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M l 4B106 18 BED FO RD ROW. LONDO N WC1R 4EJ. ENG LAND 7907315 1 CHERRY HOLMES* LYNN It AY ANN THE CAAEEA A S P 1 A A T I 3 N S OF HALE ANO FEMALE PA1NC1FALS I N M I C H I G A N . MICHIGAN STATE U N I V E A S I T Y , i i Unhcrato. . MJatSlrrts InternattQIvJ » 0* « » , h o a d .a n n mi «i«i P H .D ., 1976 THE CAREER ASPIRATIONS OF MALE AND FEMALE PRINCIPALS IN MICHIGAN By Lynn Cherryholmes A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1978 ABSTRACT :L THE CAREER ASPIRATIONS OP MALE ! AND FEMALE PRINCIPALS i IN MICHIGAN by Lynn Cherryholmes The central purpose of this study was to compare the career aspirations held by male and female principals in Michigan and to examine the ways aspirations are ful­ filled. In order to achieve the purpose, several tasks were accomplished. First, several statements were created to measure the hypotheses. An initial instrument was sub­ mitted to a panel of judges for validation. Second, a pilot instrument was mailed to a population of forty prin­ cipals and a measure of reliability was established. A final instrument consisting of sixty statements and demo| graphic questions was mailed to a sample of 201 male and female principals at| elementary, middle school/ junior high and senior high school levels identified as the target pop­ ulation. The sample! represented eighty-five school dis­ tricts in fifty Michigan counties. This study concluded that: 1. Male and female principals have similar Lynn Cherryholmes aspirations for future positions of even greater authority and responsibility. Aspirations increased for both sexes as chronological age increased. 2. Males and females were similar in the ways and frequency with which they announced interest in further promotion. 3. Males and females both reported the existence and influence of a mentor or benefactor who pro­ vided encouragement and support* 4. Males and females perceived similar support from central office administrators for further ca­ reer advancement. Perceived support increased for both sexes as chronological age increased. 5. Males and females were similar in the extent to which they participated in informal social events of a type that can lead to career advancement. 6. Males and females both sought salary increases from their superintendents. It was recommended that further research might study the rewards for not aspiring, as well as how the as­ pirations of male and female principals might differ across variables such as socio-economic status, geographic region and ethnic background. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Appceciation is expressed to the members of my guidance committee for their encouragement and assistance. The members of the committee were Dr. Stanley Wronski, chairman, Dr. Janet Alleman-Brooks, Dr. Phil Cusick and Dr. Gary Manson. Appreciation is also expressed to Craig Blakely, Office of Research Consultation at Michigan State Univer­ sity; and to Gail Sokol, typist. Finally, to Cleo, Diana and Tim, I express my special thanks for their patience and tolerance. ii TABLE OP CONTENTS Page LIST OF T A B L E S .................................... vi 9 Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ............................. The P r o b l e m ......................... Need for the S t u d y ................... Career Aspirations ................... ............. Making Aspirations Known Feeling Support for Aspirations . . . Assistance from Mentors............ Informal Social Events ................ Striving for Salary Increases. . . . Purpose................................ 1 1 5 6 7 9 9 10 11 13 Research Questions and Hypotheses . . . Research Questions ................... H y p o t h e s e s ......................... Definition of T e r m s ............... Supporting Theory II. 13 13 14 15 ....................... 17 O v e r v i e w ............................ 24 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............... 26 Introduction ............................. Literature Review ....................... Comparisons of Male and Female Capabilities as Principals . . . . Discrimination Toward Female Principals......................... 33 Additional Training and Advanced Degrees in Education Administration . Career Aspirations of Women and Their Apparent Lack of Interest in Administration ....................... iii 26 28 28 40 45 Chapter Page Encouragement from Other Adminisirators Toward Men and Women Entering the Administrative Field .......................... WomOn as Education Administrators in Michigan ................... III. 54 Implications of the Literature 58 Summary 64 68 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Developing the Test Instrument . Approaches and Assumptions. Development of Statements . . . . Validation of Statements . Reliability of Instruments Selection of Reliability Population. Reliability Coefficients . 68 68 71 71 74 77 78 Sampling Methodology 84 Statistical Analysis 87 Statement of Hypotheses and Corresponding Null Hypotheses 88 90 Summary IV. 49 94 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Introduction ................ Reliability of Final Instrument, Statistical Analysis . 94 94 100 101 101 Hypothesis One. Hypothesis Two. Hypothesis Three Hypothesis Four Hypothesis Five Hypothesis Six. Other Findings. 108 111 113 120 120 ! 121 Summary iv Chapter V. Page SUMMARY AND C O N C L U S I O N S .................... 125 S u m m a r y .................................... Major Conclusions.......................... D i s c u s s i o n ................................ Implications for Further Research . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY 125 126 129 133 ....................................... 134 A. Cover Letter and Questionnaire .............. 140 B. Follow-Up Letter.............................. 150 C. Panel of Judges Used toEstablish Face Validity on Questionnaire ................ 151 APPENDICES Appendix D. Materials Sent to Validation Judges . . . 152 E. Cover Letter and Questionnaire Used to Establish Reliability of Instrument. . . 163 F. G. List of Michigan School Districts From Which Reliability Sample Population Was S e l e c t e d ........... ..... 173 List of Michigan SchoolDistricts From Which Final Sample Population Was S e l e c t e d ............................. 175 v LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Page Students Enrolled for Advanced Degrees in Education Administration, by Level of Enrollment, Sex of Student, Attendance Status— Aggregate U.S. Fall 1973. . . . 41 Bachelor's, Master's and Doctor's Degrees in Education Administration Conferred in Institutions of Higher Education— Aggregate U.S., 1974-75 ................... 42 Michigan Department of Education Pro­ fessional Personnel Job Assignment by Sex, 1975-76 {Okemos Public Schools). . Michigan Department of Education Pro­ fessional Personnel Salary Level by Sex, 1976-77 (Okemos Public Schools). . . State of Michigan Elementary Principal Salaries by Sex, 1975-76............ 56 57 59 3.1 Reliability Results for Pilot Instrument . 3.2 Status of original questions on pilot instrument (hypothesis information) . . . 82 Status of orignial questions on pilot instrument (demographic information). . . 83 3.3 4.1 Reliability results for final instrument . 4.2 Comparison of alpha figures for pilot, final instrument and selected final questions............................ 2 Questions selected for inclusion in x a n a l y s i s ............................ 4.3 4.4 4.5 Acitivity in seeking salary increases by s e x ............................... . 79 95 98 99 102 Aspirations for further promotion by sex . vi . . 10 3 Table Page 4.6 Aspirations for further promotion by age . 4.7 Aspirations for further promotion by age controlling for sex, m a l e s ................ 106 Aspirations for further promotion by age, controlling for sex, f e m a l e s ............. 107 Aspirations for further promotion by sex, controlling for annual salary up to $23,999 109 4.8 4.9 . 105 4.10 Communicating interest in further promotion by s e x .................................... 110 4.11 Communicating interest in further promotion by sex, controlling for annual salary ($20,500 to $23,999) ....................... 112 4.12 Existence of mentor by s e x ................... 114 4.13 Amount of perceived support for further promotion by s e x .......................... 115 4.14 Amount of perceived support for further promotion by a g e .......................... 116 4.15 Amount of perceived support for further promotion by sex, controlling for years of experience (17-23 years)................ 118 4.16 Amount of perceived support for further promotion by sex, controlling for annual salary ($20,500 - $23,999) ................ 119 vii * « CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The Problem One effect of the women's movement in the United States within the past decade has been the examination of various occupations, including education and school admin­ istration. Statistics generated from this examination re­ veal contrasting figures. Although the education profession consisted of 85 percent female teachers at the elementary level in 1974, only 21 percent of its administrators were female. At the high school level, the figure was only 2 i percent, even though women comprised 48 percent of the sec­ ondary educators. Fishel and Pottker (1974) summarized the statistics and concluded that of all the men employed in elementary education, 1 in 5 is a principal or assistant principal. In contrast, of all the women in elementary edu­ cation, 1 in 5 is a principal or assistant principal. One out of 13 men at the secondary level is a principal or ! ! assistant but only 1 out of 250 women in secondary educa­ tion is a principal or assistant principal.^ *And^rew Fishel and Janice Pottker, "Women in Edu­ cational Governance: A Statistical Portrait," Educational Researcher III, July/August, 1974, pp. 4-7. I ! 1 Of approximately 17,000 school districts in the United States, approximately 75 were led by female super­ intendents in 1975. A similar administrative situation exists at the college level. It has been estimated that universities would have to hire a proportion of 50 percent women among all newly-hired people in order to reach an average of 30 percent women in administrative positions by 1990.2 Intensified concern about women in the labor mar­ ket, increased interest in social justice, the publicity generated by the women's movement, new attitudes about sex roles and the efforts of a few school districts to move women into administrative positions have not significantly affected the national percentages of women in education administration. Indeed, the figures show a pattern of steady decline: Year Women Men 1928 55% 45% 1948 41% 59% 1958 38% 62% 1968 22% 78% 1973 20% 80% 2 Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, Oppor­ tunities for Women in Higher Education, (Berkeley, Cali­ fornia, 1$73) p.' 1*4.--- --------------3 David Coursen, "Women and Minorities in Adminis­ tration," NAESP School Leadership Digest Series No. 11, 1975, p.16. Other statistics provide comparative information about women and men in education. Women hold only 20 per­ cent of the master's degrees and 8.5 percent of the doc­ torates in education administration. The number of men entering the entire education field has been steadily in­ creasing, although women still constituted 66 percent of A the nation's public school teachers in 1973. After examining relevant data, Coursen (1975) states that of all the women working full-time in public schools, almost 96 percent are teachers, nurses or librar­ ians. Noting that women principals are older and more ex­ perienced than men principals, Coursen asserts that a woman must be better qualified than a man if she plans to become a school administrator. Finally, of the women who are principals, fully 95 percent of them work in the ele­ mentary schools. Studies show that women who retire from administra­ tion are frequently replaced by younger men, rather than women. The median age of all women principals rose from 51 to 56 years between 1958 and 1968, while that of men 5 remained fairly stable at 44 years. Howard (1975) points to the increasing numbers of male teachers. Their percentage has increased in the past ^National Education Association, Research Division Report, 1973-75, 26th Biennial Salary and Staff Survey of Public School Professionals, 1972-73. 5Coursen, "Women in Administration," p. 17. ten years at a rate of 59 percent, as compared to 3 percent for females. Howard concurs that even though women still far outnumber men in the teaching profession, comparatively fewer of them advance into administration. Further, Howard contends, men tend to earn more and advance faster in ad­ ministration than do women, even though the men have less experience. The kinds of administrative positions finally obtained by males and females are different, as well. Men are likely to hold a variety of administrative roles in their careers. Women are less likely to advance to other administrative roles beyond the principalship. Mickish (1971) reports that men advance faster with less experience than women. She states that 67 per­ cent of the male principals in her study had less than six years of elementary classroom experience prior to promo­ tion. This compares to the 88 percent of the female prin­ cipals who were promoted after six or more years of elementary teaching experience.** (1964) Further, Gross and Trask found that as many as 34 percent of the male prin­ cipals in their study had never taught in the elementary school, while only 3 percent of the women principals did 7 not have such experience. **Ginny Mickish, "Can Women Function as Success­ fully as Men in the Role of Elementary Principal?" Re­ search Reports in Educational Administration, Volume II, No. 3 (Boulder, Colorado:' Bureau of Educational Research, University of Colorado), p. 4. 7 Neal Gross and Anne E. Trask, Men and Women as Elementary Principals, Final Report No. 2, Cooperative Research Project No. 853 (Boston: Graduate School of Edu­ cation, Harvard University, 1964). 5 Schmuck (1975) maintains that women have never held influential positions in American schools. She agrees that women's representation as superintendents, high school principals and elementary school principals has declined throughout the country over the past ten years. However, she notes that women have always been under-represented in the management field, even though they have dominated at the classroom level since the advent of compulsory educa­ tion. Schmuck states: . . .the concern about the decline of the species of women administrators masks the more important fact that women have never even approached parity with men in holding positions of formal managerial power in school districts.8 Schmuck suggests that historical shifts cannot ex­ plain fully the disparity between men and women in admin­ istrative positions. One conclusion seems indisputable: females may staff the public schools in this country but it is essentially males who administer them. Need for the Study What accounts for the disparity between the per­ centages of men and women in education administration? Researchers have suggested several possible reasons and have conducted studies to substantiate their hypotheses. Q Patricia Ann Schmuck, "Sex Differentiation in Public School Administration," Wanted: More Women Series (Washington, D.C.: National Council of Administrative Women, 19 75), p. 6 Career Aspirations The effect of aspiration levels has been suggested, reflecting the belief that women are much less likely to aspire for high status careers as compared to men. If women do not aspire for high status careers, it would seem reasonable that they would not be well-represented in such careers. Research on aspiration levels and career goals has been conducted with high school students, college stu­ dents and teacher populations. An example of a recent study using the teacher population was done by Dias (1976). She studied the career aspirations of male and female teachers. She noted the difficulty of separating aspir­ ations for administrative positions and receiving encour­ agement for those aspirations. Dias asked, Do women not aspire to administration because of lack of encouragement and expectations on the part of administrators, or do administrators hold low expectation levels and withhold encour­ agement from women to enter administration be­ cause of perceived lack of inspiration on the part of women teachers?** Dias suggests that the answer to this question is invariably linked to societal expectations for both men and women, including perceptions of a woman's role. As a result of her research, Dias concluded that although the percentage of female teachers with administrative 9 Sally Dias, "The Aspiration Levels of Women for Administrative Careers in Education: Predictive Factors and Implications for Effecting Change," paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Francisco, April 19-23, 1976), p. 6. 7 aspirations is much lower than for male teachers, a much greater percentage of women aspire to those roles than is indicated by their representation in the profession. Since the path to higher administrative positions such as directors of curriculum areas, assistants to super­ intendents, and the superintendency itself, is almost cer­ tain to include experience at the principalship levels, it seems prudent to compare men and women currently serving in this role. Do elementary principals have similar aspira­ tions for future promotion? female principals differ? Do the aspirations of male and Research is needed to provide data on the topic of aspirations. If it could be demon­ strated that women principals lacked interest in further promotion, this would help explain why so few are found in other administrative positions. If women expressed as­ pirations similar to those of men'; then this factor would receive less credibility as an explanation for low female representation in administrative ranks. Making Aspirations Known As a topic related to that of aspirations, re­ searchers have described the manner in which prospective asministrative candidates share their aspirations with others. For example, there is research to show the impor­ tance' to the individual teacher in getting the attention of a superior. Interest in advancement must be known to others, especially those in positions of authority. This 8 requires the individual to proclaim "candidacy” even before an opening is available. Griffiths, et al. (1965), Blood (1966) and Greenfield (1975) studied teachers to determine how they "announced" their candidacy. Each researcher ob­ served that candidates with high motivation to become ad­ ministrators exhibited behavior called "get the attention of superior," or GASing. This term refers to such teacher acts as taking responsibility for teacher-in-charge of the lunchroom, administrator of field day, chairman of teacher interest committee, etc., or any other opportunity for the teacher to impress the superiors. None of the responsibi­ lities need provide extra salary but they do give increased visibility, increased proximity to the superior and the opportunity for recognition. By what means do principals announce their candi­ dacy for higher positions? If men and women have similar aspirations, are the aspirations announced in a similar fashion? Do principals engage in GASing behaviors? It has been suggested, but not researched, that women tend to remain silent about their career goals, while men pursue them openly. Without knowledge of an individual's inter­ est in advancement, superiors may mistakenly assume silence to mean lack of aspirations. Little empirical research has measured the behavior of principals who seek promotion. Research is needed to provide data on this topic. 9 Feeling Support for Aspirations Another area related to aspirations is the extent to which a person feels that his/her career goals are supported by superiors. The question raised earlier by Dias is central to this issue. It has been suggested that men are more likely than women to feel support from administrative superiors for their career goals, but the topic has not been measured systematically. Do men and women perceive support related to aspirations or is it independent of aspirations? Re­ search is needed to measure the perceived support to men and women principals for their career goals from adminis­ trative superiors. Since superiors would be in a position to assist an aspiring principal, their support would ap­ pear to be important. Assistance from Mentors Two other factors have been suggested as contri­ buting influences in eventual promotion to a higher admin­ istrative position: mentors and informal social events. The mentor or "benefactor" frequently aids in the advance­ ment of an administrator. in a position of authority. Usually the mentor is older and Most teachers who are promoted into a principalship are assisted by a mentor. The mentor recognizes the talent and ambition of the younger person and dispenses advice, takes the novice "under his wing," helps teach how things are done and socializes the one as­ piring to the higher ranks. The mentor provides informal teaching and often opens doors unknown to those who lack the benefits of such assistance. The mentor has contacts in the profession and these are shared with the aspirant. Can both men and women principals identify a men­ tor who helped fashion their administrative careers? Do mentors exist just for teachers who wish promotion to the principalship, or do they continue to serve principals as they advance further in their careers? Because there are so few women in positions beyond the principalship, who serves as mentors for the aspiring female principal? Do men and women principals have mentors with the same fre­ quency? It is suggested that women do not have mentors as frequently but that they may turn to family and friends outside education to provide counsel. exists on this topic. No empirical data Research is needed to provide data about the incidence of mentors for men and women princi­ pals . Informal Social Events Schmuck (1975) notes that many opportunities for administrative training exist in informal settings: . . .over the cold beer after the grueling meeting, during the coffee break during the day, on the golf course, in the swimming pool, or in the evening relaxing with people who share common problems and similar interest.10 ^^Schmuck, "Sex Differentiation," p. 121 11 She maintains that women are intentionally or un­ intentionally excluded from this informal socialisation process. Further, since so few females are represented and most school administrators are male, the informal as­ sociations tend to be exclusively male. It has also been suggested that men seem to understand the importance of such events. They recognize the importance of the settings to learn new information, to maintain or form new and help­ ful contacts, and to be in the proximity of others in posi­ tions of authority. tematically. This topic has not been studied sys­ Do both men and women principals recognize that informal socializing between school district adminis­ trators occurs? Do both men and women think such events are important to their career advancement? Do both parti­ cipate in such events with similar frequency? Striving for Salary Increases One of the benefits of promotion from teacher to principal, and from principal to a superior administrative position, is that of salary increases. One need not neces­ sarily wait to be promoted before receiving substantial wage increases, however. There are often salary varia­ tions among administrators holding the same position in the same school district, even when obvious factors such as length of experience, advance degrees held, number of teachers being supervised, etc., are taken into account. 12 Unless an administrator is paid according to a strict salary schedule, it is possible to improve the salary through skillful contact with the supervisor or superintendent. such a basis. The business world tends to operate on It is frequently the interaction between the employee and the employer that helps set salary figures. In the business setting it has been observed that women are much more likely to wait for their bosses to notice their efficiency and reward them accordingly with salary in­ creases. Men are much more likely to approach the boss directly to- discuss the salaries they think they deserve. Cherryholmes (1974) found that the majority of male and feniaie elementary principals had approached their superintendents about a wage increase at some time in the past. However, male principals were more likely to have plans to talk to the superintendent in the future about the wage increase they thought they deserved. Women were more apt to trust the superintendent to provide a satis­ factory wage increase without having to approach him about it.11 There is a scarcity of data about the frequency with which men and women principals have discussed salary figures with their superiors and how they feel about as­ serting themselves to seek such increases. ^ L y n n Cherryholmes, "The Extent to which Women Public School Administrators Strive for Salary Increases," Michigan State University, 1974. 13 Purpose The purpose of this study was to determine the differences between male and female elementary principals regarding their career aspirations and the ways they seek to fulfill those aspirations. Research Questions and Hypotheses Research Questions Several broad research questions guided the research. Specific hypotheses are stated immediately following the research questions below: Increases in Salary: Are there differences between men and women principals in the ways they seek salary in­ creases? Are men more likely to approach the superinten­ dent to discuss the topic openly? Are women more likely to wait to be noticed and rewarded for their work? Aspirations: Are there differences between the as­ pirations held by male and female principals? Do men as­ pire more for positions of greater authority and respon­ sibility than do women? Are women as motivated toward central office administrative positions? Are men more likely to see the principalship as a training ground for other positions? Sharing Interest in Promotion: Do both men and women discuss their aspirations with other administrators who are in a position to offer advice and encouragement? Do women wait to be asked to apply for positions? 14 Assistance from Mentors; Does a mentor have a role in the professional lives of both men and women? more likely to have a mentor in education? Are men Does the family provide support for women that is supplied for men by people in administration? Support for Aspirations: Do both men and women perceive similar encouragement from other administrators for their career advancement? Do women feel that they are encouraged to be ambitious? Informal Social Events; Do principals perceive that informal social events play a part in the promotion process? Do men and women participate with equal fre­ quency? Hypotheses The following hypotheses will be tested in this study: Hypothesis 1 : Men are more likely than women to seek salary increases. Hypothesis 2 : Men are more likely than women to aspire for positions of greater authority and responsi­ bility. Hypothesis 3: Men are more likely than women to communicate to others their interest in promotion. Hypothesis 4: Men are more likely than women to have a mentor in education who encourages and helps guide their careers. 15 Hypothesis 5 : Men are more likely than women to feel support from central office administration for their career goals. Hypothesis 6 : Men are more likely than women to engage with their colleagues in informal interactions of a type that may lead to career advancement. Definition of Terms In hypothesis 1 ; " . . . seek salary increases." is defined here as all verbal and/or written messages from the principal to the superintendent on the topic of sal­ aries , sent in hope of obtaining a wage increase. In hypothesis 2 ; " . . . aspire for positions of greater authority and responsibility . . ." is defined here as future plans or career goals in which the final occupa­ tion sought exceeds the principalship in salary, status and power. Such positions are usually in close proximity to the superintendent's office and share a similar district-wide job description. The positions include di­ rectors of various curriculum areas, deputy superinten­ dents, personnel directors, assistants to superintendents and administrative assistants. In hypothesis 3 : " . . . communicate to others their interest in promotion." is defined here as verbal and/or written messages from the principal to other edu­ cation administrators of equal or superior positions, or to professors of education, in which the principal expresses the desire to advance to administrative posi­ tions superior to that of the principalship. In hypothesis 4 : " . . . mentor in education . . . is defined here as a person who occupies an administrative position in education and who expresses a personal and professional interest in the career advancment of someone aspiring to a position in administration, per se, or further advancement in administration. In hypothesis 5 : " . . . support . . . for their career goals.” is defined here as positive responses which are interpreted as encouragement by the principal toward future plans in education. " . . . central office administration . . . " i s defined here as a collective label used to describe all professional occupants of the superintendent's offices, including directors of curriculum, personnel, deputy super­ intendents, assistants to superintendents and administra­ tive assistants. In hypothesis 6 ; " . . . engage with their col­ leagues . . . " i s defined here as participation with other school district administrators. " . . . in informal interactions of a type that may lead to career advancement." is defined here as either spontaneous or planned social events, usually held outside the school setting during times other than administrative work hours. Included would be such informal gatherings as social invitations to private homes; joining others for 17 lunch; meeting socially after a school board meeting; playing sports; card games; etc. Numbers of participants may vary from two to several. Supporting Theory In all societies, sex typing of occupations occurs. Some occupations are considered "male'' and others are known as "female." Some are not assigned to one sex or the other but are held by either male or females. Examples of "male" occupations in American society include dentists, judges, railroad conductors and airline pilots. Examples of "female" occupations include nurses, secretaries, li­ brarians and receptionists. Salespeople are part of a category that includes both sexes. Howard (1975) notes that only ten percent of American occupations are held by both men and women. The 12 remainder are filled predominantly by both men or women. Teaching is regarded as a "female" occupation, and this condition began during the Civil War. Prior to that time, men had been the teachers, almost without exception. The shortage of men created by the war resulted in the re­ cruitment of women. They were willing to work for low wages and they eventually dominated the teaching field. The status of teaching shifted, partly because of the 12 Suzanne Howard, "Why Aren't Women Administering Our Schools? The Status of Women Public School Teachers and the Factors Hindering Their Promotion into Administra­ tion." Wanted; More Women Series," Washington D.C.: National Council of Administrative Women in Education, 1975, p. 16. 18 willingness of females to work for low wages and they eventually dominated the teaching field. became low status. The status of teach- It was not until increasing numbers of men joined the teaching ranks at the end of World War II that salaries increased and the profession advanced in status. Now that men are more frequently represented in administrative positions than their percentage in the teaching profession would indicate, theoretical explana­ tions may be needed to understand the disparity. Theories of vocational choice have been advanced by researchers in several fields. Economists, for ex­ ample, view the vocational choice problem as one of man­ power ecomonics. Sociologists have studied the causes of occupational differentiation, worker roles in groups and the dynamics of occupational choice. Psychologists are concerned with the individual variations as well as other determinants of occupational preferences. It is from the psychologists that much of the theory regarding women in education administration originates. The importance of reference groups and societal messages about sex roles form the basis for much of the theory explaining why women do not seek administrative positions. Insight into the phenomenon of reference groups is provided by Anderson (1965). He contends that a child's reference groups play an important role in the process of vocational development. Anderson traces the many instances in which the child see various kinds of workers and hears 19 about many others. The child participates in play activity and pretends to fill one of the roles to which there has been exposure. Family and peer attitudes toward these oc­ cupations are reflected in the play activities. These at­ titudes begin to influence the child's view of which vocations are better than others. During adolescence and early childhood, the indi­ vidual becomes aware of the realities of his/her own qualities and of the world of work. Reference groups are now more numerous and more diverse. Even in adulthood, Anderson believes, reference groups play an important role. A teacher's decision to remain in the classroom or to seek an administrative position is influenced by the closest reference group: other teachers. Anderson reports that a potential candidate will not enter a given vocational field if any of the following conditions exist: (1) if the individual's background dic­ tates the field to be unworthy or undesirable; (2) if his/ her data sources are inadequate to provide information about the field; (3) if the individual has a negative im­ pression of the opportunities and challenges available; or, (4) if the individual's self-image is such that he/she would feel incompetent or unable to perform in the field. ■^Donald P. Anderson, "Recruiting Leaders for To­ morrow's Schools," The National Elementary Principal 44 (1965): 47-52. 13 20 Similarly, Uzell (1961) reports a "definite rela­ tionship between an individual's occupational aspirations and his personal knowledge of someone who was filling the specific occupational role."*^ Coursen (1975) maintains that schools educate youngsters not only by what is explicitly taught in the classroom but also by the school's reflection of the so­ ciety at large. When the authority figure is "similar" to the child, that person may serve as a role model or figure for the child to observe, admire and emulate. Coursen cautions that young girls who observe that women teach but men administer may conclude that the arrangement is in­ evitable and not to be challenged. Several studies have been conducted to measure the impact of societal messages to females. Burlin (1976) studied eleventh grade girls and asked participants to name their "ideal occupational aspirations" and their "real oc­ cupational aspirations." The researcher found that parti­ cipants made significantly different selections of occupations in their real than in their ideal occupational aspirations. The majority of girls chose innovative oc­ cupations (one in which the jobs were held by less than 30 percent women) in their ideal choices, whereas in their real choices, a minority of girls chose innovative occupa­ tions. Burlin concluded that the desire to pursue a 14 Odell Uzell, "Influences of Occupational Choice," Personnel and Guidance Journal 39 (April 1961): 668. 21 broader range of occupations is present in young women. He reasoned that the girls had to have known of the range of occupations available or they could not have selected them as an "ideal" occupation. However, personal and social forces appear to have limited their belief that in "real life" these occupations could actually be pursued. The assumption is often made that a college educa­ tion expands one's horizons in a variety of ways. (1973) studied over 1600 upperclass college women. Karman Her results suggest that women perceive a narrow range of career possibilities because they are fearful of venturing into a man's world. Karman noted that hiqher education had "done little to expand women's awareness of interests be15 yond the sex stereotyped career roles." Apparently, al­ though constraints are usually associated with external societal prejudice, many women seem to have internalized or accepted the concept of limited female capacity. Kar­ man concluded that career choices are largely a function of learned roles, with women seeming to accept a position of occupational inferiority. The factors dealing with female reluctance to seek leadership positions in education were studied by Schmuck (1975). She advocates a dynamic explanation, reflecting early socialization patterns in childhood training. She ^ F e l i c e Karman, "Women: Personal and Environment­ al Factors in Career Choices," paper presented at the an­ nual meeting, American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, La., 25 February-1 March 1973, p. 16. 22 notes that girls learn to be more docile and less asser­ tive than boys, reinforced by their differential treatment. Boys tend to learn behaviors that lead to a mastery of the environment; girls learn to elicit help from others to master the environment. Schmuck states that a strong de­ pendency on other people is developed in girls, with a mo­ tivation to "please" rather than to "master.;' Horner (1968) expanded upon the differences between the behavior of boys and girls and added another dimension. Her doctoral study measured differences between males and females in their motivation to achieve in competitive and non-competitive situations. Horner concluded that women have a motive to avoid success because of fear of loss of femininity, fear of social rejection (particularly by male peers) and anxiety about becoming popular, unmarriageable or lonely. Horner conceived this motive as an impediment to women's achieving in a high status career. The attitudes of women toward themselves center around their self-image,*® Holm (1970) believes. They lack confidence because of "self-doubt" and "self-depreciation," and a built-in bias about the basic inferiority of women compared to men in such things as decision-making and lead­ ership. *®Jeanne M. Holm, "Employment and Womens Cinder­ ella Is Dead," National Association of Women Deans and Counselors. 23 Many women see themselves as either unable to per­ form effectively in decision-making and leadership roles, or to be happy in such roles. Carrol (1972) adds that as long as women "feel incapable of doing the job or think they won't be happy, it is doubtful they will seek it." 17 She states that both women and men behave in ways that are perceived appropriate for their sex. The characteristics important to administration are probably neither masculine nor feminine; either sex could develop them. However, it would mean a change in our concept of "woman." Schmuck also believes that women are the reason for their absence in administration: The social and psychological dynamics of being female in our society is one important causative factor leading to women's underrepresentation in school management."18 Finally, Hoffman (1972) summarizes the research on women 1s achievement: The failure of women to fulfill their intellectual potential has been adequately documented. The ex­ planation for this is so plentiful that one is al­ most tempted to ask why women achieve at all. Their social status is more contingent on whom they marry than what they achieve; their sense of femininity and others' perceptions of them as fem­ inine is jeopardized by too much academic and pro­ fessional success; their husband's masculinity, and hence their love relationship as well as their reciprocal sense of femininity, is threatened if they surpass him; discrimination against women in graduate school admittance and the professions 17 Mary A. Carrol, "Women in Administration in Higher Education," Contemporary Education 43: 214-218. *®Schmuck, "Sex Differentiation," p. 76. 24 puts a limit on what rewards their performance will receive; their roles as wives and mothers take time from their professional efforts and offer alternative sources of self-esteem. Per­ haps, most important, they have an alternative to professional success and can opt out when the going gets rough . . . but women's underachieve­ ment must have roots deeper even than these, for the precursors of the underachieving women can be seen in the female child."19 The low incidence of females in education adminis­ tration may be explained by a combination of factors. First, women's own attitudes about themselves may act as roadblocks to their advancement. Second, societal atti­ tudes including discriminating practices, may serve to re­ inforce the women's feelings and result in their continued placement in non-administrative positions. Society is now involved in the re-evaluation of traditional sex roles and the limitations placed by sex role stereotypes upon the opportunities for both sexes. If traditional sex roles are modified significantly, re­ sulting in less sex-typing of occupations, both men and women will be encouraged to explore new career opportuni­ ties. Overview A discussion of the problem to be investigated be­ gins the first section of Chapter I. A description of the declining representation of women in education Lois Wladis Hoffman, "Early Childhood Experi­ ences and Women's Achievement Motives," Journal of Social Issues 28: 129-130. 25 administration and the factors which may be related to this decline are included. The need for further research is found in the second section. The particular contributions this study will make to an understanding of the problem are explained in the second section, as well. The purpose of this study is explained in section three. Several broad research questions are included in fourth section. The final hypotheses to be tested in this study and a defini­ tion of terms are provided in the fourth section, as well. An elaboration of the theory upon which this research is based is found in the fifth section. A review of the pertinent literature is presented in Chapter XI. Included as major categories are the fac­ tors most frequently cited as reasons for the decline of women in administration. These include: (1) studies com­ paring the capabilities of male and female principals; (2) studies investigating discrimination toward female principals by school superintendents, administration and school boards; (3) studies comparing the additional train­ ing and graduate degrees held by males and females in edu­ cation; (4) studies concerned with the career aspirations and motivations of women in education; and (5) studies focusing on the encouragement from other administrators toward women to enter the field. The implications of the literature and research reviewed in this chapter are sum­ marized and their relationship to this research is de­ scribed. 26 A description of the research design used in this study is found in Chapter III. three sections. The chapter is divided into The first section includes a discussion of methods used to investigate attitudes and a description of the use of attitude scales. Also included is an explana­ tion of the manner in which the instrument used in this particular study was developed. Methods used to establish validity and reliability for the instrument are explained. The second section of Chapter III is devoted to the method followed to select a sample population for study. The third section of this chapter concerns the statistical an­ alysis model to be used. A final list of the six hypoth­ eses and their corresponding null hypotheses concludes Chapter III. An analysis of the results is the focus of Chap­ ter IV. The six hypotheses are presented, in order, with accompanying tables and appropriate information. Specific information regarding the rejection or acceptance of each hypothesis is provided. A summary begins Chapter V, describing briefly the research undertaken in this study. Following this is a listing of the major findings or conclusions of the data analysis. These findings are integrated with the research theory in the next section of Chapter V, which is devoted to a discussion of that topic. suggestions for future research. A final section contains CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction Chapter II is divided into two major sections. Reviews of literature and research in five categories are found in the first section. The categories are: (1) com­ parisons of male and female capabilities as principals; (2) discrimination toward female principals; (3) additional training and graduate degrees held by males and females in education; (4) studies focusing on the career aspirations of women and their apparent lack of interest in adminis­ tration; and, (5) encouragement from other administrators toward men and women entering the administrative field. A final category provides information relative to the status of men and women principals in Michigan and a discussion of salary figures. The second section of Chapter II is devoted to a discussion of the implications of the research and litera­ ture reviewed in the first section, and their relationship to this particular research. A summary completes the chapter. 27 28 Literature Review Comparisons of Male and Female (jlapabilities as PrincipaXs Studies which compare male and female achievement levels begin long before the subjects reach adulthood. Considerable public school testing in academic achievement, for example, has been conducted for many years. From such research, several outcomes have been consistent over the years and across the country. at an earlier age than boys. Girls tend to learn to read They also score higher than boys on standardized achievement tests administered in the early school years. By the onset of adolescence, however, the trend has usually reversed. By high school, boys tend to score higher on achievement tests than do girls and they also tend to remain for more years of schooling than do girls. The number of males who enter college exceeds that for females and the numerical differences between the sexes grows even larger by the time graduate school is reached. Although there have been many studies focusing on the school achievement levels of males and females as students, there have been comparatively few studies measuring the performance of men and women as school administrators. The differences between the administrative styles of men and women principals was researched by Grobman and Hines (1956). They designed a study to sort out successful principals, based on the assumption that high frequency of the use of the democratic process was 29 desirable. The result was that women principals ranked significantly ahead of men as democratic leaders, at least as perceived by the teachers who worked for them. A similar finding was reported in another study by Wiles and Grobman (1955). Principals were asked to respond to a checklist of fifty-five key situations frequently Encountered by school principals. The researchers cate­ gorized the responses into the following types of leader­ ship styles: autocratic, demographic, and laissez-faire and concluded that women ranked significantly ahead of men as democratic principals. Similar results were reported by Gross and Trask (1964). The Gross and Trask study compared men and women elementary principals on a number of variables, such as personal background, time of career decision, educational values and reactions to specific managerial responsibili­ ties. The researchers hypothesized that women principals would induce more professional performance from the teachers in their schools than men. The hypothesis was upheld when an analysis showed that this was not a func­ tion of the principal's age or the staff's experience. Extending the hypothesis further, Gross and Trask predicted that in those schools where the teachers per­ formed in a more professional manner, the students would do better academically; therefore, schools run by women principals would produce more capable students. This prediction was upheld, as well, and the finding was 30 statistically sustained across socioeconomic levels and in all subclassifications of data by region, size of city, size of school, and mean age of staff. Although the researchers generalized from a population of 189 (98 men and 91 women), they felt confident in the major finding that women elementary principals gave a superior perfor­ mance relative to men. Other researchers have examined attitudes toward the administrative style of principals. In his research of the attitudes of education graduate students toward female and male principals, Milanovich (1966) found that an overwhelming majority of students indicated a preference for men principals, whether or not they had actually worked for principals of both sexes. Among the reasons given: . . . male principals were described as being more democratic, more sympathetic, more understanding, more pleasant, more congenial, more relaxes and more personally interested in their teachers. Many students further claimed that the men are not as critical, allow more freedom to teachers, do not supervise as much, do not get excited as easily and can be approached and influenced more easily. An equal number of students pictured women principals as being too autocratic, too demanding, too criti­ cal, too particular, too moody, too emotional and too "nosy." Moreover, they criticized the women for giving too much concern to petty matters, for supervising too much and for being too deeply involved in their work.l ^Anthony Milanovich, "Gentlemen Before Ladies?" New York State Education 54 (Spring 1966):18-19. 31 Contradictory findings were reported by Hoyle (1969). A group of teachers in this survey rated female and male principals equal in ability and similar in per­ sonal qualities. Moreover, women teachers preferred women principals more often than did men teachers. However, men teachers who had taught in schools administered by women were more favorable to women principals. The only men who disapproved of women principals were those who had taught only under men. The research does seem to indicate that women and men perform administrative duties with somewhat different styles. In an elaborate study, Hemphill et al. sampled 232 elementary principals. (1962) The researchers developed a complicated set of simulated materials and projective techniques dealing with a hypothetical school. The final strategy was to give principals an "in-basket" filled with a variety of memos and letters dealing with both routine and crisis situations. The principals were to make actual responses to these in-basket items. Addi­ tional instruments, such as tests of ability, interests and personality, were also given to the subjects. Finally, the opinions of teachers and superiors on the performance and ability of these principals were collected. The researchers used a scoring system for the projective techniques. Forty categories were developed and composite scores were calculated. Factor analysis was used to probe the relationship of the different variables 32 of the study. When principals were evaluated by teachers and superiors* both groups revealed somewhat negative responses toward the male principals and generally positive responses toward the female principals. There were spe­ cific categories in which women excelled as they dealt with the in-basket situations. Women were better at "exchanging information*" "maintaining organizational relationships*" and "responding to outsiders." Men were better at "com­ plying with suggestions made by others" and "analyzing the situation." When teachers rated the different categories* they placed more value on those in which the performance of women exceeded that of men. The researchers concluded that* in general, the differences between men and women in their performance on in-basket problems is that the women involved teachers* superiors and out­ siders in their work, while the men tended to make final decisions and take action without involving others.2 Others have searched the literature to determine the differences between the capabilities of men and women principals. According to the members of the Mew York State Commission on the Quality* Cost of Financing of Elementary and Secondary Education (reported in Lyon and Saario, 1973)s 2 John K. Hemphill et al., Administrative Perfor­ mance and Personality (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College* Columbia University, 1962), p. 333. 33 * • * nothing (in our studies) has convinced us that males are inherently superior to females as educa­ tional administrators and we view the de facto discrimination as totally unjustifiable.3 The research cited seems to indicate that there is little evidence to claim superiority for either men or women administrators. Schmuck concludes: . . . if achievement criteria were the primary factor in the selection of individuals to fill administrative positions, women would not be such a distinct minority as administrators.4 Discrimination Toward Female Principals Scientific data on the incidence and operation of deliberate job discrimination against women in education administration has been difficult to obtain. There are a few notable exceptions to this generalization, however. In a doctoral study on attitudes toward women as adminis­ trators, Taylor (1971) found that, all other things being equal, male superintendents were not likely to hire women as administrators. Half the school systems Taylor studied in Connecticut did not encourage women to train or apply for administrative positions. Analysis of the data in this 3 Catherine Dillon Lyon and Terry N. Saario, "Women in Public Education: Sexual Discrimination and Promotions." Phi Delta Kappan 55 (October 1973):120. 4 Patricia Ann Schmuck, "Sex Differentiation in Public School Administration," Wanted: More Women Series. Washington, D.C.: National Council of Administrative Women in Education, 1975, p. 54. 34 study revealed that the only factor which appeared to have any significance on the hiring process was that of sex. The other variables, such as age, type of position, length of experience, and si2e of school district, were not significant. Taylor also concluded that teachers were more favorably inclined toward women principals than were either superintendents or school board members. One of the studies which supports Taylor's work was conducted by Way (1976). This dissertation compared the background, career expectations, and aspirations of men and women public school administrators»-* A-tet-al- of 327 elementary and secondary principals and federal program specialists participated in the study. The data revealed that there were differences in the constraints on career progress as perceived by the respondents. A greater pro­ portion of male school administrators indicated lack of training, education, or experience as constraints. Sex discrimination was perceived as a career progress con­ straint by a greater proportion of female administrators. Some supervisors also feel that a kind of lockerroom comaraderie is essential to the proper functioning of an administrative "team." Whether or not this has any basis in fact, if a man thinks it is important, he will be reluctant to hire a woman who might not work well with "the boys."5 5 David Coursen, "Women and Minorities in Adminis­ tration," NAESP School Leadership Digest, Series No. 11 (1975), p . T Z 35 Other writers have described the way in which views of traditional women's roles affect thinking. In a posi­ tion paper sponsored by the Office of Education (DHEW) Niedermayer (1974) concludes: Patterns of discrimination are supported by a com­ plex of traditions; sexism in society is reflected in education, which, in turn, assures the continua­ tion of these patterns. Biased selections may be made not so much out of evil intentions as out of a belief that women want certain positions rather than others, out of a misguided desire to protect them from stresses that they are believed unwilling or unsuited to handle, and out of acceptance of many myths about a woman's proper place and role.6 Niedermayer also notes that men and women often share many of the stereotypes that affect the preferences of those who select administrators. Among the potent myths Niedermayer describes are: women are too emotional; they do not want to work for other women; they are too passive to be leaders; or conversely they become too aggressive and 'unfeminine' in positions of power.^ Niedermayer concludes: Marriage and child-bearing is central to the stereo­ typing of women. However, notions of roles and family patterns are changing. Fewer women are staying home, and some men are opting for a share of child-raising. Even more important, not all women marry; not all married women have children. Yet, individual choices and variations are ignored and are prejudiced because of class stereotype. Gretchen, Niedermayer, Women in Administrative Positions in Public Education: A Position Paper (Phila^ delphia, Pennsylvania: Recruitment Leadership and Training Institute, 1974), p. 24. ^Ibid., p. 25. 36 Stereotypes can also become self-fulfilling prophecies: some women themselves accept them as necessary. . . . There is no point in blaming people for their attitudes. Men and women share many of the stereotypes that affect the prefer­ ences of those who recruit, screen and hire administrators.8 Job discrimination against women in education administration has as its base the belief that women are not suitable for the demands of the position. Leadership in education has been sex-typed as a male occupation. Insight into the effects of sex-typing in the professions is provided by Theodore (1971). Those occupations in which males are concentrated tend to be more highly profession­ alized than those in which females are concentrated, and are therefore more prestigious. Theodore maintains that male and female professions are stratified on the occupa­ tional continuum according to how the sexes are ranked in society. She notes: The male and female professions have historical derivations in which the two sexes have been segregated according to certain characteristics ascribed by the culture to masculine and feminine roles and to the degree of importance attached to their central role functions.’ Theodore explains that in the early development of the professions physical strength, endurance and intellec­ tual superiority were considered essential characteristics 8Ibid., p. 26. g Athena Theodore, "The Professional Woman: Trends and Prospects" in The Professional Woman. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman Publishing Co., Inc., 1971, p. 4. 37 for the successful performance of the economic roles. Females were seldom allowed to attend training schools or to work outside the home in paid positions and males were able to keep the professions to themselves. The segregated male professions were seldom invaded by female individuals. In a similar manner, the female professions developed as logical extensions of the traditional role functions of females in society. These tended to be family tasks requiring nurturing, socializing, and helping. Most professions considered suitable for women had some over­ lapping functions, a fair measure of meniality and drudgery, and little financial reward as compared to male professions. Broverman et al. (1972) investigated sex-role stereotypes by designing a questionnaire which asked respondents to list all the characteristics, attributes, and behaviors on which they thought men and women differed. Approximately 100 men and women enrolled in three under­ graduate psychology classes supplied the data. All items which occurred twice on the list were included in a final questionnaire. Using this instrument, the researchers gathered responses from 599 men and 383 women, ages 17 to 60, married and single, with educational backgrounds ranging from elementary school to graduate school. Even though the current sex-role definition in American society appears more fluid than in previous decades, the researchers reported: 38 . . . our own findings to date confirm the existence of pervasive and persistent sex-role stereotypes.10 These stereotypes reflect the belief that men and masculine characteristics are more valued in this society than are women and female characteristics. The existing stereotypic differences between men and women are approved of and even idealized by large segments of American society. Broverman et al. add: Women are perceived as relatively less competent, less independent, less objective and less logical than men; men are perceived as lacking inter­ personal sensitivity, warmth and expressiveness in comparison to women. Moreover, stereotypically masculine traits are more often perceived to be desirable than are stereotypically feminine characteristics.11 Bern (1973) states that differential treatment of the sexes starts as early as two days of age: mothers touch, speak and hover more over girl infants than they do boys. The differential treatment continues: boys are encouraged to be aggressive, competitive, and independent, whereas girls continue to be rewarded, especially by their fathers, for being passive and dependent. Little boys climb trees and get dirty; little girls are expected to stay in the yard and keep clean. The sexes are usually given different kinds of toys and their play behavior is different. *^Inge Broverman et al., MSex Role Stereotypes: A Current Appraisal," Journal of Social Issues 28 (February 1972}:64. 11Ibid., p. 75. 39 As children grow older, a different kind of sexrole training is introduced. Boys are encouraged to take more of an interest in math and science but girls get a very different kind of encouragement. Bern concludes: Socialization of the American male has closed off certain options for him, too. Men are discouraged from developing certain desirable traits such as tenderness and sensitivity just as surely as women are discouraged from being assertive and "too bright."12 While it is true that many of these socialization and child-raising practices have been openly questioned in the 1970s, it is also a fact that women who now qualify for education administration were similar to those described above. raised under conditions Bern acknowledges: It is frequently argued that a 21 year old woman is perfectly free to choose a career if she cares to do so. No one is standing in her way. But this argument conveniently overlooks the fact that our society has spent 20 long years carefully marking the woman's ballot for her. . . . Society has controlled not her alternatives but her motivation to c h o o s e . H Bern notes the passage of significant legislation such as the Equal Rights Amendment, approved by both houses of Congress in 1972. However, she cautions, Even if all discrimination were to end tomorrow, nothing very drastic would change. . . . Job discrimination does not, by itself, help us to 12 Sandra L. Bern, Training the Woman to Know Her Place: The Social Antecedents of'women in the World o^ Work (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania state Depart­ ment of Education, Bureau of Pupil Personnel Services, 1973), p. 8. 13Ibid., p. 11. 40 understand why so many women "choose" to be secre­ taries or nurses rather than executives or physicians. . . . Discrimination frustrates choices already made; something more pernicious perverts the motivation to choose.14 Bern adds that outcomes will not necessarily be equal once sex-role stereotyping and discrimination are eliminated. There will probably not be an equal number of men and women found in each and every occupation. What will occur, she envisions, is the widest possible variation in outcomes, reflecting the wide range of individual differences among people, regardless of their sex. Additional Training and Advanced Degrees in feducation' Administra­ tion There is little doubt that men hold more graduate degrees in education administration than do women. Shirley McCune (1975) reports that women hold 20 percent of all the master's degrees and only 8.5 percent of the 15 doctorates in education administration. She concludes that the figures suggest the existence of sex discrimina­ tion in the education profession and at the university level where necessary training occurs. Data collected by the National Center for Education Statistics reveal that men outnumber women as enrollees in 14Ibid., p. 4. ^ S h i r l e y McCune, "Introduction," in Why Aren't Women Administering Our Schools? by Suzanne Howard, Wanted: More Women Series (Washington, D.C.: National Council of Administrative Women in Education, 1975). 41 education administration at the graduate level. Aggregate U.S. data, taken in the fall of 1973, show that a total of 28,648 individuals were enrolled in education administra­ tion graduate courses. Table 2.1 shows that of those students enrolled in the first year of the graduate program, 26 percent were women. At the second year of the graduate program, women numbered only 22 percent. Table 2.1.— Students Enrolled for Advanced Degrees in Education Administration, by Level of Enrollment, Sex of Student , Attendance Status-Aggregate U.S. Fall 1973.* Full Time Part Time Totals 2,217 9,733 11,956 (74%) 676 3,532 4,208 (26%) 2,545 7,151 9,696 (78%) 617 2,177 2,794 (22%) First Year Students Men Women Second Year Students Men Women *Taken from Curtis 0. Baker and Agnes Wells, National Center for Education Statistics, Students Enrolled for Advanced Degrees Fall 1973 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974), pp. 24, 55, and 81. Men also outnumber women in actual degrees con­ ferred in education administration. Table 2.2 reflects the number of Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctor's degrees given in 1974-/5. During that year, women earned 26 percent of Table 2.2.— Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctor's Degrees in Education Administration Conferred in Institutions of Higher Education— Aggregate U.S., 1974-75.* Bachelor's Degrees Requiring 4 or 5 Years Total Men Women 7 2 5 (100%) (29%) (71%) n , Master s Degrees Total Doctor's Degrees (Ph.D., Ed.D *, etc.) Men Women Total Men Women 10,604 7,873 2,731 1,315 1,094 221 (100%) (74%) (26%) (100%) (83%) (17%) ♦Taken from Curtis 0. Baker and Agnes Hells, National Center for Education Statistics, Earned Degrees Conferred 1974-75 Summary Data (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977), pp. 159-61. 43 the Master's Degrees and 17 percent of the Doctor's Degrees in education administration. Enrollment in education administration graduate courses at Michigan State University for spring term, 1978, follow:16 Master's Degree males 83 (65%) Doctor's Degree females males females 45 (35%) 62 (82%) 14 (18%) While men outnumber women at both the master's and doctor's level, women are better represented at the master's level (35%). The enrollment in education administration at Michigan State University can be compared to total College of Education figures for spring term, 1973, which follow: Master's Degree males 537 (39%) females 827 (61%) Doctor's Degree males 415 (58%) females 299 (42%) Women outnumber men at the master's level when the total enrollment for the college of education is considered. At the doctor's level, however, men again represent the majority. 16Data provided by Office of Graduate Affairs, College of Education, Michigan State University, May 1978. 44 Howard (1975) suggests that advanced degrees may be a key to administrative appointments. Some writers suggest that men are favored as applicants into graduate programs. Others argue that fewer women apply for and complete graduate programs in education administration. For whatever reasons, there are fewer women who show an interest in this advanced work. In one panel discussion (Broadhead et al., 1966) a member asked: What opportunities does the woman enrolled in a university class in education administration have when she completes a master's degree program? Will the fact that she is a woman automatically eliminate her from consideration for administra­ tive employment? What does reality tell her about the mathematical odds she f a c e s ? 1 7 Lyon and Saario (1973) contend that men have two alternative routes to administrative positions. The first route involves remaining in a school system and gradually advancing through the ranks. For women, this route poses a dilemma, as Dale (1973) describes it: Personal observations by many women seem to suggest that hard work and dedication by men educators result in promotions, recognition and dollars. For women, the reward is often a certificate for faith­ ful service.1® 17 Herbert Rudman, quoted in a panel discussion in Broadhead et al., "Going the Way of the Buffalo?" The National Elementary Principal 45 (Hay 1966):11. 18 Charlene Dale, "Women Are Still Hissing Persons in Administrative and Supervisory Jobs," Educational Leadership 31 (February 1973):125. 45 Since men are more likely to be chosen to advance through the ranks via route one, only the second route remains as a reasonable alternative to women. The second route requires a graduate degree but makes possible a return to the district at a higher entry point. Lyon and Saario state that this route is not successfully attracting women. The authors note that women are not even moderately well-represented in education administration graduate pro­ grams or in financial aid programs. Lack of recruitment for women in university graduate programs is cited by the authors as a contributing factor. Career Aspirations of Women and Their Apparent Lack or interest in Administration There is comparatively little empirical research exploring the apparent lack of interest in women toward administration. Schmuck (1975) has written on the topic of the search for administrative positions. She notes that most female administrators have not sought their positionsy they were persuaded to take them. Furthermore, she adds, when offered a position with responsibility and influence, many women . . . betrayed their beliefs in their own inferi­ ority: they said, "Who, me?"*9 19 Patricia Ann Schmuck, "Sex Differentiation in Public School Administration," Wanted: More Women Series (Washington, D.C.: National Council of Administrative Women in Education, 1975), p. 45. 46 Moreover, Schmuck suggests that most women do not formulate their career plans very well. Many women believe in a vague way that they will do something different "some­ day," but they do not refine their goals further. In contrast, Schmuck believes, men are encouraged, expected, and even pressured to be upwardly mobile and professionally successful. Women do not have the same expectations and many do not break away from the conformity mold, she concludes. Other researchers have turned their attention to the apparent lack of interest in females to declare them­ selves as administrative candidates. Niedermayer (1974) notes that school systems face the difficulty of distin­ guishing between female teachers who wish to make teaching their final goal and those individuals who prepare them­ selves for administrative work and seek the challenge of additional responsibilities. Horner's work may suggest an explanation for the failure of women and declare themselves as candidates. Horner (1968) investigated the differences between young adult males and females in their motivation to achieve in both competitive and non-competitive situations. Horner concluded that women achieved at high levels in non­ competitive situations but dropped in performance once competitive elements were introduced. This was especially true when females were competing against males. The performance of males did not change significantly between 47 competitive and non-competitive situations. Horner researched the feelings of women in competitive situations and concluded that women have a motive to avoid or fear success. The women frequently feared a loss of femininity, expressed a concern about social rejection (particularly by male peers) and had anxiety about becoming unpopular, unmarriageable, or lonely if they were too successful. Horner conceived this motive as a barrier to female achievement in high status careers. One study which supports H o m e r ' s research was conducted by Gilmore (1975). In her study of achievement in womenf she found that age was a significant factor. Gilmore used a questionnaire and projective data from women whose ages ranged from 18 to 50 years to study the relationships of need achievement and motives to avoid success. The results showed that the level of need achievement was significantly related to chronological age. The older the woman, the less importance she gave to sex-role standards of achievement and the less she feared success. In addition, college educated women were found to have higher levels of need achievement than non-college educated women. Women of upper and upper-middle class status also showed more fear of success than did women of middle and lower class status. Niedermayer maintains that interest cannot be measured solely on the number of female candidates who apply for administrative positions. What she calls a 48 "chilling effect" may be in operation; that is, a foregone conclusion by potential women aspirants that it is useless to apply because the position will be given to a male. Even if it is true that a "chilling effect" does discourage many potential female candidates from adminis­ tration, and given that women generally avoid maledominated occupations, it is still a fact that some indi­ viduals do seek careers in fields where females are the exception. This has attracted the interest of researchers. Trigg and Perlman (1974) investigated social influences on woman's career choices. Data were collected via mailed questionnaires from college applicants in two career fields: traditional (nursing and medical rehabilitation) and non-traditional (medical and dental). Analysis of the results indicated that, as compared to women entering a traditional field, women entering a non-traditional field: (1) considered being married and having children less important; (2) perceived non-traditional careers as compatible with the satisfaction of social and marital needs; and, (3) had a boyfriend who was supportive and tolerant of a non-traditional career. Trigg and Perlman concluded that the attitudes of significant others toward various careers might be as important as specific indivi­ duals who had served as role models to the women. 49 Encouragement from Other Adminis­ trators Toward Men and Women Entering the Administrative FleTd' ..... .............. What about differences between men and women with regard to the "in-house" encouragement for their entry into administration? Howard (1973) notes that administrators often rely.on informal, social modes to recruit people. She suggests that this places women at a disadvantage with men in terms of the kinds of informal contacts which may be necessary to insure advancement and promotion. Howard believes that women are unable to take advantage of the "buddy system" since so few other influential women are available to act as "buddies." Schmuck (1975) elaborates on this point. She describes the way in which men are groomed for administra­ tive positions: Advice from an "old hand" is one of the most impor­ tant means of socialization in any profession; it is here that the aspirants learn the common language and learn the off-the-cuff solutions to problems. Women are intentionally or unintentionally excluded from this informal socialization process. It is primarily the males who are the school administra­ tors and the informal associations tend to be with other males.20 When school district personnel anticipate an administrative opening, it is natural for them to consider potential candidates from within the district. 20 The male Schmuck, "Sex Differentiation in Public School Administration,11 p. 121. 50 superintendent and the other administrators look for recruits: those teachers who emerge as leaders from among the entire group of teachers. Schmuck believes that men may not consciously think about suggesting a female for a position because there are so many male role models; and women teachers do not entertain the idea of becoming an administrator because they do not have female role models to emulate. Epstein (1971) agrees that entry into the upper echelons of many professions is most commonly gained through the protege or mentor system. The system operates both to train personnel for certain specialties and to assure the continuation of leadership. Epstein particu­ larly notes the interplay between the "master" and the "apprentice" as part of the protege system. At certain levels in the professions, such a relationship and the "in" that it represents are necessary in order for the newcomer to learn the job. However, the close relationship between sponsorprotege, so necessary to the eventual success of the novice, may be resented by others. The relationship may be particularly restrictive to female advancement. Noting that most executive positions are held by men, Epstein suggests that the sponsor may have mixed feelings about accepting a woman as protege. Although the professional man might not object to a female assistant, he may not prefer her as a candidate. Other role partners— husband, 51 father, and children— *may have diffident and suspicious feelings about the relationship between the sponsor and the protege. The factors dealing with promotion were studied and reported by Valverde (1974). Mis research was con­ fined to the initial promotion from teacher to principal, in which a social system of higher status (school adminis­ trators) selected new members status social system. (teachers) from a lower Valverde collected data by open- ended interviews and data analysis. His study clarified how the school organization uses socialization in the sponsor/protege practice of a succession. Valverde notes that the sponsor not only models the norms for the protege but also attempts to channel the protege's informal learning to maximize group allegiance. The sponsor frequently provides an "administrator's per­ spective" to the aspirant and represents the norms and values of administration to the novice. Valverde describes the functions of the sponsor: sanctions: The sponsor must ratify the protege through the school district's formal procedures. These consist of references, written evalua­ tions and recommendations. advice: The sponsor provides counsel to the protege while training is taking place. protection: The sponsor shields the protege. This is preventative help so that the initiate does not antagonize superiors. exposure: The sponsor gives training experiences to the protege so that he gets visibility in various leadership roles. 52 A sequence of events occurs in the sponsor/protege relationship. date. First, the sponsor spots a potential candi­ This step is called identification. Zt is both conscious and subconscious, since the sponsor tends to look for people who resemble his own personal character­ istics, professional attitude and behavior. Next comes the announcement: the teacher must declare an interest in administration. This can be accomplished by a simple verbal announcement or the volunteering for extra assign­ ments. The third event, adoption, is always initiated by the sponsor in informal conversation. There is an informal understanding between the sponsor and the candidate that the sponsor will support the candidate. Not all candidates are sponsored, even when they have declared their candidacy. Sponsors usually confine their support to one or two candidates in a one-to-two year period. The fourth step, training, enables the candidates to learn about administration through demonstration lessons, teacher workshops, setting up schedules and com­ mittee leadership. The final stage, advancement, is culminated by transfer of the candidate to another school, a transfer to a special administrative training school (such as found in large school districts) or to a district consulting job. Valverde notes that if minorities and women do not overtly announce their candidacy, sponsorship is not likely to develop. He emphasizes that "getting the 53 attention of the superior" is necessary. Simply expressing interest in wanting to become an administrator is not enough. Valverde notes that women and minorities are rarely sponsored by either men or women principals. Cer­ tain personal qualities stereotypic of women were perceived by the sponsors in Valverde's study as reasons for so few women being selected as proteges: women are too emotional; the job is too demanding physically; and, women don't have the necessary drive. Some understanding of the reasoning for the attitude of the sponsors is explained by the anticipated success of the protege. Sponsorship hinges on a candidates probability of success. The sponsor needs reassurance that the protege will make it successfully as an administrator. The protege must be an acceptable candidate, not only to the sponsor, but to other adminis­ trators, as well. Sponsors take certain pride in the eventual placement of their proteges. If a protege cannot be placed, the belief is that the sponsor, as well as the protege, has suffered in credibility. As a result of his study, Valverde concludes that women place themselves at a disadvantage by assuming that performing their assigned duties extremely well is sufficient evidence for being identified as a potential administrator. They must openly seek promotion to administration and be perceived as aspiring. Women are more likely to assume they will be spotted and invited into administrative ranks. 54 Valverde also surmises that sponsors and other significant administrators have the misconception that women have personal and professional disabilities. fore , sponsors do not identify women for selection. There­ This results in more training and harder requirements for women. An unhappy conclusion can occur: . . . if numerous obstacles are placed for jumping it is not difficult to comprehend why an office seeker will ultimately lose the necessary drive to continue the climb.21 Women as Education Administrators in Michigan In addition to information and data contained in the literature, data regarding the status of women public school administrators were sought. Notable was the lack of such data from sources one might reasonably expect to collect or organize such information. Department of Education, The Michigan for example, was unable to pro­ vide extensive comparative data on males and females with regard to either salaries or job assignments. Although there were no state summaries available, the Department of Education does provide individual school district informa­ tion relative to job assignment by sex and salary by sex. 21 Leonard A. Valverde, Succession Socialization: Its Influence on School Administrative Candidates and Its Implication to the Exclusion of Minorities for Administ'raltion, Final Report (Washington, D.C.: National Institute oFlSducation (DHEW), 1974), p. 145. 55 A sample school district summary is reflected in Tables 2.3 and 2.4. It is difficult to extend the information contained in Tables 2.3 and 2.4 to make judgments about sex and salary. Although Table 2.3 reveals that two females and two males are employed as elementary principals by this particular school district# it is impossible to determine the exact salaries of those individuals. The only infor­ mation provided in Table 2.4 is mean salary by sex and mean salary by district. Without additional information# it is difficult to judge whether the differences are non­ discriminating to women# that is, a reflection of such things as differences in years of experience# advance degrees held# number of teachers supervised# number of weeks worked and quality of job performance; or discrimin­ ating# that is# a difference explained by sex and no other variable. Data were also taken from tables contained in a 1975-1976 Michigan Elementary Principal Association salary summary. The information shows that of the 2#106 elementary principals included in the salary survey# 1,678 (79.6%) were male and 428 (20.3%) were female (see Table 3.5). If the population included in the survey is a representative sample of the entire population of elemen­ tary principals in Michigan# then the percentages are quite consistent with national figures cited in Chapter I. 56 Table 2.3.— Michigan Department of Education Professional Personnel Job Assignment by Sex, 1975-76 (Okemos Public Schools).* Male Female Total Assignment N % 1 100 1 1 100 1 Employed Personnel 1 100 1 Research Principal, Secondary 2 100 2 Principal, Elementary 2 50 2 50 4 Asst. Principal, Sec. 2 66.7 1 33. 3 3 Superintendent N % Assistant Superintendent Finance or Business Instruction Plant and Facilities Asst. Principal, Elem. Consultant, Special Area Consultant, Elementary Consultant, Secondary Coordinator, Sub. Area Supervisor, Elementary Supervisor, Secondary Spec. Education Director 1 100 1 1 100 1 Consult. St.-Fed. Prog. Community Sch. Director Director, Voc. Education Director, Data Processing Director, Transportation Director, Adult Education Supervisor, Spec. Educ. Totals 11 78. 6% 3 21.4% 14 *From micro-fiche provided by the Michigan Depart­ ment of Education. Each public school district is summarized in a similar manner. 57 Table 2.4.— Michigan Department of Education Professional Personnel Salary Level by Sex, 1976-77 (Okemos Public Schools).* Administrators Salary Level Male Female N Total % N % 14,000-15,999 16,000-17,999 2 100 18,000-19,999 3 75 1 25 4 20,000-21,999 1 33.3 2 66.7 3 22,000-23,999 1 100 1 24,000-25,999 2 100 2 26,000-27,999 1 100 1 1 100 1 Less than 5,000 8,000-9,999 10,000-11,999 12,000-13,999 2 28,000-29,999 30,000-34,999 35,000-39,999 40,000-44,999 45,000-49,999 50,000+ Totals Mean Salary 11 22 ,258 78.6 3 20,569 21.4 14 21,896 *From micro-fiche provided by the Michigan Depart­ ment of Education. Each public school district is summarized in a similar manner. However, there is no further analysis of the data. Nor is there any state-wide summary of salary by sex. 58 Very little state-wide analysis on comparative salaries is available, with an exception in the cases o£ sex and age summaries. Table 2.5 contains this summary, but it would be meaningless to analyze this summary data further. Sex may or may not be a contributing factor to salary earned. Until other variables, such as those suggested as cautions about Tables 2.3 and 2.4, can be held constant, principals' further comparisons between male and female salaries would produce questionable results. Taylor (1972) reports that the national average salary for approximately 80,000 male school administrators in 1972 was $13,625 but female administrators received an 22 average of almost $5,000 less. No analysis was conducted to determine the relationship of variables other than sex, however. Implications of the Literature Much of the literature reviewed in the previous section reflects sex-role differences between men and women. It seems likely that the attitudes and prejudices with which sex-roles are defined in this society are the outcomes of several influences. They include: (1) child­ hood training, with special emphasis one parental 22 Suzanne S. Taylor, "Educational Leadership: A Male Domain?" Phi Delta Kappan 2 (October 1972):124-28. 59 Table 2.5.— State of Michigan Elementary Principal Salaries by Sex, 1975-76.* Male Female Salaries Total N % N % 27,500 + over 92 73.0 34 26.9 126 25,500-27,499 200 82.3 43 17.7 243 23,500-25,499 379 79.5 98 20.5 477 21,500-23,499 306 77.9 87 22.1 393 19,500-21,499 308 83.2 62 16.8 370 17,500-19,409 226 76.1 71 23.9 297 15,500-17,499 122 84.1 23 15.9 145 13,500-15,499 35 85.4 6 14.6 41 13,499 + under 10 71.4 4 28.6 14 Totals 1678 79.6% 428 20. 3% *Data taken from tables in the 1975-1976 Salary Analysis {East Lansing, Michigan: Professional Welfare Commission of the Michigan Association of Elementary School Principals, 1976). 2106 60 expectations, in which different messages are given to male and female offspring; (2) the values of society-at-large, where males have been the traditional leaders and pro­ tectors of the family and nation, while women support and nurture this effort; (3) the belief that serious careers and the traditional role of wife and mother must be incompatible; and, (4) the notion that those exceptional women who do manage to become leaders somehow risk a loss of femininity. These have as their origin the theory described in Chapter I. Although the study of women as education adminis­ trators has attracted attention only recently and although there is not yet a great abundance of empirical research on this topic, two major implications seem clear. First, contemporary social/political movements have focused upon societal values and expectations with regard to sex-roles and the function of women in society. Although there has been considerable critical inspection of sex roles and some modification of traditional expectations of both sexes in the 1970s, there is evidence that expectations for men and women differ, and the basic characteristics ascribed to men and women are different, as well. No matter what the population under study, the research overwhelmingly con­ firms that different qualities are ascribed to men and women. The effect of those qualities on school leadership, and the sex preferred in a leader because of those qualities, varies within the literature. With just one 61 exception in all the studies reviewed, the sexes are viewed differently in terms of leadership style, personal characteristics and performance effectiveness. Apparently the variations between the sexes, rather than differences between individuals, sex unspecified, is believed by most people. Second, the perceived differences between men and women are held and perpetuated not only by men but by women, as well. Further, a woman apparently believes in the disparity between the sexes not only as it applies to other women when compared to men, but to herself. When women are taught over the years in ways both explicit and subtle that men are more suited for certain roles, they may accept that such differences not only exist but are "fitting." It is a logical and rational sequence: given, men and women have different characteristics; given, men have characteristics more suited to leadership; given, women are not men; therefore, women do not have the characteristics suited to leadership. The net effect, if a woman regards herself as typical, is likely to be a basic acceptance that only men possess leadership qualities. Believing she lacks such qualities, the woman may not develop the aspirations and expectations for herself in leadership roles that are more evident in men. The question of aspirations is central to this project. The differences, if any, in regard to aspirations 62 of men and women principals will help explain the disparity in numbers, not only at the building principalship level, but in higher administrative positions, as well. Both original career goals and future career plans are measured in this study. This project also answers several other questions directly related to aspirations, that is, how men and women actually fulfill their career goals. Early research suggests that women not only seem to hold lower aspirations than do men, they also appear to be less certain about the "rules" of being further promoted. One significant piece of literature reported earlier showed that women presently serving as school administrators frequently had been asked to apply for the position they held. Personal ambition and aspirations apparently had little influence on their appointment; rather, it was recognition by others that the individual possessed the necessary qualities of leadership. This factor is crucial, for the one consistent element in every study on the topic of succession or promotion to the principalship was the announcement of candidacy. Apparently men understand this very well, but it is less certain that women appreciate the importance of asserting interest in promotion. This project measures the extent to which men and women think it is important to announce candidacy for further promotion. Closely related to aspirations and the announcement of candidacy is the support of other administrators. It 63 seems clear that only the most persistent o£ individuals would continue expressing interest in promotion without some peer encouragement. Such encouragement may be given routinely to competent male principals, since, (1) it is not unreasonable to expect men to aspire for higher posi­ tions, and (2) the peers giving the encouragement are most likely to be other males, given the present sex ratio. However, a woman may not experience the same kind of support, even though she is equally competent. Her interest in promotion, if it is announced, may seem such a contradiction to sex-role standards as to make peers uncertain about offering support. If her interest in promotion is unannounced, it is likely that peers will conclude there is no further aspiration. This project provides information about the perceptions of men and women principals regarding the support of others toward career goals. Significant support from one colleague, especially one older and in a position equal to or exceeding the aspirant in status, can indicate the presence of a mentor or sponsor. Although research consistently stresses the value of a sponsor/protege relationship, it has not been investigated with principals as the population. This project furnishes information about the past and present influence of mentors or sponsors and the extent to which they have assisted in the promotion of men and women principals to their present positions. 64 The use of social occasions as useful tools in promotion efforts is also investigated in this project. It has been suggested that informal social occasions help by allowing the candidate the chance to become socialized into the norm of the higher status group. The literature is not empirical in nature/ however/ and little is known about this topic. One final arear that of salaries/ is included for investigation. While statistics reveal that men are typically paid more money than women/ no other research has been conducted to determine what effect the efforts of the individual principal may have on a final salary figure. The population for study was deliberately selected from those school districts in which/ according to the most recent data available/ salaries were determined on some kind of "individual" basis. Only in such situations would it be possible for the principal to influence the amount of salary. This project provides information about the incidence of past contacts between the principal and the superintendent on the topic of salaries, the attitudes of principals toward those contacts, and their plans for future contacts. Summary The review of literature and research formed the first section of this chapter. A summary of the major 65 findings is organi2ed according to the headings used in the first section. Comparisons of Male and Female Capabilities: Several studies measured the leadership styles of men and women principals and the reaction of teachers to those styles. Research shows that men and women may function with quite different styles. In most instances, women tend to score higher as democratic leaders. There is no consistent agreement as to the reaction of teachers toward the different styles. In some studies, teachers indicate a preference for male leaders; in other studies, a prefer­ ence for females is documented. Only one study attempted to relate leadership style to student academic outcomes. Women were favored but the study has not been duplicated. Discrimination Toward Female Principals: Research shows that prejudice may exist toward female principals. Both superintendents and school board members are biased in favor of males. Women principals cite prejudice as a major factor constraining their career advancement; men did not cite this as a factor. Certain myths surround women and they tend to be judged by standards different from those for males. men and women. Sex-role stereotypes exist for both However, the traits ascribed to males are perceived as more desirable. Additional Training and Advanced Degrees: Statistics confirm the assertion that women hold fewer graduate degrees in education administration than do men. 66 Men not only account for a higher percentage of enrollees at the graduate level, they are granted more degrees, also. Researchers point out the advantage an advance degree pro­ vides to a candidate; nevertheless, women are not wellrepresented in graduate programs. Career Aspirations and Interest in Administration; Although there is not an abundance of literature on the topic of aspirations, it appears that women do not formu­ late career plans and strive for promotions as much as men. In addition, women may not inform their school districts of their interest in administration. The apparent lack of interest in women to compete for administrative positions may be explained by a need to avoid success. Other researchers blame the lack of interest on the realization by women that positions will automatically be filled by men. Encouragement from Administration: It is suggested in the literature that women teachers may not benefit from the informal contacts and associations with administrators that may lead to eventual promotion. Male administrators may automatically choose male teachers to groom for openings. Few men or women administrators seem to choose women as proteges, one of the most effective of all relationships leading to administrative placement. Women may also depend on others to notice their talents and to promote them to administration. about seeking advancement. Men tend to be assertive 67 Women as Education Administrators In Michigan: Statistical data on salary and positions held by sex in the state of Michigan were included in the final portion of the first section. Very few state summaries are avail­ able; individual school district summaries are provided by the State Department of Education. The percentage of men and women serving as principals in Michigan is com­ parable to national figures. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The methods of research used to complete this study will be described in three major sections in this chapter. First, the procedures used in development of an attitudinal scale will be detailed. These procedures involve (1) devel­ oping statements for each of six hypotheses; and, (2) estab­ lishing a measure of test validity and reliability for the instrument. Second, the techniques utilized in selection of a sample of Michigan's elementary principals will be explained. The way in which the data was gathered will be described. Third, the statistical models used to analyze the data will be explained. A statement of the hypotheses de­ veloped for this study concludes the chapter. Developing the Test Instrument Approaches and Assumptions There are three major approaches to the investiga­ tion of attitudes. In some research, the observance of overt behavior may be the most appropriate method. In others, direct questioning of attitudes held about a given topic can be used to gather information. 68 However, neither 69 the method of direct questioning nor the observation of behavior are appropriate to this study. Both are inconven­ ient as methods to measure large groups of people. Few researchers have the time and facilities to note in detail the behavior of all the individuals identified as the popu­ lation of interest. Further, both methods lack a means of assessing the degree of affect or feeling individuals may hold. Instead, both methods yield somewhat crude classifi­ cations of attitudes. Interest in a convenient measure of attitudes led to the development of the third approach, attitude scales. Attitude scales can be used with large groups and they pro­ vide an assessment of the degree of affect held by indivi­ duals . Thurstone^ was a pioneer in the development of psy­ chological scaling methods and his definition of attitudes survives today: "Attitudes are the degree of positive or negative affect associated with some psychological object." Psychological object can mean any symbol, phrase, slogan, person, institution, ideal or idea toward which people can differ with respect to positive or negative affect. The ^L.L. Thurstone and E.J. Chave, The Measurement of Attitude, Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1929. 2 L.L. Thurstone, "Comment," American Journal of Sociology 52 (1946): 39-50. 2 70 terms "affect" and "feelings" are similar in meaning and are often used interchangably in the literature. An attitude scale consists of a number of items that have been edited or selected according to certain criteria. The items included in the attitude scale are called statements. A statement can be anything that is said about a psychological object. Thurstone reasoned that an individual who has as­ sociated positive affect or feeling with some psychological object is said to like that object or to have a favorable attitude toward the object. In contrast, an individual who has associated negative feelings with the same psychological object is said to dislike that object or to have an unfav­ orable attitude toward the object. One of the major assump­ tions in the construction of attitude scales is that there will be some differences in the belief and the disbelief systems of those with favorable attitudes and those with unfavorable attitudes toward some psychological object. Beliefs can be defined as all statements relating to a psy­ chological object that a persons agrees with or accepts. Disbelief means all statements about the object that a per­ son disagrees with or rejects. There is also a third group of statements that a person may neither accept nor reject; these are statements about which a person is undecided, doubtful or neutral. 71 The set of statements are accompanied by a Likerttype scale reflecting a psychological continuum from least to most favorable of equal intervals. It is assumed that the agree and disagree responses made by a person are a function of the degree of affect associated with the psy­ chological object identified in the statement. Development of Statements An attitude scale was devised to gather information for this research. In order to develop statements for the study, each hypothesis was examined to note the elements central to the relationships stated in the hypothesis. Several statements were drafted and revised for each hypoth­ esis. Factual statements were discarded, since they do not measure attitude. Statements that appeared ambiguous were also eliminated. Finally, four or five statements that appeared to be the most appropriate for each hypothesis were chosen for in­ clusion in a validity check. A total of five hypotheses and twenty-three statements were included in the trial instru­ ments of validation purposes. Validation of Statements Researchers who investigate attitudes often find it necessary to invent indirect means to measure psychological properties. One of the necessary characteristics of any test, including attitudinal rating scales, is the validity of the instrument. One common definition of validity is 72 that a valid test or instrument measures what it is in3 tended to measure. Without a measure of validity and some reassurance of what is being measured results would be doubtful. There is no single measure of validity appropriate to all instruments. As many as four major types of valid­ ity have been identified by a joint committee of the American Psychological Association, the American Educational Research Association and the National Council on Measure4 ments Used in Education: and construct. predictive, concurrent, content, Predictive and concurrent validation are very similar; they differ only in time dimension. Both are characterized by prediction to an outside criterion and by checking a measurement against some outcome, either now or in the future. Construct validation is concerned with the theory behind a test, theoretical constructs and empirical testing of the hypothesized relations. Content validation is the representativeness or adequacy of the substance of an in­ strument. Content validation answers whether or not the test content is representative of the universe of content 3 Fred Herlinger. Foundations of Behavioral Research, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964, 444. 4 "Technical Recommendations for Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Techniques," Psychological Bulletin 51 (1954) Supplement, 201-238. of the property being measured. Any property has a theo­ retical universe of content, consisting of all that might be said or observed about the property. Theoretically, an ideal test high in content valid­ ity would contain a random sample of this universe. In reality, precise content validity is difficult to confirm. Practically, however, it is possible to obtain a reasonable degree of content validity by systematic study. Experts or other "competent" judges study each item for its relevance to the property being measured. Specific directions for making judgments are provided to the judges and a method for pooling independent judgments is used. Content validation for the trial instrument was selected as the appropriate measure in this research. Validity was established for the statements through use of a panel of five judges with expertise in education, educa­ tion administration, and testing and measurement (Appendix C). Initial contact with each judge described the process to be used. A packet of information (Appendix D) was mailed to each panel member. Each packet contained a cover letter and written instructions; a statement of each hypothesis and brief back­ ground information; a definition of terms used in the hy­ potheses; twenty-three proposed statements; and a rating form. Judges were to compare the elements of each hypothe­ sis to the proposed statements, rating each statement as 74 "appropriate" or "inappropriate" to the hypothesis for which it was designed. Validity was established for twenty-two of the ori­ ginal twenty-three statements by using the classifications made by the judges on the rating forms. Validity was de­ fined as agreement by four of the five judges as to the appropriateness of each item; items on which at least four judges could not agree were discarded. Several additional statements were suggested by judges for consideration. statements. These were added to the original One additional hypothesis was created, as well, following suggestions from validation judges. This became hypothesis six; several statements designed to measure the new hypothesis were generated by the researcher in the same manner as the original twenty-three statements. Additional demographic questions were added to the instrument and some renumbering of the original statements resulted in a first draft instrument of sixty-three separate items. Reliability of Instrument The term reliability has been used to describe the consistency or dependability of a test instrument. Origi­ nally, reliability was defined as the extent to which two applications of the same instrument or of very similar in­ struments under comparable conditions produce the same results. 75 There are various reliability operations which re­ flect the gradual development and differences in the context in which the idea of reliability has been used. Concern with reliability began during a time in which ability or achievement tests were assumed to measure relatively fixed characteristics. As instruments were developed to measure more dynamic characteristics, such as attitudes, it was recognized that (1) the characteristic the instrument was designed to measure might change over time; and that (2) other characteristics in addition to the one intended for measurement could influence the instrument. The three aspects of reliability that have been used most frequently are stability, equivalence and homoC geneity; each aspect involves the use of different methods. Stability is determined on the basis of the consistency of measures on repeated applications. Test-retest procedures are frequently used to estimate the stability of a measure. Fluctuations and inconsistencies can be due to genuine change or to unreliability of the measuring instrument. A stability coefficient indicates the test’s ability to re­ flect relatively enduring differences among individuals in those characteristics that affect the measure. Equivalence concerns the extent to which different researchers using the same instrument measure the same 5 Claire Selltz et al, Research Methods in Social Relations, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 19 76, 182-191. 76 the same individuals at the same time - or different instru­ ments used by the same investigator on the same individuals at the same time - yield consistent results. Often alter­ nate forms of a test are administered at the same time to provide equivalence information. Homogeneity is determined by internal analysis of responses to items within a single test. Homogeneity cen­ ters on the internal consistencies of a measure. when there is no plan for repeated measurement. It is used An original method used to compute homogeneity was known as equivalent halves. Each "half" of a test was typically formed by as­ signing odd-numbered questions to one half and even-numbered questions to the other half. The correlation between scores on the two parts was considered an estimate of the equiva­ lence coefficient for half the test. Additional computation provided an estimate of the coefficient for the whole test. An interest in the comparison of random halves, rather than equivalent halves, has led to the development of new methods. The Kuder-Richardson formula 20 gives an average split half correlation for all possible ways of dividing the test into two parts. This provides a co­ efficient of equivalence for the entire test. The Kuder-Richardson #20 formula is suitable for dichotomous data only. A formula equivalent to the Kuder- Richardson was developed for data that is not in dichotomous form. This formula is called Cronbach's alpha. It was 77 developed as a further refinement of the SPSS (Statistical Package for the Soc;.al Sciences)# the computer program used to analyze the results in this research. The Cronbach's alpha formula k ( 1 * k - 1 where a k s 2 S s isi2'k ) = S alpha ( k - 1 1 s i number of items j the variance of the measuring instrument - 2 ** the average item variance was used to determine reliability coefficients for the instrument. Selection of Reliability Population i Forty principals were selected as participants in the reliability mea$ure: twenty female elementary principals and twenty male principals. Of the twenty male principals# ten were elementary and ten were secondary principals. Since all female elementaary principals working in Michigan school districts identified as "target" districts were to be included in the final population for this study# it was necessary to iselect female participants for the re­ liability measure ffom other districts. A 1977-78 list of Michigan school districts and their administrators was 78 consulted.** Female elementary principals were selected from a total of thirteen different school districts. Male participants were selected from among districts identified as "target" districts and from other school districts, as well. Male principals were selected from a total of ten school districts. There was a total of twenty school dis­ tricts in eleven counties represented in the reliability sample population (Appendix F ) . None of the forty reli­ ability population participants were to be included in the final population study. Instrument (Appendix E) were mailed to the forty participants in the reliability population on March 24, 1978. Thirty-three instruments were completed and returned. This constitutes a return of 82.5 percent. Reliability Coefficients Reliability coefficients were established for ques­ tions measuring the hypotheses. in Table 3.1. The results are reported Each hypothesis is identified by number. The questions measuring the particular hypothesis are iden­ tified by number and a corrected item total correlation figure is provided. The number of cases, mean and standard deviation are reported for each hypothesis. Reliability coefficients are listed as alpha figures. ^Michigan Education Directory and Buyers Guide, 1977-1978, Lansing, Michigan: Michigan Education Directory, TTTT.---- 79 Table 3.1.— Reliability Results for Pilot Instrument Hypothesis Number One N = 19 x « 30.15789 Question Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Corrected Item Total Correlation .14001 .42194 .62529 .21616 .36201 .32435 .42589 .73588 .71776 .40040 .10546 standard deviation ** 7.04953 Alpha = .75892 Two N - 33 x - 20.72727 12 13 14 15 16 17 .66754 .80564 .03978 .81060 .78514 .84726 standard deviation =* 5.26 351 Alpha = .83979 Three N = 33 x = 21.3333 Alpha = .44201 18 19 20 21 22 23 .15700 .36639 .04753 .09091 .40332 .29522 standard deviation « 2.97560 80 Table 3*1 continued Hypothesis Number Four N = 32 x = 14.84375 Question Number 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Corrected Item Total Correlation .80035 .53359 .79229 .27292 .45085 .67250 .53562 standard deviation ** 4.90628 Alpha = .82804 Five N = 31 x « 20.96774 31 32 33 34 35 36 .57643 .55263 .16211 .66697 .68156 .24985 standard deviation - 3.45913 Alpha - .72207 37 38 39 40 41 42 N s 32 x » 14.0000 Alpha « .6 8778 .33357 .18306 .75770 .60298 .47684 .29582 standard deviation ** 3.39829 82 Table 3.2. status of original questions on pilot instrument (hypothesis information) Hypothesis Number Original Question Number Final Status Final Question Number One 1-11 Retained 1-11 Two 12 - 17 Retained 12 - 17 Three 18 - 23 Retained 18 23 Four 24 - 30 Retained 24 30 Five 31 - 36 Retained 31 36 Six 37 - 39 Retained 37 .39 40 Deleted 41 Deleted 42 Deleted 83 Table 3.3. Status of original questions on pilot instru­ ment (demographic information) Original Question Number 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 61 62 64 65 66 Final Status Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Retained Deleted Retained Final Question Number 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 84 final question #34: "The central office administrators have either been non-commital or discouraging about my career advancement." pilot question #35: "The central office administration en­ courages me to advance in my career." final question #35: "The central office administrators are presently encouraging me to further my career." Two demographic questions were altered: pilot question #59: Age: ________ final question #56: Check your age: 31 and under 3140 4150 5160 60 and over pilot question #62: Number of years in administration: _ {count the current school year) final question #58: Number of years in administration: (count the current school year) 2 or less 39 1016 1923 24 or more Sampling Methodology The population of interest in this study consists of elementary principals in the public schools of Michigan. One factor received consideration in the selection of school districts from which to choose the sample: how administrator salaries were determined in the district. Each public school district in Michigan has been categorized into one of 85 several methods of establishing administrator salaries.0 Q According to a 1970-71 salary survey, a total of 118 public school districts in Michigan determined administrator salaries on an "individual" basis. "Individual" is a method of setting administrative salaries that is quite distinct from a salary schedule. In the case of "individual," the superintendent has consider­ able flexibility in setting administrative salaries. In turn, there is the opportunity for the administrator to in­ fluence the superintendent regarding salary increases. In most instances, the final figure is a compromise among variables such as: what the superintendent believes the ad­ ministrator is worth; what the budget will allow; and what the administrator believes he/she deserves. O Salary Committee of the Professional Standards Commission, 1970-1971 Salary Survey, East Lansing, Michi­ gan: Michigan Association or Elementary School Principals, 1971. g Methods of determining administrator salaries were included for the last time in the 1970-1971 Salary Survey but this information has been deleted from all annual salary surveys subsequent to that year. Further, no recent data on this topic has been gathered by other sources, such as the Michigan Department of Education, the Michigan Education Association and Michigan Association of School Administra­ tors . 10Other methods of establishing administrator sala­ ries included fixed salary schedules; salaries set by the school board; salaries set by negotiation units; salaries determined by the teachers' salary schedule plus a fixed percentage; salaries determined by an Ad Hoc salary com­ mittee; salaries set by the superintendent or school board independent of administrator consultation. 86 These 118 school districts became "target” districts from which the sample would be s e l e c t e d , ^ The researcher consulted a 1977-1978 list of Michi12 gan school districts and their administrators. From those target school districts in which administrator salaries had been determined on an individual basis in the 1970-1971 school year, the population of principals was identified. The population was divided into homogeneous sub­ parts or strata of men and women. The entire female popu­ lation totaling sixty-seven elementary principals was in­ cluded in the study. A random sample of sixty-seven elementary and sixty-seven secondary principals was taken from the male stratum, making a total of 201 principals selected to provide data for this research. The 201 prin­ cipals represented eighty-five different school districts in fifty Michigan counties Questionnaires (Appendix G ) . (Appendix A) were mailed to the 201 participants on April 26, 1978. dix B) was mailed on May 4, 1978. A follow-up letter (Appen­ One hundred forty-five questionnaires were completed and returned. tutes a return of seventy-two percent. This consti­ Thirteen ^Anticipating that since 19 70-1971 some school dis­ tricts might have altered the way in which administrator salaries are determined, a special response form was devel­ oped (see page 2, Appendix F ) . The response form allowed the respondent to confirm the manner in which administrator salaries are set in the district. 12 Michigan Education Directory and Buyers Guide, 1977-78, Lansing, Michigan: Michigan Education Directory, 1977. 87 questionnaires contained Incomplete information regarding sex and other demographic information about the respondent, These were eliminated, re suiting in a total of 132 completed questionnaires for analysis. Statistical Analysis 2 The chi-square (x ) formula, (f - f >2 o e where x = chi square fQ = frequency obtained fe = frequency expected was used to analyze the data and test the hypothesis. Chi-square is a statistical technique used to test hypotheses. It is a measure of the departure of obtained frequencies from the frequencies expected by chance. Pro­ vided there is some way of knowing what the chance expec­ tations are, and provided the observations are independent, o x can always be computed. The greater the obtained fre­ quencies deviate from the expected frequencies, the larger will be the x^. When the computed x 2 is large, it does not mean that the relationship between the variables being investigated is strong, since x does not measure whether there is a relationship which is not likely to be due to chance. A i 2 ' large value for x means that the null hypothesis can be 88 rejected with confidence and that a relationship exists be­ tween the variables. 2 The x formula can be used with various population 2 distributions. For this reason, x is called a distribution free or nonparametric technique. The formula can also be used with nominal, ordinal or interval data. Because of 2 these characteristics, the x technique is frequently used 13 by social scientists. Values of 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 were assigned to each of the five possible responses respectively. The Strongly Agree received a value of five while the Strongly Disagree received a value of one. In cases where the question was phrased as a negative relationship to the hypothesis, the values assigned to the five possible responses were re­ versed. A "p" value of .05 or less was the level of signi­ ficance used to test the null hypotheses in this study. Statement of Hypotheses and Corresponding Null Hypotheses Hypothesis 1 : Hen are more likely than women to seek salary in­ creases . There is no significant difference between men and women in seeking salary increases. 13 Herman J. Loether and Donald G. McTavish, Infer­ ential Statistics for Sociologists, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, TncV,"T9'74',' 218. ------------- ----- 89 Hypothesis 2 : Men are more likely than women to aspire for posi­ tions of greater authority and responsibility. There is no significant difference between men and women in their aspirations for positions of greater authority and responsibility. Hypothesis 3; Men are more likely than women to communicate to others their interest in promotion. There is no significant difference between men and women in communicating to others their interest in promotion. Hypothesis 4 ; Men are more likely than women to have a mentor in education who encourages and helps guide their careers. There is no significant difference between men and women in having a mentor in education who encourages and helps guide their career. Hypothesis 5 : Men are more likely than women to feel support from central office administration for their career goals. There is no significant difference between men and women in the feeling of support from central office administration for their career goals. 90 Hypothesis 6 ; Men are more likely than women to engage with their colleagues in informal interactions of a type that may lead to career advancement. There is no significant difference between men and women in the engaging with colleagues in informal interactions of a type that may lead to career ad­ vancement. Summary The research design for this study has been decribed in Chapter III. The investigation of attitudes was explained in the first section of this chapter. The three approaches used to gather information about attitudes in­ clude observance of overt behavior and direct questioning. Neither of these methods can be used efficiently with large numbers and both yield crude classification of feelings. A third method, that of attitude scales, was developed to overcome the deficiencies noted above. Thurstone, an early pioneer in the creation of attitude scales, reasoned that responses to the scale statements reflected positive or neg­ ative feelings held by the respondent toward the psychologi­ cal object in the statement. An attitude scale was used to gather data in this study. In order to create an attitude scale, the researcher developed a number of statements for each of five hypotheses. The purpose was to include in each statement the same ele­ ments expressed in the hypothesis. A tentative instrument 91 containing twenty-three statements was prepared for validation purposes. A panel of five judges, representing expertise in education, administration and measurement, served as valid­ ators. The validation sought by the researcher was content validation. The experts studied each of the twenty-three statements to determine its relevance to the property being measured. Appropriate rating forms were provided to the panel members. Agreement by four of the five judges was necessary; all but one statement was judged valid. Panel members suggested additional statements and one more hypothesis. These were included in the instrument for the next process, that of reliability. Reliability of an instrument to be administered just once can be established by internal analysis. A formula equivalent to the Kuder-Richardson 20 was selected as the appropriate analysis for reliability. Forty principals, including twenty females and twenty males, were chosen to serve as a reliability population. Twenty school districts in eleven Michigan counties were represented by the forty participants. 1978. Reliability instruments were mailed in March Reliability coefficients were established for the questions measuring each hypothesis. Certain items were revised for the final instrument. The selection of the final sample was described in the second section of Chapter III. The population of inter­ est consists of elementary principals in Michigan public 92 schools. Using data from the most recent salary schedule to indicate how administrative salaries are determined, the researcher identified 118 school districts that use an "individual** method to make salary determinations. This refers to annual meetings in which a school district super­ intendent confers privately with each principal to discuss salary figures. This approach is distinct from other situ­ ations in which negotiation units, ad hoc salary committees, an administrative salary schedule or the superintendent and/ or school board set salary figures without consultation with the principal. From a current listing of all Michigan school dis­ tricts and their administrators, the researcher identified the population for the study. A total of sixty-seven ele­ mentary female principals are employed in the 118 districts. The entire population was included for study. A random sample of elementary male principals and secondary male principals was taken from the same 118 school districts. The complete population totaled 201. The statistical models chosen to analyze the final data were described in the third section of Chapter III. chi-square (x } test was used to test the hypotheses. chi-square test measures the departure of obtained fre­ quencies from the frequencies expected by chance. A The A "p" value of .05 or less was the level of significance used test the null hypotheses in this study. to 93 A final list of the six hypotheses and their corresponding null hypotheses completed this chapter. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OP RESULTS Introduction Chapter IV presents the findings gathered from the returned questionnaires and the subsequent data analysis. The reliability of the final instrument is presented in the first section of this chapter. Included is a discussion of the retention and deletion of questions, based upon the re­ liability coefficients. The second part of this chapter is devoted to an analysis of each hypothesis. Statistical data is provided and information about the acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis is included. A final summary concludes the chapter. Reliability of Final Instrument Reliability coefficients were established for the questions measuring each of the six hypotheses. A total of 131 questionnaires were included in the reliability analy­ sis. The reliability coefficients are reported in Table 4.1. Each hypothesis is identified by number. Each question measuring the particular hypothesis is identified by number and a corrected item total correlation figure is 94 95 Table 4.1.— Reliability results for final instrument Hypothesis Number One N = 80 x = 29.88750 Question Number Corrected Item Total Correlation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 .02354 .13516 .11596 .03288 .47354 .17730 .33856 .43126 .22758 .00631 .00219 standard deviation = 4.72267 Alpha = .43509 12 13 14 15 16 17 Two N = 131 x - 18.55725 .71304 .82644 .19822 .77299 .83501 .84996 standard deviation = 5.92279 Alpha « .88451 18 19 20 21 22 23 Three N = 130 x = 21.04615 Alpha e .55775 .20131 .09617 .16664 .40776 .49152 .51097 standard deviation = 3.35465 96 Table 4.1 continued Hypothesis Number Question Number Corrected Item Total Correlation Pour 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 .58353 .46053 .26616 .14948 .50092 .53700 .58799 N * 131 x = 14.85496 standard deviation 8 3.68599 Alpha 8 .72886 31 32 33 34 35 36 Five N 8 131 x = 21.03817 .63786 .61137 .26864 .48991 .40075 .40579 standard deviation 8 3.41581 Alpha = .72788 Six 37 38 39 40 41 42 ♦Program would not compute. See explanation in text. provided. The number of cases, mean and standard deviation are also reported for each hypothesis. Reliability coeffi­ cients are listed as alpha figures. The alpha figures for the final instrument differ from those of the pilot instrument. alphas for all reliability measures. Table 4.2 compares the Alpha figures in­ creased in the final measure for hypotheses two, three and five; they decreased for hypotheses one and four. The dif­ ferences may be due to sampling variability. The researcher selected those questions with the highest correlation for final chi-square analysis. The min­ imum level used to determine selection varied with each hypothesis. In the case of hypothesis one, only questions with a corrected item total correlation of .22758 or higher were selected; hypothesis two, three, .40776; hypothesis four, hypothesis five, .71304 or higher; hypothesis .46053 or higher; and .40075 or higher. In the case of the sixth hypothesis, six different items on the pilot instrument had formed a scale. On the final data, there were a sufficient number of non-responses to items 40, 41 and 42 to drop those items. The remaining three items (37, 38, 39) for the final sample failed to constitute a scale. Table 4.3 lists the questions selected for x sis. 2 analy­ A total of twenty-five questions were selected for further analysis. 98 Table 4.2.— Comparison of alpha figures for pilot, final instrument and selected final questions. Alpha, Pilot Instrument Alpha, Final Instrument Alpha, Final Selected Questions One .75892 .43507 .60564 Two .83967 .88451 .92989 Three .44201 .55775 .71705 Four .82804 .72886 .78110 Five .72207 .72788 .74444 Six* .68778 Hypothesis ♦Program would not compute. -.67350 See explanation in text. 99 Table 4.3.— Questions selected for inclusion in x analysis. Hypothesis 2 Question Numbers One 5, ‘7, 8 , r 9 (4) Two 1 2 , 13, 15, 16, 17 (5) Three 21, 2 2, 23 (3) Four 24, 25, 28, 29, 30 (5) Five 31, 32, 34, 35, 36 (5) Six 37, 38, 39 (3) Total 25 * 100 Statistical Analysis Before beginning the chi-square analysis, an index figure from one to five was computed for each questionnaire for each of the six hypotheses. The index figure reflects the mean score of all statements measuring the particular hypothesis. This technique was used to collapse the re­ sponses into categories necessary for anaylsis. The follow­ ing scale determined the index figure assigned: equal equal equal equal equal equal to or greater than to or greater than to or greater than to or greater than to or greater than to or less than 5.0 1.0 and 1.5 and 2.5 and 3.5 and 4.5 and * 5 less less less less than than than than 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 = = = = 1 2 3 4 The index figures one through five reflected a con­ tinuum of least to most favorable attitudes toward the hypothesis. The figures for each hypothesis were then cor­ related with variables of sex, age, years of experience, annual income, level of administration and size of school district.1. In cases where obtained frequencies were very low or zero, further collapsing was done to four, three or two categories. Descriptive labels, rather than index Index figures for variables were as follows: sex: male = 1 ; female « 2 level: elementary = 1; middle school/jr.hi = 2; high school = 3 a g e : 30 and under = 1; 31-40 = 2y 51-50 = 3; 51-60 = 4; 6(5 and over = 5 annual income: $16,999 and under = 1; $17,000-$20,499 = 2; $ 2 0 , 5 0 0 - $ 2 3 , $ 9 9 = 3y $24,000-$27,499 = 4; $27,500 and over=5 years of administrative experience: 2 or less = 1; 3-9 = 2; 10-16 = 3; 1 7 - 2 3 = 4; 24 or more = 5 size of school district: 999 and less = 1; 1,000-1,999 = 2; 2,000-2,999 = 3; 3,000-3999 = 4; 4,000-5,999 = 5y 6,0008,999 = 6 ; 9.000-12,999 = 7; 13,000-16,999=8; 17,000 and over = 9. 101 figures, are used in all tables in this chapter. The re­ sults for each hypothesis are presented separately. Hypothesis One The following null hypothesis was tested for statis­ tical significance: H.: There is no significant difference between men and women in seeking salary increases. Table 4.4 presents summary data of the questions measuring activity in seeking salary increases. The x of zero with one degree of freedom has a probability of 1.000 which does not allow the rejection of the null hypothesis. It appears that women do not seek salary increases signi­ ficantly less than do men. The control variables of age, amount of administrative experience, size of school district and actual annual income were introduced in subsequent analyses. No significant differences were found. Hypothesis Two The following null hypothesis was tested for statis­ tical significance: H_: There is no significant difference between men and 2 women in their aspirations for promotions of greater authority and responsibility. Table 4.5 presents summary data of the questions 2 measuring aspirations for further promotion. The x of 3.828 with 2 degrees of freedom has a probability of .147 which does not allow the rejection of the null hypothesis. 102 Table 4.4.— Activity in seeking salary increases by sex. Sex Amount of Activity Male Female Row Total Low 23 (79.3%) 9 (75%) 32 High 6 (20.7%) 3 (25%) 9 Column Total x 2 o .01237 N = df - 1 29 P o .9114 12 41 103 Table 4.5.— Aspirations for further promotion by sex. Sex Intensity of Aspirations Male Female Row Total Low 28 (31.8%) 13 (30.2%) 41 Medium 33 (37.5%) 10 (23.3%) 43 High 27 (30.7%) 20 (46.5%) 47 Column Total x2 - 3.826 N = df = 2 88 P = .147 43 131 104 Apparently women do not aspire significantly less than men for positions of greater authority and responsibility. Other relationships to aspirations were investigated. Table 4.6 presents summary data regarding aspirations for 2 further promotion by age. The x of 21.8682 with 4 degrees of freedom has a probability of .0002. There are signifi­ cant differences in the amount of aspirations as a function of age. Forty-nine percent of the respondents forty years of age and younger had low aspirations as compared to 13.5 percent of the respondents fifty-one years of age and over. High aspirations increased with age, ranging from a low of 14.3 percent in the forty and under group to a high of 59.5 percent in the fifty-one years of age and over group. Table 4.7 summarizes aspirations for further promotion by age, controlling for sex, males. The x 2 of 12.1359 with 4 degrees of freedom has a probability of .0164. There are significant differences in aspirations by age when controlling for sex. that noted in Table 4.3. with age for males. The pattern is similar to Aspirations appear to increase It is lowest in the forty years of age and under group and highest in the fifty-one years of age and over category. Table 4.8 summarizes aspirations for further promo2 tion by age, controlling for sex, females. The x of 9.8564 with 4 degrees of freedom has a probability of .0429. A similar pattern of increasing aspirations as age increases holds true for females as well as males. Aspirations are 105 Table 4.6.— Aspirations for further promotion by age. Age Intensity of Aspirations 40 years and under 41 to 50 years 51 and over Row Total Low 24 (49.0%) 12 (26.7%) 5 (13.5%) 41 Medium 18 (36.7%) 15 (33.3%) 10 (27.0%) 43 High 7 (14.3%) 18 (40.0%) 22 (59.5%) 47 Column Total N « x 2 « 21.86 82 49 df «* 4 45 P a .0002 37 131 106 Table 4.7.— Aspirations for further promotion by age, controlling for sex, males. Intensity of Aspirations Age 40 and under 41 to 50 years 51 and over Row Total Low 18 (47.4%) 7 (22.6%) 3 (15.8%) 28 Medium 15 (39.5%) 11 (35.5%) 7 (36.8%) 33 High 5 (13.2%) 13 (41.9%) 9 (47.4%) 27 Column Total N x2 o 12.1359 38 31 df - 4 19 P « .0164 . 88 107 Table 4.8.— Aspirations for further promotion by age, controlling for sex, females. Age Intensity of Aspirations 40 and under 41 to 50 years 51 and over Row Total Low 6 (54.5%) 5 (35.7%) 2 (11.1%) 13 Medium 3 (27.3%) 4 (28.6%) 3 (16.7%) 10 High 2 (18.2%) 5 (36.7%) 13 (72.2%) 20 11 14 Column Total N « x2 = 9.8564 df = 4 18 P = .0429 43 108 lowest in the youngest age group, forty years of age and younger, and highest in the most advanced age group, fiftyone years of age and older. However, the percentage of females with high aspirations in the fifty-one years of age and older group (72.2%) exceeded that of males in the same age group (47.4%). One other variable proved significant. Table 4.9 contains summary data regarding aspirations for further promotion by sex, controlling for annual income up to 2 $23,999. The x of 8.4209 with 2 degrees of freedom has a probability of .0148. The aspirations of females appear to exceed that of males when controlling for annual income. Females in the salary category up to $23,999 had higher as­ pirations than males. Only 18.8 percent of the males were in the high aspirations category, as compared to 60 percent for females. Hypothesis Three The following null hypothesis was tested for statis­ tical significance: H-: There is no significant difference between men and women in communicating to others their interest in promotion. Table 4.10 presents summary data of questions measuring the extent to which men and women principals com­ municate to significant others their interest in promotion. 109 Table 4.9.— Aspirations for further promotion by sex, controlling for annual salary up to $23,999. Sex Intensity of Aspirations Male Female ■ Row Total Low 5 (31.3%) 5 (33.3%) 10 Medium 8 (50.0%) 1 ( 6.7%) 9 High 3 (18.8%) 9 (60.0%) 12 Column Total x2 = 8.4209 N ** df = 2 16 P = .0148 15 31 110 Table 4.10.— Communicating interest in further promotion by sex. Sex Amount of Communication Male Female Row Total Seldom 6 ( 6.8%) 5 (11.6%) 11 Moderate 52 (59.1%) 25 (58.1%) 77 Considerable 23 (26.1%) 7 (16.3%) 30 Frequent 7 ( 8.0%) 6 (14.0%) 13 Column Total x2 = 3.0733 N = df = 3 88 P - .3805 43 131 Ill The x 2 of 3.0733 with 3 degrees of freedom has a probability of .3805 which does not allow the rejection of the null hypothesis. The control variables of age, amount of administra­ tive experience, size of school district and amount of an­ nual income were introduced in subsequent analysis. Significant differences were found between males and females when controlled for income in one category ($20,500 to $23,999). Table 4.11 presents summary data on this topic. 2 The x of 8.8541 with 3 degrees of freedom has a probability of .0313. A total of 62.5 percent of the males in the in­ come bracket $20,500 to $23,999 communicate their interest in further promotion to a slight degree. This compares to 50 percent for females who communicate their interest to a slight degree. No males were in the highest category of communicating interest in promotion; however, 25 percent of the females communicate their interest in promotion at this level. The small population of eight females included in this particular analysis discourages generalization of the results, however. Hypothesis Four The following null hypothesis was tested for sta­ tistical significance: H^: There is no significant difference between men and women in having a mentor in education who encourages and helps guide their career. 112 Table 4.11.— Communicating interest in further promotion by sex, controlling for annual salary ($20,500 to $23,999) Sex Amount of Sharing with Others Male Female Row Total Low 3 ( 9.4%) 1 (12.5%) 4 Slight 20 (62.5%) 4 (50.0%) 24 Moderate 9 (28.1%) 1 (12.5%) 10 High 0 ( 0.0%) 2 (25.0%) 2 32 8 N = Column Total x2 = 8.8741 df b 3 P = .0313 40 113 Table 4.12 presents summary data of the questions 2 measuring the existence of a mentor. The x of 3.013 with 2 degrees of freedom has a probability of .8601 which does not allow the rejection of the null hypothesis. Control variables of age, amount of administrative experience, size of school district and actual income were introduced in sub­ sequent analyses. No significant differences were found for any of these control variables. Hypothesis Five The following null hypothesis was tested for statis­ tical significance: H_: There is no significant difference between men and women in the feeling of support from central office administration for their career goals. Table 4.13 presents summary data of questions measuring the support felt by men and women from central office administration for career goals. The x of 5.0884 with 3 degrees of freedom has a probability of .1654 which does not allow the rejection of the null hypothesis. Control variables of age, amount of administrative experience, si2e of school district and annual salary were introduced as control variables in subsequent analyses. these four variables, three were significant. Of Table 4.14 presents summary data for perceived support for further 2 promotion by age. The x of 18.238 with 6 degrees of free­ dom has a probability of .0057. Sixty-five percent of the individuals in the forty years of age and under category 114 Table 4.12.— Existence of mentor by sex. Degree of Assistance and Influence from Mentor Sex Male Female Row Total Low 11 (12.5%) 4 ( 9.3%) 15 Medium 54 (61.4%) 27 (62.8%) 81 High 23 (26.1%) 12 (27.9%) 35 Column Total x2 = .3013 N “ df = 2 88 P « .8601 43 131 115 Table 4.13.— Amount of perceived support for further promotion by sex. Sex Amount of Support Perceived by Principal Male Female Row Total Low 5 < 5.7%) 5 (11.6%) 10 Slight 50 (56.8%) 20 (46.5%) 70 Moderate 31 (35.2%) 14 (32.6%) 45 High 2 ( 2.3%) 4 ( 9.3%) 6 Column Total x2 = 5.0884 N ** df = 3 88 P = .1654 43 131 116 Table 4.14.— Amount of perceived support for further promotion by age. Age Amount of Support Perceived by Principal 40 years and under 41 to 50 years 51 years and over Row Total Low 7 (14.3%) 3 ( 6.7%) 0 ( 0.0%) 10 Slight 32 (65.3%) 24 (53.3%) 14 (37.8%) 70 Moderate 9 (18.4%) 16 (35.6%) 20 (54.1%) 45 High ( 2.2%) ( 4.4%) ( 8.1%) 6 Column Total N = x2 = 18.238 49 45 df - 6 P - .0057 37 131 117 perceived slight support and 18.4 percent perceived moder­ ate support. Approximately 38 percent of the individuals in the fifty-one years of age and over category felt slight support from central office administration for further pro­ motion; 54 percent felt support at a moderate level. It appears there is a trend of increased perceived support as age increases. Table 4.15 summarizes perceived support by sex, when controlled for years of experience in the seventeen to 2 twenty-three years category. The x of 6.678 with 2 degrees of freedom has a probability of .0 355. There are signifi­ cant differences between males and females for perceived support for further promotion when controlling for years of experience. Slightly more than seventy-one percent of the males with seventeen to twenty-three years of experience perceived moderate support; no women scored in the moderate category. Whereas none of the males perceived high support for further promotion, fifty percent of the females felt support at the high level. Because of the very small popu­ lation of seven males and four females in this analysis, caution must be exercised when extending the results. Table 4.16 summarizes perceived support by sex, controlling for annual salary in the $20,500 to $23,999 2 category. The x of 13.6363 with 3 degrees of freedom has a probability of .0034. Apparently males and females per­ ceive significantly different levels of support from central office administration for further promotion when principals 118 Table 4*15.-‘-Amount of perceived support for further promotion by sex, controlling for years of experience (17-23 years). Sex Amount of Support Perceived by Principal Male Female Row Total Slight 5 (71.4ft) 0 ( 0.0%) 5 Moderate 2 (28.6ft) 2 (50.0%) 4 High 0 ( 0.0%) 2 (50.0%) 2 7 4 Column Total x2 = 6.6785 N = df « 2 P = .0355 11 119 Table 4.16.— Amount: of perceived support for further promotion by sex, controlling for annual salary ($20,500 - $23,999) Sex Amount of Support Perceived by Principal Male Female Row Total Low 0 ( 0.0.%) 1 (12.5%) 1 Slight 20 (62.5%) 2 (25.0%) 22 Moderate 12 (37.5%) 3 (37.5%) 15 High 0 ( 0.0%) 2 (25.0%) 2 32 8 Column Total x2 «* 13.6363 N o df = 3 P = .0034 40 120 are in the annual income level of $20,500 to $23,999. Males perceived support in the middle categories (slight and moderate) only; none perceived low or high support. Fe­ males perceived support at all four levels with a high of 37.5 percent in the moderate category and 25 percent in the slight and high support levels. The small population of eight females involved in this analysis suggests caution as the extention of the results. Hypothesis Six Because a scale could not be constructed due to insufficient data, hypothesis six could not be measured. Other Findings It has been suggested that secondary principals as­ pire more for positions of greater authority and responsi­ bility than do elementary principals. This rationale has been used to explain the high representation of former secondary principals in central office positions. In order to test this relationship, the aspirations of male elemen­ tary principals were compared to those of male secondary principals. There were no significant differences between the aspirations of the two groups in this study. Statistical analysis was performed on two final statements in the questionnaire. The first analysis com­ pared responses to statement #48: "I've made sure that many people know I'm interested in advancement," which is a measure of "proclamation" for further promotion. There were 121 no significant differences between males and females. Con­ trol variables of years in administration and size of school district were introduced. There were still no significant differences between the sexes. Apparently females proclaim their candidacy as much as do males. The second comparison was between male and female responses to statement #53: "I haven't decided on my future plans yet," which is a measure of planning for career ad­ vancement. It has been suggested in the literature that women are vague about future plans, whereas men are more definite. There were no significant differences between males and females regarding this statement. Control vari­ ables of years of experience and size of school district were introduced. There were still no significant differ­ ences between the sexes. Apparently females are no less uncertain about their future plans than are males. Summary The results of the research were presented and analyzed in Chapter IV. The first section of the chapter contained informa­ tion relative to the reliability of the final instrument. Reliability coefficients for each question were reported. Alpha figures for each hypothesis were included. The alpha figures for the final instrument differed from those of the pilot instrument. Those for two hypotheses increased in value for the final instrument but decreased in the remain­ ing four hypotheses. 122 The basis for the selection of questions to undergo x 2 analysis was also included in the first section. A total of twenty-eight questions, representing those with the high­ est reliability coefficients, were chosen for further an­ alysis. The statistical analysis for each of the six h y ­ potheses was contained in the second portion of Chapter XV. Details were provided to explain the creation and collapsing of categories for individual responses. A summary of the results for each hypothesis follows: Hypothesis o n e : The null hypothesis was confirmed. There were no significant differences between men and women in seeking salary increases. The introduction of control variables age, amount of administrative experience, size of school district and actual income did not produce signifi­ cant difference, either. Hypothesis two: The null hypothesis was confirmed. There were no significant differences between men and women in their aspirations for promotions to positions of greater authority and responsibility. There were significant differ­ ences for aspirations when controlling for three different variables: age, controlling for age, males; and when con­ trolling for age, females. All reflected a trend of in­ creasing aspirations with increasing age. One fourth vari­ able, that of annual income of up to $23,999, proved to be 123 positively correlated with aspirations for further promotion by sex. In this case, the aspirations for females appeared to exceed that of males. Hypothesis three; The null hypothesis was confirmed. There were no significant differences between men and women in communicating to others their interest in promotion. The only control variable to reveal significant differences was that of annual income at the $20,500 to $23,999 level. In this instance, women appeared to be more represented in both the high and low levels of amount of communication with others. Men tended to be represented in the middle ranges of amount of communication rather than the extremes. No other control variable produced significant differences for this hypothesis. Hypothesis four; The null hypothesis was confirmed. There were no significant differences between men and women in having a mentor in education who encourages and helps guide their careers. Control variables of age, amount of administrative expereince, size of school district and actual income were introduced but there were no significant differences. Hypothesis five: The null hypothesis was confirmed. There were no significant differences between men and women in the feeling of support from central office administrators for their career goals. Three control variables did reveal significant differences: age, years of experience in the seventeen to twenty-three years category and annual salary 124 in the $20,500 to $23,999 category. There is increasing perceived support for females as compared to males when controlling for experience seventeen to twenty-three years, and increasing perceived support for females as compared to males in the $20,500 to $23,999 salary range. Hypothesis six: Insufficient data prevented the measure­ ment of hypothesis six. Other results: The levels of aspirations between male elementary and male secondary principals were compared. There were no significant differences. Male and female responses to two statements from the questionnaire were compared: I've made sure that many people know I'm interested in advancement, and I haven't decided on my future plans yet. There were no significant differences between males and fe­ males in either instance. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Conclusions and judgments regarding the purposes and findings of this study are given in Chapter V. The summary includes a description of the tasks undertaken to achieve the purpose of the research. The major findings are summarized and compared with those of earlier research. The discussion portion of the chapter includes possible in­ terpretations and explanations of the findings. The pos­ sible limitations of the study are also offered. Suggestions for further research are made in the final por­ tion of the chapter. Summary The central purpose of this study has been a com­ parison of the aspirations held by male and female princi­ pals and an examination of the ways those aspirations are fulfilled. Several tasks were completed to achieve this pur­ pose. First, several statements were created to measure each of five different hypotheses. Second, the statements were submitted to a final panel of judges for validation purposes. The statements judged to be appropriate measures of the elements in the hypotheses were included in a pilot 125 126 instrument. Included as well was an additional set of statements for a sixth hypothesis, suggested by a validation judge. Next, the pilot instrument was mailed to a popula­ tion of forty principals, equally divided by sex. The re­ turns were analyzed and reliability coefficients were established for each question. An alpha figure was deter­ mined for each hypothesis, providing a measure of internal consistency for the instrument. Based upon the reliability results of the pilot in­ strument, a final instrument was prepared. It was mailed to the 201 male and female principals at elementary, middle school/junior high and high school levels identified as the target population. The final returns were first analyzed for reliabil­ ity. Those statements with the highest reliability coeffi­ cients were subjected to chi-square analysis. Final "p" values at the .05 level of significance determined the acceptance or rejection of the null hypotheses. Several controlling variables gathered from demographic questions were introduced to explore further relationships. The re­ sults of this analysis are described in the next section. Major Conclusions The major findings of this study are as follows: 1. With regard to the seeking of salary increases no significant differences between men and women were found. 127 The Introduction of control variables age, amount of admin­ istrative experience, size of school district and annual income failed to produce significant differences between the sexes. 2. Any differences between men and women regarding aspirations for promotion to positions of greater authority and responsibility were statistically insignificant. When variables related to age were introduced, there were signi­ ficant differences. Those variables were age; controlling for age, male; and controlling for age, female. The trend for both,sexes was increasing aspirations with increasing age. Women appeared to aspire at a higher level than men at age fifty-one and over. The control variable annual in­ come of up to $23,999 also produced significant differences, favoring females. 3. There were no significant differences found be­ tween men and women in communicating to others an interest in further promotion. The only control variable producing significant results was annual income at the $20,500 to $23,999 level. In this instance, men tended to communicate interest in promotion at the two mid-ranges of a four level scale, whereas women were more represented at both the high and low levels. 4. No significant differences were found between men and women with regard to a mentor. The reported assis­ tance and influence from mentors for both sexes was almost 128 identical. No control variables produced significant dif­ ferences between men and women. 5. Any differences between males and females with regard to perceived support from central office administra­ tors for career goals were insignificant. variables did produce significant results. Three control Both sexes per­ ceived increased support with increasing chronological age. Women in the seventeen to twenty-three years of experience range perceived higher support for their career goals than did men. A similar pattern existed in the salary range $20,500 to $23,999, where women appeared to perceive more support than did men. 6. With regard to the engaging with colleagues in informal interactions of a type that may lead to career ad­ vancement, there was insufficient data to measure relation­ ships. 7. The aspiration levels of male elementary and male secondary principals were compared and found to be very similar. No significant differences were measured between the two levels. 8. Male and female principals seemed to "proclaim" their candidacy and to express interest in advancement at similar rates. Responses to an item on this topic revealed no significant differences between the sexes. 9. With regard to future plans, women seemed no more uncertain than did men. There were no significant 129 differences between the responses of the sexes on an item measuring future plans. Discussion This research investigated the existence of differ­ ences between male and female principals with regard to career aspirations and the fulfillment of those aspirations. If differences had been established, they would have helped to explain the under-representation of women in administra­ tive ranks. Those anticipated differences would have ac­ counted not only for the behaviors viewed as necessary to fulfill aspirations: assertiveness in communicating inter­ est in further promotion; a relationship with and assistance from a mentor; perceived support from central office admin­ istrators for further promotion; and frequent participation in informal social interactions that can help further ca­ reers. The differences on one measure would have helped explain the lower salaries earned by women principals, as well. The conclusions of the study do not support the b e ­ lief that significant differences exist between men and women on the dimensions measured. Sex was not a predictive variable: men and women responded in similar, rather than different ways to the instrument. In fact, sex was not the important variable in any of the hypotheses to the extent was the variable age. Apparently the differences between men and women are not sufficient to explain their uneven 130 representation in administrative ranks beyond the principalship level. The results of this research contradict several of the statements made in the literature. Schtnuck (1975) as­ serts that women are more uncertain about their future plans than are men. Women in the study just completed were no more undecided about their future plans than were men. This research is related to and tends to support the findings of Gilmore (1975). In that study, the level of need achievement was significantly related to chrono­ logical age. The older the women, the less importance she gave to sex-role standards of achievement and the less she feared success. The results of the study just completed confirm that aspirations are significantly related to chronological age. The aspirations of women in the age group fifty-one and over were significantly higher than they were for women in the forty-one and under age group. A similar trend was true for men. Women tended to have higher aspirations in the fifty-one and over age group than did men. Epstein (1971) found that a sponsor may have mixed feelings about accepting women as proteges. Valverde (1974) also confirmed that sponsors did not often support female proteges. However, there were no significant differences between men and women in the study just completed with re­ gard to the presence of influence of a mentor. It is pos­ sible that all the respondents were originally successful 131 in obtaining the promotion to principalship, in part at least, because of a sponsor. It does not preclude the pos- i sibility that women teachers do not get sponsors as fre­ quently as do men. However, if sponsors are important for additional promotion, then the women in this study do not seem to be at a disadvantage. Valverde also cautions that women must announce their candidacy if they wish to be promoted to administra­ tion. The study just completed confirms that women prin­ cipals do announce their interest in further promotion at levels similar to men. Several limitations of the study require consider­ ation. The population was confined to principals who work in the state of Michigan. There is no guarantee that the results would necessarily apply to other states or geo­ graphic regions. Further, the principals under study were selected from those school districts in which administra­ tive salaries were set on an "individual" basis, according to the most recent data available. While each respondent did confirm the current procedure by which salaries.are set in the school district, it is possible that principals in districts which now follow or at some time in the re­ cent past have followed this procedure may differ in some way from those principals employed elsewhere. A final limitation to the study is that of sample size. Frequent cautions were included as the analysis of data was presented in Chapter IV. The numbers were 132 frequently small in several sub-categories. The cautions apply to any results in which the variables annual salary, years of experience and size of school district seem to in­ dicate significant differences. Several factors could explain the results and impli­ cations of this research. First, it is possible that measurable differences in aspirations which may exist be­ tween male and female teachers no longer exist once indivi­ duals have been promoted to the principalship. If the aspiring and assertive female is selected for the principal­ ship, she may be just as aspiring for additional promotion as is her male counterpart. Second, this research has focused on differences within male and female subjects. It is possible that fac­ tors external to the individual are a decisive factor. Out­ side forces such as the attitudes of those conferring promotions may be more critical than any characteristics within the aspirant. Third, it is possible that the differences between men and women are more imagined than real. Much of the literature in this area is not empirical; the sex-role stereotypes and expectations may be more vivid in the minds of writers than they are in reality. The actual differences between the sexes may be negligible and unimportant. Fourth, it is possible that any differences that once existed between men and women have been diminished due to changing American society and influences from the publicity 133 of the women's movement, ERA and affirmative action pro­ grams. This could have resulted in a general increase in aspiration and assertiveness in women. Implications for Further Research Several unanswered questions remain. Little is known about the men and women principals who have aspired to additional promotion and failed. status has not been investigated. The role of marital The incentives and re­ wards for not aspiring to further promotion need to be known. The aspirations of men and women principals and how those aspirations differ across variables such as socio-economic status, geographic region and ethnic back­ ground could provide additional insights. This study has provided data showing that aspirations and the ways principals seek to fulfill them do not differ significantly between men and women. This research has gathered information that helps eliminate aspirations as a reasonable explanation for so few women in administration beyond the building principalship. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Donald P. "Recruiting Leaders for Tomorrow's Schools." The National Elementary Principal 44 (April 19657i"47-52.--------------------------Baker, Curtis 0., and Wells, Agnes. National Center for Education Statistics. Students Enrolled for Advanced Degrees Fall 1973. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. Baker, Curtis 0., and Wells, Agnes. National Center for Education Statistics. Earned Degrees Conferred 1974-75 Summary Data. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. Bern, Sandra L. Training the Woman to Know Her Place; The Social Antecedents of Women in the World of Work. Harrisburg, Pennsylvaniar Pennsylvania State Department of Education, Bureau of Pupil Personnel Services, 1973. Blood, Ronald E. "The Function of Experience in Profes­ sional Preparation: Teaching and the Principal­ ship. ” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Claremont Graduate School, 1966. Broadhead, Clare et al. "Going the Way of the Buffalo?" The National Principal 45 (May 1966):7-13. Broverman, Inge et al. "Sex Role Stereotypes: A Current Appraisal." Journal of Social Issues 28 (February 1972):59-78. Burlin, Frances-Dee. "Occupational Aspirations of Adoles­ cent Females." Paper presented at the 1976 annual meeting of the Association of Women in Psychology, San Francisco, California. Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. Opportunities for Women in Higher Education. New York: McGrawhill Book Co., 1973. 134 135 Carroll# Mary A. "Women in Administration in Higher Education." Contemporary Education 43 (August 1972):214-18. Cherryholmes, Lynn. "The Extent to which Women Public School Administrators Strive for Salary Increases." Unpublished paper, Michigan State University, 1974. Coursen, David. Women and Minorities in Administration (NAESP School/Leadership Digest Series No. 11). Washington, D.C.: National Association of Elementary School Principals, 1975. Dale, Charlene T. "Women are Still Missing Persons in Administrative and Supervisory Jobs." Educational Leadership 31 (February 1973):124-27. Dias, Sally. "The Aspiration Levels of Women for Adminis­ trative Careers in Education: Predictive Factors and Implications for Effecting Change." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, April 19-23, 1976. Epstein, Cynthia F. "Encountering the Male Establishment: Sex-Status Limits on Women's Careers in the Professions." In The Professional Woman. Edited by Athena Theodore. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman Publishing Co., Inc., 1971. Fishel, Andrew, and Pottker, Janice. "Women in Educational Governance: A.Statistical Portrait." Educational Researcher 3 (July/August 1974):4-7. Frankel, Martin M . , and Harrison, Forrest W. National Center for Education Statistics. Projections of Education Statistics to 1985-86. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. Gilmore, Beatrice. "To Achieve or Not to Achieve: The Question of Women." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Gerontological Society, Louisville, Kentucky, October 26-30, 1975. Greenfield, William D. "Socialization Processes Among Administrative Candidates in Public Schools." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Ameri­ can Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C., March 30-April 3, 1975. 136 Griffiths, Daniel E . ; Goldman, Samuel; and McFarland, Wayne. "Teacher Mobility in New York City." Educational Administrative Quarterly 1 (Winter 1965):l5-3i. Grobman, Hulda, and Hines, Vynce A. "What Makes a Good Principal?" Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals 49 (November 1956): 5-16. Gross, Neal, and Trask, Anne E. Men and Women as Elemen­ tary School Principals. Final Report No. 2"! Cooperative Research Project No. 853. Bostons Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, 1964. Hemphill, John K . ; Griffiths, Daniel E.; and Frederiksen, Norman. Administrative Performance and Personality. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1962. Hoffman, Lois Wladis. "Early Childhood Experiences and Women's Achievement Motives." Journal of Social Issues 28 (February 1972):129-56.' Holm, Jeanne M. "Employment and Women: Cinderella is Dead." National Association of Women Deans and Counselors 34 (January 1970):6-13. Horner, M. "Sex Differences in Achievement Motivation and Performance in Competitive and Non-competitive Situations." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1968. Howard, Suzanne. "Why Aren't Women Administering Our Schools? The Status of Women Public School Teachers and the Factors Hindering Their Promotion into Administration." Wanted: More Women Series. Washington, D.C.: National Council of Administrative Women in Education, 1975. Hoyle, J. "Who Shall Be Principal: A Man or a Woman?" The National Elementary Principal 48 (January 19691 :23-24.--— Hoyle, John R. "Problem-Attack Behavior and Its Relation­ ship to Sex, Prior Teaching Experience and College Preparation of Selected Elementary School Principals." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A & M University, 1967. 137 Joint Committee of the American Psychological Association, the American Educational Research Association and the National Council on Measurements Used in Educa­ tion. "Technical Recommendations for Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Techniques." Psychological Bulletin 51 (1954){Supplement. Karman, Felice J. "Women: Personal and Environmental Factors in Career Choices." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, Louisiana, February 25-March 1, 1973. Kerlinger, Fred N. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1^64. Loether, Herman J . , and McTavish, Donald G. Inferential Statistics for Sociologists. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, inc., 1974. Lyon, Catherine Dillon, and Saario, Terry N. "Women in Public Education: Sexual Discrimination in Promotions." Phi Delta Kappan 55 (October 1973): 120-23. Michigan Education Directory and Buyers Guide, 1977-1978. Lansing, Michigan: Michigan Education Directory, 1977. Mickish, Ginny. "Can Women Function as Successfully as Men in the Role of Elementary Principal?" Research Reports in Educational Administration 2 (January 1971). Boulder, Colorado: Bureau ofEducatio n a l Research, University of Colorado, 1971. Milanovich, Anthony. "Gentlemen Before Ladies?" New York State Education 54 (December 1966):18-19. National Education Association Research Division. 26th Biennial Salary and Staff Survey of Public School Professional Personnel. Washington, D.C.: NE a , 1973.--------------------Niedermayer, Gretchen, and Kramer, Vicki W. Women in Administrative Positions in Public Education: A Position Paper. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Recruitment Leadership and Training Institute, 1974. Salary Committee of the Professional Standards Commission. 1970-1971 Salary Survey. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan Association of Elementary School Princi­ pals, 1971. 138 Schmuck, Patricia Ann. "Sex Differentiation in Public School Administration." Wanted: More Women Series. Washington, D.C.: National Council o^ Administrative Women in Education, 1975. Selltz, Claire et al. Research Methods in Social Rela­ tions. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston7 Inc., 1976. Taylor, Suzanne Saunders. "The Attitudes of Superinten­ dents and Board of Education Members in Connecticut Toward the Employment and Effectiveness of Women as Public School Administrators." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1970. _________. "Educational Leadership: A Male Domain?" Delta Kappan 2 (October 1972):124-28. Phi Theodore, Athena. "The Professional Woman: Trends and Prospects." The Professional Woman. Cambridge: Massachusetts: Schenkman Publishing C o . , Inc., 1971. Thurstone, L. L . , and Chave, E. J. The Measurement of Attitude. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1§29. « "Comment." (1946):39-50. American Journal of Sociology 52 Trigg, Linda J . , and Perlman, Daniel. "Social Influences on Women's Pursuits of a Non-Traditional Career." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, Illinois, August 30-September 2, 1975. Uzell, Odell. "Influences of Occupational Choice." Personnel and Guidance Journal 39 (April 1961): ------------------------------ Valverde, Leonard A. Succession Socialization: Its Influ­ ence on School Administrative Candidates and its Tmplication to the Exclusion of Minorities from Adminxstration~ FihaX Report. Washington, D . C . : National Institute of Education (DHEW), 1974. Vlahos, Mantha. Survey of the Status of Women. Institu­ tional Report No. 77 Fort Lauderdale, Florida: Broward Community College, 1975. 139 Way, Joyce. "A Comparison of Background Profiles, Career Expectations and Career Aspirations of Men and Women Public School Administrators.'’ Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Western Michigan University, 1976. Wiles, Kimball, and Grobman, Hulda Gross. "Principals as Leaders." Nation's Schools 56 (October 1955): 75-77. ----------------- APPENDICES APPENDIX A 140 APPENDIX A COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE April 26, 1978 Dear Colleague, As a principal myself, I can appreciate just how busy you must be. But if you could give up just a few minutes of your time, I would be very grateful. Enclosed is a questionnaire that surveys men and women principals. I have designed the research as part of my work at Michigan State University where I am completing a graduate degree. The questionnaire has been sent to approximately 200 men and women principals in Michigan. Let me assure you that your responses will remain anonymous. In fact, there is no place on the questionnaire for you to name either your­ self or your school district. The questionnaire covers many areas related to promotions, salaries, career goals and support from others. Some questions may seem rather personal to you. I urge you to answer them as you really feel— not the way you think you are supposed to feel. Be honest; there are no risks in­ volved ! You have my sincere gratitude for your help. Will you com­ plete the questionnaire right now and enclose it in the self-addressed, stamped envelope? Sincerely, Lynn Cherryholmes end 141 BEFORE BEGINNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE, think for a minute about the way in which principals1 salaries are determined in your school district. Read the descriptions below and check the one that best describes your district. 1. Principals' salaries in my district are set on an "individual basis.^ ‘The superintendent considers each principal separately when setting a salary figure, has flexibility in setting that figure and is not bound to a strict salary schedule. ______ My salary is determined on an individual basis. If you checked this item, please answer all questions in the questionnaire, starting with #1 . 2. Principals' salaries in my district are established by a salary schedule. An administrative salary schedule is f o l l o w e d t o determine the amount for principals. It is a schedule with definite steps or increments. _ M y salary is determined by an administrative salary schedule. If you checked this item, please go directly to question #12 and continue to the end of the questionnaire. Do not answer questions #1 - #11 . Principals's salaries are set by some combination of "individual'' and "administrative salary schedule." M y salary is determined by a combination of "individual" and "salary schedule." _ 3. If you checked this item, please answer all questions in the questionnaire, starting with #1 . strongly agree 1 It may take a while to get up my courage, but eventually I'll talk or write to my boss about the pay I think I deserve. I trust my boss to notice my abilities and to give me a raise accordingly. My style is to let others close to my boss know of my work and hope eventually I'll get the raise I deserve. I would rather move on to a new, betterpaying position than attempt to get a raise directly in my current position. I have never talked to the superintendent or other central office administrators about my interest in a salary increase. I have talked a few times to the superin­ tendent or other central office adminis­ trators about my interest in a salary increase. I have talked many times to the superin­ tendent or other central office administra­ tors about my interest in a salary increase. agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 2 3 4 5 4 I intend to approach the superintendent (or supervisor) sometime in the future about obtaining a salary increase. 9. I think it would be inappropriate to ap­ proach the superintendent about a wage increase. 10. I would find it frightening to approach the superintendent about a wage increase. 11. I would find it challenging to approach the superintendent about a wage increase. 12. This principalship is an important "stepping stone" to other administrative positions I hope to hold in the future. 13. I am interested in holding a higher ad­ ministrative position, such as in the central office. 14. When I decided to enter the administration field, the principalship was my original goal. 15. I have no aspirations for other positions in education; I will probably remain a principal. agree 2 neutral 3 disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 143 8. strongly agree 1 strongly agree 1 16. I have career goals that will take me beyond the principalship I now hold. 17. My hopes for the future include promotions to other administrative positions in educa­ tion. 18. It’s important that I talk with my superin­ tendent or someone in the central office about my career plans so they know I'm in­ terested in any future openings. 19. If an opening occurred in my district that represented a promotion for me, I would want to be asked to apply for the job before I would apply. 20. I think I've been overlooked for advance­ ment in this district, even though I'm qualified. 21. Letting people in education know of my in­ terest in promotion is an important step in actually getting a promotion. 22. If I want to advance in the profession, I need to tell my superiors of my interest in promotion. agree 2 neutral 3 disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 strongly agree 1 23. Telling others in education of my interest in promotion is unimportant to my success in getting a promotion. 24. One or two key educators have played an im­ portant part in my career and in helping advise me about doing my job. 25. If I wanted honest feedback about myself, as well as encouragement, I know one or two people in education whom I could contact right away. 26. The only people who have been very helpful in understanding me, the responsibilities I have, and my career, are members of my own family. 27. There is no one in administration whom I could be very honest with about my job and my hopes for the future. 28. I could say that at least one older adminis­ trator has taken an interest in my career, in my successes and in my aspirations and has "shown me the ropes." 29. One of the factors that helps explain how I came to get my present position is that an­ other administrator helped by encouraginq and assisting me. agree 2 neutral 3 disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 strongly agree 1 30. I can think of at least one other administra­ tor vrho served as an "advocate" for me and helped me become an administrator. 31. I know that 1 could count on my superiors to help me if I tried to get positions of even more responsibility— either in this dis­ trict or elsewhere. 32. I feel that central office administrators in this district have been supportive of me and are interested in my career goals. 33. I feel that other administrators expect me to be ambitious about advancement in the pro­ fession. 34. The central office administrators have either been noncommital or discouraging about my career advancement. 35. The central office administrators are presently encouraging me to further my career. 36. 1 feel that my superiors assume that I've met my career goals. 37. I am aware that administrators in this dis­ trict have informal and/or social contacts with one another. agree 2 neutral 3 disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 strongly agree 1 38. Frequent informal and/or social contact with other administrators are a part of the pro­ cess of "getting ahead" in the profession. 39. I participate in informal and/or social con­ tacts with administrators as frequently as do other administrators in this district. agree 2 neutral 3 Think about how you have communicated your career goals to others. Look at the list below. Check off all items that apply to you during the past 12 months. 40. I've discussed my plans informally with other principals. 41. I've talked about my plans informally with the superintendent. 42. I've discussed my plans with central office administrators. 43. I've made an appointment to talk to the superintendent about my plans. 44. I've sought advice and talked to administrators outside my district. 45. I’ve discussed my plans with university education professors. 46. I 've asked my superintendent to write a recommendation for me. 47. I've asked to have placement notices sent to me. 48. I've made sure that many people know I'm interested in advancement. disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 49. ______ I've talked to very few people about my plans. 50. ______I've talked to no one in education about my plans. 51. ______I've talked with my family about my plans. 52. ______I've kept my plans to myself. 53. ______I haven't decided on ray future plans yet. 54. What is the title of your present position? ___________ (check one: elementary_____ jr. hi./middle school_ Check one: male 56. Check your age: female_______ 30 and under 57. 3140 4150 5160 60 and over Present salary: $16,999 and under $17,000 to $20,499 $20,500 to $23,999 $24,000 to $27,499 $27,500 and over 148 55. high school 58- Number of years in administration: (count this year) 2 or less 39 1016 1723 24 or more 59. Number of students in your school district: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 60. If you could have any position in education in five years, what would you choose? (give name of position? Thank you very much. 149 APPENDIX B 150 APPENDIX B FOLLOW UP-LETTER May 4, 1978 Dear Colleague, Recently I sent a questionnaire to you, representing a re­ search study I am conducting for a graduate degree. The questionnaire measured your responses to topics such as interest in promotion, salary, career goals, etc. I am naturally very interested in a high number of returned questionnaires. If you have not yet completed the form, could you try to do so very soon? I would appreciate it very much. If you have already completed and returned the form, please accept my thanks for your cooperation and promptness. Sincerely, Lynn Cherryholmes P.S. If you have misplaced the questionnaire, please com­ plete the information below and mail to me. I will send you a new form by return mail. Thank you very much. Please send another questionnaire to: name_________________________________________ s chool_______________________________________ address______________________________________ city __________________________________ zip return to: Lynn Cherryholmes 4710 Woodcraft Okemos, Michigan 48864 APPENDIX C 151 APPENDIX C PANEL OF JUDGES USED TO ESTABLISH FACE VALIDITY ON QUESTIONNAIRE Dr. Wilbur Brookover Professor of Urban and Metropolitan Studies College of Urban Development Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan Dr. Mary Carew Assistant Principal Okemos High School Okemos, Michigan Dr. William W. Farquhar Professor Department of Counseling Personnel Services and Education Psychology Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan Dr. Fred Ignatovich Associate Professor Administration and Higher Education College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan D r . Lou Romano Professor Department of Administration and Higher Education College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan APPENDIX D 152 APPENDIX D MATERIALS SENT TO VALIDATION JUDGES February 23, 1978 Thank you for agreeing to assist with this portion of the research project. The proposed study will test five hypotheses by means of a mailed questionnaire. Before the questionnaire is printed, a validity check is needed to evaluate the questions them­ selves. Your help is needed for this validation. Your task is to read each hypothesis and determine if the questions following the hypothesis measure the same ele­ ments. You are asked to rate each question on a simple rating form. You will be working with the following materials: 1. The first packet is entitled Proposed Questions. It consists of each hypothesis and a series of questions. There is a brief explanation of the hypothesis to give you some background information. There is also a sheet of definitions of terms used in the hypotheses. The questions following the hypothesis appear in the exact form proposed for the questionnaire. There is a place for the respon­ dent to answer each question but you will not be marking in this packet. 2. The second packet is entitled Rating F o r m . There is a place on the form for you to rate each ques­ tion. Make your marks on the Rating Form. If you have any comments to make, please make them in the column for that purpose. It would be helpful if you could identify specific portions of any ques­ tions you rate "inappropriate." This will aid in efforts to rewrite the question. There are only 23 questions so your task should not take a long time. If you have comments or questions, don't hesi­ tate to contact me (349-0100). I am very grateful for your assistance. Thank you. Lynn Cherryholmes Hypothesis 1: Men are more likely than women to actively seek salary increases. Men and women may have very different approaches to o b ­ taining salary increases. It has been suggested that men are more likely to approach the boss openly to discuss the pay they think they deserve. In contrast, women may wait to be noticed, hoping to be rewarded for their efficiency. This topic has never been investigated in education admin­ istration. Questions 1-5 measure hypothesis 1. 1. This best describes my feelings about salaries: (check one) ______ It may take a while to get up my courage, but eventually I '11 talk to my boss about the pay I think I deserve. ______ I trust my boss to notice my abilities and to give me a raise accordingly. 2. I trust the superintendent to get me a satisfactory wage increase without my having to approach him about it. Agree 1 i 3. 2 r 3 i 4 i Disagree 5 ~i ~i Have you ever talked to central office administration or the superintendent in the past about your interest in the salary you think you deserve? ______ yes no 4. I intend to approach the superintendent (or supervisor) sometime in the future about obtaining a salary in­ crease. Agree 1 2 3 4 Disagree 5 154 5. I would find it distasteful to approach the superin­ tendent about a wage increase. Agree 1 2 3 Disargee 5 4 rzr Hypothesis 2s Men are more likely than women to aspire for positions of greater authority and responsibility" Men are filling education administration positions in in­ creasing numbers. The presence of women in administration is declining steadily. When women do hold administrative postitions, it is likely that the position will be that of elementary principalship. It has been suggested that women do not aspire for as much in their careers as do men; they aspire less so this helps explain why they achieve less. The questions in this section will measure the career goals and future plans of men and women principals. Questions 6-10 measure hypothesis #2. 6. This principalship is an important "stepping stone" to other administrative positions I hope to hold in the future. Agree 1 l 7. » 3 I 4 I 1 1 I would describe my interest in holding future admin­ istrative positions, such as in the central office, as: Strong Interest 1 - r i 8. 2 Disagree 5 2 3 i 4 Weak Interest 5 i i ~~i If you could have any position in education you wanted in 5 years, what would you choose? Give name of position:__________________________________ 155 9. When you decided to enter the teaching field, was the principalship your original goal? ______ yes ______ no 10. If no, what was your goal?_______________ I have no aspirations for other positions in education; 1 will probably remain a principal. Agree 1 r~ i 2 3 r 4 i Disagree 5 i "i Hypothesis 3: Men are more likely than women to communi­ cate to significant others their interest in promotion-! Research shows that it is important for an individual to get the attention of the superior. Interest in promotion must be known by others, especially those in positions of author­ ity. This requires the individual to proclaim "candidacy" even before an opening is available. Without knowledge of an individual's interest in advancement, superiors may mis­ takenly assume silence to mean lack of aspirations. It has been suggested that women tend to remain silent about their career goals, while men pursue the issue openly with others. Questions 11-13 measure hypothesis 3. 11. Think about how you have communicated your career goals to others. Look at the list below. Check off all items that describe things you have done within the past twelve months. ______ I've discussed my plans informally with other principals. ______ I've talked about my plans informally with the superintendent. ______ I've discussed my plans with central office administrators. I've made an appointment to talk to the super­ intendent about my plans. ______ I've sought advice and talked to administrators outside my own district. ______ I've discussed my plans with university educa­ tion professors. ______ I 've asked my superintendent to write a recom­ mendation for me. ______ I've asked to have placement notices sent to me. 156 I've made sure that many people know I'm inter­ ested in advancement. I've talked to very few people about my plans. I've talked with my family about my plans. I've kept my plans to myself. I haven't decided on my future plans yet. 12. It's important that my superintendent or someone in the central office talks to me about my career plans so they know I'm interested in any future openings. Agree 1 2 4 I I I-- 1 I I 13. 3 Disagree 5 If an opening occurred in my district that represented a promotion for me, I would want to be asked to apply for the job before I would apply. Agree 1 I 1 2 3 I I 4 Disagree 5 I I Hypothesis 4: Men are more likely than women to have a mentor in education who encourages and helps guide theTr careers. The role of the mentor as "benefactor" is important to ad­ vancement. Usually a mentor is older and in a position of authority. The mentor recognizes the talent of the younger person and dispenses advice, off-the-cuff solutions to problems, teaches a common language and provides an under­ standing of the behavior expected. The mentor takes the novice "under his/her wing" and helps teach how things are done. Mentors frequently "pave the way" for the novice. It is suggested that women do not have mentors in education as frequently as do men. Women may turn to family and friends outside education to provide counsel. Questions 14-18 measure hypothesis 4. 157 14. One or two key people have played an important part in my career and in helping advise me about doing my job. Agree 1 I 15. 2 T I 2 1 1 i 1 3 I 1 Disagree 5 4 ---------- 1 1 2 r 3 i 4 i Disagree 5 i — 1 There is probably no one in administration that I could be very honest with about my job and my hopes for the future. Agree 1 2 3 r~~r'~i 18. I The only people who have been very helpful in under­ standing me, the responsibilities I have, and my ca­ reer, are members of my own family. Agree 1 17. I Disagree 5 4 If I wanted honest feedback about myself, as well as encouragement, I know one or two people in adminis­ tration that I could contact right away. Agree 1 16. 3 4 Disagree 5 i::: r.i =3 I could say that at least one older administrator has taken an interest in my career, in my successes and in my aspirations and has "shown me the ropes.” Agree 1 2 3 4 Disagree 5 Hypothesis 5: Men are more likely than women to feel sup­ port from central office administration for their career goals. 158 Little is known about the support men and women perceive from central office administration toward their career plans. It is not known if both sexes perceive similar sup­ port and encouragement. It has been suggested that women have felt less encouragement than men but there is little data to support this. Questions 19-23 measure hypothesis 5. 19. I know I can count on my superiors to help me in my efforts to get positions of even more responsibility— either in this district or elsewhere. Agree 1 2 r~ t 20. 21. i Agree 1 2 I I I i i 3 Disagree 5 4 I 1 ----------1 I feel that other administrators expect and encourage me to be ambitious. .2 i— 3 4 Disagree 5 r The central office administration has either been noncommital or discouraging about my career advancement. Agree 1 2 r .... i 23. Disagree 5 4 I feel that central office administrators in this dis­ trict have been supportive of me and are interested in my career goals. Agree 1 22. 3 3 i 4 i Disagree 5 ~i i I probably receive about the same amount of career encouragement from central office administrators as other elementary principals in this district. Agree 1 i 2 r 3 i 4 i Disagree 5 i i 159 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS In hypothesis #1: actively seek salary increases! defined here as all verbal and/or written messages from the principal to the superin­ tendent on the topic of salaries, sent in hope of obtaining a wage increase. In hypothesis #2: aspire for positions of greater authority and responsi­ bility; defined here as the career goals in which the final occupation exceeds the principalship in salary, status and power. Such positions are usually in close proximity to the superintendent's office and share a similar districtwide job description. The positions include directors of various curriculum areas, deputy superintendents, personnel directors, assistants to superintendents and administrative assistants. In hypothesis #3: communicate to significant others their interest, in promo­ tion; defined here as verbal and/or written messages from t h e p r incipal to other education administrators of equal or superior positions, in which the principal expresses the desire to advance to similar positions. In hypothesis #4: mentor in education who encourages and helps guide their careers; mentor is defined here as a person who occupies an administration position in education and who expresses a personal and professional interest in the career advance­ ment of someone aspiring to a position in administration, per se, or further advancement in administration. The role of the mentor is that of a "benefactor" who undertakes the guidance and informal teaching of the aspirant, so that a common language is learned, "off-the-cuff" solutions to problems are discussed, expectations are learned and the aspirant is socialized into the norms of administrative behavior. In hypothesis #5: support from central administration for their career goals; defined here as positive responses which are interpreted as encouragement by the principal toward future plans in edu­ cation. Central administration is defined here as a collective label used to describe all professional occupants of the superintendent's offices, including directors of curriculum, personnel, deputy superintendents, assistants to superintendents and administrative assistants. RATING FORM 162 RATING FORM Question Your Rating of Question Appro­ priate # 1 ________ # 2 ______ # 3 ______ # 4 ______ ft 5 ______ # 6 ______ # 7________ ______ # 8 ______ # 9 ______ #10 ______ #11 ______ #12 ______ #13 ______ #14 ______ #15 ______ #16 ______ #17 ______ #18 ______ #19 ______ #20 ______ #21 ______ #22 _____ #23 Inappropriate Comments (optional) APPENDIX E 163 APPENDIX E COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE USED TO ESTABLISH RELIABILITY OP INSTRUMENT March 24, 1978 Dear Colleague, As a principal myself, I can appreciate how busy you must be. But If you could give up just a few minutes, I would be very grateful. Enclosed is a questionnaire that will survey men and women principals. I have designed the research as part of my work at Michigan State University, where I am completing a graduate degree. You and 39 other principals have been selected to respond initially to the questionnaire. Your response will give a measure of the instrument's reliability. Eventually, the questionnaire will be sent to a larger number of principals. Let me assure you that your responses will remain anonymous. In fact, there is no place on the questionnaire for you to name either yourself or your school district. The questionnaire covers many areas related to promotions, salaries, career goals and support from others. Some ques­ tions may seem rather personal to you. I urge you to answer them as you really feel— not the way you think you are supposed to feel. Be honest; there are no risks involved! You can help me most by answering every question. You have my sincere gratitude for your assistance. Will you complete the questionnaire right now and enclose it in the self-addressed, stamped envelope? Sincerely, Lynn Cherryholmes encl. 164 BEFORE BEGINNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE, think for a minute about the way in which principals' salaries are determined in your school district. Read the descriptions below and check the one that best describes your district. 1. Principals' salaries in my district are set on an **individual basis." The superintendent considers each principal separately when setting a salary fi­ gure, has flexibility in setting that figure and is not bound to a strict salary schedule. ______ My salary is determined on an individual basis. If you checked this item, please answer all questions in the questionnaire, starting with #1 . 2. Princpals* salaries in my district are established by a salary schedule." An administrative salary . schedule is f o l l o w e d t o determine the amount for principals. It is a schedule with definite steps or increments. _ M y salary is determined by an administrative salary schedule. If you checked this item, please go directly to question #12 and continue to the end of the questionnaire. Do not answer questions #1 - #11. Principals' salaries are set by some combination of hindividual"and "administrative salary schedule.” M y salary is determined by a combination of "individual" and "salary schedule." _ 3. If you checked this item, please answer all questions in the questionnaire, starting with #1 . strongly agree 1 agree 2 neutral 3 disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 It nay take a while to get up my courage, but eventually I'll talk or write to my boss about the pay I think I deserve. I trust my boss to notice my abilities and to give me a raise accordingly. My style is to let others close to my boss know of my work and hope eventually I'll get the raise I deserve. ' I have never talked to the superintendent or other central office administrators about my interest in a salary increase. I have talked a few times to the superin­ tendent or other central office adminis­ trators about my interest in a salary increase. I have talked many times to the superin­ tendent or other central office administra­ tors about my interest in a salary increase. 165 I would rather move on to a new, betterpaying position than attempt to get a raise directly in my current position. strongly agree 1 8. I intend to approach the superintendent (or supervisor) sometime in the future about Obtaining a salary increase. 9. I think it would be inappropriate to ap­ proach the superintendent about a wage increase. 10. I would find it frightening to approach the superintendent about a wage increase. 11. I would find it challenging to approach the superintendent about a wage increase. 12. This principalship is an important "stepping stone" to other administrative positions I hope to hold in the future. 13. I am interested in holding a higher ad­ ministrative position, such as in the central office. 14. When I decided to enter the administration field, the principalship was my original goal. 15. I have no aspirations for other positions in education; I will probably remain a principal. agree 2 neutral 3 disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 strongly agree 1 I have career goals that will take me beyond the principalship I now hold. 17. My hopes for the future include promotions to other administrative positions in educa­ tion. IB. It's important that I talk with my superin­ tendent or someone in the central office about my career plans so they know I'm in­ terested in any future openings. 19. If an opening occurred in my district that represented a promotion for me, I would want to be asked to apply for the job before I would apply. 20. I think I've been overlooked for advance­ ment in this district, even though I'm qualified. 21. Letting people in education know of my in­ terest In promotion is an important step in actually getting a promotion. 22. If I want to advance in the profession, I need to tell my superiors of my interest in promotion. neutral 3 disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 167 16. agree 2 nzi strongly agree 1 23. Telling others in education of toy interest in promotion is unimportant to my success in getting a promotion. 24. One or two key educators have played an im­ portant part in my career and in helping advise me about doing my job. 25. If I wanted honest feedback about myself, as well as encouragement, I know one or two people in education whom I could contact right away. 26. The only people who have been very helpful in understanding me, the responsibilities I have, and my career, are members of my own family. 27. There is no one in administration whoa I could be very honest with about my job and my hopes for the future. 28. I could say that at least one older adminis­ trator has taken an interest in my career, in my successes and in my aspirations and has "shown me the ropes." 29. One of the factors that helps explain how I came to get my present position is that an­ other administrator helped by encouraging and assisting me. agree 2 neutral 3 disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 strongly agree 1 30. I can think of at least one other administra­ tor who served as an "advocate" for me and helped me become an administrator. 31. I know that 1 could count on my superiors to help me if I tried to get positions of even more responsibility— either in this dis­ trict or elsewhere. 32. I feel that central office administrators in this district have been supportive of me and are interested in my career goals. 33. I feel that other administrators expect me to be ambitious about advancement in the pro­ fession. 34. The central office administration has been noncommittal or discouraging about my career advancement. 35. The central office administration encourages me to advance in my career. 36. 1 feel that my superiors assume that I've met my career goals. 37. I am aware that administrators in this dis­ trict have informal and/or social contacts with one another. agree 2 neutral 3 disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 strongly agree 1 38. Frequent informal and/or social contacts with other administrators are a part of the process of "getting ahead" in the profession. 39. I participate in informal and/or social con­ tacts with administrators as frequently as do other administrators in this district. 40. I often initiate informal and/or social con tacts with administrators. 41. When asked to participate in an informal and/ or social event with administrators, I usually accept. 42. agree 2 ----- Hie informal and/or social contacts in which I participate usually include just administrators of my own sex.----------------------------------------- ----- Think about how you have communicated your career goals to others. Look at the list below and on the next page. Check off all items that apply to you during the past 12 months. 43. ______I've discussed my plans informally with other principals. 44. I've talked about my plans informally with the superintendent. 45. ______ I've discussed my plans with central office administrators. neutral 3 disagree 4 strongly disagree 5 46. ______I ’ve made an appointment to talk to the superintendent about plans. 47. ______ I’ve sought advice and talked to administrators outside my district. 48. ______ I ’ve discussed my plans with university education professors. 49. ______ I’ve asked my superintendent to write a recommendation for me. 50. ______I’ve asked to have placement notices sent to me. 51. ______I've made sure that many people know I'm interested in advancement. 52. ______I've talked to very few people about my plans. 53. ______ I've talked to no one in education about my plans. 55. ______I've kept my plans to myself. 56. 57. I haven’t decided on my future plans yet. What is the title of your present position? _________________________________ (check one: elementary_____ jr. hi./middle school_____ high school______) 58. Check one: male 59. Age: ________ female______ 171 54. ______I’ve talked with my family about my plans. 61. Present salary: $16,999 and under $17,000 to $20,499 $20,500 to $23,999 $24,000 to $27,499 $27,500 and over 62. Number of years in administration: ________ (count the current school year) 64. Nusber of students in your school district: __________ 65. This year our principals are (check one): male only_____ female o n l y 66. If you could have any position in education in five years, what would you choose? male and female (give name of position)_______________________________________________________ 172 Thank you very much. APPENDIX F 173 APPENDIX P LIST OF MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS FROM WHICH RELIABILITY SAMPLE POPULATION WAS SELECTED1 o Battle Creek School District (Calhoun County) o Bay City Public School (Bay County) o Birmingham School District (Oakland County) o+* East Lansing Public Schools (Ingham County) o Forest Hills Public Schools - Grand Rapids P.O. (Kent County) ** o Galesburg-Augusta Community Schools (Kalamazoo County) o Grand Rapids Public Schools (Kent County) + Haslett Public Schools o+ Holt Public Schools (Ingham County) (Ingham, Eaton County) o Inkster Public Schools (Wayne County) * Jackson Public Schools (Jackson County) o+* Lansing School District (Ingham County) + Mason Public Schools (Ingham County) + Menominee Public Schools (Menominee County) ^ e y to symbols: * = questionnaire mailed to at least one male secondary principal + = questionnaire mailed to at least one male elementary principal o = questionnaire mailed to at least one female elementary principal 174 o Montrose Community Schools (Genesee County) + Okemos Public Schools * Portage Public Schools (Ingham County) (Kalamazoo County) o Royal Oak Public Schools (Oakland County) o Swartz Creek Community Schools (Genesee County) * Williamston Community Schools (Ingham County) APPENDIX G 175 APPENDIX G LIST OP MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS FROM WHICH FINAL SAMPLE POPULATION WAS SELECTED1 o+* Albion Public School (Calhoun County) +* Baraga Twp. Schools (Baraga County) * Bath Community Schools o+ fielding Area Schools (Clinton County) (Ionia County) o+* Benton Harbor Area Schools Bessemer Public Schools (Berrien County) (Gogebic County) o* Birch Run Area Schools (Saginaw County) o Brimley Public Schools (Chippewa County) o* Caro Community Schools (Tuscola County) o Carson City-Crystal Area Schools o Cass City Public Schools o* Cassopolis Public Schools (Tuscola County) (Cass County) o* Cedar Springs Public Schools (Kent County) + Climax-Scotts Community Schools o* Clinton Community Schools (Montcalm County) (Kalamazoo County) (Lenawee County) ^ e y to symbols: * = questionnaire mailed to at least one male secondary principal + = questionnaire mailed to at least one male elementary principal o 8 questionnaire mailed to at least one female elementary principal 176 o* Coloma Community Schools o Colon Community Schools (Berrien County) (St. Joseph County) Concord Community Schools (Jackson County) o Constantine Public Schools (St. Joseph County) +* Croswell-Lexington Community Schools o+* Davison Community Schools o+* Dowagiac Union Schools (Sanilac County) (Genesee County) (Cass County) + Dundee Community Schools (Monroe County) +* Eaton Rapids Public Schools +* Eau Claire Public Schools (Berrien County) o+* Edwardsburg Public Schools Elk Rapids Public Schools Evart Public Schools (Eaton County) (Cass County) (Antrim County) (Osceola County) o Fowler Public Schools (Clinton County) * Fowlerville Community Schools (Livingston County) +* Fremont Public Schools (Newago County) o+* Fruitport Community Schools +* Gaylord Community Schools o* Genesee Public Schools (Muskegon County) (Otsego County) (Genesee County) o Gibraltar School District - Rockwood P.O. (Wayne County) * Gladstone Area Public Schools o* Goodrich Area Schools (Delta County) (Genesee County) o+* Grosse lie Twp. Schools (Wayne County) +* Hamtramck Public Schools * Hanover-Horton Schools o+ Hartford Public Schools (Wayne County) (Jackson County) (VanBuren County) 177 +* Hartland (Livingston County) + Haslett Public Schools (Ingham County) * Hemlock Public Schools (Saginaw County) o* Hesperia (Newago County) * Hillsdale Community Schools (Hillsdale County) Homer Community Schools (Calhoun County) Hopkins Public Schools (Allegan County) * Hudson Area Schools (Lenawee County) +* Hudsonville Public Schools (Ottowa County) * Inland Lakes Schools - Indian River P.O. (Cheboygan County) Ithaca Public Schools (Gratiot County) Jonesville Community Schools (Hillsdale County) 0+ Kearsley Community Schools - Flint P.O. (Genesee County) Kinde North Huron Schools (Huron County) o+* Lakeshore Public Schools - Stevensville P.O. (Berrien County) o Lakeview Schools - Battle Creek P.O. (Calhoun County) o Lawton Community Schools Leslie Public Schools (Van Buren County) (Ingham County) +* Linden Community Schools (Genesee County) Litchfield Community Schools +* Lowell Area Schools (Hillsdale County) (Kent County) + Mancelona Public Schools (Antrim County) + Maple Valley Schools - Vermontville P.O. (Eaton County) Marion Public Schools (Osceola County) 178 o+* Marquette Public Schools (Marquette County) +* Marshall Public Schools (Calhoun County) +* Mason Public Schools (Ingham County) Mayville Community Schools (Tuscola County) + Mendon Community Schools (St. Joseph County) o+ Merrill Community Schools (Saginaw County) * Mesick Consolidated Schools 0 -4- Midland Public Schools (Midland County) (Midland County) Montrose Community Schools +* Negaunee Public Schools (Genesee County) (Marquette County) + New Haven Community Schools (Macomb County) o* Niles Community Schools (Berrien County) * North Dearborn Heights - Dearborn Heights P.O. (Wayne County) o Norway-Vulcan Schools (Dickinson County) o+* Okemos Public Schools (Ingham County) Onstead Community Schools (Lenawee County) +* Ortonville Brandon School District (Oakland County) + Oxford Community Schools (Oakland County) Quincy Community Schools (Branch County) * Reese Public Schools (Tuscola County) +* River Valley School District - Three Oaks P.O. (Berrien County) o+* Rockford Public Schools (Kent County) + St. Charles Community Schools (Saginaw County) * St. Louis Public Schools (Gratiot County) Sandusky Community Schools Shelby Public Schools (Sanilac County) (Oceana County) 179 o South Haven Public Schools {Van Buren County) Sturgis Public Schools (St. Joseph County) Suttons Bay Public Schools (Leelanau County) Tekonsha Community Schools (Calhoun County) + Thornapple Kellogg Schools - Middleville P.O. (Barry County) Ubly Community Schools (Huron County) o+* Van Dyke Public Schools (Oakland County) o Wayland Union Schools (Allegan County) o+* Waterford Public Schools (Oakland County) White Pine School District (Ontonagon County) + Williamston Community Schools (Ingham County) o+* Yale Public Schools (St. Clair County) o+* Ypsilanti School District (Washtenaw County)