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A N N A R B O R . Ml 4B 10 6 IB B E D F O R D ROW. L O N D O N W C1R 4 E J , E N G L A N D 7917675 BERNARD# ROBERT A D E S C R I P T I O N OF A P O P U L A T I O N OF S C H O O L V E R I F I E D L E A R N I N G 0 I 8 A B L E D C H I L D R E N IN THE S T A T E OF M I C H I G A N A C R O S S C E R T A I N S E L E C T VARIABLES, M I C H I G A N S T A T E U N I V E R S I T Y # P H . D . # 1978 U ntvm kv' .MJcrdflms rtonatorwl aoo N m s * o * a ann An,on,mi«iioe PLEASE NOTE: In a ll cases th is m aterial has been filmed In the b est possible way from the av ailab le copy. Problems encountered with th is document have been Id e n tified here with a check mark 1. Glossy photographs 2. Colored Illu s tra tio n s 3. Photographs with dark background '4. Illu s tra tio n s are poor copy____ 5. P rin t shows through as there 1s tex t on both sides of page 6. In d is tin c t, broken or small p rin t on several cages 7. Tightly bound copy with p rin t lo s t 1n s p in e ________ 8. 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Ml 48106 <3131 761-4700 throughout A DESCRIPTION OP A POPULATION OF SCHOOL VERIFIED LEARNING DISABLED CHILDREN IN THE STATE OF MICHIGAN ACROSS CERTAIN SELECT VARIABLES By R o b e r t B e rn a rd A DISSERTATION S u b m itte d to M ic h ig a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r th e d eg ree o f DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY D e p a rtm e n t o f C o u n s e lin g , P e r s o n n e l S e r v i c e s , an d E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o lo g y 1978 ABSTRACT A DESCRIPTION OP A POPULATION OF SCHOOL VERIFIED LEARNING DISABLED CHILDREN IN THE STATE OF MICHIGAN ACROSS CERTAIN SELECT VARIABLES By R o b e r t B e rn a rd P r o f e s s io n a ls fa c e d w ith th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f e v a lu a t­ in g c h i l d r e n to d e te r m in e w h e th e r t h e y h a v e a s p e c i f i c l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y do n o t h a v e a c l e a r c o n c e p t o f t h e te r m . The m a t t e r o f d e f i n i t i o n h a s becom e m ore p r e s s i n g w ith t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f PL 9 ^ - 1 ^ 2 , t h e E d u c a tio n f o r A l l H a n d i­ c a p p e d C h i ld r e n A ct o f 1975* E d u c a to r s in v o lv e d i n t h e f i e l d h a v e b e e n c h a rg e d w ith i d e n t i f y i n g t h o s e c h i l d r e n w ith s p e ­ c ific l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s , y e t t h e r e re m a in s a p e r s i s t e n t l a c k o f a c l e a r an d w o rk a b le d e f i n i t i o n . The e s s e n t i a l p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was to d e f i n e a l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n i n r e l a t i o n to c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s . S p e c if ic a lly , an a t t e m p t was m ade to d e v e lo p a f o r m u la w h ich w o u ld p r o v i d e maximum d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e tw e e n c h i l d r e n c l a s s i f i e d a s l e a r n ­ in g d i s a b l e d i n t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n and f o u r o t h e r p o p u ­ l a t i o n s ( e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d , e m o tio n a lly im p a ir e d , o t h e r w i s e - i m p a i r e d and n o n - i m p a i r e d ) . A lso i n v e s t i g a t e d Robert Bernard was t h e d e g r e e o f o v e r l a p i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e tw e e n p o p u la ­ t i o n s an d th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n i n c l u d i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a fo rm u la ( i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n p la c e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d ) w h ich i s d e s ig n e d to m e a s u re d is c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d a c h ie v e m e n t a n d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t aB m e a s u re d b y i n d i v i d u a l l y a d m in is t e r e d t e s t s . The u t i l i t y o f th e r e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s a s s u g g e s te d by B a n n a ty n e (1 9 6 8 ) was a l s o e x a m in e d . F in a lly * t h e e x t e n t to w h ic h age* sex* s o c i o ­ econom ic s t a t u s an d p r o f e s s i o n a l o p in io n s a r e r e l e v a n t to th e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s w as i n v e s t i g a t e d . E a r l i e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have o f te n p r e s e n te d fin d in g s b a s e d u p o n l i m i t e d s a m p le s . The p r e s e n t s t u d y em ployed a l a r g e r , l e s s r e s t r i c t e d sa m p le o f c h i l d r e n d raw n from *4-5 s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s th r o u g h o u t t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n . a s w e ll as u rb a n a re a s ax e re p re s e n te d . R u ral T he s t u d y in c lu d e d f o u r c o m p a r a tiv e g r o u p s i n o r d e r to p r o v i d e m ore m e a n in g fu l re s u lts . I t em ployed a s t a t i s t i c a l d e s i g n w h ic h a llo w s f o r t h e s im u lta n e o u s a n a l y s i s o f a v a r i e t y o f v a r i a b l e s . I n th e p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f 1 ,1 2 9 c h i l d r e n i n g r a d e s 1 th r o u g h 1 2 , draw n fro m *4-5 M ic h ig a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s and r e p r e s e n t i n g f o u r h a n d ic a p p e d c a t e g o r i e s a s w e l l a s o n e n o n - im p a ir e d c a t e g o r y , w e re a n a l y z e d . The p o p u l a t i o n o f c e n t r a l i n t e r e s t was t h o s e c h i l d r e n c l a s s i f i e d as le a rn in g d is a b le d . T he d a t a fro m t h i s s tu d y c a n b e su m m arize d a s f o llo w s ! Robert Bernard 1. T he p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y fo rm u la i d e n t i f i e d 3 ? .8 # o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n w h ile th e 60# f o r m u la i d e n t i f i e d 2 3 *9 %, 2. The p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e f o r ­ m ula v a r i e d a c r o s s ag e ra n g e * 3*4.*4# (*4.6 - 8 .1 1 y e a r s ) , 3 8 . 9# ( 9 . 0 - 1 1 .1 1 y e a r s ) » *4-8,8# ( 1 2 .0 - 1*4-.11 y e a r s ) and 25*7# ( 1 5 * 0 - 1 8 .6 y e a r s ) . 3« The f o rm u la i d e n t i f i e d 57»*4# o f th o s e w i t h I Q 's 90 o r a b o v e an d 2 3 . 9# w ith I Q 's b e lo w 9 0 . *4-. W h ile *4-1# o f th e m a le s w e re i d e n t i f i e d , o n l y 2 5 .*4# o f t h e f e m a le s w e re i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e f o rm u la . 5. T he f o rm u la i d e n t i f i e d 9 * 2 # , 13.*4#, *4.9# and 15*3# o f t h e EMI, E l , o t h e r w i s e - i m p a i r e d and n o n - im p a ir e d c h ild re n , r e s p e c tiv e ly . 6. T he l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p p a t t e r n o n t h e W e c h sle r s c a l e s w as S p a t i a l ( x = 9 * 1 5 ) i V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n ( x = 8 .3 3 ) and A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n (x * = 7 .1 3 ). T h is a n a l y s i s was m o st p o w e r f u l i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g b e tw e e n th e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d and EMI g r o u p s . 7. No e v id e n c e o f a n SES b i a s i n th e p la c e m e n t p r o ­ c e s s w as f o u n d . 8. T he s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t an d t h e c o n s u l t a n t w e re i n a g re e m e n t a s to l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y p la c e m e n ts 9 7 .1 # o f t h e tim e . 9* A D i s c r i m i n a n t F u n c t i o n w as d e v e lo p e d w h ic h p r e ­ d i c t e d p la c e m e n t c o r r e c t l y 67.*4# an d 6 7 . 7# o f t h e Robert Bernard tim e f o r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d , EMI an d n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p s , re s p e c tiv e ly . 10. The d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a r i a b l e s i n o r d e r o f p o w er w e re t F .S .I Q , p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y , A t t e n t i o n s c o r e , s e x , V e r b a l s c o r e , SE5 an d a g e . 11. The S p a t i a l s c o r e was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . W e c h sle r s u b t e s t s m o s t p o w e r f u l i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d t h e n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p s w e re i A r i t h m e t i c , C o d in g an d I n f o r m a t i o n . The l e a r n ­ i n g d i s a b l e d m ean s c o r e s w e re s i g n i f i c a n t l y lo w e r t h a n t h e m ean s c o r e s o f th e n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p . 12. The i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p were* V e r b a l IQ ( x e 8 6 . 5 ) i P e rfo rm a n c e IQ ( x - 91» 8) » F u l l S c a le IQ (x«88.5)* f i c a n t l y b e lo w th o s e o f t h e n o n - im p a ir e d g ro u p . 13* T h e se s c o r e s w e re s i g n i ­ A ch iev em en t s u b t e s t s m o s t e f f e c t i v e i n d i s c r i m i n a t ­ i n g b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d an d n o n - im p a ir e d g ro u p s w ere* Word R e c o g n itio n , S p e l l i n g an d A r i t h m e t i c . l*f. The num ber an d p e r c e n t a g e o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n a t e a c h s u c c e s s i v e a g e w e re i ( 3 2 . 4 # ) , 64 (2 3 * 0 $ ) a n d 39 ( 1 4 . 0 # ) , 85 ( 3 0 , 6 f t ) , 90 The mean g r a d e w as 5*1 a n d t h e m ean a g e w as 1 0 ,8 y e a r s . 15. The r a t i o o f m a le s t o f e m a le s i n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p was 3 . 4 to 1 . 16. P ra c titio n e rs n eed to e x e r c is e c a u tio n i n i d e n t i ­ fy in g c h ild re n a s le a rn in g d is a b le d . No s in g le t e s t p a tte r n o r f o rm u la e x i s t s w h ic h i d e n t i f i e s a l l su c h c h i l d r e n . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I h a v e becom e i n d e b t e d to a num ber o f i n d i v i d u a l s who h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e c o m p le tio n o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n a n d . my d o c t o r a l p ro g ra m a t M ic h ig a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . D r. H arv ey C l a r i z i o h a s s e r v e d a s t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n a n d a s my a c a d e m ic a d v i s o r . He h a s a lw a y s d e m o n s tr a te d t h e h i g h e s t p e r s o n a l an d p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a n d a r d s an d e n c o u ra g e d t h e s e s t a n d a r d s i n me. W ith o u t h i s p a t i e n c e , g u id a n c e an d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o m p le tio n o f my d o c t o r a l w ork w ould n o t h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e . He h a s my g r e a t e s t r e s ­ p e c t. D r. N ancy C a r l s o n h a s p r o v id e d i n v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e an d s c h o l a r l y a d v i c e t h r o u g h o u t my g r a d u a t e w o rk . S he h a s a lw a y s s e r v e d t o re m in d me to m a i n t a i n a d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e c h ild re n in o u r l i v e s . H e r c o n s t a n t s u p p o r t an d em p ath y th r o u g h d i f f i c u l t m om ents w i l l n e v e r b e f o r g o t t e n . D r. W illia m M eh ren s h a s c o n t r i b u t e d h i s e x p e r t know ­ l e d g e o f m e a su re m e n t a n d r e s e a r c h d e s ig n t o t h i s d i s s e r t a ­ tio n . H is p e r s o n a l s e n s i t i v i t y an d p r o f e s s i o n a l a d v i c e h a v e h e lp e d me much i n t h e p a s t t h r e e y e a r s . D r. Bob W inborn h a s s e r v e d on my d o c t o r a l c o m m itte e and h a s n e v e r b e e n to o b u s y to a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s an d p r o v i d e d ire c tio n . H is q u i e t c o u n s e l h a s a lw a y s b e e n a s o u r c e o f ii s u p p o r t to m e. I h a v e b e e n f o r t u n a t e to h a v e w o rk e d u n d e r h is d ire c tio n . T h ere w as o n e p e r s o n who s to o d by me a t t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t o f t im e s . S he w as t h e r e a t t h e l o n e l i e s t m om ents an d w as a lw a y s u n s e l f i s h l y p r e p a r e d t o make o n e m ore s a c r i f i c e f o r me. le ft. She fo u n d s t r e n g t h i n me when I th o u g h t n o n e was H er c o n s t a n t s u p p o r t an d e n c o u ra g e m e n t m ade t h e com­ p l e t i o n o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n an d my d o c t o r a l p ro g ra m p o s s i ­ b le . The a tm o s p h e r e o f lo v e w h ic h sh e a lw a y s b r i n g s to me made i t s c o m p le tio n i m p o r t a n t . d is s e r ta tio n i s d e d ic a te d . iii To my w if e , A b b ie , t h i s TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................ vi LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................... v iii C h a p te r I. II. III. IV. INTRODUCTION............................................................................. 1 Need f o r t h e S tu d y ............................................................... P u rp o s e o f t h e S tu d y .......................................................... O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e S tu d y ............................. 1 15 16 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................................................ 17 L e a r n in g D i s a b i l i t y G e n e r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s S t u d i e s .................................................................................... D is c re p a n c y F o rm u la S t u d i e s ......................................... P r o f i l e A n a ly s is S t u d i e s ................................................ A tte n tio n -C o n c e n tra tio n S t u d i e s .. . . . . . . . . . . . . S o cio e co n o m ic S t a t u s S t u d i e s ...................................... Team D e c is io n M aking S t u d i e s ...................................... 17 27 34 50 64 72 METHOD............................................................................................ 80 D a ta C o l l e c t i o n ...................................................................... S u b je c t S a m p le ........................................................................ D e s ig n ............................................................................................ A n a l y s i s ....................................................................................... P r o c e d u r e . . . . ........................................................................... Summary................ 81 86 89 91 95 101 RESULTS......................................................................................... 102 F i n d i n g s ....................................................................................... S u p p le m e n ta ry A n a ly s e s ..................................................... Summary......................................................................................... 102 117 120 Chapter V. Page DISCUSSION OF RESULTS................................................ 126 I n t e l l e c t u a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ....................................... D is c r e p a n c y B etw een A c tu a l a n d E x p e c te d A c h ie v e m e n t........................................................................... M i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d O v e r la p o f C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ................................................................. P r o f i l e A n a l y s i s .................................................................... A t t e n t i o n - C o n c e n t r a t i o n ................................................... S ex D i f f e r e n c e s ...................................................................... C h r o n o lo g ic a l A ge.................................................................. S o c io e c o n o m ic S t a t u s .......................................................... Summary......................................................... 133 1k z 1^7 151 153 15** 158 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS............................. 159 Summary....................................................... R e s u l t s ......................................................................................... C o n c l u s i o n s ................................................................................ I m p l i c a t i o n s an d R eco m m en d atio n s f o r P r a c t i t i o n e r s ...................................................................... R eco m m en d atio n s f o r F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h .................... C h a p te r Summary...................................................................... 159 162 164166 172 176 APPENDICES..................................................................................................... 177 V I. A. 126 129 LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS AND PILOT PROJECT DRAFT...................................................................... 177 ANOVA, CHI SQUARE AND DISCRIMINANT TABLES AND PLOTS............................................................... 182 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................ 191 B. v LIST OF TABLES Table 2 .1 Page R e s u l t s o f t h e M e ie r s tu d y o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n .................................... 19 2 .2 Summary o f M e rc e r e t a l . (1 9 7 6 ) s t u d y ......................... 23 2 .3 R e s u l t s o f t h e Keogh e t a l . s tu d y c o m p a rin g WISC p r o f i l e s o f EMR, LD an d LD-HA s t u d e n t s . . 39 2 .4 R e s u l t s o f t h e S m ith e t a l . (1 9 7 7 ) s t u d y ................ 49 2 .5 M a jo r f i n d i n g s o f s t u d i e s d e s c r i b i n g l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d p o p u l a t i o n s .................................... 59 3*1 S u b j e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (N = 1 1 2 9 )................................... 83 4 .1 F re q u e n c y an d p e r c e n t a g e o f LD c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d b y 60# and p ro p o s e d f o r m u l a s , im p ro v em en t r a t e u s in g th e p ro p o s e d f o r m u la , c a s e s n o t i d e n t i f i e d an d t o t a l c a s e s ................... 104 C o m p ariso n o f WISC S p a t i a l , V e rb a l an d A t t e n t i o n mean s c o r e s an d d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n m ean s c o r e s f o r e a c h g r o u p ........................ 107 F re q u e n c y and p e r c e n t a g e s f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n g ro u p p la c e m e n t a n d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s ............................................. 110 F re q u e n c y a n d p e r c e n t a g e f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n o p i n i o n o f s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t an d c o n s u l t a n t a s to w h e th e r a c h i l d s h o u ld b e p l a c e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d ................................... Ill P r e d i c t i o n R e s u l t s - F re q u e n c y an d p e r c e n ta g e o f c a s e s i d e n t i f i e d an d m i s - c l a s s i f i e d by D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s e s ....................................................... 113 P r e d i c t i o n R e s u l t s o f T h ir d an d F o u r th D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s e s ....................................................... 116 4 .2 4 .3 4 .4 4 .5 4 .6 Table 4 .7 Page F re q u e n c y an d p e r c e n t a g e o f EMI, E l , o t h e r a n d n o n - im p a i r e d c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d by p r o p o s e d c r i t e r i a ................................................................. 118 C o m p a riso n o f W e c h s le r s c o r e a c r o s s f i v e g r o u p s a n d L e a r n in g D is a b le d an d N o n -im p a ire d g ro u p d i f f e r e n c e s ............................................................................... 119 Mean g r a d e l e v e l a b o v e 60% a n d P ro p o s e d D i s ­ c r e p a n c y C r i t e r i a f o r Word R e c o g n it io n , S p e l l i n g , A r i th m e t ic a n d R e a d in g s u b t e s t s a c r o s s g r o u p s ........................................................................... 121 C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s b e tw e e n V e r b a l I Q / F u l l S c a l e IQ an d WRAT subteBt o f Word R e c o g n i t i o n , S p e l l i n g an d A r i th m e t ic f o r e a c h o f t h e f i v e g r o u p s ................................................... 122 4 .1 1 Summary o f m a jo r f i n d i n g s .................................................... 124 5 .1 F re q u e n c y o f L e a r n in g D is a b le d an d N o n -im p a ire d C h i l d r e n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d an d m i s - c l a s s i f i e d b y s e c o n d D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s ............... 141 ANOVA T a b le f o r g ro u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r c e n ­ t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t............................................................... 182 C h i S q u a re T a b le f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n d i s c r e p a n c y a n d F .S .I Q , Age an d Sex f o r e a c h g r o u p .................................................................................. I 83 B3 ANOVA T a b le f o r W e c h s le r f a c t o r s ................................... I 83 B4 Summary T a b le f o r D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s e s .................. 184 B5 Summary T a b le f o r D i s c r i m i n a n t F u n c t i o n s ................ 185 B6 Summary T a b le f o r U n s ta n d a r d iz e d D i s c r i m i n a n t F u n c tio n C o e f f i c i e n t s ............................................... 186 G roup M eans f o r f i r s t an d s e c o n d D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s e s ..................................................................... 18? 4 .8 4 .9 4 .1 0 B1 B2 B? vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3 .1 3 .2 3*3 3 .4 J f tl B1 B2 B3 Page D e s ig n o f f i r s t a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e an d c e l l s i z e {60% c r i t e r i o n ) .............................................. 92 D e s ig n o f C hi S q u a r e s f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n d i s c r e p a n c y an d Age R an g e, F u l l S c a le IQ an d S e x ................................................................... 93 D e s ig n o f f i r s t D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s 1 G roup c o u n ts a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e ...................... 96 D e s ig n o f f i r s t D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s is i P r e d i c t e d g ro u p m e m b e rs h ip ........................................... 97 R e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n p e r c e n t a g e o f L e a r n in g D is a b le d c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d b y 60 & p r o p o s e d f o r m u la s a n d F .S .I Q an d S e x ............................................. 106 . P l o t o f c a s e s f o r S eco n d D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s ........................................................................................... 188 P l o t o f c a s e s f o r T h ir d D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s ....................................................................................... P l o t o f c a s e s f o r F o u r th D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s ........................................................................................... viii 189 190 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Need f o r t h e S tu d y The im p o r ta n c e o f a c c u r a t e and e a r l y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n w ith l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s h a s b e e n s t r o n g l y empha­ s i z e d f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s (K irk and B atem an, 1962* B a n n a ty n e , 1 9 6 8 | B ry a n an d B ry a n , 1 9 7 6 ). H ow ever, p e r s o n s f a c e d w ith t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f e v a l u a t i n g c h i l d r e n to d e t e r m in e w h e th e r t h e y h a v e a s p e c i f i c l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y o f t e n do n o t h a v e a c l e a r c o n c e p t o f t h e te rm ( H a lla h a n a n d K a u ffta a n , 1 9 7 7 l A lg o n z z in e an d S u t h e r l a n d , 1 9 7 7 ). W h ile t h e f i e l d o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s i s r e l a t i v e l y y o u n g , t h e r e h a s b e e n a r a p i d g ro w th i n t h e num ber o f c h i l ­ d r e n b e i n g c l a s s i f i e d an d s e r v e d . A fte r s p e c if y in g th e d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s t h a t a r e in v o lv e d i n e s t i m a t i n g t h e i n c i d e n c e o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n , K ir k (1 9 7 2 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t fro m o n e t o t h r e e p e r c e n t a t th e l e a s t , and p o s s i b l y s e v e n p e r ­ c e n t a t t h e m o s t, o f t h e s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l r e m e d i a l e d u c a ti o n ( p . *J\5). C ru ic k s h a n k (1 9 7 7 ) q u o t e s o ne o u t s t a n d i n g e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l a s s t a t i n g t h a t 83# o f h e r c e n t e r - c i t y e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l p u p i l s f u n c t i o n e d a s i f th e y w e re p e r c e p t u a l l y h a n d ic a p p e d . 1 A r e p o r t fro m t h e U n ite d 2 S t a t e s H e a lth * E d u c a tio n an d W e lf a r e S e c r e t a r y 's N a t i o n a l A d v is o ry C o m m ittee o n D y s le x ia an d R e la t e d R e a d in g D i s o r d e r s (1 9 6 9 ) s t a t e d t h a t e i g h t m i l l i o n c h i l d r e n i n A m e r ic a 's s c h o o ls w i l l n o t l e a r n to re a d a d e q u a te ly . W ith su c h a l a r g e num ber o f th e s c h o o l ag e p o p u la tio n e x p e rie n c in g sc h o o l d i f f i c u l t i e s , t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d becom es o f g r e a t co n c ern . T he m a t t e r o f d e f i n i t i o n h a s becom e m ore p r e s s i n g w ith t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f PL 9 ^-l* * 2 . The law i c known a s "T he E d u c a tio n f o r A l l H a n d ic a p p e d C h i ld r e n A ct o f 1 9 7 5 "• S ec­ t i o n 8 o f t h e la w s p e c i f i e s t h a t t h e num ber o f " c o u n ta b le " h a n d ic a p p e d c h i l d r e n fro m t h e a g e s o f f i v e ( 5 ) to s e v e n te e n (1 7 ) w i l l b e no m ore th a n tw e lv e p e r c e n t ( 1 2 # ) . T h is c e i l ­ in g in c lu d e s a l l c h ild r e n c l a s s i f i e d a s le a r n in g d is a b le d a s w e l l a s a l l o t h e r h a n d ic a p p in g c o n d i t i o n s . C o n s e q u e n tly , t h e r e r e m a in s a v e r y r e a l q u e s t i o n h e r e a s t o who s h a l l b e se rv e d . I t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y to g iv e c o n s i d e r a t i o n to t h e o v e r l o o k i n g o f c h i l d r e n w ith l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s ( f a l s e n e g a t i v e s ) an d t h e m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h o s e who a r e n o t le a rn in g d is a b le d ( f a ls e p o s it iv e s ) . S in c e o n e e r r o r w i l l i n c r e a s e a s t h e o t h e r d e c r e a s e s , t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r n e e d s to c o n s i d e r t h e r i s k s in v o lv e d i n ea c h ty p e o f e r r o r . The i s s u e o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n dem ands a t t e n t i o n i f o ne r e a l l y d o es in te n d to s e rv e th e c h i ld e x p e rie n c in g sc h o o l d iffic u lty . ra th e r, L e a r n in g p ro b le m s do n o t d e v e lo p s u d d e n ly , t h e y a r e u s u a l l y lo n g and c o n s i s t e n t h i s t o r i e s (K eogh, 1 9 7 0 ) . F itz s im m o n s (1 9 6 9 ) r e p o r t s t h a t p o o r l y p e r f o r m in g h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s an d d r o p o u ts h ad a l r e a d y e x p e r ie n c e d t h e i r f i r s t f a i l u r e i n t h e e le m e n ta r y g r a d e s ! i ( 50# b y 2nd g r a d e , 7 5 # b y V th , 90# b y 7 t h ) . A l a c k o f e a r l y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n an d a p p r o p r i a t e p ro g ra m j m ing may a g g r a v a t e a n y i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n a c a d e m ic and s o c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ( B a n n a ty n e , 19681 C a l l , 1 9 7 0 ) . T he p r o b a b i l i t y i o f a l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d d e v e lo p in g s o c i a l o r e m o tio n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i s c o n t i n g e n t u p o n many v a r i a b l e s 1 two o f t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t b e i n g t h e s e v e r i t y an d c h r o n i c i t y o f t h e h a n - : d ic a p . C o n n o lly (1 9 7 1 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e l o n g e r a c h i l d h a s I s u s ta in e d th e d is o r d e r w ith o u t h e lp , th e g r e a t e r th e ch an ce t h a t e m o tio n a l c o n f l i c t s h a v e d e v e lo p e d an d a r e i n t e r f e r i n g w ith h i s f u n c t i o n i n g ( p . 1 5 7 )• A m a jo r o b s t a c l e to e a r l y d i a g n o s i s i s t h e p e r s i s t e n t l a c k o f a c l e a r a n d w o rk a b le d e f i n i t i o n o f " l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l ­ itie s " . T he te rm " l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y " e v o lv e d fro m a n e e d t o i d e n t i f y an d t o s e r v e a g ro u p o f c h i l d r e n who e x p e r ie n c e d i s c h o o l f a i l u r e a n d y e t e lu d e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s o f e x c e p t i o n a l i t y ( M e r c e r, 1 9 7 6 ). When a s k e d to s t a t e s p e c i f i ­ c a l l y t h e k i n d s o f s t u d e n t s who a r e to b e s e r v e d , r e s p o n s i b l e ; i n d i v i d u a l s u s u a l l y q u o te a d e f i n i t i o n s i m i l a r to t h e o n e o f f e r e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l A d v is o ry C o m m ittee on H a n d ic a p p e d C h ild r e n ! i C h ild re n w ith s p e c i a l le a r n in g d i s a b i l i t i e s e x h i b i t a d i s o r d e r i n o n e o r m ore o f th e b a s i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r i n u s i n g s p o k e n o r w r i t t e n la n g u a g e . T h e se may b e m a n ife s te d i n w r i t i n g , s p e l l i n g o r a r ith m e ti c , They i n c l u d e c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h h a v e b e e n r e f e r r e d to a s p e r c e p t u a l h a n d i c a p s , b r a i n i n j u r y , m in im a l b r a i n d y s f u n c t i o n , d y s l e x i a , d e v e lo p m e n ta l a p h a s i a , ! ! 4 e t c . They do n o t i n c l u d e l e a r n i n g p r o b le m s w h ic h a r e d u e p r i m a r i l y to v i s u a l , h e a r i n g o r m o to r h a n d i c a p s , t o m e n ta l r e t a r d a t i o n , e m o tio n a l d i s ­ tu r b a n c e o r to e n v ir o n m e n ta l d is a d v a n ta g e ( p . 4 ) . W h ile d e f i n i t i o n s l i k e t h i s o n e a llo w b r o a d g e n e r a l d e s ­ c r i p t i o n s o f c h i l d r e n , t h e y a r e to o o p e n -e n d e d a n d s u b j e c t i v e to b e u s e d a s c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s . H am m ill (1 9 7 6 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t many o f t h e w o rd s u se d i n t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s do n o t c a r r y a n y p r e c i s e m e a n in g an d t h a t s e v e r a l o f th e i d e a s e x p r e s s e d o r im p l ie d a r e c u r r e n t l y s u r ­ ro u n d e d b y p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n t r o v e r s y . Q u e s tio n s a r i s e a s to th e m e a n in g o f " b a s i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s " , " p e r c e p t u a l h a n d i c a p s " , " d y s l e x i a " o r " m in im a l b r a i n d y s f u n c t i o n " . D e f in iti o n s ,.o f t e n c o n tr a d ic to r y , abound. L i l l y (1 9 7 7 ) d e s c r i b e d a s tu d y b y t h e S o u th e r n E d u c a t i o n a l B o a rd , i n w h ich t h i r t y - f i v e (3 5 ) p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e f i e l d o f s p e c i a l e d u c a ­ t i o n re s p o n d e d t o a r e q u e s t to d e f i n e t h e te rm " c h i l d r e n w ith le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t i e s " . A t o t a l o f tw e n ty -tw o (2 2 ) s e p a r a t e te rm s w e re u se d b y o n e o r m ore o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a s a n e x a c t synonym f o r l e a r n i n g d i s o r d e r . I n a s i m i l a r v e i n , C r u ic k - sh a n k (1 9 7 2 ) c o m p ile d m ore t h a n f o r t y (4 0 ) te r r a s u s e d to i d e n t i f y e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e 'g ro u p o f c h i l d r e n . W h ile a v a r i e t y o f te r m s h a v e b e e n g e n e r a t e d to d e s c r i b e le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t i e s , th e y re m a in u n t e s t e d . One i s l e f t w ith t h e im p r e s s io n t h a t v i r t u a l l y a n y c h i l d w ith a n y p r o b ­ lem f a l l s w i t h i n t h e d o m ain o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y s p e ­ c i a l i s t (B ry a n , 1 9 7 4 ) . O th e r s c o n c u r w ith B ry a n . A fte r r e v ie w i n g t h e i s s u e , H am m ill (1 9 7 6 ) c o n c lu d e s t h a t " R e g r e t ­ t a b l y , we h a v e no c o m p le te ly s u i t a b l e d e f i n i t i o n o f l e a r n i n g d is a b ilitie s " (p . 1 0 ). And C ru ic k s h a n k (1 9 7 7 ) i s e v e n m ore p e s s i m i s t i c i n s t a t i n g t h a t i n h i s o p i n i o n "T h e s i t u a t i o n i s one o f th e w o rst i n th e t o t a l f i e l d o f p r o f e s s io n a l educa­ tio n " (p . 63). An a b s e n c e o f a w o rk a b le d e f i n i t i o n i s a m a t t e r o f c o n ­ c e r n to a l l . However* a n o t h e r p a r t o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y i n t h e f i e l d h a s to do w ith t h e u s e and m is u s e o f l a b e l s . Two p r i ­ m ary c o n c e r n s h e r e r e l a t e to a l a c k o f a p p r o p r i a t e p ro g ra m ­ m ing s u b s e q u e n t to t h e l a b e l i n g p r o c e s s a n d t h e u s e o f l a b e l s t o l e s s e n t h e b lam e s u r r o u n d i n g a c h i l d ' s s c h o o l d i f f i c u l t i e s . On t h e l a t t e r p o i n t , Ames (1 9 7 7 ) r e m a rk s th a t* Many p a r e n t s to d a y w i l l t e l l y o u , a lm o s t sm u g ly , th a t h is o r h er c h ild has a le a rn in g d is a b ili ty , a s i f t h e l a b e l m ore o r l e s s t a k e s c a r e o f t h i n g s . A t l e a s t ( i m p l i e d ) th e p a r e n t i s n o t to b la m e ( p . 7 ) . S h ep ard (1 9 7 5 ) a l s o f e e l s t h a t i f t h e c h i l d h a s a p ro b le m , p a r e n t s w a n t to b e t o l d t h a t t h e i r c h i l d i s l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b le d a s o p p o se d to a n o t h e r l a b e l o r n o n e a t a l l . In e f f e c t, s h e s e e s t h e l a b e l a s b e in g v ie w e d a s a n o p t i m i s t i c d ia g n o ­ s i s b y many p a r e n t s a n d some p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t o r s . P ara ­ d o x i c a l l y , t h e r e a r e t h o s e who r e s i s t t h i s l a b e l o n t h e g ro u n d s t h a t i t h a s no b a s i s f o r o p tim is m . th e re e x is ts l i t t l e T hey a r g u e t h a t o r no r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n i n i t i a l d i a g ­ n o s i s an d l a t e r p ro g ra m m in g . T h e se i n d i v i d u a l s p r e s e n t a s t r o n g c a s e , o n e w h ic h i s h e a v i l y r e i n f o r c e d i n t h e l i t e r a ­ t u r e (H o b b s, 1975)* One s e r i o u s m a t t e r h e r e r e l a t e s t o t h e p ro b le m o f o v e r ­ l a p o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e tw e e n h a n d ic a p p e d p o p u l a t i o n s . C l e a r l y , c e r t a i n d i s t i n c t i o n s , s u c h a s IQ d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n 6 e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d a n d o t h e r c h i l d r e n , c a n o f t e n b e m ade. H ow ever, i t i s s t i l l t r u e t h a t t h o s e c o n s i d e r e d l e a r n ­ in g d i s a b l e d , m i l d l y e m o tio n a lly im p a ir e d an d m i l d l y m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d o f t e n s h a r e much i n common (H u elsm an , 1 9 7 0 j H a l l a h a n Sc K au ffm an , 1977)* i t is R e s e a r c h e v id e n c e d e m o n s tr a te s t h a t e x tr e m e ly d i f f i c u l t t o s e p a r a t e t h e s e c h i l d r e n m e a n in g ­ f u l l y in to th e s e c a te g o r ie s . I n a d d r e s s i n g t h i s i s s u e , B ry an ( 1976) w r ite s t h a t le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild re n ! . . . d e m o n s t r a t e v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f c o m p e te n c e w ith c e r t a i n p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r o c e s s e s . A t t h e same tim e , t h e o v e r l a p o f p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n w ith m em bers o f o t h e r d i a g n o s t i c g r o u p s i s l i k e l y to b e g r e a t , p o s s i b l y s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t to p r e ­ c l u d e t h e u s e o f t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n schem e f o r th e p u rp o se o f in d iv id u a l d ia g n o s is (p . 109) . W hat i s n e e d e d a t t h i s p o i n t i s a n o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i ­ t i o n o f c h i l d r e n who a r e b e i n g d e f i n e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . P e r h a p s H am m ill (1 9 7 6 ) h a s s t a t e d i t b e s t i n s a y in g th a t* L ik e i t o r n o t , s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a g e n c ie s an d l o c a l e d u c a ti o n a g e n c ie s a r e g o in g t o b e r e q u i r e d t o s e t up c r i t e r i a w h ich a r e " o b j e c t i v e " an d w h ic h c a n b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o n u m b e rs . S i t t i n g i d l y b y i n t h e i v o r y to w e r h o p in g f o r a d a y when l a b e l s w i l l b e u n n e c e s s a r y an d f u n d in g p a t t e r n s w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t i s " p i e i n t h e sk y " t h i n k i n g , an d w i l l n o t h e l p t h o s e who f a c e p r o b le m s to d a y ( p . 3 6 ) . A c l e a r s t a t e m e n t i s n e e d e d t h a t r e l i a b l y an d c o n s i s t e n t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n fro m t h o s e n o t so c la s s ifie d . C l a r i t y , h o w e v e r, i s o n ly o n e a s p e c t o f a n o p e ra tio n a l d e f in itio n ! th e o th e r i s u t i l i t y , b e m e a n in g f u l t o l a t e r p ro g ra m m in g ( L e r n e r , i.e., i t m u st 1 9 7 6 ). One m eth o d w h ich h a s b e e n em ployed to a s s i s t i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n fro m "n o rm a l" c h i l d r e n i s t h e WISC p r o f i l e ( C le m e n ts , 196^-j 7 J a s ta k and J a s ta k , b ee n fo llo w e d . 1965 ) • Two g e n e r a l l i n e s o f r e s e a r c h h a v e One h a s s o u g h t to d e te r m in e w h e th e r l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n may b e d i s c r i m i n a t e d fro m n o n - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n o n t h e b a s i s o f d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s o n t h e WISC. The s e c o n d l i n e o f r e s e a r c h l o o k s to d e te r m in e w h e th e r a p a t t e r n o f s u b t e s t s c o r e s m ig h t b e u n iq u e to c h i l d r e n w ith le a r n in g d i f f i c u l t i e s (B ry a n , 1 9 7 6 ). The p r i n c i p l e o f d i s p a r i t y , o r d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x ­ p e c t e d a n d m e a s u re d a c h ie v e m e n t, a p p e a r s to b e a k e y c o n c e p t in d e f in itio n s o f le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t i e s (M y k le b u s t and B o s h e s , 19691 K ir k , 1972* M yers a n d H am m ill, 1 9 7 6 ). The c o n ­ c e p t i m p l i e s t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d c a n 'b e r e c o g ­ n i z e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f a m e a n in g f u l d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n w h a t h e i s c a p a b l e o f d o in g a n d w h at h e i s a c t u a l l y accom ­ p lis h in g * t h a t i s , a m ark ed u n d e r a c h ie v e m e n t i n s c h o o l r e l a t ­ ed o r la n g u a g e a c t i v i t i e s . B atem an (1 9 6 5 )» f o r e x a m p le , d e ­ f i n e s c h i l d r e n w ith s p e c i f i c l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s a s th o s e who 1 . . .M a n i f e s t a n e d u c a t i o n a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i s ­ c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e i r e s t i m a t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l p o t e n t i a l an d a c t u a l l a c k o f p e r f o rm a n c e r e l a t e d to b a s i c d i s o r d e r s i n t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , w hich may o r may n o t b e a c c o m p a n ie d b y d e m o n s tr a te d c e n t r a l n e r v o u s s y s te m d y s f u n c t i o n , an d w h ich a r e n o t s e c o n d a r y t o g e n e r a l i z e d m e n ta l r e t a r d a t i o n , e d u c a tio n a l o r c u l t u r a l d e p r iv a tio n , se v e re e m o tio n a l d i s t u r b a n c e , o r s e n s o r y l o s s ( p . 2 2 0 ) . A num ber o f f o r m u la s h a v e a p p e a r e d w h ich h a v e s u g g e s te d w ays o f m e a s u r in g t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y . K ir k (1 9 7 2 ) i n s i s t s t h a t o n e m u s t e s t a b l i s h "T he g ro w th p a t t e r n o f t h e c h i l d i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s p e e r s an d t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n g ro w th w i t h i n 8 h i m s e l f '1 ( p . 35 )* H elm u th ( I 9 6 5 ) r e p o r t s B atem an * s d e f i n i ­ t i o n w h ic h i n c l u d e s t h e u s e o f common s e n s e an d e x p e r ie n c e * B atem an s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c h i l d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d s h o u ld e x h i b i t a d i s c r e p a n c y o f a p p r o x im a te ly o n e a n d o n e - h a l f y e a r s up to f o u r t h g r a d e a n d two y e a r s o r m ore p ast fifth g rad e. I n a n y c a s e , B atem an i n s i s t s a f o r m u la s h o u ld i n c l u d e t h e f a c t o r s o f c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e , m e n ta l a g e , b a c k g ro u n d a n d y e a r s i n s c h o o l . A long t h e s e l i n e s M y k le b u st and B o sh e s ( 1 9 6 9 ) em ploy a f o r m u la w h ic h d e r i v e s a " l e a r n i n g q u o tie n t" f o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s by d iv id in g th e ag e s c o re on th e t e s t by th e c h ro n o lo g ic a l age o f th e c h i ld . P re s e n tly , s e v e r a l s t a t e s em ploy a d i s c r e p a n c y c r i t e r i o n a s p a r t o f t h e i r d e f in itio n o f le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t i e s ( B r e n to n an d G i l ­ m o re , 1 9 7 6 | D a n ie ls o n an d B a u e r , 1 9 7 8 )• The c o n c e p t o f s c a t t e r , i.e., in tra -in d iv id u a l d if f e r ­ e n c e s i n s u b t e s t s c o r e s a s m e a s u re d b y s u c h i n s t r u m e n t s a s t h e WISC, lo n g th o u g h t to b e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c h i l d r e n w ith l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s , h a s b e e n c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n (H u elsm an , 1 9 7 0 | K e n d o r, 1 9 7 2 ) . K auftoan (1 9 7 6 ) f o u n d , f o r e x a m p le , t h a t WISC-R p r o f i l e s o f " n o rm a l" c h i l d r e n e x h i b i t much s c a t t e r , p r o b a b ly m ore t h a n m o s t t e s t u s e r s r e a l i z e . B a se d u p o n t h i s an d p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h , Kauftnan s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e e x a m in e r s h o u ld e x e r c i s e c a u t i o n a s t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s b a s e d u p o n s p e c i f i c s u b t e s t s c a t t e r a n d c o n c e n t r a t e m ore p a r t i c u l a r l y u p o n s u b t e s t p a t t e r n s ( V e r b a l, P e r c e p t u a l , Freedom fro m D i s t r a c t i b i l i t y ) . The c o n c e p t o f p a r t i c u l a r s u b t e s t p a t t e r n s seem s t o 9 h o l d m ore p r o m is e f o r r e s e a r c h e r s * S p e c ific a lly , re c e n t l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a s u b t e s t p a t t e r n may b e h e l p f u l i n id e n tif y in g th e le a r n in g d is a b le d c h i ld . T h is r e s e a r c h d a t e s b a c k to t h e w ork o f W itk in an d h i s a s s o c i a t e s ( W itk in , D yk, F a t e r s o n , G oodenough an d K a rp , 1962) who drew on t h e e a r l i e r w ork o f Cohen (1 9 5 9 )* Cohen p r o p o s e d t h a t WISC s u b ­ t e s t s f a l l i n t o t h r e e m a jo r f a c t o r s t h a t t a p t h r e e r e l a t i v e l y in d e p e n d e n t f u n c tio n s . I n th e m ost r e c e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s sch em e (K auftoan, 1975)» a V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n f a c t o r i s com posed o f S i m i l a r i t i e s , V o c a b u la ry an d C o m p re h e n sio n s u b t e s t s fro m t h e W e c h s le r B C alej a n A n a l y t i c - F i e l d A p p ro ach f a c t o r i s made up o f O b je c t A ssem b ly , B lo c k D e s ig n and P i c ­ t u r e C o m p le tio n s u b t e s t s * and an A tte n tio n - C o n e e n tr a tio n f a c ­ t o r i s com posed o f A r i t h m e t i c , D i g i t Span an d C o d in g s u b ­ te s ts . In d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s in s ty le o f i n t e l l e c t u a l p e r ­ fo rm a n c e a r e p re su m e d to b e r e f l e c t e d i n d i f f e r e n c e s i n p a t t e r n i n g f a c t o r s c o r e s ( W i l l s an d B a n a s , 1 9 7 6 ) . B a sed u p o n a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h ( W itk in , F a t e r s o n , G oodenough a n d B i m baum , 1966* K eo g h , 1971* A ckerm an, P e t e r s an d Dykman, 1971* R u g e l, 1 9 7 * 0 , t h e t h r e e f a c t o r a p p r o a c h to a n a l y s i s o f WISC p e r f o r m a n c e a p p e a r s p r o m is in g . H a l l (1 9 7 3 ) s e e s t h i s a n a l y s i s a s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l , a s i t g o e s b ey o n d t h e s t a n d a r d F u l l S c a l e IQ an d p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n w h ic h w o u ld b e v a l u a b l e i n s u b s e q u e n t p ro g ra m ­ m in g . He w r i t e s i I t i s tim e t o b e g in d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e t e a c h i n g m e th o d s i n o r d e r to s e e t h e e m e rg e n c e o f r e a l c l i n i c a l t e a c h i n g , w h e re t h e g o a l i s a p r e c i s e m a tc h b e tw e e n t h e c o g n i t i v e dem ands o f t h e t a s k . 10 S p e c i f i c a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r a r e a s o f s t r e n g t h and w e a k n e ss th r o u g h t h e p ro p o s e d p r o c e s s a n a l y s i s may p r o v i d e some d i r e c t i o n f o r i n d i v i d u a l i z e d p ro g ra m p l a n n i n g , t h u s i n c r e a s i n g t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e WISC i n p s y c h o e d u c a tio n a l e v a l u a t i o n ( p p . **-5) • The r e c e n t w ork o f K eogh and h e r a s s o c i a t e s (197*0* i n i t i a t e d t o d e te r m in e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r f o rm a n c e b e tw e e n l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n an d o t h e r g r o u p s , h a s b e e n e n c o u r ­ a g in g . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h a t l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n , a s a g r o u p , a p p e a r to s c o r e l o w e s t i n a t t e n t i o n a l s k i l l s r e l a t i v e to t h e i r o th e r s u b te s t s c o r e s . A g a in , how­ e v e r , t h e q u e s t i o n t h a t n e e d s to b e a d d r e s s e d r e l a t e s to o v e rla p o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The num ber o f f a l s e p o s i t i v e s an d f a l s e n e g a t i v e s t h a t may b e e x p e c te d u s i n g t h i s a p p r o a c h i s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e im p o r ta n c e . I n l i g h t o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c o n d u c te d u s i n g a t t e n t i o n a s a f a c t o r i n s c h o o l l e a r n i n g (Dykman, A ckerm an, C le m e n ts an d P e t e r s , 1971)* t h e u s e o f WISC p a t t e r n s i s o f p a r t i c u l a r in te re s t. Dykman ( i n M y k le b u s t, 1 9 7 1 ) fo u n d t h a t " h y p e r ­ a c t i v e " c h i l d r e n a p p e a r o v e r a t t e n t i v e to t h e i r e n v iro n m e n t, w h e re a s " h y p o a c tiv e " o n e s a r e u n d e r a t t e n t i v e . A c c o rd in g to L a u r i a ( 1 9 6 1 ) , t h e e f f e c t o f o v e r o r u n d e r a t t e n t i o n o n p e r f o rm a n c e i s t h e sam e. T o rg e s e n (1 9 7 7 ) i n t e r ­ p r e t s th e p o o r p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e le a r n in g d is a b le d c h i l d on many t a s k s a s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e i r f a i l u r e to d e v e lo p t h e c o g n i t i v e an d e m o tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s n e c e s s a r y to a d a p t to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a t a s k su c h a s a c t i v e an d e f f i c i e n t ta s k s t r a t e g i e s . T a r v e r an d H a ll a h a n (197*0 r e v ie w e d tw e n ty - o n e (2 1 ) 11 s t u d i e s o n a t t e n t i o n an d fo u n d t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a s co m p ared to c o n t r o l s a r e m o re d i s t r a c t i b l e , h a v e p o o r a t t e n ­ t i o n an d a r e s i t u a t i o n a l l y h y p e r a c t i v e . R u g e l (197*0 r e ­ v ie w e d t w e n t y - f i v e ( 2 5 ) s t u d i e s w h ic h r e p o r t e d WISC s c o r e s . He fo u n d d i s a b l e d r e a d e r s t o b e h i g h e s t i n t h e A n a l y t i c c a t e ­ g o r y , i n t e r m e d i a t e i n t h e C o n c e p tu a l c a t e g o r y an d l o w e s t i n th e A tte n tio n c a te g o ry . The l a s t o f t h e s e f a c t o r s was r e ­ p o r t e d t o m e a s u re d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y , m em ory. k in , a t t e n t i o n an d s h o r t - t e r m S i m i l a r r e s u l t s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d b y o t h e r s ( W it- 1966* B a n n a ty n e , 19681 K eogh, 197*0 • I t a p p e a r s t h a t a t t e n t i o n may v e r y w e l l b e a f a c t o r t h a t c o u ld b e e f f e c t i v e i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h ild re n . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n b o th i d e n ­ t i f i c a t i o n an d r e m e d i a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n i s a p p a re n t. H ow ever, o n e n e e d s to c o n s i d e r t h e e x t e n t to w h ich o t h e r c h i l d r e n su c h a s t h e e m o tio n a lly d i s t u r b e d , m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d an d c u l t u r a l l y d is a d v a n ta g e d may a l s o b e i n a t t e n t i v e . The d i f f i c u l t i e s in v o lv e d i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n an d t h e g e n e r i c u s e o f t h e te rm h a s r a i s e d o t h e r i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s a s to who s h a l l o r s h a ll n o t be se rv e d . T h e se q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n t h e f a c t o r s o f IQ , a g e , s e x an d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . The i s s u e o f IQ i s much d e b a te d . W h ile som e, s u c h a s C ru ic k s h a n k (1 9 7 7 )» a s s e r t t h a t IQ s h o u ld n o t b e a c o n s i d e r a ­ t i o n i n an y d i a g n o s i s , o t h e r s (Am es, 19681 S h e p a rd , 1975) c a u t i o n t h a t a d i s t i n c t i o n m u s t b e made b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d an d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l " s lo w l e a r n e r " . Ames (1 9 7 7 ) 12 p o i n t s o u t t h a t to o o f t e n t h o s e c l a s s i f i e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b le d a r e s im p ly o v e r p la c e d and i n e v i t a b l y f a i l * She w r i t e s th a tt I t i s e v id e n t t h a t a s in te lli g e n c e t e s tin g and th e u s e o f IQ s c o r e s becom es l e s s a c c e p t ­ a b l e an d l e s s p r e v a l e n t , t h e l a b e l " l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d " h a s becom e m ore c o m f o r ta b le th a n th e l a b e l "low i n t e l l i g e n c e " e s p e c i a l l y to th o s e p a r e n t s w hose c h i l d r e n h av e low o r m o d e st i n t e l l i g e n c e ( p p . 7 - 8 ) , S h e p a rd (1 9 7 5 ) r e i n f o r c e s t h i s p o s i t i o n and w arn s t h a t a d u l t e x p e c t a t i o n s may n o t b e c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e c h i l d ’ s a b i l i t y and may c a u s e e r r o n e o u s d e c i s i o n s a b o u t th e ty p e o f i n s t r u c ­ t i o n a c h i l d n e e d s , t h e r a t e a t w h ich l e a r n i n g o c c u r s and t h e s t a n d a r d s o f p e rfo rm a n c e a c h i l d c a n b e e x p e c te d to m a i n t a i n . R e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e fo u n d c h i l d r e n w ith l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b i l i t i e s to b e s c o r i n g a p p r o x im a te ly o n e s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n b elo w t h e m eans o n s ta n d a r d i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s ( K ir k , 1975)* Sex ( m a le n e s s ) h a s lo n g b e e n s e e n a s a f a c t o r r e l a t e d to sc h o o l d i f f i c u l t y . I n r e v ie w in g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f 3 ,0 0 0 c h i l d r e n w ith l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s i n 21 s t a t e s , K irk (1 9 7 5 ) fo u n d a s e x r a t i o o f t h r e e b o y s to o n e g i r l . F in d in g s w h ich r e f l e c t a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e p e r c e n t a g e o f m a le s to fe m a le s appear c o n s i s t e n t (B r e n to n and G ilm o re , 1976* C ap- la n , 1977) . One f i n a l i s s u e i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n w ith l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s h a s t o do w ith s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s (SES) and t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . W h ile many s t u d e n t s o f low so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s (LSES) e x p e r ie n c e s c h o o l d i f f i c u l t y (T e le g d y , 197*0» t h e r e r e m a in s t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e th e r SES 13 i t s e l f , and n o t sc h o o l d i f f i c u l t y p e r s e , i s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r i n t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . The c a t e g o r y o f le a r n in g d i s a b i l i t y h a s b ee n a c c u se d o f b e in g p r im a r il y a m id d le o r u p p e r c l a s s (USES) phenom enon (D unn, 1 9 6 8 ) . fic a lly , S p e c i­ c r i t i c s c o n te n d t h a t w hen t h e c h o i c e o f c l a s s i f i c a ­ t i o n i s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d o r e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d (EMR), a SES b i a s i n f l u e n c e s t h e p la c e m e n t o f LSES c h i l d r e n i n t o t h e l a t t e r c a t e g o r y (B u rk e , 1975* P r a n k s , 1 9 7 7 ) . C l e a r l y , t h e E d u c a tio n f o r A l l H a n d ic a p p e d C h i l d r e n A c t (PL 9 ^ “ 1 ^ 2 ) c o n t a i n s a c l a u s e w h ic h e x c lu d e s t h o s e fro m e l i g i b i l i t y a s le a r n in g d is a b le d i f sc h o o l d i f f i c u l t y i s fo u n d to b e " p r i m a r i l y d u e t o c u l t u r a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s " . How­ e v e r , t h i s s h o u ld n o t p r e c l u d e t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a p r o ­ p o r t i o n a t e num ber o f LSES a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . I t i s tru e t h a t s p e c i f i c l e a r n i n g d i s o r d e r s o f t h e d is a d v a n ta g e d c h i l d an d t h e s u b s e q u e n t low d e g r e e o f s c h o l a s t i c s u c c e s s h a v e lo n g been c o n s id e re d , a t l e a s t in p a r t , a r e s u l t o f p o v e r ty . How­ e v e r , w h i l e p o v e r t y c r e a t e s a m i l i e u f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c h ild h o o d l e a r n i n g d i s o r d e r s , i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e d e fin itiv e , s i n g u l a r c a u s e (K appelm an e t a l . , 1969) . O v er­ lo o k e d h e r e may b e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e LSES c h i l d i s p a r t i c u ­ l a r l y h ig h r i s k fro m t h e a s p e c t s o f p r e n a t a l d e p r i v a t i o n , b i r t h i n j u r y , n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c i t , c h i ld h o o d a c c i d e n t an d c h ro n ic i l l n e s s (K a u i a n d P a sa m a n e c k , 1 9 5 8 ) . In e f f e c t , th e i n c i d e n c e o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s may b e g r e a t e r i n low s o c io e c o n o m ic a r e a s ( K e a ly a n d M cLeod, 1 9 7 6 ) . I t r e m a in s n e c e s s a r y to e x p l o r e t h e s o c io e c o n o m ic 14 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h a n d ic a p p e d c h i l d r e n . W h ile no c a u s e - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d ) i t seem s e s s e n t i a l f o r e d u c a t o r s to b e c o g n i z a n t o f an y p o s s i b l e b i a s e f f e c t s i n t h e p la c e m e n t o f h a n d ic a p p e d c h i l d r e n * The f a c t t h a t c h i l ­ d r e n w hose d i s a b i l i t y i s fo u n d t o b e p r i m a r i l y t h e r e s u l t o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l) c u l t u r a l o r eco n o m ic d i s a d v a n t a g e m akes t h e i s s u e o f s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s ev e n m ore s e n s i t i v e . T hose m ak in g p la c e m e n t d e c i s i o n s n e e d to g u a r d a g a i n s t a b i a s e f f e c t w h ile b e in g c a r e f u l t o co m p ly t o t h e e x c l u s i o n a r y c l a u s e . The a r e a o f m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y team d e c i s i o n m a k in g h a s come u n d e r i n c r e a s e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n l a t e l y 1977l F e n to n e t a l . ) in p r e s s ) . ( F e n to n e t a l . , Some o f t h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e fo u n d t h a t a p e r f e c t b a l a n c e a n d c h e c k s y s te m d o e s n o t n e c ­ e s s a r i l y w ork a s w e l l a s many h a d e x p e c te d i t m ig h t . S in c e t h i s e n t i r e p r o c e s s may b e a t l e a s t a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e c h a r ­ a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e c h i l d r e n b e i n g p l a c e d , i t r e m a in s n e c e s s a r y to i n v e s t i g a t e how e f f e c t i v e l y i t f u n c t i o n s . To t h e e x t e n t to w h ic h t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a a l l o w s , t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s w i l l b e exam in ed i n t h i s s t u d y . C h i l d r e n w ith l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s c o n s t i t u t e a r e l a ­ t i v e l y r e c e n t a d d i t i o n to t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n . B e c a u se i n t e r e s t i n t h e s e c h i l d r e n h a s d e v e lo p e d so r a p i d l y i n t h e l a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s , e d u c a t o r s may b e c o n f u s e d a b o u t l i m i t s o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n an d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h o s e b e i n g se rv e d . T he n e e d t o c l a r i f y d e f i n i t i o n s i n t h i s a r e a c o u ld n e v e r b e m ore p r e s s i n g s i n c e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s a r e now c h a r g e d w ith t h e t a s k o f p r o v i d i n g e d u c a t i o n t o a l l h a n d ic a p p e d 15 c h i l d r e n u n d e r PL 9 ^ -1 ^ 2 a s w e l l a s PA 198 i n t h e s t a t e o f M ic h ig a n . W hat a p p e a r s t o b e n e e d e d a t t h i s tim e i s a s t u d y w h ic h s t a t i s t i c a l l y d e f in e s a p o p u la tio n o f c h ild r e n b e in g c l a s s i ­ f ie d as le a rn in g d is a b le d . An a t t e m p t t o q u a n t i f y some o f t h e m o s t w id e ly a c c e p te d b e l i e f s i n t h i s f i e l d c o u ld b e o f b o th t h e o r e t i c a l an d p r a c t i c a l im p o r ta n c e . I f an o p e ra tio n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f c h ild r e n w ith le a r n in g d i s a b i l i t i e s ca n be e s ta b lis h e d ! t h i s w o u ld b e v a l u a b l e to t h o s e i n t h e f i e l d c h a r g e d w ith t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f i d e n t i f y i n g a n d s e r v i n g th e s e c h ild r e n . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f c u r r e n t c o n c e p ts a b o u t c h i l d r e n w ith l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s do n o t h o ld up u n d e r e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e n some i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s a r e r a i s e d a s to who i s o r i s n o t b e i n g i d e n t i f i e d an d s e r v e d . H en ce, a s tu d y d e s c r i b i n g s e l e c t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a l e a r n in g d i s a b l e d p o p u l a t i o n i s m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h i s tim e . P u rp o s e o f th e S tu d y The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s tu d y i s to d e f i n e a l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b l e d p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n i n r e g a r d to c e r ­ t a i n im p o rta n t v a r i a b l e s . The l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d p o p u l a t i o n w i l l b e co m p ared to f o u r o t h e r g r o u p s h a v in g b e e n i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e E d u c a tio n P la c e m e n t an d P la n n in g C o m m ittee (M ic h ig a n S p e c i a l E d u c a tio n C o d e ), u s i n g t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n C r i t e r i a f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e h a n d ic a p p e d . a r e a s fo llo w s t 1. 2. L e a r n in g D is a b le d E d u c a b le M e n ta ll y I m p a ir e d The f i v e g r o u p s - 16 3. 4. 5. E m o tio n a lly D is tu r b e d O th e r Im p a irm e n t No R e c o g n iz e d Im p a irm e n t The s i x m a jo r p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e i ( a ) to a tte m p t t o d e v e lo p a f o r m u la w h ic h p r o v i d e s maximum d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d (SLD) an d o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n s , ( b ) to d e te r m in e t h e d e g r e e o f o v e r l a p i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e tw e e n SLD an d o t h e r c h i l d r e n , ( c ) to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e x t e n t t o w h ic h t h e S t a t e o f M i c h i g a n 's d i s c r e p a n c y g u i d e l i n e s i d e n ­ t i f y SLD, ( d ) t o a s s e s s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f SLD on t h e WISC-R a s s u g g e s te d b y B a n n a ty n e ( 1 9 6 8 ) , ( e ) to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e x t e n t to w h ic h a g e , s e x an d s o c io e c o n o m ic B t a tu s a r e r e l e v a n t to t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f h a n d ic a p p e d c h i l d r e n , an d ( f ) to m e a s u re t h e d e g r e e o f c o n g r u e n c e b e tw e e n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t an d t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s c o n s u l t a n t a s t o t h e p la c e m e n t o f a c h i l d . O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e S tu d y I n C h a p te r I I , a r e v ie w o f t h e p e r t i n e n t l i t e r a t u r e i s p r e s e n t e d , i n c l u d i n g a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s an d t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s an d p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h r e l a t ­ in g to t h i s is s u e . th e s tu d y . D e t a i l e d i n C h a p te r I I i s th e d e s i g n o f The r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p te r IV . C hap­ t e r V i n c l u d e s a d i s c u s s i o n o f 1 h e s e r e s u l t s an d C h a p te r VI c o n t a i n s a summary o f t h i s s t u d y a n d t h e c o n c l u s i o n . CHAPTER II REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE I n t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e l i t e r a t u r e p e r t i n e n t to t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y i s r e v ie w e d . E xam ined f i r s t a r e p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s t h a t have in v e s tig a te d th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c h ild r e n c l a s s i f i e d as le a rn in g d is a b le d . T h is s e c t i o n i s s u b d iv id e d i n t o i e s e x a m in in g ( a ) g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f o r m u la s , s tu d ­ (b ) d is c re p a n c y ( c ) p r o f i l e a n a l y s i s an d ( d ) a t t e n t i o n . Then r e l e ­ v a n t s t u d i e s r e l a t e d to s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s an d t h e s p e c i a l e d u c a ti o n p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s a r e p r e s e n t e d . L e a r n in g D i s a b i l i t y G e n e r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s S t u d i e s M e ie r (1 9 7 1 ) c o n d u c te d b o th a p i l o t s tu d y an d a m a jo r s tu d y to d e te r m in e t h e p r e v a l e n c e an d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s a s fo u n d i n a t o t a l o f 110 s e c o n d g r a d e c la s s r o o m s l o c a t e d i n e i g h t R ocky M o u n ta in s t a t e s . The p i l o t s tu d y w as c o n d u c te d i n a l l 3° o f t h e s e c o n d - g r a d e c l a s s e s o f t h e G r e e le y P u b l i c S c h o o ls i n G r e e le y , C o lo r a d o . The se c o n d s tu d y w as c o n d u c te d u s i n g i n s t r u m e n t s an d p r o c e d u r e s w h ich w e re r e f i n e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e o r i g i n a l s t u d y . The p i l o t s tu d y fo u n d a p p r o x im a te ly 100 c h i l d r e n o f a v e r a g e o r a b o v e a v e ra g e i n t e l l i g e n c e to be a t l e a s t one y e a r r e ta r d e d i n r e a d ­ in g . On t h e b a s i s o f a n 11% p r e v a l e n c e f i g u r e , 17 th e second 18 r e s e a r c h d e s ig n w as e s t a b l i s h e d . T he m a jo r s t u d y in c l u d e d a s c r e e n i n g o f 2,*f00 s tu d e n ts # a g e s s e v e n to e l e v e n , i n e i g h t R ocky M o u n ta in s t a t e s . T hey w e re c h i l d r e n r e p o r t e d b y t h e i r t e a c h e r s a s h a v in g u n u s u a l d i f f i c u l t y i n l e a r n i n g a n d who w ere o b s e r v e d w i t h t h e C l a s s ­ room S c r e e n in g I n s t r u m e n t ( N - ^ 7 8 ) . U l t i m a t e l y , 28^ w ere t e s t e d an d co m p ared t o a n o rm a l sa m p le (N=8 7 ) s e l e c t e d fro m t h e sam e p o p u l a t i o n . The e x p e r i m e n ta l g ro u p a s co m p ared t o t h e c o n t r o l dem on­ s t r a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t u s i n g t h e f o r m u la p r o p o s e d b y M y k le b u s t (1 9 6 8 ). T h is f o r m u la i s d e s ig n e d to t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c h i l d ' s m e n ta l a g e , h i s c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e a n d h i s s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e i n o r d e r to a r r i v e a t a n e x p e c ta n c y a g e w h ic h , i n t u r n , may b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h e c h i l d ' s p e r f o r m a n c e a g e f o r v a r i o u s s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r a l d im e n s io n s su c h a s r e a d i n g , s p e l l i n g an d a r i t h m e t i c . A d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s , w h ich w ere e n te re d in to c a lc u l a ti o n o f th e s e o v e r a ll le a r n in g q u o tie n ts , a r e t h o s e s u g g e s te d b y B a n n a ty n e ( 1 9 6 8 ) . ( F in d i n g s a r e r e p o r t e d i n T a b le 2 . 1 . ) D e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e M e ie r (1 9 7 1 ) s tu d y i n c l u d e t h e u s e o f t h e te rm l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d t o a sa m p le o f s t u d e n t s who w e re r e f e r r e d b y t e a c h e r s a s h a v in g l e a r n i n g p r o b le m s . The e x t e n t to w h ich t h e s e c h i l d r e n may o r may n o t b e l e a r n i n g d is a b le d i s u n c le a r. The s tu d y d o e s n o t r e p o r t t h e d e g r e e to w h ic h t h e s e c h i l d r e n ' s d i f f i c u l t i e s w ere d u e to s o c i a l o r e m o tio n a l p r o b le m s . I n a d d i t i o n , a num ber o f c h i l d r e n .. 19 T a b le 2 .1 - R e s u l t s o f t h e M e ie r s tu d y o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild r e n . V a ria b le Mean Exp. C h r o n o lo g ic a l Age (m o n th s ) G ra d e Age (m o n th s ) M e n ta l Age (CA X IQ ) E x p e c ta n c y Age -+ **A * CA) T e s t A d m in is te r e d 1 . P e r c e p t u a l Q u o t i e n t (DTVP) 2 . L an g u ag e Q u o t i e n t (IT PA ) C o g n i tiv e Q u o t i e n t (WISC) I V is u a l- M o to r Q u o t i e n t (VMI) 5 . A r t i c u l a t i o n Q u o t i e n t (Temp-D) 6 . R e a d in g Q u o t i e n t (WRAT) 7 . S p e l l i n g Q u o t i e n t (WRAT) 8 . A r i th m e t ic Q u o t i e n t (WRAT) C o n tro l 1 0 1 .9 5 1 0 1 .5 1 9 7 .4 3 102.00 9 8 .5 0 9 9 .8 6 89.48 9 0 .7 3 9 7 .5 2 9 9 .3 4 1 0 3 .7 0 9 0 .3 2 8 8 .3 8 9 0 .3 0 1 0 4 .9 4 9 9 .0 0 1 0 0 .7 4 1 1 0 .0 5 1 0 6 .8 5 1 0 5 .7 9 9 9 .0 3 9 4 .9 5 9 6 .0 1 IOO.6 9 1 0 2 .2 9 1 0 3 .5 3 8 9 .9 8 1 0 1 .8 0 9 4 .7 9 101.60 9 7 .4 3 IOO.56 1 0 1 ,2 3 96.00 96.00 R e s u lts S p a t i a l S core(P C _jt_12_± _0A ) C o n c e p t u a l i z i n g (Com p ^ S i m. + V oc) S e q u e n c in g °5 ) d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b e tw e e n g r o u p s , w i t h t h e s p e c i a l c l a s s s u b j e c t s o b t a i n i n g lo w e r s o c io e c o n o m ic i n d e x s c o r e s . The a u t h o r s c o n c lu d e d t h a t low s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s p r e d i s ­ p o s e s to s p e c i a l c l a s s p la c e m e n t w hen IQ an d a c h ie v e m e n t le v e ls a r e h e ld c o n s ta n t. D e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e R u b in e t a l . (1973) s tu d y in c lu d e l i m i t s to th e g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y o f r e s u l t s s in c e v a r ia b le s o t h e r t h a n s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s t h a t r e l a t e t o p l a c e m e n t may n o t have been c o n tr o lle d . F u rth e r, th e stu d y d id n o t i n ­ c l u d e a l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d s a m p le . T h e r e a p p e a r s no r e a s o n to b e l i e v e , h o w e v e r, t h a t i f s u c h s o c io e c o n o m ic b i a s d o e s e x ist, i t w ould n o t e n t e r i n t o a l l p l a c e m e n t d e c i s i o n s . B u rk e (1 9 7 5 ) ex am in ed t h e r a c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f c l a s s e s f o r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d an d t h e e d u c a b l e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e i f p r o p o r t i o n a t e n u m b e rs o f e a c h r a c e e x i s t e d i n t h e two c l a s s e s . S he h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t a l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f B l a c k s w o u ld a p p e a r i n t h e EMR c l a s s e s an d a 69 l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f W h i te s w ou ld a p p e a r i n t h e l e a r n i n g d isa b le d c la s s e s . The s a m p le i n c l u d e d 107 e d u c a b l e m e n t a l l y h a n d i c a p p e d s t u d e n t s an d 73 l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d s t u d e n t s . R e s u l t s o f t h e B u rk e (1 9 7 5 ) s t u d y c o n f ir m e d t h e e x p e c t e d phenom enon. A d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e nu m ber o f B la c k c h i l d r e n w e re o b s e r v e d i n EMR room s w h i l e m ore W h ite s w e r e i n room s f o r th e le a r n in g d is a b le d . T h e se r e s u l t s w e re c o n s i s t e n t a c r o s s a l l grade l e v e l s . L i m i t a t i o n s t o t h e B u rk e (1 9 7 5 ) s t u d y i n c l u d e t h e f a i l ­ u re to r e p o r t p la c e m e n t c r i t e r i a u sed f o r th e s e c h i ld r e n , t h e u s e o f t h e WISC r a t h e r t h a n t h e WISC-R i n e v a l u a t i o n , th e f a i l u r e to h o ld th e c r i t e r i a c o n s t a n t f o r each s u b j e c t an d t h e a n a l y s i s o f e a c h g r o u p s e p a r a t e l y . The r e s u l t s w ou ld h a v e b e e n m o re r e v e a l i n g i f t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e two t y p e s o f room s w e r e c o m p a re d . F in a lly , th e use o f ra c e e x c lu siv e ly s e r v e s to o b s c u r e m ore m e a n i n g f u l c o m p a r i s o n s s u c h a s s o c i o ­ econom ic o r i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . N e v e rth e le s s, i t i s an e m p iric a l e v a lu a tio n o f th e f a c t o r o f r a c e in th e id e n ­ t i f i c a t i o n an d p l a c e m e n t o f c h i l d r e n i n s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n c la sse s. K e a ly a n d McLeod ( 1 9 7 6 ) c o n d u c t e d o n e o f t h e few s t u d ­ i e s t h a t e x i s t r e l a t i n g t o s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s an d t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e y h y p o th e siz e d t h a t th e r e i s a h ig h e r p r o p o r tio n o f c h i l d r e n d ia g n o sed a s l e a r n ­ i n g d i s a b l e d fro m f a m i l i e s o f h i g h e r s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s t h a n fro m f a m i l i e s o f l o w e r s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . From a s a m p le o f 333 c h i l d r e n i n g r a d e s 4 a n d 6 , 35 w e r e d e f i n e d a s 70 l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a c c o r d in g to a c r i t e r i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l a g e l e s s t h a n 8 5% o f m e a s u r e d m e n t a l a g e a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l age. E i g h t e e n w e re fro m f a m i l i e s w hose s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s w as a b o v e t h e m e d ia n f o r t h e t o t a l g ro u p a n d 17 w e r e b e lo w t h e m e d ia n . K e a ly a n d McLeod ( 1 9 7 6 ) f o u n d t h a t o f t h e u p p e r SES c h ild re n , 13 (7 2 * 5 # ) h a d b e e n d i a g n o s e d by t h e P u p i l S e r v i c e D e p a r tm e n t, w h e r e a s o n l y 5 (35»2?5) o f t h e lo w e r SES g r o u p had b ee n d ia g n o se d . T h u s, no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e f i n e d l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y w e r e f o u n d b e tw e e n c h i l d r e n o f a b o v e a v e r a g e an d b e lo w a v e r a g e s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . How­ e v e r , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r a t e o f d i a g n o s i s b e tw e e n t h e s o c io e c o n o m ic g r o u p s was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n f a v o r o f c h i l d r e n fro m h i g h e r s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s hom es. The a u t h o r s s u g g e s t t h a t H i e i r r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n fro m lo w e r s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s f a m i l i e s do, i n f a c t , h av e g e n e r a l l y l e s s chance o f r e c e i v ­ in g d ia g n o s is and tr e a tm e n t and t h a t t h i s u n d e r lin e s th e n e e d f o r g r e a t e r e m p h a s is o n s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n s e r v i c e s i n s c h o o l s l o c a t e d i n lo w e r c l a s s a r e a s . One f e a r i s t h a t low a c h ie v e rs in in n e r c i t y sc h o o ls a re seen as " r e ta r d a te s " w h ile t h e i r "c o u sin s" i n th e su b u rb s a r e se en a s le a r n in g d isa b le d . F r a n k s ( 1 9 7 7 ) a t t e m p t e d t o d e f i n e t h e e t h n i c and s o c i a l s t a t u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c h i l d r e n i n EMR an d ID c l a s s e s . The a s s u m p t i o n w as t h a t a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e num ber o f c h i l ­ d r e n i n EMR c l a s s e s a r e fro m low in co m e an d n o n - w h i t e 71 fa m ilie s . To a s s e s s t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a random s a m p le o f 274 EMR c h i l d r e n (CA r a n g e =6 t o 15*4, IQ r a n g e =1+5 t o 9 3 ) was s e l e c t e d . The l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d sa m p le c o n s i s t e d o f 215 c h i l d r e n (CA r a n g e =6 t o 1 4 , IQ r a n g e =43 t o 1 2 9 ) . A ques­ t i o n n a i r e was f o r w a r d e d t o t h e t e a c h e r o f e a c h c h i l d . The q u e s t i o n n a i r e w as d e s i g n e d t o g a t h e r t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a ­ tio n ! ( a ) t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e wage e a r n e r , (b ) t h e c h i l d ' s e t h n i c o r i g i n a n d ( c ) t h e c h i l d ' s IQ . F r a n k s r e p o r t e d t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f A fr o - A m e ric a n c h i l ­ d r e n i n EMR c l a s s e s t o b e 3 4 .2 1 # j f o r W h i te s , t h e p e r c e n t a g e was 65*79#* A f r o - A m e r ic a n s i n l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c l a s s e s was 3 . 2 2 # w h i l e W h ite s i n t h e s e c l a s s e s was 9 6 . 2 8 # . F ran ks (1 9 7 7 ) a d m i t s t h a t no c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w as fo u n d b u t c a u t i o n s e d u c a t o r s to r e v i e w t h e e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f EMR and LD c l a s s e s . F r a n k s ' r e s u l t s a r e l i m i t e d i n t h a t no c r i t e r i o n was k e p t c o n s ta n t f o r th e s u b je c ts . The q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s a s to w h e t h e r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n w e re e l i g i b l e f o r EMR p l a c e m e n t an d t h e r e v e r s e f o r EMR c h i l d r e n . F u rth e r, th e u se o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e l i m i t s th e s tu d y 's v a l i d i t y . For e x a m p le , t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ( t e a c h e r s ) may h a v e s e l f s e l e c t e d ( 6 6 . 7 9 # o f EMR s a m p le a n d 8 6 . 5 # o f t h e LD s a m p le r e s p o n d e d ) . The r e s u l t s s u g g e s t , h o w e v e r, t h a t e t h n i c an d s o c i a l c h a r a c ­ t e r i s t i c s o f c h i l d r e n do v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o p l a c e m e n t . The p r e c e d i n g s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t h a t w h i l e c h i l d r e n a c r o s s SES l e v e l s e x h i b i t s i m i l a r c h a ra c te ristic s, t h e y may b e s u b j e c t t o d i f f e r e n t s p e c i a l e d u c a tio n p la c e m e n ts. A d d itio n a l e v id e n c e e x i s t s to i n d i c a t e 72 t h a t p l a c e m e n t d e c i s i o n s may h e s u b j e c t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e l i m i ­ ta tio n s# The p r e s e n t s t u d y a t t e m p t e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e q u e s t i o n o f a n SES b i a s i n t h e p l a c e m e n t o f c h i l d r e n i n t h e p u b lic sc h o o ls# B ecause o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e d a t a c o lle c te d i n th e p r e s e n t stu d y , a l l v a r ia b le s a f f e c t i n g p l a c e m e n t d e c i s i o n s c a n n o t b e e x a m in e d . H ow ever, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e d a t a a llo w s , th e s tu d y w i l l a tte m p t to d e t e r ­ m in e i f SES i s a f a c t o r i n t h e p l a c e m e n t o f c h i l d r e n a s l e a r n i n g d is a b le d , e d u c a b le m e n ta lly r e t a r d e d o r non­ im p a ire d . Team D e c i s i o n M aking S t u d i e s Oskamp ( 1 9 6 5 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d w h e t h e r p s y c h o l o g i s t s ' c o n ­ fid e n c e in t h e i r c l i n i c a l d e c is io n s i s j u s t i f i e d . I t was h y p o th e siz e d t h a t a s p s y c h o lo g is ts stu d y in fo rm a tio n ab o u t a c a s e ( a ) t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e a b o u t t h e c a s e i n c r e a s e s m a r k e d ly an d s t e a d i l y b u t ( b ) t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t th e c a se q u ic k ly re a c h e s a c e i l i n g . S u b j e c t s i n c l u d e d 32 j u d g e s , i n c l u d i n g 8 c l i n i c a l p s y ­ c h o l o g i s t s , who r e a d b a c k g ro u n d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a p u b ­ l i s h e d c a s e , d i v i d e d i n t o Ur s e c t i o n s . A fte r re a d in g each s e c t i o n o f t h e c a s e , j u d g e s a n s w e r e d a s e t o f 25 q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v i n g p e r s o n a l i t y ju d g e m e n t a b o u t t h e c a s e . s t r o n g l y c o n firm e d t h e h y p o th e s e s . R e su lts A c c u ra c y d i d n o t i n ­ c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith in c r e a s i n g in f o rm a tio n , b u t con­ f id e n c e in c r e a s e d s t e a d i l y and s i g n i f i c a n t l y . A ll ju d g e s e x c e p t 2 becam e o v e r c o n f i d e n t , m o s t o f them m a r k e d ly s o . The a u t h o r c o n c l u d e d t h a t i n c r e a s i n g f e e l i n g s o f c o n f i d e n c e 73 a r e n o t a s u re sig n o f in c re a s in g p r e d ic tiv e accuracy ab o u t a case. Morrow e t a l . (1 9 7 6 ) a t t e m p t e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t o f r e l e v a n t in f o r m a tio n on th e d e c i s i o n to p la c e p u p i l s i n s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n s e r v ic e s . Ten p l a c e m e n t d e c i s i o n c o m m it­ t e e s w e re g i v e n i n f o r m a t i o n o n 12 r e f e r r e d p u p i l s , h a l f o f w h ic h w e r e recom m ended f o r s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n s e r v i c e s by an o u t s i d e p s y c h o l o g i s t a n d h a l f o f w h ic h i n c l u d e d s o c i a l h i s ­ t o r y in f o r m a tio n on th e p u p i l s . te e s' An a n a l y s i s o f t h e co m m it­ 120 d e c i s i o n s r e v e a l e d no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e i t h e r b e tw e e n t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t ' s r e c o m m e n d a tio n an d t h e com­ m i t t e e s ' d e c i s i o n s o r b e tw e e n t h e p r e s e n c e o f s o c i a l h i s t o ­ r i e s and t h e c o m m i t t e e s ' d e c i s i o n s . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y b y Morrow e t a l . (1 9 7 6 ) c a n ­ n o t be g e n e r a liz e d b e c a u se o f th e u se o f o n ly one s o r t o f e v a l u a t i o n c o m m itte e r e s t r i c t e d t o T e x a s . Beyond t h i s , th e r e s u l t s o f two c o m m itt e e s w e re e l i m i n a t e d i n a n a l y s i s and t h e d a t a - c o l l e c t i n g p r o c e d u r e s d i d n o t r e v e a l enough i n f o r ­ m a t i o n to e x p l a i n r e s u l t s . F o r e x a m p le , t h e s i m p l e y e s / n o re s p o n s e sh o u ld h av e been a f i v e p o i n t re s p o n s e s c a le i th e u s e o f a u d i o o r v id e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g s o r p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s c o u l d h a v e r e v e a l e d m ore a b o u t c o m m itte e p o l i c y . The s t u d y i s i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r, i n t h a t i t s t a n d s a s a n e a r l y e f f o r t to i d e n t i f y v a r i a b l e s and d e c is io n -m a k in g p o l i c i e s r e l a t e d to t h e p la c e m e n t o f c h i l d r e n i n s p e c i a l e d u c a tio n . B e a tty (1977) a tte m p te d to i d e n t i f y t h e d e c is io n -m a k in g p o l i c i e s upon w h ic h p r a c t i t i o n e r s b a s e t h e i r d i a g n o s t i c 7k d e c isio n s in id e n tif y in g le a rn in g d isa b le d c h ild re n . T h ro u g h t h e s t a t i s t i c a l t e c h n i q u e o f Ju d g m e n t A n a l y s i s (JA N ), B e a t t y p r o p o s e s a m e th o d o lo g y w h e re b y a n a n a l y s i s o f i n d i v i d u a l p o l i c i e s an d t h e d i a g n o s t i c v a r i a b l e s em ployed i n g r o u p d e c i ­ s i o n s may b e i d e n t i f i e d an d ex a m in e d . JAN i s s e t f o r t h a s a p r o c e d u r e w h ic h may b e u s e d t o l o c a t e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h s i m i ­ l a r p o l i c i e s and a n a ly z e p o l i c y su b g ro u p s a s w e ll a s i n t e r ­ g ro u p c o m p a r i s o n s . B e a tty b e l ie v e s t h i s w i l l a llo w f o r i n ­ c r e a s e d p r e c i s i o n and c o n s i s t e n c y i n ju d g m e n ts . He a l s o b e lie v e s th e te c h n iq u e has v a lu e f o r p r e - s e r v ic e , i n - s e r ­ v i c e and r e s e a r c h t r a i n i n g . An i n i t i a l v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i q u e i n v o l v e d p r o ­ f i l e s f o r 10 c h i l d r e n who h a d b e e n i n a l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c lassro o m f o r a t l e a s t one y e a r . The p r o f i l e s c o r e s c o n ­ s i s t e d o f th e fo llo w in g s ix v a r ia b le s i P e r f o r m a n c e and P u l l S c a l e s c o re * age o f th e c h ild * t h e WISC V e r b a l , t h e B e n d er G e s t a l t * an d r e s u l t s from t h e ITPA. th e The j u d g e s w e re a s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t , two i n t e r n s , o n e c o n s u l t i n g p s y c h o l o g i s t an d a t e a c h e r o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . The ju d g m e n t p o l i c y o f e a c h an d t h e v a r i a b l e s i n v o l v e d w e re a n a ­ l y z e d t h r o u g h JAN, R e s u lts i n d i c a t e d t h a t s c o r e s on th e WISC w e re c o n s i d e r a b l y m ore i m p o r t a n t t o t h e j u d g e s t h a n t h e B e n d e r, a g e o r t h e ITPA r e s u l t s . A c c o r d in g to B e a t t y , 96# o f th e v a ria n c e i n th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e c h ild r e n c o u ld b e e x p l a i n e d by a k n o w le d g e o f t h e p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s . L i m i t a t i o n s to t h e B e a t t y (1 9 7 7 ) s t u d y i n c l u d e t h e s m a l l an d r e s t r i c t e d s a m p le . H ow ever, i t d o e s p r o v i d e a n 75 e f f o r t to e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f JAN, a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f ju d g m e n t p o l i c y o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . The a p p r o a c h , i f v a l i d a t e d , c o u l d h a v e many p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a ­ t i o n s f o r d e v e lo p in g p o 'lic ie s i n s c re e n in g l e a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild re n . T he s y s te m p r e s e n t s a p o s s i b i l i t y f o r e v a l u a t o r s t o h a v e a n o p p o r t u n i t y to ex am in e t h e i r p o l i c i e s and t h e p o l i c i e s o f o t h e r s , w h ile l e a r n i n g w hat i s needed to fu n c ­ tio n e f f e c tiv e ly a s a d ia g n o s tic ia n fo r le a rn in g d isa b le d c h ild re n . C a p la n ( 1 9 7 7 ) a d m i n i s t e r e d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o 280 u n i ­ v e r s i t y u n d e r g r a d u a t e s who w e r e a s k e d t o e s t a b l i s h p r i o r i t i e s f o r a s s i g n i n g t u t o r i a l h e l p to c h i l d r e n f a i l i n g i n s c h o o l . They w e re to r a t e t h e c h i l d r e n on t h e b a s i s o f v a r i o u s com­ b i n a t i o n s o f s e x , a g e , k i n d o f b e h a v i o r p r o b le m a n d s u b j e c t o f school d i f f i c u l t y . I t was p r e d i c t e d t h a t a d u l t s w ould c o n s i d e r t h e s c h o l a s t i c a c h i e v e m e n t o f b o y s m o re i m p o r t a n t th a n t h a t o f g i r l s . I t w as p r e d i c t e d a l s o t h a t t h e c h i l d ' s s e x w ould i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e c h i l d ' s b e h a v i o r t o i n f l u e n c e th e d eg ree o f a d u l t c o n c e rn . T h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s w e re fo u n d e d u po n c o n v e n t i o n a l s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p e s . H i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t m a in e f f e c t s w e re r e p o r t e d . Sub­ j e c t s r a t e d b o y s , w ith d r a w n b e h a v i o r , o l d e r (8 y e a r s ) and r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t y w e re n o t e d a s r e q u i r i n g m ore im m e d ia te h e lp th a n g i r l s , a c t i n g o u t b e h a v i o r , y o u n g e r (6 y e a r s o l d ) an d a r i t h m e t i c d i f f i c u l t y . T hese r e s u l t s s u p p o rte d t h e hypo­ th e s is t h a t a s o c i e t a l b ia s te n d s to a ro u se g r e a te r co n cern when b o y s h a v e l e a r n i n g p r o b le m s t h a n when g i r l s d o , w h ic h 76 p o s s ib ly e x a g g e ra te s th e lo p s id e d b o y / g i r l r a t i o i n r e p o r ts o f th e s e p ro b le m s. A m ore c o m p lex b i a s p r o d u c e s g r e a t e r c o n c e r n , h o w e v e r, f o r c h i l d r e n o f e i t h e r s e x w hose b e h a v i o r d e v i a t e s fro m s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p e s . The a u t h o r s f o u n d , f o r ex a m p le , t h a t w ith d r a w n b o y s an d a c t i n g o u t g i r l s w e re r a t e d a s r e q u i r i n g t h e m o s t im m e d ia te h e l p . The f i n d i n g s a r e l i m i t e d i n g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y du e t o t h e f a c t t h a t c o l l e g e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s w e re s e l e c t e d a s s u b j e c t s . The u s e o f i n d i v i d u a l s n o r m a l l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e r e f e r r a l p r o ­ c e s s w o u ld h a v e b e e n m ore a p p r o p r i a t e . A d d itio n a l d e f ic ie n ­ c i e s i n c l u d e t h e f a i l u r e t o r e p o r t on t h e s u b j e c t s i n d e t a i l and t h e l a c k o f a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d e g r e e o f o v e r l a p i n v o l v e d i n r e s p o n d e n t s ( f o r e x a m p le , how many r e s p o n d e n t s p l a c e d w ith d r a w n m a le s f i r s t ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e s u l t s a r e im p o r ­ t a n t in a d d re s s in g th e is s u e o f sex b ia s i n th e r e f e r r a l pro cess. W h ile t h i s b i a s a l o n e c a n n o t e x p l a i n t h e d i s p r o ­ p o r t i o n a t e num ber o f m a le s r e f e r r e d f o r a t t e n t i o n i t may h e l p to e x p l a i n a p o r t i o n o f t h e i s s u e . The a r e a o f m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y team d e c i s i o n m a k in g h a s come u n d e r i n c r e a s e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n l a t e l y . In p a rt th is is b e c a u s e many s t a t e s h a v e r e p l a c e d a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l , such a s a s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t , w i t h a c o m m itte e f o r m a k in g p l a c e ­ m e n t p ro g ra m m in g d e c i s i o n s . Some o f t h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e fo u n d t h a t a p e r f e c t b a l a n c e a n d c h e c k s y s te m d o e s n o t n e c ­ e s s a r i l y work a s w e l l a s many h a d e x p e c t e d i t m i g h t . F e n to n e t a l . (1 9 7 7 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e i s s u e o f r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y te a m s i n d e t e r m i n i n g 77 p r o g r a m s an d p l a c e m e n t f o r s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n s t u d e n t s . The s a m p le i n c l u d e d a l l p u b l i c s e n i o r (Nal 6 5 ) an d j u n i o r (N=136) h i g h s c h o o l s an d a random s a m p le o f o n e t h i r d o f t h e p u b l i c e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s (N « 1 2 l) i n C o n n e c t i c u t . h a l f o f th e s e sc h o o ls a g ree d to p a r t i c i p a t e . More t h a n o n e The s t u d y ex am in ed r e s p o n s e s fro m f o u r s u b g r o u p s o f t h e f i n a l sa m p le i n c l u d i n g p r i n c i p a l s (Ne231)» s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s (N—155)» s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n t e a c h e r s (N**245) and r e g u l a r e d u c a t i o n t e a c h e r s (N*=216). T w e n t y - f i v e i t e m s w e re s e l e c t e d fro m a d i s c u s s i o n o f d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a c t i v i t i e s by Vroom a n d fro m a l i s t o f PT f u n c t i o n s . The p l a c e m e n t team members i n d i c a t e d w h ic h a c t i v i t i e s w e re p e r c e i v e d a s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e i r own r o l e an d w h ic h w ere p e r c e i v e d a s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e o t h e r ro le s. R e s u lts o f th e F e n to n e t a l . (1 9 7 7 ) s t u d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was i n t r a - and i n t e r - r o l e a m b i g u i t y a b o u t w h a t a c t i v i ­ t i e s w e re a p p r o p r i a t e f o r each o f t h e f o u r t a r g e t r o l e s . The a u t h o r s p o i n t o u t t h a t s p e n d i n g tim e an d e f f o r t on s o r t ­ i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n o n e s own e x p e c t a t i o n s an d t h o s e o f o t h e r s may d e c r e a s e t h e ti m e a v a i l a b l e to sp e n d o n t a s k a c tiv itie s . They s u g g e s t t h e n e e d f o r r o l e c l a r i f i c a t i o n and c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f r o l e ex p a n sio n th ro u g h i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n ­ in g , F e n to n e t a l . ( i n p r e s s ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e d e g r e e to w h ich p u p i l p ro g ram m in g members a r e i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h o r g a n ­ iz a tio n a l g o a ls. T h i s s t u d y e x p l o r e d PT g o a l s a s p e r c e i v e d b y PT members who r e p r e s e n t e d t e n s c h o o l s t a f f r o l e s fro m * 78 t h e t h r e e m a n d a te d s u b g r o u p s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i n s t r u c t i o n a l an d s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l . The s t u d y s a m p le was t h e same a s em ployed i n t h e i r (1 9 7 7 ) i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The s t u d y u s e d i t e m s from t h e q u e s ­ t i o n n a i r e w h ic h r e q u i r e d PT members t o i n d i c a t e t h e g o a l s t h e y p e r c e i v e d a s PT r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s fro m a l i s t o f 11 p o s ­ s ib le g o a ls. R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f te a m s c o g ­ n i z a n t o f PT r e s p o n s i b i l i t y r a n g e d from 11% t o 37#* A bout o n e - t h i r d o f t h e P T 's w e re a w a re o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s r e l a t e d to g o a l s e t t i n g , p l a c e m e n t d e c i s i o n s a te n e ss. and p ro g ra m a p p r o p r i ­ O v e r a l l , l e s s t h a n 40% o f t h e P T 's h a d a t h r e e - f o u r t h m a j o r i t y who r e c o g n i z e d t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o make th e s p e c if ie d d e c is io n s . The a u t h o r s c o n c l u d e t h a t PT members a r e n e i t h e r f u l l y a w a re o f , n o r i n a g r e e m e n t a b o u t , th e ir d u tie s. They s u g ­ g e s t t h a t w hat i s needed i s an in c r e a s e d aw areness o f g o a ls a s d e s i r e d o u tc o m e s , a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f f a i l i n g t o a t t a i n a g o a l and a w i l l i n g n e s s t o make t h e i n t e r ­ n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i d e a l g o a l s b y p e r i o d i c r e v i e w o f t h e mem­ b e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f PT r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . t E ven m ore r e v e a l i n g a r e t h e r e s u l t s o f a s u b s e q u e n t s t u d y o f m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y d e c i s i o n m a k in g b y F e n to n e t a l . (in p re s s ). to d e t e r m i n e i I n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th e a u th o rs a tte m p te d ( a ) w h e t h e r te am m embers h a v e a c l e a r i d e a o f t h e g o a l s o f t h e p l a n n i n g te a m s , ( b ) i f m embers h a v e a c o n ­ s e n s u s a b o u t e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e i r own r o l e s and f o r o t h e r team m em bers, ( c ) w h e t h e r team members w e re s a t i s f i e d w i t h 79 t h e team p r o c e s s an d ( d ) t h e m a g n itu d e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n . R e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t r o l e was s i g n i f i ­ cant fo r goal c la rity * a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w e r e m o s t k n o w le d g e ­ a b l e an d r e g u l a r t e a c h e r s » t h e l e a s t . A d d itio n a lly * r e g u la r e d u c a t i o n t e a c h e r s w e re l o w e s t i n p a r t i c i p a t i o n an d s a t i s ­ f a c t i o n , w h e r e a s s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s w e re r a n k e d h i g h e s t on b o t h v a r i a b l e s . The a u t h o r s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e r e s u l t s r a i s e c o n c e r n s t h a t t h e i n t e n t o f te a m in g i s n o t s e r v e d . It ap p e a rs t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l p e rs o n n e l ap p ear to be d is e n f r a n ­ c h i s e d from t h e p r o c e s s , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l s m o s t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r im p l e m e n tin g team d e c i s i o n s . S t u d i e s e x a m in in g t h e s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n p l a c e m e n t p r o ­ c e s s r e v e a l t h a t t h i s a p p ro ac h i s n o t a s e f f e c t i v e a s had been p r e v io u s ly e x p e c te d . p a te e q u a lly . In fa c t, A l l team members do n o t p a r t i c i ­ d e c i s i o n s seem t o b e made by p e r h a p s a s few a s o n e o r two m em bers. I m p o r t a n t l y , t h o s e m a k in g th e s e p la c e m e n t d e c is io n s a r e th e o n es l e a s t in v o lv e d i n th e su b se q u en t im p le m e n ta tio n . T here a p p e a rs a need f o r s y s t e ­ m a t i c a n a l y s i s o f s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n d e c i s i o n m a k in g . CHAPTER III METHOD P re se n te d in t h i s c h a p te r i s a d e t a il e d d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e s u b j e c t s an d t h e g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e s em ployed i n t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s . In a d d itio n , th e s tu d y ’ s h y p o th e ­ ses are s e t fo rth . D a ta C o l l e c t i o n The d a t a u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y w e re c o l l e c t e d a s p a r t o f a p r o j e c t i n i t i a t e d b y t h e M ic h ig a n D e p a r tm e n t o f E d u c a t i o n , S p e c i a l E d u c a t i o n S e r v i c e s , f o r t h e 1 9 7 5 -7 6 s c h o o l y e a r . The p u r p o s e o f t h e p r o j e c t was t o e v a l u a t e an d o p e r a t i o n a l i z e a d e f in itio n o f le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t i e s . I t waB h o p e d t h a t s u c h a d e f i n i t i o n w o u ld l e n d i t s e l f t o a m ore c o n s i s t e n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n who r e q u i r e s p e c i a l p r o g ra m s a n d / o r s e r v i c e s . P o t e n t i a l p a r t i c i p a n t s w e re s e n t a l e t t e r d e s c r i b i n g t h e p r o j e c t a n d i t s p u r p o s e (A p p e n d ix A ). They w e re a s k e d t o n o t i f y D r. M. D ia n e H odson a t t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n , De­ p a r tm e n t o f E d u c a tio n , i f th e y w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n p a r t i c i ­ p a tin g . T h o se who e x p r e s s e d gin i n t e r e s t w e re d i r e c t e d t o c o m p le t e a d a t a c o l l e c t i o n fo rm f o r e a c h c h i l d s e e n b y t h e E d u c a t i o n a l P l a c e m e n t a n d P l a n n i n g C o m m itte e . 80 T h is f o rm , 81 c o m p le te d b y t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t , c o n s i s t e d o f 28 f a c t o r s d e s ig n e d to d e s c r i b e th e c h i l d ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s w e ll a s t o r e p o r t c e r t a i n d e m o g ra p h ic i n f o r m a t i o n . C h ild re n n o t c l a s s i f i e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d w e re e i t h e r fo u n d to b e n o n ­ i m p a i r e d o r w e re c l a s s i f i e d a s e d u c a b l e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d , e m o tio n a lly im p a ire d o r o th e rw is e im p a ire d , a c c o rd in g to e x is tin g s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n e l i g i b i l i t y p ro c e d u re s . The i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s fro m t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n D e p a r t ­ m e n t o f S p e c i a l E d u c a t i o n S e r v i c e s P i l o t P r o j e c t (1 9 7 5 ) r e l e ­ v a n t to t h i s s t u d y a re * 1. S c o r e s fro m t h e W e c h s le r I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a l e f o r C h ild re n - R e v ise d . 2. S c o r e s fro m t h e Wide R ange A c h ie v e m e n t T e s t . 3. S c o r e s from t h e P eab o d y I n d i v i d u a l A c h ie v e m e n t T e s t . 4. R ep o rted g ra d e p la c e m e n t o f each c h i l d . 5* R e p o rted se x o f each c h i l d . 6. R e p o r t e d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s o f e a c h c h i l d . 7. J u d g e d by a n E d u c a t i o n a l P l a c e m e n t an d P l a n n i n g C o m m ittee a s m e e t i n g t h e c r i t e r i a f o r s p e c i a l e d u c a tio n p la c e m e n t. 8. R e p o r t e d o p i n i o n o f t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t and t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y c o n s u l t a n t a s to t h e c h i l d 's e l i g i b i l i t y as le a rn in g d isa b le d . S u b j e c t Sam ple F o r t y - f i v e M ic h ig a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s a g r e e d t o r e p o r t th e r e q u e s te d in f o rm a tio n on each c h i l d e v a lu a te d d u rin g th e 197 5-7 6 s c h o o l y e a r . I n i t i a l l y e a c h o f M i c h i g a n 's 645 s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s w e re i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e . T h u s, t h e f i n a l sam­ p l e r e p r e s e n t e d 7% o f t h e t o t a l p u b l i c s c h o o l s i n M i c h i g a n . 82 C o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h D r. D ia n e H odson a n d R a lp h T u r n b u l l r e ­ v e a l e d t h a t no s y s t e m a t i c e f f o r t was made t o e s t a b l i s h a s t r a t i f i e d random s a m p le . The i n i t i a l d a t a i n c l u d e d l4**9 i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s o f w h ic h 1129 w e re u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y . Each c h i l d h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d f o r p s y c h o - e d u c a t i o n a l e v a l u a ­ tio n . A l l c h i l d r e n w e re a t t e n d i n g r e g u l a r c l a s s e s a n d / o r r e c e i v i n g s p e c i a l e d u c a tio n pro g ram s and s e r v i c e s . A ssig n ­ m e n t t o g r o u p s was d o n e by E d u c a t i o n a l P la c e m e n t a n d P l a n ­ n i n g C o m m itte e s . A summary o f s u b j e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a p p e a r s i n T a b l e 3«1« T h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e c h i l d r e n Eire d i f f e r e n t fro m o t h e r c h i l d r e n p r e v i o u s l y r e f e r r e d f o r p sy c h o -e d u c a tio n a l e v a lu a tio n in th e S ta te o f M ich ig sin . The s a m p le em ploy ed i n t h i s s t u d y h a d t h e f o l l o w i n g lim ita tio n s i 1. C o m p le te d a t a i s n o t r e p o r t e d f o r e a c h c a s e . The reaso n fo r th is i s n o t c le a r , b u t th e n e t e f f e c t i s t h a t c e r t a i n c a s e s (197&) c o u l d n o t b e u s e d i n t h i s stu d y . 2. The s a m p le c l a s s i f i e d a s n o n - i m p a i r e d may n o t t r u l y be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e e n t i r e p u b lic sc h o o l p o p u l a t i o n . A lth o u g h fo u n d t o h a v e no a p p a r e n t h a n d i c a p , t h e s e c h i l d r e n w e re r e f e r r e d f o r p s y c h o e d u c a t i o n a l e v a l u a t i o n an d t h e i n f e r e n c e i s t h a t l e E r n i n g o r b e h a v i o r a l d i f f i c u l t i e s may b e c h a r a c ­ t e r i s t i c o f t h i s group. 3. The WISC-R s u b t e s t o f D i g i t S p an was n o t r e p o r t e d . As i t i s a n a l t e r n a t e s u b t e s t , i t may v e r y w e l l n o t have been a d m in is te re d . Due t o t h e m etho d o f r e p o r t i n g d a t a , much o f i t i s n o t c o n t i n u o u s . T h i s l i m i t s som ew hat t h e s t a t i s ­ t i c a l t r e a t m e n t s em p lo y e d . 5* No s y s t e m a t i c e f f o r t was made to e s t a b l i s h a s t r a t i ­ f i e d random s a m p le . Table 3 . 1 - Subject characteristics (N=1129). L.D. E .M .I E .I. O th e r N o n -Im paired REFERRAL 1. 2. New R e f e r r a l R e -e v a lu a tio n o f S p e c ia l E d u c a tio n S tu d e n t 242 80 72 45 316 76 83 11 25 18 PRIMARY REASON FOR REFERRAL 00 1. 2. 3. B e h a v io r P roblem Academic A chievem ent P roblem P h y sic a l D is a b ilit y 37 10 52 7 64 278 3 151 2 30 1 58 4 263 6 Male Female 248 72 101 62 21 53 17 242 91 317 3 160 79 4 68 0 327 2 173 78 49 29 34 38 22 181 67 SEX 1. 2. 62 LANGUAGE IN THE HOME 1. 2. E n g lish O th e r 1 SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 1. 2. M id d le-H ig h Low 65 ^ Table 3.1 (cont'd.) E .I. O th e r N o n-Im paired L.D. :.m . i . **9 76 194 5 4l 116 9 28 46 3 10 57 26 73 229 174 149 1 0 .8 63 100 1 2 .1 46 37 1 0 .7 32 38 1 1 .2 206 128 1 0 .4 TYPE OF SCHOOL DISTRICT 1• 2. 3. Urban S uburban R ural AGE LEVEL 1. 2. 3. Young ( 0 - 1 1 . 0 y e a r s ) Old ( 1 1 . 1 - 2 4 . 0 y e a r s ) Mean ( y e a r s ) ABILITY CLASSIFICATION 1. 2. 3. 4. Above a v e ra g e ( F .S .I Q above 110) A verage (F .S .I Q 9 0 -1 0 9 ) Below a v e r a g e ( F .S .I Q l e s s th a n 90) Mean ( F .S .I Q ) 21 1 4 0 24 117 9 35 14 164 180 8 8 .5 150 6 8 .8 42 8 9 -5 56 8 0 .6 142 9 2 .5 8 40 46 6 16 5 4 11 10 1 11 3 14 52 43 GRADE LEVEL Below 1 s t 1st 2nd 00 ■p- Table 3*1 (cont’d.) E .I. O th e r N o n-Im p aired GRADE LEVEL ( c o n t . ) 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6th 7 th 8 th 9th 1 0 th 1 1 th 1 2 th Mean g r a d e NOTEi 32 37 32 31 26 21 17 13 5 3 5 .1 9 9 10 5 13 26 11 7 2 1 6 .1 Columns r e p r e s e n t d i s p o s i t i o n o f c a s e s . 10 5 6 7 11 47 37 31 25 18 21 18 16 5 .6 4 3 4 .8 oo Va 86 D e s ig n I n o r d e r to a n a ly z e th e d a ta m ost e f f e c t i v e l y , d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n s w e re u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y . sev eral V a r i a b l e s w e re a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t e l y an d t h e n a l l v a r i a b l e s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a ­ t i o n w e r e co m b in ed i n t o a s e r i e s o f d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s e s d e s i g n e d to m a x im iz e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b l e d an d o t h e r c h i l d r e n . The t o t a l s t u d y i n c l u d e s f i v e l e v e l s o f g r o u p s ( l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d , EMI, E l , o t h e r w i s e im ­ p a i r e d an d n o n - i m p a i r e d ) , t h r e e l e v e l s o f WISC f a c t o r s w h ich a r e a c o m b in a tio n o f s p e c i f i c s u b t e s t s ( S p a t i a l - P i c t u r e C o m p le t io n , B lo c k D e s i g n , O b j e c t A ssem b ly i V e r b a l- C o m p re h e n ­ sio n - S i m i l a r i t i e s , V o c a b u la r y , C o m p rehen sion * A t t e n t i o n - C o n c e n tr a tio n - A r ith m e tic , C o d in g ). P e rc e n ta g e o f d i s ­ c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c t e d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t i s i n c l u d e d u s i n g two c r i t e r i a . The f i r s t c o n s i d e r s a 60% d i s c r e p a n c y a c ro s s a l l age le v e ls* t h e seco n d v a r i e s a c c o r d in g to age l e v e l ( 0 - 8 y e a r s s k0% t 9 - 1 2 y e a r s *= 5 0%, 1 3 -1 5 y e a r s *= 60 %, 1 6 -1 8 y e a r s K 70%, E ac h o f t h e f i v e g r o u p s w as i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s t u d y a s a v a r i a b l e t o co m p a re t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e l e a r n i n g d is a b le d group to o t h e r g ro u p s . W h ile a v a r i e t y o f p r o f i l e s a r e o f te n c i t e d as b e in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e le a r n in g d i s ­ a b l e d , many o f them h a v e b e e n c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n ( C r u i c k s h a n k , 1977* H a l l a h a n an d K au ffm an , 1 9 7 7 )• One q u e s t i o n h e r e r e l a t e s to t h e i s s u e o f o v e r la p i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e ­ tw e e n g r o u p s ( B r y a n an d B r y a n , 1 9 7 6 ) . The m a t t e r o f f a l s e p o s i t i v e an d f a l s e n e g a t i v e i s e s s e n t i a l i n a n y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n 87 p ro cess. W h ile a c l u s t e r o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d may b e e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e y w o u ld b e m ore m e a n i n g f u l i f t h e y c o u l d b e shown t o d i s c r i m i n a t e t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d fro m o t h e r g r o u p s . P re v io u s r e s e a r c h has p o in te d to th e u se o f a d is c r e p ­ ancy fo rm u la i n th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f le a r n in g d is a b le d c h i l d r e n ( M e i e r , 1 9 7 1 l B r e n t o n and G ilm o r e , 1 9 7 6 ) . A t one tim e , p ro p o sed f e d e r a l g u id e lin e s in c lu d e d th e u se o f a s p e c i f i c fo rm u la i n a r r i v i n g a t a d is c re p a n c y f o r p u rp o se s of id e n tific a tio n . P r e s e n t l y , s t a t e s s u c h a s New York i n ­ c l u d e a f o r m u l a an d M ic h ig a n h a s g i v e n s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n to i t a s w e ll. I f th e r e i s one c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t h as been c o n s id e re d i n d i c a t i v e o f th e le a r n in g d is a b le d as a group, i t i s t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c t e d a c h ie v e m e n t b a s e d u p o n m e n t a l a g e an d a c t u a l a c h i e v e m e n t a s d e t e r m i n e d b y i n d i v i d u a l a c h ie v e m e n t t e s t s . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a d i s ­ c r e p a n c y f o r m u l a , h o w e v e r, h a s b e e n s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i z e d ( S a l v i a a n d C l a r k , 1973* S u l z b a c h e r a n d K e n o w itz , 1 9 7 7 ) . The r o l e o f a g e was a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d a s a v a r i a b l e i n th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild r e n . The r e ­ s e a r c h r e v i e w e d i n C h a p t e r I I , w h ic h d e a l t w i t h p r e v i o u s s tu d ie s c h a r a c te r iz in g th e le a rn in g d is a b le d c h ild , showed a g r e a t e r p e r c e n ta g e o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n to b e i d e n t i f i e d a t a y o u n g e r a g e (C . M e r c e r , 1971* E l k i n s , Im p o rta n tly , 1 975). t h e p r o p o s e d M ic h ig a n g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e u s e o f a d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u l a p r e s e n t c r i t e r i a w h ic h e x p e c t t h e d is c re p a n c y to in c r e a s e a s th e c h ild in c re a s e s i n ag e . It 88 seem s i m p o r t a n t t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e u s e o f s u c h a f o r m u l a fu n c tio n s e f f e c t iv e ly a t a l l age l e v e l s . R e s e a r c h ( B a n n a ty n e , 19681 S m ith e t a l . , 1977) p o i n t s s t r o n g l y t o a u n i q u e p r o f i l e o n WISC s u b t e s t s w h ic h w o u ld be h e lp fu l in th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e le a rn in g d is a b le d . T h i s g r o u p h a s b e e n fo u n d t o s c o r e h i g h e s t , r e l a t i v e t o t h e i r own p r o f i l e s , o n t h e S p a t i a l f a c t o r , s e c o n d h i g h e s t o n t h e V e r b a l- C o m p r e h e n s io n f a c t o r an d l o w e s t o n t h e A t t e n t i o n C o n c e n tra tio n f a c t o r . B a sed u p o n t h e s e f i n d i n g s , t h r e e f a c ­ t o r s have been in c lu d e d in t h i s stu d y . The e x t e n t t o w h ic h p re v io u sly re p o rte d p r o f il e s a re c h a r a c te r is tic o f a l l c h i l ­ d re n and n o t t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d e x c l u s i v e l y , n eed s f u r ­ t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n (H u e lsm a n , 1970* K au ffm an , 1 9 7 5 ) . Sex h a s b e e n i n c l u d e d a s a v a r i a b l e i n t h i s s t u d y s i n c e p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h h a s fo u n d s e x e f f e c t s a c r o s s s e v e r a l v a r i ­ ab le s. Keogh a n d H a l l (197*0 f o u n d m a l e s t o h a v e lo w e r s c o r e s o n t h e WISC f a c t o r o f A t t e n t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e i r own p erfo rm an ce, C a p la n (1 9 7 7 ) f o u n d a s e x b i a s i n t h e r a t e i n w h ic h c h i l d r e n a r e r e f e r r e d f o r p s y c h o - e d u c a t i o n a l e v a l u a ­ t i o n , an d m a le s h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y b e e n fo u n d (Ames, 1968* K i r k a n d E l k i n s , 1975) t o b e o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d i n p o p u l a t i o n s o f le a rn in g d isa b le d c h ild re n . The e x i s t e n c e o f a n y a g e e f f e c t i n th e u se o f th e d is c re p a n c y fo rm u la h as a ls o been e x a m in e d . P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h e x a m in in g t h e P . S . I Q o f l e a r n i n g d i s ­ ab le d c h ild re n p r e s e n ts c o n f l i c t i n g f in d in g s . K irk and E l k i n s (197*0 fo u n d t h e mean F . S . I Q t o b e 93 w h i l e S o b o tk a 89 (1 9 7 7 ) r e p o r t e d 1 0 2 .5 and Ackerman e t a l . 1 0 8 .5 . (1 9 7 1 ) r e p o r t e d S i n c e many s t a t e s (C . M e rc e r , 1971) u s e a v e r a g e i n ­ te llig e n c e o r b e tte r as a c r ite r i o n f o r e l i g i b i l i t y as le a r n ­ in g d is a b le d , i t a p p e a rs im p o rta n t to d eterm in e i f t h i s i s a r e a l is ti c p o sitio n . The e f f e c t o f F .S . I Q i n t h e u s e o f a m e n t a l a g e d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u l a h a s a l s o b e e n exam ined i n t h i s s t u d y , s i n c e i t h a s b e e n c l a im e d t h a t su c h a f o r m u l a w ould n o t a p p l y e q u a l l y a t a l l l e v e l s (H am m ill, 1 9 7 6 ) . S e v e r a l s t u d i e s h a v e p o i n t e d to a p o s s i b l e s o c io e c o n o m ic e f f e c t (R u b in e t a l . , p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . 1 9 7 3 l K e a ly and McLeod, 1976) i n t h e T h e se r e s e a r c h e r s r e p o r t t h a t p la c e m e n t a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d i s more o f t e n made i n t h e c a s e o f m id ­ d l e o r u p p e r-m id d le c l a s s c h i l d r e n . They a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t lo w e r SES c h i l d r e n a r e m ore l i k e l y t o b e p l a c e d a s EMR du e to a p la cem en t b i a s . Any p o s s i b l e b i a s , h o w ev e r, may o n l y b e e v a lu a te d a f t e r any d i f f e r e n c e in in te lle c tu a l a b ility b e tw e e n SES l e v e l s i s f i r s t a n a l y z e d . C o n s e q u e n t ly , t h e e f f e c t o f SES i n t h e p l a c e m e n t p r o c e s s , a s w e l l a s t h e d e g r e e o f c o n g r u e n c e b e tw e e n t h e o p i n i o n s o f b o t h t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o ­ l o g i s t and t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y c o n s u l t a n t , h a v e b e e n a n a ly z e d i n t h i s s tu d y . T e s t a b l e H y p o th e s e s The f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s e s w e re f o r m u l a t e d an d t e s t e d i n t h i s stu d y i H y p o t h e s i s l a i T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p and o t h e r g ro u p s i n p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c t e d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t when 90 a 60 # c r i t e r i o n i s a p p l i e d . * H y p o t h e s i s l b i T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p a n d o t h e r g r o u p s i n p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c t e d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t when t h e p r o p o s e d * * M ic h ig a n g u i d e l i n e s a r e a p p l i e d . H y p o t h e s i s 2 a » T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e f a c t o r s o f a g e r a n g e an d p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e ­ tw e e n e x p e c t e d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f le a rn in g d isa b le d c h ild re n . H y p o t h e s i s 2 b i T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e f a c t o r s o f P .S .I Q and p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c t e d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f le a rn in g d isa b le d c h ild re n . H y p o t h e s i s 2 c i T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e f a c t o r s o f s e x an d p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d and a c t u a l ac h iev e m e n t i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f le a rn in g d isa b le d c h ild re n . H y p o t h e s i s 3 a i T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d o t h e r g r o u p s on A t t e n t i o n C o n c e n t r a t i o n s c o r e s a s m e a s u r e d b y t h e W echB ler s c a l e s . H y p o t h e s i s 3 b i T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p a n d o t h e r g r o u p s on S p a t i a l s c o r e s a s m e a s u r e d b y t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s . H y p o t h e s i s 3 c i T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g r o u p a n d o t h e r g r o u p s on V e r b a l C o m p re h e n sio n s c o r e s a s m e a s u r e d by t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s . H y p o t h e s i s 4 a * T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e f a c t o r s o f g ro u p ( l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d - n o n - i m p a i r e d ) an d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n b y a n E d u c a t i o n a l P la c e m e n t an d P l a n n i n g C o m m itte e . * ** P r e s e n t a c h i e v e m e n t i n o n e o r more o f t h e b a s i c s k i l l a r e a s i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4-0# o r l e s s o f e x p e c te d a c h i e v e ­ m e n t. A s e v e r e d i s c r e p a n c y i s d e f i n e d a s f o llo w s * F o r a g e s up t o 8 - 1 1 , p r e s e n t a c h ie v e m e n t i s 6 0 # o r l e s s o f e x p e c t e d a c h ie v e m e n t! f o r a g e 9 - 0 t o 1 1 - 1 1 , a c h ie v e m e n t i s 50# o r l e s s * f o r a g e s 1 2 - 0 t o 1 4 - 1 1 , a c h ie v e m e n t i s 4 0 # o r l e s s j f o r a g e s 1 5 -0 an d a b o v e , a c h ie v e m e n t i s 30# o r l e s s . 91 H y p o t h e s i s frbi T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e f a c t o r s o f g ro u p ( l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d - e d u c a b l e m e n t a l l y i m p a i r e d ) an d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n by a n E d u c a t i o n a l P la c e m e n t an d P l a n n i n g C o m m itte e . H y p o t h e s i s 4 c i T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t an d t h e o p i n i o n o f th e l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y c o n s u l t a n t i n th e p la c e m e n t o f c h i l ­ d ren as le a rn in g d is a b le d . H y p o t h e s i s *5« T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n made to a f o r m u l a w h ic h d i s c r i m i n a t e s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n fro m o t h e r c h i l d r e n b y t h e f a c t o r s o f p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p ­ ancy, A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n , S p a t i a l . , V e r b a l- C o m p r e h e n s io n an d F u l l S c a l e IQ S c o r e s , s e x , a g e an d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . A n a ly sis A s e r ie s o f s e p a r a te a n a ly s e s , a s w e ll as a s e r i e s o f d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s e s , w e re c o n d u c t e d t o t e s t t h e h y p o t h e ­ s i s o f th e stu d y . The f i r s t o n e-w ay ANOVA i n c l u d e d f i v e l e v e l s o f g r o u p (LD, EMI, E l , O t h e r , None) c r o s s e d w i t h t h e 1 60 % d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u l a . 3 .1 . T h is d e s ig n i s in c lu d e d i n F ig u re The s e c o n d ANOVA was t h e sam e, e x c e p t t h a t t h e p r o ­ p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u l a w as u s e d . ANOVAS b e tw e e n g r o u p s was A s e r i e s o f o n e -w a y a l s o c o n d u c te d f o r e a c h a c h i e v e ­ m e n t t e s t w i t h b o t h t h e 6 0% d i s c r e p a n c y a n d t h e p r o p o s e d d is c re p a n c y fo rm u la. T hese f i n d i n g s a r e r e p o r t e d i n C h a p te r IV u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g o f S u p p le m e n ta r y A n a l y s i s . T h r e e o n e-w ay ANOVAS w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n o r d e r t o ex am ine d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d o t h e r g r o u p s o n t h e WISC s u b t e s t f a c t o r s . The f i r s t o n e -w a y ANOVA b e tw e e n g r o u p s was c r o s s e d w i t h t h e WISC f a c t o r c a l l e d A t t e n tio n -C o n c e n tra tio n . The n e x t two w e r e t h e same e x c e p t t h e 92 Group Count L e a rn in g D isa b le d 2?8 E d u c a b le M e n t a l l y Im p a ire d 141 E m o tio n a lly Im p a ire d 67 O th e r I m p a i r e d 61 N o n -I m p a ire d Mean SD M in. Max. 95% I n t . 294 F i g u r e 3 . 1 - D e s i g n o f f i r s t a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e an d c e l l s i z e (6 0 % c r i t e r i o n ) . WISC f a c t o r s o f V e r b a l- C o m p r e h e n s io n a n d S p a t i a l w e re c r o s s e d w ith th e f i v e g ro u p s. C o n f i d e n c e i n t e r v a l s a t t h e 95% l e v e l w e re e s t a b l i s h e d t o a l l o w f o r e x a m i n a t i o n o f b o t h b e tw e e n an d w i t h i n g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s . T h r e e s e p a r a t e C h i S q u a r e s w e re c o n d u c t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e new d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u l a i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a ­ tio n o f le a rn in g d isa b le d c h ild re n . The f i r s t C h i S q u a r e ex am in ed t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a g e r a n g e ( y o u n g = 4 .6 y e a r s t o 1 1 .1 1 y e a r s * o ld * = l2 .0 y e a r s t o 1 8 .6 y e a r s ) an d p e r c e n t a g e o f d isc re p a n c y . T h e s e d e s i g n s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 . The n e x t two C h i S q u a r e s a r e t h e sam e, e x c e p t t h a t t h e y ex am in ed t h e e f f e c t s o f F u l l S c a l e IQ ( 0 - 8 9 , 90 an d a b o v e ) a n d s e x (m a le -fe m a le ). F i s h e r ' s E x a c t T e s t w as u s e d w h e re C h i S q u a r e s w ere n o t a p p r o p r i a t e . The sam e p r o c e d u r e was c o n d u c t e d f o r 93 Ace R an ee - 1 1 ,1 1 1 2 .0 - 1 8 .6 U r,6 F u l l S c a l e IQ D isc re p a n c y fo rm u la Id e n tifie d Not I d e n t i f i e d n= D isc re p a n c y fo rm u la Id e n tifie d N ot I d e n t i f i e d 0 - 8 9 90 - a b o v e D isc re p a n c y fo rm u la Id e n tifie d Not I d e n t i f i e d Sex M ale F em ale F ig u re 3 .2 - D esig n o f Chi S q u a re s f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n d i s c r e p a n c y a n d Age R a n g e, F u l l S c a l e IQ a n d S e x . 94ea c h o f t h e o t h e r f o u r g ro u p s s e p a r a t e l y . T h ese f i n d i n g s a r e r e p o r t e d i n C h a p te r IV u n d e r t h e h e a d in g o f S upplem en­ t a r y A n a ly s is . C h i S q u a r e s w e re a l s o c o n d u c te d to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s an d p la c e m e n t by t h e E .P .P .C . The f i r s t C hi S q u a re h ad two l e v e l s o f g ro u p (LD-EMI) and two l e v e l s o f s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s ( m id d le - lo w ) . The se c o n d C h i S q u a re was th e same e x c e p t t h e g ro u p s exam­ in e d w ere l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d and n o n - im p a i r e d . C h i S q u a re was a l s o c o n d u c te d to exam ine t h e d e g r e e o f c o n g ru e n c e b e ­ tw ee n th e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t an d t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y c o n s u l t a n t a s to w h e th e r th e y b e l i e v e d t h e c h i l d to b e l e a r n ­ in g d is a b le d o r n o t. T h is d e s ig n i n c l u d e s 3 l e v e l s o f r e s ­ p o n s e ( y e s - n o - u n c e r t a i n ) f o r e a c h o f t h e two p r o f e s s i o n a l s a s to t h e i r o p i n i o n o f w h e th e r o r n o t t h e c h i l d was l e a r n i n g d is a b le d . A s e r i e s o f o n e-w ay ANOVAS was a l s o c o n d u c te d b e tw e e n th e f i v e g ro u p s a n d c r o s s e d w ith f a c t o r s o f PIQ , VIQ, F .S .I Q and e a c h o f t h e s e p a r a t e s u b t e s t s c o m p r is in g t h e t o t a l WISC s c a le . T h e se f i n d i n g s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p te r IV u n d e r t h e h e a d in g S u p p le m e n ta ry A n a l y s i s . F o u r s e p a r a t e D is c r im in a n t A n a ly s e s w ere c o n d u c te d . The f i r s t a n a l y s i s in c lu d e d two l e v e l s o f s e x ( m a le - f e m a le ) , two l e v e l s o f SES ( m id d le - l o w ) , two l e v e l s o f d i s c r e p a n c y (m e e ts 6 0 # -d o e s n o t ) , a s w e ll a s a g e , F u l l S c a le IQ a n d WISC f a c t o r s o f A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n , V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n an d S p a tia l, ea ch o f w h ich i s a c o n tin u o u s v a r i a b l e . T h is 95 d e s i g n w as u s e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e maximum d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h a t c o u ld b e made b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p and th e o th e r g ro u p s. F ig u r e 3 * 4 . T h is d e s i g n i s show n i n F ig u r e 3 .3 and The s e c o n d D i s c r i m i n a t e A n a ly s is w as t h e sam et e x c e p t two g r o u p s ( e m o t i o n a l l y im p a ir e d an d o t h e r w i s e im ­ p a i r e d ) w e re e l i m i n a t e d a n d t h e p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la r e p l a c e d t h e 60% f o r m u l a . in th e t h i r d a n a ly s is . F u l l S c a l e IQ w as n o t in c lu d e d I n th e f o u r th a n a l y s i s . F u ll S c a le IQ w as a g a i n in c l u d e d w h i l e WISC s c o r e s o n t h e f a c t o r s o f A t t e n t i o n - C o n c e n t r a t i o n , V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n a n d S p a t i a l w e re e l i m i n a t e d . F i n a l l y , to d e te r m in e t h e m a g n itu d e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n IQ a n d a c h ie v e m e n t s c o r e s f o r t h i s p o p u l a t i o n , c o r ­ r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s b e tw e e n V e r b a l I Q / F u l l S c a l e IQ and WHAT s u b t e s t s w e re e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e se f i n d i n g s a r e p r e ­ s e n t e d i n C h a p te r IV u n d e r t h e h e a d in g S u p p le m e n ta ry A n a l y s i s . P ro c e d u re The d a t a u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y w e re c o l l e c t e d b y t h e M ic h ig a n D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a tio n a s d e s c r i b e d p r e v i o u s l y i n t h i s c h a p te r. A f t e r r e c e i v i n g t h e d a t a , c o n t a c t w as made w ith t h e p r o j e c t d i r e c t o r , D r. M. D ia n e H o d so n , a t t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n , D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a t i o n . D r. H odson e x p l a i n e d t h e p u r p o s e s an d p r o c e d u r e s o f t h i s p r o j e c t , w h ic h w as c o n ­ d u c te d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 5 -7 6 s c h o o l y e a r . M o d i f i c a t i o n s an d a s s u m p tio n s m ade a b o u t t h e d a t a in c lu d e * Group Counto ____________________ Group_1_____Group 2 ID EMI Count 197 95 Group 3 El Group Other Group 5 None T otal *»6 50 169 577 Means ____________________ Group 1_____Group 2____ Group 3____ Group ____ Group 5____ T otal li) EMI El Other None Sex (Female = 1 Male * 2) SES (High * 1 Middle = 2 Low = 3) Age FSIQ S p a tia l Comprehension A ttention 60% Discrepancy Figure 3 . 3 - Design o f f i r s t D iscrim inant A nalysi 01 c la s s if ic a tio n technique. Group counts and P r e d i c t i o n T a b le A c tu a l Group___________ No. o f C ases___________ P r e d i c t e d Group M em bership LD EMI El O th e r Group ID 1 197 Group EMI 2 95 Group El 3 k6 Group O th e r k 50 Group None 5 189 N= *= F ig u r e 3 .^ - D e sig n o f f i r s t D is c r im in a n t A n a ly sis* g ro u p m em bership. P re d ic te d None 98 1* A l l c a s e s w h ic h h a d t h e r e l e v a n t d a t a w e re u s e d e v e n i f o t h e r d a t a w as m i s s i n g . I t w as assu m ed t h a t m is s in g d a t a d i d n o t r e f l e c t a s e l f s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s . T h is m eans t h a t s e p a r a t e a n a l y s e s o f t e n t i m e s h a v e u n e q u a l num ber o f s u b je c ts . 2 . The c a s e s w ith WISC s c o r e s w e re d ro p p e d so t h a t w h e re p o s s i b l e , a l l s u b j e c t s h ad I Q 's d e te r m in e d b y a WISC-R a d m in is tr a tio n o n ly . 3* W here e x p e c te d a c h ie v e m e n t w as r e p o r t e d b u t n o t F u l l S c a l e IQ , t h e c a s e w as n o t a n a ly z e d . 4 . A l l c h i l d r e n w ith a r e p o r t e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e l e s s th a n b y e a r s , 6 m o n th s o r g r e a t e r th a n 18 y e a r s , 6 m o n th s w e re e l i m i n a t e d , s i n c e t h e s e s t u d e n t s w e re p r o b a b ly n o t e n ­ r o l l e d i n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s an d t h e i r r e f e r r a l f o r e v a l u a ­ t i o n may w e l l i n d i c a t e a m ore s e v e r e d i s a b i l i t y t h a n w o u ld be ty p ic a l w ith in th e s c h o o ls . 5* A n a ly s e s w e re c o n d u c te d f o r b o th t h e l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b l e d g ro u p a n d t h o s e c h i l d r e n c l a s s i f i e d a s e d u c a b le men­ t a l l y im p a ir e d , e m o t i o n a l l y im p a ir e d , o t h e r w i s e im p a ir e d an d n o n - im p a i r e d . T h is p r o c e d u r e w as c o n d u c te d i n o r d e r t o max­ im iz e t h e m e a n in g o f an y f i n d i n g s . 6 . B ecau se o f th e n a tu r e o f th e d a ta , s e v e r a l p r o c e ­ d u r e s w e re em p lo y ed i n a n a l y s e s . T h e se i n c l u d e t h e u s e o f C h i S q u a r e , F i s h e r ' s E x a c t T e s t , ANOVA, D i s c r i m i n a t e A n a ly ­ s i s and C o r r e la tio n s . The v a l i d i t y o f t h e m e n ta l a g e f o r m u la i n t h e i d e n t i f i ­ c a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n w as ex am in ed i n t h i s s tu d y . The i n i t i a l f o r m u la p r o p o s e d b y t h e S t a t e o f M ic h i­ g an ( 1 9 7 5 - 7 6 ) e s t a b l i s h e d a s a c r i t e r i o n t h a t a c h i l d dem on­ s t r a t e a t l e a s t a 60# d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d a n d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t. M ore r e c e n t l y (1 9 7 7 )» M ic h ig a n p r o p o s e d a new f o r m u la w h ic h v a r i e s t h e d i s c r e p a n c y p e r c e n t a g e b y a g e ra n g e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e new f o r m u la p r o p o s e d t h e minimum d i s c r e p a n c y a t e a c h a g e r a n g e to b e a s fo llo w s * 0 - 8 .1 1 y e a r s * 4 0 # , 9 -1 1 * 1 1 y e a r s * 50# , 1 2 - 1 4 .1 1 y e a r s = 6 0 # , 15 y e a r s an d a b o v e = ? 0 # . B o th f o r m u la s w e re a p p l i e d t o e a c h 99 o f th e f iv e g ro u p s. T h is i s s i m i l a r to th e p r o c e d u r e em­ p lo y e d b y B r e n to n a n d G ilm o re ( 1 9 7 6 ) . A n a ly s is w as c o n d u c te d i n i t i a l l y to ex am in e o v e r a l l g ro u p d i f f e r e n c e s , a s w e l l a s g ro u p d i f f e r e n c e s o n e a c h o f t h e r e p o r t e d a c h ie v e m e n t t e s t s . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e new f o r m u la w as a l s o ex am in ed f o r e a c h o f t h e f i v e g r o u p s a c r o s s a g e r a n g e , s e x an d P u l l S c a le IQ . I n t h e l a s t i n s t a n c e , two l e v e l s o f IQ (O -8 9 , 90 an d a b o v e ) w e re e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e se p r o c e d u r e s w i l l h e l p to d e te r m in e t h e num ber ( i f a n y ) o f c h i l d r e n who w ould b e c o r ­ r e c t l y o r i n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d i f s u c h c r i t e r i a w e re e s ­ ta b lis h e d . E m p i r i c a l v e r i f i c a t i o n o f a m e n ta l a g e f o r m u la i s a l s o b e i n g e x a m in e d . B etw een g ro u p d i f f e r e n c e s w e re a n a ly z e d a c c o r d in g to t h e t h r e e f a c t o r schem e a s p r o p o s e d b y B a n n a ty n e ( 1 9 6 8 ) . T h e se f a c t o r s a r e c o m p ris e d o f t h e f o l l o w i n g W e c h s le r s u b te s ts * S p a t i a l ( P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n , B lo c k D e s ig n , O b je c t A ssem bly)* V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n ( V o c a b u la r y , S i m i l a r i t i e s , C o m p re h e n s io n ) 1 A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n (C o d in g , A r i t h m e t i c , D ig it S p an ). The D i g i t S p an s u b t e s t w as n o t r e p o r t e d a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e l a s t f a c t o r w as p r o r a t e d i n o r d e r t o c o r ­ re c t fo r th is . K eogh e t a l . T h is i s s i m i l a r t o t h e t e c h n i q u e u s e d b y (1 9 7 3 ) an d K eogh a n d H a l l (1 9 7 ^ -). In itia lly , a m u l t i v a r i a t e ANOVA w as u s e d h e r e , i n c l u d i n g t h e f a c t o r s o f g ro u p , se x and g r a d e . o b sc u re d r e s u l t s . S m a ll an d u n e q u a l c e l l s i z e s , h o w e v e r, O ne-w ay ANOVAS co m b in ed w ith a s e r i e s o f D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s e s w e re s u b s e q u e n t l y em ployed i n a n a l y s i s . I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s i n 100 t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s w as som ew hat l i m i t e d . W h ile d i f f e r ­ e n c e s i n SES b e tw e e n g r o u p s c o u ld b e e x a m in e d , no c a u s e e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u ld b e e x a m in e d . P re v io u s i n v e s t i g a ­ t i o n s h a v e e x p e r ie n c e d s i m i l a r p r o b le m s (M orrow , 1976* K e a ly an d M cLeod, 1 9 7 6 ) . S u b j e c t s c l a s s i f i e d a s e i t h e r h ig h o r m id d le i n s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s w e re co m b in ed i n t o o ne c a t e ­ g o r y s i n c e c e l l s i z e s i n t h e f o rm e r c a s e s w e re s m a l l . When t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p w as co m p ared to t h e e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d g r o u p , o n l y c a s e s w ith F . S . I Q 's b e lo w 70 and a d is c re p a n c y o f a t l e a s t 60% w e re i n c l u d e d . W h ile t h i s l i m i t e d t h e sa m p le s i z e , i t w as ju d g e d to b e t h e o n ly v a l i d way t o ex am in e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . E x a m in a tio n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e o p i n i o n o f th e sc h o o l p s y c h o lo g is t and th e le a r n in g d i s a b i l i t y c o n s u l­ t a n t r e p r e s e n ts an e f f o r t to e x p lo re a n o th e r a s p e c t o f th e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s a s s u g g e s te d b y B e a t t y (1 9 7 7 )* n e c e s s a r y to ex am in e n o t o n ly th e I t ap p e ars c h a ra c te ris tic s d r e n b e i n g s e r v e d i n t h e s c h o o ls b u t , w h e re p o s s i b l e , o f c h il­ to e x p l o r e t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s a s w e l l . F i n a l l y , a s e r i e s o f D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s e s w e re em­ p lo y e d i n o r d e r to m a x im iz e t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a l u e o f e a c h v a r ia b le in c lu d e d . T h is p r o c e d u r e i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t em­ p lo y e d b y A ckerm an (1 9 7 1 ) an d L e to n ( 1 9 7 2 ) . D is c rim in a te A n a ly s is w as c h o s e n to a s s e s s d i s c r i m i n a t e v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e v a r i a b l e s i n t h i s s t u d y a n d to e s t a b l i s h c la s s if ic a tio n a n a ly s is . T h is p r o c e d u r e e n t e r s a l l v a r i a b l e s th r o u g h a s t e p w i s e m eth o d s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t s e t o f 101 d is c rim in a tin g v a r ia b le s . I t i s a p o w e r f u l te c h n i q u e o f t e n u s e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n two o r m ore g r o u p s o f c a s e s a n d t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e g ro u p v a r i a b l e s t h a t m e a s u re c h a r a c t e r i s ­ t i c s o n w h ic h t h e g r o u p s a r e e x p e c te d to d i f f e r . In e ffe c t, t h e p r o c e d u r e a n a l y z e s , i . e . , m e a s u re s t h e e x t e n t t o w h ich each v a r ia b le d is c rim in a te s . c la s s ific a tio n . I t a ls o c l a s s i f i e s o r p r e d ic ts I t i s h e l p f u l i n a d e s ig n w h ic h i n c l u d e s a v a r i e t y o f v a r i a b l e s w ith u n e q u a l c e l l s i z e s . P lo ts a re a l s o c r e a t e d w h ic h a r e u s e f u l i n v i s u a l i z i n g s t a t i s t i c a l d iffe re n c e s . Summary T h is c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l t h e sa m p le an d t h e p r o c e d u r e s em ployed i n t h i s s t u d y . In a d d itio n , th e r e ­ s e a r c h d e s i g n , d a t a a n a l y s i s a n d t e s t a b l e h y p o th e s e s w e re d is c u s s e d . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s a r e p r e s e n t e d in th e n e x t c h a p te r. CHAPTER IV RESULTS F in d in g s The f i n d i n g s o f t h e t e s t s o f t h e h y p o th e s e s o f t h i s s t u d y , p l u s s u p p le m e n ta r y a n a l y s i s , a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p te r. H y p o th e s is l a « T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e ­ tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d o t h e r g r o u p s i n p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t when a 60# c r i t e r i o n i s a p p l i e d . The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d o t h e r g r o u p s 1 m ean d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s w as s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n ific a n t. H y p o th e s is l a w as r e j e c t e d a t th e p < , 0 0 0 1 l e v e l ( F b2 5 » 1 6 9 i d f 4 , 8 3 6 ) . i n T a b le B l. A c o m p le te ANOVA t a b l e 1b p r e s e n t e d I t w as c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e 60# c r i t e r i o n d o e s d i s c r i m i n a t e t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p fro m o t h e r g r o u p s . H y p o th e s is l b » T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e ­ tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p a n d o t h e r g r o u p s i n p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d and a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t when t h e p r o p o s e d M ic h ig a n g u i d e l i n e s a r e a p p lie d . The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p a n d o t h e r g ro u p mean d i s c r e p a n c y s c o r e s w as s t a t i s t i c a l l y fic a n t. s ig n i­ H y p o th e s is l b w as r e j e c t e d a t t h e p < .0 0 0 1 l e v e l ( F = 2 1 .9 3 6 j d f 4 , 8 3 6 ) . The p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la d o e s 102 103 d i s c r i m i n a t e t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p fro m o t h e r g r o u p s . I n a d d i t i o n , i t i s a m ore p o w e r f u l d i s c r i m i n a t o r t h a n t h e 60 fS c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d , m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d a n d o t h e r g ro u p b u t n o t f o r t h e e m o tio n a lly im p a ir e d o r ’n o n ­ im p a ir e d g r o u p s . H y p o th e s is 2 a i T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e f a c t o r s o f a g e r a n g e an d p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s ­ c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t i n t h e id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild r e n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a g e r a n g e a n d p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y ( s e e T a b le J f . l ) w as n o t fo u n d t o b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t. H y p o th e s is 2 a w as n o t r e j e c t e d (X2 *=o .2 8 8 6 j d f= l* p < .5 9 1 1 )* i n T a b le B2. A c o m p le te C h i S q u a re t a b l e i s p r e s e n t e d The p e r c e n t a g e o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d i n c r e a s e s w i t h e a c h a g e r a n g e w ith t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e o l d e s t a g e r a n g e w h e re t h e p e r c e n t a g e d e c r e a s e s . The p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y c r i t e r i a i s m ore e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e 60 % c r i t e r i o n a t t h e f i r s t two a g e r a n g e s , e q u i v a l e n t a t t h e 3r d a g e r a n g e and i s l e s s e f f e c t i v e a t t h e Jfth a g e r a n g e . H y p o th e s is 2b i T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e f a c t o r s o f F u l l S c a l e IQ an d p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t i n th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild r e n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n F u l l S c a l e IQ and p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y ( s e e T a b le ^ . 1 ) w as fo u n d to b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t. p < .0 0 0 1 ) . T a b le B2. H y p o th e s is 2b w as r e j e c t e d (X2 = 3 2 .1 2 7 i d f Bl | A c o m p le te C h i S q u a re t a b l e i s p r e s e n t e d i n A d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w as fo u n d i n w h ic h t h e p e r ­ c e n ta g e o f c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d i n c r e a s e d w i t h F u l l S c a l e IQ . A t e a c h l e v e l , t h e new d i s c r e p a n c y c r i t e r i a w e re m ore T a b le 4 .1 - F re q u en cy an d p e r c e n ta g e o f LD c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d b y 60% and p ro p o se d f o rm u la s , im provem ent r a t e u s in g t h e p ro p o s e d fo rm u la , c a s e s n o t i d e n t i f i e d and t o t a l c a s e s . 60# D is c re p a n c y P ro p o se d Im p ro v e . R a te D if f e r e n c e N ot I d e n t i f i e d b y P ro p o se d T o ta l Age Range 4 .6 - 8 .1 1 9 . 0 - 11.11 1 2 .0 -1 4 .1 1 1 5 . 0 - 1 8 .6 T o ta l 4 C ^.7) 16( 17. 8 ) 31(1*8.4) 2 1 (5 3 .8 ) 7 2 ( 2 5 .9 ) 29(3<*.l) 3 5 ( 3 8 .9 ) 3 1 ( 4 8 .4 ) 1 0 (2 5 .7 ) 1 0 5 (3 7 -5 ) 25 (29 .4 ) 29 ( 2 1 . 1 ) 0 (0.0) - I K - 2 8 . 1) 44 ( 1 5 . 8 ) 56 ( 6 5 . 9 ) 5 5 (6 1 .1 ) 3 3 ( 5 1 .6 ) 2 9 (7 4 .3 ) 1 7 3 (6 2 .2 ) 8 5 ( 3 0 .6 ) 9 0 ( 3 2 .4 ) 6 4 ( 2 3 .0 ) 3 9 ( 1 4 .0 ) 278(10055) F .S .IQ 0-89 90 - above T o ta l 3 7 ( 2 2 .7 ) 3 5 ( 3 0 .4 ) 7 2 ( 2 5 .9 ) 3 9 ( 2 3 .9 ) 6 6 ( 5 7 .4 ) 1 0 5 (3 7 .8 ) 2 ( 1. 2) 31 ( 2 7 .0 ) 33 ( 1 1 . 8 ) 1 2 4 (7 6 .1 ) 4 9 ( 4 2 .6 ) 1 7 3 (6 2 .2 ) 1 6 3 (5 8 .6 ) 1 1 5 (4 1 .4 ) 278( 100) 6 1 ( 2 8 .5 ) 8 8 ( 4 1 .1 ) 1 6 (2 5 .4 ) 1 0 4 (3 7 .5 ) 27 ( 1 2 . 6 ) 6 ( 9 .5 ) 33 (1 1 -9 ) 1 2 6 (5 8 .9 ) 4 7 ( 7 4 .6 ) 1 7 3 (6 2 .5 ) 2 1 4 (7 7 .3 ) 6 3 (2 2 .7 ) 277( 100) Sex M ale Fem ale T o ta l 10 ( 15 . 8 ) 7 1 ( 2 5 .7 ) 105 e f f e c t i v e i n i d e n t i f y i n g s t u d e n t s now p l a c e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d i n M ic h ig a n t h a n t h e 60% c r i t e r i o n . T h is r e l a t i o n ­ s h ip i s r e p r e s e n te d g r a p h ic a lly i n F ig u re 4 .1 . H y p o th e s is 2 c i T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e f a c t o r s o f s e x an d p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p ­ a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t i n t h e i d e n tif ic a tio n o f le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild re n . T he r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s e x an d p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s ­ c r e p a n c y ( s e e T a b le 4 . 1 ) w as fo u n d to b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n ific a n t. p < 0 .0 2 3 ) * T a b le B 2. H y p o th e s is 2c w as a l s o r e j e c t e d (X = 5*132| d f « l* A c o m p le te C h i S q u a re t a b l e i s p r e s e n t e d i n A r e l a t i o n s h i p w as fo u n d i n w h ic h t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d w as g r e a t e r f o r m a le s ( 4 l . l # ) t h a n f o r f e m a le s (25»**?S)» The p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y c r i t e r i a a r e m ore e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e 60% c r i t e r i o n . T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p i s r e p r e s e n t e d g r a p h i c a l l y i n F ig u r e 4 . 1 . H y p o th e s is 3 a i T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e ­ tw ee n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d o t h e r g r o u p s o n A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n s c o r e s a s m e a s u re d b y t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s . The d i f f e r e n c e s i n A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n s c o r e s b e ­ tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d t h e o t h e r g r o u p s w ere fo u n d to b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( s e e T a b le 4 . 2 ) a t t h e p < .0 0 0 1 l e v e l ( F = 6 3 .3 1 2 | d f 4 , 9 2 0 ) . s i s w as r e j e c t e d . T a b le B 3. T h e r e f o r e , t h e h y p o th e ­ The c o m p le te ANOVA t a b l e i s p r e s e n t e d i n An i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e m ean g ro u p d i f f e r e n c e s ( s e e T a b le 4 . 2 ) r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n s c o r e s d i s c r i m i n a t e t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p fro m t h e EMI a n d n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p s b u t n o t fro m t h e E l a n d o t h e r g r o u p s . id e n tifie d 70 cases 106 ZfO 60 (57.*) 50 30 P ercen tag e of (2 3 .g > (22. 7 ) 20 10 IQ ( 0 - 8 9 ) IQ (9 0 + ) 70 60 50 ( 4 1 .1 ) 4o 30 P ercentage of cases id e n tif ie d New D is c r e p a n c y 60# D is c r e p a n c y 20 ( 2 8 .5 ) 10 M ale F em ale F i g u r e 4 .1 - R e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n p e r c e n t a g e o f L e a r n ­ in g D is a b le d c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d b y 60# p r o p o s e d f o r m u la s a n d F .S .I Q a n d S e x . T a b le k , 2 - C om parison o f WISC S p a t i a l ) V e rb a l and A t t e n t i o n mean s c o r e s and d is c r e p a n c i e s b etw e en mean s c o r e s f o r ea ch group* WISC S D a tia l WISC V e rb a l WISC A t te n tio n WISC S-V D is c re p a n c y WISC S-A D isc re p a n c y WISC V-A D is c re p a n c y L e a rn in g D is a b le d 9 .1 5 8 .3 3 7 .1 3 * 0 .8 2 2 .0 2 1 .2 0 E d u c a b le M e n ta lly Im p a ire d 6 .1 5 k , 76 5 -0 ^ 1 .3 9 1 .1 1 - 0 .2 8 E m o tio n a lly Im p a ire d 9 .5 8 8 .3 1 7 .7 2 1 .2 7 1 .8 6 0 .5 9 O th e r 8 . 3^ 7 .1 3 7 .1 0 1 .2 1 1 ,2 k 0 .0 3 N o n -im p aired 9 .5 5 8 .7 5 8 .3 0 0 .8 0 1 .2 5 0 ,k 5 * L e a rn in g d i s a b l e d mean A t t e n t i o n s c o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p<*05) b elo w n o n -im p a ire d mean s c o r e . 108 H y p o th e s is 3b t T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e ­ tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d o t h e r g r o u p s o n S p a t i a l s c o r e s a s m e a s u re d b y t h e W e c h s le r S c a l e s . The d i f f e r e n c e s o n S p a t i a l s c o r e s b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d t h e o t h e r g r o u p s w e re fo u n d to b e s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( s e e T a b le 4 . 2 ) a t t h e p < .0 0 0 1 l e v e l , ( P a51*292* d f 4 7 7 6 ) i t h e r e f o r e , t h e h y p o t h e s i s w as r e j e c t e d . An i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e P r a t i o s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le B3 r e v e a l e d t h e S p a t i a l s c o r e to b e a l e s s e f f e c t i v e d i s c r i m i n a t o r th a n th e A tte n tio n -C o n e e n tra tio n s c o re . I n e f f e c t , i t i s o n ly p o w e r f u l enough to d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a n d t h e EMI g r o u p . H ow ever, t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n s c o r e an d t h e S p a t i a l s c o r e f o r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p i s l a r g e r th a n i n a n y o t h e r c o m p a r i­ son. H y p o th e s is 3 c i T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e ­ tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d o t h e r g r o u p s on V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n s c o r e s a s m e a s u re d b y t h e W e c h s le r s c a le s . The d i f f e r e n c e s o n V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n s c o r e s b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p a n d o t h e r g r o u p s w e re f o u n d to b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( s e e T a b le 4 . 2 ) a t t h e p < .0 0 0 1 l e v e l ( F - 7 0 . 125» d f 4 , 8 3 1 ) . s e n t e d i n T a b le B3» A c o m p le te ANOVA t a b l e i s p r e ­ The V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n s c o r e s d i f f e r ­ e n t i a t e t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p fro m t h e EMI a n d o t h e r g ro u p b u t n o t fro m t h e E l o r n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p . The m o s t p o w e r f u l d i s c r i m i n a t o r b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a n d n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p s i s t h e A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r . W ith in t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g r o u p , t h e l a r g e s t d i s c r e p a n c y i s fo u n d b e tw e e n t h e A t t e n t i o n - C o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r a n d t h e 109 S p a tia l fa c to r* H y p o th e s is 4 a i T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e f a c t o r s o f g ro u p ( l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d - n o n im p a ir e d ) an d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a ­ t i o n o f c h i l d r e n b y a n E d u c a t i o n a l P la c e m e n t an d P l a n ­ n in g C o m m itte e . T h is h y p o t h e s i s w as n o t r e j e c t e d (X2 -0 .0 3 5 8 * d f-1 * p < 0 .8 4 9 8 ) . T h is i n d i c a t e d a n a b s e n c e o f SES b i a s i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n b y a n E d u c a t i o n a l P la c e m e n t an d P la n n in g C o m m ittee ( s e e T a b le 4 . 3 ) . H y p o th e s is 4 b 1 T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e f a c t o r s o f g ro u p ( l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d ) an d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n by a n E d u c a t i o n a l P la c e m e n t an d P l a n n i n g C o m m itte e . T h is h y p o t h e s i s w as n o t r e j e c t e d ( F i s h e r E x a c t* df*=l* p < 0 .4 3 7 0 ) . A g a in , t h i s i n d i c a t e d a n a b s e n c e o f SES b i a s i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n ( s e e T a b le 4 . 3 ) . S in c e c e l l s i z e s w e re s m a l l , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w as ex am in ed a g a i n , e x c e p t t h a t t h e d i s c r e p a n c y c r i t e r i o n was n o t a p p l i e d to th e EMI g ro u p an d t h e IQ c r i t e r i o n w as n o t a p p l i e d t o t h e LD g ro u p . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w as fo u n d (X2 = 4 .7 3 1 l d f= l* p < 0 . 0 2 9 6 ) . C a u tio n s h o u ld b e e x e r ­ c i s e d i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h i s f i n d i n g , h o w e v e r, s i n c e t h e two g r o u p s may n o t b e m a tc h e d . H y p o th e s is 4 c « T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t a n d t h e o p in io n o f th e le a r n in g d i s a b i l i t y c o n s u lta n t i n th e p la c e m e n t o f c h i l d r e n a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . A h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p ( s e e T a b le 4 . 4 ) w as fo u n d b e tw e e n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t a n d t h a t o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y c o n s u l ta in t (X2 » 8 0 .9 9 5 i df=4* p < .0 0 0 1 )* t h e r e f o r e , t h e h y p o t h e s i s w as r e j e c t e d . A 110 T a b le 4*3 - F re q u e n c y an d p e r c e n t a g e s f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e ­ tw e e n g ro u p p la c e m e n t an d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . GrouD P la c e m e n ta L e a r n in g D is a b le d N o n -Im n a ire d SES M id d le Low 3 9 ( 8 1 .3 ) 1 9 ( 8 2 .6 ) 9 ( 1 9 .8 ) 4 ( 1 7 .4 ) v G roup P la c e m e n t L e a r n in g D is a b le d M e n ta ll y - I m p a i r e d SES M id d le Low 1 ( 1 4 .3 ) 2 ( 3 3 .3 ) 6 ( 8 5 .7 ) 4 ( 6 6 .7 ) G roup P la c e m e n t0 L e a r n in g D is a b le d M e n ta lly - I m o a ir e d SES M id d le Low 3 9 ( 5 5 .7 ) 1 9 ( 3 4 .5 ) 3 1 ( 4 4 .3 ) 3 6 (6 5 -5 ) P e r c e n t a g e o f D is c r e p a n c y h e l d c o n s t a n t . ^ P e r c e n t a g e o f D is c r e p a n c y an d F .S .I Q h e l d c o n s t a n t . P e r c e n t a g e o f D is c r e p a n c y an d F .S .I Q n o t h e l d c o n s t a n t . I ll T a b le 4 - F re q u e n c y a n d p e r c e n t a g e f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n o p i n i o n o f s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t and c o n s u l t a n t a s to w h e th e r a c h i l d s h o u ld b e p l a c e d a s l e a r n i n g d is a b le d . O p in io n o f S c h o o l P s y c h o l o g i s t C o n s u lta n t O p in io n Y es No U n c e r ta in Yes No U n c e rta in 183(61*.0) 8 ( 2 .8 15 ( 5 . 2 ) 5 ( 1 .7 ) 8 ( 2 .8 ) 0 ( 0 .0 ) 36( 12. 6 ) U ( 3 .8 ) 20 ( 7 . 0 ) O p in io n o f S c h o o l P s y c h o l o g i s t C o n s u lta n t O p in io n Yes No Y es No 200(31*.!*) 10 ( 1 . 7 ) 7 ( 1 .2 ) 3 6 5 ( 6 2 .7 ) s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p w as fo u n d f o r t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n (X2 * 5 0 6 .4 0 6 0 | d f = l i p < .0 0 0 1 ) . I t w as c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e two p r o f e s s i o n a l s a r e i n a lm o s t p e r f e c t a g re e m e n t a s t o t h e p la c e m e n t o f c h i l d r e n a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . H y p o th e s is 5 t T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n made t o a f o r m u la w h ic h d i s c r i m i n a t e s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l ­ d r e n fro m o t h e r c h i l d r e n b y t h e f a c t o r s o f p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y , A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n , S p a t i a l , V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n an d F u l l S c a l e IQ s c o r e s , s e x , a g e a n d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . A s e r i e s o f f o u r D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s e s w e re u s e d to t e s t th e h y p o th e s is . The f i r s t a n a l y s i s w as c o n d u c te d w ith a l l f i v e g r o u p s an d t h e 60% d is c r e p a n c y c r i t e r i o n . In th e s e c o n d a n a l y s i s two g r o u p s ( e m o t i o n a l l y im p a ir e d an d o t h e r ­ w is e im p a ir e d ) w e re d ro p p e d s i n c e t h e y c o u ld n o t b e 112 d i s c r i m i n a t e d fro m t h e o t h e r t h r e e g r o u p s a n d t h e p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y r e p l a c e d t h e 60% d i s c r e p a n c y . The t h i r d a n d f o u r t h a n a l y s e s w e re c o n d u c te d i n o r d e r to ex am in e t h e r e l a ­ t i v e p o w er o f P u l l S c a l e IQ a n d t h e t h r e e WISC f a c t o r s . The a n a l y s e s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e s e f a c t o r s do c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i ­ c a n t l y t o a f o r m u la w h ic h d i s c r i m i n a t e s t h e l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b l e d g ro u p fro m o t h e r g r o u p s ( s e e T a b le ^ .5 ) * t h e h y p o t h e s i s w as n o t r e j e c t e d . th e re fo re , The c o m p le te DISCRIMINANT T a b le s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le B^. The f i r s t D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s is d e m o n s tr a te d s i g n i f i ­ c a n t m ean d i f f e r e n c e s ( s e e T a b le B7) f o r e a c h v a r i a b l e e n ­ t e r e d w ith t h e e x c e p t i o n o f S p a t i a l s c o r e an d a g e . In s p e c t­ in g t h e e x a c t F r a t i o s ( T a b le B^) i n o r d e r o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s , f o u r o f t h e v a r i a b l e s ( F u l l S c a l e IQ , D is c r e p a n c y , A t t e n t i o n and SES) w ere s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e p < * 0 0 0 1 l e v e l , o n e (Com­ p r e h e n s i o n ) w as s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e p < 0 .0 0 2 l e v e l and o n e ( s e x ) w as s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e p < .0 2 ? l e v e l . T h e se s i x v a r i ­ a b l e s co m b in ed t o p r o d u c e f o u r s e p a r a t e D i s c r i m i n a n t F u n c ­ t i o n s ( s e e T a b le B5 an d B 6 ). A p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e f o r m u la s t o t h e f i v e sa m p le g r o u p s , w h ic h a s s i g n e d s u b j e c t s on t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f m e m b e rsh ip , r e s u l t e d i n 129, o r 65*5%* c o r ­ r e c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e 197 l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n . The e f f e c t i v e a s s ig n m e n t f o r t h e EMI g ro u p w as 6 3 , o r 6 6 . 3# , an d f o r t h e n o n - im p a ir e d g ro u p w as 1 2 2 , o r 6 ^ .6 # . H ow ever, c o r r e c t a s s ig n m e n t f o r t h e E l g ro u p w as 6 , o r 1 3 .0 % an d f o r t h e o t h e r g ro u p w as 2 , o r A d d itio n a lly , o v e rla p i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s u b j e c t s w as f o u n d . T a b le 4 .5 - P r e d i c t i o n R e s u lts - F re q u en cy an d p e r c e n ta g e o f c a s e s i d e n t i f i e d and m i s - c l a s s i f i e d by D is c r im in a n t A n a ly s e s . 1. F i r s t D is c r im in a n t A n a ly s is A c tu a l Group No. o f C ases ID 197 EMI 95 El 46 O th e r 50 None 189 LD 129 6 5 -5 22 2 3 .2 15 3 2 .6 15 3 0 .0 52 2 7 .5 P e r c e n ta g e o f c a s e s c o r r e c t l y c l a s s i f i e d : P rio r p r o b a b ilitie s LD - . 31*1 EMI - .1 6 4 E l - .079 P r e d i c t e d Group M em bership O th e r EMI 11 21 1 0 .7 63 6 6 .3 6 1 3 .0 2 4 .0 5 2 .6 0 0 .0 0 0 .0 6 1 3 .0 2 4 .0 5 2 .6 2 1 .0 1 1 .1 0 0 .0 2 4 .0 1 0 .5 55*81# O th e r - .0 8 6 None - .327 None ^5 2 2 .8 9 9 .5 24 5 2 .2 25 5 0 .0 122 6 4 .6 Table 4.5 (cont'd.) 2. Second D is c r im in a n t A n a ly s is A c tu a l Group No. o f C ases LD 197 EMI 95 None I 89 LD 133 6 7 .5 19 2 0 .0 53 2 8 .0 P r e d i c t e d Group M em bership None EMI 18 9 .1 64 6 7 .4 8 4 .2 P e r c e n ta g e o f c a s e s c o r r e c t l y c l a s s i f i e d ! 6 7 .5 7 # P rio r p r o b a b ilitie s LD - .409 EMI - .1 9 7 None - .392 46 2 3 .4 12 1 2 .6 128 6 7 .7 115 The S eco n d D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s is was t h e m o st e f f e c t i v e i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d , m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d an d t h e n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p s . The v a r i a b l e s a r e o r ­ d e r e d a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r s e q u e n c e o f e n t r y i n t o t h e d i s c r i m ­ in a n t e q u a tio n . The F u l l S c a l e IQ , new d i s c r e p a n c y an d A t t e n t i o n s c o r e s w ere t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l an d w ere s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e p < .0 0 0 1 l e v e l . In s p e c tin g th e E x act F r a t i o s ( T a b le B 4 ), t h e p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y w as m ore e f f e c t i v e i n d i s c r i m ­ i n a t i n g g ro u p s th a n t h e 60% d i s c r e p a n c y u s e d i n t h e f i r s t D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s is (F = 2 2 .2 2 7 , d f 2 , 5 7 1 ) . E ach o f t h e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s e n t e r e d ( e x c e p t S p a t i a l ) c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e e q u a tio n . SES was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e p < .0 0 7 l e v e l , Com pre­ h e n s io n a t t h e p < .0 0 5 l e v e l , Age a t t h e p < .0 0 2 l e v e l and Sex a t t h e p < .0 1 4 l e v e l . O nly t h e S p a t i a l f a c t o r w as n o t e n te re d s in c e i t d id n o t ap p ro a c h a l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e f o r m u la s to t h e LD, EMI a n d n o n ­ im p a ir e d sa m p le p r o f i l e s , w h ich a s s i g n e d p u p i l s on t h e b a s i s o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f m e m b e rsh ip , r e s u l t e d i n 1 3 3 , o r 6 7 ,$% c o r r e c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e le a r n in g d is a b le d g ro u p . For t h e e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d an d n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p s , t h e c o r r e c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w as 6 4 , o r 6 7 . 4# a n d 1 2 8 , o r 6 7 .7%, re s p e c tiv e ly . The s u b j e c t s h a v e b e e n p l o t t e d a lo n g t h e two D i s c r i m i n a n t F u n c tio n s * t h i s p l o t i s p re s e n te d g r a p h ic a lly i n F ig u r e B l . The t h i r d an d f o u r t h D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s e s ( s e e T a b le 4 .6 ) r e p r e s e n t an a tte m p t to f u r t h e r e v a lu a te th e c o n tr ib u ­ t i o n s made to t h e e q u a t i o n b y t h e v a r i a b l e s o f F .S .I Q , 116 T a b le 4 .6 - P r e d i c t i o n R e s u l t s - T h ir d an d F o u r th D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s e s . 3* T h ir d D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s is A c tu a l G roup N o. o f C ases LD 197 EMI 95 None 189 LD 129 6 5 .5 16 1 6 .8 47 2 4 .9 P r e d i c t e d G roup None EMI 23 1 1 .7 65 6 8 .4 12 6 .3 45 2 2 .8 14 1 4 .7 130 6 8 .8 P e rc e n ta g e o f c a s e s c o r r e c t l y c l a s s i f i e d i 6 7 . 36# P rio r p r o b a b ilitie s LD - .4 0 9 EMI - .1 9 7 None - .3 9 2 4. F o u r th D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s is A c tu a l GrouD No. o f C ases LD 213 EMI 99 None 213 LD 137 6 4 .3 18 1 8 .2 58 2 7 .2 P r e d i c t e d G roup M em bership None EMI 19 8 .9 70 7 0 .7 8 3 .8 57 2 6 .8 11 1 1 .1 147 6 9 .0 P e rc e n ta g e o f c a s e s c o r r e c t l y c la s s if ie d * 6 7 .4 3 # P rio r p r o b a b ilitie s EMI - .1 8 8 LD - .4 0 5 None - .4 0 5 117 A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n , V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n a n d S p a t i a l sc o re s. F u r t h e r c o m p u ta tio n s d i s c l o s e d t h a t t h e c l a s s i f i ­ c a t i o n b a s e d o n F u l l S c a l e IQ a n d t h e o t h e r f o u r v a r i a b l e s ( d is c r e p a n c y * a g e , SES, s e x ) w as a l m o s t a s a c c u r a t e a s c l a s ­ s i f i c a t i o n b a s e d upon e a c h o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s p l u s t h e t h r e e f a c t o r s o f A t t e n t i o n , V e r b a l an d S p a t i a l s c o r e s . P lo ts o f t h e s e a n a l y s e s a r e p r e s e n t e d g r a p h i c a l l y i n F i g u r e s B2 and B3. I t w as c o n c lu d e d t h a t m o s t o f t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t p o w er a s s i g n e d to t h e s e t h r e e f a c t o r s i s l o s t when F u l l S c a l e IQ i s in c lu d e d i n t h e f o r m u la . S u p p le m e n ta ry A n a ly s is To f u r t h e r ex am in e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u l a s , th e y w ere a p p l i e d to t h e e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im ­ p a ire d , e m o tio n a lly im p a ir e d , o t h e r w i s e im p a ir e d an d n o n - im p a ir e d s a m p le s . F re q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r e a c h g ro u p by a g e r a n g e , F .S .I Q an d s e x a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le ^ . 7 . For t h e EMI g r o u p , a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w as fo u n d b e tw e e n p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y an d a g e r a n g e (X *=0.003*fi d f * l i p < 0 ,0 ^ 6 5 ) • T a b le B2. A c o m p le te C h i S q u a re t a b l e i s p r e s e n t e d i n The p e r c e n t a g e o f EMI c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d i n ­ c r e a s e s a t ea ch a g e r a n g e w ith t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e h i g h e s t a g e r a n g e w h e re t h i s p e r c e n t a g e d e c r e a s e s . No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e re fo u n d f o r e i t h e r t h e e m o tio n a lly im p a ir e d o r o t h e r w i s e im p a ir e d g r o u p s . F o r t h e n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p , a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w as fo u n d b e tw e e n d i s c r e p a n c y a n d a g e r a n g e (X2 = 4 .9 9 2 i d f = l j p < 0 . 0 2 5 ) . F o r t h e n o n - im p a ir e d 118 T a b le 4 . 7 “ F re q u e n c y an d p e r c e n t a g e o f EMI, E l , o t h e r and n o n - im p a ir e d c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d b y p ro p o s e d c rite ria . GROUP Age R ange 4 . 6 - 8 .1 1 9 .0 - 11.11 1 2 .0 - 1 4 .1 1 EMI El OTHER NON-IMPAIR! ( 1 5 .7 ) ( 1 5 .0 ) ( 1 1 .1 ) ( 1 0 .0 ) < 13.*0 1 2 0 0 3 23 16 6 0 45 2 ( 7 .6 ) 4 ( 1 0 .5 ) 6 ( 13.6 ) 3 ( 3 .0 ) 13 ( 9 . 2 ) 3 3 2 1 9 F .S .I Q 0 - 8 9 90 - a b o v e T o ta l 12 ( 9 . 0 ) 1 ( 1 1 .1 ) 13 ( 9 . 2 ) 4 ( 1 1 .1 ) 5 ( 1 6 .1 9 ( 1 3 .4 ) 1 ( 2 .0 ) 2 ( 1 8 .1 ) 3 ( 4 .9 ) 9 ( 6 .8 ) 36 ( 2 2 .3 ) 45 ( 1 5 .3 ) Sex M ale F em ale T o ta l 11 ( 1 2 .5 ? 2 ( 3 .8 ) 13 ( 9 . 2 ) 7 ( 1 4 .3 ) 2 ( 1 1 .1 ) 9 ( 1 3 .4 ) 3 ( 6 .4 ) 0 ( 0 .0 ) 3 ( 4 .9 ) 39 ( 1 7 .6 ) 6 ( 8 .3 45 ( 1 5 .3 ) 15 .0 -18.6 T o ta l ( 7 .7 ) (8 .3) ( 0 .0 ) ( 0 .0 ) ( 4 .9 ) ( 1 9 .5 ) ( 1 6 .5 ) ( 1 2 .5 ) (0.0) ( 1 5 .3 ) g ro u p t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n d i s c r e p a n c y an d F .S .I Q was s i g n i f i c a n t (X2 = 1 3 .3 1 3 5 j d f= l* p < 0 . 0 0 0 3 ) a s i t w as f o r se x (X2 «3*623i df*=li p < 0 . 0 5 7 0 ) , W h ile t h e d i s c r e p a n c y fo rm u la d o e s i d e n t i f y a l a r g e r p e r c e n t a g e o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d th a n n o n - im p a ir e d c h i l d r e n a t a l l l e v e l s , t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l ­ d r e n i n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d w a r r a n t s c a u t i o n i n a p p l y in g t h e fo rm u la . To f u r t h e r u n d e r s ta n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n g r o u p s on t h e W e c h s le r s c o r e s , c o m p a r is o n s w ere made on e a c h o f t h e s e p a r a t e s u b t e s t s a s w e l l a s V e r b a l, P e r fo r m a n c e an d F u l l S c a l e IQ . G roup mean s c o r e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 4*.8. A p p ly in g a 95# c o n f id e n c e i n t e r v a l f o r e a c h g ro u p r e v e a l e d t h a t W e c h s le r s u b t e s t s o f I n f o r m a t i o n , C o d in g an d A r i th m e t ic Table 4 .8 - Comparison o f Wechsler score acro ss fiv e groups and Learning Disabled and Non-impaired group d iffe re n c e s . Verbal P e rf. IQ __ IQ F.S. IQ P ie t. Comp. P ie t. A rr. Obj. Ass. Comp. Block Deo. Voc. Sim ll. In fo . Cdg. A rith Learning Disabled 86.5 91.8 8B.5 9.5 9 .4 9 .4 8.7 8.6 8.4 7.9 7.6 7.2 7.0 Nonimpaired 91*5 950 92*5 9 .9 9 .5 9.6 9.1 9.1 8.7 8.3 8.1 80 8 .2 Educable M entally Impaired 68.5 73-9 68.5 6.9 5.7 6.2 5-3 5-6 4 .4 4 .7 4 .7 5.1 4.9 Emotionally Impaired 87.5 92.8 89.5 9.5 9 .5 10.0 80 8.7 8.2 8.3 8.0 7.4 8.0 Otherwise Impaired 79.5 85.9 80.5 8.5 8 .4 8.8 7-4 7 .7 7.1 6 .6 6.5 7.1 6.9 LD-Nonimpaired D ifference 5.0* 3-5* 4.0* 0 .4 0.1 0 .2 0.4 0.4 0-3 0.4 0.5* 1.1* 1.2* *p< *05 120 w e re t h e s u b t e s t s w h ic h s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i s c r i m i n a t e d t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d fro m t h e n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p . The l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a n d n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p s w e re a l s o fo u n d to b e s i g n i ­ f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i n V e r b a l, P e r fo r m a n c e an d P u l l S c a l e IQ . I n a l l c a s e s , t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p s c o r e d b elo w t h e n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p . To f u r t h e r a n a l y z e t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la s , ea c h a c h ie v e m e n t s u b t e s t w as a n a ly z e d s e p a r a t e l y w ith b o th t h e 60 % an d t h e new d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u l a s . A com­ p l e t e ANOVA t a b l e i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le B l. I n s p e c t i o n o f t h e g ro u p m eans p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 4-.9 an d m u l t i p l e r a n g e t e s t s f o r t h e 0 .0 5 l e v e l , r e v e a l e d t h a t th e m o st p o w e r f u l s u b t e s t i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d an d n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p s w as Word R e c o g n i­ tio n . The n e x t p o w e r f u l w as t h e S p e l l i n g s u b t e s t , f o llo w e d by A rith m e tic . D i f f e r e n c e s i n R e a d in g s c o r e s w e re t h e l e a s t p o w e r f u l an d d i d n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n t h e two g r o u p s . F i n a l l y , t o d e te r m in e t h e m a g n itu d e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n IQ and a c h ie v e m e n t s c o r e s f o r t h i s p o p u l a t i o n , c o r ­ r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s b e tw e e n V e r b a l I Q / F u l l S c a l e IQ a n d WRAT s u b t e s t s w e re e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e se r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 4-. 1 0 , Summary T h is c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s tu d y f o r e a c h o f t h e t e s t h y p o th e s e s an d s u p p le m e n ta r y a n a l y s e s . T a b le 4 .9 - Mean g ra d e l e v e l ab o v e 60# and P ro p o se d D is c re p a n c y C r i t e r i a f o r Word R e c o g n itio n , S p e l l i n g , A r ith m e tic and R ead in g s u b t e s t s a c r o s s g r o u p s . 60# Word R ecog. New Word R ecoe. L e a rn in g D is a b le d 1 .0 0 Nonim p a ire d 60# So e l l New So e l l 60# A rith . New A rith . 0 .8 7 0 .8 3 1 .9 9 1 .7 8 E d u c a b le M e n ta lly Im p a ire d 1 .4 5 E m o tio n a lly Im p a ire d 0 .7 2 1 .3 5 1 .2 3 1 .2 4 1 .4 9 1 .2 8 1 .7 1 1 .4 9 1 .5 0 1 .1 1 1 .2 1 1 .6 1 2 .1 5 2 .0 4 1 .8 5 1 .7 6 O th e rw ise Im p a ire d 1 .8 2 1 .7 9 1 .5 4 1 .5 7 LD-Non Im p a ire d D if f e r e n c e 0 .9 9 * - 0 .9 1 * - 0 .6 6 * - 0 .5 6 * 60# Read 60# Max. New Max. 1 .0 9 0 .4 2 0 .2 8 1 .4 6 1 .2 1 0 .8 6 0 .8 9 1 .6 5 1 .1 8 1 .1 7 0 .9 2 0 .9 7 1 .8 1 1 .6 8 1 .9 3 1 .8 9 1 .2 1 1 .0 8 1 .8 6 1 .8 3 2 .2 7 2 .3 9 1 .1 3 1 .1 0 - 0 . 36* - 0 .2 6 New Read - 0 .2 2 - 0 .1 2 - 0 .4 4 - 0 .6 1 •Mean d i f f e r e n c e b etw e en l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d an d n o n -im p a ire d g ro u p s on each o f th e s u b te s ts (p < . 05) . T a b le 4 .1 0 - C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s b etw e en V e rb a l I Q /P u ll S c a le IQ and WRAT s u b t e s t o f Word R e c o g n itio n , S p e l l i n g and A r ith m e tic f o r each o f th e f i v e g ro u p s . GROUP I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a le LD VTQ FSIQ EMI VIQ FSIQ El VIQ FSIQ OTHER VIQ FSIQ NON-IMPAIRED VIQ FSIQ WRAT SUBTEST Word R e c o g n itio n S p e lli n g A rith m e tic .002 .485 .1 7 5 .0 0 2 .4 1 4 .001 .148 .032 - .0 2 7 .406 - .2 0 9 .026 .070 .281 .305 .002 .227 . .001 .290 .001 - .0 6 5 .163 .2 0 4 .001 • 394 .001 .1 4 4 .061 - .1 5 4 .1 0 4 - .1 1 5 .1 65 .120 .177 .237 .0 2 5 .163 .005 .218 .001 .094 .058 .297 .001 .340 .001 .211 .005 - .1 2 4 .138 - .0 9 4 .1 87 .087 .231 .361 .001 .133 .0 1 4 .326 .001 123 O v e ra ll, th e r e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t th e r e e x i s t s ig n i f ic a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d t h e o th e r g ro u p s a n a ly z e d . H ow ever, t h e d e g r e e o f o v e r l a p on e a c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m e a s u re d i s s u f f i c i e n t to w a r r a n t s u b ­ s t a n t i a l c a u t i o n t o t h o s e in v o lv e d i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l ­ d ren a s le a r n in g d is a b le d . A summary o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s i s i n c l u d e d i n T a b le 4 . 1 1 . P r e s e n t e d i n C h a p te r V i s a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y . C h a p te r VI i n c l u d e s a summary o f t h e s e r e ­ s u l t s , i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s an d o t h e r s i n th e f i e l d o f s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n , s u g g e s tio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e ­ s e a r c h a n d a summary o f t h e r e s e a r c h . E ffe c t S c a le P < S ig . l e v e l la lb Group d i f f e r e n c e s Group d i f f e r e n c e s 60j£ D is c re p a n c y P ro p o se d D is c re p a n c y < .0 0 0 1 < .0 0 0 1 2b R e la t io n s h ip b etw een F .S .IQ and D is c re p a n c y f o r LD R e la t io n s h ip b etw e en Sex and D is c re p a n c y f o r LD F .S .IQ and P ro p o se d D is c re p a n c y < .0001 Sex and P ro p o se d D is c re p a n c y < .023 H y p o th e s is 2c < .0001 Group d i f f e r e n c e s on A tte n tio n - C o n c e n tr a tio n Group d i f f e r e n c e s on V erb al-C o m p reh en sio n C oding + A r ith m e tic V o c a b u la ry + S im ila ritie s + Compr e h e n sio n < .0001 4c R e la t io n s h ip b etw een o p in io n o f p s y c h o lo g is t and c o n s u l t a n t P la c e m e n t o f c h ild < .0001 5 Group d i f f e r e n c e s F .S .IQ D isc re p a n c y A t te n tio n C om prehension Age SES Sex < < < < < < < 3a 3b .0001 .0001 .0001 .005 .002 .007 .0 1 4 4jZl Table 4.11 - Summary of major findings. Table ^.11 (cont'd.) S u p p lem e n ta ry A n a ly s is F o r N o n -im p aired Group F o r L e a rn in g D is a b le d and N o n -im p aired E ffe c t S c a le P < S ig . l e v e l R e la t io n s h ip b etw een Age an d D is c re p a n c y R e la t io n s h ip b etw een F .S .IQ an d D is c re p a n c y R e la t io n s h ip b etw een Sex and D is c re p a n c y Age and D is c re p a n c y F .S .IQ and D is c re p a n c y Sex and D is c re p a n c y < .0003 W e c h sle r s u b t e s t d iffe re n c e s I n f o r m a tio n C oding A rith m e tic < .0 5 < .0 5 < .0 5 W e c h sle r IQ d iffe re n c e s V e rb a l IQ P e rfo rm a n c e IQ F .S .IQ < .0 5 < .0 5 < .0 5 A chievem ent t e s t d iffe re n c e s Word R e c o g n itio n S p e llin g A r ith m e tic < < < < .0255 < .0570 .0 5 .0 5 .0 5 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION OF RESULTS P r e s e n te d i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e r e s u l t s o f t h e s tu d y . I n c lu d e d h e r e a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e l a t e d to i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , d is c r e p a n c y , m i s c l a s s i f i c a t io n , p r o f i l e a n a ly s is , sex d if f e r e n c e s , c h ro n o lo g ic a l ag e , so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s an d t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . I n te lle c tu a l C h a ra c te ris tic s The f a c t o r w h ich c o n t r i b u t e d m o st s i g n i f i c a n t l y to d i s ­ c r i m i n a t i o n b etw e en g ro u p s was F u l l S c a le IQ . W ith r e g a r d to i n t e l l i g e n c e , m e n ta l ly im p a ir e d c h i l d r e n h a v e , by d e f i n i ­ t i o n , lo w e r I Q 's th a n th e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d o r n o n - im p a ir e d c h ild re n . Some r e s e a r c h re v ie w e d i n C h a p te r I I i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d , a s a g ro u p , a r e r e p o r t e d to b e s c o r i n g lo w e r th a n e x p e c te d on i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s . K irk and E l k i n s ( 1 9 7 5 ), i n t h e i r e x t e n s i v e s tu d y , r e p o r t a mean F .S .I Q o f 93* O th e r s h a v e n o t fo u n d t h i s to b e th e c a s e . Ackerman (1 9 7 5 ) r e p o r t s a mean F .S .I Q o f 1 0 8 .5 , and S o b o tk a (1 9 7 7 ) r e p o r t s 1 02.5* The f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s tu d y m ore c l o s e ­ l y a p p ro a c h t h e r e s u l t s o f K irk and E l k i n s ( 1 9 7 5 ) , a s t h e mean F .S .I Q was 8 8 . 5 . W h ile n o t low enough t o b e c o n s id e r e d r e t a r d e d , th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e r e f l e c t s a 126 127 sk e w n e ss w h ic h p l a c e s t h e m a j o r i t y o r t h e s e c h i l d r e n b elo w t h e n a t i o n a l m ean. An i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e dem on­ s t r a t e s t h a t le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild r e n have been re p o rte d to h a v e lo w e r i n t e l l i g e n c e l e v e l s th a n c o m p a ris o n g r o u p s w ith some c o n s i s t e n c y (B ry a n a n d B ry a n , 1 9 7 6 ). A num ber o f e x p l a n a t i o n s may a c c o u n t f o r t h e s e IQ d i f ­ fe re n c e s. K ir k an d E lk in B (1 9 7 5 ) r e p o r t t h a t a p p r o x im a te ly 35# o f t h e c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r r e s e a r c h h ad I Q 's b elo w 90* The r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y d e m o n s tr a te t h i s p e r c e n t a g e to b e 5 8 # . The a u t h o r s m a i n t a i n t h a t p r e v i o u s l y , many o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n w o u ld h a v e b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s m e n t a l l y r e ­ ta rd e d . They p r o p o s e t h a t s i n c e t h e A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n o f M e n ta l D e f i c i e n c y h a s ch a n g e d i t s c r i t e r i o n f o r m e n ta l r e t a r d a t i o n fro m o n e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n b elo w n o rm a l ( o r a n IQ o f 84 o r b e lo w ) to two s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s ( o r a n IQ o f 68 o r b e lo w ) , i t w ould a p p e a r t h a t many o f t h e s e slo w l e a r n ­ i n g c h i l d r e n a r e now b e i n g c l a s s i f i e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e a u t h o r s b e l i e v e t h a t i n some p r o j e c t s i t w as o b v io u s t h a t th e y w e re n o t d e a l i n g w ith s p e c i f i c l e a r n ­ in g d i s a b i l i t i e s , b u t r a t h e r w i t h g e n e r a l l e a r n i n g p r o b le m s . T hey s e e t h e s e c h i l d r e n a s r e p r e s e n t i n g ( a ) slo w l e a r n e r s o r ( b ) c h i l d r e n fro m d is a d v a n ta g e d e n v iro n m e n ts who h a v e h a d u n e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l e a r n . T h is p o s i t i o n h a s h ad s u b ­ s t a n t i a l s u p p o r t (K e n d o r, 1972j H a ll a h a n an d K au ffm an , 1977)* Ames (1 9 7 7 )» r e f l e c t i n g a p o p u l a r o p i n i o n ( S h e p a r d , 1975* D o n o f r io , 1977) i n r e f e r r i n g to w h a t s h e c a l l s t h e Law o f P a rs im o n y , i n s i s t s t h a t a l l to o o f t e n c h i l d r e n 128 c l a s s i f i e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a r e s im p ly o v e r p l a c e d . Ad­ d r e s s i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n w ith P . S . I Q 's fro m 89 to 90 s h e w rite s 1 I n m o st s c h o o l s y s t e m s , t h e s e s t u d e n t s a l s o f a i l . Too i n t e l l i g e n t f o r a c l a s s o f r e t a r d e d c h i l d r e n , th e y a r e s t i l l n o t a b l e to k e e p up w i t h t h e r e g u l a r c la s s . They s u f f e r an d s t r u g g l e , f l o u n d e r an d f a i l . I f o n e i s a v a i l a b l e , t h e y end up i n a l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b ility c la s s (p . ? ) . T h e re a r e t h o s e who r e j e c t t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n , h o w e v e r. C r u ic k s h a n k (1 9 7 7 ) w r i t e s t h a t t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s i s a m a t t e r r e l a t i n g to c h i l ­ d r e n o f an y i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l . He r e j e c t s t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h o s e b elo w a n F .S .I Q o f 80 s h o u ld b e e x c lu d e d fro m t h e le a r n in g d is a b le d c a te g o ry . To do t h i s w o u ld b e s e e n a s a r b i t r a r y a n d " s e r v e t o d e p r i v e th o u s a n d s o f m e n t a l l y h a n d i ­ c a p p e d c h i l d r e n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g and p ro g ra m ­ m ing a n d , in d e e d , i n many i n s t a n c e s . . . r e s u l t i n t h e w o r s t ty p e o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n " (p . 6 0 ). A p p ro a c h in g t h e i s s u e d i f f e r e n t l y , t h e p r e c i s i o n o f d e ­ te r m i n i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e an d n o t t h e m e a s u re d IQ o f t h e c h i l d h as been c r i t i c i z e d . T he m a jo r c o n c e r n s a b o u t u s i n g IQ a s a c r i t e r i o n i n e v a lu a tin g and c l a s s i f y i n g th e le a r n in g d is a b le d h a v e b e e n su m m arized b y D a n ie ls o n an d B a u e r (1 9 7 8 )* (1 ) IQ i s n o t a n in d e x o f " a b i l i t y " o r " p o t e n t i a l " . (2 ) S in c e i n t e l l i g e n c e a s o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d i n m o st t e s t s i s a n a g g r e g a t e o f many d i s c r e t e a b i l ­ i t i e s , an d t e s t s v a r y i n t h e i r c o m p o s itio n o f t h e s e a b i l i t i e s , e s t i m a t e s o f a b i l i t y may v a r y fro m t e s t t o t e s t . (3 ) I n t e l l i g e n c e a s a p r e d i c t o r o f a c h ie v e m e n t w i l l v a r y fro m o n e a r e a to a n o t h e r . 129 (*0 The v e r y f a c t t h a t a c h i l d i s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d may p r e c l u d e t h e v a l i d m e a su re m e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . (5 ) The f a c t t h a t a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e r e l i e s up o n IQ i n v i t e s c u l t u r a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n * (6 ) C h i l d r e n w ith h i g h I Q 's a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o b e i n i t i a l l y r e f e r r e d f o r e v a lu a tio n . The l a s t p o i n t may h e l p to e x p l a i n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y . W h ile $ 6 , 6 f ^ o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n h a d P . S . I Q 's b elo w 90» o n ly 21 ( 6 .6 # ) h a d I Q 's o f 110 o r b e t t e r . I t may b e t h a t a l a r g e n um ber o f c h i l d r e n w ith h i g h e r I Q 's a r e n o t b e i n g r e f e r r e d o r s e r v e d b e c a u s e th e y a r e a c h i e v i n g some m a r g in a l s u c c e s s w h ic h th o s e o f lo w e r i n t e l l i g e n c e le v e ls f a i l to re a c h . A f i n a l p o in t t h a t d e s e rv e s c o n s id e r a tio n h e re i s th e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n WISC an d WISC-R s c o r e s . S w e r d lik (1 9 7 5 ) r e p o r t e d t h e mean F u l l S c a l e IQ s c o r e d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s a l l a g e s a n d r a c e s o f 5*5 p o i n t s . h ig h e r s c o re s . I n a l l c a s e s ( t h e WISC y i e l d e d WISC/WISC-R d i f f e r e n c e s i n c r e a s e d a s t h e a b i l i t y o f th e s tu d e n ts d e c re a s e d . P e r h a p s t h e lo w e r I Q 's fo u n d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y a r e , i n p a r t , a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t (WISC-R) em p lo y ed . D is c r e p a n c y B etw een A c tu a l And E x p e c te d A c h ie v e m e n t One way t o d e t e r m in e i f d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e slo w l e a r n e r s and t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d e x i s t , w ould b e t o i d e n ­ t i f y a c l u s t e r o r c l u s t e r s o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u p o n w h ic h t h e g ro u p s a r e q u a n t i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t . One su c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h a s lo n g b e e n th o u g h t t o b e a s e v e r e d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n 130 a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t an d e x p e c te d a c h ie v e m e n t. R e s u lts o f t h i s s tu d y d e m o n s tr a te t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e , w h i l e h a v in g some l i m i t a t i o n s , i s h e l p f u l i n d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s . When a c r i t e r i o n c a l l i n g f o r a 60 % d i s c r e p a n c y i s a p p l i e d a c r o s s a l l a g e l e v e l s , 25*955 o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l ­ d ren u n d er c o n s id e r a tio n a r e i d e n t i f i e d . When t h e p r o p o s e d M ic h ig a n c r i t e r i a a r e a p p l i e d t o t h e sam e p o p u l a t i o n , t h e s u c c e s s r a t e jum ps to 3 7 . 8# . T h is r a t e o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n v a r i e s , h o w e v e r, a c c o r d i n g to th e a g e r a n g e , s e x an d IQ le v e ls . The new f o r m u la a p p e a r s m o st s u c c e s s f u l a t t h e 1 2 .0 - 1 4 - .i l a g e r a n g e , c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y i n g 4-8.4# an d l e a s t s u c c e s s f u l a t t h e 1 5 . 0 - 1 8 .5 r a n g e , i d e n t i f y i n g o n l y 2 5 . 7# o f th e c h ild r e n . The p e r c e n t a g e i d e n t i f i e d a t t h e 4-.6 - 8 .11 r a n g e i s 3 4 .4 # an d a t t h e 9 .0 - 1 1 .1 1 r a n g e i s 3 8 . 956. The v a r i a t i o n by s e x w as s u b s t a n t i a l a s e v id e n c e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t 4-1.155 o f t h e m a le s w e re i d e n t i f i e d b u t o n ly 2 5 *4# o f t h e f e m a le s . I n te rm s o f IQ , t h o s e w ith a n IQ a t 90 o r a b o v e w e re i d e n t i f i e d 5 7 » 4 # o f t h e tim e i t h i s s u c c e s s r a t e d ro p p e d to 23* 9 # when t h e IQ w as b e lo w 9 0 . E x p l a n a t i o n s a s t o t h e f a i l u r e o f d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la s to w ork m ore e f f e c t i v e l y a r e v a r i e d b u t h a v e b e e n c o n s i s ­ te n tly re g is te re d a l., 1 9 7 7 ). ( S u lz b a c h e r an d K e n o w itz , 1977* L lo y d e t The o v e rw h e lm in g o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e 5 0 # c r i t e r i o n o r i g i n a l l y p r o p o s e d b y t h e f e d e r a l g o v e rn m e n t, l e d t o t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f a n y q u a n t i t a t i v e g u i d e l i n e s w ith t h e p u b l i c a ­ t i o n o n D ecem ber 29* 1977* o f t h e f i n a l l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y re g u la tio n s . 131 As t h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o rm u la i n c l u d e s t h e c h i l d ' s m e a su re d IQ , i t i s s u b j e c t to a l l o f t h e sam e c r i t i c i s m s d i r e c t e d a t t h e c o n c e p t o f IQ . i n a s k in g * G e a r h a r t (1 9 7 7 ) sums up t h i s c r i t i c i s m " I f we c a n n o t d e te r m in e i n t e l l e c t u a l p o t e n t i a l , how c a n we d e te r m in e d e g r e e o f d is c r e p a n c y ? " (1977» P* 1 2 ) . S u lz b a c h e r a n d K en o w itz (1 9 7 7 ) r a i s e two o t h e r q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n in g t h e u s e o f t h e d i s c r e p a n c y ! I s a 50% d i s c r e p a n c y i n m ath a s d i s a b l i n g a s a 50% d i s c r e p a n c y i n s p e l l i n g ? I s a 50% d i s ­ c re p a n c y f o r a t h i r d g r a d e r a s d e s e rv in g o f r e m e d i a t i o n a s a 50 % d i s c r e p a n c y i n a t e n t h g rad e s tu d e n t ? (p . 68) C r i t i c i s m h a s a l s o b e e n d i r e c t e d a t a t t e m p t i n g to m e a s u re a c h ie v e m e n t a t t h e p r e - s c h o o l l e v e l . The f o r m u la seem s to y i e l d u n r e a s o n a b le v a l u e s f o r c h i l d r e n y o u n g e r t h a n f i v e y e a r s o f a g e s i n c e t h e e x p e c te d d i s c r e p a n c y i s so la rg e . T h is p ro b le m b ecom es m ore p ro n o u n c e d t h e lo w e r t h e a g e ( D a n ie ls o n , 1 9 7 8 ). D e te rm in in g a c h ie v e m e n t i n t h e e a r l y g r a d e s i s a p ro b le m s i n c e t h e t e s t s l a c k a s u f f i c i e n t f l o o r . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e c h i l d m ig h t n o t b e i d e n t i f i e d a s h a v in g a s e v e re d is c re p a n c y d e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t he i s t r u l y d i s ­ a b le d . A ls o , i t i s i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t a c h i l d w o u ld h a v e b e e n r e q u i r e d to e x h i b i t a s e v e r e d i s c r e p a n c y i n o n ly o n e o f t h e e i g h t a c h ie v e m e n t a re a B t o q u a l i f y a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . T h e re fo re , th e p r o b a b ili ty o f a c h ild e x h ib itin g a se v e re d i s c r e p a n c y d u e t o c h a n c e a l o n e c o u ld b e c o n s i d e r a b l e . W h ile a l l o f t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s may b e c o r r e c t , t h e y a r e b a se d upon th e v a l i d i t y o f th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p ro c e d u re . T h is p r o c e s s i s fo u n d e d upon s u c h a s s u m p tio n s a s s p e c i f i c 132 e t i o l o g y f common s i g n s an d a known o u tc o m e! b u t t h e s e a r e o f te n n o t th e c a s e . F r e q u e n t l y t h e p r o c e s s s u f f e r s fro m u n r e l i a b l e ju d g m e n ts an d i n f a c t , t h e f i n a l ju d g m e n t may s a y a s much a b o u t t h o s e m ak in g t h e d e c i s i o n a s t h e c h i l d h im s e lf * C la riz io (1 9 7 6 ) o u t l i n e s f o u r f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e to t h e low r e l i a b i l i t y a s s o c i a t e d w ith d i a g n o s t i c in q u ir y * 1. Human e r r o r - a s o u r c e o f e r r o r c e n t e r s a ro u n d t h e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l m ak in g th e d e c is io n s . D iffe re n c e s i n e x p e c ta tio n s , b e­ h a v i o r a l a n a l y s i s an d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a s w e l l a s th e o r e tic a l b ia s e s , can a l l a f f e c t d ia g n o s is . A d d i t i o n a l l y , l o o s e r e a s o n i n g an d i n a c c u r a t e o b s e r v a t i o n may c o n fo u n d t h e p r o c e s s . 2. I n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c h i l d - many c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c h i l d may c o n t r i b u t e to f a v o r a b l e o r u n f a v o r a b l e ju d g m e n ts m ade a b o u t him d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t th e y h a v e no d i r e c t b e a r i n g up o n t h e d e c i s i o n to b e m ade. T h e se c h a r a c t e r i s ­ t i c s may i n c l u d e s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , r a c e , m a n n er o f s p e a k in g o r a t t i t u d e to w a r d s b e i n g t e s t e d . 3* F a u l t y l o g i c u n d e r l y i n g t h e c a t e g o r y s y s te m - d i s ­ a g r e e m e n t e x i s t s a b o u t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s u p on w h ic h d i a g n o s i s i s m ade. F u r th e r m o r e , i t i s com monly assu m ed t h a t t h e c a t e g o r i e s a r e m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e . Y e t m o st i n d i v i d u a l s p l a c e d i n t o su c h a c a t e g o r y do n o t e x h i b i t a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t t r i b u t e d to i t . Jf. Ju d g e m e n t c o n t e x t - low a g r e e m e n t i n t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s i s a f u n c t i o n o f a n i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n s i t u a t i o n , t h e d i a g n o s t i c i a n a n d t h e c h i l d . O f te n d ia g n o s e s a r e made i n a n i s o l a t e d s e t t i n g t h a t i s n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e s e t t i n g i n w h ic h t h e p ro b le m i s o c c u r r i n g . A c tu a lly , c o n s id e r in g th e d i f f i c u l t i e s r e l a t e d to d ia g ­ n o s i s , t h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la c a n b e ju d g e d a s f u n c t i o n i n g w ith s u r p r i s i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s . I n d e e d , t h e f o r m u la m ig h t b e ev e n m ore e f f e c t i v e i f t h e d i a g n o s t i c p r o c e s s w e re m ore r e l i a b l e an d v a l i d . And c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a b s e n c e o f m ore 133 e f f e c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s i n t h e f i e l d to d a y , t h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la a p p e a r s to h a v e s u b s t a n t i a l u t i l i t y f o r t h o s e c h a r g e d w i t h t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f h a n d ic a p p e d c h i l d r e n * R e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p r o p o s e d d i s ­ c r e p a n c y f o r m u la v a r i e s a c r o s s a g e r a n g e i n i d e n t i f y i n g c h i l ­ d r e n p l a c e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d i n M ic h ig a n . The p r o p o s e d f o r m u la i s m o s t e f f e c t i v e a t t h e 1 2 - l 4 - . l l a g e r a n g e w h e re i t i d e n t i f i e s 4 8 .4 # o f t h e s t u d e n t s . I t a p p e ars t h a t a c r i ­ te r i o n r e q u ir in g a 60# d is c re p a n c y a t t h i s age ra n g e i s r e a l ­ is tic . The f o r m u la i s som ew hat l e s s e f f e c t i v e a t t h e 9 . 0 - 11 a n d 4 . 6 - 8 . 1 1 a g e r a n g e s , i d e n t i f y i n g 3 8 .9 # a n d 3 4 .1 # o f th e c h ild r e n r e s p e c tiv e ly . H ow ever, t h i s i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e im p ro v e m e n t ( 25# ) o v e r t h e o r i g i n a l f o r m u la w h ic h c a l l e d f o r a 60# d i s c r e p a n c y a t t h e s e a g e r a n g e s . O b v io u s ly a 60# d i s ­ c r e p a n c y i s to o g r e a t t o t y p i c a l l y e x p e c t a t s u c h a n e a r l y age. One n e e d s t o b e a w a re , h o w e v e r, o f t h e f a c t t h a t b y a d j u s t i n g t h e c r i t e r i o n fro m 6 0 # to 4 0 # , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f i d e n t i f y i n g m ore c h i l d r e n who a r e n o t t r u l y " h a n d ic a p p e d " i s in c re a s e d . c o n s id e re d . The c o s t o f s u c h a p r o c e d u r e m u s t b e c a r e f u l l y A d d itio n a lly , a la r g e r p e rc e n ta g e o f c h ild r e n m ig h t b e i d e n t i f i e d a t t h e e a r l i e r a g e r a n g e s e x c e p t f o r t h e p ro b le m o f a n i n s u f f i c i e n t f l o o r o n a c h ie v e m e n t t e s t s . T h is , h o w e v e r, i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e t e s t a t t h i s a g e a n d n o t t h e f o r m u la p e r s e . F i n a l l y , t h e f o r m u la i d e n t i f i e d t h e l o w e s t p e r c e n t a g e ( 2 5 . 7# ) o f c h i l d r e n a t t h e 1 5 - 1 8 .6 a g e r a n g e . S in c e t h e 60# c r i t e r i o n w as 2 8 .1 # m ore e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e p ro p o sed c r i t e r i a , t h e m o s t o b v io u s c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t a 13** 70# d i s c r e p a n c y c r i t e r i o n i s s im p ly to o r i g o r o u s to e x p e c t a t t h i s a g e r a n g e t a 6 0# c r i t e r i o n w o u ld seem m ore r e a l i s t i c * I t i s a l s o p l a u s i b l e t h a t c h i l d r e n w i t h a s e v e r e d is c r e p a n c y may h a v e d ro p p e d o u t o f s c h o o l a t s u c h a l a t e a g e o r p e r h a p s a r e b e i n g s e r v e d i n some o t h e r m anner* F i n a l l y , i t may b e t h a t a d u l t s a r e m ore r e l u c t a n t to make a p la c e m e n t a s " h a n ­ d ic a p p e d 1' a t t h e s e a g e r a n g e s . The s e r v i c e s r e c e i v e d may n o t b e s e e n a s " w o rth " t h e l a b e l in v o lv e d i n s u c h a p l a c e ­ m e n t. A c ro s s IQ l e v e l s t h e p r o p o s e d f o r m u la i d e n t i f i e s a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n w i t h I Q 's a b o v e 90 (57.**#) th a n b e lo w 90 ( 2 3 . 9 # ) . fo rm u la . By d e f i n i t i o n , IQ i s a p a r t o f t h e C o n s e q u e n tly , e x p e c te d a c h ie v e m e n t i n c r e a s e s w ith IQ l e v e l . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h o s e w ith h i g h e r I Q 's who w e re a l s o u n d e r a c h ie v i n g w o u ld th u s b e f a c i l i t a t e d . T h is w o u ld b e e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i f IQ w as a l e s s e f f e c t i v e p r e d i c ­ t o r o f a c h ie v e m e n t f o r t h i s g ro u p th a n f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n in g e n e ra l. m ent t e s t s o s itio n . C o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s b e tw e e n IQ an d a c h i e v e ­ ( s e e T a b le **.10) w o u ld l e n d s u p p o r t to t h i s p r o p ­ I t may a l s o b e t h a t t h o s e w i t h I Q 's a b o v e 90 a r e m ore c l e a r l y l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d ( a s c u r r e n t l y d e f i n e d i n t h e f i e l d ) t h a n t h o s e w ith lo w e r I Q 's who may b e e x p e r i e n c i n g m ore g e n e r a l i z e d l e a r n i n g p r o b le m s . A d d itio n a lly , th e s e r e s u l t s c o u ld b e a f u n c t i o n o f a r e l u c t a n c e o n t h e p a r t o f E . P . P . C . 's to p l a c e c h i l d r e n o f a v e r a g e o r a b o v e i n t e l l i ­ g en ce a s le a r n in g d is a b le d u n le s s a s e v e re d is c re p a n c y i s a p p a re n t. P e r h a p s t h o s e w ith lo w e r I Q 's e x p e r i e n c i n g s c h o o l 135 f a i l u r e a r e b e in g r e f e r r e d w ith o u t su ch a d is c re p a n c y s in c e t h i s c a t e g o r y w i l l g e t them s e r v i c e s t h e y w o u ld o t h e r w i s e n o t b e a b le to r e c e iv e . F in a lly , t h e p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la i d e n t i f i e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y m ore m a le s ( 4 1 .1 %) t h a n f e m a le s ( 2 5 . ^ 5 ) . B r e n to n a n d G ilm o re ( 1 9 ? 6 ) h a d s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s , i d e n t i f y i n g kUfi o f t h e m a le s b u t o n l y 30 fo o f t h e f e m a le s i n t h e i r s t u d y . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f an y a p p a r e n t e v i d e n c e , t h e r e i s no r e a s o n to assu m e t h a t t h e f o r m u la i t s e l f i s d i s c r i m i n a t o r y o r i n n o n c o m p lia n c e w i t h PL 9**~1^2. h e re i s T he m o s t p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t t h e s e f i n d i n g s a r e a r e s u l t o f t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s an d p o s s i b l e c u l t u r a l b i a s e s an d e x p e c t a t i o n s . It i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t f e m a le s a r e e x p e c te d to e x h i b i t l e s s u n d e r a c h ie v e m e n t th a n m a le s . C o n s e q u e n tly , w hen a f e m a le d e m o n s tr a te s some u n d e r a c h ie v e m e n t, a l th o u g h n o t s e v e r e , s h e w i l l m ore r e a d i l y b e r e f e r r e d a n d p l a c e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d th a n a m a le . A n o th e r f a c t o r may b e r e l a t e d t o s o c i a l s k i l l s . F e m a le s may m ore t y p i c a l l y e x h i b i t t h o s e s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s ­ tic s ( n e a t , w e l l b e h a v e d ) dem anded b y s c h o o l s . A d u lts w o u ld te n d to b e m ore r e l u c t a n t t o make a r e f e r r a l f o r t h e f e m a le , p e r c e i v i n g t h e s e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s c o m p e n s a tin g f o r u n d e r a c h ie v e m e n t. A d d i t i o n a l l y , many o f t h e s e f e m a le s may be m is c la s s ifie d . I n a n a t t e m p t to m e e t t h e n e e d s o f a l l s t u d e n t s , s c h o o l s y s te m s may b e e r r o n e o u s l y i d e n t i f y i n g m ore f e m a le s a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y do n o t d e m o n s tr a te a s s e v e r e a d i s c r e p a n c y a s m a le s . F in a lly , t h e m o s t p a r s im o n io u s e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t u n d e r a c h ie v e m e n t, 136 i n s c h o o l r e l a t e d t a s k s , i s m ore p r e v a l e n t among m a le s t h a n among fe m a le s * I n su ch a c a s e , t h i s d if f e r e n c e i n th e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n w ould b e r e f l e c t e d i n a g ro u p o f c h i l d r e n r e f e r re d because o f sch o o l d i f f i c u l t y . In e ffe c t, t h e f o r m u la d o e s v a r y i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s a c r o s s a g e l e v e l , IQ r a n g e an d s e x . H ow ever, t h e r e a p p e a r s no e v i ­ d e n c e o f t h e f o r m u la b e i n g d i s c r i m i n a t o r y i n an d o f i t s e l f . C o n s id e r in g t h e v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s in v o lv e d i n t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s , t h e f o r m u la c a n b e p e r c e i v e d a s f u l f i l l i n g i t s f u n c t i o n m o st a d e q u a t e l y . In e f f e c t, th e p ro c e d u re i d e n t i ­ f i e s a p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n a t t h e lo w e r en d o f t h e a c h i e v e ­ m en t c u r v e . B e c a u s e t h e c h i l d r e n who a r e l o w e s t on t h i s c r i ­ t e r i a a r e i d e n t i f i e d a s le a r n in g d is a b le d , i t o b v io u s ly i d e n t i f i e s t h e m o s t s e v e r e l y h a n d ic a p p e d o n l y i f o n e a g r e e s t h a t th e p ro c e d u re r e f l e c t s a p p r o p r ia te c r i t e r i a . I f one a c c e p ts th e p r o p o s itio n t h a t th e le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild i s o n e who e x h i b i t s a s e v e r e d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t, w ith e x p e c te d a g e b e i n g a f u n c t i o n o f a g e an d IQ , t h e n t h e p r o c e d u r e , w h ile n o t p e r f e c t , h o l d s some p r o m is e . H ow ever, w h a t i s e x c lu d e d h e r e (a n d w h ic h may e x p l a i n why m o re c h i l d r e n a r e n o t i d e n t i f i e d ) i s t h e co n cep t o f p ro c e ss d is o rd e r. E d u c a to r s h a v e lo n g b e e n i n t e r e s t e d i n " p r o c e s s " , b u t t h i s te r m , t o o , h a s t a k e n o n a v a r i e t y o f m e a n in g s . O fte n ­ t i m e s , we r e a d o r h e a r o f p r o c e s s e s n e c e s s a r y f o r a c h i e v e ­ m ent i n a r e a s su ch a s a r ith m e tic o r s o c i a l s tu d ie s o r o f t h e p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d i n t h i n k i n g . M ore r e c e n t l y , 137 p r o f e s s i o n a l s h a v e becom e i n t e r e s t e d i n p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d i n s c h o o l le a r n i n g * s u c h a s a u d i to r y * m o to ric , o f te n c a lle d m o d a litie s . t a c t i l e , v is u a l and L e r n e r (1 9 7 6 ) w r i t e s t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f o n e 's d e f i n i t i o n , a p r o c e s s c a n b e im p a ir e d i n a t l e a s t t h r e e w aysi 1« 2. 3« L oss o f an e s ta b lis h e d p r o c e s s . I n h i b i t i o n o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f su c h a p r o c e s s . I n t e r f e r e n c e w ith th e f u n c tio n o f su ch a p r o c e s s . A lth o u g h n o t r e v e a l e d i n t h e d a t a a n a ly z e d , i t may b e t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g iv e n to p r o c e s s d i f f i c u l ­ t i e s a t p la c e m e n t c o m m itte e s . T h is w o u ld go f a r i n e x p l a i n ­ in g t h a t w h ile t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t an d t h e l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b i l i t y c o n s u l t a n t w e re i n n e a r p e r f e c t a g re e m e n t a s to p la c e m e n t, t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d i s t i n c t i o n s b e tw e e n g r o u p s w e re n o t fo u n d to b e a s p e r f e c t . T h is f i n d i n g may b e e x p l a in e d i n p a r t b y r e c e n t w ork (Y o s h id a e t a l . » 1 9 7 7 I F e n to n e t a l , i n p r e s s ) w h ich i n d i c a t e s t h a t n o t a l l c o m m itte e m em bers p a r t i c i p a t e e q u a l l y i n p la c e m e n t d e c i s i o n s . T h e se d e c i s i o n s a r e o f t e n made b y o n e o r p e r h a p s two i n d i v i d u a l s . And th o s e in v o lv e d i n th e f i n a l d e c i s i o n may b e t h o s e l e a s t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r im p le m e n ta tio n o f p r o g ra m s , su c h a s i n s t r u c t i o n a l p e r ­ so n n el . B u t a s p r o c e s s d i s o r d e r i s d i f f i c u l t to m e a s u re , so i s m o tiv a tio n . A lg o z z in e a n d S u t h e r l a n d (1 9 7 7 ) p r o p o s e a new d i r e c t i o n an d a d d r e s s t h o s e t h a t a r e n o t l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d b u t " le a rn in g d is in te r e s te d " (p . 9 6 ). T hey u s e th e te r m , n o t in th e p e r jo r a ti v e , b u t r a t h e r th e d e s c r ip tiv e s e n s e . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , p a r t o f t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e f o r m u la to 138 i d e n t i f y a l l t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c o u ld b e e x p l a in e d b y m o tiv a tio n a l f a c t o r s . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y r e f l e c t t h e c r i t i c i s m s o f a n y d e f i n i t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e s h o r tc o m in g s o f a n y d i s c r e p ­ ancy fo rm u la . H ow ever, i n a d d r e s s i n g t h e I Q - d is c r e p a n c y f o r m u la , R in g e lh e im (1 9 7 8 ) s t a t e s t h a t i ...Y o u m u s t lo o k a t t h e 1 ,0 0 0 com m ents o n t h e p ro p o sed r e g u l a t i o n s . I t h i n k o n e c o u ld c h a r a c ­ t e r i z e them a s k i l l , k i l l . D o n 't t e l l u s w h a t a l t e r n a t i v e s t h e r e a r e b u t o n ly w h a t i s w ro n g . We p u t o u t a f o rm u la - e v e ry b o d y jum ped o n t h e f o rm u la an d s a i d t h a t i t i n no way c o u ld b e a c c e p ta b le (p . 6 6 ). R in g le h e im (1 9 7 8 ) g o e s o n to s a y t h a t i f a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n w as p u t f o r t h , t h a t t h i s p o s i t i o n , t o o , w ould b e c r i t i c i z e d a s u n te n a b le . M i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and O v e r la p o f C h a ra c te ris tic s A r e l a t e d a r e a ex a m in e d i n t h i s s tu d y i s t h e o v e r l a p i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e tw e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s . I f th e p ro ­ p o s e d M ic h ig a n g u i d e l i n e (w h e re t h e d i s c r e p a n c y v a r i e s a c r o s s a g e r a n g e s ) w as a p p l i e d , a p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n c l a s s i f i e d a s n o n - im p a ir e d w o u ld h a v e b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d (19.595, 1 6 .5 # , 12.595 a n d 0 .0 # a t ea ch s u c ­ c e s s iv e age r a n g e ) . I n te r m s o f F .S .I Q , 6 .8 # o f t h e low IQ g ro u p an d 2 2 .3 # o f t h e h ig h IQ g ro u p o f n o n - im p a ir e d w ould m eet th e c r i t e r i a . O f n o n - im p a ir e d m a le s , 17*6# w ould h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d , w h ile 8 . 3# o f t h e n o n - im p a ir e d f e m a le s w ould a l s o m e e t t h e c r i t e r i a . O v e r a l l , t h e d is c r e p a n c y f o r m u la i d e n t i f i e s 15*395 o f th e n o n - im p a ir e d , 9 * 2 # o f t h e 139 EMI, 7 .4 # o f t h e E l a n d 4 .9 # o f t h e o t h e r w i s e im p a ir e d . D a n ie ls o n (1 9 7 8 ) fo u n d a r a n g e from 8 to 12# o f m i s i d e n t i f i c a tio n in h i s s tu d y . W hat n e e d s to b e g iv e n c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n h e r e a r e th e co n seq u en ces o f m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Any a t t e m p t to r e ­ d u c e ty p e I I e r r o r s ( m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f n o n - im p a ir e d c h i l ­ d r e n ) w i l l i n c r e a s e ty p e I e r r o r s ( t h o s e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d who w i l l n o t b e i d e n t i f i e d ) . T he c h o i c e o f a c u t o f f p o i n t i s a lw a y s a b a l a n c e b e tw e e n t h e s e two e r r o r s , an d t h i s h a s to b e r e c o g n i z e d a s p a r t o f t h e p ro b le m o f a n y s c r e e n i n g e ffo rt. In r e c e n t y e a rs th e d a n g e rs o f m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h a v e b e e n w e l l d o cu m en ted (H o b b s, 1 9 7 5 l Goldm an an d H a r t i g , 1 9 7 6 ). I n c lu d e d i n t h e s e d a n g e r s a r e t h e p r e j u d i c i n g o f te a c h e r e x p e c ta tio n s , t h e s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g p r o p h e c y an d t h e lo w e r in g o f t h e c h i l d ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s , ( Y s s e ld y k e an d F o s t e r , 1 9 7 8 ). to name b u t a few On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t may b e t h a t some o f t h e d a n g e r s o f m i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h a v e b e e n o v e r ­ s t a t e d (M cC arth y an d P a r a s k e v o p o u lo s , 1 9 6 9 ) . F u r th e r m o r e , th e e x te n t o f th e d an g e r o f m i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i l l b e r e ­ l a t e d to t h e r e v e r s i b i l i t y o f t h e d e c i s i o n . F in a lly , one m u st r e a l i z e t h a t w h ile r e d u c i n g t h e num ber o f f a l s e p o s i ­ t i v e s to n e a r z e r o i s p e r h a p s p o s s i b l e , t h e s e w ould a l s o s u b ­ s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e th e num ber o f d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n i n n e e d o f s e r v i c e s t h a t w ould n o t g e t i t . T h is p r o c e d u r e w ould b e f r a u g h t w ith i n a d e q u a c i e s . C le a rly , th e re i s l i t t l e doubt th a t le a rn in g d i s a b i l i ­ t i e s , m ild e m o tio n a l d i s t u r b a n c e an d m ild m e n ta l r e t a r d a t i o n 140 h a v e a g r e a t d e a l i n common. T h is a l s o seem s to b e t r u e o f c h i l d r e n i n i t i a l l y r e f e r r e d f o r e v a l u a t i o n b u t l a t e r fo u n d to b e n o n - im p a i r e d . The d e g r e e to w h ic h t h e s e g r o u p s c o u ld b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d o n c e r t a i n s e l e c t v a r i a b l e s w as a c e n t r a l p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y . m a rk a b ly e f f e c t i v e * W h ile no s i n g l e c r i t e r i o n w as r e ­ a c o m b in a tio n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d i d im p ro v e t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s . The D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly ­ s i s e f f e c t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d 6 7 . 5#* 6 7 .4 # an d 6 7 . 7# o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d , EMI a n d n o n - im p a ir e d c h i l d r e n , r e s p e c ­ t i v e l y ( s e e T a b le 5 * 1 ) W h ile t h i s s t i l l l e a v e s o v e r l a p , i t i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y m ore e f f e c t i v e th a n r e l y i n g o n t h e d i s c r e p ­ a n c y f o rm u la a l o n e . O v e ra ll, t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e f o r m u la s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e may h a v e u t i l i t y . T h e re a p p e a r s to b e some p ro b le m a t t h e y o u n g e r an d o l d e r en d s o f t h e a g e r a n g e , a s w e ll a s f o r f e m a l e s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e f o r m u la may b e ju d g e d b y some to y i e l d p r e v a l e n c e f i g u r e s f o r slo w l e a r n e r s t h a t a r e u n a c c e p t a b l e , a l th o u g h t h i s c o u ld a l s o b e a fu n c tio n o f th e i n i t i a l r e f e r r a l p ro c e s s . F in a lly , o v e r­ l a p i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s s u f f i c i e n t to w a r r a n t c a u t i o n i n t h e u s e o f an y f o r m u la . The p r o c e d u r e i s c o n fo u n d e d b y t h e n e e d f o r n u m erous v a lu e d e c is io n s . When we a r e f o r c e d t o make b l a c k a n d w h ite d e c i s i o n s i n g r e y a r e a s , t h e d e c i s i o n e a s i l y becom es a r b i ­ t r a r y ( D a n ie ls o n , 1 9 7 8 ) . B u t, w h ile much Beems i n a d e q u a t e a b o u t t h e p r o c e d u r e , i t may b e t h a t no b e t t e r s y s te m i s i n u s e to d a y . A f a i l u r e t o p r o v i d e l e a d e r s h i p h a s i t s p ro b le m s 141 T a b le 5*1 - F re q u e n c y o f L e a r n in g D is a b le d an d N o n -im p a ire d C h ild re n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d and m i s - c l a s s i f i e d b y s e c o n d D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s is * C u rre n t C la s s if ic a tio n LD N o n -im p a ire d LD 133 53 186 N onim p a ir e d 46 128 174 179 181 360 D is c rim in a n t A n a ly s is C o rre c t I d e n tif ic a tio n « F a ls e P o s itiv e s (T h o s e l a b e l e d a s LD who a r e n o n - im p a ir e d ) 46 F a l s e N e g a tiv e s » -=-57: (T h o se l a b e l e d ' a s n o n - im p a ir e d w ho, i n f a c t , a r e LD) = 72*5# = 28*575 25.675 The a n a l y s i s i d e n t i f i e d 186 c h i l d r e n an d w as w rong o n 53 o f t h e s e . Of t h e 179 c h i l d r e n who a r e LD, 46 a r e m is s e d b y th e a n a ly s is * * 18 c a s e s c u r r e n t l y LD w e re l a b e l e d EMI. C h a r t ta k e n fro m G a ll a g h e r an d B r a d le y i n NSEE y e a rb o o k (1 9 7 2 ). 142 a s w e ll. W ith o u t s p e c i f i c g u i d e l i n e s p r a c t i t i o n e r s w i l l s t i l l n e e d to m ake d e c i s i o n s * I n t h i s c a s e , e d u c a t o r s m ig h t u s e c r i t e r i a w h ic h a r e l e s s v a l i d th a n t h e p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p ­ an cy fo rm u la . P e r h a p s a f o r m u la - b a s e d p r o c e d u r e w ould b e s t b e s e e n a s o n e a s p e c t o f a m ore c o m p re h e n s iv e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n an d p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . P r o f i l e A n a ly s is G roup p r o f i l e s w e re a n a ly z e d a c c o r d in g t o B a n n a ty n e * s (1 9 6 8 ) s u g g e s te d r e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n . The l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p d i d e x h i b i t a " p a t t e r n " r e p o r t e d by many p r e v i o u s r e ­ s e a r c h e r s (K eogh an d H a l l , 4 1 9 7 7 )• 1974-1 R u g e l, 1974* S m ith e t a l . , T h is p a t t e r n d e m o n s tr a te s h i g h e s t s c o r e s o n S p a t i a l s u b t e s t s , n e x t h i g h e s t s c o r e s o n V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n s u b ­ t e s t s a n d l o w e s t s c o r e s o n s u b t e s t s c a l l e d A tte n tio n - C o n e e n tra tio n . A n a ly s is o f i n d i v i d u a l W e c h s le r s u b t e s t s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a s a g ro u p s c o r e d l o w e s t o n s u b ­ t e s t s o f A r i t h m e t i c , C o d in g an d I n f o r m a t i o n , w ith g ro u p s c o r e s o f 7 * 0 , 7 . 2 an d 7 * 6 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . They s c o r e d h i g h ­ e s t o n s u b t e s t s o f P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n , P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t a n d O b je c t A sse m b ly , w ith s c o r e s o f 9.5% 9 . 4 a n d 9 . 4 , r e s ­ p e c tiv e ly . T h e se r e s u l t s sure s i m i l a r to t h o s e r e p o r t e d i n e a r l i e r s t u d i e s (K eogh e t a l . , S m ith e t a l . , 1 9 7 7 ). 1973* V ance a n d G a y n o r, 1976* The o n e d i f f e r e n c e w as t h a t s c o r e s o n P i c t u r e A rra n g e m e n t w e re h i g h e r th a n e x p e c te d . T h e se r e s u l t s may b e t a k e n a s a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d d e m o n s tr a te v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f 1^3 c o m p e te n c e i n c e r t a i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s . S p e c ific a lly ) t h i s g ro u p i s a l l e g e d to b e s t r o n g e s t i n a r e a s t h a t do n o t i n v o l v e s e q u e n c in g an d r e q u i r e t h e a b i l i t y to m a n ip u la te o b ­ j e c t s i n m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r sym b o l­ ic a lly . T h e i r v e r b a l c o m p e te n c e a s m e a su re d b y p e r f o rm a n c e o n la n g u a g e t a s k s i s l e s s e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e re d o e s a p p e a r to b e g ro w in g e v id e n c e t h a t l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n may h a v e la n g u a g e d i s o r d e r s w h ic h h a v e b e e n u n d e r e s tim a te d an d u n d e r s t u d i e d . T h e se d i s o r d e r s m ig h t b e r e l a t e d to a w id e v a r i e t y o f p ro b le m s i n c l u d i n g r e a d i n g and a t t e n t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . Beyond la n g u a g e d i s o r d e r s i t h a s a l s o b e e n s u g g e s te d t h a t l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n may b e s u f f e r i n g fro m d e la y e d la n g u a g e d e v e lo p m e n t (B ry a n an d B ry a n , 197*0* I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e m a te r ia l i s n o t le a r n e d i n th e f i r s t p la c e b e c a u se o f i n a t t e n t i o n . R e la tiv e to t h e i r own s c o r e s , t h e y a r e w e a k e s t i n t h e A tte n tio n - C o n c e n t r a t i o n c a t e g o r y w h ic h r e q u i r e s s h o r t - t e r m memory s t o r a g e o f s e q u e n c e s o f a u d i t o r y an d v i s u a l s t i m u l i (S m ith e t a l . , 1 9 7 7 ). The p a t t e r n p r o p o s e d b y B a n n a ty n e (1 9 6 8 ) a p p e a r s to have been r e p l i c a t e d . little H ow ever, t h e t h r e e v a r i a b l e s ad d e d d i s c r i m i n a t e p o w er s t a t i s t i c a l l y i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d an d n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p . In f a c t , w hen a l l t h r e e f a c t o r s w e re n o t in c lu d e d i n t h e D is ­ c r i m i n a t e A n a l y s i s , v e r y l i t t l e p o w er w as l o s t . One l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t t h i s w as n o t t r u l y a " n o rm a l" g r o u p . The g ro u p c l a s s i f i e d a s n o n - im p a ir e d was i n i t i a l l y r e f e r r e d 1W f o r e v a l u a t i o n a n d , th u s * may s h a r e many o f t h e sam e c h a r a c ­ t e r i s t i c s t h a t a r e a p p a re n t i n th o s e c l a s s i f i e d a s le a r n in g d is a b le d . T h is w o u ld te n d to a g g r a v a t e t h e p ro b le m o f o v e r ­ l a p t h a t e x i s t s b e tw e e n a n y two p o p u l a t i o n s . was n o t g iv e n . The D i g i t Span T h is s u b t e s t i s o f f e r e d a s a n a l t e r n a t e on t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s . C o n s e q u e n tly , i t n e e d n o t b e g iv e n by p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n o r d e r to a c h ie v e a c o m p le te (5 s u b t e s t s ) V e rb a l s c o r e . T y p i c a l l y , i t w o u ld o n ly b e a d m i n i s t e r e d i f o n e o f t h e o t h e r s u b t e s t s w as fo u n d to b e i n v a l i d d u e to e r r o r in a d m in is tra tio n . P e r h a p s p r a c t i t i o n e r s n e e d to b e e n c o u ra g e d to make g r e a t e r u s e o f t h i s s u b t e s t . The r e s u l t B o f t h i s s tu d y a r e s i m i l a r to th o s e fo u n d by H uelsm an ( 1 9 7 0 ) . H is f i n d i n g s l e d him to c o n c lu d e t h a t low I n f o r m a t i o n , A r i th m e t ic an d C o d in g s u b t e s t s c o r e s w e re c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e g ro u p o f c h i l d r e n c l a s s i f i e d a s l e a r n ­ in g d i s a b l e d . H ow ever, h e s t a t e s t h a t c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t i n ­ d i v i d u a l u n d e r a c h i e v e r s c a n n o t b e made fro m t h e s e g ro u p fin d in g s . A p p a r e n tly , t h e d e g r e e t o w h ich t h e W e c h s le r p a t t e r n ( V e r b a l- S p a tia l- A tte n tio n ) d i f f e r e n t i a t e s g ro u p s i s i n s u f ­ f i c i e n t to b a s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o l e l y o n th e m . B ry an (1 9 7 6 ) drew a s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n an d a s s e r t e d t h a t e r r o r s i n c l a s ­ s i f i c a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d r e n a r e l i k e l y to b e f r e q u e n t . A g a in , a p ro b le m h e r e i s t h e low r e l i a b i l i t y o f d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s b e tw e e n s u b t e s t s . P i a t r o w s k i an d G rubb (1 9 7 6 ) exam­ in e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s u b t e s t s c o r e s c a t t e r o n t h e WISC-R an d s u g g e s t t h a t 3 t o 5 p o i n t ( d i f f e r e n c e s ) a r e n e c e s s a r y 1 a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l an d k to 6 p o i n t ( d i f f e r e n c e s ) a r e n e c e s s a r y a t th e .0 1 le v e l * They s u g g e s t t h a t c a u t i o n b e e x e r c i s e d c o n c e r n in g t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s . W h ile e m p h a s iz in g t h a t p r o f i l e o r p a t t e r n a n a l y s i s r a t h e r th a n random c o m p a ris o n o f p a i r s o f s u b t e s t s a d d s m ore c r e d i b i l i t y to t h e u s e o f s u b t e s t s c o r e s , th e y w arn t h a t i t i s im p e r a t i v e t h a t ev en WISC-R s u b t e s t p a t t e r n s r e f l e c t c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e s an d n o t s im p ly m easu rem en t e r r o r . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e i r c a u t i o n . S ub­ t e s t s l a c k t h e r e l i a b i l i t y n e c e s s a r y to draw m ore s p e c i f i c c o n c lu s io n s . T h is c o n c lu s io n i s f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e d by t h e w ork o f Kaufm an (1 9 7 6 ) who fo u n d t h a t t h e WISC-R p r o f i l e s o f n o rm a l c h i l d r e n e x h i b i t much s c a t t e r , p r o b a b ly m ore th a n m o st t e s t u s e r s r e a l i z e . K aufm an (1 9 7 6 ) le n d s some i n s i g h t i n t o th e u s e ( o r m is u s e ) o f WISC-R p r o f i l e s i n w r i t i n g t h a t i ...w h e n a c h i l d h a s a n u n u su al, am ount o f s c a t t e r i n h i s WISC-R p r o f i l e , t h e r e may b e d i a g n o s t i c and r e m e d ia l i m p l i c a t i o n s . When t h e r e i s some s c a t t e r ( e . g . , one o r m ore d e v i a n t t e s t s c o r e s ) , b u t n o t a n ab n o rm a l am ou n t, th e n t h e f o c u s s h o u ld b e p r i m a r i l y — p e r h a p s s o l e l y — o n g a i n i n g a b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e c h i l d ' s a b i l i t i e s a n d / o r o n p la n n in g f o r h i s r e m e d i a t i o n . What muBt b e rem em b ered , i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , i s t h a t t h e n o rm a l c h i l d — j u s t l i k e t h e e x c e p t i o n a l c h i l d — d o e s n o t h a v e a f l a t WISC-R p r o f i l e , an d w i l l o f t e n e v id e n c e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h s and w e a k n e s se s when h i s t e s t s c o r e s a r e s u b j e c t e d to e m p iric a l a n a ly s is ( p . JfO). R e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y do s u g g e s t t h e c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e same p a t t e r n o f a b i l i t i e s t h a t B a n n a ty n e ( 1 9 6 8 , 1971) fo u n d f o r c h i l d r e n w ith g e n e t i c d y s l e x i a an d R u g e l (1 9 7 ^ ) r e p o r t e d f o r d i s ­ a b le d r e a d e r s i n g e n e r a l . E v id e n c e t h a t t h e s e c h i l d r e n a r e 146 c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a u n iq u e p a t t e r n o n t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s c o n t i n u e s t o m ount (K eogh a n d H a l l , 1974) E v an s an d S m ith , 1 9 7 7 ). W hat may b e m o st i m p o r t a n t i s t h e u t i l i t y o f t h e s e fin d in g s . The h o p e i s t h a t t h e s u g g e s te d r e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n w o u ld s e r v e a s B a n n a ty n e (1 9 7 4 ) s u g g e s ts * "A s a p r a c t i c a l d i a g n o s t i c t o o l w h ic h r e o r g a n i z e s t h e s u b t e s t s c o r e s i n t o a m ore u s e f u l an d s t a t i s t i c a l l y v a l i d f o r m a t th a n W e c h s le r* s own g r o u p in g o f V e r b a l a n d P e rfo rm a n c e " (p . 273). I t may b e i m p o r t a n t to know t h a t a t l e a s t some l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n p o s s e s s h ig h v i s u a l - s p a t i a l s k i l l s , m o d e ra te v e r b a l c o n c e p t u a l s k i l l s an d low a t t e n t i o n s k i l l s * E v an s a n d S m ith (1 9 7 7 ) s u g g e s t t h a t p r o f i l e a n a l y s i s h a s b o th d i a g n o s t i c an d i n t e r p r e t i v e , a s w e l l a s a p r e s c r i p ­ tiv e , u t i l i t y . A low A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n s c o r e , B anna­ ty n e (who c a l l s i t s e q u e n t i a l ) s u g g e s t s , r e p r e s e n t s a d e f i c i t i n a u d i t o r y c l o s u r e an d s e q u e n c in g . T h is a u d i t o r y memory d e f i c i t p u r p o r te d ly i s c r u c i a l to th e r e a d in g p r o c e s s . Of c o u rse , a s i n i t i a l le a rn in g i s n o t c o n tro lle d f o r , a d e­ p r e s s e d s c o r e c o u ld r e p r e s e n t low m o t i v a t i o n . K aufinan (1 9 7 6 ) p r e f e r s to c a l l t h e f a c t o r Freedom fro m D i s t r a c t i b i l i t y an d b e l i e v e s t h a t u s e f u l r e s u l t s r e l a t e d t o memory, n u m e r ic a l s k i l l s an d d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y may b e fo u n d b y p r o f i l e a n a l y s i s . K aufm an (1 9 7 5 ) g i v e s a n ex am p le o f t h i s p o s s i b l e u t i l i t y w r i t i n g th a t* A low s c o r e o n D i g i t S p a n , c o u p le d w ith low s c o r e s o n A r i th m e t ic an d C o d in g ( a lo n g w ith a v e r a g e o r h i g h e r s c o r e s o n m o st o t h e r t e s t s ) w ould s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s h i g h l y d i s t r a c t i b l e ) h o w e v e r, in 1*7 a low s c o r e o n D i g i t S p a n , b u t n o t o n A r i th m e t ic and C o d in g w ould j u s t i f y t h e s p e c i f i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e d e f i c i e n c y i n im m e d ia te a u d i t o r y memory a n d / o r p o s s i b l e a n x i e t y ( p . 145)* The p r e s c r i p t i v e u t i l i t y o f t h e WISC-R i n e d u c a t i o n a l p ro g ra m m in g i s s t i l l i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f e x p l o r a t i o n (E v a n s a n d S m ith , 1 97 7 ) • g ro w in g * H ow ever, t h e a r e a seem s to b e "A cadem ic T h e ra p y " p u b l i s h e d a n e n t i r e s e r i e s b e ­ g i n n i n g i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1976 e n t i t l e d P r e s c r i p t i o n fro m WISC P a t t e r n s . I n t h i s s e r i e s , W i l l s an d B anas (1 9 7 6 ) u rg e d t h e r e a d e r "N o t to d i s c a r d t h e v a l u e o f su c h i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s a s t h e WISC b u t to d i s c a r d t h e u s e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t i e n t (IQ ) f i g u r e s i n f a v o r o f k n o w le d g e a b le a n a l y s i s o f s u b t e s t p a t t e r n s i n i d e n t i f y i n g weak an d s t r o n g l e a r n i n g area s" ( p . 24-1). The p r e s e n t s tu d y p r o v i d e s s u p p o r t f o r r e ­ g r o u p in g t h e WISC i n t o c a te g o rie s . S p a t i a l , C o n c e p tu a l an d S e q u e n t i a l T h e se c a t e g o r i e s a p p e a r to p r o v i d e v a l u a b l e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t t h r e e im p o rta n t a r e a s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l fu n c ­ t io n i n g * v i s u o s p a t i a l a b i l i t y , la n g u a g e a b i l i t y an d m em ory. N ot a l l d is a b le d r e a d e r s w i l l be h ig h e s t i n S p a tia l su b ­ t e s t s an d l o w e s t i n Memory s u b t e s t s . Some may b e l o w e s t i n S p a t i a l s u b t e s t s w h e re a s o t h e r s may show no d i f f e r e n c e s a t a ll. H ow ever, s h o u ld a d e f i n i t i v e p a t t e r n o f s t r e n g t h s an d d e f i c i t s em e rg e , t h i s s h o u ld p r o v i d e u s e f u l d i a g n o s t i c i n f o r m a t i o n i n te rm s o f p l a n n i n g a r e m e d i a l p ro g ra m . A tte n tio n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n The A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r w as o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in t h i s s tu d y , and r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t th e I*f8 p o p u l a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n s c o r e lo w e s t o n th is fa c to r. An a n a l y s i s o f i n d i v i d u a l p r o f i l e s w o u ld b e h e l p f u l t o p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a n d t h e e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d . S im i­ l a r r e s u l t s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d b y o t h e r s (K eogh e t a l . , Keogh an d H a l l , 197*0* 1973I I n t h e c a s e w h e re a c h i l d h a d a n IQ b e tw e e n 80 a n d 9 0 , i t c o u l d b e u s e d i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e ­ tw ee n a l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y a n d m ore g e n e r a l i z e d l e a r n i n g d iffic u ltie s . H ow ever, e x a m in a tio n o f i n d i v i d u a l s u b t e s t s , a s w e l l a s th e i n c lu s io n o f th e A tte n tio n - C o n e e n tr a tio n f a c t o r i n th e D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s e s , r e v e a l e d t h i s f a c t o r to h a v e l e s s d i s c r i m i n a t i n g p o w er t h a n h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n r e p o r t e d (A ckerm an e t a l . , 1971)* T h is f a i l u r e to d i s c r i m i n a t e m ore e f f e c t i v e l y may b e , i n p a r t , e x p l a in e d b y t h o s e same c o n s i d ­ e r a tio n s p re s e n te d in th e d is c u s s io n o f th e th r e e f a c t o r s a s p r o p o s e d b y B a n n a ty n e ( 1 9 6 8 ) . The d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t w e re d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r a s to o v e r l a p o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e tw e e n g ro u p s a r e a ls o r e l e v a n t h e r e . A d d i t i o n a l p ro b le m s a r e r e ­ l a t e d to d e f i n i t i o n , s u b t e s t v a l i d i t y an d t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f p o p u la tio n s o f c h ild r e n . The d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e a r e a o f A t t e n t i o n an d l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n r e f l e c t s c o n f u s io n a s t o a n e x a c t m e a n in g f o r t h e te rm " a t t e n t i o n " . W h ile some (Dykman e t a l . , 1971) u se d e f i n i t i o n s su ch a s a l e r t n e s s an d s tim u lu s s e l e c t i o n , o t h e r s ( B r y a n , 197**) p r e f e r te r m s s u c h a s t a s k an d n o n - t a s k o r ie n te d b e h a v io r. H a r r i s (1 9 7 6 ) a s s e r t s t h a t " T h e re i s no 149 c o n s e n s u s a s to a f o r m a l d e f i n i t i o n f o r t h e te rm ’ a t t e n t i o n * an d some i n v e s t i g a t o r s q u e s t i o n s w h e th e r t h e w ord i s f o r m a lly d e fin a b le a t a l l " (p . 4 8 ). The v a l i d i t y i t s e l f ' o f a n A t t e n t i o n - C o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c ­ t o r i s in q u e s tio n a s w e ll. T h a t i s , w h e th e r t h i s p o r t i o n o f th e W e c h s le r s c a l e m e a s u re s w h a t some p u r p o r t t h a t i t m e a s u re s a p p e a r s u n c e r t a i n . I n d e e d , th e f a c t o r h a s h a d a v a r i e t y o f l a b e l s , su c h a s S e q u e n t i a l , Freedom from D i s t r a c ­ t i b i l i t y and A t t e n t i o n - C o n c e n t r a t i o n . B a n n aty n e ( 1 9 6 8 ) a d ­ m i t s t h a t t h e s u b t e s t s in v o lv e d m e a su re a v a r i e t y o f a b i l i ­ tie s . F o r ex a m p le , h e r e p o r t s t h a t t h e C o d in g s u b t e s t m eas­ u r e s th e a b i l i t y to i m em orize sy m b o ls, u n d e r s ta n d t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e to m em orize sy m b o ls, m em orize a r b i t r a r y a s s o c i a ­ t i o n s , r e c o g n i z e s m a ll d e s ig n s and s u s t a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n ! i t i s a l s o s e e n a s a m e a s u re o f e y e -m o to r c o o r d i n a t i o n . R u g e l (1 9 7 4 ) fo u n d D i g i t Span an d C o d in g n o t to lo a d o n a s in g le f a c to r . He b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e s e s u b t e s t s in v o lv e a u d i t o r y an d s h o r t - t e r m memory. B ry an an d B ry an (1 9 7 5 ) r e ­ p o r t t h a t A r ith m e tic an d D i g i t Span show t h e l e a s t c o r r e l a ­ t i o n w ith V e r b a l IQ an d t h a t r e s e a r c h s u g g e s ts t h a t s u b t e s t s may b e ta p p in g m a th e m a tic a l s k i l l s . They f e e l t h a t t h e r e ­ l i a b i l i t y o f t h e D i g i t Span s u b t e s t i s so low t h a t i n f e r e n c e s a s to i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e n o t j u s t i f i a b l e . K au f­ man (1 9 7 5 ) h a s q u e s tio n e d t h e f a c t o r a s w e l l , i n s i s t i n g t h a t w h ile i t may m e a su re memory, i t i s a l s o a m e a s u re o f n u m e ri­ c a l a b ility . S a t t l e r (1 9 7 4 ) r e p o r tB a v a r i e t y o f a b i l i t i e s m e a su re d b y e a c h o f t h e s u b te s tB c o m p r is in g t h e A t t e n t i o n - 150 C o n c e n tra tio n f a c t o r . C o d in g i s r e p o r t e d a s a m e a s u re o f v i s u a l - m o t o r c o o r d i n a t i o n , m e n ta l s p e e d an d c o o r d i n a t i o n s D i g i t S p an a l l e g e d l y m e a s u re s a t t e n t i o n , s h o r t - t e r m memory a n d a u d i t o r y r e c a l l s A r i th m e t ic i s a m e a s u re o f r e a s o n i n g , n u m e r ic a l a c c u r a c y a n d p r i o r l e a r n i n g . W ith su c h a r a n g e o f a b i l i t i e s m e a s u re d , c o n c l u s i o n s a s t o t h e A t t e n t i o n o f i n d i ­ v i d u a l s a s r e p o r t e d b y t h e W e c h s le r may b e q u e s t i o n a b l e . P u t d i f f e r e n t l y , i f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w as d e f ic ie n t in a tte n ­ t i o n , o n e w o n d ers i f i t w o u ld b e r e f l e c t e d i n s u b t e s t s c o r e s . R o ss (1 9 7 6 ) s e e s t h e p ro b le m a s a d d i t i o n a l l y c o n fo u n d e d s i n c e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a t t e n t i o n to l e a r n i n g , d e f i n a b l e an d m e a s u r a b le , i s n o t c l e a r . ev en i f He w r i t e s t h a t i A tte n tio n i s a n e c e ss a ry b u t n o t s u f f i c ie n t c o n d i t i o n f o r l e a r n i n g . T h a t i s to s a y t h a t le a r n in g d o es n o t ta k e p la c e u n le s s th e i n d i ­ v i d u a l i s a t t e n d i n g to t h e m a t e r i a l to b e l e a r n e d , b u t when l e a r n i n g t a k e s p l a c e , p r o c e s ­ s e s o t h e r t h a n a t t e n t i o n muBt b e i n v o l v e d . . . i t i s i m p o s s ib le to s a y w h e th e r a f a i l u r e to l e a r n w as d u e to a f a i l u r e to a t t e n d ( p . 4 3 ) . F u r th e r m o r e , i t may b e t h a t a t t e n t i o n , o r t h e l a c k o f it, b le . i s n o t a u n ita ry t r a i t b u t r a th e r , a s itu a tio n a l v a r ia ­ B ry a n (1 9 7 4 0 , f o r e x a m p le , fo u n d t h a t l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b le d c h i l d r e n d i d a t t e n d m ore i n a s e t t i n g i n w h ic h th e y r e c e i v e d m o re t e a c h e r a t t e n t i o n , a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f p o s i t i v e a n d a s m a ll p r o p o r t i o n o f n e g a t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t fro m t h e t e a c h e r . F i n a l l y , i t may b e t h a t t h e s c h o o l - v e r i f i e d l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n r e p r e s e n t a g ro u p to o h e te r o g e n e o u s to e x p e c t o n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c to b e t y p i c a l o f a l l o r ev e n m o st o f th e m . M e rc e r (1 9 7 5 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y to 151 c o n s i d e r e a c h c h i l d ' s u n iq u e s t r e n g t h s an d w e a k n e s s e s an d t o m a n ip u la te t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v a r i a b l e s a c c o r d i n g l y i n o r d e r to i n c r e a s e t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e c h i l d r e n . Sex D i f f e r e n c e s A d d i t i o n a l f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s tu d y a r e t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p p r e s e n t a s e x r a t i o w h e re b o y s o u tn u m b e r g i r l s 3 * ^ to 1# a r e m ore t y p i c a l l y y o u n g e r w i t h a mean a g e o f 1 0 .8 y e a r s an d h a v e a mean g r a d e l e v e l o f 5*1 • The num­ b e r a n d p e r c e n t a g e o f m a le s a n d f e m a le s a t e a c h s u c c e s s i v e age ra n g e i s a s fo llo w s i M*=96 ( 7 0 .1 # ) - F = 4 l ( 2 9 . 9# ) , M=84 ( 7 7 . 1%) - F*25 ( 2 2 .9 # )# Ma 72 ( 8 7 . 8# ) - F=10 ( 1 2 .2 # ) an d M=36 ( 7 8 .3 # ) - F=10 ( 2 1 . 7 # ) . S ex d i f f e r e n c e s h a v e lo n g b e e n r e p o r t e d i n p o p u l a t i o n s o f s c h o o l - v e r i f i e d l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n (M yers a n d H am m ill, 1 9 7 6 1 L e r n e r , 1 9 7 6 ) . B a n n a ty n e (197*0 r e p o r t s t h a t t h e r e s u l t o f h i s w ork d e m o n s tr a te d a r a t i o o f a p p r o x im a te ly 1 f a v o r i n g m a le s . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y f a l l b e tw e e n t h i s f i g u r e an d t h e 311 r a t i o K ir k a n d E l k i n s ( 1 9 7 5 ) . f a v o r i n g m a le s r e p o r t e d by E f f o r t s to e x p l a i n t h i s o v e r r e p r e ­ s e n t a t i o n o f m a le s h a v e c o n s i d e r e d s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u c h a re a B a s p h y s i o l o g y , a g g r e s s i v e n e s s , c o g n i t i v e t h i n k i n g and la n g u a g e f a c i l i t y (B a n n a ty n e , 197*0« I t i s im p o s s i b l e t o p r e s e n t a l l o f t h e p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a ­ tio n s in t h i s d is c u s s io n . H o w ev er, t h e r e a p p e a r s s t r o n g e v id e n c e t h a t t h e g r e a t e r i n c i d e n c e o f r e p o r t e d s c h o o l p r o b ­ le m s i n b o y s t h a n i n g i r l s i s d u e i n p a r t to s e x d i f f e r e n c e s 152 i n b e h a v io r. C a p la n an d K in s b o u m e (197*0 fo u n d t h a t b o y s who f a i l i n s c h o o l te n d t o r e a c t a g g r e s s i v e l y a n d e x t r a p u n i t i v e l y , w h e re a s g i r l s who f a i l i n s c h o o l te n d to b e h a v e i n m ore s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e w a y s. They s u g g e s t t h a t b e c a u s e t e a c h e r s c o n s i d e r a g g r e s s i o n t h e m o s t d i s t u r b i n g k in d o f b e h a v i o r , th e y w o u ld f i n d b o y s m ore n o t i c e a b l e . The i m p l i ­ c a t i o n i s t h a t t h e m a le s w o u ld b e m o re l i k e l y t o b e r e f e r r e d f o r e v a l u a t i o n a n d w o u ld h a v e a g r e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t y to r e ­ c e iv e s p e c ia l a t t e n t i o n . O t h e r s , s u c h a s Ames (1 9 7 7 ) an d D o n o frio (1 9 7 7 )» s u g ­ g e s t t h a t a n um ber o f f a c t o r s a r e in v o lv e d i n p r o d u c in g a c h i l d wi*th l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s , o n e o f th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t b e in g th e se x o f th e c h i l d . S u g g e s te d h e r e i s a " m o s t f a ­ v o r e d g ro u p " w h ic h h a s a J a n u a r y t o J u n e b i r t h d a t e , e a r l y m a t u r a t i o n , b r i g h t i n t e l l e c t , v e r b a l f a c i l i t y a n d f e m a le n e s s ( t h e m a le i s 6 m o n th s b e h in d t h e f e m a le i n g e n e r a l d e v e lo p ­ m ent upon e n tr y in to s c h o o l) . The f a c t o r s p r o d u c in g t h e " u n f a v o r e d g ro u p " i n c l u d e J u l y to D ecem ber b i r t h d a t e s , l a t e m a t u r a t i o n , v e r b a l d i f f i c u l t y , a n 80 t o 90 IQ a n d m a le n e s s . D o n o fr io (1 9 7 7 ) s u g g e s t s g r a d e r e p e t i t i o n , n o t a s a p u n i s h ­ m e n t f o r f a i l u r e , b u t r a t h e r a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e to f u t u r e fa ilu re . K a p la n (1 9 7 7 ) a s s e r t s t h a t a s o c i e t a l b i a s e x i s t s a g a in s t boys i n t h a t t h e i r le a r n in g i s o f g r e a t e r c o n c ern b ase d on sex r o l e p e r c e p tio n . I f b e h a v io r i s n o t w hat i s " e x p e c t e d " , t h e y ( m a le s ) w i l l m ore l i k e l y b e r e f e r r e d f o r s p e c ia l h e lp . As s c h o o ls a r e l a r g e l y i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t make 153 s u b s t a n t i a l la n g u a g e d em an d s, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s t h a t b o y s a r e o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d d u e to s e x d i f f e r e n c e s i n la n g u a g e fa c ility . F a u s t (1 9 7 0 ) d e s c r i b e s how t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s h a v e b e e n n o te d f o r d e c a d e s . G i r l s , sh e d e s c rib e s a s v o c a liz in g m ore a s i n f a n t s an d m a i n t a i n i n g a n a d v a n ta g e i n n e a r l y e v e r y p h a s e o f la n g u a g e d e v e lo p m e n t i n c l u d i n g a r t i c u l a t i o n , w ord u s a g e , l e n g t h an d c o m p le x ity an d g r a m m a tic a l c o r r e c t n e s s o f s e n te n c e s w e ll in to sc h o o l y e a r s . C h r o n o lo g ic a l Age The l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n i n t h i s s tu d y w e re fo u n d to b e y o u n g e r (m ean a g e *= 1 0 .8 y e a r s ) an d i n t h e lo w e r g r a d e l e v e l s (m ean g r a d e *= 5 * 1 )* They w e re o l d e r th a n t h o s e c h i l ­ d r e n r e p o r t e d b y K ir k a n d E l k i n s (1 9 7 1 ) who h ad a m ean a g e o f 8 . 4 y e a r s , b u t t h e f i g u r e s s t i l l r e f l e c t t h a t t h e b u lk o f th e s e c h i ld r e n a r e r e f e r r e d and p la c e d i n th e e a r l i e r y e a r s . The num ber o f c h i l d r e n a t e a c h s u c c e s s i v e a g e r a n g e i s 85 ( 3 0 *6%), 90 ( 3 2 . 4 # ) , 6 4 ( 2 3 *0# ) a n d 39 ( 1 4 . 0 # ) . C h r o n o lo g ic a l a g e i s a f a c t o r w h ic h may s e r v e a s a p a r a ­ m e te r i n d e f i n i n g l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s . The e m p h a sis on b o th e a r l y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n an d p ro g ra m m in g (K eo g h , 1970) h a s e s t a b l i s h e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e a s c r u c i a l to a f u n c t i o n a l d e ­ fin itio n (M e rc e r e t a l . , 1 9 7 6 ). P r a c t i t i o n e r s may p e r c e i v e t h a t t h o s e i d e n t i f i e d e a r l i e r may b e m ore r e a d i l y s e r v e d . S i m i l a r l y , t h e s e sam e p r a c t i t i o n e r s may b e m ore r e l u c t a n t to make a l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a t u p p e r a g e r a n g e s s i n c e t h e r e s u l t s o f p ro g ra m m in g may b e p e r c e i v e d a s l e s s 1 5k e ffe c tiv e a t th is le v e l. No d o u b t c o n c e r n s a s t o t h e d a n g e r s o f " l a b e l i n g " a r e a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n t h e lo w e r p r e v a l e n c e r a t e s a t th e u p p er age l e v e l s . may w e l l i n t e r a c t . T h a t is * T h e se l a s t two c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a s p r a c t i t i o n e r s becom e m ore p e s s i m i s t i c a s to s u b s t a n t i a l s u c c e s s a t t h e u p p e r a g e l e v ­ e ls * t h e c o n c e p t o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ta k e B o n m ore o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t t r i b u t e d to a l a b e l . In d eed , th e c h ild re n an d p a r e n t s th e m s e lv e s may b e r e s i s t i n g t h e p la c e m e n t a t t h e upper g ra d es. A lo n g t h e s e sam e l i n e s , t h e u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a ­ t i o n o f o l d e r c h i l d r e n may b e a f u n c t i o n o f a h i g h e r s c h o o l d r o p - o u t r a t e , p o s s i b l y r e l a t e d to s c h o o l d i f f i c u l t y a t t h i s le v e l. F i n a l l y , i f o n e a s su m e s t h a t e a r l y p ro g ra m m in g f o r le a r n in g d is a b le d c h i ld r e n i s e f f e c t i v e , i t fo llo w s t h a t many o f t h e s e sam e c h i l d r e n w o u ld no l o n g e r b e l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b le d i n th e l a t e r g ra d e s . S o c io e c o n o m ic S t a t u s R e s u l t s o f th iB s t u d y s u g g e s t t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o c i o ­ eco n o m ic s t a t u s (SE 5) e x i s t b e tw e e n t h e f i v e g r o u p s a n a l y z e d . H ow ever, t h e d a t a d o e s n o t e x p l a i n t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e s e d i f ­ fe re n c e s. C o n s e q u e n tly , a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s m u s t, b y n e c e s s i t y , b e d e s c r i p t i v e r a t h e r th a n e x p l a n a t o r y . O f t h e t o t a l n um ber o f c h i l d r e n i n i t i a l l y r e f e r r e d f o r e v a l u a t i o n , k Q * 3% w e re s e e n b y t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t a s m id d le o r u p p e r m id d le SES, 27% w ere s e e n a s lo w e r SES an d 2 k , 7% w e re n o t a s s i g n e d to a n SES c a t e g o r y . By g r o u p , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f low SES c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d w e re t le a rn in g d i s a b l e d ( 2 9 . 3% ), e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d ( 57 % ) , 155 e m o tio n a lly im p a ir e d (5**#)» o th e r w is e im p a ir e d ( 3 6 .7 # ) n o n - im p a ir e d ( 2 7 . 0 # ) , T h ese f i n d i n g s s u p p o r t t h e c o n t e n t i o n o f p r e v io u s r e s e a r c h e r s (K e a ly and McLeod, 1 9 7 6 i F r a n k s , 1977) t h a t low SES c h i l d r e n a r e o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d i n c l a s s e s f o r t h e m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d , w h ile m id d le SES c h i l d r e n a r e m ore l i k e l y to b e fo u n d i n c l a s s e s f o r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d o r n o n - im p a ir e d . C h i ld r e n o f low SES h a v e lo n g b e e n fo u n d to e x p e r ie n c e p a r t i c u l a r d i f f i c u l t i e s i n th e s c h o o ls ( G r o tb e r g , 1 9 7 0 ). T h ese same c h i l d r e n h a v e b e e n fo u n d to s c o r e lo w e r on s t a n d a r d i z e d m e a s u re s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e th a n m id d le SES c h i l d r e n ( T e le g d y , 1973)* A t i s s u e h e r e , h o w e v e r, i s w h e th e r a n SES b i a s e x i s t s i n t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . R e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y fo u n d no e v id e n c e o f su c h a b i a s . When c r i t e r i a f o r e l i g i b i l i t y f o r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p an d t h e e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im ­ p a i r e d g ro u p w e re h e l d c o n s t a n t , no s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d s i n ­ d i c a t i n g a n SES b i a s w ere f o u n d . The sam e i s t r u e f o r d i f ­ f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n c l a s s e s f o r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d an d t h e n o n - im p a ir e d . No t r e n d i n d i c a t i n g a p la c e m e n t b i a s w as fo u n d i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . The f a i l u r e to f i n d a n y SES b i a s may i n d i c a t e t h e p r o ­ f e s s i o n a l s m ak in g p la c e m e n ts a r e q u i t e s e n s i t i v e to an y p o s ­ s i b l e p la c e m e n t b i a s . In lig h t o f s u b s ta n tia l lit ig a t io n (H obsen v . H an sen , 1 9 6 7 I S p a n g le r , 1970* D ia n a v . S t a t e B o ard o f E d u c a tio n , 1 9 7 0 I L a r r y P . v . R i l e s , 1971)* a s w e ll a s l e g i s l a t i o n (PL 9 3 ”3 8 °)» t h i s w ould n o t b e s u r p r i s i n g . P la c e m e n t c o m m itte e s may b e m a k in g a c o n c e r te d e f f o r t to 156 a v o id a n y SES b i a s i n t h e i r p r o c e d u r e s * w ould b e t h e m o st o p t i m i s t i c p o s i t i o n . O b v io u sly * t h i s M yers e t a l . (1 9 7 8 ) exam ined f i l e s i n 12 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d i s t r i c t s w h ich p e r m i t - t e d a c o m p a riso n o f e d u c a b le m e n ta l ly im p a ir e d p la c e m e n t and th o s e l a t e r d e c e r t i f i e d . No e v id e n c e was fo u n d to s u p p o r t a l l e g a t i o n s o f r a c i a l o r SES b i a s i n t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . To t h e c o n t r a r y , c o n s i d e r a b l e t r e p i d a t i o n w as n o te d i n th o s e s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l r e s p o n s i b l e f o r EMK a s s ig n m e n t a b o u t any f u r t h e r p la c e m e n t o f m i n o r i t y c h i l d r e n . The a u t h o r s co n ­ c lu d e d t h a t t h e w ork o f s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n t h e EMR p la c e m e n t was p r o f e s s i o n a l l y c o m p e te n t, g iv e n th e g u i d e l i n e s i n e f f e c t a t t h a t tim e . The l a c k o f a n y p la c e m e n t b i a s c o u ld a l s o b e a f u n c t i o n o f d a ta c o l le c ti o n . S in c e th e a s s ig n m e n t to SES w as made by t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t w ith no s p e c i f i c ( o r known) g u id e ­ l i n e s , o n e m ig h t e x p e c t a d e g r e e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y o r human e r r o r to e n t e r i n t o th e p r o c e d u r e . I n 2 4 .7 # o f t h e c a s e s , t h e SES o f t h e c h i l d was n o t r e p o r t e d . W h eth er t h i s was due to c l e r i c a l e r r o r o r a m ore c o n s c io u s e f f o r t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s to n o t make su c h a r e p o r t , c a n ­ n o t b e d e te r m in e d . T h e re i s , h o w ev e r, no e v id e n c e t h a t any su c h b i a s i s p r e s e n t . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y may b e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n i ­ t i a l r e f e r r a l a s much a s th e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . K e a ly and McLeod (1 9 7 6 ) h a v e s u g g e s te d t h a t m i d d l e - c l a s s c h i l d r e n a r e m ore l i k e l y th a n t h o s e o f lo w e r SES s t a t u s , to b e i n i t i a l l y r e f e r r e d f o r h e lp . I f t h i s i s th e c a s e , i t w ould e x p l a i n 157 t h e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e num ber o f m id d le SES c h i l d r e n fo u n d to b e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d o r n o n - im p a ir e d . In te re s tin g ly , th e d a t a s u g g e s t s a d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e o f r e f e r r i n g may b e r e l a t e d to t h e e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s c h o o l d i s ­ tric t. W h ile 5 3 * 3 # o f c h i l d r e n r e f e r r e d i n u r b a n d i s t r i c t s w e re p l a c e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d , t h e p e r c e n t a g e d ro p p e d to 33* 3 # and $ 0 , 2% f o r s u b u r b a n an d r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . C o n c o m ita n tly , 5*5# o f th e u r b a n r e f e r r a l s w e re p l a c e d i n e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d c l a s s e s w h ile t h i s r a t e jum ps to 1 8 .0 # an d 1 8 .1 # f o r s u b u r b a n an d r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , r e s p e c ­ tiv e ly . The t r e n d o f u r b a n d i s t r i c t s to make a g r e a t e r p e r ­ c e n t a g e o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y r e f e r r a l s an d a l e s s e r p e r ­ c e n t a g e o f e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d r e f e r r a l s i s o b v io u s . Any a d d i t i o n a l c o n c l u s i o n h e r e w o u ld b e s p e c u l a t i v e . It m u st b e rem em b ered t h a t when c r i t e r i a f o r e l i g i b i l i t y w ere h e l d c o n s t a n t , no e v id e n c e to w a rd a n SES b i a s w as f o u n d . A n o th e r p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t b e h a v i o r a l t r a i t s w ere n o t r e p o r t e d . A s u b s t a n tia l p a r t o f any c l a s s p la c e ­ m en t s h o u ld b e a c c o u n te d f o r b y t h i s b e h a v i o r a l a n a l y s i s w h ich i s u n a v a i l a b l e . R u b in e t a l . (1 9 7 3 ) fo u n d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n b e h a v i o r w ith t h o s e fro m lo w e r SES b e i n g d e ­ f in e d a s e x h ib itin g l e s s a c c e p ta b le b e h a v io r. P erh ap s th e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e f i g u r e s fo u n d i n t h i s s tu d y r e f l e c t d i f f e r ­ en ces i n f u n c tio n a l b e h a v io r a s w e ll. T h is e x p l a n a t i o n m akes t h e m o s t s e n s e an d h e l p s to b r i n g t h e f i n d i n g s i n p e rs p e c tiv e . 158 Summary T h is c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y . A summ ary o f t h e s e r e s u l t s an d a c o n c l u s i o n a r e p re s e n te d in th e n e x t c h a p te r. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS P r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s a summary o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y . s u lts , I n a d d i tio n , c o n c lu s io n s b ased on th e r e ­ i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r p r a c t i t i o n e r s an d re c o m m e n d a tio n s fo r fu rth e r re se a rc h a re s e t fo rth . Summary The im p o r ta n c e o f e a r l y an d a c c u r a t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n w ith l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s h a s b e e n s t r o n g l y em pha­ s i z e d f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s ( K ir k an d B atem an , 1962* B a n n a ty n e , 1968f H a m m ill, 1 9 7 6 ) . A t t h e sam e tim e , t h e c o n t r o v e r s i e s s u r r o u n d i n g a t t e m p t s to d e f i n e l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s a r e e q u a l l y a p p a r e n t (B ry a n an d B ry a n , 19761 S u lz b a c h e r a n d K enow itz , 1977). W h ile t h e f i e l d o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s i s r e l a t i v e l y y o u n g , t h e r e h a s b e e n a r a p i d g ro w th i n t h e num­ b e r o f c h i l d r e n b e i n g c l a s s i f i e d an d s e r v e d . H ow ever, p e r ­ s o n s f a c e d w i t h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f e v a l u a t i n g c h i l d r e n to d e te r m in e w h e th e r th e y h a v e a s p e c i f i c l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y do n o t h a v e a c l e a r c o n c e p t o f t h e te rm (M yers an d H am m ill, 1976* H a lla h a n a n d K au ffm an , 1977)* T he m a t t e r o f d e f i n i t i o n h a s becom e m ore p r e s s i n g w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f PL 9 ^ - 1 ^ 2 , t h e E d u c a tio n f o r A l l H a n d ic a p p e d C h i l d r e n A c t o f 1975* 159 160 P r o f e s s i o n a l s in v o lv e d i n t h e f i e l d h a v e b e e n c h a rg e d w ith i d e n t i f y i n g t h o s e c h i l d r e n w ith s p e c i f i c l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i ­ t i e s * y e t t h e r e r e m a in s a p e r s i s t e n t l a c k o f a c l e a r and w o rk a b le d e f i n i t i o n * The e s s e n t i a l p u r p o s e o f t h i s s tu d y was to d e f i n e a l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d p o p u l a t i o n i n th e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n i n r e ­ l a t i o n to c e r t a i n im p o r ta n t v a r i a b l e s . I n c o n d u c tin g t h i s s tu d y , a n e x a m in a tio n o f t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t , a s i t i s p r a c ­ t i c e d i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n , was a l s o u n d e r ta k e n . S p e c i f i c a l l y , a n a t te m p t was made t o d e v e lo p a f o rm u la w h ich w ould p r o v id e maximum d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e tw e e n c h ild r e n c l a s s i f i e d a s le a r n in g d is a b le d in th e S ta te o f M ic h ig a n an d f o u r o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n s ( e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im ­ p a i r e d , e m o tio n a lly im p a ir e d , o th e r w is e - i m p a ir e d an d n o n im p a i r e d ) . A lso i n v e s t i g a t e d was t h e d e g r e e o f o v e r l a p i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e tw e e n p o p u l a t i o n s and t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild r e n . The s tu d y a d d r e s s e d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a f o rm u la ( i n i d e n t i f i ­ c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n p la c e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d ) w hich i s d e ­ s ig n e d to m e a su re d is c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d a c h ie v e m e n t an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t a s m e a su re d b y i n d i v i d u a l l y a d m in is ­ te re d t e s t s . The u t i l i t y o f t h e r e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f t h e W e c h sle r s c a l e s a s s u g g e s te d b y B a n n a ty n e (1 9 6 8 ) was a l s o ex a m in e d . F i n a l l y , t h e e x t e n t to w h ich a g e , s e x , s o c i o ­ econom ic s t a t u s and p r o f e s s i o n a l o p in io n s a r e r e l e v a n t to t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s was i n v e s t i g a t e d . I t w as h o p ed t h a t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f c h i l d r e n p l a c e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c o u ld b e 161 d e v e lo p e d w h ic h w o u ld l e n d p r e c i s i o n t o c u r r e n t c o n c e p ts an d b e h e l p f u l to p r a c t i t i o n e r s . P r e v io u s s t u d i e s i n t h i s a r e a h a v e o f t e n l e d to r a t h e r i n c o n c l u s i v e an d c o n t r a d i c t o r y f i n d i n g s . C e rta in tr e n d s , h o w e v e r, do seem to h a v e em erg ed a n d s u g g e s t f u r t h e r i n v e s ­ tig a tio n . R ecen t fin d in g s in d ic a te th a t c h ild re n id e n tif ie d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a c h i e v e a F u l l S c a l e IQ lo w e r t h a n c o n ­ t r o l g r o u p s ( K ir k a n d E l k i n s , 1975) an d e x h i b i t a d i s c r e p ­ a n c y b e tw e e n V e r b a l a n d P e r fo r m a n c e s c o r e s o n i n d i v i d u a l m e a s u r e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e (A ckerm an e t a l . , 1 9 7 1 ). T h e re e x i s t s e v id e n c e t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d e x h i b i t a u n iq u e p a t t e r n o n t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s (B a n n a ty n e , 1 9 6 8 ) . The e x i s ­ t e n c e o f a s e v e r e d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d a n d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t, a l a c k o f a t t e n t i o n i n s c h o o l p e r f o r m a n c e a n d o v e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m a le s i n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n h a v e a l s o b e e n f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d (K eogh a n d H a l l , n a lly , 197^1 R u g e l, 1 9 7 ^ ) . F i­ t h e c la im e x i s t s t h a t a s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s b i a s e x i s t s i n t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s (D unn, 1968* F r a n k s , 1977)* E a r l i e r in v e s tig a tio n s have o f te n p re s e n te d fin d in g s b a s e d u p o n l i m i t e d s a m p le s . The p r e s e n t s tu d y em p lo y ed a l a r g e r , l e s s r e s t r i c t e d sa m p le o f c h i l d r e n d raw n from B ch o o l d i s t r i c t s th r o u g h o u t t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n . a s w e ll a s u rb an a r e a s a r e r e p r e s e n te d . R u ral The s tu d y i n c l u d e d f o u r c o m p a r a tiv e g r o u p s i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e m ore m e a n in g f u l re s u lts . I t em p lo y ed a s t a t i s t i c a l d e s i g n w h ic h a l lo w s f o r t h e s im u lta n e o u s a n a l y s i s o f a v a r i e t y o f v a r i a b l e s . c o m p a r a tiv e s t u d y w as f o u n d to h a v e em p lo y ed s u c h a No 162 te c h n i q u e i n t h i s m a n n e r. A d d itio n a lly * i t a d d r e s s e s two im p o rta n t is s u e s i n th e f i e l d o f le a r n in g d i s a b i l i t i e s , s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s a n d o v e r l a p o f g ro u p c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f 1 ,1 2 9 c h i l ­ d r e n i n g r a d e s 1 th r o u g h 1 2 , d raw n fro m 45 M ic h ig a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s an d r e p r e s e n t i n g f o u r h a n d ic a p p e d c a t e g o r i e s a s w e l l a s o n e n o n - im p a ir e d c a t e g o r y , w e re a n a ly z e d . The p o p u ­ l a t i o n o f c e n t r a l i n t e r e s t w as t h o s e c h i l d r e n c l a s s i f i e d a s le a rn in g d is a b le d . R e s u lts The d a t a fro m t h i s s tu d y c a n b e su m m arized a s f o llo w s * 1. The p r o p o s e d M ic h ig a n d i s c r e p a n c y f o rm u la i s m ore e f f e c ­ t i v e t h a n t h e 60# f o r m u la i n i d e n t i f y i n g l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b l e d c h i l d r e n . T he f o rm e r e f f e c t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d 3 7 .8 # o f t h e s tu d y sa m p le w h ile t h e l a t t e r i d e n t i f i e d 2 5 . 9# . 2. The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o rm u la v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o a g e r a n g e . T he p e r c e n t a g e o f l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b l e d c h i l d r e n m e e tin g t h e c r i t e r i a a t e a c h a g e r a n g e i s a s f o llo w s * 3 4 .4 # ( 4 . 6 - 8 . 1 1 y e a r s ) , 3 8 . 9# ( 9 •0 — 1 1 .1 1 y e a r s ) , 4 8 .4 # ( 1 2 .0 - 1 4 .1 1 y e a r s ) an d 2 5 .7 # ( 1 5 . 0 1 8 .6 y e a r s ) . 3. The d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la i d e n t i f i e s a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild r e n i n th e u p p er F u ll S c a le IQ r a n g e (9 0 a n d a b o v e ) t h a n t h e lo w e r r a n g e (O -8 9 ) . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n r a t e s a r e 57* 4 # an d 2 3 .9 # , r e s p e c ­ tiv e ly . 4. The d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la i d e n t i f i e s a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f m a le s th a n f e m a le s i n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g r o u p . W h ile 4 1 # o f t h e m a le s m e t t h e d i s c r e p a n c y , o n ly 2 5 .4 # o f t h e f e m a le s m et i t . 5. The d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la f a i l s t o i d e n t i f y 6 2 .2 # o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e f o r m u la i d e n t i f i e s 9 . 2 # , 1 3 * 4 # , 4 .9 # an d 1 5 .3 # o f t h e EMI, E l , o t h e r w i s e - i m p a i r e d a n d n o n - im p a ir e d c h i l d r e n , r e s p e c ­ tiv e ly . 163 6. F o r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d s a m p le , t h e w i t h i n g ro u p p a t ­ t e r n o n t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s w as S p a t i a l ( x « 9 .l 5 ) * V e r b a lC o m p re h e n sio n ( x tt8 .3 3 ) an d A t t e n t i o n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n (x= 7 .1 3 ) • The l a r g e s t d i s c r e p a n c y w as fo u n d b e tw e e n S p a­ t i a l an d A t t e n t i o n s c o r e s (x * = 2 .0 2 ). ?. The c o g n i t i v e p a t t e r n fo u n d f o r t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g ro u p o n t h e t h r e e W e c h s le r f a c t o r s w as a l s o found f o r t h e E l , o t h e r w i s e - i m p a i r e d an d n o n - im p a ir e d s a n rp le s . I t w as n o t fo u n d f o r t h e EMI s a m p le . 8. A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e w as fo u n d b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d sa m p le an d n o n - im p a ir e d sa m p le o n t h e A t t e n t i o n C o n c e n tra tio n f a c t o r . V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n an d S p a t i a l s c o r e s w e re n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t b e tw e e n t h e s e two g r o u p s . 9* No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w as fo u n d b e tw e e n g ro u p (LD, EMI, n o n - im p a ir e d ) an d s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s i n t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s w hen s u b j e c t s h a d s i m i l a r F . S . I Q 's an d d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n e x p e c te d a n d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t. 1 0 . The s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t an d t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y c o n c u l t a n t w e re i n a g r e e m e n t 9 7 * 1 # o f t h e tim e a s to w h e th e r a c h i l d s h o u ld b e c l a s s i f i e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . 1 1 . A D i s c r i m i n a n t F u n c tio n was d e v e lo p e d w h ic h c a n s i g n i f i ­ c a n t l y d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d , e d u c a b l e m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d an d n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p s . I t i s n o t e f f e c t i v e w ith t h e e m o t i o n a l l y im p a ir e d a n d o t h e r ­ w is e -im p a ire d g ro u p . 1 2 . The D i s c r i m i n a n t F u n c tio n c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t e d p la c e m e n t 67*595» 67.^95 a n d 67*795 o f t h e tim e f o r t h e LD, EMI a n d n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . 1 3 . The m o st p o w e r f u l f a c t o r s i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g b e tw e e n t h e t h r e e s a m p le s a r e i n o r d e r o f s i g n i f i c a n c e * F .S .I Q , p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y , A t t e n t i o n B c o re , s e x , V e r b a lC o m p re h e n sio n s c o r e , SES an d age* The S p a t i a l s c o r e d id n o t c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y to th e f u n c tio n . 1 4 . W ith in t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g r o u p , lo w e s t mean s c o r e s w e re a c h ie v e d o n t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s o f A r i t h m e t i c , C o d in g an d I n f o r m a t i o n , A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e s e s u b t e s t s w e re t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d fro m t h e n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p . 15* The i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s ­ a b l e d g ro u p a r e a s f o llo w s * V e r b a l IQ - x=86 . 5 * P e r ­ f o rm a n c e IQ - x = 9 i* 8 , F u l l S c a l e IQ - x = 8 8 .5 * I n e a c h c a s e , t h e s e s c o r e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y b elo w th o s e o f t h e n o n - im p a ir e d g r o u p . 1 6k 1 6 . S t a n d a r d i z e d a c h ie v e m e n t s u b t e s t s m o st e f f e c t i v e i n d i s ­ c r i m i n a t i n g t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d fro m t h e n o n - im p a ir e d sa m p le w e re i n o r d e r o f im p o rta n c e * Word R e c o g n itio n ! S p e l l i n g an d A r i t h m e t i c . R e a d in g S c o r e s d i d n o t d i s ­ c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n t h e two g r o u p s . 17* The l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n i n t h i s s t u d y w e re fo u n d t o h a v e a m ean a g e o f 1 0 .8 y e a r s an d a m ean g r a d e o f 5*1* The num ber a n d p e r c e n t a g e a t e a c h s u c c e s s i v e a g e r a n g e a r e 85 ( 3 0 . 6# ) , 90 ( 3 2 . W , 6 k ( 2 3 . 0# ) an d 39 \ l k , 0 % ) . 1 8 . T h e re w as a g r e a t e r p r e v a l e n c e o f m a le s th a n f e m a le s i n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d g r o u p . T he s e x r a t i o w as 3 * k t o l t m a le s t o f e m a l e s . 19* I t r e m a in s n e c e s s a r y f o r p r a c t i t i o n e r s to e x e r c i s e c a u ­ tio n in id e n tif y in g c h ild re n a s le a rn in g d is a b le d . No s i n g l e t e s t p a t t e r n o r f o r m u la e x i s t s w h ic h e f f e c t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e s a l l su ch c h ild r e n . C o n c lu s io n s The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t t h a t no o ne c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o r even c l u s t e r o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d i f f e r e n ­ tia te t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n fro m o t h e r g r o u p s . T h is h a s lo n g b e e n fo u n d to b e t h e c a s e an d a num b er o f e x ­ p la n a tio n s f o r t h i s have been p re s e n te d . W hat n e e d s to b e e m p h a s iz e d , h o w e v e r, i s t h a t t h e d e g r e e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n may b e i n c r e a s e d o r d e c r e a s e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e v a r i a b l e s c o n s id e re d . When t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y a l o n e w as c o n s i d e r e d , 37•876 o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n w e re e ffe c tiv e ly id e n tif ie d . b le s , H ow ever, w hen a c l u s t e r o f v a r i a ­ i n c l u d i n g F .S .I Q , s e x , a g e an d s u b t e s t p a t t e r n s w e re c o m b in e d , t h e e f f e c t i v e r a t e o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n r o s e to 6 7 *$% (2 o u t o f 3 ) . T he i m p l i c a t i o n h e r e i s t h a t p r a c t i t i o n e r s n e e d t o c o n s i d e r a v a r i e t y o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n s p e a k in g o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d a n d b e c a r e f u l n o t t o b e to o * 165 s i m p l i s t i c i n d e s c r i p t i o n s an d d e f i n i t i o n s * A f i n a l , c o n s i d e r a t i o n h a s to do w i t h b o th t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s an d t h e d e f i n i t i o n em p lo y ed . T he f i n d i n g s s a y p e r ­ h a p s a s much a b o u t t h e s e two f a c t o r s a s t h e y do a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e c h i l d r e n t h a t h a v e b e e n r e f e r r e d a n d p la c e d . H am m ill (1 9 7 6 ) a d d r e s s e d t h e l a t t e r i s s u e i n w r i t ­ in g t h a t i In any p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e , th e n a tu re o f th e s tu d e n ts d ia g n o s e d a s h a v in g a l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y i s a c t u ­ a l l y a f u n c tio n o f th e r e g u la ti o n u sed to i d e n t i f y them r a t h e r t h a n t h e d e f i n i t i o n u s e d to d e s c r i b e them ( p . 3 0 ) . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y a r e , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , a f u n c t i o n o f t h e r e g u l a t i o n s u s e d b y p r a c t i t i o n e r s an d t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s i n t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n . As t h e r e g u l a ­ t i o n s em ployed a t t h e tim e o f t h i s s t u d y h a d no q u a n t i t a t i v e c rite ria , i t i s n o t s u r p r is in g th a t th e fin d in g s r e f l e c t a c e r t a in la c k o f c o n se n su s. And t h e M ic h ig a n c r i t e r i a a r e s u b j e c t to a l l o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n v o lv e d i n i d e n t i f i c a ­ t i o n w h ic h h a v e b e e n p r e v i o u s l y a d d r e s s e d i n t h i s p a p e r . The f i n d i n g s r e f l e c t , t o o , t h e p r a c t i c e s o f t h o s e mak­ in g d e c is io n s i n th e f i e l d a s w e ll. I n e f f e c t , w hat h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d i s t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t a s i t w as p r a c t i c e d a t t h e tim e o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n w i t h i n t h e S t a t e o f M ic h i­ gan. T h i s , h o w e v e r, i s i m p o r t a n t . P r a c t i t i o n e r s n e e d to lo o k a t th e m s e lv e s , a s w e l l a s t h e c h i l d . They n e e d to c o n ­ s i d e r who th e y a r e p l a c i n g o r n o t p l a c i n g a n d a t t e m p t to d e ­ t e r m in e why an d how t h e s e d e c i s i o n s a r e m ade, a s w e l l a s w hat th e n e t e f f e c t o f th e s e d e c is io n s w i l l b e . In 166 c o n s id e rin g th e f i e l d o f le a r n in g d i s a b i l i t i e s a s i t i s t o ­ day* R in g e lh e im (1 9 7 8 ) s u g g e s t s th a t* W hat we h a v e come up w i t h i s e s s e n t i a l l y w h a t we c o n s i d e r to b e t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t . A lo t of p e o p l e a r e g o in g to a r g u e t h a t w e 'v e s a i d n o t h i n g . Maybe w e ' l l h a v e to come o u t a n d s a y , "By t h e w ay, t h a t 's th e s t a t e o f th e a r t . " T h is i s why I am s a y in g o u r p o s i t i o n a t t h i s p o i n t i s b a s i c a l l y to r e m a in a s p r o f e s s i o n a l l y v i a b l e a s p o s s i b l e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t t h a t we h a v e now come to t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e r e i s no c o n c l u s i o n ( p . 1 7 ) . I m p l i c a t i o n s and R eco m m en d atio n s f o r P r a c t i t i o n e r s 1. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y s u g g e s t t h a t t h e num ber o f c h ild re n id e n tif ie d a s le a r n in g d is a b le d i s a f u n c tio n o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n e m p lo y e d . I n a p p l y in g two d i f f e r e n t d i s ­ c r e p a n c y f o r m u la s c o n s i d e r e d b y t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n , d i f ­ f e r e n t n u m b ers o f c h i l d r e n w o u ld b e c o n s i d e r e d e l i g i b l e f o r p ro g ra m m in g . I n no i n s t a n c e d i d t h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la i d e n t i f y a l l le a rn in g d is a b le d c h ild r e n . C o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b ers o f c h i l ­ d r e n a p p e a r e d to b e program m ed a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d who d i d n o t m e e t t h e c r i t e r i a w h ile o t h e r s who d i d m e e t t h e c r i t e r i a w e re fo u n d i n ea c h o f t h e o t h e r t h r e e h a n d ic a p p e d c a t e g o r i e s o r t h e n o n - im p a ir e d c a t e g o r y . I f th e s e c r i t e r i a (o r s im ila r o n e s ) a r e em ployed i n many s t a t e s , a s i s t h e c a s e i n New Y o rk , t h e u s e o f t h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la w i l l d e c r e a s e t h e num b er o f c h i l d r e n who w o u ld b e e l i g i b l e f o r p ro g ra m s f o r th e le a r n in g d is a b le d . A d d itio n a lly , th e p e rc e n ta g e o f c h i ld r e n i d e n t i f i e d a s le a r n in g d is a b le d w i l l n o t o n ly d e c re a s e b u t w i l l b e an 167 u n e v e n r e d u c t i o n i n n u m b ers v a r y i n g a c r o s s a g e r a n g e v s e x a n d F .S .I Q . P r a c t i t i o n e r s s h o u ld b e c o g n i z a n t o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r o p o s e d d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la may i d e n t i f y a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n fro m t h e y o u n g e r a n d m id d le a g e r a n g e s t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f c h i l d r e n 15 y e a r s o r o l d e r . The f o rm u la w i l l a l s o i d e n t i f y a g r e a t e r num ber o f c h i l d r e n w ith F .S .I Q * s b e tw e e n 9 0 a n d 1 0 9 , a s co m p ared t o t h o s e w ith a lo w e r IQ th a n t h i s . I t a l s o a p p e a r s t h a t m aleB w i l l m ore o f t e n b e i d e n t i f i e d them f e m a l e s . W h ile i t may n o t b e r e a s o n a b l e to e x p e c t an y c r i t e r i a t o w ork e q u a l l y w e l l f o r a l l , t h e s c h o o ls a r e e x p e c te d t o do a r e a s o n a b l e jo b o f i d e n t i f y i n g an d s e r v ­ in g c h ild r e n a t a l l l e v e l s . P r a c t i t i o n e r s n e e d to b e a w a re t h a t s u c h a p r o c e d u r e may d e c r e a s e t h e num ber o f f a l s e p o s i ­ t i v e s a t t h e c o s t o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e num ber o f f a l s e n e g a t i v e s i n th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s . The p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d b y th e d i s c r e p ­ a n c y f o r m u la w i l l a l s o v a r y a c c o r d in g to t h e a c h ie v e m e n t s u b te B t u se d . R e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y s u g g e s t t h a t t h e m o st s e ­ v e r e d i s c r e p a n c y i s l i k e l y to b e fo u n d when t h e w ord r e c o g ­ n i t i o n s u b t e s t i s u s e d , f o llo w e d i n d e g r e e b y t h e s p e l l i n g an d a r i t h m e t i c s u b t e s t s . Any p s y c h o - e d u c a t i o n a l e v a l u a t i o n s h o u ld b e c a r e f u l l y p la n n e d an d a s c o m p re h e n s iv e a s p o s s i b l e . I f t h e WRAT o r PIAT a r e g iv e n , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a l l s u b ­ t e s t s w o u ld h e l p t o a v o id m i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . To p r e v e n t a n u n r e a s o n a b le r e d u c t i o n i n s e r v i c e s to t h o s e who d e s e r v e th em , a s w e l l a s a n y u n i n t e n t i o n a l b i a s i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s , s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s an d o t h e r 168 p r a c t i t i o n e r s n e e d to b e p a r t i c u l a r l y a l e r t i n u s in g c r i ­ t e r i a o t h e r t h a n , o r p e r h a p s i n a d d i t i o n t o , th e d is c r e p a n c y f o r m u la . H ow ever, t h i s s h o u ld a lw a y s o c c u r and c h i l d r e n s h o u ld n e v e r b e p la c e d s o l e l y on th e b a s i s o f a d is c r e p a n c y sc o re . 2. Much a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n p a i d r e c e n t l y to t h e s u b ­ t e s t p a t t e r n s e x h i b i t e d b y l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n on t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s . T h ese r e s u l t s c o n firm t h a t , a s a g ro u p , s c h o o l - v e r i f i e d l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n do d e m o n s tr a te a p r o f i l e w ith S p a t i a l s c o r e s b e i n g h i g h e s t , f o llo w e d b y V er­ b a l -C o m p reh e n sio n s c o r e s an d w ith lo w e s t s c o r e s o n th e A tte n tio n -C o n c e n tra tio n f a c t o r . H ow ever, t h e same p a t t e r n a l s o a p p e a r s i n c h i l d r e n p l a c e d a s e m o tio n a lly im p a ir e d , o t h e r ­ w is e - im p a ir e d and n o n - im p a ir e d . O n ly t h o s e fo u n d to be e d u c a b le m e n ta l ly im p a ir e d h ad a d i f f e r e n t B u b te s t p a t t e r n . I n te rm s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , th e u se o f p r o f i l e a n a ly s is b a s e d upon t h e s e t h r e e f a c t o r s w o u ld b e h e l p f u l to p r a c t i ­ t i o n e r s i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b e tw e e n l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d and e d u c a b le m e n ta l ly im p a ir e d c h i l d r e n . A d d i t i o n a l l y , i n th e c a s e w h ere a c h i l d h a s a n IQ b e tw e e n 80 an d 9 0 , i t c o u ld b e u s e f u l i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e tw e e n a c h i l d w ith a s p e c i f i c l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y an d o n e w ith m ore g e n e r a l i z e d l e a r n i n g d iffic u ltie s * P r a c t i t i o n e r s n e e d to u s e c a u t i o n i n t h i s p r o f i l e a n a l y s i s , h o w ev e r, a s r e s u l t s from t h i s s tu d y r e p r e ­ s e n t g ro u p d i f f e r e n c e s an d Bay l i t t l e o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r ­ en ces. W h ile s u b t e s t a n a l y s i s may b e o f u s e to s c h o o l 169 p s y c h o lo g is ts in d i f f e r e n t i a l d ia g n o s is , i t s g r e a te r con­ t r i b u t i o n i s l i k e l y t o b e i n t h e a r e a o f p r o g r a m i n g and re m e d ia tio n . A n a ly s is o f i n d i v i d u a l s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e ss a n d c o g n i t i v e s t y l e i s c u r r e n t l y u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( W ill s an d B a n a s , 1977) a n d a p p e a r s t o h o ld some p r o m is e . 3* T he m ean F u l l S c a l e IQ f o r l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l ­ d r e n w as a p p r o x im a te l y o n e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n b elo w t h e n a t i o n a l m ean. A m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n s c o r e d b elo w 90 o n t h e W e c h s le r s c a l e s an d l e s s t h a n h p e r c e n t h a d a F .S .I Q o f 115 o r a b o v e . I t i s e n tir e ly p o s s ib le th a t a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n w i t h F u l l S c a l e I Q 's lo w e r t h a n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n a r e b e i n g i n i t i a l l y r e f e r r e d to p la c e m e n t c o m m itte e s an d a r e b e i n g s u b s e q u e n tl y p l a c e d a s le a rn in g d is a b le d . P r a c t i t i o n e r s n e e d t o r e m a in a w a re t h a t t h o s e w i t h a v e r a g e an d a b o v e a v e r a g e I Q 's a r e a l s o e l i g i b l e f o r s p e c i a l s e r v i c e s i f fo u n d to b e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . A n o th e r p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t c h i l d r e n o t h e r t h a n t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d , su c h a s t h e " s lo w l e a r n e r " , a r e b e i n g m is c la s s ifie d . T h is i s a much d e b a te d i s s u e ( S h e p a r d , 1975t Ames, 1977) an d o n e t h a t i s n o t s e t t l e d b y r e s u l t s fro m t h i s s tu d y . H ow ever, e x a m in a tio n o f t h e IQ s c o r e s d o e s i n d i c a t e t h i s to b e th e c a s e . W h ile t h e s e " s lo w l e a r n e r s " c o u ld no d o u b t b e n e f i t fro m su c h p ro g ra m m in g , t h i s w as n o t t h e i n t e n ­ t i o n o f t h o s e in v o lv e d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y p r o g ra m s . P r a c t i t i o n e r s n e e d t o lo o k a t a v a r i e t y o f v a r i a ­ b l e s i n m ak in g a p la c e m e n t. W h ile F .S .I Q i s o n e s u c h v a r i a ­ b le , i t i s c e r t a i n l y n o t enough. A t t e n t i o n n e e d s to b e p a i d 170 t o a c h ie v e m e n t, p r o c e s s a n d ev en m o t i v a t i o n i n a c a r e f u l p s y c h o -e d u c a tio n a l e v a lu a tio n . The p r o b a b i l i t y o f m i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s d e c r e a s e d a s t h e v a r i a b l e s t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n becom e m ore com­ p re h e n s iv e . T h is s t u d y d e m o n s tr a te d t h a t a c l u s t e r o f v a r ­ i a b l e s c o u ld i n c r e a s e t h e a c c u r a c y o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n to 67 p e rc e n t. As p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d , t h i s f i g u r e may b e s e e n a s s u r p r is in g ly a c c u r a te in l i g h t o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n ­ v o lv e d i n an y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . The f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s tu d y c o u ld b e u s e d b y t h o s e who p r o v i d e le a d e rs h ip in th e f i e l d . tiv e n e s s h e re a re i T he v a r i a b l e s i n o r d e r o f e f f e c ­ F .S .I Q , p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y , A tte n t i o n s c o r e , s e x , V e rb a l-C o m p re h e n s io n f a c t o r , s t a t u s and a g e . s o c io e c o n o m ic I f th e sc h o o l p s y c h o lo g is t c o u ld add a d d i­ tio n a l re le v a n t v a r ia b le s , th e p r o b a b ili ty o f m i s c l a s s i f i ­ c a t i o n c o u ld b e r e d u c e d ev e n f u r t h e r . A m e a s u re o f p r o c e s s , e x a m in a tio n o f s u b t e s t s c a t t e r an d a c o m p re h e n s iv e c a s e h i s ­ t o r y w ould a l l a d d to t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i d e n t i f i c a ­ tio n p ro c e d u re . 5. No o n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w as fo u n d to e x c l u s i v e l y d e ­ f i n e th o s e c l a s s i f i e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . O v e r la p i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e tw e e n g r o u p s w as fo u n d to e x i s t , p ro fe s­ s i o n a l s c h a r g e d w ith i d e n t i f y i n g t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d w i l l f i n d no s im p le a n s w e r s . I t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e to f i n d a n e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d o r n o n - im p a ir e d c h i l d to e x h i b i t t h o s e t r a i t s o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . C o n v e r s e ly , a c h i l d w i t h a s e v e r e p e r c e p t u a l o r la n g u a g e 171 d i f f i c u l t y w i l l n o t a lw a y s m a n i f e s t t h e e x p e c te d c h a r a c t e r ­ is tic s . I t r e m a in s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r to e v a l ­ u a t e e a c h c h i l d i n d i v i d u a l l y an d t o b e s e n s i t i v e to r e c e n t f in d in g s in th e f i e l d . 6. F u rth e r, c h ild r e n in c la s s e s f o r th e le a r n in g d i s ­ a b l e d a r e m ore o f t e n p e r c e i v e d a s b e i n g fro m m id d le s o c i o ­ econom ic b a c k g ro u n d s w h ile t h o s e i n c l a s s e s f o r t h e e d u c a b le m e n t a l l y im p a ir e d a r e p e r c e i v e d a s b e i n g from lo w e r s o c i o ­ econom ic b a c k g r o u n d s . I t s h o u ld b e e m p h a siz e d , h o w e v e r, t h a t no e v id e n c e o f a n SES b i a s i n t h e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s w as fo u n d i n t h i s s t u d y . The i s s u e o f SES b i a s i n t h e p la c e m e n t p ro c e ss i s c o n tro v e rs ia l. From a r e v ie w o f t h e i s s u e s p r e ­ s e n t e d i n C h a p te r I I , i t i s o b v io u s t h a t t h e r e a r e d i f f e r i n g o p in io n s . E ven i f i t i s a c c e p te d t h a t no s u c h b i a s d o e s e x i s t a t t h i s t im e , t h o s e i n t h e f i e l d m u s t r e m a in v i g i l a n t t o an y p o t e n t i a l b i a s i n f u t u r e d e c i s i o n m a k in g . 7. P r o f e s s i o n a l s n e e d to ex am in e t h e i r own p la c e m e n t d e c is io n s . W h ile t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t an d t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s c o n s u l t a n t w e re i n a lm o s t p e r f e c t a g r e e m e n t a s to p la c e m e n t, t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s n o t a t a l l c l e a r . It may b e t h a t p la c e m e n t d e c i s i o n s a r e b e i n g made b y o n ly o n e p ro fe s s io n a l. I n t h i s c a s e p la c e m e n t c o m m itte e s n e e d to b e c a r e f u l to i n c l u d e a l l r e l e v a n t p a r t i e s i n p la c e m e n t d e c i ­ s io n s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t some c h i l ­ d r e n a r e m ore l i k e l y t o b e r e f e r r e d f o r s e r v i c e s . T h is i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , m a le s an d t h o s e w ith F u l l S c a l e IQ * s b elo w t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e , I t may w e l l b e 172 t h a t t h e s e a r e t h e s t u d e n t s m o st i n n e e d o f s p e c i a l s e r v i c e s . H ow ever, s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b ers o f o t h e r c h i l d r e n , e q u a lly d e ­ s e r v i n g a n d e q u a l l y i n n e e d o f s p e c i a l s e r v i c e s , may n o t b e i n i t i a l l y r e f e r r e d f o r a n y num ber o f r e a s o n s . As t h e p l a c e ­ m en t p r o c e s s i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e r e f e r r a l p r o c e d u r e , p r a c ­ t i t i o n e r s n e e d t o m o n ito r t h e r e f e r r i n g p r o c e s s an d m o d ify i t w h ere n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r to m a x im iz e t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s . 8. T h o se c h a r g e d w i t h t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n an d p la c e m e n t o f h a n d ic a p p e d c h i l d r e n n e e d to b e c o g n i z a n t o f t h e d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s in v o lv e d i n s u c h a p r o c e s s . M is c la s s ific a tio n s h e r e may b e r e l a t e d t o human e r r o r ( e x p e c t a t i o n s , i n t e r p r e ­ ta tio n , th e o re tic a l b ia s e s ), th e c h i l d 's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (SES, r a c e , a t t i t u d e to w a r d s t e s t i n g ) , t h e c a t e g o r y s y s te m ( d i f f e r i n g d e f i n i t i o n s ) a n d ju d g m e n t c o n t e x t ( i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n s i t u a t i o n , d i a g n o s t i c i a n an d c h i l d ) . P ro fe s s io n a ls s h o u ld w ork to m in im iz e t h e e r r o r s r e l a t e d to e a c h o f t h e s e fa c to rs . 9. B ased upon t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y a s u g ­ g e s t e d d e f i n i t i o n h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d . T h is d e f i n i t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n A p p en d ix A. R eco m m en d atio n s f o r F u r t h e r R e s e a rc h On t h e b a s i s o f t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e f o l l o w ­ i n g re c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a r e s e t f o r t h 1 1. S e v e ra l o f th e p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n s f o r th e d i f ­ f e r e n t i a l s u c c e s s r a t e o f t h e d i s c r e p a n c y fo rm u la m ig h t b e in v e s tig a te d . T he r e s e a r c h m ig h t a t t e m p t to a s s e s s t h e i r 173 c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s u c h a f o r m u la . a. A m ore d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n m ig h t b e u n d e r ­ t a k e n t o d e t e r m in e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c h i l d p l a c e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d who d o e s n o t m e e t t h e c r i t e r i a . A ls o f i t c o u ld d e te r m in e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c h i l d r e n who do m eet th e c r i t e r i a b u t a r e p la c e d i n o th e r c a te g o r ie s . If u n iq u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s do e x i s t , t h e y c o u ld b e o f p r a c t i c a l im p o r ta n c e to p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e f i e l d . b. An e x p l a n a t i o n a s to why t h e f o r m u la w o rk s m ore e f f e c t i v e l y f o r som e, s u c h a s y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , m a le s an d t h o s e w ith F . S . I Q 's b e tw e e n 90 an d 1 1 0 , s h o u ld b e s o u g h t. W h e th e r t h e s e d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s a r e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c h i l d ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r t h e p r o c e d u r e em ployed ( o r some o t h e r v a r i a b l e ) seem s a n i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n . c. A m ore d e t a i l e d s tu d y e x a m in in g t h e e f f e c t i v e ­ n e s s o f p ro g ram m in g f o r c h i l d r e n a t d i f f e r e n t a c h ie v e m e n t l e v e l s s h o u ld b e c o n d u c te d . T h is m ig h t i n c l u d e s tu d y i n g two g r o u p s b e i n g s e r v e d , o n e w h ic h m e e ts t h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la a n d o n e w h ic h d o e s n o t . I f p ro g ra m m in g w as fo u n d t o b e e f f e c t i v e f o r o n ly o n e g r o u p , t h i s w o u ld h a v e i m p o r t a n t im ­ p lic a tio n s . 2. A m ore d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e o n t a s k b e ­ h a v io r o f le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild re n , (197*0 s t u d y , s h o u ld b e c o n d u c te d . s i m i l a r to t h e B ry a n T h is s tu d y m ig h t em ploy b e h a v i o r a l a n a l y s i s o f t a s k o r i e n t e d b e h a v i o r an d co m p are t h e s e r e s u l t s to t h e W ech B ler f a c t o r o f A tte n tio n - C o n e e n t r a t i o n w h ic h p u r p o r t s t o m e a s u re t h e sam e. 17** 3, An i n v e s t i g a t i o n m ig h t b e u n d e r ta k e n to d e te r m in e i f t h e WISC-R i s a s v a l i d a m e a su re o f i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r th e le a r n in g d is a b le d as i t i s f o r th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n . It w o u ld b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o com p are t h e WISC-R and s e v e r a l o t h e r m e a s u re s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r t h e same p o o l o f s u b j e c t s . *f. S m ith e t a l . (1 9 7 7 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t a num ber o f c h i l ­ d r e n p l a c e d a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d w ould b e b e t t e r p l a c e d a s e d u c a b le m e n ta l ly im p a ir e d o r a s slo w l e a r n e r s . R e s e a rc h m ig h t u n d e r ta k e to d e te r m in e i f j u s t i f i c a t i o n e x i s t s f o r su c h a p r o p o s i t i o n . 5. F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s n e e d e d t o d e te r m in e how u s e f u l to p ro g ram m in g t h e r e c a t e g o r i z i n g o f th e W e c h sle r s c a l e s w o u ld b e . T h is m ig h t i n c l u d e c o m p a rin g two g r o u p s o f l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n r e c e i v i n g t h e same r e m e d ia ti o n b u t e x h ib itin g d if f e r e n t t e s t p r o f il e s . I t may b e t h a t t h i s r e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s p e c i f i e s p a r t i c u l a r c o g n i t i v e s t y l e s w hich demand u n iq u e i n s t r u c t i o n . 6. L o n g i t u d i n a l f o llo w - u p s t u d i e s i n t h e a r e a o f l e a r n in g d i s a b i l i t i e s a r e l a c k i n g . R e s e a rc h h e r e m ig h t a t te m p t to d e te r m in e w h ich s u b g ro u p s b e n e f i t m o st fro m i n t e r v e n t i o n an d w h ich s u b g ro u p s im p ro v e w ith o u t s p e c i f i c i n t e r v e n t i o n p ro c e d u re s. 7. A d d itio n a l s t u d i e s d i r e c t e d a t e x a m in in g b o th th e p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s and t h e i n i t i a l r e f e r r a l p r o c e s s s h o u ld b e c o n d u c te d . P r a c t i t i o n e r s n e e d to know how an d why th e y a r e m ak in g e s s e n t i a l d e c i s i o n s . T h is r e s e a r c h m ig h t ex am ine d i f f e r e n t r e f e r r a l p r o c e d u r e s em ployed b y a v a r i e t y o f 175 d i s t r i c t s an d a t t e m p t t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t o f m o d if y in g th e s e p ro c e d u re s . 8. R e s e a r c h m ig h t h e d i r e c t e d to t h e a r e a o f p r e l a b e l ­ in g i n t h e r e f e r r a l a n d p la c e m e n t p r o c e s s . I t w o u ld b e i n ­ t e r e s t i n g t o know w h a t p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n a r e d e te r m in e d t o b e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d b e f o r e t h e p la c e m e n t c o m m itte e m e e ts an d to d e te r m in e e x a c t l y how t h i s i s d o n e . The s u b s e q u e n t e f f e c t s ( i f a n y ) o f l a b e l i n g a c h i l d l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d m ig h t a ls o be in v e s tig a te d . 9. A m ore d e t a i l e d s tu d y e x a m in in g t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s u s e d i n a d i s c r e p a n c y f o r m u la c o u ld b e c o n d u c te d . T h is r e s e a r c h m ig h t a t t e m p t t o d e te r m in e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n r a t e o f p la c e m e n t i f i n d i v i d u a l t e s t s w ere re a d m in is te re d . 10. An i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o u ld b e u n d e r ta k e n to d e t e r m in e an y r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g o r o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p r a c t i t i o n e r s an d d e c i s i o n m a k in g . 11. F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n n e e d s t o b e u n d e r ta k e n i n t h e a re a o f b e h a v io ra l a n a ly s is . W h ile s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s may b e h e l p f u l , p r a c t i t i o n e r s n e e d w o rk a b le b e h a v i o r a l s c a l e s to h e l p b o th i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n an d i n s u b s e q u e n t f o llo w - u p o f le a r n in g d is a b le d c h ild r e n . 12. A d d itio n a l r e s e a r c h i s needed i n th e a r e a o f th e s o c ia l c h a r a c te r is tic s o f c h ild re n c l a s s i f ie d a s le a rn in g d is a b le d . I t m ig h t b e o f i n t e r e s t to ex am in e i f p e e r r a t i n g s c o u ld b e h e l p f u l t o t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s . 176 C h a p te r Summary P r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r h a s b e e n a summary o f t h e r e ­ s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y . I n a d d itio n , c o n c lu s io n s , im p lic a tio n s f o r p r a c t i t i o n e r s a n d re c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h w e re s e t f o r t h . APPENDICES APPENDIX A LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS AND PILOT PROJECT DRAFT APPENDIX A PILOT PROJECT DRAFTi LEARNING DISABLED C r i t e r i a f o r d e te rm in a tio n o f e l i g i b i l i t y A c o m p re h e n s iv e e v a l u a t i o n b y o t h e r p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u ld i f a s tu d e n t, b e in g c o n s id e re d f o r c a t i o n a s l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d , m e e ts te ria i a s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t an d b e a v a i l a b l e t o d e t e r m in e p la c e m e n t i n s p e c i a l ed u ­ a l l o f th e fo llo w in g c r i ­ ( a ) P r e s e n t a c h ie v e m e n t i n o n e o r m ore o f t h e b a s i c s k i l l a r e a s i s a p p r o x im a te l y o r l e s s o f e x p e c te d a c h i e v e ­ m e n t. ( b ) P a t t e r n o f s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s a s e v id e n c e d b y i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b i l i t y on in d iv id u a lly a d m in is te re d e d u c a t i o n a l an d p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e s t s o f a p p r o x im a te l y a 1 .5 s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n two o r m ore s u b t e s t s c o r e s an d t h e s t u d e n t 's mean s c o r e o n t h a t t e s t . ( c ) M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g d i s o r d e r s w h ic h may b e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c e n t r a l n e r v o u s s y s te m d y s f u n c t i o n a s r e ­ f l e c t e d b y su c h d i a g n o s t i c l a b e l s a s m in im a l b r a i n d y s f u n c ­ tio n , d y s le x ia o r a p h a s ia . ( d ) I n a b i l i t y to p r o f i t fro m r e g u l a r e d u c a t i o n a l t e r ­ n a t iv e s w ith o u t s p e c i a l e d u c a tio n s u p p o r t. ( e ) U n s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r f o r m a n c e n o t fo u n d t o be b a s e d o n s o c i a l , econom ic o r c u l t u r a l b a c k g ro u n d . PILOT PROJECT DRAFT 177 STATE OP MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION lo n il/ig , M ithlgon 4(903 S e p t o s h e r 1 0 , 1975 itA ti w u ) o f u v u r 'C f t M IIU % i; *•> m i v f tk M f f flN lltn < M fiU > f u fmMW ■ m m x D p. V A x n m M E M O R A N D U M AKKBTTA MILLC* Tm •AASASA A. D V H O V C IItU A SASSASA I. lumCKT* M S U A * OTTO r t n c a i u Y t a . I * ts e u m u i 0 0 V . WILLIAM 0 . M O U U N TO: Special Educators FROM: X , Murrey 0. B atten,riDirector, Special Education Service* SUbJECT: LEARNING DISABLED The enclosed inforaation p ertain s to n project i n l t l a t c J Ly the Michigan Department o f Education, Special Education Services* fo r the 1975*76 school yoar. The purpose o f th is pro ject is an u tto cpt to evaluate an operationalized d e f in itio n of learning dis* a b i l i t i e s th at w ill lend i t s e l f to a sore con sisten t id e n tific a tio n o f luarnlng disabled students who require special education progress and/or services. The onclosed c r i t e r i a for evaluation of learning d i s a b i l i t i e s do not, in our opinion, c o n flic t in any way with the current rulu 340.1713 Learning Disabled Defined. i wish tu oxpross ay g ratitud e to the following people who assisted th is o f f ic e In developing these c r i t o r l a : Dr. Harvey C lurlzlo, Professor of Educational Psychology, Michigan S ta te Univer­ s i t y ; Dr. Gerald F u lle r, Professor o f Psychology, Central Michigan University; Mr. Fred Loaske, School Psychologist, Ottawa Internediatv School D i s t r i c t ; Or. K illia n Rico, School Psychologist, 'inghaa I n te r­ mediate School D i s t r i c t ; Dr. Gone Scholten, Scnool Psychologist, Holland Public Schools, Dr. Jolin Hlssink, A ssistant Professor of Learning Dis­ a b i l i t i e s , Grand Valloy S ta te College*. D is tric ts th a t wish to p i l o t these c r it e r i a , during the 1975-76 school year, should notify Dr. M. Diane llodson o f th is o ff ic e . I f you have any s p e c ific «|ucntiun* pertaining to the c r i t e r i a to ho uscu in tills pile* project d r a f t , com act e i t h e r Dr. llodson o r Ur. John li, Uraccio at the following phone liuaber*. 517—373-0*JJ3, 1 U U :jh b :n v Enclosure 179 L e a rn in g D is a b le d . D e fin e d (1 ) " L e a r n in g D is a b le d " m eans a p e r s o n i d e n t i f i e d by a n e d u c a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g an d p la c e m e n t c o m m itte e , b a s e d upon a n i n - c l a s s o b s e r v a t i o n and a n i n d i v i d u a l , c o m p re h e n s iv e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e v a l u a t i o n a d m i n i s t e r e d by a s c h o o l p s y c h o lo ­ g i s t and a n i n d i v i d u a l e d u c a t i o n a l e v a l u a t i o n a d m in is t e r e d b y a t e a c h e r c o n s u l t a n t o f t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d an d o t h e r p e r t i n e n t in f o r m a t i o n , a s m e e tin g a l l o f t h e f o llo w in g c r i ­ te ria * (A) A s e v e r e d is c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n p r e s e n t a c h ie v e m e n t and e x p e c te d a c h ie v e m e n t i n o n e o r m ore o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b a s i c s k i l l a re a s * e x p r e s s i v e la n g u a g e , o r a l o r w r i t t e n ; r e c e p t i v e la n g u a g e ! r e a d i n g , i n c l u d i n g s p e l l i n g ; an d m a th e m a tic s . W h ile no q u a n t i t a t i v e d is c r e p a n c y i s m a n d a te d , t h e f o l l o w ­ in g c r i t e r i a a r e p r e s e n t e d a s a g u id e lin e * (I) A s e v e r e d is c r e p a n c y i s i n d i c a t e d a s fo llo w s * fo r ages up to 8 - 1 1 , p r e s e n t a c h ie v e m e n t i s a p p r o x im a te ly 60 % o r l e s s o f e x p e c te d a c h ie v e m e n t! f o r a g e s 9 -0 to 1 1 -1 1 , p r e s e n t a c h ie v e m e n t i s a p p r o x im a te ly 50 % o r l e s s o f e x p e c te d a c h i e v e ­ m e n t; f o r a g e s 1 2 -0 an d a b o v e , p r e s e n t a c h ie v e m e n t i s a p p ro x ­ i m a te ly k 0% o r l e s s o f e x p e c te d a c h ie v e m e n t. (X I) E x p e c te d a c h ie v e m e n t s h a l l be d e te r m in e d b y t h e f o l l o w ­ in g m ethod* CA ^ 0 0 + w h e re CA = c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e , IQ » F u l l S c a le IQ an d "die o t h e r n u m b ers a r e c o n s t a n t . (2 ) P a t t e r n s o f s t r e n g t h s an d w e a k n e s se s a s e v id e n c e d b y i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b i l i t y on i n d i v i d u a l l y a d m in is t e r e d e d u c a t i o n a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e s t s . W h ile no q u a n t i t a t i v e 180 d i s c r e p a n c y i s m a n d a te d , t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i o n i s p r e s e n t e d a s a g u id e lin e i (A) V a r i a b i l i t y o f a p p r o x im a te ly 1 .5 s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n two o r m o re s u b t e s t s c o r e s a n d t h e s t u ­ d e n t 's mean s c o r e o n t h a t t e s t . (3 ) D ocum ented e v id e n c e fro m t h e s t u d e n t 's g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n t e a c h e r s t h a t v i a b l e g e n e r a l e d u c a ti o n a l t e r n a t i v e s h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d an d a p p l i e d , an d fo u n d to b e i n e f f e c t i v e ! ex cep t f o r s tu d e n ts n o t c u r r e n tly e n ro lle d in a sch o o l p ro ­ g ram . (4 ) L e a r n in g im p a ir e d s h a l l b e i n c l u s i v e o f p e r s o n s who h a v e b e e n d ia g n o s e d a s h a v in g a c o n d i t i o n o r d i s o r d e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c e n t r a l n e r v o u s s y s te m d y s f u n c t i o n , su c h a s m in im a l b r a i n d y s f u n c t i o n , d y s l e x i a o r a p h a s i a , i f t h e p e r s o n s t h u s d ia g n o s e d m e e t t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f s u b r u l e ( 1 ) . (5 ) L e a r n in g im p a ir e d s h a l l b e e x c l u s i v e o f p e r s o n s w hose s e v e r e d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n p r e s e n t a c h ie v e m e n t an d e x p e c te d a c h iv e m e n t i s p r i m a r i l y t h e r e s u l t of* (A) M e n ta l, e m o tio n a l, h e a rin g , v i s u a l , p h y s ic a l o r o th e r h e a l t h im p a irm e n ts. (B) E n v i r o n m e n t a l , c u l t u r a l o r econom ic d i s a d v a n t a g e . (6) The q u a l i t a t i v e c r i t e r i a p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n s I and I I a r e g u i d e l i n e s . I n u s in g such c r i t e r i a , p r o f e s s i o n ­ a l s a r e r e m in d e d o f t h e f o l l o w i n g * (A) D is c r e p a n c y f o r m u la s h a v e b e e n fo u n d t o i d e n t i f y p r o ­ p o r t i o n a t e l y l a r g e r n u m b ers o f m a le s , c h i l d r e n w ith h i g h e r I Q 's a n d i n t h e e a r l y an d m id d le g r a d e s . A ll i d e n t i f i c a t i o n 181 p r o c e d u r e s s h o u ld co m p ly w i t h c u r r e n t l e g i s l a t i o n on n o n d i s c r i m i n a t o r y a s s e s s m e n t and p la c e m e n t. (B) S u b t e s t v a r i a b i l i t y e x i s t s w i t h i n a l l p o p u l a t i o n s an d i s n o t e x c l u s i v e t o t h o s e fo u n d t o b e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d . (C) T he s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s o f a c h i l d , i n an d o f i t s e l f , i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t to e x c lu d e t h e c h i l d fro m t h e l e a r n i n g d is a b le d c a te g o ry . APPENDIX B ANOVA, CHI SQUARE AND DISCRIMINANT TABLES AND PLOTS APPENDIX B ANOVA TABLES T a b le B1 - ANOVA T a b le f o r g ro u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n e x p e c te d an d a c t u a l a c h ie v e m e n t. E ffe c ts df MS B etw een S u b j e c t s 60# Word R e c o g n it io n ERROR 60# S p e l l i n g ERROR 60 # A r i th m e t ic ERROR 60 # R e a d in g ERROR P ro p o s e d Word R e c o g n it io n ERROR P ro p o s e d S p e l l i n g ERROR P ro p o s e d A r i th m e t ic ERROR P ro p o s e d R e a d in g ERROR If 802 4 125 4 803 4 696 4 802 4 12 5 4 0 .6 7 2 8 2 .2 8 9 4 2 0 .3 2 2 1 1 .6 0 4 2 6 .5 5 4 4 1 .0 6 7 0 3 .4 0 2 3 1 .9 0 2 4 3 7 .0 9 6 0 2 .7 2 4 4 1 9 .5 5 6 2 1 .9 3 7 3 7 .5 3 5 0 1 .3 1 3 2 5 -1 4 6 7 2 .1 2 1 7 60# D is c r e p a n c y ERROR P ro p o s e d D is c r e p a n c y ERROR 4 836 4 836 2 1 .6 3 4 3 0 .8 5 9 6 2 2 .1 2 4 5 1 .0 0 8 6 4 803 4 696 182 P P 1 7 .7 6 6 0 .0 0 0 0 1 2 .6 6 8 - 0 .0 0 0 0 6 .1 4 3 0 .0 0 0 1 1 .7 8 8 0 .1 3 5 3 1 3 .6 1 6 0 .0 0 0 0 1 0 .0 9 5 0 .0 0 0 0 5 .7 3 8 0 .0 0 0 1 2 .4 2 6 0 .0 5 1 4 2 5 .1 6 9 0 .0 0 0 0 2 1 .9 3 6 0 .0 0 0 0 183 CHI SQUARE TABLES T a b le B2 - C h i S q u a re T a b le f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n d i s ­ c r e p a n c y a n d F .S .I Q i Age an d S ex f o r e a c h g r o u p . S o u rc e L e a r n in g D is a b le d F .S .I Q Age R ange Sex df X2 P 1 1 1 3 2 .1 2 7 3 0 .2 8 8 6 5 .1 3 2 4 0 .0 0 0 0 0 .5 9 1 1 0 .0 2 3 5 E d u c a b le M e n ta lly I m p a ir e d F .S .I Q Age R ange Sex 1 1 1 0 .0 4 1 1 0 .0 0 3 4 3 .0 0 9 5 O.8 3 9 3 0 .0 4 6 5 0 .0 8 2 8 E m o tio n a lly I m p a ir e d F .S .I Q Age R ange Sex 1 1 1 0 .4 0 2 9 * 0 .4 3 1 2 * 0 .5 4 5 3 * O th e r F .S .I Q Age R ange Sex 1 1 1 0 .0 8 1 0 * 0 .2 1 5 9 * 0 .4 5 0 5 * N o n -Im p a ire d F .S .I Q Age R ange Sex 1 1 1 1 3 .3 1 3 5 4 .9 9 2 3 .6 3 9 0 .0 0 0 3 0 .0 2 5 5 0 .0 5 7 0 •F is h e rs E x act T e st T a b le B3 - ANOVA T a b le f o r W e c h s le r f a c t o r s . E ffe c ts B etw een S u b j e c t s S p a tia l ERROR V erb al ERROR A tte n tio n ERROR M u lti-v a ria te F df ms 4 776 4 831 4 920 2 7 5 .M 7 5 5*3696 5 1 .2 9 2 .0 0 0 1 3 9 5 .4 9 9 7 5 .6 3 9 9 2 8 4 .3 7 8 7 4 .5 6 3 8 7 0 .1 2 5 .0 0 0 1 6 2 .3 1 2 .0 0 0 1 P 184 DISCRIMINANT TABLES T a b le B4 - Summary T a b le f o r D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly s e s . V a ria b le S te p df U -sta t* E x a c t Fb PC F u l l S c a l e IQ D isc re p a n c y A tte n tio n SES C o m p re h e n sio n Sex Age S p a tia l 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 ,5 7 2 2 ,5 7 1 3 ,5 7 0 * ,5 6 9 5 .5 6 8 6 ,5 6 7 7 ,5 6 6 8 ,5 6 5 0 .6 7 5 0 .5 8 4 0 .5 6 1 0 .5 4 2 0 .5 2 9 0 .5 2 1 O.5 1 6 0 .5 1 1 6 8 .7 8 3 2 2 .2 2 7 5 .7 1 0 5 .0 1 9 3 .6 2 2 2 .0 9 7 1 .4 3 8 1 .3 1 9 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 2 .0 2 7 .1 1 6 . 177 F u l l S c a l e IQ D isc re p a n c y A tte n tio n C o m p re h e n sio n Age SES Sex 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 ,4 7 8 2 ,* 7 7 3 ,4 7 6 M 5 ,4 774? 6 ,4 7 3 7 , *472 0 .6 4 6 0 .5 6 2 0 .5 4 7 0 .5 3 7 0 .5 2 7 0 .5 2 0 0 .5 1 5 1 3 0 .9 6 0 3 5 .3 8 4 6 .4 8 6 4 .6 0 5 4 .3 4 5 3 .1 0 1 2 .5 8 4 .0001 .0001 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 5 .0 0 2 .0 0 7 .0 1 4 C o m p re h e n sio n A tte n tio n D isc re p a n c y S p a tia l Age SES Sex 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 ,4 7 8 2 , *4-77 3 ,4 7 6 4 ,4 7 5 5 .4 7 4 6 ,4 7 3 7 ,4 7 2 0 .7 3 7 0 .6 5 5 0 .5 9 2 0 .5 6 6 0 .5 5 8 0 .5 5 0 0 .5 4 6 8 4 .9 6 2 2 9 .7 5 6 2 5 .5 5 7 1 0 .8 3 0 3 .3 9 5 3 .3 3 5 1 .9 9 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0 0 0 1 .0001 .0 1 1 .0 0 6 .0 4 5 F u l l S c a l e IQ D isc re p a n c y Age SES Sex 1 2 3 4 5 1 ,5 2 2 2 ,5 2 1 3 .5 2 0 4 ,5 1 9 5 ,5 1 8 0 .6 6 4 0 .5 6 1 0 .5 4 6 0 .5 4 0 0 .5 3 5 1 4 3 .9 3 2 3 8 .5 6 9 7 .2 4 3 2 .8 1 3 2 .4 5 3 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0 1 3 .0 1 9 R i l k e s Lambda d e n o t e s c o n t r i b u t i o n m ade b y e a c h s u c c e s s iv e v a r ia b le e n te re d . D e n o te s d e g r e e to w h ic h e a c h v a r i a b l e w i l l a d d t o d i s ­ c r i m i n a t i o n b e tw e e n g r o u p s i f e n t e r e d . S i g n if ic a n c e le v e l o f each v a r ia b le e n te re d . T able B5 - Summary T a b le f o r D is c rim in a n t f u n c tio n s . D iscrim inant Analysis D iscrim inant Function® 1 1 2 3 * 0 .2 0 5 7 0.0318 0.0167 68.21 25-71 3-98 2.10 2 1 2 0.6*62 0.1792 78.29 21.71 3 1 2 0.55*6 0.1778 75.72 2*. 28 * 1 2 0.6279 0.1*75 80.98 19.02 Eigenvalue*1 0.5*59 R elativ e6 Percentage Function** Derived U -Stat? X2 0 1 2 3 0.511* 0.7905 0.9531 0.9835 3 8 1 .9 6 2 1 3 3 .88b 0 1 0.5151 0.8*80 0 1 0 1 df 0 32 21 12 5 0.0001 0.0001 315.1*2 7 8 .3 0 6 1* 6 0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 0 1 0.5*61 0.8*90 287.359 77.756 1* 6 0.0001 0.0001 0.5353 0.871* 32*.981 71.560 10 * 0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 0 1 27.3*7 9.*76 0 .0 0 7 0 .0 9 2 dum ber o f D iscrim inant Functions used in each a n a ly s is . ^Denotes r e la tiv e a b i l i t y o f each Function to sep arate groups (h ig h er values re p re se n t g re a te r power). °R elativ e percentage o f each Function in d iscrim in atin g between groups. dNumber o f Functions which s ig n ific a n tly c o n trib u te to d iscrim in atio n between groups. d e n o te s decreasing c o n trib u tio n made by each successive Function (h igher values re p re se n t decreased power). 186 Table B6 - Summary Table f o r U nstandardized D iscrim in an t F u nctio n C o e f f ic ie n ts . D iscrim in an t A nalysis 1 2 t 3 4 V ariab le Sex SES Age F.S.IQ S p a tia l A tte n tio n Comprehen. D iscrepancy C o n stan t Func. 1 -0.2898 -0.2193 - 0 .0 3 5 8 0.0467 0.0354 F.S.IQ D iscrepancy A tte n tio n Comprehen. Sex SES Age C o n stan t 0.0583 0.2736 0 .0 7 6 0 0.0117 0.1978 -3 .8 3 4 0 .0 6 6 6 -0.0317 -0.3087 - 0 .2 8 2 8 -0.0549 -3.7390 D iscrepancy A tte n tio n Comprehen. S p a tia l Sex SES Age C onstant 0.1242 0.1350 -0.2946 -0.3273 -0.0466 -1.7481 D iscrepancy F.S.IQ Sex SES Age C onstant 0.2638 0.0624 -0.2879 -0.2511 -0.0593 -3.9237 0.2023 0 .1 6 0 5 Func. 2 0 .1 8 6 5 -0.4124 -0.0214 0 .0 1 3 1 -0.0857 -0.2066 0.1684 -0.8557 1.5037 Func. 3 0.1473 -1.8091 -0.0477 -0.0048 -0.1633 0.2777 -0.2035 -0.1942 6.1598 Func. 4 1 .0 5 1 6 0.0460 -0.1729 0.1127 - 0 .2 0 5 6 - 0 .3 0 9 2 -0.3449 0 .1 5 6 6 -2.6552 -0.0189 - 0 .9 0 0 2 -O .1 5 8 9 0.2456 O.OO5 3 - 0 .1 6 7 8 0.0774 0 .8 6 1 1 -0.8987 -0,1905 0.1985 - 0 .0 5 6 0 0.0032 -0.1512 0.0778 0.3515 -1.0617 -0.0029 0.0485 - 0 .2 1 1 0 0.1067 0 .1 6 3 8 NOTEi D iscrim in an t sco res f o r in d iv id u a l c a s e s may be computed by m u ltip ly in g th e raw v a lu e s o f th e a s s o c ia te d v a r ia b le s by th e s e c o e f f ic ie n ts and summing them to g e th e r. They a re added to th e c o n s ta n t to a d ju s t f o r th e grand means. Table B7 - Group means for first and second Discriminant Analyses. LD Sex SES Age F .S .I Q S p a tia l A tte n tio n C om prehension D is c re p a n c y 1 .2 1 3 2 2 .2 8 9 3 1 0 .8 1 1 5 87.55849 .0 3 0 5 6 .9 2 1 3 8.2014O.3898 EMI El O th e r None T o ta l 1*3895 2 . 51*741 2 .2 7 1 3 67*8737 6 .3 2 6 3 4-.9895 4 .8 0 7 0 0 .9 0 2 7 1.2171* 2.51*35 1 0.7576 88 .7 6 0 9 9 .3 6 2 3 7 . 63OI* 8.11*1*9 1*3619 1 .2000 2 .3 6 0 0 11.1*638 8 1 . 31*00 8.4-133 7 . 1*000 7 .1 0 0 0 1.1899 1 .2 2 7 5 2.21*31* 10.0959 92.1111 9 .5 7 8 5 8 . 21*60 8 . 51*32 1 .0 9 1 0 1 . 21*61 2.31*32 1 0 .8 6 9 7 8 5 .3 6 5 7 8 .7 3 7 7 7 .1 3 5 2 7.651*5 0 .8 5 0 8 ____________________________ LD__________EMI__________ None________T o ta l F .S .IQ D isc re p a n c y A tt e n t i o n C om prehension S p a tia l Sex SES Age 87.5581* 0 .2 0 9 5 6 .9 2 1 3 8.20149 .0 3 0 5 1 .2 1 3 2 2 .2 8 9 3 1 0 .8 1 1 5 6 7 .8 7 3 7 0 .9 6 3 2 l*.9895 4-.8070 6 .3 2 6 3 1 .3 8 9 5 2.51*741 2 .2 7 1 3 9 2 .1 1 1 1 0 .8 1 1 2 8.21*60 8,54-32 9*5785 1 .2 2 7 5 2.24-3410 .0 9 5 9 85.1*595 0 .5 9 ^ 8 7 .0 6 0 3 7*6653 8 .7 1 1 7 1 .2 5 3 6 2 .3 2 2 2 10 .8186 ■6*000 • 3. n o •l.S O o I 11 1 5 1 .* 21 i*i7o 3*000 0*750 3*0pi> 1 l"l 1 11 111 | 11 ? r 51 II 1 S’ j i l l 15 5 1 3 3*3 2 2 istsijisi IS . 1 H i i l l . ? ! 1 l i t i l --------- 3*000 1*075 II 5 2 2 .' 0*750 1 ■ M il* ! ; ; i M 0*730 M m . ! 5* 5 3 * {»■ .1 !?Sl.il* f “ V i l ? > ” *2 2 2 2;STIJ S.*?! ..f’flS* *» * -0*37* 2 •1*300 ii « i . i s s ’ s n f f s i ’i ’ s .. _ 2 22 . 155 355 5553 I * * 2 2 2 ?*! 3 §3 * 5 ” 2 1 l l ? l 25 J5 I 1 5 53 •2*625 -0*373 3 *l«SvlO 5 51 •1*730 -3.7-e ■4*675 •0*075 4*000 *0*175 *2.625 “0.J75 Figure B1 - P lo t o f oasas fo r Second Discriminant Analysis, 1*075 1 I• • I. 1. : 1*250 • 21 2 n .i I I l,‘ * *' 1* 7 1 0.325 2 , . . ' . 2> ' . .> I * .. • j v i . 5 j sv i i . ‘5i i ? m s » / ! \? * I I I 2 1 ,2V 2< ' 2 5 Y »•* I . 5 .5 5 5 1*250 0*325 ?” * V 5 15 • 0*500 » 5!l” ¥ s! , 15 ’ 5 5 ' 5*5 2 ' 1 JSISM^S IK Y 22.« ,2*l s' 5,”i *1.325 ■2*250 55|>3 51 511 1115 III *222 2* I • *222 1551255555 ■0*590 ,f *■• V I.5?5.'* .5* 1 >5 5 l l ^ l 2 2* >1l l l s l * l t 1 ?ls 2 .2 i ,5 'S ■1.325 5 S! - 2 .2 5 0 5 •3*125 *0*01)0 ** 1 F l«ura B2 •3 * 1 2 5 " 3«I ?5 “ 1*325 * 0.325 . P lo t o f s u u f o r T h ird o ls o r la in a n t A iu ly a io . 1 2*125 ><*000 "6 .0 9 b - 3 . /so -1.500 0./50 j.OdO | * 3.000 3. O 0O 1 . 5 1 i.a/s ! • 1t 1 i .. M - 22 1 »2 <■ * ! 1 ,* 1 1. *1 in S 1 .6 7 5 5 I5 1 22 II S 1 S I I 1 2 2 5 511 1551 15 _5S 2 21 2 2 22 _ 5 I 5 J I IS 1 1 1«5l4_ s f i 4M » 3 iiliissi5 h I 1- ‘ V 2 2 * 5 * 1 1 3 15 3 ill fyHHfflMPB 5515 m * 5 l S l l 5 1 » W M i ’3P8 2 , 22 11555151511*555 5 5 2 2 2 21 5 5 5 5 2 51 1 15 55 5 ? 5 5 5 552 22 2 2 2 I 2 5155 52 5 5 5 9 5 I 22 221 5 5 | 1 5 5 5 5 1 _ 22 15555 5 22 I 2 5 | 55 | 5 5 5 . 2 1 0./50 -0 .3 /5 -I.SoO 5 9 5 ‘ 4 5 •2*625 - 3 .7 .5 0 -4 .0 /5 -6.000 -4 .0 /5 P L g u ra &3 - P l o t o f s u m "2*625 " -0 0 /5 f o r F o u rth D la o r la I n a n t A n a ly s is . 1 .0 /5 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A ckerm an, P . T . , P e t e r s , I . E . an d Dykman, R .A . C h i ld r e n w ith s p e c if ic le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t i e s ! WISC p r o f i l e s . J o u r n a l o f L e a rn in g D i s a b i l i t i e s . 1971. it. ( 3 ) . 1 5 0 -1 6 6 . A lg o z z in e , R .F . and S u t h e r l a n d , J . 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