8006176

Pa rker , Beverly A n n

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS, ILLNESS A N D JOB
SATISFACTION IN SCHOOL COUNSELORS IN THE STATE OF MICHIGAN

PH.D.

Michigan State University

University
Microfilms
International

300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor. M I 48106

1979

18 Bedford Row. London WC1R 4EJ, England

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS, ILLNESS AND
JOB SATISFACTION IN SCHOOL COIJNSFLORS
IN THE STATE OF MICHIGAN
By

Beverly Ann Parker

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Personnel Services
and Educational Psychology

1979

ABSTRACT
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS, ILLNESS AND
JOB SATISFACTION IN SCHOOL COUNSELORS
IN THE STATE OF MICHIGAN
By
Beverly Ann Parker

The major purposes of this study were four fold:
(1)

to examine the relationship between stress and job

satisfaction in school counselors in Michigan;

(2)

to

examine the relationship between stress and illness in
school counselors in Michigan;

(3)

to examine the

relationship between job satisfaction and illness in
school counselors in Michigan;

and (4)

to measure the

impact of stress and job satisfaction on the occurrence
of illness in Michigan school counselors.
Of secondary interest were questions related to the
study.

The questions aimed to determine if significant

differences existed between stress,

illness or job

satisfaction and the demographic variables of age, marital
status,
level,

sex, ethnic background, number of children,
level of education,

occupation,

income

school level, school affiliation,

size of school system and time in the job.

For this study,

the general population consisted of

persons who were employed as school counselors in the state
of Michigan.

A subset of this population served as the

population of immediate interest.

This subset included the

Beverly Ann Parker
754 members of the Michigan School Counselors Association
(MSCA) who were employed in a counseling capacity during
the 1977-78 school year.
Two instruments were used in this study to provide
the necessary data.

To measure stress and illness, an

instrument was developed during the course of this study.
It contained demographic information,
behav .or and illness scales.

stress,

stress-linked

To measure job satisfaction,

the

Job Description Index (JDI), developed by Smith, et. a l . , was
used.

This instrument contains five scales of job satis­

faction:

work, pay, promotion,

supervision and people.

The

instruments, along with a cover of support from the president
of MSCA, were mailed to each of the persons on the MSCA member­
ship list.

The sample consisted of the 427 school counselors

who responded to the questionnaire.
The analysis of data included the use of the Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient for testing of the
first three hypothesis and a two-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) for the fourth hypothesis.

Each hypothesis was

tested for significance at the .05 critical level.

In addi­

tion, one-way ANOVA techniques and descriptive statistics
were used to provide answers to questions related to the
study.

The ANOVA techniques tested for significant dif­

ferences between the demographic variables and the major
variables of the study.

Again,

the .05 level of significance

was used to analyze the results of the ANOVA procedures.

Beverly Ann Parker
For the relationships that indicated a significant difference,
the Scheffe post hoc comparison technique was conducted to
localize the area of significance.
The results of this study can be summarized in the
following manner:
1.

The level of stress in school counselors was
negatively related to their level of job
satisfaction.

2.

The level of stress in school counselors was
positively related to the occurrence of
illnesses.

3.

The occurrence of illnesses in school counselors
was negatively related to the level of job
satisfaction.

A.

There was not a significant interaction between
stress, job satisfaction and illness such that
school counselors who were less satisfied and
under stress experienced more illnesses than
those counselors who were more satisfied and
under less stress.

5.

There was a significant difference between
stress and marital status of school counselors
such that single counselors experienced more
stress than married counselors.

6.

There was a significant difference between
stress and number of children such that counselors

Beverly Ann Parker
with more children experienced less stress than
counselor with fewer or no children.
7.

There was a significant difference between job
satisfaction and marital status such that school
counselors who were separated or divorced were
less satisfied in their jobs than counselors
who were widowed.

8.

The area of supervision was highest of the five
areas of job satisfaction.

9.

The area of promotion was lowest of the five
areas of job satisfaction.

10.

Too much paperwork was the greatest source of
stress for counselors in their jobs.

11.

Quality of physical facilities was the least
source of stress for counselors in their jobs.

12.

The use of consulting services was greatest
for stress-linked behaviors engaged in by
counselors.

13.

The second half of the school year was more
stressful for school counselors than was the
first half.

The importance of this study adds support to the
necessity of school counseling departments to address
the events which significantly affect the effective
and efficient performance of persons who work therein.

DEDICATION

To my parents, Leroy and Odessa Parker

whose love, understanding, constant support and encouragement
made it all possible.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The completion of this project was made possible through
the constant support and collaboration of many friends and
colleagues too numerous to name.

But,

I would like to

express my sincere thanks to those whose contributions are
foremost in thought.
To Dr. Gloria Smith, Chairperson of my guidance committee,
I am indeed grateful for her invaluable guidance and assistance
throughout the tenure of this dissertation.
To Dr. Thomas Gunnings,

I extend sincere heartfelt

thanks for his continued friendship,

encouragement and support

throughout the course of my entire graduate program.
To Dr. Larry Lezotte,

I would like to express my

sincere appreciation for the time and knowledge shared,
especially when time was at a premium for him.
To Dr. Bob W i n b o m and Dr. Eileen Earhart,

I am

greatly appreciative of their support and guidance as
members of my doctoral committee.
To Dr. L. Wendell Rivers and Dr. Martha Warfield,

I

am extremely thankful for their helpful suggestions, new
insights and constant encouragement that it could be done.
To Miss Sandi Watts, dear friend and typist,

I express

my gratitude for her tireless efforts at typing rough drafts
and the final product.

To Misses Sandra and Gwendolyn Philpott, Mrs. Pegpy
Washington,

I am grateful and appreciative for their

assistance in preparing packets for mailing,

coding data

and proofreading the final draft.
To Miss Boyce Williams and Mr. John Lewis,

I express

heartfelt thanks for their support, understanding and in­
spiration.
Last, but not least, to my parents, Leroy and Odessa
Parker, my sisters, Sheree and Charlyne, my brother, Leroy,
and my nephew, Lamonte,

I extend warmest thanks and appreci­

ation for their continuous love, assistance and encourage­
ment throughout my life which has served as an impetus for
my desire to always succeed.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF T A B L E S ........................................ vii
LIST OF F IGURES......................................

LIST OF A P P E N D I C E S .................................

x

xi

CHAPTER
I.

II.

III.

INTRODUCTION.................................

1

Background...................................
Rationale ...................................
Purpose of St u d y .............................
Hypotheses....................................
Related Questions ...........................
Generalizability.............................
Overview......................................

5
7
11
12
13
14
14

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE....................

16

Introduction.................................
Historical Perspective......................
Stress and Illness...........................
Stress and Job S a t i s f a c t i o n ...............
Illness and Job Satisfaction...............
Stress, Illness and Job Satisfaction. . . .
S u m m a r y ......................................

16
18
26
46
53
57
63

STUDY DESIGN AND PROCEDURES ...............

69

Introduction.................................
Description of the P o p u l a t i o n .............
Sample........................................
Instrument Selection........................
P r o c e d u r e ....................................
Operational Definitions of Concepts . . . .
Proxy V a r i a b l e s .............................
Data A n a l y s i s ...............................
Research Hypotheses......................
Tests to be U s e d ........................
S u m m a r y ......................................

69
69
70
72
76
76
78
80
80
81
82

v

CHAPTER
IV,

Page

ANALYSES AND R E S U L T S ......................

84

Part I: Analysis of Major Hypotheses. . .
Part II: Analysis of Related Descriptive
D a t a ......................................
Summary......................................

85
87
98

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS...............

102

Review of the Pro b l e m......................
Conclusions.................................
Limitations.................................
Implications tor Counselors...............
Implications for Future Research . . . . .

102
106
112
113
116

APPENDICES..........................................

119

LIST OF REFERENCES.................................

163

V.

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table
4.1

4.2

4.3
4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

Page
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation
Coefficient (r) for Hypotheses
1, 2, and 3 ...................................

85

Two-Way Analysis of Variance of
Illness by Stress and Job
Satisfaction.................................

88

Breakdown of Illness by Stress by
Job Satisfaction.............................

89

F-Probabilities for One-Way Analysis
of Variance of Dependent Variables by
Demographic Variables ......................

93

Scheffe Post-Hoc Comparison of Stress
and Marital Status...........................

95

Scheffe Post-Hoc Comparison of Stress
and Number of Children......................

95

Scheffe Post Hoc Comparison of Job
Satisfaction and Marital Status ............

95

Mean Scores for the Five Scales of
the Job Description I n d e x ..................

97

Mean Scores for Stress-Linked Behaviors
of C o u n s e l o r s ...............................

99

FI

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and A g e .........................................136

F2

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and Marital Status ............................. 136

F3

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and S e x ........................................ 136

F4

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and Ethnic Background ......................

vii

137

Table

Page

F5

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and Number of C h i l d r e n ......................... 137

F6

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and I n c o m e ...................................... 137

F7

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and Level of E d u c a t i o n ......................... 138

F8

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and School L e v e l ................................138

F9

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and School Affiliation ......................

F10

138

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and O c c u p a t i o n .................................. 139

Fll

Analysis
and Size

of Variance for Stress
of School System....................... 139

F12

Analysis
and Time

of Variance for Stress
in J o b .................................. 139

G1

Analysis of Variance for tllness
and S i z e .........................................141

G2

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and Marital S t a t u s ............................. 141

G3

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and S e x ........................................... 141

G4

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and Ethnic Background........................... 142

G5

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and Number of C h i l d r e n ......................... 142

G6

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and I n c o m e ...................................... 142

G7

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and Level of E d u c a t i o n ......................... 143

G8

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and School L e v e l ................................143

viii

Table

Page

G9

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and School A f f i l i a t i o n ..........................143

G10

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and O c c u p a t i o n .................................. 144

Gil

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and Size of School Syst e m .......................144

G12

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and Time in J o b .................................. 144

HI

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and A g e ........................................... 146

H2

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and Marital S t a t u s ............................. 146

H3

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and S e x ........................................... 146

H4

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and Ethnic Background........................... 147

H5

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and Number of C h i l d r e n ......................... 147

H6

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and I n c o m e ...................................... 147

H7

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and Level of E d u c a t i o n ......................... 148

H8

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and School L e v e l ................................148

H9

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and School Affiliation ......................

148

H10

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and O c c u p a t i o n .................................. 149

Hll

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and Size of School Syst e m ....................... 149

H12

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and Time in J o b .................................. 149

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Page

2.1

Organs of the Body Affected by Stressful
S t i m u l i .............................................. 19

2.2

Social Readjustment Rating S c a l e...................41

2.3

Summary of Literature Review on Stress,
Illness and Job Satisfaction........................65

3.1

Sample Selection Procedure for the S t u d y .......... 71

4.1

Graphic Presentation of the Interaction of
Job Satisfaction and Stress on Illness.............90

x

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix

Page

A.

Cover Letter to MPGA School Counselors . . .

120

B.

Letter of Support from President of
Michigan School Counselors Association . . .

122

C.

Stress-Illness Questionnaire

124

D.

Job Description In d e x............................ 130

E.

Characteristics of the S a m p l e................... 132

F.

Analysis of Variance for Stress
and Demographic Variables.......................135

G.

Analysis of Variance for Illness
and Demographic Variables.......................140

H.

Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction
and Demographic Variables.......................145

I.

Mean Scores for Sources of Stress for
C o u n s e l o r s ...................................... 150

J.

List of Additional S t r e s s o r s ................... 153

K.

Categories of Stress-Linked Behaviors. . . .

L.

A Systemic Approach to Counseling.............. 161

xi

................

159

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A steadily growing number of Americans are being
affected by more and more illnesses despite the fact that
medical researchers have virtually eliminated most of the
infectious diseases which plagued the 19th and early 20th
centuries.

Diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia and

diphtheria are no longer listed as the most prominent
killing diseases, but have been replaced by others such as
heart attacks, strokes,

cancer and kidney failure.

This

new category of diseases has indications of a runaway
condition of normal body physiological functions, namely
stress.

Chronic stress has been implicated as causes of

various diseases,

as complicating others and inducing

discomfort and misery in persons who suffer from it.
Conflict,

crowding,

factors in personal lives, rapidly

changing life styles and pressures of working for a living
are inducing stress in people at levels that threaten
physical health and mental well-being.

Albrecht (1979)

listed five significant areas of change which he feels
constitute the twentieth century as the "Age of Stress."
They include changes from rural living to urban living,
from stationary to mobile,

from self-sufficiency to con­

suming, from isolation to interconnections and from

1

2
physically active to sedentary.

He further stated that

these changes place pressures and demands for adaptation
on the 1970's man that were unknown to the 1900 man.
The presence of stressful stimuli, be it physical or
mental, internal or external, noxious or beneficial,

creates

a series of chemical bodily reactions which have been
indicated as causative factors in most contemporary health
breakdowns.

The list of diseases continues to grow, with

heart disease heading the list in frequency of annual
deaths.

It is now estimated that one American dies every

32 seconds, either immediately or within a few hours after
a heart attack.

Men are more prone to heart attacks than

women, and one out of every three victims is younger than
65 years old.
Strokes and cancer compete for the number two place as
the most frequent cause of death among Americans.

The same

stressful stimuli that give rise to heart attacks give rise
to strokes which afflict over 300,000 people annually.
Cancer is believed to have a stress-derived component
which makes up a cancer personality.

Medical researchers

contend they have identified a series of attitudes and
behaviors which coincide more highly than others with the
incidence of cancer.

This personality type is said to be

more susceptible to the disease than any other personality.
Stress has many forms, some obvious, others not so
obvious.

A partial list may include hunger,

thirst, heat,

3
cold, insecurity,
exertion,

social change, conflict, fear, grief,

fatigue (mental and physical), anxiety, frus­

tration, menopause,

depression, overdominant parents or

spouse, job dissatisfaction and resentment.
what form stress manifests itself,

No matter

it causes a pattern

of reactions which are basically dependent upon the
individual's conscious and unconscious assessment of
the situation.

If the stress becomes acute,

it can

actually kill a person, especially if the individual's
condition is coupled with bouts of prolonged stress, age
or circulatory disease.

In a study of persons who were

reported as victims of sudden deaths, Engel
identified four categories of sudden stress.

(1977)
They are:

1.

A traumatic disruption of a relationship
with a loved one or of the anniversary of
such a happening.

2.

A situation of danger, struggle or attack.

3.

Extreme sense of failure, defeat, disappoint­
ment, humiliation and loss of self-esteem.

4.

A sudden moment of triumph, public recognition,
or reunion with loved ones.
(Engel, 1977, p. 114)

It is Engel's contention that the subjects in his study
died of sudden stress overload which their bodies could
not handle.
The list of ways in which stress affects an indivi­
dual's behavior is as long as the list of stress forms.
This list includes use of marijuana, amphetamines,
sleeping pills, drugs, smoking, overeating,
alcohol,

drinking

coffee or high caffeine drinks, psychological

4
withdrawal,

ill-tempers,

sleeplessness and absenteeism

from work.

More severe cases manifest themselves with

criminal involvement and suicide.
Stress is a significant factor in today's world.
has revealed itself in all aspects of o n e ’s life.
is no less true in the work world.

It

This

Persons within the

work force are becoming increasingly concerned about
their employees who continually exhibit many of the above
behaviors.

Human resources are oftentimes the most

expensive form of resources for any business.

Employee

problems such as high absenteeism, job turnovers, health
problems,

alcohol and drug abuse and personality clashes

cost the employer money and performance.
arise in stress.

These problems

They can add to the cost of any business

and disparage the quality of workers'
Colligan, Smith and Hurrell

performance.

(1977) feel that work

organizations are paying a much higher cost for occupa­
tional stress than they are aware with high occurrences
of health problems,

emotional disorders and absenteeism.

In a study of 130 job classifications,
jobs as being high-stress.

they identified 40

Ten of the 40 jobs were reported

to have the highest incidences of stress disorders.
of the 10 were in the health profession.
and Hurrell

Colligan,

(1977) wrote:

Stress affects all workers to some extent and
some more than others.
In addition to the
stresses the individual experiences in his or

Four
Smith

5
her private life, the job itself can induce
certain "set-up" stress levels which bring
the worker close to the danger point.
Then,
all it takes is some precipitating event or
problem, and the person gets pushed beyond
the limits of adaptation, and he or she
simply breakdown (p. 34).
This study will examine the manner in which stress
can manifest itself in the life of a school counselor, a
job which Colligan, Smith and Hurrell classified as a
stress-producing occupation because it requires dealing
with distressed clients and the employee feels a high
level of obligation but lacks the sense of having the
control necessary to meet expectations.
Background
One of the primary goals of persons in the helping
profession who engage in the delivery of human services
should be to provide their clientele with the most
efficient and effective service possible.
to occur,

In order for this

counselors must be physically and mentally prepared

to address problem situations.

Because stress significantly

affects how counselors behave, counseling personnel are
beginning to examine how the human organism, particularly
the counselor, behaves under stressful conditions.
School counselors daily face seemingly insurmountable
tasks.

Too often, they feel incapable of handling these

situations for any number of reasons, ranging from the
pressures of home situations to not possessing the

6
necessary competencies.

In order to address these

concerns and explore new directions for counselors,

school

systems seek expert help from consultants outside the
school systems.

In Hay,

1977, the Flint, Michigan school

system contracted an East Lansing, Michigan based firm,
Stress Management,

Inc., to teach its top administrators

how to cope with and relieve stress.
Accordingly,

the Detroit Public Schools provided

their counselor supervisors and top administrators with
80 hours of inservice training which was designed to
address major concerns and strategies for dealing with
factors affecting their performances.

Workshops on

"Stress Factors in Counseling" and "Stress Factors and
Motivation in Management" were conducted for the Detroit
group by another East Lansing firm, Professional Psycholo­
gical Consultants,

Incorporated.

Also responding to a need to address the effect of
stress upon personnel in their school system, the East
Lansing Public Schools included a workshop entitled "Stress What Causes It!

What To Do About It!" in their 1978

Summer Inservice Training Agenda.

The workshop presented

information on sources of stress, how to identify it, and
how to handle it for administrators in the school system.
On a much broader basis, the Michigan Department of
Education conducted regional workshops throughout the
state for upgrading the skills and competencies of student
services personnel during the months of August and

7

September of 1978.

In Area 4 (Saginaw, Flint, Bay City,

Mt. Pleasant) and Area 5 (Marquette,

Ironwood, Escanaba),

workshops were conducted which concentrated on stress and
the student services personnel.
On- and off-the-job events occurring in the lives of
counselors can not be overlooked or taken lightly if
quality service is to be provided by a counseling program.
The need for further understanding of these stressful
events and how they affect the lives of counselors is
very apparent.

Consumers of counseling services are asking

for more viable results and accountability is a major
concern.

The sooner this fact is accepted and understood,

the sooner efforts can be made to provide counselors with
the understanding and the strategies necessary to success­
fully deal with the stress in their lives.
Rationale
Since the beginning of the study of man,

the human

organism's response to stress has been under close
scrutiny.

Workers in the helping professions have long

wanted to know the "what" and "how" of the causes and
responses to stressful events in one's life which trigger
changes in his being.
Physicians are not alone in their concern
with stress.
Other professionals, such as
psychologists and social workers, invoke
stress to explain pathologies, for example,
alcoholism, suicide, and drug abuse.
They
are joined by lay persons (whatever their

8
experience or sophistication regarding health
and illness) in implicating stress in the
development of disease (Levine and Scotch, 1970, p. 2).
Counselors are a special group of people who need
to understand the impact of stress upon their lives, and
the lives of their clients.

W a m a t h and Shelton (1976)

concluded that the ultimate disappointment is the "burnedout" counselor who suffers from a split between philoso­
phy and survival, not being able to bridge the gap between
ideals and job realities and working as an employee under
stress.
services,

Dealing primarily with the delivery of human
counselors,

themselves, must be on top of

situations and mentally and physically capable of providing
their clientele with the best services possible.

Therefore,

it is extremely important to understand the causes of events
which influence human behavior.
Man, trnlike other creatures,

is capable of influencing

the nature of stress because he possesses two unique
capacities: one, to control events in his environment,
two,

to see or plan ahead.

and

If he can control some of the

stressful events in his life, then his responses to future
events will be less severe because he can plan.

"A better

understanding of the process of coping with severe stress
would have substantial clinical and preventative value"
(Kaplan, et. al., 1973, p. 60).

Since man can look or

plan ahead, he can anticipate situations which evoke
stress.

His anticipation profoundly influences stress and

thereby helps him in dealing with stressful life events.

9
If counselors can learn to understand and control
aspects of their lives which impinge upon their performance,
outlook and health,

they will be more effective and

efficient in their pursuits.

McLean (1976) goes so

far as to propose a legislative approach to helping indi­
viduals cope with stressors

(those events which cause stress).

He purports that:
One legislative approach that could foster the
coping mechanisms of the individual and enhance
the ability of the employer to support them
would be to specifically require the establish­
ment of "social indicators" as part of the
monitoring process of a work organization.
Such
legislation could charge a capable agency with
the development of indicators of attitudes,
social climate, and participation and the
development of techniques to evaluate their
effectiveness (McLean, 1976, p. 47-48).
A counselor's behavior is largely dependent upon the
stresses and strains of his everyday life.

Events occur

which trigger instantaneous body reactions.

The body

is adaptive and able to make adjustments, but only to
a certain extent.

Once it is pushed passed that point,

something has to give.

Very often the effects of stress

show up in the form of illnesses.

Tanner

(1976) stated

that:
Most people adjust their behavior to the
everyday strains of life, dealing as best
they can with mortgages, memos, and mothersin-law, and whether or not they can afford
a vacation at the shore - in the psychologist's
term, they stay within their adaptive range
(p. 23).
It is generally agreed that the less satisfied one is
with his job, the more stressful the job becomes.

Several

10
job components contribute more to creating stress than
others.

They include:

the feeling that one does not have

enough time, resources or abilities to do the job,
responsibility for managing other people,

incongruity

between job status and educational attainment,
autonomy,

little

and lack of stability, security and support

in the job environment

(HEW, 1973).

If counselors within a school system are able to
identify those aspects of their jobs which lead to general
job dissatisfaction,

supervisors and administrators may

be able to improve the functioning of their counseling
departments, by changing those things that create dis­
satisfaction, and by assisting counselors in learning to
cope with the others.

If changes in the job situation

can not be made or adequate responses provided,

the

continued presence of stressful job components may lead
to dysfunctional stress.

These job components have been

related to a variety of mental health problems,
low self-esteem, worry,
relations

(Kasl,

such as

tension, and impaired personal

1972; Kasl & Cobb,

1971; Kohn & Schooler,

1972).
Counselors under a great deal of stress will display
less ability to tolerate the demands of daily activities,
and to sort out the frivolous demands from the crucial ones
T h u s , the manner in which they undertake tasks which
confront them becomes uncertain,
As Tanner (1976) has stated,

impetuous and error-filled

"When an individual is faced

11
with a state of overload . . . his ability to improvise
deteriorates, and his behavior regresses to simpler, more
primitive responses summoned up from his past"
Just as stress overload can be unhealthy,
stress underload.

(p. 23).
so can

The absence or limited presence of

stress-producing stimuli may in itself be a kind of
stressor.

Selye (1956), in discussing sensory deprivation

and boredom,

stated that under such conditions, people

experience "an intense desire for extrinsic sensory
stimuli and bodily motion,

increased suggestibility,

impairment of organized thinking, oppression and depression,
in extreme cases, hallucinations, delusions and confusion"
(p. 385).

Counselors whose lives and jobs are unfulfilling

and provide little cr no challenge will not have enough
stimulation or mental and physical exercise to provide
competent guidance.
Purpose of the Study
The purposes of this study are four-fold.

The primary

purpose is to assess the relationship between stressful
life events and the level of job satisfaction of elementary
and secondary school counselors in Michigan.

Secondly,

it is the purpose of this study to examine the relationship
between stress and the occurrence of certain illnesses in
the same group.

The third purpose is to determine the

relationship between counselor job satisfaction and the
occurrence of certain illnesses.

Lastly,

this study

12
purports to measure the impact of stress and job satis­
faction on the occurrence of illnesses.
Results from such t study can be very beneficial to
persons engaged in the delivery of human services in the
field of education.

In order for these persons to perform

effectively and efficiently,
as possible in their jobs.

they must be as comfortable
This would include being

satisfied with their jobs, being under minimal stress and
being fit

(mentally and physically) to handle job demands.

Analysis of counseling departments using such a study
could reveal idiosyncrasies which are affecting the smooth
operation of the department and the effective performance
of counselors.
situations,

Efforts can then be made to correct those

thereby enhancing the functioning of the

department and counselors who work therein.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses will be tested in this study
Hypothesis 1:

Michigan school counselors who experience
greater amounts of stress will be more
dissatisfied with their jobs than those
counselors who experience less stress.

Hypothesis 2:

Michigan school counselors who experience
greater amounts of stress will be prone
to m o r a. illnesses than those counselors
who experience less stress.

Hypothesis 3:

Michigan school counselors who are less
satisfied with their jobs will be prone
to more illnesses than those counselors
who are more satisfied with their jobs.

Hypothesis 4:

Michigan school counselors who are less
satisfied with their jobs and experiencing
a great amount of stress will be more prone
to illnesses than those counselors who are
either less satisfied with their jobs or
who experience great amounts of stress.

Data for testing these hypotheses will be provided by
counselor responses to a stress-illness questionnaire

(see

Appendix C) and the Job Description Index (see Appendix D ) .

Related Questions
In conjunction with analyzing the four research
hypotheses,

this study will provide answers to questions

of related interest.

The questions to be answered will

compare levels of stress,

illness and job satisfaction

with each of the proxy variables

(age, marital status,

sex, ethnic background, number of children,
level of education,

income level,

type of school setting, occupation,

size of school system and time in the job) for statistical
significance.

Additional questions to be answered are:

1.

What area of the counselor's job is most satisfying?

2.

What area of the counselor's job is least satisfying

3.

What area of the counselor's job is most stressful?

4.

What area of the counselor's joo is least stressful

5.

In which stress-linked behaviors are counselors
more prone to engage?

6.

Is the first or second half of the year more
stressful for counselors?
Generalizability

The degree to which the results of this study can be
generalized to other populations is dependent on the extent
to which other populations are similar in characteristics
to the population used in this study, and only in relation
to the specific presentations used.

The validity of inter­

pretations resulting from this study which may be expanded
to diversified populations should be considered climacteric.
This is in general agreement with investigations of this
kind.
Overview
The need for counselors in elementary and secondary
schools is continually being questioned.

When school

budgets are cut, counselors are among the first to be
released from their jobs.

Often cited as one of the reasons

for cutting counselors is that little progress or improve­
ment can be seen as a result of counselors being in the
system.

To evidence the worth of counselors and the

counseling profession,

its proponents must show their worth.

This can only be accomplished when supervisors of counselors
and counseling department administrators make sure they are

15
receiving quality work from counselors.

On-going evalua­

tions of counseling departments and counselors will
reveal flaws in the system which inhibit effective func­
tioning.

Some variables to be considered include areas

of job satisfaction,
counselors'

stressful factors impinging on

lives and overall mental and physical states

of counselors.

Counselors must then be taught how to

identify and handle factors affecting their performance.
Unless counse1ors begin to take account of themselves
and their performance,

the profession will soon become

seriously crippled and eventually distinct.

The future

of children whom counselors serve will be even more
devastating as they are left to tackle mounting educational,
vocational and personal problems without the assistance
of their counselors, who could be invaluable assets in
children's lives.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction

Research into the relationship between stress and
miscellaneous variables is diverse, and in many instances,
voluminous.

Its relationship with illness and performance

has received the bulk of the attention of medical scientists,
psychologists,
the years.

epidemiologists and sociologists through

Factors such as intelligence,

distraction,

job satisfaction and demographic variables are virtually
nonexistent in the literature in relationship to stress.
The ambiguity which has resulted from the research leaves
much room for further investigations into these variables.
For purposes of providing organizational coverage
to the variables of interest in this investigation,

the

review of literature is organized into five areas:
1.

Historical Perspective

2.

Stress and Illness Studies

3.

Stress and Job Satisfaction Studies

4.

Illness and Job Satisfaction Studies

5.

Stress,

Illness and Job Satisfaction Studies

Much of the literature review contains the works
and writings of a diversified group of contributors,

16

17
ranging from counselors to epidemiologists.

Consequently,

each participant has utilized divergent definitions of
the term "stress," usually with consideration to a
particular field of interest.

Wolff (1960),

in his

recordings of a session of the proceedings of the Second
Oxford Conference on the Mental Health Research Fund,
recounted a "common language" definition of the current
usages of the word "stress" as provided by Dr. Derek
Richter.

It stated that:

(1) The word stress, probably derived from
'distress', was used originally for any kind
of hardship, burden, pressure or compulsion
inflicted on a person or on a material object.
A stress produces characteristically a
condition of tension or strain in the person
or object affected by it.
The word is now
used loosely in several different senses for
(2) pressure or emphasis (as in the phrase
to lay stress o n ) and particularly for (3)
an adverse fo rce , pressure or influence.
The
word is also used for (4) the state or con­
dition of a person subjected to adverse
influences causing tension or strain; and
(5) a state of affairs or general situation
characterizecFby adverse influences.
Dr. Richter further stated:
By "the stress of modern living" is generally
understood the sum total of irksome obligations,
duties, and social conventions, together with
any other conditions of living that may give
rise to worry, tension, anxiety, conflict or
frustration.
Mental stress may also arise
for specific reasons, as in an individual who
holds beliefs that are in conflict with the
views of those in authority (Wolff, 1960, p. 32).
This literature review will further explore the
definitions of stress as set forth by Richter.

18
Historical Perspective
An overview of scientific studies indicates that
stress produces certain changes in man's physiological,
motoric and cognitive functioning.

The groundwork for

research into the relationship of bodily changes to
emotions

(fear, anxiety, pain, anger) was established by

Walter Cannon, a physiologist.

Cannon (1929) postulated

that the excitation of the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system brought about a multitude of
glandular,

smooth muscle, and metabolic responses which

cause dramatic changes of increased heart rate and blood
pressure, plus the mobilization of sugar in the blood
(p. 196).

He suggested that certain gross patterns form

the basis of the body responses and that many of the
individual changes physiologists observe can best be under­
stood as being parts of coordinated whole-body response
syndromes.

The stress response pattern of the body,

as postulated by Cannon,

can be described by a series of

bodily reactions involving the organs of the body as shown
in Figure 2.1.

It begins in the center of the brain,

in

the hypothalamus, whose reactions are to some extent
dictated by the conscious part of the cerebral cortex.
Among the many functions of the hypothalamus, it serves
to stimulate emotions such as fear, rage and intense
pleasure, which usually accompany stress.
to regulate sex, growth, and reproduction.

It also serves
In determining

19

Hypothalamus

Cerebral
Cortex

Pituitary
Gland

Thyroid
Gland

Lungs
Heart
Liver
Gall
Bladder Pancreas
Duodenum
Kidney —

Stomach
Bile Duct
Suprarenal
(Adrenal
Gland)
Ovary

Testicle

Figure 2.1.

Organs of the body affected by stressful
stimuli.

20
the body's reaction to stressful stimuli,
acts in two ways.

First,

the hypothalamus

it serves to control the autonomic

nervous sytem, which regulates the involuntary activities
of the body's organs.

Second, chemical messages, or

hormones are released directly into the bloodstream by
the activation of the pituitary gland.
working together,

These two systems

control the functioning of almost every

part of the body.
Once this process has begun,

the muscles of the body

tighten at the command of the autonomic nerves, breathing
is deeper and faster, heart rate rises as blood vessels
straighten.

Blood pressure rises and the vessels just

under the skin almost completely close.

Nostrils and

throat passages expand while other body functions cease.
The stomach and intestines halt digestion and muscles
controlling bowels and bladder loosen.
increases,

Perspiration

saliva and mucus production decrease and sense

organs sharpen.
The adrenal glands release hormones which affect
circulation, reinforce the autonomic nervous system in
elevating heartbeat and blood pressure,

signal the spleen

to release more red blood corpuscles, enable the blood
to clot more quickly,

stimulate the liver to produce more

sugar, give the oxygen more fuel to burn and increase the
amount of fat in the blood.

21
The pituitary gland also secretes hormones that play
a significant role in the m.inner in which the body responds
to stress.

The thyrotropic hormone, or TTH, serves to

provide stimulation to the thyroid.
to produce more energy.

This enables the body

The adrenocorticotrophic

(ACTH)

hormone causes the outer layer of the adrenals to produce
about 30 other hormones that are about the surest signs
of stress.

In most of the experiments in laboratories,

the ACTH concentration in the blood is used as an indication
of the intensity of stress.
The body is now prepared for quick decisions,
vigorous action and defense against enemies.
physiological reactions can be observed:

The following

dilation of

pupils which allows for more sensitive seeing, more acute
hearing and smelling,

faster breathing, pale skin due to

blood leaving the vessels near the skin, perspiration
and increased heart rate.
In providing this scientific description of the basic
automatic response of the body to stress,

Cannon stated

that the response will vary in its force, depending on
how important the challenge is perceived to be.

But the

pattern of the body's response will always remain the same.
This arousal condition described by Cannon (1932) was
referred to as the "fight-or-flight" syndrome.

He observed

that it is as if the body had prepared itself quickly,
efficiently and comprehensively for physical battle or for
energetic flight to escape the problem situation.

An endocrinologist, Hans Selye (1956) elaborated on
these concepts within his theory of hormone chemistry
and the term stress response evolved.

He agreed with

Cannon, and other researchers have since confirmed,

that

the human body possesses a life-saving reaction pattern the stress response - which comes into play in a variety
of pressure situations.

In his work,

Selye explored the

effects of stressful stimuli with the use of laboratory
animals.

Concentrating on the response of rats to cold,

traumatic injury and nervous irritation,

Selye developed

the General Adaptive Syndrome (G.A.S.), which is the stress
response characterized by a series of bodily reactions.
The three stages of the G.A.S. are:
1.

An Alarm Stage - It represents the initial
response of the individual to a stressor
and characterizes a general call to arms
of the body's defensive forces.
A series
of changes occur which involve the adrenal
cortex, the thymus and the tissues of the
gastrointestinal tract.
The body prepares
to fight stress by releasing hormones from
the endocrine glands.
Heartbeat and
respiration increase, blood sugar level
rises, muscles tense up, pupils dilate and
digestion slows.
If the occurring syndrome
is not diminished, it leads to the manifes­
tation of the next stage:

2.

The Stage of Resistance - It is opposite in
reaction to the alarm reaction.
In the alarm
reaction, when the adrenal discharges visible
granules of secretion into the blood stream,
the stores of this gland are depleted and
the cortex accumulates a reserve of secondary
granules.
If stress is overcome, the body
repairs the damage that was done, the physical
signs of stress disappear and resistance to
the source of stress is increased.
Continuous

23
and prolonged exposure to the stressor
leads to the eventual loss of one's adap­
tation and the individual enters the third
stage:
3.

The Stage of Exhaustion - The symptoms are
similar to those in the alarm reaction.
If
this stage is reached and stress continues
long enough, the body's capacity for
adaptation is exhausted and such stressrelated illnesses as severe headaches, ulcers
and high blood pressure can appear.

Also during the 1930's, Aldolph Meyer made a major
contribution to the medical field with the introduction
of the life chart as a tool in medical diagnosis.

In

a later publication, Meyer described the procedure for its
usage when he wrote:
We begin with the entering of data and year
of birth . . .; we next enter periods of
disorders of the various organs, and after
this the data concerning the situations and
reactions of the patient (p. 53).
His impression of situations which were to be included
in the chart w e r e :
The changes of habitat, of school entrance,
graduations, or changes, or failures; the
various jobs; the dates of possibly important
births and deaths in the family, and other
fundamentally important environmental
incidents (Meyer, 1951, p. 53).
His work concluded that events need not be catastrophic or
bizarre, but indeed the most normal and necessary events in
one's life can be contributors to the development of illness.
Contributions to the linkage between stress and
illness appeared in the work of Donnison (1938), where in
his book, Civilization and Dis eas e, he argued that one's

24
reaction to stimuli induced by life in a civilized
community was responsible for organic disease.

Though

he provided no empirical evidence for his hypothesis,

it

was based upon his work as a physician to a tribal
reservation on the shores of Lake Victoria in Kenya.

In

his patient population of 1800, he found no cases of high
blood pressure, which he attributed to the undisturbed
cultural patterns and time-honored methods of childrearing
of the tribe.
Capitalizing on the work of Donnison, an epidemiologist,
Halliday,

contributed to the rise of stress-illness

research in his book, Psychological Medicine:
the Sick Society.

A Study of

In 1949, he concluded that conditions

such as hypertension and coronary heart disease had their
etiology in emotional tension which came about because of
increasing inner insecurities of work,

income,

changing

conditions of childhood and status in the social setting.
But again,

like Donnison, his observations were not accom­

panied by facts, but they did help to inspire later research
which amassed much data in the area.
Providing more of a scientific base to the premise
that processes of the nervous system can set the manifes­
tations of disease in motion, Harold Wolff conducted a
30-year series of experiments to explore his thesis that
the brain formulates physiological patterns of adaptation
to stress.

This manifests inappropriate reactions in their

25
type, amount and duration; thereby causing disruption
and even destruction.

Wolff used stress interview tech­

niques to illustrate that emotions could elicit manifes­
tations of a wide range of diseases, particularly, migraine
headaches and exzema.

His original work was revised by

his friends and associates (Wolff and Goodell,

1968).

Hinkle (1974), an associate of Wolff, moved his
investigations from the laboratory to the human ecological
scene.

He conducted a 20-year study of 1300 telephone

operators which examined his belief that health is affected
by changes in social or cultural milieu or in interpersonal
relationships.

He found that the operators who were healthy

liked their work,

found it easy and satisfying,

liked their

friends and associates and were generally content and
comfortable in their personal lives.
Summarily,

stress research has developed historically

in two largely separate spheres.

The study of psycho­

social stimuli is sequestered primarily within the
psychological sciences, while physical stimuli have been
studied mostly within the physiological sciences and has
grown largely out of the work of Hans Selye.

In spite

of disagreement through the years over the meaning of the
term "stress," probably the single most remarkable his­
torical fact about it is its continued widespread usage
in the sciences.

26
Stress and Illness
Studies relating stress to illness appear with
remarkable regularity in major sociological, psychological,
psychosomatic, and psychiatric publications,

and more

sparsely ir clinical medicine and epidemiology.

The

results of the studies are oftentimes contradictory,
confusing,

and fragmented.

Providing insight into the

disarray of stress-illness research, Greenberg (1977)
stated:
What bothers researchers today is not the
question of whether stress can cause disease
. . . studies clearly indicate that emotional
stress does contribute to high blood pressure,
gastrointestinal problems and apparently to
a wide variety of other illnesses in some
individuals.
Rather, the unanswered questions
deal more with who becomes ill under stress,
why other persons remain totally unaffected
and healthy under stress (p. 394).
Adding to reasons for the ambivalence in stressillness research, Appley and Trumbull

(1967) concluded

that researchers oftentimes do not take the following into
consideration in their research:
1.

Stress is probably best conceived as a state
of the total organism under extenuating
circumstances rather than as an event in
the environment.

2.

A great variety of different environmental
conditions is capable of producing a stress
state.

3.

Different individuals respond to the same
conditions in different ways.

27
4.

The same individual may enter into a stress
state in response to one presumably stress­
ful condition and not to another.

5.

Consistent intra-individual but varied
inter-individual psychobiological response
patterns occur in stress situations.
The
notion of a common stress reaction needs
to be reassessed.

6.

The behaviors resulting from operations
intended to induce stress may be the same
or different, depending on the context of
the situation of its induction.

7.

The intensity
and the extent of the stress
state, and the associated behaviors, may
not be readily predicted from a knowledge
of the stimulus conditions alone, but
require an analysis of underlying motiva­
tional patterns and of the context in which
the stressor is applied.

8.

Temporal factors may determine the signifi­
cance of a given stressor and thus the
intensity and extent of the stress state
and the optimum measurement of effect (p. 11).

A critique of problems inherent in specialized areas
of stress-illness research are reported in the results
of the June 1973 Conference on Stressful Life Events:
Tbeir Nature and Effects

(Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend,

1974)

Contributions from researchers of different disciplines
covered the gamut of problems in conceptualizing and
measuring stressful life events over the previous 10 years
The presentations of the conference as included in the
volume are outlined as follows:
1.

Research programs on relations between
stressful life events and episodes of
physical illness

28
2.

Clinical research programs on relations
between stressful life events and particular
types of physical and psychiatric disorders

3.

Community research on relations between
stressful life events and psychiatric
symptomology

4.

Methodological research on stressful life
events

Just as the interests of the researchers in the presenta­
tions are varied,

so are the results of their work, adding

to the interest and controversy.
Still, researchers believe they have made gainful
progress in the area.

The studies which have been

conducted over the past years have produced enormous clues
to the effects of stress and have provided a solid base
upon which more sagacious research has been done.
The list of stress-linked disorders is continually
growing.

The list currently includes ailments such as

heart disease, high blood pressure, ulcers, asthma,
allergies,

sexual problems,

tract infections

(Rodgers,

included arthritis attacks,
viral diseases,

skin

infertility, pain and urinary
1978).

Schildkraut

diabetes,

female problems

(1979)

dental problems,

(menstrual disorders,

pelvic pain, fluid retention, excessive hair growth),

and

even cancer in his listing of stress-linked illnesses.
The article further described symptoms which have been
linked to stress.
sleeplessness,

They included headaches,

stomachaches,

chronic fatigue, palpitations,

diarrhea and

29
choking sensations.

The proceedings of the Association for

Research in Nervous and Mental Diseases contain extensive
research reports concerning man's reaction to stress.

The

research reports discussed methods of study, observations
and prevailing concepts of stress linkage to:

1.

Growth, Development and Metabolism

2.

Diseases of the Eye

3.

Diseases of the Airways

4.

Headaches

5.

Diseases of the Stomach

6.

Diseases of the Colon

7.

Diseases of the Muscles , joints and periarticular
structures

8.

Cardiovascular Diseases

9.

Diseases of the Skin

10.

Genital Disorders

(Wolff, Wolf, Hare,

In addition to these disorders,

1950)

a recent report in

Science News revealed indications of stress-illness links
at the cellular level.

Its report was based upon a study

by Steven Locke, a Boston University researcher.

In a

study of 117 randomly selected college students, Locke
tested the hypothesis that stress alone is not sufficient
to impair immunity.

His premise was that the crucial factor

would be how well a person coped with stress.
^1978) reported the procedures as follows:

Science News

30
Test subjects were classified as good
copers or poor copers on the basis of a
91-item, self-reporting list of stresses
during the past year, month and several
weeks, along with the week prior to testing.
Each student rated his or her own stresses such as death in the family, probation,
pregnancy, rejection from a graduate program
and homosexual encounters - in terms of how
much readjustment they entailed.
Those
ratings were matched against the selfreported symptoms (nervousness, depression,
sleeping problems, etc.) to yield a coping
level (p. 151).
The results of Locke's study indicated that "susceptible
individuals,

characterized by psychobiological adaptive

failure (or poor coping), may have diminished cell-mediated
immunity in the presence of high life stress symptoms"
(Science N e w s , 1978, p. 151).
Advancing the list of stress-related illnesses,

the

University of Uppsala and the World Health Organization
(WHO), jointly sponsored a series of symposia on "Society,
Stress and Disease from 1970 to 1976."
series of five international,

The third of the

interdisciplinary symposia,

focused on problems due to change in male/female roles and
relationships.

The proceedings of the third symposium

present research into aspects of the male/female roles
and relationships as psychosocial human stressors,

and

their possible influences on health and well-being

(Levi,

1978) .
Kagan (1978) provides further evidence of the notion
that stimuli arising from change in male/female roles and

31
relationships may give rise to the following diseases
and precursors of disease:
pregnancy,

suicide,

venereal disease, unwanted

interpersonal problems, diminished

pair bonding, individual ill health and family ill health.
Taking a different approach from the other researchers
listed, but with the same contention, Graham-Bonnalie
(1972) holds that the mind and body are inseparable in
looking at psychosomatic illnesses.
lists approximately 80 disorders

He alphabetically

(from abdominal pain in

children to wounds) where emotional stress has been linked
to physical change in the individual.

With each disorder,

he describes the etiology of it in relation to the misfunctioning of body parts.
In examining stress-related illnesses from an urban
perspective, Rivers

(1977) lists "the diseases of adaptation"

that are prevalent among Black populations.

He states

that the upward economic mobility strivings of middle
class Black families leads to "disorders of adaptation":
hypertension,

strokes, alcoholism and emotional disorders.

Of all the ailments previously listed,

coronary heart

diseases (CHD) and hypertension/high blood pressure have
received most of the attention of researchers in stressillness studies.

With CHD striking larger numbers of people,

especially those at younger ages, research efforts are
focused at the cause and prevention of CHD.
indicated as a cause of the disease.

Stress is often

Prior to 1965, most

32
studies on CHD examined variables such as age, sex,
serum lipids, blood pressure,

cigarette smoking, obesity

and occupations; but within the past 10 years, attention
has shifted to include psychological and sociological
factors as they relate to CHD.
Aiding research advancements into stress and CHD,
Jenkins

(1971),

in an extensive review of the research

literature on the subject of precursors of coronary disease,
devoted much attention to research efforts of stresscoronary disease linkage.

His review encompassed summaries

of research efforts where:
1.

Work overload was implicated as a cardio­
vascular stress

2.

Social values of the Western civilization
inflicted stress upon those who adhered
to them

3.

Selye's third stage of the G.A.S. was
implicated as contributing to myocardial
infarction and death

4.

Psychic exhaustion and emotional drain
resulting from long term struggles with
persisting life problems often preceded
death from coronary disease

5.

Myocardial infarctions occurred in a
setting of fatigue and clinical depression

6.

Men with coronary disease viewed their
environments as more conflict laden, the
outcome of their actions as more unclear
and their achievements as having less
certainty of success.

Concurrently,

stress is the "accused factor" in

explaining the reasons for heart-related deaths of apparently

33
healthy people with no evidence of heart disease (Skinner,
1978).

Skinner's investigations showed that in sudden

heart attacks,

the brain ruled the heart.

The brain regulates

changes in respiration and heart rate, and the event of
a stressful situation, may send signals to the heart that
cause ventricular fibrillation (heart muscle contractions
that interrupt blood pumping).
Providing a milestone in stress-CHD research, Friedman
and Rosenman (1974) found from their 30 years of studying
coronary disease in hospitals,
rooms,

laboratories and consultation

that in their population of heart attack victims,

at least half of them could not contribute the usual
causes (smoking, diet, exercise habit,
of heart disease.

etc.) to the onset

This group, which they labeled "Type A,"

was characterized by excessive competitive drive, aggressive­
ness,

impatience and a harrying sense of urgency and time.

Their studies suggest that the stressful Type A pattern of
behavior is an independent - and possibly the most signifi­
cant - factor in causing heart attacks.

Type A's counterpart,

Type B, is characterized by having a lack of sense for
time urgency,

is patient, works without agitation,

accepts

restrictions of the environment cheerfully and is not
compelled to display his achievements.
Furthering the work of Friedman and Rosenman, Rowland
and Sokol

(1977) provide a review of the research on

coronary-prone behavior patterns, particularly the Type A

34
behavior.

They conclude that Type A behavior is found

to be fairly accurate in predicting the likelihood of
severity of CHD.

They also note problems which have been

encountered in measuring and defining components of Type A
behavior.

From their review, Rowland and Sokol found that

the interview method seemed to have had the most success
in predicting future cases of CHD.
The other contemporary epidemic, hypertension/high
blood pressure,

is also amassing much convincing data on

effective and well-controlled research.
of hypertension, Page

In his studies

(1949) observed that it is regarded

as a disorder of regulation in which the necessary complex
feedbacks for internal stability of the organism are some­
what disturbed.

He did not seek to find a single cause of

hypertension, but viewed blood pressure as a steady state
of regulatory factors interacting in equilibrium adapted
to tissue needs.
Contributing to the advancement of hypertension
studies, Harris and Singer (1968) stated that a person's
interaction with the environment and time were critical in
the etiology of essential hypertension.
with the environment,

In interacting

one's pattern of personality and

behavior is impinged upon causing changes in the neuro­
endocrine and cardiovascular systems.
Holding similar contentions, Kiritz and Moos

(1974)

argue that one's perception of his social environment, as

35
mediated by personality variables, role and status
relationships and his behavior within the environment
which affects him, is influential in his personality
and behavior.
Cassel (1975) is not as convinced as other researchers
of the mechanisms underlying the rise in blood pressure.
He examined the epidemiology of hypertension from a
psychosocial viewpoint.

He had as his theme the belief

that it is not possible to focus on single causes of
disease and that neuroendocrine upsets following social
stress can at least accelerate the development of long­
term pathophysiologic change.
Greenberg (1977) cited some of the uncertainties
in the research of stress-hypertension and circulatory
diseases.

He concluded that the data from this research

show that:
1.

Blood pressure levels rise with age in
some population groups, but not in others.

2.

Males have higher blood pressure levels between
the ages of 25 and 55 years, but females
have higher levels after that; the age at
which female pressures exceed males differs
among different population groups.

3.

Blacks tend to have higher blood pressure
levels than whites, but there is a strong
recent indication that the difference may
be attributed to differences in socio­
economic status.

4.

Those in lower socioeconomic groups have
been reported to have higher blood pressure
in some studies, but not in others.

36
5.

Some researchers have reported higher
blood pressure levels in urban areas;
others have found higher blood pressure
in rural areas.
(Greenberg, 1977, p. 394)

These uncertainties may in part lend some explanation
to the diverse research results that have come about from
investigations involving stress and disease occurrence.
T.arge scale blood pressure studies have recently
shown the importance of a shift in traditional values
and implicate a deficiency of social assets in the disorders
of the regulation of blood pressure.

Henry and Stephens

(1977) concluded from their review of pathophysiologic
consequences of human social disturbances that:
Stress can arise from the migration of a
society or from its transition to a different
value system.
A change in values leads to
situations where previously sanctioned behaviors,
especially that which is acquired during the
sensitive learning period in youth, can no
longer be used.
Although the opportunity to
express himself in the manner in which he is
accustomed no longer exists, the individual
still cannot help attaching great value to
his behavior.
The ensuing confrontations
with his conscience and with his fellows
lead to repeated emotional crises and conse­
quent arousal of the neuroendocrine system
(p. 207-208).
Some stress-illness studies focus on psychological
aspects of stress research as opposed to physiological
aspects.

In this vein,

Bell, et. al.

(1975) conducted a

three-county epidemiological study to examine the relation­
ship between stressful life events,
and rates of psychological disorder.

sociodemographic factors
A random sample of

37
2,029 individuals, aged 18 and older, was administered a
403-item interview schedule in their homes.

The schedule

was designed to solicit information regarding a vast
number of social, general medical and psychiatric disorders.
Additional instruments to measure mental health (Health
Opinion Survey) and stressful life events were also used.
The results of this study strongly suggest that there are
quantifiable linkages between stressful life events,
sociodemographic factors and psychological disorders.
Whites reported having fewer stresses than Blacks, with
Black females reporting the highest occurrences of
stressful events and white females reporting the lowest
number of stressful events.

The youngest age group,

16-22

years old, had the highest mean score for stressful life
events while the age category, 60 and over,

showed the

lowest mean score for stressful life events.

Those

individuals in the lower socioeconomic quintile reported
having the highest mean score for stressful events.

"One

of the most significant of these (findings) is undoubtedly
the fact that the stressful life events, as an analytic
category, account for more variance in HOS (Health Opinion
Survey) scores than does socioeconomic status"

(Bell, et.

a l . , 1975, p. 16).
Similarly, McCain,

et. al.

(1976) concluded that the

psychological stress induced by crowded jail and prison
conditions may be reflected in an increased level of

38
illness complaints.
sample of 64 inmates,

With regard to the prison,

from a

a t-test comparison of illness

complaint rates in the dormitory and the single-man and
two-man cells yield a significantly greater illness
complaint rate in dormitory settings.

Results from the

county jail population of 824 support the findings of
the prison investigation.

It was found that during three

of the five weeks of the jail investigation,

there was a

significantly greater rate of illness complaint data per
inmate in units of high spatial and social density.
Research has not only linked stress with illness, but
the suspicion that people under stress are more accidentprone has been raised by statistical studies.

Hackenberg

and Gallagher (1972) theorized that stresses associated
with modernization are responsible for excessive accidental
injuries among Indians.

In an ongoing study of accident

epidemiology among Papago Indians,

the researchers found

that risks for accidental injury were more than twice as
great among modern villagers on the Papago Indian Reservation.
High risks in modern villages were correlated with greater
proportions of wage labor, high educational levels,
Protestant religious affiliation.

and

In the same study,

the

relationship between high accident rates in modern villages
and use of alcohol is also examined.

It is summarized

that "behind the use of alcohol and the accident case rate
lies the elusive factor of stress producing experience"
(Hackenberg and Gallagher,

1972, p. 225).

39
In a study of 100 college football players, Holmes
and Masuda (1972) examined the life changes each player
had experienced one year prior to the beginning of the
season.

They were placed in

low, medium and high injury

risk groups according

to the

total score obtained from

life changes.

end of

the season, it was found

At the

that 9 percent of the

low risk group had

been injured,

25 percent of the medium risk group and 50 percent of the
high risk group.

Of the 10 athletes injured more than

once during the season,

seven were from the high risk

gr o u p .
Efforts to provide more empirical approaches to the
study of stress and illness have increased tremendously
within the past 20 years.

Thomas Holmes contributed much

to the area when he studied the psychophysiologic reactions
induced by stressful life events and the natural history
of a disease (Hawkins, et. al., 1957).

Beginning with

tuberculosis, Holmes and his associates used a "life
chart" to examine groups of events at the onset of symptoms.
The cluster of events included marriage,
relationships and education.

occupation, peer

Results of the study showed

that various events elicited adaptive coping behavior
but no allowances were made for the differing intensities
of stimulation that might ensue from events as different
as the death of a spouse and marriage.

40
The work culminated in an attempt to measure stress
directly in the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
with the assistance of Richard Rahe (Holmes and Rahe,

1967).

Forty-three critical changes in one's life according to
the severity of their impact are ranked ana rated on a
scale of 0 to 100 Life Change Units

(LCU).

Subsequently,

weights were assigned to each item based upon ratings by
a standardization sample who were asked to rate each of
the life events "as to their relative degree of necessary
readjustment."

The results of their evaluations formed

the basis of the SRRS, as shown in Figure 2.2.

Combinations

of LCU are meaningful and useful in predicting the effects
of severe stress.

From the results of numerous studies,

the researchers were able to make the following con­
clusions if one amasses a certain number of LCUs over a
single year.150 - 199 LCUs - 397, chance the individual will
experience a mild life crisis
200 - 299 LCUs - 51% chance the individual will
experience a moderate crisis
Over 300

LCUs - 79% chance the individual will
experience a major life crisis
within the following year.
(Masuda and Holmes, 1967a)

Subsequent studies by Holmes and his associates
involving the SRRS indicate that the scale is applicable
regardless of race, age, country, or culture.

The studies

have yielded the following correlations of magnitude and

41

Rank

LCU
Value

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
Figure 2.2.

100
73
65
63
63
53
50
47
45
45
44
40
39
39
39
38
37
36
35
31
30
29
29
29
28
26
26
25
24
23
20
20
20
19
19
18
17
16
15
13
13
12
11

Life Event
Death of spouse
Divorce
Marital separation
Jail term
Death of close family member (except spouse)
Major personal injury or illness
Marriage
Fired at work
Marital reconciliation
Retirement
Change in health of family member (not self)
Pregnancy
Sex difficulty
Gain of new family member
Business readjustment
Change in financial state
Death of close friend
Change to different occupation
Change in number of arguments with spouse
Taking on mortgage over $10,000
Foreclosure of mortgage or loan
Change in responsibilities at work
Son or daughter leaving home
Trouble with in-laws
Outstanding personal achievement
Spouse begins or stops work
Begin or end school
Change in living conditions
Change in personal habits (self or family)
Trouble with boss
Change in work hours or conditions
Change in residence
Change in schools
Change in recreation
Change in church activities
Change in social activities
Taking on mortgage or loan less than $10,000
Change in sleeping habits
Change in number of family get-togethers
Change in eating habits
Vacation
Christmas
Minor violations of the law

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes and Rahe,
1967).

42
rank order of life events:

Blacks and Whites, r = 0.82

(Komaroff, Masuda & Holmes,

1967); Orientals and Whites,

r = 0.94 (Masuda & Holmes,

1967b);

generation Americans, r = 0.92
Komaroff, et. al.

first and third

(Masuda & Holmes, 1967b).

(1967) found that,

in an examination

of the SRRS with Negroes, Mexican and White Americans,
significant differences occurred in life change items,
numerical responses of the Mexicans and Negroes and the
responses of the previously examined white group.

The

responses of the Mexican and Negro groups differed more
from the white American group than did previously studied
Japanese population; but all three groups were significantly
in accordance in the ranking of life-change items.
The SRRS has more recently been suggested for use with
school principals

(Gmelch,

1978).

He uses the following

analogy of how a principal may use his score on the SRRS
as an indicator that something should be done to alleviate
or postpone future major events:
What about the principal who, due to out­
standing performance (28 LCUs) was offered
a superintendent position (36 LCUs) with
new job responsibilities (29 LCUs) and a
large salary increase (38 LCUs).
This
promotion may have also precipitated moving
into a new area (20 L C U s ) , buying a new
home (30 LCUs) with a large mortgage (31 L C U s ) ,
and many changes in living conditions (25 LCUs)
and social (18 L C U s ) , church (19 LCUs) and
recreational activities (19 L C U s ) . At this
point the needle has already moved into the
danger zone (296 L C U s ) . To this add a
particularly stressful vacation and our
principal-superintendent may be in for a serious
change in health (Gmelch, 1978, p. 8).

43
The SRRS has also been used to investigate the life
changes of prison inmates

(Masuda, 1979).

In a study

of 176 state prison inmates, Masuda found that the inmates
had experienced a greater than average number of life
changes the year prior to their incarceration.
The work of Holmes and his colleagues with the SRRS
has served as a basis for the development of other instru­
ments which measure stressful life events.
et. at.

Bramwell,

(1975) modified the SRRS to create the Social and

Athletic Readjustment Rating Scale (SARRS) whose purpose
was to examine the possible role of psychosocial factors
in athletics.

Life change scores over one- and two-year

intervals were obtained frcm college varsity football
players.

Players suffering major time loss injuries had

significantly higher predictive scores than noninjured
players on the SARRS.
Replicating and extending the work of Holmes and
Rahe, Paykel, Prusoff and Uhlenherth (1971) selected a
different scaling method and produced a 61-item life events
scale.

Paykel used a 0 to 20-interval scale with no events

fixed.

Events were scaled in reference to a concept of

upset rather than adjustment to life change, as in the
Holmes scale.

Events on the Paykel scale included items

from the Holmes scale which had been changed in wording or
content.
Research into stress and illness has, at times,

44
focused on a particular occupation.

In one such study,

the

Federal Aviation Agency commissioned a study of air traffic
controllers.

Cobb and Rose

(1973) found that there was

(1) "compelling" evidence that the stresses under which
air traffic controllers work result in increased risk
of hypertension;

(2) "moderately strong" evidence linking

work stress to peptic ulcer;

and (3) "suggestive" evidence

connecting diabetes to work stress.
In another study in 1947, heart disease was implicated
as the main cause of premature death in train dispatchers,
and still holds true today according to the president of
the American Train Dispatchers Association.

McCord (1948)

found that train dispatchers were asked to make approximately
five decisions a minute over an eight-hour day, six days
a week.

These decisions usually involved life or death

situations for passengers and crews.

McCord (1948) wrote:

A lifetime friendship with a train dispatcher
may be a short affair - about 15 years . . .
Few are aware that the train dispatcher who
starts his duties at age 35, after years of
preparation as a telegrapher or tower operator
parts company with this trouble globe near
the age of 50.1 years . . . Premature heart
disease is the greatest single factor in
establishing the average age of death of train
dispatchers at 50.1 (p. 35).
Even though most of the large body of stress-illness
research concurs that there is a definite relationship
between the two variables,
relationship occurs.

it is inexact about how the

The World Health Organization's Expert

45
Committee on Mental Health (1964) attempted to shed
light on the lack of clarity in this area by providing a
summary of the sequences of involvement which can lead
to physical disorder:
1.

Constitutional predisposition based on
heredity;

2.

Constitutional predisposition laid down
as a result of early experience and
development (both physiological and
psychological experience, and the pre­
natal period as well as infancy, are
included h e r e ) ;

3.

Personality changes of later life that
affect organ systems;

4.

The weakening of an organ,
or infection;

5.

The fact that an organ is in action at
the moment of strain or emotional upheavel;

6.

The symbolic meaning of the organ in the
personality system of the individual;

7.

Organ-fixation as a result of arrested
psychological development (p. 9).

Henry and Stephens

(1977) concur with WHO's perception

of illness onset in their book,
Social Environment.

as by injury

Stress, Health and the

The book has as a format,

a chain of

events theme, beginning with psychosocial perception and
concluding with chronic disease.
In conjunction with the summary of involvement approach
to explaining the etiology of illness, researchers have also
concluded that the occurrence of illness is dependent upon
certain characteristics which are unique to each individual.

46
They include heredity factors, character,

temperament,

age, sex, state of health, emotional balance, past
experiences and environment
Torrance

(Graham-Bonnalie, 1972).

(1965) contends that the duration and intensity

of the stress and the state of the organism (ego strength,
spontaneity, ability,

skills, physical strength, etc.)

mediate the effects of stress in the occurrence of illness.
Summarily,

studies relating stress to illness appear

with remarkable regularity in the literature.

Though most

of the studies concur that there is a definite relationship
between stress and illness,
about how it occurs.

the studies are not so emphatic

They basically conclude that illness

onset is the outcome of multiple characteristics of the
individual interacting with a number of interdependent
factors in the individual's social context.
Stress and Job Satisfaction
Because work occupies about one-third of the employed
person's time,

the dissatisfactions of the work situation

are paramount and among the types of life stresses that
are receiving frequent attention in the literature.

Friis

(1976) concludes that job dissatisfaction may come about
as a result of a number of variables within the work
setting.

They include:

The ability of the worker to decide upon the
method and nature of task accomplishments,
the level of occupation and role of work
position, the degree of work overload, the

47
amount of interpersonal tension and con­
flict among workers, socialization and
selection patterns within the organization,
the degree of monotony of the tasks, and
exposure to noise and other occupational
hazards (Friis, 1976, p. 595).
In relating variables which are associated with job
dissatisfaction, Gross
three areas:

(1970) categorized work stress into

organization career stress

(risk of unemploy­

ment, the career sequence, the process of disengagement
from organizations that must come at the end of one's
career); task stress
tasks assigned,

(inability or inadequacy in performing

threat to things one values); and organization

structure stress (what follows from the demands and needs
of working together to obtain any e n d ) .
Albrecht

(1979) lists the principal variables in

overall job satisfaction which provide an effective balance
between stress and reward for the worker.
loading variables he describes are:
variables, job status,

The eight

workload, physical

accountability,

task variety,

human contact, physical challenge and mental challenge.
To provide a full account of job satisfaction, Albrecht
further states that the obvious factors of pay and benefits,
overall social climate of the work situation and quality
of supervision received must be added to the eight loading
factors.
The general assumption of most job satisfaction
studies is that the more dissatisfied one is with a

48
particular job,

then the more stressful is the job.

Many studies have concerned themselves with the impact of
supervision on job satisfaction.
(1952) and Pelz and Andrews

Two such studies by Pelz

(1966) conclude that the more

consideration a supervisor showed his employees,

the more

satisfied they were and the less stress they experienced.
Supporting and adding to the importance of supervision
as a component of job satisfaction, Herzberg, Mausner,
Peterson and Capwell

(1957) compiled data from 15 studies

in which workers were asked what made them satisfied
or dissatisfied with their jobs.

The most frequently

mentioned item of satisfaction was supervision, followed
by security, job content,

company and management, working

conditions, and opportunity for advancement and wages.
Only relationships with co-workers was mentioned more
often than supervision.

When the same group listed

sources of dissatisfaction on the job, supervision was
the fourth most frequently named job factor.
In another attempt, Herzberg,

et. al.

(1957) compiled

data from 16 studies in which workers were asked to rank
order job factors in terms of their importance.
ordering was

(highest to lowest):

security,

The rank

opportunity

for advancement,

company and management, wages,

aspects of jobs,

supervision,

intrinsic

social aspects of jobs,

communications, working conditions and benefits.
Another major variable in job satisfaction-stress

49
research is job content which has often created controversy
with job conditions.

A study of a group of accountants

and engineers by Herzberg,

et. al.

(1959) investigated

job satisfaction and dissatisfaction by hav: ig the
participants tell about the times in their work when they
felt exceptionally good and exceptionally bad.

The events

concerning feeling good usually involved job content
(achievement, recognition, responsibility) while those
concerning feeling bad usually involved factors associated
with job conditions

(company policies, wages, supervision,

working conditions).
Vroom (1964), in criticizing the Herzberg study,
concludes that defensive processes are at work.

He wrote:

People may be more likely to attribute the
causes of satisfaction to their own achieve­
ments and accomplishments on the job.
On
the other hand, they may be more likely to
attribute their dissatisfaction, not to
personal inadequacies or deficiencies, but
to factors in the work environment (i.e.,
obstacles presented by company policies or
supervision) (Vroom, 1964, p. 35).
Among the job context factors mentioned in the
literature are specialization, work pace, use of skills
and abilities,

success or failure in work performance,

interruption of work on tasks, and job level.
to specialization,

In reference

the findings are chat when specialization

leads to repetitiveness,

it results in job dissatisfaction.

One of the most famous studies was conducted by Trist and
Bamforth (1951) where they implemented changes in techniques

50
of coal mining.

Persons who initially oversaw all

operations were placed in positions of specialization where
their tasks were limited.

Resulting behaviors of the

specialized situation included high absenteeism and
increased psychosomatic illnesses.
Studies involving work pace generally conclude that
the inability to control o n e ’s pace of work is associated
with low worker satisfaction.

Vroom (1964) modified Maslow's

theory of self-actualization which states that a man must
use his abilities and skills if he is to be completely
happy.

Vr o o m 1s (1966) modification stated that:

Thus, we would now predict greater job
satisfaction on the part of people who
believe that their jobs require abilities
which they believe they possess (p. 142).
In the same vein, a study by Brophy (1959) concurred with
Vroom's n

H f i e d hypothesis.

In his study of eighty-one

female nurses, ratings were obtained to determine the
extent to which their jobs permitted them to be like a
group of traits each had selected as being reflective of
themselves.

It was found that the less the nurses saw

their jobs as demanding the qualities they possessed,
the lower their job satisfaction.
Finally, job level has frequently been correlated
with job satisfaction,

Gurin, Veroff and Feld

(1960)

conducted a nationwide study which determined that 42
percent of persons in professional-technical occupations

51
were very satisfied with their jobs, whereas only 13
percent of unskilled workers reported being very satisfied.
Kornhauser

(1965) provides an explanation of this

occurrence when he postulates that persons who are in
lower level jobs may be those who gripe about their jobs
while those who are able to do something about it will
have responded more positively by either doing something
about it or leaving the job.
In examining stress and job satisfaction in specific
occupations,

Ivancevich and Donnelly (1975) conducted a

study of 295 trade salesmen in three organizations.

They

found that salesmen in flat organizations perceive more
satisfaction and less anxiety-stress than salesmen in
medium and tall organizational sales groups.

The most

cited complaint by men in the medium and tall organizational
structures was that they were constantly checked on by
their supervisors who were viewed as restrictive,
constraining,

stifling,

lacking in trust, and exerting excessive

control.
More recently, McLean (1976) conducted a study in
which 865 employees at three levels of management in one
company were asked about their work satisfaction, percep­
tions of stress in their work,

and the extent of specific

physical and emotional disabilities at the current time
and three years previously.

It was found that there was no

52
correlation between a change in anxiety and job satisfaction
(salary, hours worked, number of hours traveled from home),
but there was a correlation between increases and decreases
in anxiety and the perception of job stress, work satis­
faction and reported physical and health problems.
Gavin and Axelrod (1977) examined the effects of
occupational stresses on the job-related strains of manage ­
ment personnel in an underground mining organization.
Measures of job stress and strain were obtained from 95
management level employees and 13 potential moderators
of stress-strain relations were assessed.

The study found

that stresses such as role conflict and ambiguity, job
security, participation, variation in work load and most
notably,

utilization of skills had moderate to high

relationships with the psychological strains of anxietydepression-irritation, job satisfaction and psychosomatic
complaints.
In summary,

studies of stress and job satisfaction

reveal that various aspects of the work situation play
different roles in determining how satisfied one is with
his job.

These job aspects provide an effective balance

between stress and reward for the worker.

The general

assumption of most of the studies is that the more dis­
satisfied one is with his job,
will be.

the more stressful the job

53
Illness and Job Satisfaction
In many instances,

it is difficult to delineate

stress-job satisfaction research from illness-job satis­
faction research because oftentimes, many illnesses
brought on by job dissatisfaction are viewed as having
stress in their etiology.

In these cases, job satisfaction

(dissatisfaction) is used as a measure of stress.
Consequently,

some of the previously discussed studies

under the stress-job satisfaction sub-heading may well
be included in this section.
Sales (1969) reviewed several publications in medical
journals which suggest that organizational roles are a
significant factor in the etiology of coronary disease,
particularly when involving role overload or underload.
Role overload is viewed as a stressor that is commonly
known in organizational environments.

From his review,

Sales concludes that overloading roles can exert a marked
deleterious effect upon the health of overloaded individuals.
He further suggests that organizational roles exert their
most harmful effect upon those organizational members
who experience the lowest job satisfaction.

In explaining

the relationship of role overload to the Type A person,
Sales

(1969) states:
The Type A syndrome, or the presence of one
or more of its constituent traits, causes
the individual to seek positions, particularly

54
overloading positions, for which his abili­
ties do not fit him . . . The Type A person
sooner or later takes on more duties than
he can accomplish . . . he will experience
overload and presumably a concomitant decrease
in job satisfaction, and this should lead
to increases in his serum cholesterol and
his risk of coronary disease (p. 334).
Friis (1976) contends that job dissatisfaction may
be causally linked with premature death due to heart
disease or may be associated with the increased risk of
heart disease.

Taking the psychosocial viewpoint, he

considers premature death from coronary disease to be
the result of interacting environmental,

psychological,

social constitutional and behavioral characteristics of
the individual.

These include the work environment,

individual needs, behavioral styles and coping responses,
in-ate biological constitution and certain personality
predispositions.
Sales and House (1971) describe three separate
investigations which test the hypothesis that an indivi­
dual's dissatisfaction with his job has an important
influence upon the risk of coronary disease.
study, conducted in the late 1940's,
samples of 3 scientific groups

The first

involved random

(biologists,

chemists and

physicists) and a nation-wide sample of 3000 working class
males.

The second study, conducted in Detroit in the 1950's,

included probability samples of 207 lawyers and 68
university professors.

The third study involved a national

55
cross-section of working men including 127 managers or
proprietors,

55 sales workers and 46 clerical workers in

the 1950's.

Mortality ratios due to coronary heart

disease and average levels of job satisfaction are known
for each group.

Differing slightly in methodology,

each

study provides reasonably strong support for the hypothesis
that job satisfaction is negatively related to a group's
death rate due to coronary heart disease.

Some methodologic

problems with the studies were discussed, but the influences
of these problems is considered to be conservative.
In a study of the relationship between job tenure,
job satisfaction and mental health, Klein and Wiener
(1977)

found that in a sample of 54 middle managers,

significant moderator effects

(interest-present job

congruency) were found for mental health indices of self­
esteem,

life satisfaction,

overall mental health and for

satisfaction with supervision.
individuals,

For high congruency

these indices correlated positively with job

tenure, while for low congruency individuals,

the obtained

correlations did not differ significantly from zero.
More specifically,

the managerial segments of two

divisions of a 35,000 employee airline company were
examined in regard to their possible implications for
mental health ..n a study by Gavin (1975).
divisions,

Of the two

one was a line organization operating in a

relatively autonomous fashion and the other was a corporate

56
staff system.

Gavin tested the hypotheses that:

(1) the employees of the two subsystems would differ
significantly in their perceptions of the work environ­
ment;

(2) perceptions of the work environment would

have significant relationships with mental health criteria;
(3) correlations between work environment perceptions and
mental health criteria will be different for the two
work systems;

(4) males and females would differ in their

perceptions of work environment,
of mental health;

as well as on measures

(5) correlations between work environ­

ment perceptions and mental health criteria will be
different for male and female employees.

The results of

the study indicate that there are differences in perception
of the work environment by the two groups;
both groups, as compared to males,

females in

tend to view their

environment as more frustrating and having less equitable
rewards;

employee perceptions vary in systematic ways

with criteria for mental health.
In the 1950's, studies were conducted to evaluate the
effects of illness and job satisfaction as a source of
stress.

Friedman, Rosenman and Carroll

stressors as deadlines,

(1959) found such

intense competition,

long hours

and a second job to be associated with higher levels of
serum cholesterol and increased risk of coronary heart
disease.

(Serum cholesterol, one of the several factors

in the blood that increases with stress, is associated
with the onset of coronary heart disease.)

57
Overall,

studies of illness and job satisfaction

bear much resemblance to stress and job satisfaction
studies because job satisfaction (dissatisfaction) is
oftentimes used as a measure of stress, and illnesses
associated with job satisfaction are assumed to have
stress in their etiology.

The results of these studies

reveal that the greater job satisfaction one experiences,
the less likely the person is to experience certain
illnesses.

Several of the studies indicate coronary

heart disease as a condition to be reckoned with in the
area of job satisfaction and illness.

Stress, Job Satisfaction and Illness
Very little systematic research into the effects of
stress, job satisfaction and illness had been done before
the 1950's.

The Institute for Social Research at the

University of Michigan was one of the first organizations
to be interested in this problem.

Since 1957, the group

has been working to identify job stresses and their
relationship to health.

They have identified the following

stresses as relating to coronary heart disease:
1.

Role ambiguity - having unclear objectives,
expectations, and understanding of one's
responsibilities.

2.

Role conflict - conflicting demands,
pressures to get along with others,
having differences with supervisor.

3.

Role overload - having too much or too
little to do with too difficult or too
easy a job.

58
4.

Responsibility for people - feeling
responsible for the health and we l l ­
being of others.

5.

Poor relations with others - not getting
along with supervisors, peers or sub­
ordinates .

6.

Participation - having influence on
decision-making processes in one'0
organization.

Other significant aspects of work which have been identified
as possible sources of stress include changing work shifts,
unnatural work-rest regiments,

frequent geographical

moves and inequities in pay and job status.
Groups of researchers such as De Sola-Nielson, Colligan,
et. al., Gersten, et. al., Howard,

et. al.,

Indik,

et. al.,

and Palmore and Jeffers have conducted studies which have
added to the literature.

De Sola-Nielson (1977) conducted

a study of 140 women between the ages of 21 and 65 to
examine the relationship between job satisfaction,
and illness.
employed,

Fifty-two subjects were housewives,

and 3 were students.

to a questionnaire,

stress
85 were

From responses provided

the employed women and housewives

showed no difference in what each group considered the
ideal job in overall job satisfaction.

Women in both

groups who experienced feelings of achievement and challenge
and financial rewards in their jobs reported better health,
fewer medical and stress symptoms,

lower levels of psycho­

active drug usage and higher overall life satisfaction
than the other women who were low in these dimensions.

59
A 1972-74 survey of occupations in Tennessee aimed
to provide occupational health professionals with an
empirical basis for identifying and selecting specific
occupations for further research into the relationship
between psychological job stress and worker health.
Colligan,

Smith and Hurrell

(1977) examined all records

(8,045) from 22 mental health centers and recorded all
admissions,

diagnoses,

frequency of admission, and selected

demographic information which included job description
of the client.

The study resulted in a rank order listing

of the most stressful jobs, of which 6 of the top 22
positions were filled by hospital/health care occupations.
Executives and professionals are noticeably missing from
the listing, which may only indicate that they opted to
utilize services of private physicians.
Gersten, Friis and Langner

(1976), in a longitudinal

study of 1,034 Manhattan families with at least one child
6 to 18 years old, examined the degree to which job and
marital satisfaction and participation in leisure activities
could predict concvirrent and future health status relative
to ethnicity,
health.

class and occupational factors, and mental

From interviews conducted over two time periods

with the wives of working men,
(socioeconomic status,

three independent variables

life and job dissatisfaction, general

mental health) and five dependent variables

(two related

to health status and three related to changes in health or

60
reflected illnesses in the husbands) were analyzed.
Results of multiple regression and partial correlation
statistical analyses found that:
1.

The variables most strongly related to
the husband's job dissatisfaction were
wife's dissatisfaction with husband's
work, husband's occupation, husband's
education, having an unhappy marriage
and wife's education.

2.

In reference to social stratification,
husband's education, wife's education
and husband's occupation were strongly
interrelated.

3.

A husband's poor health at Time I sig­
nificantly and strongly related to
husband's job dissatisfaction among the
set of predictor variables, with an
unhappy marital situation contributing
strongly.

4.

Job dissatisfaction and other life dis­
satisfactions related to concurrent health.

Overall,

this preliminary investigation indicated that

certain life satisfactions were important predictors
for either concurrent or future health status which
operate across class,
health factors.

ethnic, occupational and mental

These findings tend to support models

which postulate stressful psychosocial conditions as
potential etiologic agents in development of illness.
Howard, Cunningham and Rechnitzer (1977) developed a
model by which personality and job conditions combine
to produce behavior, when occurring in its extreme,

is

related to known risk factors in coronary heart disease.
Their study, based upon Rosenman and Friedman's Type A

61
personality description, examined 236 managers from 12
different companies to delineate those managers with Type
A behavior.

Additional information (number of hours

worked per week,

travel habits, job satisfaction, job

tension factors,

salary) was obtained on each respondent.

Sixty-one percent of the managers were classified as
Type A.

The model which was derived from the results of

the study indicates that high growth companies tend to
produce managerial job conditions eliciting Type A behavioral
syndrome.

The most influential job conditions included

supervisory responsibilities,

competitiveness,

workloads, and conflicting demands.

heavy

Though managers with

Type A characteristics appear more successful

(higher

salaries), they display behaviors which appear to be linked
to higher levels of coronary risk, produce more stress
symptoms and have greater feelings of job dissatisfaction.
Inkik, Seashore and Slesinger

(1964) examined the

degree and form of association between certain demographic
characteristics

(age, sex, education) and the occurrence

of psychological strain in a firm-wide study of employees
of a multiplant food products manufacturing and sales firm.
Measures of job related strain, economic strain and psycho­
somatic symptoms were obtained from over 8,234 respondents
by way of a checklist questionnaire.

The study found that

age, sex and education were equally strongly related to
the variations in psychological strain.

Job related strain

62
was generally lower among older persons but higher among
men than women and showed no relation with education.
Economic strain peaked in the 20-39 age range,

showed

no consistent relationship to sex and declined generally
in relation to education.

Psychosomatic symptoms were

fewer among older and more educated people.
The best evidence that stress, job satisfaction and
illness are related comes from the Duke Longitudinal
Study of Aging.

Palmore and Jeffers

(1971) conducted a

study of 268 volunteers, aged 60 to 94 years.

A Longevity

Quotient was determined by dividing the number of years
a person actually lived by the actuarily expected number
of years remaining at the time of an initial examination.
From the sample, work satisfaction was the best predictor
of the Longevity Quotient,

except for Blacks, and was

strongest among those who were likely to be working
full-time.

The social worker's rating of the respondent's

overall happiness was the second best predictor.

These

two measures more accurately predicted longevity than
either an overall physical functioning rating by the
examining physician or a measure of the use of tobacco.
In summary, most of the studies in this area utilize
similar approaches in their examinations of stress,
and job satisfaction.

In most instances,

illness

stress and job

satisfaction are used as predictors of illness.

The studies

differ in their identification of sources of stress and

63
job satisfaction.

Some studies can even identify job

satisfaction as a source of stress.

Nevertheless,

the

literature is very supportive of a strong relationship
between stress,

illness and job satisfaction.

It has

only been since 1950 that research into the area began
to be conducted with any regularity, even though previous
studies involving job satisfaction have contained variables
of stress or illness which were causally linked.
Summary
The literature is generally supportive of the notion
that relationships do exist between stress,
job satisfaction.

illness and

Stress and illness studies appear with

more regularity in the literature than any others.
Coronary heart disease and hypertension are the most
frequently studied diseases in the list of over 80 stressrelated illnesses, especially in their relation to stress
and job satisfaction.
Figure 1.3 provides the reader with a graphic presen­
tation of the literature reviewed in this study as it
relates to the research on stress,
faction.

illness and job satis­

The review has been limited to include only

that research which is of interest in this study.
Many of the studies have encountered difficulty in
their methodologic approach, research findings or complete
understanding of the results.

Much of the difficulty has

64
arisen from a lack of congruency in the definitions of
key words such as stress and job satisfaction.

Researchers

have also used diversified techniques in conceptualizing
and measuring stress,

illness and job satisfaction.

In

measuring illness, there have been problems inherent in
mixing levels of analyses, th .2 physiological and psycho­
logical, and the social and psychological.
Even with its fallacies and flaws, stress,

illness

and job satisfaction research has clearly implicated a
relationship between the variables.

The research has also

proven to be a sound basis on which to focus other research
in the area.

65

X

Background
Ethnic

Sex
1

Age

Status
Marital

Education

Satisfaction
X

X

X

X

X

X

X

AUTHORS
Albrecht
Appley & Trumbull

X
X

X
X

Job

Hypertension/High
Blood Pressure

Coronary

Illness

Stress

Disease

VARIABLES OF INTEREST

X

X

X

X

X

X

Bell, Warheit, Holzer,
Buhl
Bramwell, Masuda, Wagner
Holmes
Brophy

X

Cannon

X

X

Cassel

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Donnison

X

X

Dohrenwend Sc Dohrenwend

X

X

Cobb & Rose

X

X

X

X

X

X
X

Colligan,

X

De Sola-Nielson

Friedman & Rosenman
X

Friedman,

X

Friis

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Figure 2.3

Smith Sc Hurrel

X

Rosenman St Car

Gavin
Gavin & Axelrod

X

X

X

X

Gersten, Friis & Langner
Gmelch

Summary of Literature Review on Stress,
Illness and Job Satisfaction

66
Figure 2.3 (continued)

X

X

X

X

X

Backgrounc
Ethnic

CD

<

| Sex

Status
Marital

Education

Job

1
------------------------------------------------------------ —

Illness

Stress

-----------

Satisfaction

Coronary Disease
Hypertension/High
Blood Pressure ---------------

VARIABLES OF INTEREST

AUTHORS

X

X

X

Graham-Bonnalie

X

X

X

Greenberg

X

X

Gross

X

X

Gurin, Veroff & Feld

X

X

X

X

X

Hackenberg & Gallagher
Halliday

X

X

Harris & Singer

X

X

Hawkins, Davies & Holmes

X

X

X

X

X

X

Henry & Stephens
Herzberg, Mausner,
Peterson & Capwell
Herzberg, Mausner &
Snyderman

X

Hinkle

X

X

X

X

Holmes & Masuda

X

X

X

X

X

X

Holmes & Rahe
H o w a r d , Cunningham &
Richnitzer
Indik, Seashore &
Slesineer

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Jenkins
X
X

X

Ivancevich & Donnellv

Kagan
Kiritz & Moos

X

Klein & Wiener

67

■■

■-

Figure 2,3 (continued)

Background
£thnic

i

<fl

Sex

Status
QJ
N5

1

^larital

I

Education

...
—

Satisfaction

■"

dob

r

X

Hypertension/High
Blood Pressure

Illness
... — .....
boronary Disease

X

.

Stress

VARIABLES OF INTEREST

X

X

X

AUTHORS
Komaroff, Masuda &
Holmes
Kornhauser

X

X

X

X

X

Masuda

X

X

Masuda & Holmes

X

X

Meyer

X

X

McCain,

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Cox

6c

McLean
Page

X

Palmore

6c

Jeffers

Paykel, Prusoff Sc
Uhlenhuth

X

X

Pelz

X

X

Pelz Sc Andrews

X

X

Rivers

X

X

Rodgers

X

X
X

Paulus

McCord
X

X

Levi

Rowland & Sokol

X

X

Sales

X

X

Sales

6c

House

X

X

Schildkraut

X

X

Selye

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Stress

X

X

Illness

X

Coronary Disease

'n
H09

C

<
>

n
n>
•

M

Hypertension/High
Blood Pressure
X

>
03
r*
m

X

Job Satisfaction

in

o
Education
Marital Status
Age

M
S3
H
M

Ethnic Background

3
rt
H*
3

C

(0
CL

5
w

m
H

Sex

o
o

o>
00

Skinner
AUTHORS

& Bamforth

Torrance

Trist

j Vroom

Hare

Organizatioi

& Goodell

Wolf,

Wolf

Wolff,

Health

Wolff

World

CHAPTER III
STUDY DESIGN AMD PROCEDURES
Introduction
The primary purpose of this study was to investigate
the relationship between stress,

illness and job satis­

faction in school counselors in the state of Michigan.
This chapter will focus on the characteristics of the
population and sample,

instrument selection and procedures

for implementation of the study.

Description of the Population
The general population of interest for this study
included the 3,146 persons who were employed as school
counselors in the state of Michigan.

A subset of this

population served as the population of immediate interest.
It included the 754 members of the Michigan School
Counselors Association,

a division of the Michigan Personnel

and Guidance Association and affiliate of the Michigan
Education Association.

The persons in this group

were employed in a counseling capacity during the 1977-78
school year.

69

70
Sample
The Michigan Personnel and Guidance Association
(MPGA) provided the sample for this study.

The sample

consisted of the 754 counselors who were members of the
Michigan School Counselors Association (MSCA), a state
division of MPGA and an affiliate of the Michigan Educa­
tion Association (MEA), during 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 .
MSCA membership was used because,

The total

from its mailing list,

the sample seemed to provide a good regional representa­
tion of counselors throughout the state.

Figure 3 . 1

provides a schematic of the selection procedure for this
study.
The sample consisted of 5 0 . 4 percent male and 4 9 . 6
percent female.
married
(34.4%).

The majority of the respondents were

(75%) and fell within the age range of 3 4 - 4 4
Ninety-five percent of the subjects were

Caucasian which may have a significant effect on the
outcomes of part of the results.

A large majority (75%)

had at least a Master's degree and a small percentage
had worked in their oresent job less than a year.

(57.)

Over

eighty percent of the sample was employed in a secondary
school setting.

The sizes of the system where the subjects

were employed was fairly evenly distributed, but approxi­
mately 507o worked in systems with at least 5000 students.
Appendix E provides a summary of characteristics of the
sample.

71

Michigan
School Counselors
3146

Michigan School
Counselors Association

Study
Sample
N = 427

Figure 3.1.

Sample selection procedure for the study.

72

The analysis of data is conducted on all of the
respondents from the sample regarding the selected
variables of age, marital status,

sex, ethnic background,

number of children,

education level, present

income level,

occupation, occupational setting,

size of system where

employed and time in present job.

Instrument Selection
Two questionnaires were used in carrying out this
study.

To measure counselor job satisfaction,

the Job

Description Index (JDI), developed by P. C. Smith, e t . a l .
was used.

In Measures of Occupational Attitudes and

Occupational Characteristics by Robinson,

et, a l . , the

JDI is listed as "the instrument which appears to have
the best credentials" of the 13 job satisfaction scales
examined.

"Lengthy,

extensive and competent research

went into the construction of this instrument, which had
been administered to workers at all organization levels
on a nationwide basis"

(p. 101).

The instrument has been widely tested with groups
which range in diversity,

from janitors to secretaries to

farmers to bank executives.

Corrected split-half internal

consistency coefficients are reported to exceed .80 for
each of the scales.
stability over time.

Hulin (1966) reported evidence of
In analyzing data for female clerical

employees over a 12-month period, Hulin also reported a

73
correlation of -.27 between satisfaction and job turnover.
The JDI consists of 72 items,

18 in each of work

supervision and people subscales and nine in each of pay
and promotions.

Each subscale consists of a list of

adjectives or descriptive phrases to which the respondent
is asked to reply as follows:
”Y ” for Yes - if the item describes present
job - Scored 3 points
"N" for No - if the item does not describe
present job - Scored 0 points
"?" for Undecided - if respondent is
undecided - Scored 1 point
The development of the second questionnaire, which
was to measure illnesses and stress, required several
st e p s :
Step 1.

Stress related illnesses had to be
identified.

Step 2.

Behavioral responses to stress had
to be identified.

Step 3.

Sources of stress for counselors had
to be identified.

Step 4.

The stress items which would be incor­
porated into the instrument had to
be grouped.

Step 5.

The instrument had to be designed.

Step 6.

The items which were included in the
instrument had to be validated.

Step 7.

Final changes based upon the occurrence
of discrepancies noted in the instru­
ment had to be made.

74
Step 1:

Stress related illnesses had to be identified.

Those illnesses which have been linked to stress in indi­
viduals were identified from reviews of literature on
the topic.

Publications which were perused included

magazine and journal articles, books, research reports
and dissertation studies.

The illnesses which were

identified from the search included:
pressure, headaches,

diabetes,

sexual problems,

p-iblems, urinary tract infections,
problems,

cancer, high blood
skin

allergies, back

asthma, heart trouble, ulcers and unusual pain.

The small size of the list made it unnecessary for selection
procedures to determine which illnesses should be used
in constructing the questionnaire.
Step 2:
identified.

Behavioral responses to stress had to be
Further examination of the literature on

stress revealed behaviors which tend to indicate the
presence of stress.

The same method outlined in Step 1

was used in carrying out this portion of the development
of the instrument.

A total of 21 beha\iors were found to

be most prevalent in the literature and were included in
the instrument.
Step 3;
identified.

Sources of stress for counselors had to be
From workshops on stress conducted with school

counselors in the State of Michigan,
stress for counselors were developed.

lists of sources of
The original list

consisted of 109 stress items which counselors felt had

75
some effect on them in their jobs.
Step 4:

The stress items which would be incorporated

into the instrument had to be grouped.

This step in the

instrumentation process was accomplished by grouping the
109 items into categories to eliminate replication of
items.

The 109-item list was reduced to 30 categories

after the grouping process.

Each category was labeled

with a short descriptive phrase which was representative
of items in that category.

The 30-item list was then

reviewed by members of the researcher's guidance committee.
Discrepancies were determined and corrected.
Step 5:

The instrument had to be designed.

Illness

and stress items which had previously been identified
were incorporated into an instrument.

Questions to

ascertain demographic information were also included in
the instrument.
Step 6:

The items which were included in the

instrument had to be validated.

Counselors attending a

state conference on counseling were used to validate the
stress-illness-job satisfaction questionnaire.

They were

randomly selected and instructed to complete the instrument.
Step 7:

Final changes based upon the occurrence of

discrepancies noted in the instrument were m a d e .

According

to the ease with which counselors could respond to the
items and discrepancies which were highlighted,
to the instrument were made.

The questionnaire,

corrections
in its

76
final form, was ready for distribution.
Procedure
A list of persons who belonged to MSCA was obtained
from MPGA headquarters.

The stress-illness questionnaire

(see Appendix C) and the JDI (see Appendix D) were
mailed to each of the 754 persons whose names appeared
on the list.

The questionnaires were accompanied by two

cover letters, one from Bill McDonald, President of MSCA
(see Appendix B ) , requesting that MSCA members support
the project,

and another from the researcher (see Appendix

A), providing subjects with directions and purposes for
the study.

A total of 427 questionnaires were returned,

constituting a 57% return rate, making a follow-up mailing
unnecessary.
Analysis of data from MSCA respondents was conducted.
The data were used to analyze the hypotheses which were
stated earlier in Chapter I.

Implications from this

investigation will be offered to assist counselors,
counselor supervisors,

administrators and other counseling

personnel in their efforts to provide their clientele
with the best possible service.

Operational Definitions of Concepts
The following operational definitions are provided
for specific concepts and variables which are used in
this study:

77
1.

Counselor - Those persons who are members of

MPGA and are employed in the state of Michigan in the
delivery of human services.
2.

Illness - Those maladies whose etiology can at

least partially be viewed as stemming from the body's
response to stressful events.

This variable was opera­

tionally defined as a "Yes" - "No" response as to the
occurrence of 13 "stress ailments," during two designated
time periods.
3.

Job Satisfaction - A measure of a counselor's

feelings toward his job as measured by five areas of the
Job Description Index:
and people.

pay, promotion,

supervision, work

A total for each of the five areas was

obtained by summing responses of "Y"

(yes), "N"

(no,

and "?" (undecided) to statements which are descriptive
of each area.
4.

Stress - Any particular situation or action

in which a counselor feels he does not have or in which
he does not have appropriate responses.

It is operationally

defined as the degree to which counselors agree or disagree
that 30 events are sources of stress for them.

A four-

point 'Likert-type scale was used and mean scores were
obtained from the responses.
5.

Stress Indicators - A list of 21 items of behaviors

whose frequency of occurrence suggests the presence of
stress in one's life.

They are measured on a three-point

78
scale of occurrence:

more often than usual (1), usual

(2), less often than usual

(3).

This measure is taken

over two six-month periods.

Proxy Variables
Eleven proxy variables were used in this study.
They are operationally defined in the following manner:
1.

Age - the chronological age of the respondent
which was categorized in the following manner:
(1) 18-24,

(2) 25-34,

(3) 35-44,

(4) 45-54,

(5) over 55.
2-

Marital Status - the connubial state of the
respondent.

Categories of this variable were

coded 1 - single,
4 - divorced,
3.

2 - married,

3 - separated,

5 - widowed.

Sex - either of two divisions,
code 1 and 2 respectively,

female or male,

in which people are

classified.
4.

Ethnic Background - ethnic classification or
affiliation classified in the following manner
1 Caucasian,
4 Asian,

5.

2 Black,

3 Spanish surname,

5 American Indian, 6 other.

Number of Children - the number of children
each respondent has according to the response
provided.

79
6.

Income Level - The annual salary of the respondent.
The following classification was used in responding
to the question,

"What is your income level?"

1 Below $10,000,

2 $10,00C-$14,999, 3 $15,000-

$19,999, 4 $20,000 - $ 2 4 ,999, 5 over $25,000.
7.

Level of Education - The

highest degree possessed.

Categories of this variable were coded:
degree, 2 Master's degree,
4 Doctorate degree,
8.

1 Bachelor's

3 Specialist degree,

5 other.

Occupational Setting - The setting in which
respondent is employed.
1 Elementary,

Responses were coded:

2 Secondary,

3 Private,

4 Public,

5 other.
9.

Present Occupation - The job in which respondent
works primarily.

Categories included:

2 Com.,.^lor Supervisor,
4 Teacher,
10.

1 Counselor,

3 Administrator,

5 other.

Size of System - Size of

system where respondent

is employed according to number of students.
This variable was measured by respondent’s answer
to the question,
employed?"

"By which school system are you

Categories were based upon the State

Department of Education's classification for
allocation of funds according to school size.
They included:

1 Below 500, 2 500-999,

80
3 1,000-1,499, 4 1,500-1,999, 5 2,000-2,499,
6 2,500-2,999,

7 3,000-3,499, 8 3,500-3,999,

9 4,000-4,499,

10 4,500-4,999,

12 10,000-19,999,

11 5,000-9,999,

13 20,000-49,999,

14 50,000

and over.
11.

Time in Present Job - Length of time respondent
has held present position.
1 to 6.

Values ranged fr >m

1 indicates less than one year,

2 (1-5 years),

3 (6-10 years), 4 (11-15 years),

5 (16-19 years), 6 (more than twenty years).
Data Analysis

Research Hypotheses
The hypotheses listed below will be examined during
this study:
HR-^:

A negative relationship exists between level of
stress and level of job satisfaction in Michigan
school counselors.

HR2 :

A positive relationship exists between level of
stress and the occurrence of illness in Michigan
school counselors.

HR2 :

A negative relationship exists between level of
satisfaction and the occurrence of illness in
Michigan school counselors.

HR^:

A significant interaction exists between job
satisfaction and stress,

such that counselors

who are less satisfied and under stress will

81
experience more illnesses than those counselors
who are more satisfied and under less stress.
Tests to be Used
To examine the four hypotheses in this investigation,
a series of correlation analyses were computed.

Two

scores for each of the variables of stress and illness
were obtained by summing responses to stress and illness
statements over two periods of time.

A score for the

measure of job satisfaction was obtained by totaling
scores on the five subscales of the JDI (work, pay,
promotion,

supervision and people).

Pearson product-

moment coefficients of correlation were computed on
these scores to examine the relationships between the
variables of interest in the first three hypothec is and
a two-way analysis of variance
the fourth hypothesis.
significance at the

(ANOVA) was used to analyze

They were then tested for

.05 critical level.

In addition to the correlation statistic and two-way
ANOVA which were used to examine major hypotheses,
one-way analysis of variance

the

(ANOVA) and descriptive

statistics were used in providing answers to questions
related to the investigation

(see Chapter I ) .

The one-way

ANOVA was conducted with demographic data (age, marital
status,

sex, ethnic background, number of children,

income

level, education level, school sett'ng, present occupation,

82
size of school system and number of years in present
job) being analyzed in respect tc the major variables
(stress, illness, job satisfaction) of the investiga­
tion.

ANOVA summary tables were used to display data

from these analyses.

Tests or significance were

analyzed and reported using the .05 level of probability
where the ANOVA produced an F-statistic to calculate
significance.
A series of summary statistics were Uoed for
descriptive purposes in defining the characteristics
of the sample used in this study.

Results of these

analyses are placed in a summary table in Appendix E.
Summary
The population for this study consisted of counselors
who were employed in a school setting in the state of
Michigan during the 1977-78 school year.

The sample

drawn from a subset of this population included 427 of
the 754 counselors who were members of the Michigan
School Counselors Association

(MSCA), a division of the

Michigan Personnel and Guidance Association

(MPGA) and

an affiliate of the Michigan Education Association (MEA).
Two instruments were used to obtain the necessary
data for the study.
made questionnaire,

The stress-illness scale, a selfand the Job Descriptive Index by Smith,

et. al., were used to measure level of stress, occurrence

83
of illness and job satisfaction in counselors.

The

instruments were mailed to the entire sample.
Statistical analysis of data was conducted using
the Pearson product-moment coefficient of correlation
for three of the four study hypotheses and a two-way
analysis of variance for the fourth.
at the .05 level of significance.
variance

They were tested

The analysis of

(ANOVA) and descriptive statistics were used

in analyzing data for questions related to the study.
The

.05 level of probability was used in the tests of

significance.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSES AND RESULTS

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
relationship between stress,

illness and job satisfaction

in school counselors in Michigan.

The findings presented

in this chapter are based on the analysis of data collected
from a stress-illness questionnaire and the Job Description
Index (JDI), to which 427 school counselors responded.
This chapter presents the statistical analyses of the
data in order to examine the four research hypotheses
and related questions.
The analyses and findings are presented in two parts.
Part I offers the analysis of the major research hypotheses
Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 were tested using the Pearson
product-moment coefficient of correlation and Hypothesis
4 was tested using the two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
technique.

The .05 level of significance was established

as the critical area for accepting or rejecting differences
In Part II, the analysis of related descriptive data
is presented.

The one-way analysis of variance

was used to analyze this descriptive data.
was descriptive statistics.

(ANOVA)

Also used

In the case of the ANOVA,

84

85
the .05 level of significance was established as the
critical area for analysis.
PART I
Null Hypothesis 1 :
There will be no relationship between the
level of stress and the level of job
satisfaction of school counselors.
Alternate Hypothesis l a :
The level of stress in school counselors
will be negatively related to their level
of job satisfaction.
Table 4.1 visually indicates that the level of stress
of school counselors correlated significantly and n ega­
tively with the level of job satisfaction of school
counselors at the .05 level of confidence
p

.001).

Therefore,

(r = -.1943,

the null hypothesis was rejected

in favor of the alternate hypothesis.

Table 4.1
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient

(r)

for Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3a

Stress
Illness

* p > .05
a N = 427

Illness

Job Satisfaction

.1372*

-.1943*
-.0926*

86

Null Hypothesis 2 :
Triere will be no relationship between the
level of stress and the occurrence of
illnesses in school counselors.
Alternate Hypothesis 2 a :
The level of stress in school counselors
will be positively related to the
occurrence of illnesses.
An examination of Table 4.1 indicates that the level
of stress of school counselors was significantly positively
correlated with the occurrence of illness in school
counselors at the .05 level of significance

(r = .1372,

p <.003).
The null hypothesis,

therefore, was rejected in

favor of the alternate hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis 3 :
There will be no relationship between the
occurrence of illnesses and the level of
job satisfaction in school counselors.
Alternate Hypothesis 3 a :
The occurrence of illnesses in school
counselors is negatively related to
the level of job satisfaction.
The occurrence of illnesses, as viewed from Table 4.1,
correlated significantly and negatively with the level
of job satisfaction at the .05 level of significance
(r =-.0926, p y

.03).

The null hypothesis was therefore

rejected in favor of the alternate hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis 4 :
There is no interaction effect between
job satisfaction and illness such that
counselors who are less satisfied and
under stress will experience more
illnesses than counselors who are more
satisfied and under less stress.

I

87
Alternate Hypothesis 4 a :
A significant interaction exists between
job satisfaction and illness such that
counselors who are less satisfied and
under stress will experience more ill­
nesses than those counselors who are more
satisfied and under less stress.
In Table 4.2,

the two-way analysis of variance results

revealed no significant interaction between stress and
job satisfaction such that they are predictive of illness.
An F-probability of

.195 was not found to be significant

at the .05 level of confidence.

Therefore, the null

hypothesis was not rejected in favor of the alternate
hypothesis.

Figure 4.1 presents a graphic view of the

analysis of this hypothesis.
However, the analysis indicated a significant difference
between illness and job satisfaction with an F-probability of
.049 at the .05 confidence level.

Table 4.3 presents a

breakdown of illness by stress and job satisfaction.

It

revealed that the overall mean score for low job satis­
faction (x = 3.59) was greater than the overall mean score
for high job satisfaction (x = 2.12).

PART II
This section provides answers to the following questions
posed by this study:
1.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the age of counselors?

Table 4.2
Two-Way Analysis of Variance of Illness by Stress and Job Satisfaction
Source of
Variation

Sums of
Squares

df

Mean
Square

F

Significance
of F

Main Effects
Stress

25.373

1

25.373

3.385

.067

Job Satisfaction

29.131

1

29.131

3.887

.049*

12.635

1

12.635

1.686

.195

78.772

3

26.257

3.504

.016

Residual

2982.840

398

7.495

TOTAL

3061.612

401

7.635

2-Way Interactions
Stress - Job Satistion
Explained

* Significant at

°C = .05

89

Table 4.3
Breakdown of Illness by Stress by Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
Low

Low

High

x u - 2.84

x 21= 2-77

SD * 2.03

SD - 1.39

N = 25

N = 8

Stress

High

x12= 3-70

x 22=

SD = 3.15

SD =

N = 173

*LJS- 3‘59

.6551

N - 16

HJS"

2.12

90

4.0

Low Job Satisfaction

3.5
3.0
5

.0

Higa Job Satisfaction

.5

.0
.5

.0
Low
Stress

Figure 4.1.

High
Stress

Graphic presentation of the interaction of
Job Satisfaction and Stress on Illness.

91
2.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the marital
status of counselors?

3.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the sex of
counselors?

4.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the ethnic back­
ground of counselors?

5.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the number of
children of counselors?

6.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the income of
counselors?

7.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the level of
education of counselors?

8.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the occupation
of counselor?

9.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness, or job satisfaction and the level of
the school where counselors are employed?

92
10.

Is there a significant difference betvreen stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the affiliation
of the school where a counselor is employed?

11.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the size of the
school system?

12.

Is there a significant difference between stress,
illness or job satisfaction and the length of
time in the job as counselor?

13.

What area of the counselor's job was most
satisfying?

14.

What area of the counselor's job was least
satisfying?

15.

What area of the counselor's job was most
stressful?

16.

What area of the counselor's job was least
stressful?

17.

In which stress-linked behaviors were counselors
more prone to engage?

18.

Was the first or second half of the year more
stressful for counselors?

Questions 1 - 1 2
Table 4.4 presents the F-probabilities from the one-way
ANOVA techniques employed to provide answers to questions
1-12.

Complete ANOVA tables for the analyses can be

found in Appendices F, G and H.

Three of the analyses

93
Table 4.4
F-Probabilities for One-Way Analysis of Variance of
Dependent Variables by Demographic Variables

Stress

Illness

Age

.2028

.3041

.0638

Marital Status

.0323*

.1666

.0100*

Sex

.3686

.5052

.4337

Ethnic
Background

.1703

.8924

.4781

No. of Children

.0189*

.9082

.9412

Income

.2165

.9443

.5713

Level of
Education

.5756

.2323

.1706

School Level

.6220

.3374

.6856

School
Affiliation

.0997

.5211

.4938

Occupation

.2091

.3648

.2723

Size of School
System

.2171

.1337

.5637

Time in Job

.8614

.9144

.6751

* p <.05

Job Satisfaction

94
indicate a significant difference beyond the .05 level.
They are:

#2 - stress and marital status

#2 - job satisfaction and marital status

(.0323);
(.0100); and

#5 - stress and number of children (.0189).

Further

analyses of these significant differences by use of the
Scheffe post hoc comparison method revealed that, for
stress and marital status,

the subgroups single and

married, there was a significant difference.

Mean scores

for the two groups were 2.2917 and 2.5133, respectively.
For stress and number of children, the source of signifi­
cance is not exactly clear, but examination of the means
and standard deviations for the subgroups suggests that
a significant difference between the group with 0-1
children (x

= 2.4250, SD = .4938) and the group with 5-7

children (x

= 2.2270, SD = .7887) is more probable.

In the case of job satisfaction and marital status,

there

is a significant difference between being separated or
divorced (x = 26.9938) and being widowed (x = 34.0545).
Tables 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7 present the multiple range tests
of the Scheffe procedure for each of the significant cases.
Question 1 3 : What area of the counselor's job is
most satisfying?
Question 1 4 : What area of the counselor's job is
least satisfying?
In response to Question 13, data from the JDI indicated
that of the five measures of job satisfaction,

counselors

are more satisfied with supervision (x = 41.395).

95

Table 4.5
Scheffe Post Hoc Comparison of Stress and Marital Status*

Group

Married

Widowed

Mean
SD

2.2917
.5872

2.3121
.4254

Separated/
Divorced
2.4274
.4017

Single
2.5133
.5316

Table 4.6
Scheffe Post Hoc Comparison of Stress and Number of Children

Group
Mean
SD

5-7 Children

2-4 Children

2.2270
.7887

0-1 Children
2.4250
.4938

2 2717
5975

Table 4. 7
Scheffe Post Hoc Comparison of Job Satisfaction and Marital Status*

Group
Mean
SD

Separated/
Divorced
26.9938
11.7144

Single

Married

Widowed

29.8754
9.3282

32.3046
9.7060

34.0545
4.8051

* Categories outside brackets indicate significant differences

96
For Question 14, counselors responded such that they
indicated the least satisfaction with promotion (x = lb.374).
Table 4.8 liscs the mean and standard deviations for each
of the five measures of job satisfaction on the JDI.
Question 1 5 : What area of the counselor's job is
most stressful?
Question 1 6 : What area of the counselor's job is
least stressful?
Mean scores were calculated for the 30 sources of
stress as listed on the stress-illness questionnaire.
The mean scores indicated that,

in response to Question

15, counselors viewed "too much paperwork" as the number
one stressor with a mean score of 2.99.

For Question 16,

counselors responded such that the item causing the least
amount of stress for them was "the quality of the physical
facilities" with a mean score of 1.71.

Appendix I contains

the list of 30 stressors and their mean scores.

Additional

stressors added by counselors can be found in Appendix G.
Question 1 7 : In which stress-linked behaviors were
counselors more prone to engage?
Question 1 8 : Was the first or second half of the
year more stressful for counselors?
For purposes of analyzing the above two questions,

the

twenty-one stress-linked behaviors were categorized into
four areas for each of the two time periods.
included:

The areas

physical effects, drug usage, behavioral effects

and use of consulting services.

Items in each category

97

Table 4.8
Mean Scores for the Five Scales of the Job Description Index

Scale

Mean

SD

Work

39.211

8.454

Pay

29.101

12.571

Promotion

16.374

12.927

Supervision

41.395

12.380

People

41.234

12.229

98
from the questionnaire are listed in Appendix K.

The

mean score for the use of consulting services during
Period I (x = 1.996) was greater than the mean scores
for the other categories at any other time.

In each of the

areas counselors indicated a greater indulgence in stresslinked behaviors during the second half of the year
(March - August) as opposed to the first half of the
year (September - February).

Table 4.9 presents the

results of the four categories for the two time periods
involved.

SUMMARY
The data from the stress-illness questionnaire and
the Job Description Index were used to analyze the four
major hypotheses and related questions of the study.
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients conducted
on three of the major hypotheses concluded that:
1.

There is a negative relationship between
the level of stress and the level of job
satisfaction in school counselors.

2.

There is a positive relationship between
the level of stress and the occurrence of
illnesses in school counselors.

3.

There is a negative relationship between the
level of job satisfaction and the occurrence
of illnesses in school counselors.

99

Table 4. 9
Mean Scores for Stress-Linked Behaviors of Counselors

Category

Period*

Mean
Score

SD

Physical Effects
Physical Effects

I
II

1.920
1.968

.400
.431

Drug Usage
Drug Usage

I
II

1.969
1.974

.416
.422

Behavioral Effects
Behavioral Effects

I
II

1.960
1.981

.414
.426

I

1.977

.437

II

1.985

.442

Use of consulting
services
Use of consulting
services

*Period I:
September 1977 to February 1978
Period II:
March 1978 to August 1978

100

A two-way analysis of variance was used to examine
the fourth hypothesis.

This technique,

along with a

breakdown of mean scores for illness by stress by job
satisfaction,

concluded that there is not a significant

interaction between job satisfaction and illness such
that those counselors who are less satisfied with their
jobs and under stress will experience more illnesses
than those counselors who are more satisfied and under
less stress.
One-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA) techniques and

descriptive statistics were used to examine questions
related to the study.
significance,

For ANOVA results which indicated

the Scheffe post hoc comparisons of mean

scores was conducted.

The results from these analyses

can be summarized as follows:
1.

There is a significant difference between
stress and marital status, particularly
between stress and being single or married.

2.

There is a significant difference between
stress and number of children, particularly
between stress and having 0-1 children or
5-7 children.

3.

There is a significant difference between
job satisfaction and marital status, par­
ticularly between job satisfaction and being
separated/divorced or widowed.

4.

Mean scores for the job satisfaction
components of pay, promotion, people and
work were lower than for supervision.

5.

The mean score for promotion was the
lowest of the five aspects

of job

satisfaction.
6.

The mean score for too much paperwork was
the greatest for sources of stress in
the counselor's job.

7.

The mean score for the quality of the
physical facilities was the lowest for
sources of stress in the counselor's job.

8.

The mean score for use of consulting
services was greatest for stress-linked
behaviors in which counselors engaged.

9.

Mean scores for each category of stresslinked behaviors during Period II were
higher than during Period I.

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The final chapter of this report includes a review
of the problem under investigation, the procedures
followed, a literature summary, the major findings,
limitations of the findings and a presentation of con­
clusions, with implications for counselors and future
research.

Review of the Problem
The purposes of this study were four-fold:

(a)

to examine the relationship between stress and job
satisfaction in school counselors in Michigan;

(b) to

examine the relationship between stress and illness in
school counselors in Michigan;

(c) to examine the rela­

tionship between job satisfaction and illness in school
counselors in Michigan;

and (d) to measure the impact of

stress and job satisfaction on the occurrence of illness
in Michigan school counselors.
Over the past ten years, Americans have experienced
a dramatic increase in the occurrence of certain types
of illnesses, despite the fact that medical technology
has virtually eliminated most of the infectious diseases

102

103
that plagued the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Diseases

such as coronary heart disease, strokes, and cancer are
among those that are on the increase and whose etiology
can be traced back to chronic stress.

Stress is a signi­

ficant factor in today's world, especially in the world
of work.

Chronic stress can manifest itself in the work

situation through desirable behaviors of high absenteeism,
job turnovers, health problems, alcohol and drug abuse,
and personality clashes.
Counselors are a special group of workers who have
the major responsibility of assisting others through the
delivery of human services.

Persons in this occupational

area can ill-afford to allow the presence of stress in
their own lives to affect the clientele they serve.
Consequently,

they must take account of themselves and

their performances if they are to provide efficient and
effective services.
More importantly,

counselors in the educational

arena have an even greater responsibility because of their
special clientele,
of tomorrow.

children.

Children are the adults

Their futures will be even more devastating

if they are not provided with competent guidance in
tackling mounting educational, vocational,

social and

personal problems.
Job satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) of counselors
needs to be reckoned with because it is generally agreed

104

that the less satisfied one is with his job, the more
stressful the job becomes.

Counselors who are provided

with the proper training and opportunities to express
areas of job discontent can provide supervisors and
administrators with a nucleus of information for improving
the functioning of counselors and counseling departments.
Eventually, prolonged stress and continued job dis­
satisfaction will lead to the occurrence of illnesses.
The illnesses may be physical or psychological, but the
strain of the situation will take affect in some form.
Counselors must be as comfortable as possible in
their jobs if they are to perform satisfactorily.

This

would include being satisfied with their jobs, being
under minimal stress and being physically and mentally
fit to handle job demands.
The literature in the area of stress and illness is
very abundant and diverse.

Other factors such as job

satisfaction and demographic variables are virtually n o n ­
existent in the literature in relation to stress.

The

literature is generally supportive of the notion that
relationships do exist between stress,
satisfaction.

illness and job

In many of these studies, coronary heart

disease and hypertension are the most frequently studied
diseases in the list of over 80 stress-related illnesses.
Studies cited in the literature have encountered
difficulty in their methodologic approach, research findings

105
or complete understanding of the results.

The difficulty

is attributed to a lack of congruency in the definitions
of key words such as stress and job satisfaction.

The

utilization of diversified techniques in conceptualizing
and measuring stress,

illness and job satisfaction has

also contributed to the difficulty.

However,

the research

has proven to be a sound basis on which to focus other
research efforts in the area.

This study was one such

effort, geared toward a specific occupational group,
school counselors.
For this study,

the general populatioii consisted of

persons who were employed as school counselors in the
state of Michigan.

A subset of this population served

as the population of immediate interest.

This subset

included the 754 members of the Michigan School Counselors
Association

(MSCA) who were employed in a counseling

capacity during the 1977-1978 school year.
Two instruments were used in this study to provide
the necessary data.
made questionnaire,

To measure stress and illness, a selfcontaining demographic information,

stress, stress-linked behavior and illness scales was
developed.

To measure job satisfaction,

the Job Description

Index (JDI), developed by Smith, et. al., was used.
instrument contains five scales of job satisfaction:
work, pay, promotion,

supervision and people.

These

This

106

instruments,

along with a supportive cover letter from

the president of MSCA, were mailed to each of the persons
on the MSCA mailing list.

Four hundred and twenty-seven

persons responded, constituting a 577» return rate.
The analysis of data included the use of the Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient for testing of
the first three hypotheses and a two-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) for the fourth hypothesis.

Each hypothesis

was tested for significance at the .05 critical level.
In addition, one-way ANOVA techniques and descriptive
statistics were used to provide answers to questions
related to the study.

The ANOVA techniques tested for

significant differences between the demographic variables
and the major variables of the study.

Again, the .05

level of significance was used to analyze the results of
the ANOVA procedures.

For the i^lationships that indicated

a significant difference,

the Scheffe post hoc comparison

technique was conducted to localize the area of significance.
All statistical analyses conducted in this study were
analyzed by the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS) on computers at the Computer Center at Michigan
State University.

Conclusions
The results of this study can be summarized in the
following manner:

107
1.

The level of stress in school counselors is
negatively related to their level of job
satisfaction.

2.

The level of stress in school counselors is
positively related to the occurrence of
illnesses.

3.

The occurrence of illnesses in school counselors
is negatively related to the level of job
satisfaction.

4.

There is not a significant interaction between
stress, job satisfaction and illness such that
school counselors who are less satisfied and
under stress will experience more illnesses
than those counselors who are more satisfied
and under less stress.

5.

There is a significant difference between stress
and marital status of school counselors,

such

that single counselors experience more stress
than married counselors.
6.

There is a significant difference between stress
and number of children such that counselors with
more children experience less stress than coun­
selors with fewer children.

7.

There is a significant difference between job
satisfaction and marital status such that

108
school counselors who are separated or
divorced are less satisfied in their jobs
than counselors who are widowed.
8.

The

area of supervision was highest of

the five areas of job satisfaction.
9.

The

area of promotion was lowest of the

five areas of job satisfaction.
10.

Too much paperwork was the greatest source
of stress for counselors.

11.

Quality of physical facilities was the
least source of stress for counselors.

12.

The

use cf consulting services was

greatest for stress-linked behaviors
engaged in by counselors.
13.

Period II (March - August) was more

stress­

ful than Period I (September - February)
for school counselors.
The results of this investigation provided support to
the hypothesis that stress and job satisfaction are n e g a ­
tively related.

For the particular group under study,

school counselors,

it was found that the more dissatisfied

a counselor was with his job, the more stressful was the
job.

This is in concurrence with the limited research

which has been conducted in the area of stress and job
satisfaction.

It also seems to have practical significance,

considering that job dissatisfaction has oftentimes been

109
indicated as a source of stress.
Further analysis of the data suggested that stress and
illness are positively related.

The school counselor

sample in the study demonstrated characteristics in the
occurrence of illnesses which were consistent with the
numerous studies previously conducted by various other
researchers over the years which concur that the more
stress experienced by persons, the more prone for illness
they become.
Further supportive evidence obtained in the analysis
of data in this study substantiated previous research findings
that negatively relate job satisfaction and illness
occurrences.

It was found that school counselors who

were more satisfied in their jol

experienced the occurrence

of fewer illnesses.
Though analysis of the data did not indicate any
significant interaction between stress, illness and job
satisfaction,

a close examination of the relationship

indicated that they approached significance.

Furthermore,

the breakdown of the dependent variable illnes,'

by the

independent variables stress and job satisfaction presented
a questionable result whereby counselors who indicated a
high level of stress and high level of job satisfaction
experienced the fewest occurrences of illnesses.

This

condition is not in keeping with previous research findings
in the area.

At present, no account can be provided for

this occurrence.

110

The analysis of variance conducted on all 12 of the
demographic variables for each of wtie three major
variables indicated significant differences for three
of the analyses.

The three significant relationships

suggested that the stress level of single counselors is
significantly greater than for married counselors; the
stress level for counselors with the greatest number
of children (5-7) is significantly lower than that for
counselors with fewer or no children; job satisfaction
is higher for counselors who are widowed than for counselors
who are separated or divorced.
Concurring with a vast majority of research into
job satisfaction, this study concluded that school
counselors are most satisfied with the supervision they
receive on their jobs.

Similarly,

several studies

mentioned relationships with co-workers as falling in
close proximity to supervision.

This study found that

school counselors ranked the category people in the job
as a close second to supervision, with only a .161 difference
between the two categories.

Falling at the bottom of the

list in this study and in others reviewed was the category
promotion or opportunity for advancement.
Overall, data from this rcuJy strongly support the
data found in the literature which related stress,
and job satisfaction.

illness

In doing so, this study implies

that stress is an identifiable factor that can be used to

Ill
isolate areas of job satisfaction for school counselors.
Also,

illness occurrences are a definite happening which

can be used to signal fallacies of a counseling system.
In reviewing the results previously discussed, one
can note the practicality of the significance for counselors
in the schools.

Recognition of the presence of stress,

illness and/or job dissatisfaction is a beginning step
in improving the services of counselors and counseling
departments.

It is the role of school counselors to

provide students with supportive services which will
facilitate healthy development in their academic and
personal lives.

Counselors must therefore be prepared,

physically and mentally,

to assist students in these and

other areas of need.
Systematic evaluation of counseling systems will
provide counselors and counseling administrators with
the information necessary for improving and maintaining
an effective system.

The evaluation process will assure

that efforts which can be made to enhance counselors'
performances will be recognized and hopefully,

addressed.

Counselors who work within systems that display interest
in their well-being are apt to be more responsive to the
goals of the system and to the clientele whom they serve.
A counselor who is under minimal stress will be
more satisfied with the work he has to do and less prone
to illnesses which plague stress-ridden individuals.

He

112

will be able to better handle any problems that arise
during the course of his work and better able to make
quality decisions that will benefit all concerned.
Therefore,

it is very necessary that counselors recognize

the effects that stress in their lives has upon the
jobs they have partaken.
Counselors who are constantly under stress, con­
tinually ill and displeased with their jobs can affect an
entire counseling staff.

Counseling administrators are

in positions to make decisions which can impact upon the
departments they supervise.

At a time when ever-increasing

stressors are complicating the lives of individuals,
counselors can ill-afford to fall victim to the pressures
of daily living if they are to service a population which
demands undaunted attention.

It is the contention of

this researcher that the results from this study are
quite significant for school counselors in the state of
Michigan.

Limitations
The fact that the particular population used in
this study was not diversified enough in relation to racial
composition limits its generalizability to counseling
groups with significantly different racial makeup.
One possible factor that may have contributed to
the disproportionate racial composition of the sample is

113
the fact that MSCA, and more particularly MPGA, has
significantly fewer nonwhite than white members.
Implications for Counselors
Data from this research strongly support most of
the data found in the literature which deals with stress,
illness and job satisfaction.

The basic difference between

this study and others which have been conducted is that
this sf.udy has definite implications for a specific
population,

school counselors, while others have implica­

tions for general populations.

The literature suggests that

very little effort has been made in (1) delineating stressors
for counselors;

(2) devising stress-reduction plans of

action for counseling departments;

(3) analyzing counseling

departments by assessing the mental and physical readiness
of counselors.

It is within these areas that the researcher

feels there is much a counselor can do to help effect
the smooth operation of a counseling program and of the
counselor himself.
This study provides data which indicate certain
strategic points which may be incorporated into an inter­
vention plan for facilitating the professional development
of counselors.

The intervention plan must take into

account the total environment of the counselor--personal,
societal, familial,

educational and occupational.

Gunnings

(1976) developed an intervention strategy which provides

114
a guideline for evaluation of counseling departments and
takes the total environment of the counselor into
consideration.

He proposes a Systemic approach to the

situation which is defined as "the art of intervening
into the lives of individuals through systems understanding
and modification"

(Gunnings,

1976, p. 2).

He lists eight

basic assumptions underlying the evaluation process from
a Systemic viewpoint.

They include:

1.

The environment is the key factor in
determining man's attitudes, values and
behavior.

2.

The client's (counselor's) behavior is a
symptom of the system's problem.

3.

The cause of the client's (counselor's)
symptom can be traced to the negative
effect of social systems on the client's
(counselor's) affective and cognitive
function.

4.

Systems change is always possible, however,
it is often a long term process.

5.

Systems change is a continuous process
because of the dynamic nature of social
systems.

6.

The system with the problem must be changed
in order for the problem to be eliminated.

7.

If the problem has been correctly identi­
fied, elimination of the problem results
in elimination of the symptom.

8.

Although clients (counselors) are not
responsible for the existence of the
problem, they do have control over their
response to the problem.
(Gunnings,

1976, p. 2)

115
Through the Systemic approach to analyzing counseling
departments,

counselors will be able to identify the

causes of their symptoms

(stress,

illness, job dissatis­

faction) through recognition of the influence of selected
environmental factors on their psychological functioning
as reflected in their behavior.

They will then be able

to develop and implement problem solving strategies and
techniques that will eliminate or reduce the barriers
to their achievement of desired goals.

The end result

of the Systemic approach is to raise the counselor's level
of functioning, affectively and cognitively,

such that he

is able to work towards improving counseling systems
which are not functioning appropriately and develop effec­
tive coping mechanisms for handling stress until such
changes actually occur.
Appendix L outlines the seven steps of the Systemic
Approach which may be employed by counseling administrators
to bring about efficacious results from their employees.
In this process, measures of stress,

illness and job

satisfaction of counselors can occur in step one.

Scales

such as the ones used in this study can provide counseling
department heads with the data necessary to assess the
symptoms of stress,

illness and job satisfaction in its

staff.
The aforementioned strategies can be incorporated
into already existing counseling departments through

116
in-service training, workshops or staff development series.
However, efforts to prepare counselors for handling
situations which are stress-ridden,
much earlier time,

should occur at a

during their training.

Classes dealing

with stress management should be incorporated into the
regular curriculum of students who are preparing to become
future school counselors.
didactic in nature,

Students'

curriculum should be

incorporating both theory and applica­

tion through direct placements in practicum situations.
doing this, counselor trainers will be providing students
with the necessary framework for becoming counselors who
understand the intricacies of the world in general.

They

will be able to make better use of environmental factors
in their lives and in the lives of their clients.

Implications for Future Research
The need for further investigations into factors
affecting operative functioning of counseling departments
is unlimited.

Further studies involving development and

refinement of instruments for measuring tnese factors
are needed.

Even though a great deal of interest is

continually being focused in this direction,

several

specific areas are being identified as being particularly
relevant for future research.
1.

They include:

Research efforts should focus upon more
clearly refining stress-illness quesionnaires
for counselors.

By

117

2.

This study should be replicated within
particular school systems to determine
the fallacies of a particular counseling
program.

3.

This study should be replicated with
populations from different types of
school systems,

i.e., urban-rural-suburban,

desegregated-integrated-segregated,

to

determine if there are differences in
counselor well-being.
4.

Research efforts should be developed to
establish norms for educational personnel
(counselors, administrators,

etc.) for

the Job Description Index.
5.

Experiments should be designed which
establish experimental groups of counselors
who are trained to handle stressful
situations to determine the effect of
stress management training.

6.

Research efforts should be developed to
determine the influence of the Systemic
Approach of analysis on the effective
operation of counseling departments.

7.

Research efforts should be developed to
replicate this study with populations of
school counselors from varied racial
backgrounds to determine the effect of

118
stress, illness and job satisfaction on the
groups.
8.

This study should be replicated to further
examine the fourth hypothesis,

especially

the breakdown of illness by stress and job
satisfaction to determine if counselors are
in fact, a special group who experience
fewest illnesses when working in high
stressed situations and with high job
satisfaction.
In retrospect,

this study was an attempt to broaden

the base of present research in the area of improving school
counselor functioning through recognition of factors
such as stress, illness and job dissatisfaction which
may impinge upon the effectiveness of counseling departments.
With this information and future research efforts in the
area, counseling personnel will be able to analyze and
restructure their departments to better meet the needs of
those who work therein and of those who seek counseling
services.

The ultimate goal of this research project is

to provide counselors with strategies for assessing them­
selves and their jobs in order to insure that children
are provided with quality services which can serve to
enhance their total living experiences.

APPENDICES

119

APPENDIX A

120

APPENDIX A

TO:

M.P.G.A. School Couns^Lors

FROM:

Beverly A. Parker
Doctoral Candidate ■
Michigan State University

DATE:

October 18, 1978

Many g idance and counseling programs are keenly interested in strength­
ening the effectiveness of their counselors.
The relationship between
stress and other variables which may impact upon counselors and their
jobs is one area of research which is gaining prominence and can provide
counseling programs with a multiplicity of information for improving
their functioning.
In an effort to secure more information concerning factors which may
impinge upon the effective and efficient performance of school counselors,
I am requesting that you complete the enclosed questionnaires and return
them to me by Friday, October 27, 1978. A self-addressed stamped enve­
lope is enclosed for your convenience in returning the information.
If you are interested in receiving the results from this research pro­
ject, please place your name and mailing address on the back side of the
self-addressed stamped postcard which is also enclosed.
Your input and responses can be invaluable to opening doors for better
counselor self-understanding and for providing information to counseling
programs for improving their operations.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation.
, oap
Enclosures:

Letter from Bill McDonald
Questionnaire (Goldenrod color)
Job Descriptive Index
Self-addressed stamped envelope
Self-addressed stamped postcard

121

APPENDIX B

122

APPENDIX B

HddtigaH scboSauwefoi mociaim
P.O. S tx 679
£ u i £mmg, HUdrigax 46823

State Dautwc
Arnica* Seked

CeuxMb* Am cialm

Htu&igtui Peuw td and Guidaae Aueciaim

Ah ABilwti tt tin
HUdugtw Education Autdatie*

OFFICER!

1i7*-71

Bill McDonald, PrHldsnt
500 Woodcrest Drlva
Royal Oak, Michigan 48067
Bob Marks. Prasldant-Elsel
Churchill High School
Livonia. Michigan 48150
Jim Stnea, Paal-Prsaldanl
3818 Churchill Avanua
Lansing, Michigan 48910
Nancy Abraham, Secretary
Addams Junior High
Royal Oak, Michigan 48073
Mika McClure. Treasurer
SEOVEC
Royal Oak, Michigan 48073
EXECUTIVE BOARO MEMBERS
Vlckl Sandstrom
Grand Ledge High School
Grand Ledge. Michigan 48837
David Schultz
Southwestern Michigan College
Dowaglac, Michigan 49047
Bob Burnalde
Schoolcraft Community College
Livonia, Michigan 48052
Suzl Llddle
Leslie High School
Leslie, Michigan 49251
Bette Schwyn
Adrian Senior High School
Adrian, Michigan 49221
Stan Ayre
Shields Junior High
Saginaw, Michigan 48603
Marcia Bogema
Onsted Community Schools
Onsled, Michigan 49285
Gloria Grabor
Klnawa Middle School
Okamos, Michigan 48884
Karin Montgomary
Everett Elementary
Lansing, Michigan

Dear Professional Counselor:
The Michigan School Counselor Association
supports research that has direct application
to practicing school counselors.
Moreover,
M.S.C.A. encourages school counselors to become
involved in research.
Sometimes it is difficult
for school counselors to find the available time
to do active research, but it can be a valuable
ingredient to our work.
One particular area of research that needs
to be investigated is the relationship between
stress and the work of the school counselor.
At various times in our work as school counselors,
we have all been under stress.
The stress may
have come because of internal or external pressures
How we learn to cope with stress is of real
importance to school counselors.
To help identify how counselors cope with
stress and what things cause stress is the major
focus of the research that will be done by Beverly
Parker.
Ms. Parker is completing her doctoral
dissertation at Michigan State University.
I hope you will take the time to complete the
questionnaires.
Sincerely,

ool
.0

Judy Bennett
Black River Elementary School
Paw Paw, Michigan 49079

Bill McDonald
President
M.S.C.A.

ADVISORS
George Stewart
Michigan OSAS
Department ot Substance Abuse
Lansing, Michigan 48909
Al Short
M.E.A. Building
East Lansing, Michigan 48909
Lee Paterson
Michigan Dept, of Education
Student Financial Aids
Lansing, Michigan 48909
Manfred Tatzmann
Human Services Network
P.O. Box 30037
Lansing, Michigan 48909

123

APPENDIX C

124

APPENDIX C
CODE NUMBER
DIRECTIONS
Please circle the number for your responses to the following
questions and fill in the blank when it is appropriate.
1.

What is your age?
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
2.

7.

18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55 and over

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
8.

3.
4.
5.
6.

6 .

In which type of school
do you work? (Circle
all which apply)
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Female
Male

9.

Elementary
Secondary
Private
Public
Other

What is your present
occupation?

What is your ethnic background
1.
2.

5.

Single
Married
Separated
Divorced
Widowed

What is your sex?
1.
2.

4.

Bachelor's degree
Master's degree
Specialist degree
Doctorate degree
Other ______________

What is your marital status?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

3.

What level of education
have you completed?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Caucasian
Black
Spanish Surname
Asian
American Indian
Other

Counselor
Counselor Supervisor
Administrator
Teacher
Other ______________

10.

By which school system
are you employed?

11.

How long have you held
your present position?

How many children do you have?

What is your income level?
1.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Below $10,000
$10,000-$14,999
$15,000-$19,999
$20,000-$24,999
Over $25,000

6.
125

Less than one year
One to five years
Six to ten years
Eleven to fifteen years
Sixteen to nineteen
years
More than twenty years

12 o
Indicate the frequency of the occurrence of the following
behaviors you exhibited during Period I (September 1977February 1978) and Period II (March 1978-August 1978) by
selecting choices 1 - 3 for your responses.
1 - More often than usual
2 - Usual
3 - Less often than usual
Behavior

Period I

Period II

12.

Loss of appetite

1

2

3

1

2

3

13.

Upset stomach

1

2

3

1

2

3

14.

Very nervous

1

2

3

1

2

3

15.

Trembling hands

1

2

3

1

2

3

16.

Nightmares

1

2

3

1

2

3

17.

Smoking

1

2

3

1

2

3

18.

Use of tranquilizers

1

2

3

1

2

3

19.

Use of amphetamines

1

2

3

1

2

3

20.

Use of marijuana

1

2

3

1

2

3

21.

Buying spree

1

2

3

1

2

3

22.

Shortness of breath

1

2

3

1

2

3

23.

Dizzy spells

1

2

3

1

2

3

24.

Loss of weight

1

2

3

1

2

3

25.

Cold sweats

1

2

3

1

2

3

26.

Tired feeling

1

2

3

1

2

3

27.

Drinking alcohol

1

2

3

1

2

3

28.

Consulted with a doctor

1

2

3

1

2

3

29.

Consulted with a psycho­
logist, psychiatrist, or
counselor

1

2

3

1

2

3

30.

Consulted with clergy

1

2

3

1

2

3

31.

Absent from work due to
illness

1

2

3

1

2

3

Nailbiting

1

2

3

1

2

3

32.

127
Indicate if you discovered that you had any of the following
ailments during Period I (September 1977-February 1978) and
Period II (March 1978-August 1978) by selecting choices 1 or
2 for your responses.
1

Yes

2

No

Period I
33.

Period II

Hypertension or high blood
pressure

1

2

1

2

34.

Skin problems

1

2

1

2

35.

Allergies

1

2

1

2

36.

Sexual problems

1

2

1

2

37.

Ulcers

1

2

1

2

38.

Asthma

1

2

1

2

39.

Heart trouble

1

2

1

2

40.

Urinary tract infections

1

2

1

2

41.

Diabetes

1

2

1

2

42.

Cancer

1

2

1

2

43.

Unusual pain

1

2

1

2

44.

Back problems

1

2

1

2

45.

Migraine headaches

1

2

1

2

128
To what extent do you agree or disagree that each of the
following statements adequately describes sources of
stress or tension for you in your particular job?
Indicate
your response by using the following scale in relaying
your reply:
1 - Strongly Disagree
2 - Disagree
3 - Agree
4 - Strongly Agree
1.

2.

Conflicting role definitions between
counselor and administrator

3

4

Non-counseling responsibilities
(substitute teaching, hall monitoring,
e t c .)

2

3

4

Incongruence between counselor training
and actual job responsibilities

2

3

4

Inability to perform certain tasks
due to lack of competency

2

3

4

Inadequate physical facilities (no
privacy, poor space allotment, etc.)

2

3

4

Quality of physical facilities (barred
windows, graffiti, police or guards
present)

2

3

4

7.

Excessive caseload

2

3

4

8.

Too much paperwork

2

3

4

9.

Lack of time due to excessive workload

2

3

4

10.

Insufficient program funding

2

3

4

11.

Inadequate program support (from
administrators, counselors, teachers,
parents)

2

3

4

Lack of communication from adminis­
trators to counselors

2

3

4

Lack of communication between staff
and teachers

2

3

4

14.

Meeting with parents

2

3

4

15.

Parental apathy

2

3

4

3.

4.
5.

6.

12.

13.

129
16.

Mood of the environment (sexist,
racist, isolated, apathetic, etc.)

2

3 4

Lack of staff commitment to the
counseling process

2

3

4

Personal problems
death, etc.)

2

3

4

Ineffective leadership from adminis­
trators

2

3

4

Lack of appreciation shown through
rewards or supervisor feedback

2

3

4

21.

Feeling of lack of success

2

3

4

22.

Lack of resources needed for performing
job completely (referral agencies,
information, etc.)

2

3

4

23.

Inadequate pay

2

3

4

24.

Required attendance at meetings

2

o

4

25.

Being fired

2

3

4

26.

Limited job advancement opportunities

2

3

4

27.

Job security in face of funding cutbacks

2

3

4

28.

Intraschool politics

2

3

4

29.

Unrealistic expectations from students,
parents, community members, teachers,
administrators

2

3

4

Interference from persons unrelated
to the counseling process

2

3

4

17.

18.

19.

20.

30.

(family,

illness,

o

Please list below any other stressors which have not been
included and rate them using the same scale as for the
above listed items.
31.

1

2

3

4

32.

1

2

3

4

33.

1

2

3

4

34.

1

2

3

4

35.

1 2

3

4

APPENDIX D

130

APPENDIX D

JOB DESCRIPTION INDEX

Each of the five scales was presented on a separate
page.
The instructions for each scale asked the subject to
put "Y" beside an item if the item described the particular
aspect of his job (e.g., work, pay, etc.),

"N" if the

item did not describe that aspect, or "?" if he could
not decide.
The response shown beside each item is the one scored
in the "satisfied" direction for each scale.
Work
Fascinating
Routine
Y
Satisfying
N
Boring
Y
Good
Y
Creative
Y
Respected
N
Hot
Y
Pleasant
Y
Useful
N
Tiresome
~Y~ Healthful
Y
Challenging
N
On your feet
N
Frustrating
N
Simple
N
Endless
Gives sense of
Y
accomplishment
Y

Y
Y
N
N
Y
N
N
Y
N

Y
N
N
_Y_
Y_
'Y
Y
N
N
Y
N
N
Y
_N_
Y
Y
Y
N

Supervision
Asks my advice
Hard to please
Impolite
Praises good work
Tactful
Influential
Up-to-date
Doesn't supervise enough
Quick-tempered
Tells me where I stand
Annoying
Stubborn
Knows job well
Bad
Intelligent
Leaves me on my own
Around when needed
Lazy

Pay
Income adequate for normal expenses
Satisfactory profit sharing
Barely live on income
Bad
Income provides luxuries
Insecure
Less than I deserve
Highly paid
Underpaid

Y
N
Y
N
Y
N
N
Y
Y

1

Y
N
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
N
Y
N
N
N
Y
N
Y
N

People
Stimulating
Boring
Slow
Ambitious
Stupid
Responsible
Fast
Intelligent
Easy to make
enemies
Talk too much
Smart
Lazy
Unpleasant
No privacy
Active
Narrow interests
Loyal
Hard to meet

Promotions
Good opportunity for
advancement
Opportunity somewhat
limited
Promotion on ability
Dead-end job
Good chance for promotion
Unfair promotion policy
Infrequent promotions
Regular promotions
Fairly good chance
for promotion

APPENDIX E

132

APPENDIX E
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE
Number
1.

2.

3.

4.

7.

1
106
147
122
50

.2
24.9
34.5
28.6
11.7

Marital Status
Single
Married
Separated
Divorced
Widowed

61
323
1
31
11

14.3
75.6
.2
7.3
2.6

Sex
Female
Male

212
215

49.6
50.4

Ethnic Background
Caucasion
Black
Spanish
Asian
Other

405
11
4
2
4

95.

Number of Children
0-1
2-4
5-7

178
234
15

41. 7
54.8
3.5

Income
Belov; $10,000
$10,000-$14,999
$15,000-$19,999
$20,000-$25,000
Over $25,000

6

49
149
153
69

1.4
11.5
35.0
35.9
16.2

Level of Education
B. A.
M.A.
Specialist
Ph.D.
Other

3
322
32
14
56

.7
75.4
7.5
3.3
13.1

133

2 .

to <y\

6 .

Age
18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-over

r-1 vo

5.

Percent

134
Number
8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Percent

School Level
Elementary
Secondary
Other

11
346
70

2.6
81.0
16.4

School Affiliation
Private
Public
Other

17
157
253

38.0
59.0

Time in Job
Less than one year
I-5 years
6-10 years
II-15 years
16-19 years
20 plus years

21
150
115
85
42
13

4.9
35.2
27.0
20.0
20.0
3.1

311
14

72.8
3.3
1.4
4.0
2.8

Occupation
Counselor
C o u n s ./Couns. Sup.
Counselor/Administrator
Counselor/Teacher
Counselor/Other
Counselor/Supervisor
C o u n s .-Su p ./Administrator
Administrator
Administrator/Other
Teacher
Other
Size of School System
Below 500
500-999
1000-1499
1500-1999
2000-2499
2500-2999
3000-3499
3500-3999
4000-4499
4500-4999
5000-9999
10.000-19,999
20.000-49,999
50,000 +
Other

6

17
12
28
5
15

4.0

6.6

1.2
3.5

1

.2

45
16

.5

5

18
18
29

3.7
1.2
4 5

4.5
7.2

37

9 2

25
18
19
18

6 ’2
4 5
4.7

4

4 5
1.0

58
75
41
19

14.4
18.6
10.2
4 .7

19

4.7

APPENDIX F

135

APPENDIX F
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR STRESS AND DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES

Table FI
Analysis of Variance for Stress by Age

Source of
Variance

d.f.

Between groups

3

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

1.4336

.4779
.3098

Within groups

422

130.7158

Total

425

132.1493

F

Level of
Si ;nificance

1.5427

.2028

Table F2
Analysis of Variance for Stress by Marital Status

Source of
Variance

d.f.

Between groups

3

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

F

Level of
Significance

2.8244

.9415

2.9546

.0323*

.3186

Within groups

423

134.7854

Total

426

137.6098

* p < .05
Table F3
Analysis of Variance for Stress by Sex

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

1

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

.2618

.2618
.3232

Within groups

425

137.3480

Total

426

137.6098

136

F

.8101

Level of
Significance

.3686

137
Table F4
Analysis of Variance for Stress by Ethnic Background*
Source of
Variance
Between groups

d.f.

1

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

.6095

.6095
.3231

Within groups

424

136.9904

Total

425

137.5999

F

Level of
Significance

1.8864

.1703

*Categories were collapsed into two groups - white and nonwhite.
Table F5
Analysis of Variance for Stress by Number of Children

Source of
Variance

d.f.

Between groups

2

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

2.5527

1.2764
.3185

Within groups

424

135.0571

Total

426

137.6098

F

4.0070

Level of
Significance

.0189*

* p < .05

Table F 6
Analysis of Variance for Stress by Income

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

4

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

1.8702

.4675
.3223

Within groups

421

135.6998

Total

425

137.5699

F

1.4505

Level of
Significance

.2165

138
Table F7
Analysis of Variance for Stress by Level of Education
Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

4

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

F

Level of
Significance

.9385

.2346

.7245

.5756

.3239

Within groups

422

136.6712

Total

426

137.6098

Table F 8
Analysis of Variance for Stress by School Level*
Source of
Variance
Between groups

d.f.
1

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

F

Level of
Significance

.0707

.0707

.2435

.6220

.2905

Within groups

355

103.1181

Total

356

103.1889

*Categories were collapsed into two g ro ups , elementary and
secondary.
Table F9
Analysis of Variance for Stress by School Affiliation*

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

1

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

.7889

.7889
.2879

Within groups

172

49.5129

Total

173

50.3018

F

2.7404

Level of
Significance

.0997

*Categories were collapsed into two g rou ps, private and public.

139
Table F10
Analysis of Variance for Stress by Occupation
Source of
Variance

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

F

Level of
Significance

10

4.2793

.4279

1.3352

.2091

Within groups

416

133.3304

.3205

Total

426

137.6098

Between groups

d.f.

Table Fll
Analysis of Variance for Stress

Source of
Variance
Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

by Size of School System

Mean
Square

F

Level of
Significance

1.2792

.2171

14

5.8048

.4146

Within groups

388

125.7609

.3241

Total

402

131.5657

Table F12
Analysis of Variance for Stress by Time in Job

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

5

.6161

.1232

Within groups

420

135.6310

.3229

Total

425

136.2470

F

.3816

Level of
Significance

.8614

APPENDIX G

140

APPENDIX G
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR ILLNESS AND DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
Table G1
Analysis of Variance for Illness by Age

Source of
Variance

d.f.

Between groups

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

3

26.9549

8.9850

Within groups

422

3122.1907

7.3986

Total

425

3149.1455

F

Level of
Significance

1 2144

.3041

Table G2
Analysis of Variance for Illness by Marital Status

Source of
Variance

d.f,

Between groups

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

3

37.5295

12.5098

Within groups

423

3114.9951

7.3641

Total

426

3152.5246

F

Level
Significance

1.6988

.1666

Table G3
Analysis of Variance for Illness by Sex

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

F

.4447

1

3.2949

3.2949

Within groups

425

3149.2297

7.4100

Total

426

3152.5246

141

Level of
Significance

Mean
Square

.5052

142
Table G4
Analysis of Variance for Illness by Ethnic Background*

Source of
Variance

d.f.

Between groups

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

1

.1360

.1360

Within groups

424

3149.0095

7.4269

Total

425

3149.1455

F

Level of
Significance

.0183

.8924

*Categories were collapsed into two groups, white and nonwhite.

Table G5
Analysis of Variance for Illness by Number of Children

Source of
Variance

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

2

1.4308

.7154

Within groups

424

3151.0938

7.4318

Total

426

3152.5246

Between groups

F
.0963

Level of
Significance
.9082

Table G 6
Analysis of Variance for Illness by Income

Source of
Variance
Between groups

d.f

Sum of
Squares

Meai
Square

F

.1886

4

5.6091

1.4023

Within groups

421

3129.5365

7.4336

Total

425

3135.1455

Level of
Significance

.9443

143
Table G7
Analysis of Variance for Illness by Level of Education

Source of
Variance

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

4

41.3561

10.3390

Within groups

422

3111.1685

7.3724

Total

426

3152.5246

Between groups

d.f.

F

Level of
Significance

1.4024

.2323

Table G 8
Analysis of Variance for Illness by School Level*

Source of
Variance

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

F

1

6.3355

6.3355

.9228

Within groups

355

2437.1435

6.8652

Total

356

2443.4790

Between groups

d.f.

Level of
Significance

.3374

*Categories were collapsed into two g rou ps , elementary and
secondary.

Table G9
Analysis of Variance for Illness by School Affiliation*

Source of
Variance

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

F

1

2.9729

2.9729

.4134

Within groups

172

1236.9869

7.1918

Total

173

1239.9598

Between groups

d.f.

Level of
Significance

.5211

*Categories were collapsed into two groups, private and public.

144
Table G10
Analysis of Variance for Illness by Occupation*

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

F

1

6.3013

6.3013

.8231

Within groups

391

2993.3374

7.6556

Total

392

2999.6387

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

Level
Significance

.3648

*Categories were collapsed into two g r oup s, counselors and
administrators.

Table Gil
Analysis of Variance for Illness by Size of School System*

Source of
Variance
Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

2

28.6874

14.3437

Within groups

400

2836.8262

7.0921

Total

402

2865.5136

*Categories were! coll apsed into three groups,
5000 & over.

Level of
Significance

F

2.0225

.1337

0-2499; 2500-4999;

Table G12
Analysis of Variance for Illness by Time in Job

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

F

5

11.1042

2.2208

.2972

Within groups

420

3138.0413

7.4715

Total

425

3149.1455

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

Level of
Significance
.9144

APPENDIX H

145

APPENDIX H
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR JOB SATISFACTION
AND DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
Table Hi
Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction by Age

Source of
Variance

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

3

701.2216

233.7405

Within groups

422

40413.2524

95.7660

Total

425

41114.4740

Between groups

F
2.4407

Level of
Significance
.0638

Table H2
Analysis of Variance for Job Sati sfaction by Marital Status
Source of
Variance

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

3

1087.0285

362.3428

Within groups

423

40040.4022

94.6582

Total

426

41127.4306

Between groups

* p <

F

3.8279

Level of
Significance
.0 1 0 0 *

.05
Table H3
Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction by Sex

Source of
Variance

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

1

59.3476

59.3476

Within groups

425

41068.0831

96.6308

Total

426

41127.4306

Between groups

d.f.

146

F
.6142

Level of
Significance
.4337

147
Table H4
Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction by Ethnic Background*

Source of
Variance

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

1

48.8283

48.8283

Within groups

424

41076.0213

96.8774

Total

425

41124.8496

Between groups

d.f.

F

.5040

Level of
Significance

.4781

’’
' Categories were collapsed into groups, white and nonwhite.

Table H5
Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction by Number of Children

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

F

.0606

2

11.7454

5.8727

Within groups

424

4115.6853

96.9710

Total

426

41127.4306

Level of
Significance

.9412

Table H6
Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction by Income

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

4

282.2125

70.5531

Within groups

421

40642.9714

96.5391

Total

425

40925.1839

F

.7308

Level of
Significance

.5713

148
Table H7
Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction by Level of Education

Source of
Variance
Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

4

618.4529

154.6132

Within groups

422

40508.9777

95.9928

Total

426

41127.4306

F

Level of
Significance
.1706

1.6107

Table H8
Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction by School Level*

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

1

15.7185

15.7185

Within groups

355

33995.2102

95.7612

Total

356

34010.9286

F

Level of
Significance

.1641

.6856

Vc

Categories were collapsed into two groups, elementary and
secondary.

Table H9
Analysis of Variance for Job Sat1'.‘faction by School Affiliation

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

1

44.8335

44.8335

Within groups

172

16395.5078

95.3227

Total

173

16440.3414

F

.4703

Level of
Significance

.4938

"■ 1
' ■.. ■ ■ i——
C a t e g o r i e s were collapsed into two groups, private and public.
■t

149
Table H10
Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction by Occupation

Source of
Variance
Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

10

29423.8674

2942.3867

Within groups

416

998761.8984

2400.8699

Total

426

1028185.7658

F

Level of
Significance

1.2256

.2723

Table Hll
Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction by ;
Size of School System*

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

2

108.6257

54.3128

Within groups

400

37840.4854

94.6012

Total

402

37949.1111

^Categories were collapsed into three groups,
5000 & over.

F

Level of
Significance

.5741

0-2499;

.5637

2500-4499;

Table H12
Analysis of Variance for Job Satisfaction by Time in Job

Source of
Variance

Between groups

d.f.

Sum of
Squares

Mean
Square

5

7681.3336

1536.2667

Within groups

420

1020213.9551

2429.0808

Total

425

1027895.2887

F

.6324

Level of
Significance

.6751

APPENDIX I

150

APPENDIX I
MEAN SCORES FOR SOURCES OF STRESS FOR COUNSELORS
Source______________________________ Question #

Mean

S.D.

1.

Too much paperwork

8

2.99

.84

2.

Lack of time due to excessive
workload

9

2.95

.82

3.

Excessive caseload

7

2.78

.91

4.

Incongruence between counselor
training and actual job
responsibilities

3

2.72

.85

5.

Parental apathy

15

2.68

.77

6.

Insufficient program funding

10

2.63

.84

7.

Unrealistic expectations from
students, parents, community
members, teachers, adminis­
trators

29

2.57

.78

1

2.55

.98

Ineffective leadership from
administrators

19

2.51

.91

10.

Intraschool politics

28

2.50

.85

11.

Lack of appreciation shown
through rewards or super­
vision feedback

20

2.47

.81

Lack of staff commitment
to the counseling process

17

2.46

.79

Lack of communication
between staff and teachers

13

2.44

.81

Lack of communication
from administrators to
counselors

12

2.44

.91

Job security in face of
funding cutbacks

27

2.42

.91

2

2.38

.99

8.

9.

12.

13.

14.

15.
16.

Conflicting role definitions
between counselor and admin­
istrator

Non-counseling responsi­
bilities (substitute teach­
ing, hall monitoring, etc.)
151

152
Source

______ Question #

Mean

S.D.

Inadequate program support
(from administrators,
counselors, teachers,
parents)

11

2.34

.87

Interference from persons
unrelated to the counseling
process

30

2.33

.78

19.

Inadequate pay

23

2.33

.83

20.

Limited job advancement
opportunities

26

2.32

.85

21.

Feeling of lack of

21

2.31

.77

22.

Mood of the environment
(sexist, racist, isolated,
apathetic, etc.)

16

2.30

.90

Lack or resources needed to
perform job completely
(referral agencies, infor­
mation, etc.)

22

2.29

.80

Required attendance at
meetings

24

2.13

.70

25.

Meeting with parents

14

2.11

.72

26.

Inadequate physical facil­
ities (no privacy, poor space
allotment, etc.)

5

2.10

.96

18

2.08

. 88

4

1.99

.83

25

1.73

.84

6

1.71

.86

17.

18.

23.

24.

27 .

28.

success

Personal problems (family,
illness, death, etc.)
Inability to perform certain
tasks due to lack of compe­
tency

29.

Being fired

30.

Quality of physical facil­
ities (barred windows,
graffiti, police or guards
present)

. PENDIX J

153

APPENDIX J
LIST OF ADDITIONAL STRESSORS

1.

Personality conflict with other counselors in the
building.

2.

Fringe benefits.

3.

Pressure from higher-ups to make them look good.

4.

Too much delegation of principal'« responsibilities
to director of counseling.

5.

Impossible job definition written by person totally
unrelated to the counseling process in order to get
Title I funds.

6.

Extra curricular activities.

7.

Increased expectations due to state & federal laws and
mandates, staff cutbacks, too many "new" programs to
be implemented, incompetency of other "professionals".

8.

Computer problems.

9.

Feeling of fragmentation as a result of too many
responsibilities and not enough time to do the job
well.

10.

Lack of professional respect shown by administrators.

11.

Additional programs during the summer.

12.

Lack of proper evaluation of

13.

Lack of program evaluation.

14.

Lack of adequate secretarial

15.

Attempting to do graduate school work and work at the
same time.

16.

Philosophical conflict with other counseling staff.

17.

Attendance policy.

18.

Lack of physical exercise.

19.

Lack of mental exercise.

20.

Inflation and its relation to retirement.

154

counselors.

help.

155
21.

Teaching contract disputes.

22.

No co ntract.

23.

Frustration due to seriousness of cases.

24.

Lack of basic moral standards.

25.

Instabilities of many families.

26.

Mobility of students.

27.

Student disrespect.

28.

Lack of professionalism of teachers (attendance,
lateness, class preparation).

29.

Assigned duties and responsibilities.

30.

Lack of opportunity to unload professional problems
in a supportive environment.

31.

Too great a number of responsibilities expected of
department.

32.

Beginning of the year activities
correcting conflicts, etc.)

(balancing classes,

33.

Unrealistic deadlines.

34.

Non-humanistic teachers.

35.

Inequitable load among counselors.

36.

Lack of facilities for updating skills.

37.

Traditional school orientation.

38.

Limited opportunity for fun.

39.

Distance from the job.

40.

Increased workload due to mandatory special education.

41.

Interpersonal relations in department.

42.

Peak times of year (scheduling).

43.

Placing high expectations on self.

44.

Early hour of arrival (7:15 a.m.).

45.

Temperature of office - too low to function.

156
46.

Constant association with one staff person who is
very negative and hostile generally.

47.

Constant requirement to remember many details all
at once.

48.

Noise.

49.

Lack of knowledge as a new counselor.

50.

Worry about doing the right thing and what my respon­
sibility is toward each kid.

51.

Millage vote.

52.

Lack of cooperation from the courts in dealing with
truants or juvenile problems (stealing, breaking and
entering, etc .).

53.

Social service agenices which advise students they
d o n ’t have to fulfill their obligations at school.

54.

Spoiled children.

55.

Poor parenting.

56.

Inability of administrators and school board to view
counseling as a valuable function.

57.

Welfare program clients.

58.

Business office conflicts.

59.

Sports emphasis in public schools.

60.

Inability to help students with extremely difficult
home situations.

61.

Attitude of older counselors.

62.

Rigidity of school policy.

63.

Lack of effectiveness of own work.

64.

Incorporating problems of student into self.

65.

Change of administration (new boss).

66.

Retention of incompetent staff members.

67.

Lack of planning and organizing ability.

68.

Seeing competent people quit to take better paying jobs.

157
69.

Seeing good and competent teachers perform well below
their ability.

70.

Seeing good administrators, boards, parents boxed in
by the system and unable to break free.

71.

Seeing good people (students) try to break free of
defeating behavior patterns and get slapped in the face
by others for past grievances.

72.

Responsibilities for all guidance and counseling
programs and functions as well as ancillary programs.

73.

Child accounting responsibilities.

74.

Crisis counseling - pregnancies, child abuse, depressed
and suicidal students, anxious students with low self­
esteem.

75.

Split sessions.

76.

Dealing with high failure rate.

77.

Dealing with high dropout rate.

78.

Dealing with cultural differences of majority of students.

79.

Not enough conferences,

etc., time for growth.

80.

No block time for group counseling

81.

Too many years in education - feeling trapped!

82.

Fear - throughout faculty.

83.

Constant insecurity.

84.

Administrative harassment - personal verbal attack by
administrators.

85.

Priority given to high school counseling.

86.

Lack of classes offered for Spanish students.

87.

Graduation - pulling seniors through.

88.

Foreign language - beir.-> unable to communicate.

89.

Lack of understanding of ethical behaviors by fellow
staff members.

90.

Indifference toward students by colleagues.

-kids

bussed.

158
91.

Not enough guidance staff meetings.

92.

Too great a pupil/counselor ratio.

93.

Trying to get sex education in curriculum.

94.

Inadequate curriculum.

95.

Insufficient parent-volunteer aid.

96.

No funding for major conferences,
day workshops.

seminars or one

APPENDIX K

159

APPENDIX K
CATEGORIES OF STRESS-LINKED BEHAVIORS

I.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS
Upset stomach
Very nervous
Trembling hands
Nightmares
Shortness of breath
Dizzy spells
Loss of weight
Cold sweats
Tired feeling

II.

DRUG USAGE
Use of tranquilizers
Use of amphetamines
Use of marijuana
Drinking alcohol

III.

BEHAVIORAL EFFECTS
Loss of appetite
Smoking
Buying spree
Absent from work due to illness
Nailbiting

IV.

USE OF CONSULTING SERVICES
Consulted with a doctor
Consulted with a psychiatrist, psychologist or counselor
Consulted with clergy

160

APPENDIX L

161

APPENDIX L

J

1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0

Identification of Symptom
Exploration of Problem Causation
Discussion of Problem Solving,
Strategies and Techniques
Selection of Problem Solving
Strategies and Techniques
Implementation of Selected
Strategies
5.1 Long Term Strategies
5.1.1 Implementation of
Symptom Reduction
Techniques
5.2 Short Term Strategies

6.0

7.0
0.0

Evaluation of Effectiveness of
Problem Solving Process
6.1 Symptom and Problem Eliminated
6.1.1 Problem Eliminated;
Symptom Remains
6.1.2 Problem Continues;
Symptom Eliminated
6.1.3 Problem and Symptom
Continue
Expansion of Client use of Model
Counselor Dissemination and use
of the Results of the Problem
Solving Process

A SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO COUNSELING
Gunnings ©

1976

LIST OF REFERENCES

163

LIST OF REFERENCES

Albrecht, Karl.
Stress and the Manager:
Making it Work for
Y o u . Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hail, Inc., 1979.
Appley, M. H . , Sc Trumbull, R.
Psychological Stress:
Issues
in R es e a r c h . New York:
Appleton-Century C r o f t s , 1067.
Bell, R. A., Warheit, G. J., Holzer, C. E., Sc Buhl, J. M.
Stressful Life Events and Sociodemographic F a c t o r s :
Predictors of~Psychological Disorders. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 126 395)
Bramwell, S. T. , Masuda, M. , Wagner, N. N. , Sc Holmes, T. H.
Psychosocial
Factors in Athletic Injuries. Journal
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