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University
Micrdrilms
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3 0 0 N Z E E B R O A D . A N N A R B O R , Ml 4 8 1 0 6
18 B E D F O R D R O W . L O N D O N W C 1 R 4 E J . E N G L A N D

7917792

.

S M I T H , R O B E R T GRA N T
A STUDY OF S O C I E T A L F A C T O R S I N F L U E N C I N G
TEA CH ER E D U C A T I O N AND S T U D E N T T E A C H I N G
E V A L U A T I O N IN M I C H I G A N :
19S6-1977.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY,

CDP R. 197B
University.
M icrofilm s
International

SMIT H,

ROBERT

PH.D.,

GRANT

3 0 0 N ZllO H O A D , A N N A R B O R . Ml 4 8 1 0 6

©

1978

ROBERT GRANT SMI TH

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

1978

A STUDY OF SOCIE TAL FACTORS INFLUENCING TEACHER
EDU CATION AN D STUDENT TEACHING EVALUATION
IN MICHIGAN:

1956-1977

By
Robert Grant Smith

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Mic hig an State Unive rsi ty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTO R OF PHILOSOPHY
Colleg e of Education
1978

ABSTRACT
A STUDY OF SOCIETAL FACTORS INFLUENCING TE ACH ER
EDUCATION AND STUDENT TEACHI NG EVALUATION
IN MICHIGAN:
1956-1977
By
Robert Grant Smith

This study investigated possible impacts of
societal change on teacher education,
student teaching evaluation,
1977.

partic ula rly on

in Michigan

from 1956 through

It was felt identification of such relationships

might be useful in designing future teacher training p r o ­
grams.

The purpose of the study was main ly to generate

hypotheses,

not to reach conclusions.

Tape recorded interviews were conducted with twentyseven experienced student teaching coordinators at twentythree of Michigan's thirty teacher training institutions.
Questions were desig ned to identify categories for o r g a n i z ­
ing data to examine possi ble impacts of societal change on
teacher education.

Evaluation forms from twenty- seve n

Michigan colleges and univer sit ies were examined to observe
student teaching evaluation changes over a min i m u m of
seven y e a r s .

Robert Grant Smith
The following data were extracted from the inte r­
views and evaluation forms.
1.

There is now more input in teacher training

pro gram de velopment from school faculties and teacher
unions,

state and federal programs,

children,
2.
teachers,

business,

parents of school

and industry.

There is more field experience for student
accompanied by more and higher quality o b s e r ­

vations by a greater number of evaluators.

Ev aluation is

now less confidential.
3.

Ed ucational focus is constantly changing.

4.

Emphasis on mult icu lturalism is increasing.

5.

Emphasis is decreasing on the importance of

student teachers'

attire,

speech,

and personal habits,

proba bly because acceptable behavior is now harder to
define.
6.

Student teachers are more se lf-directed and

accept their role mor e comfortably.
7.

Teacher ed ucation enrollments are decli ning

sharply.
8.

In some areas teacher unions are resisting

student teacher plac ements and discou rag ing prosp ect ive
teachers from entering the profession.
9.

Teacher training institutions are responding

to the crowded job ma rket in education wi th new prac tices
in evaluating and grading.

Robert Grant Smith
10.

Effort is being made to achieve greater speci­

ficity and standardization of teaching competencies.
11.

Increased stress is being placed on the impor­

tance of human relations.
12.

Student teaching evaluation forms now employ

more narrative reporting.
13.

Grading practices are moving from literal or

numerical grading scales toward pass/fail or credit/no
credit.
14.

The re are some discrepancies between what stu­

dent teaching coordinators feel are important evaluative
criteria and the criteria employed on evaluation forms.
Examinat ion of data revealed that societal factors
apparently influenced teacher education in the following
areas.
1.

Changes

in program de velopment sources of

input resulted from the V ietnam War,

unrest of the 6 0s,

de mand for educational accountability,
ments,

Sputnik, v isible critics of education,

world interdependence,

increased

rapidly changing societal i nsti­

tutions and interpersonal roles,
nology,

civil rights m o v e ­

the mass media,

tech­

changing natio nal bi rth rate, population shifts,

and increasing reco gni tio n of the importance of uniqueness
in the individual.
2.

State and federally funded educational p r o ­

grams have flourished.

Robert Grant Smith
3.

Supervising teachers are better now, probably

b ecause of a more stable teaching population.
4.

Societal pressures on education are often the

result of backlash stemming from educational programs co n ­
de mned by society.
Based on the above data and identified societal
impacts,

recommendations for developing new teacher t r a i n ­

ing programs were listed.
1.

Input for teacher training program development

would be sought from university and school faculties,
business,

labor,

social services,

edu cational demographers,

communities involved,

and feedback from courses in

supervising student teachers.
2.

Such a body of decisio n-m aker s would be

respo n sible for continuing to identify and standardize
teac hin g competencies,

refining evaluation techniques,

res olv ing discrepancies between evaluative criteria felt
important by student teaching coordinators and criteria
u s e d on evaluation forms,

and de ve loping flexible teacher

pre par ati on programs responsive to changing societal needs.
3.

Program devel opm ent would emphasize ma ny areas

including expanded field experiences for student teachers
(both in and out of the c l a s s r o o m ) , more observations,
indiv idu ali zed programs for education students,
psychology

educational

(stressing role i n t e r a c t i o n ) , human ism in e d u ­

cation, multiculturalism,

and learning to adapt to ever-

cha ngi ng educational focus.

DEDICATION

This work is directed at studying the impacts of
society on teacher education.

My own education is p r i ­

maril y the result of the impacts of those small segments
of society wit h which I have had the closest and most
meaningful contacts.

Many are responsible,

yet appr o­

priate notice needs to be made of my profound appreciation
for the patience of my children,
and of my wife, Doris.

David, Bruce,

and Susan,

I also wish to express my deepest

gratitude to those members of my family who have helped
me recognize the value of diverse kinds of education:
mother,

Gladys Smith,

Margaret,

Edith,

and my father, Bob Smith;

Donelda, Jim, George,

and Mary.

my

and Sally,
It is

to all of these people that I dedicate this dissertation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express deep appreciation to a number
of people who have been helpful in assisting me in the
preparation of this study.
committee,
Dr.

The members of my doctoral

Dr. James Anderson,

Iwao Ishino,

Dr.

Robert Hatfield,

and Dr. W illiam Sweetland,

all provided

assistance of immeas ura ble value over a long period of
time.

The Graduate Com mittee of the Department of Student

Te aching and Pr ofessional Devel opm ent is to be thanked
for the generous grant awarded to me in support of this
study.

I also owe thanks to my typists,

Patti Bruske and

Marty North.
There is one person witho ut whose help this work
could have never come into being.

His contributions to

my learning how to ma nage a project of this mag nitude
stand far above what one could reasonably expect in such
an undertaking.
standing,

For his ideas,

time,

hard work,

under­

and patience I offer deepest thanks to my

committee chairman,

Dr. Arden Moon.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF T A B L E S ............................................

vii

Chapter
I.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM.

.

.

Purpose of This R e s e a r c h .....................
Definition of Terms
........................
Limitations ...................................
Over vie w of Remainder of S t u d y ..............
II.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

15

O v e r v i e w ......................................
Societal Changes
............................
Changes in Tea che r Education
..............

15
15
20
20
24
27
30
31
34

S u m m a r y ......................................

36

DESIGN OF S T U D Y ...............................

37

Sources of D a t a ...............................
Means of Re trieving and Reporting Data . .
IV.

4
6
8
10

.................

Pro gram D e v e l o p m e n t ............................
Means of Recognizing and Improving
Te ach ing Effectiveness .................
Means of Copi ng with Individual D i f ­
f e r e n c e s ...................................
Role P e r c e p t i o n ............................
Recognition of Reasons for Urban
Mino rit y Children Doing Poorly
in S c h o o l ...............................
Multicult ura l Education
.................

III.

1

EXPLORATION OF POSSIBLE IMPACT OF SOCIETAL
CHANGE ON T E A C H E R EDUCATION (AS A F F E C T ­
ING STUDENT TE ACHI NG EVALUATION) . . . .
I n t r o d u c t i o n ...................................
Tea che r Preparation Program Development:
Sources of I n p u t ............................

iv

37
38

44
44
46

Supporting D a t a ............................
Possible Societal I n f l u e n c e s ..............
Future I m p l i c a t i o n s ........................
S u m m a r y ......................................

47
55
57
59

Increasing Emphasis on Field Experience
and F e e d b a c k ...............................

60

Sup porting D a t a ............................
Possible Societal I n f l u e n c e s ..............
Future I m p l i c a t i o n s ........................
S u m m a r y ......................................

61
69
71
72

Evolving Educational Focus

.................

74

Supporting D a t a ............................
Possible Societal I n f l u e n c e s ..............
Future I m p l i c a t i o n s ........................
S u m m a r y ......................................

75
81
85
86

Emerging Emphasis on Mu lt icultural
E d u c a t i o n ...................................

87

Supporting D a t a ............................
Possible Societal I n f l u e n c e s ..............
Future I m p l i c a t i o n s ........................
S u m m a r y ......................................

89
94
96
99

Changing Per ceptions of Te aching/
Lea rning-Related R o l e s .....................

100

Supporting D a t a ............................
Possible Societal I n f l u e n c e s ..............
Future I m p l i c a t i o n s ........................
S u m m a r y .......................................

101
103
108
110

Student Tea ch ing and the Job Mark et

.

.

.

Supporting D a t a ............................
Possible Societal I n f l u e n c e s ..............
Future I m p l i c a t i o n s ........................
S u m m a r y ......................................
Assessing Student Teach ing Pe rformance

.

.

Supporting D a t a ............................
Possible Societal I n f l u e n c e s ..............
Future I m p l i c a t i o n s ........................
S u m m a r y .......................................

v

112
112
119
121
123
124
125
131
132
132

Chapter
Student Teach in g Evaluation Forms

.

.

.

S u m m a r y ...................................
V.

134
146

SUMMARY AND R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S .................

14 9

Major Findings of the S t u d y ..............
Possible Societal I n f l u e n c e s ..............
Future I m p l i c a t i o n s ........................
Recommendations ............................

150
153
158
161

Sources of Input for Progr am D e v e l o p ­
ment
...................................
Responsibilities of Decision-Makers.
.
Dev elopment of Teacher Training
P r o g r a m s ...............................

163
164
165

A P P E N D I X .............................................

171

SELECTED BI BLI OGRA PHY

180

...............................

vi

LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.

Year Each Student Teaching Evaluation Form
Was I n i t i a t e d ....................................... 135

2.

Schools Whose Student Teaching Evaluation
Forms Span Seven or More Y e a r s .................. 136

3.

Language and Degree of S p e c i f i c i t y ...................137

4.

Means of Reporting G r a d e s ............................. 140

5.

Nu mbe r of E v a l u a t o r s ................................ 142

6.

Degree of C o n f i d e n t i a l i t y ............................. 144

7.

Experience of Respondents and Location of
Recorded Interviews ............................

173

Student Enr ollm ent and Reported Start of
Student Teach ing Evaluation
.................

175

8.
9.

Reported Ethnic Minorities in Student Body

.

.

176

10.

Edu cational Institutions' Reported Means of
Financial S u p p o r t ................................... 177

11.

Educational Institutions' Reported P h i l o ­
sophical O r i e n t a t i o n ................................ 178

vii

CHAPT ER I
IDENTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

It is obvious that society has undergone many
changes since the end of World War II.

It is equally

e vid ent that teacher education has also changed greatly.
There is currently growing concern registered by the
public that education is failing to keep up with societal
change.

Taxpayers are no longer willi ng to accept the

bu rden of financing ed uca tio n unless they are sure that
educat ion al programs are suited to the needs of children
in our changing society.
With the current demand by the public for e d u ­
cational a cco un tabi lit y it is time that we examine the
ma nner in w hic h society changes and the ma nner in which
teacher education changes.

We then must determine whe ther

or not it is possible to narrow the gap between societal
change and educational change in terms of time and in
terms of more acc urately reflecting social reality.
The purpose of this study is to examine changes
wh ich have occurred in society and changes which have
occurre d in teacher education,

1

par ticu lar ly in student

2
teaching evaluation,

and to identify possible impacts

w h ich a changing society has had on teacher education.
If successful,

identification of these relationships may

be useful in the planning of future teacher education
programs so that students may be helped to better keep
pace with an ever- cha ngi ng society.
idea is provided by Co spe r

(1965)

Support for this

in the following state­

ment .
Gener all y rec ogni zed as the most urgent need of
society in the mode rn world is sound and effective
education.
Ed ucational institutions serve as one
agency to impart the necessary knowledge, skills,
understandings, and values that man is capable of
receiving.
The teacher is recognized as one of the
key persons qu al ifie d to dev elo p the basic skills
for clear and ob jective thinking.
The education of the teachers of the future
deserves explicit consideration by those charged
with the programs of student teaching.
Since many
institutions in w h i c h pr ospective teachers are p r e ­
pared have not kept up w i t h edu cational t r e n d s ,
programs of student teaching should be re-examined
and goals broa dened to help provide the superior
teachers who are in constant demand.
(p. 11)
During the 1950s,

at the height of the Cold War,

Am erican educati on wa s subjected to severe crit ici sm by
a number of figures in public life, among them Admiral
Hyman G. Rickover, with his book,
(1959).

Education and Freed om

The launching of Sputnik by the Soviet Union in

1957 brought the schools under heavy fire from the general
public.

The Civil Rights mo vem ents of the fifties and

sixties also introduced factors into Americ an life which
would influence education.

Ot her historical events and

societal changes w h i c h would alter the nature of

3
education in America included the population explosion,
an exp anding post-wa r technology, population shifts,
increasing use and influence of the media,
and Viet Nam Wars,

the Korean

increasing power of labor unions,

assassination of prominent national figures,

the world

energy crisis and concomitant economic interdependence,
Watergate,

zero pop ulation growth,

and public demand for

ac countability in education.
American education found it neces sar y to adjust
to the changes in society which resulted from these events.
Institutions of higher education, as well as the
public school, are under pressure to examine their
programs, the outcomes of the programs, and the
costs.
The press for this self-examination arises
from the current state and funding metho ds for
public education, as well as the pressure for social
changes which has held up for ex amination of these
institutions' purposes and stated goals.
Teacher
education programs within universities and colleges
are no exception to these pressures.
(Tittle, 1974,
p. 2)
Teacher training institutions were compelled to
examine and re-evaluate their programs to determine
exactly what skills wou ld be nece ssary for a teacher to
possess and use in order to be effective with his students.
It became necessary not only to respond with ne w programs
for the pre paration of teachers,

but to discard,

redesign,

or create many of the components w hi ch make up or lead to
the devel opm ent of the criteria by whic h student teachers
are evaluated.

4
Purpose of This Research
The specific purpose of this study is to examine
changes in society and changes in teacher education, p a r ­
ticularly in student teaching evaluation in Michigan,
from 1956 through 1977.

These changes will be examined

to determine possible impacts of societal change on teacher
education.

Evidence of these changes is substantiated by

three pr ominent educators.
The rapid and everchanging demands of our culture
place a prem ium upon a teacher wh o can m ain ta in a
position of leadership in adjusting to the changes
in daily life. . . . The constantly shifting cu r ­
ricular content concepts and vocational requirements
necessitate opt im um efforts on the part of the
teacher to keep abreast of changing technological
and societal developments. . . .
Se ldom do teachers del ibe rate ly anticipate major
changes in the education needs of society.
Neverthe­
less, the advent of the space age in the post-1957
years encouraged teachers to consider the fields of
secondary science and mat hematics as promising areas
of co ncentration and interest.
Many teachers with
cla ssroom experience received private and public
funds to prepare to teach in these fields.
At
present, go vernment appropriations in specialized
academic and voca tional areas tend to influence
teachers to reassess personal abilities.
Mo vin g to
another area or field of teaching specialty should
reflect personal desire as well as the need of
society. . . .
Teache rs and the pro fession reflect technological
and societal change.
The rapid change w hich has come
to characterize our modern society is reflected by
the teacher and his profession.
The transf ormi ng
influence of modern inventions like television, the
automobile, and the airplane has been widely d i s ­
cussed and do cumented by people of our generation.
Such influences affect the new teacher's plans for
co ntinued profes sio nal development. . . . Modern
developments in communic atio n offer opportunities
w her eby each of us can enrich his life.
The y bring
other people and places nearer, and they emphasize
our interdependence.
The begi nni ng teacher is

5
faced with the challenge of improving his teaching
methods and his human insights to the extent that
those he teaches will be able to utilize cultural
change for human advancement.
(Myers, 1964, pp. 117,
122, 131-32)
Sergiovanni

(1975)

says:

The 70's m a r k a new era of concern wi th regard
to job satisfaction of teachers. . . .
We are now in a period of entrenchment, of
teacher surplus, of declining student enrollments,
and of economic slowdown.
Student enrollments are
down drast ical ly in elementary schools and are
decre asi ng in secondary schools.
Birthrates c o n ­
tinue to be down and therefore this trend will c o n ­
tinue for some time.
Good teaching jobs are already
difficult to find and teachers will be increasingly
less likely to turn over once they find employment.
Though some ma y consider low teacher turnover a
blessing, it actually poses a number of problems
which if not resolved can have grave consequences
for the school.
Teachers w ho are dissatisfied with
their jobs are no w less likely to leave.
The reasons
for staying are too important.
Teachers who would
like to turn over but can't are staying on the job
for the wr ong reasons.
Large numbers of teachers
who are on the job for the wrong reasons can have
serious adverse effects on the school and its stu­
dents.
(pp. 4-5)
Smith

(1967)

also states;

Ed ucation is taking on a new character as a
field of study.
One aspect of this new character
is a per sistent demand for empirically tested
knowledge, knowledge on whic h predictions can be
based.
It is claimed that most of what is no w done
in teacher education programs is the result of tr a ­
ditions, beliefs, values, and armchair reasoning;
that competitive jumping on the band w ago n of what
is in mode accounts for much of what is called
"improvement" in programs.
Admitte dly there is
some truth to this claim.
An either-or position
is most unwise, however, for values, beliefs, and
reflective thinking will always have a place in
planning programs.
Nevertheless, the present demand
for va li date d and verified knowledge arises in large
part from a lack of confidence in decisions that rest
on untested hunches, on uncritical transfer of p r o p o ­
sitions from one field to another, and on keeping up
wi th the Joneses.
(p. 278)

6
Definition of Terms
The following definitions wil l be used to permit
consistent interpretation of the meanings of terms
employed in this study.
Student t e a c h i n g .--a period of consecutive weeks
of unpaid clas sroom teaching by a college student working
under the guidance of a certified teacher who bears the
primary respon sib ilit y for the learning of the students.
During this period the student teacher works at acquiring
and improving specified teaching skills while assuming
increasing re spo nsibility for the learning of the students.
Student t e a c h e r .--a college student who is engaged
in a student teaching experience

(Johnson & Floyd,

1969,

p. 15).
Supervising teacher or cooperating t e a c h e r .--a
teacher of school pupils who also directs the work of a
student teacher with these same pupils and who has the
primary respons ibi lity for the education of the student
teacher.
Coor dinator of student teaching or college or
university s u p e r v i s o r .--a regular college or un iversity
staff mem ber w h o has as a part or all of his assigned
work load the supervision of the activities of student
teachers and the rel at ions hip s and conditions under whic h
these students carry on their wor k

(Johnson & Floyd, p.

15).

7
Cooperating school and cooperating school d i s ­
trict .— a school or school district which provides fa ci li­
ties for student teaching experiences for college students
but which is neither controlled nor supported by the co l ­
lege.

Ideally,

the school district has a wri tte n working

agreement with the college,

setting forth the conditions

under which these activities are to be conducted,

together

with the benefits and privileges extended in both directions
(Johnson & Floyd,

1969, p.

18).

Clinical c o n s u l t a n t .--a teacher employed by the
cooper ati ng school district who spends about half of the
school day teaching regular classes and the remainder of
the school day helping in the direction of the activities
of a cluster,

or group of four to ten student teachers

in a cooperating school.

He also meets with supervising

teachers and the univers ity coordinator to plan jointly
the activities of student teachers.

He has a worki ng

agreement with the unive rsi ty or college and is paid
jointly by this institution and the cooperating school
district.
Compet enc y-ba sed teacher e d u c a t i o n .--a recently
developed means of pre paring college students to become
teachers through the systematic m astering of recognized
teaching skills.

8
Student teacher e v a l u a t i o n .--qualitative as ses s­
men t of the student teacher's experience in student t e a c h ­
ing,

as judged by predetermined criteria w h ich have been

establ ish ed by the teacher training institution and/or
the school wh ere the student teaching is being done.
This assessment may come from the coordinator,
cal consultant,

the supervising teacher,

the c l i n i ­

or the student

himself.
C u l t u r e .— "The system of norms shared by the
me mbers of society,

the pr escriptions and proscript ion s

indicating how things should be done or should be
appraised"

(Yinger,

1965,

p. 74).

S u b c u l t u r e .— "a di ffe rentiating system of norms
of a group which does not have sufficient size or co m ­
plexity to fulfill all the prerequisites of social life"
(Yinger,

1965, p.

76).

V a l u e .— the sa tisfaction or desire for s a tis­
faction of psycho-p hys ica l propensities or interests
(Henry,

1955, p. 22).
Limitations
The scope of this work will be confined to

teacher education in Michigan from 1956 through 1977.
Sel ection of 1956 as a starting point is based on the
fact that by that time state colleges had stabilized as

9
the principal deliver y agency for teacher education.
A ltho ugh certification will be me nt ioned from time to
time,

it is not the intent of this study to focus on

changes in ce rtification standards.

The work is basically

historical and is directe d toward generating hypotheses,
not toward reaching conclusions.

It is hoped that this

study will open new avenues of thought regarding relat ion ­
ships between society and education.
An effort will be made to retrieve data from all
thirty teacher training institutions in Michigan.

A good

response should ensure a representative po pulation of
large and small institutions; urban,
community locations;
support;

suburban,

and small

state and private me ans of financial

and ethnic composition of the student body.

Sources of data will be student teacher evaluation forms
and tape recorded interviews with experienced p r a c t i ­
tioners of student teacher evaluation.

The evaluation

forms will be those used by the various teacher training
institutions in Michiga n from 1956 through 1977.

The

recorded interviews will each be appr oximately thirty
minute s long and will be conducted by the researcher
interviewing one practit io ner at a time from each co l ­
lege or university.

W h e re there is oppor tun ity for addi ­

tional data, more than one pra ctitioner per institution
will be interviewed.
Data will be re que sted by sending a letter to the
head of each student teaching department,

requesting an

10
appointment for the interview,
questions will be asked,

explaining what kinds of

and requesting that the e v a l u ­

ation forms be available at the time of the interview.
If, after about three weeks,
letter,

there is no response to this

a follow-up telephone call will be mad e to the

student teaching dep ar tmen t heads.

If there is still no

positive response from a pa rticular school,

that insti­

tution will not be included in the study.
Overv i e w of Remainder of Study
The rem ainder of this work will be conducted as
follows.

Chapter II will be devoted to examining the

literature in terms of changes in society and in teacher
education,

pa rticularl y in student teaching evaluation,

over the period from 1956 through 1977.

The literature

has been divided into two basic categories.

Fi rst is

materia l which deals main ly with changes in society.

The

second category includes literature devoted to teacher
education.

These two groups are comprised of p r o f e s ­

sionally recognized education,

sociology,

and anthropology

journals and books.
The search of the literature was conducted with
the assistance of the computer ize d information retrieval
system, ERIC.

The following list of descriptors was

supplied to the computer:

11
teacher educ ation

educational history

student teachers

historical reviews

student teaching

change

pre-service education

unions

evaluation

civil rights

evaluation criteria

school integration

teacher ev aluation

racial integration

teaching effectiveness

cultural differences

teacher qualif ica tio ns

social differences

teacher ch ara cteristics

ethnocentrism

educational ac coun tability

culture conflict

educational innovation

cross cultural studies

Fro m the list of literature retrieved from the
computer,

articles were excluded whic h had no bearing

on the study.

The re maining articles were examined

closely and several more were eliminated,
to the study being minimal.

their value

Some of the references

provi ded bi bli ographies and lists of other mate rials
w h ich proved helpful

in terms of the study.

Other

mate ria l was selected on the basis of recommendations
by qua lified individuals who were familiar with this
work.

All of the mat erial used is current within the

historical scope of the study and was selected pr imarily
on the basis of its usefu lne ss in prov iding information
relating to change in teacher education and to the study
of sociological theory as it ma y relate to such change.

12
It was felt that exp loration of these possible relation­
ships m ight best be conducted in this manner.
Chapter III will delineate the design of the
study.

In addition to the literature, data will be

gathered from two principal sources:
interviews with experienced,

professionally recognized

student teaching coordinators,
evaluating forms.

(a) tape recorded

and

(b)

student teaching

Two pilot interviews with local coo rdi­

nators will be conducted before the remainder of the study
is undertaken,

for the purpose of refining questioning

techniques.
Initially,

letters will be sent to heads of stu­

dent teaching de partments in all thirty teacher training
institutions in Michi gan

(see sample letter in appendix)

brief ly explaining the purpose of the study and r equest­
ing a half- hour tape recorded interview with a faculty
member who has had at least five years of experience in
the evaluation of student teachers.

The interview will

consist mainly of a number of open-ended questions
direct ed at change in student teacher evaluation,
education as a whole,

and change in society.

teacher

A sample

of these questions will be enclosed with the letter
sample questions in a p p e n d i x ) .

(see

The letter will also

request a copy of each different student teaching e v a l u ­
ation form w hich has been used by that department since
1956, or from the time student teacher evaluation began

13
at that institution if it was later than 1956.

A period

of about three weeks will be allowed for responses to
the letters to be returned,

and follow-up telephone calls

will be made to any schools which do not respond to the
letter.

Appointments for interviews will then be arranged

and the interviews will be conducted.
The student teaching evaluation forms will be
obtained from the various student teaching departments
at the time of the interviews.

These forms will be

examined for change over a period of time,
following criteria for judging change:

employing the

language and

degree of specificity, means of reporting grades,
of people providing evaluative input,
fidentiality.

number

and degree of co n ­

The data so obtained will be reported in

Chapter IV.
The tape recorded interviews will be audited and
the data recorded in writing.
will be tabulated

Answers to closed questions

(see appendix).

Responses to the open-

ended questions will be written out,
and placed into ca tegories which,
during this process.

examined at length,

hopefully, will emerge

Finally, methods will be devised

for retaining and coding of the data for ease of retrieval
and comparison.

T he se data will be reported in Chapter IV.

Chapter IV will consist of a comprehensive p r e s e n ­
tation of the data obtained from the tape recorded inter ­
views and the evaluation forms and an exploration of

14
possible correlations between change in teacher education
(as it affects student teacher evaluation)
change.

and societal

The data will be presented in separate categories,

each category to be examined individually in terms of
possible related societal change and future implications.
Chapter V will include a restatement of the p u r ­
pose of the study and a summary of its findings.

Possible

impacts of society on teacher education will be listed,
along with a list of recommendations for development of
future teacher education programs from which hypotheses
may be generated.

CHAPT ER II
REVIE W OF RELATED LITERATURE
Overview
This chapter presents a brief review of the
literature on changes in society and teacher education,
with a focus on student teacher evaluation.

A number

of factors relate both to societal change and change in
teacher education.

It is the purpose of this chapter

to examine studies whic h underscore the importance of
these correlated factors as a topic for further study.
At the end of the chapter a brief summary is presented.
Societal Changes
Piaget

(1970)

says that a principal new d e v e l o p ­

ment ,
. . . that characterizes the new situations of e d u ­
cation or teaching and that determines all sorts of
choices in an ever accele rat ing and also a coercive
way . . . is the totality of the new needs, above
all, the economic, technical, and scientific needs
of the societies for whose benefit public education
is organized.
(p. 65)
He goes on to say that there are identifiable
societal problems in education for w hich solutions are
sought:

cultural unity,

or a common educational

15

16
foundation;

and educational mobility, or adapting the

changing individual to the changing society.
says,

Piaget also

"To educate means to adapt the individual to the

surrounding social environment"

(p. 151).

In a speech given at the Michigan State University
College of Education Faculty Orientation Session,

Septem­

ber 13, 1978, John Porter, Michigan State Superintendent of
Public Instruction,

told how legislation and court decisions

in recent years had changed the nature of education.

Among

instances Porter cited were the 1954 Supreme Court ruling
in the Brown vs.

the Topeka Board of Education case,

the

1966 decision regarding collective bargaining for teachers,
the ruling by the United States Office of Education that
federal aid would be withheld from any public school di s­
trict practicing segregation after 1967,

and the decision

in 1970 to provide mandatory educational programs for hand i­
capped and for bilingual students.
Porter went on to discuss the impact of a changing
society upon education,

stating that in the year 1950

there were few, if any, commercial television sets, com ­
mercial jets, computers,

credit cards,

ways, Holiday Inns, transistor radios

frozen food,

(or even transistors,

for that m a t t e r ) , or McDonald's hamburgers.
items had appeared,
'good life'

free­

Once these

said Porter, was "when we made the

psychologically available for all Americans."

17
Isaac As imov

(197 8), in a recent article,

empha­

sizes the significance of events since 1953 w h ich have
shaped life in America.
lists television,

Among technological changes he

transistors,

the hydrogen bomb,

mercial jet planes, microcomputers,
Important innovations

tranquilizers,

transplants,

deox yry bonucliec acid

politics

and the space program.

in medicine and bioche mis try include

antibiotics,

engineering.

com­

oral contraceptives,

organ

(DNA), and genetic

Signif ica nt changes in human rights and

(national and international),

civil rights movements:
cans, Native Americans,

include various

black Americans, Hispani c A m e r i ­
women;

a growing feeling of

re gionalism and na tion al ism in rapidly changing areas
throughout the world;

the oil embargo;

China's entry to the United Nations;
gate.

the V ietnam War;

detente;

and W a t e r ­

Asimov un derscores the fact that these societal

changes are interrelated and touch vi rtually every facet
of our lives today,
transportation,

and edu cat ion

Pat Lambert,
time,

such as communication,
(Asimov,

the economy,

1978).

in an article appearing at the same

cites a number of changes in American society since

1953 which affect the nature of education today.

Couples

today are married later in life, have 40 percent fewer
children,

have children later in life,

ma ny divorces as did couples in 1953.

and have twice as
Add iti onal

figures

supplied by Lambert indicate a po pulation surge to urban

18
centers and a 40 percent increase in the number of working
women over sixteen years of age
Ramsey

(1966)

says,

(Lambert,

1978).

"The American family is

becomi ng more and more travel-minded;

television is c o n ­

tributing basic information to young people at an early
age;

and reading ma te rials for all age levels are expa nd­

ing the horizons of youngsters"
Siegel

(1967)

(p. 6).

says,

. . . educational technology has been deve loping
rapidly.
Instructional television and programmed
instruction, for example, are no longer novelties;
and computers are increasing the efficiency of e d u ­
cational administration, classroom management, and
access to library resources. . . . society's demands
upon the educational enterprise are changing.
These
changes entail not only the provision of increased
opportunities for formal education to all segments
of society, but altered conceptions about the p u r ­
poses of education in response to changing patterns
of work.
There is no point to vocational training
for jobs that are becoming increasingly automated.
Finally, as the behavioral sciences matured, it was
inevitable that scholars in these fields woul d direct
more of their attention to classroom teaching and
learning.
They have been materi all y aided in this
endeavor during recent years by the availability of
substantial funds from philanthropic foundations and
from the federal gov ernment for studying and im ple­
mentin g educational change.
Out of all this has come an interest in ed u ­
cational innovation directed toward two ends not
m utual ly exclusive:
quantitative and qualitative
improvement.
(pp. vii-viii)
Myers

(1964)

says,

"It is frequently asserted that

knowledge is continuing to expand at an ever increasing
rate.

Even if this is only partly true,

it has important

implications for the secondary school in the years ahead"
(p. 122).

19

Segiovanni

(1975)

accentuates the increasing

importance of accountability,
The demand for a radical reform of schools has
increased considerably in the recent past.
The
slings and arrows of outraged parents, alienated
pupils, and ov erburdened taxpayers are aimed-justly or un justly--at the educational system's
present soft spots:
the repressiveness of school
control, our failure to meet the diverse e x p e c ­
tations of dif ferent subcultures, the imprecision
of instruction, the soaring costs, and the lack
of connection w i t h the world outside.
(p. 33)
Finally,

Robb

(1965)

offers these comments on

how our changing society has a profound effect upon e d u ­
cation and, ultimately,

on teac he r education.

Let us ask ourselves:
"What will happen in
education, and in teacher education, as a result
of certain general developments and trends at
work in our communities and the nation?"
(1) The decline of rural communities.
What
happens to the "children we left behind" when the
vitality of rural America has been sapped?
(2) The population shift to urban, industrial
America.
What new institutions and ne w programs
are needed?
(3) An integrated society.
W i t h ethnic groups,
religious groups, and national groups blending as
never before, the ghetto will gradually become n o n ­
ex ist ent— or it will be populated by a diverse
people.
(4) The pop ula tion explosion (including the
lengthening of average life s p a n ) . We still do not
believe that there can be such a thing as a water
shortage, for instance, sufficient to stalemate a
big city despite the imminence of this danger.
What are the im plications of our disinterest,
ignorance, disbelief?
(5) The advance of science w i t h its impact:
(1) outer space (2) biophysics and bioche m i s t r y —
the new elite of s c i e n c e - - (3) the changing character
of disciplines (4) the third industrial revolution.
(6) The advent of total saturation coverage by
mass media.
Will the pe netration of television and
radio into every noo k and cranny of our society
drive us down into a lumpish, low common den ominator
of c u l t u r e , t a s t e , and conduct dicta ted by the
pseudosoph ist ica tes of Madi son Avenue ad vertising
agencies?

20
(7) Greater leisure produced by automation and
efforts to maintai n an adequate employment level.
(8) Rapid transportation, even at supersonic
speeds.
(9) The seeming shift in basic values wh ich has
encouraged astonishing increments in crime, vandalism,
terrorism, and d e l i n q u e n c y - - j o b l e s s , rootless, rebel
youth.
Are we living in an age of what Fred Hechinger
calls "teenage tyranny?"
If so, our new battle cry
may need to be "Teenager, go h o m e !"
(10) International tensions and involvements of
the United States in developments es pecially among
under-de velo ped and just-born nations.
(11) Changing character of our American political,
social, and economic philosophy and practice. . . .
How is teacher education reacting to society's
changes and new needs? . . . David Reisman, in his
book Constraint and V a riety in E d u c a t i o n , says, "If
this dialectic between the parish and the world is
endemic in Ameri ca n ed uca tion— what has definitely
changed is the degree of investment in education as
a messianic movement."
(pp- 2-5)
Changes in Teacher Education
Program De velopment
Siegel

(1967)

says,

During the past two decades education has become the
subject of research and thinking by behavioral
scientists in a ne w and exciting way.
The reasons
for the resurgence of professional attention to ed u ­
cational problems by representatives of these allied
disciplines are diverse.
They include such factors
as international competition for technological
superiority; enrollment pressures generated both by
population increases and social demands; financial
assistance for research on education from funds,
foundations, and the federal government; improvements
in behavioral method olo gie s appropriate to educational
investigations; and the inclinations of behavioral
scientists to help shape the future de velopment of
formal education as a social institution.
(p. 1)
Myers

(1964) men tions accountability:

"Society's

concern for up grading its educational programs for its
children and youth has been m ou nt ing for a nu mbe r of

21

years.

The pressures and responsibilities for teachers

to measure up to these expectations are heavy"
Woo dr uff

(1961)

says,

(p. 102).

regarding the forces at work

behind the shaping of educational programs,
Edu cation in Ameri ca is by common agreement a system
for helping every person and all people together
obtain as much satisfaction as possible in their
lives.
This attitude toward education is based on
certain convictions.
One of them is political, one
is psychological, and one is philosophical. . . .
The political co nviction holds that every person is
entitled to the right to determine his own life.
. . . This conviction leads directly to the need for
education in mat ters of morals and ethics and govern­
mental means for pr otecting and enhancing personal
liberty.
Th ere for e it makes certain requirements
of the educational system.
The psychological con­
viction holds that each person naturally strives for
the best possi ble set of circumstances for the satis­
faction of his desires and feelings. . . . Aspiration
is the key factor in human wants, and feelings have a
potential whic h seems to vary with the capacity to
aspire to greater things and with the use of that
capacity.
Thus education is regarded as an imple­
ment for facilitating aspiration, and promoting
happiness in place of misery. . . . The philosophical
convictions play their role in determining how the
schools will carry out the goals of patrons.
Thus
the philosophical convictions whic h have the greatest
influence on education are those of the educators
themselves.
The crucial issue in this area is our
interpretation of the kind of wo rld we live in.
(pp. 13-14)
This,

says Woodruff,

has an important bearing on the

nature of the educational program.
Tittle

(1974)

says,

Th ere is a clear exp ression of the need and interest
in change from those associated with the student
teacher program.
Public cr iti cism and lack of con ­
fidence in the schools also lend an urgency to the
parti cip ati on of the school, as well as the u n i ­
versity, in the exa mination and change of practical
ex periences in teacher education.
The context for

22
change, however, is the complete teacher education
program, pre- and in-service, since the practical
experiences need to be carefully linked with the
continuing development of the teacher.
(p. 53)
Sergiovanni

(1975)

states,

"...

become outdated in a very short time.

training can

Indeed,

the moment

teachers leave the training institution they embark upon
a rapid journey to obsolescence"

(p. 34).

He goes on to

say that student teaching,

as it exists,

too brief,

and to get good ratings from

too artificial,

the supervising teacher,

is inadequate:

the stxident teacher must some­

times evidence or copy bad teaching behavior as well as
good

(p. 34).

"If we could rearrange teacher training

programs so that teachers in training spent more time
with live children and less with print inked on textbook
pages,

schooling would improve markedly"
Myers

(1964)

says,

(p. 39).

"Recent developments in teacher

preparation have encouraged the expansion of the role of
professional laboratory experiences"
".

(p. v i i ) ; and adds,

. . the authors are cognizant of the rapid changes

and developments in the improvement of the internship
process as well as pre-service teacher programs"
Myers also says,

(p. viii).

"Only in comparatively recent years has

the teaching profession recognized that any segment of
the formal education process, regardless of level,
education itself"
Tittle

is

(p. 1).

(1974)

agrees,

"The need to incorporate

more practice in teacher education programs is often

23
expressed by students in the p r o g r a m s , as well as by
teachers and administrators in the school"
Cosper

(1965)

(p. i x ) .

also concurs and offers a sug­

gestion at the same time:

"Much of the confusion which

now exists in st udent-teaching programs is a direct
result of the failure of the tea cher-education in sti­
tutions to define clearly the objectives of their studentteaching programs"

(p. 82).

Later he says,

programs are being improved each year,
rise in the educational

"Supervisory

if the general

level of preparation of teachers

and college supervisors can be used as criteria for
improvement"
reaching,

(p. 95).

Continuing,

Cosper states,

"A far-

adequately pl an ne d student-teaching program is

one which allows the pros pect ive elementary,

secondary,

and special teachers to wor k in the school program all
hours of the school day over a number of consecutive
weeks"

(p. 96); and finally he says,

"...

evaluation

will become more effective when the st ude nt-teaching p r o ­
gram is mad e a stop in a long chain of co rrelated e du­
cational experiences throughout whi ch there have been p r e ­
student-teaching experiences
Smith

(1967)

. . ."

(p. 98).

me nt io ns an additional wa y in which

teacher education programs are responding to societal
change,

stating that the importance of research and

development in teacher education is no w stressed heavily
(pp. 281-85).

24
Means of Recognizing and Improving
Teachin g Effectiveness
Medley

(1975)

says,

We are all concerned by the fact that we are spen d­
ing so many millions of dollars and so mu ch effort
in the development and implementation of programs,
with so little knowledge of what kinds of teacher
behaviors really are associated with increased growth
of pupils.
The po ssibility that all this effort may
be wasted is a real one. . . . We must agree that we
do not know very much and that some portion of what
we "know" may not be true.
(pp* 20-21)
"The cost in time and mone y involved in the co n ­
duct of validation research will be reduced mat erially if
this is done in the context of an ongoing program rather
than separately from such a program"
p.

(Medley & others,

32) .
Dussault

(1970)

states,

Student teaching has a long history.
In the course
of time, considerable information about its nature
has been accumulated; volumes of professional opinion
have been advanced; yet, a very limited amount of
verified knowledge is presently available.
Without
denying the importance of wisdom and of intelligently
abstracted ideas from experience and observation, it
is time to focus on the verification, modification,
or rejection of notions now held and on the discovery
of new knowledge about practice in this field.
(pp. viii-ix)
He goes on,

"It has been consistently reported

that the use of a system of analysis has resulted in
me asurable changes in the teaching behavior of the
supervisee"

(p. 241).

Dussault also says that the better

psychol ogi cal ly adjusted a teacher or student teacher is,
the better teaching behavior he will evidence.

He adds

that numerous psychological changes occur during a

25
student's college career.

The implication is that means

of educating pr ospective teachers must be identified and
implemented which will optimize psychological growth,
thereby improving potential teaching behaviors
Titt le

(1974)

(pp.

243-44).

says,

The study of teaching tasks and skills, as in m i c r o ­
teaching, ma y help to focus on the analysis of what
leads to behav ior change in pupils and, wit h followup studies on the permanence of changes, ma y c on­
tribute to un derstanding teaching effects where the
mor e global analysis and nonexperimental one has not.
However, this should be modif ied by the possib ilit y
that the dev elopment of observation techniques, and
their implementation over a number of situations and
teachers, may result in statements about teaching
and pupil changes which are g e n e r a l i z a b l e . . . . Of
the methods used in mea suring effectiveness, super­
visory ratings seem the least promising. . . . The
studies with obser vat ion instruments seem promising.
Videotape records will permit the use of a number of
instruments, their comparison and integration, and
linking to pupil behav io r changes.
As standardized
tests have been useful in a variety of assessment
situations, os perhaps will standardized observ ati on
instruments be useful in teacher assessment.
(p. 86)
T int era

(1961)

states that results of experiments

indicate that the use of tape recordings and video tap ing
in teacher training helps teachers rate higher

(more

f a v o r a b l y ) , on the Minn esota Teac her Attitud e Survey,
the Student Atti tude Scale of Tea chi ng Problems,
(Teacher)

Sel f-D esc rib er

(pp.

8, 34).

and the

He also says that

further experiments indicated that self-evaluation by
student teachers is both helpful to them and desired by
them

(p. 36).

He adds,

"The possible use of the newer

media for student teacher training ma y well be to expand

26
and enrich the devel opm ent of future teachers rather
than to replace existing instructional procedures"
Smith

(1967)

tape recordings,

(p. 38).

also feels there is value in using

videotapes,

and 8mm film in conjunction

wi th analytical conferences between coordinators and stu ­
dent teachers
Myers

(p. 247).
(1964)

agrees:

"Research studies,

examining the cause of teaching success,

pointed to

have consistently

shown a cor relation between teaching success and a wide
use of mate ria ls and resources by the teacher and the
pupils"

(p. 68).

He continues:

The rapid increase in kn owledge is reflected in the
gro wth of the secondary school curriculum.
The
average high school today offers more than one
hund red courses. . . . Such wide course offerings
provid e a cha llenge to new and experienced teachers
to gain sufficient information so that they may
advise pupils effectively.
(p. 129)
Myers also stresses recent recognition of the importance
to teachi ng effectiv ene ss of continued learning contacts
throug h the teacher's profess ion al career
Barr

(1961)

(p. 132).

provides a number of insights r e g a r d ­

ing teaching effectiveness:
Over the past several decades, ma ny studies have
been carried out on teachers and related aspects
of the teaching complex.
Personal characteristics
of teachers have been assessed with objective p s y c h o ­
m e t r i c instruments as well as wit h ratings by s uper­
intendents, principals, peer-teachers, and students.
Th e en vi ro nmen t of the cla ssroom has been examined
wi t h v i e w for as ses sin g the teacher wh ile working
on the job.
Also, teachers have been assessed in
terms of changes in the be havior of their students.
. . . In vie w of these m a n y studies, it seems

27
reasonable that the time has been reached when we
should stop and take inventory of some of the data
and findings whi ch have been acquired over these
decades.
(p. 58)
Barr found that good teachers,

as compared with

poor teachers, were "more vigorous, more enthusiastic,
and happier,

less attractive, more emo tionally stable,

more pleasant,

sympathetic,

better speaking voice,
humor"

(p. 91).

and democratic,

possessed a

and displayed a keener sense of

"Good teachers asked fewer fact questions

and mo r e thought questions than poor teachers"
others,

1961, p.

(Barr &

94).

It is implied,

in studies by D. A. Worcestor,

that

if a teacher is eff ect ive in one phase of a subject he
teaches, he will probab ly be effective
of the subject,
subjects,

(b) under other conditions,

in all phases
(c)

in other

(d) with children of varyi ng mental ability,

(e) wi th children of either sex,
areas

(a)

(Barr & others,

1961, pp.

and

(f)

in nonacademic

120-22).

Means of Coping with In di ­
vidual Differences
Cosper

(1965)

says,

The progra m of student teaching must attempt to
deve lop a sense of responsibility toward the pupil.
In this respect a m ajor goal should be to provide
exp eriences in rec ognizing individual differences
among pupils and to stimulate a desire to find
means of coping wi th these differences in teaching
and learning.
(p. 82)
Cosper adds that the de velopment of an adequate studentteaching program is the most crucial prob lem facing

28
teacher education institutions today;

and an important

element to include in teacher education programs is that
of self-evaluation
Myers

(p. 83)-

(1964)

states that some schools are now

handling individual differences by implementing,
. . - a variety of grouping plans for different
instructional purposes, to meet individual d i f ­
ferences in learning and motivation.
Mor e variety
is also being provided in general education courses
through such innovations as team teaching, t e l e ­
vision and videotape, ungraded plans, specialized
projects, seminars, and independent study. . . .
(p. 63)
Smith

(1967)

says,

If the student is to be valued for what he is and
can become, his individual, personal style will need
to be nurtured de liber ately by those who work closely
wit h him over sustained periods of time.
As Combs
and others have suggested, there are defina ble ways
of nu rtu rin g the person in the student, of p r o t e c t ­
ing and encouraging his individuality.
Fundamentally,
however, only the teacher who himself feels respected
for what he is, who experiences the freedom to e x e r ­
cise his own personal style in his work, and who
cherishes such freedom for others is likely to be
successful in nurturing the individual, personal
development of a student.
By extension, it can be
seen that those respon sibl e for creating the co n ­
ditions in whi ch teacher educators wo rk contribute
in a major way to the enc oura gem ent of individua lit y
and per son ali zati on by their selection of personnel
and by the freedom with whic h they surround persons,
(pp. 291-92)
Woodr uff

(1961)

states,

Our experiences w i t h the world register wi thin us
in the forms of c o n c e p t s , values, and feelings for
things, language, skills, and habits.
They then
become the co ntrolling elements in dete rmining what
we try to do and how we do it.
(p. 63)
W hile concepts are forming through experience, the
individual is also learning what value each of the
objects and forces has for him through his impressions

29
of how each of them affects him.
Th is sense of value
becomes a part of each concept and determines how he
feels about it.
This tends to influence his behavior
toward that thing.
(p. 75)
Wo odr uff continues,
The wa y a teacher shows a referent, clears up its
concept through discussion, and gets students to
try it out in behavior, will vary with the kind of
referent being studied, and wi th the previous lea rn­
ing of the students. . . . Symbolic mate rials are
being me mor ized to some degree in every lesson, but
they will be learned effecti vel y only when appropriate
drill is used for symbols that have meaning to the
student.
(pp. 115-16)
He goes on,

"Unhealthy behavior patterns are

learned as easily and by the same steps as healthy ones
when they are more successful
(p. 193).

in relieving tension"

"A student's feelings about school are a

product of his successes and failures in school"
"Response to a lesson,

course,

(p. 197).

or curriculum will vary

with the extent to w h i c h the student sees that it goes
where he wants to go"

(p. 214).

"The formation of values

and ideals depends on having concepts in w h ich the p r o ­
posed wa y of living is seen as producing very desirable
results"

(p. 217).
W o o druff sums up the idea of mo vin g from group,

conte nt- ori ente d instruc tio n to individualized education
with this statement:

"The m a j o r objective of education

is to enable students to make wise choices,

and to cause

them to strive to m a n ifest in their lives the best q u a l i ­
ties of our culture"

(p. 46).

30

Role Perception
Sergiovanni

(1975)

says,

The efforts to humanize and open up the schools that
began in the late 60 's have resulted in the appearance
of a large number of professionals who do not vie w
themselves as supervisors in the usual sense, but who
are committed to aiding teachers to develop more
effective educational programs for their children.
(p. 51)
Myers

(1964)

states,

As adults, teachers enjoy the privilege of drawing
present attitudes and practices from a varied b a c k ­
ground of previous experiences.
Formal education
directs or encourages elements of planning, c o m p e ­
tition, personal analysis, and cursory evaluation.
Most teachers working with other adults readily
recognize the value of introspection and its role in
an individual's present and future development.
In
contrast, high school adolescents consistently gear
their life to the judgment, advice, and di rection of
others.
(pp- 81-82)
Myers also feels that it is becoming increasingly
necessary to educate people to use their increased leisure
time more satisfactorily.

He says further that the new

teacher of today views his teaching role far differe ntl y
than did the new tea che r of a generation or two ago;

and

that both teacher and students can "progress toward
maturity when growth is considered in its physical,
mental,

emotional,

social,

and ethical dimensions"

(p. 132).
Smith

(1967)

states that teachers,

. . . tend to take on the ideas, the attitudes, the
values, and the beha vio rs they perceive in their
professional subculture, as displayed by members in
it w i t h w h o m they are in close contact.
So, too,
it can re asonably be assumed that teachers in

31
their "becoming" take on the subculture of their
profession as they perceive its values, attitudes,
ideas, and behavior displayed by those around them,
(p. 291)
In addition to the earlier statement by Sergiovanni,

he says,

We found, in our experimental in-service programs,
two basic sources of perpetual error:
first,
teachers frequently lack familiarity with the life
styles of dif fer ent subcultures; and second, chi l­
dren and teachers often enter the classroom with
conflicting beliefs about what is important and
unimportant in life.
(p. 46)
Whiti ng

(1963)

states,

"As a me ans of education,

the school is evaluated differently by di fferent status
groups within the community"

(p. 926).

Rec ognition of Reasons for Urban
Minority Children Doing
Poorly in School
Ogbu

(1974)

bedeviled educators,
leaders,
dren,

parents,

says,

".

. .a

sociologists,

and children:

pr ob le m that has
psychologists,

political

Why is it that some chil­

and esp ecially m inor i t y children living in cities,

do so badly in school?"
Ogbu feels that educators identify with midd le
class whi tes and they assume that children must first
learn mi ddle class va lues to succeed.

The children see

little hope that school requirements will lead anywhere,
teachers learn to expect little from the students and
pass them on m inim um performance,
is good enough,

the students think this

and the parents become bitter to discover

32
that their children haven't been equipped to succeed
in the adult world

(pp. x i - x i i ) .

He states,
Americ an public schools are an institution established
by the society to serve the specific needs of the
entire society, the needs of its segments, and the
needs of individual Americans.
Society mai ntains the
schools as long as they serve those vital functions
for whic h they wer e establ ish ed or which in the
course of time they have developed.
The participation
of each segment of the society also largely depends
on the functions that the public schools serve for
that segment. . . . In the same way, individual
Americans part icip ate in the school system to the
extent that their needs are served by this institution.
Ogbu a r g u e s ,
. . . that a) the public-school institution in America
has not adequately served the needs of subordinate
minorities; b) the high proportion of school failure
among subordinate minor iti es constitutes an adaptation
to their lack of full opp ortunity to benefit from
their education in contrast to the domin ant group;
c) the present situation cannot be changed by merely
changing the home and ne ighb orh ood environments, by
changing or abolishing the traditional school o r g a n i ­
zation, by applying eugenics, or even by all of these.
Above all, an increase in the op portunity of the
subordinate minorit ies to benefit socially and e c o ­
nomically, on an equal basis with w h i t e s , from their
educational ac hievements is required.
Ogbu says that success or failure in any enterprise
in Americ an society is attributed to individual r e s p o n s i ­
bility,

this belief origin ati ng in Puritanism.

It is also believ ed that every American has equal
opportun ity and that any individual with ability
can succeed not only in school but also in society.
To seek to "upgrade" oneself is held to be mora lly
good and the proof of this "upward orientation" lies
in success.
Conversely, it is mo r a l l y bad not to
seek to "upgrade" oneself and failure is the proof
that one has not.
(pp. 3-4)

33
Later Ogbu lists a number of people wh o have,
since 1961, attributed school failures of children from
poor and subordinate mi norities to the schools themselves:
Brookover, Gottlieb, B a r a t z , Guthrie,
Stout, Hentoff,

Rosenthal,

Rist, R e i m e r , Sexton,

Jacobson,

Silberman,

Kleindorfer,

Levin,

Katz, Leacock, Moore,

and Stein.

Ogbu says that because education is now available
to so many people,

the American economy is incapable of

absorbing increasing numbers of people with good cr eden­
tials

(pp. 7-8).
He goes on to explain how when a segment of

society is deprived of the means of attaining valued
goals that anomie develops and deviant behavior ensues.
He continues:
There are three ways by w h ich Ame ric an society
has traditionally prevented subordinate minor iti es
from receiving full benefits from their education.
First, subordinate mi norities have ge nerally
received inferior education. . . . Second, they are
forced to terminate their education sooner than
members of the dominant group, part ly bec aus e of
earlier inferior education and partly because of
social and economic hardships. . . . Finally, members
of subordinate min orities who attain equal education
(quantitatively and qualitatively) with membe rs of
the dominant group are forced to accept occupation
status and wages below those given to whites. . . .
The education dilemma of subordinate minorities
is that their children are expected to work as hard
as whites in school for fewer ultimat e rewards from
society. . . . Faced with this educational dilemma,
subordinate minori tie s apparently chose to stop
worki ng hard in school since they could neither
expect more for their hard wor k nor force society
to change its di scrimi nat ory practice.
They have
thus reduced their anxiety about having to work hard
for little by adjusting their efforts downwa rd to a
level commensurate with what they think they will
actually get for their education.

34

Ogbu continues,

stating that teachers pa rticipate

in the belief system of the white, dominant society,
labeling subordinate minori ty children as failures before
the school actually teaches them anything

(pp.

11-14).

Mul tic ultural Education
Teach ing technology underwent changes as a c o n s e ­
quence of the sudden contact of diverse cultural elements
during the fifties and sixties.
by educators Brottman
w o r k ) ; Sagness
(pp.

(pp.

16-20,

Evidence of this is cited
28); Krosky

(throughout

(throughout w o r k ) ; and Wal ber g and Jensen

175-222).
Support for possible correlation between school

deseg reg ati on and the advent of multic ult ura l education
(with concomitant changes in teacher education and,
cifically,

in student teacher evaluation), appears p l a u s ­

ible through various sociological perspectives.
(1956)

spe ­

Boulding

says that technological change is a reaction to

stimuli from nonco nfo rmis t subcultures

(pp. 94-95);

and

that hypothetical dec isio ns are communicated to other
roles,
100),

the feedback from w hich leads to decisions

(pp.

99-

in this case the decision to implement mu lt icultural

education.
Churchman
(values)
Yinger
anxiety

(1968)

speaks of comparing the wishes

of one subculture wit h those of another

(1965)
(here,

(p. 193).

states that reduction of a fie ld-supported
a conflict of cultural values)

by

35

restructu rin g the situation rather than the individual,
has been accomplished repeatedly

(p. 310).

He is sug­

gesting that mu lti cultural education not only will be
but has actually already been a societal means of d e a l ­
ing with the coll ision of value systems generated by
school desegregation.
Boul din g
and Yinger

(1965)

(1956)

(pp.

(pp.

91-92,

134-35,
117,

146,

127,

168,

158,

171-72)

189,

196-97)

indicate that multi cult ura l education ma y create situations
in which the individual is presented with a great many
un familiar roles, w h ich in turn could substantially
increase the po ssi bilit y of role confusion and per sonality
disorders.
Over a long period of time,
to be some hope for a gradual

however,

there appears

lessening in the alienation

of n e w ideas and an increase in syncretic tendencies
(Boulding,
p.

1956, pp.

210; Yinger,

123,

1965,

pp.

125-26,
201,

146; Churchman,

261,

297,

301,

310,

1968,
318).

A problem wh ich we likely must face is that this change
(syncretism)
Ch urchman

will proba bly not come qui ckl y or easily.

(1968)

says,

"The bigger the system,

the more

diff icu lt the pr oblem of legitimate values of the system"
(pp.

76-77).

T e a ching technology w hich employs knowledge

of cultural d i f f e rences and cultural change should become
m o r e eff ective in de a l i n g with such problems.

36
Summary
A number of societal forces have been at work in
the Uni ted States which appear to have affected teacher
education today.
A number of major changes have occurred in teacher
education in Ameri ca since 1957,

apparently many of them

being traceable to societal origins.

Among documented

educational innovations and modi fica tio ns are included the
following:
1.

Program development

2.

Means of recognizing and improving teaching
effectiveness

3.

Means of coping with individual differences

4.

Role pe rception

5.

Rec og niti on of reasons for urban mino rit y
children doing poorly in school

6.

Mult icultural education

CHAPTE R III
DESIGN OF STUDY

The researcher's purpose will be to attempt to
identify some relationships between societal changes and
changes in teacher education
teaching evaluation)

(particularly in student

which have taken place in the state

of M ich ig an during the period from 1956 through 1977.
If successful,

identification of these relationships may

be useful in the plannin g of future teacher education
programs so that students mi ght be helped to better keep
pace with an ever-ch ang ing society.

The wor k is not

directed toward reaching conclusions but rather toward
generating hypotheses.
Sources of Data
In addition to literature,
from two principal sources:
with experienced,

data wer e gathered

(a) tape recorded interviews

p r ofessi onally re cognized student

teaching coordinators employed by teacher training
institutions in Michigan,

and

(b)

student teaching e v a l u ­

ation forms used by these colleges and universities.

37

38
The interviews consisted of a number of questions
which were asked of the student teaching coordinators,
along wit h their responses to these questions.

The first

several questions established the identity and p r o f e s ­
sional bac kground of each educator involved and the
location,

size, means of financial support,

position of student body,

ethnic c o m ­

philosophical orient ati on of

each college and un iversity represented,

and the length

of time that institution had been evaluating student
teaching performance.

Th e remaining questions were open-

ended and dealt with changes in teacher education as they
might have been influenced by changes in society
Sample Questions in the a p p e n d i x ) .

(see

The data obtained

from the questions were used for the purpose of i d e ntify­
ing categories.

The presentation of data was organized

within these categories,
questions.

rather than by individual

It was plann ed that each interview w ould

last approximately one-half hour.

Two pilot interviews

with local student teaching coordinators were conducted
prior to the study for the purpose of refining quest ion ing
techniques.
Mean s of Re trieving and
Repor tin g Data
Letters were then sent to heads of student t e a c h ­
ing departments in all thirty teacher training institutions
in Michigan

(see Samp le Letter in the a p p e n d i x ) , explaining

39
briefly the purpose and nature of the study and re q u e s t ­
ing a half-hour tape recorded interview with a faculty
me mber who had at least five years of experience in the
evaluation of student teaching performance.

A sample of

the questions was enclosed with the letter.

The letter

also requested a copy of each student teaching evaluation
form wh ich had been used by that school since 1956, or
from the time student teacher evaluation was begun at
that institution if it was later than 1956.
A period of about three weeks was allowed for
responses to the letters to be returned,

and follow-up

telephone calls were made to any of the schools whic h did
not respond to the letters.

Ap pointments for interviews

were then arranged and the interviews were conducted.
The student teaching evaluation forms were obtai ned at
the time of the interviews or,

in several instances, were

received in the mail.
Tape recorded interviews wer e held wi th twentyseven representatives from twenty-three of Mic higan's
thirty teacher training institutions,

and student teaching

evaluation forms were received from twenty-seven schools.
It was felt that this response was sufficient to provide
an adequate view of changes in society and in teacher
education in Michi gan from 1956 through 1977.
The tape recorded interviews, which totaled app r o x ­
imately eleven and one-half hours, were audited and the

data were transcribed.

Answers to the closed questions

(numbers one through six) were tabulated
8, 9, and 10 in the a p p e n d i x ) .
ended questions

(see Tables 7,

Responses to the open-

(numbers seven through eleven)

were

separated from the rest of the data and were examined at
length so as to determine what patterns,

or categories,

might be established for the purpose of presenting the
data in an organized man ner which would be mean ing ful in
terms of the study.

From this process the following seven

categories emerged:
1.

Tea che r preparation program development:
sources of input

2.

Increasing emphasis on field experience and
feedback

3.

Evolving educational focus

4.

Emerging emphasis on mu lticultural education

5.

Chang ing pe rceptions of teaching/learningrelated roles

6.

Student teaching and the job market

7.

Assessing student teaching perfo rm ance
The following me ans were selected for denoting

references to data retrieved from the interviews, which
are recorded on both sides of eight cassette tapes.

All

references consist of a number from one through sixteen,

41
followed by a hyphen,
through seventy.

followed by a number from zero

The first number represents

the side

of the tape

being used as

a reference.

side of the

first tape is

des ignated "1"; the second

side of the

first tape is

"2";

second tape is "3";
of the eighth,

and so on,

or final,

Thus, the first

the first side of the
through the second side

tape which is designated

"16."

In the center of each side of every cassette is a scale
which indicates the position of the tape within the
cassette.

This can be any number from zero through

seventy, de pending on how much of the tape has been
wound.

Thus,

a reference designated 7-33 would mean

side 7 (or the first side of the fourth t a p e ) , position
33.

(In some instances,

these numerical references are

acc ompanied by the author's name,

e.g.,

Suchara:

13-57.

This means that Dr. Helen Suchara provides the information
cited at that point in the study, whic h can be located on
tape side 13, at position 57.)

Table 7 in the appendix

provides a list of the educators interviewed and indi­
cates wh ere each interview can be located in the tapes.
Having thus establi she d the means of cla ssifying
and coding the data,

they are pres ented in Chapter IV in

the following manner.
dealt wi th separately.

Each categ ory of information is
Aft er an expository paragraph

the supporting data are presented,

followed by an

explo rat ion of possibly related societal influences

42
and an en umeration of future implications.

Each of the

seven sections concludes wit h a brief summary.
The final portion of Chapter IV is devot ed to a
presentation of the data obtained from the student t e ach­
ing evaluation forms.
received,

A total of fifty-eight forms was

repr ese ntin g twenty-seven teacher training

institutions and the two major metr opo lita n Detroit
teacher unions.

T able 1 in Chapter IV lists the sources

of the eva luation forms and the year each was introduced.
Inasmuch as the purpose of this study is to examine
changes in teacher education over a period of time,

it

was decided to use only those forms from any given school
which spanned a period of at least seven years.

This

reduced the number of schools whose forms were being used
to thirteen

(see Tab le 2 in Chapter I V ) .

each of these thirteen schools,
employed for comparison:

In the case of

only two forms were

the earliest form provided

and the most recent.
The student teaching evaluation forms were then
examined for language and degree of specificity, me ans
of re porting grades,
input,

number of people providing evaluative

and degree of confidentiality.

are pr esented in Ta bles 3, 4,
in Chap ter IV.

The data retrieved

5, and 6, respectively,

These tables are followed by a brief

summary of these data,

possible related societal factors,

and future implications.

43
The remainder of the study, Chapter V,
to a summary of all data retrieved,

is devoted

a discussion of the

possible impact of societal change on teacher education,
and a present ati on of recommendations for future teacher
ed ucation programs from which hypotheses ma y be generated.

C HA PTER IV
EX PLORATION OF POSSIBLE IMPACT OF SOCIETAL CHANGE
ON T EACHER EDUCATION

(AS AFFECTING

STUDENT TEACHING EVALUATION)
Introduction
In this chapter the data from the tape recorded
interviews and the student teaching evaluation forms are
presented.

Data from the responses to the following

closed questions are tab ulated and presented in the
appendix:
Wha t is your name?
How long have you been coordinating student teaching
programs?
At which teacher training institutions?
At which college or university are you currently
wo rking wi th student teachers?
Wh at kind of school is this:
size, means of support,
ethnic composition of student body, philosophi cal
orientation?
How long has this school been involved in the e v a l u ­
ation of student teachers?
Dat a from the open-ended questions

(listed below)

are examined at length in this chapter:
Can you recall specific times when the emphasis in
any area of student teacher eva luation was changed?
44

45

(This includes the introduction of n ew criteria or
components whic h lead to the development of new
criteria for evaluation.)
Wh at was the nature of the changes?
When did it/they occur?
Wha t factors, from within, and particularly from
outside the academic community, do you feel were
most instrumental in bringing about these changes?
Do you see social forces at work today which you
feel will affect student teaching experiences and
their evaluation?
If so, what direction might
these changes take?
Upon examining the data retrieved from the responses
to the above questions,

seven categories emerged which

woul d be useful in identifying change in teacher education
(and partic ula rly in student teacher evaluation)
tially related to societal change.
1.

as p o ten­

Th ese categories follow:

Teacher preparation program development and input

2.

More field experience and feedback

3.

Evolving educational focus

4.

Emerging emphasis on multicultural education

5.

Changing perceptions of teaching/learningrelated roles

6.

Effects of the job market

7.

As sessing student teaching performance
Each of the seven categories is presented below

in four main parts:

(a) an examination of the changes

in teacher education

(specifically in student teacher

46
evaluation)

as supported by data from the tape recorded

interviews;

(b) an exploration of possibly related societal

change;

(c) a listing of future implications;

brief summary.

and

(d) a

Data retrieved from the student teaching

evaluation forms will be presented immediately following
the data presented in these seven categories.
It should be noted that for the sake of clarity,
some quotations from the tape recordings are augmented by
explanatory words or phrases,
study.

added by the author of this

Such additions will appear in brackets.
Teacher Preparation Program D e v e l o p m e n t :
Sources of Input
Twenty years ago,

"there was not as muc h inv ol ve­

ment of school people in . . . recommendation and d e c i s i o n ­
making,

regarding student teaching programs"

13-8).

Not only the schools,

the federal government

(Suchara:

but also the local community,

(as an arm of the national c o m ­

munity) , the teacher unions,

and the college and university

students themselves are supplying significant input in
teacher pr eparation program de v e l o p m e n t — an area wh ich at
one time was considered almost entirely wi thin the province
of the individual institution of higher learning.

In

this section these various sources of input will be
examined,

possible societal influences will be explored,

and further considerations stemming from these changes
will be listed.

47
Sup porting Data
In co nsidering input from the schools, we discover
that teacher unions,

administrators,

and counselors are

all involved in the shaping of teacher education programs.
In Michigan in recent years there has been a concerted
effort on the part of the Michigan Education Associa tio n
to have a voice in de termining how teachers will be p r e ­
pared for the profession.

Hendricks says that teacher

or gani zations are exerting more pressure today to stress
more

field experience than before;

now,

as a consequence,

teacher preparation is more relevant than ever before,
becau se it is mo re field oriented than classroom oriented
(5-43 to 5-49).

Hen dricks adds that field-based programs

lend themselves to the adoption of competency-based
teacher education.

Do neth

(3-67)

says that the Michigan

Educa tio n Associati on has caused change in teacher e d u ­
cation and that he feels that union control can be "scary,"
altho ugh ma y be right for the Michiga n Education A s s o c i ­
ation.

Ken ned y m e n t i o n s

"the interests of the National

Educa tio n As so ciati on and the Michigan Education A s s o c i ­
ation in con trolling teacher e d u c a t i o n ” and the c o n c o m i ­
tant place of the classr oom teacher.

He feels:

The teachers are alread y involved in it [the control
of teacher education] probabl y m o r e than they ought
to be, because the m o s t important experience in the
w h o l e teacher ed uca tion pro gr am is student teaching,
and that is more fr eq ue ntly limited by the classroom
teach er than by any factor I could name. . . .
(12-34)

48

Hamlin

(7-20)

feels that because of the increasing

power of teacher unions,

and unioni sm in general,

that

teacher education in Michigan is tainted by a pervading
phi lo sophy of "What's in it for me?"
possible to avoid this problem;
ton,

He feels that it is

that the state of W a s h i n g ­

for example, deals mo re with the needs of the child.

Hamlin also says

(7-43)

that because of the highly c ompe­

titive nature of today's job ma rket that the teaching p r o ­
fession will gra dually control more program input.

Rod­

erick feels that for a long time universities ignored
teachers, but the teacher union mov eme nt shook up the
colleges,

to the good of everyone concerned.

He says that

teacher unions have a voice which needs to be heard
to 15-58).

(15-55

An example of a successful teacher preparation

pr o g r a m whi ch was abandoned as an undesired consequence
of un ion action was Central Michig an Universi ty' s intern
program, winner in the 60s of the A.T.E.
standing teacher prep ara tion program.

award as the o u t ­

This program was

discontinued because local education associations no longer
wis hed to employ noncer tifi ed teachers when certified
teachers were in need of jobs

(Blue:

Besides teacher unions,

2-31).

other school personnel,

including individual supervising teachers,
to d e c iding how to prepare teachers.

have contributed

Cornish me ntions the

fact that the supervising teachers wanted their student
teach ers in the classroom a full day so the University of

49
Detroit changed from two semesters of half- da y contact to
one semester of full-day contact

(6-68).

Slabodian

describes a change at M adon na College:
Due to pressure from within the school refusing to
take students [student teachers] on sh ort-term c o n ­
tact, the length of time for the student teaching
contact increased.
So did the length of time of
each of the [teaching] laboratories.
(14-66)
Central Michig an Univer sity 's classes in supe r­
vision of student teaching have provided people currently
in teaching an excellent opportunity to supply feedback
to the University, descri bin g what they feel is currently
important to make student teachers better equipped for
their professional careers.

Blue elaborates on this point:

I have a feeling that our graduate classes in supe r­
vi sion of student teaching had quite an impact on
changing our ev aluation forms.
We wo uld have in all
of our centers . . . at least one semester each year
a class in supervision of student teaching; and here
we had supervising teachers and ad min istrators both
taking these classes.
(2-46)
Blue says that feedback from the field occurred
through these classes and the student teachin g evaluation
form was brought in line with this input

(2-47).

input into programs from the same source

(active school

personnel)

Getting

but in a dif fer ent direction has been achieved

in Spring Arbor Co lleg e's teaching methods class.
a seminar format,

Us ing

this class is moved into the schools

for about two-thirds of its duration, draw ing on the
entire school staff as resource personnel.

Dis cussions

range from discipline to school finance to motivation of
students.

This change took place in the early 70s when

50
it was realized that with the college staff being a number
of years removed from classroom teaching experience,
teacher pre paration program was in need of updated,
tical input

(Sickmiller:

8-40).

At Olivet College,

the
prac­
su per­

vising teachers made it known that they wanted more feed­
back from the College in order to produce a more valuable
prospective teacher;

so a ten-week seminar was conducted

involving college and school personnel.

This group drew

up guidelines for student teaching and generated a manual
for Olivet College's student teachers

(Goudreault:

11-11).

At Adrian College, Moeckel brings out the fact
that there is implicit administrative input in program
development:

"We also have the principal sign the form

and the principal can make a statement if he wants to"
(10-7).

Sullivan says that personnel directors rate the

final evaluation form as first in importance in getting a
job:

what the supervising teacher had to say.

Second

in importance is the interview wi t h the candidate
As in the preceding reference,

(10-58).

this suggests implicitly

that there is indirect input into teacher prepara tio n by
the principal and by the personnel director,

through their

indications of what they feel is important to be a suc­
cessful teacher.
State and federal programs in education also have
an effect on teacher prep arat ion programs.

W he re ver

special funds are directed, ne w programs are developed,

51
new personnel are employed to staff these programs,

and

the prospe cti ve teacher finds himself involved in a
situation which already has the endorsement of the gov e r n ­
ment and the school district in which it is being imple­
mented.

Rice says that as society changes,

ments

for

student teachers,

for

trade

led

to metric education.

so do re quire­

example, increased world
Programs depend on taxes

and the will ing nes s of the public to pay for them
10-33).

Snider states,

(10-31,

"Science programs are much more

sophisticated since the 1960's

. . . because the federal

government pumped money into the preparation of teachers
through the science departments."
in response to Sputnik
whic h

has

This, Snider says, was

(16-14). Ano the r

important area

been targeted for much recent government funding

is that of special education.
because of court decisions,

Suchara says

legislation,

(13-16)

that

and funding,

there have been more special education programs and, c on­
sequently, more jobs available in this field of work.
TenEyc k says,

"The manda t o r y special education law has

probably caused the big ges t change in our training of
teachers";

and adds that pressure from the State D e p a r t ­

ment and public demands for educational ac cou ntability
are important factors in progra m development

(5-25).

Slabodian states that Madon na College has received state
and federal funding to develop teacher training programs
in com pete ncy -ba sed teacher education,
and reading.

special education,

She explains that parents are more demanding

52
no w in terms of special education and are seeing to it that
services are provided which will enable these children to
stay in school.

The public is applying pressure through

legislation and funding

(14-67,

15-9).

Sometimes pressure for changes in teacher p r e p a r ­
ation comes directly from the local community.

Hope

College has a new bilin gual /bi cul tur al program,

in

response to needs perceived by the surrounding 10 percent
La tino community

(Miller:

4-60) .

A similar situation

arose at Grand Valley State College where an entire
teacher education program was initiated as a result of
community pressure in this dir ection

(TenEyck:

5-18).

Te nEyck also says that some of this pressure came from
the students themselves who asked Grand Valley officials,
"Why should we go to East Lansing,
or Mt.
get

Kalamazoo, Ann Arbor,

Pleasant to train to be teachers?

[teacher training]

here?"

Why can't we

Potts adds support to c o m ­

munity-b ased pressure affecting teacher education:
I think there is a lot of pressure on people in e du­
cation to perform.
The pressures come from b u s i ­
ness, industry, and parents. . . . I think it's
something that people in education departments are
much more aware of in pr eparation of current e d u ­
cation programs.
(6-56)
There are times when the impetus for developing
new programs is supplied by more than one source,
Grand Val l e y State College's case,

above.

Rapids, whi ch is served by Grand Valley,

as in

In Grand
community action

resulted in the formation of a Latin Ameri can Council

53
whose purpose it was to increase bilingual and bicultural
involvement in the schools and in the community.

This

council, working wit h the Grand Rapids Public Schools,
said to officials at Grand Valley State College,

"People

are going out unp repared to work w i t h bilingual children;
can you provide the kinds of teachers we feel we need for
our bilingual programs?"

(TenEyck:

5-25).

He continues:

A lot of times the ideas come up in the community and
if it has any involvement with the schools in the
community, the schools will quite often turn to us
and say, "We need something different here.
What can
you provide?"
Ten Eyck says that requests such as these result in responses
from the college in terms of program development.
Uni vers ity of Michigan,

At the

Roderick says that the Ann Arbor

Public Schools and the Un iversity have jointly, with
government funding, plan ned and implemented, with m u c h suc­
cess,

a comprehensive m u l t i cultural progr am whic h serves the

interests of the children in the schools and of the u n i ­
versity students who are training to become teachers
55).

In 1969,

(15-

a total reorgan iza tion of Wayne State U n i ­

versity's teacher prepar ati on program began.

A conference

was held for the purpose of determi nin g how teachers should
be prepared.
teachers,

Invited to this conference were classroom

administrators,

parents,

and unive rsi ty personnel.

From this work evolved W a y n e State's Inte rdisciplinary
Teach er Education program.

Teams were orga nized to work on

this project whi ch were made up of unive rsi ty faculty,
community representatives,

school faculty,

parents,

and

54
univer sit y students.

At this same time the Michigan E d u ­

cation Assoc iati on made it known that they felt teachers
were being inadequately prepared and selected a task force
to deal with this problem.

From the task force's blue

ribbon report was generated a list of requirements and
guidelines for wor ki ng with student teachers, which was
sent to the various local education associations.

Among

the findings of the task force, w h i c h was comprised of
repres ent ati ves from colleges and communities,
from the schools,

as well as

emerged the fact that a strong feeling

existed that student teachers were not being adequately
prepared to meet the cultural needs of the students and,
therefore,

of the teachers also.

After the report was

published the colleges and univer sit ies had ample o p p o r ­
tunity to respond.

In the Detroit area various councils

came into being whose purpose it was to contribute v i g o r ­
ously to teacher prepa rat ion programs.
include the Macomb,
cation Councils,

These councils

Oakland,

and Wayne County Tea che r E du­

and M-STEP,

the latter of which is a ffil­

iated with the Detroit Federation of Teachers.

Among the

changes in prepa ring teachers w h ich have resulted from
the wo rk carried out by these councils is W ayne State U n i ­
versity's re quirement that a student gradua tin g in e d u ­
cation will have had a min i m u m of three field experiences,
hop efully in three different cultural settings,

so as to

better equip him to wo rk wi th children from diverse

55
backgrounds

(parts of these field experiences are designed

at the local school l e v e l ) .

It is worth mentioning,

also,

that between 1974 and 1977 the above councils have had a
role in developing the student teacher evaluation forms
used by all colleges and universities placing student
teachers in the Detroit metr opo lita n area
to 14-17).

(Suchara:

13-61

In another kind of attempt at identifying and

standardizing those qualities which appear to contribute to
successful teaching,

Goudreault mentions the Michigan

Deans and Directors of teacher education, who have g e n ­
erated forms seeking standardization;

but they have found

the task a difficult one because of the large number of
teacher training institutions involved

(11-16).

Possible Societal Influences
It has already been brought out how teacher p r e p a r ­
ation pro gra m deve lop men t and input are functions of
pressures exerted by the teacher unions,
teachers and other school personnel,
funds,

the local community,

supervising

state and federal

and the wo rld community.

A

number of Michig an educators cite specific instances in
wh ich they perceive relation shi ps between changes in the
nature of input to teacher preparation programs and social
change.
Cor nish links student input in the college c u r ­
riculum to the student unrest of the 1960s which,

in

turn, was proba bly due to the effect of the Vie t Na m War

56
on student attitudes

(6-63 to 6-68).

programs have changed,

Hall feels that

both as a consequence of u r b a n i ­

zation and of the respons ibi lit y for learning having
shifted from the youngster to the school

(3-24 to 3-29) .

Rice associates the current demand for accountability in
pr ogram content to political and economic causal forces
(10-33).

Myers concurs

(12-61)

and adds that along with

comp etit ion

by colleges and un iversities for

federal funds

for progr am

develop men t has come competition for institu­

tional growth, which has ultimately saturated the current
job market.

McCar ley says that Admiral Rickover and other

critics of education have brought about changes in program
devel opm ent

(1-45).

Roder ick states that recent trends

in multicultural education are the result of concern for
m i n o r i t y groups,

for other cultures,

cultural heritage;

and for people's own

and this led to the federal government's

push in funding mul ti cu ltur al programs in education

(15-55).

Snider agrees and says that dese greg ati on has had a p r o ­
found effect on teachers and on teacher prep ara tio n

(16-9).

Comeau says, rega rdi ng the dir ection education and,

there­

fore,

teacher education,

has been taking:

In the sixties the "Romantic Critics": . . . Cozall,
Herndon, Holt, and so on, m a d e us take a look at the
schools
. . . what they we re responding to was the
kind of
formal structure and emphasis on the cognitive
domain that came out of the late fifties, whe n we
w e r e trying to ke ep up wit h Russia wi th the Sputnik
and Jerome Brunner and the process of education. . . .
As a result, people like Carl Rogers had an influence
[on what went into the d ev el opme nt of educat ion and,
concomitantly, teacher training p r o g r a m s ] .
(4-23)

57
Future Implications
The students of the sixties were very demanding
regarding input in college programs,
being no exce ption

(Cornish:

6-62).

tant outcome of this occurrence:
to the rebelling students.

student teaching
There was an impor­

intense public feedback

The public suddenly began to

demand to know why the students wer en 't getting out of
school what the public felt they should,

so the public

applied pressure on their legislators, where funding for
public schools and state colleges and universities was
controlled

(Slabodian:

15-9).

Public demand for e d uca­

tional accou nta bili ty has already resulted in extensive
changes in programs for pro spective teachers.

It is

reasonable to assume that this heightened public awareness
of the need for qualit y edu cation will continue as long as
the public is required to pay the bill for public e d u ­
cation,

and that colleges and universities will need to

keep re sponding to public demands with programs in teacher
education wh ich will ensure good teaching in the public
schools.
With recent emphases on career education,
appears that business,

labor,

it

and industry m i g h t soon be

voicing more strenuous demands to have a hand in the
shaping of teacher education.
with the teacher unions.

This is already a fact

Hamlin feels the teaching p r o ­

fession will gr adu ally control more prog ram input

(7-43)

58
and Snider says that the Michigan Educati on Ass ociation
will be increasing its influence on teacher education
progr am design

(16-7).

Sutton states that teacher train­

ing programs might soon be directed toward the adoption
of a sort of internship program w hereby first-year teachers
would be placed un der the supervision of supervising
teachers within a given school system.
such a program would be great,

The benefits of

especially in the area of

input and feedback dir ect ly from the field.
Another source of input into the student teaching
experience and its ev aluation is the rapidly expanding
field of educational psychology.

Snider says there is a

. . . social movem e n t influencing the schools:
why
can't individuals read, why can't individuals be
passed? . . . In the psychological field the reaction
is:
how do kids learn? . . . di fferent children
learn different ways . . . math is taught differently
than social studies.
Th ese are things that teachers
need to understand.
(16-14 to 16-18)
From educational psyc hology we are learning these
necessary things about teaching,
the nature of learning,
changing society

(Myers:

about the learner,

about

and about the nature of today's
12-65).

Ultimately, we might hope that we can expect
incoming student teachers to be su fficiently knowledgeable
to supply their own input, to design their own field
experience in terms of eliminating we aknesses and increas ­
ing strengths;

and yet, we find that this is already

beginning to happen in some areas.

Cornis h mentions

59
student teachers,

along wit h their professors, designing

their programs and criteria

(6-62);

and Hendricks

describes a field-based program in which the students
design their own evaluation instruments

(6-3,

6-20).

Summary
Major Findings
Whereas teacher training institutions used to be
almost exclusively responsible for teacher preparation
program development, now a number of other sources are
supplying major input.
supervising teachers,

Among these are teacher unions,
administrators and other school-

related personnel,

state and federally funded programs,

parents, business,

and industry.

Possible Societal Influences
Some Michigan educators attribute this change in
input source,

in part,

to the following societally

related factors:
1.

The Viet Nam War and accompanying student unrest
of the sixties

2.

Urba niz ati on

3.

The resp onsibility for learning having shifted,
in the eyes of the public,

from the pupil to the

school
4.

Public demand for acc ountability

60
5.

Civil rights mo vements

6.

Highly visible critics of education,

such as

Rickover and Holt
Future Implications
1.

The teaching profession,
industry,

trade unions,

business,

and the local community in general will

gradually be supplying increasing input into the
development of teacher training programs.
2.

A new teacher internship program may be developed,
supplying immediate dialogue between the p r o s p e c ­
tive teacher and current educational practice.

3.

The influence of educational psychology,
is being learned in this area,

as more

is increasing in

teacher training.
4.

Teacher prep ara tio n may become comp let ely indi ­
vidu alized in terms of the strengths, weaknesses,
and needs of each prospective teacher.
In creasing Emphasis on Field
Exp er ience and Feedback

There are a nu mbe r of issues w h ich have de velo ped
around the pr ovi sio n of practical experiences within
teacher edu cation programs. . . . The school, with
its more practical emphasis on doing or teaching in
the classroom, can be oppo sed to the univer sit y and
its emphasis on the develo pme nt of theory and a
r esea rch base for teacher education programs.
With
the movem ent of teacher education programs to a
university setting, the values of research and an
increased emphasis on pr ofession ali zat ion for
teachers can be discerned.
The changing emphasis

61
in the unive rsi ty setting is reflected in a c o n ­
tinuing dialogue about the role of practical
experiences, the setting in which practical e x p e r ­
iences can be provided, the costs of providing these
training experiences, and the problem of defining
the practical experiences themselves.
(Tittle,
p. ix)
In this section the increasing emphasis on field
experience in teacher education will be examined,

possible

re lati ons hip s with societal factors will be explored,

and

future implications will be listed.
S upport ing Data
There is now a greater amount of time devoted to
pre- tea chi ng field experience,

both through the length of

the student teaching ex perience and the number of e xp er­
iences.

This fact is supported by a number of Mi ch ig an

educators.

Suchara says that in 1956, Wa yne State U n i ­

v e r s i t y used only one pre-service field experience,
the laboratory school,

but soon added an assignment in

the Detroit City Schools

(13-34).

Now Wayn e State requires

three pre-student teaching experiences
we ek for three terms)
students,

in

(five half-days per

work ing directl y wit h the classroom

under a supervising teacher's guidance,

in

w hich the staff of each school involved helps plan the
student's experiences, with the aid of the college coo r d i ­
nator

(14-17).

Sucha ra also brings out the point that

since 1967, W ayne State's student teachers have been
pl aced in cu lturally different settings for each of their
pre-service field experiences

(13-57).

Mil ler says of

Hope Co lle ge's teacher preparation program that there is
now more emphasis on the importance of student teaching
than there was fifteen years ago.

There is more speci­

ficity and the qualit y of the observers is now better.
Observat ion s have increased in number from one per semester
to a m i n i m u m of four

(4-46 to 4-50).

Hall says that Alma

College's teacher edu cation progr am has been changed "to
include m u c h more field experience for students"

(3-14);

and Hendricks says there is now much more field experience
than before

(5-43).

Hamlin states that student teachers

at Oak land University now have sixteen weeks in the field;
whereas as recently as 1974 they had just twelve weeks,
preceded by a four-week "educational tactics" course
(7-33).

Slabodian says that Madonna College added more

field expe rience to their requirements in 1970,

some

involving contact w i t h the pupils in the schools as early
as the freshman year;

and because supervising teachers

have shown an increasing tendency toward not tolerating
the student teachers mo v ing in and out so quickly,

the

length of teaching labs and of the student teaching term
have increased

(14-66).

Sickmiller says that at Spring

Arbor Colle ge in 197 6, the student teaching experience
was lengthened from ten weeks to a full semester,

adding

three to four weeks to the time student teachers spent in
their classrooms.

This was the result of a need per ceived

by the college faculty:

63
. . . to upgrade the program, to give the students
a stronger kind of experience.
We did this on the
assumption that more time out there between the
tenth and the thirteenth or fourteenth wee k would
be a crucial time when students would be able to
put that extra po lis h on, that they would not
otherwise have. . . . Hopefully, this will give
especially the borde rli ne students a chance to put
a little extra edge on their performance, so their
evaluation will be better.
(8-45)
Sullivan says that student teachers at Naza reth College,
mo st of whom are training in the area of learning d i s a b i l ­
ities, have,

in the past,

spent eight weeks in the regular

classroom and eight in a resource room;
the fall,

1977 term,

but starting in

an additional eight weeks in the

same resource room are required

(10-62).

T enEyck describes

the field experiences at Grand Va lley State College,

stat­

ing that the emphasis is on "early and sustained exposure
to what school is all about before they
their actual student teaching."

[the students]

He says that the students

are given a ten-week experience of teacher aiding,
student teaching;
recently,

do

or p r e ­

and that additional work has been added

getting the pro spe ctive teachers into the

schools in their freshman and sophomore years.

He adds

that each student is requir ed as part of his field e x p e r ­
ience,

to spend the first three weeks of a school year in

a clas sroom

(5-10).

lege's program,

M o e c k e l , in des cribing Ad rian C o l ­

says that prosp ecti ve teachers at that

ins titution are required to have at least one hundred
hours of pre -student teaching experience direc ted by the
College.

This can be wor k w i t h pup ils as tutors or

64
teaching assistants,

or work with youth groups in the

summer or evenings.

In the near future this requirement

will be raised to three hundred hours

(9-56).

Moeckel

adds that the student teaching term itself has been
increased from eight to twelve weeks

(9-64).

Goudreault

brings out some unique features of Olivet College's
teacher preparation program.

During the first six weeks

of the senior year education students are on campus for
history and ph ilosophy of education and general education
methods courses.

During this time the student goes twice

a week to his assigned school district to spend time
talking with the school employees
teachers,

cooks, custodians)

in the classroom.
in the term,
room

Then,

(e.g., the principal,

and to do some clerical work

for the remaining twelve weeks

he does his student teaching in that c l a s s ­

(11-55) .
In a few instances,

although the scheduling of

the field experience has been shifted,

the total amount

of cl ass roo m contact has not been significantly changed.
The Univ ersi ty of Detroit, Eastern M ich ig an University,
and Albion College have all gone from half days of stu­
dent teaching over a long term to full days in a shorter
period of time

(Cornish:

6-68; Tibbies:

8-9;

and Elkin:

11-69) .
Because of today's greater emphasis on field
experience,

there is no w more dialogue between student

65
teacher and supervising teacher, between student teacher
and university coordinator,

and between supervising

teacher and university coordinator.

Because of this

increased exchange of ideas, more assistance is available
no w to all of these individuals in making the student
teaching experience more useful.

A variety of benefits

derived from this increased dialogue is de scr ibed by a
number of Michigan educators.
Potts says the student teacher at Aquinas College
and the coordinator jointly determine the duration of the
student teaching experience, w hich may be any length from
eight to sixteen weeks, depending on the student teacher's
individual needs

(6-54).

Hendricks says that at Calvin

College the pre-student teacher shares in the development
of his evaluative instrument w hich encourages him to
solicit evaluative feedback from the pupils he has in
pre-student teaching

(6-3).

Hamlin outlines the ma nne r

in which increased field experience is helping
Evaluat ion was,

(7-12).

in the past:

. . . pretty much sitting in the back of the room
and writing down little notes about certain types
of behavior, and then giving these little notes
to the student teacher and bouncing off to the
next room to wat ch another performance.
Later,

in going to a competency-based teacher education

program, Hamlin says:
The emphasis went from the professor sitting back,
watc hin g the student perform, so to speak, to one
where the professor set up goals of performance
and certain beha vio ral objectives for the student
to perform, and then sat back and looked for specifics.

My ers also mentio ns a trend toward greater specificity
of goals and more self-evaluation on the part of the
student teacher in connection with a greater frequency
of visits by the coordinator and a more intense field
exp erience

(12-56).

Goudreault says that visitations

at Olivet College, prior to 1966, were inadequate and
that there was not enough communication between su per­
vising teachers and the College.

At that time the College

teacher education personnel and the supervising teachers
convened and put together a handbook of guidelines wh ich
outlined the goals and description of the student t e a c h ­
ing experience.

This work,

along wit h a drive for NCATE

accreditation, which was obtained about 1971,

resulted

in more visits by the coordinators and by professors who
were supervising student teachers within their d i s c i ­
pline.

This helped strengthen the student teacher's

skills earlier in his student teaching experience,

and

also helped him decide earlier whether or not the teaching
profession was for him.

Extra staff was hired, more people

becam e involved in the evaluation process,

and faculty from

the public schools became involved in teaching classes at
the college to education students.

This served to give an

increased practical knowledge of "What is going on no w in
the public schools?"

to prospective teachers.

One p a r t i c u ­

larly useful result of this ne w kind of contact was the
familiarizing of the student teachers with the intermediate

67
school district facilities

(11-11,

11-32,

11-42).

Rod­

erick also mentio ns the fact that more people are now
involved in eva luation than before and adds that there is
more field experience in the form of pre-student teaching,
allowing the student teacher a head start and actually
changing his role

(15-36).

Moeckel says of the Adrian

College program:
We try to visit our people every week . . . so that
we know quite a lot about what they're doing and
can compare [notes and evaluations] with the supe r­
vising teacher. . . . We give them [supervising
teachers] quite a lot of help.
We have conferences;
I give them wr itten ma te rials that will give them
ideas on how to writ e this [evaluation] up.
(10-13)
Moeckel also me ntions the fact that the student teacher,
with guidance from the coordinator,
sive self-evaluation at mid-term,

completes a comp r e h e n ­

and then co ncentrates

on specified needs for the remainder of the term

(9-66) .

The field experience at Wayne State Uni versity is extended
to the parents of the student teachers,

in that the U n i ­

versity staff makes an effort to acquaint the parents with
the diverse cultural settings in wh ich their sons and
daughters will be doing their student teaching.

The

feedback from this has been useful in program d e v e l o p ­
ment

(Suchara:

13-58).

Suchara also explains how stu ­

dent teachers are taught to work wi th various forms of
interaction analysis so they might better unde rst and how
to cope successfully w i t h their own feelings and those
of others.

Student teachers must dem on stra te some

68
proficiency in responding to the feedback they obtain in
these analyses

(14-58).

Sullivan also me ntio ns the use

of interaction analysis,

but in a context of inservicing

supervising teachers for use with their student teachers,
making more feedback available whe n evaluating their
cla ssroom performance

(10-57).

Sullivan also relates how

student teachers at Nazare th College invite schoolrelated personnel to assist wi th the week ly seminars
for student teachers.
social workers,
counselors,

Such resource people as school

principals, psychologists,

school nurses,

and me dia specialists are brought in to share

their expertise w i t h the prosp ect ive teachers
Slabodian,

(10-64).

too, m e n tions the use of additional resource

personnel by conducting di scussions

involving Madon na

College's student teachers at a variety of schools and
giving the prospective teachers a broader experience
through contact with these people wh o are cu rr entl y in
the field of professional education

(15-2).

Slabodian also under sc ores the importance of a
new role which the coord ina tor can assume:
classroom teacher,

that of

in which the co ordinator mode ls the

teaching of a lesson for the benefit of the student
teacher, exhibiting specified teaching skills and st rat e­
gies wi th the same pupils the student teacher has
to 15-16).

(15-13

McCar ley stresses another role pe rformed by

the resident coordinator,

or clinical consultant.

Being

69
assigned to a given buildi ng or small group of buildings,
the clinical consultant can provide much more feedback
because he can get into the classroom mor e easily and
more

frequently.

The clinical consultant enjoys the

additional advantage of being able to accommodate
ating enrol lmen ts

(1-30).

fluctu­

Kennedy also mentions the value

of the clinical consultant, worki ng with a cluster of
student teachers.

He states that greater feedback and

inservice of supervising teachers is poss ibl e through this
arrangement

(12-25,

12-41).

Possible Societal Influences
It is di ffi cul t to identify social factors which
are linked with the increasing emphasis on field e x p e r ­
ience.
more,

It is of que stionable value to simply say,
the better,"

"the

and assume that the mat t e r is explained.

Several educators provi de clues which are useful.

Suchara

states that in the late fifties and early sixties, with
bur geon ing school enrollments,
un prepared teachers.

schools employed ma ny

Individual departm ents wi thi n c o l ­

leges responded by pr epa ring w o r ksheets for student
teachers,

requiring them to keep a da ily log,

cussing skill dev elopment in conferences.

and d i s ­

This was a

loose form of co mpet enc y-based teacher edu cation

(13-4 4).

M oec kel says that Ad r ian Colle ge has con ducted a followup study at the end of the first year of teachin g by
Ad ria n graduate s since 1963.

The feedback obta ine d in

70
this study has resulted in a dramatic increase in the
amount of field experience required,

as indicated on

page
Not all instances of increased field experience
were successful

in terms of continuation of the program.

Central Michigan Un iversity's Intern Program is an
example of this.

The program, which started in 1959 in

response to a need for better prepared teachers, e v e n ­
tually had to be abandoned as an increasing number of
certified personnel began competing with the interns for
a de creasing amount of available employment;
unions,

and teacher

in an effort to protect their constituents, w i t h ­

drew support from the Intern Program

(Blue:

2-17 and 2-31).

Rice sees the increase in field experience and in
feedback from the coordinator,
longer duration per term now,

at least five visits of
as a possible function of

the students being regarded as consumers and an effort
being ma de to see that they get their money 's worth out
of their school expenses,

an example of the general move

toward ed ucational acco untability

(10-25).

Roderick feels

that now that the teaching population has become co m p a r a ­
tively stable, more supervising teachers have gained
ex perience in handling student teachers and have developed
better techniques for evaluating them.

Roder ic k also

sees "student teachers who are m u c h more involved in the
cl assr oom situation" no w

(15-49).

This wo uld be a

71
function of today's highly competitive job market d i s ­
couraging ma ny less mo tiv ate d people from entering teacher
training programs,

and of the fact that more and earlier

field experience gives the student teacher more time to
focus on the pupils and their needs.

Myers concurs,

stating that along with current trends toward more selfeva luation by the student teacher,
and frequency of evaluation,

and greater specificity

the people working in teacher

education are far more knowledgeable now than before in
theories of learning and skills of assessment

(12-56,

12-

63) .
Future Implications
As indicated in the previous paragraph,

it appears

that when mo re field experience is provided the student
teacher has greater op portunity to divert the focus of his
thinking and energy away from himself and his own ins e­
curity and toward the classroom pupils.

It would seem

that future teacher training programs might do well to
examine the student teaching experiences they provide in
terms of improving progr am effectiveness.

Moeckel states

that there will be more stress on field experience,
with m o r e explicit com petencies

(9-69);

along

and Sutton says:

If the contemporary surplus of applicants for a v a i l ­
able positions continues, I presume that greater
demands can be made upon prospective teachers.
For
years, there's been talk, nationally, about going to
some sort of an internship prog ram . . . whereby
first year teachers would be placed under the
supervision of supervisory teachers within a [given]
school system.
(9-42 to 9-53)

72
Summary
The content of this section can be summarized
quite well with the following two quotations.

Tittle

says in Student T e a c h i n g ;
The issue of theory versus practice in teacher e d u ­
cation programs is a continuing concern of the
major groups involved in teacher preparation:
stu­
dents, college faculty, teachers, and school a dmin­
istrators.
The issue is reflected in discussions
about the time spent in theory versus practice and
how to integrate theory into practice.
Because of
the pressures for change, both in the schools and
teacher education programs, this issue is again c o n ­
fronting those concerned with teacher education.
The need to incorporate more practice in teacher
education programs is often expressed by students in
the programs, as well as by teachers and ad m i n i s ­
trators in the school.
(p. ix)
And,

finally, Myers summarizes the importance of the

increased feedback w h ich has resulted from increased
emphasis on field experience since 1956:
There continues to be a recognition that in order to
become a skilled teacher, there's a regular need for
feedback and that one aspect of evaluation is the
one of feedback to the student. . . . There has been
right along a stress on self-evaluation, based on
careful goal-setting:
criterion referenced, if you
will. . . . Ev aluation needs to be based on an u n d e r ­
standing of the learner and the nature of learning
and the nature of today's society.
(12-64)
M ajor Findings
1.

More time is no w devoted to pre -teaching field
experience:

in length, number,

and vari ety of

experiences.
2.

Ther e are no w mo r e observations made by the
supervising tea che r and university coordinator;

73
the quality of these observations is better than
it once was;

there is now more dialogue among

the student teacher,
coordinator;

supervising teacher,

and

and there is now greater specificity,

both in goal-setting and in feedback.
Possible Societal Influences
1.

There has been a need perceived by both the public
and professional educators that teachers have been
inadequately prepared to cope with the needs of a
changing society.

Subsequent studies have indi­

cated that more field experience is helpful in
prep aring teachers.
2.

Recent public interest in consumerism has resulted,
in at least one case,

in the prospective teacher

be ing seen as the consumer, with a concomitant
effort being made on the part of the college or
uni vers ity to see that the teaching trainee gets
his money's w orth in field experience.
3.

Increasing stability of the teaching population
has resulted in supervising teachers being more
experienced and having developed better e xper­
iences for their student teachers.

4.

The highly competitive job market in education
has resulted in teacher training institutions

74
providing m o r e field experience so as to make
their graduates

"more marketable."

Future Implications
1.

Future teacher training programs should be
examined in terms of optimizing effects of field
experiences.
number,

If present trends continue,

length,

and variety of field experiences

will be increased,
2.

the

as will the feedback provided.

As long as there is a surplus of applicants for
available teaching positions,

greater demands in

respect to an increased amount of field e x p e r ­
ience can be placed on prospective teachers as a
function of this highly competitive job market.
3.

As indicated in the previous section,
Preparation Pro gra m Development:

"Teacher

Sources of

Input," a new teacher internship progr am may be
developed,

supplying immediate dialo gue between

the pro spective teacher and current educational
practice.
Evolvin g Educational Focus
Americ an technology,

in the years following

Wo rl d War II, expanded and became increa sin gly soph isti ­
cated at an unprecedented rate.

The growth of technology

in general was reflected by great changes in edu cational
focus.

In this section these changes,

as they pertain to

75

student teaching and its evaluation, will be identified
and examined, possible impacts of societal change will be
explored,

and future implications will be suggested.

Supporting Data
A number of Michigan educators state that one of
the greatest changes in teacher education over the past
generation is the greater specificity of teaching goals
through competency-based teacher education and through
behavioral objectives.

Moeckel says,

"Recently we've

seen heavier stress on the beha vior al objectives c o m p e ­
tency in instructional technology."

He continues,

explaining that this is a conseq uen ce of a follow-up
study of Adrian Coll ege education graduates,

from 1963

to 1977, after their first year of teaching,

the study

being direc ted at identifying needs of Adrian's ed ucation
students and graduates

(9-61).

Myers says that some

technological changes in teacher prepar atio n which
occurred as early as 1960 were identified in the 1960
AST Yearb ook as competency -ba sed teacher education,
along wi th a voiced "need for exam ina tio n and evaluation
of specific behaviors and compet en cies of student
teachers"

(12-56).

specificity,

Snider says the emphasis now is on

on identifying co mpe tenc ies

(16-3); Mi ller

states that today there is great er awareness of the needs
of the individual:

hence,

a greater specificity of goals

than there was fifteen years ago

(4-46);

and Hall says

76
that behavioral objectives have been important in recent
develo pme nts in student teaching

(3-31).

It is becoming increasingly important for student
teachers to evidence ability to individualize instruction
to the needs of each student.

Both DeBoer and Hendricks

say that there is greater emphasis now on individualizing
instruction and being able to cope with a greater variety
of child ren than there was ten years ago, and that the
re cognition of the value of being sensitive to the needs
of the individual child has led to individualization of
the teacher pr eparation program itself

(6-35 and 6-4).

Mi ller ment ion s today's greater awareness of the needs
of the individual

(4-46);

and says that Hope College

emphasizes ind ividualization and a concomitant necessary
familiarity on the part of the student teacher with a
wide varie ty of mate rials and instructional techniques
and alternatives such as learning centers

(4-59).

Hamlin

also states that there is a greater recognition in e d u ­
cation today of in dividuality

(7-58).

Along with this

recognition has grown an awareness of the importance of
instilling and re inforcing a positive self-concept on
the part of the child.

Potts says that Aqu ina s College

is enco ura gin g student teachers to promote positive selfconcepts

(6-45);

and Miller states that there is now mor e

emphasis than there was in 1956 on being sensitive to the
child's self-concept

(4-54).

77

As ment ioned in the previous paragraph,

the

greater awareness of the importance of the needs of the
individual child led to an increasing consciousness of
the needs of the student teacher as an individual.

Myers

says that educators came to recognize that it is important
to enable the student teacher "to develop his own unique
competencies and abilities and to grow in self-und ers tand ­
ing,

self-acceptance,

pursue his own goals

and self-control,"
(12-57).

so he migh t better

Kennedy concurs,

stating

that Michi gan State Univer sity tries to provide for the
student teachers'

individual needs, to provide a variety

of experiences for them and to assess performance on the
basis of pred eter min ed competencies

(12-40).

Potts says

that individuals come to college with different educational
and social stimuli:

diff ere nt needs to do the varied

kinds of teaching they will do.

She adds that as a c o n ­

sequence of recognizing this fact,

teacher training does

a better job with individual needs than it did in 1956
(6-50).
C o m e a u , in referring to teacher education now
dealing more to the needs of both the individual child
and student teacher,

emphasizes that each individual

functions best in certain ways.

Teac her training ins ti­

tutions are presently shifting emphasis away from the
traditional imposing on student teachers a uni for m
framework of standards and are moving mor e and mo re

78
toward recognizing that personal characteristics and
goals are instrumental in shaping teaching styles and
learning styles

(4-16 to 4-19).

Snider says that now we,

educators,

are noticing

that different children learn different ways;

and he
»

cites examples:

children with learning disabilities

can't cope wi th open classrooms,

different children use

different cognitive processes and capacities to learn
social studies and mathematics;

and a child wh o has

always been told what to do won't be able to cope with a
bo undaryless educational environment

(16-16).

DeBoer,

in des cribing part of Calvin College's teacher preparation
program,

states that an effort is mad e by the College to

bring together all the course work and pre-student t e ach­
ing into a mean ing ful gestalt for student teaching,

when

the student teacher mu st perform specified tasks leading
to specified goals.
specify,

Th e student teacher may recognize,

and pursue goals of his choice, wi th guidance;

and he ma y select his own means of arriving at these
goals,

in terms of his own abilities and experiences

4 and 6-20).

(6-

Tibbies mention s that it is recognized that

there are ma ny diverse learning styles

(8-13);

and Ro d ­

erick says that there is more self-awareness and knowledge
b y student teachers of their own strengths and weaknesses,
and more se lf-awareness regarding learning styles and
teaching styles

(15-43).

79

Having examined individual differences in learn­
ing and in teaching it wil l be useful at this point to
take a look at wha t is going on in teacher education in
the area of interpersonal relationships.

Miller states

that more emphasis is now being placed on interpersonal
relationships than there was in 1956

(4-54);

and Potts

says that although the old standards were ambiguous and
inadequate,

no w Aquinas College is encouraging its stu­

dents to promote human relations because this area is
recognized more now as being important

(6-45).

Suchara

states that Wayne State Univers ity student teachers are
evaluated on their sensitivity for the feelings and p e r ­
ceptions of others at all age levels

(14-58);

and Tibbies

says that Eastern Michigan Un iversity's recent emphasis
on interpersonal relations is a function of recognizing
that there are many diverse learning styles

(8-13).

Snider explains that human relations is very important,
that it can now be subjected to analysis,

and its co m ­

ponents can be identified in teacher behavior.

He also

feels it is possible to design educational experiences
fitting di verse cultural parameters by workin g closely
with local school distric t re pre sentatives

(16-3,

16-26).

Enough Mic hig an educators di sc ussed interpersonal relations
in a cultural context su fficiently to warra nt the inclusion
of a special section on m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m in this chapter.

80
Several educators mentioned the growing incidence
of humanism in education.
of the affective domain

McCarley stresses the importance

(1-53);

and Hamlin discusses the

recent trend toward humani sm and affective education

(7-59).

Potts says that in conjunction wit h human relations and
positive self-concept building, Aquinas Coll ege has
recently been encouraging their student teachers to work
in the area of values awareness

(6-45);

and Hall mentions

more emphasis being placed on humanism in student teaching
now than before

(3-32) .

Teacher prepara tio n programs are now focusing on
the importance of prospective teachers familiarizing th em­
selves with new audio-visual equipment and its uses.
Moeckel says that there is a growing use of audio-visual
equipment by student teachers,
of self-evaluation
and newer,

(9-68).

particularly in the area

Goudreault says that more,

kinds of audio- vis ual equipment are available

now to student teachers and that they are required to do
intensive work in this area to keep abreast of newly
developed mater ial w hich the schools are putting into
operation.

He also m ent io ns the fact that intermediate

school district services have,

in recent years, been

made more available to the schools;

and Olivet College

has been employing par t-t ime resource personnel from the
local intermediate school district to wor k w i t h student
teachers,

showing them what equipment is available and

81
how to operate it

(11-42 and 11-48).

This,

he says,

has resulte d in increasing the level of confidence of the
student teachers in the classroom.
Hope College,

Miller states that

in emphasizing individualization,

stresses

familiarity by the student teachers with a wide variety
of materials

(4-59).

One particularly interesting
trend

is the recent "Back to

place

in education today.

"new" educational

Basics" thrust which is taking

The hue and cry for the return to basics, "The Three
R's," has caused us and, I'm sure, other institutions
. . . to increase the number of courses that student
teachers need to have to
teach reading, for example;
and that will be reflected in their evaluation, most
certainly; and for the first time we are now r e q u i r ­
ing secondary candidates to take a group of courses
in the teaching of reading.
(TenEyck:
5-32)
Hamlin menti ons the demand for the return to "The
Three R's" as making a significant di fference in schools
and, ultimately,

in teacher preparation programs.

student teacher,

as a result, has a different kind of

experience

(7-49) .

The

Moecke l says that Adrian College is

no w ret urning to a stress on reading methods and c a l li­
graphy

(9-61);

and Roderi ck states that student teachers

n o w are mo re involved wit h the development of traditional
skills

(15-46).

Possible Societal Influences
There appears to be a number of factors which link
social change to the evolving educational focus.
says:

Comeau

82
In the 60 's the "Romantic Critics" . . . Cozall,
Herndon, Holt, and so on, made us take a look at
schools . . . wha t they were responding to was the
kind of formal structure and emphasis on the c o g ­
nitive domain that came out of the late 50' s, when
we were trying to keep up with Russia wi th the
Sputnik, and Jerome Bruner and the process of e d u ­
cation. . . . As a result, people like Carl Rogers
had an influence.
(4-23)
C o m e a u menti ons the shift toward an emphasis on humanism,
and then goes on to say:
I see education going in about ten to twelve year
trends, sort of a traditional, structural, cognitive
Br uner thing to the examination of the late 60 ' s;
and no w there ma y be another kind of trend in
reaction to the emphasis on chil d-c ent ere d/p erso ncentered educa tion . . . there's a whol e retrenchment
thing going on whe re schools are closing up and
faculty are being let go.
People are asking, "What
is it our students are really learning?" and so
there's the w hole behavioral ob ject ive /compet ency
ba sed thing going on.
And . . . we had the hardware
to evaluate all these statistics . . . and the other
thing is Skinner and his work had just been waitin g
in the wing s to be able to come out and show us the
t echnol ogy that wil l make these things possible.
So
I think the re trenchment thing is one reason; the
other thing is we have the te chnology for it.
And
the other thing is we're maybe reacting to what was
going on in the late 6 0 's and early 7 0 's as far as
child- cen ter ed schools.
(4-29)
Rice says the emphasis between how to teach and
w h a t to teach has fluctuated as a function of pub lic
reaction.

Sputnik set off content -or ien ted cu rr icula

w h i c h stressed ma thematics,

science,

and language.

The

late 60s and 70s react ed with affective education:

the

free school movement of the late 60s and 7 0s was a b a c k ­
lash to Sputnik.

Rice adds that she feels that education

is a visibl e sc apegoat to society

(10-36).

Hall states

that the present increase in emphasis on hum anism is

83

possib ly a reaction against behavior ali sti c assembly line
education

(3-32);

and Hamlin sees much of what is going on

today in education to be a function of an extremely e g o ­
centric, materialistic society

(7-59).

The fact that economics determines to a great
degree how our education is designed and deli vered cannot
be denied.

My ers says that institutions of higher learning

are competing vig orou sly for funds,
bility demands made du ring the 70s

responding to a c c ounta­
(12-60).

Snider states

that federal money has been pumped into teacher p r e p a r ­
ation through science departments, which are becoming
increasingly sophisticated.
N.S.D.A.

Responding to Sputnik,

the

funded a number of educational programs, most

nota bly those teacher education programs in the areas of
science, mathematics,
continues,

and foreign

language.

Now,

Snider

the current social movement which is strongly

affecting schools is the public demand for accountability;
the public is asking,
passed?"

"Why can't individuals read or be

(16-13).
Hamlin,

also,

feels that so-called "modern math"

is a direct reaction to Sputnik and the "solve all problems
with money" government funding programs;

and adds that

the Michigan Ed ucation As sessment Program,
the acc ountability demand,

a product of

is having an effect on teacher

preparation in that the press is having a heyday with
"a public display of scores"

(7-40 and 7-49).

McCarley,

84

too,

says that Sputnik brought about federal legislation

wh ich resulted in m o r e people enrolling in sciencerelated and language-r ela ted master's and educational
specialist's degree programs

(1-45).

Th ere are other social factors which appear to
have affected teacher education.

Rice says:

Metric education clearly goes back to things like
the Common Market, the idea of increased world
trade. . . . We 're going closer and closer to
making that [metric education] a requirement in
the elementary education program, which is a p r e ­
requisite for student teaching.
(10-31)
TenEyck,

referring to Grand Va lley State College's

recently expanded re quirements in reading courses,

says:

That, definitely, is community pressure, public
schools saying, "we need teachers at all levels
who know how to teach reading"; but I think that's
a reflection of parents' demands that we get back
to 'basics,' wh atev er they are."
(5-32)
Sutton says,

"Physical education had remained

pretty constant for a number of years; but now, of course,
it's un dergoing change with the coeducational physical
education aspect of it"

(9-40).

growth of recent women's rights,
lation.)

(This would be an o u t ­
social action,

and legi s­

Myers states that the recent changes in ed u ­

cational technology "were due to

. . . changes in p s y c h o ­

logical outlook and greater und ers tan din g of the nature
of learning and the needs of children in a changing
society"

(12-59).

Myers goes on to say that people who

work in teacher educ ati on now are far mor e knowl edg eabl e
in terms of theories of learning and skills of assessment:

85
"As new practitio ner s came into the trade of teacher ed u ­
cation,

they were knowledgeable of changes in research

in psy cho log y
finally,

. . . [and]

curriculum"

(12-63).

And,

Snider brings out the point that in the public

move ment for accountability,
do children learn?

the question is asked:

How

This has resulted in greater research

into the field of de velopmental psychology

(16-13).

Future Implications
Looking into the future,

it is easy to predict

that educational focus will continue to be directed toward
new areas and be instrumental in student teacher learning,
classroom performance,

and evaluation.

Wha t directions

these changes ma y take is a m u c h more di ff icul t problem
to undertake.

Judging by changes whic h have taken place

in the past generation,

it seems to be safe to predict

that the nature of society,

rather than science will d i c ­

tate the educational dir ection of the future.

S u c h a r a 's

statement referring to the state of youth and education
today can be used to extrapolate a possi ble future co n ­
dition :
The young people today are of the young people today,
and they are better able to cope with the youth of
today than any of us who preceded them because we
can study it but we can never become a part of the
youth of today.
We can never quite internalize
what they can. . . . They 've never known it to be
different, this has been their life style.
(14-39)
Suchara concludes by saying that they've grown up with
people like today's yo ut h around them.

It is the people

86
whom Suchara describes who will constitute the society
w hich will shape tomorrow's technology,

employing values

wh ic h are being shaped today.
Summary
Majo r Findings
During the period from 1956 through 1977, e d u ­
cational focus was directed toward a number of areas.
Included are:
1.

Greater specificity of educational goals through
competency-based teacher education and behavioral
objectives

2.

Individualization and teaching alternatives

3.

Healthy de velopment of the child's self-concept

4.

Individual needs of the student teacher

5.

Teac hin g styles and learning styles

6.

Interpersonal rel atio nships--human relations

7.

Humanism:

8.

The uses of ne w audio-visual equipment and c o m ­

affective education, values awareness

mu nity resources
9.

A return to the development of traditional skills

Possible Societal Influences
1.

An emphasis on human ism ensued wh en educational
critics of the sixties responded to the formal

87
structure and cognitive emphasis whic h followed
Sputnik.

Education is a visible scapegoat in the

eyes of the public and a cycle of public reaction
to educational programs which appear to be
reactions to social phenomena is perpetuated.
2.

Those educational programs which have been backed
by government funding have flourished.

3.

Increased wo rld interdependence seems to be in
part responsible for the recent stress on metric
education.

4.

Public demands for educational accountability
have resulted in a "back to basics"

trend in

education.
Future Implications
1.

Th ere appears to be a cyclic pattern of education
responding to societal change,

followed by society

reacting to changes in educational programs.
2.

Educational programs should improve in e ffec t i v e ­
ness as it becomes easier to identify and deal
with the needs,

abilities,

and limitations of the

individual teacher and learner.
Emerging Emphasis on Mul ticultural Education
In the decade of the 1960's Ameri can Social
scientists, more than ever before, began mass ive
efforts direct ed toward increasing the educational
success of the children of the poor and ethnic

88
m inorit ies in Am erican public schools.
These
social scientists were partly responding to the
"social conscience" of the period about the
social and economi c conditions of the poor and
of the ethnic minorities.
Like their fellow
citizens, many of them had come to believe that
poverty and inequality should not exist in the
midst of affluence and that social science could
contribute to the elimination of these problems
by showing how the poor and ethnic minori tie s
could achieve better success in public schools.
Thus their increasing theoretical and research
activities in the field of education have been
generated by practical rather than intellectual
considerations.
(Ogbu, p. 252)
The problems that m i n ority children face in
schools now have been heavily researched and d o c u ­
mented.
Statis tic s continue to tell a tale of low
achievement scores, high drop -ou t rates and an everwide nin g ed ucation and income gap between mino rit y
poor and m i ddle-class Whit e populations.
This gap
continues despi te a major shift in government
attention to the problems of the mino rit y poor,
the Great Socie ty programs of the 1960's, and a
deluge of scholarly and popular publica tio ns calling
attention to the problems of the minor ity poor and
the failure of the schools to meet their needs.
It
is in open recognition of this depr ess ing situation
that demands for mu lti cultur al education . . . are
in creasingly made.
(Pacheco:
"Cultural Pluralism,"
p. 16)
The foregoing quotations illustrate the increasing
recognition of the need for multicultural education in
America.

The ability of a student teacher to evidence

skill and knowledge in the area of mul ticultural e d u ­
cation has,

since 1956, become an important component of

student teacher evaluation,
Espinoza, Jones, Krosky,
Walberg.

as indicated by Brottman,

Lewis,

Ramirez,

Sagness,

and

This is also apparent in statements by a number

of Mic higan educators who have bee n dir ectly involved with
student teacher evaluation.

In this section the emerging

89
emphasis on mult ic ul tura l education will be examined,
possible societal influences will be explored,

and future

implications will be suggested.
Supp orting Data
Tib bies

(8-10)

says,

"There's been more emphasis

recently on the ability of students to work with a wide
range of students,

rather than the

. . . white students

[who] were pretty much confined to this area."

As the

teacher educ ation pro gra m expanded from the laboratory
schools to the public schools,

the student teachers came

"into contact wit h a wide variety of students,

gaining

mu ch better insights and ability to deal with ma ny d i f ­
ferent kinds of students."

Later Tibbies adds,

"It is

becoming important to work with m a n y dif ferent kinds of
people

. . . part of the evaluation of student teachers

is their ability to deal with this kind of situation"
(8-27).

Miller

(4-60)

states that until recently bilingual

and bicultural programs were not available,

and that now

there is a greater concern for the rights of mi norities
and a general recogni tion of cultural values other than
one's own.

Ha mlin

(7-61)

agrees:

"VJe're far m o r e accept­

ing of another man's backgr oun d and values today than we
were a few years ago."

Goudreault

(11-20)

says that

Olivet College is cur ren tly work ing on formulating a
bili ngu al/ bicu ltu ral teacher education p rogr am in Spanish,
employing competen cy- bas ed teacher education.

Twe nty-five

90
ye ars ago there was very little emphasis on mult icu ltu ral
education,
needs,

but the federal government re cognized ethnic

earlier than the colleges did,

to the colleges.

and applied pressure

Guidelines were established at the

state level for the design and implementation of bilingual
and bicu ltur al programs,

and state and federal aid made it

possi b l e to put these programs'for ethnic minor iti es into
action, both at the public school and college levels.
Suc hara

(13-25) mentio ns the fact that Wayne State U n i ­

vers i t y ' s teacher education program is overtly committed
to respo ndi ng to social change:
Historically, every time there has been a need
identified for even a very small cluster of a
m i n o r i t y group, we almost immediately become
involved in a project to deal with that . . .
the majority of [these projects] are absorbed
into the mai nstream [of e d u c a t i o n ] .
There have been other factors which have influ­
ence d the growing emphasis on mu lti cultu ral education.
Impro vin g educational psychology,

a better understa ndin g

of the nature of learning and its relationship to the
learn ing env ironment were of great importance.

Myers says:

Evaluation needs to be based on an unde rs tand ing of
the learner and the nature of learning and the nature
of today's society. . . . I t 's in some of these areas
w her e the arguments began as to what is the best way
to prepare teachers.
I presume these arguments will
conti nue to go on as long as people are around. . . .
I think they [these arguments] were affected by the
growin g pl ur alism that we see. . . . We have a manyfaceted society and you and I, for example, ma y be
arguing; but we 're not looking at the same facets,
so diffe ren ces occur.
(12-66).

91
At this point it will be useful to describe,
briefly,

several of the multicultural programs currently

in operation in Michigan.

Wayne State University,

in

the late sixties, began requiring their education students
to have at least two pre-service experiences:
Detroit and the other out in the suburbs,

one in

assuring the

prospective teacher of two distinctly different cultural
settings in w hi ch he had opportunities to pa rticipate in
school programs

(Suchara:

13-55).

Currently,

during

Wa yne State's field experiences, wh ich span two years,
the students:
. . . go through a progression of experiences through
the entire two years dealing with their own feelings,
and learning to work with the feelings of other
people, and to develop . . . a sensitivity to and
an awareness of the self-perception of people and
their attitudes toward what is going on in a given
situation. . . . They start out early in the two
years in the dev elopment of some awareness, but they
must demonstrate, give evidence of having some
ability to cope wit h it. . . . I f they can d e m o n ­
strate that they recognize and they are beginning to
try to deal with some of the problems of interacting
with other human beings and how they influence them,
that's what we're looking for because we think that
a good deal of inservice education can provide further
guidance for them.
(Suchara:
14-58)
Suchara

(13-58)

also tells how Way ne State's

teacher education program includes a component directed
toward acquainting parents of pr ospective teachers with
the setting in which they will be doing their student
teaching, with the goal in m i n d of gen era ting reassurance
through increased cro ss- cultural understanding.

92
The Ann Arbor Public Schools,

since the early

1970s, have jointly, with the University of Michigan,
been requiring all student teachers to have taken a m i n i ­
m u m of three noneduc atio n courses w hich are directed
toward the study of cultures other than their own.
Equivalencies for these courses can be arranged if the
student has had experiences outside his own culture which
are considered acceptable by the Ann Arbor Schools and
the Univ ers ity of Michigan.

This program was the result

of the Ann Arbor Schools receiving a federal grant for
mu ltic ultural education and working with the University
of Mich iga n in its develo pme nt and implementation.

An

interesting result w hich occurred during the first
several years of the pro gra m was the fact that the stu­
dent teachers were m o r e adept at dealing with m u l t i ­
cultural education than were their supervising teachers.
This uncomfor tab le situation was remedied through some
m ulticu ltu ral inservice for the supervising teachers
(Roderick:

15-51 to 15-56).

Other Mi chigan Teach er Train ing Institutions have
recognized the nec essi ty of devel opi ng programs or p r o ­
gra m components dire cted to multicult ural education.
Michiga n State University's Mott Program required student
teachers to wor k in an inner city setting
TenEyck

(5-18)

(Kennedy:

12-25).

says that with help from a recently formed

Latin Am er ic an Counci l in Grand Rapids,

Grand Val ley

State College is no w putting mor e of its education

93
students into bilingual programs.
College,

says,

Sutton, of Hillsdale

"As of the present time, deliberate efforts

are being ma de to prepare people for teaching in inner
city schools or teaching in areas where bilingual e d u ­
cation is needed"

(9-26).

Adrian College's Moeckel says,

"We are placing more of our students farther distances
away.

We offer inner city associate

in Toledo,

. . . East Detroit,

[student]

and Sylvania,

Sullivan says that Nazare th College's
cation"

teaching

Ohio"

(9-67).

"Concepts in E d u ­

course contains components directed at multi-

cu lturalism and sexism

(10-61).

Slabodian

(15-2)

menti ons

the fact that M adon na College arranges visitations and
discus sio ns for its education students at a var iet y of
private schools,
Jewish,

including Roman Catholic, Lutheran,

and Baptist institutions,

somewhat different

thereby addressing a

facet of multic ult ural education.

Also, Madon na encourages at least one student teaching
contact wi th a popu lation which is culturally different
from that of the student teacher.
not available twenty years ago.

Th ese experiences were
Potts

(6-45 to 6-50)

says

that the teacher ed uc atio n de partment at Aquinas College
recognizes and co ncen tra tes on the importance of human
relations:

"We wa nt our student teachers to be mor e

familiar with

. . . teach in g in an inner city situation."

Aquinas Coll ege lets the student decide wh ether or not
he will select an inner city setting in w h ich to do his
student teaching.

Potts goes on to say that student

94
teachers enter training "with some educational or social
stimuli and some needs and some purpose for doing the
kind of teaching that they do and you can't always ferret
that out and say that this has been a reason."
in response to the question,

"Would,

perhaps,

This was
civil

rights or deseg reg atio n have had any effect on student
teaching evaluation?"
Possible Societal Influences
Alt ho ugh some value may have been recognized in
mul tic ultural education thirty years ago and earlier,
very little was done in this dir ection because no unified
social impetus was evident.

In 19 54, however,

the Supreme

Court order to de segregate the schools brought about
upheavals in school pop ulations and threw together st u ­
dents from differe nt cultural environments..

The effects

of the Supreme Court order grew when in 1957 President
Eise nho wer enforced the order by sending federal troops
into Little Rock;

in 1962, when a federal judge ordered

an end to segregation in New Orleans;

and in 1965, when

the Unit ed States Office of Edu cat ion announced that it
would withh old federal aid from school di stricts whic h
continue to practice segregation,

and later from those

whic h refuse to adopt cross- dis tri ct busing.
Evidence indicating a rela tionship betwee n school
desegrega tio n and change in teacher edu cation is supplied
by a number of Mich igan educators.

Snider says that

95
des egre gat ion has had a considerable effect on teachers
and on teacher preparation

(16-9).

Go udreault

(11-25)

says that various civil rights mov eme nts have brought
educational needs into the public eye.

McCar ley says

that dese gre gati on was a major cause of change in student
teacher evaluation and had considerable impact on the
schools

(1-45).

Later

(1-47)

he mention s the 1967 Hobson-

Ha nson Decision, dec laring tracking unconstitutional.
Until that time,

says McCarley,

In Washington, D.C., they were tracking the black
kids into the skill trades and the better white
kids into academic subjects, and once you'd get on
the track you wouldn 't be changed. . . . That would
affect a student teacher's experience because if
he was assigned to a supervising teacher that was
in the lower track, then he or she woul d have quite
a different experience than what he would have if
he were in the advanced classes.
Further evidence supporting a relation shi p between
school de segregation and the emerging emphasis on m u l t i ­
cultural education indicates that different kinds of
forces have been at wo rk in dif fere nt types of de mographic
environments.

Large m e tr opolitan areas, where the highest

concentrations of ethnic mino rit ies are located,
responded to shifting population masses directly,

have
ini­

tiating many programs w hich have state and/or federal
financial backing in an attempt to achieve racial balance
and to ease the diffic ult ies pre cip ita ted by these shifts.
Here, traditions involving overt and defact o segregation
are crumbling in the face of a society w h ich has become

96
mobile,

both through technology and newly evolved social

patterns,

such as desegregation.

Smaller communities have also felt the effects of
this change, but in some cases have responded through d i f ­
ferent channels.

An example is Central Michi gan U n i ­

versity's Intern Progr am which was in operation during
the 1960s

(Blue:

2-41 to 2-47).

Under this program,

Central Michigan attempted to place student teachers

in

diverse cultural settings, but it was not par ticularly
successful

in securing urban settings.

Blue says:

At that time, especially, cities were not innovative
. . . [or] as receptive to change . . . there were
a lot of suburban school districts just growing, and
ma ny of them were innovative.
They had no tradition,
and so the idea of doing things differently, and
wit h a smaller . . . [body of] decision makers [than
in a large district] they could more readily just say
"Say, this sounds like a good idea," when they talked
wi th someone from campus . . . also, "We are going to
be recognized by the University, which gives us some
degree of importance and recognition by the citizens
of the community; and . . . we don't have a tradition
to follow, our citizen ry will accept the idea, we're
i n n o v a t i v e ."
Future Implications
Teachers,

and student teachers, who can work e f f e c ­

ti vely wi th students from widely dif ferent bac kgrounds will
be more valuable to their students than those wh o cannot.
The val idit y of this statement,

plus the fact that it is

def init ely possible to train teachers to work success full y
wit h students from diverse ethnic bac kgrounds is supported
by Snider

(16-3) who says that human relations in teaching

are more easily subjected to analysis now than before.

97
It's my phil osop hy that teachers can be taught to
become teachers; if we know those identifying
qualities that a good teacher has, then we ought
to be able to apply them with any other human being
and develop that individual further, instead of
just by chance or trial or error that they become
a teacher, or they fall by the wayside and fail.
I think we've got to do a better job than we have
been in the past.
Snider says later
useful

(16-18 to 16-28)

that it is

in teacher prepar ati on programs to offer courses

wh ich are cu lturally oriented to acquaint prospective
teachers with customs and actual ways of thinking,
much as it may be
the

in so

possible, to better help them understand

students with w h o m they'll come in contact:

expect in terms of culture,

what to

customs and activities.

It

would be good for students to do their student teaching
in culturally diverse areas:
rural areas.

inner city,

suburbia,

and

Snider feels it would be both desirable and

possible to design educational experiences whi ch would

fit

into the cultural mi lieu of diverse ethnic groups by
working:
. . . more closely with the central office:
super­
visors, curric ulu m coordinators. . . . They know
pretty well of the needs of the boys and girls;
they know wha t teachers need.
But whe n they get a
teacher in C hic ago from the Midwest, Indiana, or
any nonurban setting, that has no background,
they're going to have to spend a couple of years
just getting that teacher accustomed to the school
system.
Teach ers just are not pre pare d to work in
their [culturally different] systems; I think we
can prepare them. . . . I think the job can be done.
Other aspects of various implications of m u l t i ­
cultural education are brought out by a number of Michigan
educators.

Goudre aul t

(11-19 to 11-31)

speaks of the

98
necessity, with society changing,
taining a cultural "balance"

of achieving and m a i n ­

in teacher education p ro­

grams, wit h students representing a number of ethnic
groups going into teacher education;

and with this idea,

he also perceives a need to recognize the ethnic background
of the student teacher and consider his language,
personal relationships,

inter ­

and value systems;

The coordinating teacher [supervising teacher] would
take into consideration that a [minority] student
has had a different background and that, perhaps,
an evaluation should reflect this background. . . .
I would take our usual [evaluation] form and add a
few things to it, so the coordinating teacher should
be evaluated . . . like any other teacher, but k e e p ­
ing in mind that her bac kground was different and
perhaps there was a different slant to the English
language, the speech patterns, or these kinds of
things that we like to look at in a teacher.
Go udreault adds later

(11-30)

that he feels col­

leges should draw on mino rit y students as ethnic e d u ­
cational resources.

McC a rley stresses the fact that

there are different success models for different ethnic
backgro und s

(1-51);

and Suchara mentio ns the diff iculty

of prep aring student teachers from different generations
(14-44).
shock"

This is in the direction of a form of "future

as defined by Alvin Toffler,

in his book, Future

S h o c k , and addresses an entirely new aspect of m u l t i ­
cultural education.

Mil ler

(4-54)

says that she feels

that it is very important for the student teacher to have
respect for his students and that he needs to concentrate
on devel opi ng and reinfo rcin g positive self-concepts in

99
his students.

Altho ugh this seems to be an axiomatic

rule of teaching in general,

the mu ltic ult ura l im pli­

cations are apparent.
Summary
Major Findings
1.

There is increasing recognition of the value of
a teacher wh o can work in a multicul tur al situ­
ation .

2.

Ne w mu ltic u ltural programs have been created and
existing programs have been modified in some
teacher training institutions for the purpose of
pr eparing teachers to be effective in a m u l t i ­
cultural society.

Possible Societal Influences
1.

Court decisions to de segregate schools have u l t i ­
ma tely influenced the initiation of mul tic ult ural
programs in teacher training institutions.

2.

Civil rights mo vem ent s accentuated the need for
special programs in multic ult ura l education.

3.

Large m e t ropolitan areas, where there are heavy
conc entrations of ethnic minorities,

have

responded to po pulation shifts w i t h heavily
funded programs directed at easing the d i f f i c u l ­
ties brought about by these shifts.

100
4.

Small communities have been able to initiate
mu lticultural programs through a general a t m o s ­
phere of innovation,

not having to content with

long-established traditions.
Future Implications
1.

M u lticultural education may initially generate
some role confusion,

although this will probably

be dissipated through syncretism over a long
period of time.
2.

The ability to evidence good human relations
skills and the ability to work in culturally
diverse areas will be of increasing importance
for deter mi ni ng success in student teaching.

3.

It appears possible to design educational e x p e r ­
iences appropriate for dealing with the culturally
generated values of diverse ethnic groups which
are in contact with one another.

4.

It seems advisable to strive for and ma intain a
cultural balance of teacher education students.
Changing Perceptions of Teachi ng /
Learn in g- Re la te d Roles
The time from 1956 to 1977 has seen m a n y changes

in the ways that teachers,

student teachers,

and students

perceive their roles in, and sometimes outside of,
classroom.

the

This section will be devoted to studying

101
evidence supporting and elaborating on this statement
and will also examine possible societal influences and
implications for future teacher education programs.
Supporting Data
A number of Michigan educators mention the fact
that there is now less emphasis on a student teacher's
wearing apparel,

use of language,

outside of the classroom.

Sutton

and/or social behavior
(9-42)

says,

"Appearance

is less significant a factor today than it was a decade
or two ago;

there are more different types of wearing

apparel available today."

Tibbies says,

"Teachers are

tending to look less at the person," his attire,

etc.,

and more at child orientation and interpersonal r e l at io n­
ships

(8-15).

Com ea u

(4-16)

states:

There was a change from a rather formal emphasis
on things like classroom discipline, voice, dress
. . . to a concern for how the individual [student]
teacher was functioning according to his or her own
particular teaching style and personality, and
assessment of the interaction between the way the
[student] teacher felt most comfortable with the
students themselves.
Hall says,

"Student teachers are not

in terms of dress

..."

(3-15).

[any longer]

evaluated

Hall adds that student

teachers are also no longer evalua te d in terms of language
usage and social beh av io r because we are not sure just
what constitutes acceptable social behavior by the teacher,
student teacher,

and student;

and that different norms are

applicable in rural and urban school systems.

TenEyck

102
(5-32)

says that he suspects that there is presently less

emphasis on things like the personal and social kinds of
activities,
ation.

regarding student teachers and their e v a l u ­

Hamlin feels that student teachers'

speaking

habits are no longer a focal point of evaluation as long
as the students don't write improperly or their speaking
habits aren't negatively affected

(7-47).

Another perspective regarding the decreasing
importance of student teacher attire, voice,

and personal

habits is supplied by Suchara, who says that even though
the evaluation forms still list the above criteria,

it is

generally now recognized by those who evaluate that these
qualities go with responsibility

(14-50).

This idea is

supported by Roderick, who states that student teachers
now,

as compared with those during and immediately follow­

ing the Viet Nam War,

are:

. . . much more self-directed, mu ch more concerned
about details. . . . I find them doing more on
their own. . . . I find ma ny of them now openly
not so concerned about open education and formal
education, but muc h more [the] various skills
[which are] traditionally oriented.
(15-46)
Myers says that emphasis in the late 50s and
early 60s,

as borne out by the literature of that time,

changed from personality,

creativity,

and dependability

to cl as sr oo m behavior and related items;

and self-

evaluation became gradually more important

(12-56).

Miller says that although good classroom m an agement
and control were important a generation ago,

and still

103
are,

the nature of classroom control is different now

than it was then

(4-63).

Further comments by Dr. Miller

r eg a r d i n g this point appear later in this chapter.

Rice

adds:
T here seems at this point to be a really honest
admission on the part of the student teachers that
they are student teachers, that they are learning,
there is no pretending to be something they're not;
and, consequently, there seems to be m uc h less d i f ­
ficulty with discipline, as far as student teachers
in the classroom go.
(10-37)
Pos si bl e Societal Influences
A number of changes have occurred in American
socie ty which may have precipitated changes in role p e r ­
ception of students,
1956.

teachers,

and student teachers since

Hall says:

I think that the whole change in societal attitudes
. . . is reflected in the schools and that has a
great deal to do w it h the way teachers, student
teachers, children behave. . . . The wh ole business
about students' rights has had considerable effect
upon the way schools are being operated. . . . The
shift away from the responsibility placed upon the
youngster to the responsibility placed upon the
school now has had a significant change in ed u ­
cation.
(3-19)
Hall adds that wi th the greater concern now for
students as human beings,

it is harder to student teach

b ec au se of this freedom that children have in schools.
He says that he feels the urbanization of our culture
has bred anonymity,
roles,

and that this has made discipline and classroom

management,
student

that anonymity has blurred authority

always

[teacher]

"major gauges to the success of the
in the classroom," more of a problem

104
to today's student teachers
students'

(3-29).

Suchara says that

rights are becoming an important factor

and Henricks,

also,

(14-32);

feels that recognition of students'

rights has played a part in changing educational role p e r ­
ceptions

(6-32).

of teachers'

In addition,

he mentions recognition

rights as being influential in this area.

Miller says that now there is more "emphasis upon the
individual and respect for who a child is as muc h as who
an adult is"

(4-69).

Miller cites other possible relationships between
social change and changing perceptions in teaching/learningrelated roles:
There's much less respect for the teacher. . . . I
don't think that kids have any fear of teachers n o w ­
adays. . . . Children are allowed into the adult
world at a much earlier age, and their homes are
much more equipped for their parent's pal than they
are for their child.
They grow up sooner.
(4-64)
Wh en asked about the visibility of rites of p a s ­
sage in American society, Miller replied,

"...

they've

never been as visible as they've been in a lot of other
cultures.

. . . We never really had them,

so I don't

think there was ever a time w h e n our kids m o ve d from
being children to being adults."

She does me ntion the

driving age of sixteen and the drinking age as being p o s ­
sible rites of passage in A merican society.

She feels

that children in societies w hi ch have visible rites of
passage have fewer problems growing up:

105
I just don't think that our kids have a chance to
be kids. . . . I don't think a teacher has much
opportunity to really create a respectful, warm,
caring kind of relationship w h ic h I could do ten
years ago in a sixth grade classroom. . . . I
know there's a cause . . . possibly the pe rm is ­
siveness of the 50s. . . . I think parents are
just reacting to their own upbringing which may
have been very traditional, very staid, very mu ch
"Keep the child in his place, children are seen,
not heard."
We really try, I think, to include
our children more in our lives than we used to.
Miller adds that she feels
drome'

"the

'Barbie Doll S y n ­

and the mass media have made a great difference in

making our children much more aware at an earlier age,
that teaching has to be different"
Suchara says,

so

(4-70).

"the whole development of the youth

culture and the problems they have faced in growing up,"
has had its effect in the teacher/student/student teacher
relationships and she mentions the student's ability to
cope w i t h drugs and alcohol as touching on student teacher
preparation

(14-35).

She says later:

The young people today are of the young people today,
and they are better able to cope with the youth of
today than any of us who preceded them, because we
can study if but we can never become a part of the
youth of today.
We can never quite internalize what
they can. . . . They've never known it to be any
different, this has been their life style, they've
grown up with people like [today's youth] around them.
(14-39)
Suchara goes on to say that it is definitely
n ecessary for student teachers to cope more wit h change
now than it was a generation ago.
the point that,

She also brings out

as in the troubled 60s, but not earlier,

students are still questioning authority,

curriculum,

techniques of implementation,

rules and regulations;

but that today they are actually seeking solutions to
their questions,

rather than simply rebelling.

She feels

that parents who were brought up during the World War
years and Depression era have shielded their children from
reality,

the real challenge of life;

children were hurt badly.

and in doing so,

the

Now these grown children are

d oing the same thing to their offspring and hurting them.
The tendency has been to assume children w ould a u t o m a t i ­
cally aspire to their parents'

goals without having to go

through the harshness of reality
tinues,

(14-40).

Suchara c o n ­

stating that the mother role in the American family

got badly m ixed up after World War II, at w hich time the
mot he r began competing unknowingly with her daughter,
ing to act and look like her.

try­

The parent was complimented

on her good looks as a consequence of the mass media's
glorification of youth in our consumer-based society,
w hile a generation of awkward teenagers suffered from poor
self-concept

(14-46).

Again,

this indicated a blurring

of rites of passage wit h concomitant role confusion.
Rice says that the role of the student teacher in
the cognitive and affective dimensions of education is
determined by the social/political/educat ional thrust of
the time

(10-36).

She feels that Sputnik made us much

more content oriented.

She says that education seems to

be the scapegoat of society,

and societal pressures on

107
education are often backlash stemming from educational
programs condemned by society.

Later

(10-43 to 10-49)

Rice expresses her views on changing perceptions of
authority and how education is affected,

regarding the

Roman Catholic Church and the family:
Clearly there is a different view of authority today
than there was twenty years ago . . . within the
family and therefore within the schools, within the
Church . . . the liberalization of the Catholic
Church's policies, and this has had an effect on
the student teaching, at least to the extent that
we spent time [in the past] trying, for example,
to teach the kids "magic methods of discipline."
We don't pretend to do that to them any more.
We
simply say, "Discipline takes three to five years
to acquire.
Here are sixteen different things you
can try, think about them."
. . . and that may
have made a difference. . . . The student teachers
clearly consider themselves to be student teachers;
they're not so hung up on the authority thing, and
I'm sure that that can be traced back to just the
conceptions of authority in society in general.
(10-43 to 10-49)
She goes on to say that she feels these changes in concept
of authority roles were brought about by:
. . . a lot of things.
I think technology did some
of it because we got to the point where we built
m achines that could do more than we could do, and
I think that does something to people, p s y c h o l o g i ­
cally.
I think the mo bi li ty of society did some­
thing of it.
If you don't have the stability of
having the same people be authorities in your life,
then you start to not have quite so absolute a
notion of authority; and I think that communications
ma y have done something with it.
We seem to have
gotten to the point where w e 're so m u c h m o r e aware
of the faults of others, people in authority, like
the whole thing wi th the revisionists' history on
John Kennedy . . . fifteen years ago.
With that
has come a real questioning. . . . That has got to
make a difference in how we as a whole conceive o u r ­
selves.
We're able to separate the person and the
position; and that's probably fairly critical for
kids who want to be teachers.
If they get themselves

108
so tied up wit h the position that they have no room
left to be themselves, to be a person, they're
going to shatter, that's just not going to work.
(10-46)
Snider says,
aren't producing,

regarding why students

(pupils)

today

that they:

. . . are playing a beautiful game, probably c o m ­
pletely unaware of what they're doing, on who's in
charge, who has the authority. . . . I think these
children are simply playing a nonverbal game with
the school system, and they've been wi nning as far
as not producing or not performing; and here the
school has just tolerated their presence in class
and m o v ed them from one grade to another, hoping
that some day they will grow up.
Well, of course,
t h e y ’re not going to grow up until they're in a
situation that forces them to, and that's when they
get on the outside of school influence.
(16-25)
Other factors contributing toward changing role
perceptions in the class ro om include greater specificity
of objectives,

greater frequency of observation,

uniformity of evaluation

(Myers:

12-56);

to address explicit role-oriented goals,

greater

programs designed
such as Wayne

State's recognition of the importance of ethnic integrity
in language usage

(Suchara:

14-17);

and Aquinas'

st re ss ­

ing the importance of self-concept and values in human
relations

(Potts:

6-46).

Future Implications
Several of the educators interviewed made p r e ­
dictions based on changes in role perception w hich are
currently taking place.

Suchara says,

some of the more timid individuals,

"I believe that

less experienced in

terms of street life, will choose not to go into teaching
today, who probably w o ul d be fine teachers"

(14-36).

She

109
also says that she is pleasantly surprised at the large
number of men who are becoming elementary and special
education teachers.

She feels that this will have a

strong effect on role perception by children.
supported by Sutton

(9-18) who states that with mo re men

going into elementary education,

there is greater o p p o r ­

tunity for children to learn male roles,
with male roles,

This is

and how to relate

from the modeling behavior w hich they

can observe.
Roderick says that the University of Michigan
encourages student teachers to better know their own
strengths and weaknesses for two reasons:

it will be

important in the classroom and in seeking employment
(15-40).

He also indicates that the student teachers

are mu ch more self-aware.

The present concern by the

student teachers in the highly competitive job market
and by the faculty wi th dwind li ng teacher preparation
enrollments has resulted in more time being available and
spent on c on centration on self-evaluation.

Wa yne State

Uni ve rs it y is stressing interaction wit h others,

role

perception and feeling perception are emphasized in an
effort to develop an awareness of and a sensitivity to
self-perception of other people.

A tool being used toward

this end is the Flanders Interaction Analysis
14-58).

Potts,

concept,

says,

in d i s cu ss i ng Aquinas'

(Suchara:

stress on self-

"Our student teaching p r og ra m and, h o p e ­

fully, others are be co m in g m u c h more humane"

(6-48).

110
By increasing our knowledge of learning and of the
importance of the learning environment, we may,

through

ma tc hi ng of cognitive modalities of teacher and student,
indeed be able to create,

implement,

and maintain more

humane education programs.
Summary
M ajor Findings
1.

There is now less emphasis on wearing apparel,
voice,

2.

and social behavior of the student teacher

We are no longer sure just what constitutes
acceptable behavior.

3.

Student teachers now are more self-directed than
they were a generation ago.

4.

Student teachers are now more inclined to admit
they are,

indeed,

student teachers;

there is less

pretense of authority.
Possible Societal Influences
1.

Because of recent emphases on students'

rights,

the students no w have more freedom.
2.

There is now m u c h less respect for the teacher.

3.

Children are no w admitted into the adult world
at an earlier age while,

at the same time, being

shielded from the real challenge of life.

Ill
4.

Rites of passage are not as visible in

the United

States as they are in other societies, where
children seem to grow up more easily.
5.

Societal pressures on education are often b a c k ­
lash stemming from educational programs which
have been condemned by society.

6.

The mass m edia have helped generate and perpetuate
a youth culture, which has resulted in

the b l u r ­

ring of previously distinct traditional societal
roles.
7.

Technology,

urbanization, mob il i ty of society,

and anonymity of authority roles have all affected
teacher education.
Future Implications
1.

Future teachers must have
and be both realistic and

strong self-concepts
humane in order to

effectively ma na g e a learning environment with
increasing pressures impinging on it.
2.

More men are entering elementary
cation.

This will have a

and special edu­

strong influence on

future role perceptions of today's school children.
3.

More self-evaluation seems imminent.

4.

T here appears to be a move toward matching t e a ch ­
ing styles wi th learning styles.

112
5.

The blurring of traditional societal roles could
alter mu ch of the existing social structure,
necessitating a complete revision of education.
Student Teaching and the Job Market
It is becoming increasingly more difficult for

teachers to find employment.

This fact was borne out by

all twenty-seven educators interviewed, twenty-one of whom
will be quoted,
section.

either directly or indirectly,

in this

Because of the surplus of teachers and the

public demand for educational accountability,

a close

look is being taken at the quality of prospective teachers
about to enter the profession.
trators)

Employers

(school ad m i n i s ­

are, because of the current over-supply of

teachers,

in a position to set high employment standards;

and colleges and universities have responded by raising
the level of their evaluative criteria.

There is no need

to expand on the fact that the job market for teachers
is badly overcrowded;

it is obvious.

In this section teacher education and the e d u ­
cation employment situation will be examined,

possible

related societal influences will be explored,

and future

implications will be discussed.
Supporting Data
In recent years there has been a sharp decline
in enrollments in teacher education
2-31,

1-31,

11-34,

13-10,

7-56).

(4-51,

15-41,

5-57,

A number of reasons can

113
be cited for this fact,

among which is greater public

awareness of the teacher surplus through increased use
of the mass media.

Prospective teachers now find it

necessary to compete vigorously for jobs
3-67,

10-63).

Because of this,

students eliminate themselves

(8-58,

12-60,

some would-be education

(4-51,

9-29,

1-31,

7-56),

either not enrolling in teacher education or becoming
discouraged and leaving college prior to graduation.
Snider says,

"Superintendents and principals

require better prepared teachers than they have in the
past," and adds that pressure is now on the colleges to
d evelop activities and modules that will identify c o m p e ­
tencies for the prospective teacher and provide him with
experiences which will enhance his teaching skills

(15-70).

Colleges and universities are now responding to these
pressures in a number of ways.

Wayne State University

reorganized its entire teacher preparation program,

ulti­

mately developing the Interdisciplinary Teacher Education
concept.

The entire community was involved in developing

the new program:
college personnel,

parents,

teachers,

teachers'

unions.

administrators,
Another Michigan

teacher training institution w hi c h reorganized its p r o ­
gram was Madonna College,

introducing competency-based

teacher education and increasing the number of required
field experiences.

This was in response to the "knowl­

edge that if we were going to have teachers competing in
a market,

that these teachers would have to be

'better

than'

the m ajority of the other teachers out there;

and

feeling that you could only acquire that betterness by
actually practicing the skill"

(14-66).

Another school

which is now requiring additional field experience is
A drian College.

Moeckel says that Adrian helps its

prospective teachers compete more effectively for e m p l o y ­
ment by giving them more pre-student teaching and longer
student teaching experiences

(9-64).

He adds that Adrian

tries to arrange dual field experiences for student
teachers by obtaining placements in two different grades,
but not at the same time.

Moeckel feels this will help

the prospective teacher be more marketable and agrees
that it will give him a better longitudinal understanding
of children

(9-70).

This mul ti pl e grade concept is also

employed by Calvin Co llege

(Hendricks:

5-57).

Aquinas

College has responded to pressure to change with a m u l t i ­
cultural emphasis
University,
College,

(Potts:

6-49)

as have Wayne State

the Uni ve rs i ty of Michigan,

Grand Valley State

and a number of other Michigan schools.

Snider

feels it is important not only to deal with m u l t i c u l tu ra li sm
in an ethnic sense but also in a rural-urban-suborban d i m e n ­
sion :
. . . when they [school administrators] get a teacher
in C hi cago from the Midwest, Indiana, that has no
background, they're going to have to spend a couple
of years just getting that teacher accustomed to the
school system.
Tea ch er s just are not prepared to
work in their systems.
I think we can prepare them.
(16-27)

Other responses to the need for change have come from
Michigan State University:

Kennedy says,

"We developed

the Cluster Program which was designed to give students
broader experience in the schools."

He also cites the

Mott Program, which was developed to help with inner city
experience,

and the infusion of competency-based teacher

education in the overall program to develop necessary
teaching skills

(12-25).

Another important example of

an institution's response to the need for better teacher
preparation is stated by Roderick, w h o says that the U n i ­
versity of Michigan wants its students to know their own
strengths and weaknesses,

to be realistic in terms of

self-expectations.

he feels, will be helpful,

This,

in securing a job and in teaching

both

(15-41).

The nature of student teacher evaluation forms has
changed in response to today's crowded job market.

Mil l er

says that students at Hope College requested to be lettergraded,

as opposed to pass/fail,

and demand

(4-49).

in deference to supply

Corn is h says that students at the

University of Detroit wi sh to go to a letter grading s y s ­
tem,

feeling an "A" w o ul d be more beneficial to them than

w ou ld a "pass,"

in terms of today's job m a r k e t

(6-64).

Hendricks feels that the narrative portion of the student
teaching evaluation form is increasing in importance
as a means of di sc ri minating between job candidates,
accenting the uniqueness of a given candidate:

for

116
example, mention might be made that one candidate can
play the piano or that another is capable of working with
a photography club.

In the past,

states Hendricks,

society:
. . . assumed that anyone that w ould go into the
teaching profession at that low pay scale was a
dedicated person; and what they really were worried
about was whether or not that person was competent.
T oday that has shifted around a little bit because
society does a little better job of rewarding
teachers for their efforts.
And now, in connection
with that, you find that they are assuming the co m ­
petence because of certification requirements; and
now they're looking over here in the fine-lined
comments to see whether the person is dedicated.
(6-15)
This idea is further substantiated by Snider, who says:
A lot of colleges of education have now suggested and
implemented a c r e d e n t i a l . p o r t f o l i o , and this gives a
better picture of the student's evaluation because
it's more of a self-evaluation.
Students put in
there what they think is important. . . . W e have a
requirement that the students prepare a credential
portfolio.
Hopefully, then they will use it when
they are interviewing; and we 've had some feedback
of excellent results. . . . It focuses the employer's
attention upon the teacher, ma ki ng it simpler for
the administrator and the teaching prospect to deal
with specifics, w i t h recent experiences.
(16-30)
Central Mic hi ga n University has responded to the
need for change in recent years wit h changes in its
e valuation form.

M c C a rl ey mentions the criterion,

"teaching potential," being added to the form

(1-9);

and also describes a grading continuum of one to six
w hich was used on the forms.

The thing about this,

McCarley:
. . . that we objected to, and the thing that I
really did not like, was that the job market, as
far as teachers were concerned, was beginning to

says

117
get rather tight, about 1972.
And administrators
■would call the Placement Service and say, "I want
to interview ten prospective teachers, say in
social studies; send me all your 4's and 5's."
So by eliminating the numbering system in 1975,
the hiring officials were then forced to read what
was said about the student.
(1-16)
Blue m entions the same situation at Central
Michigan,

agrees wit h McCarley,

and adds that the number,

on the evaluation continuum, was often a function of the
evaluator as mu ch as or more than of the student teacher;
and that the elimination of the numbering system reduced
this subjectiveness

(2-61).

One more point regarding the

evaluation form in terms of the job market needs to be
brought out.

Sullivan says that,

administrators who do the hiring,

as stated by school
the student teaching

evaluation form is first in importance in getting a job,
and the interview of the prospective teacher is second
(10-58).
The difficult employment situation in education
has resulted in a general raising of standards by
employers,

supervising teachers,

and universities.

and by the colleges

As m en ti on e d above,

Snider says,

"Superintendents and principals require better prepared
teachers than they have in the past"

(15-7 0).

Sutton

says that the surplus of student teachers has caused the
supervising teachers to be less generous n o w in appraising
student teaching performance

(9-5).

Goudreault says of

Olivet College's teacher education program,

"We have

118
established criteria for admission into the teacher
training program which make it a little more difficult
now than before to enter the teacher training program
as a career"

(11-34).

Elkin,

of Albion College,

concurs,

"With the demand for teachers falling off drastically,
there's probably a higher standard required of students
now"

(12-4);

and Miller says that Hope College screens

their prospective teachers,

both before and after student

teaching, because of the competitive job market

(4-49).

An additional problem has come into existence as
a direct consequence of employment in education being so
difficult to obtain.

Teacher unions have,

in some

instances, made it hard to place prospective teachers
in field settings;

and in other cases,

have tended to

discourage young people from entering the teaching p r o ­
fession.

Sutton says that local education associations

have influenced classroom teachers in not accepting stu­
dent teachers;

that education associations take a stance

that "there is no need to push someone through who is not
competent"

(9-5).

Sickmiller says that local education

associations have imposed a limitation of acceptance of
student teachers from Spring Ar bor College since about
1974 .
This has changed our approach a bit in terms of how
we seek placements. . . . I think it is related to
the tight job market. . . . There's also the question
of teacher power or, m o r e specifically, union power.
. . . If there are all kinds of certified teachers
out there looking for jobs, it certainly does not
put the union in as strong a position as they would

119
be if there were not prospective teachers available.
. . . It certainly has had a direct bearing on the
number of students who seek admittance to the
teacher education program and who, in turn, seek
student teaching placements; and it's had a direct
b ea ring on how we go about our work of placement;
it has had a bearing on who supervises, who is
w il l i n g to; and a whole variety of things like that.
(8-48)
S ickmiller adds that very few people are now
t raining for teaching as an alternate profession because
of the job market.

Blue says that a large factor in the

d em is e of Central Mi chigan University's award-winning
Intern Program was that with the ov er-supply of teachers,
the local education associations didn't want noncertified
teachers employed when certified ones were available
Suchara states that at Wayne State University,

(2-31).

a major

r eason teacher education enrollments are down since 1974
is a rather forceful effort by teachers,
unions,

led by teacher

to discourage university and college students from

b e c o m i n g teachers

(13-10).

It is important to stress that

this force was not peculiar to teacher unions.
says that by about 1972,

Goudreault

"many institutions of higher e d u ­

cation wi th teacher training programs were d is co uraging
teachers from going into teaching because of the oversupply"

(11-34).

Possible Societal Influences
There is no simple explanation as to why the job
m ar k e t in education has been so crowded during the past
few years.

The p ro blem is highly complex.

In the years

120
following World War II the United States went through a
period of high birth rate.

As soon as the children born

during this period reached school age there was a teacher
shortage, which lasted for approximately thirteen years.
During this time the G.I. Bill,

the accelerating economy,

and the heightened public awareness of the value of e d u ­
cation made it possible for many Americans to get a c o l ­
lege education.

M a n y of these people decided to enter

the teaching profession.
Population shifts began to take place:
south to north,
to urban areas.

from east to west and midwest,

from
from rural

Small school districts consolidated and

became large districts,

often employing mo re staff members

than the combined original districts.

New districts

sprang up where none had previously existed.

The p o p u ­

lation continued to grow and mo re teachers were needed.
Colleges and universities expanded facilities and programs
to accommodate burg eo ni n g enrollments in teacher education,
and gradually the gap closed.

In the m i d d l e and late

sixties a balance of teachers and students was achieved.
At about this time the birth rate began to level
off.

Increased knowledge of, and technological advances

in contraceptive methods,

as well as personal choices to

have fewer children for economic,

social,

or other reasons

are cited as factors contributing to the declining birth
rate

(Doneth:

3-67,

and Hendricks:

5-57).

At a p p r o x i ­

ma te ly the same time the American taxpayer had evidently

121
reached the saturation point as far as school millage
and bond issues were concerned.

W i t h all of the new

school building programs which had come into being in
recent years,

a limit was finally reached.

The taxpayer

rebelled and stopped voting more of his paycheck to be
spent on the schools.

In addition to this,

the student

unrest of the sixties had m ad e the taxpayer wary of how
the money he had already voted for school use was being
spent.

Suddenly there was an overwhelming public demand

for educational accountability.
Meanwhile,

the colleges and universities had

geared up for great ly expanded programs in teacher e d u ­
cation and were beginning to graduate teachers at a
faster rate than school needs could accommodate.

A

serious teacher surplus had resulted.
Future Implications
It is difficult to speculate on what future
effect today's job ma r k e t will have on education.

One

prediction w hich seems safe is that there will be jobs
available in wha te ve r programs are funded,

and a growing

emphasis in special education appears imminent
13-16).

(Suchara:

So much of the future education job market

depends on future demographic trends.

From what can be

learned in the preceding pages of this section,

it

appears that colleges and universities do respond to
changing employment needs.

If de mographic trends and

122
educational needs can be accurately predicted,

then

teacher training programs could be predicted on these
predictions.

Sutton says:

If the contemporary surplus of applicants for a va i l­
able positions continues, I presume that greater
demands can be m a d e upon prospective teachers.
For
years there's been talk, nationally, about going to
some sort of an internship program . . . whereby
first year teachers would be placed under the
supervision of supervising teachers within [a given]
school system.
(13-42)
Such a program would be beneficial not only as far as
teacher training w ould be concerned,

but also because

of the increased input and feedback wit h current e d u ­
cational practice.
As today's current job market in education stands,
one optimistic point emerges.

Mc Ca r le y says that teachers

who go through teacher preparation programs now are highly
m otivated to become teachers
with dwindling enrollments,

(1-31).

Roderick says that

colleges now have more time

to concentrate on turning out better quality students
(15-41).

Sutton says that those who do go into teaching

now usually really w a n t to teach and w or k at their a s s i g n ­
ments more di ligently

(9-29).

Hamlin feels that the

tightness of the ma r k e t has produced better quality
teachers

(7-56).

Finally,

Sickmiller says of the impact

of the job market:
As a result, you tend to get the students preparing
to teach who really want to teach, so it has sort of
a self-selection effect. . . . Sometimes a commitment
level is indicative of the quality of job, other
things being equal.
(8-53)

123
Summary
Major Findings
1.

There has recently been a sharp decline in en r o l l ­
ments in teacher education as a result of a
saturated job market in education.

2.

Because it is now necessary for teachers to be
b etter prepared to meet the demands of today's
highly competitive job market,

teacher training

institutions are responding with new teacher
preparation programs.
3.

Grading procedures in student teaching have become
a function of the job market,

and some colleges

and universities are requiring their education
students to prepare a credential folio so as to
better present their unique strengths to p r o s p e c ­
tive employers.
4.

Te acher unions,
stituents,

have,

in an effort to protect their con­
in some cases, made it difficult

to place student teachers;

and in other instances

they have tended to discourage prospective
teachers from entering the profession.
Possible Societal Influences
T h e teacher surplus is apparently a result of a
number of social phenomena;

124
1.

Changing birth rate in the United States

2.

Population shifts

3.

Teacher training institutions expanding their
facilities

4.

Negative public reaction to increasing school
taxes

5.

Public demand for educational accountability

Future Implications
1.

It appears that jobs will be available in whatever
programs are funded;

special education is one such

program.
2.

If demographic trends and educational needs can
be more accurately predicted,

direction of teacher

preparation programs could be predicated on these
projections.

Also,

criteria for these programs

could be set so as to attract only the most
highly mo ti vated students.
Asses si ng Student Teaching Performance
Muc h of this study is devoted to an examination
of changes in a number of components which make up and/or
lead to the development of the criteria by which student
teachers are evaluated.

In this section,

the me ans of

assessment and formats of evaluation will be discussed,

125
possible impacts of societal change will be examined,
and future implications will be enumerated.
Supporting Data
In the past few years a number of Michigan teacher
training institutions have gone from the use of a letter
grade or numerical continuum for evaluating their student
teachers to a narrative form of evaluation,

accompanied

by either a credit/no credit or a pass/fail rating.
Included in a list of these schools are Ferris State
College

(Doneth:

(Cornish:

6-62),

3-62) , the U ni versity of Detroit
Olivet College

Central Michigan U n iv er si ty
3-44),

Calvin College

College

(Sickmiller:

(Kennedy:
13-50).

12-23),

(Goudreault:

(Blue:

(Hendricks:

11-51),

2-12, and Wotring:
6-10), Spring Arbor

8-33), Michigan State University

and Wayne State Uni ve rs it y

(Suchara:

A number of reasons was cited for these changes.

It was felt that B's w ou ld be damaging to the prospective
teacher in terms of today's highly competitive job market
(Doneth:

3-67; Suchara:

13-50).

Grades were not felt

adequate in accurately reflecting the student teacher's
strengths and weaknesses,

nor did they provide signifi­

cant descriptions to hiring administrators
3-44;

Hendricks:

6-10;

Sickmiller:

form provides better communication
The students themselves,

8-33).

(Wotring:
A narrative

(Goudreault:

11-51).

desiring m o r e program input,

126
requested the change from letter grades
The old forms were too bulky
Interestingly,

(Cornish:

(Sickmiller:

6-62).

8-33).

during the past five or six years

there has been a mo ve in the opposite direction on the
part of several teacher training institutions in Michigan:
Nazareth College,

to refine the evaluation instrument for

NCATE accreditation

(Sullivan: 10-53);

versity of Detroit,

the students feel an A is better,

terms of the job market,

and at the U n i ­

than a "pass"

(Cornish:

in

6-65).

Finally, Moeckel says that Adrian College has used letter
grades all along, now supported by a narrative evaluation.
The rationale for this is that use of letter grades
motivates the student and "is a mo re explicit way of
stating the level of achievement that's pretty hard to
get across with just paragraphs

..."

(9-60 and 10-8).

Since 1956, educators have become increasingly
aware of a need for greater specificity of goal i d e n ti fi ­
cation in teaching.

This has resulted in the initiation

of competency-based teacher education in schools of e d u ­
cation throughout the United States.

As early as 1960,

the AST yearbook mad e numerous references to competencybased teacher education

(Myers:

12-55).

That its

impact on student teaching eval ua ti on in M ichigan has
been profound cannot be disputed;

at least seventeen of

the educators interviewed m e nt i o n e d some facet of this
means of preparing teachers.

It is not within the scope

127
of, or the intent of,

this study to examine competency-

based teacher education in detail, but it will be useful
to provide examples of some of the ideas expressed on
this subject by various Michigan educators.
Doneth says that Ferris State College is e mp l o y ­
ing competency-based teacher education to some extent in
response to a perceived need for more objectivity

(3-66).

Comeau states that competency-based teacher education and
the entire accountability movement are a function of a
growing technology

(4-33).

Miller says that greater

specificity now exists in evaluation

(4-45);

and Hamlin

m entions the advantage of goals now being stated in
advance for student teachers
cation is a must,
level"

(7-44),

that skill i dentifi­

and that there is still too muc h "gut

student teacher evaluation going on

(7-12).

Sick­

m iller feels that the public demand for accountability
has caused teacher training institutions to respond with
c ompetency-based teacher education:
If we're going to hold people [teachers and student
teachers] accountable, we m u s t specify clearly what
it is they're to do, or what it is they're to know,
or what skills they're to have, or to what level
they are to perform. . . . People are searching
diligently for m et hods of evaluating student teachers
on a competency base.
(8-58)
Suchara states that t eaching skills mu st be identified and
competency-based teacher education is doing this

(14-55).

S labodian says that in 197 0 a competency-based teacher
education evaluation format was introduced at Madonna

128
College, when the state of Michigan supplied the College
with funds to develop and implement a competency-based
teacher education reading program

(14-66 and 15-8).

Roderick states that educators are now making mo r e spe­
cific statements of desired outcomes

(15-38);

and Snider

says that Saginaw Valley State College is turning to the
identification of skills within a given competency and
that even more specificity is needed

(15-70 to 16-3).

McCarley feels that the use of competency-based teacher
education now is perhaps an outgrowth of an earlier time,
such as the 50s, when new teachers just coming out of
college were often not competent and skills needed d e f i n ­
ing

(1-33);

and Hall says that there is currently a shift

in emphasis from knowledge to teaching skills

(3-11).

Wotri ng says of Central Michigan University's evaluation
form,

"Our change in evaluation form is concurrent with

the movement in competency-based teacher education,"

and

he adds that co mpetency-based teacher education often
clarifies expectations for teachers
states,

(3-46).

Moeckel

"Recently w e ' v e seen heavier stress on the

behavioral objective competency"

(9-61) .

Suchara says

that a number of years ago W a yn e State University d e v ­
eloped departmental lists of competencies,
of competency-based teacher education
Kennedy mentions,

an early form

(13-4 4) ; and

"the competency-based program, w hich

129
was de signed to teach them

[the student teachers]

more

of the skills and abilities they'll need to be su ccess­
ful in teaching"

(12-25).

There has been some effort among Michigan ed u ­
cators to work toward standardizing student teacher
evaluation in this state.

Goudreault mentions the fact

that the deans and directors of teacher education in
Michigan have attempted to devise an evaluation form
beneficial to all colleges and universities;
says,

"We do copy from each other:

get an evaluation form from

and he also

for example, we'll

'Institution X,'

and from

that form I m a y find something that applies to our own
. . . phi lo s op hy and practice here in the department"
(11-16).

He adds later,

"I do think the State Department

of Ed uc ation needs to play a larger role in establishing
new, more modern guidelines for teacher education i nsti­
tutions.

. . . The w h ol e manual of

should be revised."
in 1939

(11-62).

[teacher]

certification

This manual was m os t recently revised

Goudreault also feels that NCATE a c c r e d i ­

tation provides a small impetus toward standardization of
m in im um criteria

(11-42).

Suchara explains how the teacher

training institutions in Wayne,
Counties have,

since 1974,

Oakland,

and Ma co mb

all used the same evaluation

forms, w h i ch were developed at that time as the result of
wo rk done by the councils of these counties
14-56).

(14-18 and

Suchara feels that another factor contributing

130
to standardizing evaluation is the Michigan Education
A ssociation task force report,

completed about 1971,

which specifies recommendations for teachers

(14-6).

Myers states that there has been a recent thrust in
teacher education toward maki ng all teachers similar
(12-57);

and Slabodian says there seems to be more

standardization of student teaching now

(15-13).

During the 7 0s, there has been a movement toward
student teacher evaluation becoming more open.
says,

regarding student teachers,

Tibbie

"The student himself

is much more aware of the wa y he's being evaluated.
If there are weaknesses,

. . .

they should know what they are

so they can work and improve on those things and further
strengthen the strengths they have."

Tibbies adds that

this concern for open evaluation wasn't as prevalent in
the 50s when evaluation wasn't as important because of
the shortage of qualified teachers

(8-17).

Doneth says:

Prior to 1971, here at Ferris, many of the e v a l u ­
ation instruments were not seen by the students.
The form was filled out by the supervising teacher,
was sent to us, we sent it over to Placement.
The
young individual w e n t out to interview for a job,
never knew what it [his evaluation] said, and went
on numerous interviews before finally someone
clued him in that maybe the evaluation was n e g a ­
tive.
Since 1972 we have not had that problem
because the students know what's there.
Doneth adds that there is more communication now among
the supervising teacher,
teacher

(4-0) .

the college,

and the student

Moeckel states that evaluation is more

open now; both the supervising teacher and the college

131
coordinator openly discuss the evaluation wit h the stu­
dent teacher.

The principal of the school where the

student teaching is done also signs the forms and may
add a statement on the form if he wishes,

adding another

dimension to the openness of the evaluation

(10-4).

Roderick says that because there is now more conferencing
and working together among the student teacher,
vising teacher,

college coordinator,

su per­

and, perhaps,

a

school administrator, University of Michigan student
teachers are better able to recognize their own strengths
and weaknesses

(15-34,

15-41).

Finally,

Goudreault feels

that grading was more secret until 197 6, but from that
point on, communication in student teacher evaluation has
become quite open

(11-51).

Possible Societal Influences
Societal factors which may be related to the above
changes in assessing student teaching performance are
easy to identify.

Ma ny of the changes in grading were

the result of a fluctuating job market
Cornish:
2-61;

6-64; H e n r i c k s :

6-15; McCarley:

4-49;

1-16; Blue:

see pp. 115-17 of Student Teaching and the Job

Market;

also see Doneth:

3-44; Hendricks:
11-51;

(Miller:

6-10;

3-67;

Suchara:

Sickmiller:

see p. 125 of this section).

13-50; Wotring:

8-33; Goudreault:
Competency-

based teacher education came into being as a consequence
of the public demand for accountability in education

132
(Myers:
10-32;

12-55;

Doneth:

Slabodian:

of this s e c t i o n ) .

3-66; Sickmiller:

14-66; McCarley:

1-33;

8-58;
see pp.

Rice:
126-28

The increased openness in student

teacher evaluation seems to stem largely from the civil
rights movements and the Rights and Privacy Act
3-63; Moeckel:

(Doneth:

10-4) .

Future Implications
It would seem that in the future,

as competency-

based teacher education becomes more sophisticated and
more competencies are identified and efficiently organized
(educators at a Florida university have identified over
22,000),

student teaching evaluation will become a more

accurate gauge of what skills the prospective teacher
demonstrates

in the classroom.

These skills, hopefully,

will be refined and become more successfully oriented to
the psychology of learning, making possible identification
of causal relationships in the teaching/learning process.
Summary
Major Findings
1.

There have been many recent changes in grading
procedures in student teaching evaluation.
Usually these changes have been in the direction
of providing better means of identifying d i f ­
ferences between individual students.

133

2.

A need for greater specificity of education
goals has resulted in competency-based teacher
education.

3.

Some efforts have been made in Michigan toward
standardization of evaluation criteria,

p a rt i cu ­

larly in the Detroit area.
4.

Evaluation of student teachers is now m u c h more
open?

there is much less confidentiality.

Possible Societal Influences
1.

Many changes in grading procedures have been a
function of the highly competitive job ma r ke t
in education.

2.

Competency-based teacher education is a result
of public demands for educational accountability,

3.

Today's more open evaluation stems from the
various civil rights movements and the Rights
and Privacy Act.

Future Implications
1.

It appears that teaching skills will be more
accurately identified;

this should result in

more effective teaching.
2.

Student teaching evaluation criteria and p r o ­
cedures will,
refined,

apparently,

become increasingly

and a degree of standardization will be

134
necessary so that competencies recognized in one
geographical area will be recognized in others.
This,

however,

does not eliminate or reduce the

importance of teaching skills which would be of
greater importance to any given school district,
such as the ability to work w it h pupils from,
diverse ethnic backgrounds

in a large metropolitan

district.
Student Teaching Evaluation Forms
In this section,

developmental changes in student

teaching evaluation forms will be examined.

First,

it

will be determined w h e n each form was initially used
Table 1).

(see

Inasmuch as this study is concerned with changes

which have occurred in teacher education during the period
from 1956 through 1977,

it was decided to use only data

retrieved from schools whose student teaching evaluation
forms spanned at least seven years

(see Table 2).

The

early forms from each of these schools will be compared
with more recent forms from each of the same schools to
determine how evaluation forms have changed over the years
in respect to language and degree of specificity, m eans of
reporting grades, number of evaluators,
confidentiality

and degree of

(see Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively).

A brief summary will conclude this section.

135
TABLE 1.— Year Each Student Teaching Evaluation Form Was Initiated
Year Each Form Initiated
Source of Evaluation Forms
1956

59

62

65

68

71

Adrian College

74

X

77

X
’current’

Albion College
X

X?

Alma College

X
X X

X X X

Andrews University
Aquinas College
Calvin College

X

Central Michigan University
Eastern Michigan University

X

Ferris State College

X

Grand Valley State College

X

Hillsdale College

X

Hope College

Lake Superior State College

"current"

"former"

Kalamazoo College

(no response)
current?

Madonna College

"current"

Marygrove College
Mercy College

(no response)

Michigan State University

X

Michigan Technological
University
Nazareth College

X?

XX
(no response)
X

X
X?

Northern Michigan University
Oakland University

X
X

Olivet College

"current"

Saginaw Valley State College

X

Siena Heights College
Spring Arbor College
University of Detroit
University of Michigan
Wayne State University
Western Michigan University
Wayne County M-STEP
Wayne County Teacher Edu­
cation Council

X

”former”
X?

X

"former"

X

X
X

X

136

TABLE 2.--Schools Whose Student Teaching Evaluation Forms
Span Seven or More Years
Adrian College

14

Alma College

12

Andrews Univ er si ty

15

Central M ichigan University

7

Eastern M i chigan University

10

H illsdale College

10

Hope College

13

Mic hi ga n State University

14

Nazareth College

19

Oakland U n iversity

14

Uni ve rs it y of Detroit

10

University of Mi chigan

7

W ayne State U ni v ersity

16

Median

13

Mean

12

137
TABLE 3.— Language and Degree of Specificity

Teacher Training Institution

Language and Degree of Specificity
A

Adrian College

Early form: Preparation - 6,
Teach­
ing Technique— 11, Management— 6,
Personal & Social Fitness— 9, Other
Qualities.
Recent form:
Teaching
Effectiveness— 19, Working with
People— 14, Personal and Professional
Qualities— 12.

Alma College

Early form: 17 individual items.
Recent form:
Teaching Procedures— 13,
Use of Materials--4, Classroom Man­
agement— 4, Personal— 6.

Andrews University

Early form: Personal Characteristics—
10, Professional Abilities— 6, Teach­
ing Skills— 9.
Recent form:
Working
with People, Establishing Classroom
Climate and Managing Instruction,
Planning for Instruction, Command of
Subject, Personal and Professional
Qualities.

Central Michigan University

Early form: Human Relationships— 2,
Personal Traits— 10, Instructional
Traits— 8, Classroom Management— 4.
Recent form:
Personal Qualities,
Classroom Effectiveness, Human
Relations, Communication Skills,
Academic Preparation, Professionalism.

Eastern Michigan University

Early form: Learning Environment— 7,
Human Relations— 6, Teaching Effec­
tiveness— 5, Organization/Management/
Control— 6, Subject Matter— 4, Teacher
as a Person— 8.
Recent form:
identi­
cal categories with narrative space
for each.

Hillsdale College

Early form: Personal Qualifications—
7, Professional Qualifications— 7,
Teaching Techniques— 7, Classroom
Management— 6.
Recent form:
Personal
Appearance— 1, Attendance/Punctuality—
4, Planning— 8, Teaching Skills— 19,
Class Atmosphere— 4, Professional
Relations— 4.

138
TABLE 3.— Continued

Teacher Training Institution

Language and Degree of Specificity

Hope College

Early form: Teaching Abilities--15,
Professional Growth— 4, Personal
Characteristics--10, Teacher-Pupil
Relations--5. Recent form:
The
Teacher:
As a Person— 11, As a
Director of Learning--ll, and His
students— 8, His Professional Respon­
sibilities and Relationships--5.

Michigan State University

Early form: Student Teaching Perfor­
mance, Personality, Cooperation,
Initiative, Dependability, Attitude,
Creativity, Community Participation,
Capacity for Future Development.
Recent form:
Type of Student Teaching
Situation, Working with People, Estab­
lishing Classroom Climate and Managing
Instruction, Planning for Instruction,
Command of Subject, Personal and Pro­
fessional Qualities.

Nazareth College

Early form: 12 individual items.
Recent form:
Instructional Compe­
tency— 5, Subject Matter Mastery— 3,
Learning Environment— 2, Interpersonal
Relationships— 4, Professional Behavior—
8.

Oakland University

Early form: Working with People— 9,
Establishing Classroom Climate— 12,
Planning for Instruction--14, Manag­
ing Instruction— 14, Command of Subject
and Teaching Materials— 5, Personal
Qualities— 19, Professional Qualities—
6.
Recent form:
identical categories-narratives.

University of Detroit

Early form: Personal Qualities— 12,
Academic/Professional Background— 8,
Classroom Planning/Management/Teaching/
Assessment— 19, General Evaluation.
Recent form:
**Learning Environment—
13, Human Relations— 7, Organization/
Management/Control— 4, Personal and
Professional Qualities— 16.

139

TABLE 3.— Continued

Teacher Training Institution

Language and Degree of Specificity

University of Michigan

Early form:
24 individual items.
Recent form:
Instruction— 28, School
and Classroom Management and Environ­
m ent— 10, Student Guidance/Services— 4,
Personal and Professional Character­
istics— 33 .

Wayne State University

Early form:
Classroom Teaching, Pupil
Relationships, Staff Relationships,
Parent/Community Relationships,
Personal Qualities, Professional Qual­
ities, Comments/General Recommendations;
Relationships with Children--7, Effec­
tiveness in Developing Learning Exper­
ience— 13, Community Relationships— 4,
Professional/Personal Relationships— 8.
Recent form:
**

Numbers refer to number of separate evaluation items within
each category.
**

M-STEP and WCTEC evaluation forms.

140
TABLE 4.— Means of Reporting Grades

Teacher Training Institution

Means of Reporting Grades

Adrian College

Early form:
A, B, C, D, F on 32-item
checklist, final grade.
Recent form:
Excellent to Poor (5 gradations) on
4 5-item checklist, plus narrative space.

Alma College

Early form:
1-6 numerical grading on
17-item checklist, plus narrative space,
plus A, B, C, D, final grade, plus
certification recommendation.
Recent
form:
1-4 numerical grading on 27-item
checklist, plus narrative space, plus
Pass/Fail.

Andrews University

Early form:
3-word grading scale on
25-item checklist; very small narrative
space; space for grade (scale unspeci­
fied).
Recent form:
A, B, C on 5 cate­
gory list, narrative space for each
category, certification recommendation.

Central Michigan University

Early form:
Outstanding to Poor (3
gradations) on 24-item checklist;
narrative space.
Recent form:
narra­
tive space for each of seven categories.

Eastern Michigan University

Early form:
3-word grading scale on
36-item checklist; narrative space;
recommendation for certification.
Recent form:
narrative space for each
of six categories; Credit/No Credit;
certification recommendation.

Hillsdale College

Early form:
1-5 numerical grading on
27-item checklist with weighted items
and numerical total.
Recent form:
1-5
numerical grading on 41-item checklist
with weighted items and numerical total;
narrative space.

Hope College

Early form:
3-word grading scale on 34item checklist; final grade (scale
unspecified). Recent form:
1-5 numeri­
cal grading on 35-item checklist;
narrative space.

141
TABLE 4.— Cont inued

Teacher Training Institution

Means of Reporting Grades

Michigan State University

Early form:
3-word grading scale on 9category checklist; narrative space;
A, B, C, D, E, final grades.
Recent
form:
narrative space for each of 6
categories.

Nazareth College

Early form:
3-word grading scale on
16-item checklist; narrative space.
Recent form:
1-5 numerical grading
scale on 22-item checklist; narrative
space; Pass/Fail.

Oakland University

Early form:
1-10 numerical grading on
20-item checklist.
Recent form:
narrative space for each of 7 cate­
gories; additional narrative s pace;
certification recommendation.

University of Detroit

Early form:
5-word grading scale on
39-item checklist and final grade;
narrative space; narrative self-evalu­
ation.
Recent form:
1-3 numerical
grading scale on 21-item checklist;
narrative space.

University of Michigan

Early form:
1-5 numerical scale on
24-item checklist; narrative space.
Recent form:
1-5 numerical scale on
75-item checklist; narrative space.

Wayne State University

Early form:
narrative space for each
of 8 categories; 3-word grading scale
on 32-item checklist; final grade
(scale unspecified); additional narra­
tive space.
Recent form:

*

M-STEP and Wayne County Teacher Education Council evaluation
forms:
1-5 numerical grading scale on 40-item checklist; narrative
space for each of 4 categories; additional narrative space; final
grade (scale unspecified).

142
TABLE 5.— Number of Evaluators

Teacher Training Institution

Number of Evaluators

Adrian College

Early form:
supervising teacher,
coordinator.
Recent form:
same,
plus signature of building principal.

Alma College

Early form:
supervising teacher.
Recent form:
same, plus coordinator.

Andrews University

Early form:
supervising teacher.
Recent form:
same, plus coordinator.

Central Michigan University

Early form:
supervising teacher.
Recent form:
same, plus coordinator,
plus optional comments by department
chairman.

Eastern Michigan University

Early form:
supervising teacher.
Recent form:
same, plus coordinator,
plus signature of building principal.

Hillsdale College

Early form:
supervising teacher,
college instructor.
Recent form:
supervising teacher.

Hope College

Early form: supervising teacher,
coordinator, plus signature of director
of student teaching.
Recent form:
same, minus signature of director of
student teaching.

Michigan State University

Early form: supervising teacher,
coordinator.
Recent form:
same.

Nazareth College

Early form: supervising teacher.
Recent form:
same, plus coordinator.

Oakland University

Early form: supervising teacher,
coordinator.
Recent form:
same.

University of Detroit

Early form: supervising teacher,
coordinator, self-evaluation by student
teacher.
Recent forms (departmental,
M-STEP, and Wayne County Teacher Edu­
cation Council):
same, minus student
teacher self-evaluation.

143
TABLE 5.— Continued

Teacher Training Institution

Number of Evaluators

University of Michigan

Early form: supervising teacher.
Recent form:
same, plus coordinator.

Wayne State University

Early form: supervising teacher,
coordinator.
Recent forms {M-STEP
and Wayne County Teacher Education
Council):
same.

144
TABLE 6.— Degree of Confidentiality

Teacher Training Institution

Degree of Confidentiality

Adrian College

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
same.

Alma College

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
same.

Andrews University

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
student teacher's signature and 3
approval options.

Central Michigan University

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
student teacher's signature.

Eastern Michigan University

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
student teacher’s signature.

Hillsdale College

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
same.

Hope College

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
same.

Michigan State University

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
student teacher's signature with 3
approval options.

Nazareth College

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
student teacher's signature.

Oakland University

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
student teacher's signature.

University of Detroit

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
student teacher's signature.

145
TABLE 6.— Continued

Teacher Training Institution

Degree of Confidentiality

University of Michigan

Early form:
no space for student
teacher's signature.
Recent form:
student teacher's signature.

Wayne State University

Early form:
space for optional student
teacher's signature on portion of
form.
Recent form: *

forms:

★
M-STEP and Wayne County Teacher Education Council evaluation
student teacher's signature.

146
Summary
M aj or Findings
1.

There seems to be an increase in importance
placed on human relations,

or interpersonal

relationships.
2.

There is a definite increase in specificity in
the evaluation forms,

although language and

categories employed remain much the same.
3.

There is also an increase in the use of narrative
reporting.

4.

There is a limited shift from literal or numerical
grading toward credit/no credit or pass/fail.

5.

There is an increase in the number of individuals
involved in evaluating student teaching performance.

6.

There is a marked increase in the openness of
evaluation.

7.

Sometimes a discrepancy appears between what is
said in the tape recorded interviews and what
appears in the student teaching evaluation forms.
An example of this is the fact that seven of the
twenty-seven educators

interviewed m e n t i o n e d a

decline in the emphasis on dress,
social behavior;

language,

and

yet all of the institutions'

forms indicate that student teachers are still
b eing evaluated as rigorously as before in this

147
category.

T h e se criteria may,

indeed, be given

less emphasis in de facto evaluation;

but the

category is still employed in the evaluation
forms,

and is used by those doing the evaluating

and, presumably,

by school administrators who

examine the forms when hiring new teachers.
Possible Societal Influences
1.

Increased importance on human relations,

inter­

personal relationships, narrative reporting,

and

openness of evaluation appear to be functions of
civil rights awareness,

increasing recognition

of the uniqueness of the individual,

and the

Rights and Privacy Act.
2.

Increased specificity in evaluation and goalsetting,

and an increase in the number of in di ­

viduals evaluating student teaching performance
seem related to

(a) evolving educational focus

(in this case, co mp etency-based teacher education);
(b) public de m a n d for educational accountability;
(c) recognition of the consumer rights of the
student teacher;

and

(d) realization that

increased feedback provides m or e useful,
structive evaluation.

con­

Future Implications
As educational psychology and competency-based
teacher education become more sophisticated,

it appears

that evaluation of student teaching performance will
g radually move toward more accurately reflecting social
reality,

concentrating on teaching/learning relationships

w hich will,

hopefully,

enable pupils to cope effectively

w it h an ever-changing environment.

CHAPTE R V
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study has been to examine
changes in society and in teacher education, pa rt icularly
in student teaching evaluation, w hich have taken place
in the state of Michigan during the period from 1956
through 1977.

These changes have been viewed through a

historical perspective,

and possible impacts of societal

change on teacher e du ca ti o n have been examined.

The w o rk

has not been directed toward reaching conclusions but
rather toward generating hypotheses.

Identification of

relationships between societal change and change in
teacher education m a y be useful in the planning of
future teacher p reparation programs so that students
m i gh t be helped to be tt er keep pace w i t h an ev er-changing
society.
In this chapter the major findings of this study
will be reviewed,

along w i t h possible societal influences

on teacher education and future implications.

Finally,

r ec om mendations for further research and p r og ra m d e v e l o p ­
m e n t will be listed.

149

150
M aj or Findings of the Study
1.

No longer are teacher training institutions

exclusi ve ly responsible for teacher preparation program
development.

Significant program input is now provided

also by teacher unions,

supervising teachers,

trators and other school-related personnel,
federally funded programs,
2.

parents,

a dm in is ­

state and

business,

and industry.

More time is now devoted to pre-teaching field

experiences:

in length,

number,

and variety of e x p e r ­

iences .
3.

There are now more observations of student teachers

made by the supervising teacher and university c o o r d i ­
nator;

the quality of these observations is better than

it once was;
teacher,

there is now more dialogue among the student

supervising teacher,

is now greater specificity,

and coordinator;

and there

both in goal-setting and in

feedback.
4.
cational

During the period from 1956 through 1977, e d u ­
focus was di rected toward a number of areas.

These include:
a.

Greater s pecificity of educational goals through
comp et en cy -b as ed teacher education and behavioral
objectives

b.

In di v idualization and teaching alternatives

c.

D e v e l op me nt of healthy self-concept in children

d.

The individual needs of the student teacher

151
e.

Teaching styles and learning styles

f.

Interpersonal relationships and human relations

g.

Humanism:

h.

New uses of n e w audio-visual technology and of

affective education,

values awareness

community resources
i.

A return to the development of traditional skills

5.

There is increasing recognition of the value of a

teacher who can wo rk in a multicultural situation.
6.

New m ul ticultural programs have been created and

existing programs have been mo dified in some teacher
training institutions for the purpose of preparing teachers
to be effective in a multicultural society.
7.
voice,
8.

There is now less emphasis on wearing apparel,
and social b ehavior of the student teacher.
We are no longer sure just what constitutes

a cceptable behavior.
9.

Student teachers are now more self-directed than

they were a generation ago.
10.

Student teachers are now more inclined to admit

that they are,

indeed,

student teachers;

there is less

pretense of authority.
11.

There has recently been a sharp decline in en ro l l ­

m ents in teacher education as a result of a saturated job
ma rk et in education.

152
12.

T e a ch er unions,

constituents,

have,

in an effort to protect their

in some cases, made it difficult to

place student teachers;

and in other instances they have

tended to discourage prospective teachers from entering
the profession.
13.

Because it is now necessary for teachers to be

better prepared to meet the demands of today's highly
competitive job market,

teacher training institutions

are responding with new teacher preparation programs.
14.

There have been many recent changes in grading

procedures in student teaching evaluation.

Usually these

changes have been in the direction of providing better
means of identifying differences between individual stu­
dents .
15.

Grading procedures in student teaching have become

a function of the job market.

Some colleges and u n i v e r s i ­

ties are requiring their education students to prepare a
credential folio so as to better present their unique
strengths to prospective employers.
16.

Some efforts have been made in Michigan toward

standardization of evaluative criteria in student t e ac h­
ing; particularly in the Detroit area.
17.

A need for greater specificity of educational

goals has resulted in competency-based teacher education.

153
18.

There seems to be an increase in importance

placed on human relations, or interpersonal relationships.
19.

There is a definite increase in specificity in

the evaluation forms,

although language and categories

employed remain much the same.
20.

There is an increase in the use of narrative

reporting of student teaching proficiency and potential.
21.

There is a limited shift from literal or numerical

grading scales toward credit/no credit or pass/fail.
22.

There is an increase in the number of individuals

involved in evaluating student teaching performance.
There is also an increase in self-evaluation by the
student teacher.
23.

There is a m ar k e d increase in the openness of

student teaching evaluation;

there is much less c on fi ­

dentiality now.
24.

There seem to be,

in some instances,

discrepancies

between what un iv ersity coordinators feel is important
student teaching behavior and categories of evaluation
employed in student teaching evaluation forms.
Possible Societal Influences
1.

A number of Michigan educators attribute the

change in source of p ro gram d evelopment input to the
following societally related factors;

154
a.

The Vie t N a m War and accompanying student unrest
in the sixties

b.

Urbanization

c.

The r esponsibility for learning having shifted
(in the eyes of the public)

from the pupil to

the school
d.

Public demand for educational accountability

e.

Civil Rights movements

f.

Highly visible critics of education,

such as

Rickover and Holt
2.

A problem which has been recognized both by e d u ­

cators and the general public is that teachers have been
inadequately prepared to cope with the needs of a c h an g­
ing society.

Subsequent studies have indicated that more

field experience is helpful in preparing teachers.
3.

Recent public interest in consumerism has

resulted,

in at least one teacher training institution,

in the prospective teacher being seen as the consumer,
with a concomitant effort being made on the part of the
institution to see to it that the teaching trainee gets
his money's w orth in field experience.
4.

Increasing stability of the teaching population

has resulted in s upervising teachers being more e x p e r ­
ienced and having d e v e l o p e d better experiences for their
student teachers.

155
5.

T h e highly competitive job market in education

has resulted in teacher training institutions providing
more field experience so as to make their graduates

"more

m a r k e t a b l e ."
6.

An emphasis on humanism ensued when educational

critics of the sixties responded to the formal structure
and cognitive emphases in education which followed Sputnik.
Educat io n is a visible scapegoat in the eyes of society,
and a cycle of public reaction to educational programs
w hich appear to be reactions to social phenomena is
perpetuated.
7.

Those educational programs which have been backed

by go vernment funding have flourished.
8.

Increased w orld interdependence seems to be in

part responsible for the recent stress on me tr ic education.
9.

Public demands for educational accountability

have resulted in a "back to basics" trend in education.
10.

Court decisions to desegregate schools have u l t i ­

mat el y influenced the initiation of multicultural programs
in teacher training institutions.
11.

Civil rights m o ve me n ts accentuated the need for

special programs in mu lticultural education.
12.

Large metr op ol it a n areas, where there are heavy

c oncentrations of ethnic minorities,

have responded to

156
population shifts w i t h heavily funded programs directed
at easing the difficulties brought about by these shifts.
13.

Small communities have been able to initiate

m ul ticultural programs through a general atmosphere of
innovation, not having to contend with long-established
traditions.
14.

Because of recent emphases on students'

rights,

the students now have more freedom.
15.

There is now m u c h less respect for the teacher.

16.

Children are now admitted into the adult world

at an earlier age w h il e at the same time being shielded
from the real challenge of life.
17.

Rites of passage are not visible in the United

States as they are in other countries, where children
seem to grow up more easily.
18.

Societal pressures on education are often ba c k­

lash stemming from educational programs which have been
condemned by society.
19.

The mass m e d i a have helped generate and p e r ­

petuate a youth culture, which has resulted in the
b lu rr i n g of previous distinct traditional societal roles.
20.

Technology,

urbanization, mob il i ty of society,

and anonymity of authority roles have all affected teacher
education.

157
21.

The teacher surplus is apparently a result of a

number of social phenomena:
a.

Changing birth rate in the United States

b.

Population shifts

c.

Teacher training institutions expanding their
facilities

d.

Negative public reaction to increasing school
taxes

e.
22.

Public de ma nd for educational accountability
Many changes in procedures for grading student

teachers have been a function of the highly competitive
job market in education.
23.

C o mp etency-based teacher education is a c o n s e ­

quence of public demand for educational accountability.
24.

Increased importance in education on human

relations,

interpersonal relationships,

and the use of

narrative reporting and openness of student teaching
evaluation all appear to be functions of civil rights
awareness,

increasing recognition of the uniqueness of

the individual,
25.

and the Rights and Privacy Act.

Increased specificity in educational goal-setting

and student teaching evaluation,

and an increase in the

number of individuals evaluating student teaching p e r ­
formance seem related to evolving educational focus;
public demand for educational accountability;

recognition

158
of the rights of the student teacher as a consumer;

and

realization that increased feedback provides more useful,
constructive evaluation.
Future Implications
1.

Teacher preparation may become completely indi­

vidualized in terms of the strengths, weaknesses,

and

perceived needs of each prospective teacher.
2.

More self-evaluation seems imminent.

3.

Future teachers must have strong self-concepts

and be both realistic and humane in order to effectively
manage a learning environment with increasing societal
pressures impinging on it.
4.

Educational programs should improve in effective­

ness as it becomes easier to identify and deal with the
needs, abilities,

and limitations of the individual

teacher and learner.
5.

There appears to be a move toward matching

teaching styles wit h learning styles.
6.

It appears that teaching skills will be more

accurately identified;

this should result in more e ff ec ­

tive teaching.
7.

Student teaching evaluation criteria and p r o ­

cedures will,

apparently, become increasingly refined,

and a degree of standardization will be necessary so that

159
competencies recognized in one geographical area will be
recognized in others.

This, however, does not eliminate

or reduce the importance of teaching skills which would
be useful in any given school district,

such as the

ability to work with pupils from diverse ethnic b a c k ­
grounds in a large metropolitan district.
8.

The influence of educational psychology,

is being learned in this area,

as more

is increasing in teacher

training.
9.

As educational psychology and competency-based

teacher education become more sophisticated,

it appears

that evaluation of student teaching performance will
gradually move toward more accurately reflecting social
reality,

concentrating on teaching/learning relationships

which will,

hopefully,

enable pupils to cope effectively

with an ever-changing environment.
10.

The ability to evidence good human relations

skills and the ability to work in culturally diverse
areas will be of increasing importance for determining
success in student teaching.
11.

It appears possible to design educational e xp er ­

iences appropriate for dealing with the culturally
generated values of diverse ethnic groups w hich are in
contact with one another.

160
12.

M u lt icultural education may initially generate

some role confusion,

although this will probably be d i s ­

sipated through syncretism over a long period of time.
13.

It seems advisable to strive for and m aintain a

cultural balance of teacher education students.
14.

If demographic trends and educational needs can

be more accurately predicted, direction of teacher p r e p a r ­
ation programs could be predicated on these projections.
Also,

criteria for these programs could be set so as to

attract only the most highly motivated students.
15.

The teaching profession,

industry,

trade unions,

business,

and the local community in general will gradually

be supplying increasing input into the development of
teacher training programs.
16.

A new teacher internship program may be developed,

providing immediate dialogue between the prospective
teacher and current educational practice.
17.

As long as there is a surplus of applicants for

available teaching positions,

greater demands in respect

to an increased amount of field experience can be placed
on prospective teachers as a function of the highly c om ­
petitive job market.
18.

Future teacher training programs should be

examined in terms of o pt imizing effects of field e x p e r ­
ience .

161
19.

If present trends continue,

the number,

length,

and v ar iety of field experiences will be increased,

as

will the feedback provided.
20.

It appears that teaching jobs will be available

in w hatever education programs are funded.

Special e d u ­

cation is one such program.
21.
cation.

More men are entering elementary and special ed u ­
This will have a strong influence on future role

p erceptions of today's school children.
22.

The blurring of traditional societal roles could

alter mu c h of the existing social structure,

necessitating

a complete revision of education.
23.

There appears to be a cyclic pattern of education

responding to societal change,

followed by society r e act­

ing to changes in educational programs.
Recommendations
The revolution in transport and communications
has brought men into closer contact with each other
and bound them in new ways; the division of labor
has ma de them more interdependent; tremors in one
part of the society affect all others.
Despite
this greater interdependence, however, individuals
have grown more estranged from one another.
The
old primary group ties of family and local community
have been shattered; ancient parochial faiths are
questioned; few unifying values have taken their
place.
Most important, the critical standards of
an educated elite no longer shape opinion or taste.
As a result, mores and mor a ls are in constant flux,
relations between individuals are tangential or
compartmentalized rather than organic.
At the
same time greater mobility, spatial and social,
intensifies concern over status.
Instead of a

162
fixed or known status symbolized by dress or title,
each person assumes a m ul tiplicity of roles and
constantly has to prove himself in a succession of
new situations.
Because of all this, the in di ­
vidual loses a coherent sense of self.
His
anxieties increase.
There ensues a search for
n ew faiths.
The stage is set for the charismatic
leader, the secular messiah, who, by bestowing
upon each person the semblance of necessary grace
and fullness of personality, supplies a substitute
for the older unifying belief that the mass
society has destroyed.
(Bell, 1960, pp. 21-22)
The failure of the schools to respond to the
changing demands of contemporary society can be
traced to the inflexibility of the methods by
w hi ch teachers are prepared.
Initially, teacher
training curricula was concerned with the teaching
of content. . . . As teacher training became more
formalized, however, changes in teachers college
curricula were instituted which, while still
emphasizing the subjects taught in schools, did
give some attention to methods. . . . Then, during
the late 1 9 6 0 ’s, attention finally began to be given
to the total process through which an individual
becomes a teacher.
Even so, it is clear that if an
individual is to become a teacher, able to respond
to change, he himself must be taught in ways which
respond to his needs so that he may m odel the ways
he was taught w i t h others.
There continues to be a lag between teacher
preparation and social demands. . . . The present
state of our society calls for a change in the
relationship of teacher preparation to social needs,
a change that wi ll reduce the time that elapses
between society's demands for change, the m o d i f i ­
cation of teacher preparation programs and the
changing be h av io r of teachers.
(Brottman, 197 4,
pp. 1-2)
The above quotations serve both to refocus the
reader's awareness of the nature of the problems in e d u­
cation today resulting from societal change;

and to u n d e r ­

score the fact that so far education has failed to respond
adequately to these problems, even though some progress
has been made in recent years.

163
Examination of the data retrieved in this study,
looking closely at what seems to be working and at what
isn't working, may be useful in designing future teacher
preparation programs or in modifying existing ones.

It

is felt that a number of recommendations involving teacher
training programs can be made which are based on the infor­
mation documented in this work.
divided into three categories:
pr ogram development,
makers,

and

These recommendations are
(1)

sources of input for

(2) responsibilities of d e c i s i o n ­

(3) development of teacher training programs.

Sources of Input for Program
Development
1.

Each college and university develop its teacher

training program through the work of a committee or task
force comprised of university faculty;
personnel,

public school

both administrative and faculty;

sentatives from business,

industry,

and r e pr e­

social services,

and

communities involved in the teacher training program.
Such a committee would open lines of communication among
the various social institutions represented, making p o s ­
sible the identification of more specific and realistic
educational goals and providing a faster, more accurate
means of reflecting societal change in terms of teacher
training.

(How man y teacher training institutions cur­

rently require prospective teachers to be knowledgeable
in me tr ic education and in environmental education?)

164
2.

It will be useful to conduct studies of d e m o ­

graphic trends in terms of educational needs.

Data

retrieved from such studies, with assistance from an
educational demographer,

could be most useful in planning

teacher preparation programs.
3.

Make courses in supervision of student teachers

available to all interested school personnel.

Also

solicit participation in these courses by members of the
general public.

Provide regular,

planned means of feed­

back from people who enroll in these courses to facilitate
useful dialogue among the schools,
teacher training institutions.

the public,

and the

Means should also be

provided for experimentation and implementation of ideas
so obtained which will improve teacher preparation.
Responsibilities of D e c i s i o n Makers
1.

Continue to concentrate on identifying teacher

competencies.

At the same time, a degree of standardi­

zation of recognized competencies will be necessary.

This

could be developed through committees comprised of r e p r e ­
sentatives of teacher training institutions throughout
the state or nation.

Care must be exercised that com­

petencies wh ich become accepted as "standardized" will not
interfere with or displace competencies peculiar to

165
certain areas.

Safeguards m u s t be built in to assure

cultural specific training within the context of stan­
d ardized competencies.
2.

In terms of today's highly competitive job market,

e valuation should be refined so as to more accurately
assess student teacher performance and potential.

(This

can probably be accomplished most efficiently if it is
done in conjunction wi th the refinement of teaching
competencies.)

Also,

each teacher education student

should be required to prepare and maintain a credential
folio so as to enable him to present his unique strengths
to a prospective employer in an organized and attractive
manner.
3.

Resolve discrepancies between what university

coordinators feel are important evaluative criteria and
the criteria employed on current student teaching e v a l u ­
ation forms.
4.

Develop a highly flexible teacher training p r o ­

gram which is sensitive to societal change and committed
to responding appropriately.
D evelopment of Teacher Training
Programs
1.

Require that education students participate in

"life style" seminars,

in w h ic h resource people can be

brought in from education,
fessions,

business,

other disciplines,

industry,

social services,

the p r o ­
and

166
various ethnic groups.

These resource people would afford

prospective teachers an opportunity to discuss r e l at io n­
ships between education and numerous societal institutions.
2.

Require field experience outside the classroom

in the nature of pr oblem-centered experiences involving
a variety of community agencies and groups.

Time would

be allocated during these field experiences for the p r o ­
spective teacher to investigate and suggest possible
solutions to current problems within the community which
m ay have grown out of school-related situations.
3.

Provide for mor e

field experience in the schools,

perhaps starting wi th a brief experience during the second
term or semester of the freshman year,
year through graduation.

and expanding each

The prospective teacher should

be exposed to a v ar iety of experiences in grade level,
subject area,

and cultural setting;

and his assignments

should be scheduled so as to ensure school contact at all
times of the school day and the school year.
extended,

The earlier,

and varied experience will not only provide

the prospective teacher wi th more opportunity to learn
his profession,

but will also give him a greater chance

to determine if he really wants to teach.
4.

Mor e observations should be arranged in order to

provide greater e va luative feedback to the student teacher.
These observations can be m a d e by the supervising
teacher(s),

the u n i ve rs it y coordinator,

and, perhaps,

167
a building administrator.

The student teacher should

also be involved in a p la nned program of self-evaluation.
In addition,

it can be useful to allow student teachers

to observe each other on a one-to-one basis.

This p r o ­

vides valuable feedback from the student teacher's p e r ­
spective .
5.

It is important that teacher training institutions

view the prospective teacher as a consumer and design his
program to give him his money's worth.
program,

An individualized

based on knowledge of his unique strengths,

weaknesses,

and goals will be extremely valuable:

to the

teacher-to-be in terms of self-knowledge and marketa bi li ty
of skills,

and to his future students in terms of expanded

teaching potential.
6.

The increasing impact of educational psychology

accentuates the importance of teachers understanding new
roles and role perceptions
process.

involving the teaching/learning

Teacher prepar at i on needs to be directed toward

several areas of psy ch ol o gy as it involves teaching and
learning.
a.

Education students should be required

to acquire

an un derstanding of changing roles in

a changing

society.

explicitly

The work should be directed

to past role changes on the part of the teacher
and the student,

and to how these roles m i gh t be

expected to evolve in the future.

Such studies

168
would incorporate concepts from anthropology,
sociology,

psychology,

economics, education,

history,

political science,

and other disciplines.

This

work might be offered through the auspices of
some department other than education,

employing

resource personnel from the schools, business,
labor,

social services,

and the community,

as well

as faculty from the above academic disciplines.
b.

Colleges and universities w hich prepare teachers
should examine the different

(and similar)

roles

which men and women model as teachers at various
grade levels and in various cultural settings,
in terms of the psychological needs of the child.
Teacher training programs must be developed to
optimize learning in terms of these roles.
c.

It is neces sa ry to investigate the importance of
institutionalizing rites of passage in terms of
developing psychological

flexibility and strength

in the individual.
d.

More wo rk needs to be done in the area of m a t c h ­
ing teaching styles with learning styles.

Also,

prospective teachers m u s t be m a d e aware of the
value of employing alternative teaching strate­
gies as a m e a n s of coping w i t h individual d i f ­
ferences in children.

169
e.

It is important that education students learn
to stress healthy self-concepts in their future
students.

This can be more effectively a c c om ­

plished through teacher preparation programs
w hich foster the development of strong selfconcepts in these prospective teachers.
7.

Attention must be given to the development of

teacher training programs which will encourage the ma ny
aspects of humanistic education.
approach to their teaching,

Through a humanistic

teachers-to-be will be able

to avoid p re dominantly content-oriented education and,
hopefully,

help their students discover how to learn,

rather than what to learn.
8.

Recent experience has shown us the value of m u l t i ­

cultural and bilingual education.

Teacher training i n s t i ­

tutions must develop programs which will equip prospec t iv e
teachers to work in any of a number of cultural settings.
In implementing these programs it will be helpful to
achieve and maintain a proportionately representative
ethnic balance among teacher education students.

This

will provide an additional line of communication between
the teacher preparation p ro gram and students from diverse
cultural backgrounds.
9.

It will be n ec essary to direct teacher training

programs so that prosp ec ti ve teachers become sensitive
to the fact that ed ucational focus wi ll c on stantly be

170
evolving.

New audio-visual technology with new in struc­

tional uses will always be appearing.

New community

resources will be coming into existence.

The person who

makes teaching his life's work will need to learn to
adjust as society around him changes.

At the same time,

he will need to possess a framework of traditional

"basic

subject" teaching skills so that his students m i g h t use
these basic subjects as tools with which they can adjust
to an ever-changing world.
Naturally,

initiation and maintenance of new

programs in teacher education will cost money.

Obtaining

funding from overburdened taxpayers who are demanding
accountability in education is extremely difficult.
Yinger

(1965)

As

says,

. . . even in the we althiest societies, there is
little readiness to invest in the educational p r o ­
cess past the minimum, despite evidence of the
power of enriched education to "innoculate" c h i l ­
dren against the deviations so punishing to t h e m ­
selves and their communities. . . . Perhaps there
will come a time when we are as concerned with the
quality of our "character supply" as with the purity
of our water supply.
(p. 311)

APPENDIX

APPENDIX
LETTER TO STUDENT TEACHING DIRECTORS AND DEPARTMENT HEADS

Director of Student Teaching; or
Dean, College of Education; or . . .
Dear . . .
I am conducting a study of how student teaching evaluation in Michigan has
changed over the period from 1956 to 1977.
This study will also explore
possible correlations between societal change and change in the evaluation
of student teachers.
I am hoping to use as major sources of information
for the study recorded interviews with experienced student teaching coordi­
nators and student teacher evaluation forms used by teacher training insti­
tutions in Michigan which have been active during that period.
I would like to arrange a half-hour recorded interview with someone in your
department who has been directly involved with the evaluation of student
teachers for five years or more if possible.
I am planning on being at
. . . University, on . . ., from . . . until . . . Please let me know if
it will be convenient for me to conduct such an interview at that time.
If not, please suggest an alternate time (and date, if necessary).
Enclosed is a sample of the kinds of questions I will be asking.
I would also appreciate it if I could obtain a copy of each type of student
teacher evaluation form your department has used since 1956, or from the
time you started evaluating student teachers if it has been since 1956.
It
would be very helpful if the year(s) during which each type of form was used
could be penciled in at the top of the form if that information doesn't
appear elsewhere.
In some cases it may be necessary to use copies of forms
which contain parts of individual student records (although unused forms
are preferable). Naturally, this information will remain completely confi­
dential as it is not the intent of this study to be concerned with any
individual's accomplishments.
If you would like a summary of the results of this study please let me know,
and I will be happy to send you a copy upon completion of the study.
Thank you for your help.
Very sincerely,

R. Grant Smith
2090 Linda Avenue
Saginaw, Michigan 48603
(517) 792-0407

171

172
QUESTIONS FOR STUDENT TEACHING DIRECTORS AND COORDINATORS
1.

Name:

2.

How long have you been coordinating student teaching programs?

3.

At which teacher training institution (s)?

4.

At which college or university are you currently working with student
teachers?

5.

What kind of school is this:
size, means of support, ethnic compo­
sition of student body, philosophical orientation?

6.

How long has this school been involved in the evaluation of student
teachers?

7.

Can you recall specific times when emphasis in any given area of
student teaching evaluation (including the introduction of new com­
ponents) was changed in your school or in any other college where
you were familiar with student teacher evaluation practices?

8,

What was the nature of the change(s)?

9.

What factors, from within and particularly from outside the academic
community, do you feel were most instrumental in bringing about
these changes?

When did it/they occur?

10.

What aspects of student teaching evaluation do you feel have remained
essentially the same since 1956?

11.

Do you see social forces at work today which you feel will affect
student teaching experiences and their evaluation?
If so, what
direction might these changes take?

173
TABLE 7.--Experience of Respondents and Location of Recorded Interviews

Person Interviewed, Institution

Years of
Experience
Evaluating
Student
Teachers

Location of
Cassette Tape
Interviews :
Side

Positions:
Start
End

Dr. Walter McCarley
Central Michigan University

9

1

0

63

Mr. Robert Blue
Central Michigan University

8

9

n
u

63

Dr. Sedley Hall
Alma College

10

3

0

40

Dr. Jarvis Wotring
Central Michigan University

13

j

40

57
end;
8

Dr. John Doneth
Ferris State College

3)
J

3
4

57
0

D r . Raymond Comeau
Kalamazoo College

6

4

8

40

Dr. Nancy Miller
Hope College

8

4

40

end

Dr. Allan TenEyck
Grand Valley State College

5

5

o

34

Dr. Peter DeBoers and
Professor William Hendricks
Calvin College

9
*5

c
D
c
D

34
n
u

end;
36

Sr. Suzanne Potts
Aquinas College

CL
'
O

u

36

57

Dr. Norman Cornish
University of Detroit

J

V

a

57

end

Dr. William Hamlin
Oakland University

8

7

0

end

12

8

n
\J

28

8

28

63

Mr. Robert Tibbies
Eastern Michigan University
Dr. Ralph Sickmiller
Spring Arbor College

5

174
TABLE 7.— Continued

Person Interviewed,

Institution

Years of
Experience
Evaluating
Student
Teachers

Location of
Cassette Tape
Interviews:
Side

Positions:
Start End

Dr. Trevor Sutton
Hillsdale College

34

8
9

63
0

end;
55

Dr . Ralph Moeckel
Adrian College

23

9
10

55
0

end;
15

4.

10

15

48

11

10

48

70

Q
I?

11

r
\
U

66

Dr. Sol Elkin
Albion College

22

11
12

66
0

end;
14

D r . Henry Kennedy
Michigan State University

22

12

14

48

Dr. George Myers
Michigan State University

30

12

48

end

Dr. Helen Suchara
Wayne State University

22

13
14

0
0

Dr. June Slabodian
Madonna College

8

14
15

59
0

end;
25

Dr. Stephen Roderick
University of Michigan

6

15

25

67

Dr. Joseph Snider
Saginaw Valley State College

5

15
16

67
0

end;
38

Sr. Eileen Rice
Siena Heights College
D r . Barbara Sullivan
Nazareth College
M r . Ferdinand Goudreault
Olivet College

NOTE:

Median = 8; Mean = 10.96 years of experience.

end;
59

175
TABLE 8.— Student Enrollment and Reported Start of Student Teaching
Evaluation

Institution

Enrollment:
Spring
1977

Student Teaching
Evaluation Started
at Institution

Adrian College

969

before 1956

Albion College

1,668

before 1956

Alma College

1,150

the 1800s

Andrews University

2,061

before 1927

Aquinas College

1,800

1925

Calvin College

3 ,915

1923

Central Michigan University

16,004

Eastern Michigan University

18,931

the 1800s
1845

Ferris State College

9,934

"way back"

Grand Valley State College

7,540

1967

Hillsdale College

1,029

the 1800s

Hope College

2,290

before 1900

Kalamazoo College

1,501

before 1947

Madonna College

2,208

before 1956

Marygrove College

1,700

1937

43,459

1918

Michigan State University
Nazareth College
Oakland University
Olivet College

435

before 1955

10,457

before 1969

750

before 1956

Saginaw Valley State College

3,056

1970

Siena Heights College

1,054

before 1952

Spring Arbor College
University of Detroit

890

1965

7,633

1958

University of Michigan

44,372

before 1953

Wayne State University

34,818

before 1956

176
TABLE 9.— Reported Ethnic Minorities in Student Body
Institution

Black

Adrian College

2-3%

Albion College

10%

Alma College
Andrews University
Aquinas College
Calvin College

Central Michigan University

2%

Other

Hispanic
1%
small number
very few

some

some

some foreign

10%

some

.5% foreign,
a few Indians

some

2%

very few

1%

some Vietnamese
Puerto Rican,
Indian
some foreign

10-12%

a few

Ferris State College

10%

a few

a few foreign,
Indian

Grand Valley State College

10%

a few

some Micronesian

Hillsdale College

small %

small %

Hope College

small %

small %

Eastern Michigan University

Kalamazoo College
Madonna College

2%

10%
some

Marygrove College

50%

Michigan State University

10%

Nazareth College

1 or 2
students

Oakland University

10-15%

some

50% Roman Catholic

some

some foreign
no other minority
students

5-10%

Olivet College

30%

none

Saginaw Valley State College

15%

10%

4%

5%

Siena Heights College
Spring Arbor College

40% Dutch-American
background

1% foreign

1% other

small %
some

some foreign

University of Detroit

30%

University of Michigan

10% to 15% total minorities

Wayne State University

20%

some

some A r a b s ,
Chaldeans

177

TABLE 10.--Educational Institutions' Reported Means of Financial
Support
Institution

Means of Financial Support

Adrian College

Gifts, indirect funds from Methodist
Church

Albion College

Endowments

Alma College

Private funds, Presbyterian Church

Andrews University

Tuition, Seventh Day Adventist
Church

Aquinas College

Foundation money, Dominican Order

Calvin College

20% from Christian Reformed Church

Central Michigan University

State of Michigan

Eastern Michigan University

State of Michigan

Ferris State College

State of Michigan

Grand Valley State College

State of Michigan

Hillsdale College

Private philanthropic contributions

Hope College

Reformed Church in America

Kalamazoo College

Alumni contributions, Baptist Church

Madonna College

Contributions of Felician Sisters
(Catholic)

Marygrove College

Tuition, Roman Catholic Church

Michigan State University

State of Michigan

Nazareth College

Alumni grants, Roman Catholic
Church

Oakland University

State of Michigan

Olivet College

Philanthropic organizations, endow­
ments, United Church of Christ

Saginaw Valley State College

State of Michigan, foundation money

Siena Heights College

Roman Catholic Church, Title IV,
U.S.O.E.

Spring Arbor College

Alumni contributions,
Free Methodist Church

University of Detroit

Roman Catholic Church,
Jesuit faculty support

University of Michigan

State of Michigan

Wayne State University

State of Michigan

178
TABLE 11.— Educational Institutions'
Institution

Reported Philosophical Orientation
Philosophical Orientation

Adrian College

Related to Methodist Church

Albion College

Liberal arts college; nominal
affiliation with Methodist Church

Alma College

Presbyterian

Andrews University

Seventh Day Adventist

Aquinas College

Roman Catholic (Dominican);
all faiths welcomed

Calvin College

Calvinist;

Central Michigan University

Liberal Arts.

Eastern Michigan University

Provide opportunities for all stu­
dents

Ferris State College

Careers, vocationally directed
teacher education.
"Open Door"
admission policy

Grand Valley State College

Individualized curriculum.
Liberal Arts

Hillsdale College

Administration conservative;
politically and economically

Hope College

Christian Reformed Church in America

Kalamazoo College

Liberal Arts.

Madonna College

Roman Catholic

Marygrove College

Catholic college with goals to p r o ­
mote competencies; foster compassion,
commitment

Michigan State University

Land grant philosophy.
orientation

Nazareth College

Roman Catho l i c .
program

Oakland University

Open admission policy.
alized

Olivet College

United Church of Christ. Liberal Arts

Saginaw Valley State College

Liberal Arts

Siena Heights College

Roman Catholic

Spring Arbor College

Free Methodist

University of Detroit

Roman Catholic (Jesuit). Goals to
foster moral and spiritual values

Christian Reformed Church
Conservative

both

Historically Baptist

Service

Service-oriented
Individu­

(Dominican)

179
TABLE 11.— Continued
Institution

Philosophical Orientation

University of Michigan

Seeks academically sound students
with strong noneducation background

Wayne State University

Education programs have opened
doors for diverse ethnicities in
Detroit area

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