the proposed SEPP evaluation.

For d e s c r i p t i v e purposes,

an a ntecedent

is any condition existing prior to the teaching and learning experience.
Therefore,

previous experience,

levels of interest and e n tering states

(background) of the student are a p o r t i o n of the antecedent info r m a t i o n
properly used w i t h i n the Stake Model.

Interest in the M o d e l and in the

student populat ion studied is confine d

to the antece d e n t aspects,

rather

than to the transactions or outcomes as d e s c ribed by Stake in F i gure 2,
D e s c ri p t i o n and Judgment Matrix,

2

and Figu r e 3, P r o c e s s i n g of Desc r i p t i v e

3
Da t a

w h i c h follows.

Assumptions on W h i c h Study is Based
The basic assumptions u n d e r l y i n g this r e s e a r c h were:

(1)

Teacher educators are interested in p r o v i d i n g the best pos s i b l e program,
w i t h i n recognized limits,

to e a c h individual.

(2) I n f ormation from the

study is capable of inspiring further inquiry rel a t e d to a l t e r n a t i v e and

2

Robert E. Stake, "The C o u n t e n a n c e of E d u c a t i o n a l Eva l u a t i o n , "
The Record (Teachers College), 5:523-540, April, 1967.

3
Stake, p.

531.

10

F i g u r e 2;
A p ayout of S tatements and P a t a . to.be
Collected b y the ^ v a l uator of a n
Educational Pro g r a m

INTENTS

STANDARDS

OBSERVATIONS

J U D G MENTS

ANTECEDENTS
RATIONALE

TRANSACTIONS

OUTCOMES

DESCRIPTION MATRIX

Source;

Stake, R o bert M.,

JUD G M E N T M A T R I X

’’Counte n a n c e of Educational Eval u a t i o n "

11

f i g u r e 3;
A R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the
P rocessing of D e s c r i p t i v e D a t a

Intended
Antecedents

Observed
Antecedents
<!---

CONGR U E N C E

—

>

A
LOGICAL
CONTINGENCY

E M P I RICAL
CONT I N G E N C Y

4

4

Intended
Transactions

Observed
Transactions
C ----

C O N G R U E N C E ----- ^

!
4

f

LOGICAL
C ONTINGENCY

E M P I RICAL
CONTINGENCY

1
Intended
Outcomes

Observed
Ou t c o m e s
<;----

Source:

C O N G R U E N C E ----- f

Stake, Robert M . , "The C o u n t e n a n c e of E d u cational Evaluation,"

12

traditional secondary teacher p r e p a r a t i o n programs.
profession,

partic u l a r l y teacher educators,

functional teacher prepar a t i o n programs,

are

(3) The teaching

interested in p r o v i d i n g

i n c luding alternatives.

(4)

An on-going process of program assessment and e v a l u a t i o n can be conducted
w h e n objective participant information is a v a il a b l e as a b e g i n n i n g point
(baseline reference).

(5) The number of college students seeking

certification to teach at the secondary level w i l l continue to grow,
at least hold

its p r e s e n t level.

or

(6) T h e alternative teacher e d u c ation

program at M i c h i g a n State University w i l l c o ntinue to rec e i v e the support
of the U n i v e r s i t y a d m i n istration thereby a s s u r i n g the g r a d u a t i o n of its
first class in 1976.

(7) Information gathered i n study is capable of

identifying the characteristics of preservice s tudents o p ting for an
alternative p r o g r a m at M i c h i g a n State U n i versity.

N E E D FOR THE STUDY

A m e r i c a n society is characte r i z e d by i n c r e a s i n g s o p h istication
in technology,

p o p u l a t i o n concentrat i o n in m e t r o p o l i t a n centers,

challenges to traditional customs, values,
expanded s p e c ialization of the labor force,
perspectives,

and f a mily structures,
i n c r eased international

and d i rect influence by the mass medi a .

These character­

istics bring to sharp focus the need for improved p e r formance by teachers
if education is to play some significant role in coping w i t h these factors.
As teacher education evaluates and responds to society's demands,

a very

important topic is the manner in which the r e - d i r e c t i o n of teacher e duca­
tion occurs.

13

The training of teachers as p r o f e s s i o n a l s and as persons aware
of themselves in the role of teaching c an be d e s c r i b e d as both an
4
affective and cognitive process.

At an a f f e c t i v e level, Combs

describes

in the latter p u b l i c a t i o n the basic c oncepts in the process of b e c o m i n g
a teacher in the following ways:
1.

The p r o d u c t i o n of an effective teacher is a high l y p ersonal
matter,

dependent primarily u p o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of an

appropriate system of b e l i e f s .
2.

The p r o d u c t i o n of an effective

teacher m u s t be regarded as

a problem in b e c o m i n g .
3.

The process of becoming m u s t start from security and a c c e p ­
tance.

4.

Effective teacher education m u s t c o n c e n t r a t e its efforts
upon m e a n i n g s rather than b e h a v i o r .

5.

If s ensitivity and empathy are p r i m e c haracteristics of
effective h e l p e r s , and if b e h a v i o r is the product of p e r ­
ception,

teacher prepar a t i o n p r o g r a m s m u s t shift their m a i n

concerns from objectivity to s u b j e c t i v i t y .
Such "basic concepts" of this type are n o t n e c e s s a r i l y new;

they

represent re-statements of traditionally held p o s i t i o n s on the enculturation or socialization p o r t i o n of the t r a d i t i o n a l

teacher e d u c a t i o n program.

^A. W. Combs, "Educational A c c o u n t a b i l i t y :
Beyond Behavioral
O bjectives" (Gainesville, Florida, U n i v e r s i t y of Florida:
Center for
Humanistic Education, 1972).
(Mimeographed.); see also A. W. Combs,
"Some Basic Concepts for T e a c h e r E du c a t i o n , " J o u r n a l of Tea c h e r
Education, 23:12-15, Fall, 1972.

14

Newton and W a t s o n ‘S suggest that such statements of the o u t p u t of a
teacher education p r o g r a m in terms of b e l i e f s , b e c o m i n g , s ecurity and
a c c e p t a n c e , m e a nings and s u b j e c t i v i t y , characterize an e n t e r p r i s e in
w h i ch n e i t h e r input n o r output has b e e n accurately described.

T he i nt e r ­

vening experiences in the process ge n e rally h a v e little if any theoretical
or empirical support,

they argue.

Even though the 1972 Gallup Poll of P u b l i c A t t i t u d e s Towa r d
£
Education

found that the p ublic puts m o s t of the blame for a child

doing poorly in school u p o n the child's home rather than u p o n the teacher
or the school,

the media,

journals,

and various

taxpayer commit t e e s

continue to demand increased fiscal and scholastic a c c o u n t a b i l i t y in
education.

This demand,

coupled wit h the suggested c r i t i c i s m of Comb's

d e s cri p t i o n of the process of b e c o m i n g a teacher, has r e s u l t e d
m o v e ment to p e r f o r m ance-based

teacher e d u c a t i o n . 7

a program is on d e monstrated p r oduct or output.

The e m p h a s i s
The teac h e r

i n s titution is held accountable for pr o d u c i n g able teachers,
d e m o nstrating their ability to p r omo t e d e s irable learning,

in the
in such

training
capable of

or to exhibit

5
David E. N e w t o n and F. G. Watson, The R e s e a r c h o n Science
E d u c ation Survey (Cambridge, Massachu s e t t s :
Harvard Univ e r s i t y , 1968).
£
G e orge H. Gallup, " F o u r t h An nual Gallup Poll of P u b l i c A t t i t u d e
Toward E d ucation," Phi Delta K a p p a n , 54:33-46, September, 1972.
7 S. Elam, Perfor m a n c e - b a s e d T e a c h e r Education:
W h a t is the
State of A r t ? (Washington, D . C . : A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n o f Col l e g e s for
Teacher. Education, 1971); see also S. Elam, A R e s u m e of P e r f o r m a n c e based T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n (Washington, D.C.:
A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n of
Colleges for T e acher Education, 1972).

15

behaviors known to promote it.

Emp h a s i s is on the essential tasks of

teaching— more readily defined as cognitive and p s y c h o m o t o r activities
within CBTE programs.
Regardless of stated polariz e d positions w i t h res p e c t to
affective or cognitively-based teacher education,

there is a c ontinuing

need to identify w h e r e efforts are b e i n g m a d e to s u bstantially alter the
nature of the teacher e d u c ation program,

in either or b o t h directions.

Equally important is the need to identify h o w such alternative
preservice programs can help students in m a k i n g m a t u r e decisions
remain

in and/or leave the p r ofessio n a l program.

that prospective teacher candidates n e e d to
alternatives w hich would enable

to

T here is the poss i b i l i t y

be p rovided p r e s e r v i c e

them to p e rceive and assess their own

potentials, w i thout "closing out" other early career options.
Such a preser v i c e p r o g r a m w o u l d me e t an objective specified by
the Ameri c a n A s s o c i a t i o n of Colleges

for T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n w h i c h r e c o m m e n ­

ded that universities/colleges:
develop a p r ogram m o d e l for

teacher training w h i c h non-

directively enables

the student

values,

liabilities (and)

assets,

and

to evaluate his own goals,

provide an atmosp h e r e for e v a l u a t i o n of goals

in bo t h an

g
intellectual and affective mode.

g
Donald P. Cottrell, National Policy for the Improvement of the
Quality of Teacher E d u c a t i o n (Washington, D.C.:
American Association
of Colleges for T e acher Education, 1970), pp. 18-20.

16
Passow

9

felt that there was conclusive e vidence that a teacher's

social origin affects his attitudes.

Social o r i g i n m a y be closely linked

wi th self-concept development; yet opportu n i t i e s for d e v e l o p m e n t of
positive self-concept,
gram activities,
program.

coupled w i t h other "tradit i o n a l " p r e s e r v i c e p r o ­

are not found in the usual p r e s e r v i c e teacher e d u c a t i o n

Social o rigin and self-concept devel o p m e n t has c o r r e l a t i o n wi t h

attitudes potentially carried into the school setting.
The preservice teacher's attitude toward e d u cation and toward
the teacher education p r ogram also has c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h attitudes
p o t entially carried into the school s e t t i n g . ^
Ma r v i n B r o t t m a n ^
education,

socio-economic,

succinctly graphs the c ontinuing lag in teacher
and e d u c a t i o n practices.

Efforts to alter

the direction of teacher e d u c ation (to m a k e up for the 50-year lag) have
emerged;

some of these incorporate Brottman's

sugges t i o n that the p ersonal

needs of the prospective teacher are n e c e s s a r y additions to the training
process.

One such effort is that of the S e c o ndary E d u c a t i o n P i l o t

Program at M i c h i g a n State University.
Toffler's F u ture Shock
people already knew,

12

was a startling r eminder of w h a t m a n y

but w e r e too b u s y trying to keep up w i t h the

9
Harry A. Passow, " D i m i n i s h i n g T e a c h e r P r e judice," T he Inner
Ci t y Classroom;
T e acher B e h a v i o r s , ed.
Robe r t D. Strom (Columbus,
Ohio:
Charles E. M e r r i l l Books, 1966), pp. 93-110.

„

10P assow.
^ M a r v i n A. Brottman, "Social Needs and T e a c h e r Training:
A
Historical Survey" (paper presented at the A n nual M e e t i n g of the
A m e rican Educational R e s e a r c h Association, Chicago, Illinois; April
15-19, 1974.
12'
Alvin Toffler,

1970).

F u t u r e Shock ( N e w York:

R a n d o m House,

Inc.,

17

accelerating rate of change to consider

in depth.

That is,

that m a n y

"facts" learned y e s t e r d a y are b r o ugh t into serious que s t i o n today and
may be discarded as outdated fiction tomorrow.
Townsend suggests that it has b e e n p r o g n o s t i c a t e d that in the
future teachers will spend m o r e time;
1.
2.
3.

diagnosing individual student diff e r e n c e s
analyzing learning difficult i e s and aptitudes of the students
prescribing and devel o p i n g i n structional m a t e r i a l s and techniques
for students as individuals rather than leading a class of
students through a m a z e of f l eeting facts in lock-step p r e c i ­
sion.
If this is true,

it appears r e a s o n a b l e to suggest that teacher

education programs need to significa n t l y alter b o t h content and sequence.
This is not to reject the traditional topics for preser v i c e teachers
such as curriculum development,
evaluation procedures,
methods,

etc.

e duc a t i o n a l psychology,

instructional

It suggests,

instead,

techniques,

learning theory,

general and specific

that the topics be taught in r e l a t i o n ­

ship to the viable "real world" of the s e c o n d a r y school

teacher.

By

capturing the opportunities of the times (demand for accountability,
search for relevance,

need for curri c u l u m research)

the teacher e d u c a t i o n

p ro gram can move into contiguity w i t h today's secondary schools.
topics,

Courses,

and concepts can be examined and e v a l u a t e d by the preservice

teacher in the crucible of the p r esen t d ay classroom.

Such an att e m p t at

the program level would represent a substantive a l t ernative w i t h i n the
teacher education program.

13

Ronald D. Townsend, "Competency, C o o p e r a t i o n and Change,"
Proceedings of the N a t ional Science E d u c a t o r ' s M e e t i n g in Chicago,
Illinois (Washington, D.C.:
June, 1973), p. 44.
(Mimeographed.)

18

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

Given the circumstance that e a c h teacher tra i n i n g i n s titution
supports a philosophical posit i o n of the "value" of the p reservice
program,

there are several possible a l t e r n a t i v e s by w h i c h such a c t i v i ­

ties m a y occur.
as we k n o w it,

One is in the traditional teacher e d u c a t i o n program,
in w h i c h a student follows a sequence of courses,

student teaching experience,

has a

and is then g r a d u a t e d and certified to

teach.
. A n o t h e r approach is to provide a l t e r n a t i v e s
program.

The Secondary Education Pilot Program,

M i c higan State University,

to the traditional

in its second y e a r at

is an alt ernative p r e s e r v i c e program.

Formal research has n o t been conducted o n the program.

Thus,

objec­

tive information is lacking w h i c h might be used e v e n t u a l l y to q uantify
the relative m e r i t of the p r o g r a m compared to the traditional p r o g r a m
o p e rating simultaneously at M i c higan S tate University.
As in any innovative and/or a l t e r n a t i v e educa t i o n a l endeavor,
there is a need to identify successful p r o g r a m components b e fore they
become part of a permanent program.
if necessary,

M o d i f i c a t i o n s m a y be restructured,

prior to continuing with o r i g i n a l compo n e n t s of the program.

Such restructuring can be m a d e possible b y the u t i l i z a t i o n of q u a n t i t a ­
tive data w h i c h attempts to deal with some of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
students in the alternative p r o gram and their p e r c e p t i o n s of the program.
Analysis of the first and second y e a r students p r e s e n t l y in the
alternative p r ogram is a necessity.

It is n e c e s s a r y as a b e g i n n i n g point

in a longitudinal study to identify,

if,

in fact,

the personalized,

19
experiential nature of the program m a k e s it a viable alternative
teacher education program.
T h rough an analysis of the personal,
characteristics of the participants,

educational and occu p a t i o n a l

it m a y be po s s i b l e to de t e r m i n e a

profile of preservice teacher education candidate chara c t e r i s t i c s and
the relationship of these characteristics to p e r c e p t i o n s / a t t i t u d e s toward
education and teaching as an occupational choice.
tion can be used to e s t a b l i s h selection criteria,

In turn,

such info r m a ­

should p r o g r a m planners

so desire.
Finally,

through an analysis of the student self-concepts,

perceptions of the program,

and attitudes toward teaching,

prese r v i c e

university instructors will be in a p o s i t i o n to e v aluate the e f f e c t i v e ­
ness of both the traditional and the alternative p r o g r a m as pe r c e i v e d
by the learner.

The U n i v e r s i t y staff,

curriculum committee,

and other

interested parties m a y be provided d a t a on w h i c h d e c i sions may be based
affecting either or b o t h programs.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study m a y be limited for the following reasons:
1.

A n individual's tendency toward c o n s ervatism or p r o g r e s s i v i s m

as m easured by the K e r l inger Educatio n Scale VI,
methods of assessing such attitudes.

is one of several

T he c o n s e rvatism or pr o g r e s s i v i s m

exhibited by a person is only one of m a n y potential factors influencing
attitudes toward education.
2.

The Secondary Education Pilot Prog r a m students are m e m b e r s

of that group primarily on the basis of s e l f - s e l e c t i o n processes.

The

20

invitation to learn about the alternative p r o g r a m and to p a r t i c i p a t e in
it was extended to all incoming fres h m e n who had declared initial interest
in'becoming se condary teachers.

As in any n e w or e x e mplary endeavor,

there is the possib i l i t y that "first group" p a r t i cipants m a y suffer from
Hawthorne effect.

Then,

the r eader is cautioned

that such p h e n o m e n a m a y

be operational.
3.

The n o n - S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n Pilot Prog r a m students g e n e r a l l y

have not had formal "education" courses during their first four terms at
M ichigan State University.

T h e s e students spend their time p r i m a r i l y

in University C o l l e g e courses;
humanities,

natural sciences,

i.e. A m e r i c a n T h o u g h t and Language,
and social sciences.

Conversely,

S e c ondary

Education Pilot P r o g r a m students are involved in formal " e d ucation"
courses as part of the alternative p r o g r a m be g i n n i n g at the f r e s h m a n
level.

They are,

therefore,

r e c e ivi n g a d i f ferent type of e x p e r i e n c e

than the n o n -Secondary E d u c a t i o n Pilot Prog r a m students.
4.

The Secondary E d u c ation P ilot Program and n o n - S e c o n d a r y

Education Pilot P r o g r a m students were n ot under the supe r v i s i o n of the
investigator.

Thus,

certain aspects of the doc u m e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s

also not under the control of the researcher.

Use of a "volun t e e r

method" of p a r t i c i p a t i o n implies cert a i n p o p u l a t i o n losses from those
students initially contacted
5.

The resear c h e r ' s

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the study.
absence d u r i n g some portions of the da t a

c ollection could contribute to differ e n c e s

in r e s p o n s e and levels of

cooperation on the part of some of the participants.
6.

The total n umber

of poss i bl e v o l unteer p o p u l a t i o n fr o m

regular teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m is an u n k n o w n "n".

the

The vari o u s classes

21

were notified formally through the i n s t r u c t o r and students were asked
to volunteer their time.

The internal c r i t e r i a of initially "having

enrolled at Michi g a n State U n i v e r s i t y in the Fall of 1973" was imposed,
thereby automatically eliminating transfer students,

or late entrants to

the traditional secondary e d u c a t i o n pro f e s s i o n a l sequence.

A n additional

criteria of "having the intent to teach at the secondary e d u cation level"
was also imposed on those w h o volunteered

to respond.

T h o s e preparing

for elementary education w e r e discou r a g e d from responding.
7.

Items in the Attitudes P e r c e p t i o n s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e have limited

c omparability to other such s e lf-con s t r u c t e d questionnaires.

They repre­

sent "unique" items for w h i c h no p r e - e x i s t i n g v a l i d i t y / r e l i a b i l i t y d a t a
exists.

The questionnaire should n o t be c onsidered as valid beyond the

context of this study and the limited info r m a t i o n it provides on studentheld perceptions of Michi g a n State U n iversity.
questionnaires generally,

there is the d a nger that the items m a y be too

limited or too general in perspective,
some caution.

Finally,

As wi t h self-cons t r u c t e d

and thus,

should be read with

readers should be aware that one item in the

original d a t a gathering instrument n e c e s s i t a t e d scoring in reverse order;
a second item was omitted from the f indings because it w as not d i s t i n ­
guishable as a firmly positive or n e g a t i v e statement.
validity information is provided in Cha p t e r
8.

(Reliability/

3.)

The use of the R o k e a c h Scale as a m e a s u r e of a n individual's

tendency toward dogmatism or openness could be challenged.
possibility
Also,

There is the

that there may be other m e t h o d s of a ssesing these tendencies.

this w r i t e r recognizes

that the d o g m a t i s m or o p enness ex h i b i t e d by

a p erson is only one of m a n y factors i n f luencing a t t i tudes
and toward education.

toward

teaching

22

9.

The 1973-74 ent e r i n g Secondary E d u c a t i o n P i l o t Program

students have had the benefit of a full three or m o r e terms at M i c h i g a n
State University as m e mbers of the a l ternative p r e s e r v i c e program.
like manner,

In

the regular teacher e d u c a t i o n students have had comparable

exposure to the traditional p reserv i c e program.

As such,

there is some

danger that changes over time m a y have already o c curred in their p e r c e p ­
tions of the preservice program,
attitude toward the program,
ing a teacher.

attitude toward teaching,

self-concept,

or degree of interest in b e c o m i n g and s t a y ­

The p o ssibility of m a t u r a t i o n and h i s t o r y affecting at

least this p o rtion of data should no t be ignored and should caution
g eneralizations drawn from the study.
10.

D a t a collection was completed d u ring a time frame spanning

two terms (20 weeks) at M i c h i g a n State University.

T h e r e is,

therefore,

the possibility that d emographic data p a r t i c u l a r l y m a y be distorted
because of h i story and maturation.

T here is a need

to be aware of the

additional consideration of the econ o m i c co n d i t i o n in the State of
M i c hi g a n during the time in w h i c h the study was completed.

Such

factors as high unemployment in the a utomotive industry particularly,
and high unemployment nationwide generally,

can account for some d i s ­

tortion of socio-economic informatio n on family b a c kground.

This

cautionary note can serve to remind the reader that there m a y be skewed
i n formation as a result of economic conditions m o r e s o than as a result
of possible "faking" of such informa t i o n by respondents.
11.

G e n e r a lizations drawn from the study should be limited to

the popula t i o n sampled,

or cautiousl y applied to e d u c a t i o n a l

institutions

and populations w h i c h closely resemble those included in this i n v e s t i g a ­
tion and having an alternative as w e l l as traditional secondary teacher

23

education program comparable in nature to that of the Secondary E d u c a ­
tion Pilot P r ogram at M i c h i g a n State University.
12.

The popula t i o n of this study are students en r o l l e d at

M ichigan State Univer s i t y and are p r i marily M i c h i g a n residents.
results,

therefore,

The

are probably not as applicable to r e s idents from

other areas having m a r k e d l y different so c i o - e c o n o m i c or subcultural
makeup such as the deep South,
states,

East e r n or W e s t e r n seaboards,

or remote

sucha s Hawaii and Alaska.
13.

Use of the Cattell 16 P. F. has b e e n limited to one a d m i n i s ­

tration of F o r m A,

in spite of recom m endations of the test pr o d u c e r s

two forms be utilized.

that

There is the p o s s i b i l i t y then that o ne m i g h t

question the reliability and validity of the f i ndings in the p e r s o n a l i t y
area.

Conversely,

if one assumes that a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the form is

intended only to produce antecedent information,

then this limita t i o n

and possible criticism m a y be invalid.
14.

The director of the study is also the D i r e c t o r o f the

Secondary E d u c ation Pilot Program at M i c h i g a n State U n iversity.
every attempt has been m a d e to eliminate biases,
p o s sibility that personal

While

there is the remote

involvement m a y influence perception.

This

w r iter does not believe that to be the case, b ut w i s h e s to alert the
reader to the inherent possible criticism of dual involvement.
15.

While the D i r ector of the Secondary E d u c a t i o n P i l o t P r o g r a m

has remained constant,

there have been rot a t i n g staff affiliations.

These include graduate assistants,
u niversity staff.

v o l unteer staff and full-time

Possible adverse and/or p o s i t i v e rel a t i o n s h i p s

arising from this aspect of program o p e r a t i o n h a v e n o t b e e n assessed,
particularly as they relate

to the Secondary E d u c a t i o n Pilot P r o g r a m

24

students'

attitude toward the a l t e r n a t i v e teacher e d u c ation program.

Changing staff patterns m a y affect student responses on the A t titude
Perceptions Scale particularly.

D E F I N I T I O N O F TERMS

Secondary E d u c a t i o n P i l o t P r o g r a m - an alternative prese r v i c e
secondary teacher education p r o g r a m sponsored and approved by the
Department of Secondary E d u c ation and C u r r i c u l u m and the Univer s i t y
administration at M i c h i g a n State University.

This is a four-year p r o g r a m

in its second year of implem e n t a t i o n at the time of the study.
SEPP - an acrynonm for the Se c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n Pilot Program.
SEPP student - Group

1 (SI), G r o u p 2 (S2) - any student en t e r i n g

M i c higan State U n i v e r s i t y in 1973-74 or 1974-75 school year who has
declared and been admitted into a r e g u l a r program in secondary teacher
education.

Students m a y be from any d i s c i p l i n e and m u s t m e e t the a d d i ­

tional criteria of "interested in b e c o m i n g a teacher;

interested in

participating in the SEPP program" o n a v o l u nteer and currently active
basis.
Non-SEPP student - any student entering M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y
in the 1973-74 school year w h o

has d e c l a r e d and b e e n admitted into a

program in secondary teacher education.
the first course of the professional
in the pilot program.

These students are enrolled

in

sequence but they are n ot en ro l l e d

They m a y be f r o m any discipline.

Traditional Prese r v i c e P r o g r a m - A u n i v e r s i t y approved preser v i c e
teacher preparation p r o g r a m in w h i c h students un d e r t a k e formal c l a s sroom
instruction,

coupled w i t h student tea c h i n g experience,

as part of their

25

bachelor's degree requirement.

Award of the d e g r e e is simultaneous wi t h

certification to teach in a specific subject ar e a and grade level.
Alternative Program - used to identify any d e v i a t i o n from the
traditional preserivce program previously defined.
Self-concept - used to identify the p e r s o n a l v i e w or evalu a t i o n
one m a k e s of himself/herself with res p e c t to a v a r i e t y of factors
including,

but not limited to self-worth and self-satisfaction.

Attitude toward the program - the v i e w one holds as to the
relative m e r i t / w o r t h of the preservi c e experience.
At t itude toward teaching - the ex p r e s s e d v i e w one holds as to
the nature and function of teaching,

the role of the teacher,

occupational expectations of teaching.

and the

It r e p r e s e n t s a statement of

philosophic and personal perspective.
Openness/Closedness of belief system - polarized positions
re p resenting h o w an individual receives or is u n w i l l i n g to receive
communication and/or information w h i c h m i g h t affect decisions or actions.
Tr a d i t i o nal/Progressive - po l a r i z e d p o s i t i o n s rep r e s e n t i n g h o w
an individual perceives the role and fun c t i o n of the school and the
teacher.

An attitude toward educati o n generally.
Positive - o n a scale of + 3 -3 any r e s p o n s e a p p earing on the

plus side will be considered as posi t i v e re s p o n s e or attitude.
of positive m a y

thus,

Degrees

range from + 3 to +1; n e g a t i v e r epresents -3 to -1.

Attitude/Perceptions

Scale - a 29 item m e a s u r e

scored on a

L i kert type scale, designed to m e a su r e a student's a t titude and p e r ­
ception of the university staff and teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m at
M i c h i g a n State University.
A/P Scale - an acrynonm for the A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n s

Scale.

26

GE N E R A LI Z A B I L I T Y

Since the sample was from w i t h i n a specified population,

it can

be concluded that the findings will hold for a large p r o p o r t i o n of
secondary education preservice students,

e s p e c i a l l y those enrolled at

M i c higan State University.
The concepts utilized in the pilot p r o g r a m are not unique;

rather

it is the point at w h i c h these concepts and e x p e r i e n c e s are presented.
H o w students perceive the program and its effe c t on their career plans
may be useful to administrators of other a l t e r n a t i v e teacher education
programs.
It m a y be possible to utiliz e the student i n f ormation to develop
pre-program entrance criteria,

for either or bo t h of the teacher e d u c a ­

tion programs at M i c h i g a n State University.

It is p o ssible that such

i nformation would also prove useful to o ther teacher training institutions
w i s hing to develop entrance criteria for their teacher e d u c a t i o n programs.
It would be appropriate to u s e the d a t a to solicit p h ilosophical
and personal support for teacher edu c a t i o n p r o g r a m s w h i c h uti l i z e a l t e r ­
native strategies and delivery modes;

it could be appropr i a t e l y utilized

to solicit institutional financial support for other a l t ernative educa­
tional approaches.

It would be appropriate e v e n t u a l l y to use the data

to answer cost-based requests for i n f o r m a t i o n by other interested persons
or groups,

(such as legislatures,

parents,

and/ o r community) w h o support

the function of higher education in general,
tion specifically.

and secondary teacher e d u c a ­

27

SUMMARY

W i t h i n this chapter a point of d e p a rture is developed,
as a frame of r e f e rence for the latter portions of the study.
section,

as well
This

along w i t h the r e v i e w of the related r e search in Chap t e r 2 and

the research proce d u r e s outlined in Cha p t e r 3, should serve to help make
more meanin g f u l

the p r e s e n t a t i o n and analysis of the d a t a in C h a p t e r 4.

The summary and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s found in C h a p t e r 5 should also be mo r e
meaningful.

Chapter 2

R E V I E W O F R E L A T E D RE S E A R C H

Introduction
The r e v i e w of related r e s ea r c h was preceded by devel o p m e n t of
minimal criteria to provide a frame of reference.

Th e following

q ualitative and quantitative guidel i n e s were established:
1.

A real effort to concentrate on m a t e r i a l s w r i t t e n w i t h i n the

last decade would be made.
of other materials.

Such emphasis did not remove the p o s s i b i l i t y

The emphasis p rovided d i r e c t i o n based on the

rapidity of change in our social and e d ucational practices,
h istorical

emphasis,

2.

per se.

Materials dealing w i t h selected topics w e r e c h osen at the

expense of certain other perspectives.
status of the teaching profession,
teaching,

r a ther than

evaluation strategies,

Social origins of teachers,

attitudes

toward e d u c a t i o n and

and self-concept (personality)

theory,

and alternative teacher education programs w e r e m a j o r categorical items
chosen for review.
3.

Selected studies are re p o r t e d in the literature and,

w he rever possible,
Thus,

are cited in r e l a t i o n to comparable re s e a r c h design.

emphasis is p l a c e d o n descriptive,

design.

Wherever possible

r a ther than experimental,

studies consi s t i n g of questi o n n a i r e s of

doubtful reliability and v a l i d i t y are n ot reported.
4.
appropriate,

Other relevant r e s e a r c h f i ndings are mentioned, w h e n
in subsequent chapters.

The r e v i e w p r ovided

concentrates on the focus listed in Item 1 above.

28

in C h a p t e r 2

29

5.

Writings from the fields of t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g theory,

and

history of teacher e d u c ation m a y be utilized, b u t are no t g i v e n pri m a r y
consideration.
6.

R e s e a r c h and w r i t i n g s e m p h a s i z i n g v o c a t i o n a l theo r y we r e

included in the r e v i e w of the literature.

R e s e a r c h exists pointing

to

reasons and m otivations for or against choosing teaching as a career
and as a profession.

This study,

to have chosen teaching,

dealing w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n that appears

therefore,

is a p p r o p r i a t e l y concerned w i t h

theoretical concepts of vocati o n a l devel o p m e n t and career choices.
7.

L iterature and r e s e a r c h reports d e a l i n g w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e

teacher educa t i o n programs w e r e reviewed.

Such r e v i e w is intended to

indicate the n ature and extent of current m o d i f i c a t i o n efforts in the
teacher e d u c ation program.

Thus,

literature dea l i n g w i t h the o n - g o i n g

functions of teacher e d u c ation is minimal.
teacher e d u c a tion programs

is provided.

E mphasis o n alternative

C o n s i d e r a t i o n is g i v e n to b o t h

elementary and secondary alternativ e teacher ed u c a t i o n programs, w i t h
emphasis o n secondary prese r v i c e programs.
8.

Finally,

topics considered appr o p r i a t e for the r e s e a r c h

r e v i e w include criticism of teacher e d u c a t i o n and c o n s iderations in the
selection of students entering the p r e s e r v i c e program.
Thus,

the reader is aware of the w i d e range of p o s s i b l e topics

involved in the r e v i e w of literature.

The c riteria for s e l ection

centers around the b a s i c premise that p a r t i c i p a n t s

in a n a l t e r n a t i v e

teacher education p r o g r a m can be de s c ribed effe c t i v e l y to the extent
that the p r o g r a m described m e e t s

the needs of that t e a c h e r - i n - p r e p a r a t i o n

to function p o tentially in his or h er role in a social institution.

30

A prospective of the compl e x i t y of the teaching role is provided
through a r e v i e w of literature.

A d ditionally,

the literature r e v i e w

provides insight for clarification and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the instr u m e n t a ­
tion described in Chapter 3 and findings and conclusions described in
Chapters 4 and 5, respectively.

PART 1:

TEACHER EDUCATION

An O v e r v i e w
Early efforts in teacher e d u c a t i o n conc e nt r a t e d on p r e p a r a t i o n
of teachers concerned w i t h the teaching of content.
e d u c a t i o n efforts did give some at t e ntion to methods,

E n s u i n g teacher
but still e m p h a s i ­

zed the subjects then taught in the schools.
During the last seventy yea r s m o r e a t t e n t i o n has be e n focused
on subjects w h i c h are or should be taught,

to t e aching methods,

and to

experiences w hich enable prospe c t i v e teachers to try out teaching p r o ­
cedures w h i c h they have been taught
Brottman,
c oncluded that ".

(or as they are learned).

in reviewing teacher p r e p a r a t i o n and social demands,
. .a

lack of concern for and awareness of the effects

on c h i ldren of their teacher has e x i s t e d since 1790 and little real
m o d i f i c a t i o n in teacher training to r e s p o n d to that lack of con c e r n has
o c curred since 1900."

Selected " m i l e s t o n e s "

since the tu r n of the

century give some perspective of the current state of teacher e d u cation
and rationale for B r o t t m a n 1s criticism.

■''Marvin A. Brottman, "Social Needs and T e a c h e r Training:
A
H istorical Survey" (paper p r e s ented at annual m e e t i n g of the A m e r i c a n
Educational R e s earch Association, Chicago, Illinois, April 15-19, 1974),
p. 1.

31

T e acher training in state universities began at the U n i v e r s i t y
of Indiana in 1853,

2

but legislative,

financial,

and c o m m unity support

for such institutions was slow to develop.
By 1900 more than 30 states had passed compu l s o r y school
attendance laws, m o s t l y in the Nort h and West.

The passage of these

laws n e cessitated d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of c u r ricula so that the v a r i e t y of
needs of children could be met.

Heterogeneous p o p ulations required

teachers w h o were p r e p a r e d to deal w i t h a he t e r o g e n e o u s curric u l u m as
well.
The normal school as an institution devo t e d to the p r e p a r a t i o n
of teachers gained p ublic support because,

as a c c o r d i n g to one observer,

"it was abundantly e v ident that former students and graduates of these
3
schools were better

teachers than those educated elsewhere."

By the mid-18 0 0 ' s

the A m e r i c a n Normal

School A s s o c i a t i o n had

r ecommended a two-year p r o g r a m w i t h emphasis on o b s e r v a t i o n and on
4
"Theory and Practice of Teaching."
ing" was n o t w i thout criticism.

The devel o p m e n t of "practice t e a c h ­

Critics suggested that teachers should

2

U.S. Office of Education, Depar t m e n t of Interior, Teacher
T r a i n i n g , Survey of Land-G r a n t Colleges and Universities, No. 9, Vol.
II, Pt. Ill (Washington, D.C.:
U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Office, 1930),
p. 12.
3
Charles A. Harper, A Centu r y of Public T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n
(Washington, D.C.:
National Educat i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , 1939), p. 97.
U.S. Office of Education, R e p o r t of the C o m m i s s i o n e r of
Ed ucation ( 1 8 8 8 - 1 8 8 9 ) , Vol. I (Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Govern m e n t
P r inting Office, 1889), pp. 294-295.

32

be sensitive to children's needs,
matter adequately.

as well as e x pected to p r e s e n t subject

Practice teaching did n ot appear to e m p h asize b o t h

equally.
Two activities began late in the 19th C e n t u r y w h i c h we r e to have
long-range effects on the prepar a t i o n of t e a ch e r s

a d e mand for teacher

certification and the rise of regional accr e d i t i n g agencies.
Just prior to the 20th Century,

early stages of i ndustrial and

corporate g rowth and concentrations of w e a l t h h e ralded the age of early
reform in b o t h social and educational circles.

N e w ways of looking at

children and society were the result of various r e f o r m movements.
E x perimental
Terman,

learning emerged as pro p o s e d by Dewey, Thorndike,

Cattell and others in the field of e d u cational m e a s urement;

the behaviorists g a v e way to the field psychol o g i s t s in the 1940's.
Finally, Freud's p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory and the social p s y c h o l o g y of M e a d
were forerunners to the concept of learning and teaching in the home
and in the school as closely related to each other.

T he total life

experience became a focal point of n e eded change.
Given these social/psychological forces,
changed.

teac h e r - t r a i n i n g

The curric u l u m in the m i d- 1 9 th Cent u r y included a ye a r ea c h of

psychology,

pedagogy,

observation,

and pr a c t i c e teaching.

These criteria

were the result of a recommendation fr o m the C o m m i s s i o n on Norm a l Schools
that the same schools be used for c l a s sroom obs e r v a t i o n s and pr a c t i c e
5
teaching purposes.

The prepar a t i o n of teachers e ncouraged emphasis on

the child rather than the subject m a t t e r to be taught.

5
National E d u c a t i o n Association, R e p o r t of the C o m m i s s i o n on
Normal S c h o o l s , Proceedings of the N a tional E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n
(Washington, D.C.:
National E d u c ati o n Association, 1899), pp. 836-888.

33

The decline of n ormal schools and rise of four-year colleges
lead to increased emphasis on acade m i c p r eparation of teachers.

In 1920

!

there were 137 state normal colleges and only 46 teachers colleges in
the United States,

but by 1952 there w e r e only a f e w normal schools and

over 200 teachers colleges.**
At the same time,
increasing their offerings

land-grant colleges and uni v e r s i t i e s were
in profe s s i o n a l preparation.

survey of 44 land-grant colleges,

In a 1930

36 institutions listed required pro-

7
fessional courses.

It is important to note that there were n o formal

provisions for the p r e p a r a t i o n of teachers in normal
colleges,

schools,

teacher

and/or land-grant institutions at that time.

In a more contemporary setting A m e r i c a continued to have
problems in teacher preparation.

Ru s s i a ' s launching of the Sputnik

satellite m arked an end of the interest in social adjustment and
introduced a period of concern w i t h b a s i c content.

This concern was

reflected in the i n troduction of federal support for prep a r a t i o n of
teachers.

The National Defense E d u c a t i o n Act of 1958 had e arly impact

on teacher preparation.
Opportunity Act (1964),

Subsequent legislation,

including the E c o n o m i c

the E l e m e n t a r y and Secondary Ed u c a t i o n A ct (1965)

and the Educat ion Professions D e v e l o p m e n t A ct (1967),
ional preparation provisions.

all had p r o f e s s ­

Amend m e n t s to these Acts continue today

to support teacher education.
The 1960's was a c companied by growing dissa t i s f a c t i o n w i t h c o m m o n
i

school curricula.

^Brottman,
^U.S.

The assump t i o n that flexibility of teaching p r a c t i c e

p.

12.

Office of Education,

Depar t m e n t of Interior,

p.

126.

34
might result from flexible teacher t raining p r a c tices b e came a popular
belief.

Getzels and Jackson

8

identified m a n y studies m a d e of students
i
j

in the process of becoming a teacher.

In the late 1960's,

teacher

e d ucation institutions directed att e n t i o n to the total process of
b e coming a teacher.
Brottman concludes that:
teacher training curricula in the pa s t 25 y e a r s h a v e exhibited
their greatest lag in h o w they resp o n d to the e d u cational needs of
the prospective teachers,
w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of those experimental
programs supported by federal funds or f o u n d a t i o n grants, teacher
prepa r a t i o n programs are largely u n c h a n g e d f r o m w h a t they were 25
y e a r s ago and only slightly dif f e r e n t from w h a t they we r e 50 y ears
ag o . 9
Current trends in the teacher e d u c a t i o n c u r r i c u l u m are scattered
and disorganized.

Perhaps the m o s t easily identified is that of

P erformance Based Teacher E d u c ation (PBTE) w h i c h has res u l t e d p r i m arily
b ecause of pressure from students,

p a rent and community groups.

In the

late 1960's the USOE funded ten elemen t a r y e d u c a t i o n m o d e l s u t i l i z i n g
PBTE.^

Since that time,

teacher education as well.

the PBTE m o v e m e n t has exp a n d e d into secondary
Whether or not it will have long-range

effects on teacher education remains

to be seen.

viable alternative currently in practice.

Yet,

it represents one

Other alternatives will be

d i s cussed in a later portion of this chapter.

g
Jacob W. Getzels and Philip W. Jackson, "The Teacher's P e r s o n ­
ality and Characteristics," H a n d b o o k of R e s e a r c h on T e a c h i n g , ed. N. L.
Gage (Chicago:
Rand McNallyJ 1963), pp. 506-582.
9
Brottman,

p.

19.

^ J o e l B urdin and Kalipoee Lanzilloti, eds., A R e a d e r ' s G uide to
the Compre h e n s i v e Models for R e p a iri n g E l e m e n t a r y T e a c h e r s , ERIC
C l e aringhouse of Teacher E d u c ation and AACTE, ERIC D o c u m e n t E D 08 4 217,
September, 1969.

35

The Professional S e q u e n c e ;
Tradition and Options
The basic structure of almost all secondary e d u c a t i o n degree
programs is one of four years of academic instruction, w h i l e the student
studies a selected field in some depth,
diverse academic areas,
academic activities

a b r o a d e r range of other m o r e

and a f e w skill courses.'*''*'

This c o l l e c t i o n of

is to produce a liberally educated p e r s o n w i t h

special competence in a p articular aca d e m i c area.

The award of a

bachelor's degree u s u a l l y signifies c o m p l e t i o n of the process.

Swick

and Lamb succintly point out one of the dilemmas w i t h this process;
is,

that

that:
it should be pointed out that contact (i.e., student teaching)
wi thout previous k n o w ledge input, v a l u e c l a r i f i c a t i o n and d e v e l o p ­
ment, and a sequential i n troduc t i o n to the p r a c t i c u m setting can be
as useless as h aving been p r o vi d e d ad e q u a t e i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h o u t b e i n g
p rovided an arena for applying that i n f o r m a t i o n . 12
Because of segmentation in the A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n a l process,

students seldom,

if ever,

to "lengthen out."

get into stride.

Unive r s i t y teachers,

Th e y o f t e n are no t allowed

some argue,

appear to expe c t

students to be w h a t they haven't bee n g i v e n the time or the d i r e c t i o n
to become.

Bayley states that "this

is b l a t a n t fraud."

13

^ B a r t h o l o m e w , J. Ciampa, S e n s i t i z a t i o n Locus M o d e l for Teac h e r
Education:
A Proposal (Springvale, M a i n e : N a s s o n C o l l e g e , 1972), pp.

1-12.
12

K e v i n J. Swick and Morris L. Lamb, D e v e l o p m e n t of P o sitive
Racial Attitudes, Knowledges, and A c t i v i t i e s in P r e - S e r v i c e Social
Studies Teachers (Carbondale, Illinois:
So u t h e r n Illinois University,
College of Education, 1972), p. 4.
13

David H. Bayley, "The Empi t n e s s of C u r r i c u l u m R e f o r m , "
Journal of Higher Education, 28:594, October, 1972.

36

Yet, C onant presents a dif f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e in stating that "far
too m a n y students intending to become
sufficient academic prepar a t i o n . "

14

teachers enter college w i t h o u t
Thus,

selective c r i t e r i a and

strengthened p r e - u n i v e r s i t y experiences are encouraged.
Conant suggests

Once admitted,

that the p reparati o n of teachers ought to include a

three-stage process of student teaching,
comparable to that proposed by Austin.

induction,

15

The thesis that the u n d e r ­

graduate student is immature and i n experienced
that "foundation" activities

and in-service,

leads C o n a n t to conclude

(pre- professional orientation)

should occur

during the u n d e r g r a d u a t e courses beca u s e "only after e x p e r i e n c e as a
responsible teacher is a p erson in a p o s i t i o n to u n d e r s t a n d
cance of m u c h of the m a t erial

the s i g n i f i ­

that should be pr e s e n t e d in such (other,

. \
,,16
m s e r v i c e ) courses.
There are those who contend that m u c h of w h a t is a c c o m p l i s h e d
in the teacher p r e p a r a t i o n p r ofessi o n a l s e quence is r e d u n d a n t and n o n ­
co ntributory to the student's growth.

Th e y a d vocate a change in teacher

ed ucation curriculum d esign on this basis.

14

York:

James B ryant Conant, T h e E d u c a t i o n of A m e r i c a n Tea c h e r s
M cGraw-Hill B o o k Company^ 1964), pp. 251-252.

(New

^ M a r y C. Austin, "Evaluati n g the E f f e c t i v e n e s s of U n i v e r s i t y
Programs for Teacher Education" (paper pr e s e n t e d at the 47th International
R e a d i n g A s s o c i a t i o n W o r l d Congress on Reading, Vienna, Austria, A u g u s t
12-14, 1974).
(ERIC No. ED 095 499).
16

Conant, p. 256.

37

Combs,

17

for instance,

suggests

that a great deal of college

teaching violates the principle of " a ctive" learning;
passive endeavor for m o s t students.

that it beco m e s a

Bayley states that;

Curriculu m reform (in h igher education) is insubstantial, s u p e r ­
ficial, and so profoundly safe b e c a u s e it perpetuates rather than
overthrows the m o s t d eeply r oot e d a s s u m p t i o n in A m e r i c a n higher
education; namely, that e d u c ati o n consists pr i m a r i l y in p r o v i d i n g
young m e n and w o m e n w i t h knowledge.
L e a r n i n g is achieved, a c c o r d ­
ing to u n s poken dogma, by students' exposure to subject matter. . .
the search by faculties for the p e r f e c t and enduring c u r r i c u l u m is
like the search for the philoso p h e r ' s stone. . . .
The reality that teacher p r e p a r a t i o n is multi-dimensional,
therefore,

continuous is g i v e n as r a t i o n a l e in support of an integrated

professional sequence.

Renshaw

19

supports a teacher education p r o g r a m

described as an "ongoing continuum."
Combs

20

and

and Rogers

21

such as

have m a d e suggestions for substantial change in

teacher education curriculum,
learning.

Other n o t e d writers,

based on theories of both teaching and

Their suggestions have b e e n g e n e r a l l y w e l l - r e c e i v e d by the

education community and are reflected in the growing number of persons
who lend support to and have e stabl i s h e d vari o u s teacher ed u c a t i o n
alternatives.

These include the PBTE p r o g r a m noted earlier and the five

year program advocated by Schueler w ho argues that;

^ A . W. Combs, The P r o fessi o n a l Ed u c a t i o n of Teachers;
A
P e r cept-View of Teacher P r e p a r t i o n (Boston;
A l l y n and Bacon, 1965).

18

Bayley,

p. 592.

19

P. A. Renshaw, " A Flexibi l e C u r r i c u l u m for Teacher E d u c a t i o n , ”
The Education of Teachers in Britain, ed. D. E. L o m a x (London; Wiley,
1972).

20

_ ,

Combs

21
Merrill,

C. R. Rogers,
1969).

F r eedom to L e a r n (Columbus, Ohio;

Charles E.

38

if there is any rationale at all u n d e r l y i n g the f i v e -year training
requirement leading toward p e r m a n e n t ce r t i f i c a t i o n it is the
necessity for a coordinated continuous training that will build
teacher competence gradually through planned, coordinated, graded
experience and integrated study w i t h the help and s u p ervision of
p rofessionals.^2
Orlosky and Smith
education.

23

reviewe d various gover n a n c e m o dels

In a follow-through study Smith,

teacher education generally.

in high e r

C o h e n and Pearl reviewed

They concluded:

Education is beyond repair!
What is n e eded is radical reform.
This
reform is to include the n a t u r e of the schooling process, the systems
w h i c h control educational policy, and the institutions w h i c h p r e ­
pare persons to be teachers.24
These critics of teacher education concur that m a n y inadequacies and
failures in education generally rest in p a r t i c u l a r inadequacies and
failures

in teacher education.
Austin

25

reviewed ten m o d e l s for teacher p r e p a r a t i o n and

suggested that cybernetic principles of task analysis and instrument
analysis be used in evaluating teacher e d u c a t i o n programs.
in her suggestions was

Included

the need to e s t a b l i s h standards w h i c h novi c e

22

Herbert Schueler, T e acher Education:
A C o l l e c t i o n of F r a g ments
or a Unified Whole?
A Position P a p e r , U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of Health,
E d u c ation and Welfare, National Institute of Education, E R I C D o c u m e n t ED
092 517, February, 1974, p. 12.
23

Donald Orlosky and B. Othanel Smith, "Educational Change:
Its
Origins and Characteristics," Phi Delta K a p p a n , 53:412-414, March, 1972.
24

B. Othanel Smith, Saul B. C o h e n and A r t h u r Pearl, T e achers for
The Real W o r l d , Report of the N D E A N a tional Institute for A d v a n c e d Study
in T e a ching Disadvantaged Y o u t h (Washington, D.C.:
American Association
of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1969), p. 3.
25 Austin.
* ...

39

teachers would be expected to meet,

and the p r o v i s i o n that these standards

be communicated to the preservice programs.

R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s also i n c l u ­

ded the concept that the valid i t y of a teacher e d u c a t i o n pro g ra m is
determined by the p e rformance of teachers in the classroom.
Finally,

Camplese and Hale

26

p r o v i d e ano t h e r v i e w (that of the

PBTE proponent) emphas i z i n g the n e e d to improve the p r e s e r v i c e pro g r a m
by improving the students'
teaching.

They described

"perceptive"

skills prior to full-time

student teachers

trai n e d in a CBTE program

compared to student teachers trained in a traditional le c t u r e - d i s c u s s i o n
program.

Their analyses indicated that student teachers trained in CBTE

programs used more positive reinforcement,

less a v ersive stimuli and

evoked more student talk than did student teachers

trained in a t r a d i ­

tional program.
Both of these writers' m a t e r i a l s are w i t h i n the context of a
PBTE framework:

b o t h stressed the need for r e f o r m and e s t a b l ishment of

c r iteria and/or a lternative m e t hodol o g i e s

in s t r e n g t h e n i n g the teacher

e d u c ation program.
The Study C o m m i s s i o n on U n d e r g r a d u a t e E d u c a t i o n and the E d u c a ­
tion of Teachers recently published a s y m p o s i u m report.

The report

lends support to the criticisms of p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n and the fivey e a r approach,

and states

that:

T he professional aspect of training of t e achers needs to be centered
in the schools and controlled by them as a 'technical training'
comparable in some ways to industrial training.
The role of h i gher
e d u c ation in the education of teachers should be to pro v i d e a good

26

Donald A. Camplese and R ob e r t E. Hale, A s s e s s i n g the E f f e c ­
tiveness of a M a s t e r y Teacher E d u c at i o n P r o g r a m , U.S., Educational
R e s e a r c h Information Center, ERIC D o c u m e n t E D 0 95 503, January, 1975.

40

general or liberal education in the first three years o f college.
School-based professional training should be offered in the f o u r t h
and possibly fifth y e a r s . 27
Cl a r k and M a r k e r

28

report that there are several c o n t i n u i n g flaws

in the i nstitution of teacher education.
in their estimation,

These flaws impede change,

and to ignore them encourages p e r p e t u a t i o n of

mediocrity in the field.

Thus,

there are p roponents who a ctively support

the thesis that b o t h pre-and in-service r e s p o n s i b i l i t y should be vested
in local e d u c ation agencies,

rather than in the u n i v e r s i t y setting.

Faxon and others repo-rted on a proposed t e a c h e r - c e n t e r to be
utilized for b o t h pre- and inservxce education,

P r o j e c t CREATE.

29

The

project would be jointly administered by the local e d u c a t i o n a g ency and
u niversity personnel.

The Collaborative Resources for E d u cational

Alternatives for Teacher Education p l a n contains c omponents
other such plans;

that is,

common to

a teacher center w h i c h w o u l d a c t i v e l y develop

professional programs w h i c h span a wide variety of p r e s e r v i c e and p r a c ­
ticing teacher's needs.

Evaluation procedures for the attain m e n t of each

objective for the center were identified.

27

Study C o m m i s s i o n on Under g r a d u a t e E d u c a t i o n and the E d u c ation
of Teachers, E d u c a t i o n for 1984 and After:
A S y m posium of Deans of
Ed ucation and Leaders in Institutions Educating T e a c h e r s , eds., Paul
A. Olsen, L arry F r e e m a n and James B o wman (Lincoln, Nebraska:
The
Commission, 1971), p. 232.
28

David L. C l a r k and Gerald W. Marker, T he I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n
of Teacher E d u c a t i o n , Teacher Education F o r u m Series, Vol. 2, No. 19
(Washington, D.C.:
Department of H e a l t h E d u c a t i o n and Welfare, Offi c e
of Education, Bureau of Educational Personnel D e v e l o p m e n t and Indiana
University, 1974).
29

Donna D. F a x o n and others, C o llaborative R e s o u r c e s for
Educational A l t e r n a t i v e s for Teacher E d u c a t i o n (CREATE). (Gainesville,
Florida:
A l a c h u a C o u n t y Schools and F l o r i d a University, C o l l e g e of
Education, August, 1974).
(ERIC No. ED 096 308).

41

O ther w r iters support the thesis that continued efforts should
be made to improve upon the existin g teacher e d u c ation f u n c t i o n w i t h i n
the more traditional university setting..
In most instances educational change is and has be e n a continual,
cumbersome process.

Contri b u t i n g factors include various gpvernance

models in higher education,

the organi z a t i o n a l pl a c e m e n t of teacher

education in the college or univers i t y as an u n d e r g r a d u a t e program,

and

the power relationships of critics and reformers.

Summary of Teacher Education
Teacher e d u c ation in m o s t institutions follows the academic
tradition of non-professional h ighe r education;
of undergraduate and graduate programs.

that is,

a separ a t i o n

This is not n e c e s s a r i l y in the

best interests of the preservice student, ma n y contend.
This contention is the r esul t of m a n y c o n f l i c t i n g forces.
primary source appears to be in

The

the p l a c ement and the f r a g m e n t a t i o n of

the teacher education curriculum as it relates to the d e v e l o p m e n t of the
prospective teacher.

The student's devel o p m e n t m a y be cha r a c t e r i z e d as

fragmented in the same m a n n e r as are the courses w i t h i n the prof e s s i o n a l
sequence in the traditional program.

T h a t is,

to the degr e e that courses

remain separate and distinct specialized interests of the mentors,
student perceives a fragmented p r ofe s s i o n a l attitude.

the

Schueler suggests

that "a sequential teacher education p r o g r a m should n ot be the sum but
the product of its parts, but w i t h each element n o t added to b u t integrated into the w h ole."

30

Schueler,

p.

30

11.

42

To that end Bayley suggests that w h e n the course r e s h u f f l i n g
charade is ended,

reform in colleges and u n i v ersities will place

strenuous demands on teaching staffs;
differently in several respects,

that they would need to p e r f o r m

including no longer "giving" courses,

but rather creating courses in relat i o n to the field of inquiry and the
individual student capacities.

31

T h rough r estructing of courses and curriculum,
begin to be seen as learning a craft.
practice improves one's skill.
strate proficiency,

Thus,

as is true of all crafts,

Prac t i c e is u n d e r t a k e n not to d e m o n ­

b u t to show what needs

Given such an attitude,

e d u c a t i o n would

to be done in o rder to improve.

it is possib l e to no longer think in terms of a

capstone "practice teaching" experience.
p reservice program w h i c h incorporates

Instead,

one can d e v e l o p a

the best of learning / t e a c h i n g

theory by providing continuous opportunities for "practice e x p e r i e n c e . "

Student Teaching
Combs views learning as an active process,
to invest personal commitment.

r e q u i r i n g the learner

One w a y to assist the a s piring teacher in

d i scovering m e aning for w h a t he learns in the c l a s sroom is to p a r t i c i p a t e
in field experiences.
means a one-semester

In m o s t teacher ed u c a t i o n programs

this o f t e n

trial r u n "student teaching" experience.

Combs

suggests that "an i nfinitely m o r e ef f e ctive app r o a c h is to b e c o m e involved
in on-going field experiences

31

Bayley, pp.

596-600.

that span the entire p r o f e ssional pro-!'

32

Combs,

p. 57.

43

Schueler supports the thesis of broad level field experience by
taking the position that "theory and p r a c t i c e should be academically
separate, but integrated p a r ticularl y in the re a l i s t i c setting of schools,
pupils,

comrnunities."

33

The field e x p eriences

should be pursued inten­

sively, w i t h a m i n i m u m of the equiva l e n t of two semesters,

according to

Schueler.
The F o r ty-Seventh Y e a r b o o k of the A s s o c i a t i o n for Student
T e a ching states that " . . .

since g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s g r o w from a series of

e xperiences rather than the other w a y around,

teacher ed u c a t i o n should

apply such sound principles of learning theory to its own preparation.
. ."

34

.

The statement supports the Combs and Schueler positions and

suggest it is reasonable to include the d e v e l o p m e n t of attitudes and
wi d er opportunities for practice in and i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the "real
w o r l d of teaching" in a teacher e d u c a t i o n program.
There has been little,

if any i n n o v a t i o n in teacher education,

p a r ticularly w h e n taken from the per s p e c t i v e of experiential components.
Studies of the relative m e r i t of the student teaching experience indicate
that f e w factors contributing to the d e v e l o p m e n t of skillful teachers are
m o r e important than first-hand contacts w i t h y o u n g people.

These con­

tacts are provided by the student teaching e xperience in teacher education programs.

35

■^Schueler,

p.

18.

34
_________ , Internships in T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n , Fo r t y - S e v e n t h
Y e a r b o o k of the Association for Stud e n t T e a c h i n g (Washington, D.C.:
A s s o c i a t i o n for Student Teaching, 1968), p. 41.
35

F lorence B. Stratemeyer and M a r g a r e t Lindsey, W o r k i n g w i t h
Student Teachers (New York:
Teachers College Press, 1958), p. V.

The

44

D e a n George E. Dickson,

College of Education,

T h e U n i v e r s i t y of

Toledo, writes in the Foreward to the 1967 E d u c a t i o n C o m m e n t :

On

Student T e a c h i n g , "Friends and critics of teacher e d u c a t i o n are for it
(student teaching) and consider it e s s e ntial to any r e s p e c t a b l e teacher
e d ucation program.

..36

One of the primary objectives of a teacher ed u c a t i o n p r o g r a m is
to foster positive teacher-pupil attitudes among the p r o s p e c t i v e teachers.
While studies such as that of Hart
accomplished successfully,

37

indicate that such objectives can be

some evidence indicates that the success of

the student teaching experience m a y be questionable.

Silberman

38

points

out in Crisis in the Classroom that:
A l t h o u g h student teaching is gen e r a l l y cited as the mo s t val u a b l e
aspect of professional education, these beliefs do n o t p r o v i d e a
basis for complacency.
In fact, student teaching, in some respects,
m a y be doing m o r e harm than good.
Peck and T ucker noted in the Second H a n d b o o k of R e s e a r c h on Te a c h i n g
"There is ample and impressive testimony that student tea c h i n g tends

to

be the m o s t practical and useful p a r t of p r e s e r v i c e e d u c a t i o n in the
m inds of prospective teachers."

36
(Toledo,

39

George E. Dickson, Educati o n Comment:
Ohio:
The U n i v e r s i t y of Toledo, 1967),

On Student T e a c h i n g
p. 4.

37

J. E. Hart, "Attitudinal Change in P r e - S e r v i c e T e a c h e r E d u c a ­
tion" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Ball State University, 1968).
38

Charles E. Silberman,
Vintage Books, 1971), p. 451.

Crisis in the C l a s s r o o m

(New York:

I
39

R o bert F. P e c k and James A Tucker, "R e s e a r c h on Teac h e r
Education," Second H a n d b o o k of Resea r c h on T e a c h i n g , ed. R o b e r t M. W.
Travers (Chicago:
R a n d McNally, Co., 1973), p. 967.

45

Thus, w h i l e students v i e w the student teaching exper i e n c e as a
valuable component of the preser v i c e program,
value.

other writ e r s q u e s t i o n its

On the one hand its value goes a l m o s t u n challenged:

"Student

teaching is almost univer s a l l y accepted as the m o s t dynamic phase of
teacher e d u c a t i o n . " ^

Yet,

little is k n o w n of the total influence the

c ooperating teacher exerts u p o n the stu d e n t teacher.
teacher, whom m o s t agree
the attitudes,

is

the greatest o n e

The cooperating

influence in shaping

skills and ideas of a p r o s p e c t i v e teacher,

"is the one

factor in the teacher e d u c ation p r o g r a m least likely to be under the
influence or control of the teache r - t r a i n i n g i n s t itutions."

41

Experi­

ence does appear to indicate the c o o p e r a t i n g teacher has m o r e influence
on the student teacher than do the e d u c a t i o n profe s s o r s w i t h w h o m he
has studied.
Hicks

42

apparently have

and Price
greatest

43

support the thesis that cooperating teachers

impact on student teachers'

attitudes and

40

National E d u c ation A s s o c i a t i o n C o m m i s s i o n of T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n
and Professional Standards, Who's in Char g e Here?
Fixing R e s p o n s i b i l i ­
ties for Student Teaching, D i s c u s s i o n P a p e r (Washington, D.C.:
The
Commission, 1966), p. 1.
41

_________ , R e p o r t of the C l a s s r o o m T e a c h e r Nat i o n a l Study
C onference on the Role of the C l a s sr o o m Teac h e r in the Student Tea c h i n g
Program (Washington, D.C.:
National E d u c a t i o n Association, 1970), pp.

1 -2 .

^2
E. Perry Hicks, "Changing the R o l e of the C o o p e r a t i n g Teacher,"
Journal of T e acher E d u c a t i o n , 20:153-157, Summer, 1969.
43

R o b e r t David Price, "Relations B e t w e e n C o o p e r a t i n g Teachers'
and Student Teachers' Attitudes and P e r f o r m a n c e , ” D is s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s ,
31:2615, February, 1961.

behaviors.

McEwin,

^

45
Mortenson,

and Uc h i y o m a and L i n d g r e n

46

reported

study results indicating that student teachers attitudes m o s t often
change in the d i r e c t i o n of their cooperating teachers'
teaching and students.

a t t i t u d e toward

They found that verbal b e h a v i o r in the classroom

and degrees of openness/closedness m o v e d in the same d i r e c t i o n as the
supervising teachers'
more negative.

attitudes, whether they b e c a m e m o r e p o s i t i v e or

G i v e n this information,

e d u c a t i o n meth o d s courses have

encouraged potential teachers to hold positive attitudes
and teaching,

toward students

to be democ r a t i c in the conduct of c l a s sroom interaction,

and to be open-minded and flexible in i n t e ractions with students.
R e search evidence indicates that such attitudes a nd p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c ­
teristics have a positive, effect on p u p i l - t e a c h e r relationships.
Ultimately they affect the achievement and a t t i t u d e s of students.
influence of the preservice

The

program meth o d s courses on p o s i t i v e attitudes

and openness appears to be altered by the student teaching experience.
Gage concluded after reviewing previous

studies d e a l i n g w i t h

the traditional teacher education sequence and p a r t i c u l a r l y the student
teaching experiences that:

44

Tom McEwin, "Attitudinal Change of S t udents D u r i n g Methods
Courses and Student Teach i n g , " Dissertation A b s t r a c t s , 29:169-170,
October, 1968.
^ R o b e r t A l bert Mortenson, "Student T e a c h e r A t t i t u d i n a l Changes,"
D i ssertation A b s t r a c t s , 31:5912, April, 1971.
46

Andy U c h i y o m a and Henry Clay Lindgren, "Ideal T e a c h e r Concepts;
Attitude Shift After Practice Teaching," Ps y c h o l o g i c a l R e p o r t s , 28:470,
May, 1971.

47

. . . the teachers became less concerned w i t h pupil f r e e d o m and
more concerned w i t h establishi n g a stable, orderly classroom. . . .
(This) change was accompanied by a decline in the ten d e n c y to
attribute pupil m i s b e h a v i o r to the teacher or the s c h o o l . ^
His statement provides

support for propo n e n t s

integrated p r o fessional course (i.e.,

cal l i n g for an

Combs) r a t h e r than a compart-

mentalized approach to teacher education.

M a c D o n a l d and Zaret

48

researched the e f f ectiveness of the student teaching e x p erience.
conclusions cast doubt o n the adequacy of current,

Their

typical stud e n t t e a c h ­

ing programs.
Wilbur and G o o d i n g

49

studied attitude changes as a f u n c t i o n of

type(s) of student teaching experiences.

The study w as d e s i g n e d to

determine w h e t h e r changes in p e rce p t i o n s of self,

students,

role did occur, w h a t k i n d s of p erc e p t u a l changes took place,

or teaching
and w h e t h e r

certain patterns of student teaching relate to p a r t i c u l a r p e r c e p t u a l
changes.

The d i s c u s s i o n of their study stated

that:

Beyond confirming the m a j o r i t y of findings showing a s t r e n g t h e n i n g
of attitudes of discipline and teacher au t h o r i t y in the classroom,
this r e s e a r c h suggests that calls for r e f o r m in teacher e d u c a t i o n
programs h a v e been well founded,
and that "the combined w e i g h t of n e g a t i v e evi d e n c e is b e c o m i n g too

51
great to ignore."

W. W. Charters, Jr., "The Social B a c k g r o u n d of T e a ching, H a n d ­
b o o k of R e s e a r c h on T e a c h i n g , ed. N. L. Gage (Chicago:
R a n d McNally,
Company, 1963), pp. 750-75'lT
48

J. B. M a c D o n a l d and E. Zaret, "Student Teaching:
B e n e f i t or
Burden," Journal of T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n , 22:51-58, June, 1973.
49

Paul H. W i lbur and C. Thomas Gooding, "Attitude C h a n g e s in
Student Teachdrs as a F u n ction of Type of Student T e a c h i n g E x p e r i e n c e "
(paper p r e s e n t e d at the A m e rican Educational R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t i o n C o n ­
vention, N e w Orleans, Louisiana, M a r c h 1, 1973), pp. 1-7.

50

Wi l b u r and Gooding,

p.

6.

51

W i l b u r and Gooding,

p. 7.

48

Swick and Lamb,

52

Butts,

53

Ulibarri,

gated m o d e l teacher training programs.
p reservice and/or inservice programs,
centered experiences

54

and others have i n v e s t i ­

Their studies,

deal i n g w i t h the

em p h a s i z e the n e e d for attitude-

in teacher development.

C i a m p a suggests that in

any teacher e d u c a t i o n model our c o n c e r n should be d i r e c t l y w i t h the
"effects that teachers
There are n u m erous

thus trained w i l l have u p o n their students."

studies supporti n g this concern,

55

in c l u d i n g Rose n t h a l " ^

and Henrickson"^ each of w h o m conducted studies v e r i f y i n g that teacher
attitudes can b e direc t l y related to a child's
school.

success or failure in

To the extent that the teacher's n e g a t i v e at t i t u d e affects the

student and his achievement,

it is n e c e s s a r y

to ide n t i f y cont r i b u t i n g

elements in the d evelopment of the teacher's attitude.
teacher e d u c ation sequence,

Ideally,

the

including the p r a c t i c e t e a c h i n g component,

should contribute in a p o s itive m a n n e r

to the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and m o d i f i ­

cation of negat i v e attitudes h e l d by the p r e s e r v i c e teacher.

52

Swick and Lamb.

53

Donald P. Butts, Francis Howell Tea c h e r s Speak, A n E v a l u a t i o n
of Issues for E xperienced T e a c h e r s , R e p o r t Series No. 79 (Austin, Texas:
Texas University, R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r for T e a c h e r Education,
1972).
54

John E. Ulibarri, " D e v e l o p i n g P o s i t i v e A t t i t u d e s A m o n g Ogden
Ci ty School D i s trict Personnel Towa r d M i n o r i t i e s ( u n p u blished Ed.S.
Thesis, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, 1973).
55

Ciampa, p.

2.

56

R o bert Rosenthal, "Self- f u l f i l l i n g P r o p h e c y , " P s y c h o l o g y
T o d a y , 2:44-52, September, 1968.
57

H.
A. Henrickson, "Role of T e a c h e r A t t i t u d e in E d u c a t i o n of the
D i s advantaged Child," Educat i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p , 28:425-429, January,
1971.

49

That a teacher's

self-perception,

of central concern is supported by Combs'

and,

thus,

ro l e p e r c e p t i o n is

thesis that good teachers

feel b a s i c a l l y adequate rather than inadequate,

58

and G a r r i s o n w ho

concluded that "it is the older, m o r e expe r i e n c e d teacher w h o views
the teacher's role as that of one who is seen and n ot h e a r d . "

59

Whether

or not the student teaching experi e n c e functions to e n h a n c e s e l f - p e r ­
ception,

positive attitude,

Resea r c h evidence suggests

and role c l a r i f i c a t i o n has b e e n questioned.
that these functions do not, in fact

occur

and that there is c o n crete rationale suppo r t i n g a change in the t r a d i ­
tional student teaching program.
A l t h o u g h m u c h has b e e n w r i t t e n about teacher r o l e s
and Travers*^ and B i ddle and Thomas^'*'),

(i.e., W a l l e n

studies c e n t ering on the r e l a ­

tionship b e t w e e n the student's pr o f e ssional e d u c a t i o n and the po t e n t i a l
inservice roles h a v e b e e n limited.

We s t w o o d

62

suggests

that teacher

training should p r o v i d e a timeframe in w h i c h students d e v e l o p their

58
59
(Portland,

Combs,

pp.

88-89.

Jesse Garrison, Self Concept and Teaching:
An Exploration
Oregon:
N o r t h w e s t Regi o n a l E d u c a t i o n Laboratory, 1968), p. 8.

60

N. E. W a l l e n and R. M. W. Travers, "Analysis and I n v e s t i g a t i o n
of Teaching M e t h o d s , " H a n d b o o k of R e s e a r c h on T e a c h i n g , ed. N. L. Gage
(Chicago:
Rand McNally, 1963), pp. 448-505.
61

B. J. B iddle and E. J. Thomas, Role Theory:
R e s earch (New York:
Wiley, 1966).
62

Concepts

and

L. J. Westwood, "The Rol e of the T e a c h e r I," E d u c a t i o n a l
Research, 9:122-134, September, 1967a; see also L. J. W e s t wood, "The
Role of the Teacher, II," Educational Research, 10:21-37, October,
1967b.

50

concept of the m a t u r e teacher's behavior.

Grace

63

studied the changing

role of the teacher and concluded that beca u s e of n e e d e d role changes
teacher education institutions ought to p r o v i d e greater i n f o r m a t i o n to
potential teachers.

Self-Concept
Studies b y
specific classroom

6 4-

Passmore

and other investigators have shown that

behavior of teachers (or studied teachers) are p r e ­

dictable from their self-concepts.

T e achers w i t h better,

or "normal",

self-concepts tend to receive h igh e r ratings on classroom p e r f o r m a n c e
from students and supervisors than do teachers w i t h deviant s e l f - concept
scores.

Fitts^

concluded that such findings m i g h t be e x pected and

that individuals w h o hold a " reali s t i c " self-picture ge n e r a l l y f u n c t i o n
better in any vocation,
that "there is, as yet,
hold

teaching or other.
little evidence

W i l s o n cautions,

however,

that teachers as a group m a y

self-concepts that are identi f i a b l y d i f f e r e n t from self-concepts

of non-teachers."

63

66

G. R. Grace, "The C h a n g i n g R o l e of the Teacher:
for Recruitment," E d u c a t i o n for T e a c h i n g , 72:51-58, July,

Implications
1967.

^^W. S. J. Passmore, "An Investi g a t i o n of R e l a t i o n s h i p of Self
C oncept and Selected Personal Chara c t e r i s t i c s of Student Tea c h e r s to
Success in Student Teaching" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, N o r t h
Texas State University, 1970).
^ H . W. Fitts, Manual for the Te n n e s s e e Self-Concept Scale
(Nashville, T e n n . : Counselor Reco r d i n g s and Tests, 1965).
^ J o h n A. Wilson, Self C o n c e p t and P e r f o r m a n c e in Student
Teaching, U.S., Educational Resour c e s I n f ormation Center, E R I C Doc u m e n t
ED 976 591, March, 1973, p. 7.

51

Wilson's study, which spanned a four-year p e riod and scored both
teachers and n o n -teachers concluded that "Students w ho have c h o s e n to be
teachers are m o r e consistent and less conflicted in their v i e w of self,
or s h o w less general m a l a d j u s t m e n t and ne u r o t i c tendencies than do nonteachers."^
teachers m oved

Scores for teachers remained r e l a t i v e l y stable; n o n ­
in a negative d i r e ct i o n and changes o ccuring in the self-

concept of the teaching group were in a positive direction.
The common thread in m a t e ri a l s reviewed and studies r e p o r t e d is
that of the need for reform,

the re s u l t a n t obvious

(well-publicized)

p r ogrammatic changes in the teacher e d u c a t i o n process,

and the c o n t i n u ­

ing demand for greater efforts at u n t a n g l i n g c o n flicting priorities.
The traditional preservice

p r ogram i n c luding student teaching,

appears

not to have successfully prepared teachers for the real w o r l d of t e a c h ­
ing.

Other options currently in use atte m p t to r e medy that s i t u a t i o n

by m o r e clearly identifying the "co m p e t e n c ie s " and acco m p a n y i n g experiences
n e eded to become an effective teacher.

Various strategies have b e e n

identified and reported.
A wide v a riety of information exists on the student te a c h i n g and
p ost-teaching experience,
preservice program.

the m o s t often - u s e d m e a s u r e of a successful

A p u r v i e w of these studies pr o v i d e s

some additional

insights into the rationale support i n g d e v elopment of a l ternative teacher
ed ucation experiences.

^Wilson, p. 9.

52

Con temporary Criticisms of T e acher
Ed u cation as Rationale for Change
In 1970 D e n e m a r k asked the q u e s t i o n "What are the w e a k n e s s e s

in

the education of A m e r i c a n teachers w h i c h demand b asic reform or t h r e a t e n
revolution?"
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1 .

The responses p r o p o s e d were:

Inadequacies and irrelevance of m u c h that p r e sently constitutes
the general studies or liberal ed u c a t i o n component.
The hostile academic a tmosph e r e in w h i c h teacher education is
conducted.
Lack of conceptual framework s for teacher education.
Simplistic v i e w of teaching and teacher education.
Inadequate interfacing of theo r e t i c a l and practical study.
Continued acceptance of the single model, omnicapable teacher
L o w selection and r e t e n t i o n standards for teacher candidates.
Schedule rigidities and cumb e r s o m e p rocedures for c urriculum
change.
Absence of student opport u n i t i e s for e x p l o r a t i o n and inquiry.
Schizophrenic role e x pectati o n s for teacher education d e p a r t ­
ments. ^8
His analysis

is supported fr o m vari o u s quarters and is typical

of the variety of criticisms of teacher ed u c a t i o n generally;
these criticisms are discussed

some of

in latter portions of this chapter in

greater detail.
Questionnaires were sent to the

1972 graduates of the U n i v e r s i t y

of W i s c o n s i n School of E d u c a t i o n as pa r t of a follow-up study.
attempted to determine w h a t teaching competencies
they needed in the performance of their job.

The

study

the respondents felt

Respo n d e n t s w e r e asked to

identify w h i c h topics or competencie s w e r e not adequately covered in
their preservice preparation.

Items f a l l i n g into the category "nece s s a r y

for teachers but not adequately taught in p r e p a r a t i o n program" included:
1.
2.

m e thods of dealing w i t h the e m o t i o n a l l y disturbed
methods of dealing w i t h learning problems.

68

George W. Denemark, "Teac h e r Education:
Repair, R e f o r m or
R e v o lution" Editorial, E ducational L e a d e r s h i p , 26:1-2, March, 1970.

53

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

diagnosis of learning abilities.
m e t h o d s of dealing w i t h the m i l d l y retarded.
the u s e of m e d i a and instru c t i o n a l equipment in the classroom.
the supervision of a classr o o m aide.
involvement in s c h o o l - commu n i t y relations.
conferences w i t h p a r e n t s . 6 9
Studies such as the W i s c o n s o n e f f o r t clearly i dentify areas for

p r a ctice opportunities and potential m o d i f i c a t i o n of the teacher education
p r eser v i c e program.
of the program,

In addition,

they r e p r e s e n t one form of evaluation

ex post facto.

The U niversity of M i n n e s o t a ^
m a j o r i n g in elementary education.

i n v e s t i g a t e d g r aduate students

T he pur p o s e of the study wa s to test

the v i a b i l i t y of u t i l izing a career ty p o l o g y as a m e t h o d to evaluate
teacher e d u c a t i o n programs.

T h e y co n c l u d e d that the app r o a c h was viable,

a l t hough the program was oriented to serve a single group of educators
and tended to be less receptive to o t h e r groups of educators utilizing
the p r o g r a m to further their career d e v e l opment.

Studies such as this

indicate that efforts are being m a d e to m o r e clearly define the career
c hoices of students as they relate
sity setting.

to p r o g r a m devel o p m e n t in the u n i v e r ­

Career d evelopment rema i n s q uite another realm.

R e s e a r c h in the area of p r e s e r v i c e student wast a g e
of career development) has b e e n accomplished.

(one facet

Desp i t e this research

69

M a r t i n Haberman, What Tea c h e r s W i s h Th e y Had Been T a u g h t :
A Follow-up Study of Graduates of the School of E d u c a t i o n , U.S.,
E d u ca t i o n a l Resources Information Center, ERIC Doc u m e n t ED 096 305,
April, 1974.
^ J e r o m e C. Harste, P r o g r a m E v a l u a t i o n in Teacher E d u c a t i o n ,
T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n Forum Series, Vol. 1 No. 4 (Bloomington, Indiana;
Ind iana University, School of Education, April, 1973).
(ERIC No. ED
096 263).

54

effort, university w a stage rates r e m a i n constant at around 13 percent,
while the colleges of education u s u a l l y are around 10 percent.
pointed out in his report o n student loss that,
international comparisons,

Heywood

71

u n f o r t u n a t e l y from

the grea t e r the p r o p o r t i o n of an age group

that a country has in higher education,

the g r e a t e r the a t t r i t i o n rate.

The United States is given as a prime example in which approximately
half of the students fail to complete their college courses.
Malleson

72

concluded that the wastage in e conomic terms is great.

In terms of human unhappiness it is also probably considerable.
we consider that m o s t students are in the prime of life,
standards of physical and m ental health,
to be wide opportunities,

When

enjoy h i g h

and that they have wh a t appear

it seems s urprising that studies of the

problems that they face have proved to be necessary.

As part of a study designed to examine the relationships between
personality,
Entwistle

73

study methods

and academic performance,

a d m inistered a questionn a i r e r e l a t i n g

E n t w istle and

to academic m o t i v a t i o n

to 139 university students and 118 college students.

Their analysis of

the d a t a suggested that tests of personality, m o t i v a t i o n and study
methods might be used

in guidance efforts in attem p t i n g to reduce student

losses.

^ J . A. Heywood, " A Report on Student W a s t a g e , " U n i v e r s i t y
Q u a r t e r l y , 25:189-237, May, 1971.
72

N. B. Malleson,
59-68, May, 1963.
73

" Must Students Be Wasted,

N e w S o c i e t y , 32:

N. J. Entwistle and D. Entwistle, "The R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n
Personality, Study Methods and Academic P e r f o r m a n c e , " B r i t i s h Journal
of Educational P s y c h o l o g y , 40:131-132, March, 1970.

55

E x p l a n a t i o n of student losses r e p r e s e n t e d by large numb e r s who
do n o t choose to remain in teacher p r e p a r a t i o n may,
by several other related phenomena.

in part,

be explained

Crit i c s of teacher ed u c a t i o n p r o ­

grams focus on the lack of "relevan c e of p r e s e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l training
to the daily w o r k of teachers."
and M u s s e r , ^

74

Larrimore, M u s s e r and Sagan,

and Labrecque and R a v i t z , ^

75

Cole

in r e p o r t i n g on the d e v e l o p ­

m e n t of an experimental p r o g r a m at the U n i v e r s i t y of K e n t u c k y support
this criticism as a basic tenet leading to the d e v e l o p m e n t of an
al ternative program.

Larrimore, M u s s e r and S a g a n

78

state that "The

p r o gram d evelopers felt teachers should be m o r e p r a c t i c a l l y oriented or
real-world oriented."

They continue that they "felt teachers

m o r e flexible and less judgmental

should be

and attu n e d to a wi d e r a n g e of

74

K e v i n A. Ryan, A P l a n for a N e w Type of P r o f e s s i o n a l Tra i n i n g
for a N e w Type of T e a ching S t a f f , The T e a c h e r and His Staff-Occ a s i o n a l
Papers, No. 2 (Washington, D.C.:
NCTEPS, N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n Association,
February, 1968), p. 1.
75

David L. Larrimore, L ouis e S. Musser, and E dgar L. Sagan,
"Personality, Attitude, P r o fessiona l K n o w l e d g e of T eachers in E x p e r i ­
ential and Conventional Prepar a t o r y P r o g r a m s " (paper p r e s e n t e d at the
A n nual M e e t i n g of the A m e r i c a n Educ a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h Association, N e w
Orleans, Louisiana, February 28, 1973).
76

Henry P. Cole and L ouise S. Musser, "Field A c t i v i t i e s Selected
by Preser v i c e Teachers in T radition a l and Exp e r i m e n t a l P r o g r a m s " (paper
p r e sented at the Annual M e e t i n g of the A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h
Association, N e w Orleans, Louisiana, F e b r u a r y 28, 1973).
77

Richard Labrecque and Leon a r d Ravitz, N o v a R a t i o Studiorum:
The Teacher as Enterpreneur" (paper p r e s e n t e d at the Annu a l M e e t i n g of
the A m e r i c a n Educational R e s e a r c h Association, N e w Orleans, Louisiana,
F e b ruary 28, 1973).

78

Larrimore, M usser and Sagan, p.

1.

56

differences in values and life styles," and finally,

that "teachers

should be m o r e child-centered, more sensitive to c h i l d r e n and their
needs,

and less content-centered."
Andrews

80

79

theorized that an i ncreasing n u m b e r of d i rect e x p e r i ­

ences must be incorporated into the professional ed u c a t i o n sequence of
teacher education.

Such emphasis is nec e ss i t a t e d by the grow i n g c o m ­

plexity of p r e p aring teachers to f u n c t i o n effe c t i v e l y
roles and contexts.

Student teaching experiences,

are both too limited and too late.

Mills states

in a variety of

it is hypothesized,

that:

The inability of students to transfer theory into pra c t i c e w i t h o u t
opportunities to act in real situations and r e f l e c t u p o n the c o n ­
sequences of those a c t i o n s
in other words to r e s t r u c t u r e experience---is a common p r oblem recog n i z e d bo t h by teacher e d u cators and
by teacher e d u c a t i o n students.81
It is p o s sible

to quantify and state w h a t appear to be the

qualities of a good teacher after he has had a chance
ional status.

The crux of the issue,

however,

to gain p r o f e s s ­

is to d e s i g n p r ograms

w h i c h a l l o w for the r e c o g n i t i o n of competence and eff e c t i v e n e s s p o t ential
early enough in a teacher candidate's u n dergraduate ac a d e m i c training to
a l l o w for q ualitative changes.

Larrimore, M u s s e r and Sagan,

p. 2.

80

L. 0. Andrews, " A Curric u l u m to Procure C a r e e r Teachers for
the 1980's," T h e o r y Into P r a c t i c e , 6:236-245, December, 1967; see also
B. Othanel Smith, Saul B. Cohen and A r thur Pearl.
81

P a t r i c i a Mills, In Defens e of the Practical:
An Evaluation
of Effects and R e l a t i o n s h i p s in One C o m ponent of a T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n
Program, R eport of an E v a l u a t i o n Study of the Met h o d s E x p e r i e n c e Proj e c t
(MEP) (Bowling Green, O h i o : B o w l i n g G r e e n State University, 1972),
p. 3.

57

Super and Crites
teaching.

82

r eport that there are tests of a p titude for

These are designed to improve the selection of students of

e d ucation and have b e e n developed b y the N e w Y o r k State D e p a r t m e n t of
E d ucation and the Psycho l o g i c a l Service Cent e r of George W a s h i n g t o n
University.

C u stom-built tests of so-called teaching aptitude ha v e also

be en developed and published by the U n i v e r s i t y of W i s c o n s i n and the
U n iversity of C a l i f o r n i a at Los Angeles.

These two institutions ha v e

developed batteries of standard tests in a t t e m p t i n g to s t r e n g t h e n their
preservice program selection procedures.
m e thod of assisting students

Beyond formal testing,

another

to m a k e early career d e c isions is to provide

e x periences w h i c h stress p r a c t i c u m and other experiential invo l v e m e n t of
potential teachers w i t h the c h i ldre n they w i l l teach.

The b u r d e n for

such activities w o u l d be on the pre s e r v i c e teachers and would,
place professors of teacher e d u c a t i o n in the forefront,
the opportunity to have g r eater impact on the preservice
to his student teaching experience.
p o sition taken by Combs,

Conant,

therefore,

p r o v i d i n g them
student p rior

This w o u l d be c onsistent w i t h the

and others p r e v i o u s l y noted;

it w o u l d

provide a vehicle through w h i c h p o s s i b l e reported neg a t i v e results of
the student teaching experience m i g h t be avoided.

A L T E R N A T I V E T E A C H E R E D U C A T I O N PROGRAMS

Bell reviewed

secondary school science teacher e d u c a t i o n in an

attempt to determine w h a t d i r e c t i o n it was

82

taking.

He concluded that:

Donald E. Super and John 0. Crites, A p p r a i s i n g Vocati o n a l
Fitness by Means or Psycho l o g i c a l Tests (N e w York:
Harper A R o w
Publishers, 1962), p. 371.

58

. . . students e n t e r i n g teaching are o f t e n n o t committed to the
profes s i o n until after student teaching, after w h i c h large num b e r s
drop out at least temporarily.
If students could be charged wi t h
the responsibility of p r o v i d i n g their o w n relevance, their o wn early
field experience and genera t i n g some of. t h e i r own training to enhance
their capabilities, those that a ccepted the challenge could pro v i d e
the m o m e m t u m n e c e s s a r y to provi d e the level of c o m p e t i t i o n n e c e s s a r y
to m a k e an impact nationally. . . . The needs for the 1970's and
1980's are for science teacher p r e p a r a t i o n p r ograms w h i c h turn out
professionals w h o are b o t h h igh l y trained . . . and h i g h l y skilled
in the pedagogical s c i e n c e s . 83
This is the intent of m o s t a l t e r n a t i v e teacher e d u c a t i o n p rograms
generally.

Some of these will b e d e s cribed briefly.

In addition to the two p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d alternative appro a c h e s
to preservice teacher e d u c a t i o n (PBTE and teacher centers),

other a l t e r n a ­

tive programs are conducted in vari o u s parts of the U n ited States.
components,

character,

The

and p u rpose of these p r ograms d i ffer somewhat from

the Secondary E d u c a t i o n Pilot P r ogr a m at M i c h i g a n State University.

A

r e v i e w of some of these programs is p r o v i d e d in this p o r t i o n of the
literature,

in addition to specific i n f o r m a t i o n on SEPP.

Trueblood p r e s e n t e d a r e v i e w of the p r e p r o f e s s i o n a l
program at P e nnsylvania State.
in a purse sense; rather,

The p r o g r a m is not an a l t ernative p r o g r a m

it is an example of attempts to prov i d e e arly

field experiences as one means
program.

teacher aide

of st r e n g t h e n i n g the teacher ed u c a t i o n

84

83

Paul E. Bell, " Both . . . A n d , " (paper pr e s e n t e d at the joint
m e e t i n g of the National A s s o c i a t i o n for R e s e a r c h in Science T e a c h i n g and
A s s o c i a t i o n for the E d u c a t i o n of Tea c h e r s in Science and ER I C I n f o r m a t i o n
A n alysis Center for Science, M a t h e m a t i c s and E n v i r o n m e n t a l Education,
Columbus, Ohio, Ohio State University, March, 1974), pp. 9-10.
(ERIC
No. E D 084 473).
84

Cecil R. Trueblood, " D e s c r i p t i o n of P e n n State 's P r e p r o f e s s ­
ional Teacher Aide P r o g r a m , " Progress R e p o r t No. 1 ( U n iversity Park,
Pennsylvania:
P e n n s y l v a n i a State University, October, 1972).
(Mimeo­
graphed.)

59

One important criteria,
n e w sequences of experiences
available.

not o f t e n considered,

is that of the

in teacher e d u c a t i o n w h i c h are b eing ma d e

In a sense these efforts also r e p r e s e n t "alternatives"

the traditional teacher educati n program.

Thus,

to

the d e v elopment of

instructional modules and the use of a u d i o - t u t o r i a l styles in use at
Purdue, Cornell,

and Toledo are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e alternative experiences.

Competency Based Instruction,
N e w Y o r k (CUNY),

are also in use

the United States.

in m a n y colleges and universities in

These programs

instruction and microteaching,

p r e v i o u s l y n oted at the College of

include the u se of computer assisted

among other things.

The U niversity of Iowa has b e e n con c e n t r a t i n g its prese r v i c e
efforts at recruitment activities

in an e f fort to upgrade its

teacher

education program by emphasizing career d e c i s i o n factors and attempts
,

,

.

•

at role descriptions.

85

The programs and strategies b r i e f l y noted here are n o t a l t e r n a ­
tive programs per se.

They are,

though,

important beginning steps in

the development of alternative preser v i c e p r o g r a m design.
Gould reports of the C o o p e r a t i v e Teac h e r E d u c ation P r o j e c t at
the University of Illinois,
1971 as an informal

Urbana,

Illinois.

86

The project began in

teacher educa t i o n coope r a t i v e effort b e t w e e n the

University and High School D i s trict 214 in A r l i n g t o n Heights,

Illinois.

Intermediate Science C u r r i c u l u m Study T e a cher's Module;
Role
of the Student (Morriston, N e w Jersey:
Silver Bur d e t t Company, 1972).

86

Orvin Gould, The C o operativ e T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n Project:
Pre­
service Outcomes (paper presented at the 47th A n n u a l Meeting of the
National Associ a t i o n for R e s earch in Science Teaching, Chicago, Illinois,
April, 1974).
(ERIC No. ED 092 363).

60

The purpose of the CTEP p r o g r a m ini tially w a s

to p r o v i d e " a p r o g r a m that

allows teachers to define and develop pe r s o n a l strengths,
teaching styles while gaining professional
the realities of the schools."

values,

and

competencies appr o p r i a t e to

87

Students from the Unive r s i t y of Illinois and/or N o r t h e r n Illinois
U n i v e r s i t y m a y elect the p r o gram as a n alte r n a t i v e over the traditional
p reservice program.

All professional credits wi t h the e x c e ption of

educational psychology are offered u n d e r the auspices of the program.
The program is basically op erated through subject area groupings,
b ut some components of the p r o g r a m are i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y in n a ture
h u m a n relations,
mini-teaching,

institutional studies).

P r o g r a m components include

observation,extended te a c h i n g

subject seminars,

human relations,

aneous activities.

(i.e.,

(eight w e e k s or longer),

p r o f e s s i o n a l e v a l u a t i o n and m i s c e l l ­

These m i s cellan e o u s

activities include team teaching,

student representatives on the C T E P P l a n n i n g C o m m ittee and w o r k i n g in
u n ique educational settings n o t o rd i n a r i l y a part of the traditional
school day program.
Program planning is the shared r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the
p u b l i c schools,

and teacher candidates.

university,

P e r sonnel from the public

schools assume the tasks of s u pervis i o n and instr u c t i o n of the candidates.
P r o g r a m components include faculty advising to small groups,
student contracts and self-evaluation,
workshops,

f a c u l t y and/or student sponsored

tutorial assignments, mic r o t e a c h i n g ,

e i ther as individual or team efforts,

visits

quest p r o j e c t s

to community agencies and

special schools and various student s e rvices to the project.

87

Orvin Gould, p. 2.

conducted

61
There was no additional or special fun d i n g for the Project;

it

was asumed as a regular part of the teaching a ssignment of the p a r t i c i ­
pating faculty.
Subject area coordinators and b u i l d i n g coordinators are rel e a s e d
from a p o r t i o n of their regular

teaching day to provide input.

Released

time is provided by the univer s i t i e s by m e a n s of certificated " i n t erns"
wh o are m a sters degree candidates holding appointments as teaching
assistants at one of the two universities.
The candidates partic i p a t e in the C o o p e r a t i v e T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n
Project for a period of 18 weeks.
ject,

F o l l owing p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the p r o ­

the candidates are certified to teach.
The N O V A Project in Secondary Teacher E d u c a t i o n at C a l i f o r n i a

State University,
program.

San Diego, is anot h e r alter n a t i v e teacher e d u c a t i o n

Initiated in 1970,

semesters.

the p r o g r a m enrolls

students for two

During that time the students p a t t e r n of e x p eriences are

determined by a 3 0 -week cycle w h i c h identifies campus activities
(including m i c r o t e a c h i n g sessions),

field visits,

directed

teaching

and seminar activities.
C r u m and M c C o y report that the Nova models
. . . features a continuously devel o p i n g p a t t e r n of school and
community experiences.
It m a x i m i z e s a team approach w i t h an emp h a s i s
on joint p l a nning by faculty and students, flex i b i l i t y in the use
of time and p r e s e n t a t i o n of content, v a r i e d and intensive field
experiences, and a continuity run n i n g t h r o u g h b o t h semesters of the
project.88

88

Clyde C r u m and Leone McCoy, The N O V A Project in Secondary
Teacher Education, 1970-1973 (San Diego, California:
C a l i f o r n i a State
University, 1973), p. 4.
(ERIC No. ED 084 261).

62

Students m a y elect the p r o g r a m (as second semester seniors or
as graduates)

as an alternative over the traditional sequence.

ful p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the p r oject satisfies r e q u i r e m e n t s
and social foundations,

directed partic i p a t i o n ,

Success­

in psychol o g i c a l

student teaching,

and a

s eminar in general methods.
In a m a n n e r comparable to the C o o p e r a t i v e Tea c h e r E d u c ation P r o ­
ject at Urbana,
experiences.

the Nova Project also interf a c e s

school and community

It focuses on a team a p p r o a c h in w h i c h faculty,

and local school personnel are co-members.

students,

J o i n t p l a n n i n g and evalu a t i o n

and extended field w o r k are chara c t e r i s t i c of the Project efforts.
Of the programs or strategies noted,
sity of Illinois,
Gould

89

reported

Urbana,

have been p a r t i c u l a r l y well documented.

that several studies w e r e completed,

taking characteristics,

self-concept of the students,

client s a tisfaction w i t h the CTEP model,
attitudes regarding education.
m ini-teaching,

the efforts at the U n i v e r ­

in c l u d i n g jobt e aching behavior,

and a s s e s s m e n t of beliefs and

In addition,

C T E P components, such as

have been studied.

Findings from these various

studies indicate,

that there are different job-taking patterns,

among other things,

that C T E P candidates b e g i n

the p r o g r a m w i t h a greater tendency t o ward s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n bu t w i t h
a g r eater discre p a n c y b e t w e e n their c o n c e p t of s e l f-actual and self­
ideal.

Conven t i o n a l

students attri b u t e d m o s t of their a ttainment to

either student teaching or to a " g e s t a l t " of experiences.

89

Orvin Gould, p. 5.

CT E P

63

candidates gave greatest overall value to the e x tended t e a c h i n g c o m ponent
but also s a w other components as havi n g p a rt i c u l a r v alue for attaining
specific g o a l s . ^
A n o t h e r study assessed the beliefs and attitudes

toward teaching

by use of the M i n n e s o t a Teacher At t i t u d e Inventory and a survey q u e s t i o n ­
naire titled "Beliefs about Educat i o n , " specially d e s i g n e d for the
evaluation.

Gould reports that the study found that ".

. . the effects

of the C T E P p r o g r a m were about as d e b i l i t a t i n g as in m o r e c o n v entional
programs.

A l t r u i s m and idealism seemed to di s s i p a t e over the CT E P

experience,

perhaps

in favor of a m o r e r e a l i s t i c o u t look."

W i t h respect to beliefs reg a rding education,

91

there h ad also b e e n

a "tempering effect of reality exposure.
Finally,
interviews.

studies have been conducted u t i l i z i n g struct u r e d

R e s ults indicate that room for impr o v e m e n t exists,

that

persons h a v i n g limited input opportunities o f t e n v i e w the p r o g r a m
negatively,

and the employers gener a l l y were supportive of the CT E P

graduates.

On the debit side,

in pedagogical

techniques

the graduates w e r e sometimes judged short

(methods) and in discipline.

A l t e r n a t i v e programs in elemen t a r y e d u c a t i o n are existant;

the

mo st easily recognized one is that of Combs at the U n i v e r s i t y of Florida.
The p r ogram is described in detail by Blume

93

b ut can be s u m m a r i z e d as

follows:

90
92
93

Orvin Gould,

p. 7.

O rvin Gould,

p.

91

O r v i n Gould,

p. 8.

9.

R o b e r t Blume, " Humanizing Teacher E d u c a t i o n , " Phi D e l t a Kappan,
23:411-415, March, 1971.

64

The N e w Elementary P r o gram at the U n i v e r s i t y of Flor i d a is an
alternative teacher e d u c ation p r o g r a m from w h i c h its first students
g r aduated in 1970.

Develo p m e n t of the p r o g r a m w as b ased on r e s e a r c h on

the perceptual organi z a t i o n of teachers and other m e m b e r s of the " h e l p ­
ing" professions.

After r e v i e w of the r e s e a r c h studies completed,

Combs

and Wass concluded that the results " s h o w signi f i c a n t d i f ferences b e t w e e n
the perceptual organi z a t i o n and eff e c t i v e and inef f e c t i v e teache r s . "
The N e w Elemen t a r y P r o g r a m attempts

to prod u c e teachers w h o have

learned to use themselves e ffective l y as instruments
functions as educators.

94

to carry out their

Six m a j o r p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l i e the program;

these include:
1.

The

Self as Instrument Conc e p t

(self becoming)

2.

M a x i m u m F lexibility

3.

Close relationship of did a c t i c inst r u c t i o n and practical
experience

4.

R e s p o n s i b i l i t y and i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n

5.

R e l a t i o n of learning to need

6.

Reaso n a b l e cost of operation.

95

Arthur W. Combs and Hannel o r e Wass, A F o l l o w - u p Study of O n the-Job Behavior of Eleme n t a r y Teachers Trai n e d in an Innovative and a
Traditional P r o gram of Teacher Preparation, Final Report, U.S. D e p a r t m e n t
ot health, E d u c ation and Welfare, Of'fice of Education, R e g i o n Four,
Project No. 2-3-208, Grant No. OEG 4 - 7 2 -0016 (Washington, D.C.:
U.S.
D e p art m e n t of Health, E d u c a t i o n and Welfare, February, 1973), p. 1.

Combs and Wass, p. 1.

65

Thus,
growth,

the p r ogram is intended to en c o u a r g e m a x i m u m personal

early internship experiences,

student for his own learning,

a c c e p t a n c e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y by the

exposure of i n f o r m a t i o n only after the

"need to know" has b e e n expressed,

and a high level of self di r e c t i o n

and personal d i s c o v e r y of effective m o d e s of teaching.
in January,

It w as b egun

1969, w i t h 90 randomly selected b e g i n n i n g students enrolled

in elementary education.
other programs n o t e d

In this respect it is s o mewhat d i f f e r e n t that

thus f a r

students were s e lected r a ther than

electing to p a r t i c i p a t e initially.

The p r o g r a m operates w i t h i n existing

staff and operating expense allocations.
N o govern m e n t or private funding except for a $1,000 grant by
the A m e r i c a n F e d e r a t i o n of Teachers has b e e n utilized.
a c c ording to Combs, was

The initial grant,'

to m a k e it p o ssible "to conduct a p ilot c o m p a r i ­

son study b e t w e e n a sample of experimental and control students.
findings constitute

These

the first and only "hard" d a t a a v a ilable on the N e w

El e mentary Program."

96

T h e p h i l o s o p h y underg i r d i n g the p r o g r a m is e xp r essed by Combs'
statement that;
Teachers are asked to be facilitators r a t h e r than controllers, helpers
r a ther than directors.
The concept of teachers as makers, forcers,
molders, or’ coercers is n o longer r e garded as the ideal role for
teachers, a p o s i t i o n firmly b utt r e s s e d by evi d e n c e from research.
Such shifts in our thinking made the act of t e aching a process of
mi n i s t e r i n g to student g r o w t h rather than a pro c e s s of control and
m a n a g e m e n t of student b e h a v i o r . 97

Combs and Wass, p. 2.
^ A r t h u r W. Combs, Educational A c c o u n t a b i l i t y - Beyo n d Behavioral
Objectives (Washington, D.C.:
A s s o c i a t i o n for Supe r v i s i o n a n d C u r r i c u l u m
Development,

1972),

p.

35.

66
The N e w E l e m e n t a r y Program has components c omparable
identified in various other altern a t i v e programs.
experiences, m i n i - t e a c h i n g activities,
such strategies are all utilized.
year) duration.

to those

Broadened field

small group seminars,, and other

T he program is a t w o - s e m e s t e r (one-

It is not comparable to the SEPP for that reason,

as

well as the fact that it is designed for e lementary t e a c h e r s - i n - p r e p a r a tion rather than secondary educa t i o n students.
One aspect of the P r ogram w h i c h m ay d i f f e r e n t i a t e it f r o m other
efforts is that its i m p l ementation w a s p receded by e x t e nsive r e s e a r c h
w h i c h w a s then u s e d to formulate a theoretical p o s i t i o n for teacher
education.

The p r o gram is n o w being subjected to follow-up r e s e a r c h to

determine its effectiveness.
Another preser v i c e program for e lementary school teachers is one
conducted b e t w e e n the N o r f o l k City School and Old D o m i n i o n U n iversity,
Norfolk,

Virginia.

cooperative one,

It was begun in February,

1971.

T he p r o g r a m is a

similar to that of CT E P at the U n i v e r s i t y of Illinois,

Urbana.

Wise,
is "to

Sacks and Haggerty state that the objective of the program

closely involve associates."

98

The program is designed to relate

experiences directly to language arts, reading, and general curriculum
of the elementary school.
Areas for study include incorpo r a t i o n of traditional p r e s e r v i c e
professional requirements;

that is, hist o r y and p h i l o s o p h y of education,

school and classroom organization;

98

int r o d u c t i o n to Lan g u a g e Arts,

Pauline K. Wise, Annabel L. Sacks, and K a t herine T. Haggerty,
A Cooperative P r ogram in Teacher E d u c a t i o n (Norfolk, Virginia:
Old
D o m inion University, November, 1971), p. 4.
(ERIC No. E D 075 361).

67

Language Readiness,
units

Language/Experience,

in Language Arts.

Dev e l o p m e n t a l R e a d i n g and skill

Content areas in social studies,

m athematics are included in the study requirements,
of teaching, word

a t t a c k skills and evaluation.

science,

and

as w e l l as m e t h o d s

99

The strategies employed in a c complishing the 130-hour p r o g r a m
include many of those previously described.
l ecture/discussion series,
utilized.
schools,

demonstrations,

Tapes,

field observation,

seminars,

Students are expected to spend 26 hours

etc.,

are all

in the elementary

30 h ours in seminars and 76 hours in large-group activities.

Voluntary p a r t i c i p a t i o n in supplem e n t a r y w o r k s h o p s

is anot h e r option.

Evaluation techniques u t i l i z e d include w r i t t e n e x a m i n a t i o n s
and/or grades on papers and projects,
certain areas,

d e m o n s t r a t i o n of c o m p e t e n c y in

approved optional activities

cooperating teachers.

and informal e v a l u a t i o n by

Based on ev a l u a t i o n efforts, the p r o g r a m develo p e r s

concluded that the results showed an increase of d e s i r a b l e attitudes in
students.
No supplemental funds are p rovided f or the p r o g r a m in w h i c h three
faculty members

schedule six hours a w e e k e a c h for interim planning,

schedule revision,
f aculty members

evaluation,

and student conferences.

T he same

are p r e sent during the seventy-nine hours

of large - g r o u p

activities, regardless of w h o conducts the class.
The College of E d u c ation at Bowling G r e e n State U n i v e r s i t y p r o ­
vides an alternative e l e m e n t a r y teacher e d u c ation program,

99
Wise,

Sacks and Haggerty,

pp.

^^Wise,

Sacks and Haggerty,

p.

6-14.
26.

in a d d i t i o n

68

to those p r e v i o u s l y discussed.
and b e g u n in 1971,

Titled

the "Methods E x p e r i e n c e P r o j e c t , "

the p r o ject incorporates a component w h e r e b y students

m a y enroll in and complete all of their methods courses d u r i n g one
quarter.

In that time three days a w e e k are spent in p a r t i c i p a t i n g

schools.

The r e m a i n i n g two days of the school w e e k students r e t u r n to

campus for r e g u l a r l y scheduled classes w i t h each of their meth o d s
instructors.

T hese include both subject meth o d s and general m e thods.

The program,

described by Mills'*'^ includes u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y

m embers who p r ovide a liason function w i t h the p u blic school classr o o m s
during the week.
students'

In addition,

they f u n c t i o n as observers of the

teaching behaviors and aid students in coping w i t h u n i q u e

ing-learning situations.

Finally,

teach­

t h e y f u n c t i o n to enable the s t u d e n t to

become profic i e n t in a p a r t i c u l a r area of instruction.
The program,
groups, mini- t e a c h i n g

encomp a s s i n g one semester,

utilizes d i s c u s s i o n

and field o b s e r v a t i o n in a d dition to the m o r e

formalized student teaching experience.

No additional funds or staff are

ma de available for the Project.
An e v a l u a t i o n study has been c o m p leted of students in the
project,
1.
2.
3.

with the f o l l o w i n g results re p o r t e d by Mills:
The M E P students r e flect both grea t e r situational and p e r s o n a l
role conflicts than the control students;
M E P students have personali t i e s that are better suited for
teaching than the control students, and
No differences in teaching b e h a v i o r exist among students, alt h o u g h
the MEP students develop a m o r e positive attitude toward t e aching
than did the control students, . . . some of w h i c h m a y be a t t r i ­
buted to the influence of the change exhibited w i t h i n the M E P
group. 102

10L...

Mills.

102 .,,

Mills,

_

pp. 7-10.

69

A n o t h e r study by M a r s o and Re e d

103

indicated that ratings of

student teachers by their u n i v e r s i t y supervisors,

c o o perating teachers,

and principals were significantly h i g h e r for students w h o had b e e n
engaged in the Methods Experi e n c e P r o j e c t than for students w ho had
followed the traditional m e thods

course sequence.

Mills suggests that:
. . . it seems reasonable to conclude that the M E P grou p s w e r e s ub­
jected to a degree of r e ality s hock not expe r i e n c e d by the Campus
group.
If this is the case, ma n y students m i g h t well be expected
to d emon strate less e f f e ctive t e aching b e h a v i o r and less p o sitive
teaching attitudes following such exposure.
But such early i n i t i a ­
tion into the reality of teaching m i g h t also enable these subjects
to avoid the deleterious effects w h i c h are o ften associated w i t h the
first years of full-time teaching and p e r m i t them m o r e ably to cope
w i t h and profit from subsequent experiences.
It could concurrently
encourage self-selection out of the profession. . . .104
The Secondary E d u c a t i o n Pilot Program,

endorsed by the U n i v e r ­

sity Curric u l u m Committee at M i c h i g a n State University,
s econdary teacher education program.

105

It attempts

is an alternative

to address d e v e l o p ­

m ent of student coping skills to b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d and fu n c t i o n in today's
schools.

Thus,

the program e mphas i z e s

content designed

to enhance

103

Ronald N. Marso and R ob e r t L. Reed, " A Study of the I n s t r u c ­
tional Skills and Abilities of BGSU E l e m e n t a r y E d u c a t i o n Majo r s and
Graduates as Perceived by Principals, F i r s t - Y e a r Teachers, Student
Teachers, and Cooperating and S u pe r v i s i n g T e a c h e r s , " (Bowling Green,
Ohio:
Bowling Green State University, College of Education, February
1972).
(Mimeographed.)
104
105

,,.
Mills,

p.

1.
14.

Carol A. Norris, Summary of discussions and r e v i e w of the
proposal to the University Curric u l u m Committee.
All information
following represents personal notes.

70

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the school in society,
d i v e rsity of today's adolescent,
tion of multi-media,

a w a r eness and a cceptance of the

in s t r u c t i o n a l strate g i e s and u t i l i z a ­

w o r k i n g w i t h h e t e r o g e n e o u s student groups,

tion of learning theory w i t h practice,

integra­

and coping w i t h di s s i d e n t y o u t h

and v i o lence in the schools.
It attempts

to integrate self,

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r compe t e n c y and

p r o fessional d evelopment into a fo u r - y e a r sequential whole.

Students

are encouraged to m e r g e personal te a c h i n g and i n t e r a c t i o n styles w i t h a
p hilosophy of education.
The p r o g r a m is best c h a rac t e r i z e d as a f o u r - y e a r p r o g r a m r e q u i r ­
ing an extensive field w o r k component.
to the p r ofessional

It provides

sequence and p r ovides

a di f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h

students w i t h an early option

to leave teaching and/or the program.
The instructional m o d e is m u l t i - d i m e n s i o na l ,

h a v i n g common

c h aracteristics w i t h other a lterna t i v e se c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n programs
p r eviously described,

including PBT E components and teacher/student-

paced instruction.
The p r o g r a m has several u n i q u e f eatures
vo luntary involvement at the f r e s h m e n level,

i n c l uding be g i n n i n g

a p a s s / n o pass grading

system is used for student contact hours, w h i c h also b e g i n and continue
through the four y e a r s of the program.

Th e credits for field experiences

still m e e t the 30 credit-hours n e c e s s a r y for g r a d u a t i o n and cer t i f i c a t i o n
in Michigan.

W e ekend and other leadership and tea c h i n g skills l a b o r a ­

tories accompany the n e a r l y 820 hours of c o r r e s p o n d i n g clinical
experience w h i c h is required of p r o g r a m p a rticipants.

By comparison,

the regular teacher education p r o g r a m r e quires 420 hours.

71

Special seminars are conducted w h i c h include " m indbenders"-a series of v o l u n t a r y professional r e a d i n g / d i s c u s s i o n experiences.
V o l u n t e e r u n i v e r s i t y personnel donate their time to conduct the d i s ­
cussions.
N o additional funds, other than r e g u l a r u n i v e r s i t y support,

are

m a d e available for costs of adminis t e r i n g the program.

One associate

professor,

Paula Stein,

Dr.

Samuel S. C o r 1,’ and one instructor, Mrs.

the current staff.

In addition,

g r a d u a t e assistant,

Mr. Dennis Pata n i c z e k are m a d e available.

The program,

pa r t-time s e rvices of at least one

implemented in the Fall Term,

its second y e a r of o p e r a t i o n and has adm i t t e d
n u m b e r has since b e e n reduced

are

1972,

is c u r rently in

168 students.

That

to 148 b e c a u s e of w i t h d r a w a l s and/or

transfers.
The p r o g r a m represents a s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t alter n a t i v e than
a ny of those p r e v i o u s l y reviewed.

T h e r e are no o t h e r c o m p a r a b l e s e c o n ­

d a r y p r e s e r v i c e programs in o p e r ati o n that this resea r c h e r has been
able to find.
I n formation evaluations have b e e n c o m p l e t e d via student fee d b a c k
sheets and u n i v e r s i t y staff comments,

as w e l l as comments from field

service p a r t i c i p a t i n g local educational a g e n c y and/or other resource
p e rsons.

No formal evaluations have be e n c o n d u c t e d on the Secondary

E d u c a t i o n Pilot Program,

per se.

N e i t h e r h a v e there b e e n any formal

e v a l u a t i v e efforts w i t h respect to the stud e n t p o p u l a t i o n in SEPP up
to this point in time.
The a lternative program at M i c h i g a n State University,
and under the d i r e c t i o n of Dr.

conceived

Samuel S. Corl, w a s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d

72

d e s cribed in F i g u r e

1, C h a p t e r 1.

Critical c omponents of the alternative

p r o g r a m include the introduction of b o t h p r o f e ssional sequence items and
field contact experiences beginning w i t h the f r e s h m a n year.
process,

By this

students g r a d u a t i n g from the prog r a m w i l l ha v e a c c umulated

n e arly twice as m u c h clinical experience as those g r a d u a t i n g from the
traditional p r e s e r v i c e program.
B r i dgi ng the isolated approach of secondary versus elemen t a r y
a l ternative m o d e l s
ville,

Vermont.

is one provided by the L y n d o n State College,

Initiated in 1972,

the program is a p a r t n e r s h i p b e t w e e n

the N e w p o r t - D e r b y School D i s t r i c t and the College.
the p r o g r a m as field-based,

Lyndon-

W e l l s ^ ^ d e s c ribes

designed for those students w ho indicate

that they w i s h to pursue a professional career in education.

T he stated

o bjectives are to:
1.

2.

3.

assist the student in obtaining the n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n and
first-hand e xperience to mak e an intelligent career d e c i s i o n
concerning the teaching profession;
enable the student to make tentative d e c isions as to w h i c h level
and in w h a t capacity he wishes to gain c o m p e t e n c y in the t eaching
profession; and
assist the e d u c a t i o n department in dec i d i n g w h i c h students to
accept as majors.

At the same time that the student is enrolled in i n t r o d u c t o r y ed u c a t i o n
courses at the college,

he/she parti cipates in the field component serving

as a teacher aide at all levels of elementary and se c o n d a r y education.

D oris M. Wells, "Exploratory Field E x p e r i e n c e in E d u c a t i o n "
(Lyndonville, Vermont; L y n d o n State College, November, 1973).
(Mimeo­
graphed n o m i n a t i o n p r e s e n t e d for the 1974 A A C T E D i s t i n g u i s h e d A c h i e v e m e n t
Award.)
(ERIC No. ED 085 383).
107„ ..
Wells,

,
p. 4.

73

Other p r o g r a m components include h a v i n g the students attend
• specially designed courses titled " A m e rican E d u cation," "Educational
P sychology-Human D e v e lopment," and " E d u c a t i o n Workshop."

The program is not a voluntary one

108

all sophomores planning

to f o l l o w the elementary education p r o g r a m are required to spend one full
semester (16 weeks)

enrolled in the field component.

Secondary education

majors are i n v i t e d , but not required to participate.
One unique aspect of the p r o g r a m is that the course titled
"American Education" is "team taught" in the p u b l i c school setting.
The college instructor and represen t a t i v e s of the local school system
comprise the team.
lawyers,
tants.

School administrators,

staff personnel,

board members,

and State D e p a r t m e n t members act as consul-

.

Special workshops are p r e s e n t e d on subject matter, materials,

and equipment.

Students prepare a d e s i g n p l a n for their s i x t e en-week

experiences in o b servation and teacher aide.
m i n imum of two weeks each in a primary,
school.

teachers,

They m a y choose from a

intermediate,

Optional choices include ki ndergarten,

and junior high

high school,

and special

education at all levels.
The program costs are part of the r e g u l a r budget of the
Education Department.

Additional costs for the program include a p p r o x i ­

mately $400 travel expense for the college s upervisor and $7,000 for
for contracted bus. service to transport the students.

Local educational

personnel donate their services in e xchange for the help they receive
from the students as aides.

10SrT

Wells,

,

p. 4.

109

..
Wells,

,
p. 3

74

Oral and w r i t t e n evaluations have be e n c o n ducted by the students,
the administrative staff,

teachers,

and college personnel.

W e l l s states

that "a positive conclusive evalua t i o n of this p r o g r a m cannot be a s c e r ­
tained until the f irst group of students is graduated and teaching.
Finally,
program.

the reader is alerted to one other a s pect of

the

That is, that the College is also currently e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h

a field-based p r ogram for juniors in w h i c h they part i c i p a t e i n the public
schools two half-days a week.

As in the case of the sophomores,

students develop their design for the sixt e e n - w e e k experience,
out the plan,

and evaluate the results.

these

carry

The j,unior p r o g r a m is in

c onnection w i t h the integrated met h o d o l o g y course,

T eaching P r o c e s s , and

R e ading F o u n d a t i o n s .

Summary,

Part

1

The h i story of teacher edu c a t i o n has been c h aracterized generally
b y the develo p m e n t of programs based on numbers of students rath e r than
on the improvement of the processes b y w h i c h they are educated.

Smith

111

concluded that teacher education programs during the last seventy y e a r s
de veloped m a i n l y on the basis of an increased kn o w l e d g e of general
ps ychological principles,
p r actical experiences

n
Wells,

1 1 0 tt

an inadequate u n d e r s t a n d i n g gained fr o m the

of teachers,

and the g r owth of studies in the

p. 3.

Smith, C o h e n and Pearl; see also B. 0. Smith and others,
R e s e a r c h in Teacher E d u c ation (Englewood Cliffs, N e w Jersey:
P r e n ticeHall,

1971).

75

social sciences and philosophy.

A m e r i c a n studies s u p p o r t i n g m a n y of

Smith's conclusions on teacher education have also be e n s u rveyed by
Barr,

112 „
113
,
114
Gage,
and B i ddle and Ellena.
Societies demand for well- e d u c a t e d

u pon teacher education development.
a function of several variables,
population age distribution,
constraints,

and so forth.

of training an "educator".

teachers has anot h e r effect

This demand m a y be i n t erpreted as

i n c l uding the national birthrate,

technological developments,

the

social/economic

L i t t l e is k n o w n of the costs and benefits
Still

less is k n o w n in a q u a n t i t a t i v e sense

of the private and social rates of r e t u r n on teacher education.
more cost/benefit inform a t i o n beco m e s available,

As such

it also m a y influence

the direction of teacher education.
In spite of comprehensive

surveys, we still have a serious

lack

of dependable k n o w ledge u p o n w h i c h to base our training procedures.
C o n sideration of questions c oncern i n g the demand for, p r e p a r a t i o n of,
and supply of efficient teachers w i l l
likelihood,

also,

likely continue.

There

that continued q u e s t i o n i n g of the nature,

is every

f u n c t i o n and

p r actice in teacher e d u c a t i o n will be discussed.

112

A. S. Barr and others, "Report of the Committee o n the C r i t e r i a
of Teacher Effect i v e n e s s , " R e v i e w of E d u cational R e s e a r c h , 22:238-263,
March, 1952; see also A. S. Barr and others, " W i s c o n s i n Studies of
M e asur e m e n t of Teacher Effectivenes s :
A Summary of I n v e s t i g a t i o n s , "
Journal of Experimental E d u c a t i o n , 30:5-156, May, 1961.
113

N. L. Gage,
Rand McNally, 1966).
114

ed.,

H a n d b o o k of R e s e a r c h on T e a c h i n g

(Chicago:

B. J. Biddle and W. J. Ellena, C o n t e m p o r a r y R e s e a r c h on T e a c h e r
Effectiveness (New York:
Holt, R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1964).

76

PART 2: T E A C H I N G AS A P ROFESSION

Good,

in the Dictionary of Education,

defined a p r o f e s s i o n as

. . a n occupation usually involving r e l a t i v e l y long and specialized
p r e p a r a t i o n on the level of h igher e d u c a t i o n and governed by its own
code of ethics.
In attempting to define w h e t h e r or n o t teaching is a profession,
Tyler

116

applied six criterion d r a w n fr o m the writings of Abraham

Flexner.
object,

The criterion included intellectuality,
communicability,

organization,

learned,

and motivation.

practical

She concluded

that:
The teaching act requires p r o f e s s i o n a l status b e c a u s e it is
b a s i c to providing a quality e d u c a t i o n for all who attend our schools
and colleges.
If the teaching act is to be e x c ellently executed,
the teacher m u s t be intellectual, learned, and altruistically m o t i v a ­
ted.
And the teacher m u s t have b e e n adequ a t e l y educated and c a r efully
selected by professional peers.
However, if we evaluate teachers and the teaching act as it is
n o w b e i n g executed, we can only c o nclude that teaching does not
completely m e e t the criteria set f o r t h by F l e x n e r . 117
Her conclusions are supported by others w h o d escribe the " p r o f e s s i o n "

in

terms of size as well as of function.
The size of the teaching p r o f e s s i o n is such- that n u m e r i c a l l y it
r e sembles

other occupational groups

115

Carter V. Good,

McGraw-Hill,

1945),

i n c luding nurses or "shop" assistants,

ed., D i c t i o n a r y of E d u c ation (New York:

p. 415.

116

Louis L. Tyler, "Is T e a c h i n g a Profession?", C o n t r o v e r s y in
A m e r i c a n Education:
An A n t h ology of Cru c i a l I s s u e s , ed. Harold Full
(New York:
M a c m i l l a n Company, 1967), pp. 324-333.
^^Tyler,

pp.

332-333.

77

rather than smaller exclusive p r of e s s i on a l groups.

Etzioni

118

classified

teaching in the same category as n u r s i n g and social work; he regards
these occupational groupings

as "s e m i - p r o f e s s i o n s . "

Semi-professions are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by m e m b e r s w ho are trained
w i t h i n a relatively short p eriod and acquire
k n owl e d g e
believes

less specialized bodies of

(in direct contrast to G o o d ' s definition).

Thus,

Etzioni

they m a i n t a i n a lower status and w e a k e r authority than smaller,

specialized professional groups.
Others contend that this is n o t the case,
fession

(education) continues

and that as the p r o ­

to d e v e l o p it w i l l expect rigorous study

of the theory and practice of education.

119

Thus,

they contend,

it is

in fact a profession.
Hanna
their work,

120

examined the inter r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n teachers and

in an attempt to determ i n e w h e t h e r "dedication," w h i c h is

often assumed to be c h a r acteristic of p r o f e s s i o n a l occupations,

a c tually

e xisted for that group of teachers studied.
His study findings include the fo l l o w i n g statements:
Teaching, however, appears to be a m a r g i n a l p r o f e s s i o n in that
a.
the teacher does not di r e c t l y control the w o r k i n g conditions
of his group.
b.
controls are imposed on the teacher's disper s i o n of s p e c i a l ­
ized knowl e d g e and skills.

(New York:

A. Etzioni, ed., The S em i - P r o f e s s i o n s
The Free Press, 1969).

and T heir Org a n i z a t i o n

119

R. Gould, "The T e a c h i n g P r o f e s s i o n , " The E d u c a t i o n of Te a c h e r s
in B r i t a i n , ed. D. E. L o m a x (London:
Wiley, 1972).

120

. . Charles Clifford Hanna, T e a c h i n g as a "Central Life I n t e r e s t "
of M e t r o p o l i t a n Secondary Teachers (St. Paul, Minn.:
Univer s i t y of
Minnesota, 1972).
(ERIC No. ED 088 838).

78

• c.

he does n o t control nor de t e r m i n e the q u a l ifications of those
w h o enter his w o r k group.
d. his life is largely controlled b y a b o a r d p o s s e s s i n g
little of
his specialized training or knowledge.
e. his license to deviate from lay conduct is seriously
limited,
and
f. the teacher receives limited d e f e r e n c e fr o m the larger society.
. . . He (the teacher) will tend to v i e w the school as a means to
acquire ends to participate in non-s c h o o l interactions w h i c h have
m o r e social value for him than does teaching.121
Based on the results of his study, H a n n a concluded that "the

global and complete dedication of self to w o r k assumed to be ch a r a c t e r ­
istic of professional occupations does n ot exist for the secondary
school teachers studied."

122

Others d e s cribe the profes s i o n as included in the "helping"
professions,

123

m o s t often characterized by

and other such occupational groupings.

n u rses and m i n i sters

As such,

the us e of the term

" helping" professions m a y be legitimate in this writ e r s perspective,

but

does not n e c e s s a r i l y clarify the issue of " p r of e s s i o n a l " or "semip r o fessional" w h e n used as a referrant to those involved in the o c c u p a ­
tional endeavor.

Social Origins of Teachers
That teaching is virtually m o n o p o l i z e d by persons of m i d d l e - c l a s s
o rigin is perhaps overstating the case.

C harters concluded after

exhaustive r e v i e w that:

121
123
Monograph:

Hanna,

p. 4.

122

Hanna,

p.

8.

A. W. Combs, Florida Studies in the Helping P r o f e s s i o n s ,
Social Services No. 37 (Gainesville, Florida:
U n i v e r s i t y of

Florida, 1969).

79

Available r e s e a r c h suggests that there m a y be v a r i a t i o n from one
type of c o m m unity or school system to another, and a n u m b e r of the
surveys of teacher o r igin going b a c k to the early 1900's shows that
a small b u t significant p r o p o r t i o n of teachers came fr o m the w o r k i n g
class.
It m a y be correct to conclude that the teaching o c c u p a t i o n
draws heavily u p o n the m i d d l e ranges of the A m e r i c a n social class
structure:
the lowest and high e s t classes are (generally)- u n d e r ­
represent ed in the p r o f e s s i o n . 124
Austin and Biscontini surveyed the career plans of b l a c k and
other non-white college graduates

through a three-part study.

T heir

report presents analysis of 1965 and 1970 p o s t-senior y e a r plans based
on data collected by the A m e r i c a n Council of Ed u c a t i o n (ACE).
the Cooperative

Through

Institutional R e s e a r c h Program (CIRP) e a c h y e a r ' s e n t e r ­

ing freshman class at over 300 institutions of higher e d u c a t i o n fill
out questionnaires about their backgrounds,
goals.

achievements,

i n t e rests and

A sample of the same students is followed up four years

later.

The data a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the n a t i o n as a whole b e c a u s e of the
elaborate sampling and w e i g h t i n g procedures used.

Some of the findings

reported include:
1.

The 1965 and 1970 n o n - w h i t e college graduates di f f e r e d w i t h
respect to their career choices.

2.

The

1970 n o n - w h i t e grad uates choices of o c c upations

(careers)

w e r e closer to their white classmates.
3.

Business choices b ecame increasingly popular among n o n - w h i t e
graduates.

124

Charters, p. 721.

80

4.

C o llege teaching showed substantial gains among bo t h b l a c k
m e n and women.

5.

Eleme n t a r y and secondary teaching dropped as a choice for

T,ll"a c i
b
k men. 125
The study,

published in 1973,

is si g nificant as it r e i t e r a t e s

the drop

in the number of persons electing to enter e d u c a t i o n as a care e r choice;
it is also significant as additional data w i t h respect to the nature of
the educational occupational group, which,

in terms of social origin,

consists of p r o p o r tionately m o r e w h i t e than b l a c k m a l e s and m o r e females
in general.
Cain surveyed A l abama y o u t h four y e a r s after h i g h school u s i n g a
path analytic m o d e l which included m o ther's
breadwinner's occupation,
influence,

occupational aspiration,

tional attainment.
tacted.

residence,

and father's education,

amount of significance to others'
educa t i o n a l attainment,

and o c c u p a ­

E i ghty-seven m a l e s and s i x t y - s e v e n females were c o n ­

Major results were that 38 percent of the v a r i a n c e for males

and 26 percent for females w a s explained by the model;

that the b r e a d ­

winner's occupation contributed m o s t h e a v i l y for m ales and o c c u p a t i o n
aspiration for females;
n o n-migrant males;

that the m o d e l was m o r e applicable to m i g r a n t than

and that home envi r o n m e n t factors and pe r s o n a l value

commitments w e r e important.

125

1.26

This data indicates that there is a

Helen S. A u s t i n and Ann S. Biscontini,
and Other Non-White College Graduates (Bethlehem,
P l acement Council, 1973).
126

C a r e e r Plans of B l a c k
Pennsyl v a n i a :
College

Janice Sofge Cain, "The Path to O c c u p a t i o n a l A t t ainment:
A
Study of Northeast A l a b a m a Y o u t h Four Years A f t e r Hi g h School" (unpub­
lished Master's thesis, A u b u r n University, Auburn, Alabama, 1973), p. 80.

81

direct correlation b e tween f amily b a c k g r o u n d
aspirations of the y o u t h of that family.

(social origin) and the

Students surveyed w e r e c o m ­

parable in age to those students included in this study.
In 1911,

C o ffman reported that 52 perc e n t of the n ation's

teachers derived from farm families.

127

percent had fathers w h o m he classif i e d

Of C o f fman's

128

businessmen,

18 p e rcent w h o s e fathers were d a y - l a b o r e r s .

129

29 percent of a g r o u p of D e t r o i t teachers studied had

fathers in un skilled or semiskilled labor occupations,
especially pronounced among the y o u n g e r teachers
Kenen

and public

Thirty years later G r e e n h o e conducted a na t i o n a l survey

of teachers w h i c h showed
In mid-1950,

26

as "artisans" and " laborers" and

22 percent had fathers who w e r e professionals,
officials.

teachers,

131

a proportion

in the group.

130

concluded that teachers h a v i n g white- or b l u e - c o l l a r

expectations are a function of b o t h the p rior family b a c k g r o u n d and the

127

L. D. Coffman, The Social C o m p o s i t i o n of the T e a c h i n g Population, Research B u l letin No. 41 (New York:
Teachers College, 1911), p.
74.
^■^Coffman,

p. 76.

129

Florence Greenhoe, The C o m m u n i t y Contacts and P a r t i c i p a t i o n
of Teachers (Washington, D.C.:
A m e r i c a n Council on Public Affairs,
1941), p. 17.
130

W. Wattenberg, "Social Ori g i n s of Teachers - A N o r t h e r n I n ­
dustrial City," The Teacher's R o l e in A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y , ed. L. J. Stiles
(New York:
Harper, 1957), pp. 13-22.
131

R e gina H. Kenen, "Teache r M o r a l e as a F u nction of Teachers'
Occupational Expectations for Their Students and Attitudes T o w a r d H i g h e r
E ducation" (Trenton, N e w Jersey:
T r e n t o n State College and C o l u m b i a
University, 1971).
(Mimeographed.)

82

s o c ialization and awareness functions of the teacher e d u c a t i o n program.
Her study of 382 elementary and secondary E n g l i s h teachers

investigated

the o r i e n t a t i o n of the teachers and found that o r i e n t a t i o n appears to
h a v e a d irect b e aring on attitude toward teaching and feelings of success
as a teacher.

Teachers holding wh i t e - c o l l a r expe c t a t i o n s for their ma l e

students reported

that their jobs w e r e m o r e re w a r d i n g than did teachers

h o lding blue-c o l l a r expectations.
Legatt

132

concluded that since the teaching p r o f e s s i o n is m u c h

larger than other m o r e exclusive p r o f e ssional groups,

it was perhaps

i nevitable that its members genera l l y were of m o d e s t social class origin.
Yet,

this could change significantly if patterns of r e c r u i t m e n t w e r e to

change.

For example,

it m i g h t be ironic if at a time w h e n increasing

n u mbers of w o r k i n g class children are staying in school longer to have
the p r o p o r t i o n of teachers recruited from this class b e g i n to decline.
Such a p o s i t i o n is that proposed by Kels a l l and Kelsall.

132

Kelsall's

p o s i t i o n is not u nrealistic w h e n m a t c h e d against wh a t is k n o w n of current
e ducational patterns in the United States.
The 1970 Census Report,
of the population.

N. 8, dealt

w i t h the educational status

I nformation gleaned from the 1970 census and reported

indicate that:

132

T. Legatt, "Social Class Origins of T e a c h e r s , " P r o fessions
and Professionalization, ed. B J a c k s o n (Cambridge; U n i v e r s i t y Press,

Tnurrw^rsttrr1
R. K. Kelsall and H. M. Kelsall, The School Teac h e r in
England and the United States (London:
P e r g a m o n Press, 1969).

83

1.

m o r e Americans

than ever b e f o r e are going to school;

2.

A m e r icans are starting school at an earlier age and staying
in school longer;

3.

for the first time,

the aver a g e A m e r i c a n a dult has completed

high school;
4.

people w h o live in u r b a n areas have a h i gher

level of e d u c a ­

tion than do those in rural areas;
5.

altho u g h a higher p erce n t a g e of N o n - S p a n i s h f i nish high
school than do b l a c k students,
the gap;

6.

these m i n o r i t i e s are closing

and

there is a definite r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n level of ed u c a t i o n
and the kinds of jobs p e o p l e hold and h o w m u c h they are
. . 134
paid.

These statistics are b o r n e out in other c omparable r e s e a r c h or i n f o r m a ­
tion reports.
Charters reports that data on the o c c u p a t i o n of teachers'
go b a c k as early as 1911.
p r imarily surveyed

135

Studies on occupational b a c k g r o u n d have

teachers-in-training,

this r eason C harters

fathers

n ot teachers on the job.

For

states that:

. . . genera l i z i n g from such data to the teaching p o p u l a t i o n at
large is hazardous.
Such g e n e r a l i z a t i o n is no t the intent of this
data, but is pertinent w h e n viewed from the following perspective:
substantially less than 100 per c e n t of the p r e s e r v i c e students enter
teaching, a fact w h i c h introduces the p o s s i b i l i t y of u n k n o w n bias.^"^

134

Bureau of the Census (DOC), We The Americans:
Our E d u c a t i o n ,
1970 Census Report, No. 8 (Washington, D.C.:
Superi n t e n d e n t of D o c u ­
ments, U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i nting Office, June, 1973), pp. 1-16.
Charters,

p. 720.

^"^Charters,

p. 720.

84

Studies do exist d e m onstrat i n g important d i f f e r e n c e s among types
of colleges and the backg r o u n d characteristics of their students.
T e a c h e r-trainees in the small teacher colleges,

for instance,

likely to come from agricultural and laboring families

are mo r e

than are teacher-

trainees in liberal arts colleges or the larger universities.

137

Regard l e s s of the social origin of teachers, w i t h r e l a t i v e l y
f e w exceptions

those w h o have prepared to teach have be e n exposed to a

socializing process.

The liberalizing e xperience of four y e a r s of

college e d u c a t i o n is,

in part,

explained by the ve r y n a t u r e of the

growth of teacher p r e p a r a t i o n programs noted in an earlier p o r t i o n of
this chapter.

The r e s u l t of needed m a n p o w e r in the field of education,

coupled w i t h the g r o w t h of c e r tific a t i o n requirements,

has c o ntributed

to the general u p g r a d i n g of the teacher's p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n v ia
the college or u n i v e r s i t y experience.
Th e N E A R e s e a r c h D i v ision reports that six out of e v e r y seven
b e g i nning teachers in the fall of 1954 we r e college graduates.
comparison,

138

By

in 1931 only one-third of the p u blic school teachers had

four y e a r s of college education.

139

It appears that in the inte r v e n i n g

twenty y e a r s the c e r t i f i c a t i o n requi r e m e n t of a b achelor's d e gree had
been f irmly e s tablished w i t h i n the "profession."

137

C. M c G u i r e and
G. D. White, "Social Ori g i n s of T e achers in
Texas," The Teachers Role
in Americ a n S o c i e t y , ed. S. J. Stiles (New
York;
Harper, 1957), pp. 23-41.
138
Teachers
1956).

National E d u c a t i o n Association, R e s e a r c h Division,
in 1954-55, N E A R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n No. 1 (Washington,

139

First-Year
D.C.:
NEA,

E. S. Evenden,
G. C. Gamble and H. G. Blue, T e a c h e r Personnel
in the United S t a t e s , Office of Educ a t i o n B u l l e t i n No.
10, Vol. 2
(Washington, D.C.:
U. S. Departmen t of Interior, 1933).

85

With respect to the p h y sica l d e s c r i p t i o n of the teaching group,
certain patterns emerge.
by Charters

140

who,

These' include such statements as that p rovided

after drawing u p o n i n f o r m a t i o n from the N E A and

several research studies concluded that:
The model A m e rican teacher, in the late 1950's, was a marr i e d
w o m a n between the ages of 46 and 55 y ears of age, representing
approximately 19 percent of the total o c c u p ational group. . . . The
older models of the typical teacher include characteristics such as
p redominantly college educated, native-born, Protestant, white,
middle-aged, m a r r i e d females of m i ddle-class, and possibly rural or
small-town o r i g i n . 141
These models,

it should be noted, we r e based on the occupational

group in the 1950's and does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y re p r e s e n t people n o w p r e ­
paring to teach.

They do provide some common frame of reference,

though.

These statements are n o t m e a n t to imply that there are no m a l e s
in the occupational group.

Rather,

tic of the occupational group;

they exhibit an emerging c h a r a c t e r i s ­

that is,

that the m a r r i e d w o m a n in t e a c h ­

ing is a recent phenom e n o n and that m a l e teachers are predomi n a n t l y y o u n g
w h ile female teachers are m o r e o f t e n m i d d l e-aged.

This characteristic

is likely to undergo gradual change as n o rmal attrition/ r e t i r e m e n t
rates are balanced w i t h the general p o p u l a t i o n trends.

Potentially,

the number of unmarried, young w o m e n will b e c o m e propo r t i o n a t e l y

larger

than older married women.

T e aching as a Career Occupational Choice
Many,

including this writer,

of the potential teacher;

c o n s i d e r a t i o n of one's career pl a n is a critical

and practical c o n sideration

140

Charters,

pp.

believe that from the persp e c t i v e

a "valuing pr o c e s s . "

718-719.

141

The professional

Charters,

p. 719.

86

h a lf-life of the typical graduate of a teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m is two
years.

M a n y do n o t plan long careers of teaching,

for W a l b e r g and others

state that "after the y e a r of the ba c c a l a u r e a t e for those w ho b e g i n t e a c h ­
ing,

only h a l f will r e m a i n in teaching for more than

for more than four years,

two years, a quarter

and an eighth for m o r e than s ix years.

. .

Such dropout statistics suggest that teacher e d u c a t i o n programs
serve one of several functions;

that is,

the p r o g r a m m a y prep a r e persons

for entry into other m o r e satisfying and/ o r r e w a r d i n g occupations.
m a y encourage persons

It

to continue in a p r o g r a m in spite of a r e a l i z a t i o n

d u ring or f o l l owing the student teaching experience
tional choice is n o t a personally r e w a r d i n g one.

that their o c c u p a ­

It m a y f u n c t i o n to

e n c ourage students to continue in pr e p a r a t i o n for a career for w h i c h
they are n o t suited.
Walberg's

statement was

supported by a m o r e r e cent p u b l i c a t i o n

titled Analysis of the Educational Personnel System;

IV T e a c h e r T u r n o v e r .

K e l ler suggested that surplus

jobs in d i f f e r e n t fields

teachers w o u l d get

and that " a l t h o u g h these people m i g h t w e l l have b e e n t e aching if they
had graduated

ten years ago,

two years

later a third of them w o u l d have

quit or b e e n dismissed.
While
1960's,

there were extreme shortages of teachers in the early

this is n o longer the case.

f r o m 6 to 11 p e r c e n t over the

Pa s t term i n a t i o n rates have varied

last 15 years,

144

b u t it is u n l i k e l y that

1. 2

H e r b e r t J. W a l b e r g and others, " P e r s o n a l i t y - R o l e C o n f i c t and
S e l f- C o n c e p t i o n in U r b a n Teachers," School R e v i e w , 76:41, March, 1968.
143

E mmett B. Keller, Analysis of the E d u c a t i o na l Pe r s o n n e l S y s t e m :
IV Teacher T u r n o v e r (Santa Monica, Calif.:
The R a n d Corporation, 1973).
144

Keller, p. 24.

87

there will b e sharp increases in terminations d u r i n g the 1970's.
school enrollments,
(teacher market),
b u t e to this

Falling

larger numbers of y o u n g p e o p l e e n t e r i n g the profes s i o n

and protective arrangements of w o r k i n g teachers c o n t r i ­

likelihood.

These considerations

led K e ller to conclude

that "it w i l l be m o r e efficient to ret r a i n those c u r rently teaching than
to train n e w college students," and that "one p o s s i b i l i t y w i t h a surplus
m a r k e t is to try to influence whic h groups r e m a i n in and w h i c h leave the
teaching profession.
Anderson

146

surveyed 34 students who had r e turned to M i chigan

State Unive r s i t y to complete certi f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s following award
of a non-te a c h i n g degree.

His study found that the m a j o r i t y of the

p opula t i o n either had held h i g h job aspirations or h a d held n o job
aspirations w h i l e undergraduates.

Six of the 34 persons

teaching as a long-range vocational goal.

s a w secondary

The m a j o r i t y of the p o p u l a t i o n

we re not h i g h l y successful in previous college and v o c a t i o n a l endeavors,
s aw the secondary c e r t ification p r o g r a m as a m e a n s of ent e r i n g fields
other than classroom teaching,

and w e r e s e a r ching for some vocational

d i r e c t i o n w h i c h would satisfy unmet personal needs.

His

study lends

support to the information cited earlier wi t h r e s p e c t to:
1.

the lack of career plan n i n g of those e n t e r i ng secondary
education

2.

the teacher education p r o g r a m as a f u n c t i o n of some other
career choice.

145
146

Keller, p.

25.

K e i t h P. Anderson, " A Study of Col l e g e G r a d u a t e s Certifying
for Secondary School T e a c hing" (unpublished P h D dissertation, M i c h i g a n
State University, 1965).

88

While the p opulation surveyed is not comparable to the s t udents in this
study,

the findings are useful.

Am o n g those proposed by A n d e r s o n we r e

that selection crite r i a be e s tablis h e d for entering p r e s e r v i c e students,
that laboratory or f i e l d experience in the schools p r o b a b l y should be
required at the outset of the certifi c a t i o n program,

that pr o g r a m s be

developed to m o r e adequately m e e t the individual needs of en t e r i n g
students,

147

and that p e r sonal interviews be conducted of those intending

to enter the program.
Factors affecting teacher m a n p o w e r trends have b e e n e x t ensively
reviewed through a series of Rand Reports.

These reports

summarize the

current status of h i g h

school graduates going to college and college

graduates becoming and

staying teachers.

reports,

A m o n g the items n o t e d in the

the following are signific a n t summarizations p r o v i d e d by Keller:

High School Graduates G o i n g to College:
1.

2.

More aspirations and m o n e y among lower class.
(Lower class
people m a y h a v e different career patterns than m i d d l e class
people
e.g. they are less likely to stop teaching w h e n they get
married.)
Changing p e r c e p t i o n of the v a l u e of a degree.
(For m a n y jobs,
certification is b e c oming m o r e necessary, but t e chnological
unemployment and a strong d e c e r t i f i c a t i o n m o v e m e n t could r e duce
the perceived value of going to school, or of c e r t a i n majors.)

3.

Counterculture

(other escapes fr o m home are n o w possible).

4.

Draft, GI Bill (their termination will reduce the n u m b e r of peop l e
in college, b u t only the o ne - f o u r t h of n e w teachers w ho are men).

Teacher F i r i n g s :
1.

Upgrade q u a l i t y

■^Anderson,

pp.

(or 'quality'

93-94.

as m e a s u r e d by adv a n c e d degrees).

^^Anderson,

p.

95.

89

2.

C o l l e c t i v e bargaining, strikes, and r e p r isals (the d i s t i n c t i o n
b e t ween tenure and n o n t e n u r e m a y be erased; f l e x i b i l i t y in
hiring special categories of teachers m a y continue to be
difficult).

3.

Attacks on tenure.

D e mand for Teachers
1.

Changes in education's share of g o v e r n m e n t money.
(This
could rise through the g r o w t h of teachers as a p o l itical
force, the Serrano decision, or m o n e y g i v e n to ghetto schools
as a palliative for continued segregation.
It could fall by
the unpopu l a r i t y of schools and p r o p e r t y taxes, or by the
growth of private schools).

2.

F e r t ility rates.

3.

N e w me thods (teacher's aides, technology, and v o u c h e r and
other experiments m a y lead to radical changes in studentteacher ratios).

4.

Changes in age of school a t t e n d a n c e (nursery school, day
care, earlier or later end of m a n d a t o r y attendance, end of
any m a n d a t o r y attendance).

5.

Decline or collapse of p a r o c h i a l

schools.

149

Potential teacher demand m a y be created by early retirements,
pa rt-time teaching provisions,

or r e d u c i n g

teaching load as one ages.

These considerations potentially impact on the i n f o r m a t i o n b a s e the
po tential teacher utilizes in m a k i n g the d e c i s i o n to enter a p reservice
program.

Gage suggests that:

Social and cultural forces impinge u p o n o c c u p a n t s of the teacher
status, and thereby upon the te a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g process, in two d i s ­
tinct ways:
by determ i n i n g who engages in the teaching o c c u p a t i o n
and by affecting directly those per s o n s so e n g a g e d . 150
Thus,
tion,

the " l o w prestige" o f t e n attrib u t e d

to the t eaching o c c u p a ­

for example, m a y discourage c e r t a i n p e o p l e fr o m e n t e r i n g or

"^Keller, pp. 27-28.

,,

150G a g e ,

p. 717.

90

r emaining in the profession;

it m a y d e m o r a l i z e or o t h erwise r e duce the

attitudes and/or e fficiency of those wh o choose to r e m a i n in the p r o ­
fession.
Once the d e c ision has b e e n m a d e to b e c o m e and stay a teacher,
certain desc riptors are readily av a i l a b l e as n o t e d earlier.

The N a t u r e of Interests in
Occupational Choice
W h e n a p erson states a like or dis l i k e of something,

he/s h e is

considered to have " s p e cific inter e s t , " or ex p r e s s e d interest.
ed interest is
* i
task,

Express­

"the verbal p r o f e s s i o n of i n t e r e s t in an object, activity,

<-•
- 151
or occupation.
Specified interests appear to v a r y w i t h the m a t u r i t y of the

individual.

Super and Crites r epo r t that at least four studies have

shown that expressions of interest in an o c c u p a t i o n are contin g e n t on
the m a n n e r in w h i c h the q u e s t i o n of interest is phrased.
questions may be stated to elicit i n f o r m a t i o n from one
spectives,
asked.

the

152

Since

of three p e r ­

degree of r e a l i s m of p r e f e r e n c e s varies w i t h the q u e s t i o n

Questions m a y be stated in terms of expectations,

preferences,

and/or fantasies.
B ordin
self-concept,

153

considers inventoried i n t e rests as r e f l e c t i o n of a

and proposed

the thesis that in a n s w e r i n g an interest

inventory a p e r s o n is guided by his s e l f - c o n c e p t and by his o c c u p a t i o n

S.
Bordin, " A T h eory of V o c a t i o n a l Interests as D y n a m i c
P henom e n a , " E d ucational Psycho l o g i c a l M e a s u r e m e n t , 3:49-66, 59, April,
1943.

152

Super and Crites, p. 378.

153

Bordin, p. 53.

91
stereotypes.

Thus,

a student who sees h i m s e l f as a teacher,

answer an interest q u e s t i o n as he believes a teacher would.
concept then m a tches

would
The self-

the stereotype.

Super and Crites suggest instead that:
. . . in answering the questions in an interest in v e n t o r y an i n d i v i d ­
ual records a series of self-perceptions, w h i c h in turn are summated
by the scoring scale in such a w a y as to reveal the simil a r i t y or
dissim i l a r i t y of his self-concept to the s e l f - concept w h i c h ha s been
found to be c h a r acteristic of persons in the o c c u p a t i o n b eing s c o r e d . 154
Theories of occupational interest are usef u l
antecedent characteristics of a population.

in re v i e w i n g

To the extent that these

theories are u t i lized in formal occupational i n t e r e s t inventories,
have no b e aring on the descri p t i o n of the study population.

But,

they
to the

extent that the theories are inherent in a gene r a l d i s c u s s i o n of teachertrainee statements of occupational interest they are applicable.
in the field of occupational
constructs,

interest appears

Research

to v e r i f y several b a s i c

including:

1.

Interest patterns

2.

Attitudes such as liberalism and social adjust m e n t are rel a t e d
to interest patterns, even p r i o r to o c c u p a t i o n a l e x p e riences.
(This m a y also be true of values, w h i c h are p r e s u m a b l y m o r e
d e e p - s e a t e d aspects of personality.)

2.

P e r s o n a l i t y adjustment in the sense of feelings of a d e q u a c y and
security has not b e e n shown to be
rela t e d to i nterest patterns,
but social adjust m e n t does appear to be.

4.

E xperiences such as courses in school and college, and s t a y i n g
in an o c c u p a t i o n over a long period of time, appear to ha v e no
appreciable e f fect o n inventoried
interests, a l t h o u g h the
experiences of the first two years of college t r aining in p r o ­
fessional fields have been shown, per h a p s b e c a u s e of the
importance of the first real contact w i t h a field, to have some
effect on i nventoried interests.

154

are related to d e gree of general

Super and Crites,

pp. 407-408.

intelligence.

92
5.

Those who leave a field of training w h i l e in college tend to
undergo a d e cline of interest in that field after leaving, and
those who change to a field tend to s h o w some increase in rela t e d
interests after they have m a d e the change, but these changes are
not on the w h o l e v e r y g r e a t . 155
Thses constructs

lead Super and Crites

to conclude that " a d equate

theories of interest(s) m u s t b uild o n the f i ndings concerning the r e l a ­
tionship b e tween general aptitude and interest, w h i c h implies that in
some instances aptitude p r o b a b l y does come first."

156

157
Nachmanand others have d e m o n s t r a t e d causal r e l a t i onships
b e tween values,

temperament,

p e r s o n a l i t y traits and needs.

attempt to describe expressed interests,
causation,

principles of interaction,

per se,

Thus,

in any

the fact of m u l t i p l e

and joint contributory factors of

nature/nurture become operational.

Occupational Success
In an article w r i t t e n over thirty y e a r s ago,

Stott

158

the n e c e ssity to r efine the concept of o c c u p ational success
its limited value.

E l e v e n years

later,

the same w r i t e r

159

to r e c o gnize
after a t t e m p t ­

ing to define occupational success in terms of five concepts,
that the word "success" had so m a n y m e a n i n g s

155

Super and Crites,

p. 409

stressed

concluded

that it had lost its v a l u e

156

Super and Crites,

p. 408.

■ ^ B a r b a r a Nachman, " Childh o o d E x p e r i e n c e and Vocational C h oice
in Law, Dentistry, and Social Work," Journal of Counseling P s y c h o l o g y ,
7:243-250, February, 1960.
158
13:126-140,
159

M. B. Stott, "Occupation a l
February, 1939.

Success," Occupational P s y c h o l o g y ,

M. B. Stott, "What Is Occu p a t i o n a l
P s y c h o l o g y , 24:195-112, November, 1950.

Success?", O c c u p a t i o n a l

as a technical

term and should be limited to d e s c r i p t i o n of the a ttainment

of self-chosen goals.

Davies

160

agreed that occupational success should

be judged from a v a riety of standpoints, b ut stressed its e m o tional basis.
He used success

to refer to a p a t t e r n of attitudes b uilt up towards a

w o r k e r by h i mself and b y those w h o judged his performance.

R e eves

161

agreed that w e do not need to seek u n c h a l l e n g e a b l e criteria of o c c u p a t i o n ­
al success.

He

suggested the u s e of limited criteria for a limited period

of time.
V ern on

162

outlined the need for immediate,

term criteria of measu r e s of " s u c c e s s . "
al p s y chologists

i n t e r mediate and long­

The comments of these o c c u p a t i o n ­

serve to suggest the serious pr o b l e m s encou n t e r e d in any

study of d e f i n i t i o n of occupational success.
Mitzel

163

points out that a l t h o u g h we ha v e seen m o r e than ha l f a

c entury of r e s e a r c h in the f i e l d of tea c h e r education,

no standards y et

exist w h i c h are gener a l l y agreed as the c r iteria of successful teaching.
He suggests that the t a s k of i d e n t i f y i n g effective teachers is crucial

G. Davies, "What Is O c c u p a t i o n a l
P s y c h o l o g y , 24:7-17, November, 1950.

Success?",

Occupational

W. Reeves, "What Is Occ u p a t i o n a l
P s y c h o l o g y , 24:153-159, November, 1950.

Success?",' O c c u p a t i o n a l

162

P. E. Vernon, "The C r i t e r i o n P r o b l e m in Selection and
G uidan c e , " Occupa t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y , 39:93-99, May, 1965.
163

M. E. Mitzel, "Teacher E f f e c t v v e n e s s , " E n c y c l o p e d i a of E d u c a ­
tional R e s e a r c h , ed. C. W. H a rris (3d ed., N e w Y o r k l M a c m i l l a n , 1960),
pp. 102-103.

94

to teacher education,

certification,

selection,

and promotion.

Cope

164

argues that " since total research into teacher e d u c a t i o n in this country
(Britain) h a s b e e n so limited,
c oncentrated on selection,
t

it seems a pity that so m u c h of it has

evaluation,

and p r e d i c ti o n . "

is n e c e s s a r y to focus more attention o n the o bjectives
training.

"The brutal fact is," she says,

She bel i e v e s

and p r o cesses of

"that in spite of over 2,000

s tudies we h a v e no objective criteria of what c o n s t i t u t e s
tence."

it

teacher c o m p e ­

Her statement is comparable to similar thoughts in the U n i t e d

States.
B i d d l e and Ellena^"* d r a w a t t e n t i o n to the cultural,
physical influences which m o d i f y a teacher's p e r f o rmance.
e v aluation of teacher success h a v e b e e n subjected

social and

Att e m p t s at

to criticism,

parti­

cularly since "success" is a relative term, not y e t clea r l y defi n e d and
agreed u p o n b y those in the profession.

"Success",

it is

h inges on the criteria being u s e d as m e a s u r e s of success;

theorized,
these cri t e r i a

appear to be r e l ative in nature and s u b j e c t to m o d i f i c a t i o n bec a u s e of
i n t ernal/external
A t t empts

forces.
to predict success in teaching,

p ractice teac hing as a student,

g e n e r a l l y while

by m e a n s of int e l l i g e n c e

in

tests h a v e m e t

w i t h the same lack of success as similar i n v e stigations of executives
and salesmen.

Seagoe

166

correlated suc c e s s in p r a c t i c e

teaching w i t h

164

E. Cope, "School Experie n c e and Student L e a r n i n g , " The Education of T e a c h e r s in Britain, ed. D. E. L o m a x (London:
Wiley, 1972), pp.
102-103.
^^Biddle
166

and Ellena.

M. V. Seagoe,
of E ducational Research,

"Prognostic T e s t s and T e a c h i n g
38:685-690, September, 1945.

S u c cess," Journal

95

scores on a variety of tests,

including the A m e r i c a n Council on E d u c a t i o n

Psychological E x a m i n a t i o n for College Freshmen.

She found no r e l a t i o n ­

ship b e t w e e n m e a s u r e d intelligence and rated teaching performance.

She

did find some positive results in the area of personality.
Tests for the e v a l u a t i o n of p r e p a r e d n e s s have be e n de v e l o p e d by
the Educational T e s t i n g Service.

T h e s e tests,

titled "National Tea c h e r

Examinations," are administered annually to candidates for teaching
p o s i t i o n wishing an objective record of m a s t e r y of subject matter.
test results m a y be m a d e available

to p o ssible employers.

The

167

Shile such tests m a y be u se f u l in the identi f i c a t i o n of teachers

j

and their probable teaching success,
cr iteria of success on the job.
clude that "The n u mbers

For this reason,

in studies

success need to be improved,

they h a v e n o t be e n v a l i d a t e d against
Super and Crites c o n ­

(completed) are small and c r iteria of

before ob j e c t i v e selection procedures can be

c onsidered adequate in this field."

168

More interesting is their c o n c l u s i o n that ".

. . as long as

teaching remains an u n d e rpaid o ccup a t i o n w i t h t o o f e w applicants for
available positions there is n o t likely to be m u c h pressure for the
d e vel o p m e n t of b etter s e l e ction methods,

at least in m o s t training

*.-4. 4.|,169
institutions.
While the n u m b e r of applicants for p o s i t i o n s has increased
significantly since 1962 (the date of the r e v i s e d

167

169

Super and Crites,

p.

372.

Super and Crites, p. 373.

168

text)

the ne e d for

Super and Crites, p. 372.

96

s election methods,

and statements of " s u c c e s s " criteria,

in this writer'

opinion, remains n e c e ssary and valid c o n s i d e r a t i o n s in any teacher educa
tion program.
Many countries employ various m e a s u r e s of ac a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e
to select students for courses of teacher training.

If our m a i n i n t e n ­

tion is to select students w h o will g a i n ac a d e m i c and,
occupational success,
ble, however,

thus,

these m a y be a p p r o p r i a t e procedures.

a s s umedly
It is p o s s i ­

that concen t r a t i n g on aca d e m i c p o t ential m a y lead to

n e g l e c t of other talents of equal importance to success in teaching.
Thus, using a wider v i e w of h u m a n values, we m i g h t select students
capable of m a k i n g important contri b u t i o n s to later community life
(beyond the college classroom).
by various writers,

Such a p e r s p e c t i v e is g i v e n support

including Richards,

Hol l a n d and L u t z . ^ ^

S elf-Concept/Attitudes
A b a s i c tenet of self-concept theory is that behavior,
performance,

is a f u n ction of self-concept.

or

If the teacher's self-

concept has a direct r e l a t i o n to the student's performance,

then the

r elationship of teacher self-concept to his o wn p e r f o r m a n c e

(role p e r ­

ception)

and potential occupational success is espec i a l l y important.

W h a tever b e h avior characteristics

the p r e s e r v i c e student m a y have,

relates somewhat to his self-concept and his attitude toward teaching.

170

J. M. Richards, J. L. Holland, and S. W. Lutz, " P r e d i c t i o n
of Student A c c o m p l i s h m e n t in Colleg e , " Journal of Educa t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y ,
58:343-353, November, 1967.

97
A t t itude has b e e n defined by T h u r s t o n e in Edwards'
of A t t itude Scale C o n s t r u c t i o n as

T echniques

. the d e g r e e of pos i t i v e or

n e g ative affect associated w i t h some p s y c h o l o g i c a l o b j e c t . "
c hological object can b e any symbol,

phrase,

171

slogan, person,

A psy­

ideal,

or

idea toward w h i c h p e o p l e can differ w i t h r e s p e c t to po s i t i v e or n e gative
affect.

Attitude can also be defi n e d as p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e evaluations

or emotional feelings.
attitude,

To the extent that b e h a v i o r is a fu n c t i o n of

it is of central concern to the teacher e d u c a t i o n program.

The effects of n e g ative attitudes toward students (ethnocentrism)
are reflected in studied teachers'
city schools.

172

Green

173

attempts

to avoid tea c h i n g in inter-

concluded that m o s t school p e r s o n n e l are

m e eting w i t h experiences in the teaching setting for w h i c h their t r a i n ­
ing has not prepared them.

His survey of ten m a j o r teacher training

institutions showed that those ins t i tutions w e r e n o t r e a l i s t i c a l l y facing
the problem(s)

of providing q u a l i t y teachers for u r b a n youth.

U l i b a r r i * ' ^ came to the same c o n c l u s i o n in his study of attitudes
toward m i n o r i t y groups.

^ ^ A l l e n L. Edwards, Techni q u e s of A t t i t u d e Scale C o n s t r u c t i o n
(New York:
Appleton-Century-Croft, 1957), p. 13.
172
(New York:

Ro b e r t Rosenthal and L. Jacobson, P y g m a l i o n in the C l a s s r o o m
Holt, R i n e h a r t and Winston, Inc., 1968).

173

R o b e r t L. Green, Crisis in A m e r i c a n Educa t i o n :
A Raci a l
D i l e m m a , U.S., Educational Resources I n f o r m a t i o n Center, ER I C D ocument
E D 015 980, November, 1967.
Ulibarri.

98

Dayton

175

r e p o rting on teacher turnover on Pi n e R i d g e R e s e r v a t i o n

du ring 1965-67,

found that m o s t (57 percent) res i g n e d b e c a u s e of the

administration,

isolation,

or for personal reasons.

The m a j o r i t y of the

teachers w h o left the p r o f e s s i o n were women, m a i n l y for pe r s o n a l reasons,
retirement, health,

or marriage.

m o s t often for leaving.

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was the r e a s o n m e n list

The study showed that m o r e than ha l f of the

va cancies were created by the teachers u n d e r 30 or over 50 and that
a p p roximately 41 p e r c e n t of the n e w teachers,
year,

do not r eturn for a second year.

as readily available for the

if they com p l e t e their first

Such statistics as these are not

"standard" secondary school,

b ut do suggest

that:
1.

The average age of teachers,

in B I A schools at least,

is

m a d e up of those persons b e t w e e n the ages of 30 and 50,

or

40 y e a r s of age (consistent w i t h the average age cited
earlier).
2.

A large number of first-year
unique

teachers

lack c o ping skills for

teaching circumstances.

A longitudinal effort to improve the q u a l i t y of i n s t r u c t i o n in
u r b a n schools has b e e n carried on by the M i d - C o n t i n e n t a l R e g i o n a l Educational Labora t o r y (McRel)

176

since 1962.

A part of M c R e l ' s effort

175

Jerome L. Dayton, "Reasons W h y T eachers L e a v e B u r e a u of I n dian
Affairs Schools on Pine R i d g e Reserv a t i o n " (unpublished M a s t e r ' s P r o j e c t
Paper, N o r t h e r n State College, Aberdeen, South Dakota, July, 1971).
(ERIC No. E D 084 046).
176

Lowell A. Seymour and others, M i d - C o n t i n e n t a l R e g i o n a l
E d u cational Laboratory, Inc., Kansas City, M o . (Washington, D.C.:
D e p art m e n t of Health, E d u c ation and Welfare, N ational I n s titute of
Education, August, 1973).
(ERIC No. ED 096 155).

99

included the C o o p e r a t i v e U r b a n T e ac h e r E d u c a t i o n P r o j e c t w h i c h contains
preservice and inservice training for teachers of m i n o i r t y group cultures.
The project for pre and inservice teachers p r o v i d e d e x p e r i e n c e of a
d i rect-contact type,

thus g iving continuity to the entire u r b a n teaching

experience.
The joining of pre and inservice tr a i n i n g into a continuous effort
to improve teacher attitudes and be h a viors

toward m i n o r i t y group chi l d r e n

is a m o v e in the d i r e c t i o n of involving teachers

in continuous analysis

of their behaviors toward the child r e n they wi l l

(or do)

teach.

Attitude

and performance appear to be closely related.
Johada and W a r r e n have poin t e d out that ".
related

to, but to be d i s t inguished from

but to be d i s t inguished from

'culture.'

. . attitudes are

'personality,'
'Personality'

and related to,
refers

total organi z a t i o n of internal psyc h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g . "
attitudes are m u c h less global

177

to the
Thus,

than is p e r s o n a l i t y and m a y be consid e r e d

as a person's d i s p o s i t i o n to r e a c t in c e r t a i n w a y s

towards classes of

objects.
That d eeply held ethnic-rac i a l a t t itudes

are d i f f i c u l t to change

has been recognized and substantiat e d by v a r i o u s social and p s y c h o l o g i c a l
r e search studies.

Leacock

178

examined the social p r e p a r a t i o n of teachers .

of m i n o r i t y group children and p r e s e n t e d a v a l u e d e v e l o p m e n t m o d e l for
helping teachers to deal w i t h the v a l u e d i f f e r e n c e s

they m i g h t have with,

mi n ority group children.

Penquin Books,
178
(New York:

J ohada and N. Warren, A t t i t u d e s
1966), p. 64.

(Harmondsworth, M i d d l e s e x :

Eleanor Burke Leacock, T e a c h i n g and L e a r n i n g in City Schools
Basic Books, Inc., 1969).

100
M o s t of the programs and studies reported,
involving pre and inservice teachers

thus far,

focus o n

in classroom and c o m m u n i t y situations

w h ich involve them w i t h culturally d i f f e r e n t children and adults.
Studies

like M a z o r ' s

179

seem to indicate that e d u c a t i o n students'

attitudes toward cultur a l l y different chi l d r e n are changed by e x p e r iential
contact.

Such studies m u s t be read w i t h caution.

Nevertheless,

these

studies indicate that personal values m a y be of greater significance
self-concept or social o rigin per se w h e n related
of the preservice teacher.
teacher,

than

to the gen e r a l attitudes

The value p o s i t i o n held by the p r e s e r v i c e

partic u l a r l y w i t h i n the timeframe prior to the stu d e n t teaching

experience,

is one about w h i c h little

information is available.

What

is

available is most o f t e n reflected through d e m ographic data on family
background,

self-concept and/or pers o n a l i t y factors from w h i c h certain

inferences as

to "attit u d e " are made.

rather than of preser v i c e

students,

I n teraction studies of teachers,

are c h a r acteristic of this group

of research efforts.
Information is lacking on the n a ture and extent of " coping"
experiences provided

to teachers-in-preparation.

the need for inclusion of these experiences

skills

Various studies supp o r t

in the p r e p a r a t o r y program.

The relationships b e t w e e n self-concept and d e v elopment of "coping"
skills are not clear but appear

to be interwoven w i t h attitudes and

behavior patterns as a r e f l e c t i o n of self-concept (personality).

179

Gilbert Mazor, "Attitude and Pers o n a l i t y Change of Student
Teachers of Disadv a n t a g e d Y o uth," The Journal of Educational R e s e a r c h ,
63:116-120, November, 1969.

101
Ulibarri,

Green,and

Gould'*'^ support the c o n t e n t i o n that

teacher education programs are not p r e s e n t l y p r o v i d i n g g r a duates who are
able to cope with urban school problem(s).
and educational experiences,

Th e

thesis is that the life

partic u l a r l y for p o t e n t i a l teachers with

m i d d l e - c l a s s values and attitudes,

h a v e ke p t them (teachers) isolated

from the realities of life that exist in u r b a n schools.

They o f t e n lack

exposure to the school setting and al s o to an e x p r e s s i o n of their own
feelings about the culturally or e t h n i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t child.

S u c h factors

led R o s e n t h a l and Jacobson to state that from the p u pil-teacher r e l a t i o n ­
ship,

".

. . his

d i fferent ethnic,

(the students) s h o r t c o m i n g m a y o r i ginate not in his
cultural and e c o n o m i c background,

r esponse to that background."

but in his teachers

183

A teacher's response to a c u l t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t b a c k g r o u n d is,
in part,

the result of his own cultural,

is an expres s i o n of his value system.
contribute to the teacher's attitude
e c ono m i c a l l y different child;

socio- e c o n o m i c background;

it

These attitudes m a y p o tentially
toward the cultu r a l l y or s o c i o ­

they m a y also f u n c t i o n as a c r iteria in

180 ,.,
Ulibarri.
181

G ordon Green, " A C o m p a r i s o n of Attitudes, Values and Dogmatism
of C o l l e g e Juniors and Seniors," J o u r n a l of T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n , 23:343347, Fall, 1972.
182

N athan Gould, "Concern fo r At t i t u d e s and Behavior," Culture
Shock, eds. Gerald Weinstein, and o t h e r s (Albany, N e w York:
B u r e a u of
Inservice Education, D i v ision of T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n and Certification,
State D e p a r t m e n t of Education, 1967), p. 18.
(ERIC No. ED 012 734).
183

Robert Rosenthal and L. Jacobson, "Te a c h e r E x p e c t a t i o n s for
the D i s a d vantaged," Scientific American, 218:19-23, February, 1968.

102
career choice and a ffect one's sati s f a c t i o n w i t h that choice.

Job

satisfaction and success are often c o n t i n g e n t o n v a l u e structures as they
impact u p o n the p u p i l - t e a c h e r relationship.
Wampler

184

A study b y Leslie, Lewin,

and

found job s a tisfaction to be the m a i n outcome of p re and p o s t ­

service training w i t h d i s a dvantaged c h i l d r e n by teacher e d u c ation students.
A resolution a d opted by the National E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n in May,

1965,

states that the a s s o c i a t i o n should:
P r o m o t e and conduct r e c r u i t m e n t activities, w o r k i n g w i t h teacher t r a i n ­
ing institutions in revising teacher p r e p a r a t i o n req u i r e m e n t s to
include training in intergroup r e l ations and in the skills and attitudes
n e c e s s a r y for teachers w o r k i n g w i t h c h i l d r e n of di f f e r i n g economic,
racial, and ethnic b a c k g r o u n d s . 185

Personality
Person a l i t y m a y be defined from a global viewpoint, w i t h r e s p e c t
to interaction analysis,
to external stimuli.

and/or as a p a t t e r n of traits or w a y s of r eacting

T h e s e concepts of p e r s o n a l i t y as a p a t t e r n i n g of

traits is reflected in various so-called "person a l i t y "

tests.

Approaches

to the relationships b e t w e e n p e r s o n a l i t y and t e m perament traits as related
to school or w o r k success or satisfaction, h a v e g e n e r a l l y followed one of
two patterns:

^ Larry Leslie, Joel Levin and D a v i d Wampler, "The E f fect of
P re-Service Experi e n c e W i t h the D i s a d v a n t a g e d on F i r s t Year Te a c h e r s in
Disadvantaged Schools," E d u c ation and U r b a n S o c i e t y , 3:398-414, August,
1971.
185

National E d u c a t i o n Association, C o m m i s s i o n on Prof e s s i o n a l
Rights and R e s ponsibilities, 1965, R e p o r t of the Second National N E A
C onference on Civil and H u m a n R i g h t s in Education, M a y 10-11, 1965
(Washington, D.C.:
NEA, 1965), p. 21.
(ERIC No. ED 019 351).

103

1.

Clinical analysis

2.

P s y c h o m e t r i c appraisal

R e v i e w of these two pattern s led Super and C r i t e s to c o nclude that:
One r e a s o n for the lack of adeq u a t e objective evi d e n c e on the v o c a t i o n ­
al and educational significance of p e r s on a l i t y traits is that students
of v ocational and educational a d j u s t m e n t have g e n e r a l l y be e n i nterested
not in v o c a t i o n s or in education, but in management, aptitudes, or
instruction, w h i l e student of p e r s o n a l i t y h a v e g e n e r a l l y be e n i n t e r e s ­
ted, n o t in v o c a t i o n s or education, but in ps y c h o l o g i c a l theory or
clinical diagnosis.
T r e n d s in the d e v e l o p m e n t of p e r s o n a l i t y m e a s u r e s appear to lean
toward projective devices.

M o r e r e c e n t l y there has b e e n a trend in

refining v a rious inventory techniques.

L o w v a l i d i t y in e a r l y p e r s o n a l i t y

inventories has b e e n cited as one r e a s o n for the r e f i n e m e n t of these
measures.

"The improved p e r s o n a l i t y inventories and b i o g raphical data

blanks seem . . . to be b etter stopgaps w h i l e the subtler p r o j e c t i v e
techniques are being object i f i e d and vali d a t e d . "

187

For purposes of this review, m e n t i o n is ma d e of p e r s o n a l i t y
m e asures o n l y to p o i n t to the a p p ar e n t s h o rtcoming of such measures.
addition,

In

it is n e c e s s a r y to recall that p e r s o n a l i t y is g e n e r a l l y u s e d as

a generic term to include m a n y subtopics p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d in greater
detail

(interest,

self-concept,

attitudes,

social orig i n influences,

etc.).

P e r s o n a l i t y d i a g n o s i s is u s e d in v ocational g u i d a n c e and pe r s o n n e l
w o r k to " s c r e e n p r o b l e m cases and to assist in the m a k i n g of m o r e effective adjustments."

188

Such a proces s has dire c t theoretical implications

in the teacher e d u c ation process,
discouraging potential

186

188

p a r t i c u l a r l y in terms of e n c o u raging/

teachers into career pursuits.

Super and Crites,

p. 516.

Super and Crites,

p. 518.

187

Super and Crites, p. 579.

104

It is possible to relate in a sequential m a n n e r the var i o u s tenets
and related research.

The theory is that s e l f - c o n c e p t leads to behavior;

b ehavior is expressed as p e r s o n a l i t y tendencies,
or relates to student performance.

Therefore,

affects p e rformance of students h e/sh e

and b ehavior leads to

a teacher's self-concept

teaches

in an indirect manner.

The development of p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t ca n lead to effective
teaching behavi or potential.

It can also lead to potential career d e c i s i o n

satisfactions w h i c h m a y be reflected through actual

teaching perfo r m a n c e

and c l a s s r o o m interaction.

PART 3:

R E V I E W OF LI T E R A T U R E - E V A L U A T I O N

D e scriptive research,
process of change,
acco mplished
nature.

intended to p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on the

can p r ovide an ide n t i f i c a t i o n of focus.

through evaluation w h i c h m a y be of a formal or informal

The literature of e v a l u a t i o n m a y be c h a r a c t e r i z e d g e n e r a l l y as

d ea l ing w i t h the following types of evaluation:
m a k i n g or judgmental,
tive,

This is

process,

objective or re s ult-oriented,

product,

formative

decision­

or summa-

institutional or non-institutio n a l .
Evalua t i o n may be based on such factors as the success of former

students,

existing programs v ersus pr o j e c t e d n e e d s

ought to be)
results

staff competencies and facilities,

(student outcomes),

(what is aga i n s t what

curric u l a r offerings,

and

and c o m m u n i t y or social values.

T h e critical reader is invited to r e call

that d e s c r i p t i v e r esearch

involves the collection of data for the p u r p o s e of d e s c r i b i n g conditions

105

as they exist (status research).

189

It m a k e s no atte m p t to e s t a b l i s h

cause-effect r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h e n p a r t i c u l a r l y compared to e v a l u a t i v e
research, w h i c h does a t t e m p t assessme n t and v a l u i n g statements
or inappropriateness).

(appropriate

The selected r e v i e w of evalu a t i o n literature,

therefore, places partic u l a r emphasis on e v a l u a t i o n models w i t h r e c o g n i ­
tion that it is the d e s c r i p t i v e p o rti o n of the model w h i c h i n i t ially
interests this researcher.
Stuff l e b e a m and Hall
CIPP (context,
to delineate,

input,
obtain,

190

process,

developed an evalu a t i o n m o d e l called
product).

Hi s model

is p r i m a r i l y d esigned

and p r ovide useful i n f o r m a t i o n for jud g i n g d e c i s i o n

alternatives in the four d e c i s i o n types identified.
Tyler
year study.

191

d e v e loped an evaluat i o n m o d e l as the resu l t of an eight-

The p r i m a r y intent of his model

performance w i t h behavioral

stated outcomes:

is to compare student
it is,

therefore,

b u i l t on

pre-specified c r i teria and closely related to perfo r m a n c e objectives.
Tyler model is p r i m a r i l y a d e c i s i on-m a k i n g model,

as is the S t u f f l e b e a m

model.

189

G i l b e r t Sax, Empirical F ou n d a t i o n s of Educa t i o n a l R e s e a r c h
(Englewood Cliffs, N e w Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968), p. 288.
190

Daniel S t u f f l e b e a m and F. Hall, Educ a t i o n a l Evalua t i o n and
D e c i s ion-Making (Itasca, Illinois:
F. E. Peacock, Publishers, Inc.,
1971).
191

R. W. Tyler, "The D e v e l o p m e n t of I n s truments for A s s e s s i n g
Educational P rogress," Phi D e l t a K a p p a n . 47:13-16, January, 1965.

The

106

Alkin
tion at UCLA,

192

and his associates at the Center for the Study of E v a l u a ­

Los Angeles,

California,

see evaluation as a pro c e s s of first

identifying and then q u a n t a t i f y i n g or m e a s u r i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
student input and educational outputs.

Their d e s i g n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h

determining the c o m b i n a t i o n of m e d i a t i n g factors w h i c h m a x i m i z e the e d u c a ­
tional outputs,

given a const a n t financial input,

effects of external

systems.

and c o n t r o l l i n g for the

A l k i n ' s model m a y be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a

m a c r o - s y s t e m for evalua t i o n involving external systems i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h
the internal s ystem (student and financial input and s t u d e n t - n o n - s t u d e n t
output).
Starr and D i e f fenderfer

193

d e v eloped an e v a l u a t i o n m o d e l for u se

w i t h vocational e d u c ation programs.
elements,

evaluation,

It consists of three phases:

and p r o g r a m planning.

comes as a m e a n s of evaluating programs;
evaluated by looking at the "product".

The m odel uses

that is,

student o u t ­

the " p r o cess"

is

The model w as d e s i g n e d for the

statewide evalu a t i o n of vocat i o n a l e d u c ation p rograms and its use,
fore,

system

there­

is limited in spite of its internal co m p r e h e n s i v e approach.
An o t h e r a d m i n istrative m o d e l

developed by M a l c o l m Provus.

194

(decision - m a k i n g model)

is that

The Prov u s " d i s c r e p a n c y m o d e l " is similar

192

M a r v i n C. Alkin, T o w a r d s an E v a l u a t i o n Model:
A Systems
Approach, U C L A C e n t e r for the S t u d y of Evaluation, W o r k i n g Paper No.
(Los Angeles:
UCLA, 1967).
(ERIC No. ED 104 150).

4

193

Harold Starr and R i c h a r d A. D i f f e n d e r f e r , A S y s t e m for S t a t e ­
w i d e Evalu a t i o n of V ocational E d u c a t i o n (Columbus, Ohio:
C e nter for
Vocational and T e c h nical Education, 1972).
194

M a l c o l m Provus, D i s c r e p a n c y Evalu a t i o n for E d u c a t i o n P r o g r a m
Im p rovement and A s s e s s m e n t (Berkeley, California:
McCutchan Publishing
Company, 1971).

107

to Stufflebeam's.

It consists of c r i t e r i o n r e f e r e n c e s designed to p r o v i d e

process and product as well as cost- b e n e f i t analyses.

The d i s crepancy

model is designed primarily for u s e w i t h ong o i n g programs;

it provides

for

c ontinuous investigation.
Provus defines p r o g r a m e v a l u a t i o n as the process of:
p r o g ram standards

(1) d e f i n i n g

(2) determining w h e t h e r a d i s c r e p a n c y exists between

some aspects of p r o g r a m p erformance and the standards

(proposed design)

governing that aspect of the p r o g r a m (3) u s i n g d i s c r e p a n c y information
either to change performance or to ch ange p r o g r a m standards.
He is careful

to state that a l t h o u g h e v a l u a t i o n has to do w i t h a

d isc repancy between performance and standard,
the standard is right;

on e can n e v e r be certain

it is always quite arbitrary.

These five models for evalua t i o n are n o t u n i q u e in and of them­
selves.

They are provided only as a frame of reference,

available,

to point to the variat i o n s in e v a l u a t i o n formating and the

purposes for which evaluations are

conducted.

Consideration of one other model
review

from among m a n y

the Stake model.

195

The issue,

is p e r t i n e n t to this brief
for Stake,

con t ribution of formal evaluation to education.

is the potential

Stake,

therefore, p r o ­

poses a model of evaluation which add r e s s e s itse l f to several audiences
including society spokesmen,
students.

subject m a t t e r specialists,

It is a global p r o c e s s r a ther than a closed theory.

The m odel incorporates descri p t i o n of a n t e c e d e n t

The R e c o r d

and

His model is intended to d e s c r i b e and judge in a formal setting

of i n quiry and design.

195

parents,

(prior to the process),

R o bert E. Stake, "The C o u n t e n a n c e of E d u c a t i o n a l Evaluation,"
(Teachers College), 5:523-540, April, 1967.

transactions

(applications of knowledge),

and out c o m e s

(final products);

it contains both a d e s c r i p t i v e and judgmental pro c e s s as model components.
The Stake m o d e l requires a criteria of c o n g r u e n c e and contingence.
W i t hin each element the intended and o bserved da t a is m a t c h e d b y congruence
it is also examined for contingence.

R e l a t i o n s h i p s are e x p r essed w i t h i n

each component of the d escriptive matrix.

T h e j u d g m e n t m a t r i x consists

of two cells including a (1) "standard" cell w h i c h m a y consist of r e lative
or absolute standards,

and a (2) judgmental cell from w h i c h the evaluator

matches descri p t i o n against standards in an ab s o l u t e c o m p a r i s o n basis.
F r o m that c o m p a r i s o n a judgm e n t is made.
identified in the m odel

T he e v a l u a t i v e c riteria is

solely in terms of the out c o m e c o mpared to the

standards selected.

Summary of E v a l u a t i o n M odels and Precepts
Educational e v a l u a t i o n demands both m e a s u r e m e n t and valuing.
M e a s ur e m e n t requires
an arbitrary standard

the use of a pr o c edure to q u a n t i f y and h o l d up against
to p r o vide an o b j e ctive description.

" V a l uing"

requires a p r o c e d u r e for assessing the ob j e c t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n in terms of
its worth to a l l o w the o b j e ctive data to be rela t e d to some b asis of v a l u e
and significance.
We evaluate,

assumably,

to m a k e pr o g r a m s b e t t e r and to m a k e better

policies w i t h i n which w e can orient these programs;

e v a l u a t i o n is aimed

at making specific decisions and/or taking s p ecific actions.
is a service provided

for decision-makers,

Evaluation'

it should serve to i d e n t i f y b o t h

the impact and the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the e d u c a t i o n program.
tional evalu a t i o n is concerned w i t h comparisons.

Most educa­

An e v a l u a t i o n is

incomplete u ntil w h a t is is related to w h a t is desi r e d or intended.

The

109
a ssessment of educational p r o grams and services have at least three
aspects:

(1) i nformation or d a t a gathering,

planning.

Evaluation,

per se,

(2) e v a l u a t i o n and

(3)

implies deter m i n i n g w h a t is i m p o rtant and

we i ghing the status quo against identified valu e s and aspirations.
represents the focal p r o b l e m in a continuous assess m e n t program.

It
"Valuing"

is a subjective rather than objective process.

A p p l i c a t i o n of E v a l u a t i o n M odels
Tea cher E d u c ation

to

Educational evaluation is expected to serve m a n y d i f f e r e n t p u r ­
poses and d i f f e r e n t publics.

Yet,

this w r i t e r has b e e n u n a b l e

specific i n formation w r i t t e n relat i n g e v a l u a t i o n m o d e l s

to find

to an e v a l u a t i o n

of a college or u n i v e r s i t y teacher ed u c a t i o n curriculum.

The implication

in all of the m a t e r i a l s r e v iewed is that such e v a l u a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s are
a pplicable to elementary,

secondary and,

but not n e c e s s a r i l y a ppropriate
Nonetheless,

perhaps, p o s t - s e c o n d a r y curriculum,

to teacher e d u c ation curriculum.

in principle,

a ny c u r r i c u l u m can be subj e c t to an

assessment or evalua t i o n process.
If, as Schwab
practical,

196

has indicated,

c u r r i c u l u m is the l anguage of the

the c u r r i c u l u m p l anner and i m p lementer is faced w i t h the ne e d

to m a k e choices.

T h e s e choices are in p r o b l e m a t i c settings for w h i c h

there are n o valid or fully applicab l e theories.

A t best,

only possible

alternatives exist, each of w h i c h m a y be associated w i t h a w i d e range of
p r o b able consequences.

196

J o seph J. Schwab, "The Practical:
School R e v i e w , (78:1-23), November, 1969.

A L a n g u a g e for C u r r i c u l u m , "

110
Evaluation,

as an integral p a r t of c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t in

teacher education, m u s t u t ilize the la n g u a g e of the practical.

Within

the context of any p articular i n s t i t u t i o n there are unique and distinct
combinations of variables w h i c h need to be i dentified for the d e c i s i o n ­
m aker .
A continuous search for observable,

significant,

and consi s t e n t

review of what occurs under the d i r e c t i o n of colleges of teacher e d u c ation
is one function of evaluative efforts.

A n o t h e r f u nction is to determine

within the complexity of d e s i g n w h e t h e r or n o t descr i p t i v e or experimental
models are appropriate or even n e c e s s a r y to the study of the teacher
education process.
Guba and S t u f f l e b e a m

197

sugge s t that evaluation,

or the process

of information gathering for d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g purposes, m u s t beco m e as
integral a part of curric u l u m as is instruction.
There have been increased efforts in p r o g r a m e v a l u a t i o n w i t h i n
the teacher education institutions in m o r e r e c e n t years,
as related to the N C A T E Standard,

#5 - Evaluation.

part i c u l a r l y

198

197

Egon G. G u b a and D aniel L. Stufflebeam, "Evaluation:
The
Process of Stimulating, A i d i n g and A b e t t i n g Insightful A c t i o n , " (an
address delivered at the Second N a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m for P rofessors of
Educational Research, Boulder, Colorado, N o v e m b e r 21, 1968).
(Mimeographed.)
198

A Brief Summary of E v a l u a t i o n Effo r t s by Various Colleges and
Universities R e l ative to NCATE Standa r d #5 - E v a l u a t i o n (Washington, D . C . :
National Council for A c c r e d i t a t i o n of T e a c h e r Education,

1972).

Ill

Mills suggests that:
. . . findings from such (Revaluation^) studies are m a k i n g it possible
to map . . . the relationships b e t w e e n c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n and i m p l e m e n ­
tation, b e t ween process and product, in each of these institutional
settings.
These findings . . . are of v a l u e in suggesting p o t e n t i a l l y
productive avenues of investigat i o n for other institutions to consider
in c o n c e ptualizing and m o d i f y i n g their own e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s . ^99
These will be discussed in Chapter 5, recommendations.

SUMMARY

The h i s t o r y of teacher education has b e e n charact e r i z e d as largely
an emergent,

but yet static function w i t h i n the last seventy years.

is the result of m a n y interrelated phenomena,

This

in c l u d i n g the v a r i e t y of

opinions existing w i t h respect to the p u p i l - t e a c h e r relati o n a l process,
the u n i v e r s i t y as a socialization agent in the p r e p a r tion of teachers,
the continual c o n t r o v e r s y over the p l a c e m e n t of the teacher education
p r o g r a m w i t h i n the college of education,
identifying teacher e d u c ation

and the r e f l e c t i v e mo d e used

in

(particularly p r e service) needs.

These needs are m o s t often determ i n e d on the basis of studies of
p racticing teachers,

or teachers as they are p r a c t i c i n g to teach v i a the

student teaching experience.

M o s t of the studies are w i t h i n the context

of the c l a s s r o o m as an i nteraction atmos p h e r e in w h i c h m u l t i p l e va r i a b l e s
impact on the "success" of the teacher/pupil r e l a t i o n s h i p s and learning
environment.

;To the extent that the teacher app e a r s

to ha v e a stable

self-concept,

and is p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y anchored,

is enhanced.

To the extent that the teacher is dogmatic,

1 QQ

Mills, p. 2.

the c l a s s r o o m a t m o s p he r e
closed-minded,

112
ethnocentric, and so forth,

the cla ssroom a t m o s p h e r e is d i m i n i s h e d in

effectiveness and, therefore, in terms of stud e n t accomplishment.
Student teaching,
severely criticized
process.

as a lear n i n g - p r a c t i c i n g a c t i v i t y has b e e n

b e c a u s e of its late p l a c e m e n t in the teacher education

M a n y contend that it is an exe r c i s e in f u t i l i t y b e c a u s e it does

not relate theory to practice.

Thus, after c o n s i d e r a b l e research, several

alternative programs h a v e b e e n deve l o p e d in b o t h e l e m e n t a r y and s e c ondary
teacher education programs.
A ltern a t i v e teacher educatio n programs,

i n c l u d i n g one at M i c h i g a n

State U niversity h e r e t o f o r e n o t described, h a v e b e e n de s c r i b e d in terms
of program components, f u n ding levels, and u n i q u e characteristics.
The question of w h e t h e r or no t teaching is, in fact, a p r o f e s s i o n
was reviewed from the p e r s p e c t i v e of the o c c u p a t i o n a l theorists as w e l l
as from the p e rspective of teachers in the "pr o f e s s i o n . "
of definition is not resolved,

W h i l e the issue

it serves as a b a s i c r e f e r e n c e throughout

the remaining portions of the litera t u r e discussed.
Generic c h a r a cteristics of the teacher as a n o c c u p a t i o n a l group
are described in terms of f a m i l y b ac k g r o u n d ,
profession, and status of the profession.

attitudes, c o m m i t m e n t to the

B rief reviews a re g i v e n on

items impacting o n o n e ’s o c cupationa l choice,

such as interest, aptitude,

and career selection.
Finally, v a r i o u s e v a l u a t i o n m o d e l s h a v e b e e n b r i e f l y d e s c ribed
w i t h particular emphasis on the Stake model.

The Stake M o d e l , p a r t i c u l a r l y

is reviewed as it has d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p as a p o t e n t i a l m o d e l to be us e d
in an evaluation of the S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n P ilot P r o g r a m a t MSU.
The relationship of inform a t i o n r eviewed in the literature provides
a conceptual p e r s p e c t i v e from w h i c h to c o m p a r e por t i o n s of the d a t a w h i c h

113

follow in Chapter 4 and will be use d
Chapter 5.

to support recomm e n d a t i o n s

The literature r e v i e w p r ovides a basic reference for

findings and recommendations
supportive data is provided

to.be pr o p o s e d in Chapter 5.
in Chap t e r 4, Findings.

Other

in

Chapter 3

RESEARCH PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY

Introduction
Pr i o r to data collection,

the p o p u l a t i o n w as identified,

ments were selected for use in the study,
a d ministration of the instruments,

inst r u ­

dates w e r e scheduled for

and the n e c e s s a r y e x p lanatory

ma terials were prepared.
The purpose of this chapter is to present:
1.

an identification of the p o p u l a t i o n

2.

the procedures utilized in the t r e a t m e n t of d a t a

3.

a d e s c r i p t i o n of a s p e c i a l l y - c o n s t r u c t e d que s t i o n n a i r e
developed for use in the study.

I dentification of

the P opulation

T h e p o p u l a t i o n defined for the study i n c l u d e d "any f r e s h m a n or
sophomore student currently admitted into and enr o l l e d in the a l t e r n a ­
tive secondary teacher education p r o g r a m (SEPP)."
excluded those students who had b e e n a ccepted
no longer actively participating.

This d e f i n i t i o n

into the p r o g r a m but were

A l s o e x c l u d e d w e r e those students who

were actively p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the Se c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n P i l o t Program,
but for w h o m complete information was

lacking.

Thus,

the d e f i n i t i o n

included all those persons who took the f o l l o w i n g required
on invitation,

to p a r t i c i p a t e

steps:

1.

Agreed,

in the study.

2.

Atten d e d an orientation ses s i o n a n d / o r r e ceived personal
instructions on h o w to complete the n e c e s s a r y instruments.

114

115

3.

C o m p leted

the instrumen t s in their entirety.

The p o p u l a t i o n involved in the study consisted of first and secon d - y e a r
students enrolled at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y in an approved teacher
e d ucation program.

Selection of the P o p u l a t i o n
I nformation about the p o p u l a t i o n u n d e r study was o b tained f r o m
the 1973 and 1974 computer printout from the R e g i s t r a r ' s O f f i c e at
M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y of those students w i t h declared m a j o r s in
secondary education.

Additional specific info r m a t i o n was o btained f r o m

the official list of students enrolled in SEPP,
of the Program,

Dr.

Samuel

provided by the D i r e c t o r

S. Corl.

E a c h student on the computer printout, w h i c h included those
students enrolled in SEPP, was assigned an i d entifying number.
The instructor responsible f or the b e g i n n i n g regular pro g r a m
course, Ed 200,

"The Individual and the School," was contacted to g a i n

his permis s i o n to contact students r e g i s t e r e d in the class and to a s k
their volunteer p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the study.
ment,

After securing h is a g r e e ­

necessary r o o m arrangements w e r e made, m a t e r i a l s prepared,

an n ouncements m a d e in the classes a n d letters d i s tributed

(See A p p e n d i x

B).
On a v o l u n t e e r basis,

and w i t h i n the criteria of " e n r olled at

M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y in Fall,

1973,

and i nterested in t e aching in

a secondary e d u c a t i o n program" students v o l u n t e e r e d and completed the
instrumentation.

The result of this effort nett e d 67 responses from

students w h o were not part of the S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n Pilot Program,

116

D a t a gathering p r o c e d u r e .
instruments w e r e

The subjects c h o s e n to respond to the

contacted b y mail.

A first class letter wa s sent to the

subjects requesting their parti c i p a t i o n and cooperation.

T h e c o ntents of

the envelope were:
1.

a letter of invitation

2.

a return,

stamped,

(See A p p e n d i x C and D)

self - a d d r e s s e d post card indica t i n g

a b ility or inability to attend the scheduled session(s)
(See A p p e n d i x E)
After the initial mailing,

a follow-up letter w as sent to those w h o had

not yet returned the post card indi c a t i n g w i l l i n g n e s s to p a r t i c i p a t e in
the scheduled i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n session(s).
A second
had

f o l l ow-up post car d or telephone call(s)

to t hose w ho

r e t u r n e d the post card a n d w h o w e r e w i l l i n g to parti c i p a t e in the

scheduled instr u m e n t a t i o n session(s) w a s accomplished.

S tudents w e r e

asked to complete the following instruments:
1.

K e r l i n g e r E d u c a t i o n V I Scale

2.

Rokeach

3.

A / P Scale

4.

P e r s o n a l Background Q u e s t i o n n a i r e

5.

Cattell 16 P. F.

(Appendix F)
(Appendix G)

Continued efforts w e r e m a d e to con t a c t SEPP students to c o m p l e t e
their d a t a sets

(Appendix H ) .

As a result,

SEPP students c o m p l e t e d responses,

65 F r e s h m e n and 56 So p h o m o r e

b r i n g i n g the N r e s p o n s e for SEPP to 121,

rep resenting 74% of t h e SEPP population.
responses of the SEPP and N S groups.

T a b l e 1 d e s c r i b e s the total

117

Table 1
N umber of R e s p onses b y SEPP and N o n - S E P P Students
Based on Or i g i n a l E n r o llees

G roup "N"

Subgroup

80**

No. R e s p o n s e s

SEPP 1
SEPP 2
ED 200

83
U n known

7« of P o p u l a t i o n

65
56
67

81
67
Unknown

Totals
188

100%

74

* * E i g h t y - f i v e freshmen w e r e a c c e p t e d in the SEPP; five of these
n ever p a r t i c i p a t e d in the p r o g r a m nor in the study.
Thus, the true
N = 80.
A total of 143 variables were studied,
documents w h i c h included
Scale VI,

the Rokeach,

Questionnaire.

u t i l i z i n g five b a s i c

the A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n s Scale,

the Cattell 16 P. F. and P ersonal B a c k g r o u n d

A v e r a g e time n eede d by the students to c o mplete the

m a t e r i a l s was approximately two hours w i t h the 16 P. F.
separate time,

the K e r l i n g e r

r e q u iring an additional 45 minutes.

s c h e duled at a

This n e c e s s i t a t e d

two sittings per p e r s o n in order to co m p l e t e the full d a t a set.
The procedures u t i lized for re s p o n s e s
included tabula t i o n of responses

to the v a r i o u s

in o r i g i n a l form,

d e v e l o p i n g r a w scores,

and conducting d a t a transformations, w h e r e necessary,
personal d a t a compatible

instruments

to m a k e scores or

to various p r e - e x i s t i n g c omputer programs.

D a ta was coded and p u nched on d a t a p r o c e s s i n g cards for u se w i t h the
various equipment and programs avai lable
C o m puter Laboratory.

at the M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y

118

F o l l owing this step,
(to be described

one item on the A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n Scale

in a latter p o r t i o n of this Chapter) w as reviewed and

reverse scored.
C umulative scores were d e v e l o p e d for the Kerlinger, Rokeach,
16 P. F. and A/P Scale.
In cases w h e r e responses dealt w i t h q u a n t i t a t i v e data,
statistical procedures were u t i l i z e d for analysis purposes.
of variance was used to analyze four of the instruments,
K e r linger Scale VI,

the Rokeach,

This analysis provided means,
cance for each item.

the Cattell 16 P. F.

standard deviations,

several

Ana l y s i s

including the

and the A /P Scores.

a nd tests of signif-

The computer p r o g r a m p r o v i d e d a n ef f e c t i v e r e c o r d ­

ing of the significance of d i f f e r e n c e among the three groups and w i t h i n
the various instruments.

Unless o t h e r w i s e noted,

the 5 p e r c e n t level of

probability was adopted as the c r i t e r i o n of significance.
For purposes of exploring relationships,
was also utilized.
matrix.

A total of 61 va r i a b l e s w e r e

a correlation matrix
considered in the

Other remaining v a r i ables we r e consid e r e d as d e m o g r a p h i c d a t a

and were treated in a contingency table e x p r essed as f r e q u e n c y and p e r c e n t
of response.

C h i-Squares w e r e developed.

H e l m e r t contrasts w e r e used to test three hypotheses.
Finally,

a Hoyt R e l i a b i l i t y and factor a n alysis wa s c o n d ucted

on the A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n s

Scale.

R e s u l t s of these a n alyses will be

reported in Chapter 4.
All data m a n i p u l a t i o n was acc o m p l i s h e d u s i n g the C o mputer
Services Center at M i c h i g a n State University.
Once data transformations had b e e n completed,
was run.

a trial p r i n t o u t

A visual survey was m a d e of the co m p l e t e c omputer printout;

119

all student data sets were reviewed.

A n y student h a v i n g incomplete

i n formation as represented through items omitted on a n instr u m e n t and/or
a complete instrument m i s s i n g were del e t e d from the study.
A total of 194 data sets w e r e received,

six of w h i c h w e r e

removed because the students were k n o w n to have w i t h d r a w n from M i c h i g a n
State University.

Follo w i n g the visu a l review,

data sets was reduced to 139,

the n u m b e r of u s able

d i str i b u t e d according to the information

in Table 2 below.

Table 2
Summary of R e s p o n s e and U s a b l e R e s p o n s e s By
Po p u l a t i o n Groups

No. Returned
N
7.

Subgroup

SI
S2
NS

65
56
67

Total

188

Unusable
N

17
13
19

100.0
100.0
100.0

Usable
%

26.1
56.2
28.3

49

N

7o

48
43
48

73.8
76.7
71.6

139

T w e n t y - s i x percent of the d a t a sets w e r e unusable.
The remaining

139 u sable d a t a sets w e r e u tilized i n the d e v e l o p ­

me n t of c ontingency tables,

the K e r l i n g e r and R o k e a c h r aw score lists,

and the various c orrelation matrix.
In 67 of the data sets,

a second v i sual r e v i e w indicated

one o r two response items w e r e m i s s i n g w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r
the A / P scale.

Thus,

that

instrument,

in a c c o m p l i s h i n g the Ho y t R e l i a b i l i t y and factor

analysis of this partic u l a r document,

the 67 r e s p o n s e s w e r e removed,

120
gi ving a total of 121 responses considered for this p o r t i o n of the
da t a analysis only.
The final element of the data procedures i nvolved

the analysis

and interpretation of the data, w h i c h is. d e s c ribed and p r e s e n t e d in
Chapter 4.

DESCR I P T I O N OF THE P O P U L A T I O N

W i t hdr a w i n g (Official "Drop")
SEPP Students
T he first y e a r of the Secondary E d u c ation Pilot P r o g r a m was
c h aracterized by the admittance of 83 students,
pro gram on a v olunteer basis.

e a c h e n t e r i n g the

The second ye a r of the p r o g r a m there were

a total of 85 students accepted in the program;

five of these n e v e r

participated.
At the time of the c onclusio n of the study

(March,

1975)

the

following information was gathered as to the current enroll m e n t status
of the SEPP students.
1.

F r e s h m e n SEPP students:

Six students h a d w i t h d r a w n from

b o t h SEPP and M i c h i g a n State University.
fr o m SEPP,

One other student had w i t h d r a w n

but n o t from M i c h i g a n State University.

None of the s ix who

w i t h d r e w are known to have transferred to other schools or to have
continued schooling elsewhere.

Students in this g r o u p h ad b e e n e n rolled

at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y for two or less r e g i s t r a t i o n terms.
2.
from SEPP.

Sophomore SEPP students:
Of that number,

T h i r t e e n students had w i t h d r a w n

seven are known to have w i t h d r a w m from both

SEPP and M i c h i g a n State Univer s i t y to continue their s c h o o l i n g elsewhere,
including seminary,

other M i c h i g a n u n i v e rsities

(We s t e r n M i c h i g a n

121
University,

Central M i c h i g a n University,

U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan),

c o m munity college and/or other out-of-state uni v e r s i t i e s

(Drexel,

Emer s o n

U n i v e r s i t y in Boston).
Of the thirteen w i t h d r a w i n g students,
State University to continue their studies.
m a r r i e d and w i t h d r e w from school,

five re m a i n e d at M i c h i g a n
One other student was

in a ddition to the seven others c o n ­

tinuing their schooling elsewhere.

The w i t h d r a w a l s from the sophomore

SEPP class are represented in Table 3, w i t h information on all SEPP
students.

Table 3
Enrollment Status of F r e s h m e n arid Sophomore SEPP Students at.
Time of Conclusions of the Study
(March, 1975)

Group

Entered

SEPP 1
SEPP 2

Withdrew/Program

80
83

Withdrew/School

1
5

7. R e m a i n i n g

6
8

91.3
84.3

(N = 163)

Finally,

an additional five students had indicated to the

Dir e ctor of the Program that they m i g h t drop school for rea s o n s including
grades and finances.

These potential "drops" w e r e n o t confirmed at the

time of the study as they would have offic i a l l y w i t h d r a w n from school
( M i c higan State University)

and/or the p r o g r a m (SEPP) after the close

of the W i n t e r T e r m ending, March,

1975.

These

h a v e occurred past the study termination date.

withdrawals w o u l d also

122

The A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n Scale (App e n d i x F)
D u ring the p r eliminary r e v i e w of literature on attitude scales
for use in unive r s i t y settings,

it was d e t e r m i n e d that there we r e a

limited n umber of such scales available and c o n s i d e r e d appro p r i a t e to
the study.

A scale m o s t nearly res e m b l i n g w h a t was d e s i r e d wa s found in

the College and Univer s i t y E nvironm e n t Scale,
available from E d u c a t i o n a l T e sting Service.

(CUES)

Second Edition,

T h e Scale is devised to

measure seven areas including pract i c a l i t y of the environment,
awareness,

propriety,

campus morale,

community

and q u a l i t y of t eaching and f a c u l t y -

student relationships.*Dressel states

that "the instrument is a k i n d of p o l l i n g device

w h i c h summarizes students'

opinion w i t h regard

to the e x i s tence or non-

2
existence of certain characteristic s on the campus."

T here is no

pr ovision for computing individual scores on this p a r t i c u l a r instrument.
Finally,
Thus,

the instrument is not r eco m m e n d e d for use w i t h college freshmen.

it was not approp r i a t e for several reasons.
One other c o n sideration aff e c t e d the d e c i s i o n to structure a

scale for use in the study;

that is,

that C U E S asks students

to indicate

whether or not the total college envi r o n m e n t is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by certain
statements contained w i t h i n CUES.

Al t e r n a t e a p p r o a c h e s

to the same

questions can be obtained by avoiding a p e r c e p t u a l a p p r o a c h as is used
in CUES and,

instead,

structuring statements w h i c h a re mo r e o b j e ctive in

^Robert C. Pace, "College and U n i v e r s i t y E n v i r o n m e n t Scales,"
Seventh M e ntal M e a s u r e m e n t s Y e a r b o o k , ed. O s c a r K. Buros (2d ed.,
H i ghland Park, N e w Jersey:
G r yphon Press, 1972), p. 106.

2
Paul L. Dressel, " R e v i e w of C U E S , " S e v e n t h M e n t a l M e a s u r e m e n t s
Yearbook
ed. Oscar K. Buros (2d ed., H i g h l a n d Park, N e w Jersey:
G r y phon
ress, 1972), pp. 108-110.

123
nature.

No such instrument was found to be available and w h i c h covered

the range of topics desired.

Thus,

the d e c i s i o n was m a d e to construct

an instrument designed to determ i n e . t h e p a r t i c u l a r perceptions, and
attitudes of the students at M i c h i g a n S tate University.
Items contained in the A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n s Scale (A/P Scale)
we re developed on the. basis of several c r iteria w h i c h included:
1.

The statement was

2.

The content of the stat e m e n t was to be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the
total university,

to be stated in a p o sitive manner.

w h e r e v e r possible,

and was

to place emphasis

on the r e l a t i o n of the staff to the student.
3.

The statement was

to be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of p o s i t i v e and/or

negative reactions shown in the literature w i t h respect to
h o w former teacher e d u c a t i o n students "rated" their u n i v e r s i t y
experiences

(not n e c e s s a r i l y at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y but

• in some teacher educa t i o n program).
4.

The content of the state m e n t w as

to be self - c a m p u s related,

thereby p r o v i d i n g the student w i t h a p e r s o n a l i z e d framework
from w h i c h to r e spond to the statement(s) o n a L i k e r t - t y p e
scale.
5.

The content was

to include a supplemental s t a tement in w h i c h

to identify a) d egree of commi t m e n t to be c o m i n g a teacher and
b) prior experiences
that is,

in areas related to b e c o m i n g a teacher;

to identify volunteer,

w o r k and l eadership e x p e r i ­

ences w h i c h m i g h t have some p o t e n t i a l re l a t i o n to the d e c i s i o n
having b e e n m a d e to b eco m e a teacher.

124

Item Const r u c t i o n
F o l l owing a r e v i e w of the literature,
structed for potential use.
p anel for readability,
the students review,

fifty items were c o n ­

These items w e r e screened by a student

sense of the statement,

various

and so forth.

Following

items w e r e dropped or modified.

T h i r t y - f i v e revised items were then g i v e n to a d i f f e r e n t student
panel of five u n d e r g r a d u a t e s and three gra d u a t e students.
w a s asked to complete the Scale,

as proposed,

comment on any items or instructions

Ea c h student

and o n a separate sheet to

for c o m p l e t i o n w h i c h were unclear.

T a b u l a t i o n of their responses created the n e e d to r e w r i t e f o urteen items
and to eliminate five items for c o n s i d e r a t i o n on the final scale.

Thus,

thirty items w e r e included on the A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n s Scale.
A n additional three items composed the sect i o n titled "O u t of
School Experi e n c e s ; " four other items asked for i n f o r m a t i o n on " E d u c a t i o n
and C a r e e r Plans."

R e sults of these two special sections are pr e s e n t e d

in C h a p t e r 4.

Reliability
F o l l o w i n g tabulation,
r e sponses

to the A / P Scale,

coding,

and k e y p u n c h i n g of the student

one item w as rem o v e d b e c a u s e pos i t i v e or

n e g ative response could not be determined.

O n the r e m a i n i n g 29 items,

Ho yt R e l i a b i l i t y was accomplished to test for item reliability.
H e l m s t a d t e r explains

the h a n d l i n g of obs e r v e d score va r i a n c e in the

f o l l o w i n g manner:
A c c o r d i n g to Hoyt's formulation, v a r i a t i o n in the p e r f o r m a n c e of an
individual from item to item is n o t considered to be error at all.
Rather, it is a real (non-error) difference, an i n t r a -individual
difference, and one w h i c h should n ot be i nvolved in the e s t i m a t i o n
of reliability.
That is, total v a r i a t i o n obs e r v e d is conceived to

125

be m a d e up of three components:
true i n t e r individual differences;
i n t r a individual differences (measured by item variance), and error
i n t e r individual d i f f e r e n c e s . 3
T hree tests of item reliabil i t y we r e completed,
C o mputer Services C enter at M i c h i g a n State University.
original responses

u t i l i z i n g the
U s i n g all

188

(which included respondents m i s s i n g items on the

total set of study questionnaires,
completed the A/P Scale),

but did not include any w ho had not

a reliabil i t y factor of .92 was given.

Using a reduced response w h i c h removed students w ho had not
completed all of the study questionn a i r e s
r eliability factor of .83 was given.

i n c l uding the A /P Scale,

a

This group repr e s e n t e d the N = 139

used in the study.
Finally,

u sing a reduced response w h i c h removed students w ho had

"skipped" any one item on the A/P Scale,
of .85 was given.

(N = 121) a relia b i l i t y factor

It is important to note

that these three computer

analyses were conducted on each item of the A /P Scale.
A n additional c r o s s - v e rifica t i o n was a c c o m plished u t i l i z i n g the
sum of the A / P Scale scores.
.85.

Thus,

The Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y by sum of scores was

it appears that both item and sum of scores o b t a i n reli a b i l i t y

above the .80 level,

using the Hoyt R e l i a b i l i t y formula.

F act or Analysis
A factor analysis was also a c c o m plished on the A/ P Scale.

Osgood,

l\

Suci and T a n n e n b a u m

suggest that for factor analysis i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

3
G. C. Helmstadter, Principles of P s y c h o l o g i c a l M e a s u r e m e n t
(New York:
A p p l e ton-Century-Crofts, 1964), pp. 73-74.

4
Charles E. Osgood, George Suci and P e r c y Tannenbaum, M e a s u r e m e n t
of M e aning (Urbana, Illinois:
Unive r s i t y of Illinois Press, 1957), pp.
204-206.

Table 4
A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n Scales
Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix*
Compared to M e a n and Standard D e v i a t i o n

Variable

Factor 1

Factor 2

U nderstand Unive r s i t y Staff
services

.17880

.00660

VAR02

Use information provided by staff

.24010

VAR06

Staff has time to help w i t h
problems

VAR07
V AR08

Mean

S.D.

.73491*

4.5180

1.2473

.12216

.57663*

4.5468

1.2753

.27319

.60084*

.38868

4.5971

1.6184

T h e y m a i n t a i n confidentiality

.07595

.50869*

.36208

5.2950

.9045

Staff k n o w ledgeable on e d u c a ­
tional information

.17197

.51147*

.28319

4.7986

1.5189

VAR09

C o m p etent in subject m a t t e r areas

.19709

.31044

.45458*

4.8705

1.2208

VAR10

Staff provides u n i v e r s i t y o r i e n t a ­
tion

.09388

.37961*

.10492

4.5036

1.3480

F e l l o w students get procedures
information

.21037

.46241*

.05141

4.5683

1.2397

Staff knows students as individuals

.68736*

.01170

.28366

5.1655

1.2999

VAR01

VAR11

VAR17

Fact o r 3

Table 4 (continued)

Variable

Factor 1

Factor 2

F a ctor 3

Mean

S.D.

VAR18

A c c urate information provided

.64153*

.22555

.26063

4.0719

1.7596

VAR20

Time spent w i t h staff helpful
in p r ogram decision

.70755*

.20940

.25393

4.6547

1.3551

Time spent w i t h staff helpful
in career decisions

.67200*

.25808

.13369

3.9065

1.4391

VAR24

Able to r e a c h staff generally

.26888

.63848*

.13607

4.7266

1.4183

VAR25

Staff referrals are honored
by f e l l o w staff

.29523

.49309*

.00955

4.4460

1.3735

Un i v e r s i t y staff interested
and attentive during con­
versations

.50604*

.35773

.21471

5.0719

1.3002

Positive attitude because of
good staff experiences

.66055*

.41374

.17494

4.4317

1.6421

Stay at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r ­
sity b e cause of staff

.55041*

.45041

.11793

3.6906

1.8132

VAR21

VAR27

VAR28

VAR29

* H i g h factor loaded items
Total N = 139

128

purposes a factor

loading of .300 or above is considered as sufficient

to include the item(s) as the under l y i n g factor or construct.
nine items were considered in the Hoyt R e l i ability.

Twenty-

S e v enteen items,

in Table 4, emerge as having h i g h (.4 to .6) loadings.

All 29 items are

listed in A p p endix I.
T hese factors indicate that the students p erceive the u n i v e r s i t y
staff as competent,

personally interested in their well-being,

ge n erally available and helpful as a r e source person.

Thus,

and

students

h a v e positive perceptions and,

as a result,

at M i c h i g a n State University.

Facul t y and u n i v e r s i t y staff are critical

components affecting the students'

they are e ncouraged

to r e m a i n

at t i t u d e and decisions.

T ests for V alidity/Reliability
T h e A/P Scale has had no additional tests for validity.

One

such m e t h o d w h i c h could be employed w o u l d be that of securing a panel of
experts to comment on the internal

(content) validity.

consist of other university staff,

external

T he panel w ould

to M i c h i g a n State University,

w h o s e combined opinions could v erify or reject the v a lidity of the
s tatements on the A/P Scale.
E b e l.^

Such a pr o c e d u r e is that r e c o m m e n d e d by

Since there is no o ther comp a r a b l e scale,

it w o u l d not be p o s s i ­

b le to comment on predictive validity.
A dditi o n a l

steps w h i c h could be taken to further test for

r e l iab i l i t y would be to conduct m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e factor analysis of
the 16 h i gh-loaded

items.

5
R obert L. Ebel,
w o o d Cliffs, N e w Jersey:

E ssentials of E d u c a t i o n a l M e a s u r e m e n t
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972), p. 363.

(Engle­

129
A correlation m a t r i x of all items on the A / P Scale was completed.
Overall correlation of items was

.9916,

indicating, high c o r r e l a t i o n in

the test items generally.
For purposes of this study,
a c c omplished its original

intent;

the A / P Scale

that is,

is considered to have

the Scale p rovides b aseline

i n f ormation on the attitudes/perceptions held by students

enrolled at

M i c hi g a n State University w i t h regard to M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y staff
and program.

The staff w a s broadly defined to include a n y perso n

o fficially employed by the Universit y to prov i d e services
The definition,
advisors,

therefore,

included academic advisors,

Univer s i t y College advisors,

to students.

r e s i d e n c e hall

and g raduate student instructors.

P r o gram included any course or series of courses w h i c h w e r e part of the
teacher education professional sequence.

Summary
This chapter presents an account of the processes

and procedures

u t ilized in the study from the time of its approval to the analysis of
data.

Also included is a d e s c r i p t i o n of the A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n s

and information on reliability/valid i t y of
Scale,

the Scale.

Responses

Scale
to the

in addition to the other i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n us e d in the study,

p r e sented in Chapter 4, w h i c h follow.

are

Chapter 4

F I NDINGS

Chapter 4 presents an analysis of data collected via the Personal
Background Questionnaire,
Scale VI,

the Catte l l

16 P. F.,

the Kerlinger E d u c a t i o n

the R o k e a c h Scale and the A / P Scale by item and sum scores.

On the basis of the i n f o r m a t i o n reviewed and the findings p r e ­
sented certain implications for additional r e s e a r c h are suggested and
identified in Chapter 5 to follow.

Demographic Data
SEPP and Non-SEPP
Within the instrument d e v e l o p e d to collect demographic data,
c r oss-check questions w e r e designed.
not presented,

since in both cases

Responses

two

to these questions were

the student responses indicated

consistency of information.
Table 5 presents basic educational
of the popula t i o n groups.

and personal chara c t e r i s t i c s

The p o p u l a t i o n had an age range s panning

under 18 to over 22, w i t h the largest concentrations

(frequency)

in the

18-19 year old range.
The population is c h a racter i z e d by n e a r l y 717. females in SEPP 1,
747. females in SEPP 2 and 797. femal e s

in non-SEPP.

Overall perce n t a g e s

for the p o p u l a t i o n combined are 74.17. female and 25.97<> male,
at the

sign i f i c a n t

.01 level.
W i t h respect to ethnic background,

are of black,

chicano,

indian,

less than 77« of the p o p u l a t i o n

o r i e n t a l or some other m i n o r i t y group

background.

130

131

Table 5
Summary of Demogr a p h i c Da t a on E d u c a t i o n a l and Personal
Characteristics by P o p u l a t i o n Groups

SEPP 1

SEPP 2
%
#

i

Item

#

NS

i

%

#

%

X

2

Age
. 19 - under
20+

47
0

100.0
00.0

36
3

92.3
7.6

32
13

71.1
28.8

Sex
Male
Female

14
34

29.1
70.8

11
32

25.5
74.4

11
37

22.9
79.0

0.50

Et hnic Background
Anglo
Other

.41
3

93.1
6.8

41
1

97.6
2.3

45
3

93.7
6.2

1.08

Terms at M S U
1-3 terms
4 or more

47
1

97.9
2.0

1
42

2.3
97.6

18
27

40.0
6 0.0

84.90**

Terms in other p ublic
post-second ary
1 term
Two or more

8
3

72.7
27.2

12
1

92.3
7.6

14
5

73.6
26.3

1.99

Type school prior M S U
Junior/comm, college
Univer s i t y

2
1

66.6
33.3

1
0

100.0
00.0

2
1

66.6
33.3

9.45

13
34

27.6
72.3

14
29

32.5
57.4

23
25

47.9
52.0

4.50

Change in Major
Yes
No
M a rital Status
Married
Single
Head of Household
Yes
No

* * .01

—

- -

--

--

48

100.0

43

100.0

48

100.0

0.00

1
47

2.0
97.9

0
42

00.0
100.0

1
47

2.0
97.9

1.57

level of significance

N = 139

--

19.25**

132
As m i g h t be expected by the n a ture of the p o p u l a t i o n studied,
the time span of the study (across two d i f ferent terms),

and

the number of

terms at M i c h i g a n State University vary according to class standing.
That is,

the freshmen SEPP group (SI) had b e e n in school 1-3 terms;

sophomore SEPP group (S2),

4 or 5 terms;

the n o n - S E P P group

the

(NS) p r e ­

d ominantly 4 or, 5 terms, with an additional 247. indicating a ttendance
for two or three terms.

These variations we r e significant at the

.01

level.
T h e n umber of terms spent in publ i c p o s t - s e c o n d a r y schools other
than M i c h i g a n State U niversity is relatively small.

A greater n u m b e r of

NS students have had experience of this n a ture than ha v e students
either of the SEPP groups.

in

M o r e of the fr e s h m e n than sophomore SEPP

students have attended some school other than M i c h i g a n State University.
T here are more junior or community college
v ersity transfers.
responses.

transfers

than u n i ­

No technical schools are repr e s e n t e d in the student

Of the total N,

seven indicated e xperience in a specific

type of post-s e c o n d a r y institution,

y et seventeen indicated "time spent"

in schools other than M i c higan State University.

The i n f ormation appears

to be inconsistent with respect to p re - M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y e d u c a ­
tional experience.
W h e n asked if they had changed m a jors
State U n i v e r s i t y
changed)

(not asked to identify the n u mber of times they had

there w e r e wide ranges of difference

For instance,

since ent e r i n g M i c h i g a n

in the student response.

only 277. of the SI students had changed majors,

327. of S2 and 477. of NS.

compared to

Some of this differ e n c e can be a c c o unted for

by the very nature of the groupings;

that is, both the S2 and NS students

133

had b e e n in school at least two terms longer than the SI students,
shown in Table 5.

as

Since S2 and NS students m o s t closely a p p roximate one

another in class standing,

one migh t e x pect that they w o u l d be very close

w i t h respect to having changed majors.

Th i s is not the case since a

larger percen t a g e of the NS than the S2 s tudents have changed majors.
None of the students p a r t ic i p a t i n g in the study w e r e married,

yet

two students considered themselves to b e "heads of hou s e h o l d s . "
R esidential information is p r e sented

in T a b l e 6.

R e s i d e n c e was

defined as the area/location at w h i c h one lived w i t h i n the family s t r u c ­
ture.
was,

Thus,
instead,

"home" was not considered to be

the U n i v e r s i t y campus;

it

the place at w h i c h the "head of the h o u s e h o l d " resided.

Students are from families living pr i m a r i l y in standard m e t r o p o l i t a n and/
or suburban communities.

No m o r e than 287. are from communities w h i c h

might be classified as rural (less than 5,000 population).
If it is true that the average A m e r i c a n f a m i l y is composed of
parents having 2.3 children,

then both the SEPP and N S students are

re presentative of the "typical" family size.
are from large families

(7 or m o r e mem b e r s )

S lightly m o r e S2 students
than are SI and N S students,

A n early equal number of NS students are also from rather
overall,

large families,

55-607. of the students are in fam i l i e s of five or more.
Eighty-five p e r cent or more of the students are from families in

w h i c h b o t h parents are living at home.
from homes

A small n u m b e r of students are

in w h i c h there are single (11) or w i d o w e d parents

(6).

In

these six instances there is the p o s s i b i l i t y of single/or dual income.
Less than 907. of the respondents are from families in w h i c h the
place of residence has changed in the last year,

sugge s t i n g a stable

134

Table 6
Summary of Demogr a p h i c D a t a on R e s i d e n t i a l
Charac t e r i s t i c s by P o p u l a t i o n Groups

SI
Item

#

S2
7o

#

NS
7»

• #

„
%

x

R e sidential Location
26,000 - m o r e
2,500 to 25,000

20
21

42.5
44.6

20
13

47.6
30.9

23
19

49.9
39.5

1.04

No. in
Self
4 or
5 or

20
28

41.6
58.3

19
24

44.1
55.8

18
28

39.1
60.8

0.25

5
40

11.1
88.8

6
36

4.2
85,7

6
41

12.7
87.2

0.20

Change R e s i dence in
Last Year
Yes
No

4
44

8.3
91.6

4
39

9.3
90.7

2
46

4.1
95.8

1.07

All Famil y / S a m e House
Yes
No

33
15

68.7
31.2

27
16

62.7
37.2

30
18

62.5
37.5

0.52

Family in Diff erent
House/Same County
Yes
No

6
40

13.0
86.9

6
37

13.9
86.0

5
41

10.8
89.9

0.21

Family in Different
C ounty/Same State
Yes
No

10
37

21.2
78.7

12
30

28.5
71 . 4

12
33

26.6
73.3

0.70

Family M e mbers in
Different State(s)
Yes
No

5
41

10.8
89.1

4
39

9 .3
90.7

11
35

23.9
76.0

4.57

immediate family
excluded
less
more

Marital Status,
of Household
Other
Married

Head

135

Table 6 (continued)

S2

SI
Item

Family Members
L i v i n g Abroad
Yes
No

N = 139
df = 2

#

0
46

%

00.0
100.0

#

1
42

NS
%

2.3
97.6

#

2
44

%

4.3
95.6

X

2

2.26

136

family relationship.

Sixty- t h r e e p e r c e n t or m o r e of the r e s pondents

indicated that all of the family mem b e r s are living in the same house.
Another

11-147. of the family m e m b e r s are living in di f f e r e n t

residences, but w i t h i n the same county as the family unit.

Twenty-one

to twenty-eight percent of the family memb e r s reside in a d i f f e r e n t
county, but w i t h i n the same state as do e s the family unit.

Table 6 also

shows that the largest n umber of families affected by this type of living
arrangement are w i t h i n the S2 students.
the majority of the f amily unit m e m b e r s

In all three respon d e n t groups,
live w i t h i n the same state and

county area.
NS students have

the largest n u m b e r of family memb e r s

living in a different state.
students have f a mily m e mbers
than 57. of the students'

R e l a t i v e l y few, by comparison,
living in different states.

immediate f a mily members are

A summary of T a b l e 6 indicates

(237.)
of the SEPP

Finally,

less

living abroad.

that r esidences have not changed

s ignificantly in the last year, more of the SI students are from families
in w hich everyone

is living at home;

not to live at home;

family m e m b e r s

tend m o r e o f t e n than

other family m e m b e r s are close by, p r i m a r i l y w i t h i n

state boundaries.
Table 7 is one in which the type of r e s i dence of the f a mily unit
is described.
all,

N e a r l y all of the families own their homes, most,

of the residences are single family type.

Most,

if n ot all,

if n ot
of the

families do not live in a condominium;

they own their own homes and do

not oonsider themselves as "renting."

On l y two f amily units resi d e in

an apartment a nd/or live in a resid e n t i a l unit w h i c h is shared w i t h a
n o n -family member.

137
Table 7
Summary of Demogr a p h i c D a t a on R e s i d e n t i a l I n f o r m a t i o n
Based on Head of House h o l d by P o p u l a t i o n G r o u p s

SI
Item

#

Ns

S2
•

%

#

%

#

%

X

2

O wn home
Yes
No

45
2

95.7
4.2

39
3

92.8
7.1

47
1

97.9
2.8

1.55

Single Family Residence
Yes
No

45
2

95.7
4.2

4
1

97.6
2.3

48
0

100.0
00.0

2.23

Condominium
Yes
No

0
48

00.0
100.0

1
40

2.4
97.5

1
46

2.1
97.8

1.95

Rental Home
Yes
No

1
46

2.1
97.8

2
38

5.0
95.0

0
47

00.0
100.0

2.8

Ap artment
Yes
No

2
46

0
40

00.0
100.0

0
47

00.0
100.0

5.73

Shared R e s i d e n c e /
N on-family
Yes
No

1
47

1
40

2.4
97.5

0
47

100 0

N = 139
df = 2

4.1
95.8

2.0
97.9

00.0
1.90

138

The m a j o r i t y of the family units o wn their own homes, w h i c h are
single family residences.

They do not rent, n or do they g e n e r a l l y live

in condominiums or apartments.
wi th a "renter").

N e i t h e r do they share their home

Table 8 summarizes employment,

level of the head of household.

(i.e.

income and educational

Ni n e standard o c c u p a t i o n a l categories

w e re used to identify the type of e m p l o y m e n t of the head of the household.
The table summarizes this informati o n after c ollapsing cells.
Students perceive the head of the ho u s e h o l d (their parents)

as

being employed p r i m a r i l y in the pro f e s s i o n a l and m a n a g e r i a l c l a s s i f i c a ­
tions (50-597«).
sales,

crafts,

The remaining occu p ational c l a s s i fications are clerical,
f o r eman and kindred workers.

Because of collapsed cells,

the table does n o t s h o w that SI students have m o r e farming and crafts
occupations represented; NS is h igh e r in service workers
S2 combined.

than are SI and

There appear to be f e w basic d i f ferences b e t w e e n the groups

w i t h respect to parental occupations.

T w e n t y students r e p r e s e n t i n g 147.

of the p a rticipants did not respond to this question.
F amily income is reported to be largely in the $15,000
plus range.

Annual family incomes are all above $7,000 (as rep o r t e d by

the students).
income;

to $2 4 , 000-

Of the SI students,

667. did not report the h o u s ehold

137. of the S2 students and 337. of the NS students did n o t respond

to this question.
A larger p ercentage of NS "heads of h o u seholds" are in the
$25,000 or above income ranges,
indicated.

w i t h comparable occu p a t i o n a l

status

Income ranges appear consi s t e n t w i t h the o c c u p a t i o n s

for the head of the household.

identified

139

Table 8
Employment, Income and E d u c a t i o n of Head of
Household by P o p u l a t i o n Groups

SI
Item

#

S2
7o

NS

#

7.

#

7o

X

2

Type of Employment
Professional/Mgrl.
Other

21
21

50.0
49.9

22
15

59.4
40.5

21
19

52.5
47.5

0.75

Family Income, Excluding
Partner
$15,000 - 25,000+
$9,999 - 14,999

18
22

40.9
50.0

22
14

55.0
35.0

26
17

57.7
37.7

2.68

3
9.

25.0
74.9

3
5

37.5
62.5

2
9

18.1
81.8

0.90

40.7
37.5

26
15

60.4
34.8

.25
21

52.0
43.7

0.86

Joint Parental Income*
(Optional Response Item)
$25,000 or m o r e
$8,500 - 24,999
Y ears School Completed
by Head of Household
1-5 years college
1-4 years high school

N = 139
df = 2
* N = 31 of 139

29
18

140

W h e n asked to identify "joi n t parental income" as optional
information,

31 of 139 students chose to complete this question.

those who completed the question,
the family income.

joint income si g n i f i c a n t l y increased

T h e largest increase upward was in a n income range

of $15,000 - $24,999.
groups.

Of

T here was an increase upward w i t h i n all three

Of those r esponding to this optional question,

397. were SI,

267.

we re S2; 357. were NS.
The n umber of years of scho o l i n g completed by the head of the
household,

appears to be consistent w i t h other occu p a t i o n a l

identified in the responses.

information

M o r e of the S2 students h a v e parents w h o

have completed college; m o r e NS par e n t s have completed college also.
Because of collapsed cells,

the table does n ot s h o w that m o r e of the SI

students have parents w h o have comp leted two years of col l e g e (14.57.)
than do S2 (6.97.) and NS

(2.0),

respectively.

Student Experiences
A separate set of informati o n was collected via the A / P Scale
i

(Appendix F ) d e aling w i t h student experiences prior to a t t e n d i n g M i c h i g a n
State University.

Table 9 presents

tion (other portions are reported

summaries of some of that i n f o r m a ­

later in this chapter).

W h e n asked w h e t h e r or not they had had vo l u n t e e r e x p eriences

(i.e.

candy striper) 80.87. of SI, 80.47. of S2 and 85.17. of NS students
responded "yes",

as shown in T a b l e 5.

In all groups,

807. or m o r e of

the students had had v o l u nteer e xpe r i e n c e of some type p r i o r to ent e r i n g
M i c h i g a n State University.
Nearly 817. of the SI students entered M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y
w i t h prior work experi e n c e for w h i c h they had b e e n paid.

This

141

Table 9
N umber of Students H a v i n g Volunteer, Work, and L eadership
E xperiences Prior to A t t e n d i n g M i c h i g a n State
U n i v e r s i t y by P o p u l a t i o n Groups

S2

SI
Item

#

%

#

NS
%

#

%

X

2

Volunteer Experience
Yes
No

38
9

80.2
19.1

33
8

80.4
19.5

40
7

85.1
14.8

0.41

Paid W o r k Experience
Yes
No

38
9

80.8
19.1

31
10

75.6
23.3

37
10

. 78.7
21.2

0.38

L e a dership Experience
Yes
No

40
6

86.9
13.0

31
9

77.5
22.5

38
9

80.8
19.1

1.36

N = 139
df = 2

142

information would be consistent w i t h the family backgr o u n d
given earlier,

in w h i c h a larger percentage of the SI students indicated

that they w e r e from m i d d l e income families,
the student w o r k i n g for spending money.
also worked;
experience,

thus, perhaps,

necessitating

N e a r l y as m a n y S2 and N S students

slightly more NS students than S2 students.had had such
78.77. and 75.67., respectively.

A larger n u m b e r of SI students
experiences

(income)

(i.e.

(86.97.) had had leadership

class officer) prior to entering M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r ­

sity than did S2 and N S students.

Still,

there w e r e a large n u m b e r of

students w h o entered M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y w i t h such experiences,
77.57. and 80.87., respectively,

for S2 and NS students.

A summary of these re s p o n s e s confirms that a large n u m b e r of
students w h o entered M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y did so w i t h a v a r i e t y of
prior experiences,

including volunteer,

paid work,

and leadership.

SI

represents the h i g h e s t percentages in all categories.
T a b l e 10 presents summary i n f ormation p r o v i d e d by the students
w i t h respect to some of their perceptions of " h e l p f ulness" of the
u niversity community at M i c h i g a n State U n i versity.

Students w e r e asked

to identify the degree to which certain staff and other p e o p l e had been
of help to them w h i l e in school.

The SI students, m o r e than any other

group, p e r c e i v e d the teaching faculty to be helpful
to S2 and N S
(NS).

students who rated them less helpful,

T h o s e students

64.87. (S2)

and 66.67.

indicating degrees of little or m i l d l y helpful

r e presented no m o r e than 377. of any one group.
teaching f a c u l t y to b e more helpful than not,
tages.

(74.47.) as compared

Students p e r c e i v e d the
SI h a v i n g h i g h e s t p e r c e n ­

143

Table 10
Perceptions of D e g r e e of H e l pfulness P r ovided by
U niversity C o m m u n i t y by P o p u l a t i o n G r oups

SI
Item

#

S2
%

#

NS
%

#

7o

X

2

Teaching Faculty Helpful
Very Helpful - Helpful
Little - M i l d l y Helpful

35
12

74.4
25.5

27
16

64.8
37.2

32
16

66.6
33.3

1.47

Univ. College F a culty Helpful
Very - M ildly .Helpful
Little or No Help

24
22

52.1
47.8

22
21

51.1
48.8

27
20

57.4
42.5

0.42

Graduate Assts. Helpful
Very - Mildly Helpful
Little or No Help

28
18

60.8
39.1

23
20

53.5
46.5

28
19

59.5
40.4

0.07

Dorm. Advisors Helpful
Mildly - Very Helpful
Little or No Help

26
19

57.7
42.2

20
22

47.6
52.3

26
21

55.3
44.6

0.98

Other Students Helpful
Very Helpful
Helpful - No Help

26
22

54.1
45.8

29
14

67.4
32.5

27
20

57.4
42.5

1.78

N = 139
df = 2

144

The degree to which students p e r c e i v e d the U n i v e r s i t y College
faculty to be of help varied.

Whil e the students w e r e n e a r l y equally

split b e tween very to m ildly helpful and little or of no help,
slightly in favor of the stronger side of the scale.

Thus,

they lean

52% of SI,

51%, of S2 and 57% of N S perceive the U n i v e r s i t y F a c u l t y to be somewhere
between m i l d l y and very helpful.
collapsed cells)

that 25%, of SI,

T he table does n ot s h o w (because of
27.9%, of S2,

and 34%, of NS students

indicated that the U n i v e r s i t y College faculty w as of no help to them.
W h e n asked to identify the degr e e to w h i c h gra d u a t e assistants
had b e e n of help

to them the students r e s p onded s im ilarly to their p e r ­

ceptions of u n i v e r s i t y faculty.

Thus,

60%, of SI,

53%, of S2 and 59%, of

NS students ranked graduate assistants as b e t w e e n m i l d l y and very helpful
to them.

Conversely,

39%, of SI,

46%, of S2 and 40%, of NS students ranked

graduate assistants as of little or no help to them.
group,

W i t h i n the NS

23%, of the students indicated n o help from gra d u a t e assistants,

suggesting that they have had less " k n o w n to them" e xposure
assistants

than have the SEPP students generally.

to graduate

This m a y be accounted

for by the v e r y n ature of the p r o g r a m in w h i c h they are enrolled.

It is

important to n o t e that the q u e s t i o n w as n ot struc t u r e d along p r o g r a m
(alternative vs.

regular)

lines.

Rather,

it was s tructured along total

university services provided by vari o u s personnel.
W h e n asked to identify the d e g r e e to w h i c h do r m advisors were
helpful, more SI (57.5%,) and NS (55.3%)
positively.
helpful,

than S2

(47.67.) responded

Students more o f t e n r an k e d d o r m advisors as helpful, m i l d l y

or of little help,

very or no help.

rather than at the extreme scale points of

Because of collapsed cells,

this i n f o r m a t i o n does not

145

clearly show in the table.

In addition,

dorm advisors as of n o help,

S2 and N S m o r e o f t e n ranked

287.. and 297., respectively,

compared to only

207. of the SI students who ranked dorm advisors likewise.

SI p e r c eived

dorm advisors as helpful.
Students in all three groups perceive other students as b e i n g
particularly helpful

to them.

A total of 54% of SI, 677. of S2 and 577. of

NS students ranked other students as very helpful.

The r e m a i n i n g s t u ­

dents ranked f ellow students as b e t w e e n help f u l or of no help.
of collapsed cells,

though,

Because

the table does n ot s h o w that in only two

cases did students perceive other students as of no help.

T h e two

indicating no help o n the scaled response were from the N S group.
One can state w i t h relative confidence that,
d ifferences in degree,

the students g e n e rally per c e i v e the teaching

faculty, U n i v e r s i t y C o llege faculty,

graduate assistants,

and f e llow students as being m ildly to very helpful
Table 10.

in spite of m i n i m a l

d o r m advisors,

to them as shown in

In a few cases no help was indicated o n the scaled responses.

Still, w h e n compared

to the h igher frequencies w i t h i n the o t h e r cells,

the "no help" response ranged from zero to 297..

Thus,

at least 707. or

mo r e of the students perceived each of the other groups as b e i n g hel p f u l
in some degree,

Career Plans
to Teaching)

ranging from very helpful

to m i l d l y helpful.

(Interest/commitment

A series of quest i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h the career plans of the SI,
S2 and N S students w e r e designed.

Table

11 presents responses

to the

q u estion "To w h a t d e g r e e are you interested in be c o m i n g a m i d d l e or h i g h
school teacher?"

In response,

657. of SI,

907. of S2 and 587. of NS

146

Table 11
Summary of Degree of Interest (Career Plans) by
P o p u l a t i o n Groups

S2

SI
Item

#

%

#

NS
7o

#

7o

X

2

Degree of interest in
becoming middle/H.S. teacher
Very interested
Interested - no Interest

31
16

65.9
34.0

38
4

90.4
9.5

28
20

58.3
41.6

Degree of committment
to teach, 3 yrs. hence
High
M edium to L o w

31
13

70.4
29.5

33
8

80.4
19.5

25
11

69.4
30.5

1.56

Degree of committment
to teach, 5 yrs. hence
High
M e d i u m to L o w

27
17

61.3
39.6

26
15

63.4
36.5

26
12

68.4
31.5

0.47

N = 139
df = 2
^ S i g n i f i c a n t at .01 level p

0.01

12.05**

147

students responded on the positive side of the scaled response w i t h
very interested.

Because of collapsed cells,

the reader w ould be unable

to determine that no SI or S2 students responded w i t h degrees of only
slight or no interest, while seven N S students did so.
students,

the S2 group appears

to have

Of all the

the strongest degree of interest

in becoming a teacher.
The degree of commitment to t eaching three years h ence was
positive for SI,

S2 and NS students,

w ho r e s p onded faith h i g h interest/

commitment at 707., 80% and 697., respectively.

Degree of i n t e rest/

commitment five years hence drops considerably,
students.

p a r t i c u l a r l y for the S2

The percen t a g e of change in commitment from three y e a r s hence

to five years hence reduces

17%, for S2 students,

and only a 1% drop for NS.

Thus,

compared to 97. for SI

a c o m p a r i s o n of the re s p o n s e s indicate

that of the three groups of students,

the N S students have a grea t e r

commitment to b e c o m i n g and remaining a teacher five y ears hence than do
the SI or S2 students.
A summary of the responses suggests
wh o have changed majors,

that for those NS students

once the change has been m a d e a per s o n a l c o m m i t ­

me n t had also b e e n m a d e to b ecome and r e m a i n a teacher.
suggest that the SI or S2 students do n ot intend

This does not

to do so also,

but it

does suggest that they m a y not have the same degree of c o m m i t m e n t as do
the NS.

Viewed from another perspective,

the fact that 317, to 397, of

the students do not "see" themselves in t eaching in five y ears hence
suggests that they would be consiste n t w i t h the n a tional a v e r a g e s - - t h e y
would not have graduated until at least two of those five y e a r s had
passed.

H a v i n g graduated,

they m i g h t enter and r e m a i n in teaching.

148

Assuming that they w e r e able to secure teaching positions,
have left them w i t h i n three or less years,

they w o u l d

if only o n the b a s is of their

expressed interest at this point in time an d irregardless of other
external factors u n a c c o u n t e d for in the present.

Summary of Demogr a p h i c I n formation
The series of tables present e d thus far demon s t r a t e that the
population groups are n o different in family background, n o r wi t h
respect to future plans,
education.

than w h a t h as b e e n true tra d it i o n a l l y in teacher

As a potential group of teachers,

the p o p u l a t i o n would fit

n i cely into the "mold" of d emographi c or p e rsonal background c h a r a c t e r ­
istics used to d e s cribe the "current" teaching p o p u l a t i o n g e n e r a l l y as
reviewed in the literature.

M i n i m a l d i f ferences do emerge, but e s sentially

there is little d ifference b e t w e e n the three groups.
this is in terms of the SI and N S groups.

One e x c e p t i o n to

In sev e r a l p articular in­

stances these two groups appear to be m o r e alike th a n do the S2 and NS
groups who should, o n the basis of class standing, m o r e c l o s e l y a p p r o x i ­
m a t e one another.

Cattell 16 P. F.
Specific items in the 16 P. F. w e r e obtained b y r a w score sums,
which were then converted to a sten scale
on an individual p r ofile sheet.

(standard ten) and translated

The P r o f i l e shows v a r i a t i o n s in degr e e s

of tendency w i thin 16 person a l i t y characteristics.
T able 12 summarizes all student scores o n the 16 P. F.

An

examination of these m e a n scores and standard deviat i o n s i ndicate that
w i t h respect to:

Table 12
Cell Means and Standard Deviat i o n s for SI, S2 and NS on 16 P. F.
C o m p a r e d to C o l l e g e Student Norms

SI
Factor

A
B
C
E
F
G
H
I
L
M
N
0

-

-

-

-

Qi
1.
q2
*3
^4

-

—

Reserved, outgoing
Less, M o r e intelligent
Af f ected by feelings,
Emotio n a l l y stable
Humble, assertive
Sober, h a p p y-go-lucky
Expedient, conscientious
Shy, venturesome
Tough, tender-minded
Trusting, suspicious
Practical, imaginative
Forthright, shrewd
Placid, apprenehsive
Conservative,
E x p erimenting
Group, Self-sufficient
Undisciplined self­
conflict; controlled
Relaxed, tense

N = 139
Source:

S2

Scores

NS

Nat i o n a l N orms
for College
Students
Mean
SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

10.93
8.93

2.95
1.89

10.52
8.72

3.07
1.57

11.00
8.88

2.09
1.63

10.93
8.83

3.45
1.89

15.54
12.41
15.39
13.66
14.14
12.97
8.20
13.20
8.87
10.37

3.62
3.85
4.24
3.42
4.75
3.75
2.90
3.23
2.62
3.92

14.93
13.06
16.58
11.95
14.62
12.93
8.04
12.62
9.47
11.37

3.27
4.00
4.53
3.49
4.99
3.14
2.62
3.16
2.67
3.50

15.11
12.27
15.97
12.00
13.90
13.74
7.74
14.06
9.20
11.00

3.90
4.31
4.69
3.31
5.48
3.27
3.34
3.31
2.62
3.23

15.23
12.93
16.63
11.88
13.58
11.67*
8.38
12.81
8.75
10.70

3.90
4.36
4.42
3.72
5.79
4.20
3.38
3.60
2.80
3.89

8.02
10.41

3.96
3.60

8.06
10.08

2.55
2.99

8.37
10.16

2.50
3.13

9.15*
10.08

3.41
3.68

12.16
13.83

3.17
5.71

11.75
14.29

2.84
4.09

11.53
13.72

3.52
5.42

11.70
13.43

3.28
4.81

‘
^ Sig nificant v a r i ation b e t w e e n SI, S2, N S and College Student M e a n
T a b ular Supplement (Form A + B College Student Norms), 16 P. F., p.

14.

3.50

1.

Factor A (Reserved - Outgoing) - m e a n s are c onsistent w i t h

the college norms;

standard deviations are s lightly lower for the study

population.
2.

Factor B (Less Intelligent - Mo r e Intelligent)

- bo t h m e a n

and standard d e v i a t i o n are consistent w i t h college norms.
3.

Factor C (Affected by F e e l i n g s - E m o t i o n a l l y Stable) - m e a n

and standard devia t i o n are consistent w i t h college norms.
4.

Factor E (Humble - Asse r t i v e )

college norm;
5.

- m e a n is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the

standard deviation is s l i g h t l y lower than the norm.

Factor F (Sober - Happy- go-lucky)

population is lower than college norms;

- m e a n for the study

standard deviation,

though,

is

consistent w i t h the norm table.
6 . F actor G (Expedient - C o n s c i e n t i o u s )
the college norm;
7.

F actor H (Shy - Venturesome)

the college norm;
8c

standard d e v i a t i o n is sli g h t l y

- m e a n is h i g h e r
lower.

- m e a n is slightly h i g h e r than

standard d e v i a t i o n is lower than the college norms.

Fa ctor I (Tough-minded - T e n d e r - m i n d e d )

cantly higher

than

than the c o r responding college norms;

lower than the college norms.
discussed in greater detail

- m e a n is s i g n i f i ­
standard d e v i a t i o n is

Impli c a t i o n s of this factor w i l l be

following the summ a r y of m e a n and standard

deviations for each item on the 16 P. F.
9.

Factor L (Trusting - Suspicious) - b o t h the m e a n and the

standard deviations are lower in the study p o p u l a t i o n than those of the
college norms.
10.
higher

These are n o t construed as sign i f i c a n t differences.

Factor M (Practical - Imaginative)

than the college norm;

- two if the m e a n s

standard d e v i a t i o n is s l ightly

are

lower.

151

11.

Factor N (Forthright - Shrewd)

- m e a n scores for the study

population are slightly higher than that of other college students;
standard deviation is consistent w i t h the college norms.
12.

Factor 0 (Placid - App r e h e n s i v e )

than college norms;

- m e a n is so m e w h a t higher

standard d e v i a t i o n is consi s t e n t w i t h the college

norms.
13.

Factor

- (Conservati v e - E x p e rimenting) - m e a n scores for

the study p o p u l a t i o n are n early 1.00 lower for the study p o p u l a t i o n w h e n
compared to the college norms;
n orm tables.

standard d e v i a t i o n is c onsistent w i t h the

Implications for this factor w i l l be discussed at a later

point.
14.

Factor

- ( G roup-depe n d e n t - S e l f-sufficient) - m e a n s are

consistent w i t h the norm table;

standard d e v i a t i o n is slightly lower for

the study population.
15.

Factor

- (Undisciplined Se l f - c o n f l i c t - Controlled) -

m e a n scores for the study population,

as w e l l as standard deviations,

are

consistent w i t h the college student norms.
16.

Factor

- (Relaxed - Tense)

- m e a n s for the study p o p u l a ­

tion are slightly h i gher than college norms;
tions are also higher.
cant variations,

two of the standard d e v i a ­

T h e s e are n ot consi d e r e d

to be s t rongly s i g n i f i ­

though.

Interpretatio n of F actor Score
M e a n and Standard Deviat i o n s
W i t h the e x c e ption of two factors reported,

the SI, S2 and NS

groups appear to be no d i f f erent than o ther coll e g e students nation w i d e

152

as reported by the Institute for P e r s o n a l i t y and A b i l i t y Testing.'*'
two factors noted are significant in several respects.

The

They are as

follows:
1.

Factor I (Tough-minded - Tender-minded).

H i g h scores in

this scale indicate tendencies on the part of those p e r s o n s to be
tender-minded,

feminine,

day-dreaming,

a rtistic or f astidious in nature.

Such persons are sometimes deman d i n g of at t e n t i o n and help,
dependent,

and/or impractical.

impatient,

Th e y g e n e r a l l y dislike crude peop l e and

rough occupations and tend to slow up group performance,
group m o r a l e by u n r e a l i s t i c fussiness.

and to u pset

T h e s e general desc r i p t i o n s are

2
summarized as "dependent,
Table
which were

over-protected,

sensitive."

13 presents further analysis of Factor I b y subgroup scores

12.97,

12.93 and 13.74 for SI,

By comparison,

the national

S2,

and NS,

respectively.

college norms for m a l e s and females
3

on Form A of the 16 P. F., Factor I, are placed at 11.67.
both SEPP groups are h igher than the college norm,
twice as high.

Thus, w h i l e

the n o n - S E P P group is

This w o u l d indicate that the n o n - S E P P group has gre a t e r

tendencies toward tender-mindedness
In terms of personality,

than do either of the SEPP groups.

the h i g h m e a n scores also ind i c a t e that the

students in this study at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y m a y be artistic,

^Institute for P e r s o n a l i t y and A b i l i t y Testing, Norms for the
16 P. F., For m A and B (1967-68 E d i t i o n s ) , T a b u l a r Suppl e m e n t No. 1
(Champaign, Illinois:
Institute for P e r s o n a l i t y and A b i l i t y Testing,
1973), p. 24.

2
R a y mond B. Cattell. and. Her b e r t W. Eber, M a n u a l for F o r m s A and
B Sixteen Per son a l i t y F actor Questionnaire:
"The 16 PF" Y o u n g Adults
and Adults (Champaign, Illinois:
Institute for P e r s o n a l i t y and A b i l i t y
Testing, 1962), p. 15.

153

Table 13
Comparisons of SI, S2 and NS R e s p o n s e s to F a c t o r I
(Tough - Tender Minded) W i t h M e a n and Standard
D e v i a t i o n of Other C o l l e g e Students

SI

Study Popu l a t i o n
S2

NS

Col l e g e
Norms

Me an

12.97

12.93

13.74

11.67

S.D.

4.73

4.22

4.37

4.20

N = 139

154

sensitive,

feminime,

and/or d e p e nde n t p e r s o n a l i t y types.

The tendency

of all three groups to be at a higher level of tender-mindedness lends
credence to the p robability that these persons who have chosen teaching
as an occupation have done so because it is consi s t e n t wi t h their general
makeup to select an o c c u p a t i o n whic h is classified as "non-rough."
2.

Factor

(Conservative - E x p e rimenting)

- L o w scores on

this Factor indicate t endencies of a p e r s o n to be confident in w h a t he/
she has been taught to believe.

Th e y accept the "tried and true,"

despite inconsistencies, w h e n somet h i n g else m i g h t be better.
of a cautious and compro m i s i n g nature
to oppose and postpone change.

in regard to n e w ideas,

Bec a u s e
they tend

They are inclined to go along wi t h

tradition, be more c o n servative in r e l i g i o n and politics,
to be interested in a nalytical "intel l e c t u a l "

thought.

and tend n ot

Such persons

would be characterized as less inclined to experi m e n t in life generally,
and to be less tolerant of inconv e n i e n c e and change.
described as "respecting established

ideas;

They are g e n e rally

tolerant of traditional

difficulties."^
Table 14 presents additional
which was 8.02,

8.06 and 8.37 for SI,

subgroup m e a n score i n f ormation
S2 and N S respectively.
5

By comparison,
score.

n a t ional

college norms are r eported at 9.15

mean

The lower m e a n scores repor t e d for students in this study

indicate that they a ppear to h a v e h i g h e r tendencies toward con s e r v a t i s m
than do other college students.
W ithin the three groups,

the n o n - S E P P students tend to be m o r e

conservative than do the SI or S2 students.

5
^Cattell and Eber, p. 17.

Cattell and Eber, p. 17.

155

Table 14
Comparisons for SI, S2 and N S R e s p o n s e s to F a c t o r
(Conservative - Experimenting) W i t h M e a n and
Standard Deviations for Other
College Students

SI

Study Popu l a t i o n
S2

NS

College
Norms

Me an

8.02

8.06

7.37

9.15

S.D.

4.77

4.23

4.36

3.41

N = 139

156

Other Findings U n ique to
16 P. F. Mean Scores
A l t h o u g h the overall m e a n scores for the 16 P. F. are consi s t e n t
w i t h college norms reported earlier, w i t h the two exceptions noted,
there are some internal m e a n subgroup

scores w h i c h w a r r a n t e d review.

R e v i e w of subgroup m e a n scores reve a l e d the following:
1.

W i t h i n F actor E (Humble - Assertive),

b o t h the SI and N S

-groups are b e l o w the mean.
2.

Within

w i thin .3 of b e i n g
3.

Within

w i t hin .2 of b eing

Factor F (Sober - H a p p y-go-lucky),

the SI group is

1.0 b e l o w college norms.
Factor G (Expedient - Conscie n t i o u s ) the SI g r o u p is
a full 2.0 over college norms.

strong degree of tendency toward exactness,

Th i s w o u l d

responsibility,

natures on the part of the f r e shmen SEPP students.
tendences are " u s ually conscientious and moralistic,
har d-working p e ople to w i t t y compani o n s . "

indicate

or persevering

Persons h a v i n g these
and

. . . pre f e r s

Th i s h i g h e r level sco r i n g

implies that the SI group is, perhaps, m o r e conscie n t i o u s

than are

members of the S2 or N S groups.
W ithin F a c t o r H (Shy - Ventu resome)
in m e a n score than the college norm.

the S2 group is 1.1 h i g h e r

This indicated a strong degr e e of

tendency on the p a r t of the sophomore SEPP group to be socialbe,
taneous,

and w i l l i n g to "try n e w things."

generally described as "socially-bold,

spon­

T h e s e tendencies m a y be

uninhibited,

s p o n t a neous"^ w i t h

dislike of occupations w i t h perso n a l contacts and p r e f e r e n c e for one or
two close friends over

large groups.

a

Such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w o u l d

lend

credence to the p o s s i b i l i t y of a "Hawt h o r n e effect" group exi s t a n t by
the very nature of the a l ternative teacher e d u c a t i o n pr og r a m ' s newness.

157

The SI group is also h igher (.6) than the c omparable college
n o r m which would provide additional support for " H a w t h o r n e effect"
possibilities w i t h i n the Secondary E d u c a t i o n Pilot P r o g r a m part i c i p a n t s
generally.
4.

Within F a c t o r L (Trusting - Suspicious)

somewhat b e l o w the college norm (.64).

Tendencies

the N S group is
to score lower in

this factor imply that this group of students are freer o f jealous
tendencies,

un-competitive,

are the SI or S2 groups.
N S students
study (SI,

There

is the d i stinct p o s s i b i l i t y that the

are team workers m o r e s o than are the o ther students in the
S2).

This

is not to imply that the SEPP students generally

are not good team members,
people.

and more concerned about other p e ople than

or that they are n ot concerned about other

W h e n compared to other college students,

they are.

When

compared to NS students enrolled at M i c h i g a n State University,

SI,

S2

are not as typical of other college students as are n o n - S E P P students
w i t h respect to group orientation.
5.

W ithin F a c t o r M (Practical - Imaginative)

students are 1.25 higher
college norms,

than the college norms.

the non - S E P P

W h e n compared

to

the N S students at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y m ay be

ch aracterized as being more "imaginative, w r a p p e d up in inner urgencies,
careless of practical matters,

(and) Bohemian,"

8

SI students are .39 higher and S2 students most closely resemble
the college main in this person a l i t y factor.
tend to be m o r e Bohemian,

self-motivated,

Thus,

NS and

SI students

i m a g i n a t ively-creative,

oblivious of particular people and phy s i c a l re a l i t i e s th a n do the

Q

Cattell and Eber, p. 16.

and
S2

158

students.
detail,

The S2 students,

conversely,

anxious to do the r i g h t things,

a p pear to be m o r e concerned over
and attentive to practical

matters, but not in any significant d e g r e e w h e n compared to other college
students generally.
6.

Within F a c t o r N (Forthr i g h t - Shrewd)

S2 (followed by NS)

students have m e a n scores h i g h e r than the college norms.

This implies

that these sophomore SEPP (S2) students are m o r e worldly,

experienced,

and m a y be unsentimental in appro a c h i n g situations.

This w ould be c on­

sistent w i t h the information contai n e d w i t h i n the analysis of F a c t o r M
(above).
7.

W i t h i n F a ctor

(Undisciplined Se l f - C o n f l i c t - Controlled)

S2 and NS students m o s t closely resemble other college students.

SI

students score

This

.46 h igher than other college students generally.

implies that they tend to be m o r e s e l f - s u f f i ci e n t and resourceful

than

the other groups, but "not n e c e s s a r i l y d o m i n a n t in his (their) relations
with others."
on Factor
8.

9

In this respect there is some r e l a t ionship b e t w e e n scores

and F actor E, p r e v i o u s l y discussed.
Within F a c t o r

above college norms.
tend to be "tense,
often fatigued,

(Relaxed - Tense)

the S2 students are .8

This implies that the Sophomore SEPP students

excitable,

restless,

fretful,

but unable to r emai n i nactive."

be consistent w i t h F a c t o r H (Shy - Vent u r e s o m e )

impatient . . . (and)
Such tendencies w o u l d

to the e x tent that in

this factor the S2 group appears un i n h i b i t e d and have strong tendencies
to try n e w things.

Inactivity w ould b e c onsistent w i t h v e n turesomeness.

9
Cattell and Eber, p. 18.

159
On the basis of these findings,

it b e c o m e s m o r e readily apparent

that the S2 and NS students resemble ea c h o t h e r in m a n y respects.
However,

in terms of personality,

they are also ve r y m u c h like SI.

(SI students appear to have some p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s w h e n compared
to the S2 students.)

No consistent overall general p a t t e r n emerges.

In relation to college norms,
to other college students nationwide.

the p o p u l a t i o n studied is c omparable
P e r s o n a l i t y factors do n ot d i f f e r

significantly among the groups.

Kerlinger A (Progressivism) and
Kerlinger B (Traditionalism) Scale Student Scores
The Kerli n g e r E d u c a t i o n Scale VI m e a s u r e s a trait, n o t a "pure
state."

As such,

it is an indicator of one's t e ndency toward one or

another attitude or viewpoint.

The viewp o i n t s are labeled as " p r o g r e s s ­

ivism" or " traditionalism" w i t h i n the Scale items.
Table 15 provides frequency dis t r i b u t i o n s for student scores on
the Kerlinger A (Progressivism)

Scale for SI, S2 and NS.

As a group the

students were slightly progressive in their res p o n s e patterns,
the lower the score,
scores were 6.50,

the h igher the d e g r e e of progressivism.

6.27,

since
Me a n

and 5.94 res p e c t i v e l y for these groups,

Standard deviati o n s we r e 1.49,

1.87,

as

shown in Table

16.

and 1,24

respectively.

These m e a n s and standard deviat i o n s are consistent

wi t h national norms for comparable groups.
That students in this study wh o are enr o l l e d at M i c h i g a n State
U niversity tend to be slightly traditional is d e m o n s t r a t e d by Table
F r e quency D i s t r i b u t i o n for Kerlinger B Scores.

17,

T he lower the score

obtained on the Scale the higher the degree of t r a d i t i o n a l i s m represented.

160

Table 15
F r e q u e n c y Distribution o f K e r l inger A Scores for
SI, S2, NS (Progressivism)

Range

85- 94
95-104
105-114
115-124
125-134
135-144
145-154
155-164

N = 139

SI
Frequency

1
5
14
8
13
5
0
2

7o

.02
.10
.29
.16
.27
.10
.00
.04

S2
Frequency

2
6
10
4
10
3
8
0

%

.04
.13
.23
.09
.23
.06
.18
.00

NS
F r e q uency

0
2
9
15
10
9
3
0

7.

.00
.04
.18
.31
.20
.18
.06
.00

161

Table 16
Comparisons for SI, S2 and NS M e a n and Standard D e v i a t i o n s on
Ke rlinger "A" (Progressivism) Scores wi t h M e a n and
Standard D e v i ation of College Students* No r m

SI

Study Population
S2

NS

Mean

6.50

6.27

5.94

S.D.

1.49

1.87

1.24

N = 139

*Source: Table 6, Kerlinger Education Scale VI.

Col l e g e
Norms*

5.51
.705

162

Table 17
I
I

Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n of K e r l i n g e r B Scores for
SI, S2, NS (Traditionalism)

w
I

Range

35- 44
45- 54
55- 64
65- 74
75- 84
85- 94
95-104
105-114
115-124
125-134

N = 139

SI
Frequency

0
0
3
1
6
13
10
10
4
1

7o

.00
.00
.06
.02
.12
.27
.20
.20
.08
.02

S2
Fr e q uency

1
3
1
2
6
12
8
6
2
2

7a

.02
.06
.02
.04
.13
.27
.18
.13
.04
.04

NS
F r e quency

0
0
1
7
4
9
16
7
2
2

7a

.00
.00
.08
.14
.08
.18
.33
.14
.04
.04

163
M e an scores were 5.35,

4.59 and 4.47 for SI, S2 and N S respectively;

standard deviations were
Table 18.

1.55,

1.80,

and 1.49 r e s p e ctively as shown in

T h i r t y - t h r e e of the SI students

S2 students

(.687.),

thirty-three of the

(.767.) and thirty-seven of the NS students (.777.) scored

in ranges w h i c h e n compassed or were lower than the mean.

The students

as a whole w e r e almost neutral w i t h respect to tendencies toward
traditionalism.
Information from the table supports that p r ovided in T able 15,
in w hich students were shown to hav e slight tendencies toward P r o g r e s s ­
ivism.
The students studied at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y are not
significantly d i f f e r e n t than other college students nationwide.

Rokeach Student Scores
The R o k e a c h is an othogonal
closedness of b e l i e f system.

Thus,

scale m e a s u r i n g degree of openness/
student scores do not r e p r e s e n t

expressions of p urely "open" or "closed" beli e f systems.
Student responses on the R o k e a c h " D o gmatism" Scale,
in Table 19.

To interpret the scores,

it is important to n o t e that the

patterning is just the reverse of the K e r l i n g e r A or B;
higher the score,
belief system.
d e v iation was

that is,

the

the lower the degree of d o g m a t i s m or closed n e s s of

M e a n score for SI students w as 6.50 and the standard
1.31.

M e a n scores for S2 and NS students w e r e 6.28 and

6.17 respectively w i t h standard devi a t i o n s of 1.31,
respectively.

are shown

1.15 and 1.50,

Both m e a n and standard d e v i a t i o n are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

na tional norms for comparable student groups,

as shown in T a b l e 20.

164

Table 18
Comparisons for SI, S2 and NS M e a n and Standard D e v i a t i o n s on
Kerlinger "B" (Traditionalism) Scores Wi t h M e a n and
Standard D e v i a t i o n of C o l l e g e Students' Norms

SI

Study P o p u l a t i o n
S2

NS

College
Norms*

Mean

5.35

4.59 .

4.47

4.13

S.D.

1.55

1.80

1.49

.85

N = 139

*Source: Table 6, Kerlinger Education Scale VI.

165

Table 19
F r e q u e n c y D i s tributio n of R o k e a c h Scores for
SI, S2, NS

Range

20
20
40
50
60
70
80
90

-

29
39
49
59
69
79
89
99

N = 139

SI
Frequency

0
1
6
15
10
10
5
1

7o

.00
.08
.12
.31
.20
.20
.10
.02

S2
Fr e q u e n c y

0
3
3
11
16
8
1
1

%

.00
.06
.06
.25
.37
.18
.02
.02

NS
Frequency

2
0
2
17
14
3
7
1

7o

.04
.00
.04
.35
.29
.06
.14
.02

166
Table 20
Comparisons of SI, S2 and N S M e a n and Standard D e v i a t i o n on
R o k e a c h Scale w i t h M e a n and Standard D e v i a t i o n of
College Student Norms

SI

Study Pop u l a t i o n
S2

NS

College
Norms*

Mean

6.50

6.28

6.17

6.50

S.D.

1.31

1.15

1.50

1.31

N = 139

*Source: The Nature of Human Values, 1967-73, Manual.

167

Analysis of the data suggests that the students (60% or more)
tend to lean toward the o pen-minded end of the scale.
would support i nformation provided in Tables

This i n f ormation

15 and 17 in w h i c h students

were shown to be gener a l l y progr e s s i v e in their attitudes toward e d u c a ­
tion.
system.

Progressiveness w o u l d be consi s t e n t w i t h openness of b e lief
W h e n compared to other college students nationwide,

students

studied at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y are n o t significantly different.

A/P Scale, Item and Sum
Means and Standard D e v i ation
Table 21 presents m e a n and standard deviations for item and sum
scores on the A / P Scale.

A n e x a m i n a t i o n of the m e a n for the A / P items

revealed that three items had means of 5.0 or over;
of 4.0 or over;
of 2.9.

21 items had means

four items had m e a n s of 3.0 or over; one item h ad a m e a n

The A/P Scale sum score s m e a n was 3.77.

Standard deviations,

w i t h the exception of one, w e r e all b e t w e e n 1.0 and 1.7.
item 7, had a standard d e v i a t i o n of
the A/P Sum Scale was

1.8,

.90.

T h e standard de v i a t i o n for

as shown in T a b l e 21.

It appears that there

was internal consistency in w h a t was b e i n g measured.
correlation b e t w e e n items was

(The overall

.9916 in Hoyt Reliability).

cant differences w e r e found w h e n exa m i n i n g separate SI,
and standard d e v i ation tables.
w i t h i n comparable ranges.

Overall,

students

No sign i f i ­

S2, NS m e a n

scored positi v e l y and

Posit i v e r e s p o n s e in appropriately interpreted

as students percei v i n g u n i v e r s i t y staff,
helpful, knowledgeable,

One score,

and interest e d

advisors,

etc. as generally

in their general well-being.

Positive response is also interpreted as r e a s o n for feeling pleased
wi t h Michigan State U n i v e r s i t y as a set t i n g in w h i c h to pursue c o m p l e t i o n
of a degree.

168

Table 21
A/P Score Item and S um Score, M e a n and
Standard D e v i ati o n for SI, S2, NS
Groups C o m b i n e d

Item

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Sum

N = 139

Mean

Standard D e v i a t i o n

4.61
4.58
4.31
4.62
4.82
4.56
5.35
4.87
4.85
4.56
4.63
4.85
4.22
4.30
3.42
4.28
5.18
4.09
4.42
4.66
3.93
3.69
3.36
4.71
4.44
2.93
5.05
4.53
4.21
3.77

1.19
1.22
1.46
1.43
1.42
1.61
.90
1.48
1.24
1.28
1.19
1.05
1.36
1.57
1.71
1.35
1.23
1.75
1.52
1.31
1.42
1.51
1.54
1.39
1.40
1.40
1.29
1.59
1.37
1.80

169

Helmert Contrasts
Helmert Contrasts w e r e conducted testing three hypothesis:
the grand m e a n of all three groups,

the aver a g e of NS v e r s u s the

average of SI and S2, and SI versus S2.
Data used for the contrasts included re s p o n s e s
ments w h i c h w e r e the Cattell
the Rokeach,

16 P. F.,

and the A / P Scale.

other.

the K e r l i n g e r E d u c a t i o n Scale VI,

R e s u l t s of the tests are shown in two

tables, Table 22 and T a b l e 23.
that the SI,

The results of these tests indicates

S2 and NS students are m o r e alike

In effect,

to four i n s t r u ­

the p o p u l a t i o n studied

than d i f f e r e n t from e a c h

is a h o m e o g e n o u s group,

since

the tests imply that they are statistically n o t significant.

SUMMARY OF CHAP T E R 4

Information contained in C h a p t e r 4 wa s p r e sented from data
generated by five instruments,
Education Scale VI,

the Cattell 16 P. F.,

the R o k e a c h Scale,

the A / P Scale,

the K e r linger
and the P ersonal

Background Questionnaire.
D escriptive d a t a o n the cha r a c teristics of the p r e s e r v i c e
students at M i c h i g a n State Univer s i t y is pro v i d e d in terms of social
origin,

prior experiences

(work,

leadership,

a nd volunteer),

and degrees

of commitment to becom i n g and/or staying a m i d d l e or h i g h school teacher.
Analysis of p e r s o n a l i t y factors,
the teacher education program,

a t t itudes toward e d u c a t i o n and

and degrees of o p e n n e s s / c l o s e d n e s s of

belief systems is provided.
The implications of this information,
tion of the r e v i e w of the literature,

coupled w i t h a c o n s i d e r a ­

provide b a s i c r e f e r e n c e for f i n d ­

ings and recommendations to be found in Chap t e r 5, w h i c h follows.

170

Table 22
H e l mert Contrast for SI, S2, NS R e s p o n s e s To
K e r l inger (A and B), R o k e a c h and
A/P Scale Sum

Hypothesis

Grand M e a n
SI, S2, NS
NS vs.

SI,

SI vs.

S2

N = 139

df = 4

S2

F-Ratio

Probability

5935.4279

.0001

.7208

.5792

.5805

.6773

171

Table 23
Helmert Co n trast for SI, S2 and NS Responses
Cattell 16 P. F.

Hypothesis

Grand M e a n
SI, S2, NS
NS vs.

SI,

SI vs.

S2

N = 139

df = 16

S2

to

F-R a t i o

Probability

2074.8916

.0001

.9695

.4941

.7101

.7793

Chapter 5

SUMMARY, FINDINGS, A N D R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S

Introduction
D r a w i n g from information pr e s e n t e d in p r e c e d i n g chapters,

this

Chapter represents an attempt to br i n g together crucial and central
elements of the study findings.

A summary of the study will be p r e s ented

with some general conclusions formulated as a result of data collected.
Finally,

some recommendations

for further study,

research,

deliberation,

and possible action w i l l be presented.

SUMMARY

Statement of the Problem
T he study was an attempt to i d entify and ge n e r a l l y describe the
freshmen and sophomore students w h o were ac t i v e l y e n rolled in an a l t e r ­
native secondary teacher education p r o g r a m at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y
up to and including the Winter T e r m of 1975 (ending March,

1975).

Purpose of the Study
One purpose of the study was

to de s c r i b e the characteristics of

the students w h o have opted for an alte r n a t i v e p r e p a r a t o r y program.
A second m a j o r purpose of the study was

to p r o v i d e antecedent

information on the nature of the student p o p u l a t i o n involved in the
Secondary E d u c a t i o n P i l o t Program,

SEPP,

at M i c h i g a n State University.

P r o v i s i o n of such information was de s i r a b l e to fulfill an early r e q u i r e ­
m e nt of the approved alternative program;
Model for an evaluation of the program.

172

that is,

to u se the Stake

In o rder to u t i l i z e the

173

Stake Model it is n e c e s s a r y to, o b t a i n antecedent i n f ormation on the
population to b e studied.

This information, in turn, becomes b a s e l i n e

information for other components of the Model w h i c h involve further
description and judgment.

Study D e s i g n
This study was designed

to ide n t i f y and describe those students

who w e r e actively enrolled in a n alte r n a t i v e secondary teacher education
program at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y during the W i nter and Spring Term,
1974-75.

The p o p u l a t i o n d e s c r i p t i o n included 1) basic p ersonal c h a r a c ­

teristics such as age, m a r i t a l status,
prior w o r k experiences;

type of family residence, and

2 ) level of professional commi t m e n t

3) attitudes toward education and teaching;

(career plans)

4) p e r s o n a l i t y factors;

5) degrees of openne s s / c l o s e d n e s s of belief systems and 5) attitudes/
perceptions of p r o g r a m and staff at M i c h i g a n State University.
Other facets of the s t u d y w e r e to deal w i t h 1) other factors in­
fluencing the d e c i s i o n to b ecome and r e m a i n in teaching and 2 ) d i f ferences
between the a lternative teacher ed u c a t i o n student and the regular student,
if any.

Population in the Study
Popula t i o n in the study included three groups.

T h e y w e r e SI,

students w h o enrolled in the altern a t i v e prog r a m i n the Fall Term, 1973;
S2, students w h o enrolled in the a l t e r n a t i v e p r o g r a m in the Fall Term,
1974; and NS, students w h o enrolled in the Fall Term, 1973, and w h o most
closely resembled the SI, S2 studen t s because of an interest in b e c o m i n g
a secondary teacher.

174

A total of 139 persons, meet i n g the cri t e r i a established, w e r e
asked to complete v a rious documents de s i g n e d to garner q u a n t i t a t i v e
data.

I n strumentation and
D a t a Analysis
F i v e instruments w e r e completed b y participants.
the Kerlinger Education Scale VI, the Rokeach,

These included

the A / P Scale,

Cattell 16 P. F., and the Personal Backg r o u n d Questionnaire.
143 variables w e r e studied.

A total of

The procedures u t i l i z e d for tabulation of

d a t a included analysis of variance, c o r r e l a t i o n matrix,
frequency,

the

percent, and H e l m e r t Contrasts.

c umulative scores,

The Ho y t R e l i a b i l i t y and a

factor analysis w e r e conducted for o ne instrument,

the A / P Scale.

U n l e s s otherwise noted, the .05 level of p r o b a b i l i t y w a s adopted
as the c r i t erion of significance.
A l l d a t a m a n i p u l a t i o n was accomplished u s i n g the C o mputer Services
Center at M i c h i g a n State University.

A s s umptions
The study was b ased on several assumptions:
1.

The number of students w i s h i n g to com p l e t e teacher e d u c a t i o n

pr ograms w i l l continue to grow, or at least r e m a i n static, w h i l e the
number of positions a v a i lable following g r a d u a t i o n are limited w h e n
placed in context of current supply-demand information.
2.

Teacher educators,

the p r o g r a m director, and other U n i v e r s i t y

p e r s onnel a r e interested in providing qual i t y p r o g r a m s v i a an a l t e r n a t i v e
and/or a r e gular prepar a t o r y program.
such commitment,

In addition, and as a

r e s u l t of

they are interested in o b t a ining infor m a t i o n u s e f u l in

175

evaluating the programs and in d e t e r m i n i n g the d i r e c t i o n of the curriculum.
3.

The a l ternative teacher e d u cation program, SEPP, w i l l co n t i n u e

to receive administrative support,

thereby a s suring the g r a d u a t i o n of its

first class in 1977.
4.

To the extent that a p r o g r a m pr e p a r e s students to f unction

effectively in their future roles,

it is p o s s i b l e to i d e n t i f y and t h e r e ­

fore "value" characteristics of t h e p r o g r a m contributing to student
successes.

Conversely, it is poss i b l e to i dentify those p r o g r a m components

which may, i n fact, not m e e t stude n t needs and s t r u c t u r e or r e s t r u c t u r e
the p r o gram accordingly.
5.

F o r the study to be of value it mu s t h a v e the c a p a b i l i t y of

inspiring further research, particularly of a l o n g i t u d i n a l and m o r e
c omprehensive nature.

Both descriptive a nd e v a l uational studies related

to the program described and the pa r t i cipants in that p r o g r a m w o u l d serve
to m a k e the preli m i n a r y d a t a more meaningful.

Limitations
The following limitations w e r e se e n as b e a r i n g u p o n this p a r t i c u l a r
study:
1.

The relationship of cert a i n person n e l ,

this r e s e a r c h e r included,

to the alternative teacher educatio n p r o g r a m p a r t i c i p a n t s m i g h t in an
indirect m a n n e r affect the quality and o b j e c t i v i t y of the re s e a r c h or of
the student perceptions generally.
2. The researcher's position, or a b sentee position, as related to
the popula t i o n studied could affect the res p o n s e p atterns of the students.
Use of a v o l u nteer m ethod has inherent w e a k n e s s e s also w h i c h w e r e s t ated
as limitation s in the study.

176

3.

Students enrolled at M i c h i g a n S tate U n i v e r s i t y m a y b e typical

or atypical of other students curr e n t l y e n rolled in other teacher
preparation programs,

particularly w i t h r e s p e c t to u n i q u e g e o g raphical

areas of the U nited States h aving m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t socio-economic or
sub-cultural make-up.

In this r e s p e c t no e f f o r t w a s m a d e to d e t e rmine

whether or not students at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y are l i k e or u n l i k e
students in other teacher educa t i o n programs.
4.

To b e of m a x i m u m value, c e r t a i n instruments n e c e s s i t a t e

separate and d i s t i n c t administrati o n procedures.

Additionally,

selection of such instruments m a y b e subject to q u e s t i o n —
lar, the A t t i t ude/Perceptions Scale.

in p a r t i c u ­

W h i l e v a r i o u s procedures w e r e

used to determine, a s m u c h as possible,
the A / P Scale,

the

the v a l i d i t y and relia b i l i t y of

it remains a tentat i v e m e a s u r e m e n t d e vice subject to

further v a l i d a t i o n a n d testing.
5.

The timeframe in w h i c h the study w as conducted could in­

d i r ectly influence s o m e of the d a t a collected.

W h e r e v e r possible,

t hese

influences h a v e b e e n identified in r e p o r t i n g the data.
6.

That the p o s s i b i l i t y of a H a w t h o r n e effe c t could exist w a s

given, as w e l l as the possibility of p o p u l a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n the
SEPP group and b e t w e e n the SEPP and n o n - S E P P groups.
length of time in s chool

Su c h factors as the

(class standing) an d the d i f f e r e n t levels of

exposure to the p r ofessional sequence b e t w e e n f r e s h m e n an d sophomore
SEPP students as a result of that time d i f f e r e n c e w a s s e e n as a limitation.
C l osely allied to this c o n s i d e r a t i o n w a s the a dditional c o n s i d e r a ­
tion that the non-S E P P students w e r e a n u n k n o w n "n" and repre s e n t e d a
group m o s t closely approximating at least a p o r t i o n of t h e SEPP students.

177

7.

Changes over time r e s u l t i n g from b o t h h i s t o r y a n d g e n e r a l

m aturation of the p o p u l a t i o n w a s seen as a limitation.

P a rticularly,

the time span of the study (covering two scho o l terms) w a s seen a s a
limiting and contri b u t i n g f actor to the p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e s e c h a n g e s .
8.

Economic considerations w e r e v i e w e d as a p o s s i b l e l i m i t a t i o n

of the study data, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n terms of u n e m p l o y m e n t generally.
Information b y the respondents w a s p e r c eived to b e a f a ctor of g e n e r a l
economic conditions m o r e s o than as

the result of p o s s i b l e f a k i n g o n such

information.

Personal I n f o r m a t i o n
The p o p u l a t i o n ranged in a g e f r o m u n d e r 18 to over 22 years.

Of

these, 103 w e r e f e m a l e and 36 w e r e m a l e respondents, e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d
among the v a r i o u s subgroups,

SI, S2 and NS.

Two of the students w e r e

married, and two c o n s i d e r e d themselves to be "heads of h o u s e h o l d s "
suggesting indepe n d e n c e f r o m the f a m i l y unit.
the NS and SI groups.

T h e s e students w e r e f r o m

E l e v e n of the SEPP students w e r e f r o m s i n g l e ­

parent homes c o m p a r e d to six of the n o n - S E P P f r o m similar homes.
Ethnic b a c k g r o u n d s w e r e p r i m a r i l y Caucasian, w i t h less t h a n 10%
of the SEPP group a n d 6% of the N S g roup r e p r e s e n t i n g other ethnic
minorities.

T h e y w e r e f r o m h o m e s located p r i m a r i l y in s t a n d a r d m e t r o ­

p o litan and/or s u b u r b a n c o mmunities in w h i c h the fami l y s i z e a p p r o x i m a t e d
that of the "average" A m e r i c a n f a m i l y h a v i n g 2.3 children.
W h e r e the f a m ilies live is stable as e v i d enced b y 90 - 95% of the
students i ndicating no c h a n g e of r e s i d e n c e w i t h i n the last y e a r ' s time.
Thirty-three SI students indicated that all of the f a m i l y m e m b e r s lived
at home, r e p r e s e n t i n g 68.7% of that group and the largest p e r c e n t a g e of

178

the three groups.

NS students, fo llowed b y SI and S2 In that order, h a d

the larger p e rcent of f amily m e mber s living o u t s i d e the h o m e state,
23.9%.
Fewer of the S2 students
own homes t h a n are the SI

(92.8%) a re f r o m families ownin g their

(95.7%) or NS s t udents

(97.9%).

A l l live in

single-family residences and none re n t or li v e in apartm e n t s or
condominiums.
Three SI and three NS students had a t tended other po s t - s e c o n d a r y
public institutions; o n e S2 student had also

done so.

The numb e r of

terms spent in other schools included 8 , SI; 12, S2; and 14, NS students.
Of these students 3 SI, 1 S2 and 5 NS s t udents h a d spent one or m o r e
terms in another school.

None of these s t udents had attended a trade or

technical school.
The m a j o r i t y of the populati o n w e r e f r o m homes in w h i c h the head
of the household was employed in a p r o f e s s i o n a l or m a n a g e r i a l occupation,
fifty-nine percent of S2, forty-six perc e n t of SI, a nd fifty-two percent
of NS students respectively.

So-called lower o c c u p a t i o n a l c l a s s i f i ­

cations w e r e m o r e p r e d o m i n a n t in the NS g roup

(24%) than in either of the

SEPP groups w h i c h w e r e b e t w e e n 16 and 17% in m e m b e r s h i p .

Service

occupations such as sales and clerical w e r e m o r e p r e d o m i n a n t w i t h i n the
SI students

(14%) than in the S2 s t u d e n t s

(10.8%) or NS students

(10%).

Consistent w i t h the occupati o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n of the head of the
household,

the income ranges and n u m b e r of y e a r s of s c h o oling completed

for the head of the h o u s e h o l d was h i g h e r w i t h i n the S2 group, w h o s e
parent(s) had completed h i g h school or two y e a r s of college as r e ­
p r esented b y 42%; S2 p a r ents had co m p l e t e d h i g h school or two years of

179

c ollege as represented b y 34.8%; NS students'

par e n t s w e r e r e p resented

b y 43.7%.
Family incomes for the p opu l a t i o n r a n g e f r o m a m i n i m u m of $7,000
to $25,000 or m o r e annual, a s creported b y the students.
students identified this, set of information,

S ince only 31

it was n ot consi d e r e d as a

completely valid descriptor of popula t i o n c h a r acteristics.

In general,

the income ranges tend toward the $15-25,000 range, d i s t r i b u t e d among
58.3% of SI, 62.5% of S2 and 54.5% of NS students.

A larger number of

S2 students appear to b e from families who h ad an a n nual income w h i c h
exceeded $15,000.

B y comparison, 37.5% of the S2 s tudents w e r e fr o m

families h aving an annual income of $25,000 o r more.

These represented

12% m o r e than SI and 19% m o r e than NS students who reported family
incomes w i t h i n the same range.
Eighty percent of the SEPP students h ad

entered M i c h i g a n S tate

U n i v e r s i t y h aving had prior volunte e r - t y p e e x p e riences,

compared to

e i ghty-five percent non-SEPP w i t h similar experiences.
Between 75% and 80% of the SEPP students

(S2, SI respectively) had

had p r i o r paid w o r k experience, compared to 7 8 . 7 % of the N S students.
Finally, in terms of leadership experiences,

9.4% m o r e of the SI

students than S2 students had entered M SU w i t h such experiences.

While

80% of the non-SEPP students had comparable e x p erience, an average of 80%
of t h e ’SEPP students

(SI, S2 combined)

also h a d had leader s h ip - b u i l d i n g

experiences and opportunities.
Ta k e n overall,

the SEPP students were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f ferent

than those students w h o w e r e enrolled in the r e g u l a r
program.

teacher education

As a group the SEPP students had i n t e r n a l d i f f e r e n c e s w h i c h

su ggested that

(1) the freshmen SEPP w e r e f r o m h o m e s h a v i n g lower a n nual

180

income than sophomore SEPP s t u d e n t s , (2) the f reshmen SEPP w e r e fr o m
h omes in w h i c h the h e a d of the h o u s e h o l d h a d h a d less formal ed u c a t i o n
and were employed i n occupations co n s i s t e n t w i t h the educa t i o n a l level
attained than did the sophomore SEPP students, w h o s e incomes and o c c u ­
pational levels w e r e in the h i g h e r ranges,

and

(3) that the freshmen

SEPP students were from l a r g e r fami l y u n i t s living in smal l e r r e s i d e n t i a l
areas than w e r e the s o p h omore SEPP students.
SEPP and non-SEPP students h a v e h a d comparable leadership, w o r k
and volunteer experiences; a t least 75% o r m o r e have h a d all of these
experiences.

Career Plans
Thirt e e n f r e shmen a n d fourte e n s o p h omore SEPP students in d i c a t e d
a change i n majors since e n t e r i n g M S U , co m p a r e d to twenty-three NS
students w h o had also done so.

Conversely, 34 freshmen,

SEPP students had n o t c h anged majors,
w ho had.

and 29 s o p h o m o r e

compared to 25 n o n - S E P P students

W h e ther o r not c h a n g e of m a j o r s wa s associ a t e d in any w a y w i t h

a m o v e into education, as c o m pared to a change of m a j o r s pe r se, w as no t
established.
Interest in b e c o m i n g a m i d d l e or h i g h school teacher ranged f r o m
passive

(1, SI; 2, NS)

to v e r y inter e s t e d

(31, SI; 38, S2; and 28, NS).

N i nety p e rcent of the S2 students r e p o r t e d that they w e r e ve r y i n t e r e s t e d
in becoming a teacher;

sixty-five p e r c e n t of the fr e s h m e n SEPP students

w e r e very interested and fifty-eigh t p e r c e n t of the NS students w e r e
v e r y interested.

N o n e of the S2 students i n d i cated a s c a l e d response of

less than either "very" or "interested."
W i t h i n the p o p u l a t i o n S2 students h a d the high e s t rate of r e s p o n s e

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w i t h respect to h o l d i n g career plans three y e a r s h e n c e as still a h i g h
interest item (80%).

T h e d e g r e e of interest three y e a r s h e n c e was

rated as h i g h b y 31 SI; 33 S2 and 25 N S students.

S i x t e e n per c e n t of

the NS group rated their interest as medium, co m p a r e d to twenty-two
percent of SI and n i n e t e e n percent of S2 s t udents w h o responded in like
manner.
D e g r e e of commitment to b e c o m i n g and s t a y i n g a teacher five years
hence w a s consistent a m o n g the groups w h e n r a n k e d as h i g h interest.
SI group responded h i g h interest levels for 6 1% of the group;

The

S2 r e s ponses

r epresented 63% and NS r e s p onses represented 6 8 % of the group h a v i n g hi g h
degrees of interest.

F r e s h m e n SEPP students r a nked fi v e - y e a r interest

as m e d i u m i n 25% of their responses.
SEPP and 15.7% for NS students.

This c o m p a r e d to 31% for so p h o m o r e

L o w levels of i nterest w e r e expressed

b y six students in SI, representing 14.6%,

t w o . s t u d e n t s in S2 r e p r e s e n t i n g

4.8% and six students in NS, repre s e n t i n g 15.7%.

In terms of l o n g - t e r m

interest in b e c o m i n g and staying as a teacher five y e a r s hence, m o r e
s ophomore SEPP students indicate a l o n g - t e r m in t e r e s t than do eith e r the
SI or NS students.
W h e n v i e w e d collectively,

the SEPP stu d e n ts e x p r essed a h i g h

interest in b e c o m i n g a teacher three years h e n c e at a rate 6 % g r e a t e r than
did the n o n - S E P P students.

Four perc e n t m o r e of the SEPP students

indicated a m e d i u m interest three y e a r s h e n c e than d id the non - S E P P
students.

L o w interest w a s expressed as 7% g r e a t e r b y non - S E P P s tudents

th an SEPP students.

T h e s e comparisons did n o t r e m a i n constant w h e n

a n alyzed in terms of interest five y ears hence.
S ix p e r cent of the non-SEPP students i n d i cated a h i gher d e g r e e of
interest five years h e n c e than did S E P P students.

Thirteen percent more

182

expressed m e d i u m interest five year s h e n c e in the SEPP group than did
the n o n -SEPP group.

Low interest w as expressed as 6& greater b y non-

SEPP students than b y SEPP students.
Hi g h degrees of interest in bo t h three and five y e a r s h ence were
expressed b y SEPP students at a rat e 6% g r e a t e r than those expressed
by non-S E P P students.

M e d i u m degrees of interest in b o t h three and five

years hence w e r e expressed b y SEPP students at a ra t e of 4% and 13%
r e spectively greater than those expressed b y n o n - S E P P students.

Low

degrees of interest were expressed by 7% m o r e n o n - S E P P t h a n SEPP
students w i t h respect to three years h e n c e and b y 6 % m o r e non - S E P P than
SEPP students w i t h r e spect to five years hence.

These d a t a suggest

that although the n o n -SEPP students had changed m a j o r s m o r e s o than SEPP
students had,

there was a greater d e gree of c o m m i t m e n t ov e r the long term

on the part of the n o n - S E P P students.

Interest in b e c o m i n g a teacher

remained h i g h for b o t h SEPP and non - S E P P groups initially, but as the
student projected him/h e r s e l f into the f u t u r e r o l e of teaching the d e g r e e
of interest

(commitment) decreased.

H i g h d e g r e e s of interest dropped

by 13% w i t h i n the SEPP g roup w h e n contrasting three and five years hence.
M e d i u m degrees of interest dropped b y 7% w i t h i n the SEPP group w h e n
contrasting three a n d five years hence.

N o n - S E P P responses, contrasting

three and f i v e years hence, w e r e not changed significantly, as d e m o n ­
strated b y a 1% m o v ement notation.

N o n-SEPP s tudents w e r e m o r e commited

over time to b e c o m i n g and staying teachers than w e r e the SEPP students.
(Within the SEP? group,

the S2 subgroup a c c o u n te d for the hig h e s t p e r ­

centage of downward change.)

B e twee n 31% and 39% of the students do not

perceive themselves in teaching five years hence.

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Attitude/Percep tlons
The A t t i t u d e / P e r c e p t i o n s Scale, scored on a L i kert type scale, w a s
analyzed for item and s u m s c o r e re l i a b i l i t y as reported i n C h a p t e r 3.
Using only the A/P S c a l e sum scores, SI students w e r e found to h a v e m e a n
scores of 127.37;

S2 students w e r e found to ha v e m e a n scores of 125.48.

Non-SEPP students w e r e found to ha v e m e a n scores of 127.33.
deviations w e r e 26.32,
tively.

22.04,

and 20.78 for SI, S2 and NS grou p s r e s p e c ­

F ratio was 2.11 w h i c h was n ot s i g nificant at the

(D. F. 2, N = 139).

S tandard

.05 level,

T h e A / P Scale s u m score m e a n w as 3.77 overall,

indicating internal c o n s i s t e n c y of student responses overall and tending
toward the p o s itive side of the scale of on e to five.
There w e r e no s i gnificant diff e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the SEPP a nd no n - S E P P
students and the w a y in w h i c h they p e r c e i v e d the u n i v e r s i t y staff/
program at MSU.

The SI students w e r e closer to the NS s t u d e n t s ’ a t t i t u d e

than they w e r e to the S2 s t u d e n t s ’, but,
cant.

the differ e n c e w a s not s i g n i f i ­

Both groups v i e w e d the p r o g r a m alike —

in a h i g h p o s i t i v e direction.

Eighty to eight y - f i v e p e r c e n t of the SEPP and n o n - S E P P s t udents
perceived f e l l o w students to h a v e b e e n helpful or v e r y h e l p f u l
In decreasing order SI,

to them.

S2 and NS students p e r c e i v e d teaching f a c u l t y

to h a v e been helpful or v e r y helpful,

73%, 62%, and 66% re s p e c t i v e l y .

Next group w h o w e r e r anked as h e l p f u l or v e r y help f u l w e r e the g r a d u a t e
assistants, w h o w e r e ranked as h e l p f u l or v e r y help f u l b y 51% of the SI
students, b u t only b y 30% of the S2 students.
assistants as 40% h e l p f u l or v e r y helpful.

NS students r a n k e d gr a d u a t e

On a n average, b o t h SEPP

and non-SEPP groups p e r c eived g r a d u a t e a ssistants as hel p f u l or v e r y
helpful.

Stated differently,

60% of b o t h groups v i e w e d g r a d u a t e a s s i s ­

tants as of m i l d l y to of no help.

W i t h i n groups,

SI and NS s t udents

184

perceived g r a duate assistants in a m o r e p o s i t i v e m a n n e r than did S2
students.
T h irty p e rcent of the SI stu d e n t s and f or t y - s i x p e r c e n t of the S2
students perceived Univer s i t y C o l l e g e f a c u l t y to ha v e b e e n help f u l or
very helpful, compared to forty p e r c e n t of the NS students w h o responded
in like manner.

Overall,

the SEPP a nd n o n - S E P P groups w e r e not s i g n i f ­

icantly different in their p e r c e p t i o n of the h e l p f u l n e s s of the
University C o llege faculty.
Of the SI students, 35% p e r c e i v e d d o r m a dvisors as help f u l or
very helpful.

Students in the S2 g r o u p r a t e d in like m a n n e r —

indicated that d o r m advisors w e r e hel p f u l or v e r y h e l p f u l .

35%

This contrasts

with only 29% of the NS students h a v i n g these same perceptions.
Overall g roup perceptions of h e l p f u l n e s s w e r e not s i g n i f i c a n t l y
different b e t w e e n SEPP and n o n -SEP P s t u d e n t s .
In decrea s i n g level of support, other s t udents w e r e rated as most
often helpful, followed b y teaching faculty, g r a d u a t e assistants,
U n iversity C o llege faculty, and dor m advisors.

T h e r e w e r e no s i g n i f i ­

cant d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g roups nor b e t w e e n their rank i n g of the v a r i o u s
specific univer s i t y - e m p l o y e d persons.
T hese support levels w e r e r e f l e c t e d in at l east o ne specific item
w i thin the A / P Scale, number 29, w h i c h read

!tMy d e c i s i o n to stay at M SU

is, in part, b e c a u s e of the u n i v e r s i t y sta f f . "

This p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e ­

me nt w a s one w h i c h appeared among those listed h a v i n g h i g h factor
loadings and repor t e d in Chapter 3.
R e v i e w of the high f actor load e d items indicated that the students
ge nerally perceived the u n i v e r s i t y staff as competent, p e r s o n a l l y
interested in their well-being,

and g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e as a res o u r c e

185

person.

These attitudes.,

therefore, affe c t their d e c i s i o n to r e m a i n at

M ichigan State University.

P ersonality Factors
A nalysis of the 16 P. F. r e s p o n s e data indicated that bo t h m e a n s
and standard deviations w e r e g e n e r a l l y consis t e n t w i t h coll e g e norms
reported, w i t h the exception of two factors, Fact o r I (Tough-Tenderminded)
and Factor Q1 (Cons e r v a t i v e - E x p e r i m e n t i n g ) .
w e r e 1.46 higher than the m e a n and
deviations.

Table

, C h a pter

W i t h i n Fact o r I the groups

.81 lower than the reported standard

, pr o v i d e s s p ecific m e a n s

W i t h i n F a c t o r Q1 the m e a n for al l

I.

groups combined w as 1.0 lower

than the national norms for compar a b l e populations;
was consistent w i t h the norms.

for Factor

W i t h i n the groups,

the standard d e v i a t i o n
the NS students

tended to b e m o r e c o nservative than the SEPP students.

B o t h groups tend

toward conservatism, as defined in the context of the 16 P. F. item.
These tendencies w e r e supported in a sep a r a t e document,

the K e r l inger

E ducation Scale VI, reported in a later p o r t i o n of this Chapter.
Two other factors note mention,
Fa- tor M

(Practical-Imaginative).

Factor H

(Shy-Venturesome)

W i t h i n Fact o r H,

the S2 students w e r e

1.1 h i g h e r in m e a n scores than other college students;
.6 higher than the norm.

and

SI r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e

The factor characterizes respo n d e n t s as

sociable, spontaneous, and "willing to try n e w th i n g s . "

Such tendencies

would lend support to the possib i l i t y of a Ha w t h o r n e effect,

stated

as

a p o s sible l imitation in the study.
Within Factor M

(Practical-Imaginative)

higher in their tendencies toward c o n c e r n
toward anxiousness

with

to do the "right things."

the S2 students w e r e
d e t a i l and tendencies

186

Considered overall,

the S2 a nd NS students r e s e m b l e each other

in many respects and are c o m p a r a b l e to other c o l l e g e students.

In o t h e r

respects, the NS students w e r e found to also r e s e m b l e SI students.
Students h a d some p e r s o n a l i t y differences w h e n c o mpared to S2.

SI

W h e n the

SEPP groups are combined a n d considered as if they w e r e o n e group,

they

were m u c h l i k e the NS students.

B o t h groups a p p r o x i m a t e o t h e r college

students of the same age range.

T hese statements,

it mu s t b e recalled,

are m a d e w i t h i n the context of one a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the 16 P. P., r a t h e r
than two a d m i n istrations w h i c h are consid e r e d to b e m o r e reliable.
antecedent information,

the p r elim i n a r y prof i l e is assumed

As

to b e valid.

Attitudes Toward E d u c a t i o n
The K e r l i n g e r E d u c a t i o n Scale V I wa s used to m e a s u r e attitudes
toward education.

This instrument n e c e s s i t a t e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s based o n

the construct that the lower the score the higher
t raditionalism/progressivism.

the d e g r e e of

Kerl i n g e r A scores r e p o r t e d tendencies

toward traditionalism.
B o t h SEPP and n o n - S E P P groups w e r e h i gher th a n the m e a n s r e p o r t e d
b y Kerlinger,
NS.

scoring 6.50,

6.27, and 5.94

r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r SI, S2 a nd

Their h i g h e r m e a n scores for A items ca n be e x p l a i n e d by the

dating of the n o r m tables

(1963), as we l l as b y t h e g e n e r a l increase in

m a tura t i o n of students today.
T enden c i e s toward p r o g r e s s i v i s m w e r e r e f l e c t e d b y m e a n scores of
5.35, 4.59, and 4.47 for SI, S2 and NS students res p e c t i v e l y .

In all

cases these m e a n scores w e r e w i t h i n ranges enco m p a s s i n g o r lower than the
m e a n scores for c o l l e g e a g e students as r e ported b y Kerlinger.
T a k e n overall, b o t h the SEPP and n o n - S E P P s tudents a r e neu t r a l

187
with respect to tendencies toward t raditionalism.
extremely pr ogressive nor traditio n a l —
essentially.

They a r e neither

"middle of the roa d e r s "

They c l o s e l y approx i m a t e other col l e g e students nationwide.

This should not h e construed to m e a n that there w e r e n ot extremes
represented b y c e r t a i n individual scores, f or there were.

Openness/closedness of Belief S yst e m
Th e Rokeach D o g m a t i s m Scale w as u s e d to m e a s u r e o p e n n e s s / c l o s e d n e s s
of belief system.

T h e instrument n e c e s s i t a t e d interp r e t a t i o n s b a s e d on

the construct that the higher the score the lower the d e g r e e of d o g m a t i s m
or closedness of b elief system w a s e x p ressed in t he responses.

Mean

scores of 6.50, 6.28, and 6.17 w e r e re p o r t e d for SI, S2 a nd NS respect i v e l y .
Sixty p e rcent or m o r e of the students tended to score on the openm i n d e d
end of the scale, b u t not at extre m e s of t he scale.

The i n f o r m a t i o n

supported the neutr a l i t y expressed on the K e r l i n g e r A and B subscores.
N either the SEPP nor the n o n -SEPP students w e r e e x t r e m e l y open or closed
in their belief systems.

T h e y w e r e c o m p a r a b l e to other st u d e n t s n a t i o n ­

wide .

Helmert Contrasts
A dditional tests were condu c t e d b y u t i l i z i n g Helmert Contrasts
to test three hypothesis:
SI v e rsus S2.

the grand mean; NS v e r s u s SI and S2; and

Results of the contr a s t s i m p l y that the t h r e e groups w e r e

essentially alike.

T h e s e c o n t rasts lend a d d i t i o n a l support to some of

the generalizations d r a w n f r o m d a t a an a l y s i s and d e s c r i b e d in earlier
portions of this Chapter.

188

FINDINGS
This study, descriptive and e x p l o r a t o r y in nature, has not
purported to b e hypothesis testing; n e i t h e r h a s it b e e n d esigned to
produce u n q u e stionable conclusions for the m o s t part.
to provide descriptive data f r o m w h i c h b a s e l i n e
developed and further researched.

T he intent was

infor m a t i o n could b e

The p o t e n t i a l of h y p o t h e s i s generating

was not limited, r ather it w a s perceived to b e opt i m a l and appli c a b l e
to both processes and products of the teacher e d u c a t i o n program.
This is not to suggest that firm f i n d i n g s cann o t be d r a w n fr o m
the data.

Such findings should b e c onsidered as g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s f r o m

which hypothesis for further stud y m a y generate.
In summary, the data sugge s t that the f o l l o w i n g fin d i n g s m a y be
drawn:
1.

SEPP students are n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m non - S E P P

students w i t h respect to their attitudes, bel i e f s , p e r c e ptions, basic
personality characteristics, a n d s o c i o-economic backgrounds.
2.

B o t h SEPP and n o n -SEPP students a r e not s i g n i f i c a n t l y

different f r o m other colleg e - a g e students n a t i o n w i d e w i t h r e s p e c t to
their attitudes, beliefs, and basi c p e r s o n a l i t y characteristics.
3.

B o t h SEPP and n o n - S E P P students a r e similar to other

p racticing teachers described in the l i t e r a t u r e in terms of their
socio-economic backgrounds.
4.

SEPP students do n o t appear to h a v e the d e g r e e of commitment

to b e c oming and staying a teacher to the sa m e d e g r e e as do the non - S E P P
students.
5.

SEPP and non-SEPP students g e n e r a l l y per c e i v e the u n i v e r s i t y

community to be helpful to them.

Students studied chose to stay at

Mi chigan State U n i v e r s i t y parti a l l y for this reason.

RECOMM E N D A T I O N S

1.
attitudes

A dditional i nformation should be gathered w i t h res p e c t to
toward education,

p a r ticu l a r l y in terms of ent e r i n g students.

Early identification of these attitudes m ay provide a f r a m e w o r k from
which to address p r e - p r o g r a m entrance criteria,
group discussions,
of education.

and dialogue on the nature,

individual conferences,
function,

and p h i l o sophies

It m a y also serve as a reference point in a total pro g r a m

evaluation.
2.

F u rther research,

p a r tic u l a r l y of a follow-up nature,

could

be undertaken to r e v i e w the SEPP pro g r a m participants to de t e r m i n e what,
if any,

changes
3.

in attitude toward teaching and e d u cation occur.

For purposes of additional research,

additional infor m a t i o n

should be gathered on the p e rception s students have toward, the U n i v e r s i t y
College faculty,

since it is this group w i t h w h o m these f r e s h m e n and

sophomore students spend a large percen t a g e of their time.
25-357. of 139 students indicate

When between

little or no help on a scaled response,

one is pressed to ask the q u e s t i o n "why?"

It w o u l d be i n c u mbent on the

university to pursue gathering additional data as to w h y students have
these perceptions.
4.

A follow-up longitudinal

study should be c o n ducted to m o n i t o r

the career paths of those students w h o will be g r a d u a t i n g from the SEPP
program in 1977.

Of partic u l a r interest should be the q u e s t i o n of

190
w h e t h e r or not these students enter a nd r e m a i n in teaching b e y o n d two
years after graduation.
^

5.

With respect to tendencies t o w a r d traditiona l i s m / p r o g r e s s i v i s m ,

is there the possib i l i t y that students c h oose the a l t e r n a t i v e p r o g r a m
because they are, i n fact, somewhat p r o g r e s s i v e or is there s o m e t h i n g in
their b a s i c person a l i t y w h i c h s i m p l y m a k e s th e m w a n t to try s o m ething
new?

Having a d i f f e rentiation b e t w e e n t hese two p o s s i b i l i t i e s could

enhance the f u n ction of the program.

A d d i t i o n a l r e search s h o u l d b e

completed i n this area.
6.

F u rther research, p a r t i c u l a r l y of a follow-up nature,

shou l d

be u n d e r t a k e n to r e v i e w w i t h i n the ne x t two y e a r s of p r o g r a m p a r t i c i p a ­
tion to determine what,

if any,

changes in o p e n n e s s / c l o s e d n e s s o f b e l i e f

s y stem occur, p a r t i c u l a r l y since attitudes, beliefs, b a s i c p e r s o n a l i t y
characteristics a n d s o c i o-economic b a c k g r o u n d v a l u e s are p o t e n t i a l l y
carried into the c l a s sroom b y the v e r y n a t u r e of the act of t e aching as
an i nteraction art.
7.

D a t a f r o m this study indicates that there is so m e r e l a tionship

b e t w e e n openness/closedness of b e l i e f s y s t e m an d t endency toward
traditionalism/progressivism.

It is r e c o m m e n d e d that the p r o g r a m a d m i n ­

istrators a n d staff p ursue this rela t i o n s h i p as it relates to deve l o p m e n t
of v e r y p e r s o n a l i z e d and p a r t i c u l a r h u m a n transactions.

S ince s o m e of

the SEPP students w i l l b e p a r t i c i p a t i n g in a "st u d e n t teaching" c o m p onent
of one type or another,
styles b e conducted.

it is r e c o m m e n d e d that m o n i t o r i n g of i n t e r a c t i o n

Content analysis o f the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s b y the

c o o perating teacher could p r o v i d e ot h e r ins i g h t s o n the a t t i t u d e of the
SEPP students, as w e l l as on their r e c e p t i v i t y to n e w ideas.

191

8.

In the s e l e ction process the ratio of m a l e to female, C a u c a s i a n

to npn-caucasian should b e a p r o g r a m consideration.

T he fact that the

student initially e l e c t s •to enter the p r o g r a m should no t d e t e r the
program administrators, and staff f r o m a ttempting to e n c o u r a g e m i n o r i t y
groups' participation.

E x p a n s i o n of p u blic i n f o r m a t i o n efforts is

recommended to include b o t h n o t i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n the u n i v e r s i t y and o u t ­
side the univer s i t y w h e r e v e r possible.

This is n ot to suggest that the

alternative p r o g r a m should b e c o m e a recru i t i n g v e h i c l e for the u n i v e r s i t y
preservice program.

It should,

instead,

e n c o urage a v e h i c l e w h i c h r e ­

presents an open alter n a t i v e in every sense of the word, a v a i l a b l e to
those students w h o a r e interested and qua l i f y on their o wn merit.
9.

As in any n e w enterprise, one m u s t w a l k b e f o r e running.

through a car efully constr u c t e d eva l u a t i o n plan,

the step b y step

process can b e followed, v alidated, m o d i f i e d and expanded.
commended that such a process be implemented,
b e identified,

Thus,

It is r e ­

that e v a l u a t i o n components

and that d a t a c o l l e c t i o n efforts b e g i n in an orderly,

s equential manner.

I n f o r m a t i o n gat h e r e d f r o m e v a l u a t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g

r eports m a y b e of u s e to the p r o g r a m a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and staff,

the

u n iversity C u r r i c u l u m Committee, and the p a r t i c i p a t i n g students as well.
One such model r e v iewed in the literature,
a p propriate to the process.

the Stake M o del, appears to b e

It is reco m m e n d e d that r e m a i n i n g compon e n t s

w i t h i n the m o d e l be identi f i e d and that e v a l u a t i v e r e s e a r c h begin.
10.

C e r t a i n p a t terns emerge w i t h respect to the d r o p out rates of

u n der g r a d u a t e students nationally.

A d d i t i o n a l specific i n f o r m a t i o n is

a v a i lable on the n u m b e r of students w i t h i n SEPP w h o ha v e left either the
p r o g r a m or the u n i v e r s i t y setting.

At t e m p t s should b e m a d e to co n t i n u e

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to validate what h a p pens to those students w h o h a v e chosen,
leave the program prior to graduation.

or c hose to

R e s e a r c h into this ar e a could

be of benefit to the p r o g r a m admini s t r a t o r and the u n i v e r s i t y in general,
particularly as o n e quantifies the h o l d i n g p o w e r of SEPP as part of an
evaluative effort.
11.

L ittle appears to b e k n o w n of the rel a t i o n s h i p of v olunteer,

work, and leadership experiences and the m a n n e r in w h i c h they affe c t
the decision to b e come a teacher.

M o r e importantly,

l i ttle is k n o w n as

to whether or not these experiences tend to e n c o urage one to b e c o m e a
teacher as a function of some other goal,

i. e. a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in

education, as an avocation closely allied to other primary interests
(art and artists, music and musician s , b u s i n e s s a nd b usiness enterprise,
language and linguistics,

E n glish and p r o f e s s i o n a l writing,

etc.).

Additional r e s e a r c h in this w i d e l y u n e x p l o r e d f u n c t i o n a l concept is
recommended.
12.

The literature suggests that work,

leadership, and v o l u n t e e r

experiences each contribute in a u n i q u e m a n n e r to the enha n c e m e n t of
self,

the creation of interest, and/ o r m e e t i n g of cer t a i n felt needs.

Such student experiences should b e ident i f i e d prior to e n t r y into a
teacher education program,

if for no other r e a s o n than that of i d e ntifying

those students w h o m a y h a v e spent time in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h y o u n g s t e r s
similar to those they w i s h to teach.
the p r ogram h aving some concep t i o n
tics of that potential group.

Th e y then could be expected to enter

(right or wrong)

of the c h a r a c t e r i s ­

These pre-con c e i v e d notions,

then,

could

also be expanded u p o n and/or m o d i f i e d through v a r i o u s p r o g r a m experiences.
Experience could also b e used as a p r o g r a m e n trance criteria.

193

13.That there is. a need for
preparation

is indicated b o t h in the literature and in the expressed

career plans of the students.
"profession

role c l a r i f i c a t i o n in teacher

Thus, an attempt to ide n t i f y the

of teaching" as a career goal could b e incorporated into

program considerations.

If the intent of a n a l t e r n a t i v e teacher e d u cation

program is to provide a setting in w h i c h students a r e able to e xperiment
w i t h teaching before deciding on it as a c a r e e r is to b e met, e a r l y options
for exit m u s t exist.

But, to encourage exit b e f o r e p r o v i d i n g students

w i t h b o t h a philosophic and a practical p e r s p e c t i v e is to do them an
injustice.

It is r ecommended that a d e f i n i t i o n and r o l e c l a r i f i c a t i o n

component b e added to the early port i o n of the p r e s e r v i c e SEPP program.
14.

As a m a t t e r of philosophic and p r a c t i c a l consideration,

attitudes identified inherently impact on career choices made.

the

The

literature suggests that the counseling fun c t i o n w i t h i n a ny p r o g r a m should
be expanded to include discu s s i o n of role expectations, p a r t i c u l a r l y in
the context of b o t h the immediate and long-r a n g e impa c t of attitudes and
s a tisfaction w i t h one's career choice.
15.

Inventoried interests could b e c onsidered as e s s e n t i a l p r e ­

p r ogram entrance information.

The liter a t u r e s t rongly suggests that

m e a sures d e s igned to i d e n t i f y interest have p o t e n t i a l v a l u e for s e l e ction
purposes.

Inventories, of interest are formal p r o c esses w h i c h could b e

ut ilized as one of several tools to de t e r m i n e e n t r a n c e / a c c e p t a n c e into a
program, partic u l a r l y an alternative prog r a m having lim i t e d staff
resources.
d esigned

O n c e identified,

the curriculum should a d o p t / a d a p t strategies

to capture expressed inventoried interests of the participants.

16.

Tests for aptitude for teaching a r e existant.

T hese m e a s u r e s

194

could also b e utilized as another tool to de t e r m i n e entran c e / a c c e p t a n c e
into the preservice program.

In addition,

they could b e utilized for

evaluative purposes, w i t h r e spect to b o t h the p r o g r a m and participants
in terms of having additional comparative info r m a t i o n available.
17.
is

Because some of the d a t a suggests a H a w t h o r n e effect,

the need to know if it is real or if, in fact,

there

the early field ex­

periences provided through the alter n a t i v e p r o g r a m enhance student
perceptions to the extent that they can m o r e r e a d i l y "not see" themselves
in

teaching as a career.

If this is the case, then a v i t a l p r o g r a m

component m a y b e j u dged to h a v e b e e n successful.

Continued i n v e s t i g a t i o n

in the area of p r o g r a m and career choi c e is recommended.
18.

Given c e r tain p r e determ i n e d p r o g r a m components, h o w do students

p e rceive the contribution of those c omponents to the devel o p m e n t of
themselves as professionals?

Addit i o n a l r e s e a r c h needs to be c o m p leted

to determine the d e g r e e to w h i c h the p r o g r a m functions to enhance p r o ­
fessional development as w e l l as pe r s o n a l development.
19.

A l t h o u g h students w e r e n ot asked to i d e n t i f y the n u m b e r of

times they had changed majors,

or w h y they had do ne so, such info r m a t i o n

could p r o v i d e additional insights to the u n i v e r s i t y C u r r i c u l u m C o m m i t t e e
and to the counseling s t a f f .

There is a need to k n o w m o r e of the

process as it impacts on the students as w e l l as on the university.

By

r esearching this basic question one m i g h t expect to help fill the v a c u u m
of i nformation with, respect to the large numbers of students w h o w i t h d r a w
or diange m ajors and/or never complete their college careers.
20.

The literature indicates that there is rationale to support

the a dmittance of h i g h l y qualified p r e s e r v i c e candidates.
be d o n e to determine if, in fact,

A s tudy should

students opting for the alter n a t i v e

195

program represent h i g h calibre candidates, c a p a b l e of enhancing the
profession.

Such a study could only b e accomplished after first

quantifying "high calibre."

T h e n a criteria d i s c r e p a n c y could b e

accomplished.
21.

The literature suggests that cert a i n p e r s o n a l i t y and/or

other factors contribute to the d e c i s i o n to b e c o m e a teacher.

Wh a t

specific personality characteristics m a y be c o n t r i b u t o r y to the d e c i s i o n
has not yet b e e n identified.
22.

This is another p o t e n t i a l area for research.

If students p e r c e i v e teaching as a m e a n s to some other end,

the large numbers of teachers w h o enter but a l s o exit from the p r o ­
fession after only a f e w years would b e explained.

Res e a r c h into the

basic question of w h e t h e r or not career choice functions to encourage
mobility, dropouts,

etc is warranted.

The SEPP students w e r e not asked

whether or not their p erceptions included teaching as a m e a n s to some
other end.
23.

Such perceptual i n f o r m a t i o n could b e gathered.
Additi o n a l r e s earch should b e conducted o n the l aboratory

(field experience)

component of the S E P P p r o g r a m so as to i d entify the

manner and degree to w h i c h the p o t e n t i a l teacher is able to discuss
and clarify w h a t h e perceives to b e h i s s t rengths/weaknesses as they
relate to becoming a n effective teacher, w i t h i n the context of ro l e
perceptions and career plans as a cu r r i c u l u m c o n s i d e r a t i o n p r e v i o u s l y
noted in these recommendations.
24.

For those persons w h o m i g h t wi s h to p u r s u e us e of the A t t i t u d e /

Perceptions Scale,

there is the need

to a d d i t ionally refine, validate,

and test for additional r eliability of the document.
is made,

then,

The r e c o m m e n d a t i o n

that b e f o r e u s e is m a d e of the d o c u m e n t some of the steps

identified earlier b e taken to insure a d d i t i o n a l r e l i a b i l i t y / v a l i d i t y .

196

25.

The altern a t i v e teacher e d u c a t i on p r o g r a m is pr e m i s e d o n the

concept that the program encourages each p e r s o n to develop h i s / h e r own
teaching style.

Yet student p e rcep t i o n s of "progr a m / s t a f f h e l p f u l n e s s , "

w h ile not structured in terms of SEPP per se, w e r e n o t related to the
degrees of c o mmitment expressed toward t e a c h i n g three and five- y e a r s hence.
This

suggests that there is something o c c u r i n g w h i c h fails to r e a c h the

students' individual interests, and,
his interest in teaching as a career.
consistent w i t h the small group,
program.

therefore, m a y c o n t r i b u t e to decrease
Such a n o c c u r e n c e w o u l d n ot be

indivi d u a l i z e d a p p r o a c h p r o p o s e d in the

It is recommended that this inverse r e l a ti o n s h i p b e f ormally

examined b y the program administrators and staff.
26.

Throughout the r e v i e w of the l i t e r a t u r e the r e c u r r e n t theme

of the need for continuous patterns of p r e and in-se r v i c e e d u c a t i o n are
mentioned.

It is recommended that prior to the time of the g r a d u a t i o n of

the first SEPP class a d e s i g n for inservice a c t i v i t i e s b e i dentified to
assure the continuity of effort toward p r o f e s s i o n a l growth.

Such a

design w o u l d b e a n extension of the c u r r e nt l y a p proved curriculum.
27.

M a n y of the components of the S E P P program, d e s c r i b e d in

Chapters 1 and 2, hinge u p o n the co o p e r a t i o n of p a r t i c i p a t i n g local
schools.

In addition to the r e c o mm e n d a t i o n that public r e l a t i o n s efforts

b e expanded,

it is recommended that the u n i v e r s i t y atte m p t to d e f i n e the

criteria, method,

and role d e f i n i t i o n of those local e d u c a t i o n agen c y

p e rsonnel w h o function as field expe r i e n c e s u p e r v i s o r s a n d/or c o o perating
teachers.

The need for d e f i n i t i o n becomes g r e a t e r as each p a s s i n g term

is completed, primarily b e c a u s e the students d e s c r i b e d in this study are
expected to h a v e increased field experiences as they p r o g r e s s thr o u g h

197

the program.

The l i a s o n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for u n i v e r s i t y p e r s o n n e l should

also be clearly established as par t of the p r o c e s s r e c o m m e n d e d .
28.

As the altern a t i v e teacher e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m expands, it w i l l

necessitate increased staff demands.

It is r e c o m m e n d e d that f u l l -time

equivalent information b e developed w i t h r e s p e c t to sta f f i n g p a tterns
and that this i n formation b e descr i b e d in terms of b o t h u n i v e r s i t y
personnel and cooperating local ed u c a t i o n a g e n c y personnel.

The w h o l e

area of "shared r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " for p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t is i nherent
in the alternative program.

To as sure the succes s f u l compl e t i o n and

graduation of its first class,

there is every l i k e l i h o o d that a d m i n i s ­

trators w i l l be v i t a l l y interested in cos t - b e n e f i t rel a t e d studies.
These,

too, are recomm e n d e d for co n s i d e r a t i o n in p r o g r a m p u r p o s e s as

w ell as for r e s earch purposes.
29.

Other a lternative pro g r a m s rev i e w e d in the literature, w h i l e

limited, do suggest that the g r eat e r the p u blic info r m a t i o n and c o m m u n i t y
support for the p r o g r a m

(coupled w i t h u n i v e r s i t y s u p p o r t ) , the mo re l i k e ­

lihood there is that the g r a d u a t e s of the p r o g r a m wi l l b e w e l l - r e c e i v e d
b y the education community.

I n addition, th e y appear to b e supported in

the process of b e c o m i n g teachers through l o c a l ed u c a t i o n a g e n c y e n c o u r a g e ­
m e n t and participation.

It is recom m e n d e d that a p u blic i n f o r m a t i o n

effort b e designed to i nform and garner support for the alte r n a t i v e
p reservice program.

The u n i q u e experiences p r o v i d e d through the program,

if valid a t e d in the process, c a n enhance the c a p a b i l i t y of the stu d e n t
and his/her potential for initial job p l a c e m e n t success.

Initial j ob

placement appears to b e h i g h l y cont i n g e n t o n r e c e p t i v i t y b y the e d u c a t i o n
community.

Public i n formation efforts r e p r e s e nt o ne m e t h o d of ga r n e r i n g

198

support for the p r o g r a m and its graduates.
30.

I n formation f r o m the litera t u r e suggests that interim

"success" criteria m a y b e developed as o ne m e a n s of m e a s u r i n g the r e l a t i v e
success of persons engaged in a n oc c u p a t i o n a l e n d e a v o r .

It is recom m e n d e d

that consideration b e given to the d e v e l o p m e n t of cr i t e r i a w h i c h a re short
term in nature and relevant to the p r o g r a m goals.
31.

The literature suggests that m a n y e v a luations of teacher

education programs are considered to me e t "effectiveness m e a s u r e s " w h e n
taken from the p e r s p e c t i v e of post- h o c information.

The r e c o m m e n d a t i o n

is m a d e that the p r o g r a m developers consider parti c u l a r e v a luations of
both the "student teaching" compo n e n t and the first-year of teaching
perspectives of SEPP participants to d e t e r m i n e if, in fact,

c onfidence

levels of these b e g i n n i n g teachers a r e increased or decreased.

Such

information w o u l d p r o v i d e another p o r t i o n of d a t a r e l a t i v e to a total
evaluation of the p r o g r a m as w e l l as rel a t i v e to a n e f fectiveness
measurement of p r e s e r v i c e teacher education.
32.

Self concept,

c l osely alli e d to p e r s o n a l i t y and values, as

reviewed in the literature,
the alternative program.

is assumed to b e enhanced b y the n a t u r e of

Additi o n a l res e a r c h into the a r e a of s e l f -

concept and v alues of the SEPP p r og r a m participants app e a r s to be n e eded
particularly as another p o r t i o n of the b a s e l i n e d a t a b e yond that d r a w n
through inform a t i o n contained in this study.
33.

It is recommended that the u n i v e r s i t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n give

its continued support to the altern a t i v e p r o g r a m and the couns e l i n g
fu nction g e n e r a l l y w i t h i n the U n i v e r s i t y b y m a k i n g a d d i t i o n a l p e r s o n a l i t y
and interest testing possible, so as to b e u t i l i z e d b y the SEPP staff.

199

While univer s i t y funds are limited,

to the e x tent p o s s i b l e efforts should

continue to p r o vide "entering information" on the n a t u r e and backg r o u n d
of the students.

This can b e accomplished through a f o r m a l i z e d testing

process to i n c lude personality, att i t u d e and interest measures.
34.

Several recomm e n d a t i o n s affecting the c o u n s e l i n g staff at

Mi chigan State University, as well as the SEPP p r o g r a m a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and
staff, h a v e b e e n made.

One final r e c o m m e n d a t i o n a f f e c t i n g this same

group is that efforts b e u n d e r t a k e n to a dequately u t i l i z e perso n a l i t y
and interest testing results as a g e n e r a l c o u ns e l i n g tool.

200
C L O S I N G S T A TEMENT

Calls for r e f o r m in education,

and in teacher ed u c a t i o n p a r t i c u ­

larly, will continue for so long as the e d u c a t i o n p r o f e s s i o n at any
level affects

the lives of those w h o are taught,

ad infinitum perhaps.

Public demands for quality teachers w h o can f u n c t i o n in a fa s t - c h a n g i n g
social institution,

and do so effectively,

total education community.

impact in u n ique ways on the

R e s e a r c h in the behav i o r a l and social

sciences also contributes in a u n i q u e manner.
Efforts to p r oduce teachers w ho are b o t h h u m a n and learned have
begun through m o d i f i c a t i o n of e x i s t i n g teacher e d u c a t i o n programs and
the development of alter n a t i v e programs.

These efforts provide a

vehicle through w h i c h the p r o f e s s i o n can continue to upgrade both its
standards of selection and d e v e l o p m e n t of t e aching competencies.
assure continual progress toward those goals,

To

evaluation methodologies

can be applied to the teacher e d u c a t i o n process to d e t ermine adoptionrejection of curriculum and to d e t e r m i n e

the need for r e v i s i o n or

further development of curriculum offerings.

Once having defined the

formal setting (the institutional organiz a t i o n )
learning of the student,

as it affects the

the s e ttin g becomes an a n t e c e d e n t character-

istic--an operational definition.

In the same sense,

the human

organism can be described in terms of initial o r i e n t a t i o n to the o r g a n i ­
zation.

Thus,

assessment of the stud e n t in the p a r t i c u l a r learning

setting can occur.

"Values" m a y be stated o b j e c t i v e l y w h e n d e v eloped

against certain p r e d etermined

criteria.

The outputs of formal e v a l u a t i o n efforts are expressed as c o r ­
rective feedback,

rather than refle c t i v e comment.

It can provide.

201
information designed to enhance the role of the t e a c h e r tr a i n i n g
institution w h i l e enhan c i n g the p o t e n t i a l successes of its graduates.
To this end the total univer s i t y c u r r i c u l u m contributes to the d e v e l o p ­
ment of improved teacher trainee attitudes, know l e d g e s , a n d behaviors
toward the students they w i l l teach.
Similarly,

the p a r t i c u l a r p r e s e r v i c e p r o g r a m contributes to the

degree that it does, in fact, put into p r a c t i c e all of the best that
is known of teaching and learning.
ternative, provides

The program, b o t h regu l a r and al­

the s e t t i n g and the m o d e l i n g b e h a v i o r s w h i c h m a y

encourage positive h u m a n interactio n as w e l l as teaching skills.
Through such endeavors those w h o are p r e p a r e d to teach wi l l
eventually b e able to do so in a m a n n e r and style c onsistent w i t h a
p e r sonalized philos o p h y incorp o r a t i n g an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of those w h o
are recipients of their efforts in the c l a s s r o o m setting.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BI BL I O G R A P H Y

Alkin, M a r v i n C.
T o wards an E v a l u a t i o n Model:
A Systems A p p r o a c h .
U C L A Center for the Study of Evaluation, W o r k i n g Paper no. 4.
Los Angeles:
UCLA, 1967.
(ERIC No. ED 104 150).
Anderson, Keith P.
" A Study of Col l e g e Gr a d u a t e s C e r t i f y i n g for S e c o n ­
dary School T eaching."
U n p u b l i s h e d PhD dissertation, M i c h i g a n S t a te
University, 1965.
Andrews, L. 0.
" A C u r r i c u l u m to P r o c u r e Career T eachers for the 1 9 8 0 ' s,"
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All i n f o r m a t i o n following
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to

Ohnmacht, Fred W.
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Seymour, Lowell A. and others.
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Cliffs, N e w Jersey:
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Vintage

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Smith, B. Othanel, Saul B. Cohen, and A r t h u r Pearl.
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Washington, D.C.:
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N e w York:

Stott, M. B. "Occupational S u c c e s s ." O c c u p ational P s y c h o l o g y , 13:126140, February, 1939.
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T e a c h e r s . Carbondale, Illinois:
So u t h e r n Illinois University,
Co llege of Education, 1972.
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F u ture S h o c k .

N e w York:

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1970.

Townsend, R o n a l d D.
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June, 1973.
(Mimeographed.)
Travers, R o b e r t M. W.
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Second H a n d b o o k of R e s e a r c h o n T e a c h i n g .
1973.

Chicago:

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December, 1965.
Trueblood, Cecil R.
"Descr i p t i o n of P e n n State's P r e p r o f e s s i o n a l Teacher
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Progress R e p o r t No. 1.
U n i v e r s i t y Park, Pen n s y l v a n i a
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(Mimeographed.)
Tyler, R. W.
Progress,

"The Devel o p m e n t of I n s t r u m e n t s for A s s e s s i n g Educational
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Uchiyoma, A n d y and H enry Clay Lindgren.
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October, 1967b.
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R E F E R E N C E S P E R T A I N I N G TO T HE SURVEY INSTRUMENTS

Kerlinger, Fred N. "First and Second O rder Factor Structures of A t t i t u d e s
Toward Education," A m e r i c a n Educational R e s e a r c h J o u r n a l , 4:191-205,
May, 1967.
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N e w Y o r k University, 1969.
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N e w York:

Rokeach, Milton. "The M e a s u r e m e n t of Values and V a l u e Systems," S o c i a l ,
Psychological and Political B e h a v i o r , ed. G i l b e r t Abcariam.
Columbus, Ohio:
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,

Manual:

The N a ture of Human Values.

N e w York:

The Free Press,

1973.
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The O p e n and Closed M i n d

(New York:

B a s i c Books,

1960).

215

R E F E R E N C E S P E R T A I N I N G T O SEPP

Corl, Samuel S.
"The P r o fessional E d u c a t i o n of H i g h School and Junior
High School Teachers at M i c h i g a n State University:
A Propo s a l . "
East Lansing, Michigan:
M i c h i g a n State University, 1972.
(Mimeo­
graphed.)
_________ . Secondary E d u c ation P i l o t Program:
Focus on the P r o g r a m
(Student Handbook).
East Lansing, M i c h igan:
M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r ­
sity, 1974.

APPEND I C E S

APPEN D I X A

SEPP SPECIFIC P R O G R A M C O M P O N E N T S

217

SECONDARY E D U C A T I O N P I L O T P R O G R A M COMPONENTS
t

Fall:

Education 1G2-A

Introduction to S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n (1 credit)

This seminar m e e t s four times d u r i n g the terms, for a m i n i m u m of
two h o u r s each meeting.
It p r o v i d e s a n i n t r o duction to the
professional role of the teacher, the effect of schooling on
youth, and an o r i e n t a t i o n to the SEPP p r o g r a m and philosophies.
This seminar constitutes the f o r m a t i o n of a n ongoing a d v i s e m e n t
group, w h i c h continues to m e e t regularly, t h ough less frequently,
throughout the n e x t four years.
Winter:

Education 102-B

Personal Dim e n s i o n s of Se c o n d a r y T e aching

(2 cr.)

A t w o-day interpersonal relations m i c r o - l a b f o cusing o n p e rsonal
values, qualities of self, and the e x p e r i e n c e of teaching.
In­
cluded is the first o p portun i t y for students to teach a small
piece of familiar m a t e r i a l to m e m b e r s of the labor a t o r y group,
u s i n g v i d e o tape to evaluate a nd refl e c t on the experience.
Spring: Education 102-C

Adoles c e n t Y o u t h C u l t u r e

(2 credits)

A w e e k e n d camping trip w i t h j u n i o r and senior h i g h y o u n g p e o p l e
f r o m the L a nsing area, this l a b o r a t o r y focuses o n c h aracteristics
of young p eople in a n o n - s c h o o l setting.
Of great i mportance in
the d e s i g n of this experience is the ro l e of the self in i n t e r ­
action w i t h others.
Field Experience Requirement:
D u r i n g the second year of the p r o g r a m (occasionally the Spring
Term of the f r e shmen y e a r for those w h o are ready) SEPP r e quires
students to complete the equivalent of 120 h ours of clinical
experience w i t h y o u n g people in a field setting.
It is str o n g l y
recommended that this r e q u i r e m e n t b e m e t through summer w o r k in
a camp or r ecreation setting d u r i n g the first or second summer.
If completed during school time, this r e q u i r e m e n t could take the
form of two, 2-hour b l o c k s per w e e k of time spent as a teacher's
aide in a local school.
Such a p o s i t i o n is considered voluntary,
and there is u s u a l l y no imbursement a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it.
O n the
basis of that schedule the re q u i r e m e n t c an b e m e t in on e y e a r .
Mindt-benders:
Each term students are e x pected to read fr o m a list pro v i d e d
b y the staff one b o o k of curr e n t interest in the broad field of
e ducation and social concern.
Sing l e session d i s cussions w i l l be
held, in w h i c h each student is e x pected to participate, d e p ending
on w h i c h b o o k w a s read.
Students f r o m all class levels m a y
p a rticipate in each discussio n , w h i c h is not graded, but m e r e l y
an opportunity to share ideas w i t h o t h e r s t udents and staff.
Bibliographies are available at about m i d t e r m of the pre v i o u s term.

218

219

So p h om o r e Ye a r

Fall:

E d u c at ion 202-A

Adoles c e n t E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y (2 credits)

C o u r s e emphasizes psychological, social, e m o t i o n a l and a c ademic
d e v e l o p m e n t of adolescents.
Special emphasis o n the pr o b l e m s
a nd ch aracteristics of e a r l y a d o l e s c e n c e (junior h i g h a nd m i d d l e
school).
Winter: E d u c at ion 202-B

W o r k s h o p s in S e c ondary E d u c a t i o n

(2 credits)

A v a r i e t y of c o n centrated sessions o n v a r i o u s topics such as
r a c i a l p r o blems in s e c o ndary schools, scho o l law, discipline,
school organization, c u r r i c u l u m development, finance, etc.
Spring: E d u c a t i o n 202-C

A l t e r n a t i v e Scho o l Struct u r e s

(1 credit)

A series of visitations, eac h one d a y in length.
Stu d e n t s w i l l
v i s i t an open space school, a career center, an u r b a n h i g h school,
a n open m i d d l e school and one school of their choice.
I n each
c a s e students w i l l be encouraged to e x p e r i e n c e the s c hool d a y
of a typical pupil.
D i s c u s s i o n and a n alysis of ea c h s c h o o l w i l l
f o l l o w each visitation.
Students especi a l l y interested in a
p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l or type of school w i l l b e encouraged to c on­
c e n t r a t e o n that type, occas i o n a l l y s u b s t ituting for one of t h o s e
scheduled.
Field E xperience Requirement:
If not a l r e a d y completed, students should p l a n to c o m p l e t e the
r e q u i r e m e n t described o n p a g e four d u r i n g this summer session.

Junior Year
Pre-Fall:

Leadership Training L a b o r a t o r y W o r k s h o p

(no credit)

Junior students spend o n e w e e k in September, prior to the b e g i n n i n g
of the term, i n a concentrated, live - i n w o r k s h o p setting d e s i g n e d
to focus on interpersonal skills, g r o u p processes, and the specific
dynamics of i n s tructional groups.
H e a v y e m phasis w i l l b e plac e d on
the teacher's r o l e in crisis situa t i on s ’— in the classroom, in the
school, and in the community.
Fall:

Teaching Skills Labora t o r i e s

(4 credits)

Specific teaching competencies,
i dentified b y the staff, w i l l b e
addressed through concentrat e d w o r k s h o p and l aboratory sessions,
w i t h students spending a t least
four h o u r s ea c h w e e k in a
p u blic
school .setting demons t r a t i n g those skills lear n e d in t h e
on campus laboratories.
E x t e ns i v e u s e of v i d e o tape f a c i l i t i e s w i l l
b e applied to the evaluation of each competency.

220

Winter:

I n t e r - r a c i a l , Inter-ethnic Ca m p L a b o r a t o r y (1 credit)
Similar to the lab w h i c h is scheduled for the spring of the
f r e shman year, this lab also includes j u nior and.se n i o r h i g h
students, b u t also focuses on the exper i e n c e of the third w o r l d
student,

S p r i n g : f u l l Time C l i nical Internshi p

(10 credits)

Supervision b y SEPP staff and public school personnel.

Senior Year
Fall:

Workshops in Educational A ct i v i t i e s

( 2 credits)

One required w o r kshop s e q uen c e in c u r r i c u l u m b u i l d i n g and i m ­
provement, emphasizing K i n d e r g a r t e n through twelfth grade.
Other
w o r k sh ops offer a c hoice to students, m a n y of them arising out of
issues encountered in student teaching and p r e v i o u s l y in t he p r o ­
gram.
Winter:

Seminar in Teaching of Specific Subjects

(2 credits)

This course deals w i t h the teaching of specific subjects.
T he
student enrolls in a s e c t i o n dealing w i t h h i s m a j o r subject field.
Staff of SEPP w o r k s i n conju n c t i o n w i t h m e m b e r s of m a j o r d e p a r t ­
m e n t s in the s upervision and i n s truction of this port i o n of the
SEPP program.
Spring: Seminar in Social and Philosophical Foun d a t i o n s of E d u c a t i o n
(1 credit)
Focus in o n the student's re f i n e m e n t of his p e r s o n a l p h i l o s o p h y of
education, and its a p p l i c a t i o n to h is per s o n a l teaching style.
A
beginning exploration of his t o r i c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l p e r s p ectives
serves as a brief intro d u c t i o n to gra d u a t e study.
Student A d v i s o r y C o m m i t t e e
Each term advisement groups a r e encouraged to d e s i g n a t e o n e of
their m e mbers as their r e p r e s e n t a t i v e to the Stu d e n t A d v i s o r y
Committee.
Included in this committee's resp o n s i b i l i t i e s is
the a p p roval of any p r ogram changes y h i c h m a y be a p p r o p r i a t e to
m e e t the changing needs of students in the program, the schedu l i n g
of social and p r ogram events, and t he decision, w h e n necessary,
as to financial m a t ters perta i n i n g to the program.
Student Lea d e r s h i p in SEPP
One of the unique opportunit i e s offered to students beyo n d their
first year is that of partic i p a t i n g in the l e a d e r s h i p (and,

/

221

occasionally, the instruction) of others in the program.
Small
group leadership, seminar leadership, and the sponsoring of
special events all give students a d d i t i o n a l o p portunities for
experience which, both, pr e par e s t h e m for c l a s s r o o m w o r k as a
professional, and adds to their m a r k e t a b i l i t y u p o n the receipt of
degree and certification.

APPE N D I X B
SPECIAL L E T T E R TO N O N - S E P P E D 200 STUDENTS

222

M IC HIGA N STATE U N IV E R S IT Y
CO LLEG E O F E D U C A T IO N

EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 48824

D EPARTM ENT O F SECONDARY EDU CATION AND CURRICULUM
ERICKSON HALL

November, 1974
Dear Ed 200 Student:
You are invited to participate in a study of secondary education teacher
education students enrolled at Michigan State University. The purpose of the
study is to gather information on the attitudes, perceptions, vocational
interests, and experiences of the typical secondary education student.
The materials you will need to participate are attached to this letter.
They are designed to determine:
- how you "see" the undergraduate program at MSU.
- how your personal interests "match" with various vocational
interests.
- what experiences you may have had that are vocationally
oriented.
A total of approximately 320 students will be part of the study, your­
self included. As a participant we would like you to do the following:
1. Complete the attached forms within the next five days.
2. Schedule time within the next few days (around your class schedule)
to complete one other form in Room 324 Erickson Hall.
3. Return the completed questionnaires to Room 324 E.H.
At the time
you return the materials you can also complete item 2 above.
Your voluntary participation will provide valuable information for the
University, for yourself, and for us. You will be provided copies of the
information gathered, some of which can help you in your career planning.
Please complete the questionnaires and return them to 324 E.H. within
the next five days. Your willingness to help with the study will be greatly
appreciated.
Sincerely,

Carol Norris

Associate Professor
Enclosure:

Questionnaires (3)

223

APPENDIX C
CONTACT TO SEPP STUDENTS

224

M IC H IG A N STATE U N IV E R S IT Y
COLLEGE O F EDUCATION

EAST LANSING • M ICHIGAN • 48824

DEPAR TM ENT O F SECONDARY EDU CATION AND CURRICULUM
ERICKSON HALL

November 5, 1974

You have been selected...because you are a SEPP student
to participate in a study of Michigan State University undergraduates.
As part of a doctoral dissertation, in part evaluating the SEPP program,
your help is needed. The amount of time you will need to spend will be small-just enough to complete several questionnaires on several areas including:
- how you "see" the undergraduate program at MSU.
- how your personal interests "match" with various
vocational interests.
- what experiences you may have had that are vocationally
oriented.
A total of approximately 320 students will be part of the study, yourself
included. As a participant we would like you to do the following:
1.

Return the self-addressed post card today!

2.

Plan on attending an hour-long orientation meeting on cither
November 20 or November 26, 1974. The meetings will be held
in the Kiva, Erickson Hall. Times are as follows:
November 20 - 12:40 - 1:40 p.m.
November 20 - 1:40 - 2:40 p.m.
November 26 - 12:40 - 1:30 p.m. or
3:00 - 4:00 p.m.
You may attend any one of the meetings.

3.- Plan on completing the questionnaires on November 20 through 26.
You can schedule the time around your class schedule.
4.

Schedule time during the early part of April, 1975, to complete
a second set of follow-up questionnaires.

Your voluntary participation will provide valuable information for the
University, for yourself, and for us. You will be provided copies of the
information gathered, some of which can help you in your career planning.
Please return the post card today. Mark your calendar for November 20 or 26Your willingness to help with the study will be greatly appreciated.
Sincerely,
ol Norris

Associate Professor
Enclosure:

post card

225

APPENDIX D
CONTACT LETTER TO NON-SEPP STUDENTS

226

M IC HIGA N STATE U N IV E R S IT Y
EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 48824

COLLEGE O F EDUCATION
DEPARTM ENT O F SECONDARY EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM

November 20, 1974

ERICKSON HALL

You have been selected...,
to participate in a unique study of Michigan StateUniversityundergraduates.
We really need your help! The amount of time you will need to spend will be
small--just enough to complete several questionnaires on several areas including:
- how you "see" the undergraduate program at MSU.
- how your personal interests "match" with various
vocational interests.
- what experiences you may have had that are vocationally
oriented.
A total of approximately 320 students will be part of the study, yourself
included. As a participant we would like you to do the following:
1.

Return the self-addressed post card today!

2.

Plan on attending an hour-long orientation meeting on one of several
dates. The meetings will be held in Erickson Hall. Times and places
are as follows:
December
December
December
December
December

2
3
4
4
5

-3:00
-1 :40
-12:40
-1:40
-12:40

- 4:00 p.m.
- 2:40 p.m.
- 1:40 p.m.
- 2:40 p.m.
- 1:30 p.m.

-

Room
Room
Room
Room
Room

319 Erickson Hall
319 Erickson Hall
113 Erickson Hall
113 Erickson Hall
113 Erickson Hall

You may attend any one of the meetings.
3.

Plan on completing the questionnaires on December 2 through 6.
You can schedule the time around your class schedule.

4.

Schedule time during the early part of April, 1975, to complete
a second set of follow-up questionnaires.

Your voluntary participation will provide valuable information for the
University, for yourself, and for us. You will be provided copies of the
information gathered, some of which can help you in your career planning.
Please return the post card today. Mark your calendar for December 2, 3,
4, or 5. Your willingness to help with the study will be greatly appreciated.
Sincerely

Associate Professor
Enclosure:

Post card

227

A P P EN D I X
SAMPLE RETURN,

E

STAMPED SELF-ADDRESSED P O S T C A R D

228

Sa m Corl a nd C a r o l Norr i s
324 Eric k s o n Hall
C o llege of E d u c ation
M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y
E a s t Lansing, M i c h i g a n 48824

D

I a m interested in being part of the study, but cannot
attend the scheduled meeting(s).

Y o u c a n reach m e at

______________ or leave a m e s s a g e at _______________________ _
(phone)
(address)
to set up a special m e e t i n g time.
□

I a m interested i n b e i n g part of the study, and w i l l attend
the scheduled m e e t i n g o n ____________________________
(date)

(Name)

(Student Number)

229

APPEN D I X

F

A TTITUDE/PE R C E P T I O N S SCALE

230

MSU ATTITUDE SURVEY - PERCEPTIONS TOWARD PROGRAM

PART I:
1.

Personal. Information:

C i r c l e y o u r responses
3.

Sex:

P r i o r p o s t - s e c o n d a r y schooling,
(junior college, c o m m u n i t y
college, technical school,
univers ity)

a) M a l e
b) Female
2.

Time

Ln present school

a)

1 t e r m or less

b)

2-3 terms

c)

4-5 terms

d)

6-7 terms

e)

8 or m o r e terms

A n s w e r # 4 o n l y if y o u have
completed item 3 above.

a)

1 t e r m or

b)

2-3 terms

c)

4-5 terms

d)

6-7 terms

e)

8 or m o r e

less

(MSU)

4.

terms

Ty p e o f school attended p rior
to MSU:

If not,
a)

J u n i o r or C o m m u n i t y C o l l e g e

b)

T e c h n i c a l School

c)

University

proceed to Part II.

PA R T II:

B e l o w are 34 items or state m e n t s d e a l i n g w i t h h o w y ou perceive
the p r o g r a m and services at M i c h i g a n State University.
To aid
y o u in a n s w e r i n g this questi o n n a i r e , the following d e f initions
are provided:

University S t a f f :

is d e fined as a n y p e r s o n o f f i c i a l l y e m ployed by the
U n i v e r s i t y to p r o v i d e s e rvices to students.
This m a y
include, but not be limited to a cademic advisors,
r esidence hall advisors, U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e Advisors,
S u p p o r t i v e s taff such as g r aduate student instructors.

Program:

is d e f ined as the formal instruc t i o n a l sequence in
w h i c h y o u are c u r r e n t l y enrolled.
It includes the
academic or p r o f e s s i o n a l course(s) (Past, pre s e n t and
projected) and r e l a t e d exper i e n c e s re q u i r e d as part
of the course work.

231

232

TO COMPLETE THE QUESTI O N N A I R E ITEMS respond to each of the items as
follows:
example, if y o u agree v e r y strongly w i t h a statement, y ou
would w r i t e + 3 o n the short line p r e c e d i n g the statement, but if y o u
should h a p p e n to d i s agree w i t h it, you w o u l d put a -1 in front of it.
Respond to e a c h statement as b e s t y o u can.
G o r a p i d l y bu t carefully.
Do not spend too m u c h time o n a n y o n e statement; t r y to resp o n d and
then go on.
The questions b e g i n w i t h it e m #5.
Response Codings:

5.

A g r e e V e r y Strongly:
A g r e e Strongly:
Agree:

+ 3 D i s a g r e e V e r y Strongly:
+2 D i s a g r e e Strongly:
+1 Disagree:

-3
-2
-1

I u n d e r s t a n d w h a t services t he u n i v e r s i t y staff c a n provide
i n this school.

6 . I m a k e u s e of the inform a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y the u n i v e r s i t y staff.
WITH RESPECT T O U N I V E R S I T Y STAFF:
7.

t h e y h e l p m e to identify p o t e n t i a l p r o g r a m problems.

8.

they h e l p m e to solve e d u c a t i o n (program) problems.

9.

t h e y provide m e w i t h e d uca t i o n a l a n d / o r v o c a t i o n a l
r e lated to m y subject area.

information

10.

t h e y appear to h a v e time to w o r k w i t h m e o n p r oblems or concerns

11.

t h e y m a i n t a i n confidentiality.

12.

t h e y are k n o wledgeable r e g a r d i n g e d ucational
e.g., courses, programs and prerequisites.

information;

W I T H R E S P E C T T O MYSELF:
13.

I feel that u n i v e r s i t y staff are c o m p etent in t h e i r subject
m a t t e r areas.

14.

A s a n e w student I found that o r i e n t a t i o n to this
p r o v i d e d b y u n i v e r s i t y staff.

15.

A s far as I c a n determine, students w h o w i t h d r a w or t r ansfer
ar e g i v e n inform a t i o n o n w h a t proce d u r e s to follow.

16.

I feel that u n i v e r s i t y staff a re good r esource people.

17.

A s far as I c a n determine, u n i v e r s i t y staff p r o v i d e students
w i t h inform a t i o n r e g a r d i n g scholarships, and o t h e r financial
a s s i s t a n c e a v a i lable to them.

18.

I have h a d little, if any, contact w i t h u n i v e r s i t y staff other
t h a n h a v i n g d r o p / a d d cards signed.

school is

233

WITH RESPECT TO UNIVERSITY STAFF:
19.

they conduct group and/or individual sessions to assi s t students
(e.g., in developing study skills).

20.

They help m e in schedu l i n g classes an d c h o o s i n g instructors.

21.

T h e y act as a b u f f e r or a n a d v o c a t e of the individual student
w i t h regard to institutio n a l pol i c i e s and/or regulations.

22.

They offer advice, but do not insist that I follow their
re c o m m e n d a t i o n ( s ) .

23.

T h e y attempt to get to kno w t he students as individuals.

24.

They provide accurate i nf o r m a t i o n o n c o urse con t e n t a n d c o u r s e
requirements.

WITH R E SPECT T O MYSELF:
25.

Time spent w i t h u n i v e r s i t y staff is w o r t h w h i l e ;
make p r o g r a m decisions.

it helps m e

26.

Time spent w i t h u n i v e r s i t y staff is wort h w h i l e ;
make career decisions.

it helps m e

27.

Time spent w i t h u n i v e r s i t y staff is w o r thwhile;
make personal decisions.

it helps m e

28.

If I have a p r o b l e m or gripe, I k n o w the u n i v e r s i t y staff
wi l l provide a "shoulder to c r y on."

29.

I a m able to reach u n i v e r s i t y staff generally.

30.

If I am referred to another p e r s o n b y someone from the u n i v e r s i t y
staff I a m u s u a l l y able to see the s e cond p e r s o n w i t h i n a short
period of time.

31.

M y o bservation is that mos t students do not u s e the services
of the u n i v e r s i t y staff.

32.

W h e n I a m w i t h the u n i v e r s i t y s taff I feel t h e y are interested
and a t t e ntive d uring our conversation.

RESPO N S E CODINGS:
A g r e e V e r y Strongly:
A g r e e Strongly:
Agree:

+3 D i s a g r e e V e r y Strongly:
+2 D i s a g r e e Strongly:
+1 Disagree:

-3
-2
-1

234

W I T H R E SPECT T O M S U GENERALLY:
34.

M y a t t i t u d e toward M S U is po s i t i v e b e c a u s e o f good experiences
I h a v e h a d in w o r k i n g w i t h the u n i v e r s i t y staff.
,

35.

M y d e c i s i o n to stay at M S U is, in part, b e c a u s e o f the
u n i v e r s i t y staff.

PART 2.2

T h e r e a r e a group of people w h o a re part o f the u n i v e r s i t y
staff.
T h e y m a y have h e l p e d y o u in v a r i o u s ways.
O f those
w i t h w h o m you h a v e had contact, y o u ha v e p r o b a b l y m a d e some
judgments.
T h i n k i n g of those w i t h w h o m y ou h a v e h ad con t a c t c h e c k the
a p p r o p r i a t e section o f the response.

2.1

To w h a t extent have the d o r m advisor(s) b e e n of help to you?
very much
(1)

2.2

______ somewhat
(2)

very much

somewhat
(2)

very much

mildly
(3)

somewhat
(2)

v e r y l i ttle
(4)

n ot
(5) at
all

mildly
(3)

v e r y little
(4)

n ot
(5) at
all

To w h a t extent h a v e the U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e F a c u l t y b e e n of h e l p to
you?
very much
(1)

2.5

(5)

To w h a t extent have the Graduate Assistant(s) b e e n of h e l p to you?

(1)

2.4

v e r y little
(4)

To w h a t extent have the teaching faculty b e e n o f help to you?

(1)

2.3

mildly
(3)

somewhat
(2)

mildly
(3)

verylittle
(4)

not
(5) at
all

To w h a t extent h a v e the fellow students and/ o r others b e e n of h e l p
to you?
very-much
(1)

somewhat
(2)

mildly
(3)

v e r y little
(4)

not
(5) at
all

not
at
all

235
Student No.
PART III:
3.1

(1)

(2)
3.2

Out of School Experiences

T h e r e are a group of v o l u n t e e r e x p eriences yo u m a y have had w h i c h
are b r o a d l y classified as "hel p i n g o t h e r peo p l e . "
T h e s e w ould include,
but not be limited to, tutoring, supe r v i s i n g children, caring for
adults w h o are s i c k or handic a p p e d , w o r k i n g in a school o f fice or as
a h a l l monitor, w o r k i n g i n a n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n program, w o r k i n g in a
day care center o r as a camp counselor; v o l u n t e e r w o r k at a hospital.
Indicate w h a t experi e n c e s of this type y ou h a v e h a d prior to
a t t e nding MSU:
I
h a v e h a d these ex p e riences.
T h e y include:

I have not h a d a n y of th e s e kinds of e x p e r i e n c e s .
There are a group of w o r k expe r i e n c e s y ou m a y ha v e h a d w h i c h are
b r o a d l y classified as "working w i t h people" b ut not n e c e s s a r i l y in
a " h e lping relationship." as g i v e n above.
T h e s e m i g h t include face
to face contact o r telephone c o n t a c t through such a ctivities as
cl e rking in a store, w o r k i n g as a w a i t r e s s or thea t r e usher;
conducting a s u r v e y for a c o m p a n y i n p e r s o n or b y telephone.
Indicate w h a t e x p e r i e n c e s of this type you h a v e h a d p r i o r to
attending MSU:

(1)

I h a v e had these experiences.

(2)

I h a v e not h a d a n y of t hes e kinds of experiences.

3.3

T h e y include:

T h e r e are a group of experi e n c e s y o u m a y h a v e h a d w h i c h are b r o a d l y
classi f i e d as p r o v i d i n g you w i t h op p o r t u n i t i e s to be in a "leadership"
position.
These include, but a r e n ot limited to, class offices,
club committee chairmen, etc.
Indicate w h a t exper i e n c e s of this type y ou h a v e h a d p r i o r to
at t e n d i n g MSU:

(1 )

(2)

I have h a d these experiences.

Th e y include:

Ih a v e not had a n y of these kinds o f experiences.

Procede to Part IV, next page.

236
Student No.
PART IV:
4.1

__________

Education and Career Plans

H a v e y o u changed m a j o r s since e n tering MSU:

______ yes

(1)
4.2

no

(2)

T o w h a t extent are y o u interested in b e c o m i n g a h i g h school or
junior h i g h school teacher?
very much
(1)

somewhat
(2)

mildly

v e r y little

(3)

(4)

no t at all
4.3

(5)
If your interest ranges from m i l d to v e r y m u c h in it e m 4.2, please
complete- the following questions.
T o w h a t extent do y o u p e r c e i v e you r s e l f re m a i n i n g as a teacher
three years f r o m now?
v e r y mu c h
(1)

______ somewhat
(2)

mildly

v e r y little

(3)

(4)

not at all
4.4

(5)
To w h a t extent do you perceive yo u r s e l f re m a i n i n g as a teacher
five years from now?
very much
(1)

______ somewhat
(2)

______m i l d l y

________v e r y little

(3)

(4)

not at all

(5)
T H A N K Y O U F O R Y O U R COOPERATION.
THIS IS THE END O F THE A T T I T U D E PE RCEPTIONS SCALE.

237
Student No. _____________
PART III:
3.1

(1)

(2)
3.2

Out of School Experience

There a r e a g r o u p of v o l u n t e e r experiences y o u m a y h a v e h a d w h i c h
are b r o a d l y classi f i e d as "helping o ther peo p l e . "
T h e s e w o u l d include,
but n o t be limited to, tutoring, supervising children, c a ring for
adults w h o a r e sick or handicapped, w o r k i n g in a school office o r as
a h a l l monitor, w o r k i n g in a n adult e d u c a t i o n program, w o r k i n g i n a
day care center or as a camp counselor; v o l u n t e e r w o r k a t a hospital..
Indicate w h a t e xperiences of this ty p e y ou h a v e h a d since a t t e n d i n g
MSU:
I h a v e h a d these experiences.
T h e y include:

I have n o t had a n y of these kinds of experiences.
There are a group of w o r k experiences you m a y h a v e h a d w h i c h a re
b r o adly class i f i e d as "working w i t h people" b u t not n e c e s s a r i l y in
a "helping r e l ationship" as g i v e n above.
T h e s e m i g h t include face
to face contact or telephone contact through such activ i t i e s as
clerk i n g in a store, w o r k i n g as a w a i t r e s s or thea t r e usher;
conductin g a s urvey for a c o mpa n y in p e r s o n or b y telephone.
Indicate w h a t experiences of this ty p e you h a v e h a d since a t t e n d i n g
MSU:

(1)

I have h a d these experiences.

(2)

I have not h a d a n y of these k inds of experiences.

3.3

T h e y include:

There are a g r o u p of experiences y o u m a y h a v e h a d
classified as p r o v i d i n g you w i t h opportu n i t i e s to
position.
T h e s e include, but are n o t limited to,
club committee chairmen, etc.

w h i c h are b r o a d l y
b e in a "leadership"
class offices,

Indicate w h a t experiences of this type you h a v e h a d since
a t t e n d i n g MSU:
(1)

I have h a d these experiences.

T h e y include:

(2 )

I have not had a n y of these kinds of experiences.

APPENDIX G
P E R S O N A L B ACKGRO U N D Q U E S T I O N N A I R E

238

P E R S O N A L BACKG R O U N D
STUDENT NO.

/ / / / / / ! /

SEX:

MALE: _

(NAME)
FEMALE:

1.

yes

A r e you married:

(10)
2.

no

(11)
yes

Are you the h e a d of a household ?
(12)

3.

no
(13)

R ESIDENTIAL INFORMATION:
SIZE O F C O M M U N I T Y IN W H I C H Y O U LIVE.
(In responding to this information, co n s i d e r your h o m e rather than
your campus address:
If you live of f campus and c o n s i d e r that to
be your home, respond o n the basis o f y o u r families' (motherfather) home.)
SUBURBAN COMMUNITY

URBAN COMMUNITY

25.000 to 50,000

1 ,000, 00 0 or m o r e
(15)

(14)

10.000 to 25,000

500.000 to 1,000,000
(17)

(16)

I N D E P E N D E N T CITIES
AND/OR RURAL

S TANDARD M E T R O P O L I T A N

5,000 to 10,000

250.000 to 500,000
(18)

(19)
2,500 to 5,000

100.000 to 250,000

(20)

(21)
2,000 to 2,500

5 0.000 to 100,000

(22 )

(23)
1 , 5 0 0 to 2,000
(24)
1,000

(25)

239

to 1,500

240
4.

N U M B E R OF PERSONS
three

IN Y O U R IMMEDIATE F A M I L Y GROUP, Y O U R S E L F E X C L U D E D .

or less

~(26)

four
1297
five

AGES OF PERSONS
AGE:

(28)

nine

______ s e v e n
(30)

(31)

ten or mo r e

______ eight
(33)

(32)
5.

______ six
(27)

IN Y O U R IMMEDIATE F A MILY G R O U P Y O U R S E L F EXCLUDED.

NO. O F PERSONS:

AGE:

Under 5

_ _________________ ______ 45 to
(35)
(36)

5 to 14

___________________ ______ 65 an d over
(39)
(40)

(34)

(38
15 to 24
(42)

64

______
(37)
______
(41

Y O U R P R E S E N T AGE:
(43)

25 to 44
(44)

NO. O F PERSONS:

18 or under
(45)

(46)
___ 19
(47)

20

-

21

(48)
22 - 24
(49)
24 or older
(50)

241

6.

SEX O F PERSONS
AGE:

SEX:

U nder 5
(51)

IN Y O U R IMMEDIATE F A MILY GROUP, Y O U R S E L F E X C L U D E D .

(52)

NUMBER:

AGE:

SEX:

m a l e ____ ____ _________ 25 to 4 4
(53)
(54)

male
(55)

female

5 to 14

(58)

(59)

male

(60)

45 to 64

(62)

(63)

(64)

male
(65)

(6 6)

female

female

(67)
15 to 24
(71)

(6 8 )

(68 )

male

65 or over

(72)

(73)

(74)

(70)

male
(75)

(76)

female

female

(77)

(78)

(79)
STUDENT NO.

7.

______
(56)

female

(57)

(61)

NUMBER:

PLACE OF RESIDENCE:

(80)
/ / / / / 111

B A S E D O N T HE LAST FULL YE A R ' S TIME:

(9)

(S)
7.2

D o family m e m b e r s

yes

live in the same house?
(1 0 )

no
(11)

7.3

Do f a mily m e mbers live in a d i f f e r e n t house, b ut
in the same county?

yes
no
(1 2 )
(13)

7.4

D o family m e m b e r s live in a d i f f e r e n t county,
in t h e same state?

(14)

7.5

D o family m e m b e r s

yes

but

yes

live in a di f f e r e n t state?
(16)

7.6

A r e family m e m b e r s

no
(15)

no
(17)

yes

living abroad?

(18)

no

(19)

242

8.
8.1

TYPE O F RESIDENCE:

MORE THAN ONE A N S W E R MAY A P P L Y

D o e s your family own its o w n h ome? ______________________

yes____ no

(20)
8.2

8.3

8.4

8.5

8.6

9.

9.1

Is it

Is it

a single family residence?__________________________
(22)

yes____ no
(23)

(24)

yes____ no
(25)

(26)

ye s____ no
(27)

(28)

y es____ no
(29)

(30)

y es___ no
(31)

a condominium?

D o e s y o u r family rent its home?_________________________

Is ita n apartment?

Is your h o m e shared w i t h other n o n - f a m i l y
m e m bers (i.e., renters)?

TYPE OF E M P L O Y M E N T OF PERSONS O V E R 25 O R C O N S I D E R E D AS HEAD OF THE
HOUSEHOLD.
(In responding, cou n t your m o t h e r or father, but not
both.
Count yourself, if you a re the h e a d of the h o u s e h o l d only.)
Professional,

technical and k i n d r e d w o r k e r s
(32)

9.2

Managers,

officials, and proprietors,

e x cept farm
(33)

9.3

C l e r i c a l and k i ndred workers
(34)

9.4

Sales workers
(35)

9.5

Craftsmen,

foremen, and kindred w o r k e r s
(36)

9.6

Operat i v e s and kindred workers
(37)

9.7

Service workers,

including p r i v a t e h o u s e h o l d
(38)

9.8

Laborers, except farm and mine
(39)

9.9

(21)

F a r m occupations

(40)

243

10.

F A M I L Y INCOME:
A N N U A L INCOME F O R HEAD O F HOUSEHOLD.
father, but not both; self, if applicable.)
7,000 to 7,499

25,000 or m o r e

3,000 to 3,499

(42)

(41)

(43)
6,500 to 6,999

15,000 to 24,999

2,500 to 2,999

(45)

(44)

(46)
2,000 to 2,499

6,000 to 6,599

10,000 to 14,999
(48)

(47)

(49)
1,500 to 1,999

5,500 to 5,499

9,500 to 9,999
(50)

(52)

(51)

1,000 to 1,499

5,000 to 5,499

9,000 to 9,499
(54)

(53)

(55)
500 to 999

4 , 5 0 0 to 4,999

8,500 to 8,999

(58)

(57)

(56)

4 ,000 to 4,499

8,000 to 8,499
(60)

(59)

(61)

loss, none, or
less t h a n 500

3 ,500 to 3,999

7,500 to 7,999
(63)

(62)
L'l.

(Mother or

YEARS O F SCHOOL COMPLETED FOR HEAD OF HO U S E H O L D :

J0LLEGE:

5 or m o r e years
years
(64)

HIGH SCHOOL:

4

ELEMENTARY:

8
(66)

(65)

7

3

4 years
(67)

(6 8 )

(70)

(71)

(73)

(74)

(69)
6/5

2

3 years

(72)
4/3

1

2 years

(75)
2/1

1 year
(77)

(76)
12.

S P ECIAL SECTION:

I f b o t h parents are w o r k i n g a nd you w i s h to vo l u n t e e r
the information o n c o m b i n e d income, please do so
in this portion.
USE THE FIGURES G I V E N IN S E C T I O N 10 above T O
IDENTIFY THE T O T A L C O M B I N E D INCOME:
Total co m b i n e d income o f both w o r k i n g parents
(78)

244

Student No. I I
13.

R ACIAL ETHNIC BACKGROUND:
I n dian

Anglo

(8)

(9)
Black

O r iental

(11)

(10)
Chicano

Other

(12)
14.

I I / /3/

(13)

M A R I T A L B ACKGROUND FOR HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD:
Married

Single

(14 )

(15)
Se p a r a t e d

Di v orced
(16)

(17)
Widower

Wi d o w
(18)

(19)

Is this information about y o u r s e l f as the h e a d of the house h o l d ?
no

yes

(20)

(21)

Is this information a b o u t a p a r e n t as the h e a d of the househ o l d ?
no

yes

(22 )

(23)

THIS

IS THE E N D OF THE P E R S O N A L

I NFO R M A T I O N Q U E S T I O N N A I R E .
F O R Y O U R COOPERATION.

T H A N K YO U

APPENDIX H
SPECIAL C O N T A C T L E T T E R

245

M IC H IG A N STATE U N IV E R S IT Y
COLLEGE O F EDU CATION

EAST LANSING • M ICHIGAN • 48824

DEPAR TM ENT O F SECONDARY EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM
ERICKSON HALL

January 9, 1975
You were selected....as part of 240 freshmen and sophomore students,
to participate in an important study of Michigan State University .students.
Shortly before term break, you received a letter from us asking for your
help. Then came the "big snow," and finals. Somewhere in there we lost
you, and we really do need your help. Why not take time now to do the
following:
1.

Complete the enclosed forms immediately.

2.

Return the forms to Room 324 Erickson Hall--give them to Donna,
the secretary right outside that office.

3.

Plan on completing another set of forms in April.
get a letter from us reminding you about it.

You will

Your voluntary participation will provide valuable information for the
university, for yourself, and for us. You will be provided copies of
the information gathered, some of which can help you in your career
planning.
When our study is completed, we can furnish you with the following information:
- how students (and you) view the undergraduate program at MSU ...
- how your personal interests "match" with various vocational
interests, and possible vocational choices...
- what experiences you may have had that are vocationally oriented,
and how they may relate to future job hunting...
Please complete the forms enclosed and return them today to Room 324
Erickson Hall. Your willingness to help with the study will be greatly
appreciated.
Sincerely,

Associate Professor
Enclosure:
Attitude/Perceptions Scale
Personal Background Data
66 Statements Scale

246

APPENDIX I
A / P SCALE F A C T O R M A T R I X

247

Attitude/Perception Sc a l e :
V a r i m a x Rota t e d Factor M a t r i x

FACTOR 2

FACTOR 1

TOTAL

.00660
.12216
.40736
.42772
.39348
.60084*
.50869*
.51147*
.31044
.37961*
.46241*
.42488
.31308
.37928
.38928
.20299
.01170
.22555
.33351
.20940
.25808
.42862
.44614
.63848*
.49309*
.10893
.35773
.41374
.45041

.17880
.24010
.36618
.29974
.22780
.27319
.07595
.17197
.19709
.09388
.21037
.39884
.20150
.40634
.43248
.34344
.68736*
.64153*
.47334
.70755*
.67200*
.49875
.41874
.26888
.29523
.16566
.50604*
.66055*
.5 5041*

VAR01
VAR02
VAR03
VAR04
VAR05
VAR06
VAR07
VAR08
VAR09
VAR10
V AR11
VAR12
VAR13
V AR14
VAR15
VAR16
VAR17
VAR18
VAR19
VAR20
VAR21
VAR22
VAR23
V AR24
VAR25
VAR26
VAR27
VAR28
VAR29

N = 121

248

FACTOR
.73491*
.57663*
.43374
.44376
.50400
.38868
.36208
.28319
.45458*
.10492
.05141
.33697
.21790
.32039
.16633
.18956
.28366
.26063
.15000
.25393
.13369
.11369
.12452
.13607
.00955
.13325
.21471
.17494
.11793

3