INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microfilm copy of tha original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of tha original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. Tha sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Pags(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along w ith adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated w ith a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus causa a blurred image. You w ill find a good imago of the page in the adjacent frame. 3 Whan a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections w ith a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The m ajority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints o f "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pagas you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. University Microfilms International 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor. Michigan 46106 USA St John’s Road, Tyler's Green High Wycombe. Bucks. England HP10 8HR J I 77-18,459 BORLAND, Kenneth Earl, 1937CAREER PERCEPTIONS, POSITION SEQUENCES, AND CAREER STRATEGIES OF MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITY-JUNIOR COLLEGE PRESIDENTS. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1977 Education, convnunlty colleges Xerox University M icrofilm s tAnn Arbor, Michigan 46106 © 1976 KENNETH EARL BORLAND ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CAREER P E R C E P T I O N S , POSITION SEQUENCES r AND CAREER STRATEGIES OF MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITYJUNIOR COLLEGE PRESIDENTS By Kenneth Earl Borland A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1976 ABSTRACT CAREER PERCEPTIONS, POSITION SEQUENCES, AND CAREER STRATEGIES OF MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITYJUNIOR COLLEGE PRESIDENTS By Kenneth Earl Borland Statement of the Problem and Literature Review The study was undertaken for the purpose of exploring and describing the Michigan public communityjunior college presidents' career patterns, career strategy orientations, personal and demographic infor­ mation, and perceptions of career influences. The problem of the study was: (1) to develop a profile of the Michigan public community-junior college presidents with respect to identifying the extent to which their careers were influenced by their perceptions of competencies, aspirations, and opportunities and (2) to develop profiles of these presidents' routes to the presi­ dency by identifying their position sequences/career patterns, career strategy orientations, and pertinent background information. The conceptual framework for career strategy orientations developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson Kenneth Earl Borland was used. Also used was the operational methodology for career patterns and career strategies developed by Jerald D. Cavanaugh and a framework for discussing career per­ ceptions developed by Michael R. Ferrari, Jr. A review of the literature was conducted concern­ ing the career studies of college and university presi­ dents in general and public community-junior college presidents in particular. Special attention was given to studies concerning career and vocational cho i c e , personal and background factors of academic presidents, career patterns, career strategy orientations, and career perception information. Methodology and Data Used The study population of the twenty-nine Michigan public community-junior college presidents was selected. Twenty-seven of the Michigan presidents participated in the study which was a 93.1 percent response. Study data were provided by the responding presi­ dents through written responses to a mailed questionnaire followed by a structured personal interview with the study investigator. Using frequency tabulations, p er­ centages, and descriptive information concerning the presidents' career perceptions, the data were presented in two sections: (1) the presidents' profile according to personal and demographic data, career pattern Kenneth Earl Borland information, and career strategy orientations and (2) the presidents' perceptions of career and personal influences. Significant Study Findings 1. A majority of the presidents' values and beliefs were significantly influenced by their childhood experiences during the Great Depression and their e x per­ iences relating to World War II. The G.I. Bill benefits were an important factor in the decision to attend college. 2. The selection of education as a career for most presidents was perceived to be a developmental p r o ­ cess resulting from a number of specific influences. 3. The movement into administrative positions was the result of the following perceived r e a s o n s : service, specific people influences, professional oppor­ tunity, a developmental process, and an accidental c ir­ cumstance. 4. Over half began their careers in public school positions and moved to the presidency from a community college high-level administrative position. Eleven presidents had no prior community college exper­ ience . 5. Three-quarters of the respondents decided at some point in their careers to aspire to a presidency. They consciously "chose" in order to be "chosen" and Kenneth Earl Borland developed career plans to increase their opportunity to serve as presidents. 6. Over half were interested in pursuing career opportunities beyond their present presidency; however, there was evidence to indicate that, overall, they were less risk-oriented and more interested in remaining in their present positions. 7. Parents significantly affected the presidents* values and beliefs, particularly the following: importance of hard work, respect for other people, and the importance of honesty. 8. educators majority Most of the presidents have been mobile career (occupational strategy orientation), and the (21) were in their first presidency. 9. Fifteen different positions— primarily in com­ munity college administration— served as springboards to a presidency. 10. The most common routes to the presidency were: public community college positions (most significant), four-year college and university positions, and public school positions. 11. The respondents had a mean age of fifty, were all males, and all married except one. Almost 90 percent spent half or more of their formative years (age 6-18) in one city with two-thirds coining from Kenneth Earl Borland communities of 2 5,000 or fewer. Michigan. Two-thirds Almost half grew up in (18) had earned doctorates. Their fathers were often professionals, managers, or proprietors and had less education than their mothers. Additional findings as well as recommendations were also indicated. DEDICATION Everything Wants to grow according to its nature. Every place is itself a growing thing. Where I am I am part of that place. Moving through the land I am looking for the land Where my tracks will root and grow behind me.* To my wife, Betty For her love, her way, and her continuous support To my children, Lisa Beth and Kevin Earl For their patience, understanding, and interest while Daddy wrote his "book" To my parents For providing a Christian home filled with love and positive examples From Maui in the Landscape by Saunuel Moon. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer is extremely grateful to a number of people who helped to make this study possible. To Dr. Carl W. Brautigam, doctoral committee chairman. His willingness to assume the responsibilities of directing the completion of the dissertation and to serve as committee chairman at a critical period during the final stages of my doctoral program was most appre­ ciated. I chose educational administration as a career partially as the result of observing his style and sensi­ tivity while teaching in a public school system he so ably "headed*1 as superintendent of schools. To Dr. James H. Nelson, doctoral committee chair­ man during the development of this investigation. An opportunity to accept an appointment in Brazil represent­ ing Michigan State University prior to my program com­ pleting necessitated his leaving. to him for his guidance, I am deeply indebted support, and friendship. He always took time to help. To Dr. Walter F. Johnson, committee member and longtime supporter. He has provided sixteen years of encouragement and guidance. He is a teacher in the true sense. iii To Dr. Max R. Raines, committee member and source of constant encouragement and guidance. To Dr. Duane L. Gibson, committee member. He has provided helpful guidance and moments of relaxation and enjoyment. To Dr. Max S. Smith, director of the University Kellogg Fellowship program in community college adminis­ tration before his death. He provided opportunities and "opened doors" for so many who were fortunate to study and work with him. My selection as a Kellogg Fellow was the major career "turning point" in my life. I am also indebted to Donald Carlyon, President of Delta College, and to the charter members of the H i g h ­ land Community College Board of Trustees for giving me early and unique opportunities in public community col­ lege administration. To my fellow doctoral students past and present with w hom I have shared the problems and anxieties. The work was made easier as a result of the friendships and opportunities to share. To the Michigan public community-junior college presidents w h o participated in the study. To Marj Oyer and Mrs. Marty North for their typing and assistance during the completion of the dissertation. I have been very fortunate in m y career endeavors, and I owe a great deal to the many "special people" who have provided encouragement and support. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. Page THE P R O B L E M .................................. Introduction to the Problem ............. The Problem in Historical Perspective. . Statement of the Problem ................. Purpose of the S t u d y .................... Rationale for the S t u d y ................. II. III. 1 1 1 6 7 10 N e e d ..................................... Theoretical Justification . . . . . 10 15 Scope of the S t u d y ....................... A s s u m p t i o n s .............................. Limitations of the S t u d y ................. Definition of T e r m s ....................... Overview of the S t u d y .................... 27 27 28 29 31 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.................... 33 Introduction .............................. Overview of the Literature Concerning the Academic President ................. Pertinent Research Studies ............. 33 34 42 Studies of Career and Vocational Choice.................................. Studies of Personal and Background F a c t o r s .............................. Studies of Position Sequences and Career Patterns....................... Studies of Career Perceptions and S t r a t e g i e s ........................... 93 Summary..................................... 109 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . . I n t r o d u c t i o n .................... General Methods ........................... v 44 54 75 115 115 115 Chapter IV. Page Source of D a t a ................................. Construction of the Survey Instruments . . 116 119 Exploratory Study .......................... Mailed Questionnaire ....................... Personal Interview Response Form . . . 120 121 123 Procedures for Collecting the Data . . . Method of Data A n a l y s i s ....................... S u m m a r y ....................................... 127 130 133 AN ANALYSIS OF MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITYJUNIOR COLLEGE PRESIDENTS . . . . . . Introduction.................................... Presidents1 Profile Using Selected Factors....................................... Personal and Demographic Profile . . . 134 134 135 135 A g e ....................................... S e x ....................................... Marital Status............................. Geographic Origins ....................... 135 136 136 136 Place of B i r t h .......................... Formative Y e a r s .......................... 136 138 Occupational Origins....................... 141 Primary Occupations of Parents. . . Formal Education of Parents and S p o u s e ................................. 141 143 Educational History ....................... 146 Extent of Education Received . . . Programs of S t u d y ....................... Academic Rank in High School and College................................. Honors Received in High School and College................................. Extent of Participation in SchoolRelated Extra-Curricular Activities............................. 146 147 Position Sequence/Career Pattern P r o f i l e .................................... vi 152 155 156 157 Chapter Page Tenure in Present Position ............. Career Patterns ........................ Springboards to the Presidency. . . • 157 159 180 Career Strategy Profile........................ 188 A Career Strategy Perspective . . . . Career Strategies to the Present • . . Heuristic Strategy ...................... Organizational Strategy ............. Occupational Strategy ................... Career Strategies for the Future . . . Heuristic Strategy .................... Occupational Strategy ................. Stability Strategy . . . . . . . 190 196 200 200 201 202 205 205 207 Selected Profile Factors Applied to S t r a t e g i e s ............................... 208 Presidents' Perceptions of Career and Personal Influences ........................ Perceptions of Career Influences. . . . A Perspective for Studying Career Influences and Motivations . . . . Formulating Career Choices ............. Careers Seriously Considered . . . . The Selection of Education as a C a r e e r ....................... "Arriving" as a Public CommunityJunior College President ............. 211 211 211 214 220 223 229 Identification and Affect of Factors . 230 Tracing the Routes . . . . . . . 239 Reasons for Selection by the Govern­ ing B o a r d ............................... 252 Reasons for Accepting the Presidency . 255 Ideal Sequence of Positions Leading to a P r e s i d e n c y ........................ 255 Future Career Considerations . . . . Perceptions of Personal Influences . vii . 261 . 267 Chapter Page People and E v e n t s ........................... 268 The Formative Y e a r s ........................ 271 Perceptions Concerning a Chance to Revise Career Decisions— Beginning A g a i n ......................................... 272 Perceptions Concerning Career S t r a t e g i e s .................................. 275 S u m m a r y ......................................... 277 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 2 86 Review of the Problem and the Research D e s i g n ................ 286 Summary of the F i n d i n g s .................... 2 89 Personal and Demographic Profile. . . . 289 Position Sequence/Career Pattern P r o f i l e ......................................292 Career Strategy Profile........................ 297 Perceptions of Career Influences. . . . 303 Perceptions of Personal Influences . . . 310 Perceptions Regarding Career Revisions. . 311 Conclusions and General Discussion of the Study Findings.................................. 312 Recommendations for Further Research . . . 326 APPENDICES APPENDIX A. MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITY-JUNIOR COLLEGES AND P R E S I D E N T S .................................. 330 B. MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITY-JUNIOR COLLEGE ENROLLMENTS ........................ 334 C. EXPLORATORY STUDY PRESIDENTS, COLLEGES, AND MEETING D A T E S ......................................335 D. FOLLOW-UP LETTER TO EXPLORATORY STUDY PRESIDENTS......................................... 336 E. QUESTIONNAIRE MAILED TO PRESIDENTS F. RESPONSE FORM— PERSONAL INTERVIEW.................. 342 viii . . . . 337 Page APPENDIX G. PERSONAL INTERVIEW G U I D E ................ H. INITIAL COVER LETTER TO PRESIDENTS. I. FOLLOW-UP LETTER TO P R E S I D E N T S ......... 351 J. LOG OF QUESTIONNAIRE RET U R N S............. 353 K. CORRESPONDENCE FORM CONFIRMING PERSONAL I N T E R V I E W ............................. 354 L. CALENDAR OF PERSONAL INTERVIEWS......... 355 M. BREAKDOWN OF POSITION CATEGORIES FOR THE SIX CAREER CLASSIFICATION TYPES . . . N. COPYRIGHT PERMISSION CORRESPONDENCE SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . 348 . . . . 349 356 . ............................... 362 374 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Present ages of p r e s i d e n t s ..................... 135 2. Size of city/town where presidents were b o r n ........................................ 137 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Size of city/town where presidents spent half or more of their formative years. . . 139 Primary occupations of the parents during the presidents* formative y e a r s ............... 142 Extent of formal education for the presi­ dents' parents and s p o u s e s ................. 144 Educational attainment of the presidents as evidenced by the highest earned degree . 147 States and institutions of higher education where presidents received highest earned . . . . d e g r e e ......................... 148 Presidents' academic fields of study by earned degree. . . . . . . . . 149 . . Presidents' academic majors by highest earned d e g r e e ........................................ 153 Presidents' academic rank at time of gradu­ ation from high school and college. . . . 154 Academic honors received by the presidents while in high school and/or college . . . 156 Presidents' extent of participation in school-related extra-curricular activities while in high school and college . . . . Presidents' tenure in present position . x . 157 . 159 Table 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Page First position listed by presidents following or concurrent with receipt of the bacca­ laureate d e g r e e ................................. 165 Second position listed by presidents in position sequence ........................... 166 Third position listed by presidents in position sequence ........................... 167 Fourth position listed by presidents in position sequence ........................... 168 Fifth position listed by presidents in position sequence ........................... 169 Sixth position listed by presidents in position sequence ........................... 170 Seventh position listed by presidents in position sequence ........................... 171 Eighth position listed by presidents in position sequence ........................... 172 Ninth position listed by president in ........................... position sequence 173 Number and percentage of presidents employed in each of the six position classification types during the nine position sequence necessary to move all presidents into their present position....................... 181 Position held immediately prior to assuming present Michigan community college p r e s i d e n c y .................................. 182 Position held immediately prior to assuming first community college presidency. . . 185 . Presidents' career strategy orientations to their present position........................ 197 Presidents' career strategy orientations to their present position— broad, collapsed categories f o r m .............................. 197 Presidents' career strategy orientations beyond their present position ............. 204 xi Table 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. Page Alternative careers seriously considered by the p r e s i d e n t s .............................. 222 President's perception of the three major reasons for selection to his present p r e s i d e n c y ..................................... President's perception of the three major reasons for accepting his present p r e s i d e n c y ................................ President's ranking (ideal sequence) of three positions to have been held by a prospective community college president prior to accepting his first presidency. Specific type of experience preferred by presidents who listed "educational administrator" as the position to have been held by a prospective community college president immediately prior to accepting his first presidency............ xii 253 256 . 258 260 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction to the Problem Researchers in the behavioral sciences have indi­ cated over a period of years a continuing interest in the subject of careers. Numerous studies concerning aspects of careers (which pertain to a variety of occupational groups, including the field of education) can be identified in the literature. However, the studies in education concerning careers relate primarily to the public school teacher and administrator, particularly the public school superinten­ dent. Comparatively minimal attention has been given to research concerning the careers of college and university presidents in general and public community-junior college presidents in particular. The Problem in Historical Perspective Institutions of higher education have made sig­ nificant contributions to the development of our society. Traditionally, the diversified yet complementary system of higher education has contributed to the cultural, 1 2 economic, social, political, and educational foundations of the country while enjoying increased enrollments due in part to increased numbers of college-age youth and a prevailing egalitarian emphasis. Also pertinent to this growth, particularly since 1945, has been the continuing and fundamental American belief in the worth of education. During the 1960s, higher education expanded dra­ matically in terms of students, new institutions, and increased budgets; however, the 1970s have been depicted as "The '60s in Reverse.”^ Important transitions and upheavals are occurring in higher education today as a result of declining enrollments, a changing set of social priorities, changes in the administration of federal aid, a stabilising of the proportion of state budget money allocated to higher education, a changing definition of higher education which recognizes the broader system referred to as post-secondary education, an increased demand for accountability by a variety of outside interests, questions of increased and more centralized coordination and/or control, and the inpact of collective bargaining. 2 ^Lyman A. Glenny, "The '60s in Reverse," Research Reporter 8 (1973): 1. 2 Ibid., pp. 1-4. 3 Leaders of higher education institutions during the 1970s and beyond are clearly faced with the responsi­ bility for resolving a variety of problems and concerns. The college president is the "person of the hourl" The public community-junior college development during the twentieth century has added a vital dimension to higher education. Prior to the late 1950s, separate studies of the public community-junior college were not greatly in evidence since these institutions were gen­ erally either extensions of the local unit-school dis­ tricts or characterized as lower-division colleges. How­ ever, the tremendous nation-wide growth of these colleges during the 1960s and early 1970s has provided an identity and recognition for the community college movement. The public community-junior college has developed its own unique dimension and has assumed a significant position in America's higher education system. Further, the public community-junior college president, like his counterparts in the four-year colleges and universities, has become a significant and influential force in edu­ cational endeavors. In 1970, at the height of the campaign for the mayoral election in New York City, an advertisement extolling the virtues of John V. Lindsay, incumbent camdidate, had as its theme the proposition that if the President of the United States has the first-toughest 4 job in the Nation, then the Mayor of New York City has the second-toughest job. 3 It could follow that there is a "third-toughest" job in the Nation, and it might be that this job belongs to the college president. The array and complexity of problems that face the college president during the years ahead indicate that research directed toward better understanding the chief adminis­ trative officer is necessary. The public community-junior college president: is recognized as a most influential educational force in the college district. The president must possess special abilities and beliefs in order to provide the necessary and required leadership of this uniquely American insti­ tution— the community-junior college. A former community college president writing about his peers defines some of the abilities needed for the job when he states: The administrative leadership must be strong, reflective, decisive, honest, and flexible, because it cannot— and will not— be insulated from the dilemmas of action. Because of stresses, pressures, frustrations, and conflicts of the job, the community college leader cannot expect to earn his pension on one assignment. In addition, he must be sensitive to social issues which defy simple explanation; he must understand that these issues are a definite part of his institution and community. Among the implications for him is that even though he is an academician, he must rediscover the working man. He must also have 3 Lloyd Aldwyn L e a k e , "A Study of the Profile of College and University Presidents in the Commonwealth of Virginia" (Ed.D. dissertation. State University of New York at Albany, 1974), p. 1. 5 a tolerance for country estates, rat-infested slum dwellings, and dirty houses. . . . These are the homes that send him students. Finally, in an environment symbolized by the anonymous IBM card he can expect to encounter the . . . discontent . of students and to have to negotiate with faculty. This study is being undertaken with the knowledge that the community college^ president occupies a unique and influential position, and he must strive to be a complete personality possessing varied and w e 11-developed abilities. What perceptions of their career consider­ ations— past, present, and future— do the community college presidents have? factors are evident? What personal and background What are their occupational and educational histories that help to identify routes and strategies leading to a community college presidency? What perceptions do they have of themselves? What personal, professional, and environmental influences have affected the presidents during their careers? The studies that have been completed on a national scale concerning public community-junior college p r esi­ dents and presidents of four-year institutions have dealt primarily with personal, educational, and work history information. Further, the studies are generally 4 William Moore, Jr., Blind Man on a Freeway; The Community College Administrator (San Francisco: Josseybass Co., 1971)7 p. 2. 5 The terms public community-junior college, public community college, community-junior college, and community college are used synonymously. 6 concerned with aspects of the presidency regarding a profile of the individual in office and the relationship of the individual to his position, role, and/or responsi­ bility. There is a limited amount of research dealing with career patterns, strategies, and career motivations of college presidents. Statement of the Problem The present investigation is undertaken for the purpose of exploring and describing the Michigan public community-junior college presidents' career patterns, career strategy orientations, background information, and perceptions of career influences. The problem of the study is stated as f o l l o w s : 1. To develop a profile of the Michigan public community-junior college presidents w ith respect to identifying the extent to which their careers are influenced by their perceptions of competen­ cies, aspirations, and opportunities. 2. To develop profiles of these presidents' routes to the presidency by identifying their position sequences/career p a t t e r n s , career st r a t e g i es, and pertinent background information. The problem of the investigation is presented in the belief that a more complete understanding of the community college p r e s i d e n t s ' careers can be developed 7 when: (a) attention is given to the interplay of such career channeling and/or constraining factors as compe­ tencies, aspirations, and opportunities; (b) these factors are considered along with career patterns, career strategy orientations, and background information; and (c) careers are considered with reference to the past, present, and future. Purpose of the Study The purposes of the study are presented in the form of objectives, a format suggested by Borg for this type of study.6 Data for the study will be obtained from a written questionnaire and personal interview. The first objective is to provide data with which to identify and describe how the perceptions of Michigan public community-junior college presidents concerning their aspirations, competencies, and opportunities relate to their career decisions and their eventual arrival in a presidency and beyond. This part of the study will ^Walter R. Borg, Educational R e search: An Introduction (New York: David McKay Co., 1963), p. 36 8 draw upon the work of Thompson, Avery, and Carlson 7 as Q well as Ferrari*s research. The second objective or purpose is to provide and analyze data concerning the presidents* career position histories for the purpose of identifying and describing position sequences/career patterns leading to the presi­ dency* Third, a purpose of the study is to use the career pattern information and selected presidential perceptions to identify and describe their career strategy orientations up to the present and toward the future. The conceptual framework for career strategies developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson will be used as a basis 9 for strategy identification. Also, Cavanaugh's research concerning the identification of career patterns and 7 James D. Thompson, Robert W. Avery, and Richard 0. Carlson, "Occupations, Personnel, and Careers," E du­ cational Administration Quarterly 4 (Winter 1968): 6-31. (Hereinafter cited as Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations.") g Michael R. Ferrari, Jr., "A Study of the Careers of American College and University Presidents" (D.B.A. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968). 9 Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations," pp. 9-12. 9 career strategies will be used to operationalize the conceptual framework.3'0 A final purpose of the investigation is to identify and describe personal and demographic data concerning the presidents. The purposes of the study are supported by a number of research questions: 1. What are the observations of the Michigan public community-junior college presidents concerning the extent to which the career channeling factors (perceptions of competency, aspiration, and opportunity) affected their career decisions which ultimately provided the opportunity to serve as a community college president? a. Considering that a number of career alterna­ tives were available, why did the presidents choose a particular career? b. Was the attainment of a presidency a goal that resulted in career planning designed to obtain the goal? c. Was there an experience or decision at some point in time that served to encourage the active/conscious pursuit of a presidency? 10Jerald Duane Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies of Public Community-Junior College Presidents" (Ed.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, 1971). 10 2. What observations are made by the Michigan public community-junior college presidents concerning the extent to which their perceptions of compe­ tency, aspiration, and opportunity will affect their present and future career plans? 3. Since receiving the undergraduate degree, what has been the sequence of positions held by each Michigan public community-junior college president and what are the identifiable characteristics and patterns of the position sequences? 4. What are the identifiable career strategies which describe the Michigan public community-junior college presidents, and what are the identifiable characteristics of the presidents in the strategy profiles? 5. What is the profile of the Michigan public com­ munity-junior college presidents concerning selected background and personal information? Rationale for the Study Need Research conducted prior to 1960 concerning college and university presidents in general and public community-junior college presidents in particular indi­ cates that relatively little is known about the president in a systematic and empirical sense. Ferrari states: 11 What is known about college presidents regarding their career patterns, roles, personalities, and socio-economic characteristics has come primarily from the personal e s s a y s , speeches, and memories of former p r e s i d e n t s . H Others note that there is possibly a relatively small amount of space in the literature devoted to research concerning college and university presidents because historically the presidents have maintained a low profile and a nonpolitical posture over a period of time when higher education enjoyed a high social priority by a 12 public generally not critical of higher education. However, the campus unrest of the 1960s along with tight budgets, stressful economic and employment conditions, the pressure for accountability, and other recent trends have thrust the educational leaders in a prominent way and on a regular basis into the media and political arena at the local, state, and national level. Also, it is mentioned by other authors that: It is difficult to assess educational leadership . . . by perusing the published literature. Journal searches reveal little because junior college edu­ cators tend not to write.13 Michael R. Ferrari, Jr., Profiles of American College Presidents (East Lansing, M i c h . : Division of Research-Graduate School of Business Administration, Michigan State University, 1970), p. 2. 12 Leake, "Profile of College and University Presidents," pp. 3-4. 13 A. M. Cohen and J. E. Roueche, Institutional Administrator or Educational Leader? The Junior College 12 F in a lly , v e r s ity Doi d e s c r ib e s a d m in is tr a tio n th e as s u b je c t " v ir g in o f c o lle g e te r r ito r y and fo r u n i­ re s e a rc h " with respect to the need for extensive study of administrative careers. 14 Continued research concerning the career per­ ceptions, position sequences, career strategies, and selected background factors of public community-junior presidents is needed for a number of reasons. 1. The public community-junior college represen a unique form of higher education known for its emphasis on vocational, transfer, general, and continuing education programs along with its "open-door" admissions, emphasis on teaching, and its orientation to a more localized clientele. The growth of community colleges in terms of numbers of institutions, student population, and refinement of purposes indicates acceptance of the com­ munity college concept. This institution, indeed, has tremendous potential for influencing individuals, com­ munities of people served, and the society as a whole. Since the presidents of these institutions have overall responsibility for the direction and development of President (Washington: American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, 1969), p. 14. 14 James I. Doi, "Organization, Administration, Finance, and Facilities," Review of Educational Research 35 (October 1965): 357. 13 these institutions, continuous study of these individuals is indicated. Roueche notes: It appears that the president is the key to change in the junior college. Because he is more influencial than any other person, it is almost axiomatic that if the president wants something to happen it will. Ultimately, he is responsible for all aspects of his institution. 2. The study has value in terms of learning more about the careers of community college presidents particularly with respect to how their perceptions of personal competence, aspiration, and opportunity serve as channeling or constraining influences when making career decisions. 3. Such a study will provide an opportunity to evaluate the usefulness of the conceptual framework for career strategies developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson and modified by Cavanaugh for describing career strategies of a selected population of public communityjunior p r e s i d e n t s . ^ 4. There are differences of opinion in the literature as to whether or not individuals consciously strive for a college presidency. This study will 15 John E. Roueche, The Junior College President (Los Angeles: ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior College Information, U.C.L.A., June, 1968), p. 1. ^ T h o m p s o n , Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations," pp. 9-12; Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategy," pp. 22-25. 14 provide additional information concerning the active pursuit of a presidency. 5. The literature concerning career selection is generally divided into four explanatory c a t e g o r i e s : the accident theory, the unconscious forces theory, the psychological theories, and the developmental theories. Through a descriptive study of career perceptions, position sequences, and career strategies with regard to the population of community college presidents studied, additional data will be made available con­ cerning how individuals choose or arrive in a career. 6. Such a study will provide knowledge of p r esi­ dential career patterns in addition to personal and back­ ground information which can be helpful to institutions that identify and educate individuals to staff such administrative positions. 7. The study should have value to members of presidential selection committees who determine w hat type of individual with what type of background, experience, and perceptions of career would be most able to respond to a given institution's needs. 8. The study should have significance for those who aspire to become a community college president by making them more aware of the backgrounds of persons presently in such positions. 15 9. Such a study is needed to provide a better understanding and profile of the Michigan public com­ munity-junior college presidents— a group of presidents generally similar in profile to their counterparts nation-wide. Theoretical Justification This study represents an outgrowth of research concerning events, conditions, perceptions, various theories concerning career choice, a conceptual framework of career strategies, and findings concerning the public community-junior college president in particular and the college and university president in general as such find­ ings relate to career perceptions, position sequences, and career strategies.17 In his study entitled Profiles of American College Presiden t s , Ferrari notes that there have been m any philosophies and theories proposed in an attempt to explain why individuals chose or find themselves in 17 The author is especially indebted to the follow­ ing individuals for giving written permission to e x t e n ­ sively use their research findings and format in the p r e ­ sent study: (1) Jerald D. Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies of Public Community-Junior College Presidents” (Ed.D. dissertation. University of Colorado, 1971) ; (2) Dennis R. W. Wing, "The Public Community C o l ­ lege Chief Administrator during the 1960s: A Description and Analysis of His Changing Profile" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, 1971) ; and (3) Michael R. Ferrari, J r . , "A Study of the Careers of American College and U ni­ versity Presidents” (D.B.A. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968). 16 particular occupations. 18 Recognition of these broad categories of theories concerning career indicates that it is difficult to explain why college presidents chose their careers and the various positions within given careers. There are many possible interpretations and complex reasons for such career choices. 19 the following categories: Ferrari notes The Accident T h e o r y : Theorists in this category usually stress that individuals make decisions about future occupations accidentally, and it is therefore impossible to critically evaluate all the alternative factors. Prominent people who supposedly had found themselves accidentally in a career and excelled in it are usually used to support this theory, e.g., David Ricardo, Malinow­ ski, Whistler.2® (Author's footnote) Unconscious Forces T h e o r y ; The unconscious forces theory Had its origins in the early psychological school of human behavior and motivation. Its proponents maintain that the decisions to go into a given occupation are not the result of conscious deliberation, but rather a result of latent forces which influence the individual toward a given occu­ pation, e.g., the person who manifested urges to have power and later selected a career giving authority and dominance over others' lives.2 * (Author's footnote) Psychological Theories: The advocates of some psy­ chological theories usually hold that "while the limits and pressures of uncontrollable external 18 19 Ferrari, Profiles, p. 116. Ferrari, "Careers," pp. 220-23. 20 Eli Ginzberg, Sol W. Ginsburg, Sidney Axelrad, and John L. Hanna, Occupational Choice; An Approach to a General Theory (New Yoric: Columbia University P r e s s , IS51), pp. 18-19. 21I b id., pp. 21-22. 17 circumstances play a part, general psychological factors . . . are of major causal importance."22 (Author's footnote) These psychological factors often include impulsive emotions, which determine choice of vocation and the satisfaction of basic needs as opposed to economic gain. Some prominent writers like Roe and Maslow have postulated a needs heirarchy beginning with physical and safety needs and moving upward to self-actualization needs. The relentless striving upward to self-actualization, to becoming all that one can become, "may well be the big factor in determining those who put enormous yet easy and pleasant effort into their work from those who do not."23 (Author's footnote) Developmental Theories; These theories stress that the final occupational choice can be understood only in terms of the stages of development through which an individual has passed. As such, occupational choice is a developmental process. . . . 24 (Author's footnote) Osipow notes that a majority of the writings regarding career development theory are based on the following four approaches: (1) the trait-factor approach, (2) the self-concept approach, (3) the personality approach, and (4) the reality or accident theory approach.25 22 Bertram R. Faier, "Personality Factors in Occu­ pational Choice," Educational Psychological Measurement 13 (1953): 362. 23 York: Ann Roe, The Psychology of Occupations John Hiley & Sons, 1956), p. TTI 24 25 (New Ginzberg et al., Occupational C h o i c e , pp. 186-98. S. H. Osipow, Theories of Career Development (New Y o r k : Appleton-Century-Crofts, i960), pp. 10-11. 18 The research done by Ferrari and Berte concerning community college presidents appropriately presents an overall picture regarding the problems associated with the studies of car e e r s : A statistical presentation of career patterns runs the risk of conveying the idea that career decisions are made in a simple, mechanistic fashion. However, career decisions are part of a complex, ongoing pro­ cess involving an individual with his total work environment. Such decisions relate partly to selfimages of who one is or who one would like to be, to one's unique qualities or abilities and to the reali­ ties of occupational opportunities that come to an individual. It is partly due to a blending of social-psychological factors that provide one with certain advantages, exposures, and perceptions. For some, career decisions appear to be planned, conscious choices, and for others, career mobility appears to result from unplanned accidents in which one is essentially chosen or one seems to drift into a given occupational niche.26 The developmental approach to career decisions provides one of the theoretical foundations on which this study is conceived since this approach to career decisions is closely associated with the research on career per­ ceptions and the conceptual framework of career strategies used for this study. Ginzberg and his associates state: Occupational choice is a developmental p r o c e s s : it is not a single decision, but a series of deci­ sions made over a period of years. Each step in 26 Michael R. Ferrari, Jr., and Neal R. Berte, American Junior Colleges: Leadership and Crucial Issues for the 1970s (Washington: American Association of Com­ munity and Junior Colleges, 1969), p. 12. 19 the process has a meaningful relation to those which precede and follow it. . . . The p ro c e s s is la r g e ly ir r e v e r s ib le . . . . The process ends in compromise.27 The emphasis is on the fact that career planning is a process, generally irreversible, and characterized by compromise. The developmental approach to career planning isgenerally characterized by three broad career consideration: periods the fantasy choice period, of the tentative choice period, and the realistic choice period. Another theoretical foundation for this study relates the research of Ginzberg and associates to the research indicating that the sequence of positions which results in a career is usually not merely a happenstance or random selection from among the variety of options within a career field. The article by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson is based on the Ginzberg developmental approach and provides a major basis for this study in terms of its delineation of channeling and constraining factors related to career decisions and its conceptual 28 framework of career strategies. Career channeling and constraining factors are discussed here while the conceptual framework of career strategies will be noted later. 27 Ginzberg et al., Occupational C h o i c e , p. 185. 2 8Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations," pp. 6-12. 20 Thompson, Avery, and Carlson state the following concerning career, which may or may not have been con­ sciously planned: The sequence which results in any particular career is not simply a random selection from among millions of jobs but develops out of the possibilities pre­ sented after various constraining or channeling factors are accounted f o r . 29 Careers develop within channels which are developed out of the interplay of such factors as competence, aspiration, and opportunities as these are perceived by the individual. Further, these factors reflect the past, present, and future. The authors describe these channeling or con­ straining factors that are the basis of career decisions as follows: Competence is an important factor in shaping the career o f a n individual but if competence alone were the governing factor, disrupted careers would occur only when (1) physical or mental disabilities disqualify an individual for his former occupation, (2) the need for the occupation dwindles, or (3) extra-job learning via education or hobby has developed competence in a new field. A second important variable is aspiration. The salience of aspiration refers to the kinds of achievements the individual feels are important and thus governs the direction in which he will expend effort. The career itself— or a particular occu­ pation or job within it— can be highly salient, but other values— such as family satisfactions— may be of equal or higher priority. The level of aspiration has significance for the amount of effort the individual will devote to those things he values and indicates what he considers to be satisfactory levels of achievement. Both salience and level of aspiration may change through various phases of the career. ^®Ibid., pp. 7-8 21 A ‘third factor important to -the shaping of a career is the structure of opportunities as per­ ceived by the individual. Tne actual job market sets limits . . . but the more significant aspect is the job market as the individual believes it to be. It is those jobs which are visible to him and for which he has sufficient visibility that constitute opportunities for h i m . 30 Studies have often attempted to categorize career plans, career patterns, and career strategies as these relate to various career fields in addition to education. However, these studies have primarily dealt with the individual's orientations to his job by identifying the types of reference groups considered to be significant to various types of individuals in jobs. However, the studies done by Carlson and later by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson are significant because they consider career orientations beyond a single point in time.33 It is this approach to career orientations, which recognizes the importance of past, present, and future with regard to studying how the individual formulates particular career or i e n t a t i o n s , that provides another conceptual framework for the study. Cavanaugh notes; "Through 30I b i d . , p. 8. 33Richard O. Carlson, "Succession and Performance among School Superintendents," Administrative Science Quarterly 6 (September 1961): 216-27; idem. Executive succession and Organizational Change (Chicago: Midwest Administration Center, University of Chicago, 1962); and Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations," pp. 6-31. 22 this approach, researchers can study the shifting of an individual from one career strategy to another because of changed c o m p e t e n c i e s , a s p i r a t i o n s , and/or perceptions of opportunities." 32 The conceptual framework for career strategies proposed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson is receptive to the possibility of changes in strategies through time and is, therefore, a significant theoretical basis for this study. The authors note that the initial three career strategy orientations identified below are generally consistent w ith other research concerning job-orientations, and the final strategy described is based on common sense and has not received the systematic attention of researchers. The conceptual framework of strategy orientations proposed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson is as f o l l o w s :^ 1. Heuristic S t r a t e g y . Here the criterion of advancement or progression is uppermost, and the individual is committed neither to a p a r ­ ticular occupation nor to a specific organi­ zation. Rather his commitment is to personal attainment wherever it leads him and successive alternatives are evaluated primarily in terms of progress and the perceived promise they hold. What we term the heuristic strategy 32 Cavanaugh, Strategies," p. 10. 33 pp. 11-12. "Position Sequences and Career Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations," 23 2. 3. seems to have been identified under various labels in studies of job-orientation.34 (Authors' footnote) Occupational Strategy. In this case the indi­ vidual is sensitive only or primarily to those job alternatives within his occupation and places progression within the occupation above progression within a particular organization. The orientation associated with this strategy also has been identified under various labels. (Authors' footnote) Organizational Strategy. In this case the indi­ vidual considers primarily those job alterna­ tives presented by his organization and sub­ ordinates to this the question of which occu­ pation he will practice. This strategy also 34 Dwaine Marvick finds the "hybrid employee" in government in Career Perspectives if* a Bureaucratic Set­ ting (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1954); George K. Floro identifies the "floater" or "individu­ alist" among city managers in "Types of City Managers," Public Myiagement (October, 1954); Dill, Hilton, and Reitmen, studying aspiring industrial managers, find a "heu­ ristic" orientation in "How Aspiring Managers Promote Their Own Careers," California Management Review (Summer, 1960)? and Alvin Gouldner identifies the "company mam" executive in Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1954). 35 Government employees labelled "specialist" in Marvick's study (oj>. c i t .) seem to fit here. Floro (op. cit.) terms city managers with this orientation "jumpers" or as those seeking "advancement-by-moving." In a study of a state government bureaucracy, Leonard Reissman iden­ tified the "functional" or "specialist" bureaucrat with this orientation in "A Study of Role Conception in a Bureaucracy," Social Forces (March, 1949). Donald Pelz, studying a governmental research laboratory, identified this commitment as a "science orientation" in "Some Social Factors Related to Performance in a Research Organization," Administrative Science Quarterly (1956). Alvin Gouldner's identification of "cosmopolitans" on a college faculty also is similar in "Cosmopolitans and Locals: Toward an Analysis of Latent Social Roles," Administrative Science Quarterly (December, 1957 and March, 1958). Carlson's (op. c i t .) identification of "career bound" superintendents also fits here. 24 seems to be reflected in various studies under a variety of labels.36 (Authors' footnote) 4. Strategy of St a b i l i t y . In this category we w o u l d put individuals for w h o m the notion of another job is irrelevant. The strategy of stability can appear in a variety of situations. For some, this strategy reflects resignation to the status quo because of lack of competence for "better" jobs or lack of perceived oppor­ tunity, or both. For others, the strategy of stability signifies that job aspirations are satisfied, either because the nature of the work is highly rewarding or because the present job affords those things necessary to pursue aspirations in other life sectors which are highly salient. In brxef, the four strategies have these character­ istic orientations: H e u r i s t i c : Any occupation, any organization; Organ i z a t i o n a l ; Any occupation, present organization; Occupational^ Present occupation, any organization; S t a b i l i t y : Present occupation, present organization. Thompson, Avery, and Carlson relate the strategies to aspects of the channeling/constraining factors by noting that even though career strategies are relatively stable and lasting, individuals likely will use a sequence of career strategies determined in part by the life cycle common to all individuals and in part by the perceptual channeling/constraining factors of compe­ tencies, aspirations, and structure of opportunities which are patterned by types of occupations. 37 3**Marvick (o£. c i t .) terms governmental employees with this orientation "institutionalists" and Keissman (0£. c i t .) calls them "job bureaucrats." Floro (op. c i t .) found the "one-city-manager," Carlson (oj>. c i t .) , the "place-bound" school superintendent, a n a G o u l d n e r (op. cit.), the "local" college faculty member. 37 p. 12. Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations," 25 The identification of career strategies based on the conceptual framework results from review of the position histories of the individuals in the study p o p u ­ lation. This study draws upon the method and operational definitions, developed by Cavanaugh, that provide criteria for the analysis of position sequences allowing the placement of individuals into career strategies. 38 His national study of 498 public community-junior college presidents provided the following: identified fifty different positions as held just prior to the first public com­ munity-junior college presidency; concluded that it was relatively impossible to identify common patterns of position sequence; classified the presidents into seven different career startegies based on the conceptual frame­ work of Thompson, Avery, and Carlson; and identified and compared selected background factors of the presidents. 39 Finally as an overview to this study of Michigan public community-junior college presidents' careers, attention is given to the reasons offered for making a particular career choice. Ferrari found in his study of 760 presidents of four-year, accredited colleges and universities that the basic reasons for following careers in higher education 38 Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies," pp. 22-25, 4 7-63. 26 administration could be classified by six interrelated factors: (1) a service orientation, (3) professional opportunities, (5) a developmental process, and 40 c u m s ta n c e . F e rra ri a ls o n o te s (2) social influences, (4) personal factors, (6) an accidental cirth a t " th e p r e s id e n ts a re most likely to say they were chosen or selected, but they did not choose." 41 He concludes that most presidents chose higher education rather them higher education administration as a career; however, presidents cam be identified who chose higher education administration because they did want to become a college president. 42 Finally, the Hawk and Wing studies are important to this study because they emphasize consideration of career patterns developed over time as well as the regular personal and background data concerning community college presidents.43 The inclusion of theoretical concepts should not be construed as an attempt to prove or disprove them. The purpose of their inclusion is to form a basis from which to proceed with the present study. 40 Ferrari, "Careers," pp. 224-25. 41I b i d . , p. 228. 43 42I b i d . , p. 229. Ray Hawk, "A Profile of Junior College Presi­ dents," Junior College Journal 30 (February 1960): 340-46; Wing, "Public Community College Chief Administrator." 27 Scope of the Study The population of the twenty-nine Michigan public community-junior college presidents was selected for the study. A breakdown of the population is presented in Appendix A by identifying the presidents, institutions, and locations. While the present descriptive and exploratory study is only concerned with Michigan public community college presidents, it is probable that they are similar to their counterparts nationwide; however, it is not the purpose of the study to generalize to the larger p o p u ­ lation. The Michigan presidents are expected to exert continued and increased effort toward developing their respective colleges and to provide leadership at the local, state, and national level similar to the roles identified for such presidents throughout the country, and are, therefore, worthy of study. Further, Michigan, California, Washington, Texas, Florida, Illinois, and New York are generally considered to be the states having the most extensively developed public community-junior college programs. Assumptions In this study, it is assumed that: 1. Presidents of public community-junior col­ leges and presidents of four-year colleges and 28 universities are similar enough in terms of their position and role to include and make reference to available research concerning both groups; however, they are also different and justify separate study. 2. It is feasible to gather perceptual, personal- social, educational, and work history data and to identify and describe career perceptions, position sequences, and career strategies (expressed or implied) concerning the study population since previous research national in scope has indicated that such can be accomplished. 3. In order to explore and describe the careers of the study population, the most feasible method is to use a written questionnaire to help the presidents focus their thinking in order to assure the appropriateness and completeness of the perceptual information gathered in a follow-up structured personal interview. 4. The responding presidents will provide honest and open answers. Limitations of the Study The study limitations are as follows; 1. The study is limited to the Michigan public community-junior college presidents. 2. Representativeness is limited to those presi­ dents willing to participate in the study, and nonpartic­ ipants may be different from the study respondents. 29 3. The completeness and accuracy of the data are acceptable to the extent that space and time stipu­ lations are appropriate and the investigator is able to establish rapport with the presidents participating in the study. 4. In the process of completing the study, concepts and factors may be identified which are not anticipated; however, beyond reporting such, no attempt is planned to analyze such unexpected findings. 5. Questionnaire and interview instruments have been constructed to gather appropriate data for the study; however, even though the instruments were developed to * insure objectivity, some bias is inevitable, and data interpretation is subject to the limitations associated with the use of such data-gathering techniques and methods. 6. It is difficult to determine causality since the information and perceptions gathered are not g e n ­ erally controlled or specified, and the data are not empirically treated. Definition of Terms For purposes of this study, the following def i ­ nitions are used: Michigan Public Community-Junior C o l l e g e s .— The twenty-nine institutions in Michigan providing services 30 consistent with the five basic functions of a comprehen­ sive community college, receiving state and local financial assistance in part through taxes, and offering the twoyear associate degree as the highest degree. Michigan Public Community-Junior College Presi­ dents .— The twenty-nine chief administrative officers of the Michigan community colleges who report to the official governing board of the district. Respondents.— The Michigan public community-junior college presidents who participated in the study by com­ pleting the written questionnaire and granting an inter­ view. Career Perceptions.— The process or act of becom­ ing aware of in o n e 1s mind the experiences, individuals, and/or events having an effect on the individual's career. Position Sequence.— A representation of a work history for a given period of time which may or may not have been consciously planned in advance. terms are used synonymously in this study: sequence, career, career pattern, The following position job sequence, job history, and work history. Career Strategy.— The art or technique of employ­ ing certain means (generally based on the work history) to reach desired occupational objectives. It is used in the study to describe the conscious or sub-conscious 31 orientation the individual has concerning his career. S tra te g y is used as an o b je c tiv e te rm describe a subjective orientation. to id e n tify and 44 Pers o n a l - S o c i a l , Background F a c t o r s .— The facts that we know concerning ourselves and our relations/ interactions with others. Channeling/Constraining F a c t o r s .— The i n d ividual's perceptions of competence, aspiration, and opportunity over the individual's life cycle. The perceptions can either channel or constrain decisions concerning career. 45 Heuristic, Organizational, Occupational, and Stability S t r a t e g i e s .— The career strategies conceptual­ ized by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson. Overview of the Study An overview of the study concerning the careers of Michigan public community-junior college presidents is as follows: 44 Cavanaugh, Strategies," p. 74. "Position Sequences and Career 45 The channeling and/or constraining factors used in this study are based on the work of Thompson, Avery, and Carlson ("Occupations," p. 8) and have been previously defined in the theoretical justification section of this study chapter. See Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations," pp. 9-12 and the theoretical justification section of this study chapter. 32 Chapter I I : Presented in this chapter will be pertinent literature concerning career studies of college and university presidents in general and public communityjunior college presidents in particular. Special attention will be given to studies concerning vocational choice and the career-related topics germane to the investigation. Chapter I I I : The research design, methodology, population, and method and results of the data collection are discussed. Chapter I V ; The data are analyzed in this chapter which has two basic divisions. The first division is organized to provide a profile of the Michigan community college presidents. In the second division, the presi­ dents' career perceptions are presented. Chapter V : A summary of the study findings, con­ clusions , and recommendations for further research are presented in the final chapter. A review of the literature concerning presidential career considerations is provided in the following chapter. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE In tr o d u c tio n The fro m an in te n s iv e w r itin g s in in th e th e w ith b a c k g ro u n d A ls o , re fe re n c e fa c to rs p a tte rn s , in c o lle g e p u b lic p a r tic u la r . r e v ie w e d c a re e r and r e v ie w in v e s tig a tio n c o n c e r n in g g e n e ra l den t lite r a tu r e o f to th is o f c h a p te r th e and re s e a rc h u n iv e r s ity c o m m u n ity -ju n io r th e s u b je c t th e a re a s a c a d e m ic p e r c e p tio n s , o f o f and p r e s id e n t c o lle g e c a re e rs v o c a tio n a l p r e s id e n ts , and r e s u lts and p r e s i­ w as c h o ic e , s tu d ie s o f s tr a te g ie s . In addition to using a traditional approach to the literature review, two additional sources of infor­ mation were used. An initial literature search was con­ ducted through the computer retrieval services of E.R.I.C. (Educational Resources Information Center) in April, 1975, and an update search was conducted using E.R.I.C. in July, 1976. In August, 1975, a computer search of dissertations relating to the study subject was conducted using the comprehensive dissertation query service of Xerox University Microfilms, Inc. 33 Also, an extensive 34 personal research and review of the Dissertation Abstracts International has been conducted by the study investigator. The present chapter begins with an overview of the literature concerning the academic president and follows with information concerning career and vocational choice, personal and background studies, position sequence or pattern studies, and perception and strategy studies. Only literature which has a particular bearing on the present study will be included. The theoretical justifi­ cation information included in Chapter I of this study will not be repeated; however, reference will be made as appropriate. Overview of the Literature Concerning the Academic President Eells and Hollis reported that in excess of seven hundred books and articles were published between 1900 and 1960 which related to the college and university president.^ A complete review of this period of liter­ ature would not be practical in the present study; how­ ever, a few pertinent sources should be cited. As was noted in Chapter I, many of the articles provided during the first half of the twentieth century concerning the academic president dealt with social and alter C. Eells and Ernest V. Hollis, The Col­ lege Presidency 1900-1960; An Annotated Bibliography (Washington: U.S. Office of Education Bulletin No. 9, Government Printing Office, 1961). 35 educational backgrounds, personal qu a l i t i e s , careers, and the individual's general development. These writings were in the form of memoirs, speeches, historical accounts, essays, biographies, and collections of observations, evaluations, and recommendations written, for the most 2 part, by the academic presidents. The term "president" was American in origin. Harvard used the title as early as 1640. Although there have been a number of other titles used such as rector, chancellor, and provost, the title of president has always been the most popular or commonly used. The historical growth of the academic presidency resulted from two basic factors according to Prator: In colonial times, the control of colleges increasingly fell to a board of men chosen from outside the professorate, an idea taken from the Scots. It meant, however, that the board was forced to rely heavily on the president to assume executive-type responsibilities. The board's authority came to be essentially centered in the presidential office. Also in colonial times, the teaching staff members were seldom permanent and had little pro­ fessional cohesiveness. Often, the president was one of the few permanent members of a college staff. The only secure and sustained professional office in American collegiate education was that of the college president himself.3 2 3 Ferrari, "Careers," p. 14. Ralph Prator, The College President (Washington: Center for Applied Research in Education, I9T63) , p. 9. 36 Further, it was not surprising to learn that nine-tenths of the college presidents who served before the Civil War were ordained ministers.* Prator noted: "Even after laymen began entering the presidential field, the barriers to n o n c l e n c s did not fall rapidly." 5 The stable, aristocratic era of the colonial college period yielded to the dynamic era following the Revolutionary War which in turn changed substantially following the Civil War and the traumatic period of £ college failures— over four hundred in number. During the last part of the nineteenth century, significant changes took place that had a direct affect on the academic presidency and higher education in general. Ferrari noted: The founding of Johns Hopkins and the University of Chicago and the many state institutions across the nation assisted by the Morrill Act altered the face of education. There was a steady move from a religious to a secular emphasis in college curricu­ lum; from a simple to complex form of academic organization; from a more classical curriculum to a vocation-utilitarian curriculum; from a philosophy 4 George P. Schmidt, The Old Time College President (New York: Columbia University Press, 1930}, p. 3. ^Prator, College President, p. 6. 6For a general review of the changing eras, see: Prator, College President, pp. 12-13; Frederick Rudolph, The American College and University: A History (New Y o r k : Vintage Books, 1^65), Chap. VI; and George P. Sch m i dt, The Liberal Arts College (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University tress, 195*7) , pp. 113-23. 37 of education for the few to education for the many; from simple literary societies to a great growth in extra-curricular activities; and for the increased development of coeducational insti­ tutions , professional and graduate programs and research activities due to the influence of the German university on American higher education. The twentieth century academic president has undergone a transition. Prior to World War II, the president could be pictured as an academic person. How­ ever since that time, the president has changed from the "institution builder" to the present-day "crisis manager." p Stoke described the transition as follows: The transformation of colleges and universities reflects itself in the position of their presi­ dents , and has brought to that position men whose training, interests, and skills are far different from those of their predecessors. The college president as the Man of Learning has given way to the Man of Management, although the change has not taken place without strain and conflict.9 During the first part of the present century, the academic presidency experienced considerable change. From the early part of the century to the present, the president changed hats and assumed new roles. The growth of higher education nationwide, the development of the public 7 Ferrari, "Careers," p. 19. a Ian E. McNett, "A New Style of Presidential Leadership Is Emerging as 'Crisis Managers' Confront the 1970s," The Chronicle of Higher Education 5 (July 6, 1970): 3. q Harold W. Stoke, The American College President (New York: Harper & Bros.l 1959), p. Tl 38 community-junior college, changing methods and practices of financing higher education, the broadening concept of postsecondary education, diversity, and the egalitarian emphasis were all factors contributing to the changing overall profile of the academic president. Presidential perceptions have also undergone a transition. Early in this century, the presidents saw themselves as belonging to a society of professionals. Rudolph described these presidents' perceptions of their role as professionals as ones "who could perform for higher education those functions which elsewhere in American society were being performed by the captains of industry and the captains of finance. At the present time, the complexity of higher education insti­ tutions in general and public community-junior colleges in particular has brought about more complex, managementoriented, academic presidents having a variety of career patterns, experiences, training, and roles. Presidents and those who write about presidents have had differing views as to the responsibility of the office and the character and background of the individual in the office. Dodds strongly believed that the presi­ dent's main function was that of providing academic leadership regardless of institutional size, complexity, or nature when he stated that "today the need for ^ R u d o l p h , American C o l l e g e , p. 418. 39 educational statemanship is so compelling that 50 percent of presidential time should be spent on strictly edu­ cational matters. Remarking about the president of today's college or university, Stoke commented that "the sheer bulk of its property, population, expenditures, and responsibilities has become an inextricable part of national living." 12 Demerath, Stephens, and Taylor referred to the academic presidency as the "pivotal office" in the bureaucratic dimension of college and university organization. 13 The community college president's role definition has been described as follows: The concept of the community-junior college has changed radically during the half-century of its existence, and with this change has come the need for a more imaginative and versatile leadership. What formerly was a job as the principal of a preparatory program has become a role as edu­ cational leader and as the executive of a complex enterprise with many facets of management relating to personnel, program, plant, finance, and public relations. It has become highly important that this educational leadership shall be exercised ^ H a r o l d W. Dodds, The Academic Presidents Educator or Caretaker? (New York: McGraw-fclill book do., i m ) , pp. €0-61. 12 Stoke, College President, p. 2. ^ N i c h o l a s J. Demerath, Richard W. Stephens, and R. Robb Taylor, Power, Presidents, and Professors (New Y o r k : Basic Books, 1967), p. 4l. 40 with the social vision and the professional under­ standing needed to implement the new concept. Moore commented about the type of presidential leadership needed as follows: The community college needs a well trained new breed of administrative leadership. This leader­ ship must be strong, reflective, decisive, honest, and flexible because it cannot . . . be insulated from the dilemmas of action.15 Prator has also given attention to the kind of academic president needed for a given type of institution. He noted that " . . . the requirements of the college dictate the kind of man needed for the job . . . and the qualifications for presidencies differ greatly from institution to institution and from one period in history to another. He further stated: In view of this diversity (in kinds of institutions in American higher education), it is unlikely that presidential qualifications will ever fall within a limited pattern. If collegiate institutions were devoted simply to excellence in teaching and the search for truth, presidents who could lead the institutions toward these two goals might have many similar qualifications. But the great range of interests, aims, states of growth and develop­ ment and cultural orientations, as well as the differences in geographic location among American 14 C. E. Blocker, R. H. Plummer, and R. C. Richard­ son, J r . , The Two Year College: A Social Synthesis (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965), p. 185. ^ W i l l i a m Moore, Jr., Blind M a n , p. 1. ^ P r a t o r , College President, p. 82. 41 colleges, are reflected in the wide span of quali­ ties required and represented in their presidents. The extent to which the college and university president exerts influence within and outside the insti­ tution is in a state of transition. All of higher edu­ cation has been affected to some degree by the profound changes in the governance structures of institutions. Hodgkinson reported in his study of academic presidents that "changes in the internal governance and authority structure of the institution" were the most significant changes that have occurred in higher education during the past few years. 18 As a result of the growth of colleges and uni­ versities in general and the public community-junior col­ lege in particular, the concerns of presidents must focus beyond just the academic to concerns regarding accounta­ bility, questions of coordination and/or control, and budgets to name a few. Ferrari noted that " . . . it should be recognized that often the background, style, and role of the president over the past 300 years have been tied to the changing social, political, economic, 17Ibid., pp. 84-85. 18 Harold L. Hodgkinson, institutions in Tran sition (Berkley: Carnegie Commission, 1976), p. Tl 42 and educational climate and pressures of the environment." 19 McGill commented: Most of [the] gentle and erudite men have been driven out, and thus the presidency has begun to pass to the hands of young, vigorous men w ith good fighting instincts; tolerant enough to deal with the profound changes that have occurred in the life styles of young people, understanding enough to respond thoughtfully to youthful emotions, firm enough to control the emotional tides flood­ ing the campuses, and smart enouah to avoid the worst extremes of overreaction.20 The president is a significant individual in terms of his responsibilities to the institution and to the citizens served by the institution. The style of administrative-educational leadership shown by an academic president . . . has had much to do with an institution's success and ability to lead, adapt, and even survive, and thus the president's potential leadership is still great indeed.21 Pertinent Research Studies Since the beginning of the 1960s, a review of the literature indicates that increasing attention and study have been undertaken concerning the college and university presidents in general and the public community-junior college presidents in particular. Attention has been given to developing a profile of the president— a 19 Ferrari, "Careers," p. 27. 20 William J. McGill, "Courage to L e a d , ” College and University Journal 9 (Fall 1970): 37. 21 Ferrari, "Careers," p. 27. 43 composite of who and what the individual is— and to dis­ cern trends in the characteristics and backgrounds of these individuals. A majority of the studies concerning the chief administrative officer— college and university presidents, community-junior college presidents, and/or superintendents of unit-school districts— deal primarily with personal-social and background factors, educational background data, and work experience information. To a lesser extent, studies concerning mobility and region of origin have also been considered. Still other studies have dealt with the role and preparational characteristics of presidents. During the past ten to fifteen years, studies concerning the academic president have considered aspects of career choice, career patterns, and career strategies to a greater extent while continuing to e vi­ dence an interest in the more traditional profilegenerating factors already noted. In this section of the literature review, reference is made only to those studies having sig­ nificance to the present study. No attempt has been made to provide an all-inclusive review; however, the bibliography for this study is extensive, and an attempt has been made to provide a rather complete reference to the literature dealing in some way with the subject of this study. 44 Studies of Career and Vocational Choice The individual preparing to make choices concern* ing jobs and a career is influenced by many factors which act both within and on the individual. Theories have been proposed for years that would attempt to explain these influences, forces, or factors; however, the various theories concerning career choice approach the subject from a variety of perspectives. While each of the theories has merit, there does not seem to be one totally comprehensive theory. Majetic wrote: Those theorists with backgrounds in psychology tend to measure achievement, aptitudes and interests in order to plot possible vocational choices. The sociologists on the other hand tend to examine socio-economic factors, family influences, satis­ factions and stated future goals. More recently we have seen theory focused on the process of choice. In all, the theories have been helpful to permit us to assign levels to the processes of vocational choice and development. However, we are still in search of a theory that will be com­ prehensive and at the same time be specific so 2 2 that it can be adequately researched and tested. Researchers studying vocational choice an^ careers have recognized that the process is complex. For some individuals, the process of making career decisions seems to be relatively simple while for others, the task is extremely difficult. 22 Commenting about Richard M. Majetic, "Career Patterns of Selected Michigan Secondary School Counselors" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968), p. 15. 45 individuals' values and attitudes toward work and careers. Gross stated a more sociologically oriented approach: . . . persons in our culture are theoretically free to enter any occupation . . . but many factors affect the probability of entry into an occupation. Instead then of speaking of persons as choosing an occupation (though all may t r y ) , we find it more revealing to ask how they are selected for the occupation. This approach leads us to focus on such factors as family, location, sex, age, access to education, social class, race, and national origin.23 Ferrari has noted the variety of theories which have been proposed to explain and study aspects of career choice. He summarized his discussion by commenting that such theories can be classified basically into four groups: (1) accident theory, (2) unconscious forces theory, (3) psychological theories, and (4) developmental theories. 24 In his study, Ferrari was able to find a representative expression of all four theories. 25 Ferrari further observed that, based on the presidents' responses, the basic reasons for the presidents choosing careers in higher education resulted from at least six interrelated factors: (1) a service orientation, (2) social influences, (3) professional opportunities, 23 Edward Gross, Work and Society (New York: Thomas Crowell C o . , 1958), p. 144. 24 Ferrari, "Careers," pp. 221-23. For further explanation of these theories, see the following section in this study: Chapter I— Theoretical Justification. 25Ibid., p. 223. 46 (4) personal factors, (5) a developmental process, and (6) an accidental circumstance. 26 Usually the eventual career decisions were the result of one or more of these factors interrelating with others while one of the factors had a greater influence. Regardless of whether or not career decisions are made easily or through long and laborious testing, "in a dynamic society, few members can rigidly and accurately map out a career in advance." 27 The ultimate career identification results from a whole series of decisions which are generally made by organizations and the individual, and, because of this process, it is dif­ ficult to anticipate contingencies for an uncertain future. As noted in Chapter I of this study, the work of Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrod, and Henna represents a major contribution to the developmental theory of occupational choice. 28 The authors suggested that career decisions are related to age periods— fantasy stage, tentative stage, and realistic stage— and the decisions 26I b i d . , p. 224. 27 Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations," p. 7. 28 Ginzberg et al., Occupational Choice. 47 are developmental in nature, based on compromise, are complementary, and are basically irreversible. 29 Super proposed that people make job choices and career choices on the basis of s e l f - c o n c e p t . ^ Indi­ viduals would then move toward jobs and careers that give them the opportunity to be what they believe them­ selves to be. Job and career selections are made on the basis of personal perceptions. Since the self-concept is developmental, there are varying periods in the indi­ vidual's life during which the self-concept goes through a change. as follows: These periods or life stages were described growth, exploration, establishment, m ain­ tenance, and decline. David Tiedeman suggested that the development of a career is the result of the self viewed in relation to career choice, entry, and progress in educational and career endeavors. 31 Tiedeman stressed that the process of choosing or making decisions concerning a career is a basically rational process. He feels that the individual 29Ibi d . , pp. 185-98. ^0Donald E. Super et a l . , Career Development (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 196^3) . 31 David V. Tiedman and Robert P. O'Hara, Career Development: Choice y d Adjustment (New York: College Entrance Examination board, 1963}. 48 can be taught to consciously and rationally make decisions about career and that such a process is orderly in nature. Warner and Abegglen developed a theory of occu­ pational mobility which is based on the concepts of occu32 pational succession and the theory of family structure. Concerning occupational succession, they stated: Occupational succession refers to . . . the ordered process by which individuals succeed each other in occupations. The study of occupational succession, therefore, consists of examining the circulation and movement of personnel through positions, and of determining the regularities and uniformities which have to do with entering, holding, and leaving a given status. More particularly, this investigation of occupational succession is con­ cerned with how this society orders and determines which men, through the changing generations of individuals, shall occupy certain occupational statuses.33 Concerning the theory of family structure, it is inter­ related with the concept of occupational succession to the extent that " . . . men are b o m to fathers who are given occupational levels, they grow to maturity, learn and follow a particular profession in life, marry, sire sons who are reared to maturity and work at their own trades or professions." 34 The concept of occupational succession also is concerned with other occupational 32 W. Lloyd Warner and James C. Abegglen, Occuational Mobility (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota r ess,1955). I 33Ibid., p. 4. 34Ibid. 49 mobility factors. Geographic areas which tend to p ro­ vide numbers of people in a particular occupational group is am important concept in the occupational suc­ cession idea. Also, other important factors are related such as birthplace population, area where born, degree of spatial mobility, aunount and kind of education received, and mobility through various occupations. Harold Hubbard investigated the backgrounds of successful business executives using five potential determinamts of career selection: to enter a business career; influences in career choice; socio-economic status; (5) (1) time of decision (2) significance of personal (3) importamce of faultily (4) role of personal values; and long-ramge goals as they related to choice of career. He found that, generally speatking, business executives made career choices relatively late. that " . . . Further, he found personal influence is the most importamt generalized influence in the decision to enter business and is the most significant general source of knowledge about a career in business."3® Concerning the role of personal values as a determinant of career selection, Hubbard concluded: ^ H a r o l d G. Hubbard, "Career Choices of Success­ ful Business Executives," Personnel and Guidamce Journal 44 (October 1965): 147-52. 36Ibid., p. 149. 50 . . . the important values (things deemed important in life, worthwhile goals, and aspirations and achievements worth striving for) are primarily related to direction and motivation of others and involvement in challenging, adventuresome situ­ ations that demand personal skills and abilities. These values were a significant contributing influence to the executives' career choice.37 Hubbard also found that initial career goals related to the individual's interest in personal development and self-improvement; however, later in the career cycle, economic considerations such as salary and benefits were more important. In an attempt to determine why blue-collar chil­ dren become teachers, Doherty concluded that individuals select teaching for a variety of reasons. 38 An important point in this study, because of its bearing on the present study of community college presidents' careers, is Doherty's conclusion that teaching is not considered to be a way of life but rather that teaching serves as an entry to a way of life which is desired. The latter way of life represents the middle-class respectability desired. 37I b i d . , p. 151. 38 Robert E. Doherty, "Attitudes toward Labor: When Blue-Collar Children become Teachers," School Review 71 (Spring 1963): 87-96. 51 Majetic's study of secondary school counselors' careers included a significant observation which has 39 relationship to the present study. He stated: . . . counselors make a decision to enter the e du­ cational profession as a teacher. Very few were interested in specialization within education when they made early decisions. . . . this view held to and through graduate school for a large number. At some time after they begin their teaching career, the person . . . has greater awareness of the opportunities and specializations available. At this point, thinking is re-directed toward these other job possibilities.40 This view concerning vocational choice suggests that careers are difficult to plan in advance. The present study concerning the careers of Michigan public community college presidents will attempt to also consider the extent to which careers can be planned and the degree to which rational decisions and predictable circumstances manifest themselves. Finally, the work of Thompson, Avery, and Carlson represents the thinking and study of many of the theorists and writers concerning occupations and career decisions. 41 In addition to providing the conceptual framework for strategies and the career channeling and/or constraining factors (perceptions) which are the basis for this study, 39 Majetic, "Career Patterns," p. 179. 40I b i d . , pp. 179-80. 41Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations," pp. 6-31. 52 the authors also considered the social structure of occupations, characteristics of occupational t y p e s, patterns of disrupted careers, and implications for personnel management. In order to understand and study the variety of occupations in m o d e m society, the authors suggested that a typology be used based on two variables. They identified the two Sources of occupational role definition as enterprise-defined occupations and collegially 42 defined occupations. The former represents occupations which are invented by employing organizations. Colle­ gially defined occupations "are occupations which emerge out of the process of assembling and applying or extend­ ing knowledge, and technical requirements or organizations are secondary considerations." 43 They also considered the rate at which the individuals reach "the top" or "ceilings" within a given occupation. They speak of occupation and jobs within occupations that have late ceilings while others have early ceilings. These ceil­ ings refer to the positions which are considered to be "the top" in a particular occupation. 42 Thompson, Avery, For a complete review of the social structure of occupations, the characteristics of occupational types, and patterns of disrupted careers, see I b i d . , pp. 12-23. 4^Ibid., p. 14 53 and Carlson identified four types of occupations based on the preceding conceptualization. 1. 2. 3. 4. They are: Enterprise-defined: early-ceiling occupations Enterprise-defined: late-ceiling occupations Collegially-defined: early-ceiling occupations C o l l e g i ally-defined: late-ceiling o c c u p a t i o n s ^ In summary, it is appropriate to note that the various vocational theories imply that vocational choices are not confined or restricted to a one-time experience. Such vocational choices are made over a period of time during which the individual considers choices and explores different alternatives. The individual develops a work history which, along with career perceptions and the background-personal factors, can be used to develop p r o ­ files and generalizations concerning individuals and their work. The importance of the role of work to the individual cannot be underestimated and was appropriately expressed by Ann Roe when she said: " . . . there is no single situation which is potentially so capable of giving satisfaction at all levels of the basic needs as is the 45 occupation." The overview of career and vocational choice considerations is intended to be representative rather than all-inclusive with regard to the literature reviewed. More specific information concerning representative 44I b i d . , pp. 15-20. 4^Roe, O c c u p a t i o n s , p. 31. 54 studies which have a relationship to the present study are presented in the following sections of the literature review. Studies of Personal and Background Factors A few pertinent studies dealing with the fouryear college and university president are mentioned because of their broad scope o r particular reference to aspects of the present study. Frederick deW. Bolman's study, sponsored by the American Council on Education, examined the presidential selection process of 116 presidents of n o n p a r o c h i a l , four-year colleges and universities who were selected between 1959 and 1 9 6 2 . Concerning personal and b a c k ­ ground factors of the presidents studied, he found: Personality traits are important to the selection process as many institutions wanted presidents who could improve their institution's image, or better the relationships with members of a state legislature. Most presidents are married and the wife must be a "good" wife. No matter how well qualified a candidate is in other respects, if he has an "unacceptable" wife he is seriously handicapped. 46 Are Chosen T5ZT) .--- Frederick deW. Bolman, How College Presidents (Washinqton: American Council on Education. 47Ibid., pp. 20-30. 55 One of the earlier and more systematic studies of the academic presidency was done by Hemphill and 48 Walberg. This study was conducted for the New York State Regents Advisory Committee and reported on a variety of aspects. Particularly relevant to the present study were their findings concerning the back­ ground and preparation of presidents: Concerning the background and preparation of presidents, the most frequent undergraduate majors of the presidents were in the humanities, followed by social sciences, engineering, physical sciences, and education. In graduate work the most frequent majors were education, humanities, and social sciences. Many presidents have participated in in-service training programs for college presidents . . . and generally find these activities useful. The findings seem to indicate the beginning of professional preparation for the presidency, and a recognition of its desirability. The qualifications for the presidency most often mentioned were administrative experience and college teaching experience. Other qualities including physical energy, health, leadership talent, flexibility, open-mindedness, sense of humor, and the ability to combat frustration were mentioned.49 Nelson's study of twenty-four presidents of public four-year colleges in New England also dealt in part with perceptions of the most important qualities that the 48 John K. Hemphill and Herbert J. Walberg, An Empirical Study of College and University Presidents in the ^tafce of New frork (Princeton, N . J . : Educational Testing Service, 1^66) . 49Ibid., pp. 71-73. 56 president must have. 50 The twelve personal qualities referred to most often and the frequency of response are listed below: Total Response 10 10 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 4 3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Quality Intelligence Integrity Ability to work with others Leadership ability Physical vigor and vitality Administrative experience Vision and imagination Educational conviction Tolerance and be unprejudiced High moral character Skill in public relations A confident personality^! Probably the most inclusive and systematic national study of the academic president has been done by Michael R. Ferrari, Jr. and has provided much infor52 mation for the present study. In his study of 760 private and public four-year college and university presidents, Ferrari reported on such aspects of the academic presidency as occupational and geographic origins, family influences, formal education, career patterns, career motivations, career perceptions, and a comparative analysis of the careers of academic presi­ dents, big business leaders, and federal executives. Lawrence O. Nelson, "Role Expectations for Selected College and University Presidents'* (Ph.D. disser­ tation, Michigan State University, 1960). 51Ibid., p. 63. 52 Fer r a r i , "Careers.■ 57 The study was based on the theoretical and methodological framework of vertical occupational mobility developed by Warner. Important findings in the Ferrari study which related to personal and background factors were as follows: Occupational Origins The occupational origins of academic presidents as indicated by their fathers' occupations were representative of all types and levels of occu­ pations in the society. However, a dispropor­ tionately higher number of presidents came from professional and executive backgrounds rather than lower level occupations. . . . Geographical Origins The geographical origins or academic presidents showed representation from all regions of the country, although there was evidence that the presidents were physically as well as occupation­ ally mobile during their careers. About 40 per cent of academic presidents were b o m in rural com­ munities under 2,500 and another 20 per cent were from small towns under 25,000. . . . More similari­ ties them differences were found among the occupa­ tional and geographical origins of academic presi­ dents, although presidents of similar types of institutions showed the greatest similarities. . . . Throughout the president's life and career, there was a tendency to be associated with a par­ ticular type of institution . . . rather than a mixing of different types of institutions. Family Influences . . . Occupational succession from the presi­ dents ' grandfathers to the fathers was character­ ized by a general movement from the farm to the city and from lower-level business positions to higher level business positions. The fathers moved not only to the somewhat larger urban com­ munities, but more importantly to the colleges where nearly one-third prepared for professional careers. The great majority of the presidents' parents and grandparents were b o m in the United States. . . . The presidents' parents were, in general, well-educated, even though nearly 45 per cent did not graduate from high school. Some 27 per cent of the fathers were college graduates and 17 per cent received graduate degrees. 58 The wives of college and university presidents . . . came from similar occupational levels as the presidents themselves. . . . Higher Education Received . . . nearly three-fourths e a r n e d a n academic doctorate with the doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.) the most prevalent degree among all presidents. Few presidents terminated their education at the bachelor degree level. . . . The presidents studied nearly all types of curricula but nearly half took undergraduate degrees in the humanities. At the master's level, humanities still led, followed by education, social science, and natural science. At the doctoral level, 37 per cent majored in humanities, 30 per cent in education, 14 per cent in social sciences, 13 per cent in natural sciences, and the remaining in applied fields. Although presidents studied at a great variety of institu­ tions, only sixteen universities were attended by nearly 58 per cent of the presidents at the d o c ­ toral level. The four universities of Chicago, Columbia, Harvard, and Catholic University, granted academic doctorates to nearly one-fourth of all presidents in the s a m p l e . 53 Hodgkinson's findings concerning four-year col­ lege and university presidents generally confirmed Fer­ rari' s findings concerning the presidents' backgrounds. 54 educational He observed that nearly half of all the presidents in his study held the Ph.D., another 20 p e r ­ cent held the E d . D . , and humanities was the major field of concentration for the largest number of presidents from private institutions while education represented the highest degree concentration for presidents of public 55 institutions. 53Ibid., pp. 279-84. 54 H o d g k i n s o n , Institutions in Transition. 55Ibid., p. 143. 59 Few studies had been done before 1960 regarding personal and background factors of community college presidents. Probably the most significant study done prior to 1960 was conducted by Roland.56 He studied the educational backgrounds and career patterns of 136 private and public junior college administrators repre­ senting institutions in fourteen states. major findings were as follows: taught in elementary schools; in secondary schools; Some of the (1) 19 percent had (2) 70 percent had taught (3) 72 percent were pursuing or had pursued advanced courses in the administration and supervision of secondary schools; and (4) 97 percent of the respondents who had held noneducational jobs during their adult years considered those jobs or experiences to be helpful to them in their positions as junior college presidents.57 A study by Hawk in 1960 provided a profile of junior college presidents and was significant because it seemed to be the first comprehensive study of junior college presidents which presented data on career patterns 58 as well as background information. Hawk's study of ^®Leo J. Roland, "Professional Preparation of Junior College Administrators," Junior College Journal 24 (October 1953): 73-80. 5 8H a w k , "Profile," pp. 340-46. 60 162 presidents colleges) (two-thirds represented public junior provided supportive data to the previously mentioned Roland study. Essentially, the Hawk study provided trends which were later confirmed in studies by Roberts, Schultz, Ferrari and Berte, Wing, Cavanaugh, and Fields. Studies done about 1965 by Raymond E. Schultz, Dayton Y. Roberts, and Archie B. Johnston were significant because of their scope, consideration of background and personal factors in addition to administrator needs in junior colleges, and their relationship to earlier studies. 59 Roberts and Johnston completed their doctoral dissertations at Florida State University and worked with Dr. Schultz, Professor of Higher Education at Florida State. Roberts' dissertation provided a profile of public community-junior college presidents by investi­ gating the backgrounds of 333 chief administrators, par­ ticularly those from sixteen states that had eight or 59 Raymond E. Schultz, Administrators for America's Junior Colleges; Predictions of Need 1^65-1980 (Washing­ ton : American Association of Community and Junior Col­ leges , 1955)? Idem, "The Changing Profile of the Junior College President," Junior College Journal 36 (October 1965): 8-13? Dayton Y. Roberts, "dhief Administrators of Public Junior Colleges— A Prediction of the Number Needed and the Source of Supply, 1963-1973" (Ph.D. disser­ tation, Florida State University, 1964); and Archie B. Johnston, "Private Junior College Administrators: An Analysis of Backgrounds and a Twelve-Year Prediction of Future Needs" (Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State Uni­ versity, 1965). 61 more public community colleges.6® The profile presented was similar to Hawk's profile previously mentioned, and the findings concurred with the Hawk study trends. Some of the pertinent background findings of Roberts were: (1) the mean age of the chief administrators was 50.3 years; (2) 44 percent had earned doctorates; and (3) a trend toward identification of chief administrators with higher education rather than with secondary education was indicated. Johnston's dissertation dealt with the backgrounds of and future needs for private junior college adminis­ trators.6^ Johnston concluded, in part, that private junior colleges were facing a difficult period for identifying and attracting competent administrators, that the private junior college administrators were similar in terms of background and preparation, and their qualifications were inadequate in terms of level of educational attainment. Schultz found the following trends through 1967 concerning the junior college president: (1) the com­ munity college presidency was requiring increased edu­ cational attainment with a greater number of presidents holding the doctorate degree; (2) more of the community 6®Roberts, "Chief Administrators." 61Johnston, trators ." "Private Junior College Adminis­ 62 college presidents had come from higher education back­ grounds rather than secondary education backgrounds than had previously been the case; (3) an increasing number of presidents had community college experience; and (4) there continued to be a trend toward the selection of presidents that were older, more mature, and more experienced.62 In a study of the critical requirements of public community-junior college presidents, Osborne found that these critical requirements were primarily related to 63 human sensitivity. Recognition is made of Osborne's findings since background experiences and training which provide the basis for better human sensitivity in the president are part of the present study. Carmichael's study6* of the origin and mobility of the junior college president both supplemented and confirmed the research done by Schultz.6^ Carmichael's study also showed that the junior college president was in contrast to the top business executive, and he made 62Schultz, "Changing Profile," pp. 8-13. 63 John Robert Osborne, "A Study of the Critical Requirements of a Public Junior College President” (Ph.D. dissertation, East Texas State University, 1969). 64 John H. Carmichael, "Origin and Mobility of Presidents," Junior College Journal 34 (May 1 9 69)s 30-32. 65Schultz, "Changing Profile. 63 the contrast by using the findings of Warner and Abegglen's study previously mentioned.**6 Carmichael selected randomly 83 junior college presidents from the 503 junior college presidents holding office in 1966 and, with an 84 percent return, observed that, in comparison to bus i ­ ness ex e c u t i v e s , the presidents spent more time in formal education, began professional careers at a slightly older age, served with a greater number of organizations, and that both groups reached their present leadership position at about the same age.67 Ferrari and Berte completed a significant study in 1969 which dealt with the origins and careers of 662 respondents out of the 963 junior college presidents who were sent questionnaires. 68 The study participants p ro­ vided information concerning a g e , background according to father's occupation, academic doctorates, major fields of study, career paths from teaching or other careers to the presidency over a twenty-year span, the position held just before the presidency, and the social factors affecting formal career movements. The respon­ dents also related why they were in their present job, 66W a m e r and Abegglen, Occupational M o b i l i t y . 67C a r m i c h a e l , "Origin," p. 32. 68 Ferrari and Berte, American Junior C o l l e g e s . 64 how they interpreted their move to a position of leader­ ship, and why they chose or felt they were chosen for the presidency. The Ferrari and Berte study confirmed the findings of Schultz concerning the trend toward more professional and better prepared community-junior college presidents. 69 Ferrari and Berte's findings relative to the presidents1 backgrounds were as follows: the average age was 49.8, ranging from 28 to 70 years; they assumed the presidency at approximately 44 years of age; a majority were in full-time educational administration by age 35; they had occupied their present position for five and one-half years; 84 percent had been in their present position for less than ten years; the presidents' fathers came from a representative cross-section of occu­ pational levels with a disproportionate number coming from professional and executive backgrounds; 57.6 percent earned an academic doctorate; they began their college education mostly in arts and letters and the physical sciences but shifted toward education at the graduate degree levels; and, nearly half of the presidents started their careers as teachers at the elementary-secondary level and only 10 percent started at the junior college level.70 °^Schultz, "Changing Profile." 70 pp. 5-8. Ferrari and Berte, American Junior Col l e ges, 65 Roueche's report summarized the literature on the community-junior college president up to the publi­ cation date of his article (references have been included in the present literature review) the following data: thus making available most presidents were selected from within their respective states; almost 53 percent had a master's degree and 44 percent had a doctorate; the presidents were generally fifty to fifty-three years of age; half came from the junior college field to the presidency; and most presidents' highest earned degree represented a specialization in some area of professional education. 71 Roueche's study, again, confirmed earlier study findings that the presidents were somewhat older than earlier studies indicated, had attained a higher degree of education, and had more higher education and community-junior college experience. Morgan's study published in 19 70 is worthy of note because of its broad perspective concerning aspects of the community-junior college presidency and because of Morgan's background as a president. 72 Morgan's study was based on data collected from 4 38 community college presidents nationwide. Also, data were collected from 71Roueche, Junior College President. 72 Don A. M o r g a n , Perspectives of the Community College Presidency (Los A n g e l e s : Junior College Leader­ ship Program Occasional Report No. 14, U.C.L.A., 1970). 66 presidents1 wives, secretaries, and second-ranking admin­ istrators as well as deans, faculty association leaders, and state directors of community college or vocational education. Although Morgan's study was primarily con­ cerned with career patterns and strategies of community college presidents, it did deal with background factors. Morgan noted: There is no best road to the presidency. Increas­ ingly, however, it would appear that selection processes are finding presidents who: (1) have not been a president before, (2) hold an earned doctorate, (3) have experience in the junior or community college, (4) have previous college administrative experience, and (5) began their careers in education as teachers. It would also appear that successful candidates are often those willing to move, across country if necessary. Dennis R. W. Wing 74 and Jerald D. Cavanaugh 75 completed doctoral dissertations in 1971 at the University of Colorado under the direction of Joseph A. Malik. These two dissertations dealing with the public community-junior college president were completed using data derived from the National Career Study of Community College Presidents Questionnaire developed by Dr. J. A. Malik, then co­ director of the Mountain Plains Community College 73I b i d . , p. 28. 74 Wing, istrator." 75 "Public Community College Chief Admin Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies." 67 Leadership Program at the University of Colorado. 76 The studies were conducted during 1970-71 with 498 (68%) responses received from the questionnaire mailing sent to 737 public community-junior college chief adminis­ trators from across the country. The Cavanaugh study will be more extensively reviewed in later sub-sections of the present study. Wing's dissertation, which was later published by the E.R.I.C. Clearinghouse for Junior Colleges, 77 was designed to make gross comparisons between Wing's study and the earlier studies of Hawk and Roberts and to continue the yearly trend analysis of Schultz. 78 Addi­ tionally, the Wing dissertation included exploratory data concerning the incumbent president's perceptions of why he was selected, why he accepted, to what he aspired, and what he considered to be an ideal sequence of previous positions leading to a community college 76 The author is indebted to Dr. Joseph A. Malik for giving permission to use, in the present study, parts of the National Career Study of Community College Presi­ dents Questionnaire. Also, as noted earlier, the format and findings of the Cavanaugh dissertation in particular and the Wing dissertation in general are used in the pre­ sent study with the authors' written permission. 77 W i n g , The Professional President: A Decade of Community Junior College Chief Executives (Los Angeles; ERIC clearinghouse ^or Junior Colleges, ‘ T opical Paper No. 28, U.C.L.A., 1972). 78 Hawk, "Profile"? Roberts, "Chief Administra­ tors"? and Schultz, Predictions of Need. 68 presidency. Wing found major changes from findings of the earlier studies mentioned above with respect to years of tenure of both incumbent presidents and their prede­ cessors, the source of presidents, and the proportion of presidents holding an earned doctorate in education. He also found that the public community-junior college presidency had become greatly professionalized and that the incumbent presidents probably held the position for a comparatively short period of time. Wing specifically made, in part, the following con­ clusions with regard to the compared data: Biographical Background. The incumbent of the position of public community college chief admin­ istrator in 1970: was male, white, between 41 and 55 years old, and married; had lived more than half his school years (age 6-18) in one town of less than 25,000 population (33% had lived in a town of less than 2500); and had a father who was either a farmer, a professional, or the proprietor of a small business. Formal Education. The 1970 chief administrator had: an earned doctoral degree specializing in education (including community college) adminis­ tration. . . .79 Wing also provided a six-point outline of the public community-junior college president's changing profile based upon a comparison of the findings of Hawk, Roberts, and Wing. 1. The Wing profile was stated as follows: A gradual trend has developed toward the appointment of older men to the position of chief executive but, at the same time, the "current** age appears to be decreasing. 79 Wing, Professional President, pp. 15-16. 69 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. suggesting that presidents do not so often remain in the position until retirement age. Currently, presidents have far fewer years of tenure than the samples reported by either Hawk or Roberts, probably because of the large number (7 3%) of them in the 1970 survey appointed in the years 1965 to 1970. However, the "tenure of predecessor" figures suggest that the incumbent presidents will never accumulate years of tenure as great as those reported by either Hawk or Roberts. For the great majority (59.4%) of presentday presidents, their "last previous position" was in a community college. This is the cul­ mination of a continual shift in the source of supply during the 1960s, such a constant shift that community college top administration caui now be said to approach an "inbred" condition. By the end of the 1960s, nearly seven of every ten (68.5%) public community college chief executives held am earned doctoral degree, indicating (as shown by the number of responses reporting progress toward a doctorate) that a doctoral degree has become a virtual prerequi­ site for the position. As for his educational preparation, the public community college chief executive has become extensively professionalized. Of the 341 presidents in the 1970 sample reporting an earned doctorate, only 34 (10%) have specialized in a field other than education. An analysis of the data on the "type of position taken by predecessor after leaving junior col­ lege" revealed that the percentage of respon­ dents in every category reported by Hawk (except of those who "accepted another presidency" or "another junior college position") was reduced in the 1970 data.80 Jerald Cavanaugh's dissertation also resulted from data collected in the National Career Study of Community College Presidents Questionnaire (as noted earlier) and represented a most significant basis for 80Ibid., p. 8. 70 the present study. 81 Cavanaugh's dissertation dealt with the 498 public community-junior college presidents' back­ ground data, career patterns, and career strategies. The career pattern and career strategy findings of Cavanaugh's study are provided in the appropriate sub-sections of the present literature review. Concerning the presidents' background and personal data, Cavanaugh used the following factors in his study: age, sex, race, marital status, highest earned degree, and environment during formative years. His study find­ ings indicated the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Presidents thirty years of age and younger and sixty-six years of age and older were few and approximately equal in number. . . . Of the presidencies, 80% were held by indi­ viduals between forty-one and sixty-five, with over 40% being between forty-six and fifty-five years old. Mean age of responding presidents was 48.8 years. Four respondents . . . were female. . . . The AAJC Directory lists but five female chief executives in the public community colleges. Twelve respondents indicated that they were non-white . . . (2.4% total). Seventeen respondents indicated that they were not married . . . (3.4% total). Most respondents, however, stated that their spouses were not interviewed as part of the screening-employment p r o c e d u r e . The trend, established by Hawk, Roberts, and Schultz, toward a higher percentage of d o c­ torate degrees among the public communityjunior college presidents is continuing: 68.5% of the respondents hold a doctorate. A bachelor's degree is the highest degree held by 1.2% of the survey population; 26.9% 81 Cavanaugh, Strategies." "Position Sequences and Career 71 7. have attained the m a s t e r ’s and 2.6% have attained an educational specialist degree for their highest degrees; .8% did not respond. Approximately 70% of the respondents who indicated having lived the majority of their school years (ages 6-18) in one city/town lived in towns of 25,000 people or fewer. Over 37% indicated populations of 2,000 or fewer, and 18% indicated towns with popu­ lations of 500 people or fewer.®2 Leake's 1974 doctoral dissertation provided a profile of the Virginia college and university presidents with respect to personal and family background, professional training, career patterns, and activities. 83 Data were collected by questionnaire from a population of sixty-seven private and public two-year and four-year chief executive officers. Leake found: Most of the presidents . . . came from less elite social origins and the majority of them begeui their careers as teachers and gained admin­ istrative positions by earning doctorates in edu­ cational administration and then seeking out such positions. . . . the occupational origins . . . are rep­ resentative of many types and levels of occupations in our society. More of the presidents came from professional and executive backgrounds than from lower level occupations. The only exceptions to this are the presidents of the public two-year colleges whose fathers were primarily unskilled or semi-skilled laborers and small business o w n e r s . 82I b i d . , pp. 100-02. 83 Leake, Presidents." "Profile of College and University 84Ibid., pp. 84-85. 72 Leake also found: (1) most of Virginia's presidents came from communities of 2,500 to 25,000 although there were a variety of patterns of types and sizes of communi­ ties represented; (2) a great majority of the presidents' parents were born in the United States, 32 percent of the parents did not graduate from high school, virtually all the nonreligious order presidents were married, and only 4.5 percent of the presidents were women; (3) the presi­ dents were educated in a variety of institutions with nearly four-fifths doctorate; (over 50) having earned an academic (4) about a third earned an undergraduate degree in humanities, and another third took the under­ graduate degree in the social sciences; (5) the humanities and social sciences were still the primary discipline areas at the master's level; level, social science (6) and, at the doctoral (30%) , education (27%) , humanities (24%) , natural science (12%) , and applied fields (9%) 85 represented the various major disciplines. Leake's profile of public community college presidents in Virginia generally followed the background factor trend earlier identified. Trumbull's doctoral dissertation, completed in 1974, provided data on the preparation of 540 (out of a total questionnaire distribution of 912) public and 85Ibid., pp. 85-87 73 private community college presidents nationwide. Trumbull provided the following observations: 86 (1) nearly two-thirds of the respondents had consciously prepared for careers in academic administration with about half of them specifically preparing for adminis­ trative positions and careers in two-year colleges; (2) even though most of the respondents were fifty years of age or o l d e r , those who had prepared for community college administrative careers were under fifty years of age; (3) over 60 percent of the respondents had earned doctorates (mostly Ed.D.s) with the number of doctorates greater for those under fifty years of age; and (4) the most common fields of study were English and history at the undergraduate level, secondary education adminis­ tration at the master's level, and higher education 87 administration at the doctoral level. Finally, with regard to personal and background factors of community college presidents, two recent studies have provided some additional limited data. A doctoral dissertation completed in 1975 by Fields compared the personal and professional attributes 86 Donald Trumbull, "The Preparation of Two-Year College Presidents— An Examination of Academic and Exper­ ience Backgrounds of Two-Year College Presidents How in Office and of Their Suggestions for Improving Their Pro­ fessional Preparation" (Ph.D. dissertation, New York Uni­ versity, 1974). 74 and histories of community college presidents with traditional college and university presidents. 88 Following the mailing of a questionnaire to 294 community college presidents identified as working with local boards of trustees, 186 (63.3%) returned completed questionnaires. Fields' data indicated that the typical community college president: (1) was 49.3 years of age, male, married with two or three children, born in a small town to a non­ professional family, a service veteran, and had travelled abroad; (2) was typically Protestant and had a civic and professional orientation; (3) had been in the present presidency for 6.4 years with those holding a master's degree having an average tenure of 9.4 years and those holding a doctorate having an average tenure of 5.3 years; and (4) had an earned doctorate in educational administration and had several years of teaching and administrative experience in the public schools as well 89 as two-year and four-year colleges. Fields concluded that the attributes investigated concerning two-year and four-year college presidents were similar; however, the community college presidents were younger, had shorter tenures, and had less job security. 88 Harrison R. Fields, "Personal and Professional Attributes of Community College Presidents" (Ed.D. dis­ sertation, Indiana University, 1975). 75 Finally, Gardner and Brown completed a study on the personal characteristics of ninety-two sample group) (83% of the community college presidents and found: (1) only three were women; (2) 57.6 percent had less than seven years experience as a community college presi­ dent; (3) 44.5 percent were between forty-one and fifty years of age; and (4) 77.2 percent held a Ph.D. 90 The respondents in Gardner and Brown's study indicated that the four most important characteristics of community college presidents were: (1) integrity (2) ability to work with people; n e s s ) ; and (honesty); (3) objectivity (fair- (4) leadership with the governing board. 91 Studies of Position Sequences and Career Patterns This sub-section dealing with career patterns is organized to highlight primarily those studies which are significant and broadly representative of the career pattern literature and secondarily to give a summary overview of findings in other studies relating to career patterns. This procedure is used in recognition of the fact that virtually every study or article dealing with personal and background factors also deals in some 90 Gene R. Gardner and Milton O. Brown, Personal Characteristics of Community College Presidents (Los Angeles: ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior dollege Infor­ mation, U . C . L . A . , 1975). 76 measure with career patterns. Further, a repeating of the extensive list of citations in the first section would not be productive if done other than in summary form. Cavanaugh's national study concerning the position sequences and career strategies of public communityjunior college presidents, as previously presented, was 92 a significant basis for the present study. His study dealt with the position sequences of 498 respondents to their first public community-junior college presidency and limited the positions analyzed to the first position following the attaining of the bachelor's degree and the four positions held immediately prior to attaining the first presidency. He also used, in building his position sequence profile, only those positions that clearly represented different types of positions. Because of the variety and number of positions listed by the respondents, it was necessary for Cavanaugh to classify, categorize, and code them for purposes of data analysis. All positions listed by the respondents were categorized into six classifications of positions and the positions in each classification were then categorized. The two- digit code used indicated the classification and category of each position held by the respondent according to 92 Cavanaugh, Strategies." "Position Sequences and Career 77 the guidelines previously mentioned. Position sequence information was presented in table form. Cavanaugh's general overall findings concerning career patterns and position sequence clusters were as follows: 296 (59.4%) individuals entered the presidency from junior college positions; 70 (14.0%) from four-year colleges and universities; 73 (14.6%) from public school positions; and 12% from all other positions combined. However, a total of fifty separate positions were cited as the positions held immediately prior to the first public community junior college presidency. Attempts to cluster parallel position sequences, therefore, were comparatively fruitless. It was possible to place 15.6% of the respondents into three quite small 3-position sequences, and two minute 4-position sequences were d i s ­ covered. 93 Cavanaugh's specific findings concerning career patterns were as f o l l o w s : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Of the respondents, 237 (49.3%) began their careers in secondary teaching. Of the respondents, 258 (53%) began their careers in some area of secondary education. Fewer than 6% of the respondents began their careers in elementary education. Merely 7% of the respondents began their careers in public community junior college education. In their second position, over 25% of the respondents were employed in public community junior colleges; six individuals attained the presidency in their second position. In the second position, the number of respon­ dents working in out-of-school education had grown from three to twenty-one. Although the figure never gets large, by the fourth position, fifteen individuals were working in state edu­ cation offices. Twenty-two individuals 93Ibid., pp. v-vi 78 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. reported a state office position as the step preceding the first public community junior college presidency. Over 10% of the respondents attained the presidency in their third position. Individuals employed in four-year colleges and universities more than doubled from the first to the third position. Of the individuals still employed in the secondary schools during their third position, approximately 75% were in administration. By the fourth position, 160 respondents (33%) had attained the presidency, 295 respondents (about 61%) were employed in public community junior colleges. During their fifth position of employment, twenty-five individuals were still employed in secondary education. All, however, were administrators; 85% as superintendents and assistant-deputy superintendents. All these individuals then attained the public community junior college presidency from these positions. During the fifth position, seven individuals were still employed as teachers, going from those positions to public community junior college presidencies. By the fifth position of employment, eighty individuals (16.5%) were still not involved in public community junior college work; however, 83.5% of the respondents had, by then, migrated to the public community junior college. Over 61% (300) had attained the presidency. Over 38% (185) respondents reached the p r esi­ dency in the sixth categorized position. In the position sequence categories, the data indicate that respondents were appointed to presidencies from twenty-one separate job classifications.94 As a result of the study data concerning career patterns and position sequence clusters, Cavanaugh con­ cluded : For the time being at least, researchers will have to be satisfied with the gross kinds of "position sequences" discussed by Dils, Griffiths, Morgan, Ferrari-Berte, and others. These studies 94Ibid., pp. 102-04 79 all present frequencies of positions held, but the individual's position history is lost. Success in maintaining individual position histories, using the data contained in the National Career S t u d y , and placing those sequence patterns into clusters was limited, indeed. It was also found that all attempts to produce similar patterns became quite subjective or reverted to gross level classifi­ cations. . . . any attempt to artificially impose such a classification system tends to cloud the central question of career patterns rather than clarify it. If diversity of background is related - *1 any way to opportunities for open-minded experimenta­ tion and innovation, it would seem today's public community junior colleges are in good stead. The Ferrari-Berte findings referred to by Cava­ naugh and the earlier data concerning career patterns presented by Ferrari in his doctoral dissertation were also significant supportive research to the present study and have already been mentioned in the sub-section concerning personal and background factors. 96 The Ferrari and Berte national study findings concerning career patterns of community college presidents (public and private) also relied on gross kinds of position sequences wherein the individual position histories were not identified. Their findings, which precede Cavanaugh's findings by a couple of years, were comparable. Ferrari and Berte stated: 95Ibid., pp. 72-73. 96 Ferrari and Berte, American Junior Colleges Ferrari, "Careers." 80 Prior to assuming his present position, the "typical" junior college president was a highlevel administrator in a junior college, a position he held for less than five years. Nearly 80 per cent of the presidents moved to their present position from a different insti­ tution or organization rather than internally. . . . few junior college presidents came directly to the presidency from business, govern­ ment, or military positions. The overwhelming majority (88 per cent) came directly from e d u ­ cation, especially junior college positions. . . . The major springboards into the junior college presidency have been: dean, president, or other high-level administrator in a junior college; faculty member or dean in a four-year college; superintendent or principal in secondary education; and a relatively large percentage came directly from a high level office in a state or regional educational association. . . . nearly 12 per cent of the presidents have served as presidents of other junior colleges. Few four-year college presidents have moved to a junior college presidency.9? Ferrari's initial study done as his doctoral dissertation in 1968 dealt only with careers of p r esi­ dents of private and public four-year colleges and uni­ versities (760 in n u m b e r ) , but his findings differed in 98 terms of the study he later did with Berte. Ferrari stated: . . . the majority of presidents had full­ time careers in education and professional fields. Over a twenty-year period in their careers, there were steady movements into higher levels of aca­ demic administration and by the twenty-year point, about 63 per cent had attained the presidency. . . . The average "academic" president has been 97I b i d . , pp. 10-12. 9 8Ferrari, "Careers." 81 in his present: position for about 8 years. About 86 per cent of the presidents had prior experience as college teachers. . . . About one-third of the presidents moved directly to the presidency from within the present institution. . . . Over three-fourths moved directly from the general field of education, led by such positions as college dean (22 per c e n t ) , academic vice president (11 per c e n t ) , depart­ ment chairman (11 per c e n t ) , and college faculty (10 per c e n t ) . Business directly supplied only 2 per cent of academic presidents; 3 per cent came from government, 1 per cent from the m ili­ tary, and 1 per cent from foundations. . . . and although nearly one-third were selected to their positions without full-time academic adminis­ trative experience, m o s t had about ten years of such experience. About 12 per cent of the p r esi­ dents had been presidents of other colleges or universities.99 The presidents of four-year institutions appeared to differ from their counterparts in the community college to the extent that the former moved to a presidency more often from within the institution, had less administrative and more teaching experience, and had held their position longer. Don Morgan's study of community college presidents conducted over a two-year period (1966-196 8) was important because it was national in scope and treated the subject of career patterns in greater depth than did many of the other studies.100 Morgan found that of the 336 presidents providing information "more community college presidents "ibid., pp. 284-85. 100Morgan, Perspectives 82 (151 or 47.9 percent) other position."101 came from deanshlps than from any Morgan further noted: Most reported that their first position in e d u ­ cation was in teaching. . . . Only 35 (11 per­ cent) had started as public school administrators, and 31 (9 percent) had begun as college adminis­ trators. 102 As noted earlier in the literature review, Morgan also concluded that successful candidates for community c ol­ lege presidencies were willing to move virtually whereever necessary. This positive acceptance by the p resi­ dents of the need to be geographically mobile was also confirmed in the Carmichael study.103 Morgan's two-year study also considered movement of the president after obtaining a presidency. He found in his 1966 section of the study covering 360 responses from a questionnaire mailing of 825 that 75 percent of the community college presidents left their positions for the following five most common reasons in order of priority with the most-often-given reason listed first: (1) retired, (2) moved to another presidency, to a four-year college or university position, education for other pursuits, and 101I b i d . , p. 28. 104 Carmichael, (4) left (5) went to another junior college but not as the president.1 0 * 103 (3) moved "Origin," p. 102Ibid. 32. Morgan, Perspe c t i v e s , p. 47. 83 Further, Morgan's study also considered what the community college presidents would like to do if they were to leave their present presidency— a question sim­ ilar to a concern identified in the present study which considers the presidents' perceptions of future oppor­ tunities. The respondents reported the following preferences: (2) (1) teach in graduate school (23%), seek another presidency (23%) , (3) retire (19%), (4) seek other school administrative position (11%), and (5) do private study and writing (7%) with the other 17 percent scattered among a number of preferences. 105 Morgan also reported findings concerning the presidents' motivations for continuing in their present presidency and found the following: (2) satisfaction (12%), (18%), (1) challenge (3) reward (13%), (5) responsibility (10%), (39%) , (4) contribution (6) power (6%) , (7) per­ sonal and social advancement (2%), and (8) nowhere else to go ( 1 % ) . ^ ® It seems that many presidents don't really care to leave their position— an observation substantiated by the present study of Michigan community college presidents. The overall study by Morgan dealt with career information regarding both the arrival in and departure from a community college presidency. Much of Morgan's information covered data dealing with career strategies 105Ibid., p. 49. 10^Ibid., p. 50. 84 and perceptions in addition to position sequence infor­ mation. The overall findings are presented here in order to retain the significance of the overall comments by Morgan and in recognition that much of the study findings concerning careers cannot be logically separated into sub-parts. As has already been noted/ many of the community college presidents have either moved to a presidency from a public school superintendency or have been a superin­ tendent at some point in their careers. There are numerous studies which deal with aspects of the public school administrator's career. A cross-section of such studies have been listed in the bibliography of this study. Richard 0. Carlson did a considerable amount of research concerning career aspects of the public school superintendent. Carlson's book. School Superintendents i Careers and Performance, effectively compiled and dis­ cussed much of his study findings during the past fifteen years. 107 Carlson developed such concepts as "career- bound" and "place-bound" to describe careers. "Career- bound" is a term used to describe the individual who is upwardly mobile in terms of interest in attaining a 10 7 Richard 0. Carlson, School Superintendents: Careers and Performance (Columbus, 6hio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing C o . , 1972). Also see other writings by Carlson as listed in the Bibliography of the present study. 85 superintendency, is geographically mobile in order to gain positions, and has acquired graduate training earlier and to a greater extent. The "place-bound" individual develops a comparatively late desire to be a superintendent and the desire is based more on an avail­ able opportunity rather than as a result of a career plan. This latter individual places more emphasis on the present location and organization and is more oriented to thinking of the present position as the endproduct rather than aspiring to higher positions. Carlson also extensively discussed the school district board of education in terms of their perceptions of district needs which over time relate directly to the board's interest in hiring an "insider" to be superinten­ dent when the district wishes to maintain the status quo or an "outsider" when changes are needed. "Outsiders" are more likely to be "career-bound" individuals who are hired because of a particular speciality which the dis­ trict feels is needed. "Insiders" are more likely to be "place-bound” in terms of orientation. that superintendents' He also noted career patterns can be identified and described by their inclinations to be "specialists," "hoppers," or "statesmen."*®® 10 8 For an extensive discussion of Richard O. Carlson's career-related concepts see: Ibid., Chapters 3, 4, and 11. 86 Carlson's study of careers was also significant because, as noted earlier, he studied careers over time rather than only as stop-action pictures of career con­ ditions at a particular point in time. His work with Thompson and Avery provides the conceptual framework of 109 strategies used in the present study. Also, the earlier study done by Griffiths for the American Association of School Administrators and the National Education Association Research Division was a significant national look at superintendents' careers. His study was based on a sample (859) of all urban school superintendents in the country and included such consider­ ations as personal information, preparation for the position, routes to the superintendency, career lines, and superintendents' attitudes on a variety of topics relating to their careers. Griffiths' work, which was the first national study dealing with careers in edu­ cational administration, represented a significant amount of career-related information concerning school superintendents including data on career links, position patterns, and strategies. 109 Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations." 110Daniel E. Griffiths, Profile of the School Superintendent (Washington: American Association of School Administrators and Research Division of the National Education Association, 1960). 87 Wing's study111 effectively identified additional data concerning career patterns, and he compared his findings with those done in earlier research by Hawk, Roberts,113 and Schultz.114 112 Wing's findings concerning aspects of career patterns were important because they indicated changes in some of the earlier findings by Hawk, Roberts, and Schultz. All these studies have been outlined in some detail in the earlier literature review. Wing found that the community college presidents did not continue in the position for as long a period of time as reported first by Hawk and later by Roberts. In fact the tenure for the presidents in the Wing study was 4.2 years compared to 9.2 years in the Hawk study (1960) and 7.2 years in the Roberts' study (1964).115 Concerning the positions held prior to becoming president of the community college, Wing found that an increasing number of presidents were coming to their position either from a previous community college presi~ dency or from another position within a community 111Wing, Professional President. 112Hawk, "Profile." 113Roberts, 114 Schultz, "Chief Administrators.” "Changing Profile." 115Wing, Professional President, p. 3. 88 college— a finding supported by the R o b e r t s 1 study and indicating a change from Hawk's results. Wing also found that by the early 1970s, fewer community college presidents were coming from positions in public school administration and four-year insti­ tutions— a shift again, from the trend identified by Hawk.^^ In fact, when the results of the Hawk, Roberts, Schultz, and Wing studies were analyzed, it was apparent that state boards or departments were becoming a source of presidents and that the number of presidents coming from outside education was continuing to decrease. 118 Wing's study along with those done by Hood, Leake, Trumbull, and Kirk confirmed that by the beginning of 1970 the community college president had become increasingly more professionalized with greater numbers of presidents coming generally from the ranks of higher education administration and specifically from community 119 college positions. 116Ib±d. , pp. 3-4. 117I b i d . , p. 4. 118Ibid. 119 William P. Hood, "Educational and Experiential Patterns of College and University Presidents W h o G rad­ uated from Indiana University" (Ed.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1970); Leake, "Profile of College and University Presidents"; Trumbull, "Preparation"; and Robert J. Kirk, "Orderly and Disrupted Career Patterns in Educational Administration" (Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1970). 89 Wing's study confirmed a trend suggesting that the community college presidents at the beginning of 1970 stayed in office fewer years than did their prede­ cessors of the late 1950s and early 1960s as reported by Hawk and Roberts respectively. 120 Finally, Wing's study provided additional data concerning career patterns through his consideration of why presidents accepted their position, what other positions they aspired to, and what the incumbent presidents considered to be the ideal sequence of positions prior to becoming a community college presi­ dent. He found that over half of the presidents accepted their position because it represented an "educational challenge" (56.4%) with "upward mobility" as a distant second reason. 121 (19.5%) given He also found that mobility became less of a factor for the incumbent presidents. Over 57 percent of the presidents in Wing's study "indicated that they did not aspire to any other position either in the near or distant future." 122 Also, of the 43 percent that did aspire to another position, over half aspired to another community college presidency and another quarter desired 120 Wing, Professional President, pp. 6-7. 121Ibid., p. 11. 122lbid. 90 a university professorship. 123 Wing's findings concern­ ing reasons for accepting the position and extent of future aspiration generally agreed with Morgan's study results discussed earlier. 124 With respect to what the presidents considered to be an ideal sequence of positions leading to a first community college presidency, Wing noted: Two-thirds (66.1%) of the responding presidents considered a community college deanship the best immediate precursor to the presidency, and only 10% did not include it in their ideal sequence. University or four-year college teaching or administration experience was not considered an important previous experience for a community college president. Experience in business or industry did not rate high in the ideal prepar­ ation of a community college president.1*5 Bolman, writing on the subject of presidential routes for over one hundred cases of college and uni­ versity presidents, reported that "eighty-four percent had previous administrative experience as deans." 126 In the same vein, Kirk referred to the career pattern of the college and university president by noting that 123Ibid., pp. 11-12. 124 125 M o r g a n , Perspectives. Wing, Professional President, p. 15. *26Frederick deW. Bolman, "How Will You Find a College President?" Journal of Higher Education 36 (April 1965): 201. 91 "since most deans were former college teachers, the progression of professor, dean, president seemed to 127 emerge." Kirk's study of orderly and disrupted career patterns of school superintendents as well as college presidents provided, in part, the following significant findings: (1) an orderly career pattern was more common for the school superintendent than for the college presi­ dent while the disrupted career pattern existed in the college president's career to a greater extent; (2) a professional or specific type of graduate degree prepar­ ation was more commonly associated with the orderly career pattern while a more general graduate program emphasis was associated with the disrupted career pat­ tern; and (3) orderly career pattern individuals commit to educational administration as a career at an earlier age than do those characterized by a disrupted career pattern.128 Finally Leake, in his study of the profiles of college and university presidents in Virginia, noted that the respondents perceived their career patterns to be based upon one or more of the following four factors: a service orientation, professional opportunities, a 127 Kirk, "Orderly and Disrupted Career Patterns," pp. 22-23. 128Ibid., pp. 116-22. 92 developmental process, or accidental circumstances. 129 Leake's findings in this regard compared closely to Ferrari*s results in his national study of college and university presidents except that Ferrari found two additional factors; namely, social influences and personal factors.13** A review of the career pattern studies concerning routes to the presidency, particularly of a public com­ munity college, supports Morgan's findings that the main routes were from community-junior colleges, four-year colleges and universities, and public school systems. 131 Harper also confirmed routes identified in the career patterns by making virtually the same observation: There was no common denominator in terms of the backgrounds of the . . . junior college presidents. Three most common routes which had carried them to leadership roles in two-year colleges were through public school teaching and administration, and up through the ranks of junior colleges.132 129 Leake, "Profile of College and University Presidents," p. 83. 130Ferrari, "Careers," p. 224. 131Morgan, PerspectivesT PP. 25-33. 132 William A. Harper, "The New Junior College President," School and Society 97 (February 1969): 122. 93 As noted earlier, Cavanaugh's study soundly substantiated 133 these findings concerning career pattern routes. These can be considered as common routes as long as routes are considered in the broad interpretation of community-junior college, public school, and four-year college and uni­ versity classifications. Cavanaugh noted that a route could only be considered in terms of the position pre­ ceding the presidency since a more narrow consideration of parallel job sequences using more than the preceding position made it impossible to establish routes with any 134 degree of objectivity. As long as "routes" are con­ sidered in a broader career pattern context, the liter­ ature on "routes" can be considered as valid. Also, as noted throughout this sub-section of the literature review, career pattern studies must basi­ cally be content with presenting positions histories in terms of frequencies of positions held. It is difficult to identify and maintain individual position histories in the type of career pattern studies presented. Studies of Career Perceptions and Strategies In this sub-section concerning studies of career perceptions and strategies, it is important to remember 133Cavanaugh, Strategies," p . 64. "Position Sequences and Career 134Ibid., pp. 64-67. 94 that significant appropriate material has already received attention in the theoretical justification section of the initial chapter in this study and in the previous sub-sections of the literature review as was necessary in order to develop the discussion of background factors and career patterns. Particular reference is made in the present sub-section to the research having greatest significance to the present study since no dearth of available literature exists concerning the general subject of career strategies across various occupational groups. Before considering career strategies, some p er­ ceptual considerations are necessary regarding careers of chief administrative officers in education. The p er­ ceptions the individual has concerning competency, aspiration and opportunity serve to channel or constrain his career decisions. These career decisions can be considered in terms of the nature and type of career and position chosen as well as the conscious or uncon­ scious use of means to accomplish an occupational objective (strategy). As noted earlier, the conceptual framework of strategies and the discussion of career channeling and constraining factors developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson represents a significant 95 basis for the present study. Additional reference to their work will be made in the following discussion. With reference to the chief administrative officer, the "particulars*1 of career and position selection or attainment have provided some interesting observations. In terms of career perceptions, Ferrari noted: Academic presidents were motivated to a career in higher educational administration and the presi­ dency due mainly to six major interrelated orien­ tations , the relative impacts varying for each individual: a service orientation; social influ­ ences; professional opportunities; personal fac t o r s ; a developmental p r o c e s s ; and accidental circumstance. In most cases, presidents chose careers in higher education, primarily as teachers, and then a series of activities and decisions of increased responsibilities in the administration of a department then college led to the presidency. Based upon particular values, philosophies, needs and circumstances they were chosen or selected to head sun institution. Few prefer to say they actually chose or systematically planned for a career in educational administration.136 Ferrari further concluded that the reasons related to making career choices were very often complex and subtle in terms of origin, intensity, and the effects of such 137 decisions. Career decisions, as noted earlier, can be very rational in some instances and very irrational ^ 33Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, 136 "Occupations." Ferrari, "Careers," pp. 285 -86 . 137Ibid., p. 246 . 96 and unclear in other cases. They can be consciously or unconsciously made decisions. As the literature on career and vocational choice indicated, an individual's career and position are extremely important to the individual for numerous reasons, and his occupation reflects his personality, philosophy, and beliefs. Ferrari stated: To ask a man to explain his career choices and to expect the exact picture is fraught w ith shortcomings. He himself may not really know and even if he does, he may for various reasons attempt to conceal his motivations from an out­ sider. Most of the presidents believe it more properly-stated to talk about their careers as educators in higher education, and through a series of activities and decisions and based upon particular values, philosophies, oppor­ tunities, needs, and c i r c umstances, they were chosen or selected to head an institution of higher education.138 Leake's study concerning college and university presidents in Virginia was predicated, to a great extent, on Ferrari's study, and Leake's findings were very similar to those of Ferrari: . . . the large majority of presidents . . . indicated that they did not choose to be presidents but were chosen. . . . For most, higher educational administration was not their career at all, but rather higher e d u ­ cation. For many during the course of their careers . . . , they were asked to assume e n ­ larged responsibilities in educational admin­ istration, including the presidency.1 39 138I b i d . , pp. 246-47. 139 Leake, "Profile of College and University Presidents," p. 72. 97 Career and position decisions are made b y the individual or possibly for the individual. A sample of the views concerning career decisions indicates con­ tinuing differences in perspectives regarding movement into careers and positions. In his study of Michigan secondary school coun­ selors' career patterns, Majetic concluded: For the most part, the goals that are established appear to be relatively short range. Rarely did a respondent aspire to a job that was not a short distance from his own. That is, teacher to coun­ selor, to assistant principal, to principal in an orderly progression seemed the way that aspirations were patterned. A former counselor did not estab­ lish a goal to become a superintendent of schools and then work toward that end. This orderly, incremental progression may be characteristic of education alone among the professions. It suggests careers built on opportunity and the contingencies at the job site as opposed to longrange rational p l a n n i n g . H O Carlson has commented in his research concerning careerbound and place-bound superintendents that individuals do aspire to a superintendency; however, the decision is made relatively late in the career pattern by most would-be superintendents regardless of whether or not the individual sought the position or became interested based upon an opportunity. 141 Carlson's view basically "squares" with the observation made by Majetic. 140 141 Majetic, "Career Patterns," p. 180. Carlson, Careers and Performance, p. 50. 98 Frederic Giles, in an article concerning select­ ing and hiring a community-junior college president, commented: "Candidates do not necessarily prepare themselves or progress from rung to rung on a predetermined occupational l adder.N 142 He also observed that most would-be candidates for a community college presidency do not openly run or campaign for the office of the president since they are really too busy doing their present job. 143 Giles* comments, which were made in the late 1960s, now appear to be passe in light of the literature already reviewed. This literature indicates increased interest in preparing for the position as w ell as the continuing trend toward a professionalization of the office. Hood would take issue to a statement that presidents d o n 11 seek the position since he concluded in his study of educational and experiential patterns of academic presi­ dents: "The idea that one cannot or does not prepare 14 4 for a collegiate presidency is no longer valid." 142 Frederic T. Giles, "Selecting and Securing a Junior College President," in The Junior College P resi­ d e n t , ed. B. Lamar Johnson (Los A n g e l e s : Junior College Leadership Program Occasional Report No. 13, U.C.L.A., 1969), p. 34. 144 p. 175. Hood, "Educational and Experiential Patterns," 99 Morgan also concurred that individuals can and often do plan for such a position when he stated: The thoughtful aspirent to the office of c o m ­ munity college president will decide not only to try to become a president, if this is p o s ­ sible, and to accept the multiplicity of p res­ sures and duties the position imposes, but also to accept concomitantly and consciously total personal and professional exposure.145 Trumbull also noted, in his study of the preparation of community-junior college presidents, that a trend has emerged indicating that individuals do consciously prepare for administrative positions in the colleges. 146 Also, even though Ferrari commented that few individuals would say they systematically chose or planned for a career in educational administration, he identified a number of academic presidents who, in fact, aspired and planned to be a president and they were not reluctant to say that they preferred to be a leader rather them 147 a follower. Regardless of whether or not chief administrative officers do aspire and plan for the top position, the subject has received some attention in the literature. There does seem to be more of a trend toward aspiring and planning for the top position as well as being more 145 Morgan, P e r s p e c t i v e s , p. 33. ^ 46T r u m b u l l , "Preparation." 147 Ferrari, "Careers." 100 candid in admitting to such interest. Certainly the individual that can identify such an aspiration to be a chief administrative officer and can plan his education and position experiences to provide maximum exposure and preparation will have a greater opportunity to realize his career objectives. Eugene Jennings, com­ menting on identifying routes to the corporate presi­ dency, suggested that a "functionally intelligent" and "maze-bright" individual is the one who develops a plan based on his value orientation that will enhance the possibilities of reaching a desired g o a l . 148 Ferrari and Berte found that community college presidents gave two basic reasons for choosing careers in administration: (1) it provided the best opportunity to make a worthwhile contribution to society and (2) it was creative and 149 challenging. These presidents see the community college movement as the m ost exciting and rewarding action base within higher education. The career-bound individual recognizes that in order to be chosen he must first make some appropriate choices relating to his career. 148 Eugene E . J e n n i n g s , Route b to the Executive Suite (New York: 149 pp. 13-14. McGraw-Hill B o o k C o . , 19^1). Ferrari and Berte, American Junior Colleges, 101 The subject of career strategies and their various concepts, types, and terminology has been studied by researchers in all fields of the social sciences, business administration, and other disciplines. 150 The studies done by Barnard as well as March and Simon dealt with the consideration of jobs as localized versions of a particular occupation or as personalized units occurring in the careers of individuals.151 Wilensky studied the position sequences of 678 males and discovered six position patterns which provided the basis for describing orderly careers and disorderly or disrupted careers. 152 Dill, Hilton, and Reitman studied the individual's per­ ception of aspiration and made the distinction between the concepts of aspiration salience and aspiration 153 level. Blau and Scott have studied the relationship 150 Significant references and background infor­ mation concerning career strategies have been discussed in Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations." 151 Chester Barnard, The Functions of the Execu­ tive (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, I d 38) ; James G. March and Herbert Simon, Organizations (New York: John Wiley 6 Sons, 1958). 152 Harold L. Wilensky, "Orderly Careers and Social Participation," American Sociological Review 26 (August 1961): 521-39. 153 William R. Dill, Thomas Hilton, and Walter Reitman, The New Managers (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1962). 102 of aspirations and commitment to the individual's opportunity for advancement. 154 Merton has researched how various reference groups affect career strategies. 155 As previously noted, Carlson has studied extensively the place-bound and career-bound orientations of school 156 superintendents. Hodgkinson, Carmichael, Chinoy, and others have studied aspects of upward mobility as related to career strategies. 157 Generally speaking, career pattern studies indicate an occupational strategy orientation. With regard to career perceptions and career strategies, the article by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson effectively summarized the various concepts, philosophies, and study findings and provided the basis for the con­ sideration of career perceptions and strategies developed in the present study. 15 8 For the most part, the 154 Peter M. Blau and W. Richard Scott, Formal Or^anizations (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing C o . , 155Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure (Glencoe, 1 1 1 . : Free P r e s s , 1&57). 156 Carlson, Careers and Performance. ^ ^ H o d g k i n s o n , Institutions in Transition; Carmichael, "Origin"; and Eli Chinoy, "The Tradition of Opportunity and the Aspirations of Automobile Workers," American Journal of Sociology 57 (March 1952): 366-70. 158 Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations." 103 development and defining of the career perceptions and career strategies has been extensively covered in the theoretical justification section of Chapter I and in the literature review section on career and vocational choice studies and will not be repeated in detail here. Following their discussion of the various types and bases of careers, career strategies, social structure of occupations, and characteristics of various o c c u ­ pational types (all previously reviewed in the present study), the authors discussed various disrupted career patterns and concluded the article with seven p r o po­ sitions representing implications for personnel m a nage­ ment. 16** As discussed at length in Chapter I and earlier sub-sections of Chapter II of the present study, the dissertation completed by Jerald Cavanaugh dealing with position sequences and career strategies of public com­ munity college-junior college presidents provided the operational basis for the present study.160 Therefore, Cavanaugh's findings concerning career strategies are included in the present review. Cavanaugh identified career strategies for the 485 public community-junior college presidents who 160Cavanaugh, Strategies." "Position Sequences and Career 104 participated in this part of the national study by using the following procedure: (1) analyzed the position sequences using the procedure previously described in the position sequences-career patterns sub-section of the present literature review; (2) used the criteria for strategies established by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson (3) operationalized the conceptual framework of strate­ gies by adding arbitrary time stipulations of his own and the strategy change conceptualization discussed by 162 Carlson; and (4) considered type of employment, length of employment, and the size and location of the employing organization. Based on his analysis of data, Cavanaugh identi­ fied seven strategy types described as follows: 1. 2. 3. Heuristic: The individual held jobs totally unrelated to education (1) for at least three years after having been in education or (2) for at least eight years before entering e d u ­ cation (after the bachelor's degree). Occupational: With the exception of the mili­ tary, the individual's job sequence was entirely in education, but the individual was employed at any one institution for fewer than ten years, working steadily toward a presidency. Organizational: The individual was employed by one institution for a minimum of ten y e a r s , attempting to work up through the organization. 161Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations," pp. 11-12. 162 Carlson, "Succession and Performance"; Idem, Executive Succession; and Idem, Careers and Performance. 105 4. 5. 6. 7. Organizational-Occupational (concurrently): The individual stayed with one system or d i s ­ trict for a minimum of ten years, but moved from campus to campus within the district to take advantage of promotions. Organizational to O c c u p a t i o n a l ; The individual was employed by one institution at least ten years before moving to an occupational o r ien­ tation . Heuristic to O c c u p a t i o n a l : The individual spent several years (at least eight) outside education before his career pattern indicates an educational occupational orientation, geared toward the chief administrative position. Heuristic to Organizational-Occupational (concurrently): The individual's pattern showed a typically heuristic approach before he settled into education at a specific d i s ­ trict; then, he worked diligently toward p ro­ gressing within the district. 1^3 Strategies 1, 2, and 3 were based on the conceptual frame­ work for strategies outlined by Thompson, Avery, Carlson 164 and while strategies 5, 6, and 7 were an outgrowth of Carlson's 165 concept of strategy change. Strategy 4 was identified to reflect multi-campus districts in the community-junior colleges. The strategy of stability was not used in Cava­ naugh's study since it was not applicable until an indi­ vidual achieved his first presidency, and Cavanaugh's 163 Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies," pp. 75-76. 164 165 Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, Carlson, Executive Succession. "Occupations." 106 study dealt only with the movement of the individuals to a first community college presidency. Cavanaugh also attempted to determine whether or not the background factors of age, sex, marital status, race, environment during school years, and highest earned degree had any relevancy to the seven specific strategies. Cavanaugh's findings regarding career strategies were as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Thirty-nine respondents were classified as having a heuristic orientation (7.8%). The mean age of this group was about three years younger than the norm, 45.7 years. Of the thirty-nine heuristically oriented individuals, seventeen have lived their entire lives in no more than two states, thirteen of them in one state. Heuristically oriented individuals with indus­ trial or trade backgrounds often moved into chief administrative positions within techni­ cally oriented schools, as verified through a cross-checking of questionnaires with the AAJC D i r e c t o r y . Forty-six respondents (9.2%) comprised the organizational classification. These people were slightly older them the norm, w i t h a m e a g e of 51.6 years. Thirty-one of the organizationally oriented had spent their entire careers in one city: twenty-four had never been employed outside their present schools during their professional careers. Fifteen (32.5%) of the respondents classified as organirationally oriented were chief admin­ istrators in the California system. Of the responding chief administrators, 289 (58.1%) were classified as occupationally oriented. Of these, 108 respondents' career patterns implied that the orientation of these individuals placed the attaining of a public community junior college presidency as the obvious primary goal, with few other consid­ erations involved. 107 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Of those 289 occupationally oriented respon­ dents , the other 181 (62.6% of that classifi­ cation) had spent their entire careers since attaining the bachelor's degree in no more than two states. Going further, it was found that 124 of those individuals had never been employed outside the state in which they were presently employed since earning the bachelor's degree. Since the mean age for this last mentioned group was 4 8.2 years as compared to 48.8 years for the entire population, any assumptions that the above findings were due to age would be invalid. When those individuals who had lived their entire professional lives in one state were added to those w h o left a state only after accumulating at least twenty years (including those few individuals w ith military retire­ ments) a total of over 50% of the respondents were involved. The organizational-occupational (concurrently) category, conceived by the investigator, includes those individuals who are organiza­ tionally oriented toward a multi-campus d i s ­ trict, but occupationally oriented within the district. Thirty-two respondents (6.4%) com­ prised this group, having a mean age slightly older than the norm, at 51.6 years. The organizational to occupational category, comprised of 60 respondents (12.1%) were also older than the total survey group on the average: 51.5 years. All had at least a master's degree, with two-thirds holding a doctorate. Individuals who made a career of the military were classified into the organizational to occupational group, but they were relatively few among the public community junior college chief administrative population. Only three responded to the study. Thirty-two people in this group had spent their entire professional careers since attain­ ing the bachelor's degree in one state: six­ teen of those chief administrators spent at least twenty years in one school, usually on the elementary-secondary level, before moving toward a presidency. The mean age of the heuristic to occupational classification was also slightly above the norm, at 50.4 years. These individuals had 108 16. 17. left education to become engineers, FBI agents, department store managers, farmers, state budget commissioners, small business owners, etc. Only two respondents in the heuristic to o ccu­ pational category entered (or re-entered) e du­ cation as chief administrators of junior c ol­ leges— one from a graduate program, and another from an educational consulting firm (following a graduate p r o g r a m ) . Only three individuals were placed into the heuristic to organizational-occupational (con­ currently) category. Each, after a heuristic beginning, entered a multi-campus district as teacher or lower echelon administrator, from which point he worked toward a chief adminis­ trative position within the district. They averaged 52.3 years, an average three and one half years above the population m e a n . 166 Also, Cavanaugh noted that "data from the National Career Study indicate that background and personal factors have little relevancy to career strategy." 167 Cavanaugh concluded his study w ith the following observation concerning the inadvisability of making quailtative judgments concerning individuals' competence or readiness for presidencies in public community-junior colleges: Chronological age, specific professional job h is­ tories, academic degrees, etc., are not guarantees of success in the field of educational adminis­ tration. The diversity of career strategy orien­ tation ascertained by this study indicates that many and diverse approaches can lead to a presi­ dency, and it cannot be stipulated that any one approach is inherently better theui any other approach.168 Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies," pp. 106-10. 167Ibid., p. 110. 168Ibid., p. 113b. 109 Summary In this chapter, emphasis was placed on reviewing the theoretical and methodological contributions to the literature which were considered to have the greatest significance to the present study. First, an historical perspective was provided. It was noted that, for the most part, literature written prior to approximately 1960 concerning the academic president dealt primarily with aspects of the presidents' social and educational b a c k g r o u n d s , personal q u a l i t i e s , and their general development. were written by the presidents. Usually these studies Further, the historical perspective provided information which indicated that the academic president has become a significant force in our society and that his mission has changed from the "institution builder" to the present-day "crisis manager." Second, studies concerning career and vocational choice were reviewed. It was indicated that, although there are many vocational and career choice theories, there is not one totally comprehensive theory represen­ tative of the various fields and disciplines of study. Career and vocational decisions are difficult for some and simple for others as well as being a complex process. Ferrari wrote that such career decisions result from one or more aspects of the following theoretical X10 groupings: (1) the accident theory, forces theory, (2) the unconscious (3) psychological theories, and (4) develop­ mental theories. Ginzberg and associates have noted that, for many, career decisions appear to be developmental, complementary, based on compromise, and generally irre­ versible. Careers are difficult to plan in advance. Third, studies of personal and background factors relating to academic presidents in general and community college presidents in particular were discussed. The following types of factors were reviewed with respect to the academic president: age, sex, marital status, geographic origins, occupations of parents, and edu­ cational history including nature of degrees and disci­ pline emphasis. Ferrari's national study of four-year college and university presidents was indicated to be significant in terms of its scope and findings relative to career patterns and career perceptions of academic presidents. With regard to the community college presi­ dent, the national studies of Ferrari and Berte, Wing, Cavanaugh, and Morgan generally confirmed earlier trends identified in studies by Hawk, Schultz, Roberts, and Carmichael. The identifiable trend appeared to be toward a more professionalized community college presi­ dent who was married, male, white, in his late 40s or early 50s, mobile, from a smaller community (probably less than 25,000 peo p l e ) , having a father who was Ill probably a small business owner or professional, holding a doctorate in educational administration, and identified with the community college movement. Fourth, the literature relating to studies of position sequence and career pattern was reviewed par­ ticularly with respect to the community college president. Emphasis was placed on the findings in studies by Ferrari, Ferrari and Berte, Morgan, Carlson, Wing, and Cavanaugh. It was noted that the main routes to a public community college presidency were from positions in communityjunior colleges, four-year colleges and universities, and public school systems. A number of positions have served as "springboards" to the presidency; however, the dean's position (primarily academic dean) in the community college has been the main immediate position preceding a first presidency. Cavanaugh pointed out that common routes to the presidency can be considered only if thought of in the broad sense of the type of background from which only be considered the presidency. the individual came.A route can in terms of the position preceding Also, career pattern studies must be content with presenting position histories in terms of frequencies of positions held rather than attempting to identify and maintain individual position histories. Finally, the Cavanaugh study was referred to in detail with respect to position sequences since it represents 112 the primary source for operationalizing the present study. Cavanaugh found in his national study of 498 public community college presidents that most attained a presidency by the sixth position based on a specific data interpretation format and that clusters of similar position sequences were virtually impossible to identify with any objectivity. Fifth, studies concerning career perceptions and strategies were reviewed. Particular emphasis was given to the discussion of career perceptions and the conceptual framework for career strategies developed in an article by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson. Also special review was provided concerning the Cavanaugh dissertation findings regarding career strategies of public community college presidents. As outlined in the article by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, the indi­ vidual's perception of his competence, aspiration (both level and salience), and structure of opportunities become important channeling or constraining factors over time with respect to career and position consider­ ations. Also the Thompson, Avery, and Carlson article provided the conceptual framework for career strategies by identifying and describing four strategies: ristic, (4) (2) occupational, stability. (1) heu­ (3) organizational, and Cavanaugh was able to identify seven strategies based on his national study concerning public 113 community college presidents. The seven strategies identified by Cavanaugh were: (1) heuristic, pational, (3) organizational, occupational occupational, (2) occu­ (4) organizational- (concurrently), (5) organizational to (6) heuristic to occupational, and (7) heuristic to organizational-occupational. Presi­ dents of public community colleges have followed pri­ marily an occupational strategy although there was a significant diversity of career strategy orientations identified in his study indicating that no single approach to obtaining a community college presidency was inherently better than another. Cavanaugh also found that background and personal factors had little relevancy to career strategies. The review of the literature in Chapter II has indicated that the rationale for the present study has a social-psychological orientation and develops from the research concepts of career perceptions, position sequences, career strategies, and various background factors of public community-junior college presidents. The present study is based on the following: (1) the discussion of perceptions of competency, aspiration, and opportunity and the conceptual framework for career strategies provided in the article by Thompson, Avery, 169 and Carlson; (2) the findings and operational format 115 9 Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations." 1X4 of Cavanaugh concerning position sequences, career strategies, and background factors;170 and (3) the findings and format of the Ferrari study and the Wing study as well as the Thompson, Avery, and Carlson article concerning career perceptions and background _ . 171 factors. The present study is primarily descriptive in nature recognizing that an appropriate representation of career profiles requires a presentation of qualitative and quantitative information in order to animate and fairly represent the Michigan public community-junior college presidents who participated in this study. 170 Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Caree** Strategies." 171Ferrari, "Careers"; Wing, Professional Presidents; and Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupa­ tions. " CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Introduction The problem o£ this study was to identify and describe career perceptions, position sequences, career strategies, and selected personal and background factors of Michigan public community-junior college presidents. The study was directed toward obtaining demographic data as well as perceptions, opinions, and attitudes to pro­ vide a better understanding of personal and careerrelated influences which brought them to their presidency. General Methods The identification, development, and study of Michigan public community-junior college presidents' careers resulted from personal interests, professional background, and a course-generated idea. The investigator's personal interest in people and their use of talents and time has resulted from the influence of family and friends who have stressed that it is important "to need and be needed." Further, the opportunity to serve as a public community college 115 116 president at a relatively young age provided the interest in the subject of career decisions, patterns, said strate­ gies particularly with regard to the community college presidency. Finally, a course in executive development, which provided the researcher with an understanding of a management style "after the fact" and explored "routes to the executive suite," was the real basis for the present study. After determining the study subject and completing an extensive literature review by manual and computer search techniques, further discussion was conducted with professionals in the field and w ith professional staff within the Department of Administration and Higher Edu­ cation and other areas of the University. The study purposes were developed and refined as a result of such discussion. Source of Data The study population requested to participate in the study consisted of the twenty-nine Michigan public community-junior college presidents as listed in the 1975-76 Directory of Michigan Community Colleges comi piled by the Michigan Community College Association. Michigan Community College Association, 1975-76 Directory of Michigan Community Colleges (Lansing, M i c h . : M i c h i g a n C o m m u n i t y College Association, 1975), pp. 5-7. 117 Each of the individuals had the title designation of "president," and each was the chief administrative officer of the college district. The Michigan presidents and their colleges are listed in Appendix A. Additional information concerning community college enrollments in Michigan is presented in Appendix B. Twenty-seven of the twenty-nine presidents par­ ticipated in the investigation— a 93.1 percent response. The Michigan public community-junior college presidents were selected for the study because of the following reasons: 1. An overall profile of the Michigan presidents was desired concerning the various career-related considerations in the study, and data collection was feasible in terms of time, accessability, and cost factors. 2. It is likely that the Michigan presidents are similar to their counterparts nationwide regard­ ing career-related factors. 3. Since three of the ten W. K. Kellogg Foundationsponsored leadership training programs for com­ munity college administrators were located at Michigan universities (Michigan State University, University of Michigan, and Wayne State University), it is probable that some of the Michigan presidents participated in such a preparation program. 118 4. Since these presidents are expected to exert continued leadership and effort to develop the community colleges and since a number of the Michigan community college presidents have m a n i ­ fested effective leadership in various national and regional professional organizations as well as through their professional writings and research, these presidents are worthy of study. 5. A significant number of community college p r esi­ dents from across the country spent their forma­ tive years and received their formal education in the m i d w e s t e m states of which Michigan is o ne.2 Pertinent preliminary information which identi­ fied and personalized each president was gathered from three sources: (1) the previously mentioned 1975-76 Directory of Michigan Community C o l l e g e s ;3 (2) the 1975-76 Directory of Michigan Institutions of Higher 4 Education; and (3) the presidents' written questionnaire 2 Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies," pp. 106-10. 2M.C.C.A., 1975-76 D i r ectory. 4 Michigan Department of Education, 1975-76 Directory of Michigan Institutions of Higher Education (Lansing, Mich. : Michigan Department ol? Education, Higher Education Management Services, 1975), pp. 12-24. 119 responses which were returned by mall to the Investigator for review prior to the personal Interview with each president. Construction of the Survey Instruments The process of collecting data for this descrip­ tive study was accomplished through the use of two methods: written responses to a direct-mail question­ naire and verbal responses in a structured interview. The study respondents completed the questionnaire and participated in an interview. The decision to use both methods with the study population resulted from two con­ siderations : 1. It was felt that both a questionnaire and inter­ view were desirable since career-related infor­ mation should be considered in terms of both qualitative and quantitative aspects. Career decisions are not made in a simple or mechanistic way but are a complex and ongoing process involv­ ing the individual with his total environment over the span of his life cycle. Use of both the interview and questionnaire instruments pro­ vided am opportunity to more completely explore career-related perceptions and the "richness" 120 of responses that cannot be as readily obtained only through the use of a more formal and restricting mailed questionnaire. 2. The use of the two instruments also provided greater assurance of the completeness and accuracy of responses on both instruments through personal contact and the establishment of rapport with each responding president. Exploratory Study During February, 1976, meetings were arranged with four Illinois public community-junior college presi­ dents to explore the use and content of the study instru­ ments which were being considered. The investigator pre­ pared for these meetings by reviewing the literature and discussing the development of the instruments with the study director. These presidents1 names, institutional affiliations, and the meeting dates are given in Appen­ dix C. The follow-up letter to these four presidents is included in Appendix D. The four Illinois community college presidents were selected with the committee chairman's concurrence because: they were similar to the Michigan community college presidents in terms of the study definition, and they were expected to be similar to the Michigan presidents with regard to various career-related factors; 121 the community colleges in the two states were similar in terms of organization, control, educational mission, and the nature of their recognition; and it was most appro­ priate to solicit study-related information from indi­ viduals who were not part of the actual study. The content and mechanics of the questionnaire and interview response forms were then formulated and reviewed with the writer's doctoral committee chairman and members and the Illinois presidents. The two instru­ ments were developed since the interview purpose was to provide additional career-related perceptual information to complement the factual data provided in the question­ naire . Mailed Questionnaire The questionnaire prepared for use in the present study provided an appropriate vehicle to collect basic factual and perceptual data regarding the presidents' careers and was particularly advantageous to the present investigation because: the questionnaire answers could be completed, revised, or corrected at the time of the interview thus assuring usability of all information; the questionnaire could be partially prepared by a staff member; it would allow better use of the interview period; provided the opportunity to "prepare" for the interview; gave the presidents an opportunity to answer at their own 122 leisure; and assured greater uniformity in the instru­ ment questions and replies. The questionnaire content was based, in part, on questions from the National Career Study of Community College Presidents Questionnaire developed by Dr. Joseph A. Malik at the University of Colorado. 5 Jerald Cava­ naugh and Dennis Wing used the Malik questionnaire as the data collection instrument in their doctoral disser­ tations completed under the direction of Dr. Malik.6 Additional questions resulted from: study; (1) the exploratory (2) consultation with the investigator's committee chairman and members; (3) discussions with Dr. Eugene Jennings, Professor of Management at the University, and the person who originally stimulated the investi­ gator's interest in career routes; and (4) a review of the related literature. The questionnaire was divided into two parts. Part I requested background information on each president normally found in a personal/professional resume, and the various alternatives suggested for completing this part took into consideration the minimizing of completion 5 Selected questions from the National Career Study of Community College Presidents Questionnaire^ by Dr. Joseph A. Malik have been used in the present study questionnaire with the author's written permission. 6Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strate gies"; Wing, "Public Community College Chief Adminis­ trator. " 123 time while insuring accuracy of responses. Demographic and work history information was included in the initial section. It was necessary for each president to per­ sonally complete Part II of the questionnaire, which requested personal, perceptual, and judgmental infor­ mation concerning his career. All questions in Part II could be answered by using identifying words or by check­ ing the appropriate response. Information provided by the presidents was confidential since they would not be identified in the study by individual or institution. After considerable editing and revision in terms of both content and organization, the questionnaire was approved for use by the doctoral committee chairman. The questionnaire, "Career Decisions and Career Pro­ gression of Michigan Public Community College Presidents," dated May, 1976, can be found in Appendix E. Personal Interview Response Form As noted earlier, the interview represented a vital data-gathering method for the study. The interview was considered to be supplementary and complementary to the questionnaire and necessary in order to gather the appropriate career-related information and perceptions as well as to provide the "rich,” candid, and more com­ plete responses. Young noted: Concerning the interview process, 124 The objectives of the interview may be exchange of ideas and experiences, eliciting of information pertaining to a wide range of data in which the interviewee may wish to rehearse his past, define his present, and canvass his future possibilities. Every verbal response and nonverbal reaction may be an "eye opener" for a whole new train of thoughts. An answer may not be only a response to a question but also a stimulus to progressive series of other relevant statements about social and personal phenomena. . . . For purposes of obtaining life history data, that is, an intimate full account of a person's experiences, attitudes, and values during his entire life cycle, it is important to gain "a por­ trait of human personality" which is broad enough to encompass the social background that governs his present scheme of life, and deep enough to reveal inner strivings, tensions, wishes and changes in his behavioral relations. In freeflowing accounts, interviewees may suggest expla­ nations of their behavior which may account for their motivations and actions and provide new insights not afforded by other exploratory tech­ niques .7 As noted earlier, the interview with each presi­ dent was held after the president had received, completed, and returned the mailed questionnaire. A structured personal interview which used an interview outline was developed for the following reasons: to provide addi­ tional and complementary perceptual responses regarding career considerations; to better understand the person­ alities and career motivations of the presidents; to expand, verify, and clarify information in a personal, face-to-face setting; and to complete any questionnaire information previously omitted. Pauline V. Young, Scientific Social Surveys y d Research (Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . :Prentice-Hall, 1966), pp. 215-16. 125 The content and organization of the structured interview resulted through input from a number of sources. The doctoral dissertations by Ferrari and Cavanaugh and the article concerning career perceptions and strategies by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson were particularly important resources from the literature. g This research was extensively reviewed in Chapter II of the study. Considerable assistance was provided by Dr. Eugene Jennings as well as the four Illinois presi­ dents who participated in the exploratory study. Also, the investigator's committee chairman reviewed and approved the personal interview response form. The outline for the structured interview was designed in two forms. One form, entitled "Personal Interview Guide," listed the career-related questions discussed with each interviewee. This guide was given to the president before the interview started and pro­ vided them with the opportunity to review the questions, organize their thoughts, and gauge the progress during the interview. The second form ("Response Form— Personal Interview Guide") was prepared for the interviewer's use and provided necessary directions and space for recording preliminary identifying information and interviewer notes taken during the interview. Copies of the "Response g Ferrari, "Careers"; Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies"; and Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations." X26 Form--Personal Interview" and the "Personal Interview Guide" dated May, 1976 can be £ound in Appendices F and G respectively. The interview response form was divided into four sections, and the content and organization of these sections do not require additional comment except to note that the "Interview Responses" section of the form listed the same questions as those provided the inter­ viewee; however, the interviewer's form contained addi­ tional information with a "Focus" notation to help identify the question purpose and to insure completeness of the answer. Further, this section was organized to provide an opportunity for the interviewee to proceed through a logical tracing or consideration of his career perceptions over time. The structured personal interview was designed to be one hour in length and was tape-recorded with the interviewee's permission. were tape-recorded. Twenty-two of the interviews The interview response form was designed to make provision for note-taking regardless of whether or not the interview was recorded. The recording was used to verify and recheck interview responses; however, the interviewer's notes served as the primary source of interview data in all cases. Provision was also made for telephone interviews if a face-to-face interview period could not be arranged. 127 In this regard, Sudman found, after comparing data from personal interviews with telephone interview results, that: "In none of these experiments was there any indication that the telephone results were less satisg factory than those obtained by personal interviews." Procedures for Collecting the Data Twenty-seven of the twenty-nine Michigan public community-junior college presidents participated in the study— a 93.1 percent response. The initial mailing was sent on May 1, 1976 to the Michigan presidents and contained the following: (1) a two-page individually typed cover letter introduc­ ing the investigator and the study project, (2) a copy of the questionnaire instrument, and (3) a pre-addressed and stamped return envelope. Through May 17, sixteen completed questionnaires had been received. A copy of the original cover letter can be found in Appendix H. A second mailing to the initial mailing non­ respondents was sent on May 18, 1976 and contained the same material as the original mailing except that a revised cover letter was used. The second mailing pro­ duced another seven completed questionnaires which were received by June 3. A copy of the second mailing cover letter is provided in Appendix I. 9 (Chicago: Seymour Sudman, Reducing the Cost of Surveys Aldine Publishing Co., 1967), p. 57T 128 On June 3, the investigator telephoned those presidents w h o had still not responded through that date. Four additional questionnaires were received by June 16 as a result of the call. Each of the twenty-seven responding presidents returned a completed and usable questionnaire and indi­ cated by so doing that they would also grant an interview with the study investigator. One nonrespondent did not participate due to his work load resulting from the death of a key administrator while the other nonrespondent indicated that he could not participate since he was finishing his doctorate within a "tight" completion deadline. Both nonrespondents represented Detroit-area community colleges. Because of time c o n s t raints, the study investigator and doctoral committee chairman decided to proceed with the study using the twenty-seven responding presidents. A log indicating the flow of questionnaire responses by date and number received is provided in Appendix J. In order to arrange a time, date, and place for the personal interview, the office of each responding president was contacted by telephone following the initial mailing on May 1. A postcard was mailed to each president confirming details of the interview, and a facsimile of this card is provided in Appendix K. 129 The interviews were held during the period of June 7 through July 9, 1976. A calendar which indicates interview dates and times is provided in Appendix L. As previously noted, twenty-two of the interviews were tape-recorded. Permission to interview was, in all cases, readily granted. Three interviews were not tape-recorded because they were held in a location (not conducive to taping) other than the president's office. The other two interviews were conducted by telephone due to schedule conflicts and were not tape-recorded. The investigator was able to establish interviewer credibility and rapport with the twenty-seven interviewees thus enhancing the data results. The average interview length was an hour to an hour and one-quarter. Additional post-interview conversation relating to the study and general topics resulted in many visits lasting two hours or more. Many of the presidents indicated that the interview was a welcome "change of pace." The relaxed, candid, and receptive approach exhibited by the inter­ viewees resulted in a thoroughly enjoyable overall exper­ ience. Many of the presidents indicated they knew very little about their fellow presidents and would be inter­ ested in receiving a study summary at a later date. Treatment of the study data began in July, 1976. 130 Method of Data Analysis The analysis of data gathered from questionnaires and interviews was undertaken in the belief that appro­ priate data had been collected for the study and that there had been minimal omission of pertinent data. In this regard, Good noted: Having collected some information upon a subject the student will desire to arrange it and present it in such form that others may get the benefit of his studies. This is partly a mechanical problem, the problem of documentation. It is partly a logical problem also, because it involves the question of the relative importance of the several items and topics* Finally, it is a philosophical and artistic problem, because every historian deliberately or in spite of himself, interprets what he presents.10 The data analyzed consisted of the written questionnaire and personal interview responses for twenty-seven of the Michigan public community-junior college presidents out of a population of twenty-nine. This represented 93.1 percent of the population. The analysis of data was undertaken to provide information concerning Michigan community college presidents' perceptions. career-related decisions, patterns, and The data in this descriptive and explor­ atory study were analyzed and are presented in two broad divisions. The initial analysis and presentation provide a profile of the respondents. The profile information ^ H . G. Good, "Historical Research in Education," Educational Research Bulletin 9 (February 1930): 78. 131 includes: (1) a personal and demographic profile, (2) a position sequence and career pattern profile, and (3) a career strategy profile. The first division is pri­ marily factual data gathered from the questionnaire. The second division represents a presentation of per­ ceptual data gathered primarily from the interview; however, some perceptual data were also contained in the questionnaire. The second division has two parts; namely, presidential perceptions of career influences and perceptions of personal influences. This descriptive division is concluded with a presentation of presidential perceptions regarding career revisions and career strate­ gies. The personal-background information, particularly the position histories, is presented and used to provide position sequences for the respondents. The position sequence information and career perception information were then used to identify the respondents' gies. career strate­ The respondents' perceptions of aspiration, com­ petence, and opportunity were generally related to the overall presentation of data. No attempt was made to separately identify and describe such perceptions. Rather, the data were presented with the assumption that such channeling or constraining perceptions were factors in the overall career decisions of the respondents to the extent that such career information was reported. 132 Finally, a general discussion of the data with respect to the study research questions was provided as a form of data analysis summary. Basic response frequency tabulations and frequency percentages were calculated for items and total responses. Cumulative frequencies and percentages were also calcu­ lated where appropriate. Position sequences were iden­ tified by using a modified version of a methodology developed by Cavanaugh.11 Career strategies were iden­ tified by using the conceptual framework developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, and a modified version of the strategy framework operationalized by Cavanaugh and 12 discussed earlier. Some material was also presented descriptively. tained. Anonymity of the respondents was main­ Because of the descriptive and exploratory nature of the study, other statistical techniques were not applied. There was no attempt in the data analysis to investigate all possible factors or conditions concerning the careers of the Michigan public community-junior college presidents. 11Cavanaugh, Sequences." 12 Ibid. "Career Perceptions and Position Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations"; 133 Summary In Chapter III, the general methods used in the descriptive and exploratory study have been presented. The population was indicated as the twenty-nine Michigan public community-junior college presidents as of May, 1976. The exploratory study, which involved four Illi­ nois public community college presidents, was discussed. The development of the written, mailed questionnaire and the personal interview format used for data col­ lection were reviewed. It was indicated that twenty- seven Michigan public community college presidents (a 9 3.1% response) participated in the study. Finally, the procedure used for data analysis was reviewed, and the organization of Chapter IV was indicated. CHAPTER IV AN ANALYSIS OF MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITYJUNIOR COLLEGE PRESIDENTS Introduction In this chapter, an analysis of the Michigan public community-junior college presidents is presented. The first half of the chapter represents a profile of the presidents presented in three parts; namely, a p e r ­ sonal and demographic profile, a position sequence/career pattern profile, and a career strategy profile. The profile is generated through the use of descriptive information, frequency counts, and percentages. The second half of the chapter represents a presentation of the presidents1 perceptions of career influences and personal influences as such relate to their careers. The consideration of perceptions as career channeling or constraining factors is presented throughout the second part of the chapter since such perceptions represent the basis for overall decisions made regarding a career. The presentation is largely descriptive and, to the extent appropriate, presidents' comments are also highlighted. 134 135 A summary concerning the data analysis findings in relation to the study research questions is presented in the final part of the chapter. Presidents1 Profile Using Selected Factors Personal and Demographic Profile Age The present ages of the Michigan public communityjunior college presidents are presented in Table 1. The mean age of the twenty-seven presidents was fifty years with the youngest president being thirty-six years of age and the oldest being fifty-nine. The youngest presi­ dent was the only respondent forty years of age and under. The greatest number of presidents (18 or 66.7%) in age from forty-six to fifty-five. ranged Beyond the latter group, the distribution of presidents younger than fortysix and older than fifty-five was approximately equal in number. TABLE 1.— Present ages of presidents Age in Years No. 40 and under 41-45 46-50 51-55 56 and over 1 4 8 10 4 27 Total % 3.7 14.8 29.6 37.0 14.8 100.0a aDue to rounding in all tables involving percent­ ages, column totals may not equal 100.0 percent. 136 Sex All twenty-seven respondents were males. Marital Status Regarding marital status, twenty-six (96.3%) of the presidents were married and one was single. The study question provided four response options; namely, (1) "Married," (2) "Single," and (4) "Widowed." (3) "Separated or Divorced," Although the questionnaire did not ask how many had been previously separated, divorced, or widowed, the interviews did provide indications that at least one of the presidents had been married more than once. Geographic Origins Place of Birth In terms of birthplace population, the Michigan public community college presidents were rather evenly distributed except for the extremes of size at both ends of the distribution. In Table 2, the distribution of presidents according to population of birthplace is indicated. Three population categories have five presidents each; namely, communities with populations of "1-500," "5,001-10,000," and "1 Million or More." Those presidents b o m in communities of 10,000 or fewer total sixteen (59.3%) while eleven presidents (40.7%) TABLE 2.— Size of city/town where presidents were born Number and (Percentage) by Population Category3 1500 5011,000 1,0012,000 2,001- 5,0015,000 10,000 10,001- 25,001- 50,00125,000 50,000 100,000 100,001- 1 Million 250,000 or More 5(18.5) 2(7.4) 2(7.4) 2(7.4) 2(7.4) 1(3.7) 5(18.5) 1(3.7) N = 27 ^ h e category population ranges are arbitrary. 2(7.4) 5(18.5) 138 were b o m 10,000. in communities with populations of more than Three presidents were born in communities having populations of eighty or fewer residents. If the presidents' place of birth is considered by states, ten different states were represented; however, no president was born west of North Dakota. The ten states represented are primarily in the mideast and m i d ­ west sections of the country and were as follows; Michi­ gan, Pennsylvania, Nebraska, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio, Illinois, New York, North Dakota, and Missouri. Eleven (40.7%) of the presidents were born in Michigan. Four of the presidents now preside over the college located in the community in which they were born. The second largest group of presidents came from Pennsylvania— five in number (18.5%). Two presidents were b o m each of the following states: and Nebraska. in Wisconsin, Minnesota, The remaining five states claimed one president each. Formative Years To the question, your formative years (age 6-18) twenty-four presidents three (11.1%) "Did you spend half or more of (88.9%) in any one city or town?" indicated "yes" w ith only indicating a negative response. If the respondents answered "yes," they were then asked to identify the city/town, state, and the approximate p opu­ lation during their formative years. Table 3 represents TABLE 3.— Size of city/town where presidents spent half or more of their formative years (ages 6-18) Number and (Percentage) by Population Category3 1500 5011,000 1,0012,000 2,0015,000 5,00110,000 10,00125,000 2(8.3) 1(4.2) 1(4.2) 3(12.5) 4(16.7) 5(20.8) 25,00150,000 50,001100,000 100,001250,000 1 Million or More 2(8.3) 3(12.5) 3(12.5) 139 Collapsed Categories 15,000 5,00125,000 25,001100,000 100,0011 Million More than 1 Million 7(29.2) 9(37.5) 2(8.3) 3(12.5) 3(12.5) N = 24 ^ h e category population ranges are arbitrary. 140 a presentation of the question information and also shows collapsed population categories for the twentyfour presidents who did spend their formative years in a particular city/town. Only three (approximately 12%) lived in cities of one million or more residents, and only one-third (8) lived their formative years in com­ munities with a population greater than 25,000. thirds Two- (16) of the presidents "grew up" in communities of 25,000 or fewer residents. Almost 30 percent (7) lived in communities with populations of 5,000 or fewer. Of the twenty-four presidents who spent their formative years in a particular community, eleven (approximately 45%) were from Michigan. Nine states were represented by the twenty-four presidents. In addition to Michigan, the other states were Pennsylvania, Nebraska, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, and California. Five presidents "grew up" in Pennsyl­ vania, and two lived their early years in Nebraska while each of the other states noted claimed one president each. The three presidents who indicated that they had not spent their formative years in a particular community also indicated that they had lived in the following number of places during ages six to eighteen: two presidents had lived in three different places while growing up, and one had lived in seven different communities before he was eighteen years of age. 141 Since the mean age of the respondents in the study was fifty years of age, they would have lived their early years in the late 1920s and 1930s, a period when the proportion of small towns represented was not out of perspective when considered with respect to the overall population. Occupational Origins Prxmary Occupations of Parents Based on their parents' occupations, the Michigan community college presidents were quite representative of the various occupational levels in the society (Table 4). However none of the fathers* occupations were in such categories as "clerk/salesman," "government (civil service)," or "military." Also, a dispropor­ tionate number of fathers were either "professionals" or "executives including managers and p r o p r i e t o r s ," with six (22.2%) indicated in each of the two categories. Four fathers were identified in the "foreman, supervisor" category, while the categories of "unskilled laborer," "skilled laborer," "tradesman,” and "farmer" were equally represented with three fathers identified in each of the three categories. Concerning the six fathers listed as professionals, two were m i n i s t e r s , two were public school administrators, one was a medical doctor, and one was a full-time minister of music in a large church. 142 TABLE 4.— Primary occupations of the parents during the presidents' formative years (ages 6-18) Fathers Mothers Type of Occupation No. % Unskilled laborer 3 11.1 - — Skilled laborer, tradesman 3 11.1 1 3.7 Foreman, supervisor 4 14.8 1 3.7 Executive, manager, proprietor3 6 22.2 2 7.4 Professional 6 22.2 2 7.4 Farmer 3 11.1 - - Housewife - - Does not apply 2 27 Total No. % 20 74.1 7.4 1 3.7 100.0 27 100.0 aIncludes major business executives as well as the owners of small and large businesses. ^Parent(s) deceased or not present in the home during the president's formative years. 143 Almost 75 percent (20) of the presidents' mothers were full-time housewives during the presidents' tive years. forma­ The two mothers identified as "professionals" were public school teachers. It is interesting to note that twenty-five of the responding presidents spent their formative years with the benefit of having both parents present in the home. Formal Education of Parents and Spouse As presented in Table 5, the presidents' fathers generally received less formal education them did the presidents' mothers. Six fathers did finish high school, five had some high school education, and eight were evenly divided between "elementary school completed" and "some elementary school." Slightly more than 70 per­ cent (19) of the fathers had a high school education or less. Only four (14.8%) of the fathers received a col­ lege degree or had done "post-baccalaureate study." Almost 52 percent of the fathers had at least a high school education. Eleven (approximately 41%) of the presidents' mothers had received a high school diploma with an additional eight having some college work, having grad­ uated from college, or having completed some study beyond the undergraduate degree. Just over 70 percent (19) of the mothers had a formal education equivalent to a high school diploma or greater. 144 TABLE 5.— Extent, of formal education for the presidents* parents and spouses Extent of Formal Education Father M _ . No. % Mother No. % s * ouse No. % Some elementary school 4 14.8 1 3.7 - - Elementary school completed 4 14.8 3 11.1 - — Some high school 5 18.5 4 14.8 - - High school graduate 6 22.2 11 40.7 2 7.7 Some college 4 14.8 4 14.8 4 15.4 College graduate 1 3.7 3 11.1 7 26.9 Post-baccalaureate study 3 11.1 1 3.7 13 50.0 27 100.0 27 100.0 Total aOne president is not married 26a 100.0 145 Almost twice as many of the presidents' fathers (13) had less than a high school diploma than did the presidents' mothers (8). While slightly more than half of the fathers at least graduated from high school, a little more than 70 percent of the mothers graduated from high school or continued their formal education further. Although eight fathers and eight mothers con­ tinued their education at the college level and four in each category graduated from c ollege, three of the fathers continued to do post-baccalaureate study while only one mother did the same. The presidents' wives exhibited a substantial amount of educational attainment as indicated in Table 5. Of the twenty-six presidents' wives, only two had not continued their formal education past high school, and those two were high school graduates. Twenty wives (almost 77%) had at least graduated from college while thirteen (half of all of the presidents' wives) had done post-baccalaureate study. The study did not seek to determine whether many of the presidents met their wives-to-be while both were attending college or the extent to which the wives held graduate degrees; however, it is clear that, as a group, the wives were well-educated women. 146 Educational History Extent of Education Received The Michigan community college presidents were asked to provide an educational history since high school graduation. From the information provided, it was possible to provide a substantial educational profile. In Table 6, the educational attainment of the respondents is presented by indicating the highest earned degree for each president. Eighteen (66.7%) of the presi­ dents hold an earned doctorate with ten having a Ph.D. and eight having the Ed.D. One president's highest earned degree was the Bachelor's, while the other eight hold a Master's degree. Three of the nine presidents not pos­ sessing a doctorate indicated that they are actively in the process of completing doctoral degree programs. It is also interesting to note that one president who has the doctorate has also completed two Bachelor's degrees in addition to the Master's degree. Another president with the doctorate has two degrees each at the Bachelor's and Master's levels. Also, three presidents who indi­ cated that the Master's represented their highest earned degree further indicated that they each have two Master's degrees. 147 TABLE 6.— Educational attainment of the presidents as evidenced by the highest earned degree Degree No. Associate Bachelor's M a s t e r 1s Education-Specialist Doctorate _ % 1 8 3.7 29.6 — — 18 Ph.D. Ed.D. 66.7 10 8 37.0 29.6 - Other Total - 27 100.0 As presented in Table 7, the presidents' edu- cational backgrounds in terms of highest degree earned indicates that they were representative of the various geographic regions of the country as well as of a broad cross-section of higher education institutions. The Michigan presidents received their highest degree from a total of eighteen universities representing ten dif­ ferent states. Even though a number of states and un i ­ versities were represented, thirteen (43%) of the total of thirty "highest earned degrees" were earned from among four Michigan universities. Eight of those thirteen degrees were earned at Michigan State University. Programs of Study A composite of the presidents' academic fields of study by each earned degree is presented in Table 8. Social studies related programs provided the most common 148 TABLE 7.— States and institutions of higher education where presidents received highest earned degree State and Institution Michigan Frequency of Response3 13 Michigan State University University of Michigan Wayne State University Eastern Michigan University Ohio 8 2 2 1 2 Ohio State University University of Cincinnati Illinois 1 1 4 University of Illinois Northwestern University DePaul University Iowa 1 1 1 1 University of Iowa Wisconsin 1 University of Wisconsin Nebraska University of Nebraska California 1 2 2 1 University of California at Los Angeles New York 1 3 New York University Columbia University Drew University Pennsylvania 1 1 1 2 2 University of Pittsburgh Florida 1 Florida State University N 1 27 The number of degrees indicated equals 30 because three presidents who have as their highest earned degree a Master's also have two Master's apiece. TABLE 8.— Presidents' academic fields of study by earned degreea Bachelor* s Degree Master* s Degree Doctorate Academic Fields Major(s)b Education Elementary/secondary Guidance and student services Vocational education Education administrationGeneral Public school administra­ tion Higher education adminis­ tration Humanities0 Social sciences Natural sciences Applied sciences Business Other 5 5 13 4 1 5 3 Minor(s) 3 Major(a) 18 Minor(8) 5 Major(s) 13 Minor(s) 4 4 2 1 1 - - 1 - 2 1 1 - 1 - 1 1 - - 3 2 4 1 - 1 8 1 1 - - - 3 - 7 - 9 14 6 - 1 1 3 4 1 1 1 4 1 10 1 1 1 - - - - - - - 6 1 2 4 — 8 2 N - 27 A number of presidents changed fields of study and institutions over tine; how­ ever, the fields of study indicated represent those specializations that were indicated for each degree received. bNany presidents completed multiple majors and minors at one or more of the three listed degree levels thus causing a variation in number of fields of study for each president. humanities include: English, literature, speech, art, music, drama, philosophy, and foreign languages, social sciences include: psychology, sociology, social work, history, political science, economics, geography, anthropology, and health, physical education and recreation. Natural sciences include: chemistry, biology, zoology, physics, geology, and mathematics. Applied sciences include: industrial arts and industrial education. Business includes: finance, management, accounting, office management, shorthand, and typing. Other includes: religion, Christian work, and engineering. 150 area for both majors and minors at the Bachelor's level. The humanities and natural sciences were relatively strong minor areas at the Bachelor's degree level. Relatively few individuals chose to major or minor at the Bachelor's level in the education-related speciality areas and even those who did primarily were preparing to teach at the elementary or secondary level. The distribution of majors and minors by field of study changed rather dramatically by the time the presidents received their Master's. Majors in the social sciences decreased sharply while the minors remained rather high. Fewer individuals minored in the humanities- related areas at the Master's level than was previously the case. There were also six minors in business-related areas at the Master's level. As would be expected, the largest increase in majors was related to the education areas. Eighteen majors, almost half of which were in public school administration, were indicated at the Master's degree level. Most of the other education majors were in the education administration-related area. By the time the Master's was received, a number of the presidents had refined career decisions and had moved away from the classroom toward administrative positions, primarily in public-school systems. For eight of the presidents, the Master's represented the highest earned degree. 151 The eighteen presidents having earned doctorates primarily concentrated their majors in education-related specializations as would be expected. presidents with doctorates Thirteen of the (approximately 72%) have majors in education-related areas. Of the thirteen having a doctorate with an education major, seven were majors in higher education administration and an a ddi­ tional four majored in general education administration. From the Master's to the doctorate, the majors had been further refined with the emphasis on public school admin­ istration decreasing and the emphasis on higher education administration increasing. At the doctoral level, minors in social science-related fields appeared to have been popular with eight indicated. By reviewing the change in emphasis w ith regard to majors and minors at each degree level, there was clear representation of movement from emphasis primarily on the social sciences at the Bachelor's level toward an education administration emphasis school administration) (primarily public at the Master's level and finally a continued education administration emphasis higher education) at the doctoral level. (primarily The presidents' formal education histories clearly showed the movement from a broad and more scattered number of area speciali­ zations toward a specific type of educational preparation. The movement toward formal training in administration 152 was similar to the refining of career decisions in which the presidents generally moved from rather diverse positions outside and within education toward education administration in general and later to higher education administration and eventually a public community college presidency. An overview of the presidents1 major and minor areas of academic concentration during their formal edu­ cation is presented in Table 8. Gross kinds of education patterns are presented and individual educational his­ tories are not identified. Another and more specific approach to identifying programs of study for the presidents is presented in Table 9. The academic major for each president's highest earned degree was identified. Clearly, educational administration was the major emphasis of study for the presidents regardless of whether or not their highest earned degree was a Master's or a doctorate. Academic Rank in High School and College Another aspect of the presidents' educational history, beyond the degrees earned and the programs of study, dealt with the presidents' perception of their academic rank at the time of graduation from high school and college (undergraduate level). Such information can possibly provide an additional perspective as to the 153 TABLE 9.— Presidents' academic majors by highest earned degree Degree Level Major Number B a c helor 's' Accounting 1 Master'sb Educational administration (general, public school, and higher education) English Speech Economics Religion Family life education Metallurgical engineering 5 Doctorate Educational administration (general, public school, and higher education) Personnel administration Counseling and guidance Distributive education Educational psychology-social foundations of education Educational psychology Music 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 N - 8; however, three presidents who indicated the Master's to be their highest earned degree also had two Master's apiece. CN = 18 154 presidents' perception of their formal education exper­ ience and subsequent career considerations. The presi­ dents were asked, "How would you describe your academic ranking when you graduated from high school and college (baccalaureate level)?" The presidents' perceptual responses to the question are presented in Table 10. TABLE 10.— Presidents' academic rank at time of graduation from high school and college High School % No. College (Bacc. Level) No. % Upper 25% of the class 17 63.0 20 74.1 Upper 50% of the class 7 25.9 6 22.2 Lower 50% of the class 1 3.7 3.7 Lower 25% of the class 2 7.4 1 - 27 100.0 27 100.0 Total Almost two-thirds - (17) of the presidents were in the top 25 percent of their high school class. When this figure was combined with the seven presidents in the "upper 50% of the class" in high school, almost 90 percent (24 presidents) were in the top half of their high school graduating class. By the time the presidents graduated from college, 96 percent (26 presi­ dents) graduated in the top half of their class while twenty respondents 25% of the class." (almost 75%) graduated in the "upper 155 It should also be noted that many of the p r esi­ dents did not attend college directly after completing high school. Many of the respondents were either drafted or enlisted in the armed services following high school. A significant number of the respondents returned from World War II and then began college, primarily with the financial assistance of the G.I. Bill. These individuals starting college were significantly more mature, older, often married and a parent, and highly motivated. Honors Received in High School and College Concerning honors received by the presidents, they were asked, "If you graduated from high school and/or college with academic honors (i.e., class v a le­ dictorian, Phi Beta Kappa, etc.), specify nature of honor and whether at high school or college level." Fifteen of the presidents did provide a variety of responses to the request. did not list any honors. Twelve of the presidents The fifteen presidents provided a total of twenty-four responses with eight responses indicating some sort of high school honors and sixteen responses indicating college level honors. are presented in Table 11. The responses Five presidents were members of the National Honor Society while in high school. College honors for the fifteen respondents were d i s ­ tributed over a number of designations. Four respondents 156 indicated they were on the "dean's list" while in college Two respondents indicated that they had Kellogg Fellow­ ships , a program at the graduate level to prepare com­ munity college administrators. TABLE 11.— Academic honors received by the presidents while in high school and/or college Frequency of Response Type of Academic Honor High School National Honor Society Class Valedictorian Regents Scholar College 5 2 1 4 2 3 Dean's List/Honors Cum Laude Phi Delta Kappa Kappa Delta Pi Delta Phi Epsilon Tau Kappa Alpha Outstanding Senior Kellogg Fellow 2 1 1 1 2 N = 15 Extent of Participation in SchoolRelated Extra-Curricular Activities Table 12 indicates the extent to which the presidents were active in extra-curricular activities while in high school and college. 70 percent Slightly more than (19) were "very active" in high school. Only four presidents indicated that they were "not active" in extra-curricular activities while in high school. However, at the college level, the distribution 157 of responses among the three possible categories was much more even with ten (37%) (almost 41%) active." "very active#" eleven "active," and six (approximately 22%) "not It should also be noted, when analyzing these responses, that many of the respondents entered college as older ex-servicemen following World War II. Many also had families and jobs while in college which reduced the time and energies available to participate in the extra­ curricular activities. Many of the respondents indicated that while attending college they were much more studiesmotivated than activities-motivated. TABLE 12.— Presidents' extent of participation in school related extra-curricular activities while in high school and college High School College Extent of Participation No. Very Active % No % 19 70.4 10 37.0 Active 4 14.8 11 40.7 Not Active 4 14.8 6 22.2 27 100.0 27 100.0 Total Position Sequence/Career Pattern Profile Tenure in Present Position Twenty-one (almost 78%) of the Michigan presidents are currently serving in their first public communityjunior college presidency. The remaining six, under 158 various titles and forms of organizational control, have served previously as a chief administrative officer of a public community college. Four of the six were chief administrative officers of a college district. Of the remaining two that had previously served, one was a campus president reporting to the district chief admin­ istrative officer, and the other one was a college dean reporting to the public school system (unit district) superintendent and the local board of education. In Table 13 the presidents' rent presidency is displayed. tenure in their cur­ Over half (14) of the presidents have served in their present position for five to ten years while another six have served eleven years or more. Twenty-one of the presidents (approxi­ mately 78%) have been in their present position for ten years or less. One president has served less than a year while only one president has served in his present position for more them twelve years, and he has an eighteen-year tenure. The twenty-seven respondents have been in their present Michigan community college presidency for an average of 6.78 years. dents Seven presi­ (26%) have served five years, which was almost twice as many presidents as the next group of four who have served for nine years. 159 TABLE 13.— Presidents' tenure in present position Length of Tenure No. Less than one year 1 to 4 years 5 to 10 years 11 to 15 years 16 to 20 years 1 6 14 5 1 3.7 22.2 51.9 18.5 3.7 27 100.0 Total % Cumulative Percentage 3.7 25.9 77.8 96.3 100.0 Career Patterns Position sequence or career pattern information for the twenty-seven responding presidents was drawn from the position/work history information in the ques­ tionnaire. The presidents were asked to trace their position and work history, including any noneducational positions and military experience, from the time they received their undergraduate degree up to and including their current presidency. Also, the questionnaire and interview data provided for additional work history information prior to receipt of the undergraduate degree if such information provided a better understanding of the presidents' overall career development. The position/ work history along with selected interview data also pro­ vided the basic information for determination of presi­ dential career strategies. The career strategies will be discussion in the next profile sub-section of the data analysis chapter. 160 The position sequence or career pattern infor­ mation for the respondents was analyzed according to the following guidelines: 1. All full-time positions were analyzed beginning with the position held when the undergraduate degree was received or the first position follow­ ing the receipt of the degree up to and including the present presidency. 2. If a multiple title for a particular position or a dual-position responsibility was indicated, the highest level position and/or title was used. 3. Positions held during graduate school were con­ sidered if the position was indicated by the respondent to have been significant in terms of career progression. The guidelines noted above are somewhat different from those used by Cavanaugh in his dissertation.^ He began the work history analysis with the first position following the attaining of the Bachelor's degree and confined further position analysis only to the four l Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strate­ gies." The present study identifies career patterns and career strategies by using modified versions of the operational guidelines, coding format, and presentation format developed by Cavanaugh. A brief summary is pre­ sented each time the present study methodology differs substantially from Cavanaugh's presentation or when such a discussion is indicated. 161 positions prior to the first presidency. The rationale behind Cavanaugh's use of the four positions prior to the first presidency was his belief that those positions were probably the ones that most directly led to obtain­ ing a presidency. Cavanaugh also considered only those positions which could be interpreted as different positions. He did not include repetitions of positions (i.e. from a teaching position in one community college to a teaching position in another community c o l l e g e ) . Thus Cavanaugh used six positions in his position sequence study: the position following receipt of the Bachelor's degree, the four positions preceding the first presidency, and the first presidency. 2 excluded graduate school programs. He also In the present study all positions were analyzed, including the total number of positions (rather than just the post-baccalaureate degree position and the four positions prior to the first presidency) that were repetitions positi o n s ) . and positions (rather than just different This was done in order to provide the most complete position sequence analysis possible. Further, the initial review of the position/work history raw data and information gathered during the interviews indicated that in the position histories of some respon­ dents, the positions held during completion of the 2Ibid., pp. 47 and 51. 162 undergraduate degrees and positions held while graduate students were significant to a total understanding of the respondents' career patterns. After the position history data had been analyzed using the criteria presented above, it was found that nine separate position moves were the maximum necessary for all the Michigan community college presidents to arrive in their present position. in only his third position. One president was Also only one respondent has held a position outside of a community college since his initial position within such a college. More infor­ mation in this regard will be presented following the position history analysis. Since there were a substantial number and a broad range of positions indicated in the presidents' position/worfc histories, it was necessary to classify, categorize, and code the positions in order to perform an analysis of the data.^ All the positions indicated were categorized into six classifications w i t h a code number assigned as follows: 3 The system used in the present study to classify, categorize, and code the position history data repre­ sents the approach used by Cavanaugh (Ibid.). The clas­ sifications and categories were modified b y Cavanaugh from two other studies: Ferrari and Berte, American •Junior Colleges; N B A Research Division, Salaries in Higher E d u c a t i o n , 1969-70 (Washington, D . C . : Higher Education Series Research Report, N.E.A. Research Divi­ sion, 1970), pp. 45-46 and 89-90. 163 (1) Elementary education positions (2) Secondary education positions (1) (2) (3) Community-junior college positions (3) (4) Four-year college/university positions (4) (5) Other education positions— noninstitution (6 ) Noneducation positions (5) (6 ) The different positions within each of the six classifi­ cations were also categorized and assigned a code number. Appendix M represents a complete breakdown of the positions categorized by classification and level with the assigned coding numbers. Thus, each position in a respondent's position history was assigned a two-digit code with the first digit representing the classification of the position and the second digit indicating the appropriate position level within the classification. A few examples follow: Two-Digit Identifying Code --------elementary teacher elementary principal 11 secondary teacher secondary principal superintendent of schools 21 community college community college chairman community college students community college 31 teacher division 14 24 26 32 dean of president 34 36 164 four-year college/university teacher four-year college/university director of admissions four-year college/university dean of student affairs 44 state education department consultant N.E.A. employee 52 54 minister farmer computer programmer policeman 41 42 61 62 63 66 The position sequence information is presented in Tables 14 through 22. The tables indicate, for each position, the type and level of position for the respon­ dents and the number of respondents identified at each type and level. Also, the tables provide a basis for visualizing the "spread" or diversity of positions held by the respondents over a period of position moves. six position classification types The (first digit of the two-digit code) are noted horizontally across the top of each table. The position categories within each classification (second digit of the two-digit code) are presented vertically at the left margin of each of the tables. Example positions are provided parenthetically in the tables for additional clarity and convenience. It should be noted, when analyzing the "code 36-com­ munity college president" numbers in the following tables, that the total of the bracketed numbers is thirty-three. This is the case since six presidents TABLE 14.— First position listed by presidents following or concurrent with receipt of the baccalaureate degree Position Classification Types Position Categories 1 Elem. 2 Sec. 3 Comm.Jr. Coll. 4 Coll./Univ. 5 Other Ed. 6 Non-Ed. 2 (other prof.) 1 (teacher) 10 (teacher) 0 (teacher) 0 (teacher) 0 (county) 2 0 (dept. chair.) 1 (dept. chair.) 0 (dept, chair.) 2 (dept, chair.) 0 (state) 0 (business) 0 (bus. mgr.) 1 (assistant to the pres.) 0 (federal) 2 (industry) 0 (ed. assoc.) 0 (government) 3 0 (admin. below principal) 0 (admin. below principal) 4 1 (principal) 0 (principal) 0 (dean of business) 0 (dir. of research) 5 0 (assoc. supt.) 1 (assoc, supt.) 0 (dean of inst.) 0 (acad. v.-p.) _a 6 1 (supt.) 0 (supt.) [0] (president) 0 (president) • 4 (other) 3 12 0 (other than p r e s .) 0 9 Totals 3 1 (military) H * 27 (all 27 presidents have held at least 1 position) All 6 position classification types have 6 coded position categories or levels except Classification Type Five (Other Ed.) which has only 4 categories or levels. 165 1 TABLE 15.— Second position listed by presidents in position sequence Position Classification Types rosirion Categories 1 1 Elem. 2 (teacher) 2 0 (dept. chair.) 3 0 (admin. below principal) 4 5 6 Totals 2 Sec. 5 (teacher) 4 (dept. chair.) 3 (admin. below principal) 3 Comm.Jr. Coll. 4 Coll./Univ. 0 2 (teacher) (teacher) 1 3 (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) Non-Ed. 0 2 (county) 1 (state) 0 0 0 (bus. mgr.) (assistant to the pres.) (federal) 0 1 0 0 0 (principal) (principal) (dean of business) (dir. of research) 0 0 0 0 (ed. assoc.) - (assoc. supt.) (assoc. supt.) (dean of inst.) (acad. v.-p.) 0 1 0 (supt.) (supt.) [0 ] (president) 2 14 1 i ... ' 5" Other Ed. (president) 5 (other than pres.) N = 27 (all 27 presidents have held at least 2 positions) (other prof.) 0 (business) 1 (industry) 0 (government) 1 (military) - 0 (other) 1 . 4 TABLE 16.— Third position listed by presidents in position sequence Position Classification Types rosxuion Categories 1 2 3 1 "2 Elem. Sec. 6 Totals " ” 4' ™ Coll./Univ. 6 2 1 (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) " S ' ’ Other Ed. 1 (county) 0 0 2 2 0 (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) (state) 0 1 1 1 0 (assistant to the pres.) (federal) (admin. below principal) (bus. mgr.) 0 2 0 1 0 (principal) (principal) (dean of business) (dir. of research) (ed. assoc.) - 0 1 2 0 (assoc. supt.) (assoc. supt.) (dean of inst.) (acad. v.-p.) 0 1 0 (supt.) (supt.) [1 ] (president) 0 11 7 (other than pres.) 0 (other prof.) 0 (business) 1 (industry) 0 (government) 0 (military) - (president) 5 Non-Ed. 167 5 ' "3 Comm.Jr. Coll. 0 (admin. below principal) 4 " 1 (other) 1 2 N - 27 (all 27 presidents have held at least 3 positions with 1 having held a total of 3 positions) TABLE 17.— Fourth position listed by presidents in position sequence rosinon Categories 1 2 3 .. "1 Elem. 0 1 0 0 (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) 6 Totals (county) 0 0 2 (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) 3 (dept. chair.) (state) 0 1 0 1 0 (bus. mgr.) (assistant to the pres.) (federal) (admin. below principal) 0 2 (principal) (principal) (dean of business) 2 (dir. of research) 0 0 0 (assoc, supt.) (assoc, supt.) 5 (dean of inst.) 0 (supt.) 4 (supt.) [1 ] (president) 0 8 9 (other theui pres.) 0 1 1 (ed. assoc.) Non-Ed. 0 (other prof.) 1 (business) 1 (industry) 0 (government) 0 (acad. v.-p,) (military) 0 0 (president) 4 6 168 5 0 (dept. chair.) (admin. below principal) 4 " Position Classification Types ... . T . “2 ‘ " ' " ' T " " r Comm.Other Ed. Sec. Coll./Univ. Jr. Coll. (other) 2 2 N ■ 26 (26 of the 27 presidents have held at least 4 positions with 1 having held a total of 4 positions) TABLE 18.— Fifth position listed by presidents in position sequence Position Classification Types Categories 1 2 3 r ■ Elem. 5 6 Totals 4 “J ---Comm.Coll./Univ. Jr. Coll. 0 0 1 2 (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) 0 0 0 (dept, chair.) (dept, chair.) (dept, chair.) 3 (dept, chair.) 0 1 0 (admin. below principal) 4 2---Sec. (admin. below principal) 5 Other Ed. Non-Ed. 0 0 (county) 1 (state) 0 0 (bus. mgr.) (assistant to the pres.) (federal) 0 0 1 0 0 (principal) (principal) (dean of business) (dir. of research) (ed. assoc.) 0 2 3 (dean of inst.) (acad. v.-p.) (assoc, supt.) (assoc, supt.) 0 2 (supt.) (supt.) 0 5 18] (president) 5 (other than pres.) 0 0 (other prof.) 0 (business) 1 (industry) 0 (government) 0 (military) • (president) 5 6 0 (other) 1 1 N * 25 (25 of the 27 presidents have held at least 5 positions with 5 having held a total of 5 positions) TABLE 19.— Sixth position listed by presidents in position sequence Categories 1 2 3 1 ---Elem. 5 6 Totals ^ Sec. 0 0 0 1 (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) ----- 5— Other Ed. r Non-Ed. 0 0 (county) 0 0 0 0 0 (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) (state) 0 0 0 0 0 (bus. mgr.) (assistant to the pres.) (federal) 3 (dir. of research) (ed. assoc.) 1 • (admin. below principal) 4 - Position Classification Types ----- 4" " ~ T ----Comm.Coll./Univ. Jr. Coll. (admin. below principal) 0 0 1 (principal) (principal) (dean of business) 0 1 (assoc. supt.) (assoc. supt.) 4 (dean of inst.) 0 2 (supt.) (supt.) 0 3 [6 ] (president) 5 (other than pres.) 0 (acad. v.-p.) 0 (other prof.) 0 (business) 1 (industry) 0 (government) 0 (military) - (president) 5 ...... 0 (other) 0 1 N - 20 (20 of the 27 presidents have held at least 6 positions with 5 having held a total of 6 positions) TABLE 20.— Seventh position listed by presidents in position sequence Position Classification Types Categories 1 Elem. 1 2 3 5 6 Totals - Sec. " 7 .... . Comm. Jr. Coll. ~ Coll./Univ. ' ”5 -----Other Ed. 0 ' .......... 4"' 0 0 0 0 (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) 0 0 0 0 0 (dept. chair.) (dept, chair.) (dept, chair . ) (dept. chair.) (state) 0 0 0 0 (bus. mgr.) 3 (assistant to the pres.) (federal) (admin. below principal) 4 -------- 2 - (admin. below principal) (county) 0 0 1 0 0 (principal) (principal) (dean of business) (dir. of research) (ed. assoc.) 0 0 0 1 (assoc. supt.) (assoc. supt.) (dean of inst.) (acad. v.-p.) 0 0 0 (supt.) (supt.) (9) (president) 0 0 1 ^ Non-Ed. 0 (other prof.) 0 (business) 1 (industry) 0 (government) 0 (military) 0 (president) 4 ... (other) 0 1 (other than pres.) N * 15 (15 of the 27 presidents have held at least 7 positions with 7 having held a total of 7 positions) TABLE 21.— Eighth position listed by presidents in position sequence Position Categories Position Classification Types I Elem. 2 Sec. 3 Comm.Jr. Coll. 3 Coll./Univ. 5 Other Ed. 1 0 (teacher) 2 (county) (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) 0 0 0 0 0 (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) (state) (business) (bus. mgr.) (assistant to the pres.) (federal) (industry) (admin. below principal) (admin. below principal) 0 0 (principal) 6 5" Non-Ed. (principal) (assoc, supt.) (assoc. supt.) 0 0 (supt.) (supt.) (other prof.) 0 0 (dean of business) (dir. of research) (dean of inst.) (acad. v.-p.) 17] (president) (ed. assoc.) (government) (military) 0 (president) (other) Totals (other than pres.) N = 8 (8 of the 27 presidents have held at least 8 positions with 7 having held a total of 8 positions) TABLE 22.— Ninth position listed by president in position sequence Position Classification Types Categories 1 2 3 T~ Elem. 5 6 Totals Sec. 3“ ’ " Comm.— Jr. Coll. _ - _ 4_ . . . Coll./Univ. 5 Other Ed. " 6 Non-Ed. 0 0 0 0 0 0 (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) (teacher) 0 0 0 0 0 (dept. chair.) (dept. chair.) (dept, chair.) (dept. chair.) (state) 0 0 0 0 0 (bus. mgr.) (assistant to the pres.) (federal) (admin. below principal) 4 2 (admin. below principal) (county) 0 0 0 0 0 (principal) (principal) (dean of business) (dir. of research) (ed. assoc.) 0 0 0 0 (assoc. supt.) (assoc. supt.) (dean of inst.) (acad. v.-p.) 0 0 0 (supt.) (supt.) [1 ] (president) 0 0 0 (other prof.) 0 (business) 0 (industry) 0 (government) 0 (military) " (president) 0 (other than pres.) N = 1 (1 of the 27 presidents has held 9 positions) 0 — (other) 0 0 174 have been community college chief administrative officers before as noted in the section of this chapter entitled "Tenure in Present Po s i t i o n . ” Since each of the six served as a chief administrative officer before, the bracketed numbers for Tables 14 through 22 total thirtythree (27 plus 6 ). A nine-position analysis was required since nine separate position moves or changes were necessary for all the presidents to arrive in their present position. The preceding tables provide position sequence information for a decreasing number of respondents with each subse­ quent position analysis. As each respondent's position history was recorded and completed according to the total number of positions in his work history, the respondent was subsequently omitted from the remaining t a ble(s). (and of necessity) All respondents can be accounted for throughout the nine position tables by adding the following figures for any given table: total respondents in all classification types, the the number of respondents achieving a presidency in a given position (the bracketed n u m b e r ) , and those respondents excluded from the table because their position history had already been completed. An analysis of the presidents' position histories provided the following more important o b s e r v a t i o n s : 175 1. In terms of total positions held, the twenty- seven responding presidents have held an average of six and one-half (6.52) positions. Five respondents have held five positions and another five have held six positions. Also, seven respondents have held seven positions and another seven have held eight positions. Of the three remaining respondents, one each has held three positions, 2. four positions, and nine positions. The respondents obtained their first p r esi­ dency of a public community college in the following number of positions: none in the first or second position, one each in the third and fourth positions, eight in the fifth position, four in the sixth position, seven in the seventh position, five in the eighth position, and one in the ninth position. The fifth and seventh positions were the most common positions for arrival as a first-time community college president. Twenty-four of the twenty-seven respondents became presidents in the fifth through eighth positions. 3. A total of ten (37%) respondents began their careers as secondary school t e achers. 4. A total of twelve (44%) began their careers in some level of secondary education. 5. Only 11 percent (3) of the respondents began their careers in elementary education. 176 6. Almost 56 percent (15) began their careers in either elementary or secondary education positions. 7. None of the respondents started their careers in either a community college position or "other e du­ cation" position. 8. Only three (11%) of the twenty-seven respon­ dents began their careers in a higher education position, and those three were in "four-year college or university" positions. 9. One-third (9) began their careers in "non­ education" positions. 10. By the second position, the only substantial change in any position classification type came in the "noneducation" area with the number of respondents decreasing from 33 percent 11. (9) to 15 percent (4). Only one of the twenty-seven respondents had taken a community college position by the second position move. 12. By the second position, the number of respondents teaching at the secondary level had a net decrease from ten to five even though some respondents started their high school teaching in the second position while others moved into supervisory/administrative capacities or into a position in another classification type. 177 13. After the second position, none of the twenty- seven respondents were again involved in elementary edu­ cation positions through the remainder of their respective position sequences. 14. By the third position, and through the remain­ der of the necessary position moves, the classification types of "other education" and "noneducation" as well as "elementary education" were no longer relevant classifi­ cations. 15. One respondent obtained his first presidency in the third position. 16. By the third position, eight (almost 30%) respondents held positions in a public community college. 17. By the fourth position, 59 percent (16) of the respondents were still employed in positions outside the community college. 18. By the fourth position, four of the eight respondents in public school positions were school superintendents. 19. One respondent became a first-time community college president in his fourth position. 20. By the fifth position, fifteen (55%) held community college positions, and twelve (44%) still did not. 178 21. Eight respondents (almost 30%) were appointed as community college presidents for the first time in the fifth position. 22. By the sixth position out of a maximum of nine total positions necessary, one-third (9) of the future Michigan community college presidents had still not taken any kind of a community college position. 23. Four respondents became first-time community college presidents in their sixth position while two assumed a second presidency. 24. After the sixth position, there were no longer any respondents employed in a secondary education position. 25. dents By the seventh position, twenty-two respon­ (approximately 81%) were in community college work with four other respondents working in a four-year col­ lege or university and one respondent still working in a "nonedueation" position. 26. dents During their seventh position, seven respon­ (almost 26%) became presidents of community colleges for the first time while two others assumed their second presidency. 179 2 7. In their eighth position, five respondents became a community college president for the first time while two others assumed a second community college presidency. 28. By the eighth position, the only respondent not working in a community college held a "four-year col­ lege/university” position. 29. In the ninth position, one respondent moved from a university position to the presidency of a com­ munity college— his first presidency and first position in such an institution. 30. All twenty-seven respondents have been chief administrative officers of only one type of higher edu­ cation institution; namely, a public community college. 31. No president has held the position more than 32. Only six respondents twice. (22%) have been school superintendents at some time in their position history. 33. Six respondents have been either accountants, business teachers, or administrators in charge of busi­ ness-related services in public schools or higher edu­ cation institutions. 180 34. Only eight: respondents (slightly less than 30%) have any appreciable amount of teaching experience in a community college, four-year college, or university. Table 2 3 represents a general composite of Tables 14 through 22. It indicates the number and p e r ­ centage of the presidents employed in a particular cla s ­ sification type for the nine total positions necessary to move all respondents to their present position. The composite table numerically represents the movement of the twenty-seven respondents from their initial position toward their present position as a Michigan community college president. Springboards to the Presidency An analysis of the respondents' positions held immediately prior to assuming their present Michigan community college presidencies is provided in Table 24. Community college administrative positions served as the primary springboards to the respondents' with eighteen presidents position type. (66.7%) Five respondents present position arriving from such a (18.5%) came to their present position from a four-year college o r university position. Only three (approximately 11%) public school position, came from a and one came from a high-level management position in industry. The overwhelming majority of Michigan presidents (96%) came directly TABLE 23.— Number and percentage of presidents employed in each of the six position classification types during the nine position sequence necessary to move all presidents into their present position Position Classification Types Position 1---------- 2----------- 3---------- 3---------- 5--------- 5---Elem. Sec. C.-Jr. Coll./ Other Non-Ed. Coll. Univ. Ed. No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Totals No. % 1 st position 3 11.1 12 44.4 0 - 3 11.1 0 - 9 33.3 27 100.0 2nd position 2 7.4 14 51.9 1 3.7 5 18.5 1 3.7 4 14.8 27 100.0 3rd position 0 11 40.7 8 29.6 5 18.5 1 3.7 2 7.4 27 100.0 4th position 0 8 29.6 11 40.7 4 14.8 2 7.4 2 7.4 27 100.0 5th position 0 5 18.5 15 55.6 5 18.5 1. 3.7 1 3.7 27 100.0 6 th position 0 3 11.1 18 66.7 5 18.5 0 - 1 3.7 27 100.0 7th position 0 0 - 22 81.5 4 14.8 0 - 1 3.7 27 100.0 8th position 0 0 - 26 96.3 1 3.7 0 - 0 - 27 100.0 9th position 0 0 - 27 100.0 0 - 0 - 0 - 27 100.0 TABLE 24.— Position held immediately prior to assuming present Michigan community college presidency Prior Position Held Community college position Chief adminT officer Vice-president Dean Other admin, position NO. 66.7 5 4 6 3 5 Elem.-sec. schools position Superintendent Other admin, position 3 Business/industry position Exec, vice-pres. 1 Totals % 18 Four-year coll./univ. position Dean Other admin, position Faculty 18.5 14.8 22.2 11.1 2 3 1 4-5 3.7 11.1 3.7 7-8-9-10 4-5 7-8-9-10 3.7 7.4 7-8-9-10 3.7 7-8-9-10 18.5 1 3 1 11.1 1 2 6 3.7 1 27 Rank Order of 10 "Springboards" to Present Presidency 100.0 183 to their present position from another education position, especially a community college position. exception W ith only one (a university p r o f e s s o r ) , all respondents came to their present position from another administrative position. Fifteen different or separate positions served as springboards to the present position. Of those fif­ teen positions, eight were academically oriented positions. Six (approximately 22%) of the Michigan community college presidents arrived in their present position from a previous position within the organization while twentyone presidents (almost 78%) present community college. came from outside their Springboard positions to a Michigan community college presidency were: dean, chief administrative officer, vice-president, or another highlevel administrative position in a community college; an administrative position other than a dean's position within a four-year college or university; and a highlevel administrative position other than a superintendency in public school education. The twenty-seven respondents came to their present position from nine different states. (almost 60%) Sixteen presidents came from positions in Michigan while two each came from Ohio, New York, and Arizona. One each came to their Michigan community college presidencies from Illinois, California, Florida, Kentucky, and Indiana. 184 By analyzing -the various positions held by the responding Michigan community college presidents prior to their first presidency, a somewhat different d i s­ tribution of positions was indicated. A presentation of the positions from which the respondents arrived in their first presidency is provided in Table 25. 60 percent Almost (16) of the respondents arrived in their first community college presidency from a position within a community college while five arrived in their first presidency from a four-year college or university position and another five arrived from a public school position. Only one respondent arrived in his first presidency from a position outside of education. The positions within community colleges having a title designation of "dean" were the most significant positions used as springboards to the first presidency of a com­ munity college. Eleven respondents (almost 41% of all respondents) were community college deems just prior to their first presidency. deans. Most of those were academic Community college vice-presidencies, administra­ tive positions (other than a superintendency) school education, and administrative positions than deanships) in public (other in four-year colleges or universities were the next most common springboard positions to the first community college presidency. In terms of arriving in their first community college presidency, nine came TABLE 25.— Position held immediately prior to assuming first community college presidency Prior Position Held Community college position vice-president Dean Other admin, position No. 59.3 4 11 1 Elem.-sec. schools position Superintendent Other admin, position 5 Business/industry position Exec, vice-pres. 1 2-3 1 5 through 9 3.7 11.1 3.7 5 through 9 4 5 through 9 3.7 14.8 5 through 9 2-3 3.7 5 through 9 18.5 1 3 1 18.5 1 4 3.7 1 27 14.8 40.7 3.7 100.0 185 5 Totals % 16 Four-year coll./univ. position Dean Other admin, position Faculty Rank Order of "Springboards" to the First Presidency 186 from positions within the organization and eighteen came to the presidency from outside the community col­ lege . When analyzing the respondents' data concerning springboard positions to a community college presidency— the present presidency or the first presidency— three common education position routes provide virtually the total number of positions held just prior to arrival as a community college president. The three routes in descending order of frequency were: munity colleges, (1 ) the public com­ (2 ) four-year colleges and universities, and (3) public K-12 school systems. The community col­ lege route had a significantly greater number of spring­ board positions than did either of the other two routes. Over half of the respondents used the community college route to arrive in their first or present presidency. Virtually all the positions in the three routes identified were high-level administrative positions. The respondents came to their present or first presidency from positions outside rather than inside the college over which they preside by a three to one margin. Finally, the major routes to a community college presidency, as indicated by the respondents, have been: a community college chief administrative officer, vicepresident, or dean; an administrative position other than a dean at a four-year college or university; and a high 187 le v e l in a d m in is tr a tiv e th e p u b lic p o s itio n s c h o o ls . O n ly one th e p o s itio n h e ld w as a s u p e r in te n d e n c y . school I t ro u te s i f le g e , s h o u ld in d ic a te d ro u te s a re to be be above T h is o n ly dency can th e be to th a t can be b ro a d o r th e to v a lid to p u b lic th e o n ly c o l­ school i f ro u te s p r e s id e n c y . p r e c e d in g fo r o f c o m m u n ity o r th a t p r e s id e n c y n e c e s s a ry p a th s a n a ly z e d as m ean is im m e d ia te ly in d ic a te d id e n tific a tio n u n iv e r s ity , r e a lis tic a lly s u p e r in te n d e n c y th e c o n s id e r e d com m on p o s itio n a a s s u m in g d e fin itio n as th a n p r e s id e n t in te r p r e te d c o lle g e c o n s id e r e d A ls o , p r io r n o te d b r o a d ly fo u r-y e a r p o s itio n s . a re ju s t o th e r th e th e p r e s i­ p u rp o s e s o f 4 id e n tify in g s p e c ific and p r e c e d in g w o u ld be com m on ro u te s . I f p a r a lle l p o s itio n jo b is ta k e n v e ry a re sequences c o n s id e r e d , q u e s tio n a b le . ro u te s ro u te s by p r e s id e n c y a re by C a r m ic h a e l, The th e s im ila r c o n s id e r e d and th e m o re to th e th e m e x is te n c e id e n tific a tio n re s p o n d e n ts to to o f fin d in g s in one o f th e th e ir be ro u te s th re e p re s e n t th e s tu d ie s 5 M o rg a n , The p le te d a n a ly s is p r im a r ily by o f and F e r r a r i-B e r te . p o s itio n /w o r k in d ic a tin g h is to r ie s fr e q u e n c ie s o f w as com ­ p o s itio n s 4 The need fo r a b ro a d d e f in it io n o f ro u te s i f s u c h r o u t e s a r e t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s com m on a n d v a l i d w as a ls o n o te d b y C a v a n a u g h in " P o s itio n S e q u e n c e s an d C a re e r S tr a te g ie s ," p p . 6 4 -6 7 . 5 F e rra ri M o rg a n , P e r s p e c t iv e s ; C a r m ic h a e l, " O r ig in ” ; a n d B e r t e , A m e r ic a n J u n io r C o ll e g e s . and 1 B8 held. The respondent's particular position history was lost using such gross kinds of position sequences. Also, an attempt to place the respondents' position sequence patterns into clusters was extremely limited. In order to completely interpret all positions of the respondents according to level and type and then identify clusters or similar patterns of position sequences other than noted above, a heavy reliance on subjective decisions was necessary. Cavanaugh's success in finding position clusters of similar patterns was also extremely limited.® The career pattern profile presented indicates that the Michigan public community college presidents' position histories have been diverse, particularly in education-related positions. Career Strategy Profile In this section concerning the career strategies of the Michigan public community college presidents, descriptive and tabulated information is presented. The primary source of data for development of the stra­ tegy orientations was the position/work history infor­ mation concerning the respondents as recorded in the first section of the written questionnaire. presidents' Also, the interview responses to Questions 6 , 8 , and 9 were considered with regard to the identification of 6 Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Stra­ tegies," pp. 72-73. 189 career strategies. The data are analyzed and presented by using a conceptual framework for career strategies developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson 7 and a modified version of a career strategy presentation developed by g Cavanaugh. The former reference was extensively d i s ­ cussed in Chapter I and the latter reference was reviewed in Chapter II of the present study. Also considered was Q Carlson's concept of career strategy change. This was done by assigning time criteria to the various career strategy orientations. Career strategies are considered for two periods of the respondent's life cycle. First, career strategy orientations which appropriately describe the respondent's movement to his present position are considered. Second, strategy orientations which are descriptive of the respondent's position movement beyond his present presi­ dency are presented. Finally, some limited analysis of selected background factors applied to strategy o r ien­ tations is provided. 7 Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations." g Cavanaugh, Strategies." 9 "Position Sequences and Career Carlson, Executive Succession. 190 A Career Strategy Perspective To briefly review, Thompson, Avery, and Carlson indicated that individuals have a variety of orientations toward their jobs. These job orientations can shift or change over time as individual perceptions of careerrelated factors change. They suggested that career strategies are reflected in job-orientations and pre­ sented a conceptual framework of four career strategy orientations which were: (1) Heuristic Strategy (any occupation, any organization); (2) Organizational Strategy (any occupation, present organization); (3) Occupational Strategy (present occupation, any organization); and (4) Stability Strategy occupation, present organization).^ (present This conceptual framework has been discussed previously. Since the consideration of any type of strategy normally implies that some degree of conscious planning is involved, it should be noted that the term "career strategy" is used in the present study to describe a conscious or sub-conscious orientation that individuals have with regard to their careers. The term, strategy, is objective and is used to describe a subjective orien­ tation . ^ T h o m p s o n , Avery, and Carlson, pp. 9-12. "Occupations," 191 Cavanaugh's dissertation dealing with the position sequences and career strategies of public community col­ lege presidents nationwide was also based on the con­ ceptual framework noted above. By analyzing job history information provided in his questionnaire, Cavanaugh identified seven career strategies, all of which have been reviewed in Chapter II of this study. He did not use the strategy of stability since his study only pro­ vided strategy orientations to the first presidency .11 The present study provides information for two periods in the respondents' careers; namely, career strategies which describe movement to the present position and career strategies which describe the nature of the respondents' position moves (if any) in the future. In order to obtain data for determining career strategy orientations to the p r e s e n t , the respondents' position histories and selected interview perceptions were analyzed. All full-time positions were analyzed beginning with the position held when the baccalaureate degree was received or the first position following receipt of the degree up to and including the present presidency. The analysis included noneducational positions, military experience, and graduate school positions if applicable. ^Cavanaugh, Strategies." These criteria were described "Position Sequences and Career 192 in more detail prior to the discussion of career patterns. It was necessary to analyze the total employment sequence including type and location of the employing organization, length of employment, and type of position held. In addition to the questionnaire information, two questions on the interview form provided additional career strategy orientation insights. The questions were as follows: (1) "Concerning your career decisions and career pro­ gression to the present, would you proceed differently if allowed to begin again?" and (2) "I would appreciate your identifying and describing career strategies which you believe you have followed during your career pro­ gression. " Determination of career strategy orientations to describe the respondents' position moves in the future was based on a review of the respondent's career and job orientation to the present, related comments made through­ out the personal interview, and interview responses to the question which asked: "As you think about the future as it relates to your career considerations, what is your thinking concerning perceptions of yourself, pro­ fessional contributions, and other professional positions of interest to you?" Through the use of the information outlined above, it was possible to identify the career strategy orien­ tations appropriate to the respondents for the career 193 period to the present and the career period beyond the present. Some latitude was used regarding the interpre­ tation of the definitions for the various career strategy orientations identified. This was particularly necessary when the "sense of the position history" and the related personal interview information served to more accurately identify a respondent's career strategy orientation. The following career strategy orientations were identifled in the present study: 1. Heuristic: 12 The individual was primarily inter­ ested in personal attainment (advancement or pro­ gression) and was committed neither to a par­ ticular occupation or organization. This individual held jobs totally unrelated to education (1 ) for at least three years after having been in education or (2 ) for at least eight years before entering education. 2. Occupational (Education) : The individual was primarily or only sensitive to jobs within his occupation and valued more highly progress in the occupation rather than progress in an organiza­ tion. 12 With the exception of the military or The definitions and criteria presented for the various career strategy orientations are a composite of definitions and criteria formulated for the present study by the investigator and the following: Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations"; Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies"; and Carlson, Executive Succession. other noneducational work, the individual's job sequence was entirely in education; however, he stayed at any one institution for fewer than ten years, working steadily toward a presidency. Occupational (Noneducation) : The individual's job sequence was entirely in a particular type of business or industry rather than education, but he stayed at any one institution for fewer than ten y e a r s , working steadily toward management positions with increased responsibility or sig­ nificance. Organizational; The individual considered pri­ marily those job alternatives presented by his employing organization and subordinated to this consideration the concerns as to which occupation he would practice. The individual was employed by one institution for a minimum of ten years, attempting to work up through the organization. Organizational to Organizational; The individual was employed by at least two different institu­ tions or organizations for a minimum of ten years each, attempting to work up through each organization. 195 6. Organizational to O c c u p a t i o n a l : The individual was employed by one institution for at least ten years before moving to an occupational o r ien­ tation. 7. Organizational-Occupational (concurrently) : The individual stayed with one system or multi-campus district for a minimum of ten years, but moved from campus to campus or other identifiable units within the district to take advantage of p ro­ motions . 8. Heuristic to O c c u p a t i o n a l ; The individual spent several years outside education or moving in and out of education before his career pattern indi­ cated an occupational orientation directed toward a community college presidency. 9. Stability; The notion of seeking another job was irrelevant to the individual. He indicated one or more of the following attitudes: a resigna­ tion to the status quo because of a lack of c om­ petency or perceived opportunity for a better or different job; an impression that his job aspir­ ations were satisfied, either because his present job provided those benefits necessary to pursue aspirations in other sectors of life or because the nature of his present work was highly rewarding. The individual had achieved a 196 community college presidency and had continued to hold that position for five years or more or implied that any other job was irrelevant. The career strategies profile for the twenty-seven respondents follows. Career Strategies to the Present The classification of the twenty-seven respondents in a career strategy orientation to their present position is presented in two ways. Table 26 depicts a more detailed breakdown by classification. Table 27 presents a col­ lapsed breakdown of the same information. The second table breakdown is broader and more indicative of the respondents' career strategy orientations up to their present presidency and is based on a review of interview information as well as the position history data. In the process of assigning a career strategy orientation to each respondent for the purpose of describing his career pattern to the present position, the stability strategy orientation was not identified. If the attainment of a presidency was the respondent's career goal, then the stability strategy would not be applicable in the present study until the respondent attains a presidency. Also, an occupational to organi­ zational pattern was not found for any respondent's career pattern to the present. In this regard, 197 TABLE 26.— Presidents' career strategy orientations to their present position No. % 14 51.9 1 3.7 Organizational 1 3.7 Organizational to organizational 1 3.7 Organizational to occupational 4 14.8 Organ!zational-occupational (concurrently) 4 14.8 Heuristic to occupational 2 7.4 27 100.0 Strategy Classification Occupational (Education) Occupational (Noneducation) Totals TABLE 27.— Presidents' career strategy orientations to their present position— broad, collapsed categories form Strategy Classification Heuristic Occupational Organizational Totals No. % 1 3.7 24 88.9 2 7.4 27 100.0 198 Cavanaugh commented, " . . . the individual did not become organizationally oriented until attaining the presidency, which is another way of saying he became 13 stability oriented after receiving the presidency." The stability strategy did not even seem applicable for those respondents who had previously served as a public community college chief administrative officer. Concerning the more detailed career strategy classifications indicated in Table 26, the occupational strategy orientation was by far the most representative of the respondents with fourteen presidents classified in this orientation. (almost 52%) Further, four respon­ dents were classified as having an organizationaloccupational (concurrently) orientation, and four had an organizational to occupational orientation. The latter two orientations are basically modification of the occupational orientation. Also, two respondents were classified as having a heuristic to occupational orientation, again a "hybrid” of the occupational orien­ tation . The occupational classification was expected to be the largest grouping since the career pattern analysis already indicated that a majority of the respondents' total position sequences had been in education. 13 The Cavanaugh, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies," p. 24. 199 occupationally oriented respondents held jobs only in education, valued position progress in education more highly than position progress in a particular education institution, and stayed in any one education institution for less than ten years. Their career patterns also showed a steady movement toward a public community college presidency. The other three modifications of the occupational orientation, as noted above, indicated that most of the other respondents (1 0 ) began their careers by (1 ) being employed for more than ten years at an educational institution or a campus/unit of the institution or (2 ) spending several years in positions outside of education or moving in and out of education before following a more characteristically occupational pattern. Table 26 also indicates that one respondent has evidenced an organizational orientation, one has been classified as "organizational to organizational," and one respondent's entire position history prior to his present position has been in a single occupation not related to education. He was classified as "occupational (noneducation)" because he has been employed by numerous organizations which represent the occupation. As noted before, the information in Table 27 provides an indication of career strategy orientations for the study respondents based on a broader analysis of 200 available data. Three career strategy orientations were identified which described the respondents' terns to their present position; namely, career pat­ (1 ) a heuristic strategy (any occupation, any organization), (2 ) an occu­ pational strategy (present occupation, any organization), and (3) an organizational strategy (any occupation, present organization). Heuristic Strategy One respondent (3.7%) displayed a typically heuristic orientation during a series of jobs which eventually brought him to a community college presidency. He was in his second community college presidency. He was fifty-five years of age, which was slightly older than the mean age for all respondents (50 years of a g e ) . His career position history and interview responses indi­ cated that he has worked in a wide variety of occupations and organizations. His commitment has been to personal attainment regardless of where it leads him in terms of his career. Organirational Strategy Two respondents' (7.4%) career patterns to their present presidencies represented an organizational strategy orientation. Their mean age was 43.5 years as compared to the mean age of fifty years for the total number of study respondents. They each have held a 201 variety of positions in education but all have been in the same educational district. Doth respondents have spent their total professional careers in Michigan— each in the same city and school district. Also, each respondent was born in the same city in which he is now employed as community college president. half or more of their formative years Each spent (ages 6-18) either in their present city of residence or nearby. Neither has any desire or intention to move. Occupational Strategy Twenty-four respondents (almost 89% of the total number of respondents) were classified as having pri­ marily exhibited an occupational strategy orientation up to the present position. This was expected since the study population dealt with individuals who had become public community college presidents, and the literature review and career pattern analysis have indi­ cated that these individuals have career patterns identi­ fying education as an occupation practiced in a number of organizations. The mean age of the respondents in this group was 50.3 years, which was just slightly older than the average for all respondents. One-third (8) of the occupationally oriented respondents have spent their total professional career in Michigan while another four (almost 17%) have spent their total career in Michigan and one other state contiguous to Michigan. 202 These respondents were probably quite vxsible because of their career pattern of working in education but at a number of education institutions. Also, as noted above, twelve of the occupationally oriented respondents have spent their total professional careers in Michigan or Michigan and a contiguous state. Because of their visibility to others, a degree of sponsorship probably was indicated when individuals were being con­ sidered for a community college presidency. The impor­ tance of sponsorship will be considered later concerning the presidents* perceptions as to why they think they were chosen for their present presidency. Career Strategies for the Future The interest in classifying the twenty-seven respondents' career strategy orientations for the future resulted from the belief that for many presidents, the attainment of the position does not necessarily represent fulfillment of all career aspirations. For some respon­ dents , being a public community college president in Michigan was enough. For others, the present position represented an accomplishment, to be sure, but other opportunities and aspirations were still being consid­ ered. More regarding the respondents' perceptions will be discussed in the next part of the study data analysis. 203 The present analysis is concerned primarily with identifying future career strategy orientations for the respondents by using the conceptual framework for career 14 strategies developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson. The organizational strategy orientation (any occupation, present organization) was not generally applicable since respondents already hold the chief administrative officer position in their respective community colleges. Some respondents "head" Michigan public community colleges which were part of a public school (K—12) district and, therefore, reported to the school superintendent and/or local board of education. It is conceivable that these individuals could be organizationally oriented in the future since they might desire to stay in the present organization hoping that their community college will become a legally separate district with it own board of control. Even though an organizational orientation was conceivable, the analysis of data did not, in fact, indicate respon­ dents with such an orientation. The twenty-seven respondents' career strategy orientations beyond their present position is presented in Table 28. Three strategy orientations for the future were identified: (1 ) heuristic (any occupation, any organization); (2 ) occupational (present occupation. 14 Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations." 204 any organization)? and (3) stability present organization). ing the respondents' (present occupation, It should be noted when consider* career strategy orientations beyond their present position that the heuristic orientation and the stability orientation were related in terms of the respondents' perceptions of the future. A heuristic orientation would indicate that, although the president was satisfied with his present position, personal attain­ ment and a perception of potential to take advantage of a number of opportunities in a variety of occupations still motivated him. For this more optimistic individual, the future represented a "half-full glass." Those respondents indicating a stability orientation probably perceived the future in a more negative or limited way in terms of their aspirations or opportunities. For the latter group, the future, in terms of career consider­ ations, represented a "half-empty glass." TABLE 28.— Presidents' career strategy orientations beyond their present position No. % 5 18.5 Occupational 11 40.7 Stability 11 40.7 Totals 27 100.0 Strategy Classification Heuristic 205 Heuristic Strategy Five (18.5%) of the respondents were representa­ tive of the heuristic strategy orientation. dents have other goals outside education. These presi­ They consider their presidency to be fulfilling and very important, but their primary interest is in personal attainment and the realization of other career considerations. Four of these respondents were more occupationally oriented during their movement to the presidency. The notion of settling down in one organization is still not appro­ priate; however, they have now started to think of new and distinctly different endeavors. The other respondent in this group continues to follow a previously established heuristic orientation. Four of the five heuristically oriented respondents had doctorates and came from smaller communities. Their mean age was fifty-two years which was two years older than the mean age of all respondents. Possibly these individuals were oriented more to "other horizons" since they had completed the highest academic degree and had succeeded as a president. Occupational Strategy Eleven respondents (approximately 40%) were classified as having an occupational strategy orien­ tation when considering the future. These eleven presidents were two years younger on the average (48 years of age) than were the other respondents. For 206 these presidents, consideration of other opportunities in education but outside their present college were very important. presidency. Some were interested in another college In this regard, interest was indicated in presidencies of public community c o l l e g e s , private fouryear colleges, and public four-year colleges. None indi­ cated that they attached significance to being a president of a "larger" college. Since these presidents were slightly younger than the average, personal aspirations and perception of opportunities could possibly be more realistically considered than would be the case for some of the older presidents. The eleven presidents who appeared to be o ccu­ pationally oriented in terms of future considerations were also all occupationally oriented in their career pattern to their present position. They can be con­ sidered as still being occupationally mobile since they continued to place progression within education above progression within a particular organization. The attainment of a public community college presidency has not fulfilled all their career ambitions in education. Rather, their perceptions of competency, aspiration, and opportunity have been updated and revised, and new opportunities now appear as possible based on their previous career and position experience. Now that they 207 have attained the presidency, they generally felt that new career avenues in education are open to them. Stability Strategy The notion of another job appeared to be irrele­ vant for eleven respondents (40.7%). These presidents average fifty-one years of age, which was slightly older than the mean age of fifty years for all study respon­ dents. Presidents classified in this orientation were expected to be older since increased age and a decreased interest in another job beyond the present position could be presumed. Of the eleven respondents who view future career considerations from an orientation of stability, nine had occupational orientations in their movement to their present presidency and two had organizational strategy orientations. All eleven presidents in this stability classification can be characterized as being no longer occupationally mobile. For a number of the respondents in this clas­ sification, consideration of other opportunities in education would not be appropriate. of competence for "better" jobs. Some felt a lack Others felt that, realistically, they could not do better than their present situation. Job aspirations had been satisfied for a number of reasons. Age, security, retirement considerations, and location were still other factors 208 that had some effect on the respondents who viewed their future with a stability orientation. Interesting to notef in this regard, was the fact that seven of the eleven presidents in this classification did not have an earned doctorate. A number of the presidents p e r ­ ceived that opportunities were limited for those not possessing an earned doctorate. The average age of this group was fifty-one, only slightly higher than the mean age for all respondents (50 years). Selected Profile Factors Applied to Strategies' In the present study, it was found that personal and background factors were relevant to career strategy orientations only to a limited extent. The size of the study population made it difficult to compare the find­ ings with the results of other studies. Cavanaugh also concluded that background and personal factors had only limited relevancy to the strategy o r i e n t a t i o n s . ^ A brief identification follows of pertinent factors which do have some relevancy to the career strategy orienta­ tions beyond those already discussed. With regard to the respondents' career strategy orientations to the present: 15 Cavanaugh, Strategies," p. 87. "Position Sequences and Career 209 1. Fourteen occupationally oriented presidents had spent half or more of their formative years (ages 6-18) in communities of 25,000 or fewer citizens. 2. All presidents who had an earned doctorate were also classified as being occupationally oriented. It would seem reasonable to assume that the doc­ torate increased their perception of competency, aspiration, and opportunity. As a result, they were more mobile, placed more emphasis on career goals (possibly a presidency) rather than the importance of a particular organization, and were more readily selected as public community college presidents. 3. Twenty-five of the twenty-seven respondents were occupationally mobile with only the two organi­ zationally oriented presidents indicating that progression in the organization was more impor­ tant to them than progression in their occupation. In fact, both of these presidents were oriented to the organization because they desired to practice their educational profession in a par­ ticular city or geographic area of Michigan. In terms of the presidents' career strategy orientations in the future: 210 1. The presidents in each of the strategy orien­ tations were rather evenly distributed across the continuum of population categories with regard to where they spent their formative years. 2. Fourteen of the eighteen presidents holding an earned doctorate were classified as heuristically or occupationally oriented with these two clas­ sifications having a total of sixteen respondents. 3. Out of the eleven respondents indicating a sta­ bility strategy, only four have earned doctorates. As noted earlier, those lacking a doctorate may be more inclined to stay in their present presi­ dency because they perceive a lack of competency for "better" jobs. 4. The presidents classified as indicating that another job consideration was not relevant tend to be older than those presidents who continue to be occupationally oriented. Otherwise there were no relevant differences in the ages of the respondents in the three career strategy clas­ sifications . Such a data analysis of various aspects of the Michigan public community college presidents can only really be understood by remembering that career decisions are not made in a simple and mechanistic fashion. The 211 career decisions are part of a continuing process involv­ ing perceptions of self along with a consideration of social and psychological factors which provide indi­ viduals with certain a d v a n t a g e s , o p p o r t u n i t i e s , and perceptions. Career decisions are often planned while for others career decisions are not decisions at all but, rather, accidents or possibly " l u c k . " ^ To better understand the r espondents’ c a r e e r s , it is important to consider their perceptions concerning their career development to the present and beyond. It is the consideration of the respondents' perceptions regarding their careers that now becomes the focus of the present chapter. P r e s i d e n t s 1 Perceptions of Career and Personal Influences Perceptions of Career Influences A Perspective for Studying Career influences and Motivations The analysis of data thus far has been concerned primarily with personal and demographic information, career patterns, and career strategy orientations of the Michigan public community-junior college presidents. This information is important for developing an overall career profile of the presidents. However, the p r esi­ dents' careers cannot be totally understood without ^ F e r r a r i and Berte, American Junior C o l l e ges. 212 providing pertinent perceptions regarding their career motivations. As noted previously, career decisions can seldom be characterized as logical, and simple. totally conscious, More often than not a variety of factors and conditions affect the career decision process for any individual. This section of the data analysis is concerned with the presidents' perceptions of their motivations. The presidents, like other individuals, have responded to a variety of attitudes, hopes, motivations, feelings, opportunities, people, and events during the course of their life cycle to the present. The presidents' per­ ceptions of these forces and factors as they relate to career decisions serve to complement the factual career data already presented. As noted in the theoretical justification section in Chapter I of the present study, there are numerous theories related to why individuals either select or find themselves in particular occupations. The various theories, as previously noted, cam be summarized into the following four broad categories: (1 ) the accident theory (individuals make decisions about their occupations accidentally); (2 ) unconscious forces theory (decisions concerning choice of occupation result from unconscious, latent forces such as a desire for p o w e r ) ; (3 ) p s y cho­ logical theories (such factors as impulsive emotions 213 which determine choice of vocation and the satisfaction of basic needs as opposed to economic gain— i . e . , selfactualization n e e d s ) ; and (4) developmental theories (occupational choice is a developmental process repre­ senting a series of basically irreversible decisions made over a period of years with such decisions often ending in compromise). The present study concerning the careers of Michigan public community college presidents was under­ taken with the knowledge that any discussion as to why these presidents, or any group of individuals for that matter, chose or found themselves in a community college presidency is subject to a variety of interpretations. The presidential perceptions concerning their careers were, for the most part, provided in the interviews con­ ducted as part of the present study and, as such, are time-bound perceptions. The perceptions of each presi­ dent might have been different for any given time in the past or might be different in future years. The per­ ceptions concerning career choices are subject to and affected by the president's self-concept at a given point in time. However, as noted earlier, the presidents did respond in an open and relaxed way, and there did seem to be positive rapport between the presidents and the interviewer. 214 F errari1s study identified six interrelated factors as the fundamental reasons or bases for the presidents 1 careers in higher education administra­ tion: (1 ) a service orientation, (3) professional opportunities, (2 ) social influences, (4) personal factors, (5) a developmental process, and (6 ) an accidental 17 circumstance. The following discussion concerning perceptions of career influences as noted by the Michigan community college presidents is presented in such a way as to broadly incorporate and identify such interrelated factors. Formulating Career Choices For a majority of the Michigan community college presidents, the process of formulating career choices was significantly affected by the Great Depression and World War II. As many as twenty of the twenty-seven presidents were old enough to have served in the armed services during those war years, and most have vivid memories of family hardship during the depression years. These major events lasting over a period of years affected the respondents in significant ways with regard to career considerations. 17 Ferrari, "Careers," pp. 224-25. Further, the investigator is indebted to Michael R. Ferrari, Jr. for giving permission to use the findings and organization of material related to the career motivations of academic presidents as discussed in his study. 215 Many presidents remember their families suffer­ ing through hard times in the 1930s: If my family had not been so impoverished, and if I had not been so pressed to make a decision to get a job in order to eat, I think I probably would have considered a broader range of career options. I was driven by a need to achieve. This need was constantly on my mind as a result of my family's meager background. I dropped out of high school for a year because going to school seemed so unimportant when compared with the money problems we had at home. Many of the presidents expressed a perception that growing up during such difficult times impressed upon them an appreciation for being people-centered since many families helped each other to "weather" difficult times. Further, many of the presidents indicated that doing without a variety of material comforts while growing up reinforced the need for basic financial security yet also taught them the importance of love, responsibility, and cooper­ ation. The importance of hard work was clearly a value learned at an early age. The years during "the great war" served, in many instances, to limit or shorten the horizons for many. The future was considered to be irrelevant during those years. For many, considerations of careers either had to be set aside or such thoughts just were not important at the time. The country was at war, and it was assumed in the minds of most individuals that they would either 216 enter the service immediately following high school graduation, or, if "fortunate enough" to get parental approval, would quit high school and enlist to serve their country. Because the war was foremost in everyone's mind, including my own, I didn't think of a career during high school but only thought of "goofing off" until I was able to enlist. I didn't think about a career. I only thought about doing my part in the war effort. There was a war psychology. Your time was taken up with the war. Most of us didn't know what our duration in the service would be. Because of this, nobody thought much about the future or careers. In high school, I didn't give a damn. of us did during those years. Not many These comments seemed to indicate that for many of the future Michigan community college presidents, relatively little thought was given to realistically formulating particular career choices. The depression years and World War II years provided a dramatic yet artificial situation characterized by a preoccupation with the need to work together as a family in order to survive. Also, the war effort served to focus childhood and adolescent fantasies and considerations concerning career choices into a more narrow and short-range per­ spective. For many, the future was limited to an uncer­ tain period of service in the war. Most of the presidents were unable to specifi­ cally relate their perceptions regarding early 217 considerations of what type of work or career they would enjoy or what they would like to be. Most did not remember specific childhood or adolescent career con­ siderations in terms of occupations. Instead, they readily noted perceptions of competency, aspiration, and/or opportunity. I always viewed myself positively. I have always had a strong belief in my ability to do whatever I set out to accomplish, but I never had a clear idea of what I aspired to concerning my career. I have never been unemployed, and I have never failed to be successful. I have always been supremely confident of my ability. If I took a job pumping gas, I would want to own the station in six months. I was always a bright student, and I have always had positive perceptions of my competence. This has caused me to always feel that I could do whatever I wanted to do. All my life. I've never learned to say "no" or when to quit. In fact. I've never wanted to say "no." I have always had extreme confidence in myself. I was always rather talented with my hands, and this caused me to consider careers in which I could design and do things. However, as I grew older, I became more interested in people than in things. I have never fantasized or tested out other careers. World War II service affected many of the presi­ dents in other significant respects. It has been noted that because of a war psychology and the gloom of hard 218 times during the late 1930s and early 19 40s, career considerations were superficial or nonexistent. However, the somewhat immature boy that went to w a r became a man with a purpose in the early post-war years. The concern regarding going to college, getting a job, and getting started in a career became paramount to the future presidents. The things that I thought about as an adolescent were very unrelated to the things I began to seriously think about after military service. After going through service, college. I wanted to go to After the war, I made a value judgment that material things and earning money were not as important as going to college. while in the Navy, I learned that the greatest satisfaction in life came from working w ith people and helping people who had similar problems, needs, and circumstances to m y own. I was kind of "mixed up" after my military ser­ vice experience, and I had a wife and three chil­ dren. Getting a job became very important to me. I begem to think about my career in terms of making choices that would allow me to "run with the big b o y s ." A nlimber of the respondents indicated that formu­ lating career choices became a very real and necessary concern to them. The post-war years were described as a time when it was important to think about the future and how to make something of yourself. A majority of the respondents had matured quickly during the early 1940s when many often found themselves in positions of 219 leadership and responsibility often commanding troops older than they were. The service experience had p r o ­ vided for many a perception of competency to provide leadership for others, and their aspirations were conse­ quently directed toward experiences that would provide opportunities for exercising leadership rather than being a follower. In this regard, many of the respondents indicated that they had learned the value of risk behavior and that the importance of not "playing safe" has been a significant value that has influenced their career decisions. A significant factor mentioned by many of the respondents was the opportunity to attend college by using the financial benefits of the G.I. Bill. In fact, the G.I. Bill appeared to be the single most important factor affecting the decision to attend college and to consider various career options. Even though some of the respondents indicated that a lot of their career planning was subconscious or "pre-ordained,” the majority of the presidents should be characterized as products of a period when dramatic events (i.e., the Depression and World War II) signifi­ cantly influenced their lives and career considerations. Such career considerations were primarily developed during their college years, which were typified by their motivation to succeed, their general maturity, 220 and their above-average age while in college. They were generally excellent students who became easily bored with a routine, and they characteristically con­ sidered careers and occupations that would challenge them, that would provide an element of risk, and would provide leadership opportunities. The desire to be a leader rather than a follower appears to have resulted from early influences as described above. Arriving in positions of leadership was perceived in retrospect by the respondents to be natural given their positive self-concept and early experiences relating to the Depression and military service. It does not appear to be an accident that the respondents eventually arrived in a prime leadership role. However, formulating career choices and the actual selection or arrival in a particular profession (i.e., education) may well be more accidental as will be noted shortly. For many of the respondents, the consideration of career alternatives was, indeed, a complex and difficult task often affected by the cir­ cumstances present at a particular time in their lives. Careers Seriously Considered The presidents were asked, "What careers have you seriously considered during your life?" The question provided an opportunity to solicit information that would elicit a broader and more complete understanding 221 of their thinking regarding formulating career choices and alternative careers considered. In Table 29, a presentation of the alternative career considerations is provided. Twenty-two of the twenty-seven respondents con­ sidered a total of forty different careers outside of education while five presidents indicated that the only career ever seriously considered related to education. Only three broad career areas received consideration by as many as three respondents: ment, and military service. accounting, law enforce­ Nothing was additionally revealed by further breaking down the information in Table 29. However, it should also be noted that over half of the respondents considered such careers from age twenty on. This career consideration pattern is supportive of the earlier comments regarding when career choices were seriously evaluated. Very few of the respondents actually tried or endured in careers and/or occupations outside education. If this was, in fact, the case, then why have the Michigan public community college presidents spent a majority of their professional years in education? What motivations, forces, people, and/or values contributed to the selection of education as a career? 222 TABLE 29.— Alternative careers seriously considered by the presidents^ Type of Career Accounting-accountant Law enforcement-officer, F.B.I. Military service-officer Writing-creative and pro­ fessional writer Business-retail and rest­ aurant owner Engineering-engineer Commercial pilot Construction/buildingcontractor Music-professional musician Psychology-psychologist Medicine-physician Law-lawyer Architecture-architect Commercial art-artist Radio-announcer Forestry-forester Government-foreign service Personnel work-personnel director Agri culture-farming Politics-politician Sales-general Glass blowing-blower Dentistry-dentist Youth work-Y.M.C.A. executive director Ministry-pastoral minister Labor relations-labor rep­ resentative Frequency of Consideration Age When Considered (Age Range for Each Pres.) 3 19-27, 19-25, 21-23 3 3 17-19, 14-16, 20-25 17-20, 24, 16 2 2 0 ,11 2 2 0 , 18-22 2 2 18, 16-17 25, 12 2 2 2 1 30, 25 15-19, 17-19 19-21, 20 16-18, 16 14-16 16-17 14-18 18 1 21 1 55 1 1 1 29 14-16 30 26 15-19 26 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 22 1 27 1 20 N * 22 aTwenty-two presidents indicated a total of forty alternative careers were considered. The other five presi dents noted that the only career ever considered was edu­ cation related. 223 The Selection of Education as a Career Presidents of the Michigan public community col­ leges arrived in education for a variety of reasons. Their initial starting points in education were varied since some of the presidents began as teachers in public school systems while others have experiences only related to some level and position in higher education. The consideration of the various positions and types of e du­ cational settings identified as entrance points into an educational career have been previously discussed in the section of this chapter dealing with career patterns and position sequences. A variety of perceptions were provided as to why the presidents' careers centered on education. more than a singular influence was involved. Usually For some, such a decision was a necessity in order to earn money. For others, people and/or events provided the influence. Still others felt that such a decision was virtually pre-ordained. For a significant number of presidents, the direct or indirect influence of teachers, coaches, or respected individuals was the dominant factor in their selection of education as a career. I was very involved in high school athletics and admired my high school coaches. I particularly admired one coach for his integrity, and I suspect that was the major influence on my eventual decision to coach and teach. 1 later had to 224 make a decision between two different career alternatives, and a career as a coach and teacher seemed to provide the most immediate possibilities. My mother, older brother, and two sisters were teachers. However, through high school I was not interested in teaching because of the low salaries and being too close to it in the family. Although I was more interested in architecture and engineering when I started college, the math was a problem for me, and I turned toward consid­ ering teaching applied science— probably from the earlier influence of teachers in my family. My high school teachers were very instrumental, particularly an English teacher that pushed me to go to college. Also, my brother did not want me to end up as a factory worker like he was. My father was a superintendent of schools, and I never thought about any other field but edu­ cation. My interest in education resulted from my years in the public schools when I had positive rela­ tionships and experiences with my teachers. I grew up in a small community, and the only role models in the community were teachers. The teacher 1 had for bookkeeping in high school was someone I admired, and it was at that point that I decided to be a business teacher. I eventually entered education as a result of a high school teacher who was a "good friend" and a person whom I wished to emulate as well as a job foreman who had been a teacher. He talked to me many times while at work and encouraged me to pursue education and a career working with people. As a kid, all the good things that happened to me happened in education. I decided to teach because of the personality and knowledge of my high school speech teacher. From the time I was six, I wanted to be a music teacher. I was always encouraged by my teachers and various music group leaders. 225 I had very understanding teachers in high school who "turned me on." However, it should be noted that while most of the respon­ dents specifically mentioned that they had been favorably influenced by teachers at some point during their formal education, the decision to select education as a career often resulted from experiences which provided decision points in their lives. Often other careers were considered in college or following college, but perceptions with regard to competencies, aspira t i o n s , or opportunities forced a change of career. A number of respondents indicated that difficulty with a particular subject (often in the natural sciences) while in college caused them to re­ think their competency in a given subject and contributed to a change in career considerations. Others indicated that they were initially interested in careers having a scientific, mechanical, technical, or accounting orien­ tation; however, either after trying a noneducation career or in the process of preparing for a different career they found their interests centering more on career considerations wherein they could primarily work and help people. For a group of the respondents, education was chosen as a career because it provided immediate employ­ ment opportunities to earn a living, to provide money so 226 another career consideration could be pursued, or as insurance in case something happened. 1 went to college from a small high school and majored in music. After I graduated, I didn't have the slightest idea why I had been a music major, and, even though I really wasn't inter­ ested in teaching, I took a job teaching music to earn money to start work on a Master's. I've been in education ever since. In those days there w a s n 't much money for a col­ lege education, and I taught in private church schools so I could earn money to continue my college education. I was an English literature major until I was a junior in college, but I switched to edu­ cation so that I would have something that I could put to work. I took courses in education at just as insurance in case work got scarce and my business opportunities didn't materialize. If the influence of teachers and the perception that teaching was a rather immediate way to earn a living were considered to be two primary reasons for selecting education as a career, then a third important reason relates to the respondents' military service experiences. As noted earlier, the service provided a dramatic and maturing experience for many of the respondents, espe­ cially for those who served during the war years. A number of the presidents had opportunities to instruct during their military experience, and such experiences seemed to rekindle or enforce growing interests to teach and lead. 227 I can remember very vividly an experience during the war when as a very young man I found myself parachuting into the dark over enemy territory leading a group of "green" paratroopers on a night raid. I thought to myself that there was a good chance that none of us would come out of this alive, and I said to myself, "My God, if X ever get the c h a n c e , there has got to be a better way than leading others on a mission only to be p o s ­ sibly killed." I remember thinking how much I would like the opportunity to provide more positive leadership by teaching young people. My army experience of eighteen months provided numerous opportunities for me to talk with my army buddies. We talked a lot about how we could make a better world and life after the war. I knew then that I wanted to enter a career in which I could work with people. My army experience in intelligence and logistics gave me exposure to working with people while I was still quite young. I was a flight instructor and was evaluated highly by my superiors. Because of this rein­ forcement, I came back from World War II and entered __________ College to major in education. I was assigned to a light cruiser as an engi­ neering division officer, and so I spent the whole war down in the engine room and learned very much that I didn't want to be an engineer. This solidified, very much, the feeling that I wanted to have a career in a youth-serving profession. For the Michigan community college presidents, the selection of education as a career resulted, to a great extent, from three influences: (1 ) the encourage ment and role models provided by teachers; (2 ) the military service experience during which time many had an opportunity at a relatively young age to teach, supervise, or lead others; and (3) a desire or need to find employment to earn money to support families 228 and obtain a college education. In the process of con­ sidering or testing various career considerations, the respondents were conscious of a primary desire to serve people. For many, the memories of hard times during the Depression as well as the trauma of war experiences rein­ forced their belief that it was important to both recog­ nize and accept the concept that as human beings it was and is right to "need and be needed." The Depression and Great War had provided unusual opportunities to realize the values of hard work, respect for others, and responsibility. The initial career considerations of many were changed or revised by circumstances and events which tested their perceptions of their competencies, aspir­ ations, and opportunities. Such testing circumstances either strengthened (channeled) or reduced (constrained) a variety of career considerations. The presidents were able to relate a career consideration process exemplified by a narrowing of potential career options more so than by a "hit and miss" testing of a variety of careers. The continued reference to a desire to work with people or to be part of people-centered work was a per­ ception providing a thread through most of their lives. The selection of education as a career and as a career vehicle to actualize their interests resulted sometimes by accident, but often the choice of education resulted 229 from a developmental process. Career decisions for man/ were perceived to be related, complementary, and often a result of having to make compromises because of unique circumstances. The opportunity to obtain a college degree by using the G.I. Bill was significant for many of the presidents since it provided an opportunity to test perceptions while preparing for a career emphasizing service to people. Once employed in education-related positions, it was only a matter of time before the respondents began moving into administrative positions which provided opportunities to lead and/or make decisions. The moti­ vations concerning the respondents' movements into administrative positions and eventually to a community college presidency are now considered. "Arriving" As a Public CommunityJunior College President The selection of education as a career, as noted earlier, appeared to be a developmental process for many of the presidents. Although a number of different careers would have allowed the presidents an opportunity to serve people, education was ultimately selected as a result of teacher and school influences, war years impressions, and a perception that opportunities in education appeared to be good. Other factors were 2 30 present:; however, these three were dominant. In some instances, it would appear that the arrival in education was accidental as a result of channeling and constraining circumstances that brought about decisions to abandon or modify a particular career consideration; however, previous overview of the presidents' the total career patterns and perceptions indicated that the movement toward a career in education was primarily a developmental process. Also, given the presidents' comments that they desired challenges, became easily bored, and desired positions having an element of risk, it is not surprising that the presidents gravitated to administrative positions wherein they could exercise leadership and participate in the decision-making process. The type and level of administrative position assumed often resulted from unique circumstances or events; however, a review of the respondents' career patterns and perceptions to the present would seem to indicate that, in one way or another, the movement into positions of increasing responsibility was inevitable. Identification and Affect of Factors As noted earlier, the twenty-seven study respon­ dents can be characterized as having a number of drives, values, and/or perceptions that readily "set the stage" for a discussion of their motivations or factors which 231 eventually brought them to their present positions as Michigan public community college presidents. The following common perceptions and statements noted rather uniformly by the respondents provide the real basis for understanding their career patterns and moti­ vations: easily bored, desire challenges, risk behavior, self-confidence, strong ego, positive perceptions of aspiration and competence, desire for greater opportun­ ities to work with people, and desire to lead. For most of the respondents whose career patterns indicated an occupational strategy orientation in the field of education, it was not surprising to find that they either consciously moved into administrative positions in education through a series of personal choices or were "in the right place at the right time" in order to assume such positions. Movement from institution to institution (occupational mobility) was not only a common practice but could be considered normal and logical. Even those few who moved from outside education or from within a particular insti­ tution to administrative positions and/or directly to a presidency indicated this same restlessness to lead. The movement into and through a series of admin­ istrative positions ultimately leading to a presidency was described by the respondents in terms of various motivations. However, in the identification of these 232 various motivations, it was clear that the position movement was primarily a developmental process— both conscious and sub-conscious. It is apparent to the study investigator that the arrival in various admin­ istrative positions resulted from a general choice to do so on the part of the participants. The question as to whether or not the respondents ’’chose" or "were chosen" for administrative positions must be considered in the broader context that "in order to be chosen, one usually chooses." The movement to administrative positions was more developmental, while movement into a presidency may have been on occasion more of an acci­ dental outcome. It is appropriate to describe the respondents 1 movement to and through a variety of administrative positions as accidental only to the extent that a particular person, circumstance, or institutional setting provided administrative leader­ ship opportunities earlier or in different ways for the various respondents. For virtually all the respondents, the movement to increased leadership can be seen as natural based on their backgrounds. All that was necessary to initiate, continue, and/or complete the process was the selection of another position, usually of greater responsibility, by the respondent's active initiation or by a superior's initiation. The movement into the new positions can be seen as broadly 233 developmental and/or narrowly accidental, but the m ov e ­ ment to various administrative positions— in education or otherwise— was inevitable. The respondents, by their actions, thoughts, and performance, indicated that they preferred to be leaders rather than followers. Because of this conscious or sub-conscious perception, they were chosen for a variety of positions and ultimately a presidency. Regardless of whether the respondents expressed their movement to administrative positions as a result of active choice, acceptance of others' desires for them, or for a number of other reasons, they did express a variety of rationales. Although these rationales might give the indication that a single motivation can be identified for each respondent, it must be noted that a combination of one or more of the motivations usually more appropriately described the movement of each respondent to a presidency. However, even though the motivations were usually interrelated, a particular rationale generally "stood out" as most appropriately characterizing each individual. A number of respondents indicated that the pri­ mary motivation for assuming administrative positions was "service." In many respects, this service motivation could also be related to the self-actualization motive or personal motivation. The service motivation was 234 broadly expressed as being oriented toward service to society, service to education, or service to a par­ ticular institution. I am an instrument of God's will, and I feel that it is necessary to use my abilities in whatever ways possible to help people. I wanted to be able to work in situations where there was more intellectual stimulation and where I could help others to achieve their potential and realize their dreams. Because of my exposure to working with students, I was willing to do anything they asked me to do. Actually, I have never learned to say "no,” but I really never wanted to say "no." My general movement into administration resulted from a desire to try new challenges other than teaching. I had never thought about myself as the president of this college, but when I was asked to consider the presidency I felt that I should take the position because I have always had such a great respect for the value of the college to the city and all the students. I never thought of being president of a college— only this college. In fact I have only made three career decisions in my life: to prepare for educational administration; to live in ______ for a lifetime; and, to not go anyplace else. I never wanted to be just any community college president. I only wanted to be the president of _ _______ College. I felt I was the best choice because I felt the institutional problems should be solved by someone from within who knew the situation and because I felt that I was the best among the candidates for the job. Where else could I do as much or have as good a school? A number of respondents indicated that they were motivated toward administrative positions in education as a result of associations or contacts with key 235 professionals, family, or friends. Social influences by family, friends, and colleagues are mentioned here. The influence of such individuals on the respondents' personal philosophies and values will be mentioned later. While I was a teacher, the superintendent took a liking to me and sponsored me in many of my admin­ istrative endeavors. I had great encouragement and sponsorship from this superintendent and from my doctoral committee chairman. The idea of becoming an administrator developed while I was at ___________ Community College. After I became department chairman, the president kept encouraging me and giving me more adminis­ trative responsibilities. He became a role model for me. Dean ________ gave me opportunities to experience and grow professionally even before I knew what the future might be for me. He gave me a chance to work at ____ ___ Community College and to have administrative experiences. I owe a great deal to him. I got into administration because of the encour­ agement of my high school department chairman who encouraged me to be a department chairman. My goals were to get my graduate degrees and become a high school or college department chairman. Three members of my doctoral com­ mittee really sponsored me through my total administrative career. They gave me a plan for the necessary experience pattern and formal education pattern. It should be noted that the element of sponsorship was specifically mentioned especially in connection with those respondents whose administrative careers were realized primarily from the influence of other pro­ fessionals and colleagues. For a number of the respondents, the particular motivation that best described their movement into 236 educational administration was professional o p p o r tunity. Even though such tangible aspects as salary, professional recognition, and others were mentioned, a number of references were made to more intangible considerations. Once in the field of education, 1 looked at aspects of development that w o uld move me to other levels of the hierarchy. The factor of power has some attractiveness to me since I am in a position to make changes in education that I feel are necessary. I had some bad experiences in secondary school administration, and m y perception of opportunity was that higher education administration wou l d be the more appropriate avenue for me to go. The experience in administration and moving into higher education really began to solidify my interests in administration and the expectation that I would probably spend m o s t of my career in administration. Naturally I was also thinking of the top position. 1 came into administration because I wanted to work up the ladder in my educational career. As you take on additional responsibilities, you learn your own abilities. You do w hat you are good at. It relates to the ability to see myself grow and to be able to be an effective force in helping young people achieve their self-chosen g o a l s — to help them do the kind of things that I did. If you do your job, the next opportunity will present itself, but it is not always possible to know w h a t the next step will be. I was never completely satisfied with any job in terms of the job being my ultimate goal. 1 went into administration because the salaries were better, and I would have a chance to inno­ vate, create, and start new programs. I simply got tired of the status quo of teaching. 237 My general movement to administration resulted from a desire to try new challenges other than teaching. I was offered two different administrative positions in the system, and I took the one that was more personally rewarding and more secure. The more I became involved in leadership, the more I wanted to continue in administration. Although the developmental process represented a rather broad motivation related to movement into administrative positions, a number of respondents made specific comments concerning their perceptions of a deepening commitment to administration over a period of years in their career histories. Some perceptions which were indicative of a developmental process have already been noted, in part, under other motivations since such complex perceptions were often difficult to discuss separately. The movement up the administrative ladder was a gradual and developmental process for me. The process allowed me to satisfy my drives. I did a number of jobs for the superintendent and after each job was completed other opportun­ ities became available to me. I did any job that needed doing once I was working at ___________ Community College. Each job led to a new position of responsibility. My career has definitely been a developmental process. I have moved through the ranks of high school coach and teacher to college coach and professor to college administrator to col­ lege president. My career has been planned, pursued and accomplished. 238 I d id n o t r e a l l y e n jo y my p r a c t ic e - t e a c h in g e x p e r ie n c e a t th e h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l , and I knew t h a t I d id n o t w a n t to b e an a d m in is tr a t o r i n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o ls w h e r e I w o u ld b e w o r k in g w ith th a t age g ro u p . I p la n n e d a n d d i r e c t e d my c a r e e r to w a rd a d m in is t r a t iv e p o s it io n s in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . I t r u s te d my s e n s e s to know w hen i t w as r i g h t o r w ro n g t o m ake a p a r t i c u l a r m ove. My i n t e p e o p le tr a tiv e tr a tiv e tu rn e d in d u s tr r e s t i n e d u c a t io n a n d i n w o r k in g w it h m ade i t a n a t u r a l t o m ove in t o a d m in is ­ p o s itio n s . T h e in v o lv e m e n t in a d m in is ­ p o s itio n s ju s t g re w o v e r tim e . I even dow n h ig h e r p a y in g o p p o r t u n it ie s in y b e c a u s e t h e y w o u ld h a v e s i d e - t r a c k e d m e . In a n y th in g I d o . I'm n e v e r c o n te n t v e r y lo n g to b e th e g u y w ho p u s h e s th e s h o v e l. A l l d e c is io n s r e g a r d in g my c a r e e r h a v e b e e n v e r y c o n s c io u s ly m ade. I n e v e r m ade d e c is io n s b y a c c id e n t in my lif e , a n d I h a v e a lw a y s w a n te d t o b e " t o p d o g " in w h a te v e r I d o . O n ly th e ir m ovem ent a c c id e n ta l th e a fin a l c u m s ta n c e fe w in to b e in g d e n ts r e s u lt th e a n a ly s is i t m ay been have o th e r c le a r ly fro m a o r th a n p r e s id e n ts a d m in is tr a tiv e c ir c u m s ta n c e . v a t io n — c o n s c io u s as o f As w o u ld n o te d be r e a lly p o s itio n s e a r lie r , c o rre c t a c c id e n ta l b u t to p e r c e iv e d p a r tic u la r th e ir H o w e v e r, o r am p r o b a b ly th e re a l be a a d m in is tr a tiv e c ir c u m s ta n c e th a t w as say th e s u b -c o n s c io u s — c o u ld a c c id e n ta l. f e lt in c ir ­ m o ti­ e x p la in e d fe w re s p o n ­ c a re e r to a c c id e n ta l h a p p e n in g . I g o t i n t o b o t h c o m m u n ity c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n a d m in is tr a tio n a s a r e s u l t o f am a c c i d e n t a l o f c ir c u m s ta n c e s . and s e t My a d m in is t r a t iv e b a c k g ro u n d c a n b e b e s t d e s c r ib e d b y s a y in g t h a t I w as o f t e n in th e r ig h t p la c e a t th e r ig h t tim e . I have o fte n th o u g h t t h a t p e o p le a re r e a lly v ic tim s o f f a t e . 239 I really didn't think that I would like adminis­ tration , and I got into it as a result of a series of unique circumstances and because of the money and others requesting me to consider administra­ tive positions. Circumstances and accidents got me into adminis­ tration. I am convinced of that. It was an accident that I got into administration, and there was no enthusiasm on my part at all. Actually, I "fell" into administration and had no interest in administration. I think that I was successful in those other administrative positions because I didn't care whether or not I was an administrator, and I didn't feel I had to be an administrator. Tracing the Routes The movement of the respondents into community college administration resulted from a variety of circum­ stances and career considerations. As noted earlier, fifteen of the respondents' career patterns started in public school positions while three started in a fouryear college or university position, and nine began their careers in noneducation positions. Sixteen of the respondents became community college presidents after serving some time in public community college adminis­ trative positions while eleven respondents moved to a community college presidency without having previously served in any public community college position. Although most of the respondents entered the community college movement as a result of a conscious determination that the movement would provide the most worthwhile opportunity to make a contribution, others 240 moved into higher education administration rather than specifically the community college movement. of the respondents, For a few their perception was more generalized to a presidency as a position rather than specifically a community college presidency. Again, the career patterns and perceptions of reasons for arriving in a community college presidency were complex and inter­ related. The respondents basically provided four broad categories of rationale as the bases for their movement into community college administration and/or to a co m ­ munity college presidency. As noted above, the m o ti v a ­ tions or rationales were usually interrelated; however, the respondents perceived their arrival in the presidency to be the result of the following: college philosophy, (1 ) the community (2 ) opportunities and new horizons, (3) the influence of others, and (4) unique circumstances. Nine of the respondents primarily described their careers in community college work as resulting from a belief in the community college p h i l o s o p h y . People have always given me chances to succeed, and I feel that community colleges also provide such opportunities and are more flexible. I didn't really want other types of college admin­ istration. I wanted to serve in community college administrative positions because I believe in the nonrigidity of the community college program. I also felt that I could right some of the academic wrongs that I had experienced. 241 While I was working on my doctorate at ___________ University, I became exposed to the community college movement and what it represented. I became a believer in community colleges when I received a staff assignment while at __________ University to conduct two community college feasibility studies. I took a number of community college courses while working in the Education Center. This experience "turned me on" to com­ munity college administration. While working for Superintendent _________ , I became "sold" on the community college concept. This was during the time we were working on the project to separate the community college from the public school system. I was interested in broadening my administrative responsibilities, and I wanted to become more involved in the theory and practice of active administration and less in academic adminis­ tration. 1 studied the community college literature and became "sold" on the community college philosophy. Closely related to the above rationale was the perception that the community colleges provided new opportunities and horizons. Nine respondents expressed such a perception as a basis for their interest in com­ munity colleges. Some representative perceptions of this notion follow. People always wish to try careers "on the other side of the fence." I wanted to try something new. I wanted to try a presidency because of my management background. My first major career change came when I decided to be a community college president. I took the Community College presidency because I knew I would do as well as many other presidents after talking with them. 242 I didn't become committed to the community college movement until the day I was asked to be p r esi­ College. I took the job dent of _______ because I was the best among the candidates for the job. Although I didn't have a clear perception of aspiration concerning my career, I do know that the main ingredient for being successful is the assumption that you are going to enjoy it. While working in the _________ Public Schools, I took Max Smith's class on the community college, and they were considering establishing a community college in our area. I chose to seek positions in the community college because I felt that I was at the end of the career ladder in public school administration. In my position at __________ , I was involved in developing legislation to create Associate Degree programs in the state, and I built the whole Associate Degree certification program. This gave me an interest in working at the community college level instead of the university level. I got "fed up" with the politics associated with my work, and the job did not provide the satis­ faction and leadership that I wanted. I wanted to be more the entrepreneur and independent in my work. At the same time the community colleges were really developing, and I decided that was the place to b e . I did not like the bureaucracy and phony elitism at the university, and the community colleges represented a new frontier. The administrative jobs were pretty much taken, and I became interested in postsecondary admin­ istration because of the opportunities given to me at ________________ Community College. Six respondents stressed the influence of others as the primary reason for arrival in a community college presidency. My associations at ____________ University and my work at ________ Community~Coliege solidified the idea of community college administration and my early considerations of a presidency. 243 Through my association with Superintendent _______ , I had a variety of opportunities to work on assignments affecting the College. I was placed in charge of the millage campaign and the study to reorganize the College. This gave me visibility, and the superintendent became a strong supporter and sponsor. I met with a friend who asked me if I was doing all that I was capable of doing. After listing my competencies and aspirations, I decided to complete my doctorate. I thought at first more in terms of a college presidency and took a job at ________ College working under a president I thought was a "comer." I saw this man as a great tutor. As a result of this experience, 1 knew I wanted to be a community college president. I was assigned by the superintendent to work full time as the area community college feasi­ bility study coordinator. This gave me community visibility, and the superintendent became more aware of my work. I decided that I would like to be president of this college if it was created. Dr. ______ ___ took a strong liking to me while I was completing my undergraduate work at University, and he invited me to join him for lunch with the president. I sought the president's advice about preparing for admin­ istrative work and possibly a presidency. Since then I have had a career plan. Also, I was greatly influenced by Dr. Max Smith during the period of time when his office was doing the com­ munity college feasibility study in . That association later led to the opportunity to complete my doctorate as a Kellogg Fellow. I was sought out for this position. Others asked me to apply, and I figured that if these people I respected thought I could do the job then why notl My interest was in this presidency only. Finally, three respondents strongly stressed the importance of circumstances as the primary factor that brought them to the presidency. 244 My bad experiences that I had in secondary school administration caused me to move into higher education administration because it represented more of an opportunity. Prior to being sought out by community leaders, the community college was not the direction I was looking to for a presidency. I had not thought about a college presidency until I started teaching part time at ____________ Com­ munity College. I soon was the Dean of Instruction. I was asked to take the presidency of the College when the president got in trouble with the Board of Trustees, and 1 decided to take the job because it was another challenge and I was absolutely cer­ tain I could do it. I never even thought of going into community college work until I became involved in doing the feasi­ bility study for establishing Community College. The jobs came by accident, and I took opportunities as they presented themselves. The perceptions of the respondents generally indicated that movement into various administrative positions provided increased leadership opportunities. The movement can be described as being, overall, a developmental process based on service motivations, professional opportunities, and a desire to be part of the decision-making process. These administrative positions provided visibility for the respondents. Often active sponsorship of the individuals by superiors resulted in still greater opportunities including the movement to a community college presidency. The perceptions of the respondents indicated, in addition to the general developmental career pattern and strategy orientation, that as a result of choices 245 they made, they were then chosen. Because they often chose and moved into positions of increased responsibility and visibility, they were basically indicating that they were willing to be chosen or considered for other o p por­ tunities. The majority of the respondents in this study chose to be considered for a community college presidency. The actual selection as a president may be p e r ­ ceived as the result of accidental or unusual circum­ stance, but a majority, indeed, desired to be a president, and many consciously prepared themselves for such a position. Circumstances and/or "being in the right place at the right time" were factors that hastened the move to the presidency. However, for most, the movement into the top position was a natural step, and they were chosen to serve as presidents from among many who were qualified. Others in a variety of positions desire to move to a presidency but must wait for that opportunity when their abilities and the needs of a particular institution find a logical match. In this regard, one of the respondents n o ted: Just because you have a union card doesn't g uar­ antee you a presidency. I have friends who have gone through the same program w ith the same aspir­ ations, and they are still waiting in the wings. Twenty-one of the twenty-seven respondents indi­ cated that there was a point in time when they decided to strive for a presidency. Some of the respondents indicated that the decision to seek a presidency was 246 consciously made over a particular span of time; however, others were able to literally pinpoint a time, place, and circumstance related to their decision to seek a presidency. Selected representative comments of the respondents' perceptions are provided to indicate the variety of affirmative responses to the identification of a point in time when a decision was made to strive for a presidency. August 16, 1960 at 7:30 p.m. when the man called and said, "The president is not coming." "How do you feel about taking the position?" When I started to teach at ___________ Community College. I can pinpoint it to the minute. My decision to aspire to a college presidency was the direct result of a luncheon meeting in 1961 with a friend. My perception of wanting to be a college president developed while I was working on my doctorate at _____________ University. When I watched how the president I was working for would never "go out on a limb" for anything or anybody, I decided I wanted to show people how to do it. 1 consciously made the decision the day I was interviewed by the president for the Dean of position. He asked me what I wanted to do in the future, and I told him I wanted to be a college president. From that point on, I planned. It was during a meeting with the president in February, 1964. He asked me if I wanted to be considered for the presidency of ___________ College. 247 I became disenchanted with my job in 1958, and felt "locked in." I wanted a career change and decided to apply for a presidency. My interest in a college presidency grew out of my _ _____ University experience and my close association with the president. He encouraged me to consider such a position. I was greatly influenced by the president who encouraged me to think in the direction of a presidency. The idea definitely developed during the time I was at _______________ College. Toward the College, I beyond. I sibility. end of felt a wanted I chose my tenure as a dean at _______ burning desire to advance and go more challenge and more respon­ to be a president. During that year, I saw President _____ in action. It was a great negative learning experience, and I decided that I wanted a chance to be a president, to test my ideas. I had very different ideas from the way __________ was doing. In 1965 when I applied for the presidency of Community College but wound up as the College's business manager. Both people and circumstances played a part in the respondents' decisions to strive for a presidency; how­ ever, the interest in the position often resulted, to a greater extent, from the encouragement of another person— often the president for whom the respondent worked. The respondents indicated that while working in positions of leadership, they were visible to their superiors and, in turn, their superiors were visible to them. This relationship often provided the opportunity for the respondents to observe styles of management, the nature of the job, and the character of the president occupying the position. In many cases a basic respect and 248 admiration resulted, and the respondents developed a desire to emulate the presidents. In a number of instances, the positive working relationship allowed the respondents to see the office of the president as a desirable and important position occupied by indi­ viduals having many of the same d r e a m s , v a l u e s , and per­ ceptions as the respondents. The office of the president became more personalized and animated. For these respon­ dents, the consideration of a presidency seemed to be a logical step. A few of the respondents indicated nega­ tive learning experiences resulted from such an associ­ ation; however, these were still experiences which con­ tributed to the desire to seek a presidency. Visibility clearly played a part in the respon­ dents' interest in a presidency. Having chosen to demon­ strate their availability and willingness to accept administrative responsibilities, the respondents would later be considered for a presidency. visibility, Because of the the future president was able to learn from others either in the position or closely associated with the position. As a result of being visible to superiors, the future president often found himself being sponsored for new positions of increased responsibility. Many of the respondents indicated that one of their most important present responsibilities was to provide oppor­ tunities and positive images and learning experiences for members of their staffs. 249 Once the decision was made to strive for a presidency, the respondents indicated that a greater degree of conscious planning resulted. For the majority, the consideration or selection of subsequent positions was predicated on whether or not such positions would help or hinder their opportunity for a presidency. A few respondents indicated that they did not change their career style or considerations after the decision was made to seek a presidency because they had always con­ sciously planned and logically considered career options. The tremendous growth of community colleges during the 1960s served to reinforce the respondents' perception of opportunity. Thus, over twenty of the respondents decided to strive for a presidency at an identifiable point or period in their careers, and having made such a decision, they consciously became more "maze bright" in terms of weighing options, considering positions, and actively planning for the opportunity. When I became interested in administrative advance­ ment, it did become important to me as to what institutions I went to and what kinds of adminis­ trative experiences I would have because I wanted to compile a "track record" that would be attractive. I became more discerning and would only consider positions that would help me realize my goal. I looked for the right position, and I didn't move any more than was necessary. 250 I rejected jobs that did not provide broad adminis­ trative experience, particularly those jobs similar to what I was already doing. I immediately switched from a career emphasis on public school administration to higher education administration. I eliminated any consideration of positions in small institutions, institutions with no growth potential, and institutions that were inferior academically. I looked for a new position in a new community college where I could have broader experiences as a charter member of the staff. I also did not interview for a California community college position as vice-president of student affairs because X felt it would be too confining, not general enough, and would not provide enough visibility. I considered only positions that I thought would be "stepping stones" to the presidency. Once I made the decision, I planned my moves to, hopefully, achieve that end. I became more conscious of my goals and opted for long-range goals instead of short-range rewards. This was not hard to do because money has never been a motivator for me. Three respondents who indicated that their decision to strive for a presidency didn't change their planning or career decisions made the following direct and emphatic statements. I never made decisions by accident in my life, and I never consider anything unless the odds are good. Whatever I do, I do purposefully. There really wasn't a plan. It just developed. The twenty-one respondents who indicated a con­ scious decision to strive for a presidency did, in fact, 251 become presidents within a mean number of two position moves. Eleven of the twenty-one respondents' position move was to a presidency. next Three were presi­ dents by their second position move following their decision. None of the respondents needed more than four position moves to become a president; however, four did require that many moves. The six respondents, who indicated that they could not identify a period in time when they decided to aspire to a presidency or that they never seriously considered the position until sought out, generally indicated that they did not have an overall career plan or particular career goal. The idea of being a president really didn't enter my mind until I was approached and asked to con­ sider the position. 1 decided to allow my name to be considered because 1 figured, "I have held every other position in a college, why not also try a presidency?" The goal of being a college president was not in my mind because I was happy in what I was doing in the Public School System. I conside red”"tKe"”3oEs at ______ and ___ ______ C o m ­ munity Colleges at the urging of others. The point in time when I first considered a presi­ dency was that point in time when I was asked to consider the position. I didn't have a general plan or career goal. I took opportunities as they presented themselves. I d i d n 't always have a g o a l , but I thought out decisions in terms of what direction such positions would take me. 252 As a result of conscious preparation or identifi­ cation by o t h e r s , the twenty-seven respondents arrived in a community college presidency. For many, appointment to a presidency resulted from preparation and movement to positions where experience could be acquired and v isi­ bility would be enhanced. For others, the selection was not anticipated or even a personal goal. The actual selection often resulted from unique circumstances, an accidental situation, or luck. In the broader context, most of the respondents had prepared for such a consid­ eration, and the "luck" of being selected was really a case of "making their own b r e a k s . ” Reasons for Selection by the Governing Board The respondents were asked to rank in 1, 2, 3 order what they considered to be the three main reasons for their being selected as president by the governing board of their present college. In Table 30, the presi- dents' perceptions of the reasons are identified. 18 Since it was previously noted that a majority of the respondents had aspired to a presidency at some period in their careers and had planned to some extent their 18 The study investigator is indebted to Dennis R. W. Wing for giving permission to use his format for gathering and presenting the data concerning the p r esi­ dents' perceptions of reasons for selection and acceptance of their presidency and their perceptions of the ideal sequence of positions preceding the first presidency. For further information, see Wing, Professional P r e s i d e n t , pp. 8-14. 253 TABLE 30.— President'a perception of the three major reasons for selection to his present presidency Frequency and (Percentage) of Ranking Reason for Being Selected Professional reputation in education Previous educational administration exper­ ience in position(s) at the community college over which you now preside Previous educational administration experience elsewhere Advocating a particular educational philosophy Personal influence or contact on your behalf by a professor or advisor Personal influence or contacts on your behalf by others in the education profession Personal acquaintance with influential persons in the college district Degrees held Personality character­ istics Other Mo response Totals Not Ranked 1, 2, or 3 1st 2nd 3rd 4(14.8) 6(22.2) 6(22.2) 11(40.7) 1(3.7) 23(85.2) 9(33.3) 1(3.7) 4(14.8) 2(7.4) 3(11.1) 3(11.1) 13(48.1) 5(18.5) 1(3.7) 2(7.4) - - 1(3.7) 1(3. 7)a 4(14.8). 3(11.l)b — 27(100.0) 27(100.0} a"Demonstrated managerial ability" "People person" "Knowledge of finance" "Administrative philosophy and knowledge” 17(63.0) 26(96.3) 2(7.4) 23(85.2) 5(18.5) 27(100.0) 22(81.5) 9(33.3) - 13(48.1) 23(85.2) 27(100.0) 254 subsequent moves, it was not surprising that sixteen respondents (almost 60% of all respondents) gave first- order ranking to "previous educational administration experience"— 48 percent outside the present college and 11 percent within the present college district. A distant second was the first-order ranking of "advocating a particular educational philosophy" respondents). (5 Four respondents gave first-order ranking to "professional reputation in education." It is interesting to note that 63 percent (17) of the presidents did not rank as important "advocating a particular educational philosophy." Possibly it should be assumed that presidential candidates with community college experience would already have such a philosophy although such an assumption does not neces­ sarily follow. Finally, the negligible response to the ranking of "personal influence" or "personal acquaintance" should not be interpreted as being contrary to the previous comments concerning the importance of visibility and sponsorship. The earlier discussion regarding the extent to which influential people sponsored respondents referred more to relationships and movement in administrative positions prior to the actual arrival in a presidency. 255 Reasons for Accepting the Presidency The respondents were also asked to rank the three reasons they accepted their present position as a Michigan community college president. The reasons given for acceptance are presented in Table 31 and reinforce the earlier respondent perceptions relative to desire for professional advancement and the need for challenging positions. Twelve presidents (almost 45%) indicated their primary reason for accepting their current p resi­ dency was "educational challenge" while a third of the presidents accepted because the position provided "pro­ fessional advancement." When taken together, twenty-one of the twenty-seven respondents listed these two as the primary reasons. Also of interest was the fact that twenty-three of the respondents (approximately 85%) did not indicate any interest in salary as a reason for accepting their present position. This was not surprising in light of their comments concerning selecting a career. Many had indicated that, although security was important to them and their families, salary and other fringe benefits were not significantly important to them. Ideal Sequence of Positions Leading to a Presidency Previously analyzed were the respondents' career patterns and positions held which served as actual TABLE 31.— President's perception of the three major reasons for accepting his present presidency Frequency and (Percentage) of Ranking Reason for Accepting 3rd 7(25.9) 7(25.9) 4(14.8) 4(14.8) 4(14.8) 7(25.9) 23(85.2) 4(14.8) 2(7.4) 2(7.4) 21(77.8) 1(3.7) 3(11.1) 23(85.2) 3(11.1) 5(18.5) 4(14.8) 15(55.6) * 1(3.7)a — 2(7.4) 2(7.4) 1(3.7) “ u 3(11.1) 3(11.1) 25(92.6) 25(92.6) 23(85.2) — Totals 27(100.0) 27(100.0) 9(33.3) 12(44.4) 2(7.4) a"I wanted to try something different." W "Michigan retirement credit" "Personal satisfaction" "Commitment to the college from afar” 27(100.0) 256 Professional advancement Salary Educational challenge Geographic location and/or climate Dissatisfaction with previous position Expressed philosophy of the college board Wishes/desires of immediate family Family ties Other No response Not Ranked 1, 2, or 3 2nd 1 st 257 springboards into their presidencies (position sequence/ career pattern profile information). Their perceptions concerning what they considered to be an ideal sequence of positions were also identified. The respondents were asked to indicate what they thought would be the ideal sequence of three previous positions to be held before accepting a first presidency. Their responses, as identified in complete and collapsed categories, are presented in Table 32. A first-ranked position indicates their opinion of the appropriate position to have been held immediately prior to becoming a president for the first time. Twenty-four of the respondents (almost 90%) per­ ceived that the position immediately preceding the first presidency should be in educational administration. In fact, a majority of the respondents indicated that the community college president should have top level admin­ istrative experience in two of the positions preceded by teaching experience. The administrative and teaching experience should be at the higher education level. Of the twenty-four respondents who noted educational admin­ istration just prior to a presidency, sixteen (almost 67%) felt the administrative position should be in a community college. Business and industry experience was perceived to be of little value in the ideal sequence of positions. Two respondents indicated they did not have an ideal sequence of positions. 258 TABLE 32.— President's ranking (ideal sequence) of three positions to have been held by a prospective community col­ lege president prior to accepting his first presidency (1 representing the position immediately prior to presidency) (with percentages by rows) Frequency of Ranking roaxtiun 1 Public school (K—12) adminis­ — trator Community college administrator 16(59.3) University/four-year college 1(3.7) administrator University/coliege administra­ tor (no preference as to level) 7(25.9) Educational administrator (no — preference as to level) Public school (K-12) teacher Community college teacher University/four-year college teacher University/college teacher (no preference as to level) Teacher (no preference as to level) State-level educational administrator Doctoral student Experience in business/ industry No response Totals Educational administrator Teacher 2 - 7(25.9) — 10(37.0) 1(3.7) 3 1(3.7) 2(7.4) — 2(7.4) — - 1(3.7) 2(7.4) 5(18.5) — 1(3.7) 1(3.7) — 2(7.4) 8(29.6) — — 1(3.7) — — - 2(7.4) — - 1(3.7) — 2(7.4) 2(7.4) 2(7.4) 2(7.4) 2(7.4) - 27(100.0) 27(100.0) 27(100.0) 24(88.9) 18(66.7) 5(18.5) 4(14.8) 18(66.7) - Other (including state-level educational administrator, doctoral student, and exper­ ience in business/industry) 1(3.7) 3(11.1) 2(7.4) No response 2(7.4) 2(7.4) 2(7.4) Totals 27(100.0) 27(100.0) 27(100.0) 259 The respondents also offered the following com­ ments concerning their perceptions of an ideal s e q u e n c e : The ideal sequence should be performed prior to, during, or following a liberal arts education. Menial work in any format is also a necessary prerequisite. Work with college presidents in line or staff capacities to observe different styles of m a n ­ agement and leadership. A person should have ten years of teaching e x per­ ience at the community college level or a minimum of five years of teaching experience at the com­ munity college level and five years of teaching experience at the four-year college or university level. An individual should have a range of middle m a n ­ agement experiences. The data in Table 33 indicate a breakdown of the responses for the twenty-four presidents who felt the position immediately preceding a first community college presidency should be an educational administration position. Twenty-two of the presidents indicated the position should be a top level line position in which the individual reports to the chief executive officer. Thirteen of the respondents specifically mentioned a dean's position; however, the only specific position mentioned was dean of instruction or dean of academic affairs. Since a majority of the respondents had arrived in their first presidency from a "last previous position" as a community college administrator (usually a top level TABLE 33*— Specific type of experience preferred by presidents who listed "educational administrator" as the position to have been held by a prospective community college president immediately prior to accepting his first presidency Type of Educational Administrator Position Administrator reporting to chief executive officer (staff position) Assistant to the president Totals 22 91.7 9 7 37.5 29.2 25.0 6 2 8.3 2 24 8.3 100.0 260 Administrator reporting to chief executive officer (line position) Administrator (no preference) Dean (no preference) Dean of Instruction 261 line p o s i t i o n ) , the results of their perceptions of an ideal sequence of positions was not surprising. Also, there continues to be an increased "professionalization" of the position as represented by the actual movement and perceived ideal movement to the presidency from administrative positions primarily in community colleges. Future Career Considerations As discussed earlier in this chapter (Career Strategies for the F u t u r e ) , an analysis of the interview data indicated that the twenty-seven respondents were likely to exhibit a particular attitude toward the future as it related to their careers. of aspiration, competency, When their perceptions and opportunity were con­ sidered, a career strategy orientation could be identified. Based on the assumption that their present presidency may not represent their last career position move and that their aspirations may be directed toward other career g o a l s , the respondents were asked in the interview to describe their future career perceptions. The twenty- seven respondents' orientations provided three identifi­ able groups. Five presidents can be described as having a heuristic strategy orientation concerning their future. In other words, they do not w ish to retire in their present position but prefer to consider new and d i s­ tinctly different endeavors which would take them outside 262 education in general and community college work in par­ ticular. Personal attainment is very important to them. Eleven presidents indicated more of an occupa­ tional strategy orientation when considering future opportunities. Consideration of other opportunities in education but outside their present position and insti­ tution were important to them. They have revised their perceptions of competency, aspiration, and opportunity now that they have attained a presidency, and they believe new career options in education are open to them. Finally, the other eleven presidents appear to have a stability strategy orientation in that the idea of another job seems irrelevant. For this group of respondents, the concept of opportunities no longer is a part of their thinking and planning. of competence for other jobs. Some felt a lack Some felt that any other position would not be as professionally and personally rewarding. For others, age, security, retirement bene­ fits, and relocation were concerns mentioned. Considering the fact that twenty-four of the twenty-seven respondents had followed an occupational strategy orientation in their career patterns up to their present position and one other was heuristically oriented, there does appear to be a lessening of risk behavior, mobility, etc. Only those presidents who have heuristic 263 (5 respondents) and occupational (11 respondents) orien­ tations concerning future opportunities can still be considered primarily as risk and mobility oriented. For a variety of reasons, the other eleven are inclined to be less mobile, less risk oriented, and more willing to stay with what appears to be familiar and safe. Those presidents who continue to be oriented toward other positions— inside and outside education— indicated a number of opportunity and aspiration-oriented perceptions. When asked about their future plans, they commented as follows: It depends on when you ask me. This is a non­ negotiating year; however, it is a constant "battle." You "battle" the legislature, the faculty, and the citizen special interest groups. What I would really like to do is run a fish and bait store, which would give me a change from education. Actually I would like to teach edu­ cational administration at a small four-year college or university. I pi am to leave this presidency in three years and then take a regular two-year computertraining prograun. Since administration is a management science, I feel that I need the training. I would be interested in consulting work. In all seriousness, I would like to be a church janitor. I believe this would provide a real service. If I were younger, I would enter the peace corps. Whatever I do, it is important that I don't become a burden to others. I do not want to be a college president until I retire. When I get to my mid-50s, I will leave education to pursue endeavors that give me continued opportunities to relate to people. 264 If I were two years younger, I would run for governor of Michigan. I have just begun to work. The day I die, I will have 160 projects on the drawing board. I don't think I'll ever be able to endure "the shuffleboard s e t . " I really don't know about the future. I would like to be a writer and researcher because I feel I have a couple of books "in me." I would like to move into four-year college adminis­ tration, possibly as a vice-president. I am more interested in the products rather than the c ere­ monial role I must fulfill as a president. The concerns of m y family are very important to me. I would be interested in another presidency where my family would have an enjoyable exper­ ience, and there would be good opportunities to make a contribution. I would like to be a state coordinator or a director of a multi-campus state community college system? however, at this point in time, retirement benefits become a major concern when considering career moves. I would like to make one additional career move to a public senior college or university presi­ dency. I would also like to finish my career in the classroom working with students heading toward careers in college administration. I would like to move on to a presidency of a larger community college that has a reputation for its high quality academic program. I would also like to make a contribution as a member of accreditation teams, some national association responsibility, and writing for my profession. If the ground rules are good and politics are not involved I would be interested in these opportunities; if not, the hell with it! Although I would like to try other educational challenges in the future, what I want most is to develop my instincts in the profession. My dream is to develop a community college "from the ground u p . " 265 I'm interested in remaining a president, but I am looking for new challenges in the office. The only obstacle is that I do not have my do c t o r a t e . The presidents who indicated more of a stability orientation toward future considerations provided a variety of perceptions relative to why they feel that their present presidency probably represents their last career move. Perceptions of competency as well as p e r ­ ceived opportunity were indicated. Various reasons were given as to w h y another move does not seem feasible. Also, perceptions of aspiration have changed from level to salience. The importance of "moving up" appears to have generally given w a y to more emphasis on security, family, attractiveness of present location, etc. I would really like to be president for five more years and teach the last five years but I don't think that is possible. I look out and see doors shutting, and so I rationalize a new route for the job I am now in. To a great degree, I feel "stuck." Serving this institution as president is more important to me than being president at another institution. Future career considerations are not important to me. I never think about the future! going to be my last one. Every job is Where else could I do as much or have as good a school? I'm not really tired out, but I am a realist. I have no idea as to what the future holds for me. I just turned __ years of age a few weeks ago, and I think that the number of institutions that will come running to seek ______ to a community college president are probably 266 limited. Also, it would be very difficult to conceive of another institution that could offer what I have here. Right now I feel caught in a situation. I can't really think about other opportunities for three years because of the Michigan retirement program. Past the artificial situation regarding the retirement program qualification, I have not really thought about what I want to do later. My options for the future have narrowed. I am _________ College. What somewhat bound to other school would be a promotion from __________ College? Also, I have built a reputation in Michigan, and not having the doctorate is a problem when considering future options. _ The family goal is for me to retire from ________________ C ommunity College when I am fiftyfive or fifty-six years of age. The consider­ ations for retirement years will be made jointly by my wife and me, and I don't know at the present time what is ahead. I have absolutely no interest in moving to another community college presidency. The things I want to do, I can do here. If I have any aspiration, it is to become as competent and well informed as I can become. My interest is to stay here and develop a "new" _____________ College. Everyone reaches a point in life when time runs out, and I feel that I sun about at that point. Retirement benefits are now a major concern when considering any career moves. My only interest is to make this the best possible community college. A number of the respondents who were not interested in considering other career moves indicated that their primary goal was to improve the institution over which they now preside. both general Such an interest was and specific terms. described in Also, as noted above, 267 retirement benefits were considered to be an important reason for remaining in the present position. A number of the presidents indicated a general interest in p r o ­ fessional writing, seeking a university teaching position, consulting, and/or seeking a foundation position. Gen­ erally speaking for most of the respondents, there was a basic realization that what an individual w o uld like to do as opposed to what the individual can realistically expect to do are two quite different matters. Most of the presidents appeared to be rather realistically oriented in terms of their perceptions of their future input. Perceptions of Personal Influences The unfolding of the twenty-seven r e s p o n d e n t s ' careers has been primarily described in terms of their perceptions of career influences. C i r c u m s t a n c e s , events, and individuals in education have influenced the Michigan public community college presidents. Although attention was given earlier in the present chapter to the effect that the military service experience and the depression years had with regard to making career decisions, it is also important to identify the values and beliefs g en­ erally held by the respondents as well as the sources of such influences. Although much of what the Michigan community c ol­ lege presidents do in their positions of responsibility 268 results from knowledge gained in the process of obtaining a formal education, their behavior, style, and overall personality have been tremendously influenced by others. Parents, relatives, and fellow educators have been the most significant contributors to the respondents' beliefs and values. People and Events As expected, the respondents indicated that parents were the most significant influence during their early years in terms of establishing values and beliefs. Three significant beliefs or values were repeatedly men­ tioned by the presidents as the most important learning experiences provided by their parents. First, the importance of hard work was the single most emphasized point. Variations of the Protestant ethic of hard work were also noted as being important; namely, to complete any task or undertaking that is started, to do well what­ ever is done, to do more than is generally expected, and to take pride in whatever is accomplished. A second important belief primarily learned from parents was the belief that all people are good and equal. The presi­ dents also often mentioned that they had learned the value of honesty from their early parental and family influences. Other values or beliefs which the respondents associated with early home influences were the 269 following: integrity, perseverance, bility, being unselfish, sense of responsi­ the Golden Rule, risk behavior, the belief in positive thinking regarding confidence in self, competitiveness, helping other people, and the value of an education because it cannot be taken away from the individual. It should also be noted that the respondents generally were able to quickly identify the source of such influence and the particular values and beliefs that they felt were a basic part of their personality and philosophy. Seldom were there any indications that such influences were not present. earlier, Further, as noted the Great Depression and World War II were events which significantly influenced the respondents and which provided a background to the kinds of values taught in the home. Many of the respondents also identified specific individuals who influenced them in later years. Usually the individuals identified were professional educators— professors, teachers, coaches, or presidents. Attention has already been given to such professional influence on the re s p o n d e n t s ' c a r e e r s . A few of the more representative perceptions are noted concerning the influence of family, relatives, and friends on the beliefs and values of the respondents. 270 My parents had a tremendous effect on me. My mother stressed positive thinking and my father stressed hard work. My mother and father taught me honesty, compassion for people, competitiveness, and how to live in a "jungle." My mother was a genius and a woman of extraordinary virtue. She spent hours with all of us children explaining, educating, quoting poetry, and reading Bible stories. My mother was the cultural and stabilizing center of the home. My dad taught me honesty, integrity, and the worth of hard work. My mother constantly reinforced and encouraged me to do what I wanted to do and to believe that I could do it. My parents were from Scotland. They taught me the meaning of pride, to be open about decisions, to solve your own problems, and that others cannot take away your education. My mother built into me the love of hard work. My mother taught me that "there is no such thing as a free lunch." She stressed that anything worth having is worth working for. She also taught me that the most important responsibility in life is helping other people. My father and mother emphasized that jobs are more than 8-5 daily. I came from a large, warm, and happy family. I had my work to do as a member of the family, and I was expected to do it. My father was the greatest influence on my value system. He taught me that all people are good and equal, that there should be no religious or racial prejudice, and he provided "a calm in all our storms." The respondents also noted that professionals— peers, teachers, and supervisors— had a significant influence in later years, although such influences often related more directly to the respondents* career planning. 271 Finally, it is worth noting that a number of the respondents indicated that their wives have been a sig­ nificant influence. Although the respondents did not identify values and/or beliefs as resulting from the influence of their spouses, they did often stress that they were deeply grateful to their wives for being sup­ portive and flexible. mentioned. The word, supportive, was often The presidents also recognized the importance of sharing with their wives. The Formative Years In addition to the influence of the depression years and the military service experience, a few other comments should be made concerning personal influences beyond individuals and events. As noted earlier, twenty-four of the twenty-seven respondents spent half or more of their formative years in one city or town. Two-thirds (16) of these respon­ dents "grew up" in communities of 25,000 or fewer resi­ dents. Seven lived in communities with 5,000 or fewer residents. It should also be remembered that twenty-five of the twenty-seven respondents "grew up" with both parents present in the home. The Michigan community college presidents indi­ cated that, to a great extent, their beliefs and value orientations have been influenced by their early exper­ iences. They noted as particularly significant the 272 appreciation for the family unit. that their families They often perceived (parents as well as s i b l i n g s ) , rural or small town b a c k g r o u n d s , religious training, and meager family finances contributed to their present values and beliefs. They stressed the importance of having "roots," and the importance of feeling love, learning to share, and understanding the need for cooperation and the value of being responsible. A lot of my value system comes from growing up in a small town with a heavy religious environment. I believe that if you grew up during austere times, you are left with the impression that if you want something, you roust go out and get it. He had to work hard and "pull together” as a family. Even though we did not farm, I always had a respect for farm families because they had a respect for nature and life. A number of the respondents also indicated that discipline was part of their upbringing. However, discipline in the home was associated closely w i t h an overall sense of love and warmth in the family unit. Perceptions Concerning a Chance to Revise Career Decisions— Beginning Again The twenty-seven respondents were asked, "Con­ cerning your career decisions and career progression to the present, would you proceed differently if allowed to begin again?" split. The p r e s i d e n t s ' responses were evenly Twelve indicated "Yes" to the question and twelve indicated "No." Three respondents indicated that they 273 were not: sure as -to whether or not they would revise their careers if given a chance to do so. However, in analyzing the respondents' perceptions concerning their careers, m ost of the presidents would not make substan­ tive changes. The presidents, for the most part, were satisfied with their careers. Another interesting point to note was that almost without exception the presidents quickly responded to the question. Either as a result of a rather strong conviction or as a form of defense, the presidents replied with quick and usually emphatic answers. Those respondents who indicated that they would not revise their careers if given the opportunity to do so provided a number of interesting perceptions. Hell noI I wouldn't do a thing differently. I've never worked at a job I didn't like, and if I die tomorrow, all I can say is that life has been damn good to me and I have enjoyed it to the hilti I have thought about that many t i m e s , and the answer is, No. No, although I w o uld have liked to make the transition from public school work to post­ secondary education work earlier. No; however, I probably stayed too long in one institution, and I w o u l d not have taken an applied science program since a senior college presidency is usually not attained by a person with this background. I would follow my career in exactly the same way except I would have finished the doctorate earlier. 274 No. I still have never had a job I didn't like. My career has been pleasant because it has been surprising. No because I planned my career to insure surprisefree environments. I would not make any major career changes because I made a career plan in 1961 which I have followed. The only thing I wish I had done differently is marry when I was younger. I would not trade off or change anything since all experiences were meaningful. I'm a believer in fate. supposed to happen. Whatever happened was I d o n 't know what I would want to be any more than what I have been. Those respondents that indicated they would make some changes in their careers if given the chance to start again listed four main concerns. Although gen­ erally satisfied with their careers to date, there was a general feeling that it would have been better to have changed positions more often, that they should have begun their careers and/or education more quickly, that economic conditions and "hard times" forced a certain career direction which might be different given another oppor­ tunity, and that same of the respondents not having doc­ torates would have completed the program. A few of the responses reflecting these thoughts follow: I would not stay in the same position so long. It would have probably been better to move around, change positions, get new experiences, and learn new competencies. I probably should have given myself more opportunity to see what was going on. 275 If I had known I was going to make a career in education, I would have started before I was thirty-one. I wish I could have gone to college directly after high school. I have often wondered what effect this would have made on my career. I really didn't start to build my career until I was twenty-six. I would have tried to move to the junior college level faster. I wish my early life had been easier so I could have been more of a scholar. It would depend on the circumstances. If my family had not been so impoverished, and if I were not so pressed to make a decision to get a job to eat, I think I would have preferred to go in smother direction. I should have finished my doctorate. That probably would have taken me down other career avenues. Perceptions Concerning Career Strategies Career strategy orientations were identified for the twenty-seven responding Michigan community college presidents. The respondents' career orientations could have been conscious or sub-conscious. The respondents' position sequences were used as the primary basis for the assignment of strategies. The respondents were also asked whether or not they thought that they had used career strategies. In retrospect, these presidents were able to perceive and identify the career strategy orientations they used. In addition to considering their career orientations, 276 the respondents indicated, in a number of instances, that they had consciously prepared and followed a career plan. Even though some did not plan their careers, it is important to note that many did have such career plans and goals. As a result, a number of the respondents did appear to be more "maze bright" during their careers and further indicated a general satisfaction with their approach. A listing of selected perceptions concerning career planning provides an insight into the general thinking of these presidents. You make your reputation by taking the toughest assignments and succeeding in them. Because I strongly believe this, I always evaluate and identify goals and determine a plan to reach a goal. All my career choices have been conscious. I will move mountains to get w hat I want. I believe you must have a plan. people to help me get jobs. I have used Everyone should have a career plan. Incidentally, some of m y best decisions and calmest thinking has come during periods of greatest turmoil in my life. I have had a career plan. Survival1 I can say that I have had a career plan even though it is difficult to "lay out" and exactly accomplish such a plan. Living and career planning require establishing odds and making calculated risks. I was generally aware while making various career decisions that certain options and constraints were evident. I have always been aware that there is a time to go or you won't go. 277 The only plan or strategy I have ever had through m y career has been to do each job better than anyone else by looking for ways to do the job differently. I have always identified a goal and developed a plan both for the present position as well as future positions and interests. Such career planning was subject to change depending upon the various options or constraints of a particular situation. Those respondents indicating such conscious career planning also usually commented that aspects of any such plan were constantly undergoing revisions over time. Such career planning requires flexibility and adjustment since factors such as individuals, events, and circumstances cam change or significantly influence such conscious career planning. The twenty-seven responding Michigan public com­ munity college presidents have arrived in their present positions as a result of various influences which have affected them over their lifetimes. As a result of these influences, career decisions have been made which eventually led to the opportunity to serve as a presi­ dent. The selection of education as either a lifelong career for most or as a relatively recent career endeavor for a few was the result of the interplay of such factors as competence, aspiration, and opportunity as such are perceived to provide direction in career decisions. 278 The respondents 1 perceptions of the degree to which some or all of these factors were relevant to them at various times in their lives resulted in career decisions and modifications of career plans. For a majority of the respondents, the influence of the Great Depression and World War II was significant when considering various career alternatives. These experiences were perceived as significant contributing factors to the general values and beliefs systems which characterized the respondents. Risk behavior, the desire for challenges, a desire to serve people based on a strong belief in human worth, a belief in hard work, an interest in teaching, a desire to lead, and positive perceptions of competence are but a few of the strong values and/or beliefs that characterize these individuals. The selection of education as a career resulted, for most of the presidents, from the influences of family, teachers, and/or coaches as well as a general perception that education provided greater potential for employment opportunities and that education provided am opportunity to serve people and teach. They perceived their values and beliefs to have come primarily from parents. Movement into a variety of administrative positions in the public schools, postsecondary education institutions, and outside education appeared to be a logical development based on the belief and value systems 279 which characterized the respondents. Also, with the assumption of administrative responsibilities, the respondents generally became more visible to those in supervisory positions thus enhancing their opportunities. The presidents indicated that their career movement into administrative positions resulted from a number of inter­ related motivations with one or more of the following motivations perceived as being of primary importance: service to society, to education, or to a particular institution; social influences by family, friends, and/or colleagues; professional opportunity; a series of events or decisions characterized as a developmental process; and accidental circumstances. Most of the respondents perceived that they were chosen for positions of increased responsibility because they, in fact, chose to be available and to be prepared. Sixteen of the respondents became community c ol­ lege presidents after serving some time in community col­ lege administrative positions while eleven respondents moved to a community college presidency without the benefit of any community college experience. The presi­ dents gave four basic reasons for their eventual movement into community college work: philosophy, (1) the community college (2) perceived opportunities and new horizons, (3) the influence of others, and (4) unique circumstances. 280 The movement to a community college presidency was perceived to be generally a developmental process. Twenty-one of the respondents (a significant majority) indicated that there was a point in time when they con­ sciously decided to strive for a presidency. The decision point was variously described as a precise point in time for some and a general decision made over a definable period of time for others. For the other respondents, the consideration of a presidency was usually the result of being asked to consider such a responsibility by respected outsiders. For the majority who did decide to aspire to such a position, conscious career planning was evident. These respondents can be characterized as "maze bright" and more inclined toward weighing opportunities in terms of whether or not such positions would increase their chances for being selected as a president. Eleven respondents became presidents in the next position move following their decision to aspire to the position. None of the twenty-one took more than four moves to become a president. "Previous educational administration experience" was perceived by the respondents to be the main reason for their selection as a president. Most of the respondents accepted a presidency because it provided an "educational challenge" or "professional advancement." 281 The twenty-seven responding presidents of the Michigan community colleges have a mean age of fifty, are all male, and are married with the exception of one. Ten states are represented when their place of birth is identified. Twenty-four of the presidents spent half or more of their formative years or town. (ages 6-18) in one city Two-thirds of those grew up in communities of 25,000 or fewer residents. Eleven grew up in Michigan while the other thirteen came from a total of eight other states. A disproportionate number of the respondents1 fathers were either "professionals" or "executives including managers and proprietors." mothers were full-time housewives. Most of their The respondents' fathers generally had less formal education than their mothers. Their wives had typically graduated from col­ lege . Two-thirds of the responding presidents held earned doctorates. The most common programs of study were social studies-related programs at the undergraduate level, public school administration at the Master's level, and higher education administration and general adminis­ tration at the Doctoral level. Almost two-thirds of the presidents were in the top 25 percent of their high school class while all but one graduated in the top half of their college class. The respondents earned a variety of academic and extra-curricular honors in high school 282 and college but were generally less active in college since they were post-war students. Many were very much oriented to athletics while in high school. The twenty-seven responding presidents arrived in their present position as a result of a maximum of nine position moves dating back to the receipt of the baccalaureate degree. The analysis of career patterns indicated that they have held an average of six and onehalf positions. Fifteen started their career patterns in public school positions while three started in a four-year college or university position, and nine began their careers in noneducation positions. Community col­ lege administrative positions served as the primary springboards to the present position. A total of fifteen different positions served as springboards to their pre­ sent presidency with twenty-one of the presidents coming to their present position from outside the institution. Six presidents had previously served as community college chief administrative officers. routes to the presidency, quency, were: (2) The three m ost common in descending order of fre­ (1) the public community colleges, four-year colleges and universities, and (3) public school systems. Routes to the presidency can be identified only if they are broadly defined as community college, four- year college or university, or public school positions. 283 Also, only the position immediately preceding the presi­ dency can be realistically analyzed. Position histories were analyzed in terms of frequencies of positions held rather than trying to maintain individual position histories. An attempt to place the respondents' position sequence patterns into clusters of similar patterns was extremely limited since the process was highly subjective. The responding presidents' movement to their present positions and perceptions of future career move­ ments were analyzed. Two career strategy orientations were identified for each president— one for the orienta­ tion to the present and another for identifying career strategy orientations regarding the future. Twenty-four of the respondents can be character­ ized as having utilized an occupational strategy orien­ tation (present occupation, any organization) career movement to their present position. in their That is to say that most of the presidents had maintained a career in education but moved among educational institutions during their career to date. They were slightly older than the mean age, had an earned doctorate, and spent their early years in cities generally smaller than 25,000. Two presidents were more oriented to a single organization, and one was more oriented to any occupation or organi­ zation that provided the greatest opportunity for per­ sonal career attainment or fulfillment. 284 When asked to provide their perceptions of future aspirations and opportunities, sixteen of the presidents indicated an interest in one or more opportunities other than their present position. Five respondents in this group were looking outside education (heuristic strategy orientation) while eleven continued to be interested in other opportunities within education strategy orientation). (occupational The other eleven responding presidents indicated a career orientation toward sta­ bility— staying in theJr present positions. For this group, various perceptions of their lack of competency, limited opportunities, or satisfaction with the present position were noted. Those presidents who perceived other opportunities and aspired to continue their career in other endeavors considered themselves to be competent to undertake such opportunities. Their perceptions were positive and served to channel their interests toward new directions. Those presidents who appeared to be more oriented toward security and position safety generally perceived that they could not improve upon their present opportunity or that their competencies were limited with regard to considering other opportunities. Most of the presidents would not significantly change their careers if given the opportunity to do so. For many, a career plan was developed and revised as 285 necessary at various points in their lives, while a few considered their career to basically result from u n ­ planned circumstances. The career decisions considered in the data analysis were representative of a complex and continuing process which involved the respondents with diverse professional and personal environments over the span of their lifetimes. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS In this chapter, the development of the study is summarized; the findings regarding the Michigan com­ munity college presidents' careers are presented; con­ clusions regarding the study research questions and a general discussion of each are presented; and recommen­ dations for further research are noted. Review of the Problem and the Research Design The basis for this exploratory and descriptive study was the investigator's interest in the careers of public community-junior college presidents. Compara­ tively little attention has been given to research con­ cerning the career position sequences, strategies, and perceptions of these educational leaders. The purpose of the study was four-fold: (1) To provide data with which to identify and describe how the perceptions of Michigan public 286 287 community college presidents concerning their a s p i r a t i o n s , competencies, and opportunities relate to their career decisions and the arrival in a presidency and beyond; (2) To provide and analyze data concerning the same p r e s i d e n t s ' career position histories for the purpose of identifying and describing position sequences leading to the presidency; (3) To identify and describe career strategy orien­ tations for these presidents based upon a con­ ceptual framework for career strategies developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson;^ and (4) To identify and describe personal and demographic data concerning the study respondents. The purposes of the study were supported by research questions. A review of the literature was conducted concern­ ing the career studies of college and university presi­ dents in general and public community-junior college presidents in particular. Special attention was directed toward studies concerning career and vocational choice, personal and background factors of academic president s , career p a t t e r n s , career strategy o r i e n t a t i o n s , and career perception information. ^Thompson, Avery, and Carlson, "Occupations." 288 The study population of the twenty-nine Michigan public community-junior college presidents as listed in the 1975-76 Directory of Michigan Community Colleges compiled by the Michigan Community College Association was selected since an overall profile of the Michigan presidents was desired concerning the various careerrelated aspects identified in the study. Twenty-seven of the Michigan presidents participated in the study, a 93.1 percent response. Study data were provided by the participating presidents through written responses to a mailed question­ naire followed by a structured personal interview with the study investigator. Data were presented in the form of frequency tabulations, percentages, and descriptive information concerning career perceptions. Further, the data were presented in two broad sections: (1) the presidents' profile based on personal and demographic data, career pattern information, and career strategy orientations; and (2) the presidents' perceptions of career and personal influences. A summary of the data analysis findings in the order of sections noted above follows. 289 Summary of the Findings Personal and Demographic Profile 1. The presidents' mean age was fifty years with the youngest thirty-six and the oldest fifty-nine. The greatest number of presidents (18 or 66.7%) range in age from forty-six to fifty-five. 2. All the presidents are males. 3. Twenty-six of the twenty-seven presidents are married and one is single. 4. Sixteen presidents were bora in cities having a population of 10,000 or less while eleven were born in cities having a population of more than 10,000. Ten states represent all the birthplaces, and these states are primarily in the mideastern and midwestern sections of the country. 5. Eleven were born in Michigan. Twenty-four (88.9%) of the presidents spent half or more of their formative years city or town. Two-thirds of those (age 6-18) (16) in one lived their formative years in communities of 25,000 or fewer resi­ dents. Almost 30 percent (7) lived in towns with popu­ lations of 5,000 or fewer. Eleven of the presidents who spent half or more of their formative years in a single city were from Michigan, and eight other states were also represented with five presidents spending their formative years in Pennsylvania cities. 290 6. Based on their p a r e n t s ' occupations, the presidents were quite representative of the various occupational levels in our society. However, a dis­ proportionate number of fathers were either "profes­ sionals" or "executives including managers and pro­ prietors" with six in each of the two categories. Almost 75 percent (20) of the mothers were full-time housewives during their sons' formative years. Two mothers were identified as public school teachers. Twenty-five of the twenty-seven presidents spent their formative years with both parents present in the home. 7. The presidents' fathers generally received less formal education than did their mothers. Slightly more than 70 percent (19) of the fathers had a high school diploma or less. Only four (14.8%) completed a baccalaureate degree. had at least Approximately 70 per­ cent of the mothers had a formal education equivalent to a high school diploma or greater. All the presidents' wives had at least graduated from high school with almost 77 percent (2 0) having graduated from college. 8. Eighteen respondents (66.7%) have an earned doctorate while ten have a Master's and one listed the Bachelor's as the highest earned degree. They received their highest earned degrees from a total of eighteen universities representing ten states; however, 4 3 percent of the highest earned degrees were awarded by four 291 Michigan universities with Michigan State University having awarded significantly more such degrees than the other three in-state universities. 9. Concerning the presidents' academic fields of study at each degree level, social studies-related programs provided the most common majors and minors at the Bachelor's level. The emphasis changed rather dra­ matically at the Master's level. At the latter level, majors in the social sciences decreased sharply while majors in education, particularly public school admin­ istration, increased sharply. Those eighteen respondents holding an earned doctorate had majors primarily in education-related areas— thirteen in number; however, the emphasis changed from public school administration to higher education administration. The presidents' formal education history indicated generally the movement from a broad number of specializations at the under­ graduate level to a specific type of education-related specialization at the graduate level with educational administration being the major emphasis of study. 10. Almost two-thirds (17) of the respondents were in the top quarter of their high school class. Approximately 90 percent (24) were in the top half of their class. By the time the respondents finished their undergraduate programs, 96 percent (26) were in the top 292 half of their graduating class. Many of the respondents did not attend college directly after high school gradu­ ation due to military service commitments. 11. More than half (15) of the respondents indi­ cated that they had graduated from high school and/or college with academic honors. Two presidents had been Kellogg Fellows. 12. Approximately 70 percent (19) of the p resi­ dents were "very active" in high school extra-curricular activities. Many were involved in sports. were "not active" in high school. graduate experience, Only four During the u n der­ the distribution of responses con­ cerning the degree of participation in college-related activities was much more evenly distributed with ten (37%) "very active," eleven six (22%) "not active." (almost 41%) "active," and This decrease in participation was due, in part, to the fact that many of the respondents entered college on the G.I. Bill as older ex-servicemen who needed to work part-time or full-time during their college years. In college they were more studies- motivated than activities-motivated. Position Sequence/Career Pattern Profile 1. Twenty-one (almost 78%) of the responding Michigan presidents are currently serving in their first public community college presidency. Six respondents 293 have previously served as a chief administrative officer of a community college campus, unit, or district. Twenty-one respondents have been in their present position ten years or less while the twenty-seven respondents have been in their present presidency an average of 6.78 years. Seven have served for five years while four have served for nine years. 2. In terms of the total number of positions held, the presidents have occupied an average of six and one-half positions. All respondents had moved to their present position by the ninth position since receiving their undergraduate degree. One president came to his present position in the third position move while one came to his present position in his ninth position move. 3. The respondents obtained their first community college presidency in the following number of positions: none in the first or second position, one each in the third and fourth position, eight in the fifth position, four in the sixth position, seven in the seventh position, five in the eighth position, and one in the ninth position. 4. a total of ten (37%) respondents began their careers as secondary school teachers. A total of twelve (44%) began at some level of secondary education. 5. Only three (11%) began their careers in ele­ mentary education positions. 294 6. None of the respondents began their careers in either a community college position or "other edu­ cation" position. 7. Only three (11%) began their careers in a higher education position, all of whom were in four-year college or university positions. 8. One-third (9) began their careers in positions outside education. 9. By the second position, the only substantial change in any position classification type came as a result of a decrease in those holding "noneducation" positions from nine 10. (33%) to four (15%). After the second position move, none of the twenty-seven respondents were again involved in any elementary education positions. By the third position move, the classification types of "other education" and "noneducation" ceased to be relevant classifications. 11. By the third position, eight (almost 30%) of the presidents held positions in a public community college. 12. By the fourth position, 59 percent (16) of the respondents were still employed in positions outside the community college. 295 13. By the fifth position, 44 percent (12) still had not moved into community college work while 55 cent pe r ­ (15) held community college positions. 14. By the sixth position out of a maximum of nine total positions necessary, one-third (9) of the future Michigan community college presidents had still not taken any kind of community college position. 15. After the sixth position, there were no longer any respondents employed in a secondary education position. 16. By the seventh position, approximately 81 per cent (22) of the responding presidents were in community college work while four others were working in four-year college or university positions, and one was still work­ ing in a "noneducation" position. 17. By the eighth position, the only respondent not working in a community college held a university position. 18. All twenty-seven respondents have been chief administrative officers of only one type of higher edu­ cation institution— a public community college. 19. No president has held the position on a full-time basis more than twice. 20. Only six (22%) have been public school super­ intendents during their careers. 296 21. Six respondents have held some type of business-related or finance position during their careers. 22. Only eight presidents (almost 30%) have any appreciable amount of teaching experience in a community college, four-year college, or university. 23. The overwhelming majority of responding Michigan community college presidents (26 for 96%) came directly to their present position from an education position— virtually all administrative positions— with eighteen (66.7%) moving from a community college position. Fifteen different or separate positions served as spring­ boards to their present presidency. Six (approximately 22%) of the presidents arrive in their present position from a previous position within their present college while twenty-one (78%) came to their present position from outside their current college. The twenty-seven respondents came to their present presidency from a total of nine different states with 60 percent (16) moving to their present position from another position within Michigan. 24. Almost 60 percent (16) of the respondents arrived in their first community college presidency from a position within a community college while five (19%) came from a four-year college or university, five 297 arrived from a public school position, and one (3.7%) arrived in his first presidency from a position outside education. Community college deans' positions were the most common springboard positions to the first community college presidency. The academic dean's position was most often mentioned. Community college vice-presiden- c i e s , public school administrative positions other than the superintendency, and nondean administrative positions in four-year colleges or universities were the next most common springboard positions to the first community c ol­ lege presidency. Two-thirds (18) of the respondents moved to their first presidency from outside the organi­ zation. 25.The three most common routes to a community college presidency were: (in descending order of importance) (1) community college positions, (2) four-year college and university positions, and (3) public school positions; however, over half of the respondents used the community college position route to arrive in their first or present presidency. Virtually all the spring­ board positions identified were high-level administrative positions. Career Strategy Profile The responding Michigan public community college presidents were classified into career strategy 298 orientations which: (1) best described their career p a t ­ tern to their present position and (2) best described their career strategy orientation concerning their future career considerations. The strategy orientation desig­ nations were based upon a conceptual framework developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson and operationalized by 2 Cavanaugh. Strategy was used as a formal term to describe the orientation conscious) (whether conscious or sub­ that an individual has toward his career. The following nine career strategy orientations were identified in the present study: (1) Heuristic (2) Occupational (education) (3) Occupational (noneducation) (4) Organizational (5) Organizational to Organizational (6) Organizational to Occupational (7) Organizational-Occupational (concurrently) (8) Heuristic to Occupational (9) Stability As a result of assigning a career strategy to each respondent to best indicate his career orientation to the p r e s e n t , the following findings were identified. 2 I b i d . ; Cavanaugh, Strategies." "Position Sequences and Career 299 By using a more detailed breakdown of strategy orientations, the occupational strategy orientation was the most representative (14 presidents) with an addi­ tional four respondents classified as organizationaloccupational (concurrently) and four identified as organizational to occupational. The latter two orien­ tations were modifications of the occupational strategy. Also, two respondents were classified as having a heu­ ristic to occupational orientation, which was also a modification of the occupational orientation. The occupationally oriented respondents held jobs only in education, valued position progress in education more highly than position progress in a particular education institution or organization, and stayed in any one e du­ cation organization for less than ten years. The three occupational strategy modifications, as noted above, indicated that those respondents careers (10) began their (1) by being employed for more them ten years at an educational institution or a campus/unit of the organization or (2) by spending several years in and out of education before following a more characteristic occupational pattern. Also, the more thorough breakdown indicated that one respondent had an organizational orientation staying within a single educational organi­ zation, one had an organizational to organizational orientation, and one had an occupational orientation 300 (noneducation) since prior to his presidency his entire position history was in a single occupation not related to education. Based upon a broader analysis of data, three career strategy orientations were identified which described the respondents' present position: career patterns to their (1) a heuristic strategy orientation (any occupation, any organ i z a t i o n ) ; (2) an occupational strategy (3) (present occupation, any o r g a n i z a t i o n ) ; and an organizational strategy (any occupation, present organization). 1. One president (3.7%) was heuristically oriented concerning his career pattern to the present. He had been employed in a variety of occupations and organizations and had an orientation toward personal attainment regardless of where it took him. He was fifty-five, which was five years older than the mean age for all respondents. 2. Two respondents (7.4%) had an organizational strategy orientation to the present. was 4 3.5 years. Their average age Each had held a variety of educational positions in a single school district. Both had spent their entire professional careers in Michigan, both were bom and spent their formative years in the communities in which they now reside, neither had a doctorate, and 301 both were only interested in a particular presidency— the community college over which they now preside. 3. Twenty-four responding presidents (almost 89%) exhibited an occupational strategy orientation to the present. Their mean age was 50.3 years as compared with fifty as a mean age for all respondents. One-third had spent their total professional careers in Michigan. Fourteen of these presidents had spent half or more of their formative years in communities of 25,000 or fewer. Also, all eighteen presidents holding an earned doctorate were classified as being occupationally oriented. Three career strategy orientations which described the p r e s i d e n t s ' career pattern perceptions for the future were identified. heuristic strategy (2) They were: (any occupation, an occupational strategy (1) a any o r g a nization); (present occupation, any organization); and (3) a stability strategy (present occupation, present o r g a nization). 1. Five presidents (18.5%) were classified as indicating a heuristic strategy orientation concerning future career considerations. Even though their p resi­ dency was fulfilling, they indicated future interests outside education. Their mean age was fifty-two which was two years older than the mean age of all respondents. Four of the five had their doctorates and had grown up in communities smaller than 25,000. 302 2. Eleven respondents (approximately 40%) had an occupational strategy orientation in terms of their perception of future aspirations. They were two years younger than the norm, and ten had earned doctorates. For these p r e s i d e n t s , consideration of other opportuni­ ties in education but outside their present college was very important. Some were interested in another college presidency (a variety of types of postsecondary education institutions). These respondents were also occupationally oriented up to their present position. 3. The notion of another job appeared to be irrelevant for the other eleven respondents (40.7%). Their average age was one year older than the n orm of fifty. Nine of the eleven had been occupationally oriented up to their present position while the other two had evidenced earlier an organizational orientation. Seven of the eleven did not have an earned doctorate. This group can be characterized as being no longer occupationally mobile. for "better" jobs. Some felt a lack of competence Some mentioned that they considered the lack of a doctorate to be a hindrance. Others expressed a perception that they could not really improve on their present presidency. Age, location, security, and retirement considerations were also mentioned as reasons for staying in their present position. 303 Perceptions of Career Influences The careers of the twenty-seven responding Michigan public community college presidents cannot be totally understood without providing relevant perceptions regarding their career motivations. Their careers cannot be characterized as resulting from totally logical and conscious decisions made in a simple and mechanistic way. Usually a variety of factors affected the career decision process, and it was often difficult to isolate single factors. Generally speaking, a number of factors related to the career decision-making process while usually a particular factor can be identified as particularly sig­ nificant at a given time for a given individual. The presidents have responded to a variety of attitudes, perceptions, motivations, circumstances, e v e n t s , and people during their lives. 1. For a majority of the presidents, the proces of formulating career decisions was significantly affected by the Great Depression and World War II. As a result of growing up during the 1930s and completing a military service commitment, the presidents developed values, beliefs, and particular perceptions. Strong and positive attitudes were developed such as the belief in hard work, the importance of responsibility to the family and to others, the desire for challenges, and the importance of taking calculated risks in order to 304 accomplish an assignment or undertaking. Also, the pro­ cess of formulating career choices was delayed or "put off" for many since the circumstances of the times restricted their considerations regarding future plans. They were preoccupied with the events of that period. The immediate post-war years provided an oppor­ tunity for serious career consideration. Generally the future college presidents began college with the sig­ nificant financial assistance of the G.I. Bill. Because of their previous experiences, most had developed strong orientations toward considering careers that would pro­ vide the opportunity to serve people and lead. Also career considerations during their college and post­ service years were affected by the need to find work to provide financial support. These career consider­ ations were primarily developed during their college years which were characterized by their motivation to succeed, their general maturity, and their above-average age. Career options were evaluated in terms of potential for serving people, available employment opportunities, the desire for challenges, and probable leadership oppor­ tunities. The majority (22) of the presidents considered a variety of career alternatives while five presidents considered only an education-related career. Perceptions of competence were often altered as a result of formal education experiences which served to direct interests 305 according to the respondent's perception of his ability to master various areas of subject matter. However, the presidents repeatedly indicated a strong and c on­ tinuous positive perception of their ability to succeed and their overall competency. 2. The selection of education as a long-term career for a majority of the presidents resulted from the following influences: teachers, (1) family members and (2) military service opportunities to train and provide leadership, with people, and (3) the desire to serve and work (4) the perception that opportunities for employment and security existed. Some felt that such a career decision was pre-ordained. The choice of education as a career was perceived primarily as a developmental process and a natural choice by most of the respondents because of the conscious and sub­ conscious influences already noted. 3. The movement to administrative positions within the public schools, community colleges, four-year colleges and universities, and noneducation positions was the result of various motivations. The movement again was primarily a developmental process. The future presidents were chosen for a variety of administrative opportunities because they usually chose to accept more responsibility, to be more visible, and to seek positions providing increased challenges and additional risk. 306 The primary reasons or motivations identified by the respondents as the bases for their movement to positions of ever-increasing responsibility were: (1) service to society, education, or a particular institution; (2) the social influences of family, friends, teachers, and professional colleagues; (4) (3) a professional opportunity; a developmental process resulting from a growing commitment to administration; and (5) an accidental circumstance. 4. With regard to tracing the respondents' movements into community college administration and eventually to a community college presidency, fifteen of the responding presidents began their careers in public school positions while three started in fouryear college or university positions, and nine began in noneducation positions. Sixteen (almost 60%) of the presidents moved to a community college presidency after serving in one or more public community college administrative positions while eleven (almost 40%) moved to a community college presidency without having pre­ viously served in any public community college position. The responding presidents provided four broad reasons for their movement into community college administration or to a community college presidency: (1) the community college philosophy (9 respondents), (2) perceived oppor­ tunities and new horizons (9), (3) the influence of 307 others (6), and (4) unique circumstances (3 respondents). The importance of visibility and the sponsor-sponsoree concept were important factors in the movement to various administrative positions. 5. Three-quarters (21) of all respondents indi­ cated that there was a point in time when they decided to aspire to a presidency. They also indicated that as a result of aspiring to such a g o a l , they consciously developed career plans and viewed position and career changes in terms of whether or not such changes increased the potential for selection as a president. On the average, these respondents obtained a presidency by the second position move after aspiring to such a position. The six presidents who indicated they had not consciously directed their careers toward a presidency also generally perceived that they did not have a career p lan. Generally, they were sought out for the position as a result of particular circumstances and did not consider such a position until asked to do so by others. 6. Almost 60 percent (16) of the presidents felt that they were selected to be community college presidents as a result of their previous educational administration experience. A distant second reason given was "advocating a particular educational philosophy" 308 (5 respondents). Four indicated "professional reputation in education" as the primary reason for selection as a president. 7. Regarding their reason for accepting a presi­ dency, almost 45 percent (12) indicated "educational challenge" while an additional nine presidents accepted the position because it represented an opportunity for "professional advancement." 8. Almost 89 percent (24) of the responding presidents perceived that the position immediately pre­ ceding the first presidency should be in educational administration preferably at the community college level. A majority of the respondents felt that the community college president should have top level administrative experience in the two positions immediately preceding a presidency. Teaching experience in higher education was also considered as a valuable background experience. Twenty-two of the twenty-four presidents who indicated that the position immediately preceding a community college presidency should be in educational adminis­ tration further suggested that it should be a top level line position in which the individual reports to the chief administrative officer. Specifically mentioned was a dean's position, particularly in the academic area of responsibility. 309 9. The twenty-seven responding presidents' perceptions of future opportunities beyond their present position were largely affected by their perceptions of competence and aspiration. Sixteen of the presidents indicated that they were interested in pursuing other career options beyond their present position. While a few were desirous of pursuing options entirely outside education, most were interested in seeking other positions in education including: another community college presidency or a presidency in a private college or spe­ cific type of four-year college, teaching at the uni­ versity level, consulting work, and writing in their professional field. Many perceived their competencies as being strengthened by their present opportunity and felt they were more qualified to consider other types of opportunities as noted. They continued to be risk and mobility oriented. Eleven presidents perceived that future options had substantially lessened for them. They indicated an interest in remaining in their present position. These presidents were less risk oriented and less mobile. Reasons given for reduced aspirations were lack of the doctorate, age, needed service for retirement benefits eligibility, a belief that they could not improve upon their present position and institution, and the desire to remain in their present geographic locations. 310 The responding presidents' thoughts concerning their futures generally indicated a lessening of aspir­ ations with regard to level of achievement. More emphasis was placed on the salience aspect of aspiration; namely, such factors as family and security considerations and the need for a more leisurely career or work pace were indicated. Perceptions of Personal Influences Although much of the presidents' effectiveness in their career positions resulted from their formal education and various work experiences, their s t y l e s , values, and beliefs have been significantly influenced by others. Parents, relatives, and respected fellow educators were perceived as the most significant influences. 1. Parents were perceived to be the single most important source of beliefs and values. Particu­ larly significant values learned from parents were: (1) the importance of hard work, (2) the worth and dignity of all people, and (3) honesty. Other values or beliefs which were perceived to have been primarily learned from parents were: integrity, perseverance, sense of responsibility, being unselfish, the Golden Rule, the value of risk behavior, to have confidence in one's abilities, competitiveness, helping others, and the worth of an education. 311 2. The Depression and World W a r II were p er­ ceived to be the most significant major events which affected their values and beliefs. 3. tive years' The presidents perceived the following forma­ experiences to have been important influences: (1) growing up in smaller communities; parents in the home; activities, (2) having both (3) the emphasis placed on family sharing, and home responsibilities; and (4) religious training. Perceptions Regarding Career Revisions Most of the responding presidents w o u l d not make substantive changes concerning their careers if given the chance to do so. For the most part, they indicated satisfaction with the decisions, opportunities, and c ir­ cumstances related to their careers. Those presidents who did speculate regarding changes in their careers mentioned the following: more frequent changing of positions rather than staying too long in any one position, beginning careers earlier, beginning college earlier, having an opportunity to consider career options without the necessity of making a career choice based on the need for employment, doctoral program. and completing the 312 Conclusions and General Discussion of the Study binding's The conclusions are organized and discussed according to the study research questions. 1. What are the observations of the Michigan public community-junior college presidents concerning the extent to which the career channeling factors (perceptions of competency, aspiration, and opportunity) affected their career decisions which ultimately provided the opportunity to serve as a community college president? The twenty-seven responding presidents' arrival in their present positions has resulted from a variety of influences which have affected them during their life cycle. Perceptions of competence have usually been very positive and strong and resulted from academic success in school, early opportunities to demonstrate responsibility, and early leadership experiences. As a result of strong family backgrounds, emphasis on hard work, and the opportunities to teach and lead, the presidents aspired to careers in which they could relate to people. Career considerations were usually made over a period of time during which the presidents considered various choices and explored different alternatives. Because of their desire for challenges and leadership opportunities, the respondents indicated a high level of aspiration throughout their career progress to the present. They were willing to 313 expend the effort and take risks in order to realize achievements or opportunities they valued. Further, their perception of opportunity was influenced by their general belief that education provided necessary employ­ ment and career opportunities. Strong support from family members, teachers, and career colleagues has also reinforced their positive perceptions of competence, aspiration, and opportunity. The presidents indicated very positive perceptions regard ing their careers to the present. Most were satisfied that their lives had been productive and that they had been fortunate in terms of their opportunities and the types of personal and social influences that have guided them. Parents were credited with teaching values and beliefs. Most would make few substantive changes in their careers if given the opportunity to do so. Their overall outlook continued to be positive and optimistic. They felt a strong sense of satisfaction and general achieve­ ment with regard to their career and human contributions. There was and is a restlessness among these presidents. la. Considering that a number of career alternatives were available, why did the presidents choose a particular career? Most of the presidents have experienced progres­ sive and orderly careers in a single career area— namely, 314 education. Only a few had disruptive careers involving a switch of occupations. The selection of education and the movement into positions of increased responsibility for most presidents was a developmental process based on such motivations as a desire to provide service, influences provided by others, and perceptions of pro­ fessional opportunities. The findings concerning the respondents' motivations are similar to Ferrari's study findings except that the present study respondents placed less emphasis on the importance of accidental circumstances. Also, unlike Ferrari's respondents, the Michigan presidents were much more willing to say they "chose" in order to "be chosen." More candor and con­ scious direction were indicated by the presidents in the present study. influences of events Over time and as a result of the (particularly the Great Depression and World War I X ) , family, and teachers as well as their people-centered interests and perceptions that education presented enqployment opportunities and leadership oppor­ tunities, the presidents arrived in education. Most began their educational careers upon gradu­ ating from college. Often the G.I. Bill provided the necessary financial assistance. This developmental process was characterized by a series of decisions made over a period of time, and the movements and decisions concerning career were related to other earlier and 315 later considerations. As discussed by Ginzberg, this developmental process also appeared to be largely irreversible. The movement to a presidency, whether from outside or inside the community college movement, resulted from the desire for new challenges, the desire to work with and lead people, interest in professional advancement, and perceptions of achievement. Wing found "educational challenge" to be the primary reason for accepting the position. The presidents' shifting or movement from various positions within or outside edu­ cation resulted from changes and refinements of their perceptions of competency, aspiration, and opportunity. It was apparent from the presidents' backgrounds that the society was receptive to vertical mobility in higher education. lb. Was the attainment of a presidency a goal that resulted in career planning designed to obtain the goal? A majority of the presidents indicated that they did decide to be a president and attempted to develop career plans and position changes that would improve their potential for arriving in the top position. Although Thompson, Avery, and Carlson noted that it is difficult to rigidly and accurately map out a career in advance within a dynamic society, it was apparent that the twenty-one respondents who aspired to 316 a presidency in advance did consciously develop a -type of flexible career plan w h ich was modified as necessary depending on events, opportunities, and c i r c umstances. They perceived such planning as necessary if they were to be "maze bright" concerning options available to them and their need to acquire the necessary education and experiences in order to be prepared for such opportuni­ ties. They indicated that they made conscious choices in order to be chosen. In retrospect, the presidents felt that some aspects of their backgrounds and exper­ iences were more valuable than other aspects in prepar­ ation for the duties of a presidency. As noted b y Ferrari and as observed by the p r e ­ sent study investigator, most presidents described their careers in terms of being educators particularly in higher education, and as a result of a series of activi­ ties and decisions based on values, philosophies, oppor­ tunities, needs, and circumstances, they ultimately were chosen to be presidents. The present study findings indicate that indi­ viduals do decide to be presidents and do prepare for such positions. This conclusion differs from the earlier studies of L e a k e , Ferrari, and Giles but is supported by the more recent findings of Hood and Morgan. Trum­ bull's recent research also supports such a finding. Further, as educators, the presidents indicated the 317 importance of establishing long-range goals when possible, and many, indeed, planned and achieved their long-range goals. This finding is contrary to Majetic's study of educators (counselors) in which he concluded that short- range goals were more the norm. There does seem to be a trend, supported by the present study findings and the recent studies noted, that individuals aspire and plan for the top position and are more candid in admitting to such an interest. Most did, indeed, perceive that they "chose" in order to be "chosen." lc. Was there an experience or decision at some point in time that served to encourage the active/conscious pursuit of a presidency? The presidents were able to describe experiences that served to encourage their aspiration for a presi­ dency. For a majority (21), the decision resulted from the encouragement of superiors in the job situation or during graduate school experiences in which they were exposed to the community college movement. Also, many of the presidents indicated that the consideration of a presidency was a logical pursuit given the desire to work with young people, the interest in leadership positions, a belief in the community college philosophy, and the desire for professional advancement and new challenges. The growth of the community college movement 318 nationally during the 1960s was perceived by many to provide new professional opportunities. Many were encouraged to pursue a presidency by the presidents for whom they worked. Visibility was important since a number of the study respondents became visible to others because of their willingness to accept new assignments which usually provided increased respon­ sibility and management training opportunities. those presidents Even (6 ) who had not previously considered the pursuit of a presidency did so when actually sought out by others. 2. What observations are made by the Michigan public community-junior college presidents concerning the extent to which their perceptions of com­ petency, aspiration, and opportunity will affect their present and future career plans? Almost two-thirds of the responding presidents indicated interest in pursuing career opportunities beyond their present position. The present presidency was not considered necessarily to be the "high point" or only goal in their careers. Overall career contri­ butions were more important than position status for a majority of the presidents. Most preferred to consider other higher education options particularly teaching at the university level, another presidency, or writing and consulting in their field of endeavor. found similar preferences. Morgan also 319 Although not significantly younger them the norm, these individuals usually had earned their doctorate and perceived that their experiences in their present position as well as in other previous positions strengthened their competencies and general employment appeal. However, the general tightening of the pro­ fessional job market as well as reduced enrollments and financial constraints at the postsecondary education level caused many of the presidents to differentiate between perceived opportunities and what could be realistically considered as opportunities. Once having attained a presidency, more respon­ dents were inclined to be less risk oriented. Morgan also noted this general change in perception of aspir­ ation. Once having achieved the position, a number of presidents indicated an interest in staying in their present positions; however, they probably will not accumulate years of tenure as great as reported in earlier studies by Hawk and Roberts. Wing's study indicated a decreasing tenure among presidents, although the Michigan presidents had greater tenure than those presidents in Wing's study. For those respondents oriented toward considering other opportunities within and outside education, there were strong indications that they were still oriented toward new challenges. They exhibited a professional 320 and personal vitality. Those respondents who indicated that they felt they were near the end of their careers were more inclined to feel "trapped" and were more pr e ­ occupied with ordering the responsibilities in their present positions to provide their continued input in the present presidency. 3. Since receiving the undergraduate degree, what has been the sequence of positions held by each Michigan public community-junior college president and what are the identifiable char­ acteristics and patterns of the position sequences? In addition to the specific findings listed in the career pattern profile summary, the Michigan com­ munity college presidents have been almost totally oriented to a career in education. They have held am average of six and one-half positions since finishing their undergraduate program. Over half (15) began their careers in public school positions while three started in four-year college or university positions, and nine began in noneducation positions. Most of the respondents moved to their present position from another institution with fifteen different positions— primarily community college administrative positions— serving as springboards to the present presidency. common routes to the presidency were: community colleges, The three most (1 ) the public (2 ) four-year colleges and universi­ ties, and (3) public school systems. The Michigan 321 presidents' movement to the position was similar to the national trend of the 1960s noted by Wing in which presidents were coming more from community college backgrounds rather than from public schools. Also, the study findings regarding career patterns and spring­ board positions are similar to Ferrari and Berte's national study findings. There were several avenues of general preparation for such a presidency, but the community college avenue was the most often used route. However, there was no one specific avenue of career preparation which could be considered as the route to best fulfill the p r epar­ ation of the ideal president since position histories of the individual presidents were diverse. These find­ ings were similar to those noted in Cavanaugh's national study. The study results indicate that routes must be broadly defined as public school, university, or c om­ munity college routes with only the springboard position to the presidency realistically considered if the routes identified are to be considered as appropriate and valid. In this regard, the study findings are similar to those in other studies done by Morgan, Ferrari and Berte, and Cavanaugh. It is difficult to identify routes if they are more narrowly defined as very specific and/or parallel job sequences. Any attempt to identify 322 clusters of similar career patterns using more them one position was extremely difficult and required too many subjective interpretations. This study, like the studies done by Cavanaugh, Morgan, Griffiths, and others, presented frequencies of positions held rather than attempting to maintain indi­ vidual position histories. 4. What are the identifiable career strategies which describe the Michigan public communityjunior college p r e s i d e n t s , and what are the identifiable characteristics of the presidents in the strategy profiles? Twenty-four of the twenty-seven responding presidents were occupationally oriented. They had p ri­ marily been in education during their careers and were upwardly mobile. Most of these individuals had earned doctorates, were slightly older than the n o r m of fifty, and more often spent their formative years in cities smaller than 25,000. Only two presidents were oriented more to seeking or accepting opportunities within one organization. They did not care to leave their organi­ zations during their careers, did not have a doctorate, were "hometown boys," and were only interested in being a president of the college over which they now preside. One other president was heuristically oriented. He had always sought opportunities and challenges in a variety of occupations and organizations. 323 A large majority of the presidents were, there­ fore, career-bound rather than place-bound in their orientation. Their career strategy orientations were similar to those identified for superintendents as discussed by Carlson. Cavanaugh also found that the vast majority of presidents were occupationally oriented although he also used a greater number of variations of the occupational strategy orientation. The present study also found, as did Cavanaugh, that background and per­ sonal factors have little relevancy to career strategy orientations. Although the conceptual framework for career strategies developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson and used as a basis for identifying strategies in the present study is broadly valid, attempts to operation­ alize the strategy concepts require that individuals 1 perceptions be carefully considered in addition to analysis of position histories. Without considering perceptions of career decisions and movements, the attempt to identify strategy orientations using only predetermined constraints results in rather sterile, simplistic, and mechanistic designations which do not accurately describe the presidents' 5. career orientations. What is the profile of the Michigan public com­ munity-junior college presidents concerning selected background and personal information? 324 The presidents have a mean age of fifty, were all male, and all married except one. The overwhelming majority spent at least half of their formative years in one city or town usually having 25,000 or fewer residents. Almost half (11) grew up in Michigan while two-thirds held earned doctorates with a major in higher education or general administration. They were academi­ cally strong during their total formal education exper­ ience. Most were actively involved during high school in extra-curricular activities, particularly sports. A disproportionate number of the presidents' were professionals, managers, or proprietors. mothers were full-time homemakers. fathers Their The presidents' mothers were better educated than were their fathers. The presidents' wives had typically graduated from col­ lege. The present study of Michigan community college presidents indicated that Michigan presidents were similar to their counterparts nationally with regard to background information. The present findings generally indicated a continuation of the following trends established by Hawk (1960), Roberts and Berte (1964), Schultz (1969) , Morgan (1971), and Fields (1970), Wing (1975): (1965), Ferrari (1971), Cavanaugh (1) a gradual trend toward the appointment of older individuals as presidents, (2 ) a gradual decrease in years of tenure within the 325 present presidency, (3) a more professionalized presi­ dent holding an earned doctorate usually in the area of higher education administration, and (4) a continu­ ation of background similarities in terms of formative years and occupations of parents. Other studies done since 1970 by Hood, Leake, Trumbull, and Kirk also strongly indicated that the community college president had become increasingly more professionalized. The study findings indicated that Michigan public community-junior college presidents are similar to other public community-junior college presidents nationwide. Further, the similarity of findings suggested that there were generally common background factors, professional experiences, values and beliefs, perceptions, position sequences, and strategy orientations evident among the community college presidents; however, as Cavanaugh noted, it should not be concluded that any one factor or combination of factors regarding careers was mandatory for arriving in a public community-junior college presi­ dency. The actual position histories of the responding presidents and the variety of springboard positions identified indicates that the presidents have come from a diverse number of backgrounds, positions, and career paths. Success in obtaining such a presidency cannot be guaranteed simply because an individual appears to have 326 a similar profile to others who have arrived in the position. As one study participant noted: Just because you have a union card doesn't guar­ antee you a presidency. I have friends who have gone through the same program w ith the same aspirations, and they are still waiting in the wings. Many conditions and factors are involved in the process of moving through a career to a community college p r e s i ­ dency. Although an individual may be "ready" for such an opportunity, the process cannot be completed without the right circumstances, being in the right place at the right time, and an element of luck beyond the needed preparation. Conscious career planning can facilitate the process of arriving, but the circumstances and con­ ditions which allow for the selection are, to say the least, difficult to anticipate or control. Recommendations for Further ResearcK Having concluded the present research and hope­ fully having identified pertinent information concerning career perceptions, position sequences, strategy orien­ tations, and selected background information, it is appropriate to recommend a few related topics for further research. 1. A replication of the present study in ten years would be desirable. Since the 1970s have been described as the 1960s in reverse in terms of a number 327 of indices related to higher education, it would be appropriate to study the Michigan community college presidents at a later time to ascertain whether or not similar perceptions, career patterns, strategy orien­ tations, and background factors are observable. 2. A study is needed presidents in other states or determine the extent to which of community college on a national scale to presidents of similar age were significantly affected by the events of the 19 30s and 1940s as were the Michigan presidents studied. 3. A study of community college presidents from a psychological perspective would be appropriate. The present study was more sociologically oriented toward careers and perceptions of careers as expressed by the presidents. The suggested study should concentrate more on the inner drives, fears, thoughts, and feelings of the presidents. 4.A study is needed to determine the best styles and procedures to use in arriving in a position, performing the responsibilities of the position, and departing from the position. Since presidents as well as many other managers arrive, perform, and depart in many positions during a career, it would be appropriate to identify how the transition can be carried out with the most significant benefits to all parties and insti­ tutions involved. 328 5. A study is desirable that deals with the relationship between different career patterns and presidential effectiveness. As noted by Ferrari in his study of four-year college and university presidents, research is needed to identify those factors in an individual's career, background, style of leadership, philosophy of education, and various institutional factors that distinguish effective from ineffective presidents. 6. A follow-up study is needed of the present Michigan community-junior college presidents ten or more years from the present study date to determine the extent to which their perceptions of future oppor­ tunities are realized as well as what actually happens to the present presidents. 7. A study is necessary that would result in additional and realistic guidelines for consistent under­ standing and application from researcher to researcher of the conceptual framework of career strategy orien­ tations developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson. 8. A study is needed to check at a national level the trends identified in the present statewide study as well as other studies using various populations of community college presidents. 329 9. A study is needed of community college presidents which would maintain the individuals' position histories instead of just presenting frequencies of positions held. 10. A study would be desirable that would deal with the implications of the career-related findings presented in this study for graduate training programs and factors considered by those responsible for selecting community college presidents. 11. A study is needed that would use available research techniques to determine the extent to which career sequence patterns can be placed into like clusters and similar patterns. The demands made upon community college presi­ dents as well as other types of academic presidents both now and in the future make it imperative that continuing studies are undertaken concerning the nature of the office and the individuals in the position. Effective leadership is needed in the community colleges to insure creative management, effective curricula, and colleges responsive to the needs of those served. Studies are needed that will identify the dimensions of such leader­ ship to insure that those who aspire and follow routes to the presidency are, indeed, able and complete person­ alities capable of providing the best possible leadership and standards. APPENDICES APPENDIX A MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITY-JUNIOR COLLEGES AND PRESIDENTS APPENDIX A M ICHIGAN PUBLIC COMM UNITY AND JU N IO R COLLEGES 1975-76 8 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 I i 1 Alpena Community College Alpena Bay da Noc Community College Escanaba Charles Stewart Mott Community C ollage Flint Della Collage University Center Glen Oaks Community College Centrsville Gogebic Community College Ironwood Grand Rapids Junior College Grand Rapids Henry Ford Community College Dearborn Highland Park College Highland Park Jackson Community College Jackson Kalamazoo V alley Community College Kalamazoo Kellogg Community C ollege Battle Creek Kirtland Community College Roscommon Lake Michigan College Benton Harbor Lansing Community College Lansing Macomb County Community College District O flices. Warren Center Campus. Mt- Clem ent South Campus, Warren Mid-Michigan Community C ollege Harrison Monroe County Community College Monroe Montcalm Community College Sidney Muskegon Community C ollege Muskegon North Central Michigan College Petoekey Northwestern Michigan College Traverse City Oakland Community College Central Office. Bloomfield H ills Auburn H ills Campus, Auburn Heights Highland Lakes Campus, Union Lake Orchard Ridge Campua, Farmington Southeaat Campus Center, Oak Park St. Clair County Community C ollege Port Huron Schoolcraft College Livonia Southwestern Michigan Cotlege Oowaglac Washtenaw Community C ollege Ann Arbor Wayne County Community C ollege Detroit West Shore Community C ollege Scottvtlle SOURCE: Michigan Community College Associ­ ation, 1975-76 Directory of Michigan Community Colleges (Leinsing, Mich.: Michigan Community College Associ­ ation, 1975), p. 9^ -in 331 1975-76 DIRECTORY OF MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES ALPENA COMMUNITY COLLEGE 666 Johnson Street Alpena, Michigan 49 707 Phone; AC 517 356-9021 Dr. Herbert N. Stouten President BAY DE NOC COMMUNITY COLLEGE 901 South Twelfth Street Escanaba, Michigan 49829 Phone: A C 906 786-5802 Mr. Edwin E. Wuehle President CHARLES STEWART MOTT COMMUNITY COLLEGE 1401 E. Court Street Flint, Michigan 48503 Phone: AC 313 2 38-1631 Dr. Charles N. Pappas President DELTA COLLEGE University Center, Michigan 48710 Phone; AC 517 686-0400 Mr. Donald J, President Carlyon GLEN OAKS COMMUNITY COLLEGE Centreville, Michigan 49032 Phone: AC 616 467-9945 Dr. Justus D< President Sunderman GOGEBIC COMMUNITY COLLEGE Ironwood, Michigan 49938 Phone: AC 906 932-42 31 Dr. James D. Perry President GRAND RAPIDS JUNIOR COLLEGE 143 Bostwick Avenue, N.E. Grand Rapids, Michigan 49502 Phone: AC 616 456-4899 Mr. Richard W. Calkins President HENRY FORD COMMUNITY COLLEGE 5101 Evergreen Road Dearborn, Michigan 48128 Phone: AC 313 271-2750 Dr. Stuart M. Bundy President HIGHLAND PARK COLLEGE Glendale & Third Avenues Highland Park, Michigan 48203 Phone: AC 313 868-1264 Mr. Thomas Lloyd President JACKSON COMMUNITY COLLEGE 2111 Emmons Road Jackson, Michigan 49201 Phone: AC 517 787-0800 Mr. Harold V. Sheffer President 332 KALAMAZOO VALLEY COMMUNITY COLLEGE 6767 West "O" Avenue Kalamazoo, Michigan 49009 Phone: AC 616 375-5000 Dr. Dale B. Lake President KELLOGG COMMUNITY COLLEGE 450 North Avenue Battle Creek, Michigan 49017 Phone: AC 616 965-3931 Dr. Richard F. Whitmore President KIRTLAND COMMUNITY COLLEGE Roscommon, Michigan 48653 Phone: AC 517 275-5121 Mr. Robert A. Stenger President LAKE MICHIGAN COLLEGE 2755 Napier Avenue Benton Harbor, Michigan 49022 Phone: AC 616 927-3571 Dr. James L. Lehman President LANSING COMMUNITY COLLEGE 419 N. Capitol Avenue Lansing, Michigan 48914 Phone: AC 517 373-7400 Mr. Philip J. Gannon President MACOMB COUNTY COMMUNITY COLLEGE 14500 Twelve Mile Road Warren, Michigan 4809 3 Phone: AC 313 779-7000 Mr. Robert F. Roelofs President MID MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Route 3 Harrison, Michigan 48625 Phone: AC 517 386-7792 Mr. Eugene W. Gillaspy President MONROE COUNTY COMMUNITY COLLEGE 1555 S. Raisinville Road Monroe, Michigan 48161 Phone: AC 313 2 42-7300 Dr. Ronald Campbell President MONTCALM COMMUNITY COLLEGE Sidney, Michigan 48885 Phone: AC 517 328-2111 Dr. Clifford J. Bedore President MUSKEGON COMMUNITY COLLEGE 221 Quarterline Road Muskegon, Michigan 49443 Phone: AC 616 773-9131 Dr. Charles M. Greene President NORTH CENTRAL MICHIGAN COLLEGE 1515 Howard Street Petoskey, Michigan 49770 Phone: AC 616 347-3973 Mr. Alfred D. Shankland President 333 NORTHWESTERN MICHIGAN COLLEGE 1701 E. Front Street Traverse City, Michigan 49684 Phone: AC 616 946-5650 Dr. William J. Yankee President OAKLAND COMMUNITY COLLEGE 2480 Opdyke Road Bloomfield Hills, Michigan 48013 Phone: AC 313 647-6200 Dr. Joseph E. Hill President ST. CLAIR COUNTY COMMUNITY COLLEGE 323 Erie Street Port Huron, Michigan 4 8060 Phone: AC 313 984-3881 Dr. Richard L. Norris President SCHOOLCRAFT COLLEGE 18600 Haggerty Road Livonia, Michigan 48151 Phone: AC 313 591-6400 Dr. C. Nelson Grote President SOUTHWESTERN MICHIGAN COLLEGE Cherry Grove Road Dowagiac, Michigan 49047 Phone: AC 616 782-5113 Dr. Russell "M" Owen President WASHTENAW COMMUNITY COLLEGE 4800 E. Huron River Drive Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 Phone: AC 313 971-6300 Dr. Gunder A. My ran President WAYNE COUNTY COMMUNITY COLLEGE 4612 Woodward Avenue Detroit, Michigan 48201 Phone: AC 313 832-5500 Dr. Reginald Wilson President WEST SHORE COMMUNITY COLLEGE Box 277 Scottville, Michigan 49454 Phone: AC 616 845-6211 Dr. John M. Eaton President SOURCE: Michigan Community College Association, 1975-76 Directory of Michigan Community Colleges (Lansing, M i c h . : Michigan Community College Association, 1975), pp. 5-7. APPENDIX B MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITY-JUNIOR COLLEGE ENROLLMENTS APPENDIX B MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITY-JUNIOR COLLEGE ENROLLMENTS MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITY COLLEGES 1974-75 ENROLIXBNT STATISTICS Community College Fall, 1974 Enrollment* Full-time Part-time Total 1974 CYES Enrollment Alpena Bay de Noc C. S. Mott Delta Glen Oaks 964 552 4,029 2,890 376 511 382 17,999 4,590 778 1,475 934 22,028 7,480 1,154 1,112 715 5,773 5,015 581 Gogebic Grand Rapids Henry Ford Highland Park Jackson 603 3,247 3,144 1,580 1,823 299 2,669 11,007 1,835 5,497 902 5,916 14,151 3,415 7,320 705 4,523 6,808 2,375 2,981 Kalamasoo Kellogg Kirtland Lake Michigan Lansing 1,284 1,479 522 949 3,998 3,651 3,267 386 2,521 8,892 4,935 4,746 908 3,470 12,890 2 ,S52 2,374 667 1,578 6,399 Macomb Mid Michigan Monroe Montcalm Muskegon 5,555 404 749 442 1,832 15,957 616 955 476 3,106 21,512 1,020 1,704 918 4,938 10,598 601 1,101 673 2,567 North Central Northwestern Oakland St. Clair Schoolcraft 734 1,580 6,198 1,627 2,265 431 679 10,066 2,554 4,727 1,165 2,259 16,264 4,181 6,992 650 1,791 9,212 2,099 4,182 Southwestern Washtenaw Wayne West Shore 780 1,150 3,276 419 373 4,066 10,560 342 1,153 5,216 13,836 761 956 2,758 7,940 587 54,451 119,192 173,643 89,873 TOTAL *Hiqher Education fltMnl Informs tlon Survty, Form 2300-STU. Washington, D.C.i U.S. Office of Kaucationr 157T-----** Final Enrollment Report on Appendix A-li Enrol1Co— unity/Junior Colleges. SuMitta^ to the Stata of Michigan Execrotlve Office, Bureau of the Budget in Spring, 1975. SOURCEt Michigan Community College Association, 1975-76 Directory of Michigan Cn— unity Colleges (LanaTnq. Mich .t Michigan Comsiunity college Association, 1975) , p. 8. APPENDIX C EXPLORATORY STUDY PRESIDENTS, COLLEGES, AND MEETING DATES APPENDIX C EXPLORATORY STUDY PRESIDENTS, COLLEGES, AND MEETING DATES 1. Dr. Forest D. Etheredge, President Waubonsee Community College Sugar Grove, Illinois - 60554 Meeting: 2. Dr. Alfred E. Wisgoski, President Illinois Valley Community College Oglesby, Illinois - 61348 Meeting: 3. February 26, 1976 at 9:30 A.M. Dr. George E. Cole, President Sauk Valley College Dixon, Illinois - 61021 Meeting: 4. February 25, 1976 at 3:00 P.M. February 26, 1976 at 2:00 P.M. Dr. Richard G. Erzen, President College of Lake County Grayslake, Illinois - 60030 Meeting: February 27, 1976 at 9:00 A.M. 335 APPENDIX D FOLLOW-UP LETTER TO EXPLORATORY STUDY PRESIDENTS APPENDIX D FOLLOW-UP LETTER TO EXPLORATORY STUDY PRESIDENTS 1989 Tamarisk Drive East Lansing, Michigan 48823 (517) 351-6554 March 3, 1976 President's Name and Address Dear _________ : My brief trip back to Illinois last week was most reward­ ing. Your candid comments concerning career perceptions along with your thoughts related to the mechanics of my dissertation were most helpful to me and will enable me to address my topic more realistically. Hopefully, I will be able to identify and describe worthwhile and original insights concerning "Career Perceptions, Position Sequences, and Career Strategies of the Michigan Public Community-Junior College Presidents." I also came back to Michigan with an even greater desire to complete my doctorate as soon as possible and return to public community-junior college administration "where the action isl" I didn't have to be on your campus very long to realize how much I have missed the challenge and the friend­ ships. Hopefully I will be fortunate enough to again be chosen to fill a community college presidency after my work at Michigan State University is completed the latter part of this summer. It was, indeed, a pleasure to renew a friendship, and I appreciate the fact that you were willing to take time from a busy schedule to help me. If it seems appropriate, I may be contacting you to review my written questionnaire and inter­ view outline before I "run" the study in Michigan. If you hear of any positions that may be open in the future, I would appreciate any good word or a note. Again, I enjoyed our visit last Wednesday. Cordially, Kenneth E • Borland 336 APPENDIX QUESTIONNAIRE MAILED E TO PRESIDENTS APPENDIX E QUESTIONNAIRE MAILED TO PRESIDENTS Page 1 of 5 QUESTIONNAIRE Career Decisions and Career Progression of Michigan Public Community College Presidents May, 1976 Please complete the questionnaire and return in the envelope provided. The questionnaire is divided into two parts. Part I can be completed by either you, your secretary, or a staff assistant acting on your behalf. Part II should be completed by you. If the question does not apply to you, mark DNA. The questionnaire information is strictly confidential. The final study will not identify responses by individual or institution. Part I Name:_____________________________ Institution:______________ 1. Present age_____ 2. Sex: 3. Marital status: Married Single ___ 4. Place of birth: _ City/Town Male Female____ _____ SeparatedorDivorced Widowed , ________ State ______________________ Other 5. Approx. Population at That Time Educational history since high school graduation u J Joseph A. Malik President JAM:kce Enclosure J ABER O E E N WASHING TOM M 3 3 0 • <305) 532.9010 367 1989 Tamarisk Drive East Lansing, Michigan 48823 Telephone: (517) 351-6554 July 30, 1976 Dr. Jerald D. Cavanaugh, Academic Dean Crowder College Neosho, Missouri - 64 850 Re: Obtaining Copyright Permission Dear Dr. Cavanaugh: I am seeking your written permission to use infor­ mation contained in your copyrighted doctoral dissertation entitled, "Position Sequences and Career Strategies of Public Community Junior College Presidents" completed in 1971 in the School of Education at the University of Colorado. As a doctoral candidate in the Department of Adminis­ tration and Higher Education at Michigan State University, I am currently writing my dissertation ("Career Percep­ tions, Position Sequences, and Career Strategies of Michigan Public Community-Junior College Presidents") under the direction of my Committee Chairman, Dr. James H. Nelson. A primary focus of my dissertation relates to learning the extent to which the Michigan public com­ munity-junior college presidents' careers have been influenced by their perceptions of their aspirations, competencies, and opportunities. The dissertation will also deal w i t h identifying position sequences and career strategies with regard to the routes taken and the career planning which resulted in selection as a community col­ lege president. Like you, I will be using the conceptual framework for career strategies developed by Thompson, Avery, and Carlson. Also, I am drawing upon their ideas concerning channeling and constraining factors as related to career perceptions. With regard to your dissertation, I would like to use your methodology and data treatment format. Basically I wish to draw on your conceptual framework, organization, and findings concerning background factors, career patterns, and strategies as developed in Chapters III and IV of your dissertation. I have already received permission from Dr. Joseph A. Malik to use selected items from the National Career Study Questionnaire. 368 Dr. Jerald D. Cavanaugh Page 2 July 30, 1976 I would appreciate your consideration of my request, and I would be happy to make appropriate acknowledgment of your work in my dissertation. I look forward to hearing from you at your earliest convenience, and I thank you in advance for your assis­ tance. Cordially, Kenneth E. Borland 369 CflOUJOtfi C D L L t G t August 5, 1976 NBOaHO, MiSSOUM «4BI Mr. Kenneth E. Borland 1989 Tamarisk Drive East Lansing, Michigan 48823 Dear Mr. Borland: I appreciate your letter concerning the use of various approaches, concepts, and materials used in m y dissertation at the University of Colorado. The study went quite well: we had a good response from the community junior college presidents at the time; I had an excellent adviser and c o m m i t t e e , and the fellow who programmed the computer for me was tops— I still send h i m a bottle of good scotch each Christmas. You are certainly welcome to use anything from the dissertation which will benefit your study— and, since I am still quite Interested in the topic, I would appreciate a copy of your finished product, if, of course, you will be able to afford it: I am quite aware of the budgets of most graduate students. Good luck, and remember: you're almost home so stick wit h it. Cordially, W / Dean of Academic Instruction JC/js 370 1989 Tamarisk Drive East Lansing, Michigan - U.S.A. 48823 Telephone: (517) 351-6554 July 30, 19 76 Dr. Dennis R. H. Wing, President North Island College 1413 Island Highway Campbell River, British Columbia Canada - VNW 2E4 Re: Obtaining Copyright Permission Dear Dr. Wing: I am seeking your written permission to use infor­ mation contained in your doctoral dissertation entitled, MThe Public Community College Chief Administrator During the 1960s: A Description and Analysis of His Changing Profile" completed in 1971 in the School of Education at the University of Colorado. As a doctoral candidate in the Department of Admin­ istration and Higher Education at Michigan State University, I am currently writing my dissertation ("Career Percep­ tions, Position Sequences, and Career Strategies of Michigan Public Community-Junior College Presidents") under the direction of my Committee Chairman, Dr. James H. Nelson. A primary focus of my dissertation relates to learning the extent to which the Michigan public com­ munity-junior college presidents' careers have been influenced by their perceptions of their aspirations, competencies, and opportunities. The dissertation will also deal with identifying position sequences and career strategies with regard to the routes taken and the career planning which resulted in selection as a community col­ lege president. With regard to your dissertation, I would like to use your format and findings concerning the presidents' per­ ceptions as to why they were selected for the position, why they accepted the position, positions to which they aspire, and their ranking of an ideal sequence of positions leading to the presidency. My study will also make ref­ erence to the number of years the incumbent has held the presidency, previous positions held, earned degrees, and areas of degree specialization. I have already received permission from Dr. Joseph A. Malik to use selected questionnaire items from the National Career Study, and I will also be drawing upon the work of Dr. Jerald D. Cavanaugh. 371 Dr. Dennis R. W. Wing Page 2 July 30, 1976 I would appreciate your consideration of my request, and I would be happy to make appropriate acknowledgment of your work in my dissertation. I look forward to hearing from you at your earliest convenience, and I thank you in advance for your assis­ tance . Cordially, Kenneth E. Borland 372 N North Wand Cologo 1413 Island Highway, C am p be ll River, B.C., C anada, V9W 2E4 Telephone 287-2181 or 338-6932 (Co'irtormy Callers) 3 £ August S, 1976. r a s? " a § • Nr. Kenneth E. Borland, 1989 Twmrlsk Drive, East Lansing, Michigan. 48823 £ & Door Nr. Borland: You hsue W permission to use any portions of my dissertation that may be of assistance to you, I ask only that the correct formal acknahrledganents or footnotes be mads. n , n The enclosed is a stmmarixed version of the dissertation that you may not have seen. ? Good luck. O CDNNunag One. 1 6s’ u z B £ 3 2 fj • y < I« I* FORT rjJPEPl *G O L D RIVER* K X ttR C , • * * VAJBV ISLAHi , • k ifJ f j ■ IMF • ('VUQUO! . M A l-tA na OFFICES F»ort HcrcV G otcl C o u te n c v J38 r? • (-! tJl Ai " J • A l- « iftjv .151 >'AT.,,/ . r ,.j t A U K ' '?}A W S 373 RECEIVED 1989 Teunariek Drive Bast Lansing. Michigan JUL *01976 48823 Telephone: (517) 351-6554 July 12, 1976 Dr. Michael H. Ferrari, Jr Department of Management School of Business Kent State University Kent, Ohio - 44240 Re: Obtaining Copyright Permission Dear Dr* Ferrari: I am seeking your written permission to use selected in­ formation contained in your copyrighted doctoral dissertation entitled, "A Study of the Careers of American College and Uni­ versity R e s i dents" completed in 1968 in the School of Business, Department of Management at Mlohlgan State University. It 1m my understanding that Dr. W. Lloyd Warner directed your work. As a doctoral oandidate in the Department of Administration and Higher Education at M.3.U., I am currently writing my dis­ sertation ("Career fbrceptions, Position Sequences, and Career Strategies of Michigan Hiblic Community-Junior College Presi­ dents"} under the direction of my Committee Chairman, Dr. James H. Kelson. I am particularly interested in learning the extent to which the Michigan public community-junior college rresldent s 1 careers have been influenced by their perceptions of their aspirations, eompetenoles, and opportunities. The disserta­ tion will also deal with identifying the routes taken and the career planning which resulted in their selection as a commu­ nity college president. .Vith regard making reference Chapters 17, TI, sideration of my ledgment of your to your dissertation, I to your organisation of VII, and VIII. I would request, and I would be work. am Interested in and findings in appreciate your con­ happy to make acknow­ I look forward to hearing from you at your earliest con­ venience, and I thank you in advance for your assistance. Sincerely, Fnneth 7-*/- ^ yjy.* I. Borland SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Cited References Barnard, Chester. The Functions of the Executive. Cam­ bridge, M a s s . : Harvard University P r e s s , 19 38. Blau, Peter M . , and Scott, W. Richard. Formal Organizations. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 1962. Blocker, C. E . ; Plummer, R. H . ; and Richardson, R. C . , Jr. The Two Year College: A Social Synthesis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, T965. Bolman, Frederick deW. How College Presidents Are Chosen. Washington, D.C.l American Council on Education, 1965. _________. "How Will You Find a College President?” Journal of Higher Education 36 (April 1965): ZOT-M. ----------------- Borg, Walter R. Educational Research: An Introduction. New York: David McKay C o . , I n c . , 1$£1. Carlson, Richard 0. Executive Succession and Organiza­ tional Change~ Chicago: Midwest Administration Center, University of Chicago, 1962. _________. School Superintendents: formance . Columbus, O h i o : Publishing Co., 1972. Careers and Per­ Charles E. Merrill _________. "Succession and Performance among School Super­ intendents ." Administrative Science Quarterly 6 (September 1 $ 61): ilO-27. Carmichael, John H. "Origin and Mobility of Presidents." Junior College Journal 39 (May 1969): 30-32. 374 375 Cavanaugh, Jerald Duane. "Position Sequences and Career Strategies of Public Community-Junior College Presidents." Ed.D. dissertation. University of Colorado, 1971. Chinoy, Eli. "The Tradition of Opportunity and the Aspirations of Automobile Workers." American Journal of Sociology 57 (March 1952) : 36(5-70. Cohen, A. M . , and Roueche, J. E. Institutional Adminis­ trator or Educational Leader? The Junior College President. Washington, D . C . : American Associ­ ation of Community and Junior Colleges, 1969. Demerath, Nicholas J . ; Stephens, Richard W . ; and Taylor, R. Robb. Power, Presidents, and Professors. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1967. Dill, William R. ; Hilton, Thomas; and Reitman, Walter. The New M a nagers. Englewood Cliffs, N . J . : Prentice-Hali, T962. Dodds, Harold W. The Academic President: Educator or Caretaker? New York: McGraw-Hill Book C o . , I n c . . T O ------ Doherty, Robert E. "Attitudes toward Labor: When BlueCollar Children become Teachers.” School Review 71 (Spring 1963): 87-96. Doi, James I. "Organization, Administration, Finance, and Facilities." Review of Educational Research 35 (October 1965): ”347-60. Eells, Walter C . , and Hollis, Ernest V. The College Presidency 1900-1960: An Annotated Bibliography. Washington, D . C . : U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Bulletin No. 9, Government Printing Office, 1961. F a ier, Betram R. "Personality Factors in Occupational Choice.” Educational Psychological Measurement 13 (1953): 361-65. Ferrari, Michael R . , Jr. "A Study of the Careers of American College and University Presidents." D.B.A. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968. 376 Ferrari, Michael R . , Jr. Profiles of American College Presidents. East Lansing, M i c h . : Division o f Research— Graduate School of Business Adminis­ tration, Michigan State University, 1970. _, and Berte, Neal R. American Junior Col leges: Leadership and Crucial Issues for the 1 9 7 0s. Washington, D . C . : American Association o £ Community and Junior Colleges, 1969. Fields, Harrison Randall. "Personal and Professional Attributes of Community College Presidents." Ed.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1975. Gardner, R. Gene, and Brown, Milton D. Personal Charac teristics of Community College Presidents. Los A n g e l e s : ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior College Information, U.C.L.A. (August 1975). Giles, Frederic T. "Selecting and Securing a Junior College President." In The Junior College P resident, pp. 33-39. Edited by B. Lamar Johnson. Los Angeles: Junior College Leader­ ship Program Occasional Report No. 13, U.C.L.A. (May 1969). Ginzberg, Eli; Ginsburg, Sol W . ; Axelrad, Sidney; and Herma, John L. Occupational Choice— An Approach New York: Columbia UniGlenny, Lyman A. "The '60s in Reverse." The Center for Research and Development in Higher Education, The Research Reporter 8 (1973): 1-6. Good, H. G. "Historical Research in Education." Educational Research Bulletin 9 (February 5, 19 30): 74-78 Griffiths, Daniel E. Profile of the School Superintendent. Washington, D .C . : American Association of School Administrators and the Research Division of the National Education Association, 1960. Gross, Edward. Work and S ociety. Crowell C o . , 1958. New York: Thomas Harper, W. A. "The New Junior College Presidents." School and Society 97 (February 1969): 120, 122, 377 Hawk, Ray. "A Profile of Junior College Presidents." Junior College Journal 30 (February 1960) : 340-46. Hemphill, John K . , and Walberg, Herbert. An Empirical Study of College and University Presidents in the State of New Y o r k . iPrinceton, N.J.: Edu­ cational Testing Service, 1966. Hodgkinson, Harold L. Institutions in Transition. Berkeley, Calif71 Carnegie Commission^ T970. Hood, William Peter. "Educational and Experiential Pat­ terns of College and University Presidents Who Graduated from Indiana University." Ed.D. disser­ tation, Indiana University, 1970. Hubbard, Harold G. "Career Choices of Successful Busi­ ness Executives." The Personnel and Guidance Journal 44 (October 1^65) : 14 7-52. Jennings, Eugene E . Routes to the Executive S u i te. Y o r k : McGraw-Hill Book Co. , D T T H New Kirk, Robert James. "Orderly and Disrupted Career Pat­ terns in Educational Administration." Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1970. Leake, Lloyd Aldwyn. "A Study of the Profile of College and University Presidents in the Commonwealth of Virginia." Ed.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Albany, 1974. Majetic, Richard M. "Career Patterns of Selected Michigan Secondary School Counselors." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968. March, James G . , and Simon, Herbert. Organizations. New York: John Wiley and Sons') 1958. McGill, William J. "Courage to Lead." College and Uni­ versity Journal 9 (Fall 1970): 34-39. McNett, Ian E. "A New Style of Presidential Leadership Is Emerging as 'Crises Managers' Confront the 1970s." The Chronicle of Higher Education 5 (July 6 , I97ff7V“2=«.---- ----------------Merton, Robert K. Social Theory and Social Structure. Glencoe, IlTTi Free Press, 1957. 37 8 Michigan Community College Association. 1975-76 Directory ~ j -- -yes. Lansing, M Mic" of Michigan Community Colleges. ich.: Michigan Community College Asso association, 1975. Michigan Department of Education. 1975-76 Directory of Michigan Institutions of Higher Education. Lansing, M i c h . : Department of Education, Higher Education Management Services, 1975. Moore, William, Jr. Blind Man on a Freeway; The Com­ munity College Administrator. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, i n c . , l9?l. Morgan, Don A. Perspectives of the Community College Presidency. Los Angeles; Junior College Leader­ ship Program Occasional Report No. 14, U.C.L.A. (March 19 70) . NEA Research Division. Salaries in Higher Education, 1969-70. Washington, D . C . : NEA Research Division, Higher Education Series Research Report, 1970. Nelson, Lawrence O. "Role Expectations for Selected College and University Presidents." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1960. Osborne, John Robert. "A Study of the Critical Require­ ments of a Public Junior College President." Ph.D. dissertation, East Texas State University, 1969. Osipow, S. H. Theories of Career Development. Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968. New York: Prator, Ralph. The College President. Washington, D.C.: The Center for Applied Research in Education, I n c . , 1963. Roberts, Dayton Young. "Chief Administrators of Public Junior Colleges— A Prediction of the Number Needed and the Sources of Supply, 1963-1973." Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1964. Roe, Anne. The Psychology of Occupations. John Wiley and Sons, I n c . , 195^. New York: Roland, Leo J. "Professional Preparation of Junior Col­ lege Administrators." Junior College Journal 24 (October 1953): 73-80. 379 Roueche, John E. The Junior College President. Los Angeles: E R l C ~ 5 I e a x I n g K o u s e T o P “cFunIor College Information, U.C.L.A., 2 (June 1968). Rudolph, Frederick. The American College and University: A History. New York: Vintage B o o k s , 1965. Schmidt, George P. The Liberal Arts College. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1957. _________. The Old Time College President. Columbia University Press, 1530. New York: Schultz, Raymond E. Administrators for America's Junior Colleges: Predictions of Need 1965-1980. Washington, D . C . : American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, 1965. 'The Changing Profile of the Junior College President." Junior College Journal 36 (October 1965): 8-13. Stoke, Harold W. The American College President. Y o r k : Harper and B r o s . , 195$. Sudman, Seymour. Reducing the Cost of Surveys. Aldine Publishing C o . , 1567. New Chicago: Super, Donald E . , et a l . Career Development: Self Concept Theory. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1963. Thompson, James D . ; Avery, Robert W . ; and Carlson, Richard O. "Occupations, Personnel, and Careers." Educational Administration Quarterly 4 (Winter l56'8) : 6-31. Tiedeman, David V., and O'Hara, Robert P. Career Develop­ ment: Choice and Adjustment. New Y o r k : College Entrance Examination Board, 1963. Trumbull, Donald. "The Preparation of Two-Year College Presidents— An Examination of Academic and Exper­ ience Backgrounds of Two-Year College Presidents Now in Office and of Their Suggestions for Improv­ ing Their Professional Preparation." Ph.D. dis­ sertation, New York University, 1974. Warner, W. Lloyd, and Abegglen, James C. Occupational Mobility. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1955. 380 Wilensky, Harold L. "Orderly Careers and Social Partici­ pation." American Sociological Review 26 (August 19(51) : fe2l-^9. Wing, Dennis R. W. The Professional President; A Decade of Community""Junior College Chief E x e c u t i v e s . Los Angeles: ERIC clearinghouse for Junior Colleges, Graduate School of Education and the University Library, Topical Paper No. 28, U.C.L.A. (January 1972). _________ . "The Public Community College Chief Adminis­ trator During the 1960s: A Description and Analysis of His Changing Profile." Ph.D. disser­ tation, University of Colorado, 1971. Young, Pauline V. Scientific Social Surveys and Resea r c h . Englewood Cliffs, N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1966. General References Auburn, Norman P. "The University Presidency— Mission Impossible?" Educational Record 52 (Spring 1971): 146-51. Beadle, Muriel. Where Has All the Ivey Gone? Garden City, N . j TI Doubleday and C o . , I n c . , 1972. Bendix, Rheinhold, et a l . "Social Origins and Occupational Career Patterns." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 7 (January l 9 £ 4 ) : 246-61. Benoit-Smullyan, E. "Status, Status Types, and Status Interrelations." American Sociological Review 9 (April 1944): 15l-6l. B i s d o r f , Donald L. "Will Liberated Management Please Stand Up?" Community and Junior College Journal 45 (March 1975): 4-1. Bolman, Frederick deW. "Why Be a College President?" Paper presented at the 25th national conference of the American Association for Higher Education, Chicago, March 2, 1970. Brooks, Gary D. "A Descriptive Profile of Senior College Presidents." College and University Journal 13 (January 1974)1 So-31. 381 Brooks, Gary D . , and Avila, Jose F. "A Descriptive Pro­ file of Junior College Presidents." Research in Higher Education 2 (1974): 145-50. Caplow, Theodore. The Sociology of W o r k . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1954. Chambers, M. M. "Presidents of State Teachers Colleges." School and Society 35 (February 13, 1932): 234-36. Cohen, Michael E . , and March, James G. Leadership and Ambiguity: The American College President. Hightstown, N.J.: McGraw-Hill Book C o . , T974. _________, and _________ . "The American College President. " In The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, pp. 232-41. Edited by Lewis B. Mayhew. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1973. Colvert, C. C. "Significant Characteristics of Successful Administration Frequently Overlooked." Junior College Journal 21 (November 1950): 145-47. D i l s , Eugene. "How Administrators Climb the Ladder." The School Executive 74 (September 1954): 62-63. Eller, Edward D. "An Analysis of Personal and Profes­ sional Characteristics of Tennessee Public School Superintendents, 1940-1960." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1962. Embry, Alice Huel, Jr. "Management Mobility Analysis as an Added Variable to the Personnel Programming Decision." Ph.D. dissertation, Georgia State University, 1970. Fenske, Melvin Robert. "Career Orientation and Career Mobility of Oregon School Superintendents." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oregon, 1970. Fields, John Forrest. "Career Preparation, Aspirations, and Attitudes of Iowa School Administrators." Ph.D. dissertation, Iowa State University, 1967. Ford, J . , and Box, S. "Sociological Theory and Occupa­ tional Choice." Sociological Review 15 (November 1967): 287-99. Forer, Bertram R. "Personality Factors in Occupational Choice." Educational and Psychological Measure­ ment 13 (Autumn 1953}: 361-66. 382 Foster, Morris Allen, MA Study of Administrative Behavior and Factors Related to Upward Mobility in Three Selected Metropolitan School Systems." Ed.D. dissertation, Oklahoma State University, 1969. Friedman, E. A., and Havighurst, Robert J. "Work and Retirement." In Maui, Work, and S ociety, pp. 8396. Edited by Sigmund taosow and Williiun H. Form. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1962. Garry, Michael Francis. "A Career Analysis of Pennsylvania Public School Superintendents." Ph.D. dissertation. University of Pittsburgh, 1972. Good, Carter V. ? Barr, A. S.; and S c a t e s , Douglas E. The Methodology of Educational Research. New Y o r k : Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1941. Gordon, Joseph E. "The President: Has the Pattern of College and University Leadership Changed?" Journal of Higher Education 24 (March 1953): 133-40".----- ^ ----------- Hadden, John Franklyn. "The Effect of Selected Criteria on the Directional Routes Selected for the Ful­ fillment of Career Aspirations of Secondary School Principals.” Ed.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1969. Hatt, P. K. "Occupations and Social Stratification." American Journal of Sociology 55 (May 1950): 33T-43.-------— ------------ “ • Havighurst, Robert, and Neugarten, Bernice L. Society and Education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon^ 1967. Hickcox, Edward tations State: tation, Scovill. "Career and Place Bound Orien­ of Chief School Officers in New York An Exploratory Study." Ed.D. disser­ Cornell University, 1966. Holland, John L. The Psychology of Vocational Choice. Waltham, Mass.: Blaisaell Publishing Co., 1366. Howe, Helena, et a l . "The Woman's View from the Top." Community and Junior College Journal 46 (DecemberJanuary 1976): 1 6 -2 0. 383 Huffman, Larry Duane. "A Comparison of Personality Traits of Doctoral Students in Higher Education and Selected Chief Administrators in Illinois Institution of Higher Education." Ph.D. disser­ tation, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, 1974. Hughes, Raymond M. "A Study of University and College Presidents." School and Society 51 (March 9, 1940): 317-20. Jahoda, Marie, et a l . Research Methods in Social Relations— Part I . New York: The Dryden P r e s s , lTs'i. Jennings, Eugene E. An Anatomy of Leadership. Harper and B r o s ., i960. New York: _________. The Mobile Manager: A Study of the New Gen­ eration of Top ExecutivesI Ann A r b o r , M i c h . : University of Michigan, T967. Johnston, Archie Breckenridge. "Private Junior College Administrators: An Analysis of Backgrounds and a Twelve-Year Prediction of Future N e e d s . ” Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1965. Johnston, Gladys Styles. "Relationship between Self Awareness and Career Awareness." Ph.D. disser­ tation, Cornell University, 1974. Jones, Ross. "A College V.P. Looks at the Presidency." College and University Journal 10 (September 1971): 10-12. Juett, Tilman Lee. "An Identification of the Personal and Career Profiles of Ohio Public School Super­ intendents, 1969-1970." Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio University, 1970. Kauffman, Joseph F. The Selection of College and Uni­ versity Presidents. W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : Associ­ ation of American Colleges, 1974. King, F. P. "Presidents' Profile." (October 1967): 403-10. Liberal Education 53 Kohlbrenner, Bernard John. "Some Elements of Background among University Presidents.” School and Society 68 (October 23, 1948): 283-85. 384 Kunkel, B. W. HThe College President as He Is Today." American Association of University Professors Bulletin 34 (Summer 19 48): 344-49. Lewis, William P. "Backgrounds of College Presidents in the United States, 1952-1953." Ph.D. disserta­ tion, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1954. "The Making of an Academic President." Philadelphia: A.R.A.— Slater School and College Services. Conversations 3 (1968). Mallery, John Charles. "Career Patterns of Washington School Superintendents." Ed.D. dissertation, Washington State University, 1971. Masih, Lalit Kumar. "Career Saliency and Its Relation to Certain Personality and Environmental Variables." Ph.D. dissertation, Syracuse University, 1962. Mayhew, Lewis B. "Emerging Concepts of the Presidency." Journal of Higher Education 42 (May 1971): 353-67. Miller, Delbert, and Form, William. Industrial Sociology. New Y o r k : Harper and B r o s ., 1962. Monroe, Charles R. Profile of the Communit nit^College. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc Morse, Colin Keith. "Career Perspectives and Job Satis­ faction of School Principals." Ph.D. dissertation. University of Oregon, 1974. Mortimer, Jeylan Martin Tekiner. "Family Background and College Influences upon Occupational Value Orien­ tations and the Career Decision." Ph.D. disser­ tation, University of Michigan, 19 72. Moser, C. A. Survey Methods in Social Investigation. London": Heinemann Educational Books, Ltd. , 1958. Musgrove, P. W. "Continuities in the Sociological Theory of Occupational Choice." Sociological Review 16 (March 1968): 93-97. _________. "Toward a Sociological Theory of Occupational Choice." Sociological Review 15 (March 1967): -----------33-46. Ness, Frederic W. An Uncertain Glo r y . Jossey-BassT I n c . , 1972. San Francisco: 385 O'Connel, T. E. Community Colleges— A P r e sident’s V i e w . Champaign-Urbana, 1 1 1 . : University of Illinois Press, 1968. Packard, Vance. Th^ Pyramid Climbers. New York: McGraw-Hill Book C o . , I n c . , 1962. Palmer, Archie M. "Newly Elected College Presidents." School and Society 30 (December 21, 1929) : SBF-T S T ---------- ________ . "Presidential Mortality." Association of American Colleges Bulletin 16 (December l93~&) : £15-26. Perkins, James A . , et a l . College and University Presi­ dents, Reconinenclatibns and Report of a Survey. Albany, N.Y. : New York State Regents Advisory Commission on Educational Leadership, May 12, 1967. Perkins, James A., and Perkins, M. H. "From These Leader­ ship Must Come." School and Society 70 (September 10, 1949): 161-64. Perrow, Charles. "The Short and Glorious History of Organizational Theory." In Organizational Behavior and Management: A Contingency A p p r o a c h , pp. 8-20. Edited by Henry Louis Tosi and W. C l a y H a m n e r . Chicago: St. Clair Press, 1974. Peters, Herman J . , and Hansen, James C . , eds. Vocational Guidance and Career Development. New Y o r k : The MacMillan C o . , 1968. Rainey, Homer P. "Some Facts About College Presidents." School and Society 30 (October 26, 1929): 580-84, Ramstad, William K. "The President: A Key to Innovation." Junior College Journal 37 (October 1966) : 30-31. Ritchie, M. A. F. The College Presidency: Initiation into the Prefer of: the Turt l e . New Y o r k : Philosophical Library, Inc., 1970. Roe, Anne, and Siegelman, Marvin. The Origin of Interests. Washington, D . C . : American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1964. Rogoff, Natalie. Recent Trends in Occupational Mobility. G lencoe, 111. : The Free Press, 1953. 386 Rood, Allan. Job Strategy. Co., 1$<>1.' --- New York: McGraw-Hill Book Roueche, John E . , and Rumanzoff, Natalie. The College President— A B i b l i o g r a p h y . Los A n g e l e s : ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior College Information, U.C.L.A. (May 15, 1968). Rubin, Richard Saul. "Educational Administration as an Occupational Choice." Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1973. Sale, J. Kirk. "Men of Low Profile." August 1970): 35-39. Change 2 (July- Schoonmaker, Alan N. Executive Career S t r a t e g y . New York: American Management Association, 1971. Schultz, Raymond E. "The Junior College President: Who and Where F r o m . " In The Junior College P r e s i d e n t , pp. 7-17. Edited by B1 Lamar Johnson. Los A n g e l e s : Junior College Leadership Program Occasional Report No. 13, U.C.L.A. (May 1969). Selltiz, Claire, et a l . Research Methods in Social R e l ations. New Y o r k : Holt, R i n e h a r t , and W i n s t o n , 1963. Shannon, William George. "The Community College Presi­ dent— A Study of the Role of President of the Public Community Junior College." Ed.D. disser­ tation, Columbia University, 1962. Shiroda, George F. "The Relationship of Personality Characteristics to the Career Ascendency of School Superintendents." Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wisconsin, 1973. Sisson, Roosevelt. "Factors Which Determined the Acceptance of College and University Presiden­ cies, 1962-1965." Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio University, 1967. Stephens, Richard W. "The Academic Administrator: The Role of the University President." Ph.D. disser­ tation, University of North Carolina, 1956. Stimson, James. "The Situs Dimension in the Career P at­ terns of University Presidents." Ph.D. disser­ tation, The University of N e w Mexico, 1969. 387 Strauss, Samuel. "Career Choices of Scholars." The Personnel and Guidance Journal 44 (October 1965); 15^-56. Super, Donald E. "A Theory of Vocational Development.” American Psychologist 8 (May 1953): 185-90. . The Psychology of Car e e r s . and B r o s . , 1 9 5 7 . New Y o r k : Harper Sylvester, Ralph Kenneth. "A Study of Executive Leaders of Public Community Colleges with Practical Arts Education Backgrounds." Ed.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 197 3. Thwing, Charles F. The College President. The MacMillan C o . , 1926. New York: Travers, Robert M. W. An Introduction to Educational Research. New Y o r k : The MacMillan C o . , 1958. Tunnicliffe, Guy W . , and Ingram, John A. "The College President: Who Is He?" Educational Record 50 (Spring 1969): 189-93. Vaccaro, Louis C. "Planning in Higher Education: Approaches and Problems." College and Uni­ versity Journal 51 (Winter 1976): 153-60. Warner, W. Lloyd. "The Careers of American Business and Government Executives: A Comparative Analysis." In Social Science Approaches to Business B ehavior, pp. 99-123. Edited by George B . Strother. Homewood. 111.: The Dorsey Press, Inc. and Richard D. Irwin, I n c . , 1962. ________ , and Abegglen, James C. "The Social Origins and Acquired Characteristics of Business Leaders." In Industrial M a n , pp. 101-09. Edited by W. L. Warner and N. H . M a r t a i n . New Y o r k : Harper and B r o s . , 1959. Warren, Luther E. "A Study of the Presidents of FourYear Colleges in the United States." Education 58 (March 1938): 427-28. Wriston, Henry W. Academic Procession. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959.