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University Microfilms International 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 USA St. John's Road, Tylers Green High Wycombe, Bucks, England HP10 8HR 7815104 CHARLES* MICHAEL T. AN EVALUATION or f e m a l e r e c r u i t PERFORMANCE a n d MALE/FEMALE r e c r u i t p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e FEHALE TROOPER'S ROLE IN THE 90TH MICHIGAN STATE POLICE TRAINING ACADEMY, MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY# PH.D., 1978 University Microfilms International 300n z t e b r o a d , a n n a h b o r . m m s k k 0 1978 MICHAEL T . CHARLES ALL RIGHTS RESERVED AN EVALUATION OP FEMALE RECRUIT PERFORMANCE AND MALE/FEMALE RECRUIT PERCEPTIONS OF THE FEMALE TROOPER’S ROLE IN THE 90th MICHIGAN STATE POLICE TRAINING ACADEMY By Michael T. Charles A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Social Science 1977 ABSTRACT AN EVALUATION OF FEMALE RECRUIT PERFORMANCE AND MALE/FEMALE RECRUIT PERCEPTIONS OF THE FEMALE TROOPER'S ROLE IN THE 90th MICHIGAN STATE POLICE TRAINING ACADEMY By Michael T. Charles The purpose of this research project was to study female recruits in the 90th recruit school of the Michigan State Police Training Academy. More specifically, this study was designed to consider five major aspects of the training process: (1) comparison of male and female aca­ demic performance; (2) comparison of male and female physical performance; technical performance; (3) comparison of male and female (4) comparison of male and female perceptions of the female trooper's role to determine if inter-sender conflict existed (inter-sender conflict exists when disagreement among members of the role set occurs, i.e., when the focal person and "significant others" do not agree on desired behavior in specific job situations); (5) determination of the effect the academy had on male and female perceptions of the female trooper's role. Michael T. Charles Results indicated that there was no significant difference between male and female recruits in academic performance, technical performance, or the average aggressiveness score, which made up one-half of the phys­ ical performance measure. A statistically significant difference between the sexes on the average ability score, which made up the second half of the physical per­ formance measure, was found. However, due to the lack of operational definitions for both ability and aggressive­ ness, as well as the lack of an interrater reliability measure for the judges scoring the physical measure utilized at the academy, the reliability of the physical measure was brought into question. Qualitative data obtained in the study did, however, support the conten­ tion that female recruits were, overall, not as phys­ ically strong as their male counterparts. In the Pre-Academy Survey a significant differ­ ence between the sexes existed in their perceptions of the female trooper’s physical and general roles, while the technical role measure approached a significant level. On the Post-Academy Survey, all three role mea­ sures were found to differ significantly between the sexes. While male recruits were more restrictive of the female trooper's role on each of the three role measures, the majority of male recruits supported female officers in the general and technical role of the police officer. Michael T. Charles However, it was discovered by the writer that even seem­ ingly small degrees of inter-sender conflict can result in conflict for both the organization and the focal per­ son (the female recruit) herself. Finally, no signifi­ cant change in role perceptions occurred during the academy process. It was felt that male recruits contin­ ued to exclude female officers from the physical function of police work for two major reasons: (1) female recruits, overall, did not perform the physical tasks at the academy as well as did male recruits; and (2) the academy experience was felt to be isolated from the police officer's everyday world of work. Female recruits continuing to report that they felt that female officers could perform the physical role of a police officer were thought to have done so largely because of their success at passing the physical components of the academy. Finally, the successful performance of female recruits in the general and technical role components at the academy was thought to have aided in maintaining general support among both male and female recruits on these role mea­ sures. Thus, inter-sender conflict existed for female recruits at the conclusion of the academy. Results obtained from the Peer Evaluation Form utilized in this project further indicated that male recruits did not accept female troopers as their equals. To Pat and Andy ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS So many individuals have contributed in the preparation of this dissertation that it is practically impossible to give them all credit by name. However, if it were not for the financial support and wholehearted cooperation of the Michigan State Police this disserta­ tion could not have been written. Additional resources in the form of an LEEP fellowship made the final stages of this project far easier than would have otherwise been possible. Conceivably, some of the members of the Michigan State Police may not agree with the findings presented within this text, but the existence of this dissertation is owed as much to them as to myself. I am particularly grateful to Colonel George Halverson, who retired as director of the Michigan State Police in May, 1977, and to the present director, Colonel Gerald Hough, both of whom supported the Michi­ gan State Police Female Trooper Project fully. Further thanks must be afforded Lieutenant Ritchie Davis and Trooper Robert Kraft for their assistance in expediting this research endeavor. A word of thanks must also be extended to those post commanders and troopers in the iii field who provided invaluable input into this project during the pre-testing phase. I would also like to take this opportunity to express my indebtedness to the admin­ istration and staff at the Michigan State Police Training Academy for not only their gracious and warm hospitality, but also for sharing their many years of experience in policing with me. Certainly, without the full support of Captain Charles Weirman, Commanding Officer, Training Division, and Lieutenance William Parviainen, Commanding Officer, Basic and Probationary Training Section, this project could have never been completed. Finally, a word of gratitude must be expressed to the 64 recruits of the 90th Michigan State Police Training Academy for their cooperation and frankness throughout the duration of this project. A special note of thanks must be extended to the members of my dissertation committee: Dr. Terry Moe, Dr. Kenneth Christian, and Dr. Frank Horvath, for their assistance in the development of this study. Also, I would like to thank Dr. John H. McNamara, dissertation committee chairman, for the many hours he spent in aid­ ing me in this work. Although this research project could not have been completed without the aid of numerous individuals, the author must assume the personal and individual responsibility for the contents of this dissertation. iv The material in this project was prepared under a research grant under Grant No. 77-NI-99-0078 from the Office of Education and Manpower Assistance, Law Enforce­ ment Assistance Administration, U.S. Department of Jus­ tice. Researchers engaging in such projects under Government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their projessional judgment. Therefore, points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent the official position or policy of the U.S. Department of Justice. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF T A B L E S ........................................ viii LIST OF A P P E N D I C E S ................................... xi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ................................ 1 Need and I m p o r t a n c e ...................... 7 Purpose ................................... 10 T h e o r y ...................................... 11 Physiological Comparison of Men and W o m e n ................................ 12 T r a i n i n g ................................... 15 Intellectual Differences Between S e x e s ................................... 20 Women's R o l e ............................. 23 Role A c q u i s i t i o n ..........................26 M o t i v a t i o n ................................ 28 C o n c l u s i o n ................................... 31 II. REVIEW OF THE L I T E R A T U R E ....................... 35 ................ 38 Police Academy Training Female Police Officer Performance on the R o a d ................................... 45 Female Performance in the Academy and on the R o a d ................................ 63 C o n c l u s i o n ................................... 70 H y p o t h e s e s ................................... 73 III. M E T H O D O L O G Y ....................................79 Participant Observation ................ 81 Questionnaires ......................... 84 Recruit Profile ......................... 90 S a m p l e ...................................... 95 Training Staff ......................... 98 Training Facility ...................... 100 A t m o s p h e r e .................................. 101 vi Page Chapter Research Team/Academy Staff Relations . . 103 Research Team/Recruit Relations . . . . 105 Compensating for Methodological W e a k n e s s ................................... 108 Data A n a l y s i s ............................. Ill IV. RESEARCH PROCEDURES AND FINDINGS . . . . 117 Hypothesis Group I ......................... 118 Data C o l l e c t i o n ...................... 118 ............................ 121 Hypothesis 1 Hypothesis 2 ............................ 126 Hypotheses 3a and 3b: Physical M e a s u r e s ............................. 131 Hypothesis Group I I ......................... 137 Data C o l l e c t i o n ...................... 137 Hypothesis 1 ............................ 141 Hypothesis 2 ............................ 154 Hypothesis 3 ............................ 166 Hypothesis 4 ............................ 175 Summary of R e s u l t s .......................178 V. D I S C U S S I O N ................................ 182 Performance Measures ................... 182 Role M e a s u r e s ............................. 18 3 Significant Others' Effect on Role Definitions of Recruits ................ 187 Role C o n f l i c t ................................189 Recommendations .......................... 191 Additional Avenues for Research . . . . 191 A Comparison of Findings ................ 193 Study L i m i t a t i o n s ......................... 200 Future of Women in P o l i c i n g ............. 201 A P P E N D I C E S .......................................... 205 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................... vii 238 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Page Comparison of Physical Measurements of Women With M e n .................................13 4.1 Recruits' Sex by Average Academic Score 4.2 Recruits' Sex by Spelling Score . 4.3 Recruits' Sex by Civil Disorder Score . 4.4 . . . . . . . 122 122 . 124 Recruits' Sex by Firearms S c o r e ............... 124 4.5 Recruits' Sex by Average Technical Score . . 127 4.6 Recruits' Sex by Controlled Weaving Score . 128 4.7 Recruits' Sex by Precision Driving Score . . 128 4.8 Police Experience of Male Recruits by Average Score for Precision Driving . . . 129 Police Experience of Female Recruits by Average Score for Precision Driving . . . 129 4.10 Recruits' Sex by Average Ability Score . . 132 4.11 Recruits' Sex by Defensive Tactics ............................. Ability Score 4.9 133 4.12 Recruits' Sex by Average Aggressiveness S c o r e ......................................... 134 4.13 Recruits' Sex by Defensive Tactics Aggressiveness Score ....................... 135 Alpha Coefficients for Study Questionnaires ............................. 140 Difference Between Male and Female Recruits' Perceptions on the Physical Role Measure at the Beginning of the Academy . . . . 142 4.14 4.15 viii Page Male and Female Recruits* Perceptions of the Female Trooper's Ability to Lift Heavy Objects, in the Pre-Academy Survey 143 Differences Between Male and Female Recruits1 Perceptions on the General Role Measure, at the Beginning of the Academy ................................. 144 Male and Female Recruits1 Perceptions of the Female Trooper's Ability to Maintain Personal Control Under Stressful Condi­ tions, in the Pre-Academy Survey . 148 Difference Between Male and Female Recruits' Perceptions on the Technical Role Measure, at the Beginning of the Academy . 151 Male and Female Perceptions of the Female Trooper's Ability to Operate a Patrol Vehicle Safely, in the Pre-Academy Survey . 152 Male and Female Perceptions of the Female Trooper's Ability in Verbally Expressing Thoughts, in the Pre-Academy Survey . 153 Male and Female Perceptions of the Female Trooper's Ability in Testifying in Court, in the Pre-Academy Survey . 153 Difference Between Male and Female Recruits' Perceptions on the Physical Role Measure, at the Conclusion of the Academy . 156 Male and Female Recruits' Perceptions of the Female Trooper's Ability to Lift Heavy Objects, in the Post-Academy Survey . 157 Difference Between Male and Female Recruits' Perceptions on the General Role Measure, at the Conclusion of the Academy . 159 Male and Female Recruits' Perceptions of the Female Trooper's Ability to Deal Effec­ tively With Traffic Violators and to Issue Citations, on the Post-Academy Survey 160 ix Page Table 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 Difference Between Male and Female Recruits' Perceptions on the Technical Role Measure, at the Conclusion of the Academy . 162 Male and Female Recruits' Perceptions of the Female Trooper's Ability to Testify in Court, on the Post-Academy Survey 163 Male Recruits' Perceptions in the Pre- and Post-Academy Surveys on the General ............................ Role Measure 168 Male Recruits' Perceptions in the Pre- and Post-Academy Surveys on the Technical Role Measure ............................ 168 Female Recruits' Perceptions in the Preand Post-Academy Surveys on the Physical Role Measure ............................ 169 / 4.32 4.33 4.34 Female Recruits' Perceptions in the Preand Post-Academy Surveys on the General Role Measure ............................ 169 Female Recruits' Perceptions in the Preand Post-Academy Surveys on the Tehnical Role Measure ............................ 170 Male Recruits' Acceptance of Female Recruits as Equals ...................... 173 x LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Michigan Department of State Police, Training Division, Recruit School C u r r i c u l u m ...................................206 B. Recruit Background andPerformance Form C. Pre-Academy Survey . 211 .......................... 215 D. Post-Academy Survey .......................... 221 E. Academy Recruit Survey........................ 227 F. Questionnaire Items Included in Role M e a s u r e s ...................................... 234 G. Peer Evaluation Form, Michigan State Police, Training Division ......................... xi . 236 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The introduction of females into the police func­ tion in the United States occurred in 1845, when the first six prison matrons were hired by the City of New York. Since that time females have been advancing and expanding their role within the police milieu. For example, throughout the 1870's and 1880's the concept of the female prison matron spread to such an extent that in 1888 New York and Massachusetts passed laws that made it mandatory for all cities within their boundaries with a population over 20,000 to hire police matrons to care for female prisoners. In 1893 the mayor of Chicago appointed Marie Owens, the widow of a police officer, to the detective bureau of the police department. She was carried on the police payroll for 30 years as a "patrolman.” Mrs. Owens' duties as a patrolman were to visit courts and assist fellow detectives in cases involving women and children. In 1905, in Portland, Oregon, Lola Baldwin was given police powers to deal more effectively and authori­ tatively with the problems of girls and young women. 1 2 Mrs. Baldwin's efforts proved so effective that the city of Portland immediately organized a Department of Public Safety, which was later incorporated by charter into the police department, for the protection of young girls and women.1 The Los Angeles Police Department is credited with hiring the first regularly rated policewoman in the United States in 1910. Alice Stebbins Wells, a graduate theological student and social worker, obtained her posi­ tion by addressing a petition, containing the signatures of 100 influential citizens and civic organizations, to the city council asking for an ordinance creating the position of policewoman. The major responsibilities ascribed to Mrs. Wells included the supervision and enforcement of laws concerning juveniles and women in dance halls, skating rinks, movie theaters, and other 2 recreational establishments. Another important step in the advancement of women within policing occurred on May 17, 1915; on this day ^Lois Higgins, "Historical Background of Police­ women's Service," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science 41 (1951): 823. There are numerous publi­ cations reporting the history of policewomen in the United States; see Chloe Owings, Women Police (Montclair, New Jersey: Patterson, Smith, 1968); Lois Higgins, Police­ woman' s Manual (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas, 1961); Eleanore Hutzel, The Policewoman's Handbook (Worchester, Mass.: Columbia University Press, 1933). 2 Peter P. Horne, "The Role of Women in Law Enforcement," The Police Chief (July 1973): 61. 3 the International Association of Policewomen was organ­ ized. This Association contributed greatly to the advance­ ment of women in policing through its constant search for improved standards and its concern for the betterment of policewomen. 3 Unfortunately, because of the lack of funding during the Depression, the organization was unable to continue its existence. Problems arising during World War I catapulted females into the police function. Women were employed by the Law Enforcement Division of the Commission on Training Camp Activities to keep prostitutes away from military camps, return runaway women and girls to their homes, and supervise commercial amusements near military bases. The outstanding work done by these female offi­ cers convinced officials in more than 200 towns and cities to employ women in their police departments to work with women and children offenders. At its 1922 convention, the International Asso­ ciation of Chiefs of Police passed a resolution stating that policewomen are essential to modern police depart­ ments and offered standards for qualification, selec­ tion, and training of policewomen. In 1967, the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Adminis­ tration of Justice suggested that not only are policewomen O Lois L. Higgins, "The Feminine Force in Crime Prevention," The Police Yearbook (1958): 104. 4 an invaluable asset to modern law enforcement, but also that their role should be broadened in the police 4 function. Although advances have been made in the use of female officers m the United States, 5 the role of policewomen is still largely based upon tradi­ tional modes of thought. Today, as in years past, females are largely restricted to such areas as juvenile work, matron duty, crimes involving females, and clerical tasks. But society has entered a new era, an era in which the women's liberation movement has 4 The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report; The Police (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 125. ^Numerous police agencies have extended the role of female officers to include road patrol? see Interna­ tional City Management Association, "Women in Law Enforce­ ment," Management Information Service Report 5 (September 1973): 2-3; International Association of Chiefs of Police and the Police Foundation, Deployment of Female Police Officers in the United States (Washington, D.C.; Inter­ national Association of Chiefs of Police, 1974), passim. Although the number of women used in police departments has grown, an IACP survey conducted in 1967 of 161 police departments reported that there were only 1,792 female police officers with full police powers employed in these departments. The proportion of females on the force ranged from 1/20 of one percent to a high of 2-1/4 per­ cent. For further discussion of the use of females in police departments throughout the country see Theresa M. Melchionne, "The Current Status and Problems of Women Police," The Police Yearbook (1967): 115? Peter Horne, "Policewomen and international Women's Year," Law and Order (October 1975): 66; John O. Smykla, "Preliminary Analysis of Employment and Deployment of Women in Michigan Law Enforcement" (East Lansing, Michigan, 1975), pp. 5-6. (Mimeographed.) 5 gained momentum, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 came into existence, and the Supreme Court spe­ cifically applied the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex.^ These movements have all aided in the pro­ mulgation and implementation of female police officers into the primary function of the police--patrol. Although a few females have made inroads into the police patrol function, it is an accomplishment that has met with serious opposition. Resistance to placing females in the patrol function is common from many seg­ ments of society; the most vocal opposition, however, comes from male patrol officers. A major reason for this reaction is based on the unanswered question, "Can a woman perform as well as a man when placed in a patrol situation?"7 To date relatively few attempts have been made to determine the role female police officers should play in today's modern police organization, and equally few studies concentrating on the performance of females in **For a summary of the rights afforded females see Catherine Milton et a l ., Women in Policing; A Manual (Washington, D.C.; Police Foundation, 1974), pp. 49-60; International Association of Chiefs of Police and the Police Foundation, "Deployment of Female Police Officers in the United States," pp. 39-54. 7 Theresa Melchionne, "The Changing Role of Police­ women," The Police Journal (October 1974): 340. 6 any aspect of the police function. The importance of continued research on females in all aspects of the police organization cannot be denied. The National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals pointed out that "Police administrators must deter­ mine whether expansion of the woman's role will further O the cause of efficient police service." In a similar vein, Perlstein suggested that "Only research can provide the necessary information regarding what role the policewoman should be allowed to perform in q law enforcement." Finally, Melchionne stated that realistically " . . . any appraisal of policewomen street patrol must be studied in a variety of urban settings."1*5 Taken to their logical conclusion, these statements would suggest that researching all areas related to the per­ formance of female police officers is essential for the development of an efficient police organization. Even though a strong argument can be made for studying females in any segment of the police function, this study was designed to focus on the physical, academic, 8 National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Police (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 342. g Gary R. Perlstein, "Policewomen and Policemen: A Comparative Look," The Police Chief (March 1972): 73. l0Melchionne, "The Changing Role of Policewomen," p. 341. 7 and technical performance of female recruits in the 90th Michigan State Police recruit school. In addition, this research project concentrated on the role perceptions of both male and female recruits within this academy. Need and Importance In late 1975 the Michigan State Police found themselves in a legal battle over reverse discrimination charges that had been filed against them. Until the dis­ crimination charges were resolved, a Michigan district court ordered that the Michigan State Police discontinue academy training for newly hired police personnel. Resolution of this conflict came in the form of a consent decree that was entered into by the State of Michigan, the Director of State Police, and the Director of the Michigan Civil Service Commission with the United States District Court, Western District of Michigan, Southern Division. This consent decree stated, among other things, that the Michigan State Police " . . . will adopt and seek to achieve a goal of graduating at least fifty {50) women into the position of Trooper 07 over the next four academy classes." 11 Because of the Department of State Police's con­ cern for maintaining its traditionally highly rated 1;LUnited States of America v. State of Michigan et al., Consent Decree, Civil Action No. G75-472-CA5, pp. 5-6. (1976). 8 service to the public, officer safety, and public protec­ tion, departmental administrators believe that the intro­ duction of females into the state police trooper road patrol function requires an analysis of females' per­ formance in this new position. State police administra­ tors contend that this analysis should begin during the early stages of the female officer's career, at the academy. Studying the performance of females in the academy and role perceptions of both male and female recruits during their three-month training period may provide useful information to the Department's decision makers. A second reason for providing such a study was alluded to earlier. As a result of the lack of research on females in the police function, it is imperative that all aspects of the females' professional police career be researched. The performance of females in the police academy and the role perceptions of male and female police recruits are perhaps the least researched topics on females in the police function. An analysis of female police recruits should demonstrate, at least to some extent, the female recruit's acceptableness as a trainable apprentice in the occupation of policing. Specifically, there is general agreement among police personnel that academy training is isolated from the 9 police officer's everyday world of work. 12 However, the academy does perform at least two major functions: (1) it attempts to identify those participants who are emotionally, academically, or physically incapable of performing job tasks required of police officers; and (2) the academy serves as a rite de passage in the policing milieu. In fact, the latter function, which serves as a means of strengthening group cohesiveness and solidarity, appears to be the overriding purpose of training in police academies. The symbolic importance of the academy experi­ ence for the state police became apparent early in the development of this research project. For example, through interviews with state police personnel it was discovered that any changes in academy training, with particular reference to the demanding physical aspects of the training process, have, in the past, consistently met with resistance from state police troopers. However, the only suggestions given the researchers by state police administrators were that the research team should be cautious when they considered the boxing segment of 12 See, for example, Arthur Niederhoffer, Behind the Shield: The Police in Urban Society (Garden city, N.Y.: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1967), pp. 44, 47; William A. Westley, Violence and the Police (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1970), p. 156;^Richard N. Harris, The Police Academy: An Inside View (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1^73), p. 168. 10 training program. The importance linked with boxing by the state police was not related to its actual merit to the officer on patrol, but to its symbolic nature in the masculine environment of the state police. Studying female recruits should therefore provide information on women's ability to successfully complete certain pre-defined aspects of the training process, and provide an indication of male recruit acceptance of female recruits in the police environment, as defined by research constraints. Purpose The purpose of this research project was to study female recruits in the 90th recruit school of the Michi­ gan State Police Training Academy. More specifically, this study was designed to consider five major aspects of the training process: (1) comparison of male and female physical performance; (2) comparison of male and female academic performance; (3) comparison of male and female technical performance; (4) comparison of male and female perceptions of the female trooper's role to determine if inter-sender conflict exists. Inter-sender conflict exists when members of the role set (the role set is limited in this study to male and female recruits in the 90th Michigan State Police Training Academy) to agree on a consistent role definition. fail Inter-sender 11 conflict is therefore said to exist among recruits in this study when either (a) male recruits disagree with female recruits on the proper role of female troopers, (b) when female recruits disagree among themselves as to what the proper role of the female trooper should be, or (c) when both male and female recruits disagree among one another as to what the proper role of female troopers should be; (5) determination of the effect the academy experience has on male and female perceptions of the female trooper1s role. Theory Evidence presented in this section demonstrates that sex-roles are closely related to the culture in which the individual is raised, and that opposing cul­ tures ascribe differing sex-role behavior to their mem­ bers. Therefore, a study of this kind is culturally linked in the sense that the cultural beliefs influence study design. For example, in certain cultures it would be unthinkable to compare the performance of females as compared to males in physical labor, because cultural beliefs are such that women are considered more fit for heavy labor than are men. In fact, in the cultures just discussed, the appropriate research quesion would be to ask, "Could males perform physical tasks as well as women?" In other cultures the research question would 12 not be concerned with the issues of either physical or academic performance because the sexes are considered equal on these measures. The cultural beliefs of American society suggest that a relevant study of females in the police academy concentrate on (1) a comparison of female recruit per­ formance as compared to male recruit performance in the police academy, and (2) the acceptance of female officers in the traditionally masculine police function by male officers. It is for this reason that the research proj­ ect was designed to compare male and female performance and to determine if role disparity existed among recruits in the 90th Michigan State Police Training Academy. Physiological Comparison of Men and Women The work of Anna Baetjer provides a scientific analysis of the physical differences between the sexes. For example, Baetjer pointed out that although the average weight of women in slightly less than that of men of similar height, women on the whole are approxi­ mately 85% as heavy as men because men's average height is greater.13 The difference in strength between the sexes, however, is quite marked: 13 Anna M. Baetjer, Women in Industry: Their Health and Efficiency (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, , p. 7. 13 When measured by their ability to lift a weight or to grip or pull against a resistance, women show only between fifty-five and sixty-five per cent as much strength as men [Table 1.1]. . . . The ratio of their strength to their weight is less than that of men. . . . In running also and to a greater extent in walking upgrade on a treadmill women have been shown to be inferior to men. ^ Thus Baetjer concluded that females are not able to per form the same degree of physical labor as men. Table 1.1.--Comparison of physical measurements of women with men. Stature (inches) Height, sitting (inches) Span (inches) Breathing capacity (cubic inches) Strength of pull (pounds) Squeeze (strongest hand) (pounds) Swiftness of blow (feet per second) Male Female 67.9 36.0 69.9 219.0 74.0 85.0 18.1 63.3 33.9 63.0 138.0 40.0 52.0 13.4 SOURCE: Anna M. Baetjer, Women in Industry: Their Health and Efficiency (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1946), p. 7T Studies performed on athletes have provided further data on the physical characteristics and/or capa­ bilities of men and women. In Plowman's study of male and female athletes and nonathletes she found that the female athlete was superior to her nonathlete counter­ part in strength, aerobic capacity (prolonged work), iL.,, Ibid. 14 normal tolerance for lactic acid (a physiological measure of work load) and 02 depth (a physiological measure of an individual's ability to sustain heavy, prolonged work), and lower fat-free body mass (amount of adipose tissue 15 present in the body). In these respects the female athlete was also well above the average of many untrained males; however, when compared to her male athlete counter­ part the female athlete, at the onset of puberty, tended to possess less strength and muscle and lower values for cardiovascular-respiratory variables, both aerobic and anaerobic (short bursts of a c t i v i t y ) C a r d i o v a s c u l a r respiratory variables are used as measures of fitness. Whether a high or a low cardiovascular-respiratory value is an indication of a high or low degree of fitness is dependent on the particular measure incorporated. In Astrand's report comparing numerous physio­ logical characteristics on the basis of sex, he dis­ covered that the aerobic capacity of females was lower 15 Sharon Plowman, "Physiological Characteristics of Female Athletes," The Research Quarterly (December 1963): 349-62. See also Henrietta H. Avent et al., "Cardiovas­ cular Characteristics of Selected Track Participants in the First Annual DGWS Track and Field Meet," The Research Quarterly (December 1971): 440-43; Lars Hermansen and K. Danger Andersen, "Aerobic Work Capacity in Young Norwegian Men and Women," Journal of Applied Physiology (May 1965): 425-31; Patricia R. Conger and Ross B. J. Macnab, "Strength, Body Composition, and Work Capacity of Participants and Nonparticipants in Women's Inter­ collegiate Sports," The Research Quarterly (May 1967) : 184-92. *6Plowman, "Physiological Characteristics of Female Athletes," p. 356. 15 than that of males 17 (17 to 29% lower) . Further analy­ sis revealed that under similar work conditions males exhibited a lower heart rate than females, suggesting that males are more fit. (1) Astrand also noted that: as a rule females have a higher blood lactic acid value than men, which indicates that women must work harder to perform similar tasks; (2) females develop between 60 and 80% of the degree of strength that men do, depending on the muscle group studied; (3) the average hemoglobin content of the blood is higher in males, an indication that more oxygen can be carried in the blood stream of males; and (4) females have a lower fat-free body mass, the total weight of adipose tissue in males being 12.3 kilograms whereas for females it is 19.8 kilograms. Astrand and others have suggested that body 18 fat hinders fitness. Astrand thus concluded that "men 19 are, nevertheless, better working machines than women." Training The previous section suggested that females are not capable of either the aerobic or anaerobic capacity of 17P. O. Astrand, "Human Physical Fitness With Special Reference to Sex and Age," Physiological Reviews (July 1956): 307-35. 1A Ibid., p. 313; Plowman, "Physiological Char­ acteristics of Female Athletes," p. 350. 19Astrand, "Human Physical Fitness With Special Reference to Sex and Age," p. 314. 16 males. This, however, cannot be taken prima facie as an indication of the inability of women to perform in the police patrol function. In order to make some determi­ nation of the ability or expected performance of females in this position, it is first necessary to determine the degree of physical fitness needed to perform effectively the work of a patrol officer. Determining this is no easy task, for as Johnson stated: Quantitative assessment of physical fitness is one of the most complex and controversial problems in applied physiology. The situation arises in part from lack of general agreement on what con­ stitutes fitness for withstanding various types of stress, and in part from lack of agreement on what measurements allow valid comparison to be made among different individuals exposed to the same stress.20 Although it is extremely difficult to define in physiological terms the degree of physical fitness needed to be a patrol officer, there are numerous indications that the police patrol function is largely not of an aerobic nature, and only partly of an anaerobic nature. 21 20 Robert E. Johnson, "Applied Physiology," Annual Review of Physiology 8 (1946): 535-36. 21 for a discussion of the type of work performed by police patrol officers see Ronald G. Talney, "Women in Law Enforcement: An Expanded Role," Police (NovemberDecember 1969): 50; International City Management Asso­ ciation, "Women in Law Enforcement," p. 3; Richard A. Myren and Lynn D. Swanson, "Police Contacts With Juveniles: Perspectives, Guidelines," 2nd Review Draft, June 1961 (Washington, D.C.: Children's Bureau, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1961), pp. 1-4, cited by Niederhoffer, Behind the Blue Shield: The Police in 17 In fact, in a study Hettinger conducted on 96 Philadel­ phia policemen, he found that the oxygen uptake of these Urban Society, p. 75; Elaine Cununing, Ian Cumming, and Laura Edell, "Policemen as Philospher, Guide and Friend,” Social Problems (Winter 1965): 276-86. In their empiri­ cal study of the Syracuse Police Department, Cumming, Cumming, and Edell found that only 20 percent of the telephone calls received by the department in an eighthour period were related to crime or violence. Harris, The Police Academy: An Inside View, p. 159. James Q. Wilson, Varieties of Police Behavior (Cambridge, Mass . : Har­ vard University Press, 1968), p. 19; Egon Bittner, "The Police on Skid-Row: A Study of Peace-Keeping,” American Socio­ logical Review (October 1967): 699-715; James F. Ahern, Police m Trouble (New York: Hawthorn Books, Inc., 1972), p. 168; Howard H. Earle, Police Recruit Training Stress vs. Nonstress: A Revolution in Law Enforcement Career Programs (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C . Thomas, 1973), p. 6; Thomas E. Bercal, "Calls for Police Assis­ tance: Consumer Demands for Governmental Service,” American Behavioral Scientist (May, June, July, August 1970): 681-dl; Marvin Cummins, "Police and Service Work," in Police in Urban Society, ed. Harlan Hahn (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1971), pp. 279-90; Harlan Hahn, "The Public and the Police," in Police in Urban Society, ed. Harlan Hahn, pp. 9-33; John Webster, "Police Task and Time Study," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science (March 1970): 94-100; A. C. Germann^ "Community Policing: An Assessment," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science (March rSTSTn 89-86; Morton Bard, " Iatrogenic Violence," The Police Chief (January 1971): 16-17; Albert Reiss, The Police and the Public (New Haven: Hale University Press, 1971), p. 71; The President's Commission on Law Enforce­ ment and Administration of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 91. Research conducted in the Nether­ lands found that only about 5.5% of the work done by Dutch police officers is crime related; see J. Junger-Tas, A. A. v.d. Zee-Nefkens, and L. Smits, "Basic Police Train­ ing and Police Performance in the Netherlands,” paper pre­ sented at the American Sociological Convention, Tucson, Arizona, 1976. It might also be noted that "Physical strength, for example, has never been shown to be jobrelated to police functioning"; see Lewis J. Sherman, "A Psychological View of Women in Policing," Journal of Police Science and Administration (December 1973): T90. 18 subjects was quite low and that they had poor physical fitness. 22 Hermansen compared Hettinger's findings with his conclusions and Astrand's: For American men, considerably lower values are reported. Ninety-six policemen in Philadel­ phia, studied by Hettinger. . . , averaged only 2.2 liter/min 02* The average figure for our women students is 2.2 liter/min, which is essen­ tially the same as reported for Swedish house­ wives. Hence, even though females may not be capable of attaining the maximal fitness of their male counterparts there is certainly some indication that the fitness needed to be a patrol officer is not beyond the capacity of many females. Earlier research reported here demon­ strated that trained females were superior to their untrained female counterparts in most physiological mea­ sures. Evidence also indicated that trained females were well above the average fitness of most men. Thus, through proper training it is conceivable that females could be brought up to the fitness required for the job of patrol officer. Training procedures should not be thought of exclusively as a measure to increase aerobic capacity or 22Theodor Hettinger et al., "Assessment of Physical Work Capacity," Journal of Applied Physiology (January-November 1961): 155. 23Hermansen and Andersen, "Aerobic Work Capacity in Young Norwegian Men and Women," p. 429. 19 endurance. Technical training is a form of training designed to improve dexterity; thus, through proper technical training task efficiency may be increased, which according to Astrand means that " . . . low aerobic [and anaerobic] capacity can be compensated for to some extent if the individual works economically. . . .1,24 In fact, Astrand further stated, "If a given task is of a technical nature, the person with low fitness may pos­ sibly, by training, fulfill it more easily than the per25 son with high fitness who is a beginner." Considering the fact that differences based on sex are less in 26 anaerobic measures, that trained women are more physically fit than untrained women and above the average fitness of most untrained men, and that technical train­ ing can compensate somewhat for a lack of aerobic and anaerobic capacity, it is quite possible that women could effectively perform the work required of patrol officers. Finally, it must not go unnoticed that fitness, anatomical factors, and technical training are not the only variables that affect work capacity. Motivation to 24Astrand, "Human Physical Fitness With Special Reference to Sex and Age," p. 316. 25Ibid., p. 307. nc Plowman, "Physiological Characteristics of Female Athletes," p. 356. 20 perform well is an additional factor that influences work capacity. The topic of motivation is discussed at some length later in this chapter. Intellectual Differences Between Sexes There is some consensus among research findings that "generally females score higher than males on mea­ sures of some types of verbal abilities, perceptual speed, rote memory, and manual dexterity. Males typically score higher than females on measures of spatial ability, 27 numerical reasoning, and scientific knowledge." However, it has been suggested by some authors that scores obtained on cognitive abilities of men and women are affected by 2g variant conditions and items included in the tests. It should also be noted that, given our present methods of measurement, it is impossible to measure pure native intelligence. An individual's performance always reflects native capacity and the experiences he/she has under29 gone; hence differences reported on aptitude tests 27 Elaine Donelson and Jeanne E. Gullahorn, "Part Two: Psychobiological Foundations of Sex-Typed Behavior, in Women: A Psychological Perspective, ed. Elaine Donelson and Jeanne E. Gullahorn (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1977), p. 35. 28 Mirra Konarovsky, "Where Angels Fear to Tread," in Womankind: Beyond the Stereotypes, ed. Nancy Reeve (Chicago: Aldine and Atherton, 1971), p. 304; Mildred E. Katzell and William C. Byham, Women in the Work Force (New York: Behavioral Publications, Inc., 1972), p. 30. ^Katzell and Byham, Women in the Work Force, p. 29. 21 cannot be attibuted wholly to inborn characteristics, but certainly must be accounted for in part by the dif­ ferent upbringing of the sexes.3** Thus, although the present data provide no conclusive results concerning innate cogitative ability, they do indicate that One prediction may be safely made. If ever con­ firmed, these inborn differences will be small. . . . Today, despite great divergencies in the social influences impinging upon them, men and women show, with one or two exceptions, such great similarities in tests of mental aptitudes. It is important to consider that research findings have demonstrated that differences in cognitive ability are more marked among members of the same sex than between the sexes. 32 It is therefore advisable, when considering cog­ nitive skills, to make decisions of employment, admissions to institutions of higher learning, and training programs on an individual basis rather than on the basis of sex. In Judith Galloway's analysis of women's academic ability or potential in the U.S. Air Force Academy, she concluded; 30 Konarovsky, "Where Angels Fear to Tread," p. 307. 31Ibid., p. 309; Helen Bee, The Developing Child (New York; Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., 1975), p. 356. 32 Konarovsky, "Where Angels Fear to Tread," p. 304; L. E. Tyler, "Individual Differences: Sex Differences," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York; Macmillan Company and The Free Press, 1968), p. 209. 22 CEEB [College Entrance Examination Board] scores are generally valid indicators of academic success. It must, therefore, be concluded that women academy cadets will successfully compete with the men. A look at the actual academic achievement by women at Yale seems to support this premise. Women earned 5% more As in the beginning of coeducation, decreasing to 3% after four years. They earned an equal number of Bs and 5% fewer Cs. The women earned one-half as many Fs in the beginning, but this equalized over four years.33 In sum, evidence indicates that females do score lower than males in areas such as mathematics and that they tend to score above their male counterparts on tests of verbal aptitude. This phenomenon can, to a large extent, be attributed to environmental influences, self-image, and the level of aspiration present, all directly related to motivation to perform. 34 The differences between the sexes on intelligence measures are for the most part quite small; in fact, variations in intelligence are more marked with­ in each sex than between the sexes. Therefore, when con­ sidering cognitive skills, the selection of candidates should stress differences based on the individual, not differences based on sex. The logical conclusion to be reached is that there is little overall difference between the cognitive abilities of men and women. 33 Judith M. Galloway, "The Impact of the Admis­ sion of Women to the Service Academies on the Role of the Woman Line Officer," American Behavioral Scientist (MayJune 1976): 651-52. 34 Konarovsky, "Where Angels Fear to Tread," p. 309. W o m e n 1s Role The traits dominant in the roles prescribed for women in the United States are related primarily to such things as interpersonal warmth and social concerns. Males, on the other hand, are generally concerned with or oriented toward achievement and personal competence. Women are therefore expected to be sensitive, emotional, and gentle; men are expected to be independent, selfconfident, and ambitious. 35 This does not mean, however, that females have been restricted to these role traits throughout American history, that these role traits are common between cultures, nor that they will remain con­ sistent in the years ahead; in fact, the role of women in America today is in a state of flux. The dramatic increase of females in the American labor force graphic­ ally illustrates that both the social and economic roles of women have been changing in this country. The efforts of women over the ages of ten have been left unsaid and forgotten. However, throughout history accounts have been recorded of women as warriors, hunters priestesses, and queens. In African history, for example 35 Jeanne E. Gullahorn, "Understanding the Psy­ chology of Women," in Women: A Psychological Perspective, ed. Donelson and Gullahorn, p.