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University Microfilms International 300 North Zaab Road Ann Arbor. Michigan 48106 USA St. John’s Road, Tylar's Qraan High Wycomba, Bucks. England HP10 8HR 77-25,301 WILLIAMS, Daphne B e d rid a E ., 1948AN INVESTIGATION INTO PARTICIPATION PATTERNS OF DEPENDENT AFRICAN FEMALES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS WITHIN SELECTED UNIVERSITY CENTERS IN MICHIGAN. Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity , P h .D ., 1977 Education, a d u lt XOTOX University M icrofilm s f Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 AN INVESTIGATION INTO PARTICIPATION PATTERNS OF DEPENDENT AFRICAN FEMALES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS WITHIN SELECTED UNIVERSITY CENTERS IN MICHIGAN By Daphne B. E. W illiams A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan S tate U niversity 1n p a r tia l f u lf illm e n t o f the requirements fo r the degree o f DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College o f Education Department o f Adm inistration and Higher Education 1977 ABSTRACT AN INVESTIGATION INTO PARTICIPATION PATTERNS OF DEPENDENT AFRICAN FEMALE S IN CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS WITHIN SELECTED UNIVERSITY CENTERS IN MICHIGAN By Daphne B. E. W illiam s This study Investigated patterns of p a rtic ip a tio n In continuing education programs by dependent Sub-Saharan A frican females a t selected u n iv e rs ity centers 1n Michigan. 1) S p e c ific a lly , It s purpose was to obtain Inform ation about c e rta in demographic and social c h a ra c te ris tic s o f respondents 1n selected u n iv e rs ity centers 1n M ichi­ gan. 2) obtain Inform ation about actual and Intended p a rtic ip a tio n o f respondents In continuing education programs. 3) analyze such p a rtic ip a tio n 1n terms o f a p a rtic ip a tio n 4) id e n tify Influences generating respondents' In te re s t 1n typology. educational programs 1n the United S tates. 5) examine re la tio n s h ip s between c e rta in demographic and social c h a ra c te ris tic s and partic1pat1on/non-part1c1pat1on. The population consisted o f a l l married Sub-Saharan A frican women liv in g w ith t h e ir A frican student husbands during W inter Term, 1976 1n f iv e u n iv e rs ity centers w ith in Michigan— East Lansing, Ann Daphne B. E. W illia m s Arbor, D e tro it, Kalamazoo and B errien Springs. representing twelve A frican cou n tries. There were 111 females Of these, n inety were In t e r ­ viewed. For the purpose o f the study, p a r tic ip a tio n 1n continuing education was defined to encompass engagement 1n any and a combination of learning a c t iv it ie s which were academic, v o c a tio n a l, re lig io u s , recreatio n al or s o c ia l. Data were system atically and s t a t i s t ic a ll y analyzed. The ch1 square was used to te s t fo r s t a t is t ic a l s ig n ifica n ce of r e la tio n ­ ships. Findings and Conclusions Respondents represented twelve A frican countries o f which the vast m a jo rity was English-speaking. N ig e ria . H a lf o f the respondents came from C h ie fly urbanites and C h ris tia n s , eighty-tw o percent were between twenty-two and t h i r t y years o f age and about th ree-q u arters had a t le a s t one c h ild . The more child ren women had and the younger th e ir ages, the less they p a rtic ip a te d 1n continuing education. The range of stay In the United States was between two weeks and e ig h t years. That v a ria b le showed the strongest re la tio n s h ip to p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education. However, the kinds and levels of p a rtic ip a tio n were not necessarily re la te d to length o f stay. Respondents were p rin c ip a lly elementary school teachers or high school and tra in in g college graduates. major language o f In s tru c tio n . English had been th e ir T h e ir husbands belonged to higher Daphne B. E. W illia m s professional cadres. Most o f them were u n iv e rs ity teachers and were predominantly doctoral students 1n the science f ie ld s . P a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education was found to be clo sely re la te d to parents' educational and occupational background. Most a c tiv e p a rtic ip a n ts had mothers 1n occupations demanding higher le v e ls o f education. Respondents re lie d heavily on t h e ir spouses fo r fin a n ­ c ia l support. A few o f them had grants. They reported th a t fac to rs which Influenced them to p a r t ic i­ pate 1n continuing education were 1) superior educational f a c i l i t i e s 1n the United S ta te s , 2) g re ater f l e x i b i l i t y 1n class scheduling and range and choice of study areas, and 3) more encouragement fo r married women 1n the United S ta te s. Factors they reported as discouraging p a rtic ip a tio n were 1) high cost of t u it io n , 2) academic pressure, 3) l i t t l e help w ith home re s p o n s ib ilitie s . Economic In te re s t was the most freq u en tly Id e n tifie d fa c to r m otivating these women to continue t h e ir education w hile 1n the United S ta te s. About e1ghty-s1x percent a n tic ip ate d seeking employment upon returning home. The most popular areas o f educational a c t iv it y were the p ro fession al, v o c a tio n a l/te c h n ic a l and personal. The d esire to pursue degree programs and acquire diplomas was strong. Main subjects pursued were business a d n ln is tra tio n , education and social science. Four-year co lleg es, community and ju n io r colleges and wives' and women's clubs were the In s titu tio n s 1n which continuing education was most often pursued. The study revealed several areas of special concern. These Included fin a n c ia l lim ita tio n s , c u ltu ra l adjustment problems, and Daphne B. E. W illia m s Immigration Issues. Reconmendatlons and suggestions by respondents to foreig n student advisors, funding agencies and home governments empha­ sized the Improvement o f educational o p p o rtu n itie s , more scholarships, a change 1n immigration p o lic ie s fo r foreig n student wives and more and b e tte r c h lld -c a re f a c i l i t i e s . I t Is hoped th a t the research w ill s tim u late s im ila r studies among other fo reig n student groups. This may consequently co n trib u te to b e tte r planning 1n continuing education programs fo r wives o f foreign students. To rqy parents, Bedford and P a tric ia W illiam s, fo r t h e ir unflagging encouragement th a t made the accomplishment o f th is exercise so much more genuine and p ric e le s s . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people are deserving o f n\y g ra titu d e 1n the course o f research and w ritin g o f th is d is s e rta tio n . The In s p ira tio n , coopera­ tio n and assistance of Dr. M ildred Erickson, who served as D ire c to r o f my Research fo r d is s e rta tio n , must be mentioned f i r s t . I am thankful to Dr. Erickson fo r her support th a t buoyed me 1n those moments o f u ncertainty and d if f ic u lt y and pushed me to a speedy completion. A special debt o f g ra titu d e 1s owed to other members o f my committee: To Professor Russell K le ls , my advisor, fo r his guidance and, moreover, fo r his Ideas th a t helped prepare the groundwork fo r the research. To Drs. John Hunter, John Hanson and W alter Johnson, a ll members o f njy committee, who provided In s ig h tfu l suggestions and comments a t d iffe r e n t phases o f the study. The study 1s the b e tte r fo r t h e ir help and advice. I also mourn the death o f an e rs tw h ile committee member, Dr. Sweetland, a tu to r and a frie n d . I t was unfortunate th a t he passed away before the completion o f the degree. He was replaced on my com­ m ittee by Dr. W alter Johnson. I wish to say a special word o f thanks to Mr. Howard S e itz and the Aquinas Fund, New York, fo r the provision o f monetary assistance and understanding th a t made my doctoral studies possible. Supplementary assistance 1n various forms also came from the Foreign Students1 o f f ic e , the A frican Studies Center, The A ltrusa 111 In te rn a tio n a l In c ., and the O ffic e of Research C onsultation, Erickson H a ll, Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity . To a l l these h elpers, p a r tic u la r ly Drs. Homer Hlgbee and August Benson o f the Foreign Students' O ffic e , I express my appreciation and h e a r t fe lt thanks. Needless to say, there were other personal frie n d s and c o l­ leagues th a t touched my l i f e 1n some way during the past years. Ray and Alma McPhee, Peggy Hlne and Paula Whatley were special In th is regard. To them and to a l l my interview ees, I express my thankfulness not only fo r t h e ir cooperation and encouragement but fo r con trib uting to a clim ate which fostered a healthy and sch o larly endeavor. L ast, but not le a s t, I am e s p e c ia lly g ra te fu l to George N t1r1, my husband, who shared the joys and fru s tra tio n s o f my program. a good sounding board, a p a tie n t frie n d and an able advisor, He was tyy daughter, Shana, must be acknowledged also fo r the surprising way she appeared towards the end o f the exercise to make 1t a ll the more suc­ cessful. She Indeed set the deadline. 1v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................... LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... Chapter I. THE PROBLEM....................................................................................... Introduction ............................................................................... Purpose o f the S t u d y ............................................................... Assumptions ............................................................................... Research Questions ................................................................... S ign ificance o f the Study .................................................. L im itations o f the Study ...................................................... D e fin itio n s of T e rm s ............................................................... Overview and Organization o f the D issertatio n . . . 1 1 3 3 4 5 7 8 9 II. REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE .................................................. 11 Introduction ............................................................................... Section I : Education o f Females 1n A f r i c a ................. Section I I : The A frican as a Foreign Student 1n the United S t a t e s .............................................. Findings on Research Studies o f Married and Mature Women .............................................................. Continuing Education and Adult P a rtic ip a tio n . . . . S u m m ary....................................................................................... 11 11 36 48 59 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY .............................................. 63 Introduction ............................................................................... Population and S a m p le .......................................................... Instrum entation ....................................................................... P ilo t Study o f In s t r u m e n t .................................................. In terview Procedure and S itu a tio n .................................. Analysis o f the D a t a .............................................................. S u m m ary....................................................................................... 63 64 66 72 74 76 77 III. v 27 Chapter IV . V. Page FINDINGS............................................................................................. 79 Intro du ctio n ........................................................................... Section I : C h ara c te ris tics o f Respondents . . . . P art I —General F in d in g s .............................................. P art 11— P artic1p atlo n /N o n -p artlc1p atlo n 1n Continuing Education........... ........................... Section I I : Factors Related to P a rtic ip a tio n / Non~part1c1pat1on ...................................................... Section I I I : Special Concerns o f Respondents . . . The Open-Ended Question .............................................. Discussion o f Areas o f Concern and In te re s t In Order o f Frequency o f M e n tio n .................. ..................... Respondents' Recommendations . . . . . Summary........................................................................................ 79 80 80 CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . Intro du ctio n ........................................................................... Summary........................................................................................ C o n clu sio n s............................................................................... Recommendations....................................................................... Im plications fo r Future Research........... ........................... Concluding Statement ........................................................... BIBLIOGRAPHY 125 145 156 156 158 167 174 175 175 177 190 191 197 199 ................................................................................................ 200 A. L e t t e r s ............................................................................................. 207 B. Q u e s t io n n a ir e ................................................................................ 210 C. T a b le s ................................................................................................. 222 APPENDICES v1 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Country o f o rig in o f resp o n d en ts................................... 81 2. Place o f restdenceMn the home country o f respondents . -. 84 3. Religion o f r e s p o n d e n ts ................................................... 84 4. Age o f resp o n d en ts................................................................ 87 5. Number o f children per respondent 1n the United States ....................................................................... 87 6. Children o f respondents grouped by age . . . . . . 92 7. Number o f years respondents have been 1n the United S t a t e s ............................................................... 93 Occupations o f respondents and o f th e ir mothers, fath ers and husbands ...................................... 96 Educational backgrounds o f respondents ............................. and t h e ir mothers and fath ers . 100 Respondents1 background 1n English—years o f study o f E n g l i s h .......................................................... 104 Respondents' languages o f In s tru c tio n a t primary school, secondary school and college . . . 107 Respondents' evaluation o f t h e ir p ro ficien cy 1n E n g lis h ............................................................................... 109 13. Academic pursuits o f respondents' husbands . . . . Ill 14. Sources o f fin a n c ia l support o f respondents and t h e ir husbands............................................................... 113 M otivational facto rs In flu en cin g respondents' p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education ..................... 115 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 15. v11 Table 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. Page Support fo r p a rtic ip a n ts 1 decision to continue education ............................................................... 118 Respondents1 reasons fo r stopping school in A f r i c a ............................................................................... 120 Respondents' plans to continue education p rio r to leaving home country fo r the United States ....................................................................... 121 Sources o f Inform ation on respondents' plans to continue education ...................................................... 123 A nticipated employment of respondents on return to home c o u n t r y ................................................................... 125 P a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education programs— areas o f s t u d y .................................................. 127 P a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education— cred e n tia ls sought ............................................................... 133 P a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education— In s titu tio n s attended ....................................................... 136 P a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education programs— o bjectives o f p a rtic ip a n ts .............................................. 139 Length o f time spent 1n the United States before p a rtic ip a n ts enrolled In classes ................. 143 Ch1 square te s t o f association between partic1pat1on/non-part1c1patlon o f respondents and general demographic variab les . . 152 Ch1 square te s t o f association between part1c1pat1on/non-part1c1pat1on o f respondents and occupational background variab les ..................... 152 Ch1 square te s t o f association between part1c1pat1on/non-part1c1pat1on o f respondents and educational background variab les ......................... 154 Ch1 square te s t o f association between part1c1pat1on/non-part1c1pat1on o f respondents and fin a n c ia l status variab les ...................................... 155 v 1 11 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Age d is trib u tio n o f s a m p le ............................................... 85 2. Number o f children per respondent 1n the United States ....................................................................... 89 D is trib u tio n o f respondents' children w ith in age g ro u p s ............................................................................... 90 Number o f years respondents have been 1n the United States ....................................................................... 94 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. English language background o f respondents (number o f years respondents studied English) . . 105 Areas o f study o f p a rtic ip a n ts : ordering and sequence o f p a rtic ip a tio n .............................................. 128 Order and sequence o f cred en tials sought by p a rtic ip a n ts ........................................................................... 131 Order and sequence o f In s titu tio n s attended by p a r t i c i p a n t s ................................................................... 137 P a rtic ip a tio n 1n education: o b jectives o f p a rtic ip a n ts ........................................................................... 140 1x CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction Throughout the world the education o f women is clo sely linked to the roles relegated to them by s o ciety. In many c o u n trie s, the societal and educational m ilieu has not encouraged g ir ls and women to take advantage o f t h e ir educational p o te n tia litie s but has assigned them s p e c ific and re s tric te d roles and functions. The pushing o f females In to an acceptance o f the sin g le ro le o f homemaklng often In h ib its th e ir learning ambitions and th e ir asp iratio n s to p a rtic ip a te 1n continuing education. This is the case In most A frican s o c ie ties today. Past trends 1n most A frican countries In d ic a te r e la tiv e ly lower rates o f female p a rtic ip a tio n a t a l l le ve ls o f education, p a r t i­ c u la rly a f t e r the primary school le v e l. The trends fu rth e r In d ic ate th a t the few women entering school are oriented toward the a cq u is itio n o f knowledge and s k ills associated w ith t h e ir tra d itio n a l roles as wives and mothers. But th is s itu a tio n 1s beginning to change. There 1s an Increased enrollment o f women 1n formal educational In s titu tio n s . On the other hand, the le v e l o f attainm ent o f most women who enter schools remains r e la tiv e ly low, sw elling the ranks o f the masses o f women w ith lesser education compared to t h e ir male counterparts. 1 For most o f such women, the prospects o f fu rth e rin g t h e ir education are lim ite d e ith e r by lack o f educational opportunities or because o f th e ir s o cietal roles and re s p o n s ib ilitie s , 1n p a r tic u la r those re la tin g to the tra d itio n a l In s titu tio n o f marriage w ith in which most o f these women are found. I t 1s w ith such s o c ie ta l re s p o n s ib ilitie s and lim ite d back­ grounds th a t most A frican women confront a complex and changing world. In th is environment one would expect an Increase 1n th e ir desire or need to Improve th e ir s k ills through fu rth e r p a rtic ip a tio n 1n the educational process. The nature of formal schooling tends, however, to preclude th e ir p a r tic ip a tio n . I t would also seem th a t arrangements outside the formal system would provide opportunities fo r th is class o f women. E sp ecially e ffe c tiv e would be continuing education programs th a t are structured w ith s u ffic ie n t f l e x i b i l i t y 1n th e ir curriculum and scheduling, and o th er facto rs th a t consider the p e c u lia r needs and aspirations o f women. The above postulations can be reinforced through the study of some o f the women who are to be found In s itu a tio n s where educational opportunities are d iffe r e n t and e x is t both outside and Inside the formal system o f education. A case 1n point 1s th a t o f A frican women who accompany th e ir student husbands to the United S tates. A selected group of these women 1n the Michigan area have been studied to discover the extent and manner o f t h e ir p a rtic ip a tio n 1n a c t iv it ie s and programs 1n continuing th e ir education and the major facto rs th a t a ffe c t such p a rtic ip a tio n . 3 Purpose o f the Study This study In vestigated patterns o f p a rtic ip a tio n In continuing education programs by dependent Sub-Saharan A frican females a t selected u n iv e rs ity centers 1n Michigan. More s p e c ific a lly , 1t sought to 1) gain Inform ation about c e rta in demographic and social c h a ra c te ris tic s o f dependent A frican females 1n selected u n iv e rs ity centers 1n Michigan. 2) gain Inform ation on actual and Intended p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education programs. 3) analyze such p a rtic ip a tio n 1n terms o f a p a rtic ip a tio n typology. 4) Id e n tify influences generating dependent A frican females' In te re s t 1n educational programs 1n the United S tates. 5) examine re la tio n s h ip s between c e rta in demographic and social c h a ra c te ris tic s and part1c1pat1on/non-part1c1pat1on. Assumptions Underlying th is study were c e rta in assumptions. These assump- tions were: 1) Dependent A frican females' reasons fo r engaging In educa­ tio n a l pursuits are Influenced by a v a rie ty o f fac to rs such as educa­ tio n a l o pportunities th a t e x is t 1n the community. 2) Most A frican wives w ill take advantage of the opportunities to continue t h e ir education. 4 3) Even though American educational programs are designed p rim a rily to serve the needs o f Americans, the dependent A frican females w il l perceive 1n these programs useful elements th a t can be re a d ily adapted to t h e ir own needs. Research Questions The follow ing set o f research questions d irected the In v e s ti­ gation. These questions considered Independent variab les th a t showed demographic re la tio n s h ip s and provided Inform ation on class s tru c tu re , m otivational techniques employed 1n the United S ta te s , media channels, employment and In s titu tio n a l p attern s. The research questions were subjected to a d e ta ile d descrip­ tio n a f t e r which some of the questions were tested to generate s t a t is ­ t ic a l data and to determine levels o f s ig n ific a n c e . The questions were: 1. To what extent 1s place o f residence 1n the home country associated w ith p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education? 2. Are d ifferences 1n re lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n associated w ith the p a rtic ip a tio n o f dependent A frican females 1n educational classes? 3. Is there a re la tio n s h ip between English language back­ ground (years o f study o f English) and p a rtic ip a tio n 1n educational classes? 4. Is there a re la tio n s h ip between age o f the women and th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n 1n educational classes? 5. Is previous educational background associated w ith t h e ir p a rtic ip a tio n or non-part1c1pat1on 1n continuing education programs? 5 6. Is there a re la tio n s h ip between the number and ages o f ch ild ren a woman has and her p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education classes? 7. To what exten t does length o f stay in the United States Influence the dependent A frican fem ale's p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education classes? 8. To what exten t are scheduling o f classes, perceived relevance o f courses and the v a rie ty o f classes o ffe red associated w ith the p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education a c tiv itie s ? 9. Is there a s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e between the perceived support and cooperation o f husbands, fa m ilie s and frien d s o f the wives enrolled 1n educational programs in the United States and those o f the wives who are not? 10. Through what inform ation channels do these women become In te re s te d 1n engaging in educational pursuits 1n the United States? 11. Is th ere a re la tio n s h ip between p a rtic ip a tio n le ve ls and stated expectations o f reward? S ig n ifican ce o f the Study Increasing e ffo r ts are today d ire c te d a t studies regarding married women 1n educational a c t iv it ie s e s p e c ia lly 1n the developing cou n tries, but also 1n the United S tates. From the review o f the lit e r a t u r e , th is f i e l d appears to be a r e la t iv e ly new one fo r research exp lo ratio n . There 1s also a noticeable lack o f studies on motiva­ tio n a l facto rs th a t In fluence A frican women to p a r tic ip a te 1n programs to continue t h e ir education. The present study was designed to bring 6 out some s ig n ific a n t fin din gs fo r both continuing education adm inistrators and o th er co lleg e adm inistrators who are concerned w ith the adjustment and educational progress o f wives o f students 1n In t e r ­ national exchange programs. The Inform ation gained has Increased the knowledge th a t already existed and, a t the same tim e , has presented general Im plications fo r s im ila r populations. The study s p e c ific a lly has 1) been o f s ig n ific a n c e to the p a rtic ip a n ts themselves; 1t has been a chance fo r A frican wives to fe e l themselves a p a rt o f a studied group. I t has given status to t h e ir roles as wives. 2) gathered data necessary to generate Inform ation about educational o p p o rtu n itie s , e s p e c ia lly fo r married women, fo r use by both fo reig n students and continuing education and co lleg e adm inistra­ to rs . Also, the study w ill 1) provide data fo r continuing education ad m in istrato rs, college a<*n1n1strators (fo re ig n student advisors, fo r example), and In tere s te d agencies who are concerned w ith p o licy making fo r the edu­ cational progress and adjustment o f foreig n students 1n the United S tates. I t w ill a s s is t w ith the assessment o f the various academic and non-academic programs and services a v a ila b le to A frican wives and other foreig n student wives as w ell as aid 1n planning fu tu re programs as re fle c te d by the concerns and needs Id e n t if ie d . 2) provide an opportunity fo r lo cal community groups, such as the Community Volunteers fo r In te rn a tio n a l Programs a t Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity , church groups and service groups, to assess the 7 e xis tin g resources and to po in t out the strengths and weaknesses o f opportunities a v a ila b le 1n the local community. 3) generate In te re s t among educational planners In A fric a who are concerned w ith developing or expanding programs In the area of continuing education fo r women. I t w ill give some Insights In to the conditions and fac to rs th a t may be helpfu l In estab lish in g special programs fo r women, e s p e c ia lly married women. 4) serve as a guide to A frican counselors 1n A fric a o ffe rin g advice to prospective A frican students about educational resources and services a v a ila b le In American educational In s titu tio n s . Knowledge can be provided through o rie n ta tio n programs f o r married men and t h e ir wives to Inform them o f possible educational avenues to be explored once 1n the United States and to help them make w iser decisions about bringing or not bringing t h e ir wives. Lim itatio n s o f the Study 1. The study was re s tric te d to wives o f A frican married students ra th e r than to a ll A frican women, and th is had c e rta in lim it a ­ tions fo r subsequent g e n e ra liz a tio n s . 2. The exclusion from th is study o f sin g le women students and married women students who were on campus w ithout t h e ir spouses had c e rta in disadvantages. 3. Since the sample was made up o f wives who are p o te n tia lly p art o f the e l i t e of t h e ir s o c ie ties and who were In an environment dominated by students, the expressed academic asp iratio n s and desires may have been Influenced by a p a r tic u la r s e ttin g . 8 4. The v a ria tio n 1n respondents' c u ltu ra l backgrounds may have a ffe c te d t h e ir responses and may have re fle c te d ethnic or regional d iffe re n c e s . 5. I t may be expected th a t because 1975 was In te rn a tio n a l Women's Year, responses may have re fle c te d heightened perceptions rath er than "normal" responses; 1n o th er words, the responses o f these women may have been less rep resen tative than they would have been a t other time periods. 6. Because o f the economic recession 1n the United States during the period 1n which the study was done, fo reig n students were being subjected to rigorous examination and scru tin y w ith respect to v is a , academic, fin a n c ia l and employment s ta tu s . Some o f the students had been threatened w ith , and even experienced, deportation to th e ir home countries. As a r e s u lt, respondents may have shown reluctance to commit themselves on matters re la tin g to employment and length o f desired stay 1n the United S tates. D e fin itio n s o f Terms The major terms used 1n th is study are defined to ensure th a t the w r ite r and the reader share s im ila r In te rp re ta tio n s . The follo w ing have been defined: An A frican — a person from A fric a south o f the Sahara. A dependent female— a woman who 1s t r a d it io n a lly o r s ta tu to r­ i l y married to an A frican male student. U n ive rs ity centers— those In s titu tio n s w ith e xclu sively or predominantly educational purposes geared to providing post-secondary 9 education. Such In s titu tio n s 1n th is study are accessible to fo reig n students to pursue higher education and have no less than e ig h ty -fiv e foreign students e n ro lle d . P a rtic ip a tio n p attern s— the extent to which dependent females get Involved 1n an educational a c t iv it y , academic or non-academic, th a t 1s designed to continue t h e ir education. P a rtic ip a tio n — the act o f e n ro llin g and engaging 1n an educa­ tio n a l a c t iv it y o r program. Continuing education— educational a c t iv it ie s resumed a f t e r term ination or In te rru p tio n o f formal schooling, and usually a ft e r undertaking pu rsu it o f vocational and other s p e c ific goals and In te re s ts such as m arriage. Overview and Organization o f the D issertatio n Chapter I presents a statement o f the problem th a t was In vestig ated . The background Inform ation 1s presented and 1s followed by a discussion of the purpose and assumptions; the research questions are s p e c ifie d , and the s ig n ifica n ce and lim ita tio n s of the study are In dicated. A d e fin itio n of key terms 1s added. Chapter I I 1s a review of the re le v a n t re la te d lit e r a t u r e and research stu d ies. Chapter I I I focuses on the research design and methodology used 1n the study. The population and sample, Instrum entation, method o f c o lle c tin g and ta b u la tin g data and procedures f o r analysis o f the data are reported. 10 Chapter IV presents the general findings analyzed both d e s c rip tiv e ly and w ith the aid o f tables and graphs; s t a t is t ic a l te s t re s u lts ; and responses to the open-ended question are c la s s ifie d and accompanied by a set o f recommendations. Chapter V Is a summary and overview o f the research. cussion and In te rp re ta tio n of research re su lts 1s Included. A d is ­ Conclusions, im p lica tio n s , recommendations and suggestions fo r fu tu re research fo llo w . CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE In tro d u ctio n Chapter I I 1s divided In to two sections. Section I , which serves as a background fo r the study, provides a b r ie f h is to ry o f the education o f women in A fric a and examines facto rs th a t have influenced women's educational development. Section I I reviews lit e r a t u r e on the foreign student 1n the United S ta te s , research 1n the f i e l d o f p a r t ic i­ pation o f the m arried and mature woman 1n continuing education programs and em pirical evidence In the area o f a d u lt p a rtic ip a tio n In continuing education. Section I Education o f females 1n A fric a Two primary sets o f fac to rs have been 1n operation to d e te r­ mine the d ire c tio n o f female p a r tic ip a tio n 1n education w ith in A fr ic a . The f i r s t Is a s et o f h is to ric a l antecedents th a t have led to the crea­ tio n o f a dlchotomous so ciety: underprivileged m a jo rity . an e l i t i s t m in o rity and an edu cation ally The second Is a set o f social and c u ltu ra l facto rs such as "the conservative a ttitu d e o f p aren ts," "the v ic is s i­ tudes o f puberty," "In c o m p a tib ility between education and fem in ity" 11 12 and "e a rly m arriages."^ The In te ra c tio n o f these forces and the d iscrim inato ry tendencies towards women's education Inherent 1n Western colonial and missionary education 1n A fric a are now examined. Western co lo n ial education Western education 1n A fric a dates back to the seventeenth century and evolved w ith missionary and co lo n ial a c t iv it ie s on the continent. 2 Though missionary and colon ial education had d iffe r e n t o rie n ta tio n s , they were s im ila r 1n th a t t h e ir contents were western o rie n te d . In content, the tra in in g provided by co lo n ial education was not designed to prepare the In d iv id u a ls fo r the services o f t h e ir country but ra th e r to In c u lc a te the values o f the m etropolitan power 1n a few selected in d iv id u a ls . These were mostly men needed by the colonial governments to form a supportive s tru c tu re fo r t h e ir admlnlstra tio n s . 3 Van A llen notes: Where the c o lo n ia lis ts needed l i t e r a t e A fricans to form a supportive s tru c tu re fo r co lo n ial governments, they sought out young boys fo r tr a in in g . . . . Again, mission educa­ tio n soon came to be the re q u is ite fo r p re stig e and fo r p o lit ic a l and economic power but g ir ls were sent to school much less o ften than boys—as they s t i l l a re. G ir ls , 1t 1United Nations Economic and Social Council: Study on the E q u a lity o f Access o f G irls and Women to Education 1n the Context o f Hural Bevel opmen¥. E/c N . g / ^ R e v . T I T eFf uary , ^ 75 I T pp T 3S-"37 . ^Colln G. Wise, A H istory o f Education In B r itis h West A fric a (London: Longmans Green and C o . , 1 $ 5 6 ), pp. 3F. H. H i l l i a r d , A Short H istory o f Education 1n B ritis h West A fric a (London: Thomas Nelson and j^tons, C td ., 1957), pp. 167-177. 13 was s a id , were needed by t h e ir mothers fo r help w ith house and farm work. . . . 4 In e f f e c t , the small pool o f e lit e s created by the colo n ial governments was dominated by men who worked as a social class to pre­ serve t h e ir p riv ile g e d p o sitio n w ith detrim ental consequences to t h e ir societies 1n general and to women 1n p a r tic u la r . Another dimension o f co lo n ial education th a t lim ite d female p a rtic ip a tio n was the g reat v a ria tio n 1n educational op po rtu nities w ith in regions o f the same colony. U su ally, only A fricans liv in g 1n or near the a d m in is tra tiv e centers had access to educational opportuni­ t ie s . For In stan ce, 1n the Gambia, lite r a c y rates were considerably higher fo r Bathurst town than fo r the other regions; 1n Uganda, urban Buganda monopolized education w h ile 1n Ghana, the e n tir e northern por­ tio n o f the country lacked schools.^ Boys from the h in te rla n d areas without schools had to be sent to be educated 1n and around the adminis­ t r a t iv e centers. This p riv ile g e could n o t, however, be extended to g ir ls fo r many reasons. E arly marriages precluded such p a rtic ip a tio n and the fe a r o f pregnancy forced parents to keep g ir ls a t home under t h e ir own supervision. The e ffo r ts o f the colonial governments to encourage the p a rtic ip a tio n o f people from the hinterlands were d irected a t the 4 Judith Van A lle n , "Modernization means more dependency," The Center Magazine (May/June, 1974), p. 61. salaam: ^Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped A fric a (Dar es Tanzania Publishing House, 1972), p. 266. 14 children o f the ro y a lty . Boys were the exclusive b e n e fic ia rie s o f th is gesture since they could la t e r be used as Instruments o f the colonial government. Colonial educational p o lic y was not s t a t i c , however. Edu­ cators and adm inistrators made serious e ffo r ts to broaden the scope o f, and access t o , education. As Rodney In d ic ates : From the 1920s, both B rita in and France produced colonial educators and education commissions which urged g re a te r relevance of teaching programmes in A fric a . They also put forward suggestions such as the use o f local languages 1n primary schools, more education fo r 9 l£ ls and an end to w h ite -c o lla r o rie n ta tio n o f sch o o lin g .6 The recommendation th a t g ir ls should go to school 1s p a r t i­ c u la rly In te re s tin g here since 1t e n te rta in s the notion th a t the s k ills acquired can be u t iliz e d In a male dominated C1v1l Service in fra s tru c ­ tu re . However, the social im plications o f such a thought are being overlooked, fo r the status o f women 1n the m etropolitan centers them­ selves 1s equally d o u b tfu l. Mission education In s p ite o f numerous c ritic is m s often le v ie d a t m issionaries, missions c a rrie d the bigger "burden" fo r the education o f Africans during the colonial era; and th e y , more than the co lo n ial governments, emphasized the importance o f the education o f females. T h e ir focus, however, was upon the tra in in g o f g ir ls as good C h ris tia n housewives ^Rodney* op. c 1 t . , p. 275. 15 and mothers.7 The a c t iv it ie s o f the missions were lo c a liz e d and the levels o f female p a rtic ip a tio n varied between areas* w ith in and between colonies. In N ig e ria , fo r Instance, 1 t was the p o lic y o f the colonial government to exclude mission a c t iv it ie s from the north. In Ghana, the In te r io r and upper portions o f the country could not be reached by the o missionaries u n til a f t e r the conquest o f the Ashantis by the B r itis h . Kl1ngsh1rn reports th a t as e a rly as 1918 1n Ghana the r a tio o f boys to g ir ls 1n mission schools was roughly three to one, w hile the corresponding fig u re fo r government (c o lo n ia l) schools was s ix to one. g This contrasts w ith what Wise reports from N ig e ria — the f i r s t mission school established there catered to about fo r ty p u p ils , only one o f whom was fe m a le .^ T ra d itio n a l education o f women T ra d itio n a l A frican s o c ie tie s emphasized the preparation o f g ir ls fo r t h e ir roles w ith in a subsistence a g ric u ltu ra l econoiny and th e ir fu tu re status as wives and mothers. S is te r M arle-A ndrl du Sacre- Coeur, remarking on the mental formation o f young A frican g i r l s , stated : A frican mothers teach t h e ir daughters how to grow the stap le foods and the Indispensable Ingredients th a t go w ith 7Agnes K U n g sh lm , "The social p o sitio n o f women 1n Ghana," Verfassung und Recht In Urersee, 6. Jahrgang, 3. (Q u a rta l, 1973), p. Z§3. Q P h ilip Foster, Education and Social Change 1n Ghana (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965), p. 121. g K lln g sh lrn , op. c 1 t . , p. 293. 10M1se , op. c 1 t . , p. 10. 16 them. . . . The woman who makes m ille t beer, vegetable b u tte r, soap or p o tte ry teaches her daughter the technique o f these c r a fts , takes her along to the d iffe r e n t markets and entrusts to her care her l i t t l e brothers and s is te r s . These re s p o n s ib ilitie s assumed a t a tender age plus the example o f courage, endurance, and devotion she sees and admires 1n her mother, a l l go to fashion the m e n ta lity o f the young A frican g ir l and form the basis o f her moral t r a in in g .1 ' A fu rth e r dimension o f the tra in in g and preparation o f g ir ls was t h e ir i n it ia t i o n In to secret s o c ie tie s . These In s titu tio n s , designed to provide a general education 1n social and vocational t r a in ­ in g , 1n the reg u latio n o f sexual conduct and 1n the supervision o f p o lit ic a l and economic a f f a i r s , l e f t a la s tin g Im p rin t on p a rtic ip a n ts as to t h e ir s ta tu s , roles and re s p o n s ib ilitie s 1n so ciety—most of these center on the woman as a w ife and a mother In a subsistence so ciety. The tra in in g o f A frican women In tr a d itio n a l society had Important Im p licatio ns fo r what happened when the m issionaries a rriv e d . For, w ith the b u ilt - i n bias o f Western education regarding appropriate patterns o f education fo r women, and given the con strain ts o f t r a d i­ tio n a l s o c ie ty , A frican women were put a t a double disadvantage 1n deriving the f u l l b en efits of Western education when 1t a rriv e d . Consequences o f the In te ra c tio n o f c o lo n ia l, mission and tr a d itio n a l education The lower p a rtic ip a tio n rates o f females 1n colonial educa­ tio n may be a ttrib u te d to a v a rie ty o f fa c to rs , most of which may have ^ S is t e r Mar1e-Andr6 du Sacre-Coeur, La Femme Noire en A frlque Occldentale (P a ris : Payot, 1939), p. 208. 17 stemmed from the desires and the a ttitu d e s o f the Indigenous population. However, the d esire o f the co lo n ial governments was a powerful determining fa c to r . The co lo n ial governments emphasized In some o f t h e ir reports th a t preparation fo r marriage and the home should be the central o b je c tiv e o f women's education. Malawi) rep ort s ta te s : The Nyasaland (now "The m a jo rity o f g ir ls w il l become wives and mothers, and 1 t 1s Important th a t t h e ir education should be d irected toward equipping them fo r t h e ir fu tu re sphere of homemaklng." Report on Higher Education 1n East A fric a declared: women's education 1s to tr a in homemakers." 12 The "The function o f 13 Adult education was accepted 1n p rin c ip le by the various colonial governments. For example, the memorandum on the education o f A frican communities s ta te s : "The education o f adults had to go hand 1n hand w ith the education o f the young and the education o f the 14 women w ith the education o f the men." But a d u lt education fo r women had It s focus on the d a ily l i f e of the local community. Though the missions taught reading and w ritin g to these women as necessary tools of communication, most o f the a c t iv it ie s were o rien ted to motherhood and n u tr itio n . The aim o f education fo r women was thus perceived by both the m issionaries and the colonial masters as d if fe r e n t from th a t o f 12 Code and Syllabus o f In s tru c tio n fo r use 1n schools fo r A frican g ir ls and schools fo r tra in in g A frican women teachers, Nyasa­ land, 1933, p. 3. l3 Colon1al No. 142, 1935. 14 Colonial No. 103, 1935, paragraph 6. 18 education fo r men. Though mission schools made special attempts to re c r u it women students and to provide teachers, there were many d i f ­ ferences between the education o f men and women. Baker notes th a t . . . standards 1n the sense o f education achieved by males and females d iffe r e d , 1n th a t though a few boys were q u a li­ fyin g 1n 1954 fo r secondary school education th is standard has not been reached by g i r l s . Again, tech nical education a ttra c te d a number o f male pupils but was not open to fem ales. One ad d itio n a l consideration which must be taken In to account 1s the fa c to r o f age. In many Blrom areas, c h ild ren f i r s t begin school la t e , the tendency being to consider a c h ild reatjy fo r school when he shows some d esire fo r schooling; the complaint 1s th a t those who q u a lify fo r entrance to senior schools o f one s o rt o r another are too o ld . In the case o f g i r l s , th is tends o ften to mean th a t they reach m arriageable age, and 1 t was not considered d es ira b le by many Blrom parents to delay a g i r l ' s marriage unduly. Again, 1n only a few areas are there establishments providing post­ primary school education fo r g i r l s , so th a t fu r th e r education requires leaving home. Many Blrom parents are lo ath to allow t h e ir g ir ls to liv e away from home a t such a c ru c ia l tim e 1n t h e ir l i v e s . 15 The s itu a tio n th a t emerges from both c o lo n ial and missionary education o u tlin e d w ith respect to g ir ls Is one 1n which female p a r t i c i ­ pation 1n education was considerably less than th a t o f males. The educational system has b u ilt In to 1t an “adolescent" b ia s; th a t 1s, most A frican g ir ls are forced to drop out o f school because o f e a rly marriage. A fte r c h ild -re a r in g , when wanen are r e la t iv e ly fr e e o f fam ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s to p a rtic ip a te 1n education, the system, moreover, makes no provision fo r a d u lts . In f a c t , marriage p u lls women away from school a t the time they can take advantage o f whatever lim ite d f a c i l i ­ tie s are a v a ila b le to them. I f t h e ir d esire to get an education ^^Tanya Baker, “N ig e ria ," 1n Women's Role 1n the Development o f Tropical and Sub-troD lcal C ountries. ReDort o f the XXXI meeting TBrusseTs,' 175 9 ), pp. 75 -77.------------------ 19 persists through la t e r years, no opportunity e xis ts to r e a liz e 1 t. Thus, marriage a t an e a rly age 1s an obstacle to higher educational goals o f A frican women. Other re la te d aspects of marriage th a t discourage the p a r ti­ cipation of the A frican woman are c h ild -b e arin g and c h ild -re a rin g . The stigma attached to barrenness d ic ta te s th a t the woman concentrate on the raisin g o f the fam ily during her productive y e a rs .1® At the same tim e, there are sanctions discouraging the p a rtic ip a tio n o f preg­ nant women 1n many educational In s titu tio n s . Facing the d ic ta te s o f tra d itio n and the r ig id it y of those who frame educational p o lic ie s , most women t r y to f u l f i l l the demands o f tr a d itio n a l so ciety. Location of In s titu tio n s , p a r tic u la r ly post-primary In s t it u ­ tio n s , has also contributed to the low p a rtic ip a tio n o f women. Educa­ tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s are lim ite d , and the s itu a tio n necessitates the In d iv id u a l's tra v e lin g and liv in g away from parents 1n order to go to school. Boys are sent over great distances to these schools, but parents are h esitan t to send g ir ls to d is ta n t schools were, without supervision, they run the ris k o f pregnancy before in it ia t io n In to womanhood.17 l6 Den1se Paulme, Women o f Tropical A fric a (London: and Kegan Paul, 1963), pp. 4 -1 6 . 17W1se, op. c 1 t . , pp. 1-13. Routledge 20 Contemporary a ttitu d e s toward education o f women A ttitu des toward education fo r women 1n contemporary A frica are changing r a d ic a lly . Education o f women today c arries a high value. In some cases even equal to education of men. Changes 1n a ttitu d e s are explained p rin c ip a lly by the extent o f urbanization and moderniza­ tio n which have been In f ilt r a t in g tra d itio n a l l i f e , disrupting t r a d i­ tio n a l relatio n sh ip s between the sexes and the roles defined by those re la tio n s h ip s. Poole v e r ifie s th is 1n a study of sex ro le and learning 1n the changing society o f northern N ig e ria . He found th a t one o f the most dramatic e ffe c ts of urbanization was a s h ift In a ttitu d e s towards 18 g ir ls ' education. From his fin d in g s , he concludes: There 1s apparent In the results an o verall tendency fo r urbanization to be accompanied by g re ater acceptance of female education. . . . C e rta in ly , one has the Impression th a t the urban A frican takes a more w orldly view o f the problem o f female education than the v illa g e r . He 1s less Impressed by re lig io u s arguments, less frightened by the spectre of female disobedience and Immorality which are supposed to re s u lt from e d u c a tio n .'9 Poole's findings are not unique. In another recent study o f the achievement, s e le c tio n , and recruitm ent o f boys and g ir ls 1n secondary schools 1n Ghana, Foster examined the backgrounds o f the students to discover changing patterns o f p a rtic ip a tio n In education. 18 Howard E. Poole, "A study o f sex ro le and learning In a changing s o c ie ty ," West A frican Journal o f Education (October, 1971), pp. 171-175. 19Ib1d. , p. 255. 20 F o s te r, op. c 1 t . , pp. 220-310. 20 21 He discovered th a t the socio-economic backgrounds o f the parents were very s ig n ific a n t 1n enrollm ent p a tte rn s , p a r tic u la r ly fo r fem ales. He pointed out th a t g ir ls coming from e s s e n tia lly ru ra l backgrounds w ith I l l i t e r a t e parents showed a 12.2 percent p a rtic ip a tio n ra te a t secondaryschool le ve l as compared to 65.5 percent fo r g ir ls from homes o f l i t e r a t e professionals. These d if fe r e n t ia ls may appear to be re la te d to degrees o f modernization or may r e f le c t the tr a d itio n a l norms o f the ro le and status o f women. Foster notes: I t 1s apparent th a t g ir ls are drawn from r e la t iv e ly re s tric te d segments o f the Ghanaian population. This 1s p re cis e ly because g ir ls are f a r less lik e ly to be sent to secondary schools than boys and when they do enter these In s titu tio n s , they are more lik e ly to come from educational and occupational backgrounds th a t are w ell above average.2' Ethnic In te ra c tio n must be mentioned a lso . In Ghana, as 1n many o ther parts of A fr ic a , educational o p po rtu n ities d i f f e r between the d iffe r e n t regions depending on the degree of exposure to the West. The fa r th e r Inland one goes, the less the o p po rtu n ities fo r In te ra c tio n . I t is Important to note, however, th a t several in te ra c tin g fac to rs are Involved. Foster observes th a t "ethnic d if f e r e n t ia ls seem to be con­ s is te n tly re la te d to other d is tin c tiv e v a ria tio n s such as p a te rn a l, occupational and educational c h a ra c te ris tic s ." 22 Formal educational f a c i l i t i e s a t the lower le ve l are now In creasing ly a v a ila b le to both g ir ls and boys 1n equal measure. G irls now c o n s titu te from t h i r t y to f i f t y percent o f students e n ro lled 1n 21I b j d . , p. 255. 22Ib 1 d ., p. 258. 22 primary schools. In secondary schools, the percentages are sm aller 23 but Increasing. But a t the u n iv e rs ity le v e l, the percentage Is s t i l l q u ite sm all. In Ghana, fo r example, w h ile the proportion o f g ir ls to boys was about equal a t the primary le v e l, 1 t amounted to only about tw e n ty -fiv e percent a t the secondary le ve l and was as low as ten per24 cent a t the u n iv e rs ity le v e l. The whole question o f women's entry In to u n iv e rs itie s revolves around c e rta in In s titu tio n a l fa c to rs , such as the number and types o f In s titu tio n s o ffe rin g education fo r females; the nature o f the c u rric u ­ lum d irected a t women and the s tru c tu re o f the primary and secondary school system; o rie n ta tio n towards preparation fo r higher education and r e la tiv e absence o f education and tra in in g fo r s p e c ific s k ills and vocations fo r women. There exis ts a serious d is p a rity between the number and the type o f secondary schools fo r g ir ls 1n comparison w ith those fo r boys. At the more fundamental le v e l, the m a jo rity o f p a rtic ip a n ts 1n lite r a c y classes tend to be women since they form the m a jo rity o f I l l i t e r a t e s 1n most A frican cou n tries. 23 "Women: The neglected human resource," Canadian Journal o f A frican S tu d ies, Vol. 6 , No. 2 (1 9 7 2 ), pp. 359-37 7F, 2^Sunday M irro r (Accra* Ghana), March 27, 1966. 23 National d ifferen ces w ith respect to education fo r women With data secured from UNESCO, 25 an examination is made o f nine A frican countries w ith regard to p a r tic ip a tio n o f women a t d i f ­ fe re n t levels o f education. Such an examination reveals and rein fo rces the q u a lita tiv e and q u a n tita tiv e d is p a rity 1n le v e ls o f education between men and women. The countries examined and compared are Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, L ib e r ia , Malawi, Uganda, Z a ire and Zambia. 1. From Appendix Ci I l l i t e r a c y 1s higher fo r women than men 1n a ll countries except Lesotho. Between the age group 1-24 years. I l l i t e r a c y among women ranges from 67.9 percent 1n Zambia to 92.0 per­ cent 1n L ib e r ia . The national rates range between 52.0 percent and 81.0 percent fo r both sexes. For the age group tw e n ty -fiv e years and above, the fig u res are even higher. Excluding Lesotho, the range 1s between 78.7 percent and 98.6 percent. I t 1s Important to note th a t the female population 1n a ll countries 1s f i f t y percent o f the to ta l or more. 2. A comparison o f female p a rtic ip a tio n a t the various levels Is equally re v e a lin g . Figures are computed fo r the f i r s t , second, and post-secondary le v e ls . The percentages are computed on the basis o f the female population w ith in c e rta in age groups. In g eneral, p a rtic ip a tio n drops from the lower to the higher age le v e ls . S ig n if i­ c a n tly , above the age o f tw e n ty -fiv e y ea rs , p a rtic ip a tio n a t the 25UNESC0: Country re p o rts , 1965, 1970, 1971, 1972. 24 post-secondary le v e ls ranges from zero 1n Malawi to 0 .4 percent 1n Ghana and Zambia. 3. and 1972 At the f i r s t le v e l, female (see Appendix C2) 1n A fric a has p a rtic ip a tio n between 1960 been s lig h tly less than th a t shown by corresponding fig u res fo r a ll developing co u n tries. Is tru e fo r the second le v e l. The same At le ve l th re e , however, the rates are nearly the same. 4. The fo llo w in g Inform ation was d i s t i l l e d fo r tw en ty-fou r A frican cou n tries. Female p a rtic ip a tio n rates 1n types o f education are tabulated fo r the period between 1965 and 1972. The p a rtic ip a tio n ta b le below Indicates th a t 1n a ll areas o f study female has been on the Increase. However, such p a r tic ip a tio n 1s concentrated 1n those subject areas t r a d it io n a lly associated w ith female ro le s . R e la tiv e to o ther areas, female p a rtic ip a tio n remains higher 1n general education, vocational education and teacher tr a in in g . I t must also be pointed out th a t the equally higher ra te o f p a r tic ip a ­ tio n 1n the medical science f ie ld 1s g en erally due to the female dom1nance in nursing ra th e r than 1n any tra in in g towards a higher rank w ith in the profession. The evidence from the fou r broad areas o u tlin ed r e f le c t low female p a rtic ip a tio n rates 1n education 1n general and those females who are tw e n ty -fiv e years and above are a ffe c te d the most. These observations a ris e from fa c to rs w ith in the various so c ie ties th a t combine to determine the p a rtic ip a tio n patterns o f females. In th is c o n te x t, one may suggest th a t p a rtic ip a tio n patterns among women are not r e f le c t iv e o f th e ir cap a citie s but ra th e r o f the Female participation in different areas of education in Africa between 1965 and 1972. (Number of females as percentage of to ta l) (All levels of education) (Nursing Included) Medical Sciences Agri­ culture Law Social Science Natural Science 27.6 8.7 9.8 10.8 - 24.0 1.3 25.3 27.9 9.6 9.7 10.8 3.0 23.0 6.0 26.5 25.5 29.0 9.5 11.7 10.9 3.3 15.9 7.3 29.5 27.5 30.4 11.2 14.6 10.5 1.0 14.6 8.8 Year General Education Vocational Education Teacher Training 1965 29.8 28.6 1970 25.5 1971 1972 (Source: Engineering UNESCO Reports 1965, 1970, 1971, 1972)* ♦These are reported statistics and caution must be exercised on the validity of such data. 26 constraints Imposed by t h e ir environment. The female who finds h e rs e lf 1n school a t an e a rly age receives considerable pressure to drop out and get m arried. At a la t e r stage, 1 f such a female decides to continue her education, the educational system makes no provision fo r her. L iteracy classes may e x is t, but she may fin d them Inadequate fo r her needs. Other adult education classes, such as extra-mural courses r ig id ly structured toward p a rtic u la r examinations, may s t i l l not be the answer. Community development programs may provide some knowledge but s t i l l may not be the avenue fo r pursuing the c e r t if ic a t e she needs. The few technical tra in in g colleges th a t e x is t may require a level of schooling she has not attain ed and going back to school may not be possible. Thus, the factors th a t negate the resumption o f study o f a female who has dropped out o f school are c le a rly tremendous; but 1 t 1s s t i l l un­ c le a r whether a lack o f opportunity or a lack o f desire Is the over­ riding fa c to r. I t may be safe to speculate a t th is point th a t considerations which keep the female out o f education are Inherent In the environment as well as 1n the women's acquired a ttitu d e towards education. Thus, w ithin a d iffe r e n t environment and w ith new opportunities fo r partic1pa t1on 1n education, A frican women who are now e ith e r In d iffe re n t or have a negative a ttitu d e towards education may react d if fe r e n t ly . 27 Section I I Numerous United States studies have examined p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education. S o c lo -c u ltu ra l d iffe re n c e s , however, lim it the a p p lic a b ility o f such studies to the A fric a n . Studies th a t focus on foreign students 1n general s u ffe r fo r s im ila r reasons; 1n a d d itio n , there are hardly any th a t deal w ith fo reig n female students or th a t m atter w ith the married o r mature A frican woman. fo r Since the task o f a complete survey o f the lit e r a t u r e was a d i f f i c u l t one, e ffo rts have been d irected a t u t i liz in g those studies and reports which bore most s ig n ific a n c e and meaning to the present study. The A frican as a fo reig n student 'In Ehe United States--------Most of the studies dealing w ith the processes o f crossc u ltu ra l education 1n the United States have focused mainly upon European and A s ia tic students; few e x is t on the A frican as a student In the United S tates. (In 1969, over twenty percent o f the 54,000 fo reig n graduate students a t American in s titu tio n s were e ith e r Chinese 26 or In d ia n .) Studies have p rin c ip a lly been concerned w ith the ro le of personal c h a ra c te ris tic s such as n a tio n a lity , age, m arital s ta tu s . 26 1969), pp. Open Doors (New York: 6 = r. In s t it u t e o f In te rn a tio n a l Education, 28 and re lig io n 1n determining behavior and a ttitu d e s . 27 Walton's 28 categ o rizatio n o f research on foreign students 1n the United States Include these areas and others such as o rie n ta tio n and academic per­ formance, development o f youth lead ersh ip , m igration o f foreig n stu­ dents and the u t iliz a t io n o f knowledge acquired In the United S ta te s. In a study on Aslan students involved 1n c ro ss -c u ltu ral 29 education w ith Mexican Americans and Anglos, Qultanar explored c u ltu ra lly -b a s e d values 1n explaining the re la tio n s h ip between students' a ttitu d e s and t h e ir s o c ie tie s . The fin din gs pointed out th a t socio­ economic s ta tu s , as measured by occupation, education and Income, did not appear to influence the reasons students have fo r going to college and was not re la te d to other a ttitu d e s . N either sex nor ru ra l/u rb a n residence was re la te d to a ttitu d e s towards education, but the social m ilie u d e f in it e ly a ffe c te d the students' a ttitu d e s towards education. However, i t 1s Important to note th a t Aslan students tended to be more 27 See Richard T . M o rris , The Two-way M irro r: National Status 1n Foreign Students' Adjustment (M inneapolis: U n iversity o f Minnesota Press, iSflVJ; C la ire SeTl t f z at a l i a . A ttitu d e s and Social Relations o f Foreign Students In the United States (Minneapolis: U n ive rs ity o f Minne­ sota Press. 1963); George V. Coe!ho. Changing Images o f America: A Study o f Indian Students' Perception ( I l l i n o i s : Pree Press, f$ £ 8 ); J . W. Bennett e t a l i a . In Search "of Id e n tity : The Japanese Overseas Scholar In America and jaoan (M inneapolis: U n ive rs ity o f Minnesota Press, 1958); Em ilia U n d e r , "America as seen by Polish exchange scholars," Public Opinion Q u a rte rly . X X V III, Summer, 1964, pp. 243-256; D. C. Johnson, ^'Problems o f fo reig n students," Exchange. F a l l, 1971, pp. 6-68. ^B arb ara J . Walton, Foreign Student Exchange 1n P ersp ective: Research on foreign Students 1n~~the United States (Washington. D .C .: O fn e e o f External Research, Department o f S ta te , 1967). 29 Rosalinda Q u ltan ar, "A comparative study o f students' a t t i ­ tudes toward education" (M.A. th e s is . New Mexico S tate U n iv e rs ity , Las Cruces, N. M.) 29 c o lle c tiv e ly oriented 1n t h e ir reasons fo r going to colleg e w hile United States students were more lik e ly to be concerned w ith In d iv id u al In te re s ts . The Aslans 1n the study acted as they would have In a c o lle c tiv e -o rie n te d society* which makes I t s members conscious o f the In te re s ts o f the nation and the fa m ily . I t also motivates them to s triv e fo r or Ignore a colleg e education c o lle c tiv e needs. depending on the prevalent These findings are useful 1n th a t they have some bearing on the a ttitu d e o f the group under study. A few studies have been conducted on A frican students. Oked1j1 30 analyzed patterns o f social In te ra c tio n of A frican students on the Indiana and Purdue campuses* the processes Involved 1n th e ir social adjustm ent, and t h e ir reactions towards American people. study was b a s ic a lly a t t lt u d ln a l. Davis 31 This e t a l i a , completed a very Inform ative work on the achievements and problems o f the A frican s tu ­ dent. This was survey research Involving many A frican students 1n the United S tates. Other scattered pieces o f lit e r a t u r e can be found 1n jo u rn als* but there Is a paucity o f research on wives o f A frican male students. The present study has been stim ulated as a re s u lt o f the gross absence of lit e r a t u r e on th is group o f "sojourners" and 1n recog­ n itio n o f the fa c t th a t t h e ir educational needs and motives from those o f other groups. may d iffe r The lim ite d number o f studies on A frican ^ F ra n c is O k e d ljj. Strangers and T h e ir S o d a! Adjustment on College airouses: A Study ofH jTrlcan Students In two Midwestern U n iv e rs itie s (U n iv e rs ity m ic ro film . Ann Arbor. Michigan. 1964). 31 James M. Davis, e t a l . . , A Survey o f the A fric a n : His Achievements and His Problems ( in s t it u t e o f In te rn a tio n a l Education* W T ----------------------------------------------------- 30 students 1n general and women 1n p a r tic u la r may be a ttrib u te d to a v a rie ty o f fa c to rs , some o f which are changing. Less than f if t e e n years ago, A frican students were a r a r it y on American colleg e and u n iv e rs ity campuses. In 1959/60, the to ta l 32 number o f A frican students 1n the United States was 1,959. In the la te 1960's, a f t e r the a c q u is itio n of Independence by several A frican nations, A frican student enrollm ent Increased phenomenally. There 1s today a substantial and ris in g enrollm ent of A frican students a t several academic In s titu tio n s 1n the United S tates. In 1972/73, there were a t le a s t 11,465 A frican students In the United S ta te s. Of th is number, 1,650 were females and a t le a s t h a lf o f the to ta l number were pursuing graduate s tu d ie s, p rin c ip a lly 1n engineering, physical and l i f e sciences, social sciences, business ad m in istration and the humanities. 33 T h 1rty-f1ve percent o f these students were concentrated 1n Midwest u n iv e rs itie s . Many A frican students come to the United States follo w in g very poor and haphazard s e le c tio n procedures w ith the re s u lt th a t t h e ir academic achievement Is not maximized and fin a n c ia l matters become very troublesome In a country so c u ltu r a lly d iffe r e n t and r e la t iv e ly expen­ sive . However, there has been a recent p r o life r a tio n o f organized 32 Open Doors (New York: 1960), p. 23. 33 Open Doors (New York: 1973), p. 15. 34Ib 1 d .. p. 4. In s t it u t e o f In te rn a tio n a l Education, In s t it u t e o f In te rn a tio n a l Education, 31 exchange programs supported by governments, foundations and other p riv a te o rg an izatio n s. In 1972/73, about twenty percent o f the A frican students were sponsored by the United States government or some p riv a te 35 organization . They are u su ally graduate students, the m a jo rity o f whom are m arried. As Johnson 36 rep o rts: " . . . fo reig n students tend to be somewhat more mature than t h e ir American classmates and seem to e n ro ll most o fte n In v o c a tio n a lly -o rie n te d fie ld s o f study. On many campuses, a m a jo rity o f the In te rn a tio n a l students are graduate students and are 1n fie ld s such as engineering and the physical and l i f e sciences which, u n til re c e n tly , have provided ready 37 employment fo r graduation." According to Walton, the tendency among adm inistrators to favor graduate fo re ig n students over undergraduate ones 1s due to the fa c t th a t the graduates have fewer problems In adjustment; they have more precise educational and professional goals than undergraduates, and they perform a t a more acceptable academic le v e l. At Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity , fo r example, ninety percent of 38 foreign students are 1n graduate school. Facing an economic c r is is 1n the United S ta te s , the A frican student today experiences many fin a n c ia l obstacles th a t were absent before the 1970*s when he o r she could have worked h is /h e r way through 35Ib 1d . . p. 9. 36 Dixon C. Johnson, "Problems o f foreign students," Exchange. Vol. 7, No. 2 ( F a l l . 1971), p. 61. 37 Barbara Walton, op. c 1 t . , p. 50. Foreign students fin d new home a t MSU," Michigan S tate News (East Lansing, Michigan, Welcome Week A36, 1975). 32 school. Financial c o n s tra in t 1s o fte n Is o la te d as a strong determinant 39 o f the success o f fo reig n students In the United S ta te s . Fewry, w ritin g on "the S ie rra Leone student abroad," discussed the complex s itu a tio n often created by fin a n c ia l problems. She remarked: Financial problems can lead to a host o f other u n sa tisfac to ry developments . . . the fe e lin g s o f Inadequacy which are some­ times engendered when money 1s not forthcoming may cause mental s tra in and make a student withdraw even from people who could be o f help. O ccasionally, problems w ith the p o lice or Immigration a u th o ritie s complicate m atters and In e v ita b ly student programmes s u ffe r. Other problems also emerge. In th is regard, Fewry adds: Social and psychological problems are not to be ruled o u t. some cases, they are the re s u lt o f fin a n c ia l and academic d iffic u ltie s . In Besides the fin a n c ia l d i f f i c u l t y , the A frica n 1s confronted with other problems— c u lt u r a l, lin g u is tic and educational. Like other foreign students, he/she 1s a "sojourner" faced w ith problems o f mar­ ginal 1 ty , dual membership and c u ltu re c o n flic t which do not a ffe c t native members o f a s o c ie ty . The education he/she acquires 1s described 40 as c ro s s -c u ltu ra l. Smith defines c ro s s -c u ltu ra l education as: . . . the recip ro cal process o f learning and adjustment th a t occurs when In d iv id u a ls sojourn fo r educational purposes 1n a society th a t 1s c u ltu r a lly fo reig n to them, normally retu rn in g to t h e ir own society a f t e r a lim ite d p erio d . At the s o c ie ta l le v e l. I t 1s a process o f c u ltu ra l d iffu s io n and change Involving temporary "exchange o f persons" fo r tra in in g and experience. 39 Oredola Fewry, "The S ie rra Leone student abroad," Journal o f Education (M in is try o f Education, S ie rra Leone, A p r il, 1970), p. 6. 40 Brewster Smith, "C ro ss-cu ltu ral education as a research area ," Journal o f Social Issues. V o l. 12, No. 1 (1 9 5 6 ), p. 3. 33 Another dimension o f c ro s s -c u ltu ra l adjustment o f the fo reig n 41 student th a t has been studied 1s what has been termed "ro le shock." This 1s a complex set o f problems experienced e s p e c ia lly by the mature student who comes to the United States a f t e r working In a respectable capacity 1n his o r her home country. Hlgbee examined th ree foreig n students a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity ranging In age between t h i r t y fiv e and f o r t y - f iv e . Two o f these in d iv id u a ls were C1v1l Servants and the th ir d was a lawyer. The d if f i c u l t i e s they experienced 1n the United States were those o f re co n c ilin g t h e ir established status a t home and the associated ro le and expectations to the demands o f colleg e l i f e In the United S ta te s . The emerging c o n flic ts which Hlgbee recounts were such th a t one o f the three In d iv id u a ls had to give up his work and return home prem aturely. The In d iv id u a ls demonstrated th a t they could not a d ju s t re a d ily and com fortably from a status and associated ro le -s e ts accorded them 1n t h e ir home c u ltu re to the d iffe r e n t and, to them, less prestig io u s status o f - 2 graduate student 1n the American educational su b -cu ltu re . Such d i f f i c u l t i e s experienced by In d iv id u a ls and shared by many mature fo reig n students are due to what Merton has explained thus: . . . primary s o c ia liz a tio n 1n c e rta in statu ses, w ith t h e ir c h a ra c te ris tic value o rie n ta tio n s , may so a ffe c t the forma­ tio n o f p e rs o n a lity as to make 1 t sometimes more, sometimes le s s , d i f f i c u l t to a c t out the requirements o f other statuses. . 41 Homer Hlgbee, "Role shock— A new concept," Exchange. Vol. 4 , No. 4 (S p rin g , 196 9), p. 78. 42Ib 1 d ., p. 78. 43 Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and S o d a ! S tru ctu re (Free Press, 1957), p. 381. 34 This notion 1s p e rtin e n t to the process o f adjustment o f the married A frican w ife who may have to re d efin e her o rie n ta tio n 1n order to p a rtic ip a te e ff e c t iv e ly 1n educational a c t iv it ie s 1n the United States. The problems o f fo reig n students can be p e c u lia r to t h e ir s itu a tio n s in the host country. Some scholars, however, m aintain th a t as students, they are "more student than fo reig n In the problems they fa c e ." To enable the U n ive rs ity o f Tennessee to serve the needs o f In te rn a tio n a l students more e f f e c t iv e ly , a comprehensive questionnaire survey of 214 In te rn a tio n a l students a t the U n iv e rs ity o f Tennessee, designed to provide both em pirical and a ttltu d ln a l Inform ation about 44 In te rn a tio n a l students a t the u n iv e rs ity , was conducted. This study was Intended to provide Inform ation on p a r tic ip a tio n o f these students 1n campus a c t i v i t i e s , t h e ir use o f u n iv e rs ity f a c i l i t i e s , re s id e n tia l patterns and means o f support. The p rin c ip a l aim was to Id e n tify those obstacles thought to present problems to non-native students attending the U n ive rs ity o f Tennessee. Findings o f the study revealed th a t areas thought to be o f g reat concern to fo reig n students 1n th is case turned out to be In s ig n ific a n t. For example, "English language p roficiency" received a high r a tin g — "very Im portant problem" by only twenty percent o f the respondents. The problem considered to be next 1n Importance "ny a b i l i t y to get along fin a n c ia lly here* In d icated f o r t y - f iv e percent o f the respondents did not fe e l finances were a problem. 44 Dixon C. Johnson, op. c 1 t . , pp. 61-68. 35 In an e f f o r t to determine the correspondence. I f any. between problems o f fo reig n and domestic students, t h ir t y - f o u r domestic students were questioned on Id e n tic a l problem areas already presented to the foreign students. These areas were modified to s u it more ap p ro p riately the s itu a tio n o f the domestic students. The responses o f these stu ­ dents showed a marked s im ila r ity to those of the In te rn a tio n a l students. S t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t d ifferen ces 1n responses between the two groups were Ind icated only In the cases o f food, homesickness and separation from fa m ily . These re s u lts to a g reat exten t substantiate an e a r lie r study by Walton who reports th a t "the fo reig n student 1s 45 more student than foreig n 1n the problem he fac es ." What then 1s the real s itu a tio n o f the fo reig n student 1n the host country? What are the s ig n ific a n t problems he faces? How p e rtin e n t are the findings o f the studies mentioned to the s itu a tio n o f the A frican woman In the United States? These questions need fu rth e r exploration fo r accurate responses; however, the perspectives presented are enlightening fo r the In v e s tig a tio n a t hand. Apy study concerning A frican women 1n educational p a r tic ip a ­ tio n 1s c lo se ly associated w ith studies o f the status o f women 1n education g e n e ra lly . Therefore, re le va n t lit e r a t u r e 1n the appropriate area must be reviewed also . ^^Barbara J . Walton, op. c 1 t.» p. 30. 36 Findings on research studies of married and mature women* Increasing e ffo r ts are presen tly being d irected toward Improving educational o p po rtu n ities open to women. More re c e n tly , mature women (defined 1n Sensor's study4® as tw e n ty -fiv e years old or o lder or m arried) have gained some a tte n tio n . Most o f them a t an e a r lie r age In te rru p te d t h e ir education to ra is e fa m ilie s or to f u l f i l l other in te re s ts and have resumed t h e ir studies mainly fo r economic and status-value motives. This 1s a world-wide tre n d , and many governments w ith the aid o f in te rn a tio n a l agencies or other p riv a te agencies are working towards the expansion o f educational services and f a c i l i t i e s fo r women. In the United S ta te s , fo r example, th ere 1s a “tid a l wave" of In te re s t among women to resume study and, correspondingly, educa­ tio n a l in s titu tio n s are providing several avenues fo r women's study. Remarking on the progress made 1n the United States In s titu tio n s towards women's continuing education, Clarenbach w rite s : . . . the p r o life r a tio n o f programs d ire cte d toward continuing education fo r women has exceeded almost a ll expectations. From coast to coast, scarcely an In s tit u tio n o f higher le a rn ­ ing has not responded In one way o r another to the t id a l wave o f women seeking to resume or begin advanced stu d ies. Just as the women themselves come 1n a l l ages, le v e ls o f education 46 P h y llis Sensor, "A study o f the mature women students attending day classes a t R iverside C ity College during the Spring semester, 1964," Research 1n Education (Washington, D .C .: Educational Research Inform ation C enter, V o l. 7 , J u ly , 196 7), p. 41. 37 and m o tivatio n s, so the programs represent a vast range o f content, s tru c tu re , philosophy and approach.*7 Clarenbach observes th a t even non-U.S. c itiz e n s have been showing s im ila r In te r e s t. She remarks t h a t , "a steady t r ic k le o f fo reig n v is ito rs from every continent to observe and exchange Ideas 1s a remln48 der o f the world-wide dimensions o f continuing education fo r women.11 Continuing education recognizes th a t adults have d if fe r e n t kinds of experiences m otivating them 1n d iffe r e n t ways In response to 49 50 t h e ir needs and to the learning s itu a tio n . In th is v e in , M ulligan succinctly argues and ju s t if ie s continuing education o f women: In some sense, then, the argument fo r continuing education programs f o r women 1s dependent on a view th a t such programs are a form o f compensation fo r o th er In e q u itie s . . . . A fte r a l l , the primary ju s t if ic a t io n fo r continuing education programs fo r women 1s the same ju s t if ic a t io n which undergirds a l l o f Continuing Education. People are d if fe r e n t — t h e ir needs. In te re s ts and ta le n ts vary—and they must be given many d if fe r e n t options a t many d iffe r e n t times to le a rn . The lit e r a t u r e provides several studies exploring the reasons why ad u lt women retu rn to e n ro ll 1n educational programs. However, the studies on continuing education o f married women are less abundant. Even less so are those th a t deal d ir e c tly w ith the educational needs 47 Kathryn F. Clarenbach, "Can continuing education adapt?" American Association o f U n iv e rs ity Women J o u rn al. V ol. 6 3. No. 2 (Janua ry . T97?Fjy p". 170.--------------------------------48Ib 1 d ., p. 170. 49 J . R. K1dd, How Adults Learn (New York: 1959), pp. 49-53. Association Press, ®8Kathryn L. M u llig a n , A Question of Women and Continuing Education (Washington. D.C.: National Advisory Council on Extension and fcontlnu1ng Education, 1973), p. 9. 38 and problems o f fo reig n students' wives per se . One o f the most s ig n ific a n t In v es tig a tio n s In to student wives' p a rtic ip a tio n 1n educational a c t iv it ie s was th a t o f Hembrough. 51 In a questionnaire survey conducted among wives o f a ll m arried new students a t the U n iv e rs ity o f I l l i n o i s , Urbana-Champaign campus, Hem­ brough found th a t the respondents saw acquiring an education as a requirement fo r the development o f t h e ir c h ild re n , as a way to communi­ cate more adequately w ith t h e ir h ighly educated husbands, and as a means o f preparing themselves fo r paid employment. Hembrough's study, focusing on women between sixteen and f1 fty -f1 v e years o f age, found th a t seventy percent o f the respondents were not attending any educa­ tio n a l In s tit u tio n s , whereas twenty-seven percent were attending the U n iversity o f I l l i n o i s as undergraduate or graduate students. Three percent were attending other educational In s titu tio n s —fin is h in g high school, taking a d u lt education courses a t local high schools, and taking courses or fin is h in g theses a t other colleges o r u n iv e rs itie s . The popular subjects o f study were the humanities and education. In order to continue her education, the w ife depended on the schedules o f her employer, her b a b y s itte r, her c h ild re n 's school, and her husband's classes. The cost o f continuing school and the d i f f i c u l t i e s o f tra n s ­ p o rtatio n and parking were dimensions th a t complicated educational p a rtic ip a tio n . 51 Of Importance, to o , was the question o f m o b ility . B etty L. Hembrough, "A tw o -fo ld educational challenge: The student w ife and the mature woman student," Journal o f National Assocla tlo n o f Women Deans and Counsellors. V o l. 29, Ho. 4 (Summer, 1966}, pp. 163-167. 39 Married women o ften encounter d i f f i c u l t i e s 1n try in g to continue th e ir education because o f t h e ir husbands' m o b ility 1n changing u n iv e rs itie s or In changing jo b s. For Increased p a r tic ip a tio n of th is category o f women 1n edu­ cational programs, the fin d in g s from Hembrough's study reconmended th a t the follow ing were required: (1 ) more evening classes, (2 ) a wider v a rie ty o f te le v is e d and correspondence courses, (3 ) more courses meet­ ing once or tw ice a week fo r several hours Instead o f three or four times a week one hour a t a tim e , (4 ) lower tu itio n and fees fo r p a r ttime students, (5 ) more scholarships fo r married women, (6 ) more jobs which would use th e ir already-acquired education and t h e ir fu tu re education, (7 ) Inexpensive nursery school and day-care f a c i l i t i e s , (8) g re a te r f l e x i b i l i t y 1n the lib r a r y reserve book system, (9 ) f a c i l i ­ tie s fo r counseling over a whole range of problems and plans, and (10) recognition o f non-attending student wives as a p a rt o f the u n iv e rs ity community. The fin din gs from th is research were seconded by Lee 52 whose study was designed to determine enrollm ent trends o f m arried under­ graduate women students a t Indiana S ta te Teachers' C ollege. Increased enrollment was discovered to be p o s itiv e ly c o rre la te d w ith d esire fo r economic s e c u rity , s ta tu s , s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t , or sheer r e l i e f from boredom. M arriage was found to be a major co n trib u tin g fa c to r 1n the f a ilu r e of women to continue t h e ir education beyond high school. 52 Anne Lee, "A study o f married women co lleg e students," Journal o f the National Association o f Women Deans and Counsellors. V o l. 24. No. 3 C A pH l, 1 W ) , pp. 132-139.------------------------------------------- 40 The study fu rth e r In d icated th a t the g re ates t number o f married women In the colleg e were In the age bracket o f twenty-one to tw enty-three years; th a t th ree out o f f iv e m arried women students attended classes on a p a rt-tim e basis and th a t they were lim ite d to classes scheduled 1n the evenings and on Saturdays. Only one out o f eight o f the married men students had wives e n ro lled 1n c o lle g e , and I t was the w ife who q u it school when fin a n c ia l lim ita tio n s threatened. The fin din gs o f a study by Purrlngton designed to examine the educational achievements and asp ira tio n s o f married women students a t Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity , East Lansing suggested th a t women expect and do get less education than t h e ir male counterparts p rim a rily because of the s o c ia liz a tio n process o f t h e ir youth and from t h e ir knowledge of the r e a lit y o f the u n iv e rs ity . With m arriage, m ale's educational aspirations become g re a te r, whereas women's educational goals become less. In her summary, she s ta te s : " . . . th a t 1 t 1s the exception rather than the ru le fo r married women to get the education th a t they need, want and/or are capable o f. . . . re la te d 'expressive' goods. Women should want fa m ily - Men should want w o rk-related 'In s tru m e n ta l' ones." 53 In another study, Osborn 54 mentioned the fo llo w in g as the major m otivational facto rs f o r the p a r tic ip a tio n o f mature married 53 Beverly Turner P u rrln gto n , "Married women students a t M ichi­ gan S tate U n iversity" (M.A. th e s is , Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity , 1972), p. 45. 54 R. H. Osborn, "C h a ra c te ris tic s , m otivation and problems o f mature married women college students: A status study o f selected students a t the George Washington U n ive rs ity" (Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , The George Washington U n iv e rs ity , 1963). 41 women In colleg e: personal growth and self-im provem ent, enjoyment o f learning and d esire fo r professional growth. Other reasons Included preparation fo r teaching, more fin a n c ia l power 1n the home, preparation fo r or advancement 1n work, and enrichment o f everyday liv in g . study also brought out a s a lie n t fa c t: The th re e -fo u rth s o f the 221 women had the encouragement o f t h e ir husbands to go to school. This supports C h ris tie 's contention th a t "the g reatest co n trib u tin g fa c to r to a stu­ dent's success 1s the encouragement and enthusiasm o f his or her 55 spouse." This 1s a very p o s itiv e and necessary fa c to r fo r the resump­ tio n of studies by a married woman. The fa m ily Is Important In a supportive ro le too. Osborn's study pointed out th a t tw o -th 1rds o f the women had the encouragement o f t h e ir parents, ch ild ren and professors. This study lik e the others Id e n tifie d problems concerned w ith scheduling d i f f i c u l t y , examination tensions. Inadequate study techniques and value c o n flic ts . Moreover, most o f the respondents had p a rtic ip a te d 1n th ree to fou r e x tra ­ c u rric u la r a c t iv it i e s , and about fo rty -o n e percent o f them had fath ers who were In professional or managerial occupations and mothers who were p rim a rily homemakers. Hunt56 reported the re s u lts o f a questionnaire and In terv ie w survqy o f married women students a t Lansing Conmunlty C ollege, Lansing, 66R1chard C h r is tie , A rtic u la te d In s tru c tio n a l Media New sletter (Madison, Wisconsin: U n ive rs ity o f Wisconsin Extension S e rv ic e, 196^), p. 1. 56Beverly Hunt, "C h a ra c te ris tic s , perceptions, and experiences of married women students a t Lansing Community College" (Ed.D. d is s e rta ­ tio n , Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity , 1965). 42 Michigan to determine t h e ir c h a ra c te ris tic s and also to In v e s tig a te th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n p atterns 1n education and the m otivational facto rs explaining such p a r tic ip a tio n . Several of her fin din gs are a r e in ­ forcement of the re s u lts from o ther stu d ies. As usual , marriage and lack o f fin a n c ia l means explained the discontinuation o f studies a f t e r high school. Family pressures were continuous obstacles to e ffe c tiv e and f u l l p a rtic ip a tio n In education. Of the women Interview ed , a s ig n ific a n t m a jo rity expressed d e fin ite vocational or fu rth e r educational goals. Curriculum p re fe ­ rences were predominantly 1n teaching, lib e r a l a r t s , business and nursing. The husbands, l ik e the fa th e rs o f these women, more often belonged to the professional and managerial class. About h a lf o f the husbands had attended co lleg e and a fo u rth o f them were also students. The study also pointed out th a t c le r ic a l occupations were the c h ie f areas o f employment f o r mothers, mothers- 1n-law and married women students. Encouragement fo r the p u rsu it o f fu rth e r studies came mostly from husbands and mothers; husbands w ith colleg e tra in in g showed more support and understanding o f t h e ir w ives 1 continued education. In most cases, fin a n c ia l resources fo r fu rth e r studies were provided by the husband's earnings or fam ily earnings. As a re s u lt o f the lack o f a tte n tio n given a d u lt undergradu­ ates (aged tw en ty-six or over) by educational planners 1n the United S ta te s, Erickson 57 57 studied a to ta l o f 494 a d u lt undergraduates a t M ildred B. Erickson, "An analysis o f selected c h a ra c te ris ­ tic s and needs o f a d u lt undergraduate students attending Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity , F a ll term , 1966" (Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , Michigan S ta te Univer­ s it y , 1968). 43 Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity during the f a l l term , 1966 to assess t h e ir educational needs as the students perceived them. Among her findings were some s ig n ific a n t fa c ts about a d u lt women undergraduates: they were o ld e r, more of them were m arried, widowed o r divorced; they were mostly p a rt-tim e students and had done less graduate work. These women had educational and vocational goals and a sp iratio n s but these measured considerably less than those o f t h e ir male counterparts. Education was the dominant f ie l d fo r these women, and employment, teaching o r nursing and o f f ic e , c le r ic a l and sales work were the popular areas. Erickson, moreover, stressed th a t " In te lle c tu a l s tim u latio n and becoming s o c ia lly useful" was Important to both the men and the women In the study. Family re s p o n s ib ilitie s appear as f u ll- t im e occupations fo r many women. As shown In a 1961 study o f wives o f students on the Purdue campus. In a sample o f 2,400 wives, only twelve percent were taking any courses a t Purdue and only 2 .6 percent were en ro lled fo r a f u l l academic load— twelve c re d it hours or more. The m a jo rity o f the wives were Involved In f u ll- t im e work outside the home 1n an e f f o r t to support the 58 household o r were taking care of youngsters, t h e ir own and others. In 1968, 1n a repeat study o f a sample o f 119 wives 1n the 59 same venue, a fo u r percent Increase had occurred among those who ^ e l e n B. Schleman, "Span p la n ," Purdue Alumnus (February, 1969), pp. 7 -11. 59 "Educational planning f o r wives o f men students," Journal o f National Association o f Women Deans and Counsellors. Vol. 3T, No. 1 ( P a ll, 1959), pp. 23-26.------------------------------------------------- 44 enrolled f o r classes. The lack o f enrollm ent was explained by the demands o f t h e ir work or occupation w ith husband and c h ild re n . Again, 1n another study o f a group o f mature women a t R iver­ side C ollege, Sensor60 uncovered the d if f ic u lt ie s women encountered 1n combating the demands o f school and home re s p o n s ib ilitie s . The fin d ­ ings were no d iffe r e n t from those o f most o f the other stu d ies. The respondents' problems la y p r in c ip a lly w ith scheduling and lack o f time fo r home duties and study. They recommended the need fo r longer classes which met less o fte n . Rusllnk6^ In vestigated c e rta in fa c to rs th a t m otivate or In h ib it married women 1n t h e ir decision to e n ro ll 1n co lleg e a f t e r an In te rru p tio n 1n th e ir education. The study also concerned I t s e l f w ith whether or not there 1s a d iffe re n c e 1n degree o f Importance given to these facto rs by women 1n c e rta in social class groups, various age groups, and various curriculum groups. The fin din gs revealed th a t social class was most m otivational In women's decisions to retu rn to school. Economic In te re s ts were o f minimal Importance, C o n flic ts arose when colleg e demands In te rfe re d w ith fam ily and home needs. Again, scheduling o f classes was considered a major d i f f i c u l t y to most of these women. The women 1n lower social classes sought a college education to Improve t h e ir fin a n c ia l p o s itio n , and m iddle-class women 60 P h y llis Sensor, op. c i t . 61 Doris H. R usllnk, "Married women's resumption o f education 1n preparation fo r teaching: An In v e s tig a tio n o f selected fac to rs th a t encourage and d ete r married women's entry o r re -e n try In to two New Jersey colleges" (Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , New York U n iv e rs ity , 1969). 45 saw acquiring a college degree as a way o f gaining more social status among frie n d s and fa m ily . In a d e s c rip tiv e study o f a population o f 442 randomly selected a d u lt women enrolled In an urban community colleg e 1n Michigan, Tate 62 sought data concerned w ith the women's reasons fo r returning to school, t h e ir major f ie ld s o f study, t h e ir career go als, and t h e ir present evaluation o f th e ir co lleg e experience. Of g re ates t Importance were those fa c to rs re la tin g to academic achievement (earning a deg ree), gaining general Inform ation and entering a profession. Next was per­ sonal and social usefulness and Improving Income p o te n tia l. Of le a s t Importance were those facto rs re la tin g to supplementing income and providing fo r 1e1sure-t1me a c t iv it y . In a d d itio n , Tate concluded th a t employment s ta tu s , age, and annual fam ily Income were most s ig n ific a n t 1n influencing the women to e n ro ll 1n c o lle g e . Spouse's occupation and m a rita l status showed the le a s t In flu en ce on t h e ir reasons fo r e n ro llin g 1n c o lle g e , whereas educational background was more In f lu ­ e n t ia l. Some o f the problems o f women Id e n tifie d 1n th is study, as 1n the other stu d ies, Included fin a n c ia l d i f f i c u l t i e s , c h ild care and home re s p o n s ib ilitie s . In view o f t h e ir problems, the women recom­ mended Improvement 1n the follow ing areas: c h ild c a re , tran s p o rta tio n to campus, b e tte r lounge and study a rea s , jo b placement and Inform ation and c re d it fo r work experience. 62 M ildred C. T a te , "An analysis o f the re la tio n s h ip between selected personal socio-economic c h a ra c te ris tic s o f a random sample o f ad u lt women and t h e ir reasons f o r e n ro llin g In an urban community c o l­ lege" (Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity , 1971). 46 In a study o f a sample matched on the basis o f age (between 63 tw e n ty -fiv e and f i f t y years) and fam ily Income, Doty found the m ajo rity o f women In d ic a te a d esire fo r knowledge as a reason fo r returning to c o lle g e . The d esire fo r co lleg e work obviously had remained w ith most o f these women 1n s p ite o f the In te rru p tio n fo r marriage. Career goals were very s ig n ific a n t fa c to rs in flu en cin g these women to enro ll In c o lle g e . Doty's study also re fu te s some o f the popular assumptions about mature female students, 1n p a r tic u la r the notions th a t: 1) a d u lt women students are In f e r io r to younger students in academic performance, 2) a d u lt women re tu rn to co lleg e f o r “friv o lo u s " t1me-f1H1ng reasons, and 3) the investment 1n the education o f mature women, p a r tic u la r ly a t the co lleg e le v e l, 1s a waste because they can­ not be expected to use t h e ir education 1n subsequent careers. Findings from these studies In d ic a te th a t married or mature women have widely varied reasons fo r resuming t h e ir education. E q ually, many obstacles and re s p o n s ib ilitie s d eter them from p a rtic ip a tin g In educational programs. The prevalent motives f o r educational p a r tic ip a ­ tio n Include a d esire to prepare fo r a c a re e r, the d esire fo r growth and self-im provem ent, the need to f u l f i l l educational g o als, the need to develop In t e lle c t and s k i l l s , and an Insurance against lo n e lin e s s . The d e te rrin g fa c to rs are often scheduling o f classes, tran s p o rta tio n f a c i l i t i e s , costs o f t u it io n , and b ab ysittin g f a c i l i t i e s . 63 B. A. Doty, “Why do mature women retu rn to college?" Journal of the National Association o f Women Deans and Counsellors. V o l. 29. ffo."4 ( I K S ) , pp.' I T T m .----------------------------------------------------------- 47 A f in a l consideration needs to be noted 1n terms o f obstacles to women's development. Several fa c to rs Impede wcmen 1n t h e ir attempts to acquire an education, but 1t 1s Im portant to s ta te th a t a t th is time In h is to ry many conditions e x is t th a t have aided or fostered changes among women students. T in ker points out some so cio lo g ical fa c ts , such as technology, which provide quicker and e a s ie r f a c i l i t i e s f o r women. 64 Today, women have automated kitch en s, laundry and cleaning equipment, 1n a d d itio n to an Increased amount o f re a d y -to -e a t foods and low priced and good q u a lity ready-made c lo th in g . loads tremendously. These have reduced women's work Moreover, s c ie n t if ic discoveries have tended to ra is e questions about tr a d itio n a l b e lie fs which form erly provided s e c u rity . As Sara Sagoff puts 1 t , “Technology has brought an end o f work as the focus o f l i f e , — a need fo r worthwhile use o f le is u re tim e, an Increase 1n u rb an izatio n — an Increasing v a rie ty o f ways people w ill 65 seek to make sense out o f o r opt out o f organized s o c ie ty ." There 1s a growing In te re s t 1n continuing and life lo n g educa­ tio n g en e ra lly throughout the w orld. I t 1s th e re fo re f i t t i n g to examine some of the lit e r a t u r e re la tin g to a d u lt, continuing education as 1t pertains to th is study. ®*Anne H all T in k e r, “Programs f o r mature co-eds, “ Adult Leadership. March, 1965, pp. 283-304. 65 Sara E. S ag o ff, Adults In T ra n s itio n (Summary o f a con­ ference a t Chatham, Massachusetts, May, 19<>5. The New England Board o f Higher Education and B rookline, Mass.: Center f o r the study o f Liberal Education fo r A d ults, 1965), pp. 4 -5 . 48 Continuing education and a d u lt p a rtic ip a tio n Continuing education 1s now a w idely used term and has most often been used synonymously w ith a d u lt education. To d efin e continu­ ing education, some scholars Id e n tify purpose, planned study, organiza­ tio n and c lie n ts as the essential elements to be considered.®® Other scholars, lik e B la k e ly , emphasize purpose but also Include the v a rie ty o f programs th a t can f a l l under the umbrella o f continuing education. Blakely defines a d u lt or continuing education as "purposeful, system­ a tic learn in g — assumed to Include a ll those government-sponsored organ­ ized learning a c t iv it ie s o f a l l types and le v e ls , Including elem entary, secondary, vo catio n al-tech n 1c a l, c o lle g ia te , graduate and professional which are designed to a s s is t adults to Improve themselves and th e ir occupational competencies, a f t e r t h e ir formal education has e ith e r been completed or In te rru p te d ."®7 This d e fin itio n 1s very useful fo r the o rie n ta tio n o f the present study. I t 1s , however, r e s t r ic t iv e In th a t only government-sponsored a c t iv it ie s are mentioned, but o f Importance 1s the fa c t th a t B lakely Id e n tifie s a broad array o f programs open to a d u lts . For the present study, the continuing education population w ill be lim ite d to a d u lt women. Continuing education w ill Imply the ®®Paul H. Sheats, "What 1s a d u lt education? Nine working d e fin itio n s ," Adult Education (S p rin g , 1955), pp. 134-135. 67Robert J . B lakely 1n Malcolm Knowles ( e d .) , Handbook o f Adult Education 1n the United States (Chicago: Adult Education Associ­ ation of the United S ta te s , p. 4. 49 resumption o f educational a c t iv it ie s a ft e r a term ination or In te rru p tio n of formal education to pursue other s p e c ific goals and In te re s ts such as m arriage. There 1s a growing body o f em pirical studies on the general area o f p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education a c t iv it ie s . The subject o f p a rtic ip a tio n o f adults 1n continuing education programs has been one of the c h ie f areas o f concern fo r many studies on ad u lt education In the United S ta te s . P r in c ip a lly , the research studies have tended to be d e s c rip tiv e , with a focus on adults who p a r tic ip a te 1n In s titu tio n a l programs. Such studies have the " c lie n te le analysis" o rie n ta tio n con­ s is tin g o f "a d escrip tio n o f the c h a ra c te ris tic s o f the p a rtic ip a n ts 1n a d u lt education programs o f one or more agencies 1n comparison w ith the c h a ra c te ris tic s o f the general population who could p o te n tia lly be CO served." In th is regard, one finds th a t women have been studied ju s t lik e men and across educational le v e ls men and women p a rtic ip a te a t about the same ra te . r e la tiv e ly l i t t l e CQ However, continuing education researchers show knowledge about p a rtic ip a tio n 1n a d u lt learning a c t iv it ie s o f the foreig n student 1n the United States 1n g en eral, f a r less o f the w ife o f the foreig n student. Nothing has been found 1n the lit e r a t u r e about the how, why, where and what of continuing educa­ tio n e ffo rts o f the foreig n student's w ife who accompanies or jo in s her CQ Alan B. Knox, " C lie n te le a n a ly s is ," Review o f Educational Research. Vol. 35 (June, 1965), pp. 231-239. CQ Alan B. Knox and Richard V1debeck, "Adult education and adu lt l i f e c y c le ," Adult Education. Vol. 13 (1 9 6 3 ), pp. T02-121; John W. C. Johnstone and Ramon J . R ivera, Volunteers fo r Learning (Chicago: Aldlne Publishing C o., 1965), p. 7. 50 student husband. I t w ill be useful to In v e s tig a te the p a rtic ip a tio n patterns o f th is group and determine the fa c to rs th a t m otivate or In h ib it t h e ir p a rtic ip a tio n . Recently, more p a rtic ip a tio n studies have Included women and mature women returning to c o lleg e or engaging 1n o ther educational a c t iv it ie s . Seme o f these studies have revealed s ig n ific a n t findings and Im plications which w ill be useful in the present study. P a rtic ip a ­ tio n o f a d u lt women 1n continuing education programs v a rie s , and the lit e r a t u r e seems to suggest th a t o f a ll the variab les economic o rie n ta ­ tio n and s e lf-a c tu a l 1z a t 1on may be the most Im portant. An In d iv id u a l's p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education a c t iv i­ tie s can be considered 1n two categories: 1) p o sitio n al o r background facto rs which describe the In d iv id u a l's p o sitio n 1n the social s tru c tu re , and 2) psychological fa c to rs , which may In flu en ce the manner 1n which the roles associated w ith the various positions are performed.^® Posi­ tio n a l facto rs g en erally Include such v ariab le s as sex, age, employment s ta tu s , le v e l o f occupation, le v e l o f Income, m a rital s ta tu s , fam ily s ta tu s , and length and place o f residence. The psychological category, on the o ther hand, considers such facto rs as s e lf - r e lia n c e , social s k il ls , and occupational re la tio n s . Several studies have investigated the re la tio n s h ip s between educational p a rtic ip a tio n and the p o sitio n al v a ria b le s . has been given to the psychological v a ria b le s . Less a tte n tio n Out o f these studies 7%av1d C. Krech, e t a l _ . , In d iv id u al 1n Society (New York: McGraw-H1ll Book Co. In c ., 1962 ) , pp. 383-420. 51 have emerged c e rta in consistent fin din gs Id e n tify in g fa c to rs th a t can be described as the most Important p redicto rs o f p a r tic ip a tio n . Educational le ve l has shown the strongest c o rre la tio n w ith p a rtic ip a tio n ra te Increasing as le v e l o f education r i s e s . ^ and R ivera, fo r example, note: Johnstone “By f a r the most p e rs is te n t fin d in g In our In v e s tig a tio n was th a t formal educational attainm ent plays a highly c ru cial ro le 1n determining whether or not one enters the ranks o f adu lt 72 students." Other studies have shown s im ila r re s u lts . London, Wenk e rt, and Hagstrom, in t h e ir research study conducted 1n the c ity o f Oakland, C a lifo r n ia , considered the possible Influence upon p a rtic ip a ­ tio n 1n continuing education classes o f social s ta tu s , age, sex, race and place of residence. They pointed out th a t among the p a rtic ip a n ts “the most s trik in g fin d in g 1s th a t a tta in e d education 1s the most Important fa c to r determining whether or not a person 1s lik e ly to 73 p a rtic ip a te In a d u lt education." Increases 1n p a rtic ip a tio n were noted 1n comparing groups c la s s ifie d by amount o f education— those with hlgh-school education and those w ith one to three years o f c o lle g e . The ra te of p a rtic ip a tio n fo r hlgh-school graduates was ten percent. This Increased to twenty-one percent fo r those w ith one to three years of college and to tw en ty-three percent fo r those w ith fou r o r more ^ M . Doug 1ah and Gwenna Moss, " D iffe re n tia l p a rtic ip a tio n patterns o f adults o f low and high educational a ttain m en t," Adult Edu­ c a tio n , Vol. 28, No. 4 (1 9 6 8 ), p. 251. 72 Johnstone and R ivera, op. c 1 t . , p. 21. 73 ''Jack London, e t a l . . Adult Education and Social Class (Berkeley, C a lifo rn ia : Survey Research Center, U n ive rs ity of 1 C al1fo r n la , 1963), p. 189. 52 years o f c o lle g e . G ra p h ic a lly , the amount o f formal education correlated w ith the percentage ra te o f p a rtic ip a tio n appears as fo llo w s : o o «*- to o o -§ 4 o r more years o f colleg e 1 - 3 years o f colleg e High school graduate 1 0 - 1 1 years formal schooling Less than 9 y rs . formal school1ng 15 20 25 30 Rate o f P a rtic ip a tio n (percent) Furthermore, the study reveals th a t the more educated were more lik e ly to p a r tic ip a te fo r vocational reasons than were the less educated. The p a rtic ip a tio n ra te fo r vocational reasons fo r those w ith some college education was eleven percent, fo r those w ith only a high school education f iv e percent, and fo r those w ith less than a high school education three percent. Knox rein fo rced the fa c t th a t previous educational level influenced p a r tic ip a tio n rates more than any o f the fa c to rs studied. 74 Factors also In flu en c in g p a r tic ip a tio n 1n continuing education a c t i v i ­ tie s were age, occupation,and socio-economic s ta tu s . The Oakland study revealed th a t age was second 1n Importance followed by occupation and ^ A la n B. Knox, "M otivation to p a r tic ip a te and learn In a d u lt education," Adult Education. V ol. 12 (Summer, 196 2), pp. 238-242. 53 socio-economic s ta tu s . 75 Johnstone 76 and London 77 However, I t should be mentioned th a t from the s tu d ie s , the o rig in a l p o s itiv e re la tio n s h ip s of le ve l o f Income and le v e l o f occupation were considerably reduced when le ve l o f education was c o n tro lle d . As to socio-economic s ta tu s , 1t was observed t h a t , though parental socio-economic p o sitio n can re la te strongly to the career lin e s leading to c o lle g e , the same cannot be said to a ffe c t one's p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education. 78 In an attem pt to broadly c h a ra c te rize continuing education, to o u tlin e d if fe r e n t patterns o f continuing education a c t iv it ie s and to re la te c e rta in c h a ra c te ris tic s o f adults w ith d iffe r in g patterns o f p a rtic ip a tio n 1n these modes o f continuing education a c t i v i t i e s , Poulton 79 devised a th re e -p a rt c la s s ific a tio n o f continuing education a c t i ­ v itie s as a basis o f comparing p a r tic ip a tio n patterns o f a d u lts . He examined, through the use o f a mailed q u es tio n n a ire , the continuing education a c t iv it ie s engaged 1n by 512 adu lts o f Jackson County, Michigan and tr ie d to determine the extent to which the p a r t ic i­ pation patterns were re la te d to c e rta in dem ographic-positional and social-psychological v a ria b le s . 75 He studied the demograph1c-pos1tlonal London, e t a l . . op. c 1 t . , p. 189. 78Johnstone and R ivera, op. c 1 t . , pp. &5-104. 77London, op. c 1 t . , pp. 129-147. 78Ib1d. . p. 189. 79 Brent Poulton, "The re la tio n s h ip o f a d u lts ' p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education a c t iv it ie s to c e rta in demographic and posi­ tio n a l c h a ra c te ris tic s , o rie n ta tio n toward learn in g and o rie n ta tio n toward continuing education In s titu tio n s " (Ph.O. d is s e rta tio n , Michigan State U n iv e rs ity , East Lansing, 1975). 54 c h a ra c te ris tic s o f age, sex, m a rital s ta tu s , occupation. Income, le v e l of formal schooling and parental re s p o n s ib ility and the s o c ia lpsychological c h a ra c te ris tic s o f o rie n ta tio n toward learning and o rie n ta tio n toward continuing education In s titu tio n s as thqy re la te d to d ifferen ces 1n a d u lts ' p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education a c t iv i­ tie s . His findings In d icated th a t 1) the c h a ra c te ris tic s o f sex, occupation and income are more strongly re la te d to the o rie n ta tio n s toward learning o f the group studied than age or parental re s p o n s ib ility and m a rital s ta tu s . No In d ic a tio n o f a re la tio n s h ip e xis ts between level o f formal schooling and learning o rie n ta tio n . Like the p rofessio n al-o rien ted 1n the study, men p a r tic ip a te fo r personal goal attainm ent whereas the s e m i-s k ille d , non-sk 1lle d men and women become Involved to escape d a lly ro u tin e . The wealthy show a strong In c lin a tio n toward "the d esire to know," "the d esire to reach a social g o a l," and "the desire to meet formal requirem ents . 11 2) With reference to the o rie n ta tio n s adults have toward continuing education in s tit u tio n s , parental re s p o n s ib ility was the most s ig n ific a n t. 3) The c h a ra c te ris tic s of age, occupation and le v e l o f formal schooling show strong r e la tio n ­ ship to a d u lts ' patterns o f p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education a c t iv it ie s , s u b stan tiatin g o ther studies th a t have In d icated such re la tio n s h ip s - 4) Patterns o f p a r tic ip a tio n o f the adults 1n continuing education a c t iv it ie s show a re la tio n s h ip to t h e ir o rie n ta tio n toward continuing education in s tit u tio n s , though the precise nature o f th is re la tio n s h ip could not be brought out by the study- 5) F in a lly , the study demonstrated th a t th ere 1s an important re la tio n s h ip between 55 patterns o f p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education and a d u lts ' o rie n ta tio n toward le a rn in g . I t 1s In te re s tin g to note th a t one o f Poulton's recommenda­ tions concerned women who p a r tic ip a te 1n continuing education a c t iv it ie s la rg e ly fo r " a c tiv ity /e s c a p is t b e n e fits "; he stro n g ly states th a t as a way o f a ttra c tin g more women continuing education "should a ffo rd women both the opportunity and assistance necessary f o r p o s itiv e self-grow th experiences . 1,88 Houle examined the wealth o f studies dealing w ith p a r tic ip a ­ tio n 1n continuing education and presents general conclusions regarding c e rta in c h a ra c te ris tic s common to a l l the groups served. He observes th a t: In g en e ra l, high Income groups are more lik e ly to take p art 1n educational a c t iv it ie s than low Income groups. P a rtic ip a ­ tio n 1s also p o s itiv e ly re la te d to the s ize o f the community, the length o f residence 1n 1t , and the number o f d iffe r e n t kinds o f educational a c t iv it y a v a ila b le . People w ith c e rta in n a tio n a lity o r re lig io u s backgrounds are more a c tiv e than those w ith o th er backgrounds. Age Is Im portant: the very young a d u lt seldom takes p a r t, but there 1s a sharp upturn 1n the la te tw en tie s, a f a i r l y constant le ve l o f a c t iv it y u n til the age o f f i f t y , and a declin e afterw ard . Married people p a r tic ip a te more than s in g le people, and fa m ilie s w ith school-age c h ild ren more than fa m ilie s w ithout them. Many more p ro fe s s io n a l, m anagerial, and technical people take p art r e la tiv e to t h e ir number 1n the population than do people from o ther occupational groups; next 1n s i g n i f i ­ cance are w h ite -c o lla r and c le r ic a l workers; then s k ille d lab o rers; and la s t ly u n s k ille d la b o rers . But the most u n iv e rs a lly Important fa c to r 1s school 1nq (emphasis 1s m ine). The higher the formal education o f the a a u lt, the more lik e ly 1 t is th a t he w ill take p art 1n continuing education. The amount o f schooling 1s , 1n f a c t , so s ig n ific a n t th a t i t 80Ib 1 d ., p. 147. 56 underlies o r re in fo rc e s many o f the other determinants such as occupation, s iz e o f community, length o f stay 1n 1t , and n a tio n a lity and re lig io u s backgrounds.81 The g en e ra liza tio n s here are very useful although they have shortcomings Including "the tendency to lose sig h t of the differences w ith in groups 82 w hile focusing major a tte n tio n on the d ifferen ces between groups." In p u rsu it o f the reasons o r o b jectives fo r p a rtic ip a tin g 1n 83 continuing education a c t iv it i e s , Houle designed and conducted In t e r ­ views w ith twenty-two highly Involved continuing education le a rn e rs . His main hypothesis was th a t gradations existed w ith in the group o f learners 1n the amount, the kind, and purposes o f t h e ir study. From his fin d in g s , he constructed a th e o re tic a l typology consisting o f th re e major Ideal types o f p a rtic ip a n ts 1n continuing education according to th e ir learning o rie n ta tio n s . These types have been popularized 1n the f ie ld o f continuing education today. Houle mentioned th a t the learners "had the same basic ways o f th in kin g about the process 1n which they were engaged. They a l l had goals which they wished to achieve." Nevertheless, he cautions th a t the categories he Id e n tifie d were not app licab le to every case. (1 ) He grouped the learners thus: G o a l-o rien ted --th o se who use education as a means o f accomplishing c le a r-c u t o b je c tiv e s . 81 C y ril Houle, The In q u irin g M1nd (Madison, Wisconsin: v e rs ity o f Wisconsin Press, 19^1), ppT (>-7. 82 M. Doug 1ah and Gwenna Moss, op. d t . , p. 248. 83 H oule, op. c 1 t . , pp. 15-30. Uni­ 57 (2 ) A ct1v1ty-or1ented~those who u t i l i z e education as a means o f s a tis fy in g social needs. (3 ) Learning-oriented— those who seek knowledge fo r it s own sake. These concepts provided the basis f o r fu tu re studies such as S h e ffie ld 's , which sampled 453 a d u lt conference p a rtic ip a n ts 1n twenty conferences held a t e ig h t u n iv e rs itie s 1n the United States 1n an attempt to examine the o rie n ta tio n patterns o f a d u lt learners as p a rt 1c 184 pants 1n continuing learning a c t iv it i e s . By the use of fa c to r analysis to Id e n tify the groupings o f o rie n ta tio n s among the 453 respondents, he 85 noted f iv e meaningful o rie n ta tio n s : (1 ) Learning o rie n ta tio n — p a rtic ip a tio n 1n education as an end 1n I t s e l f . (2 ) S o c ia b ility o rie n ta tio n —p a rtic ip a tio n based on an In t e r ­ personal or social meaning 1n the circumstances o f the learning a c tiv ­ it y ; no necessary connection w ith the content or announced purposes o f the a c t iv it y . (3 ) Personal-goal o rie n ta tio n — p a rtic ip a tio n 1n learning as the means o f accomplishing f a i r l y c le a r-c u t personal o b je c tiv e s . Sherman B. S h e ffie ld , "The o rie n ta tio n s o f a d u lt continuing learners" 1n The Continuing Learner (e d .) Daniel Solomon (Chicago: Center fo r the study o f Liberal' Education fo r A dults, 1964), pp. 2-18. 85 , "The o rie n ta tio n s o f a d u lt continuing le a rn e rs ," (Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n . U n iversity o f Chicago, 196 2), pp. 5-30. 58 (4 ) S o cietal-g o al o rie n ta tio n — p a rtic ip a tio n 1n education to accomplish f a i r l y c le a r-c u t or community-centered o b je c tiv e s . (5 ) N e e d -fu lf1llm en t o rie n ta tio n — p a r tic ip a tio n based on personal meaning which may have no necessary connection, and o ften no connection a t a l l , w ith the content or the announced purposes o f the a c t iv it y . Ingham8® and L it c h f ie l d ,8^ pursuing fu r th e r the learning o rie n ta tio n s o f p a rtic ip a n ts 1n continuing education, created a meaning­ fu l scale on which the to ta l educative a c t iv it y o f given in d iv id u als was measured. A to ta l score fo r educational p a r tic ip a tio n fo r each person was derived and studied. These scores were the re s u lt o f the p a rtic ip a n t's s e lf-re p o rtin g o f his actual performance 1n a c t iv it ie s judged to be undertaken fo r purposes o f education. A major approach to continuing education assumes th a t adults w ill p a r tic ip a te 1n programs and a c t iv it ie s 1n which they have expressed a d e fin ite In te r e s t. In th is regard, Cross and V a lle y in v e s tig a tin g n o n -tra d itio n a l study s ta te : Adults do not value learning fo r It s own sake or fo r It s lib e r a tin g In flu e n c e . The m a jo rity o f respondents express an In te r e s t 1n the u t i l i t y o f knowledge. Knowledge th a t leads to b e tte r jo b s , th a t helps 1n p ra c tic a l d a lly liv in g , Oc Roy J . Ingham, "The measurement o f educative behavior and the re la tio n s h ip to the le is u re s a tis fa c tio n s o f co lleg e alumni" (Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , U n ive rs ity o f Chicago, 1963). 87 Ann L it c h f ie ld , "The nature and p attern o f p a rtic ip a tio n 1n a d u lt education a c t iv it ie s " (Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n . U n iv e rs ity o f Chicago, 1965). 59 and th a t teaches the s k ills and pleasures associated w ith I e 1s u r e -t 1me a c t iv it ie s holds g re a te r In te re s t fo r the a d u lt. . . These goals and purposes o f learning w ill be examined more thoroughly 1n the subsequent section which w ill deal more s p e c ific a lly w ith em pirical findings on the reasons fo r p a rtic ip a tio n o r n o n -p a rtic lp a tlo n of married or mature women 1n continuing education a c t iv it i e s . I t must be noted th a t the m a jo rity o f a d u lt p a rtic ip a tio n research studies reviewed here have been conducted w ith in the context of p a rtic u la r In s titu tio n s or types o f In s titu tio n a l programs. This Inform ation 1s p e rtin e n t 1n th a t the present study w ill consider a wide v a rie ty o f programs o ffe red by organizations and In s titu tio n s . Summary The lit e r a t u r e review focused on three areas from which the follow ing general observations can be made. (1 ) Studies d ire cte d a t fo reig n students have, in g e n e r been geared towards the re la tio n s h ip between fac to rs such as n a tio n a l­ i t y . age, m a rital s ta tu s , r e lig io n , fin a n c ia l status and, to some extent, the vocation o f the In d iv id u a l p rio r to coming to the United States on the one hand, and a ttitu d e s and behavior o f the In d iv id u a l as a student on the o th e r. a) The findings may be summarized as fo llo w s : The length o f time taken fo r the adjustment o f the foreig n student 1s re la te d to the s im ila r it ie s th a t his or her c u ltu re shares w ith the United S ta te s. I t 1s r e la t iv e ly e a s ie r fo r a op K. P a tric ia Cross and John R. V a lle y , Planning Non-trad1t1onal Programs (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass S e rie s , 1974), p. z7 60 European student to ad ju st than, fo r example, an Aslan. In th is regard, the In d iv id u a l's knowledge o f the English language 1s Im portant. b) Age, m a rita l status and the social status o f the In d iv id u al are Important 1n c ro s s -c u ltu ra l adjustment. Older people fin d 1t r e la t iv e ly harder to a d ju s t; 1n a d d itio n , 1f the In d iv id u a l 1s m arried, the presence or absence of his fa m ily g re a tly a ffe c ts the process o f adjustment. The g re ates t problems are encountered by those whose spouses are absent. D if f ic u lt ie s may also a ris e due to what has been termed as "ro le shock." Mature In d iv id u a ls w ith established status or p o sitio n 1n t h e ir own c u ltu re may experience d if f ic u lt ie s w ith in a co lleg e community where t h e ir concept regarding "ro le behavior and ro le expectation" are not met. c) Financial m atters are c r i t i c a l to the e ffe c tiv e functioning o f the fo re ig n e r as a student. d) Relating s p e c ific a lly to A frican students 1s a general trend 1n the Increase o f th e ir numbers w ith in United States I n s t i ­ tu tio n s . The success o f the A frican as a fo reig n student 1s predicated on the In d iv id u a l's a b i l i t y to have c le a r-c u t educational goals. Consequently, u n iv e rs ity adm inistrators have been shown to have preference fo r graduate students. The preference fo r graduate students who are mostly men and r e la t iv e ly mature and w ith spouses has also led to an Increase 1n the number o f such spouses 1n the United S ta te s . 61 (2 ) The p a rtic ip a tio n o f women 1n continuing education a c t iv it ie s has been on the ris e and the review o f the lit e r a t u r e reveals the fo llo w in g : a) S e lf-a c tu a l1za t1o n and economic motives are the two most powerful forces d riv in g the mature woman to p a r tic ip a te 1n educational a c t iv it i e s . b) Popular areas o f study fo r the m a jo rity o f these women are education and nursing. c) Mature women going back to school usually have lower le v e ls o f education r e la t iv e to men. d) R esp o n sib ility associated w ith marriage and c h ild ra is in g are the most o ften c ite d reasons fo r breaks 1n the education o f women. These duties cause women more often to be p a rt- time students. e) The mature woman retu rn in g to school d t e s her husband's supportive ro le as an important con trib u tio n to her motiva­ tio n fo r the resumption o f educational a c t iv it i e s . (3 ) P a rtic ip a tio n In continuing education has received the g reatest a tte n tio n 1n a l l the em pirical works 1n the general area o f continuing education. These studies are o ften d e s c rip tiv e — focusing on p o sitio n a l or background fac to rs such as age, sex. Income o f the c lie n te le or psychological fa c to rs such as s e lf re lia n c e , social s k i l l , occupational re la tio n s . The former category has received more emphasis. The findin gs r e la tin g to p a rtic ip a tio n Include the fo llo w in g : a) The level o f previous education has the highest c o rre la tio n w ith p a r tic ip a tio n . 62 b) Other fa c to rs In flu en cin g p a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education a c t iv it ie s are age, occupation, socio-economic status and a few other v a ria b le s . c) High Income groups are more lik e ly to take p a rt 1n educa­ tio n a l a c t iv it ie s than low Income groups. d) P a rtic ip a n ts 1n continuing education a c t iv it ie s are In creasin g ly being n ea tly grouped on the basis o f th e ir o rie n ta tio n s 1n the amount, kinds and purposes f o r studying. The Inform ation reviewed has hopefully brought In to focus some of the problems and Issues th a t may be a n tic ip a te d to a ffe c t the A frican student w ife who 1s» a t the same tim e , a fo re ig n e r, a mature woman and a possible p a rtic ip a n t In a range o f educational a c t iv it i e s . The present study has attempted to Illu m in a te the complex facto rs reviewed and t h e ir In te rr e la tio n s h ip w ith , and consequent Impact on* p a rtic ip a tio n patterns o f m arried A frican women 1n Michigan. CHAPTER I I I RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Intro du ctio n This study was designed to In v e s tig a te the p a rtic ip a tio n patterns o f dependent A frican females (A fric a n spouses o f male A frican students) 1n continuing education a c t iv it ie s w ith in selected u n iv e rs ity centers 1n Michigan. The A fr ic a n ,fo r the purpose of th is study,was defined as one from A fric a south of the Sahara. The methodological framework was formulated to In v e s tig a te variables re la tin g to the p a rt 1c 1p at 1o n /non-part 1c 1p at 1on o f the group 1n educational a c t iv it ie s from th ree broad perspectives: foreigners and as students. as w ives, as The o b jective was to c o lle c t as much Inform ation as possib le, c la s s ify the more general Inform ation on the basis o f p a rtic ip a tio n and non-part 1c 1pation 1n educational a c t iv it ie s and specify lik e ly and determinant re la tio n s h ip s among v a ria b le s . Inform ation was c o llec ted on the demographic variab les o f the women: country and place o f o r ig in , age, r e lig io n , fa m ily background, le v e l o f education p rio r to coming to the United S ta te s , number of child ren per woman and fin a n c ia l background. The second set of v a r i­ ables was re la te d to m o tivatio n , class s tru c tu re , o b jectives and other reasons fo r actual or Intended p a rtic ip a tio n and non-part 1d p a t 1on In s p e c ific educational a c t iv it ie s (see pp. 6 7 -6 9 ). 63 64 This chapter presents the research design. I t reports the procedures adopted fo r the In v e s tig a tio n , the population and sample. Instrum entation and the methods o f analysis and In te rp re ta tio n o f the data. Population and Sample The population consisted o f a ll married Sub-Saharan A frican women liv in g w ith t h e ir A frican student husbands during F a ll term , 1975 and W inter term , 1976 1n f iv e u n iv e rs ity centers w ith in Michigan: East Lansing, Ann Arbor, D e tr o it, Kalamazoo and B errien Springs. I n i t i a l e ffo r ts to lo cate the population were made through foreign student advisors, A frican student associations and A frican studies centers w ith in u n iv e rs itie s In the area. Following a l e t t e r of In tro du ctio n on the researcher's behalf from the Foreign Student Advisor a t Michigan S tate U n ive rs ity (see Appendix A -j^ ) , a formal w ritte n request (see Appendix A-|) was made to various in s titu tio n s o f higher learning In Michigan fo r a 11st o f names and addresses o f married A frican male students and t h e ir A frican wives. The researcher contacted those In s titu tio n s shown by the la te s t d ire c to ry o f the In s tit u te o f In te rn a tio n a l Education 1 to have a fo reig n student e n r o ll­ ment o f a t le a s t e ig h ty -fiv e persons. These Included the fo llo w in g : Andrews U n iv e rs ity , Central Michigan U n iv e rs ity , U n iv e rs ity o f D e tr o it, D e tro it In s tit u te o f Technology, Eastern Michigan U n iv e rs ity , General ^Open Doors (New York: 1973), p. 52V In s tit u te o f In te rn a tio n a l Education. 65 Motors In s tit u te * Michigan Technical U n iv e rs ity * Michigan S tate U n iversity* Oakland U n iv e rs ity , U n ive rs ity o f Michigan, Wayne S tate U niversity and Western Michigan U n iv e rs ity . Of the eleven In s titu tio n s contacted, only two* 1n addition to Michigan S tate U n ive rs ity* were able to comply w ith the request. Five o f the In s titu tio n s had no married A frican students whose wives were A frican and were 1n the United S ta te s. Respondents f o r the remaining three In s titu tio n s Indicated the presence o f married A frican males and t h e ir wives* but could not release the Inform ation requested since u n iv e rs ity regulations pro h ib ited t h e ir doing so. They recom­ mended th a t In q u irie s be made to A frican student associations o r, 1n the absence o f such groups* knowledgeable A fricans or A fric a n is ts . Such In q u irie s were subsequently made* q u a lify in g wives were contacted and the necessary Inform ation was furnished. Included e1ghty-two in d iv id u a ls . The I n i t i a l l i s t o f wives Subsequently* In d iv id u a ls w ith in the various u n iv e rs itie s were contacted by telephone to s o l ic i t other names and as a cross check fo r the I n i t i a l l i s t . Out o f th is e f f o r t , the 11st grew to 111 d is trib u te d as follow s: 3. In terview U n iversity 5 Andrews U n iversity D e tro it In s tit u te o f Technology 5 35 Michigan S tate U n iversity 4. U n iversity o f Michigan 5. 6. 1. 2. No In terview 5 4 Total 10 9 2 37 2 22 Wayne S tate U n iversity 20 10 5 15 Western Michigan U n iversity 15 3 18 90 21 111 Total 66 The 111 females represented twelve A frican countries (see Chapter IV» p. 8 1 ). Given the small s iz e o f the population. I t was decided to Include the e n tir e population. f u lly achieved. This o b je c tiv e could not be Some husbands would not allow t h e ir wives to be In t e r viewed and a few wanen were unable or u n w illin g to be Interview ed. Several expressed fe a r th a t Inform ation about themselves might become a v a ila b le to Immigration o f f i c i a l s . Of the 111 women, n inety were eventually Interview ed and included 1n the study. Instrum entation The Instrument used 1n the study was an in terv ie w question­ naire (see Appendix B ). The researcher a n tic ip a te d d iffe re n c e s 1n the educational backgrounds o f respondents and varying degrees o f compe­ tence 1n English. I t thus seemed f i t t i n g to choose the In terv ie w questionnaire as the best v eh ic le to obtain the necessary In form atio n. In a d d itio n , the researcher shares the opinion of other researchers th a t, 1n the In terv ie w s itu a tio n , responses are more spontaneous and ric h and such b en e fits may outweigh possible biases. In th is regard, Oppenhelm notes th a t though the In terv ie w s itu a tio n 1s fraught w ith p o s s ib ilitie s o f bias . . . th ere remains the undisputed advantage th a t the richness and the spontaneity o f Inform ation c o lle c te d by Interview s 1s higher than th a t which a mailed questionnaire can hope to o b ta in . . . . Many researchers w ill take a chance on the p o s s ib ilitie s o f bias fo r the sake o f the richness o f the Inform ation th a t only the in te rv ie w can g iv e . . . .2 2 A. N. Oppenhelm, Questionnaire Design and A ttitu d e Measure­ ment (New York: Basic Books I n c . , 1966), pp. *0 -3 3 . 67 The questionnaire was devised on the basis o f the lit e r a t u r e review o u tlin e d In Chapter I I and a study o f questionnaires developed fo r re la te d stu d ies. 1) The instrument was divided In to fo u r sections: Socio-economic and demographic backgrounds o f the res­ pondent p r io r to coming to the United S tates. 2) P a rtic ip a tio n 1n educational a c t iv it ie s w ith in the United 3) Non-part1c1pat1on 1n educational a c t iv it ie s w ith in the S tates. United S tates. 4) General Inform ation regarding the respondent's sojourn 1n the United S ta te s , her plans on retu rn in g to A fr ic a , and her United States experiences. In the f i r s t category, the fo llo w in g Inform ation was s o lic ­ ite d : n a t io n a lit y , r e lig io n , age, p ro ficie n cy 1n E nglish, education and occupation o f parents, husband and the respondent h e r s e lf, number o f c h ild re n , and reasons fo r the break 1n education 1n A fr ic a . The second category o f Inform ation was re la te d to the kinds, d u ra tio n , In s titu tio n s and reasons associated w ith each respondent's p a r tic ip a ­ tio n 1n one or more educational a c t i v i t i e s . and class s tru c tu re were also Included. Questions on m otivation In th is c o n te x t, p a r tic ip a tio n was defined as encompassing any, or a combination o f , learn in g a c t i v i ­ tie s whether academic, v o c a tio n a l, r e lig io u s , re c re a tio n a l o r s o c ia l. S p e c ific a lly , p a rtic ip a tio n was defined as f a llin g 1n one o r a com­ b ination o f the areas o u tlin ed below: 1) Profess1onal Educatlon— In s t1tu t1 o n a l1zed programs o le a s t fo u r yea rs ' duration designed to prepare persons who have a t 68 le a s t a high o r secondary school diploma fo r s p e c ific careers. These Include areas such as law, engineering, teaching, m e d ic a l-d e n ta l, theology, business management and others. 2) Vocational-Technical Education— Structured study 1n a curriculum Intended to lead to a s p e c ific occupation re q u irin g more than a high o r secondary school diploma and no more than two years o f co lleg e. Programs under th is area Include trade school programs, busi­ ness s k ill programs o ffe rin g courses on s e c re ta ria l and other c le r ic a l s k i l l s , other basic s k il l tra in in g programs fo r service occupations, health occupations, food service and others. 3) Secondary/High School Education— In s titu tio n a liz e d pro­ grams o f in s tru c tio n designed p rim a rily to prepare those persons w ith less than a secondary/high school education fo r the high school diploma and fo r entry In to occupations and higher educational programs. 4) English as a second language— Programs designed to teach and Improve the le v e l o f English o f those persons who have l i t t l e or no a b i l i t y to read, w r ite and converse 1n the English language. In th is study, such a preparation 1s c ru c ia l 1 f the dependent A frican female 1s not p r o fic ie n t In English and intends to Increase her educa­ tio n a l Involvement 1n the more formal educational programs such as pro­ fessional and tec h n ica l-vo c atio n al programs. 5) Home and Family L ife Education— Programs concerned w ith the improvement o f fam ily liv in g and fa m ily re la tio n s h ip s . The s k ills acquired 1n these programs are not necessarily o rien ted toward employ­ ment outside the home. Home and fam ily l i f e education Includes many 69 educational f ie ld s (such as homemaklng, h e a lth , foods and n u tr itio n , home management). formal These topics can be studied 1n Informal as w ell as s e ttin g s . 6) Personal Enrichment Education— In s tru c tio n planned to provide meaning and richness to the l i f e o f the In d iv id u a l. can enhance one's understanding o f s e lf and s o c ie ty . The study Though not p r i ­ m arily Intended fo r use 1n employment, the knowledge acquired can apply to a jo b . Study In th is area can cover a wide spectrum o f a c t iv it ie s th a t can possibly Improve the q u a lity o f l i f e — these Include areas such as lit e r a t u r e , languages, appreciation o f and p a rtic ip a tio n 1n the c re a tiv e and performing a r ts , natural sciences. 7) Recreational Education— In s tru c tio n designed to Impart the development o f knowledge, a p p re c iatio n , s k i l l s , a ttitu d e s o r values which equip one to p a r tic ip a te w ith s a tis fa c tio n 1n re c re a tiv e a c t lv l. t ie s . Recreation takes any number o f forms— a th le tic s , gardening, re p a irin g o f home, sewing or hiking. They can be structured or unstruc­ tured programs. 8) Social In te ra c tio n Education— Programs 1n th is category are created w ith no Intended academic o bjectives but may provide In c i­ dental le arn in g . Opportunities are created fo r meeting and s o c ia liz in g , and learning takes place through th is social In te ra c tio n . Non-part1c1pat1on was defined to mean a lack o f Involvement 1n any o f the aforementioned areas. The non-part1c1pant was asked questions to provide her reasons fo r non-part 1c 1p at 1on as w ell as the lik e lih o o d fo r p a rtic ip a tio n 1n the fu tu re . 70 The fou rth category d e a lt w ith general Inform ation: sources of fin a n c ia l support fo r both husband and w ife w h ile 1n the United States* sources o f Inform ation regarding educational o p po rtu n ities 1n the area* kinds and sources o f encouragement fo r p a rtic ip a tio n and fu tu re plans regarding employment. An open-ended question was f in a ll y posed to s o l ic i t reactions to education 1n Michigan and the United States In gen eral, to community l i f e and to the process o f crossc u ltu ra l adjustment to the United States and u n iv e rs ity communities 1n p a rtic u la r. Broadly, the questions posed were aimed a t the follo w in g areas and t h e ir lik e ly In te ra c tio n s as they might a ffe c t actual o r Intended p a rtic ip a tio n or non-part 1c 1p at 1on o f the population 1n educational a c t iv it ie s : (1 ) Relationships between demographic variab le s and p a r p atio n / non-part 1c 1p at 1on. a) Between place o f residence 1n home country and p a r tic ip a tio n / non-part 1c 1pat 1on. b) Between fam ily s ize (number o f child ren present 1n the United S tates) and part1c1pat1on/non-part1c1pat1on. c) Between age and partic1pat1on/non-part1c1pat1on. d) Between re lig io n and part1c1pat1on/non-part1c1pat1on. e) Between respondent's source of Income 1n the United States and p a rt 1c 1p at 1on/non-part 1c 1p at 1on. f) Between respondent's husband's source of Income 1n the United States and part1c1pat1on/non-part1c1pat1on. 71 (2 ) Relationships between fam ily background v a riab le s and p art 1c 1p at 1on /n o n-p art 1c 1p at 1on. a) Between the education o f respondent's parents and her p a r t ic i­ p a tio n / n o n -p a rtic 1p a tlo n . b) Between the occupation o f respondent's parents and her par­ t i c 1p at 1on/non-part 1c 1p a tlo n . c) Between respondent's husband's education and her p a r tlc lp a ­ t l on/ non-pa r t 1c 1pat 1on. (3 ) Relationships between educational and occupational back­ ground o f the respondent p r io r to her coming to the United States and p a rt 1c 1p a t 1o n /n o n-p art 1c 1p at 1on. a) Between le v e l o f education reached 1n home country and p a rt 1c 1p a t 1on/non-part 1c ip a t 1on. b) Between le v e l o f p ro ficie n cy in English and p a r tic ip a tio n / non-part 1c 1p a tlo n . (4 ) R elationship between time In the United States and p a rt 1c lp a t 1o n /n o n-p art 1c 1p a tlo n . a) Between period since time of a r r iv a l In the United States and p a r tic 1p a t 1on/non-part 1c 1p a t 1on. b) Between length o f stay as 1t re la te s to c ro s s -c u ltu ra l a d ju s t­ ment on the one hand, and p a r tlc lp a t 1o n /non-part 1c 1p at 1on on the o th e r. c) Between perceived changes 1n a ttitu d e towards education dur­ ing residency 1n the United States and p a r ti clpat1on/nonp a rt 1c 1p at 1on. 72 (5 ) R elationship between sources o f Inform ation and p a r tic 1p atlo n /n o n -p a rt 1c 1p at 1on. a) Between d iffe r e n t forms o f media as sources o f Inform ation and p a r tic 1p a tlo n /n o n -p a rt 1c 1p a tlo n . ( 6) R elationship between sources o f encouragement and p a r t lc l- pat 1on/non-part 1c 1p at 1on. a) Between Influences generating In te re s t and p a rtlc lp a tlo n /n o n p a r tlc lp a tlo n . (7 ) R elationship between housekeeping and w lfe ry responsi­ b i l i t y and p a r t 1c 1p at 1on /non-part 1c 1p a t 1on. a) Between housekeeping and part1c1pat1on/non-part1cipat1on. b) Between c h ild re a rin g and part1c1pat1on/non-part1c1pat1on. ( 8) R elationship between fu tu re career goals and p a r tic ip a ­ t io n / non-part 1c 1p at 1on. a) Between lik e ly sources o f Influences fo r change and p a r tic lp a t 1on /n o n-p art 1c 1p a t 1on. b) Between the perception o f the female ro le 1n society as per­ ceived by these women and p a rt 1c 1p at 1on/non-part 1c 1p at 1on. P ilo t Study o f Instrument A random sample of twenty Aslan student wives from s ix coun­ t r ie s (Bangladesh, Taiwan, In d ia , the P h ilip p in e s , S ri Lanka and Thailand) a t Michigan S ta te U n ive rs ity was used to p re te s t the Instrum ent. Pretesting 1s 1n conform ity w ith other works employing the In terv ie w technique. This method Is described as a 73 very useful way o f catching confusing and unclear questions p rio r to the actual d a ta -c o lle c tio n process. . . . I t should help 1n determining the most e ffe c tiv e wording o f the ques­ tio n s . . . and In providing a sample o f data th a t can be used to te s t analysis and In te rp re ta tio n parts o f the proposed responses. . . . I t 1s also a way o f ensuring the r e l i a b i l i t y and v a lid it y o f the d a ta . 3 The sample o f Aslans was used as a comparable group to the A frican sample 1n the study to evaluate the o rig in a l set o f questions regarding t h e ir appropriateness 1n wording and the analysis and In t e r ­ p re ta tio n o f the responses. Oppenhelm explains th a t when our to ta l population 1s very small and highly s p e c ific so th a t we cannot a ffo rd to 'use up' any p a rt o f 1t fo r p ilo t samples, we must seek some a lte r n a tiv e sample th a t should be, above a l l , comparable 1n t h e ir knowledge and ways o f th in k ­ in g . 4 The in terview s fo r the p ilo t study were a l l conducted between November 2 and 8 , 1975. The lo catio n o f a ll respondents 1n the married housing complex on Michigan S ta te U n ive rs ity f a c ilit a t e d access fo r the researcher. C ertain m odifications re s u ltin g from the p re te s t were made 1n the Instrum ent. Moreover, the experiences gained from the Interview ing s itu a tio n also proved In valu ab le 1n conducting the actual In te rv ie w . The most s ig n ific a n t changes 1n the Instrument were 1n Sections I I and I I I o f the In te rv ie w qu estion n aire. I t was noticed th a t 1n the o rig in a l q uestionnaire, the m a jo rity o f the respondents found the s p e c ific set of lik e ly responses given fo r each question to be e ith e r d is tra c tin g 3 George R. A lle n , The Graduate Student's Guide to Theses and D issertatio ns (San Francisco! Jossey-Bass Pub!1shers, 1973), ppT 53-54. 4 A. N. Oppenhelm, op. c 1 t . , p. 30. 74 or disconcerting f o r the s ele c tio n o f the appropriate response. For example, question 25 1n Section I I I , which sought to fin d out the edu­ cational pursuits o f n o n -p a rtic 1pants, e lic it e d e ith e r negative reac­ tions or a refu sal to provide any answer. The o rig in a l question read: " I f you are not taking classes towards a degree or c e r t if ic a t e , what are you studying?" This was followed by a set o f responses: languages. Dancing, Home and Family L if e , Music, e tc . was subsequently posed 1n an open-ended fashion: have you studied?" Foreign This question "What other areas This format evoked the needed responses w ithout negative reactions from the women. In g en eral, most o f the questions 1n Sections I I and I I I were modified to e l i c i t open-ended responses. I t was also observed th a t wives were less open to provide frank and "uninhibited" responses to questions 1f t h e ir husbands were present. T h erefore, 1n the l a t t e r p a rt o f the p ilo t study, e f f o r t was made to conduct Interview s 1n the absence o f the husbands. Maximum e f f o r t was made to secure s im ila r environments fo r the main study. Children were also found to be a source of "d is tra c tio n " and th is was taken In to consideration 1n planning v is it s to homes w ith c h ild re n . In terview Procedure and S itu a tio n The main Interview s were organized so th a t In d iv id u a ls 1n p a rtic u la r areas and neighborhoods could be Interview ed w ith in a c er­ ta in period. Meetings were arranged by telephone to be held a t each In d iv id u a l's home and a t her convenience. When th is was not po ssib le, an a lte r n a tiv e lo catio n on the u n iv e rs ity or co lleg e campus was used. I f the In d iv id u al could not be reached by telephone, a l e t t e r explaining 75 the nature and cause o f the p ro je c t was sent to her.** A-j-j.) (See Appendix When the In te rv ie w took place a t the home o f the In d iv id u a ls * as was often the case* th ere were Instances where child ren In te rfe re d with the In te rv ie w . The problem was not as serious as the attempts o f some husbands to monitor the In te rv ie w . There were four such Instances where the In v e s tig a to r had to allow husbands to be p art o f the In t e r ­ view; 1t seemed to make some o f the wives who had language problems or who f e l t In s u f f ic ie n t ly adjusted to the American c u ltu re more com­ fo rta b le . A ll the Interview s were conducted 1n English except fo r two Instances, where French was used. Respondents were assured o f c o n fi­ d e n tia lity o f the Inform ation they provided. No names were used on the questionnaires, but lo c a tio n and date were In d icated . Each ques­ tio n n a ire was num erically coded. On the whole, the responses were very frank and the women Indicated personal In te re s t 1n the study. Many saw the opportunity as a chance to voice t h e ir fru s tra tio n s and joys about t h e ir sojourn 1n the United S ta te s. areas. Guarded responses were encountered only 1n two On the question, "What 1s your (your husband's) source of fin a n c ia l support?" those fa m ilie s who were s elf-su p p o rtin g one way or the other became very re lu c ta n t to say much beyond "self-su p p o rtin g " or "on our own." On the question o f age, o ld er women (g e n e ra lly the few past t h 1r t y - f 1ve years) preferred to check the age range themselves on the In terv ie w questionnaire ra th e r than to specify I t to the In t e r ­ viewer. ®Th1s was done p a r tic u la r ly 1n the case of the wanen a t Andrews U n iv e rs ity , B errien Springs, and some of those In D e tr o it. 76 Each In terview lasted between 30-45 minutes. However, the In v e s tig a to r's time spent was sometimes longer than th is because o f the general h o s p ita lity , c o r d ia lity and the other discussions f a llin g out­ side the Immediate study area. A ll Interview s were conducted between December 10, 1975 and March 12, 1976. Analysis o f the Data Responses to In terv ie w questionnaires were hand-coded, key­ punched and tra n s fe rre d to computer cards. coding sheets and two computer cards. Each observation had two A ll computation was done a t the Computer Center, Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity , under the supervision o f the O ffic e o f Research C onsultation, College of Education, Michigan State U n iv e rs ity . The SPSS ( S t a t is tic a l Package fo r the Social S c i­ ences) program was used fo r In te rp re ta tio n o f the data and f o r the running o f te s ts . Output from the computer programs Included frequency counts, percentages and te s ts fo r s ig n ific a n c e of re la tio n s h ip s . The data were subject to a s t a t is t ic a l procedure: the ch1 square t e s t. The Ch1 Square The ch1 square te s t was employed 1n te s tin g re la tio n s h ip s between selected socio-economic and demographic variab les (ag e, r e l i ­ gion, educational and occupational backgrounds o f parents, husband and respondent, number o f child ren per woman, length o f stay 1n the United States and fin a n c ia l statu s) and p a rtic ip a tio n and non-part1c1pat1on. 77 As a te s t o f asso ciatio n , the chi square was designed to bring out those re la tio n s h ip s o f s t a t is t ic a l s ig n ific a n c e 1n the study. However, 1t must be borne 1n mind th a t "the establishment o f a s t a t is t ic a l association by means o f the ch1 square te s t does not necessarily Imply any causal re la tio n s h ip between the a ttrib u te s being compared, but 1t does in d ic a te th a t the reason fo r the association 1s worth In v e s tig a tin g ."6 Because o f the small s ize of the sample In th is study, 1t became necessary on c e rta in occasions to regroup data or combine c ate2 gorles to enable a X te s t to be done. This procedure can d e tra c t from the In te re s t and usefulness o f a study b u t, as 1t 1s w idely believed th a t a ll expected frequencies should be g re ater than f iv e fo r a ch1 square te s t to be r e lia b le , 7 i t became necessary to adopt the procedure fo r the study. A ll X tes ts were done by the SPSS program, as reported 1n Chapter IV (Section I I ) . Sunwnary In g en eral, th is chapter has reported the procedures adopted fo r the In v e s tig a tio n , the population and sample. Instrum entation, research design and the s t a t is t ic a l methods o f analysis and In te rp re ta ­ tio n o f the data. 6A. E. Maxwell, Analyzing Q u a lita tiv e Data (London: and Co. L td ., 1967), p. 19. 7Ib1d. . p. 38. Methuen 78 P a rtic ip a tio n 1n continuing education has been c la s s ifie d in to a typology o f learning a c t iv it ie s which may be academic, voca­ tio n a l, re lig io u s , recreatio n al o r s o c ia l. A systematic presentation of questions p e rtin e n t to the research has also been Included. The ch1 square has been used to te s t the s t a t is t ic a l s ig n ific a n c e of r e la ­ tionships. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS Intro du ctio n This chapter presents a d e ta ile d examination o f the em pirical data obtained from Interview s conducted fo r the study. I t presents the p rin c ip a l c h a ra c te ris tic s o f the respondents and h ig h lig h ts c e rta in processes and re la tio n s h ip s 1n the p a rtic ip a ­ tio n patterns o f the dependent A frican female 1n continuing education programs. The more general d e s c rip tiv e re s u lts are presented f i r s t , followed by fin din gs emerging from the an alysis o f r e la ­ tionships among the fac to rs o f the In v e s tig a tio n . The data are analyzed on the basis o f two groups o f subjects— p a rtic ip a n ts and non-part1c1pants— 1n continuing education a c t iv it i e s . This 1s done to determine variab les th a t c h a ra cte rize the two d iffe r e n t groups and how they r e la te to p a r tic ip a tio n and non-part 1c 1p a t 1on 1n continuing education. The more q u a lita tiv e data generated from the open-ended questions accompanied by a set o f recommenda­ tions are presented sep arately. More s p e c ific a lly , the chapter Is divided In to three sections. Section I has two p a rts . The f i r s t describes the general fin din gs re la tin g to the variab les examined 1n the study; the second reports on p a r t 1c 1p a t 1o n /n o n-p art 1c 1p a t 1on o f respon­ dents In continuing education. 79 Section I I 1s concerned w ith the 80 re s u lts o f the analysis o f re la tio n s h ip s among the fa c to rs studied. Responses to the open-ended questions are o u tlin e d 1n Section I I I . Of the n inety In terview ees, seventy-six were p a r t ic i­ pants in some form o f continuing education a c t iv it ie s w hile the remaining fourteen were non-part1c1pants. The number o f p a r t ic i­ pants 1n proportion to n o n-part 1c 1pants created problems in the s t a t is t ic a l analysis o f the data c o lle c te d . Section I C h a ra c te ris tic s o f Respondents Part I — General Findings In th is s ec tio n , the more tr a d itio n a l demographic In d ices—country o f o r ig in , place o f residence 1n the home country, r e lig io n , age, fam ily s iz e , and length o f stay— are presented, followed by reports on the occupational and educational backgrounds o f parents, husbands and respondents. The fin a n c ia l status o f respondents and t h e ir husbands 1s reported. Inform ation 1s reported on m otivational Influences on educational p u rs u its , rea­ sons f o r breaks In respondents 1 education 1n A fr ic a , Inform ational sources on educational o p p o rtu n ities and expectations o f reward fo llo w in g academic achievements 1n the United S tates. Country o f O rigin Twelve A frican countries were represented In the sample; a general p r o file o f the countries o f o rig in 1s given 1n Table 1. Table 1. Country of origin of respondents. Participants Country of Origin * Cameroon** Ethiopia Ghana* Kenya Liberia* Nigeria* Rhodesia Sierra Leone* Sudan Tanzania Uganda Zaire** Percentage Non-Partlclpants Percentage Ntmber (N=76) Number (Ns14) 3 6 9 4 2 39 2 4 3 1 2 1 3.9 7.9 11.8 5.3 2.6 51.3 2.6 5.3 3.9 1.3 2.6 1.3 0 1 1 0 1 7 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 7.1 7.1 0 7.1 50.0 7.1 14.3 0 0 0 7.1 ♦West African country ♦♦French-speaking country Total (N*90) Number Percentage 3 7 10 0 3 46 3 6 3 3 2 2 3.3 7.8 * 11.1 4.4 3.3 51.1 3.3 6.7 3.3 3.3 2.2 2.2 82 The highest number o f In d iv id u a ls came from N ig e ria * 51.0 percent o f the to ta l sample. Representation o f the remaining eleven countries ranged from 1 .0 percent to 11.0 percent. A major por­ tio n o f the group was from English-speaking countries and o f West A frican o rig in s . A ll o f the respondents from Cameroon, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda were p a rtic ip a n ts 1n continuing educa­ tio n a c t iv it i e s ; however, the number o f respondents from these fiv e countries was sm all, ranging from one to fo u r. The le ve l o f non-part 1c 1p a t 1on was r e la t iv e ly higher among In d iv id u a ls from L ib e ria , Rhodesia and S ierra Leone. Of the remaining two co u n tries, Ghana and N ig e ria , the le v e l o f p a r tic ip a tio n was higher 1n the former (about 90 percent) than 1n the l a t t e r (82 p ercen t). Place o f Residence 1n the Home Country I f the two broad categories "urban" and " ru ra l" are con­ sidered as c it ie s and towns, re s p e c tiv e ly , the m a jo rity o f the sample belonged to the f i r s t category. This was the case with both p a rtic ip a n ts and n o n -p a rtic ip a n ts . Eight-two percent o f the to ta l sample resided in urban areas. Of a l l p a rtic ip a n ts , approxim ately 80 percent were urban d w e lle rs ; the corresponding fig u r e fo r a l l non-part 1c 1pants was 92.9 percent. For the ru ra l areas, the fig u re s were 20 percent and 10 percent, re s p e c tiv e ly (see Table 2 ). The responses providing the fig u res must be In te rp re te d cau tiously as the designation, o f residence between urban and r u r a l, 83 town and c it y was not c le a r-c u t. Each u n it was characterized by considerable v a ria tio n 1n the d iffe r e n t countries under study. For example, 1n N ig e ria , given the s ize o f it s population, what 1s designated as a v illa g e based on It s numerical dimensions may be a town In a sm aller country lik e S ierra Leone. Residence 1n the urban area 1s c lo sely associated w ith le v e ls o f education and occupation of respondents. However, In most Instances, tie s are maintained w ith the home v illa g e through frequent v is it s and various In te ra c tio n s . Rel1g1on The In d iv id u a ls 1n the to ta l sample were predominantly C h ris tia n . They co n stitu ted 93.3 percent o f the to ta l group. Five point s ix percent were Moslem, w hile 1.1 percent professed no r e l 1g 1on. A ll non-part1c1pants were C h ristian s and i t must be pointed out th a t besides C h ris tia n ity and Islam , no other re lig io n was mentioned. Table 3 gives the d is trib u tio n o f the sample w ith regard to the two re lig io n s . Age Approximately 51 percent o f a ll In d iv id u a ls 1n the sample were under 26 years o f age and n early 94 percent between the ages of 21 and 35 years. The age d is trib u tio n o f both p a rtic ip a n ts and non-part1c1pants follows the same p a tte rn , as Indicated by Figure 1. There were small percentage d ifferen ces between the two groups; Table 2. Place of residence 1n the home country of respondents. Participants Percentage Non-Participants Percentage Total (N-90) Number Percentage Number (N-76) Number (N=14) 17 22.4 3 21.4 20 22.2 7 9.2 1 7.1 8 8.9 7 30 15 9.2 39.5 19.7 3 6 1 21.4 42.9 7.1 10 36 16 11.1 40.0 17.8 Participants Percentage Non-Participants Percentage Religion Number (N-76) Number (N-14) Christian Moslem None 70 5 1 92.1 6.6 1.3 14 0 0 100 0 0 Place of Residence National Capital K S !" City Town Village Table 3. =»«■' Religion of respondents. Total (N-90) Number Percentage 84 5 1 93.3 5.6 1.1 85 Non-Part1c1pants Percentage Within Age Group 40 X Total 30 P a rtic ip a n ts 10 X Under 23-26 27-30 31-34 22 Age Group Figure 1. Age D is trib u tio n o f Sample 35-38 Over 38 86 however, a higher percentage o f non-part 1c 1pants were below 26 years o f age. The age d is trib u tio n Is given 1n Table 4. I t appears, th e re fo re , th a t the m ajo rity o f respondents were 1n the 22-26 age range. The population 1s q u ite young. Non- p a rtlc lp a n ts , 1n p a r tic u la r , clustered 1n the 22-26 year age range and showed a 13 percent s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e over p a rtic ip a n ts . Based on these fig u re s , 1t would appear th a t the m ajo rity o f wives accompanying husbands to the United States fo r studies are 30 years old or less. Children 1n the United States Number o f Children Per Respondent. respondents had one o r more c h ild ren . 75 percent had a t le a s t one c h ild . The m a jo rity of the Of the t o t a l, approximately The number o f children per person as Indicated 1n Table 5 below was d is trib u te d as follow s: no c h ild re n , 26 percent; one c h ild , 41 percent; two c h ild re n , 21 percent; th re e , 8 percent; and four or more, 4 .5 percent. Of a ll non-part1c1pants, 86 percent had a t le a s t one c h ild 1n the United States 1n contrast to 73 percent fo r p a rtic ip a n ts . In Figure 2 , the trend Indicates a r e la tiv e ly higher percentage o f p artic ip a n ts w ithout c h ild ren . The percentage o f p a rt 1c 1pants/non-part 1c 1pants w ith one and two children was not s ig n ific a n tly d iffe r e n t. With three and four c h ild re n , the per­ centage o f non-part 1c 1pants was higher, 1n f a c t , twice as high. Table 4. Age of respondents. Participants Age Range Under 22 years 22-26 years 27-30 years 31-34 years 35-38 years Over 38 years Number 10 28 24 10 3 1 Percentage Non-Participants Percentage (N*76) Number 0M 4) 13.2 36.8 31.6 13.2 3.9 1.3 1 7 3 2 0 1 7.1 50.0 21.4 14.3 0 7.1 Total (N*90) Number Percentage 11 35 27 12 3 2 12.2 38.9 30.0 13.3 3.3 2.2 0 0 "J Table 5. Nunber of children per respondent in the United States. Participants Number of Children None 1 2 3 4 5 Percentage Non-Participants Total Percentage Number (N-76) Number (N=14) 21 31 16 5 2 1 27.6 40.8 21.1 6.6 2.6 1.3 2 6 3 2 1 0 14.3 42.9 21.4 14.3 7.1 0 (N=90) Number Percentage 23 37 19 7 3 1 25.6 41.1 21.1 7.8 3.3 1.1 88 Only one respondent, a p a r tic ip a n t, had f iv e c h ild re n . To a c e rta in e x te n t, th e re fo re , the number o f ch ild ren a woman has appears to In te r fe r e w ith the chance o f her going to school. The fewer c h ild re n , the more lik e lih o o d there 1s fo r p a r tic ip a tio n . As shown 1n Table 5, the percentage o f non­ p a rti c 1pants w ith no c h ild ren was about h a lf the percentage o f p a rtic ip a n ts , whereas the reverse is tru e fo r respondents w ith three or fo u r c h ild re n . Ages o f C h ild ren . Table 6 o u tlin e s the d is trib u tio n o f child ren by age and the numbers w ith in each age group per dependent A frica n female. A representation o f th is d is trib u tio n 1s given by Figure 3 , which compares the r e la tiv e number o f children per woman w ith in the age groups under three y e a rs , from four to s ix y ea rs , and from seven to twelve years. Within each age grouping, the number o f c h ild ren ranged between zero and two. This means zero represents a ll women w ithout child ren 1n the three year old bracket followed by a l l women w ith one o r two child ren under three years o f age. remaining two age brackets: This p attern 1s repeated fo r the four to six years and seven to twelve years. From Figure 3 , 1t 1s evident th a t many more non-part1c1pants had one c h ild under three years o f age o r child ren between fo u r to s ix years o f age. The younger the ages o f the c h ild re n , the more d i f f i c u l t y existed fo r mothers to p a r tic ip a te 1n continuing educa­ tio n classes. For mothers having c h ild ren between the ages o f 89 50t N on-participants Percentage Number of Sample — Total \ — P a rtic ip a n ts Number o f Children Figure 2. Number o f Children Per Respondent 1n the United S ta te s. 90 100" 4 -6 Under 3 Years—► - 12 Years-* Years- 8 0 -’ O- 3 8 C3 at I E ■S* 6 o4 - ?•* ai cn ■a) M at 8 at Ft 40" - i rV y 20 “ - $ $ if i* •V 4k VI ! S ?1 m ii m 0 I m i 1 1'Y l Number o f Children Figure 3. N > c s > jP a rtic ip a n t N o n -p articip ant TT Total D is trib u tio n o f Respondents' Children W ithin Age Groups 91 seven and twelve y ea rs , Figure 3 In d icates th a t the trend Is reversed. However, 1 t 1s Important to note th a t no n-p articipan ts who had two c h ild re n 1n the seven to twelve age group were 1n the m a jo rity . Length of Time Respondents Had Spent In the United States The length o f time respondents had spent 1n the United States ranged from two weeks to e ig h t years. Table 7 Indicates the percentage d is tr ib u tio n o f p a rtic ip a n ts and non-part 1c1pants. The data Is graphed 1n Figure 4 and In d icates th a t: 1. The major portion o f non-part1c1pants, 43 percent, had been 1n the United States fo r less than h a lf a y e a r; the corresponding percentage fo r p a rtic ip a n ts was 13 percent. 2. In terms o f percentage, there were many more p a r t i­ cipants who had been In the United States f o r more than one yea r. 3. No non-part1c1pants had been 1n the United States fo r more than three years. 4. For a l l p a rtic ip a n ts , 32 percent had been In the country fo r a t le a s t three years; 20 percent fo r a t le a s t four years; 11 percent fo r more than f iv e years and 6 percent between s ix and e ig h t years. There Is a d e f in it e bias 1n favor o f p a rtic ip a tio n fo r women who have been 1n the United States fo r a year o r under. Most respondents f e l l In to the th ree year and under category; but these f e l l m ainly In the one year and two year ranges. The longer her s ta y , the more lik e ly the student w ife 1s to be a p a rtic ip a n t Table 6. Children of respondents grouped by age. Number of Children Participants Percentage Number (Ns76) Non-Participants Number Percentage (N=14) Total (N=90) Number Percentage Children under 3 Years None 1 2 3 36 31 9 0 47.4 40.8 11.8 0 4 10 0 0 28.6 71.4 0 0 40 41 9 0 44.4 45.6 10.0 0 64.3 28.6 7.1 0 63 24 3 0 70.0 26.7 3.3 0 85.7 0 7.1 7.1 78 6 4 2 86.7 6.7 4.4 2.2 Children between 4-6 Years None 1 2 3 54 20 2 0 71.1 26.3 2.6 0 9 4 1 0 Children between 7-12 Years None 1 2 3 66 6 3 1 86.8 7.9 3.9 1.3 12 0 1 1 93 Table 7. Weeks 2 12 Number o f years respondents have been 1n the United S tates. Years 1/2 16 20 24 28 36 44 > 52 56 64 1 1- 1/2 68 72 78 96 >104 2 130 144 >156 3 164 172 >208 4 260 PARTICIPANTS Percentage Total Number (N-76) (N-90) N0N- PARTICIPANTS Percentage Total Number (N-14) (N-90) 2 2 2.6 2.6 2.2 2.2 0 1 4 1 1 5.3 1.3 1.3 4.4 1.1 1.1 3 7.1 21.4 7.1 7.1 0 2 2 6 0 2.6 2.6 0 2.2 2.2 0 7 .9 6.7 1 0 1 1 1.3 1.1 2.2 1.1 1.1 0 1 0 0 2.2 1.1 11.1 1 0 1 2.2 1.1 12.2 1 0 1 0 7.1 1.1 0 1.1 1.1 1.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 2 1 10 2 1 11 1 1 2.6 1.3 1.3 2.6 1.3 13.2 2.6 1.3 14.5 1 1 0 7.1 7.1 7.1 0 7.1 0 0 7.1 0 7.1 7.1 0 1.1 3.3 1.1 1.1 1.1 0 1.1 1.1 0 1.1 0 0 1.1 0 1.1 7 1.3 1.3 9.2 7 .8 0 0 0 5 7 9.2 7.8 0 0 0 312 6 5 6.6 5.6 0 0 0 364 7 2 2.6 2.2 0 0 0 416 8 1 1.3 1.1 0 0 0 94 Percentage of Respondents 4 0 -- I — Non-part1c1pant 30 20 - P a rtic ip a n t Number o f Years In the United States Figure 4. Number o f Years Respondents Have Been in the United S ta te s. 95 than a non-part1c1pant. P a rtic ip a tio n seems to be a fu n ction o f tim e. Occupations o f Respondents and o f T n elr Barents and Husbands The lis t in g o f occupations In d icated 1n Table 8 Id e n ti­ fie s d is tin c t occupations except fo r two u n it groups: "profession­ al which Includes lib r a r ia n , law yer, medical doctor, engineer; and " s k ille d la b o re r," which includes the d r iv e r and the a rtis a n . The more than twenty occupations lis te d were compiled from the responses o f the In terview ees. In Table 8 , occupations are lis te d fo r respondents, t h e ir parents and t h e ir husbands under the categories o f part1c1pant/non-part1c1pant. To present c le a r ly the occupational areas from which some groups have been excluded, sections w ith zero en try have been delineated as blocks. A rank­ ing system 1s also provided on the basis o f frequency o f the various occupations. From Table 8, one observes th a t females (respondents and t h e ir mothers) were excluded from the fo llo w in g occupations: p r ie s t, researcher, army/law enforcement employe and s k ille d la b o rer. In a d d itio n , none o f the respondents engaged 1n farming or 1n p riv a te business and the respondents 1 mothers did not p a r t i­ cip ate 1n s e c re ta ria l o r c le r ic a l jobs o r as professionals and U n ive rs ity teachers. Respondents' fa th e rs and husbands were absent 1n two areas— as housewives, or as c a te re rs , seamstresses and housekeepers. Both fa th e rs and mothers o f respondents were n o n -p articip an ts 1n PLEASE NOTEt Thesis is tightly bound. Some print lost in spine. Filmed in the best possible way. UNIVERSITY MICR0FIU1S. 96 Table 8. Occupations o f respondents and o f t h e i r m others, fa th e rs and husbands 04 W) *3 O J rf £ 44 U 44 3$ U 10 b r£ r— 44 »— 13. 2 3 3 .9 Non-Par­ 3 t ic ip a n t 21 4 3 21.4 P a r t i­ cipant «/> 41 & . -£ g . (/» 44 « 41 O -K 41 4- £ 12 15.8 s44 T3 » 4-» 44 44 O. 0 0 40 44 4Tg «/> 3 £ 2 0 0 -O > i> 3 *r> L 41 4) E -C E. W» ■5§ 3U *3r f l £ 44 C * r- Of 40 •* - ►— co _i = U I O T 41 O V C 9~” TT5— n— U 0 0 13 17.1 2 21 6 27.6 7. 9 2 2.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 21.4 0 0 6 6. 7 2 2.2 0 0 16 17.8 2 2 1 6 0 0 1 2 2 27 35.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.3 4 5. 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7. 1 14.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.1 5 5. 6 8 .9 0 0 14 18.4 5 .3 1 1 14.3 5 35.7 0 _0 1 1.1 2 2.2 26 28.9 32 35.6 1 1 1 1.3 1.3 1.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.1 1 1.1 2 2.6 1 0 0 1 2 2.2 4 4 .4 1 7.1 22 24.4 2 2.6 0 0 6 12 7 .9 15.8 2 14.3 0 0 0 0 1 1.1 4 4 .4 0 0 6 6 .7 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 9.2 4 5.3 0 0 0 0 1 7.1 0 0 0 0 2 2.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.3 (JL.Lt. 24 31.6 0 0 Note: r - «0 4 4 .4 0 0 Total 4) 1 1.1 0 0 o 5 Non-Parco tlc lp a n t 41 13 14.4 Non-Par­ tic ip a n t P a r t i­ cipant Sir- 3 (• •«£2 V .4 . 14.3 1.3 Total 44 M c L £ £ 4c-> \b E C 1 2 2.6 > 7.1 P a r t i­ c ip an t Total T" 4 5.3 6 6.7 ♦J OJ C I— 41 • -o 3 -C 2 2.6 13 14. 4 Total c o l/> «/» O) **e o. 7.1 8 8 .9 2 8 1 8 1 0 0 7.1 0 0 18 5 5.6 1 1 21.1 16 0 0 14 18.4 16 2 0 0 3 21.4 0 0 17 18.9 14.3 4 28.6 14 15.6 7.1 14.3 9 18 10.0 7 .9 20.0 20.0 Blocks show areas w ith zero entry where groups are excluded. 20 i w • w CO o o w • u VO ! • 1 ** •—J * • u» vO 1 o : o o o ° ° i o o o o o o S3 P Prrie s t i Ok 4* • Ok ■ N •sj CO ---- L tn oo • ^ CO oo oo oo oo oo O O O O oo O O oo oo Ok O O O O o o Ok o o oo o o o o . Researcher 1 o o oo OI ^ I.0 b J oo ro —1 ^4 • — oo O ro vo ro • o o "J oo oo Ok O O 8 10.5 oo 1 3 3. 9 oo ro • CaJ 2 o o • —> CO 1 | 00 — * **4 vo ro oo o • 14.3 ro o o 2 oo o o 1 1 1 00 * ® 14.3 • ^ —* oo o o 5 5. 6 OO oo I ’ LL 01 OO Ok Ok I CO >o .» ro _l W •'>J ''Jw Ok CO Ok vo VO 00 00 ^ ro Ok Ok _j>4 vO Ok VO Oi s» — CO Ok 00 oo O Ok CO CO CO oo Ok co CO ro CO 00 ro J "J CO VI r* * vo Ok ro vo * « 00 to -* a . 0k C+ S ’ Ok 0k r+ 7 ro "nI rk7 Ok vo 00 r+ 7 00 vo rk7 V ro _ Caterer/ Seamstress/ Housekeeper 3" * OJ 00 V* "sj ro * vo Private Business Firm 4k ro Ok Ok Skilled Laborer ro 3 a CO >4 Army/Law Enforcement Officer Z C S’ <0 VI 70 a o 3 o *■ 1 -J 3 (D (O VI ■o o 3 Q. o Hi O n o o c *o rk- » rk- n «4k c o ■a 3 a VI r* O 3 98 continuing education programs; s im ila r ly , respondents and t h e ir husbands were non-part 1c 1pants in farm ing, fis h in g or hunting. A ll groups p a rtic ip a te d to a c e rta in degree 1n a l l other occupa­ tio ns according to the ranking system. Respondents. Table 8 shows th a t the respondents as a group had been la rg e ly students— high school and teacher tra in in g college graduates. As part1c1pants/non-part1c1pants, a g re ater number o f the l a t t e r were s ec re ta rie s or c le rk s . case o f p a r tic ip a n ts , th is category ranked fo u rth . In the The p a r t ic i­ pant was the p ro fe s s io n a l, the c i v i l servant, the u n iv e rs ity gradu­ a te , the u n iv e rs ity teacher and, more fre q u e n tly , the midwife o r nurse and the high school and teacher tra in in g college graduate. The non-part1c1pant was more lik e ly to be, 1f not a secretary or c le r k , the bookkeeper or bank t e l l e r , the p e tty tra d e r o r the housewife. The elementary o r secondary school teacher f e l l 1n both the p a rtic ip a tin g and non-part 1c 1p at 1ng categories. Respondents1 Mothers. The m a jo rity o f the respondents' mothers, as Indicated in Table 8 , were mainly housewives, w ith p e tty traders ranking second. This was the case w ith both p a r t i­ cipants and non-part1c1pants. The other s ig n ific a n t areas o f t h e ir Involvement were c a te rin g , sewing, housekeeping and farming and elementary and high school teaching. Respondents' Fathers. most respondents were farm ers. As seen 1n Table 8 , fath ers of Fathers o f p a rtic ip a n ts were 1n 99 p riv a te business, whereas fath ers of most n o n-p art 1c 1pants were farm ers. Other paternal occupations o f s ig n ific a n c e were c i v i l s e rv ic e , s k ille d labor and army/law enforcement. Only 1n the p a rtic ip a n t group was there a percentage o f fa th e rs In the pro­ fessional category. Respondents* Husbands. For both p a rtic ip a n ts and non- p a r tld p a n ts , the husbands were c h ie fly u n iv e rs ity teachers or le c tu re rs , as seen 1n Table 8 . Less fre q u e n tly they were c i v i l servants or elementary and secondary school teachers. Ten percent o f a ll husbands were u n iv e rs ity students, 8 .9 percent pro­ fessionals and 6 .7 percent researchers. Occupations such as secretary and tra d e r did not Involve many husbands. Educational Backgrounds o f Respondents and T h e ir Parents In the f i r s t p a rt o f th is s e c tio n , a d es c rip tio n o f the educational le v e ls o f respondents and t h e ir parents 1s presented 1n Table 9. The second section Is devoted to the respondents' backgrounds and p ro ficie n cy 1n English and formal education (see Table 10). P art 1. Educational Levels o f Respondents and T h e ir Parents Table 9 summarizes the educational le v e ls o f the three categories (respondents, t h e ir mothers and fa th e rs ) as a group and on the basis o f p art1dpat1on/non-part1c1pat1on. A ranking system Parti­ c ip a n ts o o - No Education 1 |o o o o o o ro A dult Education O O o o o o CJ Local/R eligious Education o o o o 0 1 1.3 1 4X1 o o Began Secon­ 01 dary School l~* * o O' o • 00 01 • cn '-j * Oi cn [ ; > u S w Ip 5* |o bo ro oo O' o (A * . u> o I*'"1 *CO Co* I 4X1 ° |o o bo* <*>ro |ro * ro •oo to |ro o VO • — ro "J 1 j— _ to ro ro OO o o 40 2-4 Years Teach­ e r Train in g o 2 2.6 o 1-2 Years Nursing o o © 1 |o o 1 o o o o o o © o o o [o o o o o o o o o o o 1 |o o 1 o o o o *ro !• ro 'ro o o o o o o o o o o o o l°° • «, 00 |vo o o o o o o 1 |o o 1 o o o o o |* VO Jo o o • O' vo o o o o o |o * vO |o o o |o o 1 o o o o 1« o o o o o o o |ro • ro |ro tn O' - 1 1* ° |-«k 1 ? 01 00 ro o o * vo 00 CO o o 1.3 0 M aster's Degree © o o o ro * ro cn Professional Degree 1 —4 7.1 1 o 3+ Years Nursing 1-2 Yrs. Tech. Train in g Bachelor's Degree 40 ro 1 ^ Finished Sec­ ondary School 2 Years Teacher Training 1 6 6.7 o o 4 o o 7.1 o o • Finished Primary School * o -tk o © School |-*k ■a — * O' fk. ■ ro J-O tn OO — < I S — • to |.(k ■Ok o 4k ro w * ro P r l a w ry 5.3 ~-J Began -o» • ro to 9*82 t o o ro oi *■4 o 1.3 w • u w ro o • 00 o o 7.1 o o 4 5.3 ■a • ■a 1 cn - ^ 1 OI "■o - — » tn W w — < Ot ro OO ro **1^ ac m e a a S Ol « 1 « o r * -*t w 1 tn tn tn 1 0 I 1 >< ■Ok -o loo ro I w CO CO O' ro 0 i £ * CJ -o (.1 1 O' 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 oo 1 *© ro ro cn o V# 0 oi *^4 OO 40 mmd o OOl w -*■ 3 Vi 40 l i p v> 2? 23 i? -" 3 r w 1 1 SS o s O I— 5 A Educational backgrounds of respondents, and their mothers and fathers. z Non-Par£ t Id pants o o 1.3 Table 9. £ Total 30 o o 1^ — o o Jo o 39.5 |8o W |lo W Partitlclpants 4 26.0 o o Ul — * • ro 00 1 MOTHER ! S’ 2 * 1 sr 2 ? i - s ? !1 ~ 7 ** 5 35.7 16 17.8 Areas with zero entry are delineated as blocks to show where groups are excluded. o o Parti­ cipants Note: FATHER o 2 ? sr 2 .? - S 5* 101 o f the educational le v e ls 1s provided In the Table. The zero e n try areas have been blocked to show the le v e ls and areas o f education from which each o f the three groups was excluded. Respondents. A ll respondents completed elementary school and a to ta l o f about 47 percent completed secondary school. W ithin the group o f p a r tic ip a n ts , 42 percent completed secondary school; the corresponding fig u re fo r n o n -p articip an ts was about 70 percent. T ea c h e r-train in g colleg e graduates accounted fo r 15.5 percent, nursing school graduates 11.1 percent, and technical tra in in g In s t it u t e graduates, 10 percent. Only a lim ite d number o f the respondents had a colleg e education or beyond, p rio r to coming to the United S ta te s , and the fig u r e , 13.3 percent, was fo r p a r t ic i­ pants e x c lu s iv e ly . Respondents1 Mothers. Of the mothers o f a ll respondents, 40 percent had no formal schooling, 30 percent fin ish e d primary school and 14.4 percent went as f a r as secondary school. In the context of p a r t 1c 1p an t/n o n -p a rt 1c 1pant groups, the fig u res were as fo llo w s: 40 percent and 36 percent had no formal schooling; 30.3 percent and 28.6 percent fin is h e d primary school; 14.5 percent and 14.3 percent went as f a r as secondary school. Respondents' mothers were com pletely excluded from teacher t r a in in g , nursing or u n iver­ s ity education backgrounds. Respondents' Fathers. Except 1n the case o f seven respon­ dents, educational le v e ls o f t h e ir fa th e rs did not exceed secondary school. The seven fa th e rs w ith colleg e and p o st-college degrees were a ll fa th e rs o f p a rtic ip a n ts 1n continuing education. Roughly 18 percent o f a l l fa th e rs had no education; the fig u res fo r p a r tic 1p an ts /n o n -p a rtic 1pants were 16 percent and 26 percent, re s p e c tiv e ly . Forty percent o f a l l fa th e rs had fin is h e d primary school, w hile 20 percent had completed secondary school. There were many more fath ers o f no n-p articip an ts w ith secondary school education— 28.6 percent o f the group as against 18.4 percent fo r p a rtic ip a n ts . General. The respondents and t h e ir mothers were not Involved 1n local or re lig io u s education, w hile the fa th e rs were not p a rtic ip a n ts 1n a d u lt education classes. The fa th e rs lik e the mothers had no backgrounds as teachers, nurses, technicians or professionals. The ranking system o f the type and le ve l o f education sumnarlzes the educational le v e ls o f the three groups: 1. The m a jo rity o f a ll respondents had a t le a s t a secon­ dary school education. Among p a rtic ip a n ts , two year teacher t r a in ­ ing was found to be second 1n frequency o f response w hile primary school, nursing and technical education were o f equal Importance w ith regard to n o n -p a rtlc 1pants. 2. Most mothers were I l l i t e r a t e and among those w ith any education, the elementary school graduates dominated. 3. Fathers had r e la t iv e ly higher education than mothers. Elementary education ranked f i r s t , followed by secondary school education. The I l l i t e r a c y ra te was th ird in o rd e r, w ith the ra te 103 fo r men (1 7 .4 percent) being h a lf th a t fo r women (3 8 .9 p ercen t). P art 2 . Respondents' Background 1n English Three aspects o f the respondents' background 1n English were studied: 1. The number o f years English was studied. Table 10. 2. The language o f In s tru c tio n a t prim ary, secondary and college le v e ls , Table 11. 3. S e lf-e v a lu a tio n o f p ro ficien cy 1n English, Table 12. Number o f Years Respondent Studied English. About 84 percent o f a ll respondents had studied English fo r a t le a s t twelve years. Only 2 .2 percent o f the p a rtic ip a n ts had no English a t a l l . Table 10 provides a p r o f ile o f the respondents with respect to the number of years o f study o f English p rio r to coming to the United S ta te s. The p ic tu re 1s graphed 1n Figure 5 and the follo w in g con­ clusions are drawn: 1. A g re ater percentage o f non-part1c1pants were found in the 1-15 year range o f In s tru c tio n 1n English and t h e ir numbers were p ro p o rtio n a te ly above the average o f the e n tir e sample. 2. More p a rtic ip a n ts (about 74 percent) had beyond f if t e e n years in s tru c tio n 1n English than non-partlc1pants (50 per­ c e n t). 3. Women w ith no English language background were p a r t i­ cipants who came from the French-speaking areas o f A fric a . were only two such In d iv id u a ls 1n the sample. There Table 10. Respondents' background 1n English—years of study of English. Participants Percentage Non-Participants Total Percentage Years of Study of English Number (N-76) Number (N=14) None 2 2.6 0 0 2 2.2 1-3 1 1.3 1 7.1 2 2.2 4-7 4 5.3 1 7.1 5 5.6 8-11 4 5.3 1 7.1 5 5.6 12-15 9 11.8 4 28.6 13 14.4 Over 15 56 73.7 7 50.0 63 70.0 (N=90) Number Percentage 104 105 Percentage of Respondents 70 —Total f P a r t ic lpants /^N onp a rtl c 1pants 20 .. 1-3 Figure 5. 4-7 8-11 Years 12-15 Over 15 English Language Background o f Respondents (Number o f Years Respondents Studied E n g lish ). I t appears th a t the more English studied* e s p e c ia lly beyond the 15 year le v e l, the more In c lin e d the respondent was to p a rtic ip a te 1n continuing education a c t iv it i e s . Languages o f In s tru c tio n . The languages o f in s tru c tio n a t prim ary, secondary and college le v e ls 1n the home country were also studied fo r a l l respondents. The re s u lts are presented 1n Table 11 and In d ic a te the fo llo w in g : 1. At a ll le v e ls , and fo r both p a rtic ip a n ts and non- p a r tic lp a n ts , English was the major language o f In s tru c tio n . It was used more exten sively a t the secondary school le v e l. 2. Second 1n order of frequency o f usage was the com­ b in atio n o f English and vernacular fo r In s tru c tio n a l purposes. The combination was, however, lim ite d to the primary school le v e l, and fo r the respondents who experienced th is p attern o f In s tru c ­ t io n , 46 percent were p a rtic ip a n ts and 43 percent were non­ p a rtic ip a n ts . 3. Four languages (vernacular languages grouped as one language) were used fo r the purpose o f In s tru c tio n . 1n order o f the frequency o f usage: They included English, French, vernacular and A rabic. A general conclusion emerging from the comparisons 1n Table 11 1s th a t the student o f English a t the college le v e l, and to a lesser exten t a t the primary school le v e l, p a rtic ip a te d more o ften 1n continuing education classes. On the c o n tra ry, the women who learned the vernacular a t the primary le v e l (however few they Table 11. Respondents' languages of instruction at primary school, secondary scnooi ana conege. Participants Percentage Number (N*76) Number (H»14) English Primary Secondary College 32 65 15 42.1 85.5 19.7 5 12 0 35.7 85.7 0 37 77 15 41.1 85.6 16.7 French Primary Secondary College 3 4 0 3.9 5.3 0 1 1 0 7.1 7.1 0 4 5 0 4.4 5.6 0 Vernacular Primary Secondary College 2 0 0 2.6 0 0 2 0 0 14.3 0 0 4 0 0 4.4 0 0 English and French Primary Secondary College 0 1 0 0 1.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1.1 0 English and Vernacular Primary Secondary College 35 2 0 46.1 2.6 0 6 0 0 42.9 0 0 41 2 0 45.6 2.2 0 French and Vernacular Primary Secondary College 1 0 0 1.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1.1 0 0 Arabic Primary Secondary College 3 3 0 3.9 3.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 3.3 3.3 0 Language Non-Part1c1pants Percentage Total (N*90) Number Percentage 108 were) g en e ra lly turned out to be non-part 1c 1pants. Respondents' Evaluation o f T h eir P roficiency 1n English. Table 12 represents respondents' evaluation of t h e ir p ro ficie n cy 1n reading, w ritin g and conversation 1n English. The ta b le suggests th a t: 1. The g re a te r p a rt o f the respondents ranked themselves as very good or good 1n reading, w ritin g and conversation 1n English. In a l l three areas, however, more p a rtic ip a n ts than non­ p a rtic ip a n ts f e l l In to the "very good" category. The fig u res fo r the three sub-sections were 51.3 percent, 43.4 percent, 50 percent, and 28.6 percent, 35.7 percent and 35.7 percent fo r p a rtic ip a n ts and non-part 1c 1pants, re s p e c tiv e ly . 2. More non-part1c1pants assessed t h e ir competence and performance 1n English as e ith e r f a i r or poor. The percentage of non-part1c1pants assessing themselves as " f a ir " was 42.0 percent 1n contrast to 19 percent fo r p a rtic ip a n ts ; and as "poor," about 21.4 percent as against 8 percent fo r p a rtic ip a n ts . Thus on the whole, p a rtic ip a n ts were p rin c ip a lly the women who rated t h e ir p ro ficie n cy 1n reading, w ritin g and conver­ sation as "very good." In reading, fo r example, almost tw ice the number o f p a rtic ip a n ts f e l l In to the "very good" category. Academic Pursuits o f Respondents' Husbands From Table 13, the m a jo rity o f respondents' husbands were pursuing graduate studies. More s p e c ific a lly , 57.8 percent Table 12. Respondents' evaluation of their proficiency in English. Participants Percentage Number (H-76) Number (11*14) Very Good Reading Writing Conversation 39 33 38 51.3 43.4 50.0 4 5 5 28.6 35.7 35.7 43 38 43 47.8 42.2 47.8 Good Reading Writing Conversation 31 37 31 40.8 48.7 40.8 7 6 6 50.0 42.9 42.9 38 43 37 42.2 47.8 41.1 Fair Reading Writing Conversation 5 5 6 6.6 6.6 7.9 2 2 2 14.3 14.3 14.3 7 7 8 7.8 7.8 8.9 Poor Reading Writing Conversation 1 1 1 1.3 1.3 1.3 1 1 1 7.1 7.1 7.1 2 2 2 2.2 2.2 2.2 Proficiency Non-Part1c1pants Percentage Total (N*90) Number Percentage no were 1n doctoral programs, 32.2 percent were 1n p u rsu it o f the M aster's degree and 4 .4 percent were en ro lled fo r the Bachelor's and post-doctoral degrees. More wives o f husbands In Bachelor's were non-part 1c 1pants 1n continuing education, u n lik e wives o f husbands 1n doctoral programs. The le ve l o f education o f the husband showed some influence on the w ife 's a ttitu d e toward p a rtic ip a tio n 1n education. The more educated the husband, the more education the w ife was s triv in g to acquire. I t was also found th a t over 60 percent o f respondents' husbands were pursuing t h e ir studies 1n the sciences, w hile the re s t studied the social sciences and humanities. The p rin c ip a l areas of study Included: Natural and L ife Sciences Percentage o f Total Mathematics, s t a t is t ic s , economics 22.1 A g ric u ltu ra l economics, a g ric u l­ tu ra l engineering 15.6 Human medicine, public h e a lth , pharmacology 11.7 Engineering, computer science 9.1 Resource development, fo re s try 5.2 Sub-total 63.7 S o d a! Science Business A dm inistration 13.0 Sociology, psychology 5.1 A rc h ite c tu re , Urban planning 3 .9 Criminal law 1.3 Sub-total 23.3 Table 13. Acadenlc pursuits of respondents' husbands. Participants Percentage Non-Part1c1pants Percentage Total (N=90) Number Percentage Number (N=76) Number (N*14) 2 2.6 2 14.3 4 4.4 Master's 24 31.6 5 35.7 29 32.2 Doctoral 46 60.5 6 42.9 52 57.8 Medical 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 Post-doctoral 3 3.9 1 7.1 4 4.4 Degree Bachelor's 112 Percentage o f Total Humanities Communication a rts 7 .8 Hi sto ry 3 .9 Engl1sh 1.3 13.0 Sub-total 100.0 Total Sources o f Financial Support of Res ' and TKeTr Areas w ith zero entry have been blocked to show the types o f sources o f fin a n c ia l support from which respondents have been excluded. In Table 14f the general p ic tu re presented 1s th a t curren t earnings and scholarships co n stitu ted the bulk o f the sources o f fin a n c ia l support fo r both respondents and th e ir husbands. Respondents. For a ll respondents, the fin a n c ia l resources o f the husbands formed the major source o f Income. This was tru e fo r both p a rtic ip a n ts (61 .8 percent) and nonp a rtlc lp a n ts (78.6 p ercen t). A r e la t iv e ly g re ater portion o f non-part1c1pants received money from home, 21.4 percent as against 5 .3 percent fo r p a rtic ip a n ts . Non-part1c1pants had no curren t earnings, savings, o r grants. P a rtic ip a n ts , however, had grants (scholarships and fe llo w s h ip s ), 9 .2 percent; personal savings, 2 .6 percent; and 10.5 percent had curren t Income. Table 14. Sources of financial support of respondents and their husbands. i (I U Cl i £ Vt U L. O <0 f• O tO.C 3 « 4? • u 1 /) P P > > O O (9 0 t~ V> C P 3 C 'V* « O lP -rn£ (A , »- P p c e to 4 P « "O f|L W 1 Parti. clpants £ Ul o o Non-Part lc l pants L. CD T3 rs x Total Note: 26 28.9 Blocks show areas with zero entry where groups are excluded. 1 9 4 114 Respondents' Husbands. The m ajo rity o f husbands (62 percent) were supported by e ith e r government scholarships* fellow shlps/ass1stantships or grants. About 29 percent had current earnings* w hile only 4 .4 percent received money from home. Of the husbands o f p a rtic ip a n ts , 34 percent supported themselves from th e ir current income* whereas husbands o f non­ p a rti c1pants were financed mostly through government scholarships* grants and fellow ships (78.5 percent). None o f the husbands o f non-part 1c1pants had any current Income except money from home (21.4 percent). A very lim ite d percentage o f the respondents had fin an ­ c ia l support In the form o f grants or scholarships. Following th e ir major source o f support— husband's Income— the second most Important source o f financing was t h e ir current Income (10.5 percent fo r p a rtic ip a n ts e x c lu s iv e ly ). Mot1vat1on/No M otivation fo r Study In tne United states' Table 15 presents a summary o f the responses to the question: "Do you fee l motivated to study 1n the United States?" This question 1s p ertin e n t only to p a rtic ip a n ts who are engaged 1n current educational a c t iv it ie s . From Table 15, about 66 percent o f a ll p a rtic ip a n ts Indicated th a t they were much more motivated 1n the United States than 1n t h e ir respective home countries to pursue educational goals. Twenty-nine percent were less motivated Table 15. Motivational factors Influencing respondents' p a rtic ip a tio n In continuing education. Participants Motivated? Percentage Non-Participants Total Percentage (N*90) Number Percentage Number (N*76) Number (Ns14) Yes 50 65.8 0 0 50 55.6 No 22 28.9 0 0 22 24.4 Indifferent 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 No response 3 3.9 0 0 3 3.3 116 and the remaining 5 percent showed In d iffe re n c e . The respondents who expressed high m otivation to study 1n the United States gave the fo llo w in g reasons: 1. T h ir ty -fo u r po in t two percent said there were more o p portu n ities and encouragement fo r the p a r tic ip a tio n o f married women 1n educational a c t iv it ie s In the United States than 1n t h e ir home countries. 2. Some p a rtic ip a n ts (8 percent) a ttrib u te d t h e ir m oti­ vation to b e tte r educational f a c i l i t i e s 1n the United S tates. 3. reasons: Approximately 3 -4 percent o f the women c ite d other f l e x i b i l i t y between work and study, a wider range o f subjects and d is c ip lin e s , absence o f age r e s tr ic tio n s , and fewer demands on fam ily l i f e In the United S tates. 4. One woman re fe rre d to attending school as the best use o f her time and a second d t e d bad weather conditions which made other pursuits less d e s ira b le . 5. F o rty -s ix percent were not concerned w ith the ques­ tio n s , possibly because they were not p a rtic ip a tin g 1n educational a c t iv it ie s . P a rtic ip a n ts who expressed less m otivation to continue t h e ir education 1n the United States d t e d high demands o f fam ily life (5 .3 p e rc e n t), lack o f funding fo r education (4 .0 p e rc e n t), high cost o f tu itio n (3 .9 p e rc e n t), d is lik e o f being 1n the United States 1n general (3 p e rc e n t), bad weather (2 .6 p e rc e n t), or language problems (1 .3 p erce n t). A g re ater percentage (12 percent) pointed out th a t t h e ir p a rtic ip a tio n 1n educational a c t iv it ie s 1n 117 the United States was In c id e n ta l; they would have been 1n school a t home as they were here. Support f o r Respondents' P a rM clp a tlo n In ~~ Educational A c tiv itie s Responses to the question summarized 1n Table 16 were obtained p rin c ip a lly from p a rtic ip a n ts . S1xty-e1ght point four percent o f them rated t h e ir husbands as giving them the g reatest support, 22.4 percent Indicated moderate support, 4 percent l i t t l e support and 2 percent Indicated no support from husbands. Parents were rated by 5 .3 percent as providing g reatest support, by 13.2 percent f o r moderate support, by 4 percent fo r little support and by 75 percent fo r no support. Friends were the le a s t s ig n ific a n t co n trib u to rs o f moral support fo r p a rtic ip a n ts ' pursuits o f education 1n the United S tates. Only 4 percent o f respondents received great support, 6.6 percent moderate, 4 percent l i t t l e and 68 percent no support. Three percent of respondents d t e d th a t frie n d s were sometimes 1n opposition to th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n 1n education. Respondents' Reasons fo r Leaving School In A fric a When asked reasons fo r the break 1n educational pursuits 1n t h e ir respective home c o u n trie s, non-part 1c 1pants, 1n contrast to p a rtic ip a n ts , ranked fin a n c ia l obstacles and home and fam ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s as the main reasons (2 1 .4 percent 1n each case). 118 Table 16. Support f o r p a rtic ip a n ts ' decision to continue education. Great Support Husband Parents Friends Moderate Support Husband Parents Friends L i t t l e Support Husband Parents Friends P a rtic ip a n ts Percentage Number (N-76) Number (N-90) Percentage 52 4 3 68.4 5.3 3 .9 52 4 3 57.8 4 .4 3.3 17 22.4 13.2 17 18.9 5 5 .6 3 3 3 3 .3 3 .3 3 .3 10 5 6.6 3 3 3 3 .9 3 .9 3 .9 Total 10 11.1 No Support Husband Parents Friends 2 2.6 2 2.2 57 61 75.0 67.8 57 61 63.3 67.8 Opposition Husband Parents Friends 0 0 2 0 0 2.6 0 0 2 0 0 2.2 No Response Husband Parents Friends 2 2 2 2.6 2.6 2.6 16 16 16 17.8 17.8 17.8 119 P articip an ts (33 percent) d t e d the need to accompany or jo in th e ir husbands 1n the United States as the p rin cip al reason fo r discontinuing school 1n A fric a . A lim ite d number o f p a rtic ip a n ts (5 .3 percent) stopped school 1n A frica to seek employment, fo r lack o f funds or because o f the war (N ig e ria ). A greater percentage a ttrib u te d c u rta ilin g th e ir education to home and fam ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s . Six point s ix percent l e f t home s p e c ific a lly to go to school 1n the United States. This group Included no non-p articip an ts. Other reasons c ite d fo r dropping out o f school Included a lack o f educational f a c i l i t i e s beyond level completed or In the area o f In te r e s t, d is s a tis fa c tio n with schools a t home and lim ite d q u a lific a tio n s to gain admission to In s titu tio n s o f higher learn ­ ing 1n A fric a (see Table 17). Sources o f Information on Respondents1 Plans to Continue Education h»1 or to Leaving Home Country fo r the United States Table 18 Indicates th a t among a l l the respondents about 78 percent had plans to continue th e ir education upon a rr iv a l 1n the United States. Both p a rtic ip a n ts and non-partic1pants (but more s ig n ific a n tly p a rtic ip a n ts ) had plans to continue th e ir educa t1on before leaving t h e ir home countries. In other words, not a ll Individu als with the In te n tio n o f going to school 1n the United States became p a rtic ip a n ts nor were a ll those without such Inten­ tions necessarily non-part 1c 1pants. laoie I / . nopm iueTiis r'catun) i u i ji u i^ n i y s u iiw i m m i n ,a. Participants Percentage Nunber (N=76) Lack educational opportunity beyond level completed 3 3.9 1 7.1 4 4.4 Lack of funds 4 5.3 3 21.4 7 7.8 Too many hone and family responsibil­ itie s 11 14.5 3 21.4 14 15.6 To seek employment 4 5.3 2 14.3 6 6.7 Schooling disrupted by war 4 5.3 0 0 4 4.4 To continue education 1n the US or elsewhere 5 6.6 0 0 5 5.6 To accompany/join hus­ band In the US 25 32.9 2 14.3 27 30.0 End of professional training 5 6.6 1 7.1 6 6.7 Lack of fa c ilitie s 1n area of Interest 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 Did not meet entry requirements 5 6.6 1 7.1 6 6.7 To join husband and attend school 4 5.3 1 7.1 5 5.6 Dissatisfied with school at home 2 2.6 0 0 2 2.2 Got a scholarship and decided to leave home 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 Other 2 2.6 0 0 2 2.2 Reasons T Non-Part1c1pants Nunber Percentage (Ns14) Total (N*90) Nunber Percentage Table 18. Respondents' plans to continue education prior to leaving home country for the United States. Did you have plans to continue education prior to coming to the U.S.? Participants Percentage Non-Participants Percentage Total (N=90) Number Percentage Number (Ns76) Number (N=14) Yes 61 80.3 9 64.3 70 77.8 No 14 18.4 5 35.7 19 21.1 Don't Know 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 122 Sources o f Inform ation on Respondents' Educational Plans fo r the United States (Table 19) Husbands accounted fo r approximately 42 percent o f a l l sources o f Inform ation regarding respondents' plans to continue education 1n the United S tates. P a rtic ip a n ts (4 3 .4 percent) and non-part1c1pants (35.7 percent) a lik e had th is assistance from t h e ir husbands. Roughly 27 percent o f the p a rtic ip a n ts sought the Inform ation themselves— 9 .2 percent did so upon t h e ir a r r iv a l 1n the United States w hile 18.4 percent obtained the Inform ation from magazines and newspapers 1n t h e ir home cou n tries. Less In ­ fluence came from sources such as the United States consulate 1n the home c o u n trie s , parents, correspondence w ith United States educational In s titu tio n s and from frie n d s who had v is ite d the United S tates. Between 1.3 and 2 .6 percent o f the p a rtic ip a n ts obtained t h e ir Inform ation from these sources. p a rtlc lp a n ts , the m a jo rity gave no re p ly . For the non- Those who did had ob­ tained the Inform ation from t h e ir husbands or by themselves on a r r iv a l 1n the United States. A nticipated Employment of Respondents on Return to*"* Home Countries A high proportion o f both p a rtic ip a n ts and non-part1c1pants planned to fin d paid employment on th e ir retu rn to t h e ir home c o u n tries; 92 percent and 86 p ercent, re s p e c tiv e ly . There were 63 percent o f the p a rtic ip a n ts who a n tic ip a te d seeking new employment. Table 19. Sources of Information on respondents' plans to continue education. Participants Percentage Number (N=76) Number (N*14) Husband gave you a ll the Information 33 43.4 5 35.7 38 42.2 Obtained Information yourself on arrival 7 9.2 3 21.4 10 11.1 14 18.4 0 0 14 15.6 Through the church at home 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 Had visited the U.S. before 0 0 1 7.1 1 1.1 Parents encouraged you to use the opportunity to go to school 1n the U.S. 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 Obtained Information from home and Amer­ ican friends 2 2.6 0 0 2 2.2 Corresponded with In­ stitutions 1n the U.S. 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 American Embassy In home country provided Information 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 Have never been Interested 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 14 18.4 5 35.7 19 21.1 Channels of Information Obtained Information from magazines or news paper In home country No response Non-Part1c1pants Percentage Total (N*90) Number Percentage Table 20. Anticipated employment of respondents on return to home country. Participants Percentage Number (N*76) Number (N=14) W1U seek employment 31 40.8 4 28.6 35 38.9 Will return to e arlier employment 22 28.9 5 35.7 27 30.0 Will seek new employment 17 22.4 3 21.4 20 22.2 Will seek no employment 2 2.6 1 7.1 3 3.3 Do not know 3 3.9 1 7.1 4 4.4 Will go back to school 1 1.3 0 0 1 1.1 Will you seek employment? Non-Part1c1pants Percentage Total (N=90) Number Percentage 125 and 29 percent w il l retu rn to e a r lie r jo b s. The fig u res fo r non­ p a rti c1pants were 29 percent* 37 percent and 21 percent. Seven p oin t one percent w ill seek no employment contrasted to 4 percent fo r p a rtic ip a n ts . Four persons expressed u n certain ty about employment and one In d iv id u a l, a p a r tic ip a n t, had plans to con­ tin u e her education. The plans are o u tlin ed In Table 20. Part I I — Partic1pat1on/Non-Part1c1pat1on in Continuing Education P a rtic ip a tio n 1n Educational Programs In the United States P a r tic ip a tio n , 1n th is co n text, has been defined broadly as Involvement In a range o f structured a c t iv it ie s both formal and Informal w ith a view to the a c q u is itio n o f c re d e n tia ls or s k ills fo r academic, re crea tio n a l and social purposes. Seventy-six (84 .4 percent) o f a ll respondents engaged 1n some form o f educational a c t iv it y . P a rtic ip a n ts were found to engage In a combination o f areas, c la s s ifie d In to a set o f eig h t subgroups. They Included: ( 1) professional education, ( 2 ) v o c a tio n a l/te c h n ic a l education, (3 ) secondary/high school education, (4 ) English as a second la n ­ guage, (5 ) home and fa m ily l i f e education, ( 6) personal enrichment education, (7 ) re c re a tio n a l education, ( 8 ) social In te ra c tio n education. These areas are described more f u l l y 1n the section on instrum entation 1n Chapter I I I . The ty p e , e x te n t, o b jectives and o v e ra ll patterns o f par­ tic ip a tio n o f dependent A frica n females 1n continuing education 1n 126 the United States are studied In d e t a il. The general approach Is to examine ( 1 ) the major a re a (s ) o f study, ( 2 ) the length o f time o f Involvement, (3 ) the nature o f the program— degree/non-degree, diploma or c e r t if ic a t e , (4 ) the 1nst1tut1on(s) attended, (5 ) the o b je c tlv e (s ) fo r s e le c tio n and p u rs u it o f the a re a (s ) in question, and ( 6 ) the time lapse between a r r iv a l 1n the United States and enrollm ent 1n classes. Areas o f Study: Ordering and Sequence o f P a rtic ip a tio n 1n Educational A c t iv it ie s Responses to the questions on the areas o f study and t h e ir sequence have been tab u lated 1n Table 21 and the histogram o f general p r o f ile demonstrated w ith Figure 6 . the sequence to the th ir d le v e l. Figure 6 portrays The general p ic tu re Indicates th a t: 1. The area o f professional education ranked as the I n i t i a l and most Important educational a c t iv it y th a t p a rtic ip a n ts engaged In . This was followed by v o c a tio n a l/te c h n ic a l education. Professional education accounted fo r 40 percent o f respondents' educational involvement and v o c a tio n a l/te c h n ic a l 17 percent. 2. Social In te ra c tio n education, English language classes and personal enrichment education formed a group w ith almost as high a ranking 1n terms of the le v e l o f p a r tic ip a tio n . 3. Secondary/high school classes and home and fa m ily l i f e education ranked fo u rth ,fo llo w e d by re c re a tio n a l education. Table 21. Participation in continuing education prograns—areas of study. AREAS OF STUDY Voc./ Tech Educ. Sec./ High School Educ. Eng. Lang. Classes Hone/ Fanily Life Educ. Personal Enrlchnent Educ. Recreational Educ. Social Interaction Educ. Not Applicable 31 13 4 7 4 7 1 8 1 40.8 17.1 5.3 9.2 5.3 9.2 1.3 10.5 1.3 No. 16 13 0 1 4 10 2 2 28 X* 21.1 17.1 0 1.3 5.3 13.2 2.6 2.6 36.8 6 1 1 0 2 5 3 2 56 7.9 1.3 1.3 0 2.6 6.6 3.9 2.6 73.7 3 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 68 3.9 1.3 0 0 1.3 2.6 1.3 0 89.5 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 73 0 0 0 0 0 2.6 0 1.3 96.1 56 28 5 8 11 26 7 13 226 Sequence of Prof. Areas Educ. No. 1 X* 7 3 *■ X* No. 4 X* No. 5 X* TOTAL *Na76 1Z8 n 11 11 50-- Percentage of Participants 4a. 3a * 2a. la. B 22 II Sequence o f Areas: A. B. C. D. E. m Professional Education Vocational/Technical Education High School Education English Language Classes Home and Family L ife Education III F. G. H. I. Figure 6 . Areas of Study o f P a rtic ip an ts: P a rtic ip a tio n . Personal Enrichment Edu­ cation Recreational Education Social In te ra c tio n Educa­ tio n Not Applicable Ordering and Sequence o f 129 4. The to ta l p ic tu re re fle c te d a concentration academic subjects or preparation towards such goals. The on "not app licab le" category excludes the p a rtic ip a tio n o f respondents a t the various le v e ls . At the second le v e l, 1 t was found th a t about 62 percent o f a l l p a rtic ip a n ts were engaged 1n d if fe r e n t types o f educational a c t iv it i e s . This second a c t iv it y was found to be pursued e ith e r simultaneously w ith the f i r s t or In sequence. The findings point out th a t 1. About 40 percent o f the p a rtic ip a n ts were not or had not been involved 1n a second educational a c t iv it y . 2. Of those p a r tic ip a tin g In a second a c t iv it y , the sequence was as fo llo w s: (a ) professional education; (b) vocation al- technical education; (c ) personal enrichment education; (d) home and fam ily l i f e education; and (e ) re c re a tio n a l and social In t e r ­ a c tio n , followed by English language classes. 3. The le v e l o f p a rtic ip a tio n In a l l areas o f study was p ro p o rtio n ately lower than the f i r s t le ve l except f o r personal enrichment education, which was higher, and v o c a tio n a l/tec h n ica l education, which remained a t about the same le v e l. P a rtic ip a tio n a t the th ir d le v e l declined to 26 percent, w ith less emphasis on v o c a tio n a l/te c h n ic a l education. The fo llo w ­ ing observations were made: 1. Professional education s t i l l retain ed f i r s t plac followed by personal enrichment classes, re c re a tio n a l education, social In te ra c tio n education and home and fa m ily l i f e education. 130 2. There were no In d iv id u a ls engaged 1n two categ o r English classes and re crea tio n a l education. At the fo u rth and f i f t h le v e ls , p a rtic ip a tio n was approximately 10 percent and 4 percent re s p e c tiv e ly . I t was centered around personal enrichment and home and fam ily l i f e and re c re a tio n a l education, w ith only about 4 percent 1n professional education. P a rtic ip a tio n a t the f i f t h le ve l was very minimal. The only two areas 1n which there was Involvement were personal enrichment and social In te ra c tio n education, 2 .6 and 1 .3 percent re s p e c tiv e ly . The degree o f p a rtic ip a tio n varied a t the f iv e d iffe r e n t le v e ls . S ixty-tw o p o in t two percent p a rtic ip a te d 1n a t le a s t two a c t iv it i e s , 25.3 percent 1n a t le a s t th re e , 11.5 percent 1n fo u r, and 3 .9 percent 1n f iv e . A d is trib u tio n o f the major subjects studied 1s pro­ vided In order o f frequency o f mention. The subjects are lis te d under the e ig h t continuing education subgroups used 1n the study: 1. Professional education: Business A dm inistration (M arketing, Hotel Management, Accounting, S e c re ta ria l Science, Public A dm inistration) Education (Curriculum In s tru c tio n , Counselling, Child Development, Health Education) Social Studies (Social Work and Community P ra c tic e , L ib ra ry Science) Medical Science (Biology, Pre-Pharmacy, Public H ealth, V e te rin a ry Pathology) Human Ecology (D1atet1cs, N u tr itio n , Home Economics) L ib eral A rts (E n g lish , L in g u is tic s ) A g ric u ltu ra l Science (A g rlc u ltu re , Animal Husbandry) 131 t 70-- 60- 50.«/) « 40-- A3 OJ D) 5 30OJ if Q) 20- - 10_ B lc t~ D l Sequence o f C redentials 3. Ill II A. B. Figure 7. B Non-degree Degree C. D. D ip lo m a /C e rtific a te Not Applicable Order and Sequence of C redentials Sought by P a rtic ip a n ts 132 2. Vocational/Technical Education: Medical Science (Nursing) S e c re ta ria l Science Sewing Beauty Care 3. Secondary/High School: High School Completion Classes 4. English as a Second Language: English Language Classes 5. Home and Family Living: Cooking N u tritio n and Family Program Homecrafts 6. Personal Enrichment Classes: Sewing, D riv in g , Typing, Bible Study Classes, Social Work 7. Recreational Education: Physical Exercise Classes, G u itar Lessons, Dancing 8. Social In te ra c tio n Education: Group Sessions on Home Management and N u tritio n Language Sessions Lectures C redentials Sought by P a rtic ip an ts Three measures were applied to p a rtic ip a tio n : degree; (2 ) degree; and (3 ) d ip lo m a /c e rtific a te . (1 ) non­ Non-degree was involvement 1n an a c t iv it y — re c r e a tio n a l, social or otherwise— but not fo r c r e d it toward a degree. A degree course was equated w ith a B achelor's, M a s te r's , doctorate or e q u iv a le n t, w hile Table 22. Participation in continuing education—credentials sought. NATURE OF PROGRAM Sequence of Areas 1 Non-Degree Degree Diploma/ Certificate 31 31 13 1 40.8 40.8 17.1 1.3 Number 22 17 X (N=76) 28.9 22.4 Number 12 6 2 56 15.8 7.9 2.6 73.7 4 3 1 68 5.3 3.9 1.3 89.5 Number 3 0 0 73 * (N=76) 3.9 0 0 96.1 Number % 3 % (N=76) Number 4 5 % (N=76) 9 11.8 28 36.8 133 2 (N=76) Not Applicable 134 diploma and c e r t if ic a t e were reserved fo r areas such as nursing, catering and p rin c ip a lly vo catio n al/tech n ical education. Table 22 and Figure 7 in d ic ate the re s u lts obtained. 1. For a ll those p a rtic ip a tin g In a t le a s t one educa­ tio n a l a c t iv it y , roughly 40 percent were 1n each o f the two cate­ gories o f non-degree and degree, w ith 17 percent 1n d1ploma/cert1flc a t e programs. 2. Percentages fo r Ind ivid u als engaged 1n a t le a s t two educational a c t iv itie s showed differences 1n ordering: 29 percent 1n non-degree; 23 percent 1n degree and 12 percent In diplom a/cer­ t i f i c a t e programs. About 37 percent had not p a rtic ip a te d 1n two a c t iv it ie s . 3. For p a rtic ip a tio n a t the th ird le v e l, the d is trib u ­ tio n was as follow s: 15.8 percent 1n non-degree programs; 8 per­ cent 1n degree and 3 percent In d ip lo m a /c e rtific a te programs. Seventy-four percent had not been Involved a t th is le v e l. 4. The d is trib u tio n a t the fourth level was 50, 40, and 1 percent fo r non-degree, degree and c e r t if ic a t e programs, respec­ t iv e ly . Approximately 90 percent were excluded a t th is stage. 5. The 4 percent o f p a rtic ip a n ts who were engaged In a to ta l o f fiv e educational a c t iv it ie s were 1n non-degree programs. In s titu tio n s Attended by P articip an ts P articip an ts In continuing education attended nine types o f In s titu tio n s : ( 1) church schools; ( 2 ) adu lt education classes; 135 (3 ) community c o lle g e ; (4 ) fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e /u n iv e rs ity ; (5 ) Y.W.C.A. and health clubs; ( 6 ) language In s t it u t e ; (7 ) w ives/ women's clubs ( a f f i l i a t e d w ith the u n iv e r s ity ); ( 8 ) sewing and d riv in g schools; and (9 ) cooperative extension. Table 23 o u tlin e s the types o f in s titu tio n s attended by p a rtic ip a n ts as w ell as the sequence 1n those cases where p a rtic ip a n ts attended more than one In s t it u t io n . About 61 percent o f a l l p a rtic ip a n ts attended two In s titu tio n s , 26 percent attended a t le a s t three In s tit u tio n s , 13 percent had been p a rtic ip a n ts 1n a t le a s t fo u r In s tit u tio n s , w hile 7 percent had Involvement w ith in a t le a s t f iv e In s titu tio n s . Figure 8 depicts the various le ve ls o f p a rtic ip a tio n w ith in the various In s titu tio n s and the changes re fle c te d a t each le v e l 1n the sequence. A g re a te r portion o f p a rtic ip a n ts entered fo u r-y e a r colleges during the f i r s t le v e l (34.2 percent) followed by commun­ i t y co lleg e (23.7 p e rc e n t), wives and women's clubs (1 8 .4 p e rc e n t), and a d u lt education classes (10 .5 p ercen t). The lowest le v e ls o f p a rtic ip a tio n were church schools, Y.W.C.A. and health clubs, and sewing and d riv in g schools. At the f i r s t le v e l, there were no p a rtic ip a n ts e n ro lled 1n cooperative extension education. For the second le v e l, about 38 percent o f p a rtic ip a n ts did not e n ro ll 1n more than one In s titu tio n and among those who did so, the fo u r-y ea r colleg e was again the dominant choice, followed by the comnunlty c o lle g e . However, church schools, wives and women's clubs assumed r e la t iv e ly g re a te r s ig n ific a n c e . No p a rtic ip a n ts Indicated Involvement 1n Y.M.^.A and health clubs, Table 23. Participation In continuing education—Institutions attended. Public School/ Adult Sequence of Educ. Church Classes Areas Comm. Coll. 1 8 18 26 2 2 14 3 0 1 1.3 10.5 23.7 34.2 2.6 2.6 18.4 3.9 0 1.3 No. 1 2 Sewing/ Wives/ Women's Driving Clubs School Coopera­ Not Appli­ tive Extension cable 3 3 11 18 0 0 5 6 1 28 %* 3.9 3.9 14.5 23.7 0 0 6.6 7.9 1.3 36.8 No. 2 1 4 5 2 3 3 3 0 56 2.6 1.3 5.3 6.6 2.6 3.9 3.9 3.9 0 73.7 No. 0 0 5 0 1 0 0 2 0 68 %* 0 0 6.6 0 1.3 0 0 2.6 0 89.5 No. 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 73 0 1.3 0 0 0 0 1.3 1.3 0 96.1 5 ** *N=76 136 No. 3 ** 4 4-yr. C o ll./ Univ. YMCA/YWCA Health Spa Lang. Exercise Clubs Inst. n i Percentage of P a rtic ip a n ts 50- - 40” 30-- 20.. 10- - nriB Sequence of Institutions A JL 3. I A. B. C. D. E. F. Figure 8. I J Church School Adult Education Classes Conmunlty College 4-Yr. College/University Y.W.C.A. and Health Clubs Language Institute JL EM G H II a hn C mi III G. H. I. J. Wives/Women's Clubs (A ffilia te d with University) Sewing and Driving School Cooperative Extension Not Applicable Order and Sequence of Institutions Attended by Participants. i 138 nor language In s titu te s . There was a marked decline 1n the o v e ra ll le ve l o f p a rtic ip a n ts a t the th ird le v e l; about 74 percent o f a ll p a r t ic i­ pants were excluded. The fo u r-y ea r and the community colleges remained the most s ig n ific a n t. There was no p a rtic ip a tio n 1n extension programs. O bjectives fo r P a rtic ip a tio n 1n Education As shown in Table 24 and Figure 9 , the reasons fo r pursuing continuing education a c t iv it ie s were many and v a rie d . These reasons were sought fo r the f iv e le v e ls o f p a rtic ip a tio n as Indicated by the re s u lts presented 1n Table 24 and the f i r s t three le v e ls represented 1n Figure 9. The reasons stated ranked 1n th is order: 1. To keep busy and gain knowledge and to increase professional competence. 2. To seek a profession and be o f service to home country upon re tu rn . 3. To prepare fo r college and acquire s k ills and to q u a lify fo r admission to various programs. 4. To earn a degree or a c e r t if ic a t e and to improve English language s k il ls . 5. To engage 1n social In te ra c tio n education and prepare fo r b e tte r jobs 1n respondents' home cou n tries. 6. To supplement fa m ily Income and strengthen fa m ily 's re lig io u s background. O « • * o • *s o CD O CD . co o CD * Cl) o -o • cn VO cn . to • to oo cn to o To F u lf i l P rere q u isite fo r Program 09 To Seek a Profession To Meet D iffe re n t People fv CO to m CD CD to ♦ •*o ro O To Prepare fo r College or Profession CD vo * ro m To Acquire or Improve S k ill CO - o O o ■ CO « CO CO o O o CD CD o ro * ro cn CD o o CD CD CD ro w ro 10.5 CO » PO U) ss 73.7 cn • oo o (a ) -n To Keep Busy and CD To Increase Profession­ al competence - To Supplement Family Income To Ear,. * degree or C e r tific a te Gain Knowledge 6£L To Learn English and Im­ prove Communication S k ill Not A pplicable in continuing education prograns—objectives of participants. o -a* ■ 3 o fT < Mr 13.2 O *» • CO cn 1-- ^1J o o o « “O A f -J Pv IA# 3 W A <6 * sr o* to 3 CD o. Participation 9Z=N* * ro co Table 24. cn 140 CD m Sequence o f O bjectives o c II I CO «fl < CO 4 <_»o UJ D B.H.K id CJ III Objectives A. B. C. D. E. F. 6. H. I. J. K. L. M. Figure 9. To f u l f i l l p re req u is ites fo r program To seek a profession To meet d if fe r e n t people To prepare fo r college To acquire or Improve s k ills To keep busy and gain knowledge To Increase professional competence To obtain a job to supplement fa m ily Income To earn a degree or c e r t if ic a t e To obtain a good jo b on retu rn home To strengthen re lig io u s background To Improve communication s k il ls 1n English To be o f service to my country on my return P a rtic ip a tio n 1n Education: O bjectives o f P a r tic ip a tio n . Land L ll tz 141 Among the p a rtic ip a n ts Mho engaged In a second educa­ tio n a l a c t iv it y , the most often c ite d o b jective Mas the Improve­ ment o f s k ills (th is ranked th ird a t the f i r s t le v e l) . The percentage o f respondents f a llin g 1n th is category (13.2 percent) Mas the same as the corresponding ranking fo r the f i r s t le v e l. None o f the p a rtic ip a n ts d t e d preparation fo r college or profes­ sion or Improvement o f English language s k ills . The ranking of objectives Mas 1n th is order: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. To acquire or improve s k ill (13.2 p ercen t). To Increase professional competence (10.5 p ercen t). To be o f service to home country upon return (9 .2 percen t). To seek a profession, meet d iffe r e n t people and to obtain a good jo b on retu rn home (5 .3 percent fo r each). To earn a degree or c e r t if ic a t e as Mell as to strengthen re lig io u s background ranked f i f t h (3 .9 percent). To keep busy and gain knoMledge or to supplement fam ily income (2.6 percent). The a cq u is itio n and Improvement o f s k ill (9 .2 p erce n t), to keep busy and gain knoMledge (5 .3 percent) and to earn a degree or c e r t if ic a t e (2 .6 percent) Mere perhaps the most s ig n ific a n t rea­ sons given by those Mho p a rtic ip a te d 1n a th ir d educational a c t iv it y . At the fou rth and f i f t h le v e ls , the acq u isitio n and Improvement o f s k ills as Mell as keeping busy and gaining knoMledge remained the dominant o b jec tive s . Length o f Time Before E nrolling 1n Classes A fte r A rriv a l In the United States About 72 percent of a ll p a rtic ip a n ts started classes M lth ln six months o f th e ir a r riv a l 1n the United States. 142 Professional education classes ranked f i r s t 1n enrollm ent (2 3 .9 p e rc e n t), followed by v o c a tio n a l/te c h n ic a l (1 0 .5 p e rc e n t). English language and social In te ra c tio n education accounted fo r 9 .2 percent each; high school and personal enrichment education 5 .3 percent; home and fa m ily l i f e education, re crea tio n a l education 3 .9 percent and 1 .3 percent re s p e c tiv e ly . The re s u lts o u tlin ed 1n Table 25 also In d ic a te th a t about 16 percent o f p a rtic ip a n ts en ro lled 1n classes between six months and one year a f t e r t h e ir a r r iv a l In the United S tates. The trend 1n p a rtic ip a tio n patterns 1s s im ila r to those e n ro llin g w ith ­ in s ix months o f t h e ir a r r iv a l. Nine po in t two percent were 1n professional education, 3 .9 percent 1n vocational education, and 1.3 percent 1n each o f home and fam ily l i f e education and personal enrichment education. A small percentage o f p a rtic ip a n ts s ta rte d classes a f t e r periods above two y e a rs , 2.6 percent s ta rte d a f t e r two and three years and a l l went In to professional education classes, 1 .3 percent between th ree and fou r years and a ll p a rtic ip a te d In professional education classes, 1 .3 percent s ta rte d classes (v o c a tio n a l/te c h n i­ c a l) a f t e r a period o f over fo u r years. The p attern which emerged from Table 25 In general 1s th a t most p a rtic ip a n ts s ta rted classes w ith in s ix months o f t h e ir a r r iv a l 1n the United States and th a t a g re a te r portion p a rtic ip a te d 1n professional education classes. 1 1 ro <*> 1 1 CO i ro 5 ro i ro ‘ cn * * • l cn 00 1o CO • ro • O O 1• o * * o ro o • VO * ro • CO K ? • ! '■ 'J 1 CO I 3E O ro en co co • • vo cn o 1o o o o o O o o | o o 1o o o o o O o o vo t ro 1o o o o o o • -J 1 Co Professional Education oo V o c atio n al/ Technical Education Secondary/ High School Education co co vo 2 ro o cn « o *< s English As a Second Language co CO Home and Family L if e Education CO o o 1o o o o o 1 <=> 1o o o ro • cn ro • co — o o o o o o O 1 o * o o o O 1 o o O 1 cn cn cn • ro | ro • cn oo • 1 1 CO co 1O CO 1 • 1 ^ cn o o o o ro » ro 9-3/0. 205 Unpublished M aterials Erickson, M ildred B. "An Analysis o f Selected C h ara c te ris tics and Needs o f Adult Undergraduate Students Attending Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity , F all Term, 1966." Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity , 1968. H1ne, Peggy Ann. "A Typology o f Expressed Needs o f Adult Students P rio r to Entry and Following Two Terms o f Study a t Michigan S ta te U n iversity During the 1974-1975 Academic Year." Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity , 1975. Hunt, Beverly English. "C h a ra c te ris tic s , Perceptions and Experiences o f Married Women Students a t Lansing Community College 1965." Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity , 1965. Ingham, Roy J . "The Measurement of Educative Behavior and the R elatio n ­ ship to the Leisure S a tis fa c tio n s o f College Alumni." Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n . U n ive rs ity o f Chicago, 1963. Osborn, R. H. "C h a ra c te ris tic s , M otivation and Problems o f Mature M arried Women College Students: A Status Study o f Selected Students a t the George Washington U n iv e rs ity ." Ph.D. d is s e rta ­ t io n , The George Washington U n iv e rs ity , 1963. Poulton, Carl Brent. "The Relationship of A dults' P a rtic ip a tio n 1n Continuing Education A c tiv itie s to C ertain Demographic and P o sitio n al C h a ra c te ris tic s , O rien tatio n Toward Learning and O rie n ta tio n Toward Continuing Education In s titu tio n s ." Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity , 1975. Purrlngton, Beverly Turner. "Married Women Students a t Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity ." M.A. Thesis, Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity , 1972. R usllnk, Doris H. "Married Women's Resumption of Education 1n Prepara­ tio n fo r Teaching: An In v e s tig a tio n o f Selected Factors th a t Encourage and Deter Married Women's Entry o r Re-entry In to New Jersey C olleges." Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , New York Univer­ s i t y , 1969. S h e ffie ld , Sherman B. "The O rien tatio n s o f Adult Continuing Learners." Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , U n iversity o f Chicago, 1962. T ate , M ildred C. "An Analysis o f the R elationship Between Selected Personal Socio-economic C h ara c te ris tics o f a Random Sample o f Adult Women and T h e ir Reasons fo r E n ro llin g In an Urban Community C o llege." Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , Michigan S tate U n iv e rs ity , 1971. 206 Q ultanar, Rosalinda. "A Comparative Study o f Students' A ttitu d e s Toward Education." M.A. th e s is . New Mexico S ta te U n iv e rs ity , 1974. Colonial Documents Code and Syllabus o f In s tru c tio n fo r Use 1n Schools f o r A frican G irls and Schools fo r T raining A frican Women Teachers, Nyasaland, 1933, p. 3. Colonial No. 103, 1935. Colonial No. 142, 1935. Newspapers "Foreign Students Find New Home a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity ." M ichi­ gan S ta te News. East Lansing, Welcome Week, A36, 1975. Sunday M irro r. Accra, Ghana, March 27, 1966. APPENDICES APPENDIX A LETTERS To: Foreign Student Advisors 1n selected Michigan colleges and un1vers1t1c 8th September, 1975 Dear S1r/Madam: 1 am a doctoral student 1n Continuing Education a t Michigan S ta te Un1vers1t East Lansing. I am c u rre n tly undertaking research fo r my d is s e rta tio n on the p a rtic ip a tio n patterns o f dependent A frican females (wives o f A frican male students) 1n various educational a c t iv it ie s 1n Michigan, tyy o b je c tiv e 1s to determine the fa c to rs th a t m otivate or In h ib it th is category o f women In t h e ir p a r tic ip a tio n 1n educational a c t iv it ie s 1n the United S ta te s. To obtain such In fo rm atio n , 1 Intend to use questionnaires to In terv ie w these women who may c u rre n tly be a f f i l i a t e d w ith your In s t it u t io n . There­ fo r e , I am w ritin g to ask to be provided w ith a l i s t o f A frican male stu­ dents and t h e ir dependents (wives) from which I may choose a rep resen tative sample. In a d d itio n , I w ill also ask th a t t h e ir country o f c itiz e n s h ip be Included. Your assistance and cooperation 1n th is regard Is s o lic ite d and w ill be g re a tly appreciated. The Foreign Student Advisor a t Michigan S ta te Univer­ s it y , Dr. August G. Benson, w ill be forwarding a l e t t e r o f In tro d u ctio n to you on my b e h a lf. S incerely yours, ^ jS2L*. &t Daphne £ . E. W illiam s (ms) 207 208 A To: Dependent A frican females (wives o f A frican male students 1n selected colleges and u n iv e rs itie s 1n Michigan) November 25th , 1975 Dear Madam: I am an A frican student from S ie rra Leone, West A fr ic a . I am c u rre n tly enrolled a t Michigan S tate U n ive rs ity working towards a doctoral degree 1n Continuing Education w ith emphasis on women 1n general and A frican women 1n p a r tic u la r. One witnesses today an Increasing number o f A frican women coming to the United States fo r various reasons. Some come as married women to jo in t h e ir husbands and go to school and others come s t r i c t l y to pursue t h e ir educational careers. Very l i t t l e 1s known about A frican women 1n the United States g en e ra lly b u t, more s p e c ific a lly , about married women and t h e ir educational a c t iv it ie s . This 1s what the study seeks to know. I am In te re s te d 1n the A frican married woman who 1s here w ith her husband 1n Michigan and who came expressly or Inexpressly to go to school. I t 1s hoped th a t the Informa­ tio n gained from th is study w ill be o f g reat assistance to fo reig n student adm inistrators In Michigan educational In s titu tio n s In t h e ir e ffo r ts to plan more e ffe c tiv e ly to meet the needs o f foreig n married women on campus. As an A frican woman and as a fo reig n student acquainted w ith the problems o f A frican wives, I fe e l the a tte n tio n and the resources made a v a ila b le to A frican wives can be Increased 1 f the problem areas are Id e n t if ie d . I w ill be v 1 s itin g your campus from December 15th to 2 0th , 1975 to In t e r ­ view you and the o th er A frican married women who may be around. Can you give me approximately tw e n ty -fiv e minutes o f your time? You are assured th a t a l l Inform ation s o lic ite d w ill be tre a te d most c o n fid e n tia lly . Thanks fo r your cooperation. 209 September 4 , 1975 To: 111 Foreign Student Advisor Dear Sir/Madam: This l e t t e r 1s w ritte n on behalf o f the study being undertaken by Ms. Daphne W illiam s, a foreig n student from S ie rra Leone, working on a doctoral program 1n Continuing Education here a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity , East Lansing. In ad d itio n to completion of an MA 1n L in g u is tic s , Ms. W illiams has had some special experiences since her a r r iv a l on campus. F all term , 1970. She was selected to represent th is u n iv e rs ity a t the White House Conference on Youth held a t Estes Park, Colorado, 1n the Spring o f 1971. She worked a t the In te rn a tio n a l In s t it u t e fo r Labor Studies 1n Geneva from October, 1974 to May, 1975, and she was recen tly an a ctiv e p a rtic ip a n t 1n the In te rn a tio n a l Women's Year Conference 1n Mexico C ity . T h erefore, she 1s e sp e cia lly w ell q u a lifie d to accomplish th is study. Ms. W illiam s Intends to In v e s tig a te the p a rtic ip a tio n patterns o f depen­ dent A frica n females (wives o f A frican male students) 1n various educa­ tio n a l In s titu tio n s 1n Michigan. This study, 1 t Is hoped, w il l be of great relevance and s ig n ific a n c e not only to her country or to th a t p a rt of the world from which she comes but also to Michigan College adminis­ tra to rs such as fo reig n student advisors and other u n iv e rs ity o f f ic ia ls who are concerned w ith the adjustment and progress o f fo reig n students and th e ir fa m ilie s . With the Increasing trend toward admission o f foreign students a t the graduate le v e l, more fo reig n students are married and bring fa m ilie s w ith them. Educational In s titu tio n s are under increasing pressures to assume some degree of re s p o n s ib ilitie s fo r the fam ily as well as the student (fo re ig n and American). These pressures may be a lle v ia te d by the In s titu tio n o ffe rin g special opportunities fo r wives or dependents or the wives seeking out a t t h e ir own i n i t i a t i v e such opportunities which th is study 1s designed to Id e n tify . The study also has the p o te n tia l to o ffe r useful and Important lessons to educational planners, both 1n the U. S. and elsewhere, who are now Increasing t h e ir e ffo r ts to design and develop programs fo r (m arried) women to continue t h e ir education. Ar\y help you can, th e re fo re , o ff e r Ms. W illiam s 1n the conduct o f th is stutjy w ill be g re a tly appreciated. S in c e re ly , August ti. senson Foreign Student Advisor AGB: ngs APPENDIX B QUESTIONNAIRE THE INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE The follow in g questions served as a g u id elin e fo r the In te rv ie w . SECTION 1 Background and Family Inform ation 1. What 1s your home country? 2. Are vou from? 1j the national c a p ita l 2) a p ro vin cial or regional c a p ita l 3) a c ity 4) a town 5) a v illa g e 6) other 3. What 1s your re lig io n ? 1) C h ris tia n 2 ) moslem 3) none 4) other 4. What 1s your age? 1) under 22 years 2) 22 - 26 years 3) 27 - 30 years 4) 3 1 - 3 4 years 5) 3 5 - 3 8 years 6) over 38 years 210 211 5. Your English language background A. How many years did you study English before you came to the United States? 1) not a t a ll 2) 1 - 3 years 3) 4 - 7 years 8 - 11 years 5) 12 -■ 15 years 6) over 15 years B. How would you ra te your le v e l o f English proficiency? _________ Very Good_____ Good_______ F a ir______ Poor_______ Very Poor Reading W riting Conversation C. I f you attended the follow ing In s tit u tio n s , what were the main languages o f In s tru c tio n th a t were used? (Specify whether fo reig n or vernacular) Primary school ________________________________________ Secondary school College What was your main occupation p rio r to coming to the United States? 1) Housewife 9) Teacher (elem entary, high 2) Secretary or c le rk school) Teacher (u n iv e r s ity , t r a in ­ Cashier, bookkeeper. 10) 3) ing co lleg e) bank t e l l e r 4) Midwife o r nurse 11) Professional ( lib r a r ia n , 5) P etty tra d e r v e te rin a ria n , law yer. doctor . . . ) 6) C a te re r, seamstress. f l o r i s t , housekeeper 12) C iv il servant 13) Priestess 7) Student (high school. teacher tra in in g ) 14) P riv a te business person 15) Other 8) Student (u n iv e rs ity ) 212 7. What was your husband's main occupation p rio r to coming to the United States? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8. Professional (engineer. doctor, lib r a r ia n , v e te rin a ria n . . . ) C iv il servant Teacher (elem entary, high school) Teacher (u n iv e rs ity , tra in in g c o lleg e ) Researcher Student (high school. teacher tra in in g ) Student (u n iv e rs ity ) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) P rie s t Army and law enforcement P riv a te business person C ashier, bookkeeper, bank t e l 1er Secretary or c le rk Other What 1s (was) your fa th e r's main occupation? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Professional (en g in eer, doctor, lib r a r ia n , v e te rin a ria n . . . ) C iv il servant Teacher (elem entary. high school) Teacher (u n iv e rs ity , tra in in g co lleg e ) P rie s t Secretary o r c le rk Cashier, bookkeeper, bank t e l l e r What Is (was) your mother's main 1) Housewife 2) Secretary or c le rk 3) C ashier, bookkeeper, bank t e l l e r 4) Midwife or nurse 5) P e tty tra d e r 6) C a te re r, seamstress, f l o r i s t , housekeeper 7) Teacher (elem entary, high school) 8 9\ 10) 11) 12) 13 14) Nurse Army and law enforcement S k ille d la b o rer (a r tis a n . d r iv e r . . . ) P riv a te business person Petty tra d e r Fanner, fisherm an, hunter Other occupation? 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) Teacher (u n iv e r s ity , t r a i n ­ ing colleg e) Professional ( lib r a r ia n , v e te r in a ria n , law yer, doctor . . . ) C1v1l servant P riv a te business person Other 213 10. What 1s (was) your fa th e r 's le v e l o f education (In d ic a te highest le v e l a tta in e d ;? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9} 10) 11. What 1s (was) vour mother's le v e l o f education (In d ic a te highest le v e l a tta in e d )? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 12. No education Adult education class (church school, e tc .) Began prim ary/elem entary school Finished prim ary/elem entary school Began secondary school Finished secondary school Began colleg e Has c o lleg e degree Has post-graduate degree Has lo cal re lig io u s o r teaching degree No education Adult education (church school, e t c .) Began prim ary/elem entary school Finished prim ary/elem entary school Began secondary school Finished secondary school Began colleg e Has co lleg e degree Has post-graduate degree Has local re lig io u s or teaching degree What was your le v e l o f education p rio r to coming to the United States (In d ic a te highest le ve l a tta in e d )? 1) No education 2) Began primary school 3) Finished primary school 4) Began secondary school 5) Finished secondary school 6) Two-year teacher tra in in g co lleg e c e r t if ic a t e 7) 4 - 5 year teacher tra in in g c o lleg e c e r t if ic a t e 81 1 - 2 year nursing school c e r t if ic a t e 9) 1 - 2 year technical tra in in g 10) Bachelor's degree 11) M aster's or o ther graduate degree 12) Professional degree— lib r a r ia n , lawyer 13) 3 - 4 year nursing school c e r t if ic a t e 14) Other ____________________________________________________ 214 13. Why did you stop there and not continue your studies a t home 1n A frica? 1) 21 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14. Lack o f educational opportunity beyond le v e l/a re a completed Lack o f funds Too many fam ily and home re s p o n s ib ilitie s To seek employment and help fam ily Schooling disrupted by war To continue education 1n the U. S. or elsewhere To accompany/join husband In the United States End o f professional tra in in g Lack o f f a c i l i t i e s 1n area o f In te re s t Did not meet entry requirements To jo in husband and attend school D is s a tis fie d w ith school a t home Got a scholarship and decided to leave home Which degree(s) does your husband hope to earn in the United States? 1) 2) 3) Bachelor's degree M aster's degree Doctoral degree 4) 5) M. D. P o s t-d o cto ral, postM. D. 15a. How many c h ild ren do you presently have? 15b. What are t h e ir ages? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 16. Under 3 Between Between Between Over 17 years 4 and 6 years 7 and 12 years 13 and 17 years years How long have you been 1n the United States? _____________________________ weeks SECTION 11 - PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS IN THE UNITED STATES 17. Since you have been 1n th is country, what kinds o f a c t iv it ie s have you been Involved 1n to continue your learning? A. How long a f t e r you came to the United States did you s ta r t taking p a rt 1n an educational a c tiv ity ? weeks 215 B. What 1s (was) y o u r f i r s t area o f study? C. Towards what degree, diploma o r c e r t if ic a t e are (were) you working? D. For how long have you been Involved or were you Involved 1n th is area? E. What in s titu tio n are you attending o r did you attend? F. What 1s (was) the main reason fo r pursuing th is area? 11 2) 31 41 51 61 71 81 9) 101 111 12) 13) 18 A. To f u l f i l l p re re q u is ite fo r program To seek a profession To meet d iffe r e n t people To prepare fo r colleg e or profession To acquire or Improve s k ill To keep busy and gain knowledge To Increase professional competence To supplement fam ily Income To earn a degree or c e r t if ic a t e To obtain a good job on re tu rn to home country To strengthen fa m ily 's re lig io u s background To learn English and improve communication 1n American English To be able to o ffe r services to home country What other areas have you studied? 216 B. Towards what degree, diploma or c e r t if ic a t e are (were) you working? C. For how long have you been Involved o r were you Involved In th is (these) area(s)? D. What 1nst1tut1on(s) are you attending or did you attend? E. What 1s (was) the main reason fo r pursuing th is (th ese) area(s)? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) To f u l f i l l p re re q u is ite fo r program To seek a profession To meet d iffe r e n t people To prepare fo r colleg e or profession To acquire or Improve s k il l To keep busy and gain knowledge To Increase professional competence To supplement fam ily Income To earn a degree or c e r t if ic a t e To obtain a good jo b on retu rn to home country To strengthen fa m ily 's re lig io u s background To learn English and Improve communication 1n American English To be able to o ffe r services to home country Other _____________________________________________________ 217 19. How much support did you have from each o f the follow ing 1n your decision to continue your education In the United States? Great Moderate L ittle No ____________ Support______ Support______ Support______ Support_____ Husband___________________________________________________________ Parents Neighbor Friends Church S e lf ---------------~ ------------Other -----— 20. Are (were) you more motivated to study In the United States than you were In A frica? Yes No 21. I f yes, what 1s (a re ) the main reason(s) fo r th is m otivation? 1) More op po rtu n ities and encouragement fo r study here fo r married women 2) B e tte r f a c i l i t i e s fo r p u rsu it o f studies 1n the United States 3) Combination o f work and studies 1n the United States 4) Wider range o f subjects 5) Nothing "b e tte r" to do with time 6) Age is no r e s t r ic t io n ; more com fortable 1n school here due to the presence of o ther o ld er people 7) System o f education 1s more f le x ib le and accommodating 8) Less demands on fam ily l i f e so more tim e and money to study 9) Bad weather forces one to stay Indoors and study 10) Other________________________________________________________ 22. I f no, what 1s (a re ) your main reason(s) fo r lack o f m otivation? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) No fees fo r higher education a t home Would attend school e ith e r 1n United States o r a t home Pace o f studies 1s too fa s t In the United States Lack o f good c h ild care f a c i l i t i e s Value of education In United States is less High demands o f fam ily upkeep 1n United States Language problem Do not lik e being 1n the United States 1n general Weather 1s a problem Cost o f liv in g 1s too high Other_______________________________________________________ 218 23. Do you agree o r disagree w ith the fo llo w in g statements about educational classes 1n the United States? Strongly __________________________ Agree 1. More s u ita b le times f o r classes than in your country 2. More v a rie ty o f classes than 1n your country 3. B e tte r teaching methods than 1n your country 4. Easier courses here than 1n your country 5. B e tte r courses r e l a t ­ ing to your country 6. Other Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree SECTION I I I - NON-PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS IN THE UNITED ______________ STATES_______ _______ _________________________ 24. I f you have not taken p a rt 1n any educational a c t iv it y 1n the United S ta te s , do you plan to take p a rt la te r? Yes No Unsure 25. I f y es , what a rea (s) do you plan to study? 26. Toward what d eg re e (s ), dlplom a(s) or c e r t lf lc a t e ( s ) w ill you work? 219 27. What M ill be the length o f tim e 1n which you w ill be Involved? ______________________________ 28. What 1nst1tut1on(s) w ill you attend? 29. What w ill be your main reason fo r pursuing th is (these) area(s)? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 71 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 30. To f u l f i l l p re re q u is ite fo r program To seek a profession To meet d if fe r e n t people To prepare fo r colleg e or profession To acquire or Improve s k il l To keep busy and gain knowledge To Increase professional competence To supplement fa m ily Income To earn a degree o r c e r t if ic a t e To obtain a good job on retu rn to home country To strengthen fa m ily 's re lig io u s background To learn English and Improve communication 1n American English To be able to o ff e r services to home country Other ______________________________________________________ What 1s (a re ) the reason(s) which may explain why you have not been able to take p art In an educational a c tiv ity ? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Oo not have c re d e n tia ls here High costs ( t u it io n , books) Too many home re s p o n s ib ilitie s Have ju s t a rriv e d and not w e ll-a d ju s te d Visa problems Language problems Financial problems Other _______________________________________________________ 220 SECTION IV - GENERAL INFORMATION 31. What Is your husband's source o f fin a n c ia l support w h ile 1n school? Money from home U. S. or home scholarship U n iv e rs ity a sslstan tsh lp or fellow sh ip Own savings Current earnings Foundation grant Employer back home Other What 1s your source o f fin a n c ia l support w hile 1n the United States? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8 9 33. Money from husband Money from home U. S. o r home scholarship U n ive rs ity asslstan tsh lp or fellow sh ip Own savings Own earnings Husband's fin a n c ia l assistance and your own earnings Foundation grant Other Before leaving home, did you have plans to continue your education when you a rriv e d 1n the United States? Yes 34• N o _____________________Unsure I f vos, how did you f i r s t become In tere s te d in these programs? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Husband gave you a ll the Inform ation Obtained Inform ation y o u rs e lf on a r r iv a l Obtained inform ation from magazine or newspaper 1n home country Obtained Inform ation from home and American frie n d s Had v is ite d the United States before so got the Inform ation Parents encouraged you to use the opportunity to go to school 1n the United States Corresponded w ith In s titu tio n s 1n the United States American embassy 1n home country provided b rie fin g on United States educational system 221 9) 101 11) 35. I f you decided to continue your education a f t e r a r r iv in g , what facto rs contributed to such a decision? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 36. Encouragement from husband Encouragement from friend s Encouragement from fam ily New educational opportunities T .V . and radio Inform ation No job o p p o rtu n itie s , bored, so decided to go to school Other_____________________________________________________ W111 you seek employment when you retu rn to your country? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5} 6) 7) 37. Obtained Inform ation through the church a t home Have never been In tere s te d Other____________________________________________ U111 seek employment W111 retu rn to e a r lie r employment W ill seek new employment M ill seek no employment M ill go back to school Do not know Other________________________________________________ Would you lik e to make ad d itio n a l comments and suggestions about your stay 1n the United States as an A fric a n , a w ife and/or mother, and/or student? These comments may be helpfu l to those concerned w ith foreig n students and t h e ir adjustment process 1n the United S tates. GOOD LUCK AND THANKS FOR YOUR ASSISTANCE APPENDIX C TABLES 222 Females' Highest Level o f Education A ttained 1n Selected A frican Countries ( C j) . Country (V w ir f Population by Age Group Female Populatl % o f To Age Group Total No. Female Population Ghana (1960) 15-24 25-54 55+ 25+ 1,128,100 2,164,000 438,580 2,602,580 582,570 1,054,880 203,790 1,258,670 51.6 48.7 46.4 48.3 Kenya (1962) 15-24 25-34 35+ 25+ 1,419,629 1,134,672 1,753,830 2,888,502 765,098 637,005 833,179 1,470,184 53.8 56.1 4 7 .5 50.8 Lesotho (1966) 15-24 25-34 35-64 65+ 25+ 141,431 91,669 187,984 54,277 333,930 85,420 62,350 112,022 35,340 209,712 60.3 68.0 59.5 65.1 62.8 L ib e ria (1962) 15-24 25+ 167,655 471,049 93,650 235,420 55.8 49.9 Malawi (1966) 25-34 35-64 65+ 25+ 531,627 847,256 161,161 1,540,044 304.485 454,652 79,357 838,494 57.2 53.6 4 9 .2 54.4 Uganda (A fric a n Pop.) (1959) Z a ire (A fric a n Pop.) (1955) 16-45 45+ 2,853,000 780,000 1,494,000 36,500 49.7 46.7 15-24 25-34 35-54 55+ 25+ 1,853,839 2,322,653 2,833,236 711,766 5,867,655 1,013,708 1,296,323 1,424,982 338,391 3,059,696 54.6 55.8 50.2 47.5 52.1 Zambia (1969) 25-34 35-64 65+ 25+ 545,314 842,597 88,673 1,476,584 303,921 401,313 39,699 744,933 55.7 47.6 44.7 50.4 UNESCO: Country Reports 223 i With No 1st Level Schooling X >ta1 Female t I incompietea X X Total Female 2nd Level Completed X X Total Female X % Total Female Post Secondary X Total X Fema 14.2 M 12.7 16.2 79.0 93.6 96.9 94.1 32.3 13.0 7 .5 12.1 19.5 5.7 2 .9 5 .3 2.9 1.3 0 .0 1.1 1.1 0 .4 0.1 0.3 0.6 0 .8 0 .0 0.7 0, 0. 0. 0, Sfi.6 B.9 C.7 7.3 70.0 82.4 91.8 87.8 40.2 28.1 15.4 20.4 28.1 16.2 7 .0 11.0 3 .0 2.6 1.6 2.0 1 .8 1.1 1.0 1.1 0 .2 0 .4 0.3 0.3 0, 0, 0 0 8.3 3.2 10.3 (4.2 R.l 7.1 14.1 32.8 75.5 34.4 80.4 74.0 58.2 25.4 57.2 91.8 84.2 66.6 24.4 64.7 1.3 2 .8 1.4 0 .4 1.6 1.1 1.7 0 .6 0.1 0.9 0 .0 0.1 0.1 0 .0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 H.4 12.3 91.9 96.5 8 .5 2.1 3.1 0 .8 2 .5 1.7 1.3 0 .8 0 .4 1.0 0 0 e.4 8.0 16.4 7.5 74.2 80.4 85.5 78.7 36.8 30.8 23.6 32.1 25.7 19.5 14.5 21.3 0 .9 0.2 0 .0 0 .4 0.1 0 .0 0 .0 0.1 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 0 0 0 1.0 8.2 83.5 96.4 17.6 7 .8 11.6 2 .7 6 .9 1 .9 3.3 0 .5 3 .2 0 .8 1.1 0.3 0 .0 0 .0 0 0 8.0 B.8 1.8 8.4 1.0 90.2 97.5 99.3 99.9 98.6 26.3 14.1 7 .2 1.5 9 .2 0 .5 0 .2 0 .0 0 .0 0.1 2.4 1.2 0 .5 0.1 0.7 0.7 0.1 0 .0 0 .0 0.1 2 .4 1.2 0 .5 0.1 0 .7 0.7 0.1 0 .0 0 .0 0.1 2 .4 1 .2 0 .5 0.1 0 .7 0 0 0 0 G 1.6 1.3 f.8 1.9 67.9 8 5 .8 94.8 79.0 31.2 23.2 10.0 25.4 25.6 11.5 3 .8 16.8 10.4 4 .6 1.3 6 .5 3 .9 1.0 0 .6 2 .2 3 .7 1.1 0 .3 2 .0 0 .8 0.3 0.3 0 .5 0 .7 0 .5 0.1 0 .6 G C C C 7.1 2 .9 3.4 1.4 , (R e f. | Estimated Female Enrollment by Level of Eajcatlon ( C0) . (Thousands; Year 0> M C 0> « U T> T> < O 5 J- 2<0 u < (H) Total 1st Level 2nd Level 3rd Level (M) Total Female as Female % of Total (H) Total Female as Female % of Total (M) Total Female as Female % of Total % of Total 5655 7848 10916 11717 12512 5286 7309 9983 10681 11370 38 39 41 41 41 357 518 900 997 1098 34 32 33 34 35 12 21 33 39 44 21 21 20 21 22 37 38 40 40 41 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 53880 78896 163026 107539 112515 45951 64683 82761 85858 88810 39 40 42 42 42 7369 13152 18436 19617 21399 31 34 35 35 36 560 1060 1829 2064 2306 25 29 30 30 31 38 39 40 40 40 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 87753 103731 113257 113863 115019 60956 66821 69582 68928 67970 49 49 49 49 49 23434 31301 35128 35939 37467 48 48 49 49 49 3363 5609 8547 8996 9582 35 38 41 41 42 48 48 48 48 48 224 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 ol * § MS u Q V « •1 c I I UNESCO: Country reports (Ref. p. 21)