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University Microfiims International 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 USA St. John's Road, Tyler's Green High Wycombe. Bucks, England HP10 8HR R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7815175 TODD* HARRY ALBERT A COMPARXSDH o r BELR.RERCEIVED NEEDS AMONG SENIOR CITIZENS RROM MICHIGAN WITH THE RENCERTIONS o r RELATED AGENCY PERSONNEL. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY, PH.O,,' Î97S UnlversiN Micfdvilms InternâtiOrVclJ aoq W Z t e a m O A D A N N A R B O R . M l *8 1 0 6 © C o p y r i g h t by HARRY ALBERT TODD 1977 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A COMPARISON OP SELP-PERCEIVED NEEDS AMONG SENIOR CITIZENS PROM MICHIGAN WITH THE PERCEPTIONS OP RELATED AGENCY PERSONNEL By Harry Albert Todd A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1977 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT A COMPARISON OP SELF-PERCEIVED NEEDS AMONG SENIOR CITIZENS FROM MICHIGAN WITH THE PERCEPTIONS OF RELATED AGENCY PERSONNEL By Harry Albert Todd The purposes of this study were as follows; (1) to develop, by means of the nominal group process developed by Delbecq and Van de Ven, 1 a profile of the educational and cultural needs of senior citizens (sixty years of age and over) by assessing what senior citizens and senior citizen agency experts say are the seniors’ needs; (2 ) to compare the opinions of the above-mentioned groups with college offerings; (3 ) to devise a questionnaire to be sent to Michigan community colleges as a basis for appraising the nature and range of current senior citizen offerings and whether college personnel are in tune with the needs of older Americans; and (4) to propose a model for assessing needs for building an educational and cultural program based on senior citizens’ needs as reported by themselves and by agency experts. The format of the nominal group process began with groups of five to nine people who attempted in ten to fif­ teen minutes to write on paper as many ideas as possible as to what educational and cultural needs they thought senior citizens had. A group leader then had each member tell in round-robin fashion one item from his list so that it could R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Harry Albert Todd be recorded on wall charts for all to see; until all ideas had been listed. this was done After a brief opportunity to clarify the meaning of any item, group members were asked to list on ten three-by-five cards the ten most important items and then rank each item (one per card) in order of im­ portance. A first choice was worth ten points, a tenth choice worth one point. Rank choices were posted on wall charts and then tabulated. Items with the most points were then ranked in order from first to tenth. A brief evalua­ tion form was distributed to each participant to determine his evaluation of the meeting. When all mentioned items were divided into ten cate­ gories, the higher income senior citizens had a higher per­ centage of interest in, or concern for, academic courses, emotional needs, services, and miscellaneous items than did lower income seniors, who indicated a higher percentage of interest in hobbies and cultural activities. When compared to senior citizens, the agency group rated each category within 5 per cent of the senior citizen rating, with the exception of the academic category, which the agency group overrated by 12 per cent. Of twenty-nine questionnaires sent, twenty-six were returned. Responding colleges were scheduling only 60 per cent of the top ten ranked needs expressed by older Ameri­ cans. Twenty-six per cent of the responding colleges pro­ vided no special programming for senior citizens; two said that it was against their philosophy to offer age-segregated R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Harry Albert Todd courses. Ten or more offerings were provided by 46 per cent, The senior citizen groups showed that the top ten ranked educational and cultural interests were these: health and/or nutrition; and positive attitudes; ment; crafts and hobbies; adjustment taxes, wills, investment manage­ part-time Jobs and services; films; planning for retirement and developing outside interests; fear of aging and dying; senior citizens; seminar on community resource listings for and security and protection. Agency groups selected nine of the ten choices selected by senior citizens. The administrator could use this study as a model for planning an effective educational and cultural program for senior citizens. Pooled results from two or three different agency or advisory-type groups would provide a solid founda­ tion for course offerings with which to begin a program. Administrators could also use the NGP for solving some in-house organization problems, long range planning for institutional priorities, and faculty development programs. Andre L. Delbecq and Andrew H. Van de Ven, "A Group Process Model for Problem Identification and Program Plan­ ning," The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 7:4 (July/August, 1971), 467I R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. To the one true God, Who so loved the world that He gave His only Son so that all who would believe in Him might not perish but have everlasting life. John 3:16 ii R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my grateful appreciation to all of those who assisted me in completing this doctoral program. My family, consisting of sons Mark and Michael and my wife, Sandra, gave me much encouragement and support while putting up with many inconveniences to accomplish a goal. Many thanks go to my committee members, Walter Johnson, Van Johnson, John Howell, Max Raines (committee chairman), and James Nelson (my first committee chairman). It was the appreciation of the problems of retirement faced by my parents, Loren and Naomie Todd, and my wife’s parents, Ted and Marie Druck, that led to the development of this project. Their support has been greatly appreciated. iii R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OP CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PAGE INTRODUCTION ................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ..................... Need for the S t u d y ....................... Rationale for Community College Involvement II. 1 3 . 5 Purposes of the S t u d y ...................... 7 Methodology for the Study .................. 8 Limitations of the Study .................... 9 Definitions of Terms ........................ 10 Organization of the S t u d y ............... 12 REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE................... 13 Literature on A g i n g ................... . l4 Society's attitudes toward the senior citizen ........................... l4 Population changes for the aging .......... 20 Changes in the vigorous life span ofman . Nursing homes . 23 ............................. Stages in the life of m a n ............. 28 29 Contributing factors to a long life . . . . 31 Myths about a g i n g ..................... 35 Theories of a g i n g ..................... 38 Aging and s e n i l i t y ..................... 46 iv R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER PAGE Age discrimination......................... 48 Retirement planning programs ............... 50 Early r e t i r e m e n t ........................... 54 Employment after retirement ............... 56 Placement agencies for senior citizens . . . 59 Factors to consider for enjoying retirement 60 Common problems and basic needs of the a g i n g ................. 64 Suicides among the aging ................... 69 Organizational programs for the elderly 70 . . Soclo-cultural characteristics of senior c i t i z e n s ....................... 82 Why do older Americans seek education? . . . 84 The changing educational attainments of the e l d e r l y ........................... What are the elderly Interested In learning? 86 87 Environmental factors which encourage the elderly to participate In educational programs ..................... 88 The senior citizen and the community college ....................... Higher education programs for aging 89 . .. . 93 Older American advisory committees ........ 9% Trends and manpower needs In aging ........ 96 Summary of Part A ......................... Literature on NGP and Supporting Theory . . . V R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 106 CHAPTER PAGE Characteristics of group phases .......... 106 Some leadership factors affecting small g r o u p s .............................. 107 Group structure and task r e l e v a n c e ........ Ill Group problem-solving strategies ........... 112 The Delphi technique ....................... Il4 Interacting groups .......................... Il6 The nominal group process 118 ................. Summary profiles of Delphi, interacting, and NGP g r o u p s ............................ 121 Some applications of the N G P ............... 125 Steps in the NGP and supporting research . . 126 Needs of senior citizens assessed by Delphi technique .......................... Summary of Part B III. .......................... METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES ..................... Development of the Research Instruments Nominal group process (NGP) Questionnaire . . . 139 140 142 142 ............... 142 .............................. 142 Methodology of Acquisition and Treatment of D a t a .......................... 143 The nominal group process as used in this s t u d y ............................ Questionnaire 143 .............................. 146 Treatment of the d a t a ..................... 147 Summary of methodology for data acquisition 149 vi R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV. PAGE PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OP THE D A T A .......... 151 Presentation of the D a t a ....................... 151 Nominal group d a t a .......................... 152 Community college questionnaire data . . . . 171 Data from evaluation of nominal group process ..................... l8l Analysis of the D a t a ........................... 183 Comparison of senior citizen groups to agency groups ................... 183 Comparison of nominal group data with questionnaire d a t a ................... V. 191 SUMMARY OP THE PINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S ........................... 209 Summary of Pindings of Nominal Group and Questionnaire D a t a ....................... 210 C o n c l u s i o n s .................................... 217 Recommendations 223 ................................ APPENDIX A. Research Instruments ..................... 228 APPENDIX B. Complete Raw D a t a ......................... 235 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................ 266 vii R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OP TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Number of Males and Females in Research Groups . 153 2. Number of Participants in Research Groups . . . . 155 3 . Number of Responses in Research Groups... ........ 155 H. Numbers and Percentages of Needs Responses of Senior Citizen and Agency Groups by General Categories .......................... 156 5 . Top Ten Ranked Items (Including Ties) for Senior Citizen Program Needs as Expressed by Agency Group Number 1......... 159 6 . Top Ten Ranked Items (Including Ties) for Senior Citizen Program Needs as Expressed by Agency Group Number 2......... I60 7 . Top Ten Ranked Items (Including Ties) for Senior Citizen Program Needs as Expressed by Agency Group Number 3 ........ 162 ........ I63 ........ 165 8 . Top Ten Ranked Items (Including Ties) for Senior Citizen Program Needs as Expressed by Agency Group Number 4 9 . Top Ten Ranked Items (Including Ties) for Senior Citizen Program Needs as Expressed by Agency Group Number 5 vili Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 10. PAGE Top Ten Ranked Items (Including Ties) for Senior Citizen Program Needs as Expressed by 11. Senior Citizen Group Number 6 . . l66 . . l67 . . l69 • . 170 . . 172 Top Ten Ranked Items for Senior Citizen Program Needs as Expressed by 12. Senior Citizen Group Number 7 Top Ten Ranked Items (Including Ties) for Senior Citizen Program Needs as Expressed by Senior Citizen Group Number 8 13. Top Ten Ranked Items (Including Ties) for Senior Citizen Program Needs as Expressed by 14. Senior Citizen Group Number 9 Top Ten Ranked Items (Including Ties) for Senior Citizen Program Needs as Expressed by 15. Senior Citizen Group Number 10 Michigan Community College Offerings for Senior Citizens through the 1976-77 Academic Year ............ 16. Methods of Implementation of Programs for Senior Citizens 17. 174 ................ 175 Community College if Funds Were Available . . . 176 Courses for Senior Citizens Which Would Be Added at a 18. Courses for Senior Citizens Which Would Be Offered if Only Ten Courses Could Be O f f e r e d ............ ix R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I78 TABLE 19. PAGE Types of Offerings for Senior Citizens That Have Been Most Successful in Terms of Attendance . . . . 20. 179 Programs for Senior Citizens Which Have Been Most Successful in Terms of Attendance .............. 21. Kinds of Contributions Which Senior Citizens Make Toward Programs of theCollege 22. . 182 Senior Citizen Program Needs Expressed by All Nominal Groups ............... 23. I80 184 Top Ten Senior Citizen Program Needs Expressed by Combined Agency Groups and by Combined Senior Citizen Groups ........ 24. 186 Comparison of Senior Citizen Program Needs Expressed by Agency Groups and by Low Income Senior Citizen Groups 25 . . .. . I88 Middle and Upper Income Senior Citizen Groups . I90 Comparison of Senior Citizen Program Needs Expressed by Agency Groups and by 26 . Comparison of Program Needs of Low Income to Middle and Upper Income Senior Citizen Groups 27 . .......... 192 Comparison of 1976-77 Community College Offerings with Combined Rankings of Senior Citizen Groups' Program Needs . .. . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 193 TABLE 28. PAGE Comparison of 1976-77 Community College Offerings with Ranking of Combined Agency Groups’ Senior Citizen Program Needs Responses 29. . . . . 194 Comparison of 1976-77 Combined Community College Offerings with Combined Senior Citizen Program Needs Rankings of Agency and Senior Citizen Groups 30. . 196 Comparison of College Administrative Choices of Courses to Be Added with Combined Senior Citizen Program Choices . . . . 31. 198 Comparison of College Administrative Choices of Courses to Be Added with Combined Agency Group Senior Citizen Program Needs Responses 32. . 200 Comparison of the Ten Most Important Senior Citizen Course Offerings Selected by Community College Administrators with the Top Ten Items Listed by Combined Agency and Senior Citizen Groups . . 33. . 201 Comparison of the Ten Most Important Senior Citizen Course Offerings Selected by Community College Administrators with the Top Ten Items Listed by Combined Senior Citizen Groups xi R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . . . 203 TABLE 34. PAGE Comparison of the Ten Most Important Senior Citizen Course Offerings Selected by Community College Administrators with the Top Ten Items Listed by Combined Agency Groups 35. . . . . 205 Comparison of Senior Citizen Courses That Would Be Added by Administrators with What Courses They Would Offer if Only Ten Could Be O f f e r e d ............ 36. 206 Comparison of 1976-77 Community College Offerings for Senior Citizens with the Top Ten Senior Citizen Courses Selected by Community College Administrators 37 . . 207 Categorized Needs Responses of All Senior Citizen and Agency Nominal Groups xii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . . . 246 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. PAGE Methodology for Data A c q u l s l t l o h ................. xiil R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION During the past six years in the United States, there has been a rapidly growing amount of literature concerning the plight of the aged. A common theme is that the "golden years" have not been so golden for many who have retired. The aged represent the fastest growing "minority group" in America, according to the national census.^ In the past few years the community college movement has demonstrated in some geographical areas that it has something to offer the older individual who is approaching retirement or has gone into retirement from regular full-time employment. The type of educational and cultural services offered by community colleges to the senior citizen ranges from nothing to a very full and diverse program of services. STATEMENT OP THE PROBLEM The impetus for this research in the area of commun­ ity college programming for senior citizens was derived from reading about the variety of initial attempts of some Junior colleges to provide educational and cultural expe­ riences for the aging in their local college districts. During the past four years in the researcher's college ^Herman B. Brotman, "Aging Population Up 63.1% in 20-Year Aging Lifetime," Aging, CC (June, 1971), 5. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 district where total enrollment had doubled from 4,000 to 8,000 students In Just four years' time, it was observed that there were no services for the aged until 1974-75. Having retired relatives and friends has also increased this writer's interest in educational and cultural programming for the aging. Their various adjustments to retirement have been quite different; economic groups. they also represent different socio­ Yet, are their basic educational and cultural needs in retirement approximately the same? their needs more similar than dissimilar? Are What are their needs or the needs of people like them which should be met in order to help them enjoy their "golden years" more? What can the community college do to meet the educational and cultural needs of people who have retired recently or plan to retire soon? The problem then becomes one of how the college curriculum planners can gather the necessary reli­ able planning data as quickly and inexpensively as possible in order to launch the right kind of courses and programs that people— particularly senior citizens— want. In summary, little has been done to date concerning a very systematic attempt to determine what are the educa­ tional and cultural needs of senior citizens in the state of Michigan. The present study is an attempt to determine the educational and cultural needs of senior citizens in Mich­ igan and to demonstrate a way in which the data can be effectively accumulated. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 NEED FOR THE STUDY In the community college world, it is not unusual for someone to telephone, send a letter or memo to, or "drop in" to, the office of the person responsible for curricular planning and request that a new program of studies, series of short courses, seminars, etc., be organized and imple­ mented as soon as possible. If the request is accepted and acted upon, the program planner may have several questions like the following: (1) Are there any other similar exist­ ing programs in the area or in the state? (2) What raethod(s) were used to collect data to indicate a viable market for the program offering? (3) Were the basic ques­ tions "Who, What, When, Where, and How?" answered? (4) What assurance is there that the planning data were valid and reliable? and (5) How can one gather the data needed to launch a new program in the shortest time possible? Every institution of higher learning should have some organized, systematic way (or ways) of gathering new data for (1) identifying strategic problems; programming;^ (2) innovative and (3) program content planning. Sometimes ideas for a new course or new programs never seem to "get off the ground" because the idea is "studied to death" before it is offered, thereby losing its timeliness. At the Andre L. Delbecq and Andrew H. Van de Ven, "A Group Process Model for Problem Identification and Program Plan­ ning," The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, VII (July/August, 1971), 4571 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 opposite pole, the more frequent pattern observed is an Insufficient amount of homework done to launch a new pro­ gram. It Is not unusual for courses to be offered In response to a single phone call from one of the following: an Interested party Inquiring as to whether such a course exists; teach; ber; a prospective teacher searching for a course to an administrator or full-time faculty or staff mem­ or some representative from business or Industry seek­ ing a specialized course or program for their employees. All of the above examples of "gathering program data" for one or more course offerings have worked (and sometimes failed) In Institutions of higher learning In the past and no doubt will continue to function In the future. A low- cost way to Institute a new course Is to publicize It with an Intriguing title and see what the response of the public Is. But what about the broader problem of developing a new family of Interrelated courses, seminars, workshops. Institutes, etc., around a central concept or even the narrower problem of determining the content of the course to be offered from some empirical base? For example, one answer to the question "What can a community college offer In the way of programs and/or services to the older members of the community college district?" might be a seminar focused on financial planning for retirement. It Is most Important that the curriculum planner have a systematic method for accurately determining the needs of R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 the elderly in the least time-consuming method possible to get the program started. If a technique of data collection can be used that is simple to implement, reliable, econom­ ical, and involves little time in collecting, it would be a boon to the college administrators responsible for program development. RATIONALE FOR COMMUNITY COLLEGE INVOLVEMENT When the junior college movement first began in 1897,3 it was basically designed to provide a college trans­ fer program. Until the recent growth of the Junior college movement in the past ten years, higher education had been concerned mainly with the four-year college student and the graduate student. No serious attempts had been made to meet the needs and interests of people residing within commuting distance of the college or university. Only trade schools, business schools, etc., attempted to meet some of the needs of the person seeking almost immediate employment skills. Then community colleges began to fill the void that had existed for people who wanted some advanced training beyond high school but not necessarily the four-year liberal arts degree or the one- or two-year certificate offered by trade schools. Hence, one-year certificates and two-year ^Edmund J, Gleazer, Jr., ’’The Rise of the Junior College," Perspectives on the Community-Junior College. William K, Ogilvie and Max R, Raines, editors (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1971), p. 80, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 associate degrees were offered by the junior colleges, although these were still basically credit course offerings. What about the person who was not concerned about credits and degrees and wanted only specific bits of information for useful retirement living or pleasure? If the community college is to be concerned about providing education for as many of its district residents as possible, it must go beyond programming for industries, business, institutions, minority groups, etc., and include a rapidly growing "minority" group in America today— the senior citizen. This task in the community college gener­ ally is assigned to the person responsible for community service programming. The subject of programming for senior citizens has been chosen because of the timeliness of the topic on a national basis as witnessed by the 1971 White House ConferÜ ence on Aging. It has implications for federal, state, and local planning agencies and for state and private institu­ tions of higher education. For purposes of program develop­ ment, how can one systematically and economically gather data that is reliable and takes little time to collect? The following is a proposed procedure designed to show that the nominal group process can meet the above criteria. ^"Trends in Aging 1961-1971,” Aging. CCXII (June, 1972 ), 8-12 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 PURPOSES OF THE STUDY The purposes of this study are as follows : 1. To develop a profile of the educational and cultural needs of senior citizens by assessing what experi­ enced personnel from three senior citizen service agencies or advisory groups believe are the actual needs (predicated needs) of senior citizens and what three economically stratified selected samples of senior citizens report as their perceived needs (felt needs), 2. To compare the predicated needs of senior citizens as reported by agency experts and/or advisory groups to the felt needs reported by the senior citizens to determine if the agency people do recognize the actual felt needs of senior citizens, 3. To devise a questionnaire that would be sent to Michigan community colleges as a basis for appraising the nature and range of current offerings for senior citizens and whether college personnel are in tune with the needs of senior citizens. 4. To propose a model for assessing needs for building an educational and cultural program based on senior citizen needs as reported by themselves and by agency experts. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 METHODOLOGY FOR THE STUDY The methodology for the study Is as follows: 1. The researcher will conduct "nominal group" meetings of socio-economically stratified groups of non-handicapped, ambulatory senior citizens who would be likely candidates to use community college facilities (or off-campus facilities) or programs and/or serv­ ices, to construct a list of the top ten needs based on their opinions. 2. Nominal group meetings will also be conducted with "experts," or representatives of organizations and agencies that work with senior citizens, for the pur­ pose of developing a list of predicated needs that experts think are most important. 3. The highest priorities on the two composite lists will be fused into a master list of needs which will then be used to appraise current programs in Michigan community colleges. The opinions of the community college respondents will also be compared to those of the nominal groups, 4. A simple survey instrument will be developed to elicit descriptions of current offerings of Michigan community colleges for senior citizens. 5. Recommendations for future programming for community colleges will be made. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 LIMITATIONS OP THE STUDY The most difficult part of the study seems to be the prospect of getting people In their retirement years to take the time to respond In a group or Interview type situation. That was the single most Important problem encountered at Schoolcraft College when they tried to use a questionnaire prepared by experts.^ Another difficulty Is the ability of nominal group experts to screen out what they think the elderly should have from what they think the elderly would say they need. The subjective factors cannot be eliminated from group opinions. The senior citizen and agency groups are not random samples but are biased groups In that they were selected on the basis of their willingness to participate. Other groups declined because of time scheduling conflicts. This study Is not meant to Imply that It would be unnecessary to conduct questionnaire surveys concerning the elderly; (that would require more study and proof). The longer, more time-consuming method of surveys and Interviews could still be carried out to expand the program after Its skeletal beginning. This would help to protect the school 5 ■^Elizabeth Andrews, "A Survey of Educational and Informational Needs of Older People Living In the School­ craft College District" (Ann Arbor: Institute of Geron­ tology, The University of Michigan— Wayne State University, 1972), pp. 1-11. (Mimeographed.) R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 from the charge that the beneficiaries of the program were not consulted about their views. Research of others seems to Indicate that It would be unlikely that representative responses would be obtained from the economically deprived or those with less than a sixth grade education.^ Although the results of this study will provide a basis on which a community college can begin a senior citizen program, the results cannot be generalized to every community college district. DEFINITIONS OP TERMS There are some basic terms that should be defined for this study, as follows: 1. Senior citizen. The focus of this study will be on people sixty years of age and above, since they will be retiring soon or have already retired. 2. Nominal grouping. It Is a method of gathering Infor­ mation from small groups of from five to nine people. It Is a highly structured, non-lnteractlng group meeting focused on an assigned goal. Since It Is basically designed to be a group In name only, and not an Interacting group (a minimum amount of Inter­ action Is desirable), the term nominal Is applied; hence, the term nominal group leader would apply to ^Dr. Carl Brahce, Institute of Gerontology, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1975. (Interview.) R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 one using this method of data collecting. 3 . Predicated needs. 7 They are the needs that one group believes are the actual needs or concerns of another group. 4. Educational and cultural felt needs. In this research, they are those educational and cultural experiences (tangible or intangible) that elderly people believe that they need in order to have an enjoyable retirement. 5 . Geriatrics. Geriatrics is that branch of medicine that deals with finding solutions to pathological problems of the aged, with particular emphasis on Q prophylaxis. 6. Gerontology. Gerontology is concerned with the study of laws of nature that govern the aging process from the time of birth to death.^ 7 . Social gerontology. It is a discipline of study con­ cerned with biological and psychological changes as a result of time and the effect of environmental and cultural changes on the personality of the elderly and his attitude and behavior toward society. Thad B. Green and Paul H. Pietri, "Using Nominal Grouping to Improve Upward Communication," M.S.U. Business Topics, XXII (Autumn, 1974), 38. Q LucJan Dobrowolski, "Historical Communication: History of Geriatrics," Geriatrics, XXVI (April, 1971), 68. ^Ibid. l^Ibid. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 8. Expert. An expert Is defined as a professional per­ son who has specialized training for working with the aging or any management-type person from a local, county, state, or federal agency or an educational institution, whose Job is that of working with senior citizens on a full-time or part-time basis. ORGANIZATION OP THE STUDY Chapter II, which concerns the review of related research and literature, is divided into two parts. Part A of Chapter II contains an overview of the recent and current plight and concerns of the aged in America and what various agencies, organizations, and colleges are doing to meet some of the needs of the elderly. In Part B of Chapter II, the theory for the basis of the nominal group process is presented. An overview is given of the major published articles relating to the data collection technique known as nominal grouping and some of the major published research relating to its uses and com­ parisons with some other techniques used in group work that would relate to the nominal group technique. Chapter III contains the procedures and methodology used in this study to acquire original data. The findings and analysis of the data are presented in Chapter IV. Chap­ ter V contains the summary of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations. The Appendices and Bibliography are pre­ sented after the final chapter. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This chapter Is divided into two parts. Part A will present issues that have concerned the aging in America during the past six years. include the following; Topics briefly reviewed will attitudes toward the senior citizen; population changes for the aging; myths about aging; com­ mon problems and basic needs of the aging; changes in the vigorous life span of man; stages in the life of man; of aging; nursing homes; contributing factors to a long life; aging and senility; ment planning programs; retirement; theories age discrimination; early retirement; retire­ employment after placement agencies for senior citizens; factors to consider for enjoying retirement; governmental groups for the elderly; programs for the aging; community action examples of more specific local programs for the elderly; that help senior citizens; of senior citizens; national and non-educational organizations socio-cultural characteristics why older Americans seek education; the changing educational attainments of the elderly; the elderly are interested in learning; what environmental factors which encourage the elderly to participate in educational programs; college; aging; the senior citizen and the community examples of higher education programs for the forming older American advisory committees; in aging; and a summary. 13 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. trends 14 Part B of Chapter II will survey the main body of literature concerning and relating to the nominal group process and the previous research of others that contrib­ uted to the theoretical base from which Delbecq constructed the technique known as the nominal group process. A. LITERATURE ON AGING When a review of the literature relating to problems of the aged Is undertaken. It becomes apparent why the problems exist and have been so long overdue In being faced. The western English-speaking cultures have long refused to talk openly about aging and death. Society's attitudes toward the senior citizen. A recent newspaper article pointed out a basic problem unique to English-speaking people: there Is In English no commonly used noun which denotes an old person. There are nouns for the earlier stages of life, such as adult, adolescent, child. Infant, newborn, and fetus. In place of a noun for the older person, we use comparative terms, such as senior citizen participles like "aged” or adjectives like "eld­ erly." For some people the term "aged" conjures up a pic­ ture of one very old and afflicted with the Infirmities com­ monly associated with old age. Some have suggested a term such as "elder"— which might be confused with a church official,^ ^Rose Sold, "Elder has a solid ring to It [sic]," The R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 The term "senior citizen" herein will be used inter­ changeably with elderly, the aging, aged, and older Ameri­ can. It is intended to depict someone over sixty years of age, since sixty is a common age at which special services begin to be made available to the senior citizen by govern­ ment, local agencies, business, educational institutions, and special interest groups. In primitive times of man's history, according to Dr. Carl Eisdorfer at Duke University, the old people were some­ times sent to mountaintops to die of exposure. marooned their aged at sea. 2 Some Now, a more subtle form of discrimination is practiced, inasmuch as the aged are often deprived of independence, dignity, employment, and status in society, the community, and the family. The "golden years" for many senior citizens have not necessarily been a period of time for good health and "inner growth." In current Western civilization, the view of old age has generally been a negative one. Our own particular nation was founded on such principles as measuring the worth of an individual by his strength and productivity; therefore, as people grew older, they were led to consider themselves as gradually failing with age. Although only 5 per cent of the elderly are confined to health care institutions, most of the State Journal, Lansing, Michigan, December 28, 1975, D-9* ^"Society 'Stupid' in Attitude Toward Aging, Expert Asserts," Aging, CLXXXII (December, 1969), 8. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 literature from social work, psychiatric, psychological, and medical sources up until i960 dealt with the 111 and Instl■3 tutlonallzed elderly. Most Americans at the beginning of the twentieth century lived on farms. At the turn of the century, grand­ parents were still considered valuable on the farm because they could assist In rearing grandchildren by teaching them crafts and skills and could help with the farming. All that this assistance cost the children of the grandparents was room and board plus some pocket money. Within two genera­ tions after 1900, most people left the farms for the more urban areas. Today's grandparents might have some diffi­ culty repairing a television set, a snowmobile, or an auto­ mobile, and building a home or a barn. Much of grand­ father’s knowledge will consist of things that are now 4 obsolete. In the past century It was common to find three, and sometimes four, generations living under one roof. Grand­ parents would generally share In the running of the home. Today grandparents may be found living In rooming houses, y.M.C.A.'Sj apartments, senior residencies, and retirement communities. Others may be found In nursing homes and ^Robert N. Butler, "Successful Aging," Mental Hygiene, LVIII (Summer, 197^), 8, ^Philip Wylie, "Our Old People: Part of Their Lonely Exile Is Their Own Fault," Today's Health, XLIX (August, 1971), 10. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 mental health institutions.5 One writer said, "In the United States the young people lay aside their old people as easily as their old cars are traded in or discarded at the Junk y a r d . M a r g a r e t Hickey said: To equate chronological age with biological and physical age is one of the most destructive atti­ tudes in our culture, and it undermines the capac­ ity of the elderly to maintain their independent status.' In relation to independence, Vance Packard noted in his book A Nation of Strangers : the main tradition we [America] revere is not some belief that binds the child to the society, but political liberty. Political liberty de­ mands that independence be the first of virtues.° In a Family Health article, it was stated that "more than 70 per cent of older Americans live in their own fam­ ilies, and almost two-thirds of those with children see at least one of their children each day."^ It is difficult to grow old with dignity in America. People tend to resist admitting to themselves and to others ^Elinor McLaughlin, "When Your Parents Grow Old," Parents Magazine, XLV (October, 1970), 67, 84, ^J. David Townsend, "Preparing for Old Age," Christian Century, XCI (March 27, 1974), 343. 7Margaret Hickey, "Commentary," Mental Hygiene, LVIII (Summer, 1974), 5. ^Charles Monaghan, "Vance Packard and Margaret Mead Get Sniffy about Retirement Communities," Retirement Living, XII (December, 1972), 4. ^Mae Rudolph, "Sense and Nonsense about Growing Old­ er," Reader's Digest, XCVII (September, 1970), 23. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 that they are aging and will soon be of retirement age. When retirement comes. It Is a shock. They temporarily seem to lose ambition, pep, vitality, and, unless these losses are overcome, they lose a fine opportunity for further human and spiritual growth. We live In a country where youth Is worshipped and the word death Is rarely mentioned. John Howard of Columbia University says that most elderly people prefer not to be reminded that they are o l d . W e live In a society that Is not as tolerant of aging In women as It is In men.12 Tele­ vision Is a prime source of Influence on people regarding the social attitudes toward aging. A study was made of 2,741 characters on prime-time television drama between 1969 and 1971. The elderly comprised less than 5 per cent of all the characters. cent. In real life they represent over 10 per The female character averaged ten years younger than the male. Males failed In drama stories because they were evil, whereas females failed because of age. The aging female characters failed more than they succeeded. Only 40 per cent of the older males, and less than 40 per cent of the females, were seen as happy, good, and successful Decker, "Growing Old, and How to Cope with It," America. CXXIV (March 27, 1971), 315. ^ W a r r e n Proellch, "The Myths of Aging," Science Digest. LXXI (March, 1972), 22, 27. l^Susan Sontag, "The Double Standard of Aging," Saturday Review, LV (September 23, 1972), 31. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 people. The subculture of youth In America has been studied extensively by psychoanalysts, photographed, and envied, but only recently have people become aware of the subculture of the senior citizen who becomes alienated and segregated. Yet it is a paradox that the elderly have some things in common with the youth; they are both often depressed, largely unemployed, in a state of body changes, and users of drugs. Their families do not look too favorably on mar­ riages or living together. many of both groups; Time becomes an obsession with youth are in a hurry to grow up, whereas the elderly are in no hurry to grow old,^^ Professor of Human Development at the University of Chicago, Dr. Bernice Heugarten says, "We have an irrational fear of aging. As a result, we maintain a psychological distance between ourselves and older p e r s o n s . I n 1971 on the international level, Mr. Arvid Pardo, an ambassador from Malta to the United Nations, said, "We had better do some­ thing about our present orientation toward the aged before we are confronted with a cluster of colossal problems. ^^Craig Aronoff, "Old Age in Prime Time," Journal of Communication, XXIV (Autumn, 197^)* 86-7. l4"fjihe Old in the Country of the Young," T i m e . XCVI (August 3, 1970), 49. «Image of the Aged," Senior Scholastic, C (April 24, 1972), 17. l^Aaron L. Danzig, "International Action for the Aged?" Current, CXXXII (September, 1971), 43. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 The quickest way for* any minority group In America to gain recognition Is to become a potent economic force that affects business. Even in 1970 there was quite a growth In business related to mobile home parks, retirement villages, mutual funds, campers, golf carts, bicycles, travel agencies, real estate Investments, medicine, and nursing homes. In summary, the English language lacks an appropriate word that represents the elderly In society, and aging Is generally considered synonymous with falling. In the past century most people lived on farms, and the aged worked for their keep. Now In America youthfulness Is worshipped and aging Is feared. When a look Is taken at the population changes In America during this century regarding senior citizens. It Is easy to understand why they are becoming a more potent economic force In America. Population changes for the aging. The senior citizen now represents the fastest growing minority group In 1p A m e r i c a . S i n c e 1900 our aging population has quadrupled while the total population has d o u b l e d . T h e r e are now ^7t . J. Murray, "Money In Old Folks; California," Dun's, XCV (March, 1970), 76. ^^"AoA Analyst Reports Older Americans Fastest Grow­ ing Minority Group," Aging, CCXIX (January, 1973), 14. Vance Grant, "Trends In Education," American Education, XI (March, 1975), back cover. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 over twelve thousand people in the United States who are one hundred years of age or more. Our total population in the past one hundred years has increased five times, whereas the middle-aged population has increased seventeen times. According to the 1970 census, the fastest growing age group is seventy-five years of age and o l d e r . From 1940 to 1970, the 75-and-over age group tripled and the 65-and-over group d o u b l e d . F r o m i960 to 1970, the 75-and-over age group increased twice as much as the total American popula­ tion; they increased four times faster than the 65-to-74 age g r o u p . T h e 75-and-over group in 1900 was 29 per cent of the elderly but had risen to 38 per cent by 1970.^^ In 1970 Florida became the number one state in the nation as a haven for senior citizens sixty-five and o v e r . ^5 A few factors to consider which have caused this rapid increase in the senior citizen population group are these: (1) there was a rapid increase in the birth rate ^^Arthur P. Crabtree, "Education— The Key to Success­ ful Aging," Adult Education, XVII (Spring, I967), 157. ^^Bert Kruger Smith, "An American Dilemma," Mental Hygiene, LVIII (Summer, 1974), 26. ^^"The Harsh Arithmetic of Old Age in America," Saturday Review, LV (April 8, 1972), 41. ^^"How Well Do You Understand Elderly People?" Changing Times. XXIV (August, 1970), 37. P ii "Senior Citizens Are Lead Factor in Business Markets," Commerce Today, III (October 1, 1973), 21-2325"Florida: The Impact of an Aging Population," Business Week, MMCCIII (November 20, 1971), 57. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 between the late l800's and the early 1920's ; (2) before World War I there was a flood of immigrants to the United States; and (3) medical research has developed medicines and surgical instruments that have eliminated and/or post­ poned some of the traditional killer d i s e a s e s . N e a l Cutler reported at the University of Southern California Gerontology Center that the gerontology boom of the 2010's will be the result of the baby boom of the late 1940's when GI's returned from World War II. Statistical predictions for the year A.D. 2000 are that senior citizens will represent one-eighth of the total population, or about thirty-five million people. That means a gradually reduced proportion of younger people will be taxed more to provide financial support for economically non-productive retirement years of an increasing proportion of senior citizens. In summary, the senior citizen age group is the fast­ est growing age group in America, and Florida leads the nation in population ratios for the elderly. Medical advances, immigration, and high birth rates at the turn of the century have all swelled the number of the aging. The ^^"Senior Citizens Are Lead Factor in Business Markets," loc. clt. ^7"The Generation Gap and Socioeconomic Attitudes," Intellect. CIII (March, 1975), 34?. ^^Maurice E. Linden, "The Challenge of Aging: Means Growing Up...Not Down," Mental Hygiene, LVIII (Summer, 1974), 34. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. It 23 Increase in life span raises the question of what is the projected future life span of man during the third century of America’s existence as a country and how it will compare to past centuries. Changes in the vigorous life span of man. Chapter 6, verse 3, of the Bible says: Genesis, "Then the Lord said, 'My spirit shall not abide in man for ever, for he is flesh, but his days shall be a hundred and twenty years. came Noah and the Flood. PQ Then Later in the Old Testament, Moses, in a prayer, says in Psalms 90:10: The years of our life are three-score and ten or even by reason of strength fourscore; yet their span is but toil and trouble; they are soon gone, and we fly a w a y . 30 In ancient Rome the average life expectancy was only twenty-two years; during the Middle Ages, the average life expectancy was thirty-three in Western Europe. In 1900 the average life expectancy of man in America was forty-seven years, then during the first fifty years of this century, man's life expectancy rose about four years in each decade. Since 1950, the life expectancy has risen 1,5 years for males and 3.5 years for females. The world's leader in life expectancy is Sweden, and Americans rank twenty-fourth in the world for males and ninth for females in average life ^^The Holy Bible : Revised Standard Version (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Bible Publishers, 1971), p. 5. 30lbid., p. 563. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 expectancy. 31 It would seem that the maximum human life span has not changed since the beginning of recorded history; the average life expectancy, however, has shown considerable oo changes in various countries.^ The Guinness Book of World Records reports that the oldest human in modern times that can be authenticated was Pierre Joubert. He lived 113 years and 124 days. He was born July 15, 1701, in Charlesbourg, Quebec Province, Canada, and died November l6, l8l4, in Quebec. The oldest American longevity record that can be authenticated belongs to John B. Sailing, who lived 113 years and 1 day, from March 15, 1846, to March 16, 1959.^^ It was reported in Time that Shirali Muslimov in Barzavu, Soviet Caucasus, died at l68 years of age; how­ ever, there was no valid record of his birth to substantiate the claim. 3^ Marcus Seneca, a Roman rhetorician, lived ninety-three years— between 54 B.C. and A.D. 39. 35 3^"Americans Can— and Should— Live Longer," Time, C (July 10, 1972), 64. P. Twomey, "Potential for Life Span Extension," reply by W. A. Sodeman, Best's Review (Life Edition), LXX (September, 1969), 1?1 33fjorris and Ross McWhirter, The Guinness Book of World Records (New York; Bantam Books, Inc., 1975), p. 28. 34"No Methuselahs," Time, CIV (August 12, 1974), 78. 35Ken Anderson, "Science Probes New Ways to Prolong Life," Science Digest. LXXVI (September, 1974), 38. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 In spite of such documented cases for life expect­ ancy, there are some people, such as Alfred A. Gentllcore, who believe that the pharmaceutical Industry may yet produce the answer to attaining a 150 year life expectancy. He thinks a type of "Manhattan Project" should be started. Many authors believe that the life expectancy of humans Is one hundred years,^ although some people believe that babies born today will have a much better chance to 3Q live to the age of 110. Dr. Alex Comfort of University College In London, England, believes that vigorous life can on be prolonged 20 per cent by the year 1990. According to a researcher with Metropolitan Life, Jules V. Quint, a person's life expectancy In America Is directly related to his success In a career, marriage, and the amount of his education. The divorced have the highest rate of death, and married men live longer than single, widowed, or divorced men. Prominent business and profes­ sional men live longer than the general population, and men with one year or more of college, ranging In age from twenty-five to sixty-four, have a death rate that Is 73 per ^^A. A. Gentllcore, "Next 100 Years ; The Year: 2070: The Age 150," American Druggist, CLXII (July 13» 1970), 46+. •37 D. Chebotarev, "Fight Against Old Age," The Geron­ tologist . II (Winter, 1971, Part 1), 359. ^^Linden, loc. clt. ^^Wllllam Hartley and Ellen Hartley, "Your Kids May Live to Be 100+," Science Digest, LXVIII (September, 1970), 38 . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 cent that of men who had only an elementary school educa­ tion, The mortality rate is about the same above the age of sixty-five, regardless of educational level. Since 1900, all races in America have increased their average life expectancy. A non-white baby in 1910 had a predicted life expectancy of 35.6 years, a white one, 50.3. In 1970, the non-white life expectancy was 63.9 years, whereas a white baby could be expected to live 71.1 years. Much of the non-whites’ improved outlook for life expectancy came between 1925 and 1950 and reflected reduction in mor­ tality rates of younger age groups,■thanks to antibiotics and other "miracle drugs. Around the world there are places where people appear to have a more vigorous and longer life than in many modern societies. They are Vilcabamba in Ecuador, Abkhazia in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, and Hunza in the Paki­ stani Karakoram Range, which is controlled by Kashmir. Com­ mon features of the aged in all three cultures are a sense of usefulness, high social status, no forced retirement, a relaxed state of mind, and an earlier expectation to live a long life. V. Quint, "Links Success in Career, Education with Long Life," The National Underwriter (Life Edition), LXXIII (May 24, 1 ^ ) % ^ ^^"Racial Gap in Life Expectancy Has Narrowed in U.S.," The National Underwriter (Life Edition), LXXIV (December 12, 1970), 19. ^^Alexander Leaf, "Every Day Is a Gift When You Are R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 The problem common to all claims of the super-old seems to be the lack of written records substantiating their c l a i m s . ^3 it should be understood that a written record, or lack of one, does not guarantee the authenticity or negate the possibility of the truthfulness of one's claim to an unusually old age. The future maximum limit of man's life span is a mystery and will no doubt remain so until, as some biblical scholars believe, Christ's second coming and the estab­ lishment of the millenium of peace. Isaiah makes an inter­ esting prophecy about Jerusalem in Isaiah 65:20 when he says : No more shall there be in it an infant that lives but a few days, or an old man who does not fill out his days, for the child shall die a hundred years old, and the sinner a hundred years old shall be accursed, If one hundred is to be considered as a "child," what, then, would be considered the middle years of one's life span?^5 prior to the flood recorded in the seventh chapter of Genesis, man was reported as living several Over 100: Villages in the World Where People Live Much Older," National Geographic, CXLIII (January, 1973), 93, 113,"ÏÏT: ^^"Centenarians," Metropolitan Life Statistical Bulletin. LII (November, 197111 3. ^^The Holy Bible. op. cit., p. 705. ^^Robert Jamieson, A. R. Fausset, and David Brown, A Commentary, Critical, Experimental, and Practical on the Old and New Testaments (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdman's Publishing Company, 1866), pp. 762-63. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28 centuries. ilfi After Noah, who Is reported to have lived 950 years,^7 there was a tremendous drop In life spans recorded, so that by the time of David's comment In Psalms 90, It was an established pattern that man generally lived seventy to lift eighty years. In summary, the Bible, historians, scientists, and census records provide some Interesting facts on the life span of man (past, present, and future). It Is clear that both man's vigorous life span and his average life expect­ ancy have Increased In this century. With the big Increase In the proportion of people over slxty-flve. It might seem that there would be a large proportion In nursing homes. Recent statistics seem to Indicate that this Is not so. Nursing homes. A study In the late 1950's In Britain, Denmark, and America Indicated that 4 to 5 per cent of the older people were In hospitals or other kinds of Institutions. In 1974, less than 5 per cent of the elderly were In nursing homes In America. Females represent 80 per cent of the population In nursing homes. Most 65-and-over men have ^^The Holy Bible, o p . clt., p. 6. ^^Ibld., p. 8. ^^Ibld., p. 563. Henning Frlls, "What Aging Is and Isn't," Modern Maturity. XVI (June/July, 1973), 29. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 a wife to take care of their ills. Any individual, group, or institution involved in providing a service to the senior citizen should become informed about the special needs of the elderly, inasmuch as the needs of people change throughout their life span. Stages in the life of m a n . People responsible for planning or teaching programs of an educational and cultural nature should understand something about the stages of life in the average human life span. It is helpful to know something more than Just the simple categories of stages labeled as infancy, childhood, adolescence, youthful adults, middle age, young-old (fiftyfive to seventy-five), and old-old (seventy-five and older). 51 Quite commonly, retirement is used as a dividing line between young-old and old-old, but that will become a more difficult dividing line to use in the future, since people are retiring earlier and living a longer average life span. The major current theories of the human life span stages have been developed by students of human behavior such as psychologists and psychiatrists, some of whom are Robert J. Havighurst, Theodore Lidz, and Erik Erikson, Shana Alexander, "Getting Old in Kids' Country," Newsweek, LXXXIV (November 11, 1974), 124. 51 Bernice L. Neugarten, "Age Groups in American Society & the Rise of the Young-Old," The Annals of the American Academy of Political & Social Science, CDXV (September, 1974), 192. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 among others. S2 Erikson describes the human personality as passing through eight stages, ranging from infancy to old age; are as follows: (1) trust; (2) autonomy; they (3) initiative; (4) industry; (5) ego identity (a sense of belonging); (6) intimacy; (7) generativlty (expansion of ego interests in middle adulthood); and (8) ego integrity (an acceptance of meaningfulness and rightness of his own life as con­ trasted to a feeling of despair and fearing death). The adult human between the ages of twenty-two and thirty-seven is mostly interested in family life, deciding on a career, and establishing himself in the community. The ages from thirty-five to forty, early middle age, represent the period of life when one begins asking, "Am I getting enough out of life?" Between the ages of forty and forty-five through the late fifties, life gener­ ally smooths out to a more even keel. This time period is one in which the individual has basically decided how he will spend the rest of his life and has accepted some of his limitations. The ages of fifty-five to seventy-five, early old age, mark a period of readjustment from the usual life style with regard to the family, work, social Cyril 0. Houle, "The Changing Goals of Education in the Perspective of Lifelong Learning," International Review of Education. XX (1974), 431. ^^E. Virginia Beverly, "Turning the Realities of Retirement into Fulfillment," Geriatrics, XXX (January, 1975), 131. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 relationships, and community responsibilities; areas in which education can help. these are When the time has come to learn some new tricks, learning can be most effective. The main point, according to Professor Wayne Vasey at the University of Michigan, is to plan special education­ al and cultural programs tailored specifically to the local needs of the senior citizens. In summary, the major current theories of the human life span seem to be dominated by thinking similar to Erik Erikson's view of life's stages as periods of trust, auton­ omy, initiative, industry, belonging, intimacy, ego interest expansion, and ego integrity. The ages of fifty-five to seventy-five seem to mark the last major period of readjust­ ment in one's life, the needs of which educational and cultural offerings of community colleges should strive to meet. Not only is the average life span lengthening, according to census reports, but people also are beginning to demonstrate an active interest in learning what they can do to help themselves live a longer, healthier life. Contributing factors to a long life. Much has been published concerning the results of research and the per­ sonal opinions of elderly as to why people do live so long. ^^Houle, o£. cit., pp. 437-4]. ^^"Gerontologist Calls for New Understanding of Seniors* Concerns," Retirement Living, XV (March, 1975)» 12 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 It seems appropriate to summarize the common factors gener­ ally mentioned. The American Medical Association says that most Amer­ ican centenarians (some 7,000 plus) are blessed with a sense of humor, easy-going disposition, a desire to keep active, and a firm belief in God.^° One study of 864 senior citizens showed that the common factors of longevity were education, physical mobil­ ity, occupation, and continuous e m p l o y m e n t . ^7 When retirement arrives, it is important for a person to have a new role that is considered worthwhile. Another variation of that idea is to give a new twist to an old role as did Dr. Earl Kauffman, who, after he retired in 1974 as Director of the University of Kentucky’s Council on Aging, went to Leesburg, Florida, and became a program director for developing recreational programs for retired persons— over 2,500 of them. 59 Some people prefer to continue working at the same Job as long as they live, like Mr, Zachariah D. Blackistone 5^"The 130-Year-Old Man," Newsweek, LXXX (October 2, 1972), 74. 5?Erdman Palmore and Virginia Stone, "Predictors of Longevity: A Follow-Up of the Aged in Chapel Hill," The Gerontologist. XIII (Spring, 1973), 88. 5^Boris M. Levinson, "Pets and Old Age," Mental Hygiene, LIII (July, 1969), 365. 59"Dr. Kauffman Leaving Kentucky Aging Council After 12 Years," Aging. CCXXXV (May, 1974), 7. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 In Washington, D.C. In 1971 he was one hundred years old , and was still directing his $1.5 million-a-year florist business. For those who like to work past their retirement age, there are two common personality factors. One is a desire to work, and the other is the desire to do good work.Gl Much is written advising that one should exercise regularly to live a long life. late, Some people start rather Mrs. Suzle Brounson started bowling when she was 102 in 1972; her highest score was 119, and her average was 60 when last reported in 1973-^^ At the Gerontology Center at the University of Southern California, a year of carefully programmed exer­ cise was provided a group of forty-one men ranging from fifty to eighty-seven years of age. Herbert A. de Vries, Ph.D., reported a 6 per cent improvement in diastolic blood pressure, a 4.8 per cent decrease in body fat, a 9.2 per cent increase in maximum oxygen consumption (a measure of vigor), an 8.4 per cent improvement in cardio-vascular ^^Vernon Louviere, "Bloom Is Still on at Age 100: Z. D. Blackistone of Washington, D.C.," Nation's Business, LIX (April, 1971), 21. ^^Gerda G. Pillenbaum, "A Consideration of Some Factors Related to Work after Retirement," The Gerontolo­ gist . XI (Spring, 1971, Part 1), 22. ^^"Striking 102; 1973), 58. S. Brounson," Ebony, XXVIII (June, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 functioning, and a 7.2 per cent Increase in arm strength. Another form of exercise often overlooked is that of mental activity. Doctors have found that patients tempor­ arily lose much of their memory after a particularly stag­ gering loss. When the patients are restored to friendly surroundings and are made aware that they are still needed and wanted, then the memory is likely to return. The Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, has a few tips for a healthier retirement, as follows; that a longer life is chiefly up to you; odic medical check-up; regularly; (2) have a peri­ (3) do not ignore symptoms; reduce your weight steadily each year; or do not start; (1) realize (5) stop smoking— (6) watch out for alcohol; (8) be optimistic; (4) (7) exercise and (9) take a vacation. In summary, factors that seem to relate to a long life are a sense of humor, an easy-going disposition, a desire to keep active, a firm belief in God, education, previous occupation, part-time employment or service, exer­ cise, mental stimulation, health check-ups, maintaining proper weight, not smoking, and being careful about alcohol. Most fears about aging are based on myths. ^3itQuided Exercise Big Boon to Older People," Aging, CLXXIII-CLXXIV (March-April, 1969), 10. ^^William A. Nolen, "Senility and How You Can Avoid It," McCalls, XCIX (October, 1971), 20. G^Blake Clark, "Nine Steps to a Longer Life," Reader's Digest, XCVII (October, 1970), 84-87. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 Myths about aging. Many people have a fear of dying or even talking about dying or a fear of looking older than they are. Fear of the unknown is understandable; the problem is that we do not have the opportunity to talk to anyone who has died, so that we can be told what it is like. So far, history records only one person, Jesus of Nazareth, who ever came back to life after dying and stayed alive thereafter. He said that the Christian need not fear death, but many professing Christians refuse to believe it. Fear can be an effective blockage to learning, and fear of the unknown is often the breeding ground for misconceptions and myths. Let us take a look at some of the myths of aging. It is often expressed by writers that old age is a time when people are put into Institutions of some type for physical or mental reasons. Yet, 5 per cent or less of people over sixty-five are in any institution.^6 Bernard Strehler, a biology professor at the Univer­ sity of California, lists several myths about aging; are as follows: these (1) man cannot increase his life span (he does not specify whether he means maximum or average life span); (2) society will experience great economic burdens if old age is delayed; (3) longer life spans will increase the "generation gap"; (4) longer life spans will intensify the population explosion; (5) we should not tinker with H. Gustafson, "New Perspectives on Aging," Current, CXXXII (September, 1971), 4l. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 aging; (6) elderly deaths help to improve evolving life forms; (7) we will be surrounded with old people; (8) we have done about all that can be done to increase the life span; and (9) man potentially can become physically immor­ tal.^7 Other myths include these: chronologically; ductive; (1) age is measured (2) when people get old, they are unpro­ (3) older people prefer to withdraw from life; (4) old people are inflexible; (5) when people get old, they get senile;^® and (6) intelligence levels drop when people get old.^9 Age stereotypes, in recent studies, indicate that elderly people are viewed by young people from a negative perspective.70 Society seems to resent the senior citizens' way of thinking as well as their physical appearance. Young people consider the older person prejudiced, not understand­ ing today's world, conservative, rigid, paternalistic, and egotistic.71 GfArthur J, Snider, "The Plain Pacts about Aging," Science Digest, LXXVI (November, 1974), 46. ^®Robert N. Butler, "Successful Aging," Mental Hygiene, LVIII (Summer, 1974), 9-10. G9paul B. Baltes and K. Warner Schaie, "Aging and IQ: The Myth of the Twilight Years," Psychology Today, VII (March, 1974), 36. 70lbid.. p. 38. 71q . V. Laury, "Some Reflections on Aging in the United States," Geriatrics. XXVIII (May, 1973), 178. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 It seems that younger people do not like to think about when they will grow old. Recently, a New York court ruled that children are not legally responsible to pay the expenses of hospitalization of a p a r e n t . W h a t is legal­ ized often reflects or becomes a way of life. A few other myths are as follows: are more accident-prone on the job; (1) older people (2) the work perform­ ance of people in their forties and fifties slows down; (3) older workers are more difficult to train; workers are not as alert as younger workers; workers are less dynamic; to change their ways. (4) older (5) older and (6) older workers are slower It does seem paradoxical that a twenty-year-company-man may be too rigid, inflexible, and lacking in aggressiveness, but if a man has ten jobs in twenty years, he is considered unstable. A seven-year study by Cornell University sociologists revealed that health problems were about the same proportion whether a person was retired or continued working. Many with health problems at retirement tended to improve after retirement; this was particularly true of unskilled work­ ers , many of whom would have been forced to retire anyway because of health problems. This study done at Cornell did not support the popular myth that "retirement kills 72lbid. 73peggy Butler, "Problems of the Older Workers," Labour Gazette, LXX (November, 1970), 779. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 you." 74 Perhaps the following quote best sums up the topic of aging: Youth is not a time of life— it is a state of mind. You are as young as your faith, as old as your doubts, as young as your self-confidence, as old as your fear, as young as your hope, as old as your despair.75 In summary, fear helps to create and maintain myths about aging. Older people can be a dependable source of part-time and full-time employees. Old age can be a state of mind rather than a chronological state; what causes some people to age faster than others provides an interesting field of study, and there are numerous theories as to the causes of aging. Theories of aging. Around the world there are over twenty different theories as to what causes a g i n g . I t may be a single fact or that several factors, when combined, are responsible. To extend the vigorous average life span might be easier than to extend man's maximum life span.^^ The branch of science most directly involved in research on the theories of aging is gerontology. Duke 74 G. F. Streib, "Does Retirement Ruin Health?" find­ ing of Cornell 7 Year Study, Harvest Years, XII (January, 1972), 34. 75 ^Duane Valentry, "How Showfolks Stay Young," Retirement Living, XII (October, 1972), 38. 7 6 "The Prospects for Living Even Longer," Time, XCVI (August 3, 1970), 52. 77 'Bruce Frisch, "Aging, the Disease with a Cure," Science Digest, LXV (February, 1969)» 32. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 University gerontologists have divided aging into social aging (of social roles and habit systems); aging (the capacity to remember and learn); (a result of trauma or disease); biological functions decline). psychological secondary aging and primary aging (when A person could be at differ­ ent stages of aging at the same time in relation to the four preceding definitions.78 Through observation man has learned that there is a fixed life span for every species of living thing on earth; it seems as though there is a biological clock within each living species that has only so much life wound into it. Many researchers favor the brain as the main switch of the clock of d e a t h . 79 Some researchers believe that aging is part of the master plan of the genetic structure Just as is puberty in humans. Some scientists compare the genetic code in the cells to a computer tape, which eventually runs out.^O In 1961 when doing cancer research at Stanford, Hayflick acci­ dentally discovered that normal cells put into the environ­ ment of a controlled test tube situation would live and 7®Theodore Irwin, "How to Handle Problems of Aging," Today's Health, XLVII (July, 1969 ), 29. 79oairdner B, Moment, "The Ponce de Leon Trail Today," BioScience, XXV (October, 1975), 626. G^Rona Cherry and Laurence Cherry, "Uncovering the Secrets of a Longer Life," Header's Digest, CV (September, 1974 ), 31-32. (Condensed from New York Times Magazine, May 12, 1974.) R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 divide for only a specified period of time, and then they would die. 81 At the Case Western Reserve University, Mr. Kohn from the Institute of Pathology believes, quite to the contrary, that mammals have no generalized loss of cell ability to divide. 8P A neurobiologist. Dr. Strehler, of the University of Southern California, believes there may be master switches in the genes that at some point in the replacement cycle of cells turn on the aging mechanism. 8^ A Study of Aging and Human Development report at Duke Uni­ versity states that the maximum life expectancy of people fill is determined by heredity. Researchers at Boston University studying the nervous system have discovered that nerve cells do disintegrate with age. 85 Other researchers have stated that the brain loses 150 to 200 grams from the age of twenty to the age of eighty. 86 It was reported also that by the age of 81 Rona Cherry and Laurence Cherry, "Living Forever— Is It about to Happen?" Harper's Bazaar, CVIII (November, 1974), 110. 82 Robert R. Kohn, "Aging and Cell Division," Science, CLXXXVIII (April 18, 1975), 204. ^^James A. Peterson, "Aging— Is This the Key?" Modern Maturity, XVII (February/March, 1974), 40. 84 "Formula for Longevity," Science Digest, LXX (November, 1971), 55. "Research on Aging,” BioScience, XXIV (December, 1974), 745. 86 Joan Arehart-Treichel, "How You Age," Science News. CIV (December 23, 1972), 4l2. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 seventy-five, the human brain was reduced to only 56 per cent of its original weight.^7 It is commonly thought that aging causes intellectual decline. Research reported by Dr. Carl Eisdorfer and Prances Wilkie at Duke University stated that 202 people in their sixties and seventies showed no significant mental changes if they maintained normal blood pressure, whereas those with high blood pressure registered a drop of ten points on intelligence test s c o r e s . 88 The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale was the measure used.89 Dr. James E. Birren of the University of Southern California's Gerontology Center states that not every aging person experiences mental decline. Mental deterioration seems to be scattered in the population in an irregular distribution. Healthy people can expect to possess high mental performance into their eighties.90 Not only do neural factors seem to be involved in aging, but there are also endocrine factors. The question on the latter is whether something triggers aging mechanisms 87Theodore Irwin, "How to Handle Problems of Aging," Today's Health. XLVII (July, 1969), 29. 88 " a Clue to Senility," Newsweek, LXXVIII (August 23 , 1971), 40. 89prances Wilkie and Carl Eisdorfer, "Intelligence and Blood Pressure in the Aged," Science, CLXXII (May 28, 1971), 959. James A, Peterson, "Does Your Mind Age?" Modern Maturity. XIV (October/November, 1971), 30-31. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 In the endocrine system or whether It is the initiator. Some organs that are targets of aging research currently are the thyroid, pancreas, adrenal cortex, testes, and o v a r i e s . it may be that changes in cellular responsive­ ness of aging cells is triggered by hormone mechanisms that control secretion.92 It is difficult for researchers to conclude whether diseases cause old age or whether old age results in dis­ eases. 93 Researchers have discovered, though, that many factors in the immunization system become less effective with increasing age. The question has been raised by researchers to what degree antibiotics may mask a failing immunization system. Dr. Takashi Makinodian at the University of Tennessee thinks a way might be found to store vital cells from a teenager's bloodstream until injected into the original donor at a later life period to provide a healthier old age.95 ^^Caleb E. Finch, "Neuroendocrinology of Aging: A View of an Emerging Area." BioScience, XXV (October, 1975), 645. Qp Richard Adelman and others, "Philadelphia Sympo­ sium on Aging," BioScience, XXV (March, 1975), 199. ^3jean Marx, "Aging Research (II): Pacemakers for Aging?" Science. CLXXXVI (December 27, 1974), 1196. ^^William H. Adler, "Aging and Immune Function," BioScience, XXV (October, 1975), 652. ^^"Shot of Youth for the Ills of Age," Business Week, MMCCIII (November 20, 1971), 6 0 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 Some researchers believe that the human life could be extended twenty-five to forty years by consciously lowering the body temperature. A technique known as biofeedback has helped people Increase their brain wave frequencies, which seem to slow down in the elderly; this process quickened the responses and movements of older people in the experi­ ment .^ ^ Packer and Smith, two physiologists at Berkeley, have demonstrated that vitamin E can slow the aging pattern in human cells cultured in a laboratory. A reason has not been found, but researchers have discovered that a protein gg known as amyloid is found in young people. Related research has found that the regular amount of dietary pro­ tein used for body functions lessens as one grows older, and protein synthesis has been found to slow as the growth rate slows. Why one kind of protein is found abundantly in older people and other proteins are found dwindling in supply seems contradictory and in need of explanation.^9 A recent study on over 6,000 teetotalers and heavy 96Rona Cherry and Laurence Cherry, "Uncovering the Secrets of a Longer Life," Reader's Digest, CV (September, 1974), 36. ^^"Vitamln E Retards Cellular Aging," Science N e w s , CVI (September 28, 1974), 199. "Science on the Trail of Eternal Youth," Science Digest, LXXV (January, 1974). 34. ^^"Proteln Synthesis Decreases with Age," Science N e w s , CVII (February 22, 1975), 119. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 drinkers by Nancy Day and Robin Room at the University of California indicated mortality rates of humans may be affected very little by moderate drinkers, who seem to out­ live both abstainers and heavy d r i n k e r s . T h e report did not indicate, however, whether any of the teetotalers smoked. It was reported by Samuel H. Preston at the Univer­ sity of California that smoking does reduce man’s life expectancy; in a seventeen-nation study, smoking women had a 28 per cent higher mortality rate between the ages of forty and sixty-nine than for nonsmokers, whereas smoking men had a mortality rate 88 per cent higher than nonsmokers. Dr. Morris Pollard, a professor at Notre Dame, sug­ gests that aging may be speeded up by biological, physical, and chemical agents in our everyday life, such as excessive sunlight, radiation, pesticides, air pollutants, viruses, 1no and bacteria. On a more positive note, research has indicated that some physiological changes that come with age can be halted, or even reversed, with the proper kind of physical ^^^"Let's Drink to a Longer Life," Science News, CVII (May 17, 1975), 319. "Smokers’ Paradise; Life Expectancy in the U.S.," Scientific American. CCXXIII (October, 1970), 53-54. 102trpQ2iution May Accelerate Aging," American Druggist, CLXII (November 30, 1970), 38. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 training.3 Shifting from the physiological to the psychological realm, some research has indicated that man can program or condition himself to the onset of his death or an illness. Certain emotion-laden events, such as anniversaries and deaths of friends and relatives may trigger illness or death. The case study method of investigation was used, and an example cited was that three out of the first four United States Presidents died July 4th. Also, on the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, two of its original signers, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, died. Leonard Hayflick believes that the human clock is wound for a maximum of 110 to 120 years,^*^^ a view that seems to coincide very well with the aforementioned state­ ment in the book of Genesis 6:3, indicating that man's days "shall be a hundred and twenty y e a r s . "^^6 Moses was the last biblical figure mentioned in the Bible to have lived that long. There may be isolated examples of men who exceed the 120 years (nature is full of flukes), but there has not A. Bucccla and W. J. Stone, "Effects of Jogging and Cycling Programs on Physiological and Personality Var­ iables in Aged Men," Research Quarterly, XLVI (May, 1975), 136. Keith Fischer and Barney M. Dlin, "Man's Deter­ mination of His Time of Illness or Death," Geriatrics, XXVI (July, 1971), 89-94. ^^^Rona Cherry and Laurence Cherry, "Uncovering the Secrets of a Longer Life," 0£. cit., pp. 31-32. 106The Holy Bible, op. cit., p. 5. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 been adequate documentation. Dr. Alex Comfort stated that It may be possible to push the signs of physical deteriora­ tion back so that man will decline at the age of 120 like M o s e s ; ^^7 the Bible Indicates, however, that the health of Moses was not declining at the time of his death; Deuter­ onomy 34:7 says, "Moses was a hundred and twenty years old when he died; his eye was not dim, nor his natural force abated. In summary, all of the preceding statements on the­ ories of aging can be divided Into two general groups. The first Is that aging Is basically genetically programmed; the other Is that aging Is a result of environmental fac­ tors. Perhaps the best approach Is an eclectic one In which It Is acknowledged that both are related causes of aging. Different people may age because of various combi­ nations of factors. Environmental factors can Influence the genetic factors of aging. People who are aging or are elderly hope to avoid becoming physically disabled or mentally Impaired by stroke or senility. Medical research Is producing more Information on the latter problem. Aging and senility. A unifying theory of aging Is something yet to be discovered. The question of what causes ^^^Aiex Comfort, "Excerpts from Theories of Aging," Aging, CLXXX-CLXXXI (October-November, 1969), 6. ^^^The Holy Bible, op. cit., p. 202. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 senility seems also to have a variety of answers.^^9 Accidents and illness can cause temporary or permanent senility. Some researchers believe that our modern Western society has invented senility, making it a selffulfilling prophecy. What is senility? It is the impairment of Judgment, orientation, memory, and intellectual functioning. Arteriosclerosis has traditionally been considered the primary cause of senility; this view, however, does not seem to be confirmed by autopsies. Some suggest that the cause may be early developmental nutritional shortages, isolating bereavement, alcoholism, latent viruses, and radi­ ation e x p o s u r e . R e s e a r c h e r s at the University of Buffalo have found that an increased flow of oxygen to the brain improves the mental performance of senior citizens in tests of conceptualization and m e m o r y t h i s increased oxygen flow treatment seems to have benefits ranging from none to six months. 109jean L. Marx, "Cellular Theories of Senescence," Science. CLXXXVI (December 20, 1974), 1105. James C. Folsom and Geneva S, Folsom, "The Real World," Mental Hygiene. LVIII (Summer, 1974), 30. ll^Douglas S. Looney, "Senility Is Reversible," Science Digest. LXXIV (December, 1973), 42-43. 112 iio2 for Old Age," Newsweek. LXXIV (October 13, 1969), 80. 113"Can Oxygen Fight Senility?" Business Week, MMCCXXI (March 25, 1972), 94. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1)8 A summary of what people can do to delay or prevent the beginning of senility is as follows: find mental stim­ uli ulation regularly to keep the mind active; curb your anxieties; don't quit doing things Just because you're getting old; don't think you are getting stupid; don't be concerned about occasional lapses of memory (young people forget things too); trol; do for others; keep weight under con­ plan for another possible career and/or learning new skills ; properly; give pep talks to yourself; stay active ; get enough sleep; eat T1C and be interested in others. ^ One of the ways people can remain active is to be permitted to work beyond the age of sixty-five. This has not been very feasible even though the government has passed some legislation to help alleviate the problems of forced early retirement and refusal to hire older people. Age discrimination. In 1967 a law was enacted called the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, which banned the practice of hiring, firing, or refusing to hire a person because he was past the age of forty. When disputes arise, the Labor Department's Employment Standards' Administration tries to settle the problems out of court. Employers must be careful in hiring or firing with regard to age, sex, and ^^^Gregg W. Downey, "The Greying of America," Nation's Schools ^ Colleges, I (September, 1974), 36. ^^^"How to Beat Senility," Modern Maturity, XVI (October/November, 1973), 6 7 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ^9 minority s t a t u s . T h i s throws a different light on the old complaint that old people were forced out of positions of power and young people were kept out of a position of p o w e r . Retirement should be based on competence, per­ sonal desire, health, and age.^^® The concept of retirement was introduced In Germany In 1882 by Chancellor Otto von B i s m a r c k , who arbitrarily chose the slxty-flve year mark as the retirement date, since not many people reached that age then. Today they average seventy-five, but In America, unions are pushing for age fifty-five retirement, and some have even talked about 1? n forty-five. During the 1930's, labor unions began requesting earlier retirement so Jobs could open up for younger workers. 1P T In the wake of the 1967 Age Discrimination In Employ­ ment Act, there were over two hundred court suits from 1970 to 1972 filed by the Labor Department against various com­ panies. In May of 197^, a landmark case was won when ^^^"Age Discrimination Moves to the Limelight," Business Week. MMCCCXXXV (June 15, 1974), 104. iI7pred Harris, "Fighting Aglsm: Old People Power," The New Republic. CLXX (March 23, 1974), 10. ^^®Robert N. Butler, "Why Retire At All?" Modern Maturity. XIV (December/January, 1971-72), 6 7 . l]-9ibld. 120ttgQQj^g^y IStupid' In Attitude toward Aging, Expert Asserts," Aging. CLXXXII (December, 1969), 8 . ^Butler, loc. cit. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 Standard Oil of California had to rehire 120 of l60 fired older workers, whose back pay totaled $2 million. The remaining forty workers were paid back pay even though they were not rehired because of health reasons, poor Job per12? formance, or having passed their sixty-fourth birthday. The Labor Department requests written proof from the employer proving that a person was fired because of a poor work performance record. 121 In summary, the 1967 Age Discrimination in Employ­ ment Act has caused employers to be less capricious in their hiring and firing of people on the basis of age, particular­ ly in the wake of the 197^ court case against Standard Oil of California. One of the more positive things that busi­ ness and industry have recently begun to do is to help employees plan for retirement instead of Just firing them. Retirement planning programs. In recent years, more businesses and industries have been attempting to provide some retirement planning for their personnel who are ap­ proaching the retirement age. To get employees to start planning ten years ahead of time, though, can be a delicate matter, because they might perceive that someone is in a hurry to push them out the back door— early, and also be­ cause they tend to think of retirement as some distant 122 "Employment: A Blow at Age-ism," Newsweek, LXXXIII (May 27, 1974), 73. 12? 123iipij,ed "Fired For Being 'Too Old'? Government Is on Your Side," U.S. News & World Report. LXXVI (June 3, 1974), 76. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 problem that will be taken care of when the time comes. 1 P il A Gallop Poll showed that adjustment to change is the biggest problem faced by the retiring e m p l o y e e . P l a n n i n g for retirement can reduce the anxiety created by approaching retirement. In Abraham Monks' study of seventy-three male executives from fifty to sixty years of age, the dominant Interest In life was a work-oriented pattern. One person Interviewed compared retirement to d y i n g . M o r e companies are providing retirement counseling for the following rea­ sons; (1) to assist employees in living successfully In retirement ; (2) to help plan an effective pension plan; (3) to provide younger workers an opportunity to move up by encouraging older employees to retire; and employee relations ; (4) to Improve labor (5) to have satisfied retirees who can become good-will ambassadors to the community as former representatives of the company; and (6) to show the employ­ ees that the company is interested in their welfare. Some companies are finding it helpful to Include the spouses of the retirees in the pre-retirement planning 12^tfgarly Planning for the Retirement Crisis: New Financial Strategy," Business Week, MMCCXCIII (August 18, 1973), 76. The Gallop, "Retirement— Reward or Punishment?" Personnel Journal, XLIX (April, 1970), 339. ^^^Jack Horn, "Retirement— A Dirty Word, A Depres­ sing Time," Psychology Today, IX (June, 1975), 95. c . Pyron, "Preparing Employees for Retirement," Personnel Journal. XLVIII (September, 1969), 723. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 c o u r s e s . Some of the questions to which wives often need to address themselves are these: will? (2) is it up-to-date? solicitors? dies? (1) where is my husband's (3) who are the executors and (4) what will be my income when my husband (5) will ray accustomed standard of living be main­ tainable? (6) who owns the house? (7) can mortgage pay­ ments be met if my husband dies?^^^ During the 1960's, development programs for execu­ tives exhibited some fads such as computer simulations and video-tape systems, but some lost ground has been regained by a time-tested approach— reading. Firms that did some self-evaluation of the guided reading program found it an effective method by which the executive could learn. One example of a retirement planning program is one jointly sponsored by Chrysler Corporation and the United Auto Workers since 1965. The seven-week program for employ­ ees and their spouses, held in schools, churches, union halls, community centers, or wherever convenient, was devel­ oped by the Department of Gerontology at the University of Michigan.131 1^8»Teamsters Teach Retirement," Fleet Owner, LXV (June, 1970), 206. B, Wright, "Retirement: A Survival Kit for Directors' Wives," Director. XXVI (December, 1973)» 484. 130g^ J, Hodge and J . W. Lee, "What Reading Will Do for the Executive," Business Horizons, XVI (August. 1973). 47. Louviere, "Chrysler's Road Map for Retirement," R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 Another example, this one for the more affluent mem­ bers of society. Is that of the Canadian Company of Prelude, Inc., which chartered the Argentina, a luxury liner, A cruise was planned that would leave New York for a fortyseven-day trip at a cost of $12,000 per couple. The confer­ ence was to emphasize a gradual change from business Into retirement, with on-board retirement seminars conducted by such people as Dr. Prescott Thompson of the Mennlnger Clinic, Dr. Paul Dudley White, a heart specialist, and Dr. Hans Selye, a stress expert from Montreal. A legitimate question can be raised as to whether or not retirement planning programs are very helpful. A study by Drake University provided data after pre-retirement plan­ ning course evaluations were tabulated. There was an Increase In concern about Social Security, Medicare, health, and lelsure-tlme activities and a decrease In concern about legal planning and employment. There was an Increase In Involvement In professional and occupational organizations, service clubs, adult education, fraternal organizations, church organizations, social and civic organizations, but there was a decrease In Involvement for legal planning and Social Security planning. Nation's Business, LX (August, 1972), 16. 132«Tonic for Aging Brass," Business Week, MMlXIII (March 15, I969), 90. ^33[)on C. Charles, "Effect of Participation in a Pre-Retirement Program," The Gerontologist, XI (Spring, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 To summarize, more businesses and industries in recent years have begun to provide pre-retirement planning programs and to include the retiree's spouse. Since it is difficult to get people to participate voluntarily, perhaps unions and companies need to require participation in such programs. Studies have shown that participation in pre­ retirement planning is helpful to the retiree; these pre­ retirement programs can help people decide whether early retirement or mandatory retirement would be best for them. Early retirement. The Social Security Administration reports indicate an early retirement trend since 1970, led by the larger c o m p a n i e s . ^^4 Auto worker executives note that the early retirement plan is more a psychological bene­ fit to many who keep working but know they can quit whenever they w a n t . N i n e t y - f i v e per cent of the voluntary retir­ ees report more satisfaction in retirement than forced early TO A retirees. ^ One of the long-range problems for companies is that they will have to fund their pension fund at a higher rate and pay out more money to accommodate a larger number of retirees in the future because of the early 1971, Part 1), 24-25. 134ii^hy the Big Swing to Early Retirement?" U.S. News & World Report. LXXVI (May 13, 1974), 59. 135"Thirty-and-Outers Opt for Late Retirement," Business Week, MMCXCVII (October 9, 1971), 82. 136u. V. Manion, "Why Employees Retire Early," Personnel Journal. LI (March, 1972), 207. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 retirement p l a n . ^37 Executives, as well as blue collar workers, are fac­ ing early retirement for such reasons as changes in top man­ agement, management man-power surplus, technological advances, and changes in the consumer market for a given p r o d u c t . ^38 Many workers retire early because of poor health, desire to retire, Job elimination, or forced retire­ ment; this early retirement often leaves the retiree with­ out Medicare coverage because of his being under sixtyfive. ^39 Because of inflation, many of these early retirees may risk becoming a group labeled the "new poor."1^0 Of those workers retiring early and having ill health, it generally was not a matter of retirement causing ill health; a three-year study by the University of Mis­ souri found that ill health may be a rationalization to retire. Generally, those who retired late, like at age sixty-eight, were in better health, more educated, wealth­ ier, and from higher status occupations than early retir­ ees. It does not seem to be stress as much as one's 137»Thirty-and-Outers Opt for Late Retirement," loc. cit. ^38r , Kinzel, "Resolving Executives' Early Retire­ ment Problems," Personnel. LI (May/June, 1974), 56-57. ^Lawrence T. Smedley, "Patterns of Early Retire­ ment," American Pederationist, LXXXI (January, 1974), 2, 5. ^Thomas R. Brooks, "What You Should Know about Early Retirement," Harvest Years. XII (August, 1972), 41. l4l"poor Health Not Result, But Cause, of Retirement, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 Inability to cope with stress that causes illness. Some­ times, too, illness is used to re-establish a person's status that was perceived lost because of retirement. 1 ÜP One study reported that the major consideration for retiring early was financial security.^^3 In summary, another study indicated that the main reasons for considering early retirement before age sixtyfive were declining health and level of retirement income. The factors which kept men working to sixty-five were full pension benefits and health coverage benefits. 1 illi Whether a person retires early or at sixty-five, he may soon find that he has more time on his hands than he has income and begin seeking part-time employment to meet the rapid inflation in the cost of living. Employment after retirement. There is a large reservoir of talented people who have been forced to retire that represents an unorganized, untapped natural resource in America. There is much to be said for the view that human chronological age in itself is not always a good indicator Missouri Study Finds," Aging, CLXXIII-CLXXIV (March-April, 1969), 11. ^^^David C. Ellison, "Work, Retirement, and the Sick Role," The Gerontologist. VIII (Autumn, 1968), 189-90. ^^^Rj^Qhard Barfield, George Katona, and James Morgan, "Study on Early Retirement Decisions," Social Security Bul­ letin, XXXII (August, 1969), 24. ^Virginia Reno, "Why Men Stop Working at or before Age 6 5 : Findings from the Survey of New Beneficiaries," Social Security Bulletin. XXXIV (September, 1971), l4. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 of vigor and productivity. Age should be considered an average of physical, psychological, and social ages.^^^ One of the factors which makes retired part-time workers so valuable is that they are part-timers with a full-time attitude and a sense of responsibility. Mid­ dle-aged workers seem to have less respect for speed than they do for accuracy— a fact helpful to know when hiring people as inspectors for production lines. Younger workers l4? might better be considered for speedy production. An outstanding example of utilizing retired profes­ sionals is the Hastings College of the Law in California, where all of the law professors are retired law practition­ ers or professors. One time at Hastings, Lewis M. Simes, formerly of the University of Michigan, received a tenminute ovation from his class on its last meeting day; I il8 was eighty years old at the time. he An interesting pattern for managers from middle mar­ ket companies is that of rehiring older heads after a recession has set in. It seems the younger employees often ^^^A. C. Laufer and W. M. Fowler, J r . , "Work Poten­ tial of the Aging," Personnel Administration, XXXIV (March/ April, 1971), 21. 1^6„oidgr Workers Are Efficient Temporaries," Office, LXXII (December, 1970), 4l. Belbin and M. H. Toye, "Accuracy and Speed on the Job," Labour Gazette. LXXI (January, 1971), 44. lllR Charles Stevenson, "Where You Have to Be Retired to Be Hired," Reader's Digest, XCVI (June, 1970), 21-24. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 lack the experience to help a company recover from a reces- Enough information has been gathered by other researchers to establish a useful profile on the older retiree with employable skills. Positive factors are that older workers have less absenteeism from their jobs, and, although they do tend to have illnesses that last longer, they do not have more frequent illness or accidents. Older part-time workers show less job turnover than young parttimers. In dexterity tests, some people in their sixties were learning as quickly as the majority of the younger age groups; production output declined only slightly in the fifty-five to sixty-four age range, and, in some forms of sales work, such as infants' clothing and accessories and garden supplies, older people have an advantage because 150 their life experiences help them. In summary, Hastings College of the Law represents an unusual example of how professional retirees can continue to be useful to society. The consulting skills available from retirees are a valuable resource. Some retail stores have already found that it is a golden opportunity to hire parttime retirees with full-time attitudes. For retirees ^^^Jon Healy, "Executive Life after 45," D u n 's , CIII (March, 1974), 99. 150 Raymond M. Haas and Edwin W. Crooks, "Rebirth of the Older Employable: A Note to Retailers," M.S.U. Business Topics, XIV (Autumn, 1966), 28-32. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 interested In working part-time, there are numerous ways to find Jobs on their own, but a recent development is employ­ ment agencies that specialize in placing senior citizens in part-time Jobs. Placement agencies for senior citizens. At Ann Arbor, Michigan, the Institute of Gerontology has a place­ ment service begun in 1970 that is designed to become a nationwide agency for placing retirees in part-time or full­ time Jobs.151 Experience Unlimited, Inc. (EUI), was organized in 1969 in Florida by Jack and Ruth Eckert to place workers who are fifty years of age or more in temporary work assign­ ments; they have offices in St. Petersburg, Clearwater, and Tampa .152 Delaware has a statewide Job placement organization. Employment Services for Older D e l a w a r e a n s . 153 City-wide placement services are available in San Antonio, Texas, 15^ and San Diego, California, the latter of which places people between forty-five years of age and seventy-five 151"Ann Arbor Aging Placement Service Enters Second Year," Aging. CCIII (September, 1971), 7* 152»pxorida Firm Hires Older Workers, Places Them in Temporary Positions," Aging. CC (June, 1971), l4. 153"ES0D Is Not Exotic: In Delaware It Is Senior Jobs," Aging. CCXLI-CCXLII (November-December, 197%), 17. 15^Karen Davis, "Ability Is Ageless." Harvest Years, X (May, 1970), %6. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 years of age.^55 Examples of some of the types of Jobs for senior citizens are maintenance workers, gardeners, receptionists, store managers, bookkeepers, clothing salesmen, and parkinglot attendants.156 in Vermont, over twenty libraries use senior citizens as part-time employees.157 Employment agencies for senior citizens exist on the national, state, and local levels. For those who retire but cannot or do not want to work, there are some things that retirees can do to enhance their enjoyment of retire­ ment . Factors to consider for enjoylng retirement. Too often the ex-worker does not feel Justified In enjoying leisure time; gainful and he believes that he should be doing something u t i l i t a r i a n . 1^8 jack Leff of the Massachusetts Department of Elder Affairs said that the American work ethic, the 1930's Depression, and the Industrial revolution have all contributed to the myth that any person who does 155'’One Thousand Seniors Get Jobs In New San Diego Program," Retirement Living, XIV (August, 197%), 9. 156ibid.. p. 10. 157"Vermont Finds Older Library Aides Boon In 4County, 2,500 Mile Area," Aging. CLXXIII-CLXXIV (MarchAprll, 1969), 9 . ^5®Robert Atchley, "Retirement and Leisure Partici­ pation: Continuity or Crisis," The Gerontologist, XI (Spring, 1971, Part 1), 13-14. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6l not work full-time is u s e l e s s . ^^9 it is apparent that ways must be found to enable a retiring person to maintain his sense of identity. To enjoy retirement, a person must begin planning for it before retirement; those who do not plan are unlikely to find fulfillment in retirement. A University of Michigan study indicated that those most happy in retirement planned their retirement in advance, have an adequate income, have good health, had some counseling before retirement, and participate in leisure-time activities. Stanley King, an assistant vice president for A.T.&T., stated,". . .successful retirement is, simply, an extension of a successful life." X6 2 He pointed out that people should look forward with anticipation to retirement as a reward. People who have interests outside their career will be more likely to have a sense of continuity in their life into r e t i r e m e n t . S u b s t i t u t e activities in retire­ ment, such as being Involved in religious, political, indus­ trial, and consumer interests, can provide a person with a ^59«Senior Power," Newsweek, LXXXIV (September l6, 1974), 53-54. ^^^Berlie J. Fallon, "Why Retire? Why Not Shift Gears?" Retirement Living. XIII (February, 1973), 20-22. l6l"why the Nationwide Trend to Early Retirement," U.S. News & World Report. LXXIII (October 23, 1972), 58. 1^2%. T, Ludlow, "Thinking about Retirement; Do We Know How?" Conference Board Record, X (April, 1973), 48. lG3lbid. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 sense of usefulness; retirement also becomes an opportunity for a new avocation or a second career. The Bemis Company in Minneapolis surveyed two hundred of its retirees and concluded that the "ideal" retirement is one in which a person stays active, travels, starts a second career, does gardening, goes fishing, and gets involved in community action programs; the main theme was to keep active. The following is a suggested list of factors to con­ sider when planning for retirement; plan for inflation; do not sell your home and move to a new climate without having stayed there on vacations; choose some hobbies or activities to do before retiring; do not move to live near your children if there have not been any previous trials to show it would not cause conflicts; a retirement program; be sure your spouse has check out possibilities of part-time consulting opportunities in your life-long career field; scale down your standard of living; and do not leave things to chance or take things for granted before checking them out in a d v a n c e . 1^6 other common sense type suggestions for a successful retirement include these: (1) know your l^^Marvin Sukov, "Creative Retirement," Geriatrics, XXVI (July, 1971), 84, 87. ^^^"Does Life Really Begin at 65?" Nation's Business, LXII (February, 1974), 42. W. Pair, "Retirement Is Rough Unless Carefully Planned," Banking, LXII (March, 1970), 26, 28. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 financial status; (2) have regular health check-ups; (3) replace or eliminate defective major appliances that could cause fire; (4) obtain adequate housing; lelsure-tlme activities; (5) plan some and (6) have a trustworthy attor­ ney Helen Alpert rather amusingly describes seven easy ways to ruin retirement; retirement; please; these are: (1) don't plan before (2) don't think about money, just spend as you (3) always tell people how you feel; (4) just pack up, sell out, and move out of your home community to some place you've never lived; next door; (5) move In with your kids, or (6) don't get regular medical check-ups; don't do any kind of work; loaf continuously. (7) The moral Is to waste not a day In getting started on making mistakes that can be made today. In summary, according to research, those who hope to enjoy retirement must begin planning their retirement before It happens. Outside Interests beyond their job prior to retirement can often be continued after retirement. The main theme seems to be to keep active and "don't leap before you look." Planning ahead will help one avoid many of the common problems of retirees who find that their basic needs are somewhat different from when they were twenty years l^^Helen Alpert, "Ten Secrets for Successful Retire­ ment," Retirement Living, XIII (January, 1973), 20-21. ^^®Helen Alpert, "How to Ruin a Beautiful Retl ment," Retirement Living, XIII (September, 1973), 46. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 younger. Common problems and basic needs of the aging. Per­ haps the one problem that Is common to all senior citizens Is the necessity of coping with c h a n g e . I t Is Important to have a sense of control over one's circumstances or to feel that one Is In charge rather than to feel that It Is hopeless to try to steer a course In retirement waters. The senior citizen seems to fear a loss of control over his life pattern more than he fears death.^^0 One of the biggest changes for many retirees comes when reduced Income forces a residence change to something they can afford.^^1 The more affluent people can have some control over their choice of residence; on the contrary, the poor elderly have little choice of residence. According to one report, the major personality prob­ lems that middle-aged adults seem to have with their aging parents seem to be psychological or physiological problems caused by aging, psychological problems caused by attempts to compensate for various losses, and problems that have been life-long ones. It seems that the passage of time only A. Henderson, "When Retirement Becomes a Way of Life"[symposium], Conference Board Record, IX (March, 1972), 46. 170 Jack Weinberg, "They Are Stealing Things from Me," Forbes. CIII (January 15, 1969), 29. Virginia Beverly, "How to Choose the Right Milieu for Your Later Years," Geriatrics, XXX (April, 1975), 154. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 deepens personality patterns, such as the Irresponsible or immature parent, the anxiety-plagued parent, or the parent who is chronically ill. Also, those who were depression- prone or generally unhappy in their middle years became more so in their retirement years. These last two factors appear to be the most frequently reported psychological problems of the aging,172 and boredom seems to facilitate both of them.173 Retirees often find that without the children living in the home, there seems little to talk about; they feel like strangers and discuss only superficial topics, such as the weather. Somewhere along the line, they had ceased listening to one another while being occupied with family problems.17^ Numerous studies have been done concerning the prob­ lems of the aged. Money is generally at the top of the list, and Social Security restrictions on earning income for retirees compound the p r o b l e m . 175 income problems are not new, as indicated by a 1969 United States Senate report which listed seven urgent problems of older people, the 172sertha G. Simos, "Relations of Adults with Aging Parents," The Gerontologist, X (Summer, 1970), 136. 173Lavinia Russ, "Retiring with Style," Retirement Living, XIII (July, 1973), 17. 17^June Kennedy McLane, "Now That We're Alone To­ gether," Retirement Living. XIV (November, 1974), 47. 175Barbara Isenberg, "Senior Power; Aging in Amer­ ica," Nation. CCXVI (May l4, 1973), 626-27. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 176 first of which was inadequate income. Many even overpay 177 their taxes. Some other problems listed were inadequate health care insurance, housing, nursing homes, and aliénation from society. 1 7 fl Also mentioned was a feeling of unimportance as a person. 179 '^ Based on government documents and reports, the staff members of a national magazine reported: (1) elderly who are poverty-stricken are increasing in numbers ; (2) many retirees barely affording basic necessities of life are not classified as poor; eggs"; (3) inflation rapidly reduces "nest (4) many elderly are on the verge of going on wel­ fare and losing their homes; and (5) the Medicare program 1 Qa is not financially meeting their health expenses. A survey of the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1973 indicated that urban retirees spent 80.5 per cent of their Income on food, shelter, health care, and transportation. It is no wonder that some unmarried elderly couples set up housekeeping together since two single people can draw more "Senate Special Committee Lists Income as Gravest Problem Pacing Aging of U.S.," Aging, CLXXV (May, 1969), 5. 177 "Treasury Finds Many Retirees Overpay Taxes; Remedy Sought," Aging, CLXXXVIII-CLXXXIX (June-July, 1970), 9. 1y O "Senate Special Committee Lists Income as Gravest Problem Facing Aging of U.S.," loc. cit. ^^^"Study Spotlights Plight of Aged," U.S. News & World Report, LXVI (April 28, 1969), 6 7 . ^®^"Cost Squeeze: Plight of Retired People," U.S. News & World Report. LXXII (March 27, 1972), 38. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 Social Security Income than a married couple. 181 Poverty Is a greater problem for aging women than for 1 Qp aging men; consequently, the American government must do more toward supporting aging widows, according to one writer. In Detroit, 210 senior citizens were Interviewed In residential settings. Their main concerns were good health, l84 staying "In the black" financially, and fear of crime. Lack of money to pay for dental treatment, eyeglasses, and clothing Is another common problem for senior citizens. 185 Public transportation for shopping, visiting, and medical treatment trips Is of vital Importance to urban elderly. Keeping the home In good repair and maintaining good -I 0 * 7 nutritional habits are problems for elderly living alone. 1 ft1 "Down, Out— and Getting Older," Newsweek, LXXXIV (October 7, 1974), 8 5 . l82„Bieak Future for Elderly Women," Intellect, CIII (February, 1975), 282. I83tipiight of Retired People: Second-Class Living Standard," U.S. News & World Report, LXVII (September 8, 1969), 6 3 . TQ h Jaber F. Gubrlum, "Self-Conceptions of Mental Health among the Aged," Mental Health, LV (July, 1971), 398, 400. 185"Will the Elderly Rescue the Retailers," Business W eek, MMCXXI (April 25, 1970), 33. l86„g^derly Travel Most to Visit, Shop, and Obtain Medical Care," Aging, CXCV (January, 1971), 13. "Senate Committee Holds Hearing on Rural Aged," R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 Researchers Clark and Anderson reported that loneliness, also, is a major problem of elderly people; it can be caused by such factors as geography, language, culture, life-style, illness and/or pain, bereavement, and fear of 1O p impending death. Such data makes it plain that age- segregated housing is not the answer for everyone— only for 18Q those who desire it. The Institute of Gerontology at the University of Iowa has listed a number of needs expressed by the elderly; some of these are the needs to: part of a community; as a person; lishment; ulation; feel socially useful; enjoy companionship; be have recognition express themselves and have a sense of accomp­ meet health care requirements; maintain family relationships; tion for their spiritual n e e d s . have mental stim­ and find satisfac­ ^^0 The last point is more plainly understood when a look is taken at the Detroit study, where 8.1 per cent said that they had no future, and 5.2 per cent stated that they had no hopes. The percentages are not high, but no one should have Aging, CLXXXII (December, 1969), 7* 1QQ Irene Mortenson Burnside, "Loneliness in Old Age," Mental Hygiene, LV (July, 1971), 391, 393. l B 9 Susan R. Sherman, "Patterns of Contacts for Resi­ dents of Age-Segregated and Age-Integrated Housing," Journal of Gerontology, XXX (January, 1975), 103. IQO E. Virginia Beverly, "Turning the Realities of’ Retirement into Fulfillment," Geriatrics, XXX (January, 1975), 134. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 to feel that kind of despair. In summary, the aging experience physiological, psychological, sociological, economic, and spiritual prob­ lems. Such problems become accented in old age if they are not resolved at an earlier age. The depths of despair men­ tioned in the above Detroit study come into sharper focus when one takes a look at the nation's suicide rate for the elderly. Suicides among the aging. Elderly men have the high­ est suicide rate of any age group in A m e r i c a . O t h e r research shows that the elderly's high rate of suicide is related to a decline in family relationships that are mean­ ingful. Married men who have children have the lowest rate of suicide. Social commentators, historians, and social scien­ tists have long been critical of the way society abandons its older Americans and leaves them in social isolation and lacking in dignity. As the elderly population expands, it becomes increasingly Important for society to provide them a sense of belonging and being useful— or suicide rates may continue to climb. Some research indicates that when the aging move away from life-long familiar routines and l^^Gubrium, 0£. cit. , p. 400. Butler, "Senior Power," America, CXXVII (December 2, 1972), 472. 193Robert Niccollni, "Reading the Signals for Suicide Risk," Geriatrics. XXVIII (May, 1973), 71. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 surroundings, the suicide rate increases. igli One approach was suggested by some psychiatrists in a recent survey which could have an influence on suicide rates and other problems of aging; they favored taking geriatric services to the elderly in the community rather than waiting for the aging to deteriorate to the point at which they have to go to geriatric f a c i l i t i e s . ^^5 For the elderly who need or desire various types of services, there are national, state, and local governments and private organizations that can offer assistance to meet some of their needs. Organizational programs for the elderly. There are many groups that are presently active in organizing services for the senior citizen; at least eleven are involved in national politics as it relates to problems of old age. They are as follows: Federal Employees; sons; (1) National Association of Retired (2) American Association of Retired Per­ (3) National Retired Teachers Association (the latter two function together on national politics); Council of Senior Citizens; Black Aged; (4) National (5) National Caucus on the (6) National Council on the Aging American; (7) American Gerontological Society; of Health Care Services; Units on Aging; (8) National Council (9) National Association of State (10) American Nursing Home Association; 194ibid.. pp. 71-72. ]-95ibici., p. 72. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 and (11) the American Association of Homes for the Aging. The first four organizations in the above list are probably the best known groups. The National Council of Senior Citizens was organized in the early igGO's to create pressure for Medicare legislation after beginning in I960 as a campaign organization for presidential-hopeful John P. Kennedy. Throughout the country today there are over three thousand club affiliates divided into groups for trade unions, retirees, religious groups, ethnic groups, and retirees on social welfare. The leadership of the organiza­ tion is in the hands of labor unions. The National Retired Teachers Association was organ­ ized by Dr. Ethel Percy Andrus for the purposes of improving teachers' federal tax benefits and state pensions for teach­ ers , improving the status and image of retirees, and to have private enterprise do more to meet the material needs of the aging.19^* In 1955, life insurance for the elderly was organized by Dr. Andrus. She and Leonard Davis, an insur­ ance agent, organized a new group called the American Asso­ ciation of Retired Persons in 1958 for expanding the insur­ ance program from life into pharmacy and travel insur­ ance .199 19^Henry J. Pratt, "Old Age Associations in National Politics," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, CDXV (September, 197%), 10H^09. 197xbid.. pp. 110-11. 198lbid.. p. 11. 199lbid.. pp. 111-12. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 72 A memorial to Dr. Andrus, who died in 1967, exists in Los Angeles in the form of a new Ethel Percy Andrus Geron­ tology Center, located at the University of Southern Cali­ fornia; it is the home of the first undergraduate school of gerontology in the nation. Another expansion of A.A.R.P. is a new group called Action for Independent Maturity to provide pre-retirement programs for the active worker in his fifties. Government and private industry such as Dow Chemical Company, Westinghouse, Fisher-Price, Pan Am World Airways, Gerber, and Shell Oil Company are asking for their assistance in planning pre­ retirement programs.^01 The National Retired Teachers Association and the American Association of Retired Persons have merged their efforts into an effective voice for the senior citizen in government circles. The National Association of Retired Federal Employees was organized in 1921 to press for better retirement bene­ fits for federal employees. An unusual example of union involvement in problems of the aged is represented in the International Ladies Gar­ ment Workers Union; they are training elderly people to visit other elderly and assist them with household chores. ^00''The Story of AAKP," Modern Maturity, XVII (August/September, 1974), 56. ^^^Ibid. . pp. 61-62. Pratt, 0£. cit., p. 113. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 An effort Is made to Interest the senior citizen In activ­ ities of the community The Oliver Wendell Holmes Association was formed to help the elderly retire gracefully upon the completion of an active professional. Industrial, or business life. The Institute for Retired Professionals of the New School for Social Research attempts to provide professional retirees opportunities for continual cultural and Intellec­ tual growth. The Washington School of Psychiatry sponsors The Forum for Professionals and Executives, which emphasizes the retirement factor of liberation. They encourage older pro­ fessional executives to make themselves available for con­ sulting. The Institute of Lifetime Learning offers Informal education based on the view that a person who Is Intellec204 tually curious Is ageless. In addition to White House Conferences on Aging In 1950, 1961» and 1971, which served the purpose of bringing the problems of aging to the public spotlight, there was the Older Americans Act of 1965, which provided grants for non­ profit private agencies and public agencies concentrating on career training for people working, or preparing to work. Percll Stanford, "Education and Aging; New Task for Education," Adult Leadership, XX (February, 1972), 282. 20^Ibld. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in the career field of aging. There are a number of federally supported volunteer programs, such as Retired Senior Volunteers, Poster Grand­ parents, Service Corps of Retired Executives, Volunteers in 205 Service to America, and Peace Corps. An educational organization known as the National School Volunteer Program, with over two million members, places volunteers in schools to help teachers in vocational education, dramatics, music, art, language, and emotionally disturbed and physically p A^ handicapped classes. One militant group has been the Gray Panthers, organ207 ized by Maggie Kuhn. They are concerned about "defects" in the social structure as being catalysts of problems for the aging. In the immediate years ahead, the federal strategy is 20Q to encourage the development of Area Agencies on Aging. An example of what local planners can do is in ^*^^Carol Of fen, "Retirees in Action," Retirement Living, XIII (August, 1973), 38-42. pn Helen Alpert, "S.O.S. for School Volunteers," Retirement Living, XV (September, 1975), 41-44. ^^^"What the Bicentennial Means to Me," Retirement Living, XV (July, 1975), 26. ^^®Carole Offir, "Old People's Revolt— At 65 Work Becomes a Four-Letter Word," Psychology Today, VII (March, 1974), 40. ^Robert B. Hudson, "Rational Planning and Organi­ zational Imperatives: Prospects for Area Planning in Aging," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, CDXV (September^ 1974) ,~4^1. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 Syracuse, New York, where a group called The Metropolitan Commission on Aging was organized to plan personal and environmental services, do research, cooperate with alreadyexisting local organizations, provide information and referral services, and cooperate with state and federal agencies dealing with policy-making for the aging. 210 A different type of local organization is represented by the Senior Adult Service Center in Portland, Oregon. Its purpose is to employ retirees to help elderly people in need of help by offering household assistance, companionship, shopping and transportation, and personal care on a weekly basis to handicapped and those living alone. 211 In Valley City, North Dakota, volunteers provide telephone reassurance, hot meals delivery, nursing aid, legal advice, yard care, home repairs, letter writing, household chores assistance, and window washing. 212 Society needs people to volunteer time to work with the older Americans. The clergy have been involved in meet­ ing the needs of the elderly in their congregations and cora2 13 munitie8 for a long time. Many churches have elderly 210 "Syracuse City-County Aging Group Formed: First in N.Y.," Aging, CCVII-CCVIII (January-February, 1972), l6. p 11 "Senior Service Center Staffed by Elders," Aging, CCXLIV-CCXLV (February-March, 1975), 6. 212 "North Dakota Town Backs Volunteer Service to Aged," Aging. CCXXII (April, 1973), 8. 211 Kenneth Hougland, "Liberation from Age-ism: The Ministry of Elders," The Christian Century, XCI (March 27, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 visiting their elderly shut-ins, nursing homes, and hospi­ tals, giving food and clothing assistance, and sometimes even providing money in emergency situations to the needy. What is needed is for secular society to get organized to aid the aging who are not taken care of in the private sec­ tor. The following types of community programs are intended to summarize some of the common types of local programs that could be organized in any community, whether large or small. A Senior Friends Program was started in Cincinnati in 1969 for the purpose of providing elderly companionship and care for retirees in nursing homes or their own homes. In Cleveland, the first Girl Scout troop of its kind was organized; it was for women sixty-two to eighty-five and was nicknamed by a local paper as the Medicare troop. It all started when some sixth grade Girl Scouts volunteered to be of help to the elderly at the Southwest Senior Center in Parma Heights. In New Brunswick, boys and girls in the scouts are involved in a program of Adopt-a-Grandparent. They go to 1974), 341. P I ii Naomi Breslau and Marie R. Haug, "The Elderly Aid the Elderly: The Senior Friends Program," Social Security Bulletin, XXXV (November, 1972), 9. 215"Cleveland Has Nation's Only 60+ Girl Scout Troop — with Men as Members Too!," Aging. CLXXXVI (April, 1970), 10 • ReprocJucecJ with permission of the copyright owner. Further reprocJuction prohibitecJ without permission. 77 nursing homes to visit and do for people who have no regular P1 visitors. As a result of the 1971 White House Conference on Aging, an Interfalth coalition of Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant faiths was formed to survey church-sponsored activities that help the a g i n g . U l t i m a t e l y the group will develop an Information bank compatible with the Adminn1 Û Istratlon on Aging’s National Clearinghouse for Aging. The state of Maryland has organized a toll-free call system. In which anyone can call a central location to obtain Information on services for the aging anywhere In the state. At the time It was started In 1969, some said that Santa Pe had the best senior citizens program In New Mexico. They offered the following services: ral; telephone reassurance; for the needy; visitation; recreation; drugs; Information and refer­ seminars; counseling; home health service; Meals-on-Wheels; food home nutritional advice; ?1 "Adopt a Grandparent Plan Gets Good Start In New Jersey," Aging, CXCV (January, 1971), 12. 217"interfaith Coalition on Aging Meets: Has 96 Million Members," Aging, CCXXIV-CCXXV (June-July, 1973), 13 ^^®"Interfalth Coalition Starts Study of Church Programs for Elderly," Aging, CCXXIX-CCXXX (NovemberDecember, 1973), l6. "Maryland Begins Statewide Information, Referral Service," Aging, CXCV (January, 1971), 10- R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 and transportation. p ?n In Long Island, there Is a roving Seniormobile that follows a regular schedule of appearances throughout the city. The schedule is distributed by newspapers, radio, television, mailings to senior groups, and flyers in banks, stores, and supermarkets. Information is provided on hous­ ing, health care, transportation, employment, leisure-time programs, and volunteer opportunities. The 1972 Nutrition Program for the Elderly bill was designed to encourage one hot meal per day, five days a week for people sixty and over, in churches, colleges, schools, senior centers, and community centers. 222 Prior to that, Baltimore already had one of the nation's largest programs of Meals-on-Wheels. In Pennsylvania, vocational school students prepare meals for the elderly with funding under the Older Americans Act, Title VII; and rural e l d e r l y . I n they serve the urban Concord, Massachusetts, senior 220itjjew Mexico Senior Program Serving 3000 Clients in 5th Year," Aging. CCXXXIX-CCXL (Septeraber-October, 1974), 11 . n p *1 "'Seniormobile' Brings Services to Long Island's Older Americans," Retirement Living, XIV (November, 1974), 50. ^^^David A, Peterson, "Older Persons, Nutrition, and Adult Education: A New Opportunity," Adult Leadership, XXI (February, 1973), 26l. 223"Baltimore Meals-on-Wheels Ten Years Old and Still Growing," Aging, CXCIII-CXCIV (November-December, 1970), 10. "Pennsylvania Uses Students, Others, in Nutrition R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 citizens can lunch at the local high school, paying fifty cents for the meal. Transportation is provided by the 225 school buses which are otherwise idle at noon. In Little Rock, a mobile health unit travels to rural areas to bring medical aid to the elderly where there are few doctors. P P fi William Bell at Florida State University believes that if more health services, help with household chores, shopping, meal delivery, and transportation were available, more elderly people could stay at home instead of going to nursing homes. 227 Daily telephone reassurance programs to monitor the daily needs of the homebound elderly have been sponsored in Naples, Florida, under Title III of the Older Americans Act.^^®* In Idaho there is a Night Buddy program in which elderly people contact shut-ins by phone Just to talk; any emergency needs are handled by the police and a Program," Aging, CCXLIII (January, 1975), 20. ^^^"Notes from All Over," Reader's Digest, CVI (January, 1975), ll6. p Q^ "Arkansas Healthmobile Screens Rural Elderly," Aging, CCXXXVI-CCXXXVII (June-July, 197^), 17. 227 "Research Report Recommends Services as Alterna­ tives to Nursing Home Care," Aging, CCIV (October, 1971), 8. P P ft "Hello, Mr. Jones, Everything OK?" American Druggist, CLXII (July 27, 1970), 52. 229 "Dial-a-Priend Program Makes Calls to Florida Aged," Aging, CCXXXV (May, 1974), 9- R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 taxi-cab fleet. The program*s name, ECHO, means Elderly Contact and Help Organization. Other kinds of transportation systems for senior citizens have been devised, such as a cross-county bus 2^1 line. In Springfield, Illinois, merchants provide free bus rides between 6:00 and 8:45 p.m. on Mondays and Fridays for anyone. In Washington, it was found that in lower income areas it was best to start transportation programs 2'3'3 for the elderly with taxi-cabs and mini-buses. In Maine, free transportation was the most frequently used service in 2 their three western counties. In the area of housing, a travel vacation plan for low income elderly has been made so that public housing tenants in one city can exchange public housing with inter­ ested tenants in another city. Another somewhat unique housing program is sponsored by Syracuse University, where 230„id^ho Telephone Plan Named ECHO Sends Aid on Calls to 522-HELP," Aging. CLXXXIII (January, 1970), 15. 2 '31 "Special Cross-County Bus for Seniors Started in New Jersey," Aging, CCVII-CCVIII (January-Pebruary, 1972), 3. 2 ■32 "Free Bus Rides Aid Seniors, Merchants, in Spring­ field, 111.," Aging, CCIV (October, 1971), 15. ^^^"l600 Richland, Washington, Elderly Participate in Subsidized Cab Service," Aging, CCXXXVI-CCXXXVII (JuneJuly, 1974), 21. 2 ‘34 "Maine Areawide Project Links Seniors to Serv­ ices," Aging. CCXXIII (May, 1973), 92^5 -^'^James Curren, "New Program Offers Travel Vacations to Low Income Elderly," Aging, CCXLIII (January, 1975), l 6 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 students and the elderly occupy different wings in the same building, the wings being connected by a common dining room, snack bar, and meeting rooms.^36 There is a growing number of civic organizations forming to assist the elderly in their retirement years. In addition, governments, both state and federal, have become more active in this area in the 1970*s. When President Gerald Ford went into office, he declared his concern for the elderly and pledged aid for them.237 in 1974, twenty- four cents out of every federal tax dollar went to the elderly,238 John Martin, a U.S. Commissioner on Aging, said that state funding needs to be upgraded to meet the states’ requirements of the Older Americans Act.^39 Anyone interested in a recent listing of state agen­ cies on aging can obtain one in the form of an undated pub­ lication published in the spring of 1976 entitled Community Colleges Respond to Elders from the National Institute of Education (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and 236nyhere the Young and Old Live Together, Happily," McCalls. XCVIII (August, 1971), 42. 237'tpord Meets with Leaders of Elderly Groups, Pledges Aid for Older Americans," Aging. CCXXXIX-CCXL (September-October, 1974), 3» 238iiBetter Life for the Aged— What New Law Provides," U.S. News & World Report. LXXIV (May 28, 1973), 89. ^39"gtate Legislatures Can Assist Aging, Martin Tells Lawmakers," Aging . CCXIX (January, 1973), 7- R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 Welfare). The state agency can also provide a list of area agencies throughout the state. In summary, there are organizations for the senior citizen that are active In politics and/or lobbying for the aged and other organizations spawned by trade unions and by religious, ethnic, welfare, business, educational, profes­ sional, federal, state, and local groups. One Institution that should be helpful to people as long as they live Is the educational Institution. In a rapidly changing society, lifelong learning Is a must to keep abreast of new techno­ logical developments. For an educational Institution, such as a community college, properly to provide educational and cultural offerings to senior citizens, something should be known about the soclo-cultural characteristics of the elder­ ly. Research seems to Indicate that certain types of people are more likely candidates for educational programs. Soclo-cultural characteristics of senior citizens. In a study of 453 people over sixty, 63 per cent belonged to three or more organizations. Fifty-seven per cent rated health as their most serious problem. Senior citizens who participate In adult education, as compared to non-partlclpants, are generally healthier, more active In community affairs, have higher Income, are more likely to have been Involved In adult education during the past ten years, came from a home where mother emphasized the Importance of good grades In school, are more Inclined to value education for their spouse, or have admired friends or relatives who R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 participate in adult e d u c a t i o n . A recent study Indicates that welfare households con­ sider expenditures for education, medical care, and trans­ portation of lower priority than for food and housing. Dis­ abled households have more aged and female-headed households and less education than households without any disabled e l d e r l y . Most studies on the soclo-cultural character­ istics of the elderly neglect to mention the spiritual needs of the aging. Carl Jung believed that humans would not possess the capacity to live long beyond their reproductive and produc­ tive years If there were not some purpose Intended. He did not see how one could live a happy life In his twilight years without some type of belief In a life after d e a t h . ^^2 A lecturer and world traveler, Jerome Ellison, believes that to be a mature person, the aging must strive for Internal, spiritual growth, after (If not before) he has succeeded In acquiring the material things of life, such as club memberships, a family, and a home. He believes that man needs to acquire wisdom to face the transitions from 2^0phlleon B. Robinson, Jr., "Soclo-Cultural Char­ acteristics of Senior Citizen Participants In Adult Educa­ tion," Adult Leadership, XX (January, 1972), 234-36. 24lit£xpendlture Patterns of Welfare, Age, and Dis­ abled Households," Social Security Bulletin, XXXVII (August, 1974), 41. ^^^Townsend T. Kleffer, "Man with a Message," Modern Maturity, XVIII (October/November, 1975), 67. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 employment to retirement, and death to a life beyond the grave. Beard reported from a study of centenarians that those who have the keenest interest in tomorrow as well as today displayed the most faith in a life beyond the 244 grave. Research on aging and church attendance seems often to be contradictory because of different methodologies used; hence, it is difficult at the present time to point to any clear-cut trend or pattern. The traditional view seems to be that church attendance declines between the ages of thirty and thirty-five and then begins to increase as people 24s approach old age. In summary, old age seems to be a time for spiritual growth and a time to develop outside interests. The main trend seems to be that people who are active in community affairs are likely to continue to be active after retire­ ment, and they seem to be the likely targets for educational and cultural programs of a community college. The elderly are definitely showing an interest in educational pursuits— much more so than at the beginning of the century. Why do older Americans seek education? Attention to the problems of the aging was given national publicity at 2^3lbid. P44 B. B. Beard, "When You're 100 and Have Three Wishes," Harvest Years, XI (February, 1971), 42. piic C. Ray Wingrove and Jon P. Alston, "Age, Aging, and Church Attendance," The Gerontologist, XI (Winter, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 the 1961 White House Conference on Aging. This conference was followed by the 1965 Older Americans Act, which estab­ lished the office of Administration on Aging to authorize grants for research and training about the elderly. 246 Despite these pronouncements of the government, people were still saying in 1973 that "the most forgotten group in America are the elderly poor."^^7 If the general population is to become concerned about the problems of the aging of society, it then becomes the role of education to awaken all age groups to the plight of the aged. Our schools have been attempting to teach children how to grow up but not how to grow old. For the elderly to have a proper sense of value in life, there must be a change in attitude of society toward the senior citi­ zen. 2^8 In addition, senior citizens need opportunities for education to improve their sense of usefulness in retire­ ment. Senior citizens list some of the following reasons: for personal satisfaction; to learn a new trade; to 1971, Part 1), 356. 246, Robert P. Wray, "Institutions of Higher Education as a Resource for a Statewide Continuing Education Program in Gerontology," Adult Leadership, XIX (November, 1970), 156. 247t4argaret H. Bacon, "Why the Old Are Getting Mad," Saturday Review of the Society. I (April 21, 1973), 24. ^^®Irene K. Ogawa, "Old-Age Education: An Approach to Dealing with Aging and Retirement," Religious Education, LXIX (Septeraber-October, 1974), 607. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 associate with young people; to quench an insatiable thirst for k n o w l e d g e ; t o gain insight into themselves; prepare for service to the community; boredom; to to get relief from and to supplement a narrow previous e d u c a t i o n . ^50 In summary, the government and educational institu­ tions have been trying the past decade to do something to help the aging. The elderly have been turning to educa­ tional programs for reasons listed above, and, because of this, the educational attainment of senior citizens is higher now than prior to World War II. The changing educational attainments of the elderly. The Bureau of the Census began in 1940 to collect informa­ tion on the population's educational attainment. From 1940 to 1974, the proportion doubled for high school graduates, rising to 61.2 per cent from 24.1 per cent. At the same time, the number of illiterates declined by two-thirds, to 4.4 per cent from 13.5 per cent. In 1974 the median years of schooling attained by a twenty-five year old was 12.3 years, whereas it was only 8.6 years in 1940.^51 It is expected that by 1990 half of the sixty-five-and-over 249Ruth M. Uphaus, "Educating Retirees," Adult Leadership. XX (May, 1971), 17. ZS^Barry R. Morstain and John C, Smart, "Reasons for Participation in Adult Education Courses: A Multivariate Analysis of Group Differences," Adult Education, XXIV (Winter, 1974), 86-88. 251#. Vance Grant, "Trends in Education," American Education, XI (March, 1975), back cover. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 population will be graduates of high school. 252 By the end of this century, the educational gap between our young and 25'5 old will be greatly reduced. Until very recent years, there had been no major attempt by higher education to meet the needs of these older and better educated Americans. Since the average educational attainment level for senior citizens In America Is rising, there will be a higher percentage of education-oriented retirees with each passing decade. If higher education Is to meet the educational and cultural Interests of the older American, the higher educa­ tional Institution should find out from the elderly what they are Interested In learning. What are the elderly Interested In learning? A 196? study at Ohio State University revealed that older people are Interested In religion, gardening, travel, good groom­ ing, physical fitness, foreign affairs, public affairs, man­ agement of personal finances, psychology, cooking, hand­ crafts, poetry, music, reading, American history, and house­ hold mechanics. The courses that received the highest Interest response were "The Bible as Literature" and "Learn25^ Ing In the Older Years." As was stated In Chapter I, one ^^^"Senlor Citizens Are Lead Factor In Business Markets," Commerce Today, III (October 1, 1973), 22. ^^^Bernlce L. Neugarten, "Age Groups In American Society and the Rise of the Young-Old," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, CDXV (September, 1974), 195. 25U ^ Andrew Hendrickson and Robert P. Barnes, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 of the purposes of this research project is to learn what senior citizens are saying they want today in the form of educational and cultural activities. Some preliminary research of others indicates that older Americans tend to select courses that relate to their self-actualization needs.^^5 There are countless educational and cultural offer­ ings that colleges around the country are providing for the older American, and to list them all would be impossible. The point is that each collegiate area should make its own assessment of the educational needs of its senior citizens. It would seem that the rural elderly might differ in their interests and motivation for education from metropolitan elderly. Not only geography but also learning environment can entice people to educational and cultural offerings. Environmental factors which encourage the elderly to participate in educational programs. looked One point often over­ is that older adults like to have classes away from the work and school setting. good middle g r o u n d . A public library is often a 256 "Educational Needs of Older People," Adult Leadership, XVI (May, 1967), 3. 255sQott P. Keahey and Don P. Seaman, "Self-Actuali­ zation and Adjustment in Retirement: Implications for Pro­ gram Development," Adult Education, XXIV (Spring, 1974), 224. 2S6 Carpenter E. Morkert, "Pre-Retirement Education: A Community Responsibility," Adult Leadership, XXII (January, 1974), 235. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 It has been discovered that the more the meeting place resembles a living room, the more likely it is to attract the older American. Safety hazards should be con­ sidered in the location for the meeting. able not to assign h o m e w o r k . ^57 It is most advis­ Some of the fringes which help attract older students are free or reduced tuition, ease of transportation, auditing privileges, reduction of red tape for enrollment, and daytime h o u r s . ^58 Cost-conscious school administrators have learned that many older Americans who begin participation in a special credit-free and cost-free course later enroll in some regular credit course at the regular fee.259 The community college program planners should con­ sider the above factors when planning courses for senior citizens. Only since 1970 have community colleges collec­ tively begun to think about education for the senior citi­ zen. The senior citizen and the community college. It has been only since 1973 that articles about senior citizens have begun to emerge in the Community and Junior College 257Leroy E. Hixson, "Non-Threatening Education for Older Adults," Adult Leadership, XVIII (September, 1969), 84. 258pranoes G. Scott, "Innovative Educational Oppor­ tunities for Older Persons," Adult Leadership, XXII (April, 1974), 337. 259john F. Helling and Bruce M. Bauer, "Seniors on Campus," Adult Leadership. XXI (December, 1972), 204. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 Journal. Mason noted that the community college is begin­ ning to take seriously the responsibility of providing older people with educational s e r v i c e s . ^^O In 1973 in California, approximately 25 per cent of the junior colleges offered programs for the senior citizen; another 50 per cent of the community colleges said they were interested in providing such programs. In 1975, it was discovered by researchers that little programming was offered or even being planned for the near future for the elderly in Tennessee and West Virginia. The study revealed that community colleges were more aware of the needs of the aging than were the four-year c o l l e g e s . It seems evident that if educational institutions do not shoulder the responsibility for educational and cultural programming for senior citizens, the job will not get done. An illustration of this fact is a study which reported that out of two hundred American companies surveyed, 86 per cent had no formal retirement or pre-retirement training pro­ grams. For the remaining l4 per cent, the program consisted 2G0w. D. Mason, "Aging and Lifelong Learning," Journal of Research and Development in Education, VII (Summer,“ 97^'), 7 4 . ---------- -----------------ZGlcharles H. Carlson, "The Role of the California Community Colleges in the Education of the Aged," Dlssertation Abstracts International, Humanities and Social Sciences, XXXIII (1973), 3316-A. 262jj, Alan Sheppard, "The Perceived Role of Insti­ tutions of Higher Education in Serving the Aging," Educational Resources Information Center, X (October, 19Y5), 109. ---------------------------- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 mainly of subscriptions to magazines about retirement and a company-paid membership to the National Association of Retired Persons. A few offered retirement c o u n s e l i n g . 2^3 Wray has aptly stated that educational institutions should provide the missing bridge between the employment years and the retirement years. The Academy for Educational Development reported in 1975 that approximately 20 per cent of the country’s 3,300 colleges and universities offered educational and cultural programs for the older American, with most of the programs being found in junior c o l l e g e s . ^65 A survey by the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges revealed that 44? Junior colleges and/or technical institutes out of 1,137 were offering courses related to a g i n g . ^66 The American Association of State Colleges and Uni­ versities has 305 institutions, but only fifteen reported any programming for the older American. A total of fifty- seven schools had, or were interested in having, programs 263"Most Firms Neglect Retirement Counseling," Administrative Management. XXXII (October, 1971), 44. ^^^Robert P. Wray, "Education for Transition to Retirement," Adult Leadership, XIX (April, 1971), 335-36. 2G5j. Wandres, "Back to School in Retirement: There a U. for You?" Retirement Living. XV (August, 1975), 15. Is 266ti||ijy Junior Colleges Offer Courses Relating to Elderly," Aging. CCXXVI (August, 1973), l4. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 for the e l d e r l y . 267 Obviously, statistics like the above Indicate that there is much room for improvement in the number of course offerings for the aging. Several decades ago. Will Rogers commented, "Now-a-days, if a person really wants to, he can get an education almost any place— even in college."268 In a recent study of faculty, administrators, and trustees of twenty-six community colleges concerning their most and least preferred goals for their school, public Interest programs ranked fifth in the least preferred goals for faculty and third for administrators. Trustees did not list public interest programs among their least preferred goals. 269 It appears that some saleswork needs to be done. In summary, the community college has been leading the change to provide educational and cultural offerings for older Americans. Four-year colleges and universities are beginning to awaken to this potential market in light of higher costs and shrinking budgets for the traditional pro­ grams of study. Although the community college movement has focused more on inservice courses for employees working 267«57 Colleges Evince Interest in Programs for Older Persons," Aging, CCXXIX-CCXXX (November-December, 1973), 14. H. Stacy, "Lifelong Challenge," Adult Educa­ t i f , XVI (Spring, 1966), 175. 2^9Martin W. Gillo, Merle Landerholm, and David N. Goldsmith, "Goals and Educational Trends in Community Colleges," Journal of Higher Education. XLV (October, 1974), 499. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 directly with the elderly, they are even providing graduate programs geared toward people desiring careers working at higher management levels with the senior citizen. Higher education programs for aging. One good way to approach the problem of programming for the aging is for a whole state to get involved in planning— or, better yet, all the states. In 1974, representatives from thirty states and Canada met at Ann Arbor to plan strategy for a multi­ disciplinary approach toward gerontology for the purpose of involving more older Americans, as students and teachers, in the stream of e d u c a t i o n . ^70 Six New England states are beginning to use a program called "Elderhostel '76” developed by five colleges in New Hampshire, where young and old students mix together on campus. The Oregon State System of Higher Education has made it possible for sixty-five-year-olds or older to take classes for five dollars a credit hour on a space-available basis for no credit. If they want credit, they pay the regular tuition rate.272 Leicester Junior College in New England was the first 270«Higher Education and Gerontology Theme of Ann Ar­ bor Meeting," Aging, CCXLI-CCXLII (November-December, 1974), 19. ^7lKarl Swanson, "College Helping Elderly,” The State Journal, Lansing, Michigan, November 28, 1975, D-4. 272itoregon Education System Offers Much to 65+ Group," Aging, CCXXXI-CCXXXII (January-Pebruary, 1974), 17. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 to offer an Associate of Arts degree In gerontology to help prepare students for careers In gerontology.^73 in 1970, the University of Michigan began that state's first grad­ uate educational program in gerontology.^74 The University of South Florida began training generalists in gerontology in 1969.275 For anyone interested in knowing what different com­ munity colleges are doing in various states for senior citizens, an excellent listing is available in Appendix D of the Community Colleges Respond to Elders, published by the National Institute of Education in the spring of 1976. In summary, the decade of the 1970's may well go down in history as the period of the "great awakening" of educa­ tion for and about the senior citizen. When any college is ready to begin planning a program for senior citizens, the administration should immediately create an advisory com­ mittee of people from outside the educational setting to assist in the planning. Older American advisory committees. When a community college is ready to commit itself to a program for senior citizens, there should be a sincere effort to appoint a 273"Leicester Junior College Offers Degree Program, Seminars in Gerontology," Aging, CCXXIX-CCXXX (NovemberDecember, 1973), 10. 274"igt Educational Gerontology Program Starting in Michigan," Aging, CXC (August, 1970), 6. 275"u. of South Florida Trains 'Generalists* in Ger­ ontology," Aging, CLXXIII-CLXXIV (March-April, 1969), 6. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 group representative from different elderly problems areas. For example, the committee should have a member from Social Security, medical professions, community action programs, public school involved in adult education, vocational re­ habilitation, nutrition, public health, and any other local and area-wide agencies that work with aging citizens. ^76 Some of the things that advisory committees can do are these: make studies and recommendations; making written policies; provide a sense of continuity to the program when educational personnel change; evaluation; assist in assist in and serve as a liason between school and com­ munity .277 Some of the things that the advisory committee should not do are these: campaign for or nominate board members; get involved in choosing textbooks and details of course outlines; assist in hiring or firing of personnel; make independent statements to the public. and All public statements should come from the governing board or appointed executive officer of the i nstitution. ^78 A well-balanced advisory committee of eight to twelve people from professional and service agencies and M. Bradley and Le land R. Cooper, "Retirees Assist in Developing Programs for Educational Enrichment," Adult Leadership. XVII (March, 1969), 383. 277Leon A. Mayer, "Organizing and Using Advisory Committees for Adult Education," Adult Leadership, XIX (April, 1971), 323. 278 Ibid. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 some senior citizens can help get an educational program off In the right direction. They should be able to provide valuable insights concerning current and future trends in aging problems In America. Trends and manpower needs in aging. The 1971 White House Conference on Aging reviewed the previous ten years of trends in aging. What follows is a brief summary of the major topics highlighted for future improvements. In the field of education, it was suggested that private and public organizations cooperatively develop a national pre-retirement educational program. More emphasis should be placed on more public school and media education on problems of the e l d er l y. ^79 In the field of employment and retirement, it was suggested that business, labor, and government should coop­ eratively provide placement, job counseling, job training, and recruitment for older workers. It was also suggested that a change be made in the Age Discrimination in Employ­ ment Act of 1967 to eliminate forced retirement at age sixty-five. also A federal insurance program for pensions was r e c o m m e n d e d . 280 In regard to health care, increased coverage and benefits in the Medicare program were suggested, as were 279"Trends in Aging, 196I-I971," Aging. CCXII (June, 1972), 8. ^^(^Ibid. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 better nursing home standards and services. Regarding housing, it was recommended that neighbor­ hood outreach services and supportive services to the elder­ ly in congregate housing be initiated. Delegates to the conference also said that Congress should create an office within the Department of Housing and Urban Development pro­ viding funding and authority to guide housing production and services for the elderly.282 On the matter of income, a recommendation was made for the elderly to have a minimum national income.283 On the subject of nutrition, it was suggested that increased income levels would help the problem greatly; also needed is a national program on nutrition that would deliver meals to homes or groups. Elderly volunteers could be recruited to teach the elderly good nutrition prac­ tices .284 With regard to retirement roles and activities, it was recommended that the government establish community multiservice centers for senior citizens. Also recommended were more community volunteer service workers and programs and that social and political action be better organized to help the elderly.285 In the area of religion, it was suggested that there ^Gllbid., p. 9. 282ibid. 283ibld. 284ibid. , p. 10. 285ibld. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9H be more interfaith cooperation and more cooperation between religious groups and government in developing services for the older person. It was noted that man has physical, social, and spiritual needs. The statement was made that older people have a right to die and should not have to be kept alive artificially.286 In the field of transportation, it was noted that there are great needs for better public transportation in both rural and urban areas for the aged.287 Facilities, programs, and services need to have bet­ ter delivery systems. Perhaps a federal level central con­ sumer agency and community-based, but federally-funded, agencies could provide legal services. Planning for ser­ vices to the elderly must be more comprehensive to meet all of their needs, not just needs in certain areas.288 por more research, it was recommended that the National Insti­ tutes of Health develop an Institute for Research on Aging.289 The final area of discussion was the need for better training programs in the field of aging; at the time of the 1961 White House Conference, the field of gerontology was Just emerging, and geriatrics had not become a standard por­ tion of medical school training.290 Even in 197^ it was 286ibid. 287ibid. 288ibid., p. 11. 289ibid. . p. 12. 290xbid. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 reported that most schools of medicine did not provide ade­ quate training In the health problems of the elderly.291 Dr. James Blrren at the University of Southern Cal­ ifornia has suggested that future gerontology research should concentrate on the environment and Its effects on aging and that psychological research should concentrate on improving the quality of life Instead of the quantity of life.292 Currently, there are several fields of research work­ ing on problems of the aging. Among them are the following: geriatrics— mainly concerned with preventing aging problems, such as senility and how to combat It; gerontology— con­ cerned with the laws of nature that produce aging and studies man from birth to old age; and social gerontology- concerned with physiological and social changes over a period of time and the effect on the personality of environ­ mental and cultural changes.293 Clark Tlbbltts, an early gerontology pioneer, In 1969 pointed out the need for more manpower In the total field of research and services for the aging, although no one really knows what the total manpower needs are, since there Is no 291p. Wingfield Perry, "The Night of Ageism," Mental Hygiene, LVIII (Summer, 197^5, l 6 . 292james E. Blrren, "Prospects for Gerontology: Psy­ chology," Aging, CLXXX-CLXXXI (October-November, 1969)» 7. 293LucJan Dobrowolskl, "Historical Communication," Geriatrics, XXVI (April, 1971), 68. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100 overall authority for the research and services existing today in America. these: Examples of types of manpower needed are (1) federal and state officials who have some knowl­ edge of gerontology ; agencies need people trained at the masters level with practicum experience; (2) public admin­ istrators with research and survey skills who can coordinate service agencies, political groups, and educational groups to work together; (3) retirement housing employees; (4) multiservice senior center agency people to provide counsel­ ing, information, health exams, and programs for physical fitness; (5) educational activity planners; tional and park and recreational planners; (6) educa­ (7) planners for pre-retirement programs for business firms, labor unions, and government agencies; (8) qualified university and com­ munity college instructors to train people for working with the elderly; (9) nursing care and long-term care personnel; (10) h o m e - h e a l t h - a i d e s a n d aged.295 (11) counselors for the This list represents only some generalized cate­ gories, but it is enough to show that the list of opportun­ ities for training programs and careers for working with the aging is a long and seemingly endless one. The 25th Ann Arbor Conference on World Aging listed 29^Clark Tibbitts, "Manpower Needs in the Field of Aging," Aging. CLXXIII-CLXXIV (March-April, 1969), 3-5. 295h . Salisbury, "Counseling the Elderly: A Neg­ lected Area in Counselor Education," Counseling Education and Supervision. XIV (March, 1975), 2371 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 three trends that gave hope for better things ahead in aging. First, In Industrial nations, the aging are becoming a major advocate for change. Second, the aging voices for action are bringing expanding programs and services for themselves. Third, Improvement Is coming In housing. Income, health care, work opportunities, lelsure-tlme activ­ ities, and community services. ^96 Max Kaplan of the University of South Florida at Tampa suggested that In the future, sixty-five year olds may be working a few extra years to pay back borrowed time taken at a younger age for travel and education when health was good enough to permit enjoyment of them at the age of fortyfive. 297 This researcher has thought the same thing for fifteen years and was encouraged to see It In print. John B. Martin, a U.S. Commissioner on Aging, said that the Administration on Aging's future role should become that of an advocate for senior citizens In government and be Involved In coordinating and planning programs for the elderly on a nationwide basis.298 Administrator for the Social and Rehabilitation Service of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, John D. Twlname, said that the key to efficient delivery of services to senior citizens Is the coordination 296»25th Ann Arbor Conference Charts Future for World Aging," Aging. CCXVII-CCXVIII (November-December, 1972), 6—7 • ^97ibid., p. 7. 298ibid., p. 38. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 of resources within the community.^99 Clark Tlbbltts believes that the universIty-based gerontology center of the future will operate service programs, personnel training programs, practicum settings for students, and research projects.300 In summary, educational Institutions are beginning to cooperate In planning educational programs by forming geo­ graphical consortia to help eliminate unnecessary duplica­ tion and to provide complementary rather than competitive offerings. In the field of employment and retirement, business, labor, and government should also form consortia for planning. The same concept applies to problems of hous­ ing, health care, nutrition, religion, transportation, research, and manpower needs. Planners should develop pro­ grams that are coordinated and complementary, not competi­ tive . All of the preceding In Part A Is designed to pro­ vide a broad picture of the Importance of developing educa­ tional and cultural programs for senior citizens; a brief summary follows. Summary of Part A. How English-speaking people have tended to Ignore the problems of the elderly Is symbolized by the lack of a common suitable word representing an older retired person. In one century America has changed from a rural to an urban people where youthfulness is worshiped. 299lbld. BOOibid.. p. 39. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 The fastest growing age group in America today is the seventy-five-and-over group as a result of modern medicine, immigration, and formerly high birth rates. By the year A.D. 2000, one-eighth of the population (or some thirty-five million people) will be sixty-five and over. Man's maximum life span has remained about the same since the time of Noah, but the average life span (currently under eighty) has changed over the centuries. Less than 5 per cent of the nation's elderly live in nursing homes. Erik Erikson describes the human personality as pass­ ing through eight stages from birth to death. The A.M.A, says that a sense of humor, easy-going disposition, a desire to keep active, and a firm belief In God contribute to a long life. People who remain active live longer. There are numerous myths about aging which are spawned out of a fear to face the issue of approaching old age and death. There are numerous theories of aging, but they can be categorized into genetic and environmental causes— or both. Senility may be a nutritional problem, a shortage of oxygen problem, or a boredom problem. Recent laws against age discrimination in hiring and firing are helping the elderly to find or keep Jobs. Research indicates that the best chance to enjoy retirement comes through planning for It. Early retirement should not be Jumped into without careful financial planning because of rapid inflation. Employment, whether part-time R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 or full-time, after retirement can sometimes be found through senior citizen placement agencies. Overcoming an Identity crisis Is essential to enjoying retirement. Studies reveal that money and health are the two big prob­ lems of retirees. In one study, over 8 per cent of retirees said they had nothing to look forward to, no future, and 5.2 per cent had no hopes. There are a number of national, state, and local organizations, both governmental and private, that offer services to the aged. Carl Jung stated that man would not live to old age If there were not some purpose Intended; life after death. he believed In a Jerome Ellison believed old age was a time to develop spiritually. The average educational attainment of the senior citizen Is eighth grade or more and will be twelfth grade by the end of the century. Older Americans seek education for self-actuallzatlon and to develop useful skills or to be of service to others. Convenient and comfortable learning sit­ uations entice the older adult learner to educational pro­ grams. The community college In recent years has led the way In higher education to provide programs for senior citi­ zens. Four-year schools are beginning to follow suit. Ad­ visory committees of outside sources should assist a college In planning programs for and about the aged. Cooperation of various agencies and Institutions In a given geographical area can eliminate unnecessary competition and foster a team R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 105 approach to solving mutual problems. The aging people of America are one of the most val­ uable resources of experience and knowledge that we have. They should be part of the team for any program planning concerning them. In the following section. Part B, a method will be explained by which senior citizens, or anyone else, can contribute to a new program being planned, through use of the nominal group process. Its supporting theory will be presented as the steps in the nominal group process are presented. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106 B. LITERATURE ON NGP AND SUPPORTING THEORY Part B of Chapter II presents a review of some fac­ tors affecting group problem solving, such as leadership, group structure, task relevance, and problem-solving strat­ egies, reported in published literature which provides foun­ dation for the structure of the nominal group process devel­ oped by Andre L. Delbecq and Andrew Van de Yen, The steps in the NGP (nominal group process) will be outlined, as well as some supporting rationale for each step. the literature review is as follows: The outline of characteristics of group phases, some leadership factors affecting small groups, group structure and task relevance, group problem­ solving strategies, the Delphi technique, interacting groups, the nominal group process, summary profiles of the Delphi technique, interacting and nominal groups, some applications of the NGP, steps in the NGP and some support­ ing research, and needs of senior citizens assessed by Delphi techniques. Characteristics of group phases. Delbecq and Van de Yen describe five distinct phases in program planning and development. Phase 1 is problem exploration, which can involve the product consumer and the first-line supervisors. Phase 2 is knowledge exploration, which can Involve input from experts inside and outside the organization. Phase 3 is priority development, which could involve key adminis­ tration and resource controller. Phase 4 is the actual Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 program development, which involves technical specialists and line administrators. Phase 5 is program evaluation by the product consumers and the administrative personnel and staff. 301 The nominal group process has been successfully used for all five phases of group meetings. Each phase represents a different meeting. After describing some group phases in problem solv­ ing, it seems appropriate to review some leadership factors that may affect the functioning of small groups. Some leadership factors affecting small groups. Berkowitz indicates that the group leader's characteristics may not necessarily satisfy the group's needs. Similarly, a group member may discover that his behavior pattern is not in conformity with the group's tradition. If a group ex­ pects authoritarian leadership, it may not adjust to demo­ cratic leadership; if a group expects the designated leader to run the group, they may react negatively to any group member who seems to be challenging the position of the leader.302 Berkowitz further believes that there is a general­ ized expectation in groups that the socially designated 30lAndre L. Delbecq and Andrew H. Van de Ven, "A Group Process Model for Problem Identification and Program Planning," The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vll (July/August, l ^ l ) , 469. 302LeQj^ard Berkowitz, "Sharing Leadership in Small, Decision-Making Groups," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLVllI (April, 1953), 231, 236. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 group leader be the major influence on behavior within the group. When leadership is shared by group members, there seems to be a decrease in the satisfaction and cohesiveness of the group; however, when the group is dealing with a particularly urgent problem which requires a quick solution, shared leadership does not seem to cause a negative reaction within the group; perhaps the urgency of finding a solution rjQO supersedes the maintaining of group tradition. In larger groups, often the introverted people are inhibited enough to permit outspoken people to railroad their views through the m e e t i n g . A l s o , the presence of a person in the group who has authority over some other member of the group can Inhibit creative ideas because of a fear of contradicting the boss. The group tends to concentrate on the ideas of the authority figure. Likewise, people who have a strong iden­ tification with the organization are prone to adopt the authority person's suggestions.^ A common Inhibitor to solving problems effectively is the group’s failure to plan or organize their strategy to attack the p r o b l e m , whereas the NGP represents a definite strategy. The NGP leader can insure that a group will be 3°3lbid., p. 238. L. R. Hoffman, "Group Problem Solving," Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. II, Leonard Berkowitz, editor (New York: Academic Press, 1965), p. 107. ^^^Ibid.. p. 108. , p. 110. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 more effective by permitting everyone's viewpoint to be e x p r e s s e d . 307 Leaders should advise their groups to have an alternate solution to choose from before a choice is ma d e .308 Sometimes a group leader has certain restrictions placed on him by his superiors concerning the desired out­ comes of a group meeting; the group and the leader's supe­ riors may be pulling him in two different directions. A free leader is more likely to develop better group solutions than a restricted leader, and research seems to indicate that a group has a higher amount of satisfaction with its results in a freer type of leadership. The more the group members' influence is exerted on the final decision, the greater their acceptance of the s o l u t i o n . ^^9 Zogona, Willis, and MacKinnon concluded that one type of leadership is not best for all conditions and groups. Simon and Guetzkow found that initially a tightly structured group holds the advantage over a loosely structured group on simple problems, but not on complex problems. 307ibid. . p. 118. 308jbid., p. 119. 309ibid., pp. 120-22. 310salvatore V. Zogona, Joe E. Willis, and William J, MacKinnon, "Group Effectiveness in Creative Problem-Solving Tasks: An Examination of Relevant Variables," Journal of Psychology, LXII (January, 1966), 134. 3IIR0CC0 Carzo, Jr., "Some Effects of Organization Structure on Group Effectiveness," Administrative Science Quarterly. VII (March, I963), 423. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 Goldman, Bolen, and Martin discovered in their research that a group's highest enjoyment and performance came when all members, including the leader, worked for the same equal reward. •312 The research of Hill revealed that leaders who are low in opinionated behavior are positively associated with groups that arrive closer to a total consensus. Maier demonstrated in a study that a group leader can upgrade the thinking of a group and aid the creative process by asking helpful questions and thereby influencing the thinking of the group. If the group is leaderless, the majority or vociferous view tends to dominate. Research by Carter, Meirowitz, and Lanzetta indicates that an appointed leader tends to behave in a more demo■31C cratic manner than do emergent leaders.-’ Q1 2 M. Goldman, M. Bolen, and R. Martin, "Some Condi­ tions Under Which Groups Operate and How This Affects Their Performance," Journal of Social Psychology, LIV (June, 1961 ), 55 . ---^^^Timothy A. Hill, "An Experimental Study of the Relationship Between the Opinionatedness of a Leader and Consensus in Group Discussions of Policy," Dissertation Abstracts International. A-The Humanities and Social Sciences, Patricia Colling, editor (Xerox University Micro­ film, XXXIV), p. 5363-A. R. p. Norman Maler and Allen R. Solem, "The Con­ tribution of a Discussion Leader to the Quality of Group Thinking: The Effective Use of Minority Opinions," Human Relations, V (August, 1952), 277. 315 Launor P. Carter, Beatrice Meirowitz, and John Lanzetta, "The Behavior of Leaders and Other Group Members," American Psychologist. VI (July, 1951), 324. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ill In summary, if a group leader behaves in the manner expected of him, he is more likely to generate a feeling of satisfaction within the group concerning the group’s func­ tion. In larger groups, extroverts can dominate a meeting more easily, and the presence of authority figures in a group can inhibit creative ideas. Appointed leaders tend to behave more democratically than emergent leaders. One type of leadership is not necessarily best for all types of groups; matching leadership styles to the group task and group structure can be very Important to the successful out­ come of a group project. Group structure and task relevance. Benjamin Wolman classified groups into three categories as follows: (1) instrumental groups— where Individuals are seeking to sat­ isfy some personal needs; (2) mutual acceptance groups— where friendship and give-and-take motives are a factor; and (3) vectorial groups— where people participate to serve some lofty p u r p o s e . 316 Peter Blau and W. R. Scott describe organizations as follows: (1) mutual benefit organizations— the membership is the prime beneficiary; (2) business concerns— the prime beneficiary is the owner; (3) service organizations— the main beneficiary is the client; and (4) commonweal 3l6&ndre L. Delbecq, "The Management of DecisionMaking within the Firm: Three Strategies for Three Types of Decision-Making," Academy of Management Journal, X (December, 1967), 330-1. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 112 organizations— the public Is the main beneficiary. Management teams should be aware of the Importance of matching tasks to the group structure Involved. Delbecq says that an organizational task affects the group struc­ ture, group roles, group process, group style, and group norms of the organization and of the management team.318 Group leaders should be aware of the fact that group structure and group task have a bearing on the type of group strategy to be used In group problem-solving. Group problem-solving strategies. Different kinds of problem solving require different kinds of strategies for an organization; 1. three such strategies are as follows: Routine decision making— basically, different ex­ perts contribute their special knowledge at the appropriate time when the group encounters task problems relating to their specialty. These special­ ists are coordinated by a group leader, and the com­ munication Is generally two-way between the member and the coordinator. Responsibility Is decentral­ ized, but coordination Is centralized. The group norms are based on a sense of responsibility to their profession, themselves, and the organization. 2. Creative decision making— Is characterized as lack­ ing any agreed-upon method for handling the problem. The group structure Is heterogeneous, representing 317ibid., p. 331. 3l8ibld. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 contacts to different areas of knowledge, even out­ side the organization. The group processes include spontaneous communication, separation of new ideas from evaluation, separating the problem’s definition from solution strategies, and an emphasis on explor­ ation and analysis rather than on solution commit­ ment. The group style is social-emotional in tone, and the group norms stress a democratic view of lead­ ership. Consensus is sought, but majority rule is accepted. 3. Negotiated decision making— is for dealing with factions opposing one another. The group is composed of proportional numbers representing each faction, plus a formal impartial chairman. The group role is to represent each faction and negotiate a compromise. The group process is very formal, with formal voting and veto power, and the group style is candor in speech. The group norm is to accept conflict as normal and to desire and seek agreement. Group mem­ bers need to accept partial agreement as a basis for making a decision.319 Obviously, in an institution of higher education, all three types of strategy are used at different times, accord­ ing to circumstances. The nominal group process incorpor­ ates some of each of these three strategies, as will be 319ibid.. pp. 332-38. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 covertly recognized as the NGP is reviewed. In summary, routine declsion-makinp; requires two-way communication between the group members and the leader or coordinator. Creative decision-making stresses a democratic view of leadership, whereas negotiated decision-making requires the formal, impartial chairman-type leader. These three strategies are appropriate at different times and can be incorporated into the nominal group process. First, it is important to review the main points of the Delphi tech­ nique and interacting groups. The Delphi technique. The Delphi technique was created in the early 1950's by Norman Dalkey and associates and reported in the early 1960's at the Rand Corpora­ tion. The term Delphi is derived from the Delphic Oracle of the ancient world. In Greek religion, it was originally an oracle of Gaea, the earth. Delphi in ancient Greece was considered to be the center of the earth. In mythology, an oracle is a shrine of a hero or god at which people made inquiries of it. On occasion, it was believed that certain inspired individual oracles gave prophecies, ^ Leslie L. Martin and Diane Maynard, "Private Institutions of Higher Education: An Application of the Delphi Technique," Intellect, CII (November, 1973), 130. qpi Norman Dalkey and Olaf Helmer, "An Experimental Application of the Delphi Method to the Use of Experts," Management Science, IX (April, 1963), 458. ■322 Webster's New International Dictionary (second edition; Cambridge, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Co., The River­ side Press, 1954), p. 693. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 and Delphi was considered to be a site of such prophe­ c i e s . 3^3 The original use of the Delphi technique was in forecasting technological developments; in that way, it had some similarity to the ancient oracles which attempted to look into the future. Basically, the Delphi technique is a series of care­ fully designed questionnaires. Delphi does not provide face-to-face contact between participants and the research­ er. Individual respondents on the first questionnaire are asked to reply to a question of a broad nature. Each of the following questionnaires is constructed upon the responses of the preceding questionnaire. The procedure is repeated until consensus, or hopeless disagreement, is arrived at by the respondents or until sufficient data is collected.^ The Delphi’s main strength is that it can draw upon the experts' current knowledge rather than relying only on out-of-date published literature of the field being investi­ gated. The Delphi and NGP are alike in that they both are used to identify problems, set goals, develop priorities, identify solutions to problems, clarify views, delineate ^Encyclopedia Britannica, XVI (Chicago: William Benton, Publisher, 1972), 1015-16. ■324 Andre L. Delbecq, Andrew H. Van de Ven, and David H. Gustafson, Group Techniques for Program Planning: A Guide to Nominal Group and Delphi Processes (Glenview, 111.: Scott, Poresman and Company, 1975), p. 10. ^ p. 83. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 differences between groups, and aid pre-conference planning. The hindrances to using the Delphi Include these: (1) the considerable length of time required— from fortyfive days to five months; (2) the necessity for good writ­ ten communication skills of the respondents; and (3) the necessity for participants to be highly self-motivated to participate In the p r o j e c t . 326 In summary, the Delphi technique Is a series of questionnaires sent to the same people until the desired data Is collected. The technique Is useful for planning and for solving problems when people are geographically apart and differs greatly from Interacting groups. Interacting groups. The Interacting group meeting Is an unstructured, face-to-face meeting of group members. In which a wide range of member behavior Is often exhibited. The group Is more prone to focus on soclo-emotlonal roles than on the group task; It Is easy for the group to get side-tracked on tangent discussions. The search for alter­ native problem solutions Is often short In duration of time. There Is much social pressure to conform to group norms, and strong personality types may dominate and steer the dis­ cussion. The group may concentrate more on maintaining group equilibrium or may become embroiled In heated con­ flicting viewpoints and Is less likely to experience a sense 326jbld., pp. 84-85. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 117 of closure and accomplishment.327 Gustafson and others summarized a body of literature showing how Interacting groups can be dysfunctional and restrictive for many types of problem solving and Included, In addition to the above, these: (1 ) groups may be victims of the hidden agenda effect, where certain unexpressed Judg­ ments are covertly made by the leader; (2 ) some people par­ ticipate a lot on certain topics when seeking to influence the outcome; (3 ) some groups spend time and effort to main­ tain or perpetuate themselves; and (4) groups tend to arrive at quick solutions before considering all the dimen­ sions of the p r o b l e m . 3 2 8 Bales and Strodtbeck have observed in their research that interacting groups seem to pass through several dis­ tinct phases In solving problems; they reported that Inter­ acting groups move from problems of orientation, to evalua­ tion, and to control. During the transitions from one phase to another, the group experiences an increasing rise In the frequencies of positive and negative reactions. Not all groups, however, experience every phase as described 327Andrew Van de Ven and Andre L. Delbecq, "The Effectiveness of Nominal, Delphi, and Interacting Group Decision Making Processes," Academy of Management Journal, XVII (December, 1974), 6l8 . 3^^Davld H. Gustafson, ^ a 2 ., "A Comparative Study of Differences In Subjective Likelihood Estimates Made by Individuals, Interacting Groups, Delphi Groups, and Nominal Groups," Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, IX (April, 1973), 282. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 above.329 In summary, although the interacting group can be more easily side-tracked from the purpose of the meeting, it is a useful approach for many short information-giving and -receiving meetings. Its usefulness is different from that of the nominal group process. The nominal group process. Nominal grouping refers to a process whereby people work alone on a given problem and then later combine their results, which gives an impres­ sion that all individuals have worked together in a group. It is considered as pooled individual effort by Bouchard a n d H a r e . 330 The NGP is a problem solving or data collection type of strategy for heterogeneous small groups ranging from five to nine in number. by Andre L. The technique was developed in 1968 Delbecq and Andrew H. Van de V e n . 331 is a structured group technique and has the following steps : 1. Small groups of five to nine people are spaced apart from other groups in the same room or in separate rooms. 329Robert P. Bales and Fred L. Strodtbeck, "Phases in Group Problem-Solving," Organizational Decision-Making, Marcus Alexis and Charles Z. Wilson, editors (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., I967), p. 123. 330Thad Green, "An Empirical Analysis of Nominal and Interacting Groups," Academy of Management Journal, XVlll (March, 1975), 6 3 . 331oelbecq, Van de Ven, and Gustafson, o£. cit.. pp. 4, 7 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 2. The problem to be solved is explained to the groups. 3. A worksheet is given to each group member with the problem to be solved written at the top of the page. 4. Participants are asked to write silently as many Ideas concerning the problem as they can think of for about fifteen minutes. 5. A recorder at each table records In round-robln fashion on a flip chart one suggestion at a time from each person until all of the people have had several turns and have completed verbalizing their Ideas. 6. A short period of time Is allotted for discussion and clarification of any of the Ideas listed on the flip charts. 7. Independent written voting Is done, with each per­ son selecting the five or ten Items considered most Important ; each item is written on one three-by-flve card so that each person has five or ten cards. 8. Each person Is then asked to rank the cards In order of Importance and assign ten points (In the upper left-hand corner) for the number one card and then In descending order so that the tenth-rated card gets one point. 9. The groups take a refreshment break while the recorders record the votes on the flip charts. 10. After the break, the groups reconvene or are com­ bined so they can see the results. 11. Discussion and clarification of the first vote or R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 the addition of any new ideas is made to the flip charts. 12. Again the group members are given ten cards (if ranking ten) and are asked once more to select ten items and then rank them. 13. Before turning in their cards, the group is asked to take one hundred points and distribute them among the ten cards in terms of importance. The weighted value is recorded in the lower right-hand corner. 14. The group can be given a short evaluation form to complete concerning their impressions of the meeting before leaving, or this can be done at a later time when the group receives the final report of the NGP tally. 15. The group is thanked for their participation and dismissed.332 The total time for the meeting is generally around one-and-a-half to two hours. It should be noted that, be­ ginning with step ten, two alternative procedures are des­ cribed, in that two or more groups could be combined for a second vote or the groups could remain separated and vote only on their own group's ideas; this latter method 332The above-listed fifteen steps are compiled from two main writings: Andrew Van de Ven and Andre L. Delbecq, "The Nominal Group; as a Research Instrument for Exploratory Health Studies," American Journal of Public Health, LXII (March, 1972), 337-^2; and Delbecq,'Van de Ven, and Gustafson, 0£. cit., pp. 40-72. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 shortens the time of the meeting. Another variation is that only one vote is taken when time is at a premium or when the attention span of the group seems to have been exceeded. In summary, the nominal group process is highly structured for collecting data and for problem solving in small heterogeneous groups less than ten in number. It insures participation of all group members and is a protec­ tive device against any one member railroading his ideas through the group. Each of the three aforementioned group processes has its advantages and disadvantages. Summary profiles of Delphi, interacting, and NGP groups. Research findings indicate that different group process techniques are appropriate at different stages of problem solving. The following outlines represent basic characteristics for the three kinds of groups previously mentioned. 1. The Delphi technique. There are a number of fac­ tors which enhance the decision-making process in the Delphi approach. They are as follows: (1) the isolated writing conditions produce a large number of ideas; the writing process results in better quality ideas; (2) (3) a longer period of time is spent on the problem because of the lack of group distractions ; ( 4 ) pressure to conform; there is lack of group (5) all respondents have an oppor­ tunity to express their ideas; (6) the respondents conclude 333lbid., p. 34. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 with a sense of accomplishment and closure; and (7) geographical barriers to communication are overcome. Some factors which Inhibit the process of decision­ making In the Delphi technique are these; (1) lack of social-emotional rewards from fellow respondents; (2) dif­ ficulties of obtaining satisfactory clarification on feed­ back reports; and (3) conflicting views may not be resolved 334 even though the majority rule prevails. 2. Interacting groups. There are several negative fac­ tors which Inhibit the declslon-maklng process In Inter­ acting groups, as follows: (1) unstructured meetings permit a wide range of leader and member behavior which can disturb concentrating on the task at hand; (2) discussion can fall Into a pattern of "single track thinking"; (3) there Is less opportunity to think through an Idea quietly; (4) con­ cern for maintaining or establishing social relationships can detract from concentrating on the task at hand; (5) aggressive, outspoken personalities may dominate a meeting; and (6) meetings often conclude with a feeling of lack of 33S closure and accomplishment. The positive factors for Interacting groups are these: (1) the group may develop more cohesion and motiva­ tion toward the task; (2) the group permits a feeling of group consensus to develop; and (3) the group develops a feeling that the alternative solutions have been reviewed ^^^Ibld.. p. 35. ^^^Ibld., p. 31. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 carefully.336 3, Nominal group process. The NGP has several positive characteristics which enhance the declslon-maklng process; these are as follows: (1) the structured format directs the leader and group members Into a less variable behavior pat­ tern; (2) the method fosters a more balanced concern for task roles and social-emotional roles of the members; (3) the silent period of Idea generation and the round-robln technique of listing Ideas results In a higher quantity of Ideas than other methods; (4) members spend a longer period thinking about new possibilities because of silent listing, round-robln listing, and the discussion period for clarifi­ cation; 337 (5) all members participate because of the structure of the meeting; and (6) meetings close with a sense of accomplishment and closure. There are a few negative factors encountered In the NGP; they are as follows: (1) It Is not a technique to be used for spontaneous group meetings; single-purpose meetings; (2) It Is limited to and (3) not all group members feel comfortable In a highly structured m e e t i n g . 338 Current research appears to favor the Delphi and NGP processes for Idea generation, the Interactive group for clarification of Ideas, and mathematical voting, such as rating or rank-ordering, for totaling group 336ibid.. p. 33. 337ibid. 338ibld., p. 34. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 Judgments.339 In a study by Van de Ven and Delbecq which compared the above three processes. It was found that: (1) NGP groups developed 12 per cent more creative ideas than the Delphi groups ; (2) the Delphi groups had 1.6 times more items than interacting groups; (3) NGP groups had almost double the number of ideas of interacting groups; (4) NGP groups had more satisfaction than Delphi groups with their group technique; (5) the NGP group had an even greater amount of satisfaction over interacting groups; and (6) the interacting and Delphi groups were not significantly differ­ ent in satisfaction with the techniques.3^0 Van de Ven and Delbecq also concluded that the best combination of problem-solving group processes was (1) the NGP for idea generation and fact finding; discussion and structured feedback; (2) interacting and, lastly, (3) for Judgments that would reflect Independent thinking, the use of the nominal group method of v o t i n g . 3^1 In summary, it is most important to understand that no one group leadership process is appropriate for all group 339ibid.. p. 35. 340van de Ven and Delbecq, "The Effectiveness of Nominal, Delphi, and Interacting Group Decision-Making Processes," 0£. cit., p. 6l53^^Andrew Van de Ven and Andre L. Delbecq, "Nominal Versus Interacting Group Processes for Committee DecisionMaking Effectiveness," Academy of Management Journal, XIV (June, 1971), 203. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 situations. The group leader must be able to adopt the proper process to match the situation. The Delphi technique works when time is not a factor, people are too distant geo­ graphically to get together, and creative problem solving is the task. Interacting groups are useful for exchanging and disseminating information. The nominal group process is useful for creative problem solving when there is a time shortage to collect data and when people are available to get together for two hours. Inasmuch as this research is focusing on the use of the NGP, it seems appropriate to review some of the broader applications of the NGP to the real world of work. Some applications of the NGP. The NGP can be used to improve the generation of ideas for program planning in an educational institution and for problem solving requiring the meshing of two or more groups. It can be used for de­ veloping management education programs and supervisory training programs, and for improving communication inside, both laterally and horizontally, and outside the organization. oho * The technique also can be used to develop ^ Jay T. Knippen and Kenneth R. Van Voorhis, "Nomi­ nal Grouping: Technique for Increasing the Effectiveness of Organizational Communication and Problem Solving Efforts," Proceedings of the 3^th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Seattle, Washington, August 18-21,~197^, William P. Glueck, editor, p. 54. ^^^Thad B. Green and Paul H. Pietri, "Using Nominal Grouping to Improve Upward Communication," M.S.U. Business Topics, XXII (Autumn, 1974), 42. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 instructional objectives for a course.3^^ Van de Yen and Delbecq have suggested these additional applications of the NGP: (1) it permits groups to ascertain the dimensions of a problem in a group process that is depersonalized and unthreatening; (2) it can be used for subjective and objec­ tive problem areas ; (3) it is useful for developing hypoth­ eses and the wording of survey questions for field research; (4) it can be used for low-cost and time-saving informationgathering projects;3^5 and (5) it is a tool for participa­ tive their research, Mosley and Green m a n a g e m e n t . 3^6 have concluded that the NGP can be used for research diag­ nosis, as well as for action planning and for evaluation,3^7 Before one can decide that the use of the NGP applies to a given organizational task, it is helpful to become acquainted with the various steps in the NGP and its sup­ porting research. Steps in the NGP and supporting research. In step one, the task is to form heterogeneous small groups. 3^^Rober G. Pierleoni, "A Group Process Model for Generating Program-Wide Instructional Objectives in Medical Education," Newsletter for the National Society for Perform­ ance and Instruction, XII (December, 1973), 1. ^^^Van de Ven and Delbecq, "The Nominal Group as a Research Instrument for Exploratory Health Studies," o p . cit. , pp. 341-42. 3^6Qpggn and Pietri, loc. cit. 3^7conald C. Mosley and Thad B. Green, "Nominal Grouping as An Organization Development Intervention Tech­ nique," Training and Development Journal, XXVIII (March, 1974), 31. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 Hoffman and Maler reported that a higher proportion of high quality solutions were developed In heterogeneous, mlxed-sex groups.348, 3^9 The main barrier to overcome In hetero­ geneous grouping Is to try to select group members who do not hold authority or power over someone else In the group.350 In general, research states that a female group tends to perform less satisfactorily than male groups In creative problem solving, but mlxed-sex groups are superior to one-sex groups In creative problem solving.351 Research on declslon-maklng Indicates that groups that have less than five members lack the number of critical judgments needed to analyze the problem appropriately; groups of ten or more, however, do not seem to Increase the accuracy of the group. The Ideal group size, according to researchers, ranges from five to seven members. As groups enlarge beyond seven In number, satisfaction decreases because of the lack of participation opportunities; If the Richard Hoffman and Norman R. F, Maler, "Qual­ ity and Acceptance of Problem Solutions by Members of Homo­ geneous and Heterogeneous Groups," J ournal of Abnormal and Social Psychology « LXII (March, 1961), 407. Richard Hoffman, "Homogeneity of Member Person­ ality and Its Effect on Group Problem-Solving," J ournal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. LVIII (January, 1959), 27, 32. 350g, Paul Torrance, "Group Decision Making and Dis­ agreement," Social Forces. XXXV (May, 1957), 318. 351l . r , Hoffman, "Group Problem Solving," Advances In Experimental Social Psychology « Vol. II, Leonard BerkowTtz, editor (New York: Academic Press, 1965), p. 112. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 person had an opportunity to present his idea, he is gener­ ally satisfied with the discussion results even if his idea was not accepted. With a group of ten or more, the mechanics of NGP become too burdensome; it takes too long to list the ideas in round-robin style and to review quickly each item during the discussion period. It seems best to divide ten or more people into two groups and compare results between the t w o . Gibb found the number of ideas produced in a group tended to increase as the size of the group d e c r e a s e d . Collaros and Anderson stated that if members In a brainstorming group perceive that an "expert" is in the group, the group's results will be less effective than if •atrtr the members worked alone and then pooled their results. In steps two and three, the NGP leader should, after passing out worksheets stating the problem, read the state­ ment aloud to the group and entertain any questions to make certain that everyone is focused on the problem. The role P. Hare, "A Study of Interaction and Consensus in Different Sized Groups," American Sociological Review, XVII (June, 1952), 2 6 7 . -'■^-’Delbecq, Van de Ven, and Gustafson, ojo. c i t . , pp. 69-7 0 . R. Gibb, "The Effects of Group Size and of Threat Prediction upon Creativity in Problem Solving Situa­ tions," American P s y c h o l o g i s t , VI (July, 1951)» 324. 9C:c ■^'^•'^Panayiota A. Collaros and Lynn R. Anderson, "Effect of Perceived Expertness upon Creativity of Members of Brainstorming Groups," Journal of Applied Psychology, LIII (April, 1969), 159. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 129 of the group Is defined as one of their contributing their expertise and perceptions toward the listing of as many Ideas as possible. The group participants should be led to understand that the successful outcome of the meeting will be to their credit and that any program Implemented will be based on the results of the meeting.They will be the ones who will deserve the credit. The problem presented to the group should be clearcut and not complex. Hoffman’s research Indicates that problems which are more complex result In the group members' groping more for consensus than for The group effective solutions. leader should make clear to everyone whether the theme of the meeting Is solution-centered or problem-centered. In step four of the NGP, the silent listing of Ideas Is most helpful. Torrance found that Individuals with low group status are hesitant to express their views verbally for fear of opposition from a high status person In the groupJ members of low status tend to withhold good Ideas even If they are the best. He said that the more effective ocg Van de Ven and Delbecq, "The Nominal Group as a Research Instrument for Exploratory Health Studies," op. cit., p. 337. ^Bernard M. Bass, "When Planning for Others," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, VI (Aprll/May/June, 1 9 7 0 ) , l5F. ^^^Hoffman, o£. cit., p. 100. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 group permits a divergence of views to be e x p r e s s e d . ^^9 Re­ search seems to indicate that in many situations individuals are more efficient than groups in problem s o l v i n g . 3^0 Group interaction seems to exhibit inhibiting factors affecting the group's use of the resources available to them. Vroom, Grant, and Cotton reported that interacting groups produce a smaller number of ideas than groups which have constraints during the idea generation p h a s e . 3^1 F a m e s and Meadow said that some individuals in a group are reluctant to express their ideas verbally because they are inhibited by a fear that others will criticize t h e m . 362 The value of the silent listing of ideas, then, is in reducing to a minimum the invisible forces of fear in which a person may fear the group's reacting unfavorably to a spoken idea or the unfavorable Judgment of the l e a d e r . 363 Paul Torrance, "Group Decision Making and Dis­ agreement," Social Forces, XXXV (May, 1957)* 31^-16. 359 e . 360p^ary L. Pankowski, Wayne L. Schroeder, and Irwin Jahns, "The Relationship between Group Process Training and Group Problem Solving," Adult Education, XXIV (Pall, 1973). 21. 36ly. H. Vroom, L. D. Grant, and T. S. Cotton, "The Consequences of Social Interaction in Group Problem Sol­ ving," Organization Behavior and Human Performance, IV (FebruaryY 1969), 77. 362sidney J. F a m e s and Arnold Meadow, "Effects of Brainstorming Instructions on Creative Problem Solving by Trained and Untrained Subjects," Journal of Educational Psychology, L (August, 1959), 176. 3 ^ 3 n . r . p . Maier, "Maximizing Personal Creativity Through Better Problem Solving," Personnel Administration, XXVII (January-February, 1964), 16-17. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 Parnes reported a study concerning creative thinking in which the subjects generated more useful ideas in the last half of the allotted time than in the first half of their idea-generating time; extended effort in generating new ideas, therefore, was beneficial, Leavitt found that it is not necessary that all group members be able to communicate directly with one another in order to solve a problem; the main ingredient is for each member to be touched by some network of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . 365 The round-robin technique which follows the silent listing of ideas accomplishes the need for communication, as does the Delphi technique of follow-up questionnaires. Haythorn reported that sociable group behavior tends to reduce the group's motivation toward the task at h a n d . 366 Similarly, Campbell found a negative correlation between efforts at group interaction and quality of solution.36? Taylor, Berry, and Block concluded from their re­ search that verbal group participation while generating Sidney Parnes, "Effects of Extended Effort in Creative Problem-Solving," Journal of Educational Psychol­ ogy 1 LII (June, 1961 ), 117 . 365Harold J. Leavitt, "Some Effects of Certain Com­ munication Patterns on Group Performance," J ournal of Abnor­ mal and Social Psychology. XLVI (January, 1 9 5 1 ) » 3 8 . 366yilliam Haythorn, "The Influence of Individual Members on the Characteristics of Small Groups," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLVIII (April, 1953), 283. 36?J. p, Campbell, "Individual Versus Group Problem Solving in an Industrial Sample," Journal of Applied Psychology, LII (June, 1 9 6 8 ) , 2 0 5 . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 132 ideas during brainstorming inhibits the creative thinking of p e o p l e . 368 Hoffman has noted that the threat of possible rejection by a group of a member can incline the latter toward agreeing with the group norm to prove his worthiness of belonging to the group. 369 The research conclusion of A. E. Asch was that only one-fourth of a group retained their own view when they were confronted with a different judgment of the group— even if the group was wrong. Torrance found that the most effective groups have greater participation, a wider range of expres­ sed views, and better acceptance of the group's deci­ sions .370 He further reported that when opinions were obtained first from people of low status, the divergence of judgment was greater.371 For step five, in which a recorder lists on a flip chart the ideas one at a time in round-robin fashion from the group members, there is ample research to indicate that it is a good technique. For example, the technique of brainstorming, in which individuals in a group verbally list as many ideas on a topic as possible, has proved to be 3^®^. D. Taylor, P. C. Berry, and C. R. Block, "Does Group Participation When Using Brainstorming Facilitate or Inhibit Creative Thinking?" Administrative Science Quar­ terly , III (June, 1958 ), 2 3 . 3^9noffman, o£. c i t . , p. 102. 370Torrance, o£. c i t ., p. 314. 371ibid., p. 315. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 inferior to the NGP. Brainstorming was developed by A. P. Osborn and reported in 1957.3?^ Bouchard and Hare found that brainstorming groups were not as effective as nominal groups in that the former inhibited rather than facilitated the creative thinking of the group. Group effort was not as productive as pooled individual e f f o r t . 373 In a study of brainstorming by Dunnette, Campbell, and Jaastad, it was discovered that individual brainstorming was superior to group brainstorming, especially when it fol­ lowed some type of group participation. The main purpose of brainstorming is to keep a moratorium on criticism and eval­ uation of ideas in order that creative ideas are not squelched before they have been presented.374 A basis for verbally expressing each idea in roundrobin participation is illustrated in the research of Horo­ witz and Newman, which demonstrated that spoken ideas seem to produce more ideas; they speculated that people when talking have a tendency to fill in pauses in their speech rather than be silent; this, in turn, nurtures new 372m , d . Dunnette, "Are Meetings Any Good for Solving Problems?" Personnel Administration, XXVII (March-April, 1964), 12. 373Thomas J. Bouchard, Jr., and M. Hare, "Size, Per­ formance, and Potential in Brainstorming Groups," Journal of Applied Psychology. LIV (February, 1970), 51. 374Marvin D. Dunnette, John Campbell, and Kay Jaastad, "The Effect of Group Participation on Brain-storm­ ing Effectiveness for Two Industrial Samples," Journal of Applied Psychology, XLVII (February, I963), 30. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. IJ'I I d e a s . 375 The increase in the number of potential solutions does not necessarily mean, though, that the group will choose the right i d e a . 376 Groundwork for group discussion at a later stage is laid now, inasmuch as research indicates that people are more likely to participate when their ideas have been favor­ ably received. When suggestions are rejected, a person is more likely to withdraw from group discussion.377 The most effective barrier to communication is to evaluate all ideas as they are given instead of postponing evaluation until all ideas have been presented.378 In step six, a short time is permitted for discussion and clarification of each idea. The leader must attempt to prevent people from expressing approval and disapproval of the items; what is being sought is a clear understanding of what each item means. This should reduce to a minimum the influence of "expert" opinions upon the members of the group.379 375m . W. Horowitz and J. B. Newman, "Spoken and Writ­ ten Expression: An Experimental Analysis," Journal of Ab­ normal and Social Psychology, LXVIII (June, 1964), 6W,~^47. 376|joffman, o£. cit., p. 115. 377ibid.. p. 104. 378ibid.. p. 114. 379j. F, Dashiell, "Experimental Studies of the Influence of Social Situations on the Behavior of Individual Human Adults," Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2, Carl Murchison, editor (Worchester: Clark University Press, 1935), 1098. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 In step seven, independent written voting is superior to hand votes. Bern, Wallach, and Kogan's research results indicated that group members become more conservative in their suggestions when it is made known that their views will not be kept private and they will have to defend their views to the g r o u p . 380 In step eight, each person is asked to rank the cards in order of priority and assign ten points to the number one item. The previous opportunity for discussion coupled with voted priorities provides data that is both qualitative and quantitative.381 In step nine, the groups take a refreshment break. In step ten, the groups are combined or can remain separated to examine the results of the first round of voting and to have an opportunity to raise any questions about the list or to add new items to the list. In step eleven, the group is permitted to discuss and seek clarification on any of the items listed or add new ideas. Research by Thorndike on twelve hundred college-age students indicated that when a group discusses the issues between the first and second votes, a small percentage gain 380D. Bern, M. Wallach, and N. Kogan, "Group DecisionMaking under Risk of Aversive Consequences," Journal of Per­ sonality and Social Psychology, I (May, 1965), 459. 3®lAndre L. Delbecq and Andy Van de Ven, "Nominal Group Techniques for Involving Clients and Resource Experts in Program Planning," Academy of Management Proceedings. Thirtieth Annual Meeting. San Diego, California, August --23-'25";'T97b; P. 218. ^ --------- -------------- R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 Is made In correctness of decisions. More shifting of votes was found in topics dealing with facts than those dealing with v a l u e . 382 when dealing with human relations problems, the group leader must be alert to hold down individual be­ havior that becomes aggressive toward other members or attempts to block the expression of someone else’s view; in mathematical problems, however, this is less likely to be a problem since solutions can be demonstrated more objective­ ly. 363 Timmons observed that the majority of experimental studies indicate that discussion groups produce a higher quality of results than groups without d i s c u s s i o n . 3 6 4 In step twelve, the group is again asked to select ten items and rank them. Research indicates that groups of people working together show a higher correlation of success in their predictions than the same people working a l o n e . 365 Maler and Hoffman reported that groups which are asked to solve a problem twice arrive at a higher quality solution 362Robert L. Thorndike, "The Effects of Discussion upon the Correctness of Group Decision When the Factor of Majority Influence Is Allowed For," Journal of Social Psychology, IX (August, 1938), 36O-6I. 363Morton Deutsch, "Task Structure and Group Pro­ cess," American Psychologist . VI (July, 1951), 324. 364%. Timmons, "Can the Product Superiority of Discussers Be Attributed to Averaging and Majority Influ­ ences," Journal of Social Psychology. XV (February, 1942), 23 . 365a . Kaplan, A. L. Skogstad, and M. A. Glrshlck, "The Prediction of Social and Technological Events," Public Opinion Quarterly, XIV (Spring, 1950), 93. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 the second time, as compared to the first e f f o r t , 386 Hall, Mouton, and Blake reported that group decisions made after group interaction were better than decisions derived from the individual judgments statistically p o o l e d . 387 In step thirteen, the group is asked to weight their rankings by distributing one hundred points among the ten items according to importance. The main value of weighting, according to Casbergue, is that it can serve as a tie-breaker in the event that two items receive the same total rank­ ing points. It also permits one to see if there is a valued difference of importance between two or more items that otherwise seem to have the same degree of importance accord­ ing to the ranking. In general, the ranking of priorities is the most valuable quantification of the d a t a . 388 In step fourteen, the group has an opportunity to see the final results. In step fifteen, the group is thanked for their participation and dismissed. Administrators sometimes complain that in the group meeting there appears to be consensus, but, once outside the 386^. R. P. Maier and L. R. Hoffman, "Quality of First and Second Solution Group Problem Solving," Journal of Applied Psychology, XLIV (August, I960), 282. 387e . j . Hall, J. S. Mouton, and R. R. Blake, "Group Problem-Solving Effectiveness under Conditions of Pooling vs. Interaction," Journal of Social Psychology, LIX (February, 1963), 147. 388jnterview with Dr. John Casbergue, Michigan State University, March 9, 1976. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 138 group, the disgruntled become vocal. Bennett found that if the group seems to demonstrate a high degree of intention to act on the group's results, it increases the probability that each member will execute the decision agreed upon in the group. If the consensus was not high, then the probaopq bility of execution was lowered.^ Strangely enough, research suggests that the greater the expression of disagreement, the higher the degree of consensus; apparently, the group members are more willing to accept the judgment of the group once their own opinions have been heard. ■300 Management people should understand that disagreement which is task-oriented is generally good, but disagreement that is person-oriented is to be avoid301 ed.^^ Finally, the leader needs to identify himself with the decision of the group rather than with his own favorite view.392 In summary, the NGP can be used in heterogeneous groups of five to nine in number. The focus of the problem encountered should be made clear-cut by the leader. After each member silently lists all of his ideas on a sheet of paper, the group list their ideas, one person and one idea at a time, in round-robin fashion until all ideas are listed 3go ^ ^E. B. Bennett, "Discussion, Decision, Commitment, and Consensus in Group Decision," Human Relations, VIII (August, 1 9 5 5 ) , 2 7 1 . ^^^Torrance, o£. cit. , p. 316. 391lbid.. p. 317. ^^^Ibid., p. 318. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 139 on a chart for all to see. Members list what they consider the ten most Important items, each item on a three-by-five index card, and then rank them in priority of importance. After a break for refreshments, during which the vote is tallied, one more vote is taken, in which the ranked cards are also weighted in terms of value, after discussion, clar­ ification, and additions to the original items listed. After the second vote is tallied, the group is thanked and dismissed. When all group members have participated in a deci­ sion, there is generally a higher degree of group satisfac­ tion with the result. The NGP seems to offer a better way to assess the needs of senior citizens than does the Delphi technique. The former permits people to be together while the latter keeps people separated from social contact. In one study reported, the Delphi technique was used to assess the needs of senior citizens. Needs of senior citizens assessed by Delphi tech­ nique . Clark and Cochran reported the research results of a needs study using the Delphi technique in which they found that needs were divided into four groups. tance were needs of subsistence; second was a need for higher income and social assistance; nutrition; First in impor­ third was housing and and fourth was employment and free tuition to attend public educational institutions.393 393Lorraine H. Clark and Samuel W. Cochran, "Needs of R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 Summary of Part B. In summary, the literature reviewed concerning the NGP and its theoretical base in­ cludes several main points. Five distinct phases in program planning and development have been identified, but Van de Ven and Delbecq believe that the NGP is best for idea gener­ ation and fact finding. The success of a group project may hinge on the proper matching of leadership style to the group task, which, in turn, affects the group structure, group roles, group style, and group norms of the organiza­ tion. Routine decision-making, creative decision-making, and negotiated decision-making require different styles of leadership. The Delphi technique is useful when people are unable to get together physically, but otherwise its usefulness is similar to the NGP. Interacting groups are useful for exchange and dissemination of information but can easily be dominated by one or several people. The highly structured NGP insures participation by all members. In education the NGP is useful for educational program planning, management training programs, improving organizational communication horizontally and vertically, and for developing course instructional objectives. pative management. NGP is a useful tool for partici­ The steps in using the NGP, mentioned in the above section, make it a relatively simple tool that Older Americans Assessed by Delphi Procedures," Journal of Gerontology, XXVII (April, 1972), 275-78. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. l4l Is time- and cost-saving when compared to the Delphi technique. The following chapter presents the design of the study and demonstrates how the NGP can be used to collect data for use in planning an educational and cultural program for senior citizens at a community college. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTJ'IR III METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES Methods and procedures for this research project included the nominal group process and a brief written evaluation form, a field-tested questionnaire, follow-up telephone calls, follow-up letters, and comparative descrip­ tive tables to analyze data. DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS Nominal group process (N G P ) . in Chapter 11, was developed, The NGP, as described field-tested, and successfully used by Andre L. Delbecq and Andrew Van de Ven in health career fields. Dr. John Casbergue, of Michigan State University, recently completed a dissertation in which he used the nominal group process, and, with his permission, similar but slightly modified procedures were used in this research study.^ Questionnaire. The data collected from three area agency groups on aging and three senior citizen groups provided the framework from which the questionnaire was constructed. The questionnaire was designed to do the following: Ijohn Paul Casbergue, "Computer Assisted Instruction in Health Professions Education: Guidelines for Utiliza­ tion" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 197^)* 142 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1^3 1. Develop as complete a listing as possible of the range of offerings (and how implemented) for senior citizens in public community colleges in Michigan; 2. Determine what the educator thinks are the educa­ tional and cultural needs of senior citizens; 3- Determine whether the current offerings of Michigan Junior colleges are directed toward what senior citizens list as their most important educational and cultural needs; 4. and, Determine what socio-economic groups of senior citizens are being reached by Michigan public com­ munity colleges. METHODOLOGY OP ACQUISITION AND TREATMENT OF DATA The nominal group process as used In this study. The first stage of original data collection consisted of meeting with three groups each of senior citizens and of represent­ atives of area agency organizations which are involved in serving the older American. The researcher met with small groups ranging in number from five to nine people. Groups larger than nine were divided in half, and one of the small groups was led by a trained assistant. After a total group was divided into two smaller groups, the two groups func­ tioned separately but simultaneously at opposite sides of a room large enough to accommodate the two groups comfortably so that neither group disturbed the other. The economic strata from which the three nominal R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 144 groups of senior citizens were selected ranged from lower to upper Income levels of society In a metropolitan area. One group was from a retirement home for healthy, ambulatory people. The other two groups were selected from a Model Cities project for senior citizens, on the basis of willing­ ness to participate. One of these groups was from a low Income range, and the other was from a lower middle Income ra n g e . The area agency groups on aging were selected from three different geographic areas In Michigan’s lower penin­ sula; they were central, southwestern, and northeastern Michigan. The areas which they represented ranged from rural to urban. Selection of the groups was based on a willingness to participate In the research project. At the end of the sessions, each member was asked to complete a brief evaluation form concerning the meeting. The time consumed for each meeting ranged from one and one-half to two hours. The format of the meeting was as follows: 1. The purpose of the meeting was explained; 2. Each group participant completed a three-by-flve brief personal data card; 3. Work sheets stating the focus of the task at the top of the sheet were distributed (see sample In Appendix A), and group members were given ten minutes to list silently as many ideas as possible; 4. Ideas from each member were listed In round-robln R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 145 fashion on a wall chart for all to see, until all Ideas were listed, taking about thirty to forty minutes j 5. Opportunity was provided for clarification of any Ideas listed; 6. Ten three-by-flve cards were distributed to each participant, on which he was to select the ten most Important Items from the total list; 7. Each participant ranked the ten choices In terms of most Important to least Important; 8. After ranking, members were then asked to weight their choices by distributing one hundred points among their ten chosen items; 9. Participants were given a refreshment break; 10. Rank choices were posted on charts for all to see; 11. A brief evaluation form was distributed to each participant to ascertain his evaluation of the meeting (see sample In Appendix A); 12. and The group leader thanked the participants for coming and told them that they would receive a written copy of the results within a few days or at their next meeting. It should be noted that the second opportunity to vote, as used by Van de Ven and Delbecq, was omitted In this study. The reason for the omission Is that In working with senior citizens and In talking with others who work with senior citizens, the researcher found It obvious that R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 146 to meet for more than ninety minutes became a strain for many of them. They wanted to leave and go home because they were tired or had something else to do. When a second vote was attempted, some got up and left the meeting. For the sake of consistency of the study, therefore, it was decided to utilize only the one vote rather than have a variety of one-vote and two-vote groups and risk having incomplete second votes. Also, as a matter of courtesy and appreciation for their time given, it was decided that it would not be wise to try to force a second vote. The second vote might have changed some priorities but would not have eliminated any suggested items. Questionnaire. The questionnaire was sent to the twenty-nine Michigan public community colleges after ar­ rangements had been made with Dr. Karl Dubois, of Delta Col­ lege, who is the head of a research committee of the Mich­ igan Community College Community Service Association, for the researcher to speak for a few minutes at M.C.C.C.S.A.'s 1976 spring meeting to advise members that all Michigan public community colleges would be receiving a questionnaire in the mail later in the spring with regard to senior citi­ zens. Prior to the mailing of the questionnaires, schools not represented at the M.C.C.C.S.A. meeting were contacted by telephone to ascertain the person to whom the question­ naire should be sent and to notify them that the question­ naire would be coming soon and that a quick response would be appreciated. The questionnaire was to be directed to the R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 147 person most likely to be involved in program planning for senior citizens at each college. See Appendix A for samples of the questionnaire and its accompanying cover letter. About two weeks after the questionnaires were mailed, a follow-up telephone call was made to those colleges which had not returned a questionnaire. Later, a follow-up letter and a second copy of the questionnaire were sent to those colleges which had still not responded. A copy of the follow-up letter can be found in Appendix A. From the returns of the questionnaires, it was determined which community colleges were offering educa­ tional and cultural offerings to senior citizens and whether college personnel and program offerings were in agreement with what agency personnel and senior citizens said were senior citizens' most important needs. Treatment of the data. The data collected from the two types of nominal groups (experts and senior citizens) were analyzed by comparing priorities to determine similar­ ities and differences. Despite the fact that most partici­ pants attempted to complete step eight in the nominal group process (see page 145), the weighting of the ten choices by distributing one hundred points among them, this step was eliminated in the treatment of the data. The reasons were that some had been unwilling or unable to give the necessary time and energy to complete the step and that others had randomly distributed among their items various numbers R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 148 totaling one hundred. It was previously stated that the second vote for priority of items was eliminated because the additional time beyond a ninety minute time frame was a strain for senior citizens inasmuch as some of them tired very quickly. This time factor would also necessitate the eliminating of the weighting of the prioritized items. If the weighting step were used, it would reflect only the greater or lesser importance of the item; it would not eliminate any suggested item or add any appreciable value to the overall purposes of the study. The nominal group data were then compared with data received from the questionnaire responses, which were com­ piled into one ranking of course offerings based on the rated responses of all responding community colleges. The college data provided the range of programming for senior citizens in community colleges, what each college person responsible for such programming considered as the most important educational and cultural needs of the senior citizens, and whether collegiate personnel were in agreement with agency experts and In the treatment senior citizens. of the data of agency groups, senior citizen groups, and questionnaire returns, the following were used: 1. Tables showing the number of nominal group partici­ pants by sex and 2. by group leader sex; A table showing a comparison of the number of items suggested by each nominal group; R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 149 3. Tables presenting the top ten rankings of each small group ; 4. Tables presenting data obtained from questionnaires; 5. Table comparisons of top-ranked items of agency, senior citizen, and combined nominal groups; 6. Table comparisons of nominal group data with ques­ tionnaire data; 7. and Tables presenting all responses of all nominal groups. To analyze the data from the colleges, the researcher ranked the program offerings and the course selections of college administrators (based on combined ratings) and then compared them first to findings from senior citizens, second to findings from agency experts, and third to combined results from senior citizens and agency experts. A model for assessing needs for building an educa­ tional and cultural program based on senior citizen needs as reported by themselves and by agency experts was outlined. Summary of methodology for data acquisition. The process of obtaining data is illustrated by the four-step pyramid in Figure 1. The first step is at the bottom and the final step at the top. In the following chapter, the data acquired is presented and analyzed. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 Step 4 Step Step Step 1 Comparison of questionnaire results to views of agency experts and senior citizens through comparison of priorities Mailing of questionnaire to all twenty-nine Michigan community colleges Construction of questionnaire to determine range and priorities of college offerings Selection of population samples for nominal group process: aging agency experts and senior citizens FIGURE 1 METHODOLOGY FOR DATA ACQUISITION R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OP THE DATA The data for this chapter is divided into two major sections. In the first major section, the original data collected from meeting with the senior citizen groups and with representatives of agencies designed to serve senior citizens' needs is first presented; secondly, the data collected from the questionnaires sent to twenty-nine com­ munity colleges in the state of Michigan is presented. The second major section presents an analysis of the data collected from senior citizens and from senior citizen agencies by the nominal group method compared with each other and with the data collected from the twenty-nine com­ munity colleges, as provided by a questionnaire completed by college personnel assigned to programming courses in the community services area as related to senior citizens. A quick overview of the main findings of the study can be obtained by reading Tables 4, 15, 20, 22, 26, 33, and 36, found respectively on pages 156, 174, 180, 184, 192, 203, and 207. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA All of the following data from senior citizen groups and agency groups was obtained through the nominal group process, as previously described in Chapter II. First, the agency data and then the senior citizen data are presented. 151 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 152 Nominal group dat a . The numerical size of the nominal groups ranged from five to nine people, conforming to the guidelines of group size as described In Chapter II. For the purpose of anonymity, the various groups will be referred to by number. There were three similar groups within each of the two major types of groups (senior citi­ zens and agencies dealing with senior citizens). When groups were ten or more In number, they were divided In half. Each type of major grouping then resulted In a total of five groups— for senior citizens and for agencies, respectively; this provided a grand total of ten groups. Table 1 shows the number of male and female partici­ pants In each agency and senior citizen group. No attempt was made to have equal numbers of each sex In each group, but an attempt was made to divide the sexes as evenly as possible when a large group was divided Into two smaller ones. There were eighteen males and thirteen females In the agency groups for a subtotal of thirty-one people, com­ pared to eleven males and thirty females in the senior citizen groups for a subtotal of forty-one people. Alto­ gether there were twenty-nine males and forty-three females, making a total of seventy-two people In all of the nominal groups. Table 2, page 155» shows the number of people parti­ cipating In each group and whether the group was led by a male or a female nominal group leader. The first five numerical groups geographically represent senior citizen R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 Table 1 NUMBER OF MALES AND FEMALES IN RESEARCH GROUPS Males Females Total Group 1 3 2 5 Group 2 4 1 5 Group 3 3 3 6 Group 4 4 2 6 Group 5 4 5 9 18 13 31 Group 6 3 6 9 Group 7 3 6 9 Group 8 2 7 9 Group 9 3 4 7 Group 10 0 7 7 Subtotal 11 30 41 Total 29 43 72 Group A G E N C Y Subtotal S E N I 0 R C I T I Z E N R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154 agency groups from lower Michigan. The last five numerical groups (numbers six through ten) represent senior citizen groups from lower Michigan. Table 3 presents the total number of program needs suggested by each group and indicates group leader gender. This table shows that the female-led groups consistently had a higher number of responses than did the male-led groups when utilizing the nominal group process. A complete listing of all responses of each nominal group can be found in Appendix B, as can a composite listing of all nominal group responses by general categories in Table 37, pages 246-63. Table 4, page 156, shows the numbers and percentages of all needs responses listed by senior citizens and agency groups by general categories. The items were divided into the following ten categories: educational (academic^ and hobbies); cultural; recreational; services; work opportunities; health; emotional; security and protection; and miscellaneous (a category including suggested delivery methods of offerings, suggestions for making offerings more helpful for seniors, and teaching youth an appreciation for seniors). For academic courses, the agency groups had 38.2 per cent (71 out of l86 items suggested) of all their ideas listed, whereas the senior citizens, when divided into high The term "academic" is used to Indicate those classroom-type activities not arbitrarily Judged to be a hobby-type activity. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 155 Table 2 NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS IN RESEARCH GROUPS Sr. Cit. Groups Agency Groups Group Number 1 Male-led Group 5 Female-led Group 2 3 4 6 5 6 9 5 7 8 9 9 6 9 10 7 9 7 Table 3 NUMBER OF RESPONSES IN RESEARCH GROUPS Agency Groups Group Number Male-led Group Female-led Group 1 2 26 3 4 6 5 40 35 Sr. Cit. Groups 30 55 7 8 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 38 35 31 9 42 41 CD ■D O Q. C g Q. ■D CD Table 4 C/) W o' 3 0 3 NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF NEEDS RESPONSES OF SENIOR CITIZEN AND AGENCY GROUPS BY GENERAL CATEGORIES CD 8 ■D H,.1.* (O ' 3" 1 3 CD Senior Citizen General Category Educational Academic L,.1.** Agency Combined Total (26) 24.1% (50) 26.7% (71) 38.2% (121) 32.4% (8) 10.1 (25) 23.1 (33) 17.6 (28) 15.1 (61) 16.4 (52) 13.9 (24) 30.4%*** "n c 3 . 3 " CD CD Hobbies ■D O Q. C a O 3 Cultural (7) 8.8 (22) 20.4 (29) 15.5 (23) 12.4 Recreational (7) 8.8 (12) 11.1 (19) 10.2 (13) 7.0 (32) 8.6 ■D Health (5) 6.3 (10) 9.3 (15) 8.0 (9) 4.8 (24) 6.4 (11) 13.9 (2) 1.9 (13) 6.9 (11) 5.9 (24) 6.4 O Emotional CD Q. Services (6) 7.6 (4) 3.7 (10) 5.3 (17) 9.1 (27) 7.2 ■D Work opportunities (3) 3.8 (4) 3.7 (7) 3.7 (8) 4.3 (15) 4.0 ( (/ /) ) Security and protection (1) 1.3 (0) 0.0 (1) 0.5 (4) 2.2 (5) 1.3 Miscellaneous (7) 8.8 (3) 2.8 (10) 5.3 (2) 1.1 (12) 3.2 CD Total (79) 99.8% (108)100.1% ^Higher income senior citizen responses **Lower income senior citizen responses ***percentages rounded off to nearest tenth of 1 per cent (187) 99.7% (186)100.1% (373) 99.8% M cr\ 157 Income and low Income groups, had 30.4 per cent (24 out of 79) and 24.1 per cent (26 out of 108), respectively. The latter two groups combined had 50, or 26.7 per cent, of their suggestions in the academic category. Agency groups had 15.1 per cent of their ideas in the hobby category, while the high income and low income senior citizens had 10.1 per cent and 23.1 per cent, respectively. For cultural ideas, the agency groups listed 12.4 per cent of their total suggestions. The high income and low income senior citizens identified 8.8 per cent and 20.4 per cent of their items, respectively, in the cultural area. For recreational needs, agency groups had 13 suggestions, or 7.0 per cent, of all their suggestions, whereas high income and low income senior citizens had 8.8 per cent and 11.1 per cent, respectively, of their suggestions in this area. In the health category, agency groups listed 4.8 per cent of their total sugges­ tions, while the high income and low income senior citizens had 6.3 per cent and 9.3 per cent, respectively. In the area of emotional needs, agency groups listed 5.9 per cent of their total suggestions, while the high income and low income groups listed 13.9 per cent and 1.9 per cent of their items, respectively. In the area of services, agency groups listed 9.1 per cent of their total items; 7*6 per cent and 3.7 per cent of high income and low income senior citizens' choices, respectively, were in this category. For work opportunities, agency groups listed 4.3 per cent of their ideas, while the high Income and low income senior citizens R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 158 listed 3*8 per cent and 3.7 per cent of their items, respec­ tively. In the area of security and protection, the agency groups had 4, or 2.2 per cent, of their suggestions, while the high income and low income senior citizens had one sug­ gestion, or 1.3 per cent, and zero suggestions, respectively. For the last category, miscellaneous items, the agency groups had 1.1 per cent of their items, while the high income and low income groups had 8.8 per cent and 2.8 per cent of their items. The first group of five senior citizen agency groups listed the top ten items for program needs in the following descending rank order: planning; retirement housing; estate planning; of taxes/inflation; financial money management; nutrition; reduce cost participation in community activities; facilities for senior citizens; how and when to retire; and how to be happy in retirement. Table 5 shows the ranking, total points, and frequency of each item. The ages of the participants in agency group 1 were 55, 62, 68, 74, and 74; three men and two women were in the group. The second of five senior citizen agency groups listed as the top ten items for program needs the following: services available to senior citizens; clinics; entertainment; simple home maintenance; money for new facilities; better health legal services; basic first aid; Meals-on-Wheels; how to raise organization study; management on a lower fixed income. and home Table 6, page 160, shows the ranking, total points, and frequency of each item. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 Table 5 TOP TEN RANKED ITEMS (INCLUDING TIES) PGR SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS AS EXPRESSED BY AGENCY GROUP NUMBER 1» Rank Item Description Total Points Frequency 1 33 4 Retirement housing 2 28 4 Financial planning and wills (and divisions) 3 27 4 Estate planning and wills (and divisions) 4 21 3 Money management and income tax assistance 5 20 2 Reduce cost of taxes/inflation 6 19 3 Nutritional planning program 7 17 3 Encouraging participation in community services 8 13 3 Facilities for senior citizens 9 12 2 How and when to retire (10)** 12 2 How to be happy in retirement *A complete list of uncategorized items from group number 1 and each of the other nine groups can be found in Appendix B. **In the case of ties for rank, each tied item after the first will appear with its rank number enclosed within parentheses to indicate this tie. This procedure will be followed throughout the remainder of this paper. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 160 Table 6 TOP TEN RANKED ITEMS (INCLUDING TIES) PGR SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS AS EXPRESSED BY AGENCY GROUP NUMBER 2 Rank Total Points Frequency Item Description 1 32 4 Services available to senior citizens 2 22 H Better health clinics— also mobile 3 19 H Entertainment 4 18 3 Legal services 5 15 2 Meals-on-Wheels (6) 15 2 Simple home maintenance (7) 15 2 Basic first aid 8 13 2 How to raise money for new facilities 9 11 2 Study of organizations 10 10 1 Home management on lower fixed income R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. l6l The ages of the participants in the second group were 62, 70, 73, 75, and 77; four men and one woman were in the group. The third senior citizen agency group listed their top ten items (including ties) for program needs as follows; plan for retirement course; taxes; money problems/family Income develop life-long recreation skills; tion/nursing homes; health educa­ how to be self-sufficient; hand skills— hobbies, crafts, useful skills; to use talents more effectively; possibilities; develop discover how study part-time Job volunteer service possibilities; and suddenly single classes. Table 7 shows these items and the rank, total points, and frequency of each. in this group, three men and wills; Participants three women, were 47, 67, 68, 7 0 , 7 2 , and 80 years of age. Table 8, page 163, shows the top ten ranked items (including ties) for program as follows: live and manage on fixed Income; insurance and legal papers; alone; death and dying; seminars; needs listed by agency group 4, how to read physical culture; home maintenance; how to live pre-retirement protect home from fire, robbery, etc.; build self-confidence/assertlveness; appreciation. 68, 7 1 , and 71. how to and nature walks and The ages of the participants were 24, 6 5 , 6 7 , There were four men and two women in the group. Agency group 5 listed as the top ten items for pro­ gram needs, the following: getting senior citizens active R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 162 Table 7 TOP TEN RANKED ITEMS (INCLUDING TIES) FOR SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS AS EXPRESSED BY AGENCY GROUP NUMBER 3 Rank Total Points Frequency 1 50 6 Plan for retirement course 2 32 5 Money problems— family Income taxes 3 26 4 Develop life-long recreation skills 4 24 4 Health education— nursing homes 5 21 4 How to be self-sufficient (6 ) 21 4 Develop hand skills— hobbies, crafts, useful skills 7 20 4 Discover how to use talents more effectively 8 17 3 Study part-time job possibil­ ities 9 15 2 Volunteer service possibilities 10 14 2 Wills (11) 14 4 Suddenly single classes Item Description R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 163 Table 8 TOP TEN RANKED ITEMS (INCLUDING TIES) FOR SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS AS EXPRESSED BY AGENCY GROUP NUMBER «1 Rank Total Points Frequency Item Description 1 47 5 Live and manage on fixed income 2 36 5 How to read insurance and legal papers 3 25 3 Physical culture 4 24 3 How to live alone 5 18 4 Death and dying 6 16 5 Home maintenance (7) 16 2 Pre-retirement seminars 8 15 3 Protect home from fire, robbery, etc. 9 14 2 How to build self-confidence— assertiveness (10) 14 2 Nature walks— appreciation R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 164 in politicsj probate; preparing for death, dying, loss; health education; people; home maintenance; activities for homebound community resources help list; participate in creative arts and drama; person feel needed; ment training. wills and things to make appliance repair; and emergency treat­ Table 9 contains a listing of these items and rank, total points, and frequency of each item. The ages of the group members were 27, 34, 47, 47, 63, 69, 69 , 78, and one unreported. There were four men and five women in the group. Table 10, page I66, shows the top ten ranked items (including one tie) for program needs as expressed by the first senior citizen group, group number 6 , as follows: Bible study; trips; help; singing; Bingo; Red Cross— first aid; how to take care of the sick; picnics; music programs; and circulation problems. Participants in this group were 6 6 , 6 7 , 70, 71, 72, 74, 79, 84, and of age; three were men tax 86 years and six were women. Group number 7, which represents the second of five senior citizen groups, listed the following top ten items for program needs: lectures; exams; hobbies; plants and gardening; travel trips— short ones; wildlife films and lectures; programs; films; nutrition advice and cooking; shell chimes. travel films or medical entertainment and ceramics and The ages of the three men and six women in the group were 64, 66, 68, 71, 74, 75, 76, 77, and 84. Table 11, page I67, lists rank, total points, and frequency. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 165 Table 9 TOP TEN RANKED ITEMS (INCLUDING TIES) FOR SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS AS EXPRESSED BY AGENCY GROUP NUMBER 5 Total Points Frequency 1 46 6 Getting senior citizens active in politics (2) 46 8 Preparing for death, dying, loss 3 45 8 Wills and probate 4 31 6 Health education 5 30 6 Activities for homebound people 6 27 6 Home maintenance (7) 27 6 Community resources help list 8 26 4 Participate in creative arts and drama 9 25 5 Things to make person feel needed 10 23 4 Appliance repair (11) 23 3 Emergency treatment training Rank Item Description R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. l66 Table 10 TOP TEN RANKED ITEMS (INCLUDING TIES) FOR SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS AS EXPRESSED BY SENIOR CITIZEN GROUP NUMBER 6 Rank Total Points Frequency 1 56 6 Bible study 2 54 8 Singing 3 40 6 Bingo 4 36 6 Red Cross— first aid 5 33 5 Trips 6 29 5 How to take care of the sick 7 28 6 Music programs (8) 28 5 Tax help 9 23 5 Picnics 10 22 4 Circulation problems Item Description R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 167 Table 11 TOP TEN RANKED ITEMS FOR SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS AS EXPRESSED BY SENIOR CITIZEN GROUP NUMBER 7 Rank Total Points Frequency Item Description 1 41 7 Plants and gardening 2 37 4 Travel films or lectures 3 36 6 Hobbles 4 29 5 Travel trips— short ones 5 26 4 Medical exams 6 24 5 Wildlife films and lectures 7 22 4 Films 8 21 5 Entertainment programs 9 19 4 Nutrition advice and cooking 10 18 2 Ceramics and shell chimes R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 168 Group number 8 , which represents the third of five senior citizen groups, listed the top.ten ranked items for program needs (including ties) as follows: Bible, Christi­ anity classes; prepare older people to serve other people; trips, travel; public affairs; ces; sewing classes; opportunities; adjustment to circumstan­ music appreciation; sociability; economics; part-time work and crocheting. Table 12 lists these items, as well as rank, total points, and frequency. The ages of the participants in this group were 56, 59, 62, 63, 64, 67, 70, 76, and 83; there were two men and seven women in the group. Table 13, page 170, shows the top ten ranked items (including ties) for program needs listed by the three men and four women in group number 9, composing the fourth of five senior citizen groups, as follows: retirement; seminar; wills and money management; medical advice on health; retirement; planning for productive hobbies; ests prior to retirement; seminar on fears of aging; complete living group activities in developing outside inter­ seminar on death and dying; and exercise workshops. Group members were 67, 71, 75, 76, 80, 80, and 86 years of age. Group number 10, which is the fifth of five senior citizen groups, listed their top ten ranked items for program needs (including ties) as follows: take care of health; pation; best way to give sense of importance and partici­ investments— management of assets; guidance with Social Security and tax forms; give simple assist senior R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 169 Table 12 TOP TEN RANKED ITEMS (INCLUDING TIES) FOR SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS AS EXPRESSED BY SENIOR CITIZEN GROUP NUMBER 8 Rank Total Points Frequency Item Description 1 29 3 Bible, Christianity classes 2 27 4 Prepare older people to serve other people 3 25 6 Trips, travel (4) 25 5 Public affairs 5 23 5 Adjustment to circumstances 6 22 4 Sewing classes (7) 22 3 Music appreciation 8 19 3 Part-time work opportunities 9 18 3 Sociability 10 17 2 Economics (11) 17 2 Crocheting R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 170 Table 13 TOP TEN RANKED ITEMS (INCLUDING TIES) FOR SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS AS EXPRESSED BY SENIOR CITIZEN GROUP NUMBER 9 Rank Item Description Total Points Frequency 1 28 4 Planning for retirement 2 25 4 Wills and money management (3) 25 3 Complete living seminar 4 23 3 Medical advice on health 5 18 4 Group activities in retirement 6 16 4 Productive hobbies (7) 16 2 Developing outside interests prior to retirement 8 15 3 Seminar on death and dying (9) 15 3 Seminar on fears of aging (10) 15 3 Exercise workshops R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 171 citizens to keep in touch with reality; physical fitness/exercise; for service to others; hobbies, handiwork; companionship; opportunities and good nutrition. Rank, total points, and frequency of these items are shown in Table 14. The ages of the seven women in this group were 71, 74, 76, 77, 80, and 83; one age was not reported. Community college questionnaire data. The following data was collected from the questionnaires mailed to twentynine community colleges in Michigan concerning their educa­ tional and cultural programming for senior citizens. For a more detailed examination of the questionnaire, see Appendix A. Seventeen questionnaires were returned after the first mailing. After subsequent telephone calls and the mailing of a second questionnaire to those not responding, another nine questionnaires were returned. A total of twenty-six of twenty-nine questionnaires were returned, for a return rate of 89.7 per cent. One college president expressed considerable annoyance at being "bothered" by questionnaires from universities. Nine of the respondents reported that they had no special programs or course offerings geared toward the senior citizen. Those nine represent 34.6 per cent of the respondents. The first part of the questionnaire required the respondent to list all college offerings specifically for senior citizens for the 1976-77 academic year. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The 172 Table l4 TOP TEN RANKED ITEMS (INCLUDING TIES) FOR SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS AS EXPRESSED BY SENIOR CITIZEN GROUP NUMBER 10 Rank Total Points Frequency 1 38 4 Best way to take care of health 2 25 3 Give sense of Importance and participation 3 23 4 Investments— management of assets 4 20 3 Give simple guidance with Social Security and tax forms (5) 20 2 Assist seniors to keep In touch with reality 6 19 3 Hobbles, handiwork (7) 19 2 Physical fltness/exerclse 8 17 3 Companionship 9 l6 4 Opportunities for service to others 16 2 Good nutrition (10) Item Description R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 173 responses were grouped Into the following categories and ranked In order of decreasing frequency, listing the top ten ranked categories: history and culture studies; and political studies; and tours; arts and crafts; music studies; care; films, lectures, language studies; self-awareness development; personal and problems of aging; and consumer education. government health Table 15 enumerates rank and frequency of these Items. The methods of Implementation of programs for senior citizens from most commonly to least commonly used, shown In Table l 6 , page 175, were as follows: seminar; workshop ; slides, play; field trip; symposium; class; lecture; other— fair, film and and conference. The top ten responses to the question regarding what courses for senior citizens would be added at a community college If funds were available, were as follows: education; aging; government and politics; health care; and legal planning; exercise; nutrition; planning for retirement. consumer personal growth for arts and crafts; financial communication skills; and Table 17» page 176, Indicates rank and frequency of these Items. The top ten responses to the question concerning what courses would be offered If only ten courses could be offered were. In decreasing rank, as follows: legal studies; and training; retiring; political and personal development for aging; arts and crafts; consumer education; nutrition; health care planning for death, dying, and R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 174 Table 15 MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGE OFFERINGS FOR SENIOR CITIZENS THROUGH THE 1976-77 ACADEMIC YEAR Hank Frequency of Colleges Item Description 1 15 History and culture studies 2 14 Government and political studies 3 13 Arts and crafts 4 12 Films, lectures, and tours 5 10 Music studies 6 9 Language studies (7) 9 Personal and self-awareness development 8 8 Problems of aging (9) 8 Health care (10) 8 Consumer education R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 175 Table l6 METHODS OP IMPLEMENTATION OF PROGRAMS FOR SENIOR CITIZENS Rank Frequency Method of Implementation 1 307 2 50 Lecture 3 36 Seminar 4 33 Workshop 5 15 Field trip 6 10 Other— fair, film, slides, play 7 2 Symposium 8 1 Conference 0 Institute Class R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 176 Table 17 COURSES FOR SENIOR CITIZENS WHICH WOULD BE ADDED AT A COMMUNITY COLLEGE IP FUNDS WERE AVAILABLE Rank Frequency Item Description 1 9 Consumer education 2 8 Government and politics 3 7 Personal growth for aging 4 6 Health care (5) 6 Exercise 6 5 Arts and crafts (7) 5 Financial and legal planning (8) 5 Nutrition (9) 5 Communication skills 10 4 Planning for retirement R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 177 bereavement; exercise; and financial planning. frequency are shown in Table 18. Rank and Thirteen respondents failed to answer the question. Table 19, page 179, shows the rank, method of imple­ mentation, and number of colleges In regard to what types of offerings for senior citizens have been most successful in terms of attendance, as follows: shops; other; field trip; classes; lecture; seminars; and symposium. work­ Four colleges did not respond to the question. The top ten ranked replies to the question concerning what programs were most successful in terms of attendance were as follows: affairs; arts and crafts; exercise classes; health and safety; and history; travel and films; development; dancing; events. legal and financial humanities; death and dying; personal and cultural Nine failed to answer the question. frequency of the items are shown in Table politics Rank and 20, page l80. The answers to the question about the socio-economic level of senior citizens reached by each community college's program were as follows: Socio-economic Level Frequency of Colleges Primarily upper socio-economic level 6 Primarily middle socio-economic level 19 Primarily lower socio-economic level 10 No answer 5 The answers to the question concerning what kinds of contributions senior citizens make toward programs of the R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 178 Table l8 COURSES PGR SENIOR CITIZENS WHICH WOULD BE OFFERED IF ONLY TEN COURSES COULD BE OFFERED Rank Item Description Prequency 1 11 Political and legal studies 2 10 Personal development for aging 3 9 Health care and training 4 8 Arts and crafts C5) 8 Nutrition (6) 8 Planning for retiring 7 6 Consumer education (8) 6 Death, dying, and bereavement (9) 6 Exercise 10 5 Financial planning R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 179 Table 19 TYPES OP OFFERINGS FOR SENIOR CITIZENS THAT HAVE BEEN MOST SUCCESSFUL IN TERMS OF ATTENDANCE Rank Frequency of Colleges Method of Implementation 1 15 2 8 Seminars 3 7 Workshops (4) 7 Other 5 4 Field trip 6 3 Lecture 7 1 Symposium 0 Institute 0 Conference Classes R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 180 Table 20 PROGRAMS FOR SENIOR CITIZENS WHICH HAVE BEEN MOST SUCCESSFUL IN TERMS OF ATTENDANCE Rank Frequency Item Description 1 14 Arts and crafts 2 13 Legal and financial affairs 3 9 Exercise classes 4 7 Health and safety 5 6 Politics and history 6 4 Travel and films (7) 4 Humanities 8 3 Personal development (9) 3 Dancing (10) 3 Death and dying (11) 3 Cultural events R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. l8l college were as follows, ranked In descending order; sory and organizing help; volunteer help; teaching and teacher recruitment; participation as student; promotion help in community; resource people; cial support. Thirteen colleges failed to answer the question. advi­ miscellaneous; and finan­ Table 21 shows rank and frequency of each item. Data from evaluation of nominal group process. A one-page evaluation instrument for the nominal group process was administered at the end of the NGP meetings, but not all participants completed one. The combined results of the six-question evaluation instrument for the NGP follow. Thirty-five participants indicated that this was the first time they had participated in a nominal group meeting while fourteen said that it was not their first time. One was undecided, and another failed to answer. Forty-seven thought it a good technique for collect­ ing planning information, whereas four thought it was not. Forty-six people said that they would recommend the process to someone else; four said that they would not, and one did not answer. Forty participants indicated that they would be will­ ing to participate in a nominal group meeting on some other topic, but nine would not. One was undecided, and one did not indicate his answer. Forty-four people thought the meeting worthwhile, whereas four did not; two were undecided, and one did not answer. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 182 Table 21 KINDS OF CONTRIBUTIONS WHICH SENIOR CITIZENS MAKE TOWARD PROGRAMS OF THE COLLEGE Rank Frequency Item Description Advisory and organizing help 1 15 2 8 Teaching and teacher recruitment 3 6 Volunteer help 4 4 Participation as student 5 3 Promotion help in the community (6) 3 Resource people (7) 3 Miscellaneous 8 2 Financial support 13 No answer Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 Of the cüiiunentb made at the end of the evaluation Instrument, eleven were positive, six were negative (or constructive suggestions), and two were neutral, in that the respondent was asking about the ultimate use of the nominal group data. A copy of the evaluation instrument can be found in Appendix A and the complete listing of comments in Appendix B. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The remaining portion of this chapter presents an analysis of the data in two parts. First, a comparison of senior citizen nominal group data with nominal group data from agency groups is made. The second section compares the nominal group data with data obtained from returned questionnaires. Comparison of senior citizen groups to agency groups. Table 22 shows the results of all nominal groups combined and also how the combined agency groups compared with the combined senior citizen groups in ranking the various course item descriptions. The top twelve ranks (ranks 10, 11, and 12 were tied) of the combined groups were as follows: health training, first aid, and nutrition; bies; crafts and hob­ wills, legal services, taxes, investment management; building self-confidence and developing talents (adjustment and positive attitudes); Job opportunities and services; preparing to live alone (death and dying); planning and develop outside interests; pre-retirement entertainment. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 184 Table 22 SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS EXPRESSED BY ALL NOMINAL GROUPS Rank/Frequency Item Description Combined Agency !Senior Citizen Health training, first aid, and nutrition 1/16 1/7 1/9 Crafts and hobbies 2/13 6/4 (2/9) Wills, legal services, taxes, investment management 3/11 2/6 4/5 (4/11) (7/4) 3/7 Job opportunities and services 5/10 (5/5) (5/5) Preparing to live alone (death and dying) 6/8 (3/6) (8/2) Pre-retirement planning and develop outside interests 7/7 4/5 7/2 Entertainment, films, travelogues, and lectures 8/6 8/2 6/4 Listing of services for senior citizens 9/3 (9/2) 9/1 Building self-confidence and developing talents (adjustment and positive attitudes) Home protection and security 10/2 12/1 Recreation skills (11/2) (10/2) - To feel needed (12/2) (11/2) - R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (10/1) 185 films, travelogues, lectures; senior citizens; skills; listing of services for home protection and security; and to feel needed. recreation From the table, it can be seen that agency groups are relatively well attuned to the interests and needs of the senior citizen groups, in that ten of the first twelve categories shown were named by both groups in sufficient number to be ranked. When all of the agency groups were combined and their responses ranked and compared to the combined groups of senior citizens, the results were as shown in Table 23. Both groups ranked as the number one interest and concern, health training, first aid, and nutrition. In the first five ranked positions, both groups named financial matters (wills, legal services, taxes, investment management); opportunities; job and health, first aid, and nutrition train­ ing. Using the senior citizens as the "measuring stick" for the accuracy rate of agency groups, the agency groups selected nine of the ten items ranked as of most concern to senior citizens. The one item that was different was that senior citizens ranked security and protection tenth, but the agency groups omitted that item from their top ten (but ranked it twelfth) and listed recreation skills and to feel needed (tied in ranking). When the combined lower (low and lower middle level) income senior citizen groups (groups 6, 7, and 8) were com­ pared to the combined totals of the agency groups, the R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■D I 8 Û. ■D CD Table 23 (/) o' TOP TEN SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS EXPRESSED BY COMBINED AGENCY GROUPS AND BY COMBINED SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS =3 O S CD ■8D C5- SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS AGENCY GROUPS Rank Item Description Frequency Rank Item Description Frequency o =5 1 CD 7 Wills, legal services, etc. 6 2 CD CD "O (3) S Q . C o 4 ■D 8 CD Q . 9 Crafts and hobbles 9 3 Adjustment and positive attitudes 7 Preparing to live alone (death and dying) 6 4 Taxes, wills, investment management Pre-retirement planning 5 5 Part-time jobs and services 5 6 Films 4 7 Planning for retirement and developing outside Interests 2 Seminar on fear of aging and dying 2 Community resource listings for senior citizens 1 Security and protection 1 (5) (5) 6 (7) ■D Job opportunities 5 Crafts and hobbles 4 Building self-confidence and developing talents 4 (8) CD C/) C/) Health and/or nutrition (2) C 3. 1 Health training, first aid. and nutrition 8 Entertainment, films. travelogues, and lectures 2 9 Listing of services for senior citizens 2 (10) Recreation skills 2 (11) To feel needed 2 (9) (10) 00 187 results were as shown in Table 24. The lower Income senior citizen groups ranked music and music programs as their number one cultural interest, whereas music was not mentioned by the agency groups in their top ten ranked items. Classes on the Bible and Christianity were ranked third by the low income senior citizens but were not con­ sidered important enough to rank by the combined agency groups. Plants and gardening was ranked seventh by the low income senior citizens but was not ranked in the top ten by the combined agency groups. Bingo was ranked tenth (tied with some other items) by the low income senior citizens but was not listed by the combined agency groups. The combined agency groups ranked as first in impor­ tance health training and first aid, but the lower income groups ranked it eleventh (a tie for eighth). The agency groups were accurate in only five of ten items when compared with low income senior citizens. Items ranked in the top ten by the agency groups but not ranked by the low income groups were these : to live alone; pre-retirement planning; job opportunities; building self-confidence and developing talents; services for senior citizens; feel needed. preparing recreation skills; listing of and to They were ranked, respectively, by the agency groups as 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, and 11. The agency groups were able to select only four items out of eleven in which low income groups were interested; ing and first aid; the items were health train­ wills and legal services; R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. crafts and ::d ■D â s Û. CD ■D Table 24 CD C/Î COMPARISON OF SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS EXPRESSED BY AGENCY GROUPS AND BY LOW INCOME SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS o' 3 CD ■8D eITgi3 Rank 1 CD C LOW INCOME SENIOR CITIZENS AGENCY GROUPS 2 Item Description Frequency Health training, first aid. and nutrition 7 Wills, legal services, etc. 6 3. 3 " CD Item Description Frequency 1 Music and music programs 17 2 Trips and travel 16 3 Bible, Christianity classes 9 Prepare older people to serve other people (how to take care of the sick) 9 Estate, wills, tax help 7 Preparing to live alone (death and dying) 6 Pre-retirement planning 5 (5) Job opportunities 5 5 6 Crafts and hobbles 4 (6) Films, movies 7 Building self-confidence and developing talents (7) Plants and gardening 7 4 Sewing and crocheting classes 6 Hobbies 6 (10) Bingo 6 (11) Red Cross— first aid 6 (3) B ■cD I C a O 3 ■D Rank 4 (4) S & (7) O c 8 8 Entertainment, films, travelogues, and lectures 2 Listing of services for senior citizens 2 (10) Recreation skills 2 (11) To feel needed 2 (9) C/) (/) o' 3 (9) CO CO 189 hobbies; and entertainment films, travelogues, and lec­ tures . When the upper middle and upper income senior citizen groups were compared with the combined agency groups, the results were as shown in Table 25. The agency groups were accurate in selecting only seven out of ten items in ranking items similar to the items listed by the middle and upper income level senior citizens, who ranked the following four items in the top ten of interest, as did the combined agency groups; wills and money management; health; productive hobbies; medical advice on and planning for retirement. The following three items had slightly different descrip­ tions but could be considered similar: dying (preparing to live alone); reation skills); opportunities). seminar on death and exercise workshops (rec­ and opportunities to serve others (job Thus, a total of seven items of similar description were listed by both higher income senior citi­ zens and agency groups. The three items ranked by the middle and upper income senior citizens but not ranked by the agency groups were these: food and weight watching; retirement; ranking. group activities in and, lastly, eight items tied for frequency of The items mentioned by the agency groups but not by the senior citizens were as follows : confidence and developing talents; travelogues, and lectures; citizens; building self- entertainment films, listing of resources for senior and to feel needed. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ::d ■D I 8 Û. CD ■D CD Table 25 C/) COMPARISON OF SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS EXPRESSED BY AGENCY GROUPS AND BY MIDDLE AND UPPER INCOME SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS o' 3 CD ■8a eITg- I 3 Rank 1 CD C 3. MIDDLE AND UPPER INCOME SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS AGENCY GROUPS 2 Item Description Frequency Health training, first aid. and nutrition 7 Wills, legal services, etc. 6 ■SD I C a O 3 ■D (3) 4 Preparing to live alone (death and dying) 6 Pre-retirement planning 5 Job opportunities Crafts and hobbies (7) 8 Building self-confidence and develop talents 4 Entertainment, films. travelogues, and lectures 2 Listing of resources for senior citizens 2 (10) Recreation skills 2 (11) To feel needed 2 C/) 3 Medical advice on health 7 Productive hobbies 7 Seminar on death and dying (fears of aging) 6 Exercise workshops 5 (6) Food and weight watching 5 7 Planning for retirement 4 (8) Group activities in retirement 4 (9) Opportunities for service to others 4 (Eight items tied for frequency) 3 4 & o' 2 4 (9) 11 5 S 6 Frequency Wills and money management 5 (5) Item Description 1 (3) 3 " CD Rank 10 VO o 191 When the low Income senior citizen groups (group numbers 6, 7, and 8) were compared with the middle and upper income senior citizen groups, the results were as illustra­ ted in Table 26. The low income and the middle and upper income senior citizens agreed on only three items in their respective top ten rankings of items. The items were as follows: estate, wills, tax help (wills, money management); hobbies; and Red Cross— first aid (medical advice on health). A fourth item mentioned by middle and upper income citizens, group activities in retirement, could include a number of items mentioned by low income persons, such as music, trips, Bible classes, hobbies, and Bingo. Comparison of nominal group data with questionnaire data. When the first ten ranked items of 1976-77 community college offerings for senior citizens were compared to the combined rankings of senior citizen nominal groups, the results were as shown in Table 27, page 193. The data shows that community colleges in the state of Michigan as a whole offer 60 per cent of the educational or cultural programs in those areas ranked in the top ten by the senior citizens. The items were these: and tours; arts and crafts; films, lectures, personal and self-awareness development; lems of aging; health care; prob­ and consumer education. When the first ten ranked items of 1976-77 community college course offerings for senior citizens were compared with the combined rankings of agency groups for senior citizens, the results were as shown in Table 28, page 194. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD C/) Table 26 o' 3 O COMPARISON OF PROGRAM NEEDS OF LOW INCOME TO MIDDLE AND UPPER INCOME SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS ■8D MIDDLE AND UPPER INCOME SENIOR CITIZENS LOW INCOME SENIOR CITIZENS (O ' 3" Rank Item Description Frequency Rank Item Description Frequency i3 CD 1 Music and music programs 17 1 Wills and money management 11 3 . 3 " 2 Trips and travel 16 2 Medical advice on health 7 3 Bible, Christianity classes Productive hobbies 7 Seminar on death and dying (fears of aging) 6 Exercise workshops 5 Food and weight watching 5 Planning for retirement 4 (8) Group activities in retirement 4 (9) Opportunities for service to others 4 (Eight items tied for frequency) 3 CD CD ■D O Q . C (4) a O 3 ■D O 9 Prepare older people to serve other people (how to take care of the sick) 9 Estate, wills, tax help 7 (3) 4 5 5 (6) CD Q . (6) Films, movies 7 (7) Plants and gardening 7 7 ■D CD 3 (/) o" Sewing and crocheting classes 6 Hobbies 6 (10) Bingo 6 (11) Red Cross— first aid 6 8 (9) 10 VO ru CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD Table 27 C/) W 3 0 3 o' COMPARISON OF 1976-77 COMMUNITY COLLEGE OFFERINGS WITH COMBINED RANKINGS OF SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS' PROGRAM NEEDS CD ■8D COMBINED SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS COMMUNITY COLLEGE OFFERINGS 1976--77 (O ' 2 1 3 CD 3. Rank Item Description Frequency Rank 1 History and culture studies 15 1 2 Government and political studies 14 (2) 3 Item Description Frequency Health and/or nutrition 9 Crafts and hobbles 9 Adjustment and positive attitudes 7 Taxes, wills, Investment management 5 Part-time jobs and services 5 6 Films 4 7 Planning for retirement and developing outside interests 2 Seminar on fear of aging and dying 2 Community resource listings for senior citizens 1 Security and protection 1 3 " CD 3 Arts and crafts 13 ■D O 4 Films, lectures, and tours 12 O 3 5 Music studies 10 O 6 Language studies 9 Personal and self-awareness development 9 Problems of aging 8 Health care 8 Consumer education 8 CD Q . 4 3 " CD Q . ■D (7) 8 (5) CD (9) (8) CO o' 3 (10) 9 (10) VO w CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D Table 28 CD C/) W o" 3 0 3 COMPARISON OF 1976-77 COMMUNITY COLLEGE OFFERINGS WITH RANKINGS OF COMBINED AGENCY GROUPS ’ SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS RESPONSES CD COMBINED AGENCY GROUPS COMMUNITY COLLEGE OFFERINGS 1976-77 ■8D Rank Item Description Frequency Rank Item Description Frequency (O ' 3" 1 3 1 History and culture studies 15 1 CD 2 Government and political studies 14 3 Arts and crafts 13 ■D O 4 Films, lectures, and tours 12 C 5 Music studies 10 3 . 3 " 2 CD CD (3) Health training, first aid. and nutrition 7 Wills, legal services, etc. 6 Preparing to live alone (death and dying) 6 Pre-retirement planning 5 Q . a O 3 ■D O 4 J=- 6 (7) CD Q . Language studies 9 Personal and self-awareness development 9 Problems of aging 8 Health care 8 Consumer education 8 Job opportunities 5 Crafts and hobbles 4 Building self-confidence and developing talents 4 Entertainment, films. travelogues, and lectures 2 Listing of services for senior citizens 2 (10) Recreation skills 2 (11) To feel needed 2 (5) 6 (7) 8 ■D CD (/) C/) V D (9) (10) 8 (9) 195 Community colleges as a whole offer 50 per cent (or 60 per cent if consumer education can be equated with wills, legal services, etc.) of the educational or cultural programs in those areas ranked in the top ten by the agency groups. items were the following: tures, and tours; problems of aging; arts and crafts; The films, lec­ personal and self-awareness development; and health care. Table 29 shows the results of a comparison of the top ten of the combined community college offerings and the top ten of the combined nominal groups from both agency and senior citizen groups. The data shows that community col­ leges are offering only 50 per cent (60 per cent if consumer education is considered similar to wills, legal services, taxes, and investment management) of the top ten items ranked as most important by senior citizens and agency groups. The ranked items in common were the same as those listed in the previous paragraph. People who work closely with programming toward older adults at community colleges were asked what ten courses they would select as most important to add as offerings if funds were available; their replies were compared with senior citizens' top ten items, and the results are shown in Table 30, page 198. The combined community college adminis­ trators selected 60 per cent (or 70 per cent if consumer education is similar to taxes, wills, and investment manage­ ment) of the courses ranked in the top ten by senior citi­ zens. The courses were personal growth for aging, health R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD Table 29 (fi W o" 3 O COMPARISON OF 1976-77 COMBINED COMMUNITY COLLEGE OFFERINGS WITH COMBINED SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS RANKINGS OF AGENCY AND SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS ■8D (O ' 3" i3 COMMUNITY COLLEGE OFFERINGS 1976--77 Rank 1 Item Description History and culture studies COMBINED RANKING OF AGENCY AND SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS Frequency 15 Rank 1 2 Government and political studies 14 CD 3 Arts and crafts 13 c 3 . 3 " CD ■D O Q. C a O 3 ■D O CD Q. 4 Films, lectures, and tours 12 5 Music studies 10 6 (7) ■D 8 (/) (/) (9) Language studies 16 2 Crafts and hobbies 13 3 Wills, legal services, taxes, investment management 11 Building self-confidence and developing talents (adjustment and positive attitudes) 11 5 Job opportunities and services 10 6 Preparing to live alone (death and dying) 8 Pre-retirement planning and develop outside interests 7 Entertainment, films. travelogues, and lectures 6 Listing of services for senior citizens 3 (4) 9 Personal and self-awareness development 9 Problems of aging 8 Health care 8 Consumer education 8 Frequency Health training, first aid. and nutrition CD "n Item Description VO CT\ CD (10) 7 8 9 CD ■D O Q . C S Q . ■D CD C/) W o" 3 O ■8D Table 29 (cont'd.) 3 COMMUNITY COLLEGE OFFERINGS CD Rank Item Description 1 9 7 6 - 7 7 Frequency COMBINED RANKING OF AGENCY AND SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS Rank Item Description Frequency 3 . 3 " CD Home protection and security 2 ( I D Recreation skills 2 (12) To feel needed 2 10 CD ■D O Q . C a O 3 ■D O CD Q . ■D CD C/) C/) CD ■D O a. c g a. ■D CD Table 30 C/) w o' 3 o COMPARISON OF COLLEGE ADMINISTRATIVE CHOICES OF COURSES TO BE ADDED WITH COMBINED SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM CHOICES 5 CD 8 ■D (O ' 3* Ï COURSES THAT WOULD BE ADDED AT COMMUNITY COLLEGES Rank Item Description Frequency COMBINED SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS Rank Item Description Frequency 3 CD 1 Consumer education 9 1 Health and/or nutrition 9 2 Government and politics 8 (2) Crafts and hobbies 9 3 Personal growth for aging 7 3 Adjustment and positive attitudes 7 4 Health care 6 4 Taxes, wills, investment management Exercise 6 5 Arts and crafts 5 Part-time jobs and services 5 (7) Financial and legal planning 5 6 Films 4 (8) Nutrition 5 7 Planning for retirement and developing outside interests 2 (9) Communication skills 5 Seminar on fear of aging and dying 10 Planning for retirement 4 2 Community resource listing for senior citizens 1 Security and protection 1 "n c 3 . 3 * CD CD ■D O O. C a O 3 ■D (5) (5) O 6 CD O. ■D CD (8) (/) (/) 9 (10) VO oo 199 care, arts and crafts, financial and legal planning, nutri­ tion, and planning for retirement. When the aforementioned replies of people at commun­ ity colleges were compared with agency groups, the results were as shown in Table 31. The community college adminis­ trators selected 70 per cent (80 per cent if consumer educa­ tion would be considered similar to wills, legal services, etc.) of the top ten ranked items of agency groups. When asked what courses they would offer for senior citizens if they were limited to ten courses, community col­ lege administrators selected 80 per cent (90 per cent if consumer education were to be considered related to wills, legal services, taxes, and investment management) of the items ranked in the top ten by all combined nominal groups. Those eight items selected were: aging; health care and training; tion; planning for retirement; ment; exercise; personal development for arts and crafts; nutri­ death, dying, and bereave­ and financial planning. Table 32, pages 201 and 202, shows ranks and frequencies. When the administrators' selections of the top ten ranked courses were compared with the rankings of the com­ bined senior citizen groups only, the results were as shown in Table 33, page 203. The college administrators selec­ ted 70 per cent (80 per cent if consumer education were to be considered related to taxes, wills, and investment man­ agement ) of the items ranked in the top ten of all senior citizen nominal groups. They were as follows: personal R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD Table 31 C/) W o" 3 O COMPARISON OF COLLEGE ADMINISTRATIVE CHOICES OF COURSES TO BE ADDED WITH COMBINED AGENCY GROUP SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM NEEDS RESPONSES 8 ■D COURSES THAT WOULD BE ADDED AT COMMUNITY COLLEGES COMBINED AGENCY GROUPS (O ' 3" i3 CD Rank 1 Item Description Consumer education Frequency 9 Rank 1 "n c 3 . 3 " 2 Government and politics 8 3 Personal growth for aging 7 2 CD CD ■D O Q. C a O 3 ■D (3) 4 Item Description Frequency Health training, first aid. and nutrition 7 Wills, legal services, etc. 6 Preparing to live alone (death and dying) 6 Pre-retirement planning 5 Health care 6 Exercise 6 4 Arts and crafts 5 (5) Job opportunities 5 (7) Financial and legal planning 5 6 Crafts and hobbles 4 (8) Nutrition 5 (7) Building self-confidence and developing talents 4 Entertainment, films, travelogues, and lectures 2 Listing of services for senior citizens 2 (10) Recreation skills 2 (11) To feel needed 2 ro (5) O 6 CD Q. ■D CD ( (/ /) ) (9) Communication skills 5 10 Planning for retirement 4 8 (9) o o CD ■D O a. c g a. "O CD Table 32 C/) w o' 3 0 ? COMPARISON OF THE TEN MOST IMPORTANT SENIOR CITIZEN COURSE OFFERINGS SELECTED BY COMMUNITY COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS WITH THE TOP TEN ITEMS LISTED BY COMBINED AGENCY AND SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS CD 8 ■D c3i" - COURSES CHOSEN BY COMMUNITY COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS Rank Item Description Frequency 1 3 CD 1 Political and legal studies 11 2 Personal development for aging 10 ■D O Q. C 3 Health care and training 9 4 Arts and crafts 8 ■D (5) Nutrition 8 (6) Planning for retirement 8 Consumer education 6 T| C 3 3. CD CD g o 3 O COMBINED RANKING OF AGENCY AND SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS Rank 1 Item Description Frequency Health training, first aid. and nutrition 16 2 Crafts and hobbies 13 3 Wills, legal services, taxes. Investment management 11 ru o Building self-confidence and developing talents (adjustment and positive attitudes) 11 5 Job opportunities and services 10 6 Preparing to live alone (death and dying) 8 Pre-retirement planning and develop outside interests 7 Entertainment, films. travelogues, and lectures 6 Listing of services for senior citizens 3 (4) CD Q. 7 ■D (8) Death, dying, and bereavement 6 ( (/ /) ) (9) Exercise 6 10 Financial planning 5 CD 7 8 9 CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD C/) W o" 3 O ■8D Table 32 (cont'd.) COURSES CHOSEN BY COMMUNITY COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS 3 . 3 " Rank Item Description Frequency COMBINED RANKING OF AGENCY AND SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS Rank Item Description Frequency CD Home protection and security 2 (11) Recreation skills 2 (12) To feel needed 2 10 CD ■D O Q . C a O 3 ■D O CD Q . ■D CD C/) C/) ro o ro CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD Table 33 C/) W o" 3 O ■8D C(MPÀRISON OF THE TEN MOST IMPORTANT SENIOR CITIZEN COURSE OFFERINGS SELECTED BY COMMUNITY COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS WITH THE TOP TEN ITEMS LISTED BY COMBINED SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS COURSES CHOSEN BY (XMMUNITY COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS CCMBINED SENIOR CITIZEN GROUPS (O ' 3" i3 CD 3 . 3 " Rank Item Description Frequency Item Description Rank 1 Political and legal studies 11 1 2 Personal development for aging 10 (2) 3 Health care and training 9 4 Arts and crafts 8 Frequency Health and/or nutrition 9 Crafts and hobbies 9 3 Adjustment and positive attitudes 7 4 Taxes, wills. Investment management 5 Part-time jobs and services 5 6 Films 4 7 Planning for retirement and develop outside interests 2 Seminar on fear of aging and dying 2 Community resource listings for senior citizens 1 Security and protection 1 CD CD ■D O Q . C a O 3 ■D O CD Q . (5) Nutrition 8 (6) Planning for retirement 8 Consumer education 6 (5) 7 (8) Death, dying, and bereavement 6 (9) Exercise 6 10 Financial planning 5 ro ■D CD 3 ( W/) o" (8) 9 (10) o u> 204 development for aging; crafts; nutrition; and bereavement; health care and training; planning for retirement; arts and death, dying, and financial planning. When the administrators' top ten courses were com­ pared to the combined responses of the agency groups only, the results were as shown in Table 34. The college admin­ istrators selected 80 per cent (90 per cent if consumer edu­ cation were to be considered related to wills, legal services, etc.) of the items ranked in the top ten of all combined agency groups. opment for aging; crafts; personal devel­ health care and training; nutrition; and bereavement; They were these: planning for retirement; exercise; arts and death, dying, and financial planning. When a comparison was made between the courses admin­ istrators would add (to a maximum of ten) to senior citizen programming and their selection of the ten most important courses to offer if they were limited to ten courses, admin­ istrators showed the same selection in 90 per cent of the rankings. The two unmatched items listed by the college administrators were communication skills and death, dying, and bereavement. Table 35, page 206, shows ranks and fre­ quencies . When a comparison was made between the community college offerings for senior citizens and the top ten courses selected by community college administrators, the results, shown in Table 36, page 207, were as follows: the administrators' top ten choices were in agreement with R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD Table 34 C/) W o" 3 O 8 »< 3" T 3 C(»fPARISON OF THE TEN MOST IMPORTANT SENIOR CITIZEN COURSE OFFERINGS SELECTED BY COMMUNITY COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS WITH THE TOP TEN ITEMS LISTED BY COMBINED AGENCY GROUPS COURSES CHOSEN BY C(MflJMITY COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS COMBINED AGENCY GROUPS (O ' i3 CD 3 . 3 " Rank Item Description Frequency 1 Political and legal studies 2 Personal development for aging 3 Health care and training 9 4 Arts and crafts 8 11 CD Q . CD Q . ■D I W 1 2 (3) Frequency Health training, first aid, and nutrition 7 Wills, legal services, etc. 6 Preparing to live alone (death and dying) 6 ro (5) Nutrition 8 4 (6) Planning for retirement 8 (5) Consumer education 6 6 (8) Death, dying, and bereavement 6 (7) (9) Exercise 6 10 Financial planning 5 7 Pre-retirement planning 5 Job opportunities 5 Crafts and hobbles 4 Building self-confidence and developing talents 4 Entertainment, films. travelogues, and lectures 2 Listing of services for senior citizens 2 (10) Recreation skills 2 (11) To feel needed 2 CD 8 C/) o' Item Description 10 CD ■D O C a O 3 ■D O Rank (9) o \ji CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD C/) W o" 3 O Table 35 COMPARISON OF SENIOR CITIZEN COURSES THAT WOULD BE ADDED BY ADMINISTRATORS WITH WHAT COURSES THEY WOULD OFFER IF ONLY TEN COULD BE OFFERED 8 ■D (O ' 3" COURSES THAT WOULD BE ADDED TO CURRENT OFFERINGS i3 COURSES THAT WOULD BE OFFERED IF ONLY TEN COULD BE OFFERED CD "n Rank Item Description Frequency Rank Item Description Frequency c 3 . 3 " CD 1 Consumer education 9 1 Political and legal studies 11 2 Government and politics 8 2 Personal development for aging 10 3 Personal growth for aging 7 3 Health care and training 9 4 Health care 6 4 Arts and crafts 8 Exercise 6 (5) Nutrition 8 Arts and crafts 5 (6) Planning for retirement a Consumer education 6 CD ■D O Q . C a O 3 ■D O CD Q . (5) 6 ■D CD (7) Financial and legal planning 5 7 (/) (/) (8) Nutrition 5 (8) Death, dying, and bereavement 6 (9) Communication skills 5 (9) Exercise 6 10 Planning for retirement 4 10 Financial planning 5 M O CT\ CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD C/) W o" 3 O 3 Table 36 COMPARISON OF 1976-77 COMMUNITY COLLEGE OFFERINGS FOR SENIOR CITIZENS WITH THE TOP TEN SENIOR CITIZEN COURSES SELECTED BY COMMUNITY COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS CD 8 T 3 (O' COMMUNITY COLLEGE OFFERINGS 1976--77 3 " i3 CD "n 3 3 " CD CD ■D o Q. C 1 Rank Item Description COURSES CHOSEN BY COMMUNITY COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS Frequency Rank Item Description Frequency 1 History and culture studies 15 1 Political and legal studies 11 2 Government and political studies 14 2 Personal development for aging 10 3 Arts and crafts 13 3 Health care and training 9 4 Films, lectures, and tours 12 4 Arts and crafts 8 5 Music studies 10 (5) Nutrition 8 6 Language studies 9 (6) Planning for retirement 8 Personal and self-awareness development Consumer education 6 9 (8) Death, dying, and bereavement 6 (9) Exercise 6 10 Financial planning 5 3 ■D o 3 " C T 1—H CD O. § 1—H (7) 3 " O T 3 CD 3 ( (/ /) ) o' 8 (9) 7 Problems of aging 8 Health care 8 Consumer education 8 3 (10) O 208 70 per cent of the top ten ranked courses that were being offered at community colleges. The administrators did not select films, lectures, and tours; music studies; and language studies in their top ten although they were being offered by the colleges. The administrators were in agree­ ment with history and culture studies; political studies; arts and crafts; awareness development; government and personal and self- problems of aging; health care; and consumer education. The summary, conclusions, and recommendations of the study follow in Chapter V. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The previous chapters provided an introduction to and purposes of the study, review of the literature relating to senior citizens and to the nominal group process, the pro­ cedures and methodology of the study, and the findings and analysis of the data. The summary of the findings, conclu­ sions, and recommendations are presented in this fifth and final chapter, followed by the Appendices and Bibliography. The rationale for the study was that if the community college is to be responsive to the needs of the district, the college should serve all of the people from college age to old age as much as possible. The problem then becomes one of how the college curriculum planners can gather the necessary reliable planning data as quickly and inexpen­ sively as possible in order to launch the kind of courses and programs that people— particularly senior citizens— want. The purposes of the study were to: (1) develop a profile of the educational and cultural needs of senior cit­ izens; (2) compare the expressed needs of senior citizens with the opinions of agency people working with senior cit­ izens as to the former's needs; (3) assess by questionnaire the current programs of Michigan community colleges as com­ pared to the expressed needs of senior citizens; and (4) propose a model for assessing senior citizens* needs as 209 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 210 reported by agency experts and senior citizens. The methodology for the study was to conduct nominal group meetings of socio-economically stratified groups of non-handicapped, ambulatory senior citizens and of repre­ sentatives of agency groups working with the aging. These results were compared with the results of a field-tested questionnaire which provided a "snapshot" of current commun­ ity college offerings for senior citizens and of the senior citizen programming opinions of college administrators responsible for such programming, SUMMARY OF FINDINGS OF NOMINAL GROUP AND QUESTIONNAIRE DATA The summary of the combined research findings of the nominal group process groups was as follows: the male-led groups had a total of I69 items suggested, while the femaleled groups had a total of 204 items; there was an equal number of people, thirty-six, in each type of group; and the female-led groups consistently had more suggested items than the male-led groups. Both leaders enjoyed their group work and felt pleased with the willingness of people to participate, and neither leader made any particular effort to elicit more responses from his/her group members; there­ fore, it would be speculation to try to explain why there was a consistent difference in the number of responses from the male- and female-led groups. When all the data from the nominal groups was cate­ gorized, the following priorities were observed, based on R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 211 the percentages of suggested Items of higher and lower income senior citizens and agency groups. The high income senior citizens preferred academic activities (30.4 per cent of their choices) more than did low income senior citizens (24.1 per cent); however, agency groups overrated the importance of academic activities to all senior citizens by 11.5 per cent. Higher income senior citizens selected hob­ bies for only 10.1 per cent of their total items, whereas low income senior citizens listed hobbies for 23.1 per cent of their items. Agency groups underrated hobbies by 2.5 per cent when all senior citizens were considered. Surpris­ ingly, high income seniors selected cultural activities as only 8.8 per cent of their choices, but low income seniors selected them as 20.4 per cent of their items. Agency groups underrated cultural activities by 3-1 per cent. Rec­ reational interests were rated similarly by high and low income seniors and agency groups at 8.8 per cent, 11.1 per cent, and 7 per cent, respectively, of their items. High and low income seniors selected health items as 6.3 per cent and 9.3 per cent, respectively, of their suggestions. Agency groups underrated health items by 3.2 per cent. Sur­ prisingly, high income seniors expressed more emotional needs (13.9 per cent) than did low income seniors (1.9 per cent). Agency groups underrated the emotional needs of all seniors by only 1 per cent. Services and information con­ cerning them represented 7*6 per cent, 3*7 per cent, and 9-1 per cent, of the items mentioned by high income seniors, low R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 212 income seniors, and agency groups, respectively. Interest in work opportunities was most evenly equated by the high income and low income seniors, and agency groups at 3-8 per cent, 3-7 per cent, and 4.3 per cent, respectively. Secu­ rity and protection represented 1.3 per cent of the items of high income seniors but was not mentioned by low income seniors, whereas agency groups listed it 2.2 per cent of the time. In the miscellaneous category, high income seniors were highest at 8.8 per cent. Low income seniors had 2.8 per cent, while agency groups had 1.1 per cent, of their items in this category. The findings based on the four main purposes of the study were as follows: first, the combined nominal groups of agency and senior citizen groups showed that the main educational and cultural interests of senior citizens were these: (1) health training, first aid, and nutrition; (2) crafts and hobbies; investment management; (3) wills, legal services, taxes, (4) building self-confidence and developing talents (adjustment and positive attitudes); (5) Job opportunities and services; alone (death and dying); (7) pre-retirement planning and developing outside interests; travelogues, and lectures; senior citizens; (6) preparing to live (8) entertainment, films, (9) listing of services for (10) home protection and security; (11) recreation skills; and (12) to feel needed. The last three items were tied in rank, as were items 3 and 4. Second, when the agency groups were compared to the R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 213 senior citizen groups, the results showed that the combined agency groups were able to define nine of the top ten items selected by the senior citizen groups. selected by senior citizens were these: nutrition; (2) crafts and hobbies; itive attitudes; ment; The top ten items (1) health and/or (3) adjustment and pos­ (4) taxes, wills, and investment manage­ (5) part-time Jobs and services; (6) films; (7) planning for retirement and developing outside interests; (8) seminar on fear of aging and dying; resource listings for senior citizens; and protection. (9) community and (10) security Agency groups listed recreation skills and to feel needed as tied for tenth place. A 90 per cent success rate in selecting the expressed needs and interests of senior citizens by the agency groups is considered very good for beginning a community college program for older Americans based on input solely from agency groups serving senior citizens. The third purpose, devising a questionnaire, was achieved, and the questionnaire was field-tested at two com­ munity colleges before being mailed to the other community colleges to assess the range of course offerings for senior citizens at twenty-nine public community colleges in Michi­ gan for the 1976-77 year. The results of the questionnaire showed that colleges were offering the following items most frequently: (1) history and culture studies; (2) govern­ ment and political studies; (3) arts and crafts; films, lectures, and tours; (5) music studies; R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (4) 214 C6) language studies; (7) personal and self-awareness development; (8) problems of aging; (10) consumer education. (9) health care; and This data showed that colleges were offering only 50 to 6o per cent of the top ten items which the senior citizens thought were most Important. The bulk of the 60 per cent range came from only twelve col­ leges. As with the current course offerings, only 60 per cent of seniors' expressed needs were among courses adminis­ trators would want to add to their programming. The fourth purpose of the research study was to pro­ pose a model for assessing needs of people so that a commun­ ity college could build educational and cultural programs to meet the needs of senior citizens. The results of the study show that the college administrator could easily gather planning data by using the nominal group process with senior citizens to develop programs that reflect local needs. (In this study it took weeks and months to arrange meeting times with agency groups.) Colleges should not copy programs of other colleges without first doing their own needs assess­ ment . According to the senior citizens in this Michigan study, the following items rank in the top ten of importance for them: health and/or nutrition; adjustment and positive attitudes; investment management; crafts and hobbies ; taxes, wills, and part-time Jobs and services; films; planning for retirement and developing outside interests; seminar on fear of aging and dying; community resource R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 215 listing for senior citizens; and security and protection; therefore, community colleges should seriously attempt to meet those needs wherever appropriate. The nominal group process, when used with agency groups and senior citizens, showed that the combined agency groups were successful In listing nine of the ten Items ranked In the top ten by the senior citizens as their main concerns or needs as related to planning for and/or enjoying retirement more. When the agency groups were compared to low-lncome senior citizen groups, however, the former groups were accurate In only five Items out of ten In selecting Items of Interest to the latter groups. When the agency groups were compared with the higher Income senior citizens, though, the accuracy rate grew to seven out of ten Items. When considered as a group, community colleges In the state of Michigan for the 1976-77 academic year were offer­ ing only 60 per cent of the educational or cultural Inter­ ests ranked In the top ten by senior citizens. were these: arts and crafts; films, lectures, and tours; personal and self-awareness development; health care; The Items problems of aging; and consumer education. The offerings of the community colleges provided only 50 to 60 per cent of the top ten Items listed by the agency groups as being most Important for senior citizens. The Items were the same as the above, with the variation In percentage depending on whether or not consumer education Is equated with wills, legal services, etc. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 216 When community college administrators were asked to list what courses they would add to any existing program (in some cases there was no existing senior citizen pro­ gram) , they still listed only 60 per cent of the senior citizens' top ten ranked items. follows: The courses were as personal growth for aging; and crafts ; health care; financial and legal planning; arts nutrition ; and planning for retirement. The above-mentioned administrators selected 70 per cent of the items listed by agency groups with regard to what additional educational and cultural offerings for senior citizens they would provide. If colleges could offer only ten programs or courses of interest to senior citizens, the college administrators would offer 80 per cent of the items of the combined agency and senior citizen nominal groups. personal development for aging; arts and crafts ; nutrition; death and dying— bereavement; planning. The courses were these: health care and training; planning for retirement; exercise; and financial When the college administrators' choices were compared to the senior citizen groups alone, 70 per cent of the letter's choices were selected. Exercise was the item omitted from the above list. The most successful methods of implementing senior citizen offerings, based on actual attendance, at the responding community colleges were classes, seminars, work­ shops, and field trips. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 217 Ten community college respondents indicated that their programming reached primarily the lower socio-economic level. Primarily the middle socio-economic level was reached by nineteen community colleges and the upper level by six. Some respondents indicated more than one level. Contributions which senior citizens were making toward programs of the college were listed, in descending order, as follows: advisory and organizing help; and teacher recruitment ; a student; ous; volunteer help; promotion help; teaching participation as resource people; miscellane­ and financial. This survey provides a nearly complete picture of senior citizen programming in Michigan public community colleges, inasmuch as twenty-six of the twenty-nine ques­ tionnaires were returned. CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions related to the main ques­ tions and purposes of the study cited in Chapter I are based on the assumption that senior citizens should be the best source of information as to what their educational and cul­ tural needs are. This would relate to the position taken by Wayne Vasey that special educational and cultural programs should be tailored specifically to the needs of the local senior citizens. ^’’Gerontologist Calls for New Understanding of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Pl8 The study showed that It was far easier and more time-saving for the researcher to make arrangements and meet with senior citizen groups for one and one-half hours for the nominal group meeting than to make arrangements to meet with agency groups for nominal group meetings or to devise a questionnaire, field-test it, mail it, wait for a response, make follow-up telephone calls, send follow-up question­ naires, and again wait for a response. The previously-noted problem which Schoolcraft College had in getting senior citizen cooperation was not experienced at all by this researcher. If the senior citizen nominal groups are used as a measuring stick of what colleges should be offering in edu­ cational and cultural programming for senior citizens, the results of the study show that the colleges were scheduling only 60 per cent of the needs expressed by senior citizens. The college offerings are even less impressive when it is considered that nine of the twenty-six responding colleges (3^.6 per cent) were providing no special programming for senior citizens, either by choice or because of lack of funds. Colleges are not meeting the needs they could be. Those colleges which were providing a broad range of offerings accounted for the 60 per cent mentioned above as meeting the expressed needs of the senior citizens. Only Seniors' Concerns," Retirement Living, XV (March, 1975)j 12 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 219 twelve of the twenty-six responding colleges (46 per cent) provided ten or more offerings geared especially for senior citizens. Two colleges of the twenty-six responding col­ leges (7.7 per cent) stated that it was their philosophy not to build age-segregated programs such as a senior citizen program. Even those schools not preferring age-segregated programming might find that a few carefully selected courses specifically for senior citizens might ultimately draw more senior citizens into their regular offerings. The low income and higher income senior citizens agreed on only three items out of their respective top ten choices. When all income levels of senior citizen groups were combined, however, some of the lower-ranked items which did not make the top ten in one type of group acquired enough "votes" to reach the top ten when all "votes" were combined. This fact indicates that a community college must take a close look at the senior citizen clientele which it plans to serve before deciding what type educational or cultural offerings to provide for the senior citizen. It appears from this study that agency groups are more aware of the interests and needs of higher income or of all senior citizen groups combined than of low income senior citizens. The fact that the college administrators seemed to have a higher agreement rate with agency groups than with senior citizens does not necessarily mean that they are offering programs to meet the educational and cultural needs of senior citizens. It seems that the expressed Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 220 concerns of senior citizens themselves should outweigh the value of opinions of agency experts and college adminis­ trators, Inasmuch as senior citizens are unlikely to attend offerings not of Interest to them. Inasmuch as college administrators selected 90 per cent of the same Items for the two different questions, what ten courses would they add to an existing program, and, what ten courses would they offer If only ten courses could be offered, the results could be Interpreted In more than one way. Either this shows that the respondents did not read the questions closely, or It can be viewed positively to Indicate that college administrators for senior citizen pro­ gramming are relatively well In tune with the basic educa­ tional and cultural needs of senior citizens. It could also be that If 90 per cent of the courses to be added are the same as the basic ten courses, a large percentage of the top ten choices are not being offered currently In Michigan com­ munity colleges. The returns from the colleges have already shown that nine colleges have no special programming for senior citizens. Other conclusions were that low Income senior citi­ zens demonstrate a distinct difference from the higher Income senior citizens In terms of priority of educational and cultural Interests, with which the community college should become familiar before arbitrarily offering courses, workshops, etc., for senior citizens. The data seems to Indicate that low Income senior citizens are more Interested R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 221 In action-oriented activities, whereas the middle and upper income people are more interested in mentally stimulating activities, although there are exceptions in both groups. Middle and upper income respondents did not indicate the need for entertainment which might have been expected. They want to know how to better survive, be independent, and be useful to others. College representatives need to meet with senior citizen groups wherever possible to learn their needs and interests. The college, however, can quite effectively begin a program for senior citizens based on nominal group results from agency people who work with senior citizens. A group of colleges in a geographic area could do the same thing if five or more administrators were to meet together and use the NGP to arrive at their basic core of courses with which to begin, although this core probably would not be as accurate as if it were determined by either senior citizen or agency groups. In this research, college admin­ istrators were only 60 per cent accurate. It should be noted that some items mentioned by nominal groups do not fall within the realm of community college programming; examples are picnics. Bingo, Meals-on- Wheels, and health clinics. These needs would best be met by some other organization. Initially, it was thought that the most difficult phase of the research would be, as was the case at School­ craft College, to gather data from senior citizens, as R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 222 mentioned previously. 2 In this research study, however, it was more difficult and time-delaying to schedule meetings with agency groups. Fifty per cent of the latter cancelled out at the last moment after the researcher's waiting a month or two for the group to meet or to have room on their agenda for the researcher to meet with them. Then, the same or a different agency would have to be contacted for another date a month or two later. An analysis of the data laid aside another concern: that agency experts might have difficulty identifying needs of the elderly with much accuracy. They proved to be 90 per cent accurate in relation to all senior citizens in this study. Agency groups did an outstanding job of identifying the needs of senior citizens, especially the higher income ones. If time is short, a college could begin its program­ ming for senior citizens based on agency group input and then later obtain input from the older Americans after the program is started. If a college district had a large majority of high income senior citizens, a college adminis­ trator could meet with representatives of agency groups and feel confident that the agency groups could identify 90 per cent of the educational and cultural needs of the 2 Elizabeth Andrews, "A Survey of Educational and Informational Needs of Older People Living in the School­ craft College District" (Ann Arbor: Institute of Geron­ tology, The University of Michigan— Wayne State University, 1972), pp. 1-11. (Mimeographed.) R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 223 older Americans. If a college district had a large majority of low income senior citizens, however, it would be better if the college administrator met with some senior citizen groups to determine the latter's needs. The nominal group process as described in Chapter II is effective and adaptable to a variety of program planning efforts. The NGP could be used for advisory groups for every vocational or career education program of the college, as well as for efforts to evaluate or reorganize administra­ tive structures and functions. RECOMMENDATIONS As a model for educational programming, the nominal group process could be used by educators as one of several tools to develop curricula based on what the young and older people want. It is not intended to be a panacea for all planning problems, but, if it is used in the proven and acceptable manner as outlined and tested by Delbecq (espe­ cially for idea generation and fact finding), educators will save valuable time in planning for the specific educational and cultural needs of all students, not Just senior citi­ zens, within their community college district. A more specific model for planning an effective edu­ cational and cultural program for senior citizens based on reliable input is as follows: (1) the administrator can follow the example of this study and meet with two or three different agency or advisory type groups; (2) he can pool R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 224 the results and have a solid foundation of course offerings with which to begin and on which to build In the future; (3) additional Ideas can come from the senior citizens them­ selves once they begin attending the programs offered by the college; and (4) visits to retirement centers and church groups can provide more Ideas for course planning. The same principles could be applied for beginning a women's program or other community service type programs. Administrators could also use the NGP method for solving some in-house organization problems, long range planning for Institutional priorities, and faculty development programs. It Is Important to remember that different college districts have unique problems In gathering data. craft had a problem getting Input from seniors. School­ This researcher had difficulty getting agency groups to give the time needed to do the planning. guesses." Some schools make "educated Each college must be flexible In Its source of planning data and not be committed to a particular method "or else." For future research. It would be interesting to use the nominal group process with college administrators responsible for curriculum planning for senior citizens to determine If the results would be similar to those obtained by questionnaire and/or similar to the nominal group data in this study. It would likewise be interesting to duplicate the study in another state, such as Illinois, which has R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 225 population characteristics similar to those of Michigan. Both states have various community population sizes, ranging from a large metropolitan area (Chicago— Detroit) to small rural community college districts. If the study were to be done again, however. It would be wise to schedule twice as many agency groups as needed so that If some should cancel meetings at the last minute. It would not slow the comple­ tion time of the project. If there Is no local senior citizen meal program, the community college can help to meet nutritional and social needs of ambulatory senior citizens living nearby by encour­ aging them to eat In the college cafeteria during regular cafeteria hours. A recommendation based on a housing program at Syra­ cuse University, briefly described In Chapter II, pages 8081, seems worthy of serious consideration by four-year col­ leges, as well as by senior citizens. Older Americans are looking for economical living accommodations, whereas fouryear schools have been suffering from declining enrollments and partially filled dormitories. Four-year schools could offer special programs and room rates for retired couples or singles to help meet the educational and cultural needs of senior citizens and to solve the problem of empty dormi­ tories. It would be much cheaper In many cases for retired persons to attend college programs on a part-time or full­ time basis and live at the college than to pay the high costs of living on their own elsewhere. It would be better R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 226 for colleges to have full dormitories to help meet their financial budgets than to have partially filled dormitories. Senior citizens would be less likely than youthful college students to be destructive to buildings or furnishings— another benefit for the college. Adopt-a-Grandparent (or Grandchild) programs could bring about mutually beneficial relationships In such a setting. These senior citizens might be utilized as part-time Instructors and special speakers In their area(s) of compe­ tency. Perhaps such an Individual on campus might serve as coordinator of programming for senior citizens, also. Ninety-two per cent (forty-seven of fifty-one) of the nominal group people thought that the NGP was a good method for collecting planning Information; this seems like a very good recommendation for using the NGP for educational plan­ ning purposes. Ideally, each school should do Its own nomi­ nal group study and plan its senior citizen program accord­ ingly; If for some reason this Is Impossible, however, schools could use the results of this study to begin their own program or to expand their program but should then sup­ plement this study with their own local data obtained first­ hand from senior citizen or agency groups dealing with senior citizens. Particular care must be given to recognize that older Americans in different Income levels of society have different needs. Table 37» pages 246-63, could be developed further Into a needs assessment Instrument to determine senior R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 227 citizen educational and cultural interests by adding rating scales and field-testing it with senior citizens and related agency groups. Such an instrument might be more appropriate for use with agency groups since they might be more accustomed to pencil and paper tasks, whereas some senior citizens would reject completing a long questionnaire because of visual or hand movement difficulties or inability to sit for a prolonged period of time. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX A R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 228 List the EDUCATIONAL and CULTURAL activities that you think a community college should offer senior citizens that would help them to plan for and/or to better enjoy their retire­ ment. Items listed might be courses, workshops, seminars, public affairs, entertainment programs, etc. WORKSHEET SAMPLE R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 229 EVALUATION OF NOMINAL GROUP PROCESS Circle your answer Yes No 1. Is this the first time you have participated in a nominal group process meeting? Yes No 2. Do you think this technique is a good objective way to collect information for planning? Yes No 3- Would you recommend the nominal group process to someone else to try in an information-gathering type meeting such as this one? Yes No 4. If you ever had the opportunity, would you be willing to partici­ pate in a nominal group meeting on some other topic? Yes No 5. Do you think today's meeting was worthwhile? Yes No 6. Any comments or suggestions? R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 230 1647 I Spartan Village East Lansing, Michigan July 27, 1976 48823 On March 26, 1976, Dr. Karl Dubois of Delta College had me explain briefly to the Community Services Association meeting In Lansing a project In which I would be collecting Information on senior citizen programs at all Michigan community colleges. We believe this survey will be useful to all responding. Inasmuch as a summary will be returned showing what all community colleges are currently doing for senior citizens. The Individuals receiving this brief survey form are people whose names were given at the March meeting of the Community Services Association or by sub­ sequent phone calls to college presidents at schools not represented at the March meeting. I know that In the course of a year people are often beselged with Information-seeking forms; however. It Is believed that the results of this survey will be useful to many institutions. In that they can (1) keep abreast of what other Institutions of similar size are doing for senior citizens, and (2) have a picture of what Is happening state­ wide In senior citizen programming. It will be useful to me, as a doctoral candidate In administration In higher education under Dr. Max Raines at Michigan State University, as part of my data collection for a dissertation. In a pilot run of the enclosed survey Instrument, It took the respondent about twenty minutes to complete the ques­ tions . Please return the completed survey instrument In the enclosed self-addressed, stamped envelope within five (5) working days. If you have any questions concerning the survey, please call me collect at (517) 353-7954. Thank you for taking time to respond to this informationgathering and -sharing Instrument. Sincerely yours. Harry A. Todd R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 231 SENIOR CITIZEN PROGRAM SURVEY PART I METHODS OF IMPLEMENTATION (Please ✓ ) PROGRAM OFFERINGS Please list all offerings at your college specifically for senior citizens from this past school year and any new offerings that are scheduled for the 1976-77 academic year. S o d c— 0) o I Xi O o O ITEM OJ CO k c- < 1) VO (H m C «3 ÏH O O iH iH T) I (U I— •H a o k x: ccJ CO C •H U e O s CO k (D +5 O PART II If your senior citizens program budget were given an increase in funding that would permit you to increase your course offerings by 1/3, or up to a maximum of ten courses, what courses would you add— regardless of whether you have previously offered any such program. 1. 6. 2. 7. 3. 8. 4. 9. 5. 10. Regardless of whether your institution has ever had a senior citizens program or not, consider what you would do if your allotted budget for senior citizens program­ ming was drastically cut and you could offer only ten courses. What would you choose to offer? Please list your choices in order of first priority to the least. 1. 6. 2. 7. 3. 8. 4. 9. 5. 10. At your school what types of offerings for senior citizens have been most successful in terms of attend­ ance? Please check one or more, but no more than three Classes Field trip Workshop Lecture Institute Symposium Seminar Conference Other (please specify) R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 233 4. At your school what educational and/or cultural topics for senior citizens have been most successful In terms of attendance? (For example— Home remodeling tips) Please list up to, but not more than, ten examples. 1. 2. __________________ 7. 3. ____________________ 8. 4. ____________________ 9. 5. 5. 6. 10 . What socio-economic level of senior citizens do your programs reach? Please check appropriate answer. Primarily upper socio-economic level Primarily middle socio-economic level Primarily lower socio-economic level 6. What kinds of contributions does the senior citizen make toward the programs of the college? . 2. 1 3. 4. 5. If you have any sample brochures describing your programming for senior citizens, I would appreciate your sending them back with the questionnaire. Your name Position Institution If any Item seems unclear, please call Harry Todd collect at 517-353-7954. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23^ 6l4 Creek Parsons, Kansas 67357 September l6, 1976 In July you were sent a questionnaire concerning senior citizen programming at your college as a Joint project for the M.C.C.C.S.A. and my dissertation. Inasmuch as I did not receive your completed questionnaire or any response from a follow-up telephone call In August, I am sending you another copy of the questionnaire In case the original was misplaced. Please take about fifteen minutes this week to answer the questionnaire so that we may have a complete picture of senior citizen programming In Michigan community colleges. A summary of the findings will be sent to you upon your return of the completed questionnaire and the subsequent completion of the study. Your cooperation will be greatly appreciated. Sincerely yours, Harry A . Todd HAT :S t R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 235 COMPLETE LIST OF RESPONSES FROM AGENCY GROUP NUMBER 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11 . 12. 13. 14. 15. 16 . 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Reduce cost of taxes. Inflation Helping senior citizens to feel part of community Estate planning and wills (and divisions) Biology and botany for country living How and when to retire Participating in planning senior citizen programs Trips/recreation Retirement housing Provide information on retirement benefits Financial planning for retirement Encouraging participation in community activities Educational films and slide shows Social Security information classes How to enjoy recreational sports and activities Facilities for senior citizen activities Workshops for arts and crafts Remove millage for seniors on school taxes Money management and income tax assistance Teaching senior citizens to find purpose in life Physical fitness in senior years How to be happy in retirement How to put your experience to work How to grow old gracefully Be thankful for old age Nutritional planning program Transportation for senior citizens R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 236 C O M P L E T E LIST OF R E S PO N SE S F RO M AGENCY GR OU P N UMBER 2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35* Gardening How to conduct meetings Services available to senior citizens Building— any kind Simple home maintenance Letter writing for better legislation Travelogues— films, lectures Lumbering business Entertainment Wills Legal services Study of organizations Historical information on small and old communities Hospital work of any kind Home management— lower fixed income Better health clinics— also mobile clinics Study of multipurpose programming Better cooperation from local law enforcement Dancing lessons Painting and art Photography Card playing— bridge, etc. Silversmithing Teach younger people the value of senior citizens Lapidary Music— singing Crafts, hobbies Basic first aid How to raise money for new facilities Speed reading Provide large print books Telephone contact— Buddy system Meals-on-Wheels "Home Away from Home" Job opportunities R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 237 COMPLETE LIST OF RESPONSES FROM AGENCY GROUP NUMBER 3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16 . 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. Plan-for-retirement course How to organize for legislation How to become involved in politics Study part-time job possibilities Health education— nursing homes Money problems— family, income taxes Leadership training Wills Discover how to use talents more effectively Develop life-long recreation skills Travel study possibilities Volunteer services possibilities Personal and property protection Economical entertainment (sources of) World travel series (TV also?) Cooperative purchasing (goods and services) Comparative religions course Reading Improvement Local history (memories of, also) Genealogy— how to (memories of, also) How to be self-sufficient Develop hand skills (hobbies, crafts, useful skills) Hobby shows— rock; idea exchange Language study for travel Information on government services Music and dramatics Dancing— with or without partners (folk, circle) Art appreciation and/or travel Suddenly Single classes Study of poverty and nutrition Nutrition— cooking for one Defensive driving Car maintenance Home maintenance Camping for seniors How to protect against con artists Antiques Insurance Public speaking courses Building self-confidence R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 238 COMPLETE LIST OF RESPONSES FROM AGENCY GROUP NUMBER 4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 2 3. 24. 2 5. 2 6. 2 7. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33* 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. Give high school students benefit of your experience Live and manage on fixed income Photography Chorus— music Part-time Job placement Pre-retirement seminars How to build self-confidence— assertiveness Home maintenance Physical culture Performing arts Arts and crafts Protect home from fire, robbery, etc. How to read Insurance and legal papers G.E.D. Group entertainment Trips and travel Tax Brochure listing of what's available First aid Widows' group Death and dying Where to direct people for minor health care Dressmaking— sewing Literature classes Current events How to live alone Nature walks— appreciation Furniture refinishing Upholstery Languages Participation in civic affairs, politics Golfing Carving Woodworking Theater Concerts Films Gardening Ceramics Aging classes Auto maintenance Rapid reading Basketmaking Setting up a small business Appreciation of antiques, coins Quilting Metal enameling Square dancing Caning R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 239 AGENCY GROUP NUMBER 4 ( c o n t ’d.) 50. 51. 52. 5354. 55. Knitting, crocheting Jewelry making Program planning for senior groups Parliamentary procedure Adjusting to wldow[er]hood Wills R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 240 COMPLETE LIST OF RESPONSES FROM AGENCY GROUP NUMBER 5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 78. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 1 7. 18. 1 9. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. G.E.D. classes Preparing for aging Energy saving methods (environmental) Recreational activities Educational activities Home maintenance tips How to communicate with older persons Education workshops Getting senior citizens active in politics (all levels of government) Health education Current legislation— whom to contact, etc. Seminar on laws affecting the aging Automotive repair Appliance repair Income tax advice Wills and probate Preparing for death and dying and loss New career opportunities for senior citizens Pre-retirement planning program Community resource help list Short trips to places of local interest Things to make person feel needed Yoga Emergency treatment training Participate in creative arts and drama Activities for homebound people Discussion groups Travelogues Tips on traveling Alternate life styles after retirement R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2kl C O M P LE TE LIST OP RESPONSES PROM SENIOR CI TI ZE N GROUP NUMBER 6 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Golf Bowling Bingo Exercises Shuffleboard, horseshoes Music programs Available services Picnics How to obtain services Sewing Quilting Crocheting Basic English Basic arithmetic Travelogues House plants Legal services Red Cross— first aid Movies How to take care of sick at home Workshop skills Exchange recipes Disease symptoms Hypertension Information Circulation problems Skin and hair care Tax help Bible study Singing Trips Miniature golf Reproduced with permission ofthe copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 242 COMPLETE LIST OP RESPONSES PROM SENIOR CITIZEN GROUP NUMBER 7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 910. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. Ceramic and shell chimes Health hints Tax problems Pishing Medical exams Auto mechanics Exercise Photography Swimming Art work Forestry study Mold-making Baking Antiques Quiltmaking Travel films or lectures Plants and gardening Travel trips— short ones Dancing Hobbies Visit hospital and nursing homes Workshops— ceramics Knitting Entertainment programs Woodworking workshops Films Nutrition advice and cooking Art Literature Collecting Wildlife films and lectures House and apartment maintenance Upholstering Legislation— state and federal Furniture making R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 243 COMPLETE LIST OP RESPONSES PROM SENIOR CITIZEN GROUP NUMBER 8 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16 . 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 . 24. 25. 26 . 27 . 28. 29 . 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. Workshops Sewing classes Presentations on other countries— slides, movies Lawsonomy classes Crafts Motivation, leadership, attitudes Arts Dancing Income taxes Prepare older people to serve other people Direct credits meetings Public affairs Entertainment Communications Agriculture Estate, wills Culture classes Budgeting Economics Typing Crocheting Blrdwatchlng Painting Informative lectures Real estate Daytime classes Counseling Sociability Music for beginners Art appreciation Music appreciation Bible, Christianity classes Part-time work opportunities Trips, travel Photography Car repair (men or women) Radio, TV repair Baby-sitting House plants Macramé Adjustment to circumstances How to straighten out politicians and government Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 244 COMPLETE LIST OP RESPONSES PROM SENIOR CITIZEN GROUP NUMBER 9 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 2 5. 2 6. 2 7. 2 8. 2 9. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35* 36. 37. 38. Survey of literature Recreational activity Complete living seminar Handicraft Productive hobbies Public affairs and history Learning aids for blind One shot meetings Seminar on fears of aging Wills and money management Entertainment and participation Challenging workshops Group activities in retirement to break down isolation feeling Exercise workshops Religious courses to train volunteers for church Day-time meetings Transportation facilities Planning for retirement Music lessons Adopting grandparent program Gardening Photography Woodworking Dancing Home repairs Genealogy study through tape recording of people and records research Community resource listings geared toward senior citizens Food and weight-watching Golf Bridge Sewing Radio programs for senior citizens Medical advice on health Defensive driving Security and protection Developing outside interests prior to retirement Seminar on death and dying Willing of body parts R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2H5 COMPLETE LIST OP RESPONSES FROM SENIOR C ITIZEN GROUP NUMBER 10 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13* 14. 15. 16 . 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30 . 31. 32 . 33. 34 . 35* 36. 37* 38 . 39 . 40. 41. Assist senior citizens to keep in touch with realities Best way to take care of health Freedom of choice Physical fitness/exercise Information on available health facilities Hobbies, handwork Give simple guidance with Social Security and tax forms— give to a group in a residence Appreciation of good music and art Drama Religions of the world/Old World cathedrals Law applied to daily living Provide something specific to do Opportunities for service to others Current affairs— local to world Further education— reading, math, H.S. equivalency Investments— management of assets Companionship Adjustment to changes in Income Retirement homes— pro and con Educate younger people to recognize wisdom of older people Give sense of importance and participation Need to be needed Driver training/retraining Seat those with less acute hearing where they can see speakers' lips Good conversation habits Good nutrition Selecting retirement home according to resources Help to see aloneness as privacy, not loneliness Develop extending interests Outdoor activities Trips— but avoid very large groups Transportation Adjustment to change Opportunities for part-time employment Creative writing Show warmth and concern for students (regardless of age) Telephoning to shut-ins Pride in personal appearance Encourage positive attitudes toward life and living Death and dying Adjusting to bereavement R eproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 246 Table 37 CATEGORIZED NEEDS RESPONSES OP ALL SENIOR CITIZEN AND AGENCY NOMINAL GROUPS Need I. Combined Senior Citizen Agency Educational A. Academic 1. Language Basic English Literature Literature classes Survey of literature Languages Language study for travel Creative writing Reading improvement Speedreading Rapid reading Good conversation habits Communications How to communicate with older persons 2. . . . . . . . • . . . 1 . . . 1 . . • « « . . 1 . 1* . . • • . . 1 1 1 1 1 1 . . . . . . . . . 1* . . • . • . . « . . . . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 1 . . . . 1* . 1 . . . . 1 . . 1 . . 1 . . . . 1 . . • G.E.D. G.E.D. Further education— reading, math. H.S. equivalency 4. . . . . . Arithmetic Basic arithmetic 3. 1 1 1 1 1 2 . . . . 2 1 . . . . 1* . • History Local history (memories of, also) 1 . . •Denotes higher Income senior citizen response Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. « . . 1 247 Table 37 (cont’d.) Need Historical infor­ mation on small and old commun­ ities 5. 1 . . . . 1 1 . . . . 1 . . 1 . . . . 1 . . « * 1 . . * * 1 • ■ • Bible, religion Bible study Bible, Christian­ ity classes Comparative religions course Religions of the world/Old World cathedrals Religious courses to train volun­ teers for church 7. Agency Economics Economics Direct credits meetings Lawsonomy classes 6. Senior Citizen Combined 1 . . . . 1 . . 1 . . . . 1 . . * ■ 1 . . 1 . . . . 1* . fe m 1 . . . . 1* . • • Personal business Tax Tax help Tax problems Income taxes Income tax advice Estate, wills Estate planning and wills (and divisions) Wills Wills and money management Wills and probate Insurance 1 1 1 1 1 1 . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . « « . . . 1 . . , . . . 1 . 1 . . 3 . . . . 3 1 . . . . 1* . # « • # . . 1 1 . . • • 1 . . * * ' • . . 1 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 248 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need Combined How to read insurance and legal papers Social Security information classes Give simple guid­ ance with Soc. Security and tax forms— give to a group in a residence Investments— management of assets Financial planning for retirement Money management and income tax assistance Money problems— family, income taxes Budgeting Live and manage on fixed income Home management— lower fixed income Legal services Law applied to daily living 8. Senior Citizen 1 . 1* 1 . 1* Agency 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 1» Politics, legislation Getting senior citizens active in politics— all levels of government Participation in civic affairs, politics R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 1 249 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need Combined How to become Involved in politics How to straighten out politicians and government Current legislation — who[m] to contact, etc. Remove millage for seniors on school taxes Reduce cost of taxes, inflation Letter writing for better legislation How to organize for legislation Legislation— state and federal Seminar on laws affecting the aging Senior Citizen Agency 1 . . 1 . . . . 1 . . . 1 . . . . 1 1 . . . . 1 1 . , . . 1 1 . . . , 1 1 . . . . 1 1 . . . . 1 . . * . 1 . . . . 1 Parliamentary procedure, public speaking Parliamentary procedure How to conduct meetings Public speaking courses 10. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Leadership training Leadership training Motivation, leader­ ship, attitudes 11. 1 1 .... 1 ... 2 . . . . 1» . Defensive driving Defensive driving Driver training/ retraining 1 . . . . 1^ R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . . . 1 ... 250 Table 37 (cont ’d. ) Need 12. 1 . . 1 1 - * • - * . . 1 Retirement planning Pre-retirement planning program Pre-retirement seminars Plan-for-retIre­ ment course Planning for retirement How and when to retire How to be happy In retirement Retirement housing Retirement homes— pro and con Selecting retirement homes according to resources Developing outside Interests— prior to retirement Develop extending Interests Adjustment to changes In Income Alternate life styles after retirement 14. Agency Education programs Education workshops Educational activities 13. Senior Citizen Combined 1 • • . . 1 . 1 1 . . 1 • » 1 . * . . 1» 1 1 1 • • . . 1 . • « • • . . 1 • « • • . . 1 . . 1 1 * , . . 1» . 1 . . . . 1» . 1 . . 1* . 1 . . 1» . 1 , * . . 1* . 1 • • . . . . 1 Aging, death, dying. bereavement Aging classes Preparing for aging Seminar on fears of aging Death and dying 1 1 1 . . 1* 2 • * . . 1* R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . . 1 . . 1 . • , . . . 1 251 Table 37 (cont* d. ) Need Seminar on death and dying Preparing for death. dying, and loss Willing of body parts Adjusting to bereavement Adjusting to widow[er]hood How to live alone Suddenly Single classes 15 . 1 . . . . 1* 1 . . 1 . . . . 1* • • • 1 . . . . 1* 1 . . 1 1 Agency . * a • . . 1 . a a . a a * « • • . . . . • • * É . . 1 1 . . * • • - . . 1 2 . . . . 2 1 . . . . 1 1 . . . . 1 . , « * * . . a a . . Maintenance and repair Home maintenance Simple home maintenance Home maintenance tips House and apart­ ment maintenance Home repairs Appliance repair Radio, TV repair Auto maintenance Car repair (men or women) Automotive repair Auto mechanics l6. Senior Citizen Combined 1 . 1 . . . 1 1 2 . . . . 1 1» . . . . # # . . . . 1 . . . . . 1 . . . 1 . . 1 . . . 1 1 . . . . . 1 1 Miscellaneous Study of organ­ izations Building— any kind Lumbering business Real estate Setting up a small business Forestry study Agriculture Typing 1 1 1 1 1 # # « # 1 * # # # 1 . . . . 1 ... . 1 1 . . . . 1 . . . . 1 . . . . 1 1 ... 1 ... 1 ... R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . . . 252 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need Energy saving methods (environmental) B. Senior Citizen Combined Agency 1 . . Hobbies 1. Photography 2. Antiques, coins Antiques Appreciation of antiques, coins 3. 2 . . . . 2 . . 1 . . 3 . . ! ! 1*' ! ! ! 2 1 . . 1 . . . . 1 • • 1 * * 1 . . . . 1 2 1 1 1 . . . . . . . 1» . . . . . . 1 . ! 1 Furniture making and repair Furniture making Upholstering Caning Furniture refinishing 7. . . 1 Woodworking Woodworking Woodworking workshops Workshop skills Carving 6. 1 . . Nature study Nature walks?— appreciation Birdwatching Biology and botany for country living 5. 2 . . . . 1 . . . . 1 House plants, gardening House plants Plants and gardening Gardening H. 5 . . . . 3(*lof3). 2 1 2 1 1 . . . . . . ! ! 1 ! ! . . 1 . . . 1 . . . 1 Genealogy— how R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 253 Table 37 (cont 'd. ) Need Combined to (memories of, also) Genealogy study through tape recording of people and records research 8. • • « » • . 1 1 . . . . 1* . . • 2 . . . . 2(*lof2). 1 . . . . 1 . . . , 1 . . . 1 Quilting Quilting Quiltmaking 10. 1 . . Agency Sewing Sewing Sewing classes Dressmaking— sewing 9. Senior Citizen 2 . . . . 1 . . . . 1 1 . . . . 1 . . . • Arts and crafts Arts and crafts Workshops for arts and crafts Handicraft Crafts Crafts, hobbles Workshops— ceramics Ceramics Ceramic and shell chimes Metal enameling Jewelry making Basketmaking Lapidary Silversmithing Mold-making Macramé Knitting Knitting, crocheting Crocheting 1 . . . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . . . . . . . . 1 . ! ! 1»’ ! ! . . . 1 . . . . ! 1 . . . 1 . . . . . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . 1 1 1 1 1 . , 1 . . . . . 1 . . . . . 1 . . . ! 1 . . 2 . . . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 254 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need 11. Agency General Hobbles Productive hobbles Hobbles, handwork Hobby shows— rock, Idea exchange Develop hand skills (hobbles, crafts, useful skills) Collecting II, Senior Citizen Combined 1 1 . . * * * 1* . 1 1 • $ p p 1* . 1 . . 1 1 1 • * . . 1 1 . . ■ Cultural A. Art Art Arts Art work Art appreciation Art appreciation and/or travel Painting Painting and art B. 1 1 1 • . . , p . . p * . . 1 p p 1 . . p p • • • . . 1 Music Music— singing Singing Chorus— music Music programs Music lessons Music for beginners Music appreciation Appreciation of good music and art Concerts Music and dramatics C. 1 1 . . « p p 1 1 . , p 1 . 1 1 * * « « 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . . 1 « « 1 ! * , , , • 1 . 1» 1 . 1 . . . . . 1* . . ! 1 , » . * 1 1 1 • • . . 1 . . 1 • • Creative arts, drama Participate In creative arts and drama Drama 1 1 • • . . 1 1** ! • * R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 255 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need Combined Performing arts Theater D. . . . . 1 . .. 1 1 . .. 1» . . . 1* . . . 1 . .. 1 . .. 2 . 1 . . . .1 1 . 1 . 1 . . . 1 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . . . . 1 1 . . 1 . . . 1 Films Films Movies Educational films and slide shows G. 1 . .. 1 . .. Travelogues Travelogues Travelogues— films, lectures Travel films or lectures World travel series (TV also?) Presentations on other countries— slides, movies Wildlife films and lectures F. Agency Public affairs Public affairs Public affairs and history Current events Current affairs— local to world E. Senior Citizen Travel Trips Trips, travel Trips— but avoid very large groups Trlps/recreatlon Travel trips— short ones Short trips to places of local Interest 1 . 2 . 1 1 1 . 1 . 1 . 1* . . . . 1 1 1 . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . 1 256 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need Combined Tips on traveling Travel study possibilities H. I. III. Senior Citizen Agency . 1 1 1 1 Entertainment Entertainment programs Group entertainment Economical entertain­ ment— sources of Entertainment and participation 2 . . . . 1 . . . . 1 . . . . 1 .... 1 1 1 1 Culture classes 1 .... 1 ... 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1* 1 . 1* 1 , 1 . 1 . Entertainment 1 1 . . . . 1* . Health A. Maintaining Health education Health hints Best way to take care of health Medical advice on health Health education— nursing homes Skin and hair care B. Facilities Information on available health facilities Where to direct people for minor health care C. 1 . . . * 1^ ... 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 First Aid First Aid Basic first aid Red Cross— first aid Emergency treatment training .... 1 ... 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . 1 257 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need D. E. P. Combined Agency Disease, illness information Disease symptoms Hypertension information Circulation problems 1 . . . . 1 . ... 1 . . . . 1 »... 1 .... 1 ... . How to take care of sick at home 1 .... 1 1 .... 1* ... . Nutrition Good nutrition Nutritional planning program Nutrition advice and cooking Nutrition— cooking for one Food and weight-watching Study of poverty and nutrition Baking Exchange recipes IV. Senior Citizen 1 .... 1 .... ... . . . . 1 1 ... . 1 .................. 1 1 . . . . 1^ . . . 1 .... . . . . 1 1 . . . . 1 .... 1 .... 1 ... . Emotional A. Personal development Building self-confidence How to build selfconfidence— assertiveness How to be selfsufficient How to grow old gracefully Be thankful for old age Sociability Complete living seminar — physical, mental, spiritual Teaching senior citi­ zens to find purpose in life 1 .................. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1» Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 258 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need Assist senior citizens to keep in touch with realities Pride in personal appearance Encourage positive attitudes toward life and living Help to see aloneness as privacy, not loneliness Adjustment to change Adjustment to circumstances Discover how to use talents more effectively Freedom of choice B. Senior Citizen Agency . . 1* . . * . . 1* . . . . 1* . . 1# ! ! 1» ! ! . . . 1 . . . • • * » * * . 1 . . 1* . . • Social needs Companionship Group activities in retirement to break down isolation feeling Need to be needed Things to make person feel needed Give sense of im­ portance and participation Helping senior citizens to feel part of community Encouraging partici­ pation in commun­ ity activities Widows' group V. Combined . . 1* . . . . 1* . . 1* . . . . . , • • . . 1* • • • . 1 . . . • • « » • . 1 « » • • * • • . 1 ... . 1 Recreational A. Dancing Dancing 3 . . . . 3 («lof3). R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 259 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need Dancing— with or without partners (folk, circle) Square dancing Dancing lessons B. . . 1 • • . . 1 . . 1 1 1 * * . . 1* 1 • ■ ■ • . # • • * . . 1 2 . . 2 . . 1 # # . . 1* . 1 . . 1* 1 1 1 • • . . . 1 # * . . 1 Sports Golf Miniature golf Bowling Swimming Fishing Shuffleboard, horse­ shoes E. 1 1 • ■ ■ • 1 • * Exercise, fitness ExerclseCs] Exercise workshops Physical fitness/ exercise Physical fitness in senior years Yoga Physical culture D. Agency Senior Citizen Table games Bingo Bridge Card playing— bridge, etc. C. Combined . . 2(*lof2). 1 3 1 * , . . 1 . . 1 . . 1 . . , • 1 . . 1 . . 1 . . 1 . . 1 • • • • Other activities How to enjoy recrea­ tional sports and activities Recreational activities Outdoor activities Develop life-long recreation skills Picnics 1 2 * , . . 1* 1 « , . . 1* 1 1 . . 1 . . . 1 . * , . . 1 . . • • R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 260 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need Combined Camping for seniors Activities for homebound people VI. Senior Citizen 1 . . • • Agency * • . . 1 1 . . . . 1 Services A. Medical Medical exams Better health clinics — also mobile clinics B. 1 . . . . 1* . 1 . . . . 1* . 1 . . . . 1» . 1 . . For visually handicapped Learning aids for blind Provide large print books E. 1 . . Transportation Transportation Transportation facilities Transportation for senior citizens D. 1 . . Telephone contact Telephone contact— Buddy system Telephoning to shut-ins C. 1 . . . . 1 . . 1 . . . . 1" . 1 . . . . 1 1 . . . . 1 Program planning Program planning for senior groups Participation in plan­ ning senior citizen programs Study of multipurpose programming 1 . . " 1 . . R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . . 1 . . 1 261 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need P. Combined . . 1 1 . . . . 1 1 . . 1 . . ! 1 . . . . 1* 1 . . . 1 . . . 1 . . 1 1 . . Information on available services Available services Services available to senior citizens Brochure listing of what's available Community resource list­ ings geared toward senior citizens Community resource help list Information on govern­ ment services Provide information on retirement benefits How to obtain services VII. 1 . . Others Counseling Meals-on-Wheels Adopting grandparent program "Home Away from Home" Cooperative purchasing (goods and services) H. Agency Senior citizen facilitie s Facilities for senior citizen activities How to raise money for new facilities G. Senior Citizen 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1« 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . Work opportunities A. Employment Job opportunities Opportunities for part-time employment Study part-time job possibilities 1 2 2(*lof2). 1 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 262 Table 37 (cont'd.) Need Part-time Job placement Baby-sitting How to put your experience to work New career oppor­ tunities for senior citizens B. Security . . 1 1 . . . . 1 . . 1 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1* 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1* 1 . 1» . 1 1 . 1 . 1 1 . 1 1 1 Miscellaneous A. Agency and protection Security and protection Personal and property protection Protect home from fire, robbery, etc. How to protect against con artists Better cooperation from local law enforcement IX, Senior Citizen Volunteer Volunteer services possibilities Opportunities for service to others Prepare older people to serve other people Hospital work of any kind Visit hospital and nursing homes Give high school students benefit of your experience Provide something specific to do VIII. Combined Delivery methods for offerings Workshops Challenging workshops 1 1 1 1* , R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 263 Table 37 (cont’d.) Need Combined Senior Citizen • Informative lectures Radio programs for senior citizens Daytime classes Daytime meetings One shot meetings Discussion groups B. Agency 1 . . . . 1 . . 1 1 1 1 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 1* 1 . 1* 1* . . . . . . 1 Other Show warmth and concern for students (regard­ less of age) Seat those with less acute hearing where they can see speakers' lips Teach younger people the value of senior citizens Educate younger people to recognize wisdom of older people 1 . . . . 1* . , , 1 . . . . 1* . # # 1 . . 1 . . . . 1* R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. . . 1 . 264 COMMENTS FROM EVALUATIONS Very well conducted Fast way of reaching objective Meaningful way of reaching objective Elimination procedure— good This is a fine way to get to the grass root of our problem The value of one [of] these meetings increases with the size of group— and its cross-sectional character Very interesting Just wish we had more of these lectures or meetings I found the experience mind (soul?) searching— and therefore good. Not being a Ph.D. but in a family them (and an honorary D.D.) I am of five orsix puzzled to know what a "nominal" group is— as used in the higher eschelons Good until I know something better Interesting and enlightening Allow more of a chance to discuss courses suggested to perhaps narrow it down before final tally We could use more time Make certain the group understands what is wanted, is I high or low, etc. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of 265 I question that it makes a contribution; most of the residents are reluctant to be faced with questions, verbal or written Needed one more step in getting the ideas offered ready for the rating (1 to 10) of Importance— too many categories to honestly give a rating— eg. "Seminars on fears of aging" could have included "Seminar on death and dying" "Invest­ ments- -management of assets" could include "Guidance with tax forms"— "Health" and "physical fitness" and "good nutrition" too closely allied to give separate ratings For our age group the time was much too long, a fact which makes me question-mark my answers. Only the questioner could determine the "worthwhile" value; for me, it was of little value What will be done with the study? Will it help community colleges produce better courses or programs? R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY "A Clue to Senility,” Newsweek, LXXVIII (August 23, 1971), 40. Adelman, Richard, and others. "Philadelphia Symposium on Aging," BloSclence, XXV (March, 1975), 199. Adler, William H. "Aging and Immune Function," BloSclence, XXV (October, 1975), 652-57. "Adopt a Grandparent Plan Gets Good Start In New Jersey," Aging, CXCV (January, 1971), 12. "Age Discrimination Moves to the Limelight," Business Week, MMCCCXXXV (June 15, 1974), 104. Alexander, Shana. "Getting Old In Kids' Country," Newsweek, LXXXIV (November 11, 1974), 124. Alpert, Helen. "How to Ruin a Beautiful Retirement," Retirement Living, XIII (September, 1973), 46. "S.O.S. for School Volunteers," Retirement Living, XV (September, 1975), 41-44 "Ten Secrets for Successful Retirement," Retire­ ment Living, XIII (January, 1973), 20-21. "Americans Can— and Should— Live Longer," Time, C (July 10, 1972), 64-65. Anderson, Ken. "Science Probes New Ways to Prolong Life," Science Digest, LXXVI (September, 1974), 36-41. Andrews, Elizabeth. "A Survey of Educational and Informa­ tional Needs of Older People Living In the Schoolcraft College District." Ann Arbor: Institute of Gerontol­ ogy, The University of Michigan— Wayne State University, 1972. (Mimeographed.) "Ann Arbor Aging Placement Service Enters Second Year," Aging, CCIII (September, 1971), 7. "AoA Analyst Reports Older Americans Fastest Growing 266 R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 267 Minority Group,” Aglnp;, CCXIX (January, 1973), . Arehart-Treichel, Joan. "How You Age,” Science News, CIV (December 23, 1972), 412-13"Arkansas Healthmoblle Screens Rural Elderly,” Aging, CCXXXVI-CCXXXVII (June-July, 1974), 17Aronoff, Craig. "Old Age in Prime Time,” Journal of Commun­ ication, XXIV (Autumn, 1974), 86-87Atchley, Robert. "Retirement and Leisure Participation: Continuity or Crisis," The Gerontologist, XI (Spring, 1971, Part 1), 13-17. Bacon, Margaret H. "Why the Old Are Getting Mad," Saturday Review of the Society . I (April 21, 1973), 18-24. Bales, Robert P., and Pred L. Strodtbeck. "Phases in Group Problem-Solving," Organizational Decision-Making, Marcus Alexis and Charles Z. Wilson, editors. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967Pp. 122-33Baltes, Paul B., and K. Warner Schaie. "Aging and IQ: Myth of the Twilight Years," Psychology Today, VII (March, 1974), 35-40. The "Baltimore Meals-on-Wheels Ten Years Old and Still Growing," Aging, CXCIII-CXCIV (November-December, 1970), 10. Barfield, Richard, George Katona, and James Morgan. "Study on Early Retirement Decisions," Social Security Bulletin, XXXII (August, 1969), 23-26. Bass Bernard M. "When Planning for Others," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, VI (April/May/June, 1^0), 151-71. Beard, B. B. "When You're 100 and Have Three Wishes," Harvest Years, XI (Pebruary, 1971), 40-43. Belbin, E., and M. H. Toye. "Accuracy and Speed on the Job," Labour Gazette, LXXI (January, 1971), 44-45. Bern, D . , M. Wallach, and N. Kogan. "Group Decision-Making under Risk of Aversive Consequences," Journal of Person­ ality and Social Psychology, I (May, 19^5), 453-60. Bennett, E. B. "Discussion, Decision, Commitment, and Con­ sensus in Group Decision," Human Relations, VIII (August, 1955), 251-76. R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 268 Berkowltz, Leonard. "Sharing Leadership in Small, DecisionMaking Groups," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLVIII (April, 1951TT 231^3 "Better Life for the Aged— What New Law Provides," U.S. News & World Report, LXXIV (May 28, 1973), 88-89. Beverly, E. Virginia. "How to Choose the Right Milieu for Your Later Years," Geriatrics, XXX (April, 1975), 150 - 6 0 . "Turning the Realities of Retirement into Fulfill­ ment," Geriatrics, XXX (January, 1975), 126-39. Birren, James E. "Prospects for Gerontology: Psychology," Aging, CLXXX-CLXXXI (October-November, 1969), 7"Bleak Future for Elderly Women," Intellect, CIII (February, 1975), 282. Bouchard, Thomas J . , Jr., and M. Hare. "Size, Performance, and Potential in Brainstorming Groups," Journal of Applied Psychology, LIV (February, 1970), 51-55. Bradley, Harry M . , and Leland R. Cooper. "Retirees Assist in Developing Programs for Educational Enrichment," Adult Leadership, XVII (March, 1969), 383-85. Breslau, Naomi, and Marie R. Haug. "The Elderly Aid the Elderly: The Senior Friends Program," Social Security Bulletin, XXXV (November, 1972), 9-15. Brooks, Thomas R. "What You Should Know about Early Retirement," Harvest Years, XII (August, 1972), 40-43. Brotman, Herman B. "Aging Population Up 63.1% in 20-Year Aging Lifetime." Aging, CC (June, 1971), 5. Buccola, V. A., and W. J. Stone. "Effects of Jogging and Cycling Programs on Physiological and Personality Variables in Aged Men," Research Quarterly, XLVI (May, 1975), 134-39. Burnside, Irene Mortenson. "Loneliness in Old Age," Mental Hygiene, LV (July, 1971), 391-97Butler, P. "Senior Power," America, CXXVII (December 2, 1972), 472-73. Butler, Peggy. "Problems of the Older Workers," Labour Gazette, LXX (November, 1970), 775-82. Butler, Robert N. "Successful Aging," Mental Hygiene, R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ?69 LVIII (Summer, 1974), 7-12. . "Why Retire At All?" Modern Maturity, XIV (December/January, 1971-2), 67-68. Campbell, J. P. "Individual Versus Group Problem Solving in An Industrial Sample," Journal of Applied Psychology, LII (June, 1968), 205-10. "Can Oxygen Fight Senility?" Business Week, MMCCXXI (March 25, 1972), 94. Carlson, Charles R. 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