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University M icrofilm s International 3 0 0 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, M ichigan 48 1 0 6 USA St. John's Road, Tyler's Green H igh Wycombe, Bucks, England H P10 8HR 77-5862 NORTEY, Peter Alphonsus, 1931CONTROL OF NON-POINT SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION WITHIN AN ECOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK: THE CASE OF THE TRI-COUNTY REGION, MIOilGAN. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1976 Environmental Sciences Xerox University Microfilms, AnnArbor, Michigan4Bioe CONTROL OF NON-POINT SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION WITHIN AN ECOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK: THE CASE OF THE TRI-COUNTY REGION, MICHIGAN By Peter Alphonsus Nortey A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State U n iv e rs ity in p a r t ia l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the requirements f o r the degree o f DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department o f Resource Development 1976 ABSTRACT CONTROL OF NON-POINT SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION WITHIN AN ECOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK: THE CASE OF THE TRI-COUNTY REGION, MICHIGAN By P e te r Alphonsus Nortey The United S tates is w e ll endowed w ith resources o f which water played a s i g n i f i c a n t r o le in i t s e a r l y s e ttle m e n t. Its in d u s tria li­ z a tio n and ra p id u rb a n iz a tio n have led to a d e t e r i o r a t io n o f the human environment. Of p a r t i c u l a r concern to the American p u b lic is w a te r p o llu t io n because o f i t s adverse e f f e c t s on human h e a lt h , a q u a tic and te rre s tria l both ecosystems. In ord e r to c o n tro l w ater p o l lu t io n p o in t and no n-p oint sources, the United S ta tes Congress the Federal Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1972. from passed A p o in t source r e fe r s to any d i s c e r n i b le , confined and d is c r e te conveyance from which p o llu ta n ts are discharged. A n o n -p o in t is defined as any non­ confined area from which p o llu t a n t s a re discharged in t o a body o f w a te r. Section 208 o f the Act s p e c i f i c a l l y addresses non-point sources of p o llu tio n . The study had two o b je c tiv e s : ( 1 ) To examine and suggest an e c o lo g ic a l framework f o r understanding w ater p o l l u t i o n from non-point sources— p r i m a r i l y a g r i c u l t u r e , s i l v i c u l t u r e , m ining, and c o n s tr u c t io n -in the T ri-C o u n ty Region o f M ichigan, and ( 2 ) assess the re g io n 's i n s t i t u t i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements f o r planning water Peter Alphonsus Nortey p o llu tio n control under the provisions o f Section 208 o f the Act. Non-point sources o f water p o llu t io n was examined w ith in an ecological framework. A conceptual ecosystems model was evolved to i l l u s t r a t e the natural and man-induced processes and mechanisms which caused w ater p o llu t io n . e s ta b lis h e d . From th is model, fo u r p rin c ip le s were The p r in c ip le s , based on ecosystem re la tio n s h ip s and in t e r a c t io n s , d e a lt w ith regional con sideratio ns, environmental q u a l i t y , carrying c a p a c itie s and to le ra n c e s , and sound management p ra c tic e s . The p r in c ip le s were used as c r i t e r i a to assess the approach to Section 208 planning adopted by the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission (TCRPC), the designated planning agency f o r the Tri-C ounty Region. The assessment ind icated t h a t the TCRPCs planning approach was b a s ic a lly sound and would c o n trib u te e f f e c t i v e l y to the attainm ent o f the water q u a l i t y goal set f o r 1983— water q u a l i t y should be good enough f o r the p ro te c tio n o f f is h and s h e l l f i s h , w i l d l i f e and fo r r e c re a tio n . I t was recommended th a t the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Com­ mission should be made the coordinator o f a l l c i t i z e n p a r t ic ip a t io n a c t i v i t i e s p e rta in in g to water p o llu t io n in the reg ion , in view o f the TCRPC1s s i g n i f i c a n t present and p o te n tia l r o le in Section 208 planning. The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f water p o llu tio n control s tra te g ie s should be based on ecosystem r e la t io n s h ip s . Close fu n ctio n a l r e la tio n s h ip between the planning agency and the implementing agency/ies should be established a t the e a r l i e s t op po rtu n ity. Section 208 planning is e s s e n t ia lly a new kind o f w ater q u a lity planning which req uires education o f the public on i t s f u l l im p lic a - Peter Alphonsus Nortey tio n s . Education o f the public f o r involvement in the Section 208 planning process must embrace both formal and non-formal education. One area which required g re a te r a t te n tio n in the planning process o f the TCRPC was the question o f incentives to be employed to persuade people to adopt management prac tic e s which are compatible w ith water q u a l i t y . Some incen tives alread y e x is t but f u r t h e r research is required to i d e n t i f y the best combination o f e x is tin g incentives and the c re a tio n o f new ones. Within the past few y e a rs , s u b s ta n tia l progress has been made in i n i t i a t i n g programs f o r improving environmental q u a li t y . One such program is the Section 208 program which has j u s t began in the T r i County Region. The program is l i k e l y to have a major impact not only on water p o llu tio n from non-point sources but also on land use and economic growth o f communities in the region. The Section 208 program promises to be an e f f e c t i v e means o f solving the Tri-C ounty Region's water p o llu tio n problem. The challenge facing the inh a b ita n ts o f the region c a l l s f o r continuing the Section 208 program and improving i t to ensure the attainm ent and maintenance o f a high q u a lit y environ­ ment. To G race, C a th e rin e and Anne ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am g r a t e f u l f o r the a s s is ta n ce and encouragement received from many people, in connection w ith my education a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s it y . A g r a t e f u l vote o f thanks is due to my good w i f e , Grace, and to n\y two daughters. They have shared my fe e lin g s o f f r u s t r a t i o n and accomplishment. I would p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e to thank a l l members o f my Guidance Committee. Special thanks are due to Professor Eckhart Dersch, Chairman o f the Guidance Committee. He has kept an open mind to my ideas and problems, never f a i l i n g to respond to my questions by o f ­ f e r in g v i t a l suggestions. As my d is s e r t a t i o n a d v is e r , Professor Ronald Shelton o ffe re d me s tim u la tin g and encouraging guidance throughout the p re p a ra tio n o f th is work. His kind and c o n s tr u c tiv e c r it ic is m s encouraged me to review my work many times and thereby improve i t s q u a l i t y . g r a te fu l I am most to him. My h e a r t f e l t thanks go to Professor John M. Hunter f o r his u n f a i l in g i n t e r e s t in my academic c a r e e r . His encouraging advice has spurred me on to the successful completion o f my doctoral program. The words o f advice which I received from Professor C l i f f o r d Humphrys and P rofessor Donald Holecek are g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged. I am g r a t e f u l to the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission f o r g iv in g me the p r i v i l e g e o f using t h e i r l i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s . I iv p a r t ic u l a r ly app reciate the assistance given me by Robert R o lle r in fin d in g m ate ria l p e r tin e n t to non-point sources o f water p o llu t io n . My sincere thanks go to the U n iv e rs ity o f Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, f o r granting me study leave to pursue the doctoral program, and to the Department o f Resource Development, Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity f o r g iv in g me a Research A s s is ta n ts h ip , w ithout which the completion o f the d is s e r ta t io n a t th is time would have been impossible. Special c r e d i t is due to J. Paul Schneider f o r his advice on graphics and fo r a s s is tin g me in the preparation o f the i l l u s t r a t i o n s . F i n a l l y , I would l i k e to thank Kathy B ailey not only f o r her f a s t and accurate typing o f th is work but also f o r her enthusiasm in helping me to beat the deadline f o r i t s submission. PREFACE Water p o llu t io n is a serious problem in the United S ta te s . Since 1948, the U.S. Congress has shown concern about th is problem by passing laws to deal w ith various aspects o f i t . The Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 are the most comprehensive l e g i s l a t i o n f o r c o n tr o llin g water p o llu tio n from both p o int and non-point sources ever enacted by the Congress. A point source r e fe rs to any d is c e r n ib le , confined and d is c r e te conveyance, including any d i t c h , channel, tunnel or w e l l , from which p o llu ta n ts are or may be discharged. Any nonconfined area from which p o llu ta n ts are discharged in to a body o f water is described as non-point source. Section 208 o f the 1972 Act s p e c i f i c a l l y addresses non-point sources o f p o llu t io n , such as ru n o ff r e s u ltin g from a g r ic u lt u r a l and s i l v i ­ c u lt u r a l a c t i v i t i e s . The present study has a tw o -fo ld o b je c tiv e : (1 ) To examine and suggest a framework f o r understanding water p o llu t io n from non­ point sources— p r im a r ily a g r i c u l t u r e , s i l v i c u l t u r e , mining, and c o n s tr u c tio n --in the T ri-C ou nty Region o f Michigan, and (2 ) appraise the Region's i n s t it u t i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements f o r plan­ ning w ater p o llu t io n control under the provisions o f Section 208 of the A ct. Non-point sources o f w ater p o llu t io n are examined w ith in an ecological framework. Using the r i v e r basin or watershed as a u n it o f study, fo u r p r in c ip le s are i d e n t i f i e d and used as c r i t e r i a f o r v vi assessing the approach to Section 208 planning adopted by the T r i County Regional Planning Commission. A discussion o f the Federal Act is presented to provide the necessary background in fo rm a tio n f o r the above assessment. Recommendations f o r improving Section 208 planning in the T ri-C o u n ty Region are presented. The planning ap­ proach o f the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission (TCRPC) was found to be b a s i c a l l y sound. I t is concluded t h a t sound management p ra c tic e s based on reg io n a l c o n s id e ra tio n s and a c t i v e p u b lic in v o lv e ­ ment in the planning process are the long term s o lu tio n to the problem o f w ater p o llu t io n from n o n -p o in t sources. The study has thrown c o n siderable l i g h t on the processes and mechanisms involved in w ater p o ll u t i o n and has in d ic a te d the useful r o le which a reg io n a l planning agency (TCRPC) can play in a t t a i n i n g the w ater q u a l i t y goals o f the reg ion and the n a tio n . The Section 208 program o f f e r s the T ri-C o u n ty Region and the o th e r designated 208 planning areas in the United S tates a means o f c o n t r o ll i n g w ater p o llu t io n and thereby c o n tr ib u tin g e f f e c t i v e l y to the a tta in m e n t and maintenance o f a high q u a l i t y environment on a con tin uin g b a s is . TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................... x ii LIST OF F IG U R E S ..................................................................................................... x iii CHAPTER 1. 2. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 Concern f o r Water P o llu tio n . . . . . . . . . . . O bjectives ................................................................................... Problem ...................................................................... S ig n ific a n c e o f the Problem ............................... A p p ro a c h ........................................................................................ Data S o u r c e s .................................................................. O rganization o f Remainder o f Report ........................... 2 4 5 9 14 16 16 ECOSYSTEM CONCEPT ............................................................................... 18 Meaning and Nature of Ecosystems ................................... Processes Involved in Non-Point Sources o f Water P o l l u t i o n ......................................................... Natural Processes ..................................................... W e a t h e r in g ......................................................... E r o s i o n .............................................................. Cycle of E r o s i o n ............................................ S ig n ific a n c e o f Erosion ........................... Man-Induced Processes ............................................ A g r i c u l t u r e ..................................................... S i l v i c u l t u r e ..................................................... M i n i n g .................................................................. Construction ..................................................... Ecosystems Model ...................................................................... Natural Watershed ..................................................... Biogeochemical Cycles ............................................ Transported M a te ria ls ............................................ Transport Mechanisms ................................................ Ecosystem R elationship A ffected by Man . . . P r i n c i p l e s ...................................................................... Regional Considerations ........................... Environmental Q u a lity ............................... Carrying C apacities and Tolerances . . Sound Ecosystem Management . . . . . . 19 v ii 22 22 22 24 25 26 27 28 30 34 36 39 40 42 43 44 47 49 49 50 51 52 vi i i CHAPTER 3 Page FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1972, SECTION 208 ........................................... L e g i s l a t iv e H is to ry ............................................................... Water P o llu t io n Control Act o f 194B. . . . Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1955 ............................................. Water Q u a lit y Act o f 1965 .................................... The Clean Water R e s to ra tio n Act o f 1966 . . The Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 ............................................. Provisions o f Section 208 ................................................. Place o f Section 208 in the A c t ............. R a tio n a le f o r Section 208 Planning . . . . Goals and P o l i c i e s ............................................ Planning Process f o r Waste Treatment Management..................................................... Technical and Management Needs. . . Implementation ............................................. Pu blic and P r iv a te Involvement ....................... R e la tio n s h ip between Section 208 Program and o th e r Programs ........................... Section 208 Plan and Basin Plan . . . Section 208 Planning and 201 F a c i l i t i e s Planning ........................... Section 208 Plan and National P o llu t a n t Discharge E lim in a tio n System ................................ Section 208 and Federal Programs . . A - 95 R e v i e w ........................................ Planning Im p lic a tio n s ........................................................... Areawide/Regional Approach to Planning . . Intergovernm ental Cooperation ........................... Water Q u a lity as one o f many Goals . . . . Planning and Management Agencies .................. In te r p r o fe s s io n a l R e la tio n s ................................ Summary .......................................................... 4 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR CONTROLLING WATER P O L L U T IO N ........................................................................ 54 54 55 56 58 59 61 63 63 66 70 71 73 74 75 77 77 77 77 78 81 81 82 82 83 84 84 85 88 T ri-C o u n ty Region ................................................................... 89 D r a i n a g e ............................................................... 89 Land U s e ............................................................... 93 Urban Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Water P o llu t io n Problem ......................................... 95 Designations ............................................................................ 96 Area D e s i g n a t i o n ............................................. 97 Planning Agency D esignation ................................ 98 Management Agency Designation ........................... 102 R e la tio n s h ip o f 208 Planning to 208 Managem ent............................................. 102 S t a f f i n g ............................................................... 103 ix CHAPTER Page S ection 208 Planning Process ............................................. General D e s c rip tio n ................................................. Technical Planning Coordinating C o m m itte e ...................................................... Study Design and Work T a s k s ................................ Scope o f Planning P r o g r a m .................................... Aim o f the P l a n ............................................. C oordination o f E f f o r t s ........................... C it iz e n P a r t i c i p a t i o n ............................... Workshop on Water Q u a lit y ....................... ........................................ Discussion Groups C o nstraints on Water Q u a lity Goal A t t a i n m e n t ............................................................... 5 6 104 104 106 110 Ill 112 113 115 116 119 122 ASSESSMENT OF TRI-COUNTY REGIONAL PLANNING COMMISSION'S APPROACH TO 208 PLANNING .................................... 124 The Region as a Basis f o r P l a n n i n g .............................. Environmental Q u a lity ......................................................... C arrying C a p a c itie s and Tolerances ................................ Sound Management P rac tic e s ................................................. Recommendations............................................................................ 124 127 129 131 134 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................................................................... 136 Summary.............................................................................................. C o n c l u s i o n s ................................................................................. S ection 208 Planning L e g is la tio n ..................... C it iz e n P a r t i c i p a t i o n ............................................ Sound Resource Management .................................... 136 145 145 147 148 FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1972, SECTION 208 ................................................................................. 150 AGRICULTURAL HERBICIDES: TYPES, TRANSPORT MODES, TOXICITIES, AND PERSISTENCE IN S O I L ........................................ 155 AGRICULTURAL HERBICIDES: OFTEN-USED TRADE NAME SYNONYMS....................................................................................................... 157 AGRICULTURAL INSECTICIDES AND MITICIDES: TYPES, TRANSPORTATION MODES, AND TOXICITIES .................................... 158 AGRICULTURAL INSECTICIDES AND MITICIDES: OFTEN-USED TRADE NAME SYNONYMS............................................................................ 160 AGRICULTURAL FUNGICIDES: TYPES, TRANSPORT MODES, AND T O X I C I T I E S ..................................................................................... 161 APPENDICES A. B. C. D. E. F. X APPENDICES G. Page AGRICULTURAL FUNGICIDES: OFTEN-USED TRADE NAME SYNONYMS.................................................................................................... 162 H. 208 WORK FLOW CHART........................................................................... 163 I. TCRPC: HYPOTHETICAL PLAN NO. 1 164 J. TCRPC: HYPOTHETICAL PLAN NO. 2 ................................................. 165 K. TCRPC: HYPOTHETICAL PLAN NO. 3 ................................................. 166 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 167 LIST OK TABLES TABLE Page 1 Major Land Uses in the United S ta te s , 1970 ........................ 10 2 Major Land Uses in Michigan, 1967.............................................. 13 3 Representative Rates o f Erosion from Various Land U s e s ....................................................................................... 27 Land Use in the Tri-C ounty Region, 1969 94 4 xi LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE Page 1 Ecosystem Relationships in a Natural Watershed 2 A Flow Chart f o r the Stanford Watershed Model as adapted by H u ff and others ............................................ 3 Schematic Model o f Land-Water In te ra c tio n s as Influenced by M a n ........................................................ . . . . 41 45 48 4 Map o f Michigan Showing the Tri-C ounty Region . . . . 90 5 The Tri-C ounty Region in the Grand R iver Watershed . . 91 6 Section 208 Water Q u a lity Planning Process ........................ 107 x ii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Water has long been a m atter o f g re a t consequence to in d iv id u a ls , to p r a c tic a l businessmen, and to governments. human existence and s u r v iv a l. plants and animals. I t is necessary fo r Water is needed f o r the production o f I t has a wide v a r ie t y o f domestic uses— f o r d rin k in g purposes, as a necessary in g re d ie n t in the preparation and processing o f foods and as a personal household cleaning agent. H i s t o r i c a l l y , water has served as a low -resistance medium on which to tra n s p o rt cargoes. I t has served man as a means o f disposing o f wastes from towns and c i t i e s . I t has served as a h a b ita t f o r w i l d l i f e on which man has fed and, more r e c e n tly , hunted f o r s p o rt. Water has served as the s e t t in g , in many cases, f o r g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f a e s th e tic and re c re a tio n a l needs. Water resources have also served as a form o f mechanical power: f i r s t to l i b e r a t e man from r e lia n c e on human and animal energy in e a rly i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n ; l a t e r as an input in operation o f mechanical steam engines; and f i n a l l y , a t the present stage o f in d u s tr ia l a r t s , e i t h e r as mechanical power or steam to move turbines in the production o f e l e c t r i c i t y . ! Han's need f o r water f o r the various uses mentioned above has always made th is resource a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r in land settlem ent and natural resource development. ^John V. K r u t i l l a and Otto E ckstein, M u lt ip le Purpose River Development (B altim ore: John Hopkins U n iv e r s ity Press, 1958), p. 5. 2 Concern fo r Water P o llu tio n The e a r ly s e t t l e r s o f the United States found a vast country r ic h l y endowed w ith a g r ic u lt u r a l land, f o r e s t , lakes and streams, and other resources. The waters were f o r the most p a rt unimpaired in q u a lit y by man's a c t i v i t i e s . The number o f people in h a b itin g the land a t t h a t time was sm a ll, and a low le v e l o f economic a c t i v i t y took place. With a sparsely d is tr ib u te d population and low le v e ls o f economic a c t i v i t y , wastes could be a ssim ilated by streams and oth er natural processes w ith only minor damage to the environment. This is no longer the case. Many fa c to rs have contributed to the development o f the United S ta te s . The ric h natural resources, high rates o f investment in technology and education, a la rg e i n f lu x o f s k i l l e d immigrants and a fo rtu n a te p o l i t i c a l and economic h is to r y have a l l combined to y ie ld a bouyant economy and unequalled le v e ls o f m aterial w ealth. New tech­ nological developments have induced an ever increasing a rra y o f goods and s e rv ic e s . Although some in e q u itie s in the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f wealth remain, on the whole the f r u i t s o f these developments have been w idely shared to provide a high standard o f l i v i n g to many Americans. In recent y e a rs , the notion t h a t larg e scale degradation o f the environment is the e s s e n tia l in g re d ie n t f o r achieving higher le v e ls o f economic production is being s e rio u s ly questioned. Along w ith m aterial goods, the American public is g iv in g a higher p r i o r i t y to the q u a lit y o f the natural surroundings. P rotection o f natural b io lo g ic a l com­ m unitie s , preservation o f scenery, clean a i r and w a te r, r e l i e f from 2 U.S. Environmental P rotectio n Agency, Legal Compilation-Water Vol. V . , January 1973, p. 2756. noise and congestion, and open spaces f o r re c re a tio n have a l l assumed new importance. These changing desires stem from deeply rooted social and economic fa c to rs which show every in d ic a tio n o f becoming i n ­ c reasin gly pervasive. The public is j u s t i f i a b l y alarmed a t the d e te r io r a tio n o f the environment r e s u ltin g from man's a c t i v i t i e s . The capacity o f r i v e r s , lakes and the atmosphere to absorb waste loads is severely taxed , and a l l forms o f p o llu tio n have reached or are r a p id ly approaching in t o le r a b le le v e ls . Modern technology has made i t possible f o r the massive a l t e r a t i o n o f the p h y s ic a l, chemical, and b io lo g ic a l q u a l i t y o f the la n d , water and a i r . New chemical sub­ stances are confronting the environment w ith m ate ria ls which may prove hazardous to l i v i n g organisms including man. The public is beginning to a p p reciate the p o te n tia l danger posed by the persistence o f some chemical substances and t h e i r concentration in the food chain. Water p o llu tio n is one, but an im portant, aspect o f the q u a lit y o f the environment. d e t e r io r a t in g . I t is an in d ic a tio n th a t the environment is Water p o llu t io n r e fe rs to the condition or q u a l i t y o f water which makes i t un suitable f o r a p a r t ic u la r use. The con dition can be created by natural processes or processes p r e c ip ita te d by man's a c tiv itie s . Damages from w ater p o llu tio n are tremendous and can be regarded as costs to the American p u b lic . There are economic losses as a r e ­ s u lt o f contaminated f is h and lo s t fis h e r y resources. Lost amenities and r e c re a tio n a l o p p o rtu n itie s are less ta n g ib le but no less real economic and social costs. In d u s trie s must t r e a t r i v e r w ater in order to meet the b o ile r feed or w ater requirements f o r c o o lin g . hardness must be overcome by the use o f more d e te rg e n t. Water Farmers may 4 reap low harvests because o f increased s a l i n i t y o f the w ater used f o r irrig a tio n . The cumulative e f f e c t o f these changes in the Lower Colorado R iv e r Basin and Southern C a li f o r n i a Water Service Area was q estimated a t $16 m i l l i o n a n n u a lly in 1970. O bjectives Water p o llu t io n is a very complex su b ject and i t s con trol c a lls fo r knowledge from many d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s . The b io lo g ic a l and social sciences can c o n tr ib u te irrenensely to the understanding o f (1 ) the nature and e x te n t o f water p o llu t io n and (2 ) the i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r ­ rangements governing the use o f water which provide a basis f o r con­ tro llin g i t . Previous e f f o r t s a t c o n t r o l l in g w ater p o llu t io n have been d ir e c te d a t p o in t sources o f p o ll u t i o n . A po int source o f p o llu t io n is any d is c e r n ib le and confined conveyance o f water in c lu d in g but not lim it e d to any p ip e , d i t c h , tunnel or w e ll from which p o llu ta n ts are or may be discharged. Non-point sources o f p o llu t io n such as a g r i ­ c u lt u r a l r u n o f f , urban r u n o f f , and sedim entation from con s tru c tio n s ite s have u n t i l r e c e n tly been la r g e ly neglected. The Federal Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 are comprehensive l e g i s l a t i o n covering both p o in t and no n-p oint sources o f p o llu tio n . Section 208 o f the Act deals s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith non-point sources o f w ater p o l l u t i o n . The present study covers the various aspects o f Section 208 o f the Act. The p r in c ip a l aim o f t h i s study is to examine and suggest a framework f o r understanding w ater p o llu t io n in g e n e ra l, but w ith ^ Ib id . p a r t ic u la r reference to non-point sources o f p o llu tio n in the T r i County Region o f Michigan. As a necessary p r e r e q u is it e , the nature and extent o f non-point sources o f water p o llu tio n w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d in connection w ith a g r i c u l t u r e , s i l v i c u l t u r e , con s tru c tio n , mining and urban development. The subsidiary o b je c tiv e o f t h is study is to examine the r o le o f in s t i t u t i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements f o r 208 planning. Existing public and p r iv a te i n s t i t u t i o n s are evaluated in terms o f t h e i r present and p o te n tia l c o n trib u tio n to the attainm ent o f the goals set by the Section 208 l e g i s l a t io n . Proposals f o r improving the performance o f e x is tin g i n s t i t u t io n s w i l l be form ulated. In the f i n a l a n a ly s is , the success o f the 208 program w i l l de­ pend on how well the c a p a b i lit i e s and a u t h o r it ie s a t a l l le v e ls of government are u t i l i z e d in the plan preparatio n and implementation. However, the c r i t i c a l element is the r o le o f local government and the people and i n t e r e s t groups which the government represents. The local government must ensure th a t the 208 program is re le v a n t to t h e i r problems and e f f e c t i v e in providing s o lu tio n s . Section 208 o f the Act makes provision f o r the involvement o f the f e d e r a l, s ta te and local le v e ls o f government, c i t i z e n groups and in d iv id u a ls in the planning and implementation o f water p o llu t io n control programs. C itiz e n p a r t ic ip a t io n in the 208 planning process is required by the Act. Problem Water is one o f the many resources w ithout which a nation cannot s a t i s f y the fundamental wants o f i t s people. i t s e l f cannot be sustained. Without w ater, l i f e Water is put to a number o f uses which can be described as domestic, a g r i c u l t u r a l , in d u s t r ia l and re c re a ­ t io n a l . These various uses re q u ire water o f adequate q u a l i t y . S im ila r to other c r i t i c a l resources, the r a te o f use o f water in the United States is r a p id ly incre a s in g . As a r e s u l t o f competing demands upon water resources, r e s u ltin g from increasing i n d u s t r i a l i z a ­ tio n and u rb a n iz a tio n , the nation ( U .S .) has experienced d e t e r io r a t io n in the q u a lit y o f i t s surface and groundwater sup plies.^ This condition is c h a ra c te rtiz e d as water p o llu t io n . In order to make the problem o f water p o llu t io n more e x p l i c i t , Russell A c k o ff's method o f d e fin in g a researchable problem is a p p lie d . According to his method, the fo llo w in g conditions f o r the existence of a problem must be present: (1 ) An in d iv id u a l who has the problem: the decision maker; (2) An outcome th a t is desired by the decision maker; (3) At le a s t two unequally e f f i c i e n t courses o f a c tio n which have some chance o f y ie ld in g the desired o b je c tiv e . . . ; (4 ) A s ta te o f doubt in the mind o f the decision maker as to which choice is ' b e s t ' ; c (5 ) An environment or context o f the problem. The f i v e conditions l i s t e d above were applied to the problem o f the water p o llu tio n : (1 ) The decision maker may be an i n d i v i d u a l, a govern­ ment agency, a local government, a p r iv a te f ir m or an i n t e r e s t group. This is so because, p o t e n t i a l l y , water p o llu tio n can adversely a f f e c t the health o f a l l people who l i v e in a p a r t ic u l a r area and use the po lluted water f o r d rin k in g purposes. Po lluted water may destroy some aspects o f the environment cherished by the local people. 4 In a sense, U. S. National Water Commission, Water P o lic ie s f o r the Future {Washington: Government P r in tin g O f f i c e , 1973), p. ix . 5 Russell L. A ckoff, S c i e n t i f i c Method (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962), p. 30. every c i t i z e n who l iv e s in an area served by p o lluted water is a decision maker. The fo llo w in g categories o f decision maker were i d e n t i f i e d : a l l government agencies, p r iv a te organizations in t e r e s t groups and concerned in d iv id u a ls . (2) In order to d e fin e a problem, i t is necessary to be able to fin d out what conditions c u r r e n tly e x i s t and what outcome is d esired. Previous e f f o r t s by local government to control water p o llu t io n had been concentrated on po int sources o f p o llu t io n . In many cases, the only water q u a li t y plans t h a t exis te d were plans f o r the construction of in d iv id u a l treatm ent f a c i l i t i e s . The major and in some cases only water q u a li t y problems addressed were those caused by untreated or undertreated municipal sewage. V i r t u a l l y ignored were non-point sources o f p o llu t io n such as urban ru n o ff and sediment from a g r i c u l ­ tu ra l and con struction a c t i v i t i e s . Recognition o f the shortcomings o f th e n -e x is tin g p o llu t io n control s tra te g ie s led to the enactment o f the 1972 Amendments to the Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act. Unlike previous fe d e ra l water q u a l i t y programs, Section 208 planning provides f o r the management o f sources o f water p o llu t io n . non-point sources as well as point The outcome was to a t t a i n by 1983, " . . . desired by the decision maker water q u a l i t y which provides f o r the p ro te c tio n and propagation o f f i s h , s h e l l f i s h , and w i l d l i f e and pro­ vides f o r re c re a tio n in and on (3 ) The problem o f water the water . . . p o llu t io n lends i t s e l f to the adoption o f measures f o r the management o f wastes. s o lu tio n by One approach might have been to a llo w the states and local governments to c a rry on 6U. S . , Congress, Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, 33 USC, 1251, Section 1 0 1 ( a ) ( 2 ) . with whatever planning and management programs they were implementing p r io r to Section 208 planning u n t i l s ta te and federal research i n s t i t u ­ tions came up w ith c le a r methods and standards f o r dete c tin g and con­ t r o l l i n g p o llu t io n . Congress has chosen another a l t e r n a t i v e : enacting a comprehensive law which coordinates a l l e x is tin g water p o llu tio n l e g i s l a t i o n , provides fo r the co n tro l o f water p o llu t io n from a l l conceivable sources, and makes funds a v a ila b le f o r plan preparation and implementation. The local le v e ls o f government play a leading r o le in th is approach, with the Federal Government serving as a c a t a ly s t to f a c i l i t a t e regional or areawide approaches to planning and management. The s tra te g y is to make the best use o f e x is tin g knowledge about p o llu tio n processes to control water p o llu t io n and to make the necessary adjustments or changes in p o llu t io n control in the l i g h t o f new knowledge found through research. This is the a l t e r n a t i v e which has been adopted by the T ri-C ou nty Regional Planning Commission, This is the planning agency which has been designated to do Section 208 planning in the Tri-C ounty Region. (4) The s ta te s and local governments had some doubts as to the most e f f e c t i v e way o f ta c k lin g the water p o llu t io n problem. In the e a rly stages o f the implementation o f the Section 208 l e g i s l a t i o n , these doubts were expressed in the form o f h e s ita tio n by the states to designate Section 208 planning areas. Concerned c i t iz e n s were also not sure o f what the e f fe c t s o f the Section 208 plan on e x is tin g local plans and power s tru c tu re would be. (5) The context or environment o f the water p o llu tio n problem consists o f a l l fa c to rs which can a f f e c t the decision maker's o b je c tiv e and which are not under his c o n t r o l. For example, not a l l w ater p o llu ta n ts a re generated by human a c t i v i t i e s . Some may r e s u l t from n atural occurrences such as s o il erosion and major flo o d s . Soil erosion can be minimized and i t s d e s t r u c tiv e e f f e c t s on water q u a l i t y considerably reduced, but i t cannot be com pletely e lim in a te d . To con­ template complete e r a d ic a tio n o f s o il erosion is to assume t h a t natural processes such as stream and sheet erosion w i l l come to a stop. Major floods are unavoidable and cause c o n s id e ra b le damage to p rop erty and v e g e ta tio n in and a d ja c e n t to the flo o d p l a i n . In a d d it io n , floods tra n s p o r t la rg e q u a n t it ie s o f p o llu t a n t s in t o streams and la k e s , thereby d is tu r b in g the aqu a tic ecosystems. D is ru p tio n o f ecosystems c a l l s f o r changes and adjustments by the b io lo g ic a l communities which form each ecosystem. However, the r e a c tio n o f the b io lo g ic a l com­ m unities to such a changed s i t u a t i o n cannot be pre d ic te d w ith c e r ­ ta in ty . This is beyond the in flu e n c e o f the d e c is io n maker and planners. A ls o , c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n is req u ire d f o r Section 208 planning. I t is d i f f i c u l t to make p re d ic tio n s on the e x te n t and degree o f success o f c i t i z e n involvem ent. These and o th e r u n c e r t a in t ie s p o in t to the need f o r choosing an approach to planning and management which has the best chance o f s o lv in g the problem through an understanding o f the processes and mechanisms associated w ith water p o l l u t i o n . t io n o f A c k o ff's f i v e c r i t e r i a The a p p lic a ­ in d ic a te d t h a t w ater p o l lu t io n was a reasearchable problem. S ig n ific a n c e o f the Problem Total land area in the United States m i l l i o n a c re s . (50 s t a t e s ) is 2 ,2 6 3 .6 The breakdown o f th is area according to major use 10 categories is shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 MAJOR LAND USES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1970 Mi 11 ion o f Acres Land Use Categories Cropland Pasture and Grazing Forest and Woodland Miscellaneous Farm Areas N o n -a g ric u ltu ra l Uses Total Percentage o f Total land Area (50 s ta te s ) 370.6 8 27.0 726.0 4 5 .0 295.0 16.4 36.5 32.1 2 .0 13.0 2 ,2 6 3 .6 100.0 SOURCE: R. Barlowe, Land Resource Economics (2nd e d .; Englewood C l i f f s , N. J . : P re n tic e H a l l , 197 2 ), p. 43. N o n -a g ric u ltu ra l uses include urban areas, highways and roads, ra ilro a d r ig h ts o f way, a i r p o r t s , s ta te and national parks, s ta te and national w i l d l i f e refuges and national defence areas. About 90 percent o f the land, in the 50 states o f the United S ta te s , comprises managed eco­ systems. Urban areas occupy only about 60 m il l i o n acres (about three percent o f the t o t a l a r e a ) . area is ru ra l in nature. T h erefore, almost 97 percent o f the land In essence, a l l ru ra l land and a sub stan tial portion o f the urban land area are p o te n tia l non-point sources of p o llu t a n t s . In c i t i e s where secondary sewage treatment is provided, stormgenerated discharges account f o r between 40-80 percent o f the annual to t a l o f oxygen demanding m a te ria ls . During heavy storms, 94-95 percent of the biochemical oxygen demand is d i r e c t l y a t t r ib u t e d to surface ru n o ff. water. Large q u a n titie s o f heavy metals are transported by sotrm I t has been estimated th a t a medium-sized c i t y in the United 11 States w i l l discharge 1 0 0 ,0 00 -2 5 0 ,0 00 pounds o f lead and 6 ,0 0 0 30,000 pounds o f mercury each y e a r in t o surrounding lakes and streams through storm water r u n o f f . 7 About 400 m i l l i o n acres o f land a re in cropland which accounts f o r two b i l l i o n tons o f sediment a n n u a lly discharged in to streams and la k e s . The sediment includes approxim ately 440 m i l l i o n pounds o f p e s tic id e s used a n n u a lly in a g r i c u l t u r e . Animal wastes from l i v e ­ stock alone are estim ated a t about two b i l l i o n tons which is e q u iv a le n t Q to 10 times the amount o f human wastes. S i l v i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s a ls o pose w ater p o llu t io n problems. Approximately 10-12 m i l l i o n acres o f commercial fo re s ts are harvested a n n u a lly g iv in g r is e to sediment load o f 5-10 percent o f g the t o t a l sediment load generated by a l l land uses. F e r t i l i z e r is used on a la rg e scale in a g r i c u l t u r e in the United S ta te s . About 41 m il l i o n tons o f commercial f e r t i l i z e r are used a n n u a lly . I t has been estim ated t h a t 10-15 percent o f the nitrogen which enters a g r i c u lt u r e through f e r t i l i z e r is l o s t to the n a tio n 's w a te rs , and the t o t a l phosphorus emissions from non-point 7Mark A. Pisano, "Non-Point Sources o f P o llu t io n : A Federal Program," (A paper presented a t the American S o ciety o f C i v i l Engineers Convention, a t New O rleans, Lousiana, A p r il 14 - 18, 19 7 5 ). Q J. M. Rademacher, "Animal Waste P o llu t io n - Overview o f the Problem," Proceedings Animal Waste Management Conference, Federal Water P o llu t io n Control A c t, Missouri Basin Region, Kansas C i t y , M is s o u ri, February 1969. g U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Methods f o r I d e n t i f y i n g and E v alu atin g the Nature and E xtent o f Non-Point Sources o f P o llu ta n ts (Washington: Government P r in t in g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 3 ), p. 4. 12 sources amount to .8 m il l i o n tons per y e a r .^ 0 Both nitrogen and phosphorus are capable o f a c c e le ra tin g lake e u tro p h ic a tio n when they are discharged in larg e q u a n t it ie s . Surface mining has disturbed over three m il l i o n acres o f land and an equal area is devoted to the storage o f mineral wastes from mining a c t i v i t i e s . ^ In some parts o f the United S ta te s , such as Appalachia, non-point p o llu t io n associated w ith mining presents more serious water q u a l i t y problems than does sediment. are normally r e la te d to mining a c t i v i t i e s . The a ffe c te d areas While the area o f i n ­ fluence o f the mineral p o llu tio n is more lo c a liz e d than th a t o f sedi­ ment, i t is a serious water q u a lit y problem in the lo c a liz e d regions where they occur. Estimates made in 1972 showed t h a t approximately 35 percent o f the n a tio n 's waterways v io la te d water q u a l i t y standards, and about 40 percent o f these v io la t io n s were a t t r i b u t a b l e to non-point sources. These estimates present a very bleak p ic tu re o f the fu tu re o f water q u a lity in th is country and thereby stress the need f o r a d d itio n a l action to control water p o llu t io n beyond point sources o f p o llu t io n . Unless e f f e c t i v e measures are taken to a l l e v i a t e the e f fe c t s o f non-point sources o f p o llu t io n upon the n a tio n 's w aters, a s t e a d ily worsening s itu a tio n could well wipe out the gains made through large investments in the control o f municipal and in d u s tr ia l wastes. 10I b i d . , p. 12. ^M a rk A. Pisano, "Non-Point Sources o f P o llu tio n : A Federal Program," (A paper presented a t the American Society o f C i v i l En­ gineers Convention, New Orleans, Louisiana, A p ril 14 - 18, 1973), p. 3. 12I b i d . , p. 5. 12 13 The land use p ic tu re in Michigan is s im ila r to th a t o f the nation as shown in Table 2. TABLE 2 MAJOR LAND USES IN MICHIGAN, 1967 Land Use Categories Thousands Acres o f Percentage o f Total Land Area A g ric u ltu r a l Land Forested Land Outdoor Recreation Land Transportation Land Urban and Developed Rural Other Land 10,940 18,846 677 1,110 1,539 3,192 30.1 51.9 1 .9 3.1 4 .2 8 .8 Total 36,304 100.0 SOURCE: Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity Cooperative Extension S ervice, Land Use in Michigan, Extension B u lle t in No. 610, 1st e d ., January 1969, pp. 10-16. I t is assumed th a t the share o f urban and developed ru ra l land and outdoor re c re a tio n land is increasing a t the expense o f a g r ic u lt u r a l land. N evertheless, a larg e percentage o f the land continues to be used f o r a g r ic u lt u r e and f o r e s t r y which are non-point sources of p o llu ta n ts . Urban lands and r u r a l developed land have been used fo r r e s i d e n t i a l , commercial, manufacturing or processing purposes. These developments are concentrated in the southern h a lf of the Lower Penin­ sula o f Michigan where the Tri-C ounty Region is located. This is an area o f rapid u rb a n iz a tio n , and o f in d u s tr ia l and commercial develop­ ment. The g re a t changes taking place in the southern h a l f o f Michigan together w ith the present and p o te n tia l impacts o f these changes on water q u a lit y make a serious con sideration o f non-point sources o f water p o llu tio n one o f prime importance. 14 Approach In studying non-point sources o f water p o llu tio n i t can im­ mediately be estab lished t h a t water p o llu t io n may come from natural or man-made sources. I t is however assumed t h a t water p o llu t io n caused by human a c t i v i t i e s tends to be more serious to the environ­ ment and man him self than t h a t due to natural processes. This as­ sumption does not preclude p o llu tio n induced by natural processes. In f a c t , a c le a r understanding o f non-point sources o f water p o llu tio n requires an examination o f both natural and man-induced processes. The method o f t h is study, t h e r e f o r e , is to examine non-point sources o f water p o llu t io n w ith in an ecosystem framework. Within th is framework natural processes such as weathering and erosion together w ith t h e i r transport mechanisms are examined. The ecosystem approach helps e s ta b lis h the r e la tio n s h ip s among natural processes and human a c t i v i t i e s such as a g r ic u lt u r e and s i l v i c u l t u r e . The r i v e r basin or watershed is taken as the u n it o f study. This u n it o f study is considered a pp ro priate because o f i t s p o te n tia l u s e fu l­ ness in evolving a conceptual ecosystems model o f the mechanisms and processes involved in water p o llu t io n . W ithin the r i v e r basin e x is t many ecosystems which under natural conditions I n t e r a c t harmoniously with one another and are in a s ta te o f dynamic e q u ilib riu m . The Section 208 planning program is intended to be regional in scope, and the planning area must cover a whole reg ion . D if f e r e n t c r i t e r i a can be used to d e fin e a reg io n , depending upon the type o f problem the region is intended to solve. The T ri-C ou nty Region is made up o f the Counties o f C lin to n , Eaton and Ingham. The boundaries o f th is 15 region were determined by the re c ta n g u la r survey system. 13 Under t h is type o f land survey, p r in c ip a l meridians running no rth -so uth, and base lines running e a s t-w e s t, have been established in various parts o f the United S tates. Working out from the in te rs e c tio n o f these two lin e s , a d d itio n a l meridians and p a r a l l e ls have been surveyed a t six mile i n t e r v a ls . The in te rs e c tio n s o f these lin e s form a huge grid o f six m ile squares (36 square m iles each) representing a township. Sixteen townships are normally combined to form a county. The T r i - County Region is d e lim ite d by county boundaries which have no ecological basis. The boundaries are useful fo r a d m in is tra tiv e and p o l i t i c a l pur­ poses. An ecosystems model was developed and parameters e s s e n tia l f o r understanding the natural and man-induced processes were i d e n t i f ie d and discussed. The major components o f the model are t e r r e s t r i a l and aquatic processes, land-w ater in t e r a c t io n s , land-water-man in te ra c tio n s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements governing man's use o f land and water resources. Human in s t i t u t i o n s determine how the various natural r e ­ sources including land and water are used by man. In s t it u t io n s can th e re fo re enhance or mar ecosystem r e la tio n s h ip s . Based on the ecosystems model, the Section 208 planning process as i t is c a rrie d out by the T ri-C ou nty Regional Planning Commission was examined and e v aluated. Planning under Section 208 o f the Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 is new in the United States. Nevertheless, i t appears enough work has already been done by the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission to make an appraisal 13 Barlowe, op. c i t . pp. 39-4 0 . o f i t s approach to water p o llu tio n control worthwhile as an i l l u s t r a ­ tio n o f j o i n t f e d e r a l , s t a t e , and lo c a l government cooperation in solving a serious problem. Data Sources L ib ra ry research provided data on the l e g i s l a t i v e h is to r y o f Section 208 o f the Act. S p e c i f i c a l l y , data were r e tr ie v e d from the re le v a n t volumes o f the Congressional Record, House and Senate Hear­ ings, House Resolutions, Senate Resolutions, House and Senate J o in t Resolutions, House Reports, and Senate Reports. The other sources o f data were the Legal Compilation and the many pu b licatio n s o f the En­ vironmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Washington. Data on the Tri-C ounty Region, the study a re a , concerning water q u a lit y and waste treatm ent management planning were obtained from the o ffic e s o f the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission in Lansing. As an offsh o o t o f the many past and on-going studies and plans made by the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission, a s ub stan tial amount o f data p e rtin e n t to the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f both po int and non-point sources o f p o llu ta n ts has been accumulated. The data were considered appropriate f o r the present study because they were found to be com­ prehensive, reasonably c u rre n t and p e r tin e n t to water p o llu tio n analys O rganization o f Remainder o f Report A conceptual framework f o r understanding non-point sources of water p o llu tio n is provided in Chapter 2. Also examined is the eco­ systems model and i t s relevance to water p o llu t io n . Chapter 3 puts Section 208 o f the Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 17 1972 in to a h is t o r ic a l perspective. The provisions o f Section 208 are discussed along w ith t h e i r r e la tio n s h ip to e x is tin g l e g i s l a t io n and t h e i r im p licatio ns fo r planning and management o f water q u a lity programs. A case study o f the e f f o r t s being made by the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission to control water p o llu tio n through Section 208 planning is undertaken in Chapter 4. The emphasis in th is case study is on the approach to planning r a th e r than on concrete re s u lts achieved, since these have not y e t occurred. In Chapter 5, the ecological p rin c ip le s established in Chapter 2 are used to assess the Tri-County Regional Planning Commission's approach to Section 208 planning. Summary and Conclusions are given in Chapter 6. CHAPTER 2 ECOSYSTEM CONCEPT The ecological system (eocsystem) is one way o f looking a t the human environment. This viewpoint incoporates a study o f the i n t e r ­ actions o f a l l populations (hence, a l l organisms including man) in a given area a t the community le v e l o f o rg a n iz a tio n . An ecosystem refe rs to a community with a b io t ic (n o n liv in g ) in t e r a c tio n s . A proper understanding o f the re la tio n s h ip s among the various components o f an environment is an important requirement f o r id e n tif y in g s tra te g ie s to improve d e t e r io r a t in g conditions in the environment. The s ig n ific a n c e of the ecosystem concept is t h a t i t provides an ecological framework fo r e xplain in g the various processes and in te ra c tio n s in the environ­ ment. Water q u a li t y is a combined fun ction o f natural processes and processes which are a t t r ib u t e d to man’ s a c t i v i t i e s . Natural processes tend to be nondiscrete and d i f f u s e , and they emit discharges to the environment not amenable to treatm ent. This is an important cha ra c te r­ i s t i c o f non-point sources o f water p o llu t io n . Man's c o n trib u tio n to water p o llu tio n takes the form o f lo c a liz e d operations which generate lo c a liz e d discharges in to streams and lakes. In a d d itio n , man is the o r ig in a to r o f s u b s ta n tia l non-point discharges to the environment. Examples o f non-point discharges f o r which man is responsible are a g r ic u lt u r e , urban and ru ral c o n s tru c tio n , urban storm r u n o f f, s i l v i ­ c u ltu re and ru ral based re c re a tio n a l a c t i v i t i y . 18 19 The mechanisms r e s u ltin g in po int and non-point sources o f water p o llu tio n are i n t e r r e l a t e d . dependent. The various processes are also i n t e r ­ The ecosystem concept provides a means o f grasping the processes and 1inkages involved and gaining in s ig h ts in to the c a p a b ilit y o f a p a r t ic u l a r environment to support l i f e . Meaning and Nature o f Ecosystems The term ecosystem or ecological system is derived from two concepts, ecology and system. Ernest Haeckel in 1869. The term, ecology, was coined by I t is derived from two Greek words, o ik o s , meaning 'house' or 'p la c e ' and logos meaning 'study o f ' . ecology is the study o f organisms in t h e i r homes. L ite ra lly , In s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e , ecology is defined as the study o f the re la tio n s h ip s o f liv in g organisms w ith each other and t h e i r b i o t i c and a b io tic environ­ ment. Eugene P. Odum, a prominent e c o lo g is t, defines ecology as a study o f the s tru c tu re and fu n ctio n o f n a t u r e .1 Ecology considers how organisms and groups o f organisms are structured and how they 2 in t e r a c t with one another and with the environment. A system is an in te g ra te d network o f in te r a c tin g elements, events or parts t h a t can be seen as a s in g le whole th in g . An open system depends upon the outside environment to provide i t w ith inputs and to accept inputs. Where a system uses some s o rt o f feedback mechanism to 3 reg u la te i t s e l f , i t is described as a cybernetic system. The systems Eugene P. Odum, Ecoloqy (New York: 1963), p. 3. H o lt, Rinehart and Winston, 2Ib id . 3 David B. Sutton and N. Paul Harmon, Ecology: (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1973), p. 15. Selected Concepts 20 approach is a way o f th in k in g about the w o rld , an approach to problem solving and model b u ild in g o f complex events. I t has been suggested by Odum t h a t areas o f b io lo g ic a l study can be viewed as a spectrum composed o f many l e v e l s , each le v e l re p re ­ senting a type o f b io lo g ic a l system. Ecology is p r im a r ily concerned w ith the fo llo w in g le v e ls o f o r g a n iz a tio n : p o p u la tio n s , communities and ecosystems. Each le v e l o f o rg a n iz a tio n involves a b i o t i c component in t e r a c t in g w ith an a b i o t i c component through the exchange o f m atter and energy. 4 A po pu latio n r e f e r s to a group o f organisms belonging to one species or kind and l i v i n g in a s p e c if ic geographic a re a . comprises a l l A community populations t h a t e x i s t and I n t e r a c t in a given a re a . An ecosystem r e f e r s to a community and i t s r e la t e d n o n - liv in g environment i n t e r a c t in g to g e th e r as a u n i t . ecosystems. 5 There a re several d i f f e r e n t types o f Examples o f a q u a tic ecosystems are la k e s , ponds, r i v e r s , swamps, and c o ra l r e e f s . On the la n d , la rg e ecosystems— u s u a lly c a lle d biom es--are f o r e s t s , grasslands tundra and d e s e rts . A ll the d i f f e r e n t types o f ecosystems on e a rth are connected to one another to form the la r g e s t u n i t or p la n e ta ry ecosystem c a ll e d the biosphere. The biosphere can be v is u a liz e d as a vast system o f d iv e rs e ecosystems i n t e r r e l a t e d in a complex f a b r i c o f l i f e . D is ru p tin g or s tre s s in g an ecosystem in one place can have some complex, o fte n unpredicted and sometimes u n d e s ira b le e f f e c t s elsewhere. 4 I b i d . , p. 11. 5 Sutton and Harmon, op. c i t . , p. 12. 21 Ecosystems are not s t a t i c . Improvement in the q u a l it y o f human l i f e requires t h a t some change must occur in the various ecological systems. To be u s e fu l, these changes must occur in d ire c tio n s an­ tic ip a te d and desired by s o c ie ty . This c a l l s f o r a thorough under­ standing o f how ecosystems fu n c tio n . Management o f ecosystems must be based on knowledge about t h e i r in t e r r e la tio n s h ip s and in te r a c t io n s . The ecosystem is the basic u n it o f study o f ecology, but i t is not necessarily the basic u n i t f o r managing a group o f ecosystems. The basic management u n it is the sm allest assembly o f ecosystems th a t w i l l permit the attainm ent o f s o c ie ta l o b je c tiv e s or the s o lu tio n o f i d e n t if ie d problems.^ I f the o b je c tiv e is to optim ize water q u a l it y in a lake waste treatment system, the ecosystem may correspond to the management u n i t . However, i f the o b je c tiv e is to optim ize water q u a lit y in a larg e r e s e r v o ir , the e x is tin g land uses and the natural processes associated w ith them become in c re a s in g ly im portant. Urban r u n o ff, fo r e s t management, a g r i c u l t u r a l prac tic e s and oth er a c t i v i t i e s in the surrounding r i v e r basin or watershed have profound e f fe c t s on the q u a lity o f water in the r e s e r v o ir . In the case o f non-point sources o f water p o llu t io n , the most app ro priate u n it would be a watershed. The r e s t o f th is chapter is devoted to a d e s c rip tio n o f a conceptual model fo r understanding the processes involved in the generation o f p o llu ta n ts from non-point sources. ^Kent W. Thornton, "Systems Thinking in Applied Ecological Re­ search," General Systems, Twentieth Yearbook o f the Society f o r General Systems Research (Ann Arbor: Society f o r General Systems Research, 1975), 59-62. 22 Process Involved in Non-Point Sources o f Water P o llu tio n This section describes the natural and man-induced processes connected w ith non-point sources o f water p o llu tio n as a basis f o r understanding a model o f a drainage basin. Such a model should ex­ p la in the e f fe c t s o f t e r r e s t r i a l ecosystems on the water system and a t the same time make e x p l i c i t the feedback control mechanism between the land and water components. model should be q u a n t ifie d . E v e n tu a lly , the key v a ria b le s o f the Q u a n tific a tio n is not undertaken in the present study. Man's a c t i v i t i e s e x e rt some o f t h e i r g re a te s t e f fe c t s on the processes th a t l i n k land and water ecosystems to g eth er. Adverse impacts re s u ltin g from human a c t i v i t i e s can be minimized to a point to le ra b le by the environment, i f the processes are understood and taken in to consideration in the management o f ecosystems.7 Natural Processes Weathering. A ll s u b -a e ria l processes th a t c o o p e ra tiv e ly cause the d is in te g r a tio n and decay o f rocks is re fe rr e d to as weathering. Weathering does not involve large scale movement o f the loosened rock p a r t ic le s . The p a r t i c l e s , subject to the laws o f g r a v i t y , f a l l or s l i p downwards, thus exposing fresh rock surfaces f o r f u r t h e r d is Q in te g r a tio n . 70 r i e L. Loucks, "Models in Linking Land-Water In te ra c tio n s Around Lake Wingra, Wisconsin," in Coupling o f Land and Water Systems edited by A rthur D. Hasler (New York: Springer-VerTag," 19 7 5 ), p. 53. g Doris L. Holmes, Elements o f Physical Geology (New York: Ronald Press, 196 9 ), p. 5. 23 In physical or mechanical w e a th e rin g , rocks are d is in te g r a te d by temperature changes, f r o s t a c tio n and organisms. But in chemical w eathering, m inerals are disso lved or decomposed and loosened by w a te r, oxygen and carbon d io x id e o f the atmosphere, and by organisms and the products o f t h e i r decay. In r e a l l i f e , the p h y s ic a l, chemical and b io lo g ic a l agents o f weathering cooperate w ith one another. M a te r ia ls produced by weathering inclu de m inerals and broken rocks, re s id u a l products o f decomposition such as c la y and s olu ble decomposition products which are removed in s o lu tio n . The products o f weathering d i f f e r in d i f f e r e n t places according to the c lim a t ic conditions and the r e l i e f o f the land. Rock d i s i n t e g r a t io n by temperature changes occurs in places a ffe c te d by f r o s t s . When w ater f i l l s cracks and crevices and fr e e z e s , i t expands by more than nine percent o f i t s volume, r e s u lt in g in a breaking o f the rock. Many cycles o f fr e e z in g and thawing r e s u l t in the accummulation o f rock fragments. The fragments are transported by a stream or wind a t a l a t e r stage. Animals and p la n ts p la y an im portant r o le in physical weather­ ing. Worms consume la rg e q u a n t it ie s o f s o il as they e x t r a c t food from i t . The ingested p a r t i c l e s are passed out as worm c a s ts . s o il o f average f e r t i l i t y , In a th e re may be 150,000 worms to the a c r e , and in the course o f the y e a r , they r a is e 10-15 tons o f m a te ria l q s urface. to the The dead remains o f organisms o r dead roots decompose in the s o il la r g e l y as a r e s u l t o f the work o f b a c t e r ia . g Ib id ., p. 76. This decomposition lib e r a te s carbon d io xide and organic acids which increase the solvent power o f s o il w ater. Rootlets bind the s o il in to a woven mat so th a t i t remains porous and able to absorb w ater without the s o il being washed away. Forests considerably reduce physical weathering by minimizing the d e s tru c tiv e impact o f t o r r e n t i a l r a in in the s o i l . Rocks may be d is in te g ra te d by chemical a c tio n . Watei— acting as a c a r r i e r o f dissolved oxygen, carbon d io x id e , and various acids and organic products derived from the s o il--c a u s e s a lt e r a t i o n and s olu tio n of rock m a t e r ia l. The c h ie f changes which occur in chemical weathering are s o lu tio n , o x id a tio n , hydration and the formation o f carbonates. few minerals such as quartz and muscovite r e s i s t decomposition. ate minerals can be e n t i r e l y removed in s o lu tio n . A Carbon­ Most s i l i c a t e minerals break down in to r e l a t i v e l y in s o lu b le residues such as c la y minerals.^® The combined a c tio n o f physical and chemical weathering resu lts in a mantle o f rock waste, which i f not converted in to s o il and colonized by plants and organisms, w i l l be transported by the agents o f erosion. Erosion. A r i v e r and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s c o n s titu te a r i v e r system and the area drained by the r i v e r system is the r i v e r basin, drainage basin or watershed. Geologic processes t h a t occur in such a basin are erosion, tra n sp o rt and dep o s itio n . Erosion by running water (in c lu d in g streams and r i v e r s ) has two main phases. One o f these is the wearing down o f the interstream areas by surface ru n o ff before i t becomes concentrated in a channel to be­ come a po int source o f p o llu t io n . The second phase o f erosion is the 25 development o f v a lle y s and o th er landforms by a r i v e r system. The a b i l i t y o f a stream to erode i t s channel is dependent to a large e x te n t upon the speed a t which the water moves. V e lo c ity is in turn determined by a number o f f a c to r s o f which the most important is the g ra d ie n t o f th e r i v e r bed. Erosion by a stream involves h y d ra u lic a c tio n , abrasion and s o lu tio n . Hydraulic a c tio n is the l i f t i n g and moving o f loose p a r t ic le s by the fo rc e in h e re n t in the flo w o f the w a t e r . ^ Abrasion r e f e r s to the mechanical wear o f rock on rock. The f r i c t i o n and impact between rock p a r t i c l e s a c c e le ra te s a b ra s io n . S o lu tio n occurs as the water o f the stream disso lves m inerals embedded in the bedrock o f the channel. However, most o f the m a te ria l in s o lu tio n was dissolved by the ground­ water and c o n trib u te d to the streams l a t e r as water p erco lated in to th e m .^ The m a te ria l tra n sp o rted by a r i v e r can be c l a s s i f i e d as (1 ) load c a rrie d in s o lu tio n and (2 ) load c a r r ie d m echanically as sediment. Sediment can be c a r r ie d in suspension or along the bed as sand or gravel or both. The suspended load u s u a lly consists o f f i n e grained m a te ria l such as c la y or s i l t . Cycle o f E rosio n. The concept o f a cycle o f erosion was i n t r o ­ duced by W illia m M. D avis. I t is the sequence o f landforms, essen­ t i a l l y v a lle y s and h i l l s , through which a land mass is thought to evolve U C. R. Longwell and R. F. F l i n t , In tro d u c tio n to Physical Geology {New York: John W iley and Sons, 1 9 6 1 ), p. 164. 26 from the time i t begins to be eroded u n t il i t reaches base l e v e l . 13 By analogy w ith the d iv is io n s o f a l i f e t i m e , the three stages in the cycle o f erosion are described as youth, m a tu rity and old age. argued 14 Davis th a t as v a lle y s are widened, the bordering slopes tend to become less steep during t h e i r r e t r e a t . During the stage o f m a tu rity , none o f the o r ig in a l upland surface remains and the d iv id e between adjoining v a lle ys and drainage basins become rounded crests th a t gradually decrease in h e ig h t. F i n a l l y , during the long period o f old age, the region is worn down and reduced to an undulating p la in . The low ly in g erosion surface which is the product o f old age is c a lle d a peneplain. The c ycle o f erosion concept was attacked by Walter Penck 1^ who argued th a t most h i l l s i d e slopes would not f l a t t e n out as they are worn back. Instead, he maintained t h a t such slopes would recede w ith ­ out f u r t h e r change in d e c l i v i t y . In 1930, Davis agreed t h a t there was empirical evidence in a r id and sem i-arid regions to support Penck's contention. The cycle o f erosion concept was considered a p p lic a b le to forested areas and s o il mantled slopes in humid regions. S ig n ific a n c e o f Erosion. transported by ru n o ff w ater. 13 1 fi Sediment is a major p o llu t a n t which is Not only does sediment destroy fis h in g Longwell, op. c i t . , p. 185. 14 Douglas W. Johnson, e d ., Geographical Essays by W illiam M. Davis (New York: Dover P u b lic a tio n s , 1954), pp. 249-78. 15 Walter Penck, Morphological Analysis o f landforms, a Contribu­ tio n to Physical Geology (London: Macmillan, 1953), pp. 7-10. 16 W. M. Davis, "Rockfloors in Arid and Humid C lim ates," Journal of Geology, X X X V III, 1930, pp. 1 -2 7 , 136-58. 27 grounds, but i t also acts as a c a r r i e r o f c e r t a i n m ineral p o llu ta n ts in c o llo id a l fo rm .^7 Sediment r e s u lt in g from s o il erosion i s r e ­ garded as the l a r g e s t p o l l u t a n t t h a t a f f e c t s w ater q u a l i t y in the 1R United S ta te s . Man-induced Processes P o te n tia l sources o f w ater p o llu t a n t s from non-point sources and induced by human a c t i v i t i e s in c lu d e a g r i c u l t u r e , s i l v i c u l t u r e , mining and c o n s tru c tio n . The r e l a t i v e importance o f these a c t i v i t i e s as degraders o f water q u a l i t y is presented in Table 3. TABLE 3 REPRESENTATIVE RATES OF EROSION FROM VARIOUS LAND USES Major Land Uses Forest Grassland Abandoned Surface Mines Cropland Harvested Forest A ctive Surface Mines Construction M e tric Tons/ sq. km/year 8 .5 85 850 1,700 4 ,2 5 0 17,000 17,000 Tons/sq. m i/y e a r 24 240 2,400 4 ,8 0 0 12,000 48,000 48,000 R e la tiv e to Forest=l 1 10 100 200 500 2 ,000 2,000 SOURCE: U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Methods f o r I d e n t if y in g the Nature and E xtent o f Non-point Sources o f P o llu ta n ts {Washington: Government P r in t in g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 3 ), p. 6. 17 U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Control o f Water P o llu ­ t io n from Cropland, V o l. I — A Manual f o r G u id e lin e Development (Washington: Government P r in t in g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 5 ), p. 5. 18 U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Methods f o r I d e n t if y i n g and Evaluating the Nature and E xtent o f Non-Point Sources o f P o llu ta n ts {Washington: Government P r in t in g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 3 ), p. 35. 28 A g ric u ltu re . Modern a g r i c u l t u r e employs complex machinery and high y i e l d i n g seeds. la rg e s c a le . F e r t i l i z e r s and p e s tic id e s a re a ls o used on a Animals are kept in confined fe e d lo ts to serve the needs o f urban c e n te rs . and surface w a te r. These p ra c tic e s provide p o llu ta n ts to both ground P o llu ta n ts coming from a g r i c u l t u r a l discharges include sediments, s a l t load s, n u t r ie n t s , p e s t ic id e s , organic load s, and pathogens. A g r ic u lt u r a l la n d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y cro plan ds, are la rg e c o n trib u to rs o f sediment. Cropland has been c r e d ite d w ith 50 percent of the sediment d e liv e r e d to streams and la k e s , and t h is t o t a l s about two b i l l i o n tons a nn ually in the United S ta te s . 19 Sediment a ls o c a rr ie s w ith i t s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t it ie s o f p la n t n u t r i e n t s , p e s t ic id e s , organic and ino rg anic m a tte r, and o th er p o llu t a n t s . I t was estim ated by Wadleigh t h a t the average amount o f sediment contained 0,1 percent n itro g e n , 0 .0 8 percent phosphorus, and 1.25 percent potassium. 20 Thus the loss o f n itro g e n and phosphorus to the n a tio n 's waters would be approxim ately 2 lb o f n itro g e n per ton o f sediment, and 1 .6 l b potassium per ton o f sediment. 21 of Erosion i s thus an im portant f a c t o r in the loss o f n u tr ie n ts to surface w aters. Many substances which are e i t h e r present on land as p la n t res id u e s , are introduced on cropland by man, or are produced as wastes 19 J. N. Holeman, “The Sediment Y ie ld o f Major Rivers o f the World," Water Resources Research, IV (August, 1 9 6 8 ), 7 37-47. 20 C. H. Wadleigh, “Wastes in R e la tio n to A g r ic u ltu r e and F o re s try ," USDA Misc. Pub. No. 1065, 1968. 21 U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Methods por I d e n t i f y in g the Nature and Extent o f Non-point Sources o f P o llu ta n ts (Washington: Governm ent-Printing O f f i c e ) , p. 39. 29 by a g r ic u lt u r a l a c t i v i t i e s , have s i g n i f i c a n t e f fe c t s when introduced into re c e iv in g w aters. Pesticides and n u trie n ts are the most pub­ lic iz e d o f these m a te r ia ls . Due to t h e i r adverse e ffe c ts on food chain organisms, e s p e c ia lly on aquatic communities, p esticides have been rec e iv in g much a t t e n t io n . However, the movement o f pesticides residues from cropland in to waterways is a complex process, and depends on many fa c to rs such as the physical and chemical p rop erties o f the to x ic a n t, the fo rm u la tio n , the r a te and type o f a p p lic a tio n , the crop to which i t was a p p lie d , t i l l a g e p r a c tic e s , topography o f f i e l d , topography o f area between the a p p lic a tio n s i t e and waterways, distance between a p p lic a tio n s i t e and waterways, weather c o n d itio n s , and amount and v e lo c ity o f r a i n f a l l fo llo w in g a p p lic a tio n . Some o f the e a r l i e s t erosion problems in the west o f th is country developed on badly managed grassland. Overgrazing and the r e s u lta n t loss o f groundcover rendered the grasslands susceptible to erosion. About 540 acres o f land in the United States are used f o r grazing. Most o f the grazing lands are found in the western part o f the country. Grassland forms p a rt o f grazing lands. The c h ie f c h a ra c te r­ i s t i c s o f most grazing lands are a r i d i t y , other unfavorable c lim a tic fa c to rs , rough topography in many cases, o fte n s o ils unsuited to cropping and n a tiv e v e g e ta tio n . 22 The c h ie f source o f liv e s to c k feed on grazing lands are n a tiv e p la n ts , which grow w ith com paratively l i t t l e ploughing o r seeding. These include grasses and shrubs which are p alatab le and n u t r it io u s to liv e s to c k . 22 improvement through A major p a rt o f the land f o r Marion Clawson e t a l . , Land f o r the Future (Baltim ore: Hopkins Press, 1960), pp. 362-64. John 30 grazing is owned by the Federal Government, and an a d d itio n a l acreage is owned by o th er governments. These publicly-owned lands are used by p r iv a te ranchers under le a s e , lic e n c e o r perm it. 23 To c a te r to the needs o f the in c re a s in g population o f the nation fo r meat and d a ir y products, e s p e c ia lly in the urban a re a s , fe e d lo ts have been e s ta b lis h e d . The usual p r a c tic e is to concentrate a la rg e number o f animals in a r e l a t i v e l y small area f o r feeding and f a t t e n in g purposes. This p r a c tic e leads to the accummulation o f la r g e q u a n t itie s o f animal wastes, which pose a t h r e a t to the water q u a l i t y o f nearby streams and groundwater. I t has been discovered t h a t s o il below fe ed ­ lo ts contained 2 ,000 l b /a c r e o f n i t r a t e n itro g e n , w h ile the n i t r a t e nitrogen in the surface s o il on a d jo in in g areas ranged from 50-150 lb /a c r e . I t has a ls o been noted t h a t contam ination o f water from n i t r a t e remained even a f t e r an area had been abandoned f o r animal use. 24 Barnyards, f e e d lo t s , and manure p ile s have been shown as sources o f excessive n i t r a t e n itro g e n in shallow w e lls in I l l i n o i s and Nebraska. S ilv ic u ltu re . 25 This s e c tio n discusses f o r e s t c u l t u r e , harvesting and logging p r a c tic e s . Over o n e -t h ir d o f the United S tates is covered with f o r e s t s , o f which 67 percent is c l a s s i f i e d as commercial f o r e s t . 24 R. C. Loehr, " P o llu tio n Im p lic a tio n o f Animal Wastes— A Forward Oriented Review," Kansas U n iv e r s it y , Lawrence, Kansas, J u ly 1968. 25 U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Methods f o r I d e n t i f y i n g the Nature and Extent o f Non-point Sources o f PoTlutants (Washington: Government P r in t in g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 3 ), p, 43. 26I b i d . , p. 93. 31 Commercial fo r e s ts t o t a l 500 m i l l i o n a c re s . The f o r e s t lands may produce s u b s ta n tia l q u a n t it ie s o f p o llu ta n ts to surface and ground­ w ater, depending on the n a tu ra l and land use c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A well-managed f o r e s t reduces the amount o f p o llu ta n ts emitted to the a q u a tic environment. The t r e e cover, which deprives r a i n f a l l o f most o f i t s e ro s iv e power, and the high r a t e o f i n f i l t r a t i o n are often a b le to accommodate intense r a i n f a l l , w ith ou t ru n o ff and the accompanying tra n s p o rt o f s i l t by e ro s io n . Man's e f f o r t s to m aintain high f o r e s t p r o d u c t iv it y over a long period o f time re q u ire s the harvest o f t r e e s . The concept o f s i l v i c u l t u r a l cycle includes the r e l a t i v e l y long period o f growth which can be e s s e n t i a l l y fre e o f p o llu t io n a l o u tp u t, and a r e l a t i v e l y sho rt period o f harvest and r e a f f o r e s t a t i o n . The period o f r e a f f o r e s t a t i o n can be a time o f high output o f p o llu t a n t s . S i l v i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s commonly undertaken by man co n sist o f harv e s tin g , f o r e s t growth promotion, disease p re v e n tio n , f i r e and f i r e p re v e n tio n . f ig h t i n g Pre-commercial th in n in g may be necessary to remove poor q u a l i t y growth i f overstocking is the problem. provides space f o r the best q u a l i t y t r e e s . Forest th in n in g As the f o r e s t grows a f o r e s t e r w i l l provide p r o te c tio n and maintenance to the tim ber stands through the use o f in s e c t sprays, f i r e r e t a r d a n t s , and o th e r physical or b io lo g ic a l techniques. Methods o f harv e s tin g tim ber recognized by the f o r e s t r y pro­ fession in the United S ta te s , are c l e a r c u t t in g , s e e d tre e , and shelterwood. 27 27 These methods are based on ec o lo g ic a l and economic U.S. Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e , " S i l v i c u l t u r a l Systems f o r the Major Forest Types o f the United S t a t e s ," U. S. Department o f A g r ic u l­ t u r e , A g r ic u lt u r a l Handbook No. 445, March 1973, 32 considerations. The ecological fa c to rs considered in the s e le c tio n o f a harvesting method include timber species, the r e la tio n s h ip between fo re s t and w i l d l i f e , and p o te n tia l in s e c t and disease problems. Marketing and management costs c o n s titu te the p rin c ip a l economic considerations. In the harvesting process, c le a rc u ttin g req uires the v i r t u a l removal o f a l l tre e s and the c re a tio n o f bare land fo r the e s ta b lis h ­ ment o f a new f o r e s t composed o f trees which are somewhat o f the same age. I f not properly planned and executed, c le a rc u ttin g may lead to serious water p o llu tio n problems through the a c c e le ra tio n o f sediment production. Harvesting by the seedtree method removes a l l trees in an area leaving a few o f the most d e s ira b le trees f o r seed production, When s u f f ic i e n t reproduction is estab lished the seed trees are harvested. Next to c l e a r c u t t in g , the seed tre e method probably has the highest p o ten tia l o f re le a s in g sediment in to streams. The main d iffe r e n c e between the shelterwood method and the two previously discussed methods is th a t establishment o f a new crop is accomplished before the f in a l f o r e s t is removed. The method involves the gradual removal o f an e n t i r e stand in a se rie s o f p a r t ia l c u ttin g s extending over a f r a c t io n o f the r o t a t io n . The tra n s p o rta tio n o f f e l l e d trees is an important aspect of s ilv ic u ltu re . This is described in logging parlance as skidding, yarding, or snaking operations. Methods o f log tra n s p o rt often used include t r a c t o r , high le a d , s k y lin e cab le , balloon and h e lic o p te r. Most o f these methods increase s o il erosion. 33 Tractor skidding is the commonest method used on land w ith less than 30 percent slope. In the skidding process, the t r a c t o r exposes a larg e area o f bare s o i l . is g re a t. The erosion p o te n tia l o f t r a c t o r skidding Mechanical compaction o f the surface s o il by tra c to r s and other machines may reduce i n f i l t r a t i o n and produce surface ru n o ff. The high lead log tra n sp o rt system is adapted e s p e c ia lly to c le a rc u ttin g . A metal tower is mounted to a mobile frame. hold the tower in place. Guy lin e s The logs are dragged on the ground to a yarding area by a winch and a set o f cables attached to the tower. Soils which happen to l i e in the path o f the dragged logs are h e a v ily disturbed and made susceptible to erosion by surface ru n o ff. At the yarding area the logs are loaded in to a tru c k . Using a h e lic o p t e r , logs are l i f t e d from p o in t o f f e l l i n g and transported to the loading a re a . H e lic o p te r logging has been found to be a very v e r s a t i l e system f o r moving logs from f e l l i n g s ite s to loading areas, but i t is also more expensive than the o th er methods. 28 S i l v i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s produce p o llu ta n ts s im ila r to those generated by a g r ic u lt u r e . Sediment is the most important p o llu t a n t . I t is eroded and transported to surface waters by the a c tio n o f run­ o f f and ra in w a te r. In a d d itio n , thermal p o llu t io n in streams may r e s u lt from the reduction o f shade cover caused by c le a r c u ttin g along stream banks- Water temperature is increased by such an a c t i v i t y . Temperature s tro n g ly influences dissolved oxygen con ce n tra tio n , which a ffe c ts squatic l i f e and b a c te ria population in streams. Increased OO V i r g i l W. B in k le y , "H e lic o p te r Logging w ith the S64E Skycrane, Report o f S a le ," ( [ n . p . ] : U. S. Forest S e rv ic e, [ n . d . ] ) . 34 population o f pathogenic b a c te ria may k i l l f is h . 29 Organic m atter ranging from green v e g e ta tiv e refuse through wel1-decomposed humic m atter serves as p o llu ta n ts when transported to surface water by r u n o f f. The organic m a tte r, f lo a t i n g d e b ris , is sometimes a nuisance, i t sometimes p h y s ic a lly in t e r f e r e s w ith normal aquatic ecology and ne a rly always becomes involved in biochemical processes leading to the degradation o f organic m a tte r. 30 Pesticides used in s i l v i c u l t u r e include in s e c tic id e s , herbicides ( s il v i c i d e s ) and ro d e n tic id e s . P esticides deposited d i r e c t l y in sur­ face water courses by careless a p p lic a tio n or transported th e re in surface r u n o ff. P esticides are by design to x ic to some p a rt o f the environment. Evaluation o f water p o llu t io n caused by p esticides is complicated by many issues. Required f o r such an e v a lu a tio n are knowledge o f the persistence o f the p e s tic id e a t po int o f use, ra te s o f degradation, mode o f degradation and i d e n t i t i e s o f b io lo g ic a l and chemical meta­ b o lit e s , and mechanisms o f tra n sp o rt through the environment to ta rg e t as well as n o n -ta rg et species. M ining. This is an a c t i v i t y which disturbs the e a r th 's c ru s t. Mining is accomplished by a v a r ie t y o f techniques. Mine shafts are sunk to provide access to minerals deep in the e a rth . Minerals which l i e near the surface o f the land are e x tra c te d by surface mining techniques such as s t r i p mining or open p i t , 29 J. R. B r e t t , "Some P rin c ip le s in the Thermal Requirements of Fishes," Q u a rte rly Review B io lo g y , XXXI (June, 1956), 75-87. 30 U. S. Environmental P ro tectio n Agency, Methods fo r Id e n tif y in g the Nature and Extent o f Non-point Sources o f P o llu ta n ts (Washington: Government P r in tin g O f f i c e , 19 7 3 ), p. 101. 35 Surface mining creates more v i s i b l e disturbance o f the e a r th 's surface than s h a ft mining. In d is c rim in a te surface mining o f the past has created problems which are s t i l l country. present in some parts o f the However, land disturbed by surface mining can be reclaim ed. Techniques are being developed by which mining and reclam ation can be integrated almost in to a s in g le o p eration . 31 Mine drainage generated by o x id a tio n o f p y r i t i c m aterial the most serious p o llu t a n t a r is in g from mining a c t i v i t i e s . is This p o llu ta n t is an a c id ic mixture o f ir o n , s a lts and sulphuric a c id . Mine drainage a ris e s from both underground and surface mining sources, and from coal and many metal mining sources. Other types o f non-point p o llu ta n ts a r is in g from mining operations are sediments, leachates o f various types (o th e r than mine d ra in a g e ), r a d io a c t i v it y , and to a lim ite d ex te n t p e s tic id e s . Surface mining o f coal and oth er sedimentary minerals creates large areas o f disturbed land which is highly e ro sive and can c o n t r i ­ bute large q u a n titie s o f sediment to surface water i f the land is not properly reclaimed a f t e r mining. Vast p ile s o f f i n e l y grained material c a lle d t a i l i n g s are created when raw minerals are processed in order to concentrate ore . The problem o f t a i l i n g s as p o te n tia l contributors o f sediment is e xem p lified in Western United States where the t a i l i n g s are spread over a wide expanse o f land. Control of leachate p o llu t io n from t a i l i n g s is o fte n hampered by the de s ire to save the t a i l i n g s f o r fu tu r e mineral e x tr a c tio n . 31 Council on Environmental Q u a lit y , Coal Surface Mining and Reclamation: An Environmental and Economic Assessment o f A lte rn a tiv e s (Washington: Government P r in tin g O f f i c e , 1973). 36 E ff e c t iv e reclamation o f land disturbed by mining a c t i v i t i e s requires the use o f f e r t i l i z e r s and p esticides to promote v e g e ta tiv e s ta b iliz a tio n . These m a te ria ls are p o te n tia l p o llu ta n ts and the ex­ te n t o f p o llu tio n is governed c h i e f l y by the care exercised in t h e i r use. I t is u n r e a l is t i c to assume t h a t p o llu tio n from mining ac­ t i v i t i e s can be completely e lim in a te d ; i t is however r e a l i s t i c to expect th a t p o llu t io n from mining can be markedly reduced by taking appropriate control measures. C onstruction. I t has been estimated th a t the accelerated i n ­ crease in the population o f the United States through the year 2000 w i l l require the d a i l y development o f about 4,000 acres o f land to s a tis f y the requirements f o r new housing and r e la te d s e rv ic e s , u t i l i t i e s , sewer and wastewater treatment networks and tra n s p o rta tio n . 32 A ll these developments are o rie n te d towards c on struction . A c t i v i t i e s l i k e l y to modify the physical and b io lo g ic a l proper­ t ie s o f water resources include: construction o f tra n s p o rta tio n and communications networks; housing; o f f i c e bu ildin gs and re la te d land development; energy networks; water resources development and other m u ltip le use re c re a tio n a l developments. 33 Construction a c t i v i t i e s are capable o f generating many types o f w ater p o llu ta n ts . The lo c a tio n of a construction a c t i v i t y r e l a t i v e to environm entally vulnerable waterways or groundwater recharge areas is c ru c ia l to construction 32 U. S. Department o f Housing and Urban Development, "Proceed­ ings o f the National Conference on Sediment C o n tro l," Washington, D .C ., September 14-16, 1969. 33 U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Methods f o r Id e n tify in g and Evaluating the Nature and Extent o f Non-point Sources o f P o llu ta n ts (Washington: Government P r in tin g O f f i c e , 1973), pp. 233-34. 37 p ra c tic e . Land c le a r in g and pest co n tro l are operations which may appear i n i t i a l l y on any c o n s tru c tio n s i t e . T h e ir impact on ecosystems is g re a t in the c o n s tru c tio n o f tr a n s p o r ta tio n and energy networks, par­ t i c u l a r l y i n t e r s t a t e highways, e l e c t r i c transm ission lin e s and pip e­ lin e s f o r o i l and n a tu ra l gas. the c o n s tru c tio n s i t e . Unwanted v e g e ta tio n is cle a re d from In some cases, the surface s o il may be stripped and s to c k p ile d f o r reuse during the period o f s i t e r e s t o r a ­ t io n . These operations can be viewed as major disturbances o f the land surface w ith possible d e le te r io u s e f f e c t s on the ecosystem o f the development s i t e , a d ja c e n t areas and w ater resources. Pest con­ t r o l may take the form o f spraying the s i t e w ith i n s e c t ic id e s , herbicides or ro d e n tic id e s to remove in s e c ts harmful to man, herbaceous and woody p la n ts t h a t o b s tru c t development, or unwanted animals. Rough grading is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e s s e n t i a l l y a l l c o n s tru c tio n a c t i v i t i e s w ith p a r t i c u l a r re fe re n c e to highway cuts and f i l l s , excavations f o r dams and p i p e lin e s , and housing and r e la t e d land development. Heavy c o n s tru c tio n equipment used, such as b u lld o ze rs and tru c k s , becomes both a d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t source o f water p o l­ lu ta n ts . Petroleum products such as d ie s e l f u e l , o i l and lu b ric a n ts are d i r e c t sources o f p o l l u t i o n . C onstruction equipment a ls o causes severe compaction o f clayey s o i l s , thereby reducing the r a t e o f water i n f i l t r a t i o n and low ering the r a t e o f s o il a e r a t io n . The re v e g e ta tio n of graded areas w i l l be c on siderably more d i f f i c u l t i f the above fa c to rs are ignored. 38 Dam c o n s tru c tio n involves many operations which produce sediment and other types o f p o llu t a n t s . C onstruction haul roads are p o te n tia l sources o f la rg e q u a n t itie s o f sediment and c o n s tru c tio n r e la t e d p o llu t a n t s . Large areas o f fo re s te d h i l l s i d e are o fte n c le a re d to permit excavation and c o n s tru c tio n o f the dam. from the dam s i t e . Turbid water is em itted This w ater becomes a p o llu t a n t unless i t is tre a ted in s e t t l i n g ponds or c l a r i f i e r s before being allowed to e n te r the waterw ay.3^ Types o f p o llu t a n t s r e s u ltin g from c o n s tru c tio n a c t i v i t i e s can be grouped under sediment, chemical p o llu ta n ts and b io lo g ic a l ta n ts . p o llu ­ Sediment includes s o lid and organic m a te ria ls tran sp orted by r a i n f a l l , r u n o f f , wind, ic e and the p u ll o f g r a v i t y . The major categories o f chemical p o llu t a n t s are petroleum products, p e s t ic id e s , f e r t i l i z e r s , s y n th e tic organic m a t e r ia ls , m e ta ls , s o il a d d itiv e s and miscellaneous wastes such as c o n s tru c tio n d e b r is . p o llu ta n ts are those o f animal and human o r i g i n . The b io lo g ic a l These organisms may or may not be pathogenic to animals and humans. Agents d i r e c t l y resp on sible f o r the t r a n s p o r ta tio n o f p o llu ta n ts from c o n s tru c tio n areas to r e c e iv in g streams inc lu d e r u n o f f, wind, land slides and seepage. Some chemical and b io lo g ic a l p o llu ta n ts generated a t the c o n s tru c tio n s i t e a re adsorbed p o llu t a n t s . Construc­ tio n r e la te d s o lid wastes c a r r ie d by r u n o ff inc lu d e paper, beer cans, beverage cans, aluminium f o i l and p l a s t i c wrappers. 34 R. R. Robinson e t a l . , Special Report on Control o f T u r b id it y During Construction o f Teton Dam and Power and Pumping P la n t (Washing­ ton: II. S'. Dept, o f I n t e r i o r , Bureau o f Reclamation, 19 7 3 ), pp. 1 -1 6 . 39 Intensive use o f land finds i t s best expression in the urban b u ilt up areas. In the urban environment, most o f the natural vege­ ta tio n has been removed to make room fo r the construction o f homes, community f a c i l i t i e s and roads. Urban construction leads to the creation o f an impervious la y e r o f concrete and asphalt over the s o ils . This la y e r c o lle c ts p o llu ta n ts such as dust, o i l s , chemicals and d i r t . I t also e f f e c t i v e l y reduces the amount o f i n f i l t r a t i o n o f the soil by p r e c ip it a t io n and thereby accelerates surface ru n o ff. All these p o llu ta n ts are fed to the untreated stormwater in the urban area which u lt im a t e ly fin d s i t s way In to streams and lakes. Ecosystems Model The drainage basin serves as a useful u n it o f study f o r a b e tte r understanding o f the p rin c ip a l ways by which landscapes influ e n c e water bodies or water q u a l i t y , and some o f the feedback processes through which aquatic systems, in tu r n , a f f e c t land. eutrophication o f lakes occurs in a drainage basin. Natural N u trie n ts , e s p e c ia lly nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, are metabolized by algae, the f i r s t li n k in the aquatic food chain which a f fe c t s the production o f a l l successive tro p h ic le v e ls . The process o f e u tro ­ phication is r e l a t i v e l y slow depending on the richness and s iz e o f the basin in r e l a t i o n to the s iz e o f the lake and to the time o f the renewal o f the w ater. By means o f a g r ic u lt u r a l f e r t i l i z a t i o n and erosion, the r a te o f e utroph icatio n can be a c c e le ra te d . The purpose o f the ecosystems model is to i d e n t i f y the s tru c tu ra l features o f the drainage basin and to e lu c id a te the processes by which m aterials are transported through the ecosystems. Water p o llu tio n 40 problems in a watershed are complex and c a l l fo r models or submodels appropriate f o r analysis a t d i f f e r e n t le v e l s , namely, the regional or watershed l e v e l , the component le v e l such as lakes and t e r r e s t r i a l ecosystems, and the component l e v e l . 35 The main concern in t h is study is the regional or watershed l e v e l . Natural Watershed Conceptually, a watershed which has not been inhabited or i n ­ fluenced s i g n i f i c a n t l y by man's a c t i v i t i e s can be viewed as a natural watershed. The r e la tio n s h ip s between land a drainage basin are i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure andwater systems in such 1. Each t e r r e s t r i a l eco­ system has the fo llo w in g components: primary producers, consumers, and decomposers. The primary producers convert the ra d ia n t energy from the sun in to chemical energy by producing energy r ic h carbon compounds which are stored in p la n t tis s u e s . Consumers a re the organisms which derive t h e i r n u t r it io n d i r e c t l y from plants (h e rb iv o re s ). Other organisms such as b a c te ria and fungi break down dead plants and animal m aterial to obtain t h e i r energy requirements. posers. These are the decom­ N u trie n ts (substances necessary fo r the normal growth and development o f organisms) are cycled in the ecosystem and in the t e r r e s t r i a l ecosystems as a u n i t . Processes s im ila r to those which occur in the systems operate in the aquatic ecosystems. In t e r r e s t r i a l eco­ both t e r r e s t r i a l and aquatic ecosystems, m a te ria ls which are not ass im ila te d are tra n s fe rre d to the land-w ater in te ra c tio n s group o f ecosystems where through 35 Herman E, Koenig and W illia m E. Cooper, Design and Management of Environmental Systems, Vol. I l l (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State U n iv e r s ity , 1974), p. 13. Residuals ( p o ll u t a n t s ) LAND ECOSYSTEMS L A N D -W A T E R N T E R A C T IO N S Prim ary Production Consumption Decomposition N utrient Cycling H ydrology Nutrient Cycling R esources Figure 1. Ecosystem Relationships in WATER ECOSYSTEMS Prim ary Production Consumption Decomposition Nutrient Cycling 42 hydrologic processes and f u r t h e r n u t r ie n t cycling residual m a te ria ls are made compatible w ith the environment. The whole system com­ prising land and water ecosystems is maintained in a s ta te o f equilibrium by some cybernetic mechanism. Thus, the water budget and n u trie n t budget f o r the s o il and plants are also maintained. Biogeochemical Cycles Living organisms re q u ire elements such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus f o r development. The supply o f these elements is lim ite d and, by means o f biogeochemical c y c le s , the e l e ­ ments through the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lith o s p h e re and biosphere c o n s titu te the biogeochemical cycles. By means o f a biogeochemical c y c le , n u tr ie n t elements are moved from the environment to organisms and back to the environment, Nutrients and other m a te ria ls th a t are coupled to the n u trie n ts are cycled sim ultaneously. The oth er m a t e r ia ls , most o f which are i n t r o ­ duced in to the environment by man, are not e s s e n tia l to the survival of the ecosystem. Such m a te ria ls include hard p esticides t r ie n t s from f e r t i l i z e r . 37 and nu­ In order to f u l l y understand land-w ater in te ra c tio n s in a drainage ba s in , there should be sub-models o f the coupling e f f e c t mechanisms. D iffu se water (n o n -p o in t), dissolved chemicals, p a r t ic u la t e matter in p r e c ip it a t io n and groundwater can be viewed as components o f both land and water ecosystems, but they are also the m a te ria ls through which a c t i v i t i e s on the land and the lower atmosphere a f f e c t streams, lake systems and surface r u n o ff. 37 Thus water acts as a See Appendices B, C, D, E, F, and G. 43 solvent and c a r r i e r o f n u t r ie n t s and m a te ria ls f o r both systems. The ra te and amount o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n determine the chemical f l u x from the atmosphere to e i t h e r the land o r the water system, as w e ll as the flu x from the land phase o f a drainage basin to the aqu a tic phase. Transported M a te r ia ls There is the need to d e fin e m a te ria ls tran sp orted by the w ater systems. The m a te r ia ls in c lu d e sand and sediment, n u t r i e n t s , and other elements in s o lu tio n . measure. 38 Sediment y i e l d i s r e l a t i v e l y easy to The term, sediment y i e l d , may be defined as the amount of the eroded s o il m a te ria l t h a t is tra n sp o rted and deposited in a stream e i t h e r as suspended sediment o r as s e t t le d bed m a te ria l o r as both. Sediment y i e l d is dependent on gross erosion in the watershed and on the a b i l i t y o f the r u n o ff to t ra n s p o r t and d e p o s it eroded material in t o streams and r e s e r v o ir s . Gross erosion includes sheet and r i l l erosion and channel type e ro s io n . N u tr ie n ts such as n itro g e n present problems in tra c in g t h e i r movements in the ecosystem because of the various chemical forms assumed by them and the tran sfo rm ation s they undergo in the system. Nitrogen in the ecosystem is c o n t in u a lly being exchanged to and from nitrogen gas, ammonia, n i t r a t e s , n i t r i t e s and organic n itro g e n . Phosphorus has th re e basic forms, namely, phosphate, orthophosphate, and organic phosphorus. or in p a r t i c u l a t e . 38 Each form can occur in s o lu t io n , as c o l l o i d A model o f the tra n s p o r t o f n u t r ie n t s between the U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Methods f o r I d e n t i f y in g and Evaluating the Nature and Extent o f Non-point Sources o f P o llu ta n ts (Washington: Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 3 ), p. 51. 44 land and water systems w ith in a drainage basin should consider the tra n s fe r a t t r i b u t a b l e to f lu x o f the c a r r i e r system and tra n s fe rs due to change among forms o f the m aterial being transported. Transport Mechanisms Water is a major c a r r i e r o f n u trie n ts and p o llu ta n ts . The atmosphere is also a c a r r i e r system, although recognition o f i t s s ign ifican ce in the tra n sp o rt o f n u trie n ts and other contaminants o f aquatic ecosystems came l a t e . In recent y e a rs , m eteorologists have developed models f o r the dispersal and tra n s p o rt o f p a r t ic u la t e and gaseous forms o f important m a te r ia ls . 39 The s o il is also a c a r r i e r system when i t acts as the agent by which n u tr ie n ts , p a r t ic u l a r l y phosphorus, are c a rrie d from the land to wa*er systems during erosion. The various c a r r i e r systems are interdependent. The hydrologic c a r r i e r system m erits close examination because of i t s r e la t io n s h ip w ith both po int and non-point sources o f water p o llu ta n ts . 40 The rectangles in d ic a te system v a ria b le s and the arrows show the natural processes and tra n s p o rt mechanisms involved in the hydrologic c y c le . See Figure 2. P r e c ip it a tio n t h a t f a l l s on the land and e v e n tu a lly becomes runoff may be c l a s s i f i e d as surface r u n o ff, subsurface ru n o ff or groundwater r u n o f f, according to the path o f flow to the stream. Surface ru n o ff (or overland flo w ) r e fe rs to water th a t tra v e ls over 39 Orie L. Loucks, "Models in U n k in g Land-Water In te ra c tio n s Around Lake Wingra, Wisconsin," in Coupling o f Land and Water Systems edited by A rthur D. Hasler (New York: S p rin g e r-V e rla g , 1975), p. 57. 40 D. D, H u ff, "Hydrologic Transport Model," Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, Memo Report No. 73-74 (Madison, Wisconsin: U n iv e rs ity of Wisconsin, 1972). 45 PRECIPITATION INTERCEPTION IN T E R ­ CEPTION STORAGE UPPER ZONE STORAGE AVAILABLE MOISTURE SUPPLY PERCOLATION AND REDISTRIBUTION A C TIV E GROUNDWATER STORAGE ATMOSPHERE WATER VAPOR STORAGE OVERLAND FLOW INFILTRATION SUBSURFACE WATER SUPPLY LOWER ZONE STORAGE R U N O F F (OR S T R E A M F L O W ) B A S I N LOSS INTERFLOW DETENTION STORAGE INACTIVE GROUNDWATER STORAGE B A S I N LOSS CHANNEL ST O R A G E Figure 2. A Flow Chart f o r the Stanford Watershed Model as adapted by Huff and others 46 ground surface to reach the stream. Since t h i s water does not flow in an i d e n t i f i a b l e channel i t is regarded as water from non-point sources. Subsurface ru n o ff (a ls o c a lle d subsurface flo w , subsurface stormflow or storm seepage) is water th a t i n f i l t r a t e d the surface soil and moved l a t e r a l l y through the upper horizon above the water table towards the stream. Groundwater ru n o ff (or groundwater flo w ) refe rs to the water th a t has i n f i l t r a t e d the surface s o i l , percolated the general groundwater ta b le and then moved l a t e r a l l y to appear in the stream. Surface ru n o ff moves ra p id ly and occurs s h o rtly a f t e r a storm. Subsurface ru n o ff moves somewhat more slowly than surface ru n o ff, but appears in the stream during and s h o rtly a f t e r a storm. Ground­ water runo ff may be in t r a n s i t f o r days, or y e a rs , depending on the rock s tru c tu re and other fa c to r s . The three types o f ru n o ff i l l u s t r a t e d in th is flow c h a rt are not m utually exclusive because any body o f water in a watershed may use a combination o f modes o f tra v e l to a stream. The amount o f water th a t moves by each o f the three routes must be known before tra n sp o rt o f a g r ic u lt u r a l chemical or p o llu ta n ts from a f i e l d can be described in d e t a i l . Surface ru n o ff may c a rry p o llu ta n ts in s o lu tio n , in suspension or adsorbed to suspended s o il p a r t i c l e s . Subsurface ru n o ff and groundwater ru n o ff can only carry soluble p o llu ta n ts th a t are not strongly adsorbed to s o il p a r t ic l e s . A no n-p ersisten t chemical transported by groundwater ru n o ff may not be a t h r e a t to water q u a lit y by the time i t reaches a surface stream because o f the long tra v e l time 47 required f o r i t s tra n s p o rta tio n .^ A n o n -p e rs is te n t chemical is biodegradable w ith in a r e l a t i v e l y s h o rt tim e . Ecosystem R e la tio n s h ip s A ffe c te d by Han Many drainage basins have been in h a b ite d by people and have in some way been in flu en ced by man's a c t i v i t i e s . manipulations o f a g r i c u l t u r a l F re q u e n tly , c u lt u r a l land s, fo re s ts and streams have tended to upset both the water budget and the n u t r i e n t budget in the s o i l , in turn a f f e c t in g both the w ater t a b le and base flo w to s p rin g s , streams and la k e s . Man's a c t i v i t i e s such as the use o f f e r t i l i z e r in a g r ic u lt u r e a f f e c t the n u t r i e n t content o f the waters and r e s u l t in a m o d ific a tio n o f water q u a l i t y and associated s tr u c tu r e o f the eco­ system. Figure 3 i l l u s t r a t e s the r e la t io n s h ip s among land ecosystems, water ecosystems, and human i n s t i t u t i o n s . S o ciety through i t s many i n s t i t u t i o n s , receives in fo rm a tio n from both land and w ater ecosystems. On the basis o f the in fo rm a tio n re c e iv e d , d e c is io n s — s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , economic— are made. These decisions and human a c t i v i t i e s determine how the land and water resources are used. The decisions also i n ­ fluence the methods adopted to e x p l o i t the n a tu ra l resources. By means o f the " i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n tro l box" the various human a c t i v i t i e s which a f f e c t land and water ecosystems are re g u la te d . The harmonious re la tio n s h ip s e x is t in g among the various ecosystems in the model are buttressed on e c o lo g ic a l p r in c ip le s which the preceding discussion has 41 U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Control o f Water P o llu tio n from Cropland, V o l. I (Washington: Government P r in t in g O f f i c e , 7 975}, p. 7. INSTITUTIONS, IN S TITU TIO N A L ARRANGEMENTS AND HUMAN A C T I V I T I E S Decisions, Control ft Impact Decisions, C ont r ol & mpoct Information I nf or ma t i on Res i dual s (pollutants) LAND E COSYSTEMS Resources WATER ECOSYSTEMS LAND-WATER NTERACTIONS Primary Production Consumption Decomposition Nutrient Cycling Prim ary Production Consumption Decomposition Nutrient Cycling Hydrology Nutrient Cycling Resources Res i dual s ( pollutants) Figure 3. Schematic Model of Land-Water Interactions as Influenced by Man 49 attempted to e lu c id a te . P rinciples The fo llo w in g ecological p rin c ip le s must be considered when dealing w ith the control o f water p o llu tio n from non-point sources: (1) The region must serve as the basis f o r studying non-point sources of the water p o llu t io n ; (2 ) Consideration o f water p o llu tio n must form part o f environmental q u a l it y ; (3 ) Knowledge o f c a rry in g capac­ i t i e s and tolerances must guide man's control o f ecosystems; and (4) Ecosystems must be managed h o l i s t i c a l l y in order to minimize the generation o f p o llu ta n ts . (1 ) Regional Considerations. The term, "non-point source of water p o llu tio n " is taken to mean any non-confined area from which pollutants are discharged in to a body o f w ater. The d i f f i c u l t i e s involved in i d e n t if y in g a p a r t ic u l a r spot as the source o f p o llu tio n makes i t necessary to consider c a r e f u l l y the geographical area or region from which p o llu ta n ts are generated. of defining a reg ion . There are d i f f e r e n t ways The c r i t e r i a f o r such a d e f i n i t i o n may be physical, economic, s o c ia l, p o l i t i c a l , e th n ic or any combination of the above. For the control o f water p o l l u t i o n , i t should be r e a liz e d th a t p o llu tio n from non-point sources u s u a lly transcends boundaries set fo r economic and a d m in is tra tiv e reasons. The watershed is taken as a s in g le u n it f o r modeling purposes because o f i t s ecological importance. I t i l l u s t r a t e s the i n t e r ­ actions among the various components o f an ecosystem and a t the same time shows the in te rre la te d n e s s o f a l l ecosystems w ith in the w ater­ shed. The emphasis is on the in t e r r e la tio n s h ip s and in te ra c tio n s 50 among ecosystems. U ltim a te ly , a l l together c o n s titu te the biosphere. the ecosystems o f the earth taken Changes in an ecosystem in one part of the biosphere are l i k e l y to a f f e c t other ecosystems because of the in t e r r e la tio n s h ip s e x is tin g among a l l ecosystems. I t is th is question o f in te rre la te d n e s s and interdependence o f ecosystems which makes i t necessary to study water p o llu tio n on a regional basis. Consequently, an app ropriate region must be defined as the basis fo r studying water p o llu t io n from non-point sources. (2) Environmental Q u a l i t y . The concept o f environmental q u a lity is defined in terms o f the q u a l i t y o f the human environment. Environ­ mental q u a lit y recognizes the place o f man w ith in the biosphere which is composed o f ecosystems. man-made systems. In the biosphere, there are natural and A natural system comprises g e o lo g ic a l, p h y s ic a l, chemical and b io lo g ic a l processes which mould the e a r th 's surface w ith ­ out a dominant in flu e n c e by man. Han uses the resources found in the biosphere to s a t i s f y his basic needs o f food, s h e lt e r , and c lo th in g as well as his a e s th e tic needs. He measures the q u a lit y o f his en­ vironment in terms o f his own experience, s u rv iv a l and w e ll-b e in g . Environmental q u a lit y i s , t h e r e fo r e , defined by human perceptions o f and reactions to the natural and man-made systems. The d e f i n i t i o n o f environmental q u a li t y must be r e la te d to the s u r v iv a l, health and w ell-b e in g o f the human population and the in d iv id u a ls in i t . Water p o llu tio n from non-point sources can be viewed as the outcome o f man's e f f o r t s to s a t is f y his needs from natural systems which are interdependent. P o llu ta n ts from non-point sources may have d ir e c t impacts on water bodies but may also have i n d i r e c t adverse 51 impacts on oth er natural systems in the biosphere and u lt im a t e ly on man. Water p o llu t io n i s , th e r e fo re , not an is o la te d issue. closely linked w ith o th er issues o f the human environment. I t is Water p o llu tio n from both p o in t and non-point sources must be tackled as part o f environmental q u a l i t y . (3) Carrying C apacities and Tolerances. connotes an optimum environment f o r man. Environmental q u a lit y I m p l i c i t in environmental q u a lity is the concept o f carrying c apacity which re fe rs to the a b i l i t y o f a p a r t ic u l a r environment to support l i f e . is used in many f ie l d s o f study. This concept However, the need f o r human s u r v i­ val and w e ll-b e in g makes i t im perative to consider carrying capacity from the perspective o f ecosystems and the biosphere. The biosphere contains lim ite d natural resources and the question o f the e a rth 's carrying capacity concerns the long-run balance between the o v e ra ll capacity o f the natural environment to produce and the sum t o t a l o f human needs. Technological advancement can increase the c a rry in g capacity o f the biosphere by making more resources a v a ila b le fo r human use. The development o f h ig h -y ie ld in g seeds and the a p p lic a tio n o f f e r t i l i z e r to a g r ic u ltu r e has led to sub s ta n tia l increases in food production in many c o u n trie s . The c a rry in g capacity o f the environment can also be diminished through poor management o f ecosystems. Carrying capacity is therefore a dynamic concept. I f natural systems are adversely a ffe c te d by water p o llu t io n , resources made a v a ila b le f o r human use w i l l be impaired in q u a l i t y and th is w i l l , in tu r n , a f f e c t environmental q u a l i t y . Natural systems such 52 as streams and lakes have to le ra n c e s . Streams and r iv e r s can render human wastes harmless to the environment* given a c e r t a in amount o f sewage and s u f f i c i e n t time f o r stream recovery. Water p o llu t io n occurs when the a s s im ila t iv e c a p a c ity o f the streams and r iv e r s are exceeded. Knowledge about the to le ra n c e l i m i t s o f n a tu ra l systems is a necessary p r e re q u is ite f o r understanding and c o n t r o l l i n g water p o l l u t io n . Based on these to le ra n c e s , r e a l i s t i c standards f o r improving the human environment can be s e t . 42 In the l i g h t o f the fo re g o in g , man's control o f ecosystems must be guided by the c a rry in g c a p a c itie s o f the ecosystems and to le ra n c e s o f n a tu ra l systems. (4 ) Sound Ecosystem Management. I t has been pointed out t h a t man depends on n a tu ra l resources in the n a tu ra l systems f o r his s urvival and w e ll being. The production and consumption o f these r e ­ sources leads to the c re a tio n o f r e s id u a ls o r p o llu ta n ts which are returned to the n atural environment. Since the n atural systems and man can t o l e r a t e p o llu t io n up to a c e r t a i n l e v e l , i t is e s s e n tia l to ensure t h a t the r a t e a t which p o llu ta n ts are generated does not exceed what the n atural systems can t o l e r a t e . Sound ecosystem management aims a t achieving harmony between man's p o llu tio n -p ro n e a c t i v i t i e s and natural systems. Since man's a c t i v i t i e s a re m ainly resp on sible f o r p o llu ta n ts which adversely impact n a tu ra l systems, "The environment must be managed p r im a r ily through the management o f men." 42 43 E f f e c t iv e manage- Lynton K. C a ld w e ll, Environment: A Challenge to Modern Society (Doubleday and C o ., Anchor Books, 1 9 7 0 ), p. 71. 43I b i d . , p. 60. 53 ment o f ecosystems requires a comprehensive examination o f man's a c t i v i t i e s and natural systems, as well as those human in s t i t u t i o n s which provide gu idelin es f o r the u t i l i z a t i o n o f natural resources. In order to minimize the harmful impacts o f p o llu t a n t s , ecosystems must be managed h o l i s t i c a l l y . CHAPTER 3 FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1972, SECTION 208 L e g is la tiv e History The Federal government f i r s t showed concern about the q u a lit y o f the n a tio n 's waters by passing the Refuse Act o f 1899, the main ob­ je c tiv e o f which was to prevent impediments to navigation.^ The Act states th a t " I t shall not be law fu l to throw, discharge or deposit . . . any refuse m atter o f any kind or d e s c rip tio n whatever . . . in to 2 the navigable waters o f the United S ta te s ," without permission from the Army Corps o f Engineers. V io la to rs o f the lav/, subject to c i v i l and crim inal a c tio n , could be sued by the government or by p riv a te c it iz e n s , i f the public agencies refused to a c t. in d ir e c t ly d e a lt with water p o llu tio n control This l e g i s l a t io n in navigable w aters. The f i r s t Federal l e g i s l a t i o n d ire c te d s p e c i f i c a l l y a t the main 3 sources o f w ater p o llu tio n was not passed u n t il 1948. P r io r to 1948, a u th o rity fo r the control o f w ater p o llu t io n was exercised by the states and m u n ic ip a lit ie s . In most s ta te s , the power to control water i U. S ., Congress, Rivers and Harbors A ct, 30 S t a t . , 1152, March 3, 1899. 2Ib id . ^U. S . , Congress, Public Law 8 0-845, 80th Cong., 2nd Sess., S. 418, June 30, 1948. 55 pollution had passed to the state s because the m u n ic ip a litie s could not e f f e c t i v e l y control water p o llu tio n o r ig in a tin g from places out­ side the j u r i s i d c t i o n o f the municipal or local government. Between 1935 and 1940, many b i l l s were introduced in the United States Congress, requesting Federal fin a n c ia l assistance fo r the con­ stru ction o f waste treatment p la n ts . Most o f the b i l l s provided fo r Federal f in a n c ia l support fo r comprehensive p o llu tio n control plan­ ning.^ Some o f the b i l l s contained provisions f o r enforcement powers to be exercised by the Federal Government in order to reduce p o llu tio n in in t e r s t a t e waters. None passed, however. Hater P o llu tio n Control Act o f 1948 The States and m u n ic ip a litie s were eager to accept Federal fin a n c ia l assistance f o r the construction o f waste treatment p la n ts . This eagerness prepared the groundwork f o r the Water P o llu tio n Con­ tro l Act o f 1948. The purpose o f the Act was "To provide f o r water p o llu tio n control a c t i v i t i e s in the Public Health Service of the Federal S ecu rity Agency and in the Federal Works Agency and f o r oth er purposes." The a u th o rity contained in the l e g i s l a t io n was lim ite d to fiv e ye a rs , but the Act was extended f o r an a d d itio n a l three years in c 1953. The Act recognized the primary r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s o f the states 4J . Clarence Davies I I I and Barbara S. Davies, The P o l i t i c s o f P o llu tio n (In d ia n a p o lis : Pegasus, 1975), p. 28. 5 U. S ., Congress, Public Law 80-845, 80th Cong., 2nd Sess., S. 418, June 30, 1948. 6U. S . , Congress, Public Law 8 2 -5 7 9 , 82nd Cong., 2nd Sess., July 17, 1952. 56 in c o n tro llin g water p o llu tio n and made pro v is io n f o r technical re ­ search to improve methods o f treatment o f in d u s t r ia l and o th er wastes. I t also provided f o r Federal technical assistance to s ta te and i n t e r ­ state agencies and m u n ic ip a litie s in the form ulation and execution of programs f o r the abatement o f stream p o llu t io n . Promotion o f public health was the p r in c ip a l aim o f the 1948 Act. The Surgeon General under the supervision and d ir e c tio n o f the Federal S ecu rity A d m inistrator o f the Public Health Service and Federal Works A d m inistrator was given the a u th o r ity to adm inister the Act. The Act also established a Water P o llu tio n Control Advisory Board in the Public Health S ervice. I t was the duty o f the Board to review the p o lic ie s and programs o f the Public Health Service and to make recommendations thereon in reports to the Surgeon General fo r necessary a c tio n to be taken. 7 Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1956 In the Water P o llu tio n Control Act o f 1948, i t was established that the Federal Government had some r o le in abating p o llu tio n in in t e r s t a te waters. states. However, th is r o le was subordinate to th a t o f the For many y e a rs , controversy over water p o llu tio n l e g i s l a ­ tion centered on Federal enforcement powers, and fin a n c ia l assistance fo r the con struction o f waste treatm ent p la n ts . Provisions o f the Water P o llu tio n Control Act o f 1948 proved d i f f i c u l t to enforce. In 1956, a f t e r long hearings, the Congress passed a re v is io n of the enforcement provisions and thereby removed many o f the d i f f i c u l t i e s 7U. S . , Congress, Public Law 80-8 4 5 , 80th Cong., 2nd Sess., S. 418, Section 6 { b ) , June 30, 1948. 57 found in the 1948 A c t. The purpose o f the Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1956 was to extend and strengthen the 1948 A ct. I t reta in e d the p ro v is io n t h a t Federal c o u rt a c tio n could be i n ­ s tit u t e d a g a in s t water p o llu t e r s and o th er offenders w ith the consent o f the s t a t e concerned. The r e te n tio n o f t h is p ro v is io n was an obstacle to the enforcement o f the law by the Federal Government. 1961, P residen t John Kennedy endorsed a b i l l In sponsored by Represen­ t a tiv e John B la tn ik o f Minnesota which removed the o b s ta c le to fe d e ra l enforcement The a d m in is tra tio n under P re s id e n t Kennedy favored f in a n c ia l assistance to s ta te s f o r the c o n s tru c tio n o f waste treatm ent p la n ts . Consequently, a b i l l was signed by the P residen t in 1961 to appro­ p ria te funds f o r waste treatm ent grants f o r the period 1962 to 1967. The b i l l autho rized a p p ro p ria tio n s f o r waste treatm ent grants o f $80 m i l l i o n in 1962, $90 m i l l i o n in 1963, and $100 m i l l i o n f o r each fis c a l y e a r between 1964 and 1 9 6 7 .9 The e a r l y 1960's saw the discontentment o f the Congress w ith the pace a t which water p o l l u t io n con tro l programs was moving. It was f e l t t h a t the s ta te s were not e f f e c t i v e l y handling the w ater p o llu tio n problem, and the P u b lic H ealth S e rv ic e , the Federal Agency responsible f o r a d m in is te rin g the Federal Water P o llu t io n Control A c t, appeared unable to compel them to take the necessary a c tio n . As chairman o f the new ly-created Senate Subcommittee on A i r and Water P o llu tio n , Senator Edmund Muskie introduced amendments to the Act in D Davies, op. c i t . 9I b i d . , p. 32. p. 31. 58 1963, and t h is led to a t r a n s f e r o f the Federal a d m in is t r a t iv e au th o rity f o r the Act from the Public Health Service to a new Federal Water P o llu tio n Control A d m in is tra tio n in the Department o f H ealth Education and W e lfa re . Federal and s t a t e enforcement o f the pro­ visions o f the Act was based on w ater q u a l i t y standards f o r i n t e r ­ state waters. The b i l l passed the Senate by a la rg e m a jo r ity but did not pass the House due to procedural d elays. The Water Q u a lity Act o f 1965 In the 89th Congress, Senator Muskie introduced and the Senate passed a new b i l l on water p o l l u t i o n . passed an amended versio n o f the b i l l . The House o f Representatives The Senate and House versions of the b i l l went to a Conference Committee in A p r il 1965. Following a unanimous approval o f the Conference Report by the Senate and the House on September 21, 1965, P re s id e n t Lyndon Johnson signed the le g is la t io n on October 2, 1 9 6 5 . ^ Each s t a t e had up to one ye a r from the date o f the enactment of the law to f i l e standards f o r i t s a l e t t e r o f i n t e n t to e s ta b lis h w ater q u a l i t y i n t e r s t a t e w a te rs . The S e c re ta ry o f the Department of H ealth , Education and W elfare was a u th o riz e d to review and give approval to the standards. I f a s t a t e did not f i l e the l e t t e r o f i n t e n t and also f a i l e d to e s ta b lis h w ater q u a l i t y standards by the s t ip u ­ lated d a te , the S e c re ta ry o f the Department o f H e a lth , Education and Welfare was empowered to e s ta b lis h standards f o r the s t a t e concerned ^ U n it e d S ta te s , Congressional Record, 89th Cong., 2nd S e s s ., {1965J, CXI, No. 19, 25023-26378. 59 subject to review by a hearing b o a r d .^ The 1965 Act gave the s ta te s an important r o le in s e t t in g and enforcing standards f o r w ater q u a l i t y . However, congressional description o f the Act did not provide enough d e t a i l . The Act simply provided t h a t the standards s h a ll be such as "to p r o te c t the pu blic health or w e lf a r e , enhance the q u a l i t y o f water and serve the pur­ pose of the A c t," ta kin g in to c o n s id e ra tio n the use and value f o r public water supplies p re s e rv a tio n o f f i s h and w i l d l i f e , r e c r e a tio n a l purposes, and a g r i c u l t u r a l , i n d u s t r i a l and o th er l e g it im a t e uses. 12 For th is reason, many years were req u ire d to e s ta b lis h s a t is f a c t o r y standards. N ev e rth e le s s , the concept o f water q u a l i t y standards provided the foundation f o r an e f f e c t i v e na tio n a l s tra te g y f o r water p o llu tio n c o n t r o l. So f a r , the main concern was w ith p o in t sources o f water p o l lu t i o n . The Clean Water R e s to ratio n Act o f 1966 A b i l l was introduced in January 1966 by Senator Muskie and other cosponsors to a u th o riz e $6 b i l l i o n f o r c o n s tru c tio n g ra n ts , and to increase the share o f the Federal Government in the costs o f con­ s tru ctin g waste treatm ent p la n ts . The a d m in is tra tio n submitted r i v a l l e g i s l a t io n aimed a t reducing the c o n s tru c tio n g ra n ts . According to the proposal o f the a d m in is t r a t io n , reg ion al agencies were to be established in selected r i v e r basins. The reg ion al agencies were to S. ^ U . S . , Congress, Public Law 8 9 -2 3 4 , 89th Cong., 1 s t Sess., 4 , Section 5 ( c ) ( 2 ) , October 2 , 1965. S. 12U. S. Congress, P ublic Law 8 9 -2 3 4 , 89th Cong., 4, Section 5 ( c ) ( 3 ) , October 2, 1965. 1st S e s s ., 60 have t h e i r a d m in is tra tiv e expenses paid by the Federal Government, and they were to draw comprehensive plans f o r water p o llu tio n con­ tro l . The b i l l , as introduced by the a d m in is tra tio n , ran in to op­ position in Congress. A fte r some amendments which incorporated most o f Senator Huskie's proposals, the b i l l was signed by the President on November 3, 1966. Between 1967 and 1970, water p o llu tio n l e g i s l a t io n focused on pollution caused by o i l and acid mine drainage, and on research on lake and stream e u tro p h ic a tio n . In 1969, the massive o i l leak from a d r i l l i n g r ig o f f the shore o f Santa Barbara, C a l if o r n i a , re s u ltin g in the p o llu tio n o f beaches, underscored the urgency o f passing a pending water p o llu t io n le g i s l a t io n e n t i t l e d Water Q u a lity Improve­ ment Act. On March 25, 1969, the House Public Works Committee reported, out a b i l l , HR 4148, which covered o i l , vessel, thermal and acid mine drainage p o llu t io n and e u tro p h ic a tio n . b i l l on A p ril 17. Muskie's Committee. The House passed the Further hearings were held on the b i l l by Senator I t reported out a revised version in August, which was passed with some m o d ific a tio n by the Senate in October. The House and Senate B i l l s were sent to a Conference Committee. The Conference Committee reported out a b i l l which was ap­ proved by both houses o f Congress on March 25, 1970, and was signed by the President on A p ril 3. The law held owners of vessels l i a b l e for o i l s p i l l s up to a l i m i t o f $14 m il l i o n . problems were also d e a lt w ith . Thermal p o llu tio n Federal lic e n c e or permit was r e ­ quired fo r construction or operation o f f a c i l i t i e s which might p o llu te 61 navigable w aters. An important condition fo r granting a Federal permit is a s ta te c e r t i f i c a t i o n th a t a f a c i l i t y would not v io l a t e water q u a lity standards. 13 The Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 In the l a t t e r p a rt of 1969, the Congress came under public pressure to take action to improve the performance in a i r and water pollution c o n tr o l. Environmental q u a lit y had become one o f the p r i o r it i e s o f the Republican a d m in is tra tio n . In a special message to Congress on February 10, 1970, President Richard Nixon recom­ mended water p o llu tio n control l e g i s l a t io n which would au th o rize the imposition o f f e d e r a l l y approved e f f l u e n t standards on a l l sources of in d u s tria l and municipal p o llu t io n . Over a seven-month period , the House Committee on Public Works conducted long and in ten sive hearings. S ta r tin g in May 1971, i t held 38 days o f hearings, lis te n e d to 294 witnesses and received 135 additional statements f o r the record. 14 The Senate Public Works Committee reported out a D i l l on October 31, 1971. The Senate b i l l authorized $14 b i l l i o n over a fo u r- year period to finance new construction o f municipal waste treatment plants, and an a d d itio n a l $2.4 b i l l i o n to reimburse states and munic i p a l i t i e s f o r past construction costs. 15 Enforcement o f the law 13 J. Clarence Davies I I I and Barbara S. Davies, The P o l i t i c s o f Pollution (In d ia n a p o lis : Pegasus, 1975), p. 39. 14 U. S ., Congress, House, Committee on Public Works, House Re­ port Number 911, 92nd Cong., 2nd Sess. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing O f f ic e , 1972), p. 6. 15 II. S ., Congress, Senate Report o f the Committee to accompany S. 2770, Report No. 92-414, October 28, 1971. 62 was to be based on a system o f permits. The b i l l passed the Senate. Opposition to the b i l l came from the a d m in is tra tio n which appealed to the House Public Works Committee to reopen i t s hearings for fu r th e r evidence against the Senate p rovisio ns. The adm inistra­ tion wanted to have the funding a u th o riz a tio n reduced. Further hear­ ings were held and the b i l l was passed on March 29, 1972. On May 11, the House and Senate Conferees began to rec o n c ile th e ir respective versions o f the b i l l . A f t e r 40 meetings they agreed on a compromise b i l l which (1 ) declared as national goals 1981 and 1985 deadlines fo r the e lim in a tio n o f water p o llu t io n and (2 ) authorized $24.7 m illio n over three y e a rs . The Conference Report was approved by the House and Senate on October 4 , 1972. On October 17, President Richard Nixon vetoed the b i l l not have enough votes to sustain his veto. voted to o v e rrid e the P re s id e n t's veto. the objections o f the P resident. but did Both House and Senate Thus the b i l l became law over 1 fi The Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 (h e re in a fte r re fe rre d to as the Act) is the most comprehensive measure fo r the p ro te c tio n o f the waters o f the United States ever considered by the Congress. Previous l e g i s l a t i o n on water p o llu tio n control emphasized w ater q u a li t y standards. While the Act deals w ith water q u a lit y standards as well as e f f l u e n t discharges, i t tends to lay emphasis on the l a t t e r . The r e s t o f th is chapter is devoted to an examination o f the provisions o f the Act w ith p a r t ic u l a r reference to Section 208. ^ U n ite d S ta te s , Congressional Record, 92nd Cong., 2nd Sess. (1972), C X V III, No. 29, 37054. 63 Provisions o f Section 208 Place o f Section 208 in the Act The Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 is divided in to f i v e t i t l e s . and subsections. Each t i t l e is f u r t h e r divided in to sections The t i t l e s deal w ith the main components o f the Act as follows: T i t l e I-Research and r e la te d programs; T i t l e II-G r a n ts fo r construction o f treatment works; T i t l e III-S ta n d a r d s and enforcement; T i t l e IV-Perm it and lic e n c e s ; and T i t l e V-General provisions. The two goals o f the Act are stated in T i t l e I : By 1985 the discharge o f p o llu ta n ts in to navigable waters should be elim in ated ; and water q u a lit y should be good enough f o r the p ro te c tio n o f fis h and s h e l l f i s h , w i l d l i f e , and f o r re c re a tio n by 1983. The national policies are the p r o h ib itio n o f discharge o f to x ic p o llu ta n ts , the provision o f Federal fin a n c ia l assistance f o r the construction o f publicly owned water treatment works, the preparation and implementa­ tion o f areawide waste treatment and management plans. These p o lic ie s w ill be supported by research and demonstration e f f o r t sponsored by the Federal Government. abatement is underscored. The res p o n s ib i1i t y o f the States in p o llu tio n The Act appreciates the in te rn a tio n a l significance o f p o llu t io n and authorizes the President o f the United States to cooperate with fo re ig n countries in t h e i r e f f o r t s to prevent, reduce and e lim in a te p o llu tio n in t h e i r , and in in te rn a tio n a l waters. The Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency is the a d m in is tra to r of the Act. Sections 102 and 103 o f the Act deal w ith comprehensive programs for the control o f water p o llu t io n and the enactment o f uniform laws 64 fo r water p o llu t io n control to promote i n t e r s t a t e coo peratio n. The a dm in is tra to r is req uired to e s ta b lis h nation al programs f o r the prevention, re d u c tio n , and e lim in a tio n o f p o ll u t io n . In t h is con­ nection, the a d m in is tra to r is auth o rize d to conduct research and make grants to s ta te s and m u n ic ip a lit ie s f o r the purpose o f researching new and improved methods o f c o n t r o llin g w ater p o ll u t i o n . In order to implement the w ater p o llu t io n con trol programs, the Act gives a u th o r iz a t io n f o r the a p p ro p ria tio n o f sums o f money. Federal, s ta te and lo c a l government f in a n c ia l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s are specified in Section 106 o f the A c t. Sections 107 and 108 deal w ith mine water p o llu t io n o f the Great Lakes. There is p ro v is io n in the Act f o r the t r a i n i n g o f personnel to operate and m aintain treatm ent works. (Section 1 1 1 ). A number o f demonstration p ro je c ts are also authori zed. The purpose o f T i t l e I I o f the Act is to re q u ire s ta te s and m u n ic ip a litie s to prepare and implement waste treatm ent management plans and to develop p ra c tic e s which w i l l achieve the goals o f the Act (Section 2 0 1 ). Such plans are su b ject to the approval o f the A dm inistrator (Sections 2 0 3 ). Section 206 provides f o r p a r t i a l reimbursement o f costs to states and m u n ic ip a lit ie s f o r any approved publicly-ow ned treatm ent works on which c o n s tru c tio n was begun between June 30, 1966 and July 1, 1972. Waste treatm ent management on an areawide basis is covered in Section 208. The purpose o f th is se c tio n is to encourage and f a c i l i t a t e the p re p a ra tio n and implementation o f waste treatm ent management plans. Upon the request o f the Governor, the A d m in is tra to r 65 shall provide te c h n ic a l a ssistan ce in the development o f such manage­ ment plans. Section 208 addressed s p e c i f i c a l l y non-point sources o f water p o l lu t i o n . 208 w i l l The Act s ta te s t h a t any plan prepared under Section include but not be li m i t e d to a process to ( i ) id e n tify , i f app ro priate, a g r i c u l t u r a l l y and s i l v i c u l t u r a l l y r e la t e d non-point sources o f p o l l u t i o n , in c lu d in g ru n o ff from disposal areas and from land used f o r liv e s to c k and crop production, and ( i i ) s e t f o r t h pro­ cedures and methods in c lu d in g land use requirements to con tro l to the e x te n t f e a s ib le such sources, and a process to i d e n t i f y minere la te d sources o f p o l lu t io n and s e t f o r t h procedures and methods to control such sources. In T i t l e III, standards o f w ater q u a l i t y , e f f l u e n t l i m i t a t i o n s , and enforcement o f the Act are covered. The A d m in is tra to r is r e ­ quired to pu blish p e r i o d i c a l l y the c r i t e r i a f o r water q u a l i t y and e f f lu e n t l i m i t a t i o n g u id e lin e s which r e f l e c t the l a t e s t s c i e n t i f i c knowledge and technology. In a d d it io n , the A d m in is tra to r s h a ll from time to time provide g u id e lin e s f o r id e n t i f y i n g and e v a lu a tin g the nature and e x te n t o f non-point sources o f p o llu t a n t s . made f o r w ater q u a l i t y in v e n to ry by a l l P rovisio n is s ta te s and an annual re p o rt in d ic a tin g the statu s o f the q u a l i t y o f navigable waters o f each s ta te is req u ired by the Act (Section 3 0 6 ). lowed in the abatement o f in t e r n a t io n a l Procedures to be f o l ­ p o llu t io n are d e a lt w ith in Section 310. Each s ta te is also required to i d e n t i f y and c l a s s if y a l l publicly-owned fre s h water lakes according to eutroph ic c o n d itio n , and procedures f o r the con trol o f sources o f p o l l u t i o n . Under Section 315, a N ational Study Commission is e s ta b lis h e d to conduct a 66 comprehensive in v e s tig a tio n and study o f a l l aspects o f p o te n tia l impacts r e s u ltin g from achieving or not achieving e f f l u e n t l i m i t a ­ tions and the goal set fo r 1983. P o llu tio n from thermal discharges is treated in Section 316. D etailed procedures governing the a p p lic a tio n f o r and granting of permits and licences are set out under T i t l e IV . The Adm inistra­ tor has the power to issue a permit f o r the discharge o f any p o llu ta n t or combination o f p o llu ta n ts provided such discharge w i l l meet c e r­ tain prescribed requirements. C r i t e r i a f o r ocean discharge o f po llu tan ts, permits fo r dredge and f i l l m a t e r ia l, and disposal of sewage sludge are discussed in Sections 403, 404, and 405. T i t l e V covers general provisions such as r e g u la tio n s , record keeping, p u b lic a tio n in Federal Register and d e f in it io n s . The Admin­ is tr a to r is granted powers to bring s u i t against any water p o ll u t e r , in case o f emergency, notwithstanding any other provision o f the Act (Section 5 04). Section 505 provides th a t any c i t i z e n may commence c i v i l actio n on his own b e h a lf again st any person, including the United States and any o th er governmental agency (to the e x te n t per­ mitted by the eleventh amendment o f the United States C o n s titu tio n ) who is alleged to be in v i o l a t i o n o f an e f f lu e n t standard or l i m i t a ­ tio n . The A d m inistrator is required to submit to each session of Congress a re p o rt on measures taken in the process o f a t ta in in g the goals o f the Act. Rationale o f the 208 Program Section 208 o f the Act t ie s together the various Federal water p o llu tio n abatement requirements, and places the r e s p o n s ib ility fo r 67 planning and implementing areawide waste treatm ent management plans on regional and lo c a l agencies. The Congress was guided by c e r t a in p rin c ip le s in c re a tin g Section 2 0 8 .^ 7 F i r s t , water q u a l i t y protec­ tion in a la rg e country such as the United S ta te s , raises complex technical and i n s t i t u t i o n a l problems which vary w idely across the nation. Solutions to these problems n e c e s s a rily re q u ire a long time and d e c e n tra liz e d system o f management. Fu ll involvement o f s ta te and lo c a l le v e ls o f government in 208 planning process was considered imperative f o r success. The need f o r a d e c e n tr a liz e d system o f management is supported by the f a c t t h a t th e re are te c h n ic a l obstacles to the a tta in m e n t o f uniform requirem ents. A recen t re p o r t o f the Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency to Congress discloses the fo llo w in g about the n a tio n 's water q u a lit y problems: P o llu t io n e x is ts in 3,300 water segments o f varying lengths and a re a s , in the 56 s ta te s and t e r r i t o r i e s r e p o r tin g . About h a l f o f the segments are so h e a v ily p o llu te d t h a t dischargers located on them w i l l be re q u ire d to go beyond base le v e l co n tro ls r e ­ quired by 1977 to enable water q u a l i t y standards to be m e tJ S This means t h a t a f t e r applying base le v e ls o f p o llu t io n control fo r p o in t sources, th e re w i l l s t i l l be places where higher le v e ls o f abatement w i l l be re q u ire d to meet water q u a li t y goals o f f is h a b le 17U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, G uidelines f o r Areawide Waste Treatment Management Planning (Washington: Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, August 1 9 7 5 ), p. i i . 1R U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, O f f ic e o f Water Planning and Standards, N ational Water Q u a lity I n v e n t o r y - ! 974 Report to Congress (Washington: Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, 1974), pp. 1 -3 . 68 and swimmable w aters. 19 Furthermore, the water q u a lit y problems are not e n t i r e l y due to p o in t sources such as in d u s t r ia l and municipal discharges but also due to r u n o ff from both urban and ru ra l areas. This indicates th a t uniform national requirements f o r abating p o llu tio n from in d u s tr ia l and municipal sources would be i n s u f f i c i e n t in many areas to meet water q u a lit y standards because even a f t e r high le v e ls of treatment f o r the po int sources o f p o llu t io n , non-point sources o f p o llu tio n would cause problems. In s t i t u t i o n a l c o n s tra in ts also m i l i t a t e again st uniform r e ­ quirements. The most obvious i n s t i t u t i o n a l problem is the fragmentation of waste treatm ent management agencies. There are no simple solutions to th is problem but i t is c le a r th a t economies o f scale can be achieved through the enlargement o f treatment plants and service areas. On the other hand waste treatm ent on a regional scale requires a careful con­ s id e ra tio n o f regional growth patterns and p o lic ie s o f a ffe c te d j u r i s ­ d ic tio n s . This raises the o v e ra ll question o f how decisions made about sewer service w i l l a f f e c t growth, which in turn a f fe c t s water q u a lity not only through sewage generation but also increased p o llu tio n from urban ru n o ff. F i n a l l y , u n t il r e c e n tly , the in s t i t u t i o n a l questions ^ U . S . , Congress, Public Law 92-500, Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 3 0 1 (b ). For municipal sources, secondary treatm ent is required by July 1, 1977 and Best P ra c tic a b le Waste Treatment Technology is required by July 1, 1983. For in d u s tria l sources, Best P r a c tic a l Technology is required by July 1, 1977 and Best A v a ila b le Technology is required by July 1, 1983. 69 raised by the necessity to manage p o llu tio n from non-point sources have hardly been considered in the water programs o f th is n a tio n . 20 Second, sound ecosystem management is an important premise o f the Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972. Basi­ c a lly the concept o f ecosystem management recognizes th a t man's a c t i v i t i e s cycle resources, re tu rn in g them to the environment in an a lte re d s t a t e , and expending energy in the process. 21 Man's misuse o f natural resources has led to many environmental problems. There is a close r e la tio n s h ip between resource use and the generation of p o llu ta n ts . I f many o f the complex p o llu t io n problems are to be solved, i t w i l l be necessary to apply the concept o f sound ecosystem management as opposed to the more t r a d i t i o n a l water p o llu tio n abate­ ment. E f f i c i e n t ecosystem management implies the f u l l use o f r e ­ sources to the b e n e fit o f man, and a t the same time retu rn in g r e ­ sources (re s id u a ls ) to the environment w ith the le a s t possible d is ­ turbance to ecological systems. Resource use is viewed in the context of a t o t a l process by which resources and p o llu tin g by-products are cycled. T h ird , much o f the legal a u th o rity and fin a n c ia l commitment required f o r the s o lu tio n o f water q u a lit y problems rests with local on Joseph W iley, "Rationale o f the 208 Program-Decentralized Management to Solve Complex Water Q u a lity Problems," (This paper is based on a speech d e liv e re d by Mark Pisano, D ire c to r o f Water Plan­ ning D iv is io n , U. S. Environmental P rotectio n Agency, a t ASPO Con­ ference, Vancouver, B r i t i s h Columbia, A p ril 15, 1975). oi Howard T. Odum, "Energetics o f World Food Production," Readings on Ecological Systems: T h e ir Function and Relation to Man, ed. A r ie l E. Lugo and Samuel C. Snedaker (New York: MSS Educational Publishing Company, 1 9 7 1 ), pp. 252-80. 70 government. This im p lie s t h a t Section 208 programs w i l l re q u ire a new l e g i s l a t i o n f o r w a te r q u a l i t y c o n tro l a t the lo c a l le v e l which makes the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the p u b lic and l o c a l l y e le c te d o f f i c i a l s a p r e r e q u is ite f o r success. Fis c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is r e la t e d to local and p u b lic involvement in 208 programs. The p ro v is io n o f s e r ­ vices such as sewage tre a tm e n t and p r o te c tio n o f w ater supply and water uses, and the c o o rd in a tio n o f these services w ith o th er com­ munity services are i n t i m a t e ly r e la t e d to the f i s c a l v i a b i l i t y o f the community. Goals and P o lic ie s As a n a tio n a l g o a l, the Federal Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 aims a t preventing the p o llu t io n o f navigable waters caused by the discharge o f p o llu ta n ts by 1985. An in te rim goal s e t f o r 1983 i s to achieve w ater q u a l i t y which is safe f o r r e c r e a tio n a l use and which p ro te c ts f i s h and w i l d l i f e . 22 I t is the n a tio n a l p o lic y to p r o h i b i t the discharge o f p o l­ lu ta n ts in to x ic amounts. Federal funds w i l l be provided f o r the c o n s tru c tio n o f tre a tm e n t works owned by the p u b lic . In each s t a t e , areawide waste tre a tm e n t planning and management processes w i l l be developed and implemented. The s ta te s w i l l r e t a in t h e i r r ig h t s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in the e lim in a t io n o f w ater p o llu t io n and in the p re p a ra tio n o f plans f o r the development and use o f land and w ater resources. P ro v is io n is made f o r p u b lic p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the 22U. S . , Congress, Public Law 9 2 -5 0 0 , Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 1 0 1 (a ) , 92nd Congress, S. 2770, October 18, 1972. 71 development, r e v is io n , and enforcement o f reg ulation s meant to protect water q u a l i t y . I t is also the p o lic y o f Congress to ensure that the P re s id e n t, acting through the Secretary o f State and other in te rn a tio n a l o rg a n iza tio n s , w i l l encourage fore ig h countries to take meaningful a c tio n to prevent and e lim in a te p o llu tio n in t h e i r waters and in in te rn a tio n a l waters. Planning Process f o r Waste Treatment Management The purpose o f Section 208 o f the Act is to encourage and f a c i l i t a t e the development and implementation o f areawide waste treatment management plans in areas which, as a r e s u lt o f urban and in d u s tria l concentrations and other f a c t o r s , have sub s ta n tia l water q u a lity control problems. The Section 208 program is unique be­ cause s ta te and local governments must prepare a plan and also make a commitment to implement the proposals o f the plan in order to meet the 1983 water q u a lit y standards. Furthermore, Section 208 is the most p o s itiv e statement on the need to i d e n t i f y and develop programs to solve water p o llu tio n problems a r is in g from non-point sources. 23 On the basis o f guidelines provided by the a d m in is tra to r of the A ct, the Governor o f each s ta te or the c h ie f ele c te d o f f i c i a l s of local governments s h a ll designate areas and a s in g le re p re s e n ta tiv e organization to develop an areawide waste treatment management plan fo r such areas. Where an area l i e s in two s ta te s , the Governors o f the resp ective states s hall cooperate in c a rry in g out the provisions 23U. S ., Congress, Public Law 92-500, Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 2 0 8 ( b ) ( 2 ) ( F - I ). 72 requiring the designation o f the areas. 24 The s ta te shall a c t as the planning agency fo r areas which are not designated. A ll designa­ tions s hall be subject to the approval o f the Environmental P rotectio n Agency. The designations which the Governor submits to the Environ­ mental P rotectio n Agency must be accompanied by formally-adopted resolutions which show th a t local governments involved w i l l jo in together to develop and implement a plan which w i l l r e s u lt in a co­ ordinated waste treatm ent management system fo r the area. Plans prepared in accordance w ith the waste treatment planning process s hall contain a lte r n a t iv e s fo r waste treatment and management and s hall be a p p lic a b le to a l l area invo lved. 25 types o f waste generated w ith in the Any plan prepared under Section 208 shall id e n t if y treatment works to meet the waste treatment needs o f m u n ic ip a litie s and in d u s trie s in the area. Agencies f o r the con struction , operation and maintenance o f f a c i l i t i e s w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d . A process fo r id e n tify in g non-point sources o f p o llu ta n ts from a g r ic u lt u r e , f o r e s t r y , construction, mining and o th er a c t i v i t i e s w i l l be evolved. The plan w ill specify procedures and methods, including land use c o n tr o l, fo r managing such sources. 2V S . , Congress, Public Law 9 2-500, Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 2 0 8 ( a ) ( 3 ) . 25 U. S ., Congress, Public Law, Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendemtns o f 1972, Section 2 0 8 ( b ) ( 1 ) . 73 Technical and Management Planning Needs. Since the aim o f the 208 planning process is to form u late an areawide waste treatm ent plan t h a t can be implemented by a management agency or agencies, te ch n ic a l and management needs must be recognized and in te g r a te d in to the p la n ­ ning process. The te ch n ic a l p o rtio n o f the planning process concen­ tra te s on id e n t if y in g p r i o r i t i e s in w a te r q u a l it y problems o f the area, reco gn izing c o n s tra in ts in s o lv in g the problems, and developing a lte r n a t iv e s to achieve w ater q u a l i t y goals. To be conducted sim ultaneously w ith tech n ic a l planning is management plan nin g. The various components o f the plan are geared to implementation and hinge upon the development o f an e f f e c t i v e management plan f o r t h e i r e x e c u tio n . Management planning i d e n t i f i e s e x is tin g water q u a l i t y management problems such as lack o f a u t h o r it y fo r c o n t r o l l i n g res id u a l wastes in a given a re a . Bottlenecks in devising an e f f e c t i v e management approach must be i d e n t i f i e d . On the basis o f a management a n a ly s is , a l t e r n a t i v e systems f o r e f f e c t i v e water q u a l i t y management are fo rm u la te d . evaluated in terms o f t h e i r f e a s i b i l i t y The a l t e r n a t i v e s are in implementing a tech n ic a l plan. The Act provides f o r "the establishm ent o f a re g u la to ry program to re g u la te the lo c a t i o n , m o d ific a tio n and c o n s tru c tio n o f any f a c i l i t i e s w ith in such area which may r e s u l t in any discharge . . . ." 26 This provides a u t h o r it y f o r the management agency to r e g u la te the lo c a U. S . , Congress, Public Law, Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 2 0 8 ( b ) ( 2 ) { C ) ( i i ) . 74 tio n o f new p o llu t a n t dischargers by determ ining the lo c a tio n o f municipal treatm ent f a c i l i t i e s , con trol o f o th er p o llu t a n t sources, and by seeking a p p ro p ria te changes in land use plans and c o n tro ls from the agencies possessing land use j u r i s d i c t i o n in the a re a . The Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency has in d ic a te d t h a t 208 planning must r e l a t e to areawide and lo c a l land use p o lic ie s and plans. I f e x is t in g land use plans w i l l not i n t e r f e r e w ith the achievement o f w ater q u a l i t y standards, th e re is no mandatory r e q u ir e ­ ment f o r changing such p lan s. fo r 208 planning. In f a c t , they may be used as a basis The Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency stresses the need f o r meaningful land use plans throughout the designated a re a . Im plem entation. The implementation o f a 208 plan w i l l 27 be undertaken by waste treatm ent management agencies (which may be e x is tin g or newly c r e a t e d ) . It is p a r t o f the planning fu n c tio n to ensure t h a t the agency has the proper le g a l a u t h o r i t y to perform i t s tasks. The costs associated w ith a 208 program are d iv id e d in t o fo u r categ ories: t r a d i t i o n a l resource c o s ts , s o c ia l c o s ts , environmental costs, and economic co s ts . These costs are s p e lle d out in g r e a te r d e t a i l in the Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency g u id e lin e s . 28 The question o f cost e ffe c tiv e n e s s is measured by the a tta in m e n t o f the 1983 water q u a l i t y go als. 27 U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, D r a ft G uidelines f o r State and Areawide Water Q u a lity Management Program Development (Washington: Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Feb. 1 9 7 6 ), p. 6-2 2 8 I b i d . , pp. 11-1 to 1 1 -7 . n 75 Applications which meet the Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency c r i t e r i a w i l l be funded by the a d m in is tra to r. The Agency has f u l l au th o rity to use a l l monies provided in the Act as fo llo w s : $50 m illio n in the f is c a l y e a r 1973, $100 m illio n in the f is c a l year 1974, and $150 m ill i o n in the f i s c a l year 1975. The Environmental Protection Agency derives i t s a u t h o r it y from the fo llo w in g : The amount granted to any agency under paragraph (1 ) o f th is subsection s hall be 100 per centum o f the costs o f developing and operating a continuing area-w ide waste treatment management planning process under subsection ( b ) o f th is section f o r each o f the f is c a l years ending on June 30, 1973, June 30, 1974 and June 30, 1975 and s hall not exceed 75 per centum o f such costs in each succeeding f i s c a l y e a r . 29 A fte r the f i s c a l year ending on June 30, 1975, the s ta te and local governments concerned w i l l have to bear 25 percent o f the cost o f implementing a 208 plan. Public and P riv a te Involvement The s t a t e designates 208 planning areas, reviews 208 grant ap­ p lic a tio n s , and gives approval and c e r t i f i c a t i o n to plan on an annual basis. The s ta te is also responsible f o r e s ta b lis h in g the water q u a lity o b je c tiv e s con sisten t w ith the app ro priate 303 Basin Manage­ ment Plan and the w ater p o llu t io n control goals o f 1983. I f the agency f o r a 208 planning area submits a plan to the state f o r approval and the s ta te does not approve i t because i t is incompatible w ith the s ta te basin p la n , the 208 agency is required by law to amend i t s plan to comply w ith the s t a t e 's provisio ns. However, a s t a t e 's decision not to c e r t i f y an agency plan can be overridden 29 U. S . , Congress, Public Law 92-500, Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 2 0 8 ( f ) ( 3 ) . 76 by the Environmental P rotectio n Agency admonistrator or the regional adm inistrator o f the Environmental P rotectio n Agency. The 208 program determines who makes water q u a lit y decisions which a f f e c t growth and land use and who implements the decisions. The program emphasizes c o lla b o ra tio n among governments to solve areawide problems. I f a s ta te does not desig nate, i t w i l l have to under­ take areawide planning w ithout the advantage o f 208 funding from the Federal Government. State water q u a l i t y decisions w i l l have a s ig n ific a n t impact on the growth and development o f communities under the ju r i s d i c t i o n o f local governments. Since the optimum degree o f public involvement w i l l usu ally not occur spontaneously, simply providing inform ation to those who ask f o r i t is not adequate. An a c tiv e program is needed to seek out and encourage those who can provide inputs as well as those who w i l l be a ffe c te d by the plan. The 208 program should be responsive to a l l in te re s te d c it i z e n s . P a r tic ip a tio n in planning should not be dominated by any one in t e r e s t group or in d iv id u a l. 30 This can best be done by including w ithout exception in m a ilin g s , n o t i f i c a t i o n s , e t c . , a l l p a r tie s who express in te re s t in the planning process or who have been involved in com­ munity issues r e la te d to water q u a l i t y planning and management. 30 U. S, Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Water Planning D iv is io n , Draft Guidelines f o r State and Areawide Water Q u a lity Management Program Development (Washington: E .P .A ., Feb. 1976), p. 4 - 5 . 77 Relationship between 208 program and oth er programs 208 Plan and 303 Basin P lan. Section 303 basin plans provide water q u a lit y standards and goals, d e fin e c r i t i c a l water q u a lity conditions, and provide waste load c o n s tra in ts . The 303 plans are prepared by the s ta te and c o n s titu te the o v e ra ll framework w ith in which 208 plans are developed f o r s p e c ific portions o f the basin. The 208 areawide plan selects load a llo c a tio n s and ta r g e t dates de­ fined by the s ta te in a p a r t ic u l a r area and attempts to fin d the most reasonable way o f achieving these goals. Section 208 plans w i l l form an in te g r a l p a r t o f the basin plans, and must be c e r t i f i e d annually by the Governor as being con sisten t w ith approved basin plans. Section 208 Planning and 201 F a c i l i t i e s Planning. P r e li mi nary design portions o f plans and studies r e la te d to actual construction of publicly-owned waste treatment works are covered under section 201 f a c i l i t i e s plans. F a c i l i t i e s plans are intended to assure develop­ ment o f cost e f f e c t i v e and environm entally sound local waste t r e a t ­ ment systems. In essence, f a c i l i t i e s plans are lim ite d to the abatement o f p o llu tio n from point sources and those in d u s trie s served or to be served by waste treatm ent systems. Section 208 and 201 f a c i l i t i e s c u rre n tly . plans can be implemented con­ Features included in the approved 201 f a c i l i t i e s plans should be incorporated in 208 plans. serve as the f a c i l i t i e s U ltim a te ly the 208 plan w i l l plan f o r the designated area. 208 Plans and the National P o llu ta n t Discharge E lim in a tio n System Permit Program. The Section 402 permit program is designed to ensure t h a t discharges do not exceed prescribed standards. A 78 permit w i l l provide the e s s e n tia l tool f o r implementing a 208 plan. No permit may be issued f o r point sources which are in c o n f l i c t with approved 208 plans, since such plans become a p a rt o f the general 303 basin plan. 208 Programs and Federal Programs. The r e la tio n s h ip between Section 208 and other Federal programs is in the embryonic stage. The ensuing discussion covers Federal programs r e la t in g to water q u a lity management. The o b je c tiv e is to provide designated 208 areas with the opportunity to maximize the use o f a v a ila b le assistance in accomplishing an areawide water q u a l i t y program. The Department o f Housing and Urban Development (HUD) 701 com­ prehensive planning funding program may prove to be a worthwhile planning input in to 208 areawide planning. The HUD re c e n tly entered into an interagency agreement which provides f o r coordination between 701 land use aspects and 208 planning. The agreement encourages the use o f HUD 701 funds f o r land use plans to reg u la te growth, in keeping with 208 land use control o b je c tiv e s . 31 Under wastewater management, the Environmental P rotectio n Agency's s tate and local Manpower Development Program provides tr a in in g f o r local operators o f waste treatm ent f a c i l i t i e s treatment technology. water treatment p la n ts . in advanced wastewater Two other Federal programs help to fund waste­ Loans to small businesses under the Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments of 1972 is a low in t e r e s t loan 31 U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Water Planning D iv is io n , Federal Programs Impacting Regional Water Q u a lity Management (A D ra ft Report prepared f o r the Miami V a lle y Regional Planning Commission, January 1976), p. 2. 79 program adm inistered by the Small Business A d m in is tra tio n . I t pro­ vides loans to small businesses f o r the c o n s tru c tio n o f waste t r e a t ­ ment f a c i l i t i e s f o r in d u s t r i a l wastes. Water and Waste Disposal Systems f o r Rural Communities is a ls o a low i n t e r e s t loan program administered by the Farmers Home A d m in is tra tio n . By means o f th is program r u r a l communities are given a s s is ta n ce to meet the 25 percent local share re q u ire d f o r funding under 201 waste treatm ent f a c i l i t i e s grants program. The N atio n al Flood Insurance Program adm inistered by the De­ partment o f Housing and Urban Development deals w ith flo o d p la in management. The program issues insurance to owners o f newly con­ structed and e x is t in g s tru c tu re s and i t req uires t h a t lo c a l com­ munities impose s t r i c t land use c o n tro ls on development in flo o d p la in s . This includes requirements f o r proper s i t i n g and f lo o d - proofing o f wastewater treatm ent f a c i l i t i e s constructed on flo od p la in s . Through the Watershed P ro te c tio n and Flood Prevention Program the Soil Conservation Service provides te ch n ic a l a ssistan ce to land owners. There are many Federal programs which can c o n tr ib u te to the a l l e v i a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l r u n o ff and o th er forms o f w ater p o l l u t i o n . These c o n tr ib u tio n s take the form o f te c h n ic a l a s s is ta n c e , grants and loans to r u r a l landowners and p u b lic bodies. The p e r t in e n t pro­ grams and t h e i r a d m in is te rin g agencies are presented on the f o llo w ­ ing page. 80 Program Administering Agency Soil and Water Conservation Soil Conservation Service technical assistance Soil Survey Soil Conservation Service Soil and Water Loans Farmers Home A d m inistration Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Soil Conservation Service technical assistance Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Loans Farmers Home A d m inistration I r r i g a t i o n , Drainage and Other Soil and Water Conservation Loans Farmers Home A dm inistration Water Bank Program A g ric u ltu r a l S t a b i l i z a t i o n and Conservation Service Grants A g ric u ltu ra l Conservation Program A g ric u ltu r a l S t a b i l i z a t i o n and Conservation Service Grants Resource Conservation and Development Loans Farmers Home A d m inistration SOURCE: U. S. Environmental P rotectio n Agency, Water Planning D iv is io n , Federal Programs Impacting Regional Water Q u a lity Manage­ ment ( D r a f t Report prepared fo r the Miami V a lle y Regional Planning Commission, January, 1976), p. 4. The present Federal commitment to s o lid waste management is minimal. The Environmental P rotectio n Agency's So lid Waste Technical Assistance, T ra in in g and Inform ation Services provide assistance to public a u th o r itie s and agencies in solving the s o lid waste environ­ mental problems. Through i t s Resource Conservation and Development Program, the Farmers Home A d m inistration makes loans a v a ila b le to rural landowners f o r waste treatment f a c i l i t i e s , and in c in e ra to r s . including l a n d f i l l s 81 An inp ut in to the control o f sediment erosion on highway con­ s tru ctio n is provided by the Federal Highway A d m inistration o f the U. S. Department o f Transportation through regulations in i t s Federal Aid Highway Programs Manual. These are the reg ulation s which s ta te highway departments must adhere to during the construc­ tion o f any highway using Federal funds. A-95 Review. In accordance w ith the O ffic e o f Management and Budget C ir c u la r A-95 Revised, dated November 13, 1973, a l l app licants under Federal programs which provide assistance to s t a t e , local and areawide p ro je c ts and a c t i v i t i e s planned on m u lt i j u r is d i c t i o n a l basis must n o t if y the app ro priate s ta te and areawide planning and develop­ ment c le a rin g house f o r review and comment. The proposed a p p lic a tio n w ill be reviewed f o r i t s consistency w ith areawide plans including comprehensive planning, environmental concerns, w ater supply and d is t r ib u t io n systems, sewage f a c i l i t i e s and waste treatment works, and land use. In most cases, e it h e r a regional planning agency or the Council o f Governments serves as the regional c le a rin g house, and as mentioned above, may be u t i l i z e d as the areawide planning agency under Section 208. Planning Im p lic a tio n s Planning is conceived as a continuous process which embraces plan preparation and plan implementation. In th is respect some as­ pects o f planning were c a rr ie d out by various agencies in th is country long before the ambitious requirements o f Section 208 became law in 1972. In some cases, Section 208 makes provision f o r the employment of e x is tin g prac tic e s to achieve the goal o f the A ct; in other 82 respects, d r a s tic changes are re q u ire d . The im p lic a tio n s o f Section 208 f o r planning are discussed below. Areawide/Regional Approach to Planning. P r io r to the 1972 Amendments, Federal programs r e l i e d very h e a v ily on independent actions by various j u r i s d i c t i o n s to abate w ater p o llu t io n . Regional approaches to the s o lu tio n o f water q u a lit y problems were r a r e ly encouraged. Section 208 is problem -oriented. p o llu tio n is viewed in i t s t o t a l i t y . In th is l e g i s l a t i o n , water Water p o llu tio n problems do not respect j u r i s d i c t i o n a l boundaries, e s p e c ia lly when non-point sources of p o llu tio n are considered. The A c t, th e r e fo re , d ir e c ts t h a t as much as po ss ib le , 208 planning is to be done on an areawide or regional basis. However, planning on a regional basis in an area o f w e l l - established local u n its o f government rais e s some questions. s i g n i f i c a n t problem is how to re c o n c ile the in te re s ts o f a l l One the local governments in order to achieve the goal o f the Act. Intergovernmental Cooperation. In a designated a re a , f e d e r a l, s t a t e , and local le v e ls o f government may have programs which are p e rtin e n t to w ater q u a l i t y . For example, a u th o r ity fo r s e tt in g water q u a lity standards is vested in the Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency and the s t a te s ; con struction planning r e s p o n s ib ilit y is given to the m etropolitan government; and land use control powers are vested in local governments. Since decisions taken by the various le v e ls o f government have some impact on w ater q u a l i t y , i t is necessary to fin d a way to make t h e i r programs compatible with one another, and a t the same time make them serve the purposes o f the Act. This suggests th a t no planning agency f o r a designated area should operate in i s o la t i o n . 83 I t must recognize the important c o n trib u tio n which e x is tin g agencies can make to the planning process, and to design planning and d e c is io n ­ making processes th a t coordinate the varying r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s as the 208 plan unfolds. The need f o r c o o rd in a tio n — h o r iz o n t a lly and v e r t i c a l l y — is brought in to sharp focus. The purpose o f t h is co­ ordination is to e lim in a te unnecessary and avoidable d u p lic a tio n of e f f o r t , and thereby pool resources f o r the e f f e c t i v e s o lu tio n o f water q u a lity problems found in the designated area. Water Q u a lity as one o f many g o a ls . The o b je c tiv e o f Section 208 is to determine ways to a t t a i n the w ater q u a li t y goal f o r 1983 as stated in the A ct. Many considerations are required f o r the achieve­ ment o f th is g o al. Processes which generate p o llu ta n ts from both point and non-point sources m e r it examination. In th is connection, land uses are re le v a n t to water q u a lit y d eterm ination . Section 208 is not a land use program but i t does have a d e f i n i t e r e la tio n s h ip to land use. Land use can th e re fo re be expected to receive serious a tte n tio n in a 208 plan. Related to land use is the complex question of resource u t i l i z a t i o n . Section 208 w i l l undoubtedly provide impetus to e x is tin g public and p r iv a te e f f o r t s made to ensure th a t decisions on land and o th er resources a c c u ra te ly r e f l e c t the long term needs of the p u b lic . However, public decisions on resource use are i n ­ fluenced by many public g o als, and water q u a l i t y should be regarded as only one o f the important goals. This im plies th a t the weight assigned to w ater q u a l it y as a goal should be weighed again st the other public goals. 84 Planning and Management Agencies. The Section 208 l e g i s l a t i o n f u l l y recognizes the need to prepare a plan and to manage or implement it s proposals. The Act req u ire s t h a t The Governor in each s t a t e in c o n s u lta tio n w ith the planning agency designated under subsection ( a ) o f t h is s e c tio n , a t the time a plan is submitted to the A d m in is tra to r, s h a ll designate one o r more waste treatm ent management agencies . . . f o r each area designated under subsection (a ) o f t h is sec tio n and submit such d e s ig n a tio n to the A d m in is t r a t o r .32 However, the s p l i t between planning and management presents the c h a l­ lenge o f e s ta b lis h in g a strong and fu n c tio n a l r e la t io n s h i p between the planning agency and the management agency/agencies. p o llu tio n problems w i l l A l l water not be solved by the f i r s t plan prepared by the planning agency and a l l necessary management are not l i k e l y to be vested in a s in g le sewer agency. Planning should th e r e fo re be r e ­ garded as a continuous process which receives feedback from im ple­ mentation o r management a t s p e c i f ic tim es. Planning and management should be i n e x t r i c a b l y in t e r t w in e d . In te r p r o fe s s io n a l R e la tio n s . The abatement o f w ater p o llu t io n has many fa c e ts which r e q u ire the special knowledge o f many d i f f e r e n t p ro fe s s io n a ls . cooperation. This presents the challen ge o f in te rp ro fe s s io n a l T r a d i t i o n a l l y , s o lu tio n s to w ater p o l lu t io n problems have been the province o f c i v i l and s a n it a r y engineers. W ith in the large c o n te x t o f w ater resource and environmental management, other professionals such as the p la n n e r, the p u b lic a d m in is t r a t o r , the e c o lo g is t and the lawyer a re needed. The task is one o f deciding on the complementary ro le s o f and r e la t io n s h i p among the p ro fe s s io n a ls to ^ U . S . , Congress, Public Law 9 2 -5 0 0 , Federal Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 2 0 8 ( c ) ( 1 ) , 92nd Congress, S. 2770, October 18, 1972. n 85 serve on the s t a f f o f the planning agency. must work together as a team. The group o f professionals Although the 208 plan is to be prepared by a planning agency, the l a t t e r needs inputs from many concerned c itiz e n s and professional people outside i t s reg u la r s t a f f . Section 208 o f the Act afforded a l l states and local governments the opportunity to ta c k le t h e i r water p o llu tio n problems more e f ­ fe c t iv e ly than they had ever done. But s ta te designation o f planning areas did not proceed as q u ickly as was expected in the i n i t i a l stages, u n til the Natural Resources Defence Council sued the Environmental Protection Agency over the issue o f funding fo r s ta te 208 programs. 33 The court decision, which established complete s ta te r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r 208 planning areas outside designated areas w ith in the s t a t e , accelerated the r a te of gubernatorial designations. By the end o f the fin a n c ia l y e a r, 1975, a t o t a l o f 149 planning agencies had been designated.34 One o f those agencies was the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission. The ensuing chapter discusses the 208 planning approach o f t h is planning agency. Summary The f i r s t Federal le g i s l a t i o n d ire c te d s p e c i f i c a l l y to water p o llu tio n was the Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1948. It s purpose was to p ro te c t public h e a lth . The Act was amended in 1956 to f a c i l i t a t e Federal enforcement o f water q u a l i t y standards. 33 Natural Resources Defence Council e t a l . v. T r a in , e t a l . , 396 F. Supp. 1386 (D. D. C ., 1975). 34U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, National P r o f i l e o f Section 208 Areawide Management Planning Agencies (Washington: Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, 1975), p. 3. 86 Water p o llu tio n l e g i s l a t io n in the 1960's focused on the e s ta b lis h ­ ment o f water q u a l i t y standards by states and p o llu tio n from o i l and acid mine drainage. Following a review o f a l l le g i s l a t io n on water p o llu tio n which began in 1969, the U. S. Congress enacted the Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, which aims a t preventing p o llu tio n of navigable waters o f the nation by 1985. I t s interm ediate goal fo r 1983 is to achieve water q u a lit y which is safe fo r re c re a tio n a l use and which protects fis h and w i l d l i f e . Section 208 o f the Act deals s p e c i f i c a l l y with non-point sources of water p o llu t io n . The 208 planning process involved the designation of a planning a re a , a planning agency, and management agency/ies by the governor or the c h ie f elected rep resen tatives o f the s t a t e . The planning agency s hall prepare a 208 plan which contains a lte r n a t iv e s for waste treatment and management, and shall be a p p lic a b le to a l l types o f waste generated w ith in the planning area. form an in te g r a l p a rt o f the Section 303 basin plan. The 208 plan shall I t s hall also have a close r e la tio n s h ip w ith 201 f a c i l i t i e s planning, the 402 permit program and the oth er federal programs. Section 208 le g i s l a t io n emphasizes the need to coordinate plan­ ning e f fo r t s by d i f f e r e n t agencies, and to re c o n c ile water q u a lit y goals with community goals. I t also rais e s the question o f fun ction al relation ship s between the planning agency and management agen cy/ies, and the complementary roles o f various professionals engaged in Section 208 plan p re p a ra tio n . The discussion o f Section 208 l e g i s ­ la tio n has provided the necessary background inform ation fo r making 87 an assessment, in Chapter 5, o f the approach to 208 planning by the Tri-County Regional Planning Comnission. CHAPTER 4 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR CONTROLLING WATER POLLUTION The issue o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements f o r areawide waste treatment management planning is im portant in connection w ith i t s impact on t r a d i t i o n a l s t a t e and lo c a l Two major concerns a re : i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e la t io n s h ip s . (1 ) whether or not t r a d i t i o n a l powers o f e ith e r s t a t e or lo c a l governments w i l l be weakened through a s h i f t in a u th o rity between the le v e ls o f government as a r e s u l t o f Section 208 requirem ents; (2 ) whether Section 208 o f the Act would n e c e s s ita te the c re a tio n o f a new in te rm e d ia te le v e l o f government t h a t would r a d ic a lly change t r a d i t i o n a l r e la t io n s h ip s . Section 208 o f the Act is not in t e r p r e t e d as a mechanism to reorganize s t a t e and lo c a l government by the Environmental P ro te c tio n AgencyJ One im portant consequence o f areawide waste treatm ent plan­ ning and management w i l l be increased cooperation between s t a t e and local governments, and among lo c a l governments in m atters concerning water q u a l i t y . Each le v e l o f government has a v i t a l r o le to f u l f i l l in 208 planning and management in ord e r to achieve the 1983 goal o f 1U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Executive Summary o f Section 208 Program f o r Designated Areas (Washington: Environmental Pro tectio n Agency, 1 9 7 4 ), p. 6. 88 89 the A ct. Radical changes in t r a d i t i o n a l 2 not re q u ire d . powers and r e la tio n s h ip s are However, much o f the success o f 208 planning w i l l depend on how the designated planning agency and management agency/ies discharge t h e ir r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . This chapter discusses 208 planning in the Tri-County Region w ith emphasis on approaches to planning and manage­ ment being follow ed by the designated agency (T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission) and w ith a view to making recommendations f o r the fu tu r e d i r e c t i o n o f areawide waste treatm ent planning in the reg ion . The T ri-C o u n ty Region The T ri-C o u n ty Region is one o f the 13 s t a t e planning regions in Michigan. I t comprises the counties o f C lin t o n , Eaton and Ingham. The region is located in the s o u th -c e n tra l p a r t o f the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, (See Figure 4 ) and i t covers an area o f 1,697 square 3 m iles. I t s po pu latio n in 1970 was 3 7 8 ,4 23 . Drainage The Grand R iv e r , one o f M ich igan’ s la r g e s t r i v e r s , flows through the c e n tra l p o rtio n o f the T ri-C o u n ty Region. (or Watershed) encompasses most o f the re g io n . The Grand R iv e r Basin South-west Eaton County and the extreme s o u th -ea s t corner o f Ingham County are not p a rt of the Grand R iv e r Basin. (See Figure 5 ) . 2I b i d . 3 U. S. Department o f Commerce, Bureau o f the Census, United States Census o f Population: 1970, General Population C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , Michigan, P c ( l ) - B 2 4 , pp. 178-80. 90 lake Superior I ftliMA IRM Hu »***‘"Mc m ' m **1' 0** » il(MR *otee*r W»me***'••• >»•*** VaWi7Atthtc mi. f*0 ■f i t Ilf.CLtr* E S S T R I - C O U N T Y REGION t ViloM, 25 50 75 SCALE IN MILES tJ U U M f.” C A L M iiM **< ■ » •« Figure 4, Map o f Michigan showing the Tri-C ounty Region * * * * * CLINTON i cb*j*/£ 1JKW , EATON TRI-COUNTY REGION ING\HAM GRAND RIVER WATERSHED 20 =fc= 30 =1 SCALE IN MILES L N Figure 5. The Tri-County Region in the Grand River Watershed u 92 I t was a t the confluence o f the Grand R iver and the Red Cedar R iv e r, the la r g e s t t r i b u t a r y o f the Grand, t h a t the f i r s t s e ttle m e n t o f the Grand R iv e r Basin was s i t e d . This e a r ly s e ttle m e n t l a t e r became known as the C it y o f Lansing. The Red Cedar flows through East Lansing and W illia m s to n in the Ingham County. wide In te rm e d ia te Regional flo o d p la in 4 The 4 5 0 -2 ,6 0 0 f o o t covers e x te n s iv e ly developed areas near the confluence w ith Sycamore Creek in Central M eridian Town­ ship. A p o rtio n o f the developed area o f W illia m s to n is w ith in the confines o f the In te rm e d ia te Regional F lo o d p la in . d e n tia l , commercial and in d u s t r ia l fa c ilitie s A number o f r e s i ­ in a d d itio n to roads crossing the Red Cedar R iv e r would be inundated by the In te rm e d ia te Regional Flood. 5 Sycamore Creek is a t r i b u t a r y o f the Red Cedar R iv e r, northern e x tr e m ity flows through sou th -eastern Lansing. Its Some r e s id e n t ia l areas are now w ith in the 2 0 0 -3 ,2 0 0 f o o t width In te rm e d ia te Regional Flood boundary. I n d u s t r ia l and commercial f a c i l i t i e s as well c as farmlands would be inundated by the In te rm e d ia te Regional Flood. The Maple and Lookingglass Rivers in C lin to n County are located in r u r a l areas o f the T ri-C o u n ty Region. DeWitt and Maple Rapids are the only concentrated developments along the r i v e r s . A few houses may ^In A p r il 1947, a flo o d inundated 100 blocks in Lansing lea v in g 2,500 people homeless. This flood was approxim ately one f o o t less than the 5 0 -y e a r Frequency Flood as c a lc u la te d a t points along the Grand and Red Cedar R iv e rs . An In te rm e d ia te Regional Flood (a flo od t h a t has an average frequency o f occurring once in 100 y e a rs ) would be approximately two to three f e e t above the A p r il 1947 f lo o d . 5 T r i - C o u n t y Regional P la n ni ng Commission, Environmental Study (L a n s in g : TCRPC, [ n . d . ] ) , p. 25. 6 I b i d . , p. 26. Framework 93 be a ffe c te d by the In te rm e d ia te Regional Flood, but f o r the most p a r t , farmlands and s c a tte re d houses would be in any danger o f f lo o d in g . In Eaton County flo w the Thornapple and B a t t l e Creek R iv e rs . The Thornapple R iv e r flows through northern Eaton County where only scattered r e s i d e n t ia l and a g r i c u l t u r a l mediate Regional F lo o d p la in . lands l i e w ith in the I n t e r ­ The B a ttle c re e k R iver flows through Bellevue where a few houses a re located w ith in the f lo o d p la in . The land surface o f the T ri-C o u n ty Region is e i t h e r f l a t or gently r o l l i n g . In general terms, th is type o f landform is c h a r a c te r ­ i s t i c o f the c e n tra l parts o f M ichigan. There are 24 n a tu ra l la k e s , the m a jo rity o f which are too small f o r la rg e scale r e c r e a tio n a l use. A large p o rtio n o f the region is swampy w ith wetlands covering many square m ile s . Land Use Land use data are e s s e n tia l in planning and development. To be u s e fu l, the data must be kept u p -to -d a te on a continuing basis because land use is s u b je c t to change. and goals o f people. i t s land use. the region. Land use changes r e f l e c t the values The T ri-C o u n ty Region has experienced changes in Signs o f land use change are e v id e n t in most parts o f Sprawling in many farming a re a s . suburbs and new country homes are s c a tte re d Almost every community in the reg ion seems have i t s new r e s id e n t i a l s u b d iv is io n , and some shopping center and an i n d u s t r i a l park. to o f them have a suburban There is evidence also o f a 94 rap idly changing a g r i c u l t u r e - - f i e l d s are g e ttin g la rg e r and mechanization is common.^ Land uses have a d i r e c t impact on water q u a li t y . Table 3 shows the main categories o f land use in the Tri-C ounty Region. TABLE 4 LAND USE IN THE TRI-COUNTY REGION, 1969 Ingham Eaton C li nton Acres % Acres % Acres % Forestry A g ric u ltu re Transportation Recreation Urban Development Other Land Surface Inland Water 45,000 286,958 12,392 8,807 4,180 8,669 366,016 704 12.3 78.4 3.4 2.4 1.1 2 .4 99.8 0 .2 55,800 259,883 13,923 233 8,117 27,548 365,504 576 15.3 71 .1 3 .8 0.1 2 .2 7 .5 99.8 0 .2 58,300 230,949 16,800 6,702 34,984 9,961 357,696 704 0 .2 64.5 4 .7 1 .9 9 .8 2.8 99.8 0 .2 Total Area 366,720 Use 366,080 358,400 SOURCE: Cooperative Extension S e rv ic e, Michigan State U n iv e r s ity , County and Regional Facts fo r the Counties o f C lin to n , Eaton and Ingham (Lansing: Cooperative Extension S e rv ic e, M. S. U . , n. d . ) , p. 35. The category f o r inland water includes the surface area o f a l l bodies of water w ith in the boundaries o f the Tri-C ounty Region. Only 0 .2 percent o f the t o t a l area o f the region is covered by inland water. This s itu a tio n supports the need to p ro te c t water q u a lit y in the region. A g riculture is the predominant land use followed by f o r e s t r y , urban development, tra n s p o rta tio n and re c re a tio n in a descending order. W illiam J. Kim ball, "A Changing Michigan," in Land Use in Michigan ( F i r s t r e v is io n ; East Lansing: Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State U n iv e r s ity , January 1969), p. 2. 95 Urban Development In i t s e a r ly h is t o r y , the region was h e a v ily fo re s te d . Today, as a r e u s lt o f u rb a n iza tio n and conversion o f f o r e s t land to a g r i ­ c u ltu ra l and o th er uses, f o r e s t lands are arranged in woodlots which dot the ru ra l areas. The s o ils have provided a good basis f o r a g r i ­ c u ltu ra l a c t i v i t i e s . Other economic a c t i v i t i e s have led to the growth o f diverse types o f ru r a l and urban communities. In the center o f the region is located the Lansing M etropolitan area which serves as the focus of in d u s tria l and comnercial a c t i v i t i e s . In recent years, rapid urban growth has been experienced on the periphery o f the m etropolitan area. Outside the m etrop olitan area are ten c i t i e s ranging in s iz e from 1,000-9,000 in p o pu latio n, and about 15 ru ral communities. I t has been estimated t h a t nearly 90 percent o f the land area is ru ra l in nature.^ Water P o llu tio n Problem The Tri-C ounty Region has very complex water p o llu tio n problems. Four stream segments w ith in the region— parts o f the Grand and Red Cedar R ivers, the e n t i r e length o f the Sycamore Creek and a large portion o f the B a t tle Creek R iv e r— are c la s s if i e d by the Michigan Department o f Natural Resources as fo u r o f the f i f t e e n most p o llu te d rivers w ith in the e n t ir e State o f Michigan. 9 Q Tri-County Regional Planning Commission, Regional Water and Wastewater Management - Technical Report (Lansing: TCRPC, 1971), p. T1-3. g Tri-County Regional Planning Commission, 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management Program, Work Program (Lansing: TCRPC, March 19 7 6 }, p. 9. 96 R iver or stream water p o llu t io n is p a r t ly due to the seasonal f lu c tu a tio n o f the r i v e r s . During the summer months, when water flows are low, the a b i l i t y o f streams and r iv e r s to a s s im ila te waste is diminished almost to nothing. Even when the water is cleaned to 95 percent p u r i t y , microorganisms which are discharged in to the water during low flo w conditions use a v a ila b le oxygen and leave the r iv e r s in an unacceptable co n d itio n . A concerted e f f o r t is being made my many governmental u n its in the region to clean up waste dischargers by providing secondary and t e r t i a r y treatm ent to domestic and in d u s t r ia l waste. But the achieve­ ment o f high water q u a lit y is complicated by non-point sources of p o llu t io n . I t has th e re fo re been determined by governmental u n its o f the Tri-C ounty Region, the Michigan Department o f Natural Resources and the U. S. Environmental Agency th a t 208 planning together w ith im­ plementation is the only a v a ila b le means o f dealing with the reg ion 's water p o llu tio n problem. Designations In September 1973, the II. S. Environmental P rotectio n Agency published Planning Area and Agency Designation Regulations in the Federal R e g is te r. These re g u la tio n s s e t f o r th c r i t e r i a which planning areas and agencies would have to s a t i s f y to be e l i g i b l e f o r a 208 deisgnation. Pursuant to the Act and the Planning Area and Agency Designation Regulations, Section 208 planning areas and agencies are to be designated by the governor o f a s ta te o r , in some instances, by lo c a lly - e le c t e d o f f i c i a l s o f the a re a . In a l e t t e r o f March 28, 1975, to the chairman o f the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission, 97 Governor W illia m M i l l i k e n o f Michigan, designated a l l Eaton and Ingham Counties as an areawide planning a re a . o f C lin t o n , waste treatm ent management The T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission (TCRPC) was designated as the areawide waste treatm ent management planning agency f o r the T ri-C o u n ty R e g io n . ^ Area Designation The desig n a tio n o f the T ri-C o u n ty Region was made because o f the serious water q u a l i t y problems i d e n t i f i e d f o r the re g io n . Por­ tions o f the Red Cedar, Grand and B a t t l e Creek R iv e rs , and the Sycamore Creek have been i d e n t i f i e d as p o llu t e d . These problems were considered such th a t they could hamper the a tta in m e n t o f w ater q u a li t y goals established in the A c t. The problems are p a r t l y due to u r b a n /in d u s t r ia l concentration in the re g io n . Concern f o r water q u a l i t y has been shown in various ways by lo c a l units o f government, s ta te and fe d e ra l government agencies in the region. made. Many stu d ie s and plans on w ater q u a l i t y in the region have been The Grand R iver Basin Planning Study, ^ ment Plan f o r the Grand R iv e r B asin, 12 Water Q u a lity Manage- Report on Stormwater F a c i l i t i e s , ^ A n o f f i c i a l l e t t e r , dated March 28, 1975, was sent to Mr. Mr. Almond B. Cressman, Chairman, T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Com­ mission by W illia m G. M i l l i k e n , Governor, S ta te o f Michigan. ^G rand R iv e r C oordinating Committee, Army Corps o f Engineers, Grand R iver Basin Comprehensive Water Resources Planning Study, 11 Volumes (Washington: U. S. Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e , 1973). 12 Water Resources Commission, Michigan Department o f Natural Resources, Water Q u a lit y Management Plan f o r the Grand R iv e r B asin, D ra ft (Lansing: S ta te o f Michigan, 1974). 13 T r i - C o u n t y Regional P la n n in g Commission, Report on Combined Stormwater F a c i l i t i e s (L ans ing : TCRPC, 1 9 7 2 ) . 13 98 and Water Supply Development and Management A lt e r n a t iv e s f o r C l i n t o n , Eaton and Ingham Counties^4 are some o f the studies p e r t in e n t to w ater q u a l it y c on sideratio ns on a reg ion al s c a le . In some in s ta n c e s , waste treatm ent p la n ts have been b u i l t and a re being operated by in d iv id u a l u nits o f local government. Regional w ater q u a l i t y problems defy s olu tio ns on a lo c a l uncoordinated b a s is . There is th e r e fo re the need fo r a c o o perative e f f o r t by u n its o f lo c a l government and o th er j u r i s ­ d ic tio n s to solve the problem on an areawide b a s is . A ll these con­ s id e ra tio n s led to the d e s ig n a tio n o f the T ri-C o u n ty Region as a 208 planning a re a . Planning Agency Designation Since 1956, the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission has been conducting studies which have a bearing on w ater q u a l i t y . s id e ra b le previous work conducted in the region w i l l foundation upon which to base Section 208 program. The con­ serve as a This work includes s u b s ta n tia l in v e n to ry o f land use and t r a n s p o r ta tio n planning a c t i v i t y a t the regional and lo c a l l e v e l s , modeling o f many aspects o f surface and groundwater and continuing w ater q u a l i t y data c o l l e c t i o n e f f o r t by the S ta te o f Michigan and the Grand R iv e r Watershed C o u n cil, and regional waste w ater studies by the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission completed in the e a r ly 1 9 7 0 's. The goal o f the 208 program in the T ri-C o u n ty Region f o r the period July 1, 1975, to June 30, 1977, is to develop a w e l1- in t e g r a t e d 14 K. E. V a n lie r e t a l . , Water Supply Development and Management A lt e r n a t iv e s f o r C lin t o n , Eaton and Ingham Counties, M ichigan, Report No. 1965, A Geological Survey Water Supply Paper which focuses on the time period o f 1969-1990 (Washington: U. S. Geological Survey, 1969). 99 strategy f o r j o i n t land use-wastewater management. 15 formulated by the TCRPC aim a t achieving th is goal. P o lic ie s already In a study, "Regional Drainage Management--Preliminary Report," the goal has been stated as a regional drainage plan in te g ra te d w ith a regional develop. n 16 ment plan. The Grand R iv e r, f o r example, flows through a l l the three Counties o f the reg ion . The use or misuse o f a drainageway by one community often a f fe c t s the use o f th a t po rtion o f the same drainage­ way serving adjacent communities. This is a case in support o f a regional approach to accommodate stormwater r u n o ff. A comprehensive development plan showing the lo c a tio n o f proposed land development has been prepared f o r C lin to n , Eaton and Ingham Counties. This regional plan hopefully r e f l e c t s the development plans prepared by local units o f government located in the reg ion , including the c i t i e s o f Lansing and East Lansing. The comprehensive development plan adovcates an o rd e rly development of e f f i c i e n t and economical drainage f a c i l i t i e s . 17 The develop­ ment o f drainage f a c i l i t i e s which enhance natural beauty, fo s te r en­ vironmental q u a l i t y , and conserve natural resources c o n s titu te s another goal o f the plan. the drainage system. The a d m in is tra tio n o f the plan is based on Under each o f the above goals gu idelin es fo r orderly development are provided. 15 Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission, 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management Program, Work Program (Lansing: TCRPC, 1976), p. 10. ^ T r i - C o u n t y Regional Planning Commission, Regional Drainage Management— P r e l i m i n a r y Report (Lansing: TCRPC, 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 1 - 2 . 100 In another study, Rural Water and Wastewater Management, 18 guidelines fo r managing wastewater a t the local and regional le v e ls are suggested. One g u id e lin e requires the TCRPC to designate s p e c ific service areas f o r water and sewer u t i l i t i e s m etropolitan a re a . in the nine-towns hip Such designation was g e n e ra lly expected to r e s u lt in economies o f construction and operation o f the waste treatment plan ts. The study f u r th e r points out th a t the in t e r r e l a t e d urban and ru ral water problems req uire th a t land use control on a broad basis should be adopted. Such requirements f o r water and wastewater manage­ ment should be combined w ith re c re a tio n a l and open space requirements, There is also a g u id e lin e to p ro te c t groundwater recharge areas. 19 Groundwater recharge areas should be protected against s trip p in g o f vegeta tio n , regrading o f land surfaces, c re a tio n o f impermeable sur­ faces and p o llu ta n ts in the natural i n f i l t r a t i o n zone. For local communities, the Rural Water and Waste Management Report recommends the development o f a s p e c ific development plan to c a te r fo r the provision o f adequate water and waste water control systems. Implementation o f local water and sewer improvement programs should be preceded by fa c tu a l public r e la tio n s program. Local leadership fo r the successful implementation o f the plan is emphasized by the re p o rt. In another r e p o r t, The Environmental Framework o f the Tri-County Region, the TCRPC has d e lin e a te d the environmental capacity o f the 18 Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission, Rural Water and Wastewater Management, 1971. This Report, financed by the Farmers Home A d m in is tra tio n , studied water and wastewater needs in munici­ p a l i t i e s o f under 5,500 in h a b ita n ts . 19I b i d . , p. 16. 101 region f o r growth. The environmental fe a tu re s considered r e g io n a lly s i g n i f i c a n t included groundwater, f lo o d p la in s , w i l d l i f e h a b it a t s , a g r ic u lt u r a l la n d s , mineral resource d e p o s its , f o r e s t la n d s , s o i l s , slope and h i s t o r i c a l s i t e s . Each f e a tu r e was studied to determine i t s reg ion al and statew ide importance. On the basis o f a range o f land uses, in c re a s in g in i n t e n s i t i e s , f i v e classes o f land use i n ­ t e n s it ie s were developed. The f i v e classes o f developable land were described as C r i t i c a l , s e n s i t i v e , l i m i t e d , fa v o r a b le , and p r e fe r r e d . Land uses were recommended f o r each o f these c la s s e s . The r e p o r t made suggestions f o r f u r t h e r d e t a ile d s tu d ie s , should impending c o n f l i c t of resource use become apparent. The rep o rts discussed above in d ic a te j u s t a few o f the studies made by the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission. These and oth er studies o f the TCRPC can be found in the 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management Program. 20 Following the governor's d e s ig n a tio n , the U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency gave the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission an award o f $70,400 to provide areawide waste management planning in the Tri-C ounty Region. The award was made in re c o g n itio n o f the TCRPC1s commitment to w ater p o llu t io n c o n tro l as shown by i t s many previous studies and plans. 21 20 T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission, 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management Program, Work Proqram (Lansinq: TCRPC, March 1976), pp. 2 4 -7 . 21 A l e t t e r to Mr. H erbert D. M a ie r, Executive D ir e c t o r , T r i County Regional Planning Commission dated June 27, 1975, from Francis T. Mayo, Regional A d m in is tra to r , Region V, U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency. 102 Management Agency Designation In order to implement a 208 areawide plan, i t is necessary to set up a 208 management program which includes a s tru c tu re o f organiza­ tions and in s t i t u t i o n s and t h e i r r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s in c arrying out the areawide plan. These organizations may be new ones or e x is tin g agencies o f general purpose s ta te and local government, special d is ­ t r i c t s , multipurpose regional agencies, or any combination o f these. The management agency's fun ction s, o rg a n iza tio n a l s tr u c tu r e , powers and funding are a l l elements o f the management program. The 208 plan w i l l describe a management program, and the governor w i l l a c t u a lly deisgnate those agencies to c a rry out the plan. The governor w i l l submit his choice o f these agencies along w ith the 208 plan to the Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency f o r Approval, w ith in two years a f t e r 208 planning has been i n i t i a t e d . The designated planning agency, the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission, is in the process o f preparing a 208 plan fo r the T r i County Region. The 208 plan should be completed by June 30, 1977. By th a t time s u f f i c i e n t d e t a il on the functions and a c t i v i t i e s o f the prospective management agency/ies w i l l have been provided by the TCRPC, to enable the governor to make a designation. Relationship o f 208 Planning to 208 Management Management can be considered the 'doing' ning process. phase o f the 208 plan­ In planning, wastewater management p o lic ie s are set and agreed upon. Then, the management agencies take over and c a rry out these p o lic ie s and plans on a day-to-day basis. Thus planning is the designing phase and p o lic y -fo rm u la tio n element, w hile management 103 is the operational phase, when p o lic ie s are tra n s la te d in to a c tio n and implemented. 22 Planning is a continuous process. I t is not a two-year a f f a i r th a t concludes w ith the completion o f the f i r s t plan in 1977, but rath er continues to give guidance to a l l management agencies involved in areawide water p ro te c tio n and clean-up. The Federal law c a lls f o r the 208 plan to be reviewed each year to ensure i t s c o n tin u ity . The substantial funding a t the beginning o f planning in the Tri-C ounty Region is intended to encourage con tin u in g , and even more e s s e n t ia l, planning in the long run. S ta ffin g The Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission is made up o f rep re­ sentatives from the Counties o f C lin to n , Eaton and Ingham, Lansing and East Lansing. As o f March 1976, there are 16 members o f the TCRPC, and the Chairman is M ilfo rd J. Moore o f Eaton County. As regards s t a f f i n g , the philosophy o f the TCRPC is to promote an in te g ra te d s ta f f -c o n s u lt a n t e f f o r t to ensure an on-going planning program which can be updated in years to come. S t a f f composition attempts to r e f l e c t th is philosophy, in th a t not a l l the required professionals can be found on the TCRPC's re g u la r s t a f f . There is an engineer to coordinate a l l engineering in on-going 201 f a c i l i t i e s plans and to review and work c lo s e ly w ith the engineering consultants hired by the TCRPC. The environmental planner is responsible f o r work dealing with the abatement o f non-point sources o f water p o llu t io n . 22 There is U. S. Environmental P rotectio n Agency, Management Agencies Handbook f o r Section 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management (Washing­ ton: E .P .A ., 19 7 5 ), p. 2. 104 also a water q u a l i t y s p e c i a l i s t , and a planner responsible f o r c i t i z e n p a r t ic i p a t i o n . The T a t t e r 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y involves the performance of research and a n a ly s is o f management systems, and the p ro v is io n o f assistance to f a c i l i t a t e optimum c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n . there is a systems a n a ly s t on the s t a f f . The P r o je c t D ir e c to r co­ ordinates the o p e ra tio n o f the 208 planning program. ated by p rofession al planners. In a d d itio n , The s t a f f is domin­ There is also a f u l l range o f non­ professional s t a f f in c lu d in g general o f f i c e a id e , stenographers, account c le r k , and draftsm en. S ix c o n sultants have been s elected to a s s i s t the T ri-C o u n ty Plan­ ning S t a f f in the 208 planning e f f o r t . These are Snell Environmental Group— eng in e e rin g ; Ecol Sciences— r i v e r modeling and the e n v iro n ­ mental impact statem ent; W ilbur Smith Associates--management systems; Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity (Remote Sensing P r o j e c t ) - - l a n d use a c t i v i t y mapping; Michigan Department of N atural R esou rces--co ordin atio n and lim ite d te c h n ic a l a s s is ta n c e ; and Johnson and Young— lake i n v e s t i g a c 23 t io n s . Section 208 Planning Process General D e s c rip tio n The purpose o f the areawide planning process is to fo rm u la te an implementable areawide water q u a l i t y management p la n . Through the planning process, both te ch n ic a l needs f o r p o llu t io n con tro l and management arrangements capable o f implementing the c o n tro ls w i l l in te g r a te d . 23 be A c t i v i t i e s undertaken in an areawide waste treatm ent T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission, 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management Program, Work Program (Lansing: TCRPC, 1 9 7 6 ), p. 116. 105 management planning process are to in c lu d e : basic data g athering and a n a ly s is , p r i m a r i l y , water q u a l i t y d a ta ; p ro je c tio n s o f fu tu r e p o p u la tio n , employment and land use a c t i v i t i e s ; a land use an a ly s is to d e lin e a te land use and water q u a l i t y r e l a t io n s h ip s ; development o f waste load a llo c a t io n s f o r a l t e r n a t i v e plans c o n s is te n t w ith w ater q u a l it y standards; development o f p o in t and non-point source subplans; management a n a ly s is f o r the area and development o f a l t e r n a t i v e plans c o n s is te n t w ith te c h n ic a l plans; combining a l t e r n a t i v e plans and s e le c tin g an areawide w ater management p la n . The r e la tio n s h ip s between land use and w ater q u a l i t y are important in the Tri-C o u n ty Region. Of p a r t i c u l a r s ig n ific a n c e is the e f f e c t o f the type and i n t e n s it y o f land use on groundwater. The Saginaw forma­ tio n is the re g io n 's p r in c ip a l bedrock a q u ife r and o f f e r s the g r e a te s t p o t e n t ia l f o r f u t u r e water supply development. The Grand R iv e r, Bayport, and Michigan bedrock formations a ls o provide the region w ith w ater. The a b i l i t y o f an a q u ife r to y i e l d supplies o f water is con­ t r o l l e d by the degree o f recharge which can occur. By the recharge process, w ater which is withdrawn from the a q u if e r through w e lls is replaced by p e rm ittin g w ater on the land surface to permeate sub­ surface s o ils and e n te r the a q u i f e r . The recharge process is most e f f e c t i v e where fa v o ra b le rock formations f o r a q u if e r recharge occur. The fa v o ra b le rock formations are composed o f sandstone a q u ife r s o v e rl a i n by permeable sand and g r a v e l. To enhance the a b i l i t y o f the a q u ife r to meet the needs o f the region f o r fre s h w a te r , i t is impor­ t a n t t h a t recharge processes are not hindered by con structions such as urban development and m u lt i - l a n e highways. In connection w ith 208 106 planning, recharge zones are to be i d e n t i f i e d and land uses compatible with a q u if e r recharge are to be recommended. A flo w c h a rt d is p la y in g the basic components o f the planning process in a s i m p l if i e d form is presented in the Environmental Prote c tio n Agency G u id e lin e s . 24 Using t h is c h a rt as a guide, the 208 planning agency may use d is c r e tio n to employ any lo g ic a l process as long as the process addresses major issues o f areawide waste t r e a t ­ ment management and produces an areawide p la n , the content o f which is s e t f o r t h in the In te r im Grant R eg ulatio ns. 25 Using the Environ­ mental P ro te c tio n Agency flo w c h a r t as a g u id e , the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission has evolved i t s own planning process as shown in Figure 6. Technical Planning Coordinating Committee (TPCC). The o b je c tiv e of the TPCC is to examine water q u a l i t y problems o r issues p e r t in e n t to the T ri-C o u n ty Region, give advice and make recommendations to the reg u la r p ro fe s s io n a l s t a f f o f the planning agency (TCRPC). To f a c i l i ­ ta te the work o f the TPCC, areas o f i n t e r e s t have been i d e n t i f i e d as shown in Figure 6. There are e ig h t te c h n ic a l subcommittees one f o r each a re a . The subcommittee f o r land use gives advice on land use p o l i c i e s , plans and means o f implementation such as zoning ordinances, sub­ d iv is io n and r e g u la t io n s . Advice on the management o f old and 24 U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, Executive Summary o f Section 208 Program f o r Designated Areas (Washington: Environmental P ro tectio n Agency, 1 9 7 4 ), p. 14. *^U. S. Congress, Federal R e g is te r, V o l. 39, No. 93, May 13, 1974. MICHIGAN DNA Review Final Plan 0 0 C>0 C- 0 0 0 0 0 0 LOCAL UNITS OF GOVERNMENT Selects Final Plan OOOOOO^DOO TRI - COUNTY REGIONAL PLANNING COMMISSION Reviews Recommendations for TCRPC Discusses & Votes Upon Alternative Recommendations Synthesizes 000000 000000000 Recommendations TCRPC US ERA PROGRAM A GRANT REVIEW COMMITTEE AREA - WIDE PLANNING ADVISORY COUNCIL (APAC) RESOLUTION SIGNING GOV’T UNITS usgs, ussca , d n r, gr. rwe ch. tcpp, army corps ol eno. 0000 TPCC EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE CITIZENS ADVISORY COUNCIL Management & Economic Development TECHNICAL NON POINT POLLUTION / AGRICULTURE PLANNING 0 0 0 0 0 MAKES POINT SOURCE POLLUTION WATER QUALITY A SUPPLY SOLID WASTE LAND USE COORDINATING COMMITTEE (TPCC) RECOMMENDATIONS a GIVES ADVICE TO STAFF (> [) £> |) [) [) Figure 6. Section 208 Water Quality Planning Process ENVIRON­ MENTAL 108 p re s e n tly o p e ra tiv e l a n d f i l l s i t e s , and the lo c a t io n , planning and management o f new f a c i l i t i e s is given by the s o lid waste subcommittee. Water q u a l i t y goals and the p o s s i b i l i t y o f achieving them through various means o f tre a tm e n t and management are handled by the w ater q u a l i t y subcommittee. The p o in t source subcommittee advises on the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p o in t source p o l l u t i o n and methods o f abatement. The management and economic development subcommittee advises on methods and f e a s i b i l i t y o f implementing a l t e r n a t i v e 208 plans. I t also deals w ith the economic impact o f various plan a l t e r n a t i v e s on the region as w ell as lo c a l o r g a n iz a tio n s , business groups, u n its o f government. Advice on p o llu t io n problems from no n-point sources is furnished by the a g r i c u l t u r a l and non-point source p o llu t io n subcommittee. c ritic a l Advice on areas r e q u ir in g p re s e rv a tio n and means o f preserving them is handled by the environmental subcommittee. The TCRPC c it i z e n s ad­ v is o ry council acts as a sounding board f o r a l t e r n a t i v e plan develop­ ment and gives advice on the involvement o f the general p u b lic in the , . 26 planning process. Membership on each o f these subcommittees is open to a l l c it i z e n s o f the T ri-C o u n ty Region. Thus, persons w ith te ch n ic a l knowledge about p a r t i c u l a r aspects o f w ater q u a l i t y and la y people are found in the same subcommittee. The recommendations o f a l l these sub­ committees are to be sent to the Executive Committee o f the TPCC, c o n s is tin g o f chairmen o f the e ig h t te c h n ic a l subcorrenittees. The TPCC Executive Committee synthesizes the recommendations w ith the view n/r T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission, "Technical Planning Coordinating Committees," January 8 , 1976. (A one-page g u id e lin e issued by the C i t iz e n P a r t i c i p a t i o n D iv is io n o f the TCRPC). 109 to id e n t i f y i n g v ia b le a l t e r n a t i v e recommendations. The recommenda­ tions are then passed on to the Areawide Planning Advisory Council (APAC). 27 The APAC is to discuss and vote upon the a l t e r n a t i v e recommenda­ tions submitted to i t by the Executive Committee o f the TPCC. The TCRPC has one v oting d eleg ate on t h is Committee. From the APAC, the recommendations are to be sent to the TCRPC1s Programs and Grant Review Committee which w i l l review and pass them on to the TCRPC fo r the s e le c tio n o f the f i n a l p la n . The lo c a l u n its o f government c o n s t it u t in g the T ri-C o u n ty Region are then to be given the o p p o rtu n ity to comment on the f i n a l p la n , before i t goes to the Michigan Department o f Natural Resources f o r s ta te approval and thence to the U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency f o r f i n a l a p p ro v a l. By means o f an e f f e c t i v e c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a ­ tio n program, Section 208 planning w i l l probably f o llo w c lo s e ly the path o u tlin e d above. However, th e re is the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t some local u n its o f government may in t h e i r review of the f i n a l p la n , r e j e c t some o f the plan proposals f o r p o l i t i c a l a n d /o r o th e r reasons. Such a s i t u a t i o n would re q u ire a f u r t h e r c o n s id e ra tio n o f the plan by the TPCC, APAC and the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission. 27 As o f A p r il 7 , 1976, the Council had re p re s e n ta tiv e s from the fo llo w in g : C lin t o n , Eaton and Ingham C ounties, East Lansing, Eaton Rapids, Grand Ledge, Lansing, L e s l i e , Mason, W illia m s to n , Delhi Charter Township, D elta C h arter Township, DeWitt Township, Lansing C harter Township, M erid ia n C h arter Township, Watertown C h a rte r Town­ ship , Michigan Department o f N atu ral Resources, U. S. D. A. Soil Conservation S e r v ic e , U. S. Army Corps o f Engineers, U. S. Geological Survey, Grand R iver Watershed C o u n cil, TPCC chairman, and T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission. no Study Design and Work Tasks In August 1975, w ith a grant from the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, research was conducted on the study design f o r Section 208 planning in the Tri-County Region. 28 From th is study emerged a Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) Chart which id e n t i f i e d the work tasks to be c a rrie d out in Section 208 planning process f o r the period July 1, 1975, to June 30, 1977. 3 ). {See Appendix The s a l i e n t fe atu re s o f the PERT Chart are th a t i t shows the c r i t i c a l path to be follow ed , when q u a rte rly rep orts to the EPA are due, and the times f o r holding Areawide Planning Advisory Council meetings. Along the c r i t i c a l path, two routes are follo w ed . Both routes s t a r t from the point where the consultant is s e le c te d , and, passing through a number o f work tasks, they meet a t the point where Technical Subplans are combined w ith management a lt e r n a t i v e s . From th is p o in t, the f i n a l areawide plan is prepared f o r review by the local un its o f government, s ta te government and federal government in th a t order. From the con sultant s e le c tio n stage, the f i r s t route leads to the com pilation and review o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l , f in a n c ia l and legal c a p a b ilitie s . The next stage is to determine the i n s t i t u t i o n a l , f i n a n c i a l , and legal arrangements f o r implementing the plan. The findings are to be used a t the stage where a lte r n a t iv e s a re examined. The second route passes through the fo llo w in g stages on the path: remote sensing, mapping and in te g r a tio n w ith physical featu res 28 TCRPC, Areawide Waste Treatment Management Program, Study Design, {Lansing: TCRPC, 197 5 ), p. 2. m and an inventory o f non-point sources o f p o llu ta n ts . The next stage is the development o f a f i r s t generation model followed by te s tin g and sampling f o r p o llu ta n ts . to be developed. Subsequently, a second generation model is Using th is model, water q u a lity s i t e development po lic ie s are to be form ulated. Then a meeting is to be arranged with m u n ic ip a litie s whose plans or development con trols are inadequate, in order to come to some acceptable understanding. The route then moves to where non-point source control and reduction a lte r n a t iv e s are developed. From th is point the route passes through the stage where subplans are screened to meet the f i r s t ro u te . The PERT Chart (208 Work Flow Chart) i d e n t i f i e s a l l tasks required f o r 208 planning. the work I t is supplemented w ith textu al m aterial which describes each work task in terms o f i t s o b je c tiv e , sources o f in fo rm a tio n , d e s c rip tio n o f the task and i t s products. Scope o f Planning Program Previous studies and plans prepared by the TCRPC have provided useful data f o r Section 208 planning. Since July 1, 1975, the prin c ip a l a c t i v i t i e s o f the 208 planning s t a f f have been (1 ) data gathering on various aspects o f water q u a lity and (2) programs intended to educate the public on the f u l l im p lic a tio n s o f the 208 planning process and the r o le o f the public in making i t a success. U ltim a te ly , the TCRPC's 208 data development program w i l l provide d e ta ile d i n f o r ­ mation regarding the cha ra c te r and magnitude o f cu rren t and expected fu tu re continuous point dischargers, in t e r m it t e n t po int source 112 dischargers and the nature o f non-point source problems. 29 Since TCRPC is to come up w ith a plan by June 30, 1977, most o f the s t a f f ' s current e f f o r t s are geared to meeting t h a t requirement. From the basic inventory and analysis work, a plan o f p r i o r i t i e s in construction and management o f waste treatm ent plants w i l l be prepared. The plan w i l l aim a t the maximizing the coordination of current treatment and reg u la to ry programs to achieve o v e ra ll p er­ formance o f wastewater management. S p e c ific issues to be addressed include improvement o f e x is tin g treatm ent systems, commitments already made to fund c e r t a in a d d itio n a l f a c i l i t i e s and non-point source control programs. There are treatm ent systems in the region which need improve­ ment in t h e i r o p e ra tio n . In a d d itio n to e x is tin g treatment p la n ts , p rio r commitments to fund new waste treatment plants have been made. In some cases, the plans are being implemented and there is the need to c a r e f u ll y evaluate them to determine t h e i r f u l l roles in the achievement o f the o v e r a ll water q u a lit y goals. Commitments have also been made to implement some non-point source p o llu tio n control measures through programs such as those required by the State Soil Erosion Control Ordinance. Aims o f the P la n . These commitments need a thorough appraisal The TCRPC's 208 plan has a f o u r - f o ld o b je c tiv e The plan is to provide a sound beginning f o r a long-range program of regional w ater q u a l it y improvement and maintenance, p a r t ic u l a r l y as i t is re la te d to land development and u t i l i z a t i o n . 29 A comprehensive Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission, 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management Program, Work Program (Lansing: TCRPC, 1976), pp. 20-22. 113 review o f waste tre a tm e n t f a c i l i t i e s ( i n c u rre n t use and being developed), to judge t h e i r adequacy in meeting the 1983 water q u a l i t y goals, is another o b je c tiv e o f the p la n . The p o te n tia l need and f e a s i b i l i t y o f p r e -tre a tm e n t o f wastes to aid the achievement o f w ater q u a lit y goals re q u ire s c o n s id e ra tio n . S p e c ific p r i o r i t i e s f o r con­ s tru c tio n and management programs which can r e a l i s t i c a l l y be achieved c o n s titu te s another o b je c t iv e . In t h is reg a rd , the fo u r designated water q u a l i t y segments in the region--Red Cedar, Grand, B a t t le Creek Rivers and Sycamore Creek— w i l l p rio rity . re c e iv e the hig hest e a r l y a c tio n The f i n a l o b je c tiv e o f the plan is to achieve e n v iro n ­ m entally sound approaches f o r sludge disposal in a manner which is w e ll-c o o rd in a te d w ith r e la t e d programs in a i r q u a l i t y and s o lid waste management. C oordination o f E f f o r t s . Q u a lity Plan) w i l l TCRPC's 208 plan (T ri-C o u n ty Water e la b o ra te and r e f i n e in fo rm a tio n on d is c h a rg e rs , water q u a l i t y le v e ls and c o n tro l programs f o r in c lu s io n in the Grand River Basin and Kalamazoo R iver Basin 3 0 3 (e ) Plans. in-stream w ater q u a l i t y m onitoring programs w i l l 30 A t-source and be improved. This task w i l l be performed in cooperation w ith the S t a t e , the Grand R iver Watershed Council and the U. S. Geological Survey, and w i l l c o n tr ib u te to an expanded STORET data n e tw o rk .31 30 Section 303 basin plans are prepared by the s ta te and con­ s t i t u t e the o v e r a ll framework w ith in which 208 plans are developed fo r s p e c i f i c p o rtio n s o f the basin. 31 Donald P. Dubois, STORET I I : Storage and R e trie v a l o f Data fo r Open Water and Land Areas (Washington: U. S. Department o f I n t e r i o r , [ n . d . ] ) , pp. 1 -2 . 114 The planning e f f o r t o f the TCRPC w i l l be coordinated w ith those of other programs and plans shown in the fo llo w in g l i s t . Plan/Program/Study Agency 303(e) Basin Plans (Grand River and Kalamazoo) State Department o f Natural Resources, Bureau o f Water Management Grand River Basin Plan Army Corps o f Engineers and Great Lakes Basin Commission Small Watershed Studies in the Maple River U. S. Soil Conservation Service Regional Solid Waste Study Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission and Ingham County Drain Commissioner The Section 208 work program w i l l be c lo s e ly in te g ra te d with other programs being c a rrie d out or completed by the Tri-County Regional Planning Commission. These include updating regional and local land use plans, tra n s p o rta tio n plans, and other work being done on regional s o lid waste management. The 208 program has been included in the 1976 U n ifie d Work Program o f the TCRPC. The growing i n t e r e s t in the use o f r iv e r s and streams in the region f o r re c re a tio n requires a c a re fu l consideration o f water q u a lity and i t s coordination w ith o th er land uses. Furthermore, c e rta in areas, p a r t i c u l a r l y in Northern C linton County along the Maple and Lookingglass R ivers, are environm entally important since they serve as w i l d l i f e and f is h e r ie s h a b ita t and are threatened by intensive land use. 115 C itiz e n P a r tic ip a tio n In order to a t t a i n i t s goals, the Federal Water P o llu tio n Con­ tr o l Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 208, c a l l s f o r c i t i z e n p a r t i c i ­ pation in the planning process from the very beginning. The in te n t o f the Act is to assure th a t the public is informed about the s p e c ific issues th a t are being weighed, so th a t i t may share in the decisions of how water q u a lit y is to be achieved. The requirement o f the Act f o r c i t i z e n p a r t ic ip a t io n is r e it e r a t e d by Governor Mi H i ken in his l e t t e r designating the T r i County Regional Planning Commission as the areawide waste treatm ent management planning agency f o r the Tri-C ounty Region. The l e t t e r states in p a rt th a t . . . I t is important th a t a l l local u n its o f government and in te re s te d c it iz e n s o f the region be given f u l l op portunity to review and comment upon your planning a c t i v i t i e s . I w i l l be p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s itiv e to the concerns o f local governmental u n its when the plan is presented to the S ta te f o r r e v i e w . 32 C it iz e n p a r t ic ip a t io n has been taken s e rio u s ly by the TCRPC, and a conscious e f f o r t is being made to involve local c itiz e n s in the planning process. The a c t i v i t i e s o f the TCRPC w ith regard to c i t i z e n p a r t ic ip a tio n have been f a c i l i t a t e d by the Federal grant f o r 208 planning. The U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency grant to the TCRPC is $704,000. EPA recommends th a t 10 percent o f a l l grants to planning agencies be earmarked f o r c i t i z e n p a r t ic i p a t i o n . A conscious e f f o r t to involve c it iz e n s in the 208 planning process began in August, 1975, when a m ailing l i s t was compiled. ■^Governor W illiam M i l l i k e n 's l e t t e r o f March 28, 1975 to Mr. Almond B. Cressman, Chairman o f the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission. 116 The m ailing l i s t r e f le c t s the in te re s ts o f a broad cross section o f c itiz e n s o f th is region. L e tte rs were sent out to some 200 people to attend the f i r s t meeting to discuss the c i t i z e n ' s ro le in 208 planning. S ix t y - f i v e people attended the f i r s t meeting. C u rre n tly , the m ailing l i s t has 130 addresses and about 50 people attend meetings r e g u la r ly . Through t e le v i s i o n , radio broadcasts, newspaper a r t i c l e s and speeches to in te re s te d groups, the TCRPC is attem pting to forge a strong l i n k between the c itiz e n s a t the local le v e l and the planning process. Large posters p u b lic iz in g 208 planning have been d is t r ib u t e d to public l i b r a r i e s , high schools, o f f ic e s and o th er public places. Actual c i t i z e n involvement req uires the rep resen tation on com­ mittees whose decisions form an in te g r a l p a rt o f the planning process. One such committee is the Technical Planning Coordinating Committee. Membership o f each o f the e ig h t technical subcommittees is not only voluntary but i t is p o s it i v e ly encouraged by the TCRPC. of government have a c r i t i c a l Local un its r o le t o p l a y i n the planning process. They have to review the f i n a l plan before i t goes to the State o f Michigan f o r approval. General involvement o f c it iz e n s in other a c t i v i t i e s o f local governments w i l l pave the way f o r cooperation to achieve the goals o f 208 planning. Workshop on Water Q u a lity ("Cooperation f o r Clean W ater"). The most s i g n i f i c a n t a c t i v i t y to date o f the TCRPC in connection w ith c it iz e n p a r t ic i p a t i o n in Section 208 planning appears to have been a one-day workshop held a t the Kellogg C enter, Michigan State Univer­ s ity on A p ril 7 , 1976. The workshop was sponsored by fo u r c i t i z e n groups, two local in s t i t u t i o n s o f high education and the lo c a l/r e g io n a l 117 newspaper in the Lansing a re a , 33 in cooperation w ith the TCRPC. More than 700 notices o f the workshop were mailed to local government o f f i c i a l s and o th e r c i t iz e n s in te re s te d in l e g i s l a t i o n f o r clean water. Of these, 138 people re g is te re d f o r the workshop. They represented a broad c ro ss-section o f in t e r e s t s in the Tri-C ounty Region. Sortie o f the workshop p a r tic ip a n ts had not heard o f the 208 planning l e g i s l a t io n befo re ; others were already a c tiv e members o f the Technical Planning Coordinating Sub-Conmittees in v e s tig a tin g various aspects o f water p o llu t io n c o n tr o l. Local u n its o f government f o r c i t i e s , townships and the three counties o f C lin to n , Eaton and Ingham were represented a t the work­ shop. No v i lla g e s were represented. Federal agencies represented include the U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency--Washington and Chicago Regional O ff ic e s , U. S. Army Corps o f Engineers, II. S. Department o f A g r ic u lt u r e —A g r ic u lt u r a l S t a b i l i z a t i o n and Conservation Service ( o f the Counties o f C lin to n , Eaton and Ingham) and Soil Con­ servation S e rv ic e , and U. S. Department o f In te rio r--B u r e a u o f Outdoor Recreation. Local groups represented ranged from p r iv a te consultants to c i t i z e n groups and club s, and educational i n s t i t u t i o n s . 34 The workshop had two phases: a general session f o r the presen­ t a tio n o f substantive inform ation on the s i g n i f i c a n t requirements of 33 Lansing Area League o f Women Voters, Lansing Community C o lle g e , Lansing Jaycees, Lansing Regional Chamber o f Commerce, Michigan State U n iv e r s ity , Michigan Townships A s s o c ia tio n , and The S tate Jou rn al. ^ T r i- C o u n t y Regional Planning Commission, A Report o f the Workshop: "Cooperation f o r Clean Water," held on A p r il 7, 1976, a t the Kellogg Center f o r Continuing Education, Michigan State U n iv e rs ity (Unpublished). 118 Section 208, w ith emphasis on c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n , and a session f o r discussion groups. The keynote address was d e liv e re d by Mrs. Helen Fenske, Special A s s is ta n t to Russell T r a i n , EPA A d m in is tra to r. The l e g i s l a t i v e provisio ns o f the Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 208, were h ig h lig h te d . A review o f regional options in water q u a l i t y was made by the TCRPC s t a f f . It was reported t h a t the TCRPC s t a f f would analyze about 900 stream and sewer samples from the spring through the w in te r o f 1976/77. The s t a f f had a lre a d y updated the Commission's reg ion al land use maps by c o n tra c tin g w ith the Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity Remote Sensing P ro je c t to i d e n t i f y some 20 d i f f e r e n t land uses located in the reg ion . As a r e s u l t o f t h is c o n tr a c t, d i f f e r e n t types o f v e g e ta tio n in c lu d in g various crops, grass, f o r e s t s , and b u ild in g s , w a te r , and highways, have been mapped by means o f i n f r a - r e d photographs. The TCRPC s t a f f also presented th re e h y p o th e tic a l plans 35 analyzing what can be achieved under Section 208 l e g i s l a t i o n . o f the plans was based on a d i f f e r e n t set o f assumptions; each what p r a c t ic a l consequences would f o llo w i f fo r Each asked i t s assumptions were tr u e . The plans item ized the te ch n ic a l s o lu tio n s th a t would be used to con­ t r o l d i f f e r e n t sources o f p o l l u t i o n , the management r e q u ir e d , and suggested agencies t h a t might be charged w ith the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a c tio n . Because o f the lack o f in fo rm a tio n about causes and loads o f p o l l u t i o n , none o f the discussion groups wanted to consider d i r e c t l y 35 See Appendices I , J , and K. 119 the hypothetical plans a t th a t stage. However, each discussion group raised questions p e r tin e n t to the topics in the plans. Discussion Groups. Workshop p a r tic ip a n ts were given the option to choose the group they wanted to serve on. a moderator, a recorder and resource person. Each group had A f t e r discussing the assigned to p ic , the group presented some proposals to guide the planning agency. In no in stan ce, were the proposals voted upon by the members o f the group. The land use group proposed development o f a regional set of controls provided there was s u f f i c i e n t local in p u t. I t also proposed that there should be incentives which would i n v i t e cooperation w ith ­ out imposing r e s t r i c t i o n s . The group observed th a t past local control had led to the present u n s a tis fa c to ry conditions in the use o f land, such as loss o f prime a g r ic u lt u r a l land and development on flo od plain s and in unique areas o f natural beauty. The group did recognize, r e lu c ta n tly and sadly, th a t some higher control o f land use was needed. Discussion by the Social Aspects group ranged from broad con­ siderations to s p e c ific proposals f o r making the waters o f the region safe f o r b o d ily con tact. C itiz e n input was discussed e x te n s iv e ly . The group recommeneded th a t neighborhood groups, conservation and garden clubs should be e s p e c ia lly s o l i c i t i e d fo r support. Another recomnendation was th a t the news media should be s y s te m a tic a lly in ­ formed about the impact o f the areawide plan on r e c r e a tio n , h e a lth , housing and growth. There were f i v e discussion groups, namely, Land Use; Social Aspects: Impacts on Recreation, H e a lth , Housing, and Growth; Non­ point Sources o f P o llu tio n ; Economic Impacts; and Implementation o f the Plan. 120 P a rtic ip a n ts in the Non-point Sources o f P o llu tio n discussion group la rg e ly represented a g r ic u lt u r a l in t e r e s t . They f e l t th a t most farmers were already employing good s o il conservation p ra c tic e and were in f a c t ahead o f the plans to be prepared under Section 208. It was pointed out t h a t most farmers in the Tri-C ounty Region do not use excessive f e r t i l i z e r since they can into streams. i l l - a f f o r d to have i t run o f f There is already a mechanism f o r fe e d lo t p o llu tio n control under reg ulation s o f the U. S. Environmental P rotectio n Agency and the s ta te Soil Erosion Act. such as "no t i l l " 37 Most farmers c u r re n tly use methods to reduce erosion. The consensus o f the group ap­ peared to be t h a t most farmers were alread y doing what was necessary to avoid stream p o llu t io n and th a t they did not need more re g u la tio n . The Economic Impact Group pointed out th a t i f the real cost of treatm ent o f p o llu tio n were charged, the user might do something to reduce the p o llu t io n . Another suggestion was th a t a p o s itiv e and negative in c e n tiv e program could be a useful a lt e r n a t iv e to govern­ ment c o n tr o l. P a rtic ip a n ts wanted to r e t a in local power to control water p o llu tio n as much as p o s s ib le , and were prepared to make the necessary t r a d e - o ff s between in d iv id u a l r ig h ts and conmunity values. They suggested th a t the U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency or the Michigan Department o f Natural Resources should develop guidelines fo r assessing these t r a d e - o f f s . Everyone agreed on the need fo r more technical inform ation and more r e l i a b l e cost estim ates. ^ O f f i c e o f Federal R e g is te r, Federal R e g is te r , Vol. 39, No. 2, Feb. 14, 1974. (The gu idelines on water p o llu tio n from b e e flo ts provided in t h is document took e f f e c t on A p ril 15, 1974). 121 The basic concern o f the group f o r Implementation o f the Plan was to develop a systematic p a tte rn fo r c i t i z e n p a r t ic ip a t io n . Presently, there is a lack o f understanding about lin e s o f communica­ tio n , and in te re s te d persons o ften do not know where to turn f o r advice and d ir e c t io n . One o f f i c i a l asked, f o r example, how the TCRPC was dealing w ith waste treatment systems which were already overloaded, plants which were underdesigned when construction s ta rte d and upon which increased demands f o r service were made d a i l y . To respond to such questions, the Areawide Planning Advisory Council (APAC) was established. The APAC is composed o f rep resen tatives o f local govern­ ments who want to take p a rt in the development o f the Water P o llu tio n Abatement Plan. Local governments may d i r e c t l y influ e n c e the f in a l plan through th is body. In order to fin d a way to assure feedback from the TCRPC to the local j u r i s d i c t i o n s , i t was recommended t h a t b lu e p rin ts o f data and a one-page d ig e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n t actions taken by the Technical Plan­ ning Coordinating Committee should be mailed to local government o ffic ia ls . The d is t r i b u t i o n o f th is information should be followed by subregional town meetings. On the whole, the workshop p a rtic ip a n ts were firm in t h e i r d e s ire to r e ta in local control o f the planning f o r water p o llu tio n abatement in the Tri-C ounty Region; they were u n w illin g to re lin q u is h th a t con­ tro l to the s ta te or federal government. to reg u la tio n s , wherever possible. They p re ferre d incentives There was a c le a r demand fo r another workshop before the completion o f the plan. 122 Constraints on Water Q u a lity Goal Attainment The o v e ra ll aim o f the planning e f f o r t o f the TCRPC is to meet the water q u a lit y goal set f o r th is nation by the Congress, namely, to achieve by 1983 water q u a lit y which is safe f o r re c re a tio n a l use and which protects f is h and w i l d l i f e . pressure on the planning agency. This time l i m i t exerts a great The s itu a tio n is aggravated by the fa c t th a t public p a r t ic ip a t io n in 208 planning is a requirement which must be f u l f i l l e d by a l l planning agencies. Not only must the public be involved in the planning process, but also the f i n a l plan must be acceptable to the local people. Public acceptance o f a 208 plan such as the one under preparation by the TCRPC tends to defy d e f i n i t e time 1im its . The in te n tio n o f 208 planning l e g i s l a t io n is th a t local govern­ ments should continue planning on a f i n a n c i a l l y s e lf-s u s ta in in g basis when the i n i t i a l two-year period e x p ire s . Region, the period expires on June 30, 1977. In the Tri-County The local governments in the region may not be able to ra is e enough money on t h e i r own f o r a continuing planning process. Furthermore, i t is doubtful whether the local governments consider themselves bound by t h e i r res o lu tio n s of in te n t to continue 208 planning a f t e r the term ination o f the grant by the Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency. P re s e n tly , local governments are not showing any commitment to the 208 planning process beyond 1977. 38 38 The time f o r federal and s ta te fin a n c ia l assistance to U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, National P r o f i l e o f Section 208 Areawide Management Planning Agencies (Washington: Environmental P rotection Agency, 19 7 5 ), p. i x . 123local governments w i l l th e re fo re have to be extended, i f the 208 plan ning process is to be the on-going program i t was intended to be. 39 Another c o n s tra in t is the existence o f p o l i t i c a l and adm inistra­ t iv e j u r i s d ic t i o n s whose o r ig in a l boundaries were not determined by ecological c o n sideratio ns. Power to implement plans is vested in these local j u r i s d i c t i o n s . Section 208 planning is also i n s t i t u t i o n ­ a l l y complex: i t involves many le v e ls o f governmental u n it s , making horizontal and v e r t ic a l coordination o f e f f o r t s a key issue. There is a strong commitment on the p a rt o f the designated planning agency to develop and implement a management system, but a t this po in t in the planning process, no management agency has been designated in the Tri-C ou nty Region. Host designated planning agencies, however, foresee a s in g le planning agency and several management agencies as a probable framework. I t would also seem t h a t the m a jo rity o f the planning agencies would opt f o r m odificatio ns o f e x is tin g in ­ s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements r a t h e r than major i n s t i t u t i o n a l changes. cautionary note must be sounded a t th is p o in t. A Rigid in s is te n c e on "local autononty" by j u r i s d i c t i o n s w ith in the designated area w i l l be a serious c o n s tra in t on developing in n o v a tiv e regional waste t r e a t ­ ment management a l t e r n a t i v e s . 39I b i d . , p. 50 CHAPTER 5 ASSESSMENT OF THE TRI-COUNTY REGIONAL PLANNING COMMISSION'S APPROACH TO 208 PLANNING The discussion in the previous chapters have provided the necessary background m ate ria l f o r an assessment o f the approach to Section 208 planning adopted by the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Com­ mission {RCRPC}. In Chapter 2, the ecosystem approach to viewing water p o llu tio n from non-point sources was examined in order to i d e n tif y e c o lo g ic a lly based p r in c ip le s . These p rin c ip le s have been established and are re c a p itu la te d as follow s: (1 ) Non-point sources o f water p o llu tio n must be studied on a regional basis; (2) Consider­ ation o f w ater p o llu t io n from both po int and non-point sources must form an in te g ra l p a rt o f the broad issue o f environmental q u a l i t y ; (3) I n s t i t u t i o n a l econtrol o f ecosystems must be guided by t h e i r tolerances to p o llu ta n ts or c a rry in g c a p a c itie s ; and (4 ) Land and water resources must be managed h o l i s t i c a l l y in order to minimize the generation o f water p o llu t a n t s . In the present c hap ter, each o f the above p rin c ip le s is discussed in r e l a t i o n to 208 planning in the T ri County Region. The Region as a Basis f o r Planning The Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 208, s p e c ifie s th a t planning must be done on an areawide or 124 125 regional b a s is , leaving the c r i t e r i a f o r s e le c tin g a region to the s tate or local government concerned. Using t h is option the Governor of the State o f Michigan has designated the Tri-C ounty Region o f Michigan as a 208 planning area. This region coincides w ith an e x i s t ­ ing area, having long estab lished local j u r i s d i c t i o n s and c e rta in c le a r ly defined powers. Such powers are je a lo u s ly guarded again st encroachment by oth er le v e ls o f government. There are d e f i n i t e ad­ vantages f o r plan form ulation and implementation in having a region with c le a r l y defined local j u r i s d i c t i o n s . making process is w e ll-e s ta b lis h e d . The democratic d e c is io n ­ In the democratic form o f govern­ ment, planning a t the local le v e l is expected to r e f l e c t the hopes and a s p ira tio n s o f the local people. This presupposes t h a t the problems to be solved through planning are confined to the Tri-County Region. Water p o llu t io n , e s p e c ia lly one emanating from non-point sources, is a problem which cuts across the boundaries o f the Tri-C ounty Region. The region forms p a rt o f the Grand River Basin and, i d e a l l y , the planning area should be the whole basin. In th is sense, a number of watersheds {small ecosystems) whose in te ra c tio n s can be i d e n t i f i e d . Within th is framework, the r e la tio n s h ip between man's a c t i v i t i e s and natural processes can be e s ta b lis h e d . Recognition o f the natural processes and man's r o le in these processes is the most meaningful way of viewing the water p o llu t io n problem and i d e n t if y in g s tra te g ie s to control water p o llu t io n . This reco gn itio n also provides a strong case in support o f i n t e r - j u r i s d i c t i o n a l cooperation in combating water p o llu tio n . 126 Some j u r i s d i c t i o n s such as Io n ia and C lin to n Counties l i e e n t i r e l y w ith in the Grand R iv e r Watershed. But the boundary o f the watershed cuts across counties such as Shiawassee, G r a t i o t , and Ottawa. This would cause j u r i s d i c t i o n a l problems but such problems are surmountable. In any case, there w i l l be the problem o f co­ o rd in a tio n o f planning e f f o r t s . But c o o rd in a tio n based on p r in c ip le s underlying ecosystem in t e r a c t io n s is the most a p p ro p ria te way o f gaining deep in s ig h ts in t o man-environment r e la tio n s h ip s and water p o llu t io n . Most o f the T ri-C o u n ty Region l i e s in the Grand R iv e r Watershed. This lo c a tio n provides the region w ith the o p p o rtu n ity to seek long term s o lu tio n s to the problem o f w ater p o l l u t i o n . N atural and man- induced processes which generate p o llu t io n can be i d e n t i f i e d . I t is c le a r t h a t p o llu t a n t s generated by both n a tu ra l and man-made processes in the T ri-C o u n ty Region are l i k e l y to cause damage to water q u a l i t y in places which l i e ou tsid e the re g io n , even though the immediate impact o f the p o llu t a n t s might be experienced in the reg ion . Because o f t h is s i t u a t i o n th e re is an urgent need f o r a l l 208 planning agencies in the Grand R iv e r Watershed to cooperate w ith one another to solve water p o llu t io n problem. In te r - p la n n in g agency cooperation to solve water p o llu t io n problems is recognized in the Federal A c t, but i t is not given the emphasis i t deserves. The l e g i s l a t i o n is not as strong on t h i s i n t e r ­ agency cooperation as i t the planning process. i s , f o r example, on c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n in The Act provides no g u id e lin e s f o r i n t e r ­ planning agency coo p e ra tio n . The form in which in te r-a g e n c y coopera­ tio n f o r 208 planning is ta k in g in southern Michigan is t h a t the 208 127 planning agency d ir e c to r s meet on an inform al basis to exchange views on the planning a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i r re s p e c tiv e planning agencies. This is one form o f needed cooperation which has i t s m e r its . But cooperation f o r the s o lu tio n o f a problem as v i t a l as water p o llu t io n c a lls f o r adherence to c e r t a in basic p r in c ip le s or g u id e lin e s . ecosystem r e la tio n s h ip s provide these g u id e lin e s . The For example, the whole o f the Grand R iver should be regarded as a system and the various planning agencies in the basin should know to what e x te n t t h e i r re s p e c tiv e e f f o r t s c o n tr ib u te to the whole system in solving the water p o l lu t io n problem. Environmental Q u a lity Man is the c e n tra l f ig u r e in any co n sid eratio n o f environmental q u a lity . What man, as an in d iv id u a l and as a member o f organized s o c ie ty , decides as best f o r the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f his b io lo g ic a l and a e s th e tic needs determines environmental q u a l i t y . Environmental q u a lity can th e r e fo re be defined by human perceptions and re a c tio n s . I t is r e la t e d to the fu n c tio n in g and s u rv iv a l of the human pap ulation and the in d iv id u a ls w ith in i t . "The concept o f environmental q u a l i t y represents the unique p erspective and awareness o f the human species as to the various aspects o f i t s e x is te n c e --a n d the p o te n tia l we have f o r managing our environment not only to support some (optimum) population but to achieve an optimum environment f o r man."^ ^Ronald L. Shelton, “P r in c ip le s o f P o l i t i c a l Ecology," (East Lansing: Department o f Resource Development, Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity , 1976), p. 18. (Mimeographed.) 128 An optimum environment f o r man raises a number o f questions, such as problems in developing environmental in d ic a to rs . A s ig n ifi­ cant provision o f the National Environmental Policy A ct, signed on January 1, 1970, concerns the development o f environmental in d ic a to rs . Section 1 0 2 (2 ) ( B) o f the Act d ire c ts a l l federal agencies to " id e n t if y and develop methods and procedures, in c on sultatio n w ith the Council on Environmental Q u a lity . . . which w i l l ensure th a t presently un­ q u a n tifie d environmental amenities and values may be given appropriate consideration in decision making along with economic and technical con sid e ra tio n ." 2 Section 204 o f National Environmental Policy Act fu r th e r provides th a t the Council on Environmental Q u a lity shall "document and d e fin e changes in the natural environment, including the plant and animal systems, and to accummulate necessary data and other information f o r continuing analysis o f these changes or trends and an 3 in t e r p r e t a tio n o f the underlying causes." F u lfillm e n t o f these re ­ quirements c a lls f o r the development o f c l a s s if i c a t i o n systems, c r i t e r i a f o r measurement, in d ic a to rs and indices t h a t can be used to describe o b je c tiv e s and trends in environmental management. The development o f meaningful in d ic a to rs o f environmental q u a lit y c a lls f o r the q u a n t ific a t io n o f an a rra y o f q u a l i t a t i v e value judgments and perceptions. Other problems a r is e because o f the lack o f s u ita b le measuring devices and c l e a r l y defined goals t h a t r e l a t e to the use o f 2 U. S . , Congress, National Environmental P o lic y Act o f 1969, P.L. 91-190, Section 1 0 2 (2 )(B ), 91st Cong., S. 1075, January 1, 1970. 3I b i d . , Section 2 0 4 (b ). 129 environmental resources. The a p p lic a tio n o f the concept o f e nviron­ mental q u a l i t y is fra u g h t w ith many hurdles to be c le a re d . Most o f the success enjoyed w ith the development o f e n v iro n ­ mental in d ic a to rs to date in the United States has come w ith those in d ic a to rs used to describe a i r , w a te r , noise p o llu t io n and r a d i a t i o n . With these examples, exte n s iv e use is made o f physical measures o f the q u a n tity o f p o llu ta n ts in the a i r o r w a te r, d e c ib e ls o f sound, or le v e ls o f exposure to io n iz in g r a d i a t i o n . These readings a re checked against assumed and documented h e a lth and comfort standards to pro­ vide measures o f q u a l i t y . Water q u a l i t y is one aspect o f e n v iro n ­ mental q u a l i t y and t h is pers p e c tiv e should not be l o s t in considering the con trol o f water p o ll u t i o n . Carrying C a p ac itie s and Tolerances C losely r e la t e d to environmental q u a l i t y is the concept o f carrying c a p a c itie s and to le ra n c e s o f the various elements t h a t make the environment. The q u a l i t y o f w ater is what man considers best f o r his various needs. Rivers and streams through n a tu ra l processes a s s is t man to achieve t h i s q u a l i t y . But th e re is a l i m i t to the capacity o f streams to a s s im ila te wastes w ith o u t im p airin g the w ater q u a lit y which man d e s ir e s . The concept o f c a rry in g c a p a c ity is ap­ p lic a b le to o th e r resources such as parks, fo r e s ts and w ilderness areas f o r r e c r e a t io n . In any p a r t i c u l a r a re a , the planner must be considering sim ultaneously the c a rr y in g c a p a c itie s o f d i f f e r e n t resources. In i t s previous s tu d ie s , upon which the 208 f o r the T ri-C o u n ty Region is going to be based in p a r t , the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning 130 Commission addressed many issues r e la te d to the human environment. The Environmental Framework Study 4 o f the Tri-C ounty Region represents one o f several special studies which has a strong environmental bias. In th is study nine environmental fe atu re s have been i d e n t i f i e d as being s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la t e d to the fu tu re development o f the T r i County Region. These are groundwater, w i l d l i f e h a b it a t , a g r ic u lt u r a l lands, mineral dep osits, h is t o r ic a l s i t e s , s o i l s , slope, and woodland. The featu res l i s t e d above become more s ig n i f ic a n t when they are viewed as parts o f system o f which man is p a r t . I t is only when the features are seen as components o f a system th a t environmental q u a l i t y and carrying c a p a c itie s assume a useful place in the Section 208 planning process. This perspective appears to permeate the planning process of the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission. Water q u a lit y is the o b je c tiv e o f Section 208 planning, but i t s achievement requires serious consideration o f oth er aspects o f the human environment. To m aintain the environment in a s ta te appropriate f o r the s a tis fa c tio n o f human needs, some control o f ecosystems is re q u ire d . This control is achieved through human i n s t i t u t i o n s , by laws, re g u la tio n s , and in c e n tiv e s . The useful liv e s o f streams, r iv e r s , and lakes can be prolonged, i f t h e i r tolerances to waste and p o llu ta n ts are understood, i d e n t i f i e d , and th is knowledge u t i l i z e d in making re g u la tio n s . Knowledge o f environmental q u a l i t y and carrying c a p a c itie s is being c r y s t a l l i z e d but the p r in c ip le t h a t toleran ce le v e ls o f natural ^ T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission Environmental Framework Study (Lansing: TCRPC [ n . d . ] ) . 131 systems should be respected in the control o f water p o llu tio n is worth t r y i n g . This p r in c ip le has been given strong support in the 208 planning process by the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission. Pursuant to the gu idelines o f the Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency, the TCRPC is la y in g emphasis n o n -s tru ctu ra l approaches to water p o llu tio n c o n tr o l. Sound Management Practices As regards water p o llu t io n from non-point sources, sound management prac tic e s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l , s i l v i c u l t u r a l , mining and construction a c t i v i t i e s w i l l solve the problem. An encouraging development in the Tri-C ou nty Region is th a t most farmers are already employing good s o il conservation practices to reduce the adverse e ffe c ts o f a g r ic u lt u r a l ru n o ff. The method o f "no t i l l " is used by many farmers in the T ri-C ou nty Region to reduce s o il erosion. In a d d itio n , most farmers do not use excessive amounts o f f e r t i l i z e r since they cannot a ffo rd to have i t drained in to streams. 5 Good management p ra c tic e s employed by in d iv id u a l farmers are not enough in solving water p o llu t io n from non-point sources. Manage­ ment techniques should be seen w ith in the framework o f "Best Management P r a c tic e s ." The term, best management p ra c tic e s , is defined as a technique or combination o f techniques, th a t is d e te r ­ mined by a s ta te or designated areawide planning agency a f t e r problem 5 "Cooperation f o r Clean Water . . . a workshop on the q u a lit y of our w a te r," A one-day workshop on Section 208 o f the Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 sponsored by i n t e r e s t groups in the Lansing Area in cooperation w ith the Tri-C ounty Regional Plan­ ning Commission, Lansing, on A p ril 7, 1976, a t the Kellogg C enter, Michigan State U n iv e r s ity . 132 assessment, examination o f a l t e r n a t i v e p ra c tic e s , and appropriate public p a r t ic ip a tio n to be the most e f f e c t iv e and p ra c tic a b le means of preventing or reducing the amount o f p o llu tio n generated by non­ point sources to a le v e l compatible w ith water q u a l i t y g o a ls .6 The d e f i n i t i o n o f best management prac tic e s provides some te s ts or c r i t e r i a which should be applied by the s ta te in s e le c tin g a manage­ ment r o o l . The best management practices should be p ra c tic a b le and capable o f managing p o llu tio n generated by non-point sources. They should be most e f f e c t iv e in preventing or reducing the amount o f p o llu tio n generated and a t the same time compatible w ith water q u a lit y goals. The concept o f best management prac tic e s w i l l be useful in con­ t r o ll i n g both po in t and non-point sources o f p o llu t io n . In p ra c tic a l terms, a l l non-point sources o f p o llu tio n should be studied and f u l l consideration should be given to t h e i r t o t a l e f f e c t on the environ­ ment in the s e le c tio n o f the best management p ra c tic e s . The reason fo r th is h o l i s t i c approach is th a t management prac tic e s applied to prevent or reduce water p o llu tio n could r e s u lt in adverse e ffe c ts on the other portions o f the environment are not only undesirable but w i l l also delay the implementation o f best management practices to control water p o llu t io n . There are many useful techniques which can be applied to the management o f a g r ic u lt u r a l and s i l v i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s . techniques are well documented elsewhere. These I t must be pointed out 6U. S. Environmental P rotectio n Agency, D r a ft Guideline Areawide Water Q u a lity Management, Supplement No. 1 (Washington: Environmental Protection Agency, 1976), p. 2. 133 th a t the in d iv id u a l fanner or s i l v i c u l t u r i s t , f o r example, is not guided by a reg ion al o r h o l i s t i c p e rs p e c tiv e as he adopts a p a r t ic u ­ l a r management p r a c t ic e . This p e rs p e c tiv e is to be provided by the planning agency, T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission. Provision o f such a p e rs p e c tiv e places a heavy r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on the TCRPC. Acquaintance w ith e x is t in g management p ra c tic e s in the T ri-C o u n ty Region is not enough. What is re q u ire d is knowledge about the cumula­ t iv e e f f e c t o f c e r t a in p ra c tic e s on the re g io n , in terms o f water p o llu t io n . Most farmers in the T ri-C o u n ty Region are a lre a d y coversant w ith a g r ic u lt u r a l p r a c tic e s which y i e l d high p r o f i t s . But best management practices in terms o f w ater q u a l i t y may lead to reduced monetary ben efits to the fa rm er. The planning agency w i l l be faced w ith the problem o f persuading the farm er to adopt a technique which seems less a t t r a c t i v e than those he is f a m i l i a r w it h . An e f f e c t i v e way o f ensuring the adoption o f a seemingly u n a t t r a c t i v e technique, which enhances the q u a l i t y o f the human environment, w i l l be to provide real in c e n tiv e s . The p ro v is io n o f meaningful in c e n tiv e s to encourage the adoption o f best management p ra c tic e s appears to be lac k in g in the 208 planning process o f the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission. The question o f in c e n tiv e s is a serious one which req u ire s very c a re fu l thought. Many in c e n tiv e s a lre a d y e x i s t but a d d itio n a l research is required to i d e n t i f y the best combination o f options o ffe re d by these in c e n tiv e s . Water p o l lu t i o n due to re s id u a l wastes poses serious problems. Residual wastes are those s o l i d , l i q u i d o r sludge substances r e s u ltin g 134 from urban, a g r i c u l t u r a l , s i l v i c u l t u r a l , construction and mining a c t i v i t i e s found in the environment. In the p a s t, these wastes were regarded as a problem r a th e r than as a p o te n tia l asset— and f o r economic reasons, were dumped in to streams, oceans or on the land. This a t t i t u d e has changed in recent years and consideration is now given to s i t e maintenance f o r waste d is p o s a l, resource recovery and recycling . In the S tate o f Michigan, fo r example, le g i s l a t io n was passed in 1974 to encourage rec y c lin g and resource recovery.^ Residual wastes must be considered as la r g e ly untapped resources w ith po ten tials f o r b e n e fic ia l use. Water p o llu tio n from residual wastes is amenable to abatement by the best management prac tic e s approach which can be expected to produce s y s te m a tic a lly waste s t a b i l i z a t i o n , waste red u c tio n , resource re c y c lin g and recovery. The best management practices approach cannot be estab lished and u t i l i z e d on an in d iv id u a l basis, but must be in te g ra te d in to an o v e ra ll system f o r the e f ­ fe c tiv e management o f resid ual wastes. Recommendations There are a number o f c i t i z e n p a r t ic ip a t io n programs in the Tri-County Region. q u a lity . These programs deal with various aspects o f water But in view o f the comprehensive nature o f Section 208 program, the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission should be made the coordinator o f a l l c i t i z e n p a r t ic ip a t io n a c t i v i t i e s in the region pertaining to water p o llu t io n . ^Michigan, Public Acts 1974, No. 366. January 1, 1975. This Act took e f f e c t on 135 The T ri-C ou nty Regional Planning Commission has shown i t s concern f o r the human environment by i d e n t i f y i n g the nine e nviron­ mental fe a tu re s discussed e a r l i e r . These nine fe a tu re s should be conceived as components o f a system. The ecosystem approach to viewing the environmental fe a tu re s provides g u id e lin e s f o r i d e n t i f y ­ ing water p o llu t io n c o n tro l s t r a t e g i e s . There are a number o f designated 208 planning areas in southern Michigan. I t is recommended t h a t th e re must be a formal arrangement fo r c oo rd inating a l l 208 planning a c t i v i t i e s in the Grand R iver Basin. Recycling o f wastes should be encouraged. In t h is connection, provision should be made in the land use plan f o r the storage o f residuals (p o llu ta n ts which are regarded as p o te n tia l u n t il they can be put to a useful purpose. resources) This is another area which req u ire s research. The dichotomy between 208 planning and 208 implementation should be narrowed as much as p o s s ib le . The management agency/ies should be involved in the planning a c t i v i t i e s o f the planning agency from the beginning. I t is recommended t h a t the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Plan­ ning Commission should undertake urgent studies to provide the necessary info rm atio n to enable the governor to designate the manage­ ment agency/ies before the f i r s t Section 208 water q u a l i t y plan is fin a liz e d . CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary The United States is w e ll endowed w ith resources o f which water played a s i g n i f i c a n t r o le in i t s e a r l y s e ttle m e n t. Indus­ t r i a l i z a t i o n and u rb a n iz a tio n have led to a d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f the environment. Of p a r t i c u l a r concern to the American p u b lic is w ater p o llu tio n because o f i t s harmful e f f e c t s on human h e a lt h , a q u a tic ecosystems and water-based r e c r e a tio n a l are a s . The main o b je c tiv e o f t h is study was to examine and suggest a framework f o r understanding w ater p o l l u t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y non­ point sources o f p o l l u t i o n , in the T ri-C o u n ty Region o f Michigan. A sub sidiary o b je c tiv e was to a p p ra is e i n s t i t u t i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements f o r planning under the provisio ns o f Section 208 o f the Federal Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1972. This Act is the most comprehensive l e g i s l a t i o n to c o n tro l w ater p o l l u t io n ever enacted by the United S tates Congress. Water p o l l u t io n s a t i s f i e s the f i v e con dition s req uired f o r the existence o f a researchable problem as suggested by Russell A c k o ff. N a t io n a lly , water p o llu t io n is a serious problem. Estimates made in 1972 showed t h a t about 35 percent o f the n a tio n 's waterways v io la t e d the water q u a l i t y standards e s ta b lis h e d by the re s p e c tiv e s t a t e s , and about 40 percent o f these v io l a t i o n s were a t t r i b u t e d to p o llu t io n 136 137 from non-point sources. Rural America, which occupies about 97 percent o f the land a re a , is a major no n-p oint source o f p o l l u t i o n . Southern Michigan where the T ri-C o u n ty Region, the study a re a , is located has experienced rap id growth in in d u s try and urban popula­ tion and, in a sense, epitom izes the n a tio n a l w ater p o llu t io n problem. The method o f approach o f t h is study was to examine non-point sources o f w ater p o l l u t i o n w ith in an e c o lo g ic a l framework. A con­ ceptual ecosystems model was evolved to i l l u s t r a t e the processes and mechanisms which caused w ater p o l l u t i o n . Using the watershed as a u n it o f study, fo u r p r in c ip le s were i d e n t i f i e d and used as c r i t e r i a to assess the approach to Section 208 planning adopted by the T r i County Regional Planning Commission. Data on l e g i s l a t i v e h i s t o r y , provisions and im p lic a tio n s o f Section 208 were obtained from U. S. Environmental P ro te c tio n Agency (EPA) documents and o th e r a v a i l a b l e sources. E x is tin g data on water q u a l i t y c o lle c t e d by the T r i - County Regional Planning Commission were u t i l i z e d f o r t h is study because they were found to be comprehensive, reasonably recen t and p e rtin e n t to w ater p o llu t io n a n a ly s is in the re g io n . The r e s t o f t h is chapter has the fo llo w in g sequence: a summary discussion o f the ecosystem concept and i t s relevance to water p o l­ l u t io n , the Federal Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, Section 208, i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements f o r 208 p la n n in g , and con­ clusions . The conceptual ecosystems model provided the necessary fram e­ work f o r examining the n a tu ra l and man-induced processes. ing and erosion are two o f the n a tu ra l processes. Weather­ By w eath erin g, 138 the e a r th 's c ru s t is d is in te g ra te d to provide m a te ria l (p o te n tia l p o llu ta n ts ) to be transported by the agents o f erosion. a c t i v i t i e s tend to a c c e le ra te the natural processes. Human Those selected fo r close examination were a g r ic u lt u r e , s i l v i c u l t u r e , mining and construction. The use o f complex machinery, high y ie ld in g seeds, f e r t i l i z e r s and pe s tic id e s on a large scale in American a g r ic u ltu r e has led to the generation o f p o llu ta n ts to both ground and surface water. Sediment is a p o llu t a n t and also a c a r r i e r o f oth er chemical pollutants adsorbed to i t . In s i l v i c u l t u r e , timber harvesting and logging practices ac­ count fo r s u b s ta n tia l q u a n titie s o f sediment and p e s tic id e s . cutting o f timber is a major c o n tr ib u to r o f sediment. Clear Transportation of logs by tra c to r s and other methods d is tu rb the s o i l , rendering i t e a s ily s uscep tib le to erosion. Reduction o f shade trees along stream banks raises water temperature to cause thermal p o llu t io n . Mining and con struction also d is tu rb the s o il and c o n trib u te po llutants to streams and la k e s . produces mine drainage. In a d d itio n to sediment, mining Some o f the f e r t i l i z e r s and p e sticides used to s t a b i l i z e the vegetation o f mined areas become p o llu ta n ts de­ pending on how they are a p p lie d . Construction a c t i v i t i e s which modify the b io lo g ic a l and physical p rop erties o f water include tra n s ­ p o rtatio n and communications network, housing and re la te d land development. Urban development creates an impervious la y e r o f con­ crete and asph alt which elim in ates i n f i l t r a t i o n and accelerates ru n o ff. 139 Conceptually* a r i v e r basin in which man's a c t i v i t i e s have had a n e g lig ib le impact on the ecosystem can be described as a natural basin or watershed. Such a watershed has three parts: land ecosystems, water ecosystems and land-w ater in te r a c t io n s . Through the a c tio n o f primary and secondary producers, decomposers and n u trie n ts c y c lin g , the land and w ater ecosystems are m aintained. When the natural processes are disturbed by man's a c t i v i t i e s , the impact o f the human in s t i t u t i o n s on the environment must be con­ sidered. Human i n s t it u t i o n s receive inform ation from the land and water ecosystems. On the basis of th is in fo rm a tio n , decisions are made to reg u la te the use o f land and w ater resources. Out o f these relation ship s were established the fo llo w in g p rin c ip le s which were used to assess Section 208 planning process in the Tri-C ou nty Region: non-point sources o f p o llu tio n must be studied on a regional basis; water q u a lity considerations must be p a rt o f environmental q u a li t y ; control o f ecosystems (environment) must be guided hy t h e i r carrying capacities and tolerances o f natural systems; and land and water resources must be managed e f f i c i e n t l y to minimize the generation o f p o llu ta n ts . Since the 208 planning le g i s l a t io n is p a rt o f the Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972, the h is t o r ic a l roots o f the Act need examination. Congressional concern f o r water q u a lit y dates back to 1899 when the Refuse Act to navia g tio n . was passed to prevent impediments The f i r s t Federal l e g i s l a t i o n d ire c te d s p e c i f i c a l l y to water p o llu tio n was the Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments of 140 1948. I t s purpose was to p ro te c t p u b lic h e a lt h . amended in 1956 to f a c i l i t a t e The 1948 Act was Federal enforcement o f w ater q u a l i t y standards. In 1965, a new Act was passed which req u ired each s t a t e to in d ic a te i t s in t e n t io n to e s ta b lis h w ater q u a l i t y standards f o r i t s i n t e r s t a t e w aters. Between 1967 and 1970, water p o llu t io n l e g i s l a ­ tio n was focused on p o llu t io n from o i l and acid mine d ra in a g e . In response to p u b lic demand f o r improvement in performance in a i r and w ater p o llu t io n c o n tro l in the l a t t e r p a r t o f 1969, Congress began to review a l l l e g i s l a t i o n on w ater p o l l u t i o n . In October 1972, the Federal Water P o llu t io n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 became law. The Act deals w ith both water q u a l i t y standards and e f f l u e n t discharges. Section 208 o f the Act deals s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith non-point sources of p o l l u t i o n . I t t i e s to g e th e r the various Federal water p o llu t io n abatement requirements and places the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r planning and implementing areawide waste treatm ent management plans on regional and local agencies. The Act aims a t preventing p o llu t io n o f navigable waters by 1985. I t s in te rm e d ia te goal f o r 1983 is to achieve w ater q u a l i t y which is safe f o r r e c r e a tio n a l use and which p ro te c ts f i s h and w i l d l i f e . National p o lic ie s o f the Act inc lu d e the p r o h ib it io n o f the discharge of p o llu ta n ts in to x ic amounts, p ro v is io n o f Federal funds f o r the construction o f publicly-ow ned waste treatm ent works, and the develop­ ment o f regional or areawide waste treatm ent planning and management. There is pro v is io n in the Act f o r p u b lic p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the develop­ ment, r e v is io n and enforcement o f water q u a l i t y r e g u la tio n s . 141 The 208 planning process begins w ith planning area designation by the Governor or the c h ie f elected rep resen tatives o f the s t a t e . The Governor also designates a planning agency and management agency/ ie s . The designations, accompanied by a fo rm a lly adopted res o lu tio n th a t local governments involved w i l l j o i n together to develop and implement a p la n , are sent to the Environmental P rotection Agency fo r approval. A Section 208 plan s hall contain a lte r n a t iv e s fo r waste treatment and management and s hall be a p p lic a b le to a l l types o f waste generated w ith in the designated planning area. The 208 plan s hall form an in te g ra l p a rt o f the basin plan which prescribes water q u a lit y standards and defines c r i t i c a l water q u a lity con dition s. Other programs w ith which the 208 plan shall have a close r e la tio n s h ip are 201 f a c i l i t i e s plan, 402 permit program, and other fe d e ra l programs. An a p p lic a tio n f o r 208 grant is subject to review under C ir c u la r number A-95 o f the O ff ic e o f Management and Budget. Among the planning im p lic a tio n s o f Section 208 le g i s l a t io n is the need to coordinate e f f o r t s by d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f government in the same planning a re a . There is the problem o f re c o n c ilin g water q u a lity goals w ith o th er community goals. A strong fun ction al r e l a ­ tionship is required between the planning agency and management agency/ies. In te rp ro fe s s io n a l r e la tio n s h ip must be so arranged as to take f u l l advantage o f the complementary roles o f the various professionals engaged in the preparation o f a 208 plan. The preceding discussion furnished the necessary background fo r the assessment o f 208 planning in the Tri-C ounty Region. The Tri-County Region comprising C lin to n , Eaton and Ingham counties, 142 covers 1,697 square m iles and is drained by the Grand R iver system. Four streams segments in the region a re c l a s s i f i e d by the Michigan Department o f N atural Resources as p o llu t e d . Non-point sources o f p o llu tio n have f r u s t r a t e d e f f o r t s by lo c a l government u n its to clean up the waste d is c h a rg e rs , and Section 208 planning i s seen as the most e f f e c t i v e means o f de a lin g w ith the re g io n 's water p o llu t io n problem. Governor W illia m M i l l i k e n designated the T ri-C o u n ty Region a planning area and designated the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Com­ mission as the planning agency on March 28, 1975. The area designa­ tio n was j u s t i f i e d on grounds o f c u r re n t w ater p o llu t io n problems. The T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission hasd on e considerable work p e r ta in in g to w ater q u a l i t y from which 208 planning w i l l b e n e f i t . For the p e rio d , J u ly 1, 1975 to June 30, 1977, the o b je c tiv e o f 208 planning in the T ri-C o u n ty Region is to develop a w ell in te g ra te d strateg y f o r j o i n t land use-waste w ater management. The T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission is in the process of preparing a 208 plan f o r the re g io n . completion by June 30, 1977. This f i r s t plan is due f o r The desig n a tio n o f a management agency f o r the T ri-C o u n ty Region must th e r e fo re a w a it the completion o f the 208 plan. S t a f f in g in the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Corrmission is guided by the philosophy o f promoting an in te g r a te d s t a f f - c o n s u lt a n t e f f o r t to ensure an on-going program. Six c o n s u lta n ts , in c lu d in g Michigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity and the Michigan Department o f Natural Resources, have been h ire d to a s s i s t the planning agency in i t s planning e f f o r t . 143 The Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission has developed a 208 planning process a t the base o f which is the Technical Planning Coordinating Committee comprising e ig h t subcommittees. Each sub­ committee deals w ith one aspect o f water q u a l i t y in the reg io n . The recommendations o f the technical subcommittees are to be synthesized by the Executive Technical Committee in order to i d e n t i f y v ia b le a lte r n a t iv e recommendations. The a lte r n a t iv e s are then to be passed on to the Areawide Planning Advisory Committee (APAC) which w i l l discuss and vote upon them. A f t e r a review by the Conmission's Program and Grant Review Committee, the recommendations are sent to the Com­ mission f o r s e le c tio n o f the f i n a l plan. Units o f local government in the region are given the op portunity to comment on the f i n a l plan before i t is sent to the Michigan Department o f Natural Resources f o r state approval and thence, to the United States Environmental Pro­ tection Agency f o r f in a l approval. A Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) c h a rt has been prepared by the Commission to id e n t i f y the necessary work tasks fo r 208 planning. The c h a rt is supplemented w ith t e x t which describes the o b je c tiv e , sources o f in fo rm a tio n , and the products o f each work task. The Section 208 planning process in the region is meant to provide a sound beginning f o r a long range program o f regional water q u a lity improvement and maintenance as i t r e la te s to land use. The Tri-County Water Q u a lity Plan (208 plan) w i l l e la b o ra te and r e f i n e information on dischargers, w ater q u a l i t y le v e l s , and control programs fo r inclu sion in the 303(e) plans. The 303 basin plans are prepared by the s t a t e , and c o n s titu te the o v e ra ll framework w ith in which 208 plans 144 are developed. The basin plans provide water q u a l i t y standards and goals, d e fin e c r i t i c a l water q u a lit y conditions and provide waste load c o n s tra in ts . The Act s tip u la t e s th a t through c i t i z e n p a r t ic i p a t i o n , the public must be informed about s p e c ific issues under discussion so that i t may share in decisions on how water q u a l it y is to be achieved. C itize n involvement in the planning process has been taken s e rio u s ly by the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission. I t s most outstanding a c t i v i t y in th is connection was a one-day workshop held in A p ril 1976 a t the Kellogg C enter, Michigan State U n iv e r s ity , to explain various aspects o f the 208 planning process and i n v i t e input from the p u b lic . An assessment o f the planning approach o f the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission must recognize the time c o n s tra in t imposed by the Act. I t is also doubtful whether the local governments w i l l be able to continue the planning process a f t e r the Federal grant exp ire s . D i f f i c u l t i e s associated w ith coordinating the a c t i v i t i e s o f d i f f e r e n t agencies must also be noted. The planning approach was assessed in terms o f the ecological p rin c ip le s i d e n t i f i e d e a r l i e r . Many previous studies o f the T r i - County Regional Planning Commission d e a l t w ith aspects o f the en­ vironment. A ll fe atu re s o f the environment should have been regarded as parts o f a system in order to give environmental q u a lit y and c a r r y ­ ing capacity a meaningful place in the 208 planning process. The boundaries o f the Tri-C ounty Region w i l l pose problems as regards ecosystem management. Ecosystems c o n s titu tin g the human environment must be c o n tro lle d in order to s a t i s f y human needs, but to be e f f e c t iv e in the long run, the control must be guided by knowledge o f environmental 145 tolerances and the q u a lit y o f human l i f e r e s u ltin g from our actions regarding the environment. This p r in c ip le is supported by the T r i - County Regional Planning Commission. By pursuing the concept o f 'b e s t management p ra c tic e s ' as defined by the U. S. Environmental P rotectio n Agency, and laying stress on n o n -s tru ctu ra l approaches to water p o l­ lu tio n c o n tr o l, the TCRPC w i l l give concrete expression to th is p r in c ip le . Conclusions Section 208 Planning L e g is la tio n The Federal Water P o llu tio n Control Act Amendments o f 1972 (P.L. 92-500) are comprehensive le g i s l a t io n f o r c o n tr o llin g water p o llu tio n in the United S ta te s . Section 208 o f the Act addresses non-point sources o f w ater p o llu tio n which u n t il re c e n tly have been la rg e ly neglected. This section o f the Act requires the prepara­ tion and implementation o f waste treatment management plans by s ta te and units o f local government. Section 208 planning is e s s e n t ia lly a new kind o f water q u a lit y planning, re q u irin g education o f the public on i t s f u l l im p lic a tio n s . Public education f o r c i t i z e n involvement in the 208 planning process is c u r re n tly going on in many s ta te s . non-structural The le g i s l a t i o n requires th a t inn ovative approaches be u t i l i z e d to solve the problem o f water p o llu tio n from non-point sources. Furthermore, there is a provision in the Act f o r the c re a tio n o f new i n s t i t u t io n s to imple­ ment these new approaches. State and local laws may be enacted. State or local a d m in is tra tiv e actions may be needed or even a s ta te c o n s titu tio n revised in order to c re a te powers and c a p a b i l it ie s f o r 146 management agencies to implement the 208 p la n . Despite t h is pro­ v is io n , the Act gives the impression t h a t new i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrange­ ments or d r a s t i c changes in e x i s t in g i n s t i t u t i o n s a re not encouraged. Such changes are d e f i n i t e l y not req uired f o r Section 208 planning. E x is tin g i n s t i t u t i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements in the Tri-C ounty Region can be u t i l i z e d to evolve new approaches to solve the problem o f w ater p o llu t io n from no n-p oint sources. These i n ­ s t it u t io n s inc lu d e a l l u n its o f lo c a l government which have the a u th o rity to prepare plans and e x e rc is e con trol over land uses in t h e i r re s p e c tiv e areas o f j u r i s d i c t i o n . Land uses and w ater p o l l u ­ tion are c lo s e ly r e la t e d and e f f e c t i v e p u b lic d ir e c t io n o f land use o ffe rs a good o p p o rtu n ity f o r c o n t r o l l i n g water p o l l u t i o n . P ublic measures f o r d i r e c t i n g land use in c lu d e zoning ordinances, land sub­ d iv is io n r e g u la t io n s , and t a x a t io n . Zoning as a method o f c o n t r o l l i n g land use can be used in many ways to promote s o c i a l l y desired g o a ls . But l i k e many o th e r public powers, i t can be and sometimes is abused, r e s u ltin g in d is c rim in a ­ tio n a g a in s t m in o r ity groups and p r o te c tio n o f the r ig h t s o f key groups. However, zoning is a useful and an e f f e c t i v e instrum ent fo r d ir e c tin g the use o f la n d , i f the zoning re g u la tio n s are based on a comprehensive land use plan o f the a re a . In order to be e f f e c t i v e a zoning ordinance must be preceded by a comprehensive land use p la n . Measures intended to prevent o r minimize the generation o f p o llu t a n t s can be incorporated in the land use plan. To encourage people to adopt measures f o r preventing p o llu t io n from non-point sources, i t is e s s e n tia l to provide them w ith in c e n tiv e s . The Forest Y ie ld Tax provides an example o f such an in c e n t iv e . This 147 tax is a lre a d y in fo rc e in the States o f M ichigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin. The Forest Y ie ld Tax exempts the f o r e s t owner from taxes on the land so long as the tim ber is not harvested. This tax in c e n tiv e encourages the f o r e s t owner to take a long term view in the manage­ ment o f his resources. Without t h is in c e n tiv e the f o r e s t owner w i l l be tempted to cut out a l l the tim ber a t the e a r l i e s t o p p o rtu n ity and thereby expose the land to s o il erosion and the r e s u lt a n t generation of sediment w i l l aggravate p o llu t io n problems in nearby streams and lakes. Other in c e n tiv e s can be e x p lo re d . The p ro v is io n o f meaning­ fu l in c e n tiv e s f o r the adoption o f management p ra c tic e s which prevent or minimize the gen eration o f w ater p o llu ta n ts is one area which requires in te n s iv e research. C itiz e n P a r t i c ip a t i o n C it iz e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n in 208 planning is a requirement o f the A ct, and the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Comnission has made a good s t a r t in i t s c i t i z e n involvement program. Meetings w ith government agencies, i n t e r e s t groups and in d iv id u a l c i t i z e n s have been held to e xplain the provisio ns o f the 208 l e g i s l a t i o n and the c i t i z e n ' s r o le in i t s im plem entation. The one-day workshop on 208 planning process organized by the T ri-C o u n ty Regional Planning Commission was a s i g n i f i c a n t step towards the achievement o f c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n . L ik e the planning process, c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n is intended to be a continuous a c t i v i t y which does not stop w ith the completion of the 208 p la n . I t involves the education o f the whole community on a continuous b a s is . C it iz e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n must not be regarded as something separate from normal e du catio n. The f u l l im p lic a tio n o f 148 th is concept o f c i t i z e n p a r t ic ip a t io n is th a t education fo r c i t i z e n involvement in the planning process should permeate a l l le v e ls o f both formal and non-formal education in the reg ion . The education a u th o ritie s in the region should be consulted to see how c i t i z e n p a r tic ip a tio n in Section 208 planning and implementation can be incorporated in the normal school curriculum . In the Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission only one s t a f f member is responsible f o r c i t i z e n p a r t ic i p a t i o n . In view o f the importance o f c i t i z e n p a r t ic i p a t i o n , the s t a f f f o r c i t i z e n p a r t i c i ­ pation in the TCRPC should be expanded to enable them to s pell out the f u l l im p lic a tio n s o f c i t i z e n involvement in a continuing plan­ ning process. I t is suggested t h a t the expanded s t a f f should be made up e s s e n t ia lly o f people w ith sound t r a in in g in education and teach­ ing, and who are f a m i l i a r w ith the Section 208 planning process and the p o l i t i c s o f local communities o f the Tri-County Region. Sound Resource Management The Tri-C ounty Regional Planning Commission has made many studies and plans f o r various aspects o f the environment. Many environmental featu res have been addressed but there appears to be an absence o f a concept which t ie s the various aspects o f the environ­ ment to g eth er. I t would seem reasonable to assume th a t th is u n ify ­ ing concept is beginning to emerge because o f the Commission's acceptance o f the concept o f sound resource management. B a s ic a lly th is concept recognizes t h a t a l l o f man's a c t i v i t i e s cycle resources, return them to the environment in an a lte r e d s t a t e , and use energy in the process. Good resource management implies the f u l l e s t possible 149 use o f any resources cycled in processes o f b e n e fit to man and the return o f resources (re s id u a ls and p o llu ta n ts ) to the environment with the le a s t possible disturbance o f environmental media ( a i r , water and land) and ecological systems. The Tri-County Regional Planning Commission's readiness to fo s te r best management practices in the Tri-C ounty Region is in furtherance o f t h is concept. W ithin the past few y e a rs , the s p o tlig h t o f public a tte n tio n in the United States has been focused on issues o f ecology and the environment. A g re a t deal o f progress has been made in d e lin e a tin g the causes and e f fe c t s o f environmental d e t e r io r a t io n . public has become environm entally conscious. Much o f the Substantial progress has also been made in i n i t i a t i n g programs fo r the maintenance and enhancement o f environmental q u a l i t y . One such program is Section 208 program which is j u s t g e ttin g underway in the Tri-County Region. This program is l i k e l y to have a major impact not only on water p o llu tio n control but also on land use and economic growth o f com­ munities in the reg ion . The Section 208 program is destined to become one o f the most important means o f continuous management o f the Tri-County Region's water p o llu t io n problem. The major challenge facing the people o f the region c a l l s f o r continuing the Section 208 program th a t has been s ta rte d and improving i t so th a t a t t a i n ­ ment and maintenance o f high q u a l it y environment can become a con­ tinuing r e a l i t y . APPENDICES APPENDIX A FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1972, SECTION 208 APPENDIX A 1972 Fed era l W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o nt r ol A ct A m e n d m e n t s (P.L. 92-500) AREAWIDE WASTE TREATMENT MANAGEMENT S e c t i o n 208 a) For the p u r p o s e of e n c o u r a g i n g and f a c i l i t a t i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of a r e a w i d e w a s t e tr ea t me nt m a n a g e m e n t p la ns (1) T h e A d m i n i s t r a t o r , w i t h i n n i n e t y d ay s after the date of e n a c t m e n t of this A ct and a f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e Federal, State, and local a u th orit ie s, s hall by r e g u l a t i o n p u bl is h g u i d e ­ l i nes for the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of those areas which, as a result of u r b a n - i n d u s t r i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of o t he r factors, have s u b ­ s t a n t i a l w a t e r q u a l i t y c on tr ol problems, (2) T h e G o v e r n o r of e a c h State, w i t h i n s i xt y days af te r p u b l i c a t i o n of the g u i d e l i n e s issued p u r s u a n t to p a r a g r a p h (1) of this s u b ­ s ect io n, s h a l l i d e n t i f y each area w i t h i n the State w hi ch, as a r es u lt of u r b a n - i n d u s t r i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s or o th er factors, has s u b s t a n t i a l w a t e r q u a l i t y c o nt ro l problems. Not later than one h u n d r e d a n d t we nt y d a y s f o l l o w i n g s u ch i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and af ter c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e e le c te d and o t her o f f i c i a l s of local g o v e r n m e n t s h a v i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n in such areas, the G o v e r n o r s ha ll d e s i g n a t e (A) the b o u n d a r i e s of each such area, and (B) a s in g le r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o rg a ni z a t i o n , i n c l u di n g elec te d o f f i c i a l s from local g o v e r n m e n t s or their d es ig ne e s, c a p a b l e of d e v e l o p i n g e f f e c t i v e a r e a w i d e w a s t e t re at me nt m a n a g e m e n t plans for s u c h area. The G o v e r n o r m ay in tiie same m a n n e r at any later time identify any a d d i t i o n a l area (or m o d i f y an e xi s t i n g area) for w h i c h lie d e t e r m i n e s ar ea w id e w a s t e trea tme nt m a n a g e m e n t to be a p pr o p r i a t e , d e s i g n a t e the b o u n d a r i e s of such area, and d e s i g n a t e an o r g a n i z a ­ tion c a p a b L e of d e v e l o p i n g e f f e c t i v e a r e a w i d e w a s t e t r eat me nt m a n a g e m e n t plans for such area. (3) W it h r e sp e ct to a ny area which, pu rs u an t to the g u i d e l i n e s p u b l i sh e d u n d e r p a r a g r a p h (1) of this s ub se ct io n, is l o ca te d in two or m o r e States, the G o v e r n o r s of the r es p ec t i v e S tates shall c o ns ul t and c o o p e r a t e in c a r r y i n g our the p r o v i si o ns of p a r a ­ g r a p h (2), w i t h a v i e w toward d e s i g n a t i n g the b o u n d a r i e s of the i n t e r s t a t e area h a v i n g co m mo n w a t e r q u a l i t y c on tr ol p r o b l e m s and for w h i c h a r e a w i d e w a s t e t r e a t me n t m a n a g e m e n t plans w o u l d be m o s t ef fec ti ve , and toward .iesjgnating, w i t h i n one h u n d r e d and e i gh t y d a ys a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n oi g u i d e l i n e s issued p u r s u a n t to p a r a g r a p h (1) if this .subsection, of a single r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n c ap a b l e of d e v e l o p i n g e f f e c t i v e a r e a w i d e w a s t e t r e a t me n t m a n a g e m e n t plans for such area. (4) If a G o v e r n o r d o cs not act, e it he r by d e s i g n a t i n g or d e t e r m i n i n g not to m a k e a d e s i g n a t i o n u n d e r p a r a g r a p h (2) of this s u bs ec ti on , w i th i n the time re qu ir ed by such paragraph, or if, in the c as e of an i n t e r s t a t e area, the G o v e r n o r s of the Slates involved do not d e s i g n a t e a p l a n n i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n the time r eq u i r e d by p a r a g r a p h (3) of this s u bs ec ti on , the chief e l ec te d o f f i c i a l s of 150 151 local g o v e r n m e n t s w i t h i n a n a r e a m a y b y a g r e e m e n t d e s i g n a t e (A) the b o u n d a r i e s for s u ch a n area, and (B) a s i n g l e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n c l u d i n g e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s from s uc h local g o v e r n ­ ments, or their d e s i g ne e s, c a p a b l e of d e v e l o p i n g a n a r e a w i d e w a s t e t r e a t m e n t m a n a g e m e n t plan for s u c h area. (5) Existing regional agencies may be designated under paragraphs (3), and (4) of this su bs ec ti o n. (6) Th e S t a t e s h al l ac t as a p l a n n i n g a g e n c y for a ll p o r t i o n s of s u c h St at e w h i c h a re not d e s i g n a t e d u n d e r p a r a g r a p h s (2), (3), o r (4) of this s u bs ec ti on . D e s i g n a t i o n s u n d e r this s u b s e c t i o n s h a l l b e s u bj ec t to the a p p r o v a l of the A d m i n i s t r a t o r . (7) b) (2), (1) N ot l at er than o ne y e a r a f t e r t h e d a t e of d e s i g n a t i o n of any o r g a n i z a t i o n u n d er s u b s e c t i o n (a) of this s e c t i o n s u c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a l l h a v e in o p e r a t i o n a c o n t i n u i n g a r e a w i d e w a s t e t r e a t m e n t m a n ­ a g e m e n t p l a n n i n g p r oc es s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h s e c t i o n 201 of this Act. P l a n s p r e p a r e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h this p r oc e ss s h a l l c o n t a i n a l t e r ­ n a t i v e s for w a s t e t r e a t me n t m a n a g e m e n t , and b e a p p l i c a b l e to all w a s t e s g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n the a r e a involved. T he i n i t i a l p l a n p r e ­ p ar e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h such p r o c e s s s ha l l b e c e r t i f i e d b y the G o v e r n o r and s u b m i t t e d to the A d m i n i s t r a t o r n ot l ater t h an two y e a r s a f t e r the p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s is in o pe ra ti on . (2) An y p l a n p r e p a r e d u n d e r such p r o c e s s s h a l l include, b ut n o t be l i m i t e d to(A) the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t r e a t m e n t w o r k s n e c e s s a r y to m e e t the a n t i c i p a t e d municipal, and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e t r e a t m e n t n e ed s of the area o v er a t w e n t y - y e a r period, a n n u a l l y u p d a t e d (including an a n a l y s i s of a l t e r n a t i v e w a s t e t re a tm e nt systems), i n c l u d i n g any r e q u i r e m e n t s for the a c q u i s t i o n of land for t r e a t m e n t p u r ­ poses; the n e c e s s a r y w a s t e w a t e r c o l l e c t i o n and u r b a n s t o r m w a t e r r un o ff systems; a nd a p r o g r a m to p r o v i d e the n e c e s s a r y f i n a n c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s for the d e v e l o p m e n t of s u c h t re a tm e nt works; (B) the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of c o n s t r u c t i o n p r i o r i t i e s for s u ch t r e a t ­ m e n t w o r k s and time s c h e d u l e s for the i n i t i a t i o n a nd c o m p l e t i o n of a ll tr ea t me nt works; (C) the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a r e g u l a t o r y p r o g r a m to(1) (ii) impl em en t the w a s t e of s e c t i o n 2 0 1 ( c ) , treatment management requirements r e g u l a t e the location, m o d i f i c a t i o n , and c o n s t r u c t i o n of a ny f a ci li t i e s w i t h i n s u c h a r e a w h i c h m a y r e s u l t in any d i s c h a r g e in s u c h area, and 152 (ill) (3) a s s u r e that a n y I n d u s t r i a l o r c o m m e r c i a l w a s t e s d i s ­ c h a r g e d in to an y t r e a t m e n t w o r k s in such a r e a m e e t a ppl ic a bl e pretreatment requirements; (D) the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h o se a g e n c i e s n e c e s s a r y to c o n s t r u c t , o p er a te , an d m a i n t a i n all f a c i l i t i e s r e q u i r e d by the p l a n and o t h e r w i s e to c a r r y o u t the plan; (E) the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the m e a s u r e s n e c e s s a r y to c a r r y out the p l a n ( i n c l u d i n g f i na nc i n g ) , the p e r i o d of ti me n e c e s s a r y to c a r r y o ut the plan, the c o s t s of c a r r y i n g ou t the w i t h i n s u ch time, and the e c o n om i c, s o ci a l, and e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t of c a r r y i n g o ut the p l a n w i t h i n s u c h time; (F) a p r o c e s s to (i) i d en ti fy , if a p p r o p r i a t e , a g r i c u l t u r a l l y and s i l v i c u 1 t u r a l l y r e l a t e d n o n p o i n t s o u r c e s of p o l l u t i o n , i n c l u d ­ ing r u n o f f f r o m m a n u r e d i s p o s a l ar ea s , and f r o m land u se d for l i v e s t o c k a nd c r o p p r o d u c t i o n , and (i i ) set f o r th p r o c e d u r e s and m e t h o d s ( i n c l u d i n g l an d u s e r e q u i r e m e n t s ) to c o n t r o l to the e x t e n t f e a s i b l e s u c h s ou r c e s ; (G) a p r o c e s s to (i) i de nti fy , if a p p r o p r i a t e , m i n e - r e l a t e d s o u r c e s of p o l l u t i o n i n c l u d i n g new, c u r r e n t , an d a b a n d o n e d s u r f a c e and u n d e r g r o u n d m i n e runof f, and (ii) 3ct f o r t h p r o c e d u r e s and m e t h o d s ( i n c l u d i n g land u s e r e q u i r e m e n t s ) to c o n t r o l to the e x t e n t f e a s i b l e s u c h s o u rc e s; (H) a p r o c e s s to (i) i d e n t i f y c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t y r e l a t e d s o u r c e s of p o l l u t i o n , and (ii) set f orth p r o c e d u r e s and m e t h o d s ( i n c l u d ­ ing land u s e r e q u i r e m e n t s ) to c o n t r o l to the e x t e n t f e a s i b l e s u c h s ou r c e s ; (I) a p r o c e s s to (i) identify, if a p p r o p r i a t e , sa lt w a t e r i n t r u ­ s i o n into r i v e r s , lakes, and e s t u a r i e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m r e d u c t i o n of fres h w a t e r f lo w f ro m a n y c a u s e , i n c l u d i n g i r r i g a t i o n , o b s t r u c t i o n , g r o u n d w a t e r e x t r a c t i o n , and d i v e r s i o n , an d (ii) set f o r th p r o c e d u r e s a nd m e t h o d s to c o n t r o l s u ch i n t r u s i o n to the e x t e n t f e a s i b l e w h e r e s u c h p r o c e d u r e s and m e t h o d s a re o t h e r ­ w i s e a p a r t of the w a s t e t r e a t m e n t m a n a g e m e n t plan; (J) a p r o c e s s to g e n e r a t e d in (K) a p r o c e s s to c o n t r o l the d i s p o s a l of p o l l u t a n t s on land or in s u b s u r f a c e e x c a v a t i o n s w i t h i n s u c h a r e a to p r o t e c t g r o u n d and s u r f a c e w a t e r q u a li t y. c o n t r o l the d i s p o s i t i o n of al l r e s i d u a l w a s t e s u c h a r e a w h i c h c o u l d a f f e c t w a t e r q u a l i t y ; and Areawide w a s t e treatment management plans shall be certified annually by the G o v e r n o r o r h i s d e s i g n e e (or C o v e r n o r s or t h e i r d e s i g n e e s , w h e r e m o r e t h a n o n e S t a t e is i nv o l v e d ) as b e i n g c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a p p l i c a b l e b a s i n p l a n s a nd s u c h a r e a w i d e w a s t e t r e a t m e n t m a n a g e m e n t pla ns s h a l l b e s u b m i t t e d to the A d m i n i s t r a t o r for his a p p r o v a l . 153 (/*) c) (1) (2) d) W he n e v e r the G o v e r n o r of a ny St at e detcrninoti (and n oti f ie s the A d m i n i s t r a t o r ) that c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h a s t a t e w i d e r e g u l a t o r y p r o ­ g r am u n d e r s e c t i o n 303 so requires, the r e qu i r e m e n t s of c l a u s e s (F) t hr ou gh (K) of p a r a g r a p h (2) of this s u b s e c t i o n shall be d e v e l o p e d and s u b m i t t e d by the G o v e r n o r to the A d m i n i s t r a t o r for a p p l i c a t i o n to all r e gio ns w i t h i n such State, The G o v e r n o r of e ac h State, in c o n s u l t a t i o n w i th the p l a n n i n g ag en cy d e s i g n a t e d u nd er s u b s e c t i o n (a) of this s ec tion, at the time a p l an is s ub m i t t e d to the A dm i n i s t r a t o r , shall d e s i g n a t e one or m o re w a s t e treatment m a n a g e m e n t a g e n c i e s (which m a y be an e x i s t i n g or newl y crea te d locaL, regional, or S ta t e ag e nc y or p o l i t ic al s ub di vi si on ) for each a r e a d e s i g n a t e d un der s u b s e c t i o n (a) of this s e c t i o n and submit such d e s i g n a t i o n s to the A dmi ni s tr at o r. The A d m i n i s t r a t o r shall a cc ep t any such d e s ig na t io n, unless, w i t h i n 120 days of such d e si gna ti on, he finds that the d e s i g n a t e d m a n a g e ­ ment a g e n c y (or a g e n ci e s) d o es not ha ve a d e q u a t e a u t h o r i t y (A) to c a r r y out a p p r o p r i a t e p o r t i o n s of an a r e a w i d e w a s t e t r e a t ­ ment m a n a g e m e n t plan d e v e l o p e d u n d e r s u b s e c t i o n (b) of this section; (ii) to m a n a g e e f f e c t i v e l y w a s t e t r ea tme nt w o r k s and related f a c i l i ­ ties s e r v i n g such a r e a in c o n f o r m a n c e w i t h any pl an r eq ui re d by s u b s e c t i o n (b) of this section; (C) d i r e c t l y or by con tr ac t, to d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t n ew w or k s, and to o p e r a t e and m a i n t a i n ne w and e xi s t i n g w o r k s as re qu i re d by any p l a n d e v e l o p e d p u r s ua n t to s u b s e c t i o n (b) of this section; (D) to accept an d u t il iz e grants, or o t h e r funds for w a s t e t re at me nt m a n a g e m e n t purposes; (E) to r ai se revenues, charges; i n c l ud i ng (F) to in cu r s h o r t - a n d l o n g - t e r m i nd ebt en es s; (G) to a s s u r e in i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of an a r e a w i d e w a s t e tr eatment m a n a g e m e n t plan that eacli p a r t i c i p a t i n g c o m m u n i t y pay s its p r o p o r t i o n a t e sh ar e of t re at me nt costs; (H) to re fu s e to recei ve any w a s t e from am y m u n i c i p a l i t y or s u b ­ d i v i s i o n thereof, w h i c h d o e s n ot c o m p l y w i t h a ny p r o v i s i o n s of an a p p r o v e d plan u nder this s e c t i o n a p p l i c a b l e to s u ch area; and (I) to a c c e p t for t re at me nt from any source, the a s s e s s m e n t of w as t e tre at men t i n du s t r i a l wast es . A f t e r a w a s t e trea tm en t m a n a g e m e n t a g e n c y h av i n g rhe a u t h o r i t y re qu ir ed by s u b s e c t i o n (c) has b ee n d e s i g n a t e d u nder o uc h s u b s e c t i o n for an a r ea and a plan for such a r e a has b ee n a p p r o v e d u n d e r s u b ­ s e c t i o n (b) of this section, the A d m i n i s t r a t o r shall not m a ke any g rant for c o n s t r u c t i o n of a p u b l i c l y o w ne d t r e a tm e nt w or k s u n d e r 154 s e c t i o n 2 0 1 ( g ) ( 1 ) w i t h i n s u ch a r e a e x c e p t to s u c h d e s i g n a t e d a g e n c y a n d for w o r k s I n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h s u c h plan. e) f) (1) h) N o p e r m i t u n d e r s e c t i o n 4 0 2 of th is A c t s h a l l b e I s s u e d for a n y p o i n t s o u r c e w h i c h Is In c o n f l i c t w i t h a p l a n a p p r o v e d p u r s u a n t to s u b s e c t i o n (b) of this se ct i on . T h e A d m i n i s t r a t o r s h a l l m a k e g r a n t s to a n y a g e n c y d e s i g n a t e d u n d e r s u b s e c t i o n (a) of this s e c t i o n for p a y m e n t of the r e a s o n a b l e c o s t s of d e v e l o p i n g a n d o p e r a t i n g a c o n t i n u i n g a r e a w i d e w a s t e t r e a t m e n t m a n a g e m e n t p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s u n d e r s u b s e c t i o n (b) of t hi s s e c ti on . (2) T h e a m o u n t g r a n t e d to a ny a g e n c y u n d e r p a r a g r a p h (1) of this s u b s e c t i o n s h a l l b e 1 0 0 p e r c e n t u m of the c o s t s of d e v e l o p i n g and o p e r a t i n g a continuing areawide waste treatment manag em e nt planning process under s u b s e c t i o n (b) of this s e c t i o n for e a c h of the f i s c a l y e a r s e n d i n g on J u n e 30, 1973, J u n e 30, 1974, a nd J u n e 30, 1975, a nd s h a l l n ot e x c e e d 75 pe r c e n t u m of s u c h c o s t s in e a c h s u c c e e d i n g f i s c a l yea r. (3) Eac h a p p l i c a n t for a g r a n t u n d e r this s u b s e c t i o n s h a ll s u b m i t to the A d m i n i s t r a t o r for hi s a p p r o v a l e a c h p r o p o s a l for w h i c h a g r a n t is a p p l i e d for u n d e r this s u b s e c t i o n . T h e A d m i n i s t r a t o r s h a l l a ct u p o n s u c h p r o p o s a l as s o o n as p r a c t i c a b l e a f t e r it h a s b e e n s u b m i t t e d , and hi s a p p r o v a l of that p r o p o s a l s h a l l be d e e m e d a c o n t r a c t u a l o b l i g a t i o n of the U n i t e d S t a t e s for the p a y m e n t of its c o n t r i b u t i o n to s u c h p r o ­ posal. T h e r e is a u t h o r i z e d to b e a p p r o p r i a t e d to c a r r y out this s u b s e c t i o n n ot to e xc e ed $ 5 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 for the f i s c a l y e a r e n d i n g J u n e 30, 1973, not to e x c e e d $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 f or t he f is c al y e a r e n d i n g J u n e 30, 1974, and not to e x c e e d $ 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 for the f i s c a l y e a r e n d i n g J u n e 30, 1975. (g) T he A d m i n i s t r a t o r is a u t h o r i z e d , u p o n r e q u e s t of the G o v e r n o r o r the d e s i g n a t e d p l a n n i n g a ge n cy , a n d w i t h o u t r e i m b u r s e m e n t , to c o n s u l t with , a nd p r o v i d e t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e to, any a g e n c y d e s i g n a t e d u n d e r s u b s e c t i o n (a) of this s e c t i o n in the d e v e l o p m e n t of a r e a w i d e w a s t e t r e a t m e n t m a n a g e m e n t p l a n s u n d e r s u b s e c t i o n (b) of t his s e c ti o n. (1) T h e S e c r e t a r y of the Army, a c t i n g t h r o u g h the C h i e f of E n g i n e e r s , in c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h the A d m i n i s t r a t o r is a u t h o r i z e d a nd d i r e c t e d , u p o n r e q u e s t of the G o v e r n o r of the d e s i g n a t e d p l a n n i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n , to c o n s u l t with, a nd p r o v i d e t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e to, an y a g e n c y d e s i g n e d u n d e r s u b s e c t i o n (a) of this s e c t i o n in d e v e l o p i n g and o p e r a t i n g a continuing areawide waste treatment management planning process under s u b s e c t i o n (b) of this s e c ti o n. (2) T h e r e is a u t h o r i z e d to be a p p r o p r i a t e d to the S e c r e t a r y of the A rm y , to c a r r y out this s u b s e c t i o n , n o t to e x c e e d $ 5 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 p e r f is c a l y e a r for the f i s c a l y e a r s e n d i n g J u n e 30, 1973, a n d J u n e 30, 1974. APPENDIX B AGRICULTURAL HERBICIDES: TYPES, TRANSPORT MODES, TOXICITIES, AND PERSISTENCE IN SOIL APPENDIX B AGRICULTURAL HERBICIDES: TYPES, TRANSPORT MODES, TOXICITIES, AND PERSISTENCE IN SOIL ( ' ■ i i m i u i n N . m i f ' til Ilfllllf.ll ( ‘l.ltv1 I ItrlttiitK' A l . u l i l i >r l l y n r l in AM 1/. 17 (It 1/ fit NA I k m i i l n It* am lit lll.l/o ll 1 )/ A lt I) /. NT (II AS AM rn AR t lit A m i - 1 r y IKA i l l i i r * • 11- A m i I. i i i i A tiii/im * IS.trl'.in Ilily iK iv llr< m i . i i ii |lii> m n \y llil lln tv l.ik ( ‘. u m l t lit A till ( IV\ \ (1 )1 t f liln T .iin lit n C lili'F l.ri'im in tn ir i’ M im rs ('M i C lil' ir y r i'i'li. n ii (t,jn .i/m .( ‘ y t Ii i .i h , s ’ .-I 2 I) .4 -1 ) 2 .4 - 1 ) A m i A in in tI t H T l).ilj|in n 4 - 1 111 l)( r \ D l.lll.llf D i l .i i i i I i .i l)it lilnlu-nil iJinilr.itnini; ■— --- - ■--- . - -- I'rfiliiinin .iiil T r.m tt*'’ !! Mtnli *■* ■■* ' R .il. A fiilc Or.it l . l ) J n , lllf.AH 120(1 11 ]() 25 MO w sw s s s w s w sw >K(l(JO in.sn sw * 1350 KOI) 771) 111)11 4f,(i[) 5 ’ tin ’ 50 4511(1 700 X5n 5500 ’ 150 5700 15 00 5 54 MU C II 17. r it l'<) 1-0 s sw sw sw w w If) A I. 1-0 Alt <11 AH s w NT NA ii s sw 0)5 10’ S 5 Kid 5000 5 w s '170 -11I I I S ■s S \( .................... .... T o O t 'ii y su sn S S u ■ 2000 57 0 57(1 501)-X 75 OSon .too 5 0 i 111 1 i'1iJ I f . . . n tr/lik r -------------------------2.5 l.n u t.'V K ily >50 6 5000 12.0 1 1.5 fl 0 .0 5 0.72 190 I.H 70 11 115 4.2 8 > 4fl 2.0 4*i h 7 1) 0.56 8 > 15 * 10 4.9 4 5 * >50 8 15 * 4 5 > lOo 4.0 '-5 0 0 5.9 55 10-2o 6.7 1 • 10 0.4 M i l ] 11.11 I ’ ll AM ( 1 I tin iin i t 'K s 54110 60 > 15 I f i i n i ' n t u tt s w sw sw w (tO O I t ii.lt' AS I'll (11 A lt I I m iim H'I l l f i l l I - s t ' J ' T t 1 ] Y.l1111 I'U A lt A1 NA I in u ro ii UK l)in < i\d > Ilij-Iit (i.uniil ! i I 1 S M A 1 i n 11 • 1 1i . i 11 I I’ I f ' M in 'f iiliii- ii G i t |i!ii'\.ik* M I I K K 2 5 I M C I 'A M f iriliir/in M iilm . it f M iit it im n M S M A N.i(ti.i|,tm AM I ’O 17. (II lilt AS Alt sw s s s s sw sw w w sw s w 155 5K 1 50 0 17SO (>400 7 ‘)00 15(100 4 53 d 50 U 0 15 00 <1.15 <)5ti IV 5ll 501 55(10 7(Hi 17 70 A|ijHiv\iin;ti l ‘f r 'is tfiifc ill Soil. il.iy. 25 (1 12.5 1.15 19,0 7.5 55 1" > (.0 ( I.IH 1 ttw tiiM t ity To M f 16.0 512 10 o > 100 0.29 1 .8 > 15 > IKO 4 0 -7 0 50-4 0 15-50 2 5 -1 0 5(10-500 20 120-15(1 500-700 4 0-6(1 70 0 4(140) 20-10 20 -1 0 40-60 500-400 120*260 12 0-2 20 1n-.iii 10-50 10-50 15-50 4011 120 60-1 SO 90-120 15-50 90-1 KO ;• 5 0 0 2oo t o o 50 550-700 5(1 2 70 150 150 120 50-1 HO 1 5 0 -2 0 0 KO 150-350 2(1-60 156 rip.i r p u l h i r n l l i i it li if ii k 's . l y p s ’ x . I m i s p m 1 M i m i c s I n x i f i 1ic s . ; im l p e is is li'iiL p It'S in s o il ( I'O lltillllC il) c i t y ■’ A p p r o v i m m P m iln n u it.iiil O m n i u m N . t m e s .it ('lie m ic iil K ;il. T i.in \|n ir l Cl.is. * Niir.iliit N A ■S 2(IOfJ C O s 2 k VO O r y / : t l m A M s r,iT U i|ii;it C l S IV Im h iH '* C l! s 0 2 I'lu -m m ilip li.iiii C l i .N 2 0(1 0 I'ii lu r itm A lt VV «2n <) I’ru l h r r a l m N A s 2201) S •'m iiR ’Ifs rn*' 1 7 A M ■ u.i'iiiili'' | C n ' p . u . 1, 1 11 r ' I 1’ r I ’r i ' i v n i l in S o il. in p /liie r N i l r n l i n 1 7 1 C . „ . O 1 . 1l 1 . 0 . M . .< U ; Priiiik'iinii*' C l’ I Msls’lll’l’ A c till* Fisli'1 lliT liit it k ’s > L o w to s ii iiy I llS Il L o n 1 r1 0 0 0 1 5 0 r' 1 l o s i i i i y 4 0 0 11 > 5 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 2.5 5 5 0 > 4 0 0 I 5 2 0 - 6 4 0 175(1 v > 1 .0 S 5 7 5 0 4 > 1 .0 S 5 0 2 0 A M vv A M s 15 H 4 s .'.OHO 5 0 -6 1 )' 6 .3 5 0 0 0 6 0 - 2 7 0 7 10 5 0 - 5 0 1 .3 . > t o o 1-3 ' C i n p .i / m e * | /. 1 T i t vv 50110 l ’ i r . i /1111 | l ) Z vv 2 5 0 o Si! u s ; C O C m p h .m i S iP i.i/ln e s w ; s 5 0 0 0 I’O w 2 Op vv j A L T s ’t l i J t i l 1 j n z w 1 j 1z s w I J ( i t s '1 f i t l u r . i l i i i N A s W t n n l . i u 5 C U SW ^ 7 i iliu t r y u e ' r 1. 111j t c ^ ' . C ’l IPtt.ll irl'.uti.i:. ' [ ■ ( > , p l n ’ i n ■s> p m ii.i n h nu 'sl u Iik c li I l\ n u iii'i'iiin ls ill: ill- u n m - sp re'scil ■IS. o r |I S' l l f . l l ’ l l . l ' i l l l l s : I i i n . ' . 11 l \ : i i i . i t i - s ; nut ■n l t i n I / , i r i i.iM p ;is i l u - ! v t t i . 4 i l i m T r j i k - ii.iiiil’ , n o I C , 1 . 1 ,ii 1i/iiii-s „ In r ins! , o r lei hu l o r / , O K , i n i i c e m r .n :ilm w mi ■ 5 5 7 0 .11 11 II I s S A . t u i t i ’-ttiiliiii J/.25 _ J 1 1 nil Ptnrll. II. 7 0 0 l i i l i i i p 1 1 1 A l t . 2 0 - 7 ft K 6 I 1 ' T o n 1. N 2 0 0 - 1 0 0 s o , *1 2 4 0 0 . 5 0 - 6 0 5 6 0 . 5 - 1 6 .7 5 o n n j 2 0 - 6 0 f' 2 0 - 7 0 4 51 5 0 - 4 0 0.1 12 0 -1 HO 5 0 0 . 6 ,1,'ilts .M ill I'lt lT '. m i n i p s : C l 1. p i u ’ . i i u s .iiul . i r u tiii.ils, C f t . VS ilii-.tr • n v y lic lik ply . r i li m e n i i n n , i n 5(1.. i r o u i . unless m i il p .m il |*t t m . i n t y \i ilIi 11 r . . u t i l T I i .’ v S M ilc lin k 's lluisi* W iite r. til'tlie l.s l iillii'ru is .’ . p i \ .iiiiiii.tk 1 1,1), „ nr L C ' , „ , r i 's p r i : l i v e l y ). il i t ' d . i i i f U ' s p i i i i d n ’ i i 111:111111111 n . n n i ’ e x i s t s . * 2 4 -h m ir L C , „ . I m I'liltliisli. l o r k illiliili. F o r s p i n . \1 LC10o. I u r 1 1J 14 , 11' i ' l s ; hums. 1 1 M ' \\ if I i i m s l Im iti \ 51 4 0 2 0 0 - 1 0 0 *' 0 P . 7 5 V M , ,1111 i i l p s ,1 m l . ii i ,i /i i k ’ 1r i . t / n l v s . p r i i p u r i n > n v . :! l i I'liK -'ills .it ii! s. P ' p i , V V 11 . i n i U - i . { } n > . i ' in . i p p n 96-lu.uir 1 . jlip h .itti( i i 1. '’ 11 5 75 7 7 . ‘I C A -> 1 0 0 m u lle t 1 nr Iur1ct]nin fish. F u r i.ilfis li. Fur sun fu ll. SOURCE: U. S. Department o f A g r i c u lt u r e , Committee o f S c ie n tis t s o f A g r ic u lt u r a l Research S e rv ic e , Control o f Water P o llu t io n from Cropland, Vol. I , A Manual f o r G u id e lin e Development (Washington: G .P .O ., 1575, pp. 4 8 -9 . I ll:il w ill APPENDIX C AGRICULTURAL HERBICIDES: OFTEN-USED TRADE NAME SYNONYMS APPENDIX C AGRICULTURAL HERBICIDES: OFTEN-USED TRADE NAME SYNONYMS Name in lalde Na Prude Nam e Nam e in l.iHIt- Ka A ir.i/iiu * Napl.il.ini Cliliiram lnrn A m itm k ' H i,ill.HC 1 .lM.lt 1 ttfHV M .iloran M iluya nl M o tio n n Al.n lilnr U m irn tt C lili'il'ritm n n tn Pritp.i/ine llilen u x T ria lljtv N ut ex H l’ i u M h N I ’A D l l .Illlll. 1 DmiiM.lt Plit-m iK'diplum O rilr.im I'.i.irl.m I'l.m jv in rii1 iirti\n ro n N.ip1.il.ini M iilin.ne K ti]'ii'|).ilin N iiralin Hi'tavan Haladrx Itrm m 'x H lltn M lllf Hut ir .it UeilMllltll' C yan a/ine C liliirliri'in n ro n i D it 2. 4 -D ll I’ relur Prelnrun Prcmcree D in il ri> Prim f|i Pt r.nttin U fiitu litlf 1 luorodilen D in n icli S im u/iiie Pi r.i/'ill Ca parol Carliyntr ('.ivom n t lilu m IPC Cl PC Pronu'iry nc li.irii.in DiLhlol'cnil f'lili> r|in i|’hain ( hlnrprnpliaitt It.in irm l H.tndox c l(o*N eel It v/i-tan U i’ ninliip Cyeloulc O rjv a lin Clyidinvute D in iiram m c DCPA MUR K 2 5 1 Djnuteb Seneor SlIlll.IT Si ii" \ Soy ex Dalapon S '.tm M elrilni/tiii Teibaeil Dinnxeli ritin m ililc rl Prop,mil P> mid I nide I plain Diphen.niiid Diplienam iii Sul.in Trail icunc I ar-C.tt I.P IC Tri.illau* 1 urine ('liln r|irn |’liain I n t i 1 N.imi* A \ifc \ AI.IM.ip Am itien A m im i T ria /n lc Av.ul ex A i a i l ix HW D.il.in liallvel ll.iu n iic Itctanal C o K 'x D a il luii D lai tin l > \ HP D m ' pon Ip rjit IPC Kannex 1 *34 S u rtl.in m e 1 e i l i u l r y ii Proplinm D iuntn I’ rojiac lilnr d a a O ry /a lin D u ll late I flv.ir M u n iir o n 1e nor, in Cliloru.xuron T n r i l n n Pieloram 1 ret Ian Veudex < D | V e r n u m Ver n o b le Prill urulin C SOURCE: U. S. Department o f A g r ic u lt u r e , Committee o f S c ie n tis ts of A g ric u ltu r a l Research S e rv ic e, Control o f Water P o llu tio n from Cropland, Vol. I , A Manual f o r G uideline Development (Washington: G .P.O ., 1975), p. 50. 157 APPENDIX D AGRICULTURAL INSECTICIDES AND MITICIDES: TYPES, TRANSPORTATION MODES, AND TOXICITIES APPENDIX D AGRICULTURAL INSECTICIDES AND MITICIDES: TYPES, TRANSPORTATION MODES, AND TOXICITIES T o v u ily ( i m i i i m i i i i N . m i o CliemiiMl I r;m \|> o rl Minle1 lt.il. A i n t e Ow l I iib'/kj; A M ic u r b AMrin A lk - ilin n A / m j ’lnis I'lliy l* / W i n p l i m m i'lliy l II ■n/yiiv.1 b e s . i e l t l o m l t f lliii.ij'.K 'jyl CH OCL I’Y OP Of OCL N C'.ij li;t ryl C.n lin ln r.in ' C.it''u|thi.nuthioii ( I'Ji'r11l «i Ic ( blnriLine f liViMmu-lorut < b U i f |>> r i l \ ) v nnr 1V m i ' l n n 5 ,ii_-/i:um ‘ I):, o l o l 6 I>r. rijllljllll)' I b d i l r i n I b m e t l i o j l c l) v i\jlh lo it 1Jt vi: I l o l o i t I'M lliii|'ti>|> tn^ 70(1 n .7 t u ‘77 0.020 o n . s 0.002 O l' Of OCL OP 111 2 sw s 1.15 w 6 8 4 ii o d ­ or s 4 6 OP Of s s s s .s s \v Of Of Of u s w sw w sw w s ci I 23 0 .0 1 4 27 6 1 5 2 00 XX IS O 25 >2 21 25 0 s I 'S o n . s sw s s 158 -0 .9 0.007 17 5000 65 ■3 •I Of o r > 100.0 1000 20011 I‘Inn1111-1*" 0,10 0 .2 3 1.0 7 0 .1 5 0 009 0 95 0 , 0 IS 0 019 178 s Of Of 0.001 0.0 0 0 2 0 01 .1 s s l ‘l n i \ . i l < i n e 0.010 7.3 a u OCL Of Of Of IS 5 18 u \v 8.0 0.003 9 .6 2 sw s s sw s w o n . o i* o o i* 0 .0 8 I 0.0 30 0.10 7 6 \v Of Of I ’l i n f . i t i ’ * 0 .2 3 Of ci i r.irilliM in I Vi I li.nu,f’ 10 1000 01*1. M m iinTiiliipliiK N.ili-il I )\ y MnT 1 0 0 ‘I ><1000 I 0 6 1 1 7 4 .0 1.9 0.017 5 1.73 7.0 0 . 0 7« 0.7 0 0.096 0.047 0007 00055 1.1 H 0.01 159 AGRICULTURAL INSECTICIDES AND MITICIDES: TYPES, TRANSPORTATION MODES, AND TOXICITIES T n M c ily' rifiln n .ii.ititl ( ‘u H t i i i u h Irisn N a n u s tii u l f s - M i t u ill' 1 I.II1S|I||M ( lifin if.ij fla ts 1 lilts It.il. Acute Oral I t). Mi iti c* i-Mi t c,. n.j'./litct nil'Al' l’n>|*t>Mif 11)1: I t l*f I t i i . 11 ! i l u t \ n i | ' l i m I cl Mil I Inn I h u m . i / m T i.s.ij'h c m ; I ruliliitl'.ri ( litin it .it It |v ( I t 't m - 1 i m i l 11 1-.>r jn t * f ii.iiuuti I I * . - i i - M i i i - j - l . 1u | ' l II -1 n 11 Ii Mi,' n - I n. n i ; I . i .n il ijn .iU t, i f -t .- in . i ; - ' f i i t.-l K ; i i n | n it l i -I - 111 x.o 0 . 0 3 '* 0 . 0 2 5 0.(I0<) ■inuo ^ 0.3*2 0 .5 3 Kotjo 12 7 0 10 1.10 0 . 00.1 f.') O.K. 2 7 5 i n i i i i- II . m-.-init, i i ' i r d - j t i K i i i t i n * i n .-*! I I m m -I, -I. >u II 22UII ‘JS .1.1hU I u ts; t 11 > i i i n i | ' i i i i i i i l . : I ’ Y , m n l l i t l i f r>y . c l l i t u i : S . : > u > i - i, : n L a m i l i i ' i i * i . i - c c i n c u 1 i - I ■u s e , 11, i . ! r-nni.ti lit I ill-1 \ f W li \V S W S SW W s w or s Cl* on. or or nn. or on. or I'n iii.iii'ilt*’ O. i 11 \ i tin li . i > \ ' ;:en f t u n i u i i i i i i l s : PC I.. tiillu r c n n i'm in d s . I f il I i i - I . K i . i ' i m . . S i I, n* l i e ■, 1Iti i . f f i 1f u n i a l t 111 11 . . i l l i m i t I I i l cTv l l l l i v i * i m . i , - I l i . i l « il l n n n I I |l,s 1> i i l - m - i - i i i i i . i n l i ' t \ 11 Ii t h e u a l e i . S W d e n i O i ' t l l n t t i 1 I l l . i t i f il l n i i ) t | itlt 1 n i l i n ; i - i l ill l i t i v j l i ’ r , a n d (.) t l e i i i j l f . l l i i . - e \t I n i n I'lc d u itm i.iill in m li- ill Ir . i n t | m i I ■..I'lnnt Sv r ri itk Uil l-t i ..as,- I ' t i ’ i v r l i i t a r e i n’suowit. : I t |-r ftti.il is ilk l,i!. I .Io n -. f t if i S "’ ■Is fV . S - j i n i n. t n f ijik v m i.itinn. to JfJ'.'f o f ilic let I artmi.ds ( L I ) , ,, or LC, n t 'if. i - n- ir l . ( , . I n f i-l.i . f i l l t nr r . m . t i - ' U i t i . i i il i i . i l . i , .,t ! ' i . i !■ r i s f . l i u i i f f i l l .i | t i I i i f . t . i i n . *■. I i f . i ii if d rf t (ux lively). i t i t i i l . u n l e s s t t i i ' c r w tsc s ] i c , il j c d . I,!.-. S f i n .i t o i l f t n if .it t ie m n lis id e s a rc t o n lr i il lf il 2-or J -irl,! I ’ rilt m l lu elicr lim ite d Ilian .iirc a e c n iicn u sed a m i us I're d i.n iii'a n tly insecticides. I r.itli n.niif, n->, i ri i ,;ii.(iiltn-’ . iMium-it naiiti' otittt, 2-t Inmr J.l ,„ ** I o r 1. i l i i l i s l l i 1 n r m in n o w s ’> SOURCE: U. S. Department o f A g r ic u lt u r e , Committee o f S c ie n tis ts of A g ric u ltu r a l Research S e rv ic e , Control o f Water P o llu tio n from Cropland, Vol. I , A Manuary f o r G uideline Development (Washington: G .P.O ., 1975, pp. 5 1 -2 . in tltc APPENDIX E AGRICULTURAL INSECTICIDES AND MITICIDES: OFTEN-USED TRADE NAME SYNONYMS APPENDIX E AGRICULTURAL INSECTICIDES AND MITICIDES: OFTEN-USED TRADE NAME SYNONYMS T r u k ' N .u tic N a m e in T a llin T r a d e 9 a N .in if N .n n e in T n l i k ’ 9 j A t .r r j i u ' n (iil'iFul)i.-ii/il;il<.‘ Ii n id.i n A / u d n n M l'llii. llltll|llllU K iltli.iin ; 1I n 'i i l o l 1 1)1.1/111011 1.in n a te M i'M iiiin y l M l l l ill M illio n 1’i o j ’ O M i r line I l c n / o i C 1k 'W i i i l o r u l c i’llO M IH 'l M .n l.itu M illiO N y c lilo r M f l . i - S y M o s M c lliy l lU 'in c lo n H ull in l)llto |0 |llll|1 M m -.iji lilii> |iro |i C jiH M l 1J m u 'th u .iU * M o r t> l;in O \v |lli o i|il il l o x D .iv m it 1 i n m i I l i 11 h i o n M o ro i'itk ' Ilm .i jM i f y l 1)1)1) 1 i>r: Nc(iiivrui T iic lik irftii) O m i l c l ’r o | i i i f i L l c Mi In.iv D M ib tu in N . i k d I'lio id rin M r ' 1 )1iitc (. r o i » i [ 'li o i l i l u i M i d o n t'fo l.ili1 I ’llOM IIVl l) l|» k ‘ ll.‘ \ ion jt lim n 1 11 . I i l u i I o n l ) i S y \ l o i i I h . n l l o l u i t l>:m li.ni t M m D y lo m il c 1 n i iu I ds !’ > t It.lllOII i T i t s. injihox jT l( .K lilo n iii|i[ iiK S avin C .n l u r y l S |> ii Ir.jciik* 1 >i i / m o i l Sti|ir.iii(k* M e l 1 1i l l J 1 1 1i o n l i l m l o n S v M (» \ D i'iiii'lo n l.lli' 1 l o il lu u n A /i ii |i|u ii c lliv l T e d m n 1 uiui.il ( 1 iirudjti |)J l o \ ! iii M i 'r i h m c i u r n i IV lr.id il'on T v in ik A lilii'.n b C .u l'o liir a n Tliiim .'t I’ h u u t c (ia k 'c ro n O 'l o r d i i n i T o f m Tl'iiiil.iii 1 n d o M iir.in (i . u i i i i w - i m e 1 M ill.llll.' 11 i l l u u n C n fb i'i’lK iio t liio n ( m i i Jo h j ( illllllP Il 11 U .ii I’ l o r v j n j i l i o n . \ / : n | ' h u * n ii'llii ( i A u - t r a n M i 'x . i i j r b . i /,in o |)h o < M u i'ii.i/in A d o n e I 'lio v il o iu ; ik SOURCE: U. S. Department o f A g r ic u lt u r e , Committee o f S c ie n tis ts of A g r ic u ltu r a l Research S e rv ic e, Control o f Mater P o llu tio n from Cropland, Vol. I , A Manual f o r G uideline Development (Washington: G .P.O ., 197 5 ), p. 53. 160 APPENDIX F AGRICULTURAL FUNGICIDES: TYPES, TRANSPORT MODES, AND TOXICITIES APPENDIX F AGRICULTURAL FUNGICIDES: TYPES, TRANSPORT MODES, AND TOXICITIES I < im . n u t N . i i m - v n l 1 -.in|- ii u k M ii'iln iiilii.m l 1 r.iiis |u 1 1 1 M i n k - 1 ] n \it in ' ■ I K.il, Ai nit- I li .iI I lli-n n m yl N S r . i| > l , i l n l S 5 (It H I <.i|'ljn S 'IIH H I A n il.u jni- ( I ( h i n t . i i u li W I! < ‘Vl I ij I u m u i nlv W IH NA !llu/utl|li‘ 2 7 IIJ 0 01 0 5 I I I [M l I I'li.iiiiim H u ll id '.ii i I I s I H ID .1(1(111 Nu l u in Oi j i jr h i ) \ m r.iriiiiil / IlH'l’ 0.1-t 0 .0 <>11 2.i o I 2 <« v jo im o 1 . 5f , 0 7 511 ’ 1 0 > 1.2 J 21.1 <■■100 ,10 5 :ooi) > < 0 0 0 s - 5 .0 1<|50 D. 7 K2U 77< s I s ~ I II 1 II 70 M1K '■5 2oo \\ /it.tltl ' -1 70011 u I l>l II 0 . 0 4 7 200(1 s SM I i< I Itir.itn 1 .1 ONO t [’(Nil 5.(1 ^'1 2 0 0 7 1 101)11 c w w M l ' l tl.lll! ■* 1 ODD II s s M .i'u li II ( H I 0 15 2.5 u U w su D n d n ii- 4 5 40-10 s D t t l i ' i . 11> I < 5 (|, m i ' / l i l i i COD ■10(111 S 1)11 l i l m u l lu I i-.li > 7 5 'HI SW O i r l ’u M n iny■1,c 0 .5 1 4 0 0 "* S 0 I lu -1 l t i i n u ' i i ' i ' i i i u l In iii- ii n k > in mi n o II I k i in I i f . ik 'O lu - k k ' i n m s, S i k 'i i t i k u l liiui.- i lu -m u .i l i l l i . i l u ill ,: i ■■» Itk L"t \ MU'W [' i [• I 'u r il1 . u il Ii I lu n i n L- -1 111u |- 11 1. U i k - i n < k ' I l i n - 1- 1 11j | w ill m m l h k t'lv n m v c | it i n u i r i ly w il li 1lu- n . i l i i . S\5 i t i 'n u k - ' m ,i |>|’ r c i i.il ik ' I'O il'm 1inn m i l l In il Ii w i l i i t i i ' Hi .m il w j U 'l. .m il i l i - n n l i i I Mum w lu m- i ' n n( | u t 1 5 s I <■ i n i v i I iv t t , I ( i‘i l l l - i l 1I nr i .i1lull I >u l u r li i o i i ’i I Ml i I u r iiiu lk l I 11100 1HI klttlfJlt 111UlllltH SOURCE: U. S. Department o f A g r ic u lt u r e , Committee o f S c ie n tis ts of A g ric u ltu r a l Research S ervice, Control o f Water P o llu tio n from Cropland, Vol. I , A Manual fo r Guideline Development (Washington: G.P. 0 . , 1975), p. 54. 161 iik i'K iii.m I m n . l .4 f ].lNs|H'Tf I .1II rii <1 W 1 APPENDIX G AGRICULTURAL FUNGICIDES: OFTEN-USED TRADE NAME SYNONYMS APPENDIX G AGRICULTURAL FUNGICIDES: OFTEN-USED TRADE NAME SYNONYMS I r.tilf N a im : N a m e in T a M c T i .k l e I Oa N a m e in T a b l e lullHl A k 1n l m n c C y i Ii i Ii i 'm I k i i Liic llcitiimy] I 'li y p 'n D ie h lim c llotr.iii IJCNA P la n lv a x O v y e a i l m M i i C>pri-v IX 'llllll' I'.-h i.nn M v li r a m U C N A Iti'lr.in S|ier|:i>n C h lu r jiiil T e r r a i lilu r I 'C N I I ih h J l' N a m e I'll.ill.in IXmmem f lil o n in c li U ltn l.il an C.tl'l.ilnl I M IJ I ' M H I I l-n.KlllllOM lIf V , i | >.i i n S M D C D i r c n e Aitil.i/nk' V i l a v.ix l 'a r lii> \m K jia lh a n i' l) m i> u ip P a rn o n I'.ir m o l 1 11 I Inratii SOURCE: U. S. Department o f A g r i c u lt u r e , Committee o f S c ie n tis t s of A g r ic u lt u r a l Research S e rv ic e , Control o f Water P o llu t io n from Cropland, V ol. I , A Manual f o r G u id e lin e bevelo’pmentT (Washington: G .P .O ., 19 7 5 ), p. 55. 162 1 0 a APPENDIX H 208 WORK FLOW CHART 5* ► f e ll X □ V i! i * 163 • ■ APPENDIX I TCRPC: HYPOTHETICAL PLAN NO. APPENDIX I TCRPC: HYPOTHETICAL PLAN NO. 1 ASSUMPTIONS: S c r e a m c h a r a c t e r i m p r o v e m e n t * l o u r c c HEW P M 1 a t l e s i n a n d p l a n t d i s c h a r g e s . p o l l u t i o n s ! t r o d t m r n t U r b a n ln .n l-. f r o m c u p a b i I i t !>■ r u n - o f f a I n d o m c u t i c an il p r i m e a n d r e d u c t i o n j u u r c t o f i n I n d u s t r i a l t o t a l p o l l u t i o n . i l w a s t e s n u m b e r o f r e q u i r e p n t n c l o a d s . T R E A T M E N T D a n s v i l l c , U T S : ____________ PL A N T S TO E l s i e , W e s t R e g i o n a l BE A BANDONED: D e l h i , D o W l t t C i t y , O l m o n d a l e . F o w l e r , O l i v e t , O v i d , P o t t c r v i l l e , W c b b c r v l l l e , a n d W e s t p h a l i a K A N A C D IE N T SYSTEM : T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t r e v i e w a c t i o n s e s t ob 1 is h n c n t o f b y a r e g i o n a l r e n t e r o f a d v i s o r y u n i t s o i i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l w a s t e t r e i l n c n t . e t c . C o o r d i n a t i o n i . e . . E a s t o f P o l l u t i o n T e c h n i c a l S o u r c e ____________ M u n i c i p a l t r i a l a n d i n I n d u s ­ E p H c c t W a s t e s O F t o v i r o n m e n t a l l y c o n t r a c t s f o r u r b a n o p t i m u m s i t e s l a o . i l p l a n f l e e t e d i m p k m c i u ( s a n i t a r y r u n - o f f o f f i c i a l s ,it i n n . d t a r r t c r a ) , t o T h e f o r t.nns i n g / O e L h l . c o n t r o l s . M ANA G EM EN T M a n a g e m e n t e n ­ o f a f f e c t D r 1 1 a / W i n J s a t / t ’n t t e r v i I l e K c o u l r e d P l a n ________ w a s t e s a n d , p r o g r a m s J 0 8 c o m p o s e d w h i c h a n (•■cun'lit S a n d S o l u t i o n 2 0 8 s I . . m s i ri * * , / H e r i d i j n a c t i v i t i e s D E T A IL S W a t e r c o u n c i l g o v r r i n i c it t b y A r t i o n ? 0 8 P l a n , f i n a n c e , s t r u c t , P l a n 0 f. M a n a g e m e n t P l a n A g e n c y c o n ­ M r e v i e w s L o c a l u n i t s m e n t s a n i t a r y . a n d r e - P o l l u t i o n . i l C o n vn cn d at i o n s o n t h e A d v i s o r y r e f u t a t i o n d i s ­ o f o f g o v e r n ­ d i s t r i c t s A b a t e m e n t C o u n c i l (P A A C ) c h a r g e r s T r e a t . d i s p o s e , P l a n , f i n a n c e , a n d / o r r e u s e s t r u c t , w a s t e s 0 R e g u l a t e & c o n ­ H d i s c h a r g e r s L o c a l u n i t s m e n t , s a n i t a r y M i c h i g a n s o u r c e s ( M i c h . I n d u s t r i a l A d e q u a t e Dt s c h a r f e r a o n - s l c c - t r e a t m e n t a n d s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s t o w a s t e r e d u c e g e n e r a t R e g u l a t e c o n ­ S e p t i c TanV.s io n S t r i n g e n t l o c a ­ s i t e - R e v i e w R e g u l a t e - - W a t e r R e ­ C o m m i s s io n v r . l t s o f g o v e r n ­ m e n t - s i t e s PAAC d i s c h a r g e r s H I c h . D N R -W R C L o c a l u n i t s m e n t . s a n i t a r y p e r m i t s ) R e g u l a t e a p p r o v a l d i s t r i c t s N a t u r a l D N R -U R C ) L o c a l t i o n (N P D E S - s i t i n g g o v e r n ­ D e p t . R e s o u r c e s D i r e c t o f l o c a t i o n , d e s i g n t r i c t s . o f g o v e r n ­ d i s ­ C o u n t y H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t s S p e c i f i e d h a v e t o a r e a s c o n n e c t ■ewers t o P l a n , f i n a n c e , s t r u c t , a n d / o r b i n e d S y s t e m C o m ­ C o n s t r u c t t i o n D i s c h a r g e s r e t e n ­ b - i s l n s , t t c a c w a t e r , s e p a ­ s t o r m r a t e I m p r o v e d R u n - o f f c o n ­ H L u c a L u n i t s m e n t . s a n i t a r y r e v i e w s - P I a n . f i n a n c e , s t r u c t , □ l o u d & c o n ­ - M PAAC L o c a l u n i t s m e n t . s a n i t a r y P l a n r e v i e w s - PAAC S o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n - S o i l p L ao s m a n a g e m e n t a n d o f g o v e r n ­ d i s ­ C o n s e r v a t i o n D i s t r i c t s a s s i s t a n c e - i n f o r m a t i o n E x t e n s i o n a g e n t s , U .S C m r . t r - . i t S o i l S e r v i c e v a t i o n Run-off g o v e r n ­ d i s ­ t r i c t s T e c h n i c a L - Urban o f c o m b in e d s y s t e m s A g r i c u l t u r a l 4 t r i c t s T l a n S t o r m I) W a t e r q u a l i t y s i t i v e s e n ­ - d e v e l o p m e n t T e c h n i c a l a n d a s s i s t a n c e - TAAC - C o u n t y . ;;.> il i o n G o n - ie r - D i s t r i c t s 1 n f o i m a t i o n p o l i c i e s P r o f i : r t d u r i n g Io n o f L a n d s - S o i l E r o s i o n P r o t e c t i o n v 1 r n n m e n t s i t l v o o f . l l y * n - * r.e n - S p e c i a l i z e d I n t e n s i v e c l e a n i n g I m p r o v e d W a t e r M a i n t e n a n c e E .m e o f o l [ r . m s R e q u i r e d E c o n o m ie s l e g 1 i n D e v e l o p m e n t l o c a l .if t u n n t r t r r . - p r o g r a m :! P r o c e d u r a l a n d n u t tu m m y .n ut a l r e a d y P o t e n t i a l I n h e r e n t a c c o u n t a b i l i t y e n a c t e d d e l i v e r y d i f f i c u l t i e s w e u k n c s j e a o f i n tn n ln in n d v l s o r y I n I n g EPA c o u n c i l s 164 p r o ­ m e t h o d s s c h e d u l e s n e g a t i v e I M T A C T S : L o c a l u n i t s o f g o v e r n ­ - u n i t s o f g o v e r n ­ PAAC r e v i e w s 1 1 I o n HI - m e n t Q u a l i t y n c i v l c c o r d i ­ n a n c e s L o c a l A g e n c y a t e a s p o s a l IM P A C T S . o r E n f o r c i n g - P O S IT IV E A c e c o n s t r u c t i o n g o a l * - L o c a l m e n t APPENDIX J TCRPC: HYPOTHETICAL PLAN NO. APPENDIX J TCRPC: HYPOTHETICAL PLAN NO. 2 E x l a c i n g treatment plant*, a f t e r improvement* t o m e e t 1983 W a t e r Q u a l i t y goal*,will h a n d l e domestic and industrial waite loading*. L a n d r u n - o f f ie c a u s i n g s e r i o u s p o l l u t i o n * ! problem* w h i c h require substantial n o n p o i n t source and land use controls. ASSUMPTIONS: NEW T R EATMENT P L A N T S : ________ Danavllle, PLANTS TO BE ABANDONED: City MANAGEMENT S Y S T EM : of Eagle and DeUitt, Elsie Dimondale and Olivet A "segmented” grouping of authorities. F i r s t , t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a w o u l d e s t a b l i s h an A u t h o r i t y c o m p o s e d of elected officials and citizens w h i c h w o u l d own and operate the treatment facilities a nd h a v e d e f i n i t e land use p l a n n i n g power*. Second, each county w o u l d have a D e p a r t m e n t of P u blic W o r k s w h i c h w o u l d own and o p e r a t e the t r e a t m e n t f a c i l ­ ities o u t s i d e o f the m e t r o * a u t h o r i t y . DETAILS W ater Pollution S o u r c e ________ - Municipal and Indus­ trial Wastes Technical in 2 0 8 OF Solution Plan - Septic Tank* - Storm and/or C o m ­ bined System Dis­ charges Agricultural Run-off - Adequate on-site treatment and c o n ­ servation measures to r e d u c e w a s t e generation Run-off govern­ County DPW - Regulate discharges (NPDES permits) - M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t of Natural Resources Water Resources C o m ­ m i s s i o n (M ic h . D N R - W R C ) - Certification permits - Metro, - Issuance mit* of of NPDES NPDES per­ con­ County - Mich. DNR-WRC - Local ment units DPW of govern­ - County Health Depart­ ments, local u nits of government, Metro, County DPW location, - Plan, finance, struct , O A M con­ - Hetro - Divert and collect s t o r m f l o w for groundwater r e ­ charge - P l a n, f i n a n c e , struct , O A M con­ Metro - Site development policies requiring on-site retention - Plan and oversee struction con­ - Local ment units of County govern­ - R e gulate (permit Issuance) - Metro, DPW - T a x i n d u c e m e n t s for soil c o n s e r v a t i o n plans - C o u n t y DPW, S o i l C o n ­ servation Districts - Technical assistance and information - E x t e n s i o n a g e n t s , U.S. Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r ­ vice. Soil C o n s e r v a ­ tion Dis t r i c t s Regulate - Mi c h . D N R a n d Agriculture - Water quality s e n ­ sitive development policies Specialized ordi­ n a n c e s for p r o t e c ­ tion of run-off g e n e ­ rating activities - Local units ment , Metro - P r o t e c t i o n o f lands during construc­ tion Soil - County or Local Enforcing Agency en­ sen­ - Interim street cleaning programs NEGATIVE IMPACTS: con­ - Construct retention basins, separate i ni­ tial c o mbined s y s ­ tem* use of - Metro, - Regulate design - Improved land management units - Plan, f inance, struct , O A M - Stringent approval - Prote c t i o n of vironmentally sitive areas POSITIVE IM P A C T S : - Local ment - Metropolitan Authority (Metro), County Depart­ ment of Public Work* (DPW) - Plan, f i nance, struct , 0 & M Pesticide Urban con­ - Plan consultations, regulate - Sp e c i f i e d areas have t o c o n n e c t to s e w e r s site Management Agency Management Action R e q u i r e d by 208 Plan - Plan, finance, s t r u c t , 0 (i H - Collect wastes - T r e a t . dispose and/or reuse wastes • Direct Industrial Dischargers Z08 M A N A G E M E N T Erosion Act - Hetro, County DPW - Procedural methods and schedules - Hetro, County DPW Less local control of Land use d ecisions Steps for the c r e a t i o n of n e w l e g i s l a t i o n G r e a t e r e x p e n d i t u r e s f or p o l i c i n g o f n o n p o i n t reduction of other activities, activities i.e. of govern­ - Development permits in d e s i g n a t e d a r e a s ■ Improved Watar Quality Lower construction costa Groundwater recharge program E c o n o m i c s in s e r v i c e d e l i v e r y E s t a b l i s h m e n t of an i n s t i t u t i o n for the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w a s t e d i s p o s a l , o p e n s p a c e , l a n d u s e p l a n n i n g , etc. 165 of Dept, solid APPENDIX K TCRPC: HYPOTHETICAL PLAN NO. APPENDIX K TCRPC: HYPOTHETICAL PLAN NO. 3 ASSUMPTIONS: H i g h level o f treatment Hlnlnua nonpolnc source NEW TREATMENT P L A N T S : ________ PLANTS T O BE ABAKDOHED: North. West and South of domestic problems. and Industrial wastes to m e e t Water Pollution S o u r c e ________ • Municipal and trial Waatas Indus­ - Direct Industrial Dischargers - Septic Tanks OF 20B Technical Solution In 208 Plan • C o l l e c t w a s t e s to e n v i r o n n e n t a 1 ly opti m u m altaa - T r e a t . dispose reuse wastes Maple Rapids. Ovid, Olivet, MANAGEMENT Plan, finance, struct, 0 & M and/or - Pre-tr e a t m e n t and c o n n e c t i o n to municipal systems adequate private treatment o r - Pollution Abatement Control Authority (PACA) - Plan, finance, struct, 0 A M - PACA con­ - Regulate dischargers (NPDES permits) - Michigan Department of Natural Resources Water Resources C o m ­ m i s s i o n ( Mi c h . D H R - U R C ) - Regulate t Io n siting - Local ment, - Regulate polley by p r i c i n g loca- - PACA - Regulate dischargers (NPDES permits) - Mich. - Stringent proval - Regulate design - Storm and/or Combined System Discharges Agricultural Runoff • U rban Runoff units PACA of govern­ - PACA - Regulate dischargers by p e r m i t s , pretreatment standards - Plan, finance, struct. O A H ap­ - Local units of g o v e r n ­ ment, sanitary d i s ­ tricts con­ - Plan reviews, r e g u ­ late d i s c h a r g e r s a n d sewer use - Spe c i f i e d areas have t o c o n n e c t to s e w e r s site Management Agency Management Action R e q u i r e d b y 20B Plan DNR-WRC - Local units government. con­ - Local ment. WRC location, County ments of g o v e r n ­ Hich DNR- health depart­ - Plan, finance, struct , 0 A M - Site development policies requiring site retention - Regulate construction of n e w systems - Local ment - Ordinance to require soil c o n s e r v a t i o n p l a n s - Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n Dlstrlccs, PACA - Pesticide use and b e t t e r land m a n a g e ­ ment - R egulate and asslstance - Hich. DNR and Agriculture - Improved site d e ­ velopment policies a n d p r o t e c t i o n of "sensitive" lands - Ordinances to require s t a g i n g the p r e p a r a t i o n ol s i tes for c o n s t r u c ­ tion - Local units me nt . P A C A - Soli - Drain PACA - on­ Improved land m a n a g e ­ ment practices land use decisions 166 - PACA technical Eros i o n Act High water quality E c o n o m i e s in s e r v i c e d e l i v e r y U n i f o r m i t y In land u s e d e c i s i o n c r i t e r i a R e g i o n a l c o n t r o l of t h e p r i o r i t y l i s t f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n E s t a b l i s h m e n t of an i n s t i t u t i o n for Che I m p l e m e n t a t i o n w a s t e d i s p o s a l , o p e n s p a c e , w a t e r s u p p l y , et c . D i s p e r s i o n of b e n e f i t s t h r o u g h o u t the r e g i o n Costs of construction Abandonment costs Less local control of con­ units PACA, of PACA - Construct retention basins, separate critical combined sys­ tems, c o m p u t e r i z e d m a n a g e m e n t of flows t h r o u g h c o l l e c t i o n and treatment systems NEGATIVE IMPACTS: goals. Re g i o n a l A u t h o r i t y c o m p o s e d of e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s and e L t l z e n a a p p o i n t e d by their r e s p e c t i v e u n i t s o f g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h o w n a n d o p e r a t e w a s t e trea t m e n t plants. Land u s e c o n t r o l s e x e r c i s e d o n the l o c a l l e v e l w i t h r e v i e w f u n c t i o n s p e r f o r m e d b y tha Authority. DETAILS POSITIVE IMPACTS: 198J Interregional Bellevue, Delhi, Delta. Dimon d a l e . Fowler, G r a n d Ledge, Fottervlile, Webbervllle, W estphalia and W 1 1 L i a m s t o n . MANAGEMENT 3Y5TEH: required of other units of of govern­ D e pt , of govern­ Commissioner, activities, i .0 . solid BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books A ckoff, Russell L. S c i e n t i f i c Method. Sons, 1962. Barlowe, R. Land Resource Economics. P rentice H a l l , 1972. New York: John W iley and 2nd ed. Englewood C l i f f s : C aldw ell, Lynton K. Environment: A Challenge to Modern S o c ie ty . 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