INFORMATION TO USERS

This was produced from a copy of a document sent to us for microfilming. While the
most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document
have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material
submitted.
The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand
markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction.
1.The sign or “target” for pages apparently lacking from the document
photographed is “Missing Page(s)”. If it was possible to obtain the missing
page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages.
This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating
adjacent pages to assure you of complete continuity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark it is an
indication that the Rim inspector noticed either blurred copy because of
movement during exposure, or duplicate copy. Unless we meant to delete
copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed, you will find a
good image of the page in the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part of the material being photo­
graphed the photographer has followed a definite method in “sectioning”
the material. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand comer
of a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with
small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again—beginning
below the first row and continuing on until complete.
4. For any illustrations that cannot be reproduced satisfactorily by
xerography, photographic prints can b~ purchased at additional cost and
tipped into your xerographic copy. Requests can be made to our
Dissertations Customer Services Department.
5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases we
have filmed the best available copy.

University
M icrdfilms
International
3 0 0 N. Z EE B RO A D , ANN A RBO R, Ml 4 8 1 0 6
18 B E D F O R D ROW, LONDON WC1 R 4 E J , E N G L A N D

8013719

D a v is , P h il u p B u r t o n

AN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH FOR HIGHWAY ROUTING IN MICHIGAN

Michigan State University

University
Microfilms
International

PH.D.

300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106

1979

18 Bedford Row, London WC1R 4EJ, England

Copyright 1979
by
Davis, Phillip Burton
All Rights Reserved

AN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH FOR HIGHWAY
ROUTING IN MICHIGAN

By

P h i l l i p Burton Davis

A DISSERTATION

S ubm it te d t o
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
fo r th e degree o f

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department o f Resource Development

1979

ABSTRACT
AN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH FOR HIGHWAY
ROUTING IN MICHIGAN
By
P h i l l i p Burton Davis

At th e p r e s e n t time t h e Michigan Department o f S t a t e Highways and
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n does n o t have a p r o c e d u re t o e v a l u a t e b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
t h e p o t e n t i a l impacts o f t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n on e x i s t i n g o r r e s u l t a n t
environments.

This s tu d y was per formed t o r e s e a r c h methods t o improve

t h e r o u t e l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s and a s s i s t highway p l a n n e r s , d e s i g n e r s , and
d e c i s i o n makers i n o b j e c t i v e l y e v a l u a t i n g environ ments t h a t may be
im pacted by f u t u r e highway p r o j e c t s .
A h o l i s t i c ecosy ste m approach i s u t i l i z e d t o examine t h e r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p s among s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a and fauna and t h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t s o f
highways on e ach .

In t h i s way p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l changes i n n a t u r a l

systems can be a n a ly z e d b e f o r e , d u r in g and a f t e r highway c o n s t r u c t i o n .
The Michigan Land Cover/Use C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System was used as a
framework t o as sem ble e x i s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n ab o u t a s s o c i a t e d s o i l g r o u p s ,
d r a i n a g e r e g im e s , w i l d l i f e s p e c i e s and en danger ed o r t h r e a t e n e d f l o r a .
To d e t e r m in e what r e s u l t a n t environ ments have t o c o n t a i n t o s u p p o r t
d e s i r e d f a u n a , d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on s p e c i f i c s p e c i e s d i s t r i b u t i o n s ,
h a b i t a t r e q u i r e m e n t s , s t a t u s and food p r e f e r e n c e s were asse m bl ed .

Th is

c o m p i l a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n th en s e r v e s as t h e b a s i s f o r examining t h e
e f f e c t s o f highway a c t i v i t i e s on t h e enviro nment.

P h i l l i p Burton Davis
E v a l u a t i o n o f how highway a c t i v i t i e s impact en vironme nta l c o n d i ­
t i o n s i s f a c i l i t a t e d by use o f t h e Environment-Highway I n t e r a c t i o n
M a tr ix .

The m a t r i x p r o v id e s a v i s u a l d i s p l a y o f p o t e n t i a l l y impacted

e n vironm e nta l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and major a c t i o n s c a u s in g im p a c t s ; i t s
pr im ar y ad v an tag e being a g r o s s s c r e e n i n g t e c h n i q u e f o r impact i d e n t i ­
fication.

F u r t h e r a d vanta ges o f t h i s m a t r i x a r e i n i t s a b i l i t y t o be

expanded o r c o n t r a c t e d i n scope and t o be m odifi ed i n s t r u c t u r e .

Use

o f t h e m a t r i x i n highway d e c i s i o n making can be v a l u a b l e i n p r e d i c t i n g
t h e e f f e c t s o f highways on e x i s t i n g env ir onments and t o compare r e ­
s u l t a n t environ ments c r e a t e d by highway r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s .
A g u id e f o r d e c i s i o n makers p r o v id e s a p r o c e d u re f o r d i r e c t i n g
t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a and o r g a n i z i n g i n f o r m a t i o n needed i n t h e r o u t e
l o c a t i o n d e c i s i o n making p r o c e s s .

D e c is io n s can th e n be made by f o ll o w

ing a s t e p - b y - s t e p pr o c e d u re on o b s e r v a t i o n s and i n v e n t o r i e s t o compile
p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s t o c o n s i d e r , problems t o a v o i d , and
methods t o use i n p r e d i c t i n g im p a c ts .
The e c o l o g i c a l approach p r e s e n t e d p r o v id e s a mechanism f o r more
e f f e c t i v e l y and e f f i c i e n t l y comparing p o t e n t i a l impacts o f a l t e r n a t i v e
r o u t e s i n a more a n a l y t i c a l way b e f o r e r o u t e s e l e c t i o n which re d u c e s
r e l i a n c e on p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n s , i s r e p l i c a b l e , q u a n t i f i a b l e and l e g a l l y
functional.

Although t h i s approach was dev elop ed f o r highway r o u t i n g

i n Michigan w i th m o d i f i c a t i o n s i t can be u t i l i z e d f o r any ty p e o f
corridor analysis.

To my mother
and i n memory o f my f a t h e r

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This s tu d y was made p o s s i b l e t h ro u g h an agree men t between Michigan
S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y and t h e Michigan Department o f S t a t e Highways and
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n c o o p e r a t i o n w it h t h e U.S. Department o f T r a n s p o r t a ­
t i o n and F ederal Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

The a s s i s t a n c e and c o o p e r a ­

t i o n o f f e r e d by Mr. J a n Raad, Environmental S p e c i a l i s t o f t h e MDSH&T
a s s u r e d t h e accomplishment o f s tu d y g o a l s .
The a u t h o r w ishes t o th a n k committee members Dr. C l i f f o r d R.
Humphrys, Dr. D e l b e r t Mokma, Dr. P e t e r Murphy, Dr. Ronald S h e l t o n ,
and Dr. M il to n S t e i n m u e l l e r f o r t h e i r a d v i c e , c r i t i c i s m and s u p p o r t
throughout t h i s study.

Mr. J . Paul S c h n i e d e r , t h e s u p p o r t i v e s t a f f

o f t h e Department o f Resource Development a t Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
and Dr. Thomas P. Husband o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Rhode I s l a n d a l s o p r o ­
vided v a r i e d and v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h a t were most h e l p f u l .
P a r t i c u l a r g r a t i t u d e i s ex ten d ed t o my f r i e n d and c o l l e a g u e , Mr.
Michael R. Thomas f o r p r o v i d i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s t i m u l a t i o n and new i n ­
s i g h t s which c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s s t u d y from i t s i n c e p t i o n .
S upport p r o vid e d by my w i f e Deborah d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d o f my l i f e
r e q u i r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g , p a t i e n c e and l o v e t h a t few a r e c a p a b l e o f g i v ­
ing.

I p r o u d l y acknowledge h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n .
S p e c ia l th an ks go t o my m ajor p r o f e s s o r , Dr. C l i f f o r d R. Humphrys

who s u c c e s s f u l l y p r o v id e d an atm os pher e which f o s t e r e d c r e a t i v i t y and
made l e a r n i n g fun by a d h e r i n g t o a p h i l o s o p h y t h a t a s s e r t s t h e d i g n i t y
and worth o f any who wish t o l e a r n .
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................

vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...........................................................................................

vii

CHAPTER
I.

INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................

1

Problem S ta t e m e n t .............................................................................
Study O b j e c t i v e s ..................................................................................
B r i e f H i s t o r y o f Highway Program..............................................
P a s t W o r k ...............................................................................................

1
2
3
5

PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH....................................................................

7

The H o l i s t i c Approach ....................................................................
Research Model......................................................................................

7
9

EFFECTS OF HIGHWAY ACTIVITIES UPON SOILS,
WATER, FLORA, AND FAUNA ................................................................

12

E f f e c t s o f C o n s t r u c t i o n A c t i v i t i e s .........................................

12

ENVIRONMENT-HIGHWAY INTERACTION MATRIX....................................

33

I m pa cts, Code L e t t e r s , and D e f i n i t i o n s
f o r P a r a m e t e r s ..................................................................................

35

V.

ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDE FOR DECISION MAKERS ...............................

48

VI.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...................................................................

56

II.

III.

IV.

APPENDICES
A.
B.
C.

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , D e f i n i t i o n , and D e s c r i p t i o n
o f Michigan V e g e t a t i v e A s s o c i a t i o n s .....................................

60

V e g e t a t i v e Types and A s s o c i a t e d S o i l s , Water,
Fauna and F l o r a ..................................................................................

65

D i s t r i b u t i o n , H a b i t a t Requirements and R e s i ­
dent S t a t u s o f Michigan B irds ..................................................

72

iv

APPENDICES

D.

Page

D i s t r i b u t i o n , H a b i t a t Req uir em ents, S t a t u s and Food
P r e f e r e n c e s o f Michigan Mammals ............................................

84

BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................

97

v

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE

Page

1 . — Environmental a s s e s s m e n t framework f o r highway
r o u t i n g i n M i c h i g a n .............................................................................

10

2. — E f f e c t s and r a m i f i c a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from t h e
mainten an ce o r a l t e r a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g
w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l s .................................................................................

13

3 . --Framework f o r s tu d y i n g w a t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ................................

15

4 . — Hydr olog ic problem and w a t e r t a b l e r e l a t i o n s
in roads c r o s s i n g p e a t l a n d s ...........................................................

23

5 . --L am in ar flow in r e l a t i o n t o c u l v e r t placement .......................

24

6 . - - A comparison o f l a m i n a r and c h a n n e l i z e d
d r a i n a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ....................................................................

25

7 . — Water t a b l e changes al ong 1-75 n o r t h o f S t .
Ignace c a u s in g f lo o d e d c o n d i t i o n s and
v e g e t a t i v e d i e - o f f ..................................................................................

27

8. — P o t e n t i a l impacts o f highway a c t i v i t i e s on f l o r a ..................

31

9 . — P o t e n t i a l im pacts o f highway a c t i v i t i e s on
w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t s ..................................................................................

32

1 0 . --Environment-Highway I n t e r a c t i o n M a t r i x .........................................

47

11 . - D e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s t o s e l e c t l e a s t e n v i r o n ­
m e n t a l l y damaging r o u t e ....................................................................

49

1 2 . — Proc ed ures f o r c o n s i d e r i n g t h r e a t e n e d o r
en danger ed f l o r a du rin g t h e r o u t e l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s .

51

. .

1 3 . — H a b i t a t ty p e and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f en danger ed
and t h r e a t e n e d p l a n t s in Michigan (Beaman, 1977). . . .

vi

53

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CEC

— Cation Exchange C a p a c ity

CEQ

— Council on Environmental Q u a l i t y

DNR

— Department o f Natu ral Resources

EIS

— Environmental Impact S tatem ent

MATRIX — Environment-Highway I n t e r a c t i o n M a tr ix ( F i g . 5)
MDSHT

- - Michigan Department o f S t a t e Highways and T r a n s p o r t a t i o n

MLCUCS - - Michigan Land Cover/Use C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System
NEPA

- - Nat iona l Environmental P o l i c y Act o f 1969

pH

- - Negative Log o f t h e Hydrogen Ion C o n c e n tr a t i o n

ROW

— R ig ht-of- w ay

spp

— Spec ie s

MEASUREMENTS
a

km — k i l o m e t e r

acre

lb — pound

cc - - cu b ic c e n t i m e t e r

m - - meter

cm - - c e n t i m e t e r
f t — feet

mi - - mile

gm - - gram

ml — m i l l i l i t e r

ha — h e c t a r e

yd — y a r d

in - - in ch

yr — year

vi i

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Problem S ta te m e n t
All highway p r o j e c t s r e q u i r e an impact a s s e s s m e n t , N a ti o n a l Envi­
ronmental P o l i c y Act (NEPA, 19 6 9 ) , b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s a u t h o r i z e d .
Highway a g e n c ie s have been acknowledged as b e i n g among t h e l e a d e r s in
f i l i n g en vironme nta l impact s t a t e m e n t s ( E I S ) .

However, a major c r i t i ­

cism o f a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f f i l e d E I S 's i s t h a t , w h i l e NEPA g u i d e ­
l i n e s a r e f o llow e d s u f f i c i e n t l y f o r l e g a l p u r p o s e s , t h e s t a t e m e n t s a r e
i n a d e q u a t e in d e s c r i b i n g how t h e proposed p r o j e c t a c t u a l l y im pa cts t h e
environment.

For t h e most p a r t , n a t u r a l p a r a m e te rs a r e d e s c r i b e d

mai nly by e x t e n s i v e l i s t s o f i n v e n t o r i e s o f a l l t h e s p e c i e s p r e s e n t
in t h e a f f e c t e d a r e a .

As a r e s u l t , t h e knowledge o f a c t u a l e n v i r o n ­

mental s i t u a t i o n s i s n e v e r c o m p l e te l y a v a i l a b l e .
F e d e r a l , s t a t e , c o u n t y , and m u n ic ip a l highway a g e n c i e s in t h e
s t a t e o f Michigan have f r e q u e n t l y been a c c u s e d o f i r r e p a r a b l y damaging
t h e environ ment.

The a l l e g a t i o n s made as t o t h e i n s e n s i t i v i t y o f h ig h ­

way a g e n c i e s towards a r e a s w ith hi gh e c o l o g i c a l v a l u e s can n o t a t t h i s
ti m e be a d e q u a t e l y d i s p r o v e n .

This i s bas ed on t h e f a c t t h a t no s t u d i e s

p r e s e n t l y e x i s t t h a t document i n a s c i e n t i f i c manner t h e a c t u a l d i r e c t
and i n d i r e c t p h y s ic a l impact o f a highway f a c i l i t y upon an envir onme nt
in a b e f o r e , d u r i n g , and a f t e r s i t u a t i o n .

Subsequently, planning for

any highway proposal which im pacts t h e environ ment o f t e n becomes a

2

re ad y i s s u e f o r p u b l i c c o n t r o v e r s y and c h a l l e n g e ; f u r t h e r , e n v i r o n ­
mental impact s t a t e m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s d i c t a t e t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l nega­
t i v e and p o s i t i v e en vironm e nta l e f f e c t s be a n a l y z e d .

By v i r t u e o f t h e

lack o f s c i e n t i f i c data regarding th ese e f f e c t s , the a n a ly s is tends to
be based on in co m p lete d a t a which d e t r a c t from t h e i n t e n t and purp ose
o f t h e e nvironm e nta l impact s t a t e m e n t .
Thus, t h e l a c k o f s c i e n t i f i c d a t a p r o v id e s t h e p r im a r y b a s i s f o r
c h a l l e n g e and c o n t r o v e r s y .

When t h e s e c h a l l e n g e s a r e d i r e c t e d t h r o u g h

e s t a b l i s h e d l e g a l c h a n n e l s , t h e normal highway p l a n n i n g and c o n s t r u c ­
t i o n s c h e d u l e s a r e e i t h e r slowed down o r abandoned.
At t h e p r e s e n t tim e t h e Michigan Department o f S t a t e Highways and
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n (MDSHT) does n o t have a p r o c e d u re t o e v a l u a t e b e f o r e
c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e p o t e n t i a l im pacts o f t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n on e x i s t i n g
o r r e s u l t a n t e n v i r o n m e n ts .

Environmental a n a l y s i s done by o r f o r t h e

MDSHT now c o n s i s t s o f i n v e n t o r y i n g e x i s t i n g fauna and f l o r a a t one
p o i n t in tim e and s p a c e .

T h i s ty p e o f a n a l y s i s does n o t p r o v id e s u f ­

f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n t o plan f o r t h e wise use o f t h e p o t e n t i a l l y im­
p a c t e d r e s o u r c e s which a r e found in t h e s e e n v ir o n m e n ts .

To improve

t h e r o u t e l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t, in fo r m a ­
t i o n a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among s o i l s , d r a i n a g e , v e g e t a t i o n , and
w i l d l i f e im pac ted by highways needs t o be assembled and p r e s e n t e d in
an e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d , c o h e s i v e , and u s e a b l e package.
Study O b j e c t i v e s
The primar y o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i s t o d ev e lo p an e c o l o g i ­
c al ap proach t o a s s i s t highway p l a n n e r s , d e s i g n e r s , and d e c i s i o n
makers in o b j e c t i v e l y e v a l u a t i n g en v ir o n m e n ts t h a t may be impacted

3

by f u t u r e highway p r o j e c t s .

When t h i s approach i s u s e d , MDSHT p e r ­

sonnel w i l l be a b l e t o re duce r e l i a n c e on p er so n al o p i n i o n s by u s in g
t h e dev elop ed pro c e d u re s a s a t o o l t o a i d i n a n a l y z i n g e x i s t i n g and
r e s u l t a n t enviro nm ents b e f o r e highway c o n s t r u c t i o n .
To a c h i e v e t h e prim ar y o b j e c t i v e , t h r e e s e c o n d a ry o b j e c t i v e s were
established.

The f i r s t o f t h e s e i s t o ad opt a p r o b le m - s o lv i n g approach

based on t h e h o l i s t i c co n c e p t o f e c o s y s te m s .

Such a comprehensive ap­

proach r e q u i r e s t h e as sem blage o f i n f o r m a t i o n on s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a ,
and fa una t o a i d in e v a l u a t i n g environmental impacts o f highway a c t i ­
vities .
A second i s t o develop an environment-highway i n t e r a c t i o n m a t r i x
to p r o v id e a c o n c e p t u a l framework and v i s u a l t o o l t o a i d in examining
how highway c o n s t r u c t i o n , o p e r a t i o n and m aintenance a f f e c t s e n v i r o n ­
mental c o n d i t i o n s .

Use o f a m a t r i x t h a t can be expanded o r c o n t r a c t e d

in scope allo w s d e c i s i o n makers p r i o r t o r o u t e s e l e c t i o n t o p r e d i c t
e f f e c t s o f highways on e x i s t i n g environm e nts and t o compare r e s u l t a n t
en vironm ents t h a t may be c r e a t e d .
The f i n a l o b j e c t i v e i s t o deve lop an e nvir onm e nta l guide f o r de­
c i s i o n makers.

I t s b a s i c f u n c t i o n i s t o p r o v id e a s e t o f i n f o r m a t i o n

and p r o c e d u re s f o r highway r o u t i n g t h a t f a c i l i t a t e s an e v a l u a t i o n c a ­
p a b i l i t y which i s r e p l i c a b l e , q u a n t i f i a b l e and l e g a l l y f u n c t i o n a l .
B r i e f H i s t o r y o f Highway Program
P r e s i d e n t F r a n k li n D. R o o s e v e lt a p p o i n t e d a N a tio n al I n t e r r e g i o n a l
Highway Committee t o examine t h e c o n cep t o f a system o f i n t e r r e g i o n a l
superhighways 1n 1941.

This committee in c o o p e r a t i o n with t h e P u b l i c

Roads A d m i n i s t r a t i o n p r e s e n t e d a r e p o r t t o Congress i n 1944 e n t i t l e d

4

" I n t e r r e g i o n a l Highways."

A cting on t h e b a s i s o f t h a t r e p o r t , t h e

Congress in t h e F e d e r a l-A id Highway Act o f 1944 a u t h o r i z e d a National
System o f I n t e r s t a t e Highways o f 40,000 m i l e s .

Congress d i r e c t e d t h a t

t h e s e highways were t o be
so l o c a t e d as t o con nec t by r o u t e s , a s d i r e c t as p r a c t i c a b l e ,
t h e p r i n c i p a l m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s , c i t i e s and i n d u s t r i a l cen­
t e r s , t o s e r v e t h e n a t i o n a l d e f e n s e and t o c o n n e c t a t s u i t ­
a b l e b o r d e r p o i n t s w ith r o u t e o f c o n t i n e n t a l im p o rta n c e .
By 1947 s e l e c t i o n o f 37,700 m ile s o f t h e propo se d 4 0 , 0 0 0 - m i l e
I n t e r s t a t e System were announced.

During t h e n ex t n i n e y e a r s t h e p r o ­

gram was p lag ue d with problems i n e s t a b l i s h i n g an a c c e p t a b l e method
o f financing.

Congress r each ed a compromise in t h e F e d e r a l - A i d Highway

Act o f 1956 which a u t h o r i z e d 25 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s t o be s p e n t on 41,000
m i l e s o f I n t e r s t a t e from 1957 t o 1969.
Highway p e r s o n n e l a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y were t h e r e b y given a l e g i s ­
l a t i v e mandate to c a r r y o u t t h e "prompt com pletion o f I n t e r s t a t e by
c o n n e c t i n g r o u t e s as d i r e c t as p r a c t i c a b l e . "

To a c h i e v e such an ob­

j e c t i v e , highway a g e n c i e s a t t e m p t e d t o f i n d t h e most d i r e c t r o u t e s
between t h e p o i n t s t h e y wanted t o s e r v e with t h e most economical p r o ­
c e d u r e (from an e n g i n e e r i n g view) o f b u i l d i n g .
Impacts on t h e envir onment were t h e r e f o r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d when
s e le c t in g , c o n s tru c tin g , op eratin g or maintaining ro u te s.

In 1968

t h e F e d e r a l - A i d Highway Act a u t h o r i z e d an a d d i t i o n a l 2 , 500 m i l e s ,
making t h e t o t a l system 42,500 m i l e s i n l e n g t h .

Passag e o f NEPA in

1969 r e q u i r e d f o r t h e f i r s t tim e t h a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n be give n t o t h e
e f f e c t s o f highway a c t i v i t i e s on t h e en v ir o n m e n t.

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s

o f NEPA in d e a l i n g a d e q u a t e l y w i th highway im pacts from t h e I n t e r s t a t e
System were l i m i t e d i n two m ajor ways.

5

F i r s t * o v e r 39,000 m i l e s o f t h e system were a l r e a d y c o n s t r u c t e d
o r un de r c o n s t r u c t i o n when NEPA became law.

The rem ainin g m ile a g e had

a l r e a d y been r o u t e d which e f f e c t i v e l y removed t h e r e a l p o t e n t i a l o f
g i v i n g p r o p e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o a l t e r n a t i v e r o u t e s t h a t may have been
l e s s damaging t o t h e environm e nt.
S e c o n d ly , no methods o r p r o c e d u r e s f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e im pacts o f
highway a c t i v i t i e s were a v a i l a b l e t o a d e q u a t e l y e v a l u a t e and ad d r e ss
t h e conce rns o f NEPA.
P a s t Work
Three complete and comprehensive e f f o r t s have been made t o a s ­
semble p u b l i s h e d and u n p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e impact
o f highways on t h e p h y s ic a l e n v ir o n m e n t.

As p a r t o f a s tu d y e n t i t l e d

E c o lo g i c a l E f f e c t s o f Highway C o n s t r u c t i o n Upon Michigan Moodlots and
W e t l a n d s , over 1 ,300 a n n o t a t e d c i t a t i o n s o f r e f e r e n c e s t h a t a r e s p e ­
c i f i c a l l y co nce rned w i th t h e e f f e c t o f highways on s o i l s , v e g e t a t i o n ,
w a t e r q u a l i t y , w i l d l i f e and a i r q u a l i t y were p r e s e n t e d by Galin (1974 ).
The r e f e r e n c e s p r e s e n t i n f o r m a t i o n on t o p o g r a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s in Michi­
gan, w i l d l i f e , h a b i t a t s , h e r b i c i d e s , p e s t i c i d e s , d e - i c i n g c h e m i c a l s ,
r u n o f f and s p i l l a g e , e r o s i o n , highway d r a i n a g e f a c i l i t i e s , c r i t e r i a
f o r e v a l u a t i n g en vi ronme nta l i m p a c t , and methods which can be used
t o c o n t r o l t h e d e t r i m e n t a l im pa cts o f highways on t h e p h y s ic a l e n v i ­
ronment.
An updated v e r s i o n o f t h e a f o r e m e n t io n e d a n n o t a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h y
was produced d u r in g a second phase o f t h e same s t u d y and i s i n c l u d e d
in t h e f i n a l r e p o r t by D a v i s , Thomas and Humphrys ( 1 9 7 8 ).

T h is e f ­

f o r t r e d i r e c t e d t h e l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h t o f ocu s on s t u d i e s r e l a t e d t o

6

methods o f i d e n t i f y i n g and e v a l u a t i n g t h e environ mental im pacts o f
highways on s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a and f a u n a .
Review o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d in t h e s e c o m p i l a t i o n s r e v e a l s t h a t
r e s e a r c h t o d a t e d e a l i n g with im pacts o f highway a c t i v i t i e s on t h e en­
vironment have been performed w it h a s i n g l e d i s c i p l i n a r y ap proach.
The l i t e r a t u r e i s r e p l e t e with s t u d i e s examining such t o p i c s as vege­
t a t i o n management, w i l d l i f e m o r t a l i t y , e r o s i o n , c h a n n e l i z a t i o n , s e d i ­
m entation, water q u a l i t y , d e-icin g chemicals, herbicide use, e tc .
These r e f e r e n c e s were drawn upon t o assemble d a t a on M ic h i g a n ' s s o i l s ,
w a t e r , f l o r a and f a u n a , which i s needed by MDSHT p e r so n n e l f o r an im­
proved u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s .
S u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e t o examine s o i l s , w a t e r ,
f l o r a and fauna i n d e p e n d e n t l y b u t when c o n f r o n t e d w ith d ev e lo p i n g a
h o l i s t i c ap proach t o highway r o u t e s e l e c t i o n , d e f i c i e n c i e s in t h e
l i t e r a t u r e were q u i c k l y a p p a r e n t .

Highways have been t h e d i r e c t f o ­

cus o f v e r y l i t t l e e c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h .

U n til t h e p a s s a g e o f NEPA,

r e s e a r c h o f an e c o l o g i c a l n a t u r e had no a p p l i e d f u n c t i o n i n connec­
t i o n with highway a g e n c i e s .

Thus f und ing was n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r such

r e s e a r c h and none was done.

The c o n c l u s i o n r e a c h e d a f t e r examining

t h e e x i s t i n g body o f knowledge in t h i s a r e a i s t h a t r e s e a r c h on methods
o f c o l l e c t i n g , packaging and p r e s e n t i n g e c o l o g i c a l d a t a d e a l i n g w ith
Impacts o f highways on t h e p h y s ic a l enviro nme nt a r e s o r e l y needed.
No s t u d i e s t o d a t e a r e a v a i l a b l e on methods f o r o b t a i n i n g e c o l o g i c a l
d a ta in a form which can be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e d e c i s io n - m a k i n g pro­
c e s s which i n v o l v e s l a w y e r s , s o c i o l o g i s t s , e n g i n e e r s and o t h e r s in
s e l e c t i n g , c o n s t r u c t i n g , o p e r a t i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g highway r o u t e s .

CHAPTER I I
PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACH

The H o l i s t i c Approach
An i m p o r t a n t r o l e f o r highway d e c i s i o n makers i s t o e n s u r e com­
p a t i b i l i t y between t h e need f o r new and b e t t e r highway f a c i l i t i e s and
t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r m a i n t a i n i n g q u a l i t y en v ir o n m e n ts .

Ecosystem man­

agement p r o v id e s new methods o f impact as s e s s m e n t and problem s o l v i n g ,
p r e s e n t s i n n o v a t i v e management t o o l s , and o u t l i n e s a framework f o r
t h e r a t i o n a l use o f p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s .

A h olistic,

ec osystem approach i s u t i l i z e d t o examine t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a and fauna and t h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t s o f highways on
eac h.

In t h i s way, ph y s ic a l and b i o l o g i c a l changes in n a t u r a l systems

can be a n a l y z e d b e f o r e , d u r i n g , and a f t e r highway c o n s t r u c t i o n .
I f e x i s t i n g and r e s u l t a n t en vironments impacted by highway a c t i ­
v i t i e s a r e t o be u n d e r sto o d so t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o make
wise r e s o u r c e d e c i s i o n s i s p o s s i b l e , a more comprehensive approach
must be a d o p te d .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r highway perso nnel t o become

aware o f t h e h o l i s t i c co n cep t o f e c o s y st e m s .
upon e c o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s .

This c o n cep t i s b u i l t

The f i r s t o f t h e s e i s t o p r o t e c t c r i t i ­

cal en vironmen ts and h a b i t a t s .

H a b i t a t p r o t e c t i o n i s o f t e n more c r u ­

c i a l th a n p r o t e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s , f o r more s p e c i e s have become
r a r e o r end an ger ed thro ugh h a b i t a t r e d u c t i o n th a n from d i r e c t e x t e r ­
mination.

M a in t a i n i n g t h e l i f e s u p p o r t system p r o v id e d by a h a b i t a t

8

is necessary for the continuance o f a s p e c ie s .

Thus, a n a l y s i s o f

e x i s t i n g and r e s u l t a n t environ ments s h o u ld be made from an eco sys tem
and h a b i t a t p e r s p e c t i v e .
A second e c o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e i s to ad opt a l o n g - t e r m , c a r r y i n g
c a p a c i t y approach t o ecos ystem management.

This i n v o l v e s c a r e f u l

s tu d y o f t h e h a b i t a t ' s a b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n p o p u l a t i o n s based on t h e
a v a ila b il ity o f resources.

A p o p u l a t i o n w i l l t e n d t o i n c r e a s e o r de­

c r e a s e in r e s p o n s e t o t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f fo o d, w a t e r and s h e l t e r .
P o p u l a t i o n s respon d t o changes i n h a b i t a t .

I f one h a b i t a t i s com­

p l e t e l y r e p l a c e d by a n o t h e r due t o e i t h e r n a t u r a l o r a r t i f i c i a l
c a u s e s , t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h a t h a b i t a t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r com­
p o s i t i o n o f s p e c i e s i s a l t e r e d , w h i l e a new c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e
r e s u l t a n t en vironment i s c r e a t e d f o r a new c o m p o sitio n o f s p e c i e s .
The t h i r d p r i n c i p l e o f eco sys tem management, i s t o p r e v e n t i r r e ­
v e r s i b l e changes i n t h e e n v ironm e n t.

C ritic a l to th is principle is

t h e knowledge t h a t man i s a b l e t o a l t e r o r d i s t u r b any ecosystem com­
ponent and t h e r e b y a f f e c t e n vironm e nta l s y s t e m s .

Preventing i r r e ­

v e r s i b l e changes r e q u i r e s t h a t ecosy ste m managers r e c o g n i z e and u nder­
s t a n d how t o a v o id such d i s r u p t i v e a c t i o n s .
The a d o p t i o n o f an e c o l o g i c a l ap proach w i th t h e af o re m e n ti o n e d
p r i n c i p l e s can improve t h e a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u re and h e l p a s s u r e t h a t
p r o j e c t impacts a r e e v a l u a t e d in a more mean in gf ul manner.

The o v e r ­

a l l r e s e a r c h e f f o r t p r o v i d e s a method whereby an en vironme nt can be
e v a l u a t e d f o r p o t e n t i a l im pacts from highway a c t i v i t i e s .

This i n ­

c l u d e s a guide f o r highway d e c i s i o n makers c o n s i s t i n g o f management
tools.

D e c is i o n s can th e n be made by f o l l o w i n g a s t e p - b y - s t e p p r o c e ­

dure on o b s e r v a t i o n s and i n v e n t o r i e s t o c o m p i le , p h y s i c a l and

9

b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s to c o n s i d e r , problems t o a v o i d , and methods t o use
in p r e d i c t i n g i m p a c t s .
Research Model
A major t h r u s t o f t h i s s t u d y was t o dev elo p a framework t o which
e x i s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a and fa una in Michigan
co uld be asse m bled.

These f o u r p a r a m e te rs were t a r g e t e d o u t f o r con­

s i d e r a t i o n as key components o f t h e environ ments t h a t a r e impacted by
highway a c t i v i t i e s .

Much work has been done on each o f t h e s e p a r a ­

meter s b u t p r i o r t o t h i s s t u d y , no c o m p i l a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s
has been p r e s e n t e d which p r o v id e s t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t o g e t h e r .
The framework chosen t o assemble t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n was t h e M ich i­
gan Land Cover/Use C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System (Michigan Land Use C l a s s i f i ­
c a t i o n and R e f e r e n c i n g Committee, 1 9 7 6 ) .

R a t i o n a l e f o r using t h i s

sy st em i s t h a t i t i s f a m i l i a r t o highway p e r s o n n e l , c u r r e n t l y o p e r a ­
t i n g , and computer a d a p t a b l e t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n assembled in t h i s
study.

The system p r e s e n t s a s t a n d a r d i z e d t e r m i n o l o g y f o r d e s c r i b i n g

la n d c o v e r / u s e .

I t i s l o g i c a l i n c o n s t r u c t i o n and a d a p t a b l e t o u n i ­

form expansion f o r o t h e r u s e s .

Improving t h e highway r o u t e l o c a t i o n

p r o c e s s i s such a use ( F i g . 1).
The major v e g e t a t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n s c l a s s i f i e d , d e f i n e d and des ­
c r i b e d in Michigan a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix A.

This system can sup­

p l y I n f o r m a t i o n as t o t h e s i z e and t y p e o f v e g e t a t i v e communities t h a t
pr opose d c o r r i d o r s may t r a v e r s e .

This system was th e n expanded upon

to include a s s o c ia te d s o il groups, drainage regimes, w i l d l i f e species
and enda ng er ed o r t h r e a t e n e d f l o r a .

Appendix B p r e s e n t s t h i s in fo r m a ­

t i o n so a d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f what c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s an enviro nm ent has can
be e a s i l y made.

10
APPENDIX A
U t i l i z e Remote S ens in g t o C l a s s i f y
Existing V egetative A ssociations

APPENDIX B
I d e n tif y Associated

S oil
Groups

Drainage
Regimes

W ildlife
Species

Plant
Species

V e r i f i c a t i o n o f I n f o r m a t i o n w ith
Ground Data C o l l e c t i o n

Determine S p e c i e s Requirements o f
Fauna Based on E x i s t i n g Knowledge
APPENDIX C B ir d s
APPENDIX D Mammals

ENVIRONMENT-HIGHWAY INTERACTION MATRIX
Examine P o t e n t i a l Impacts o f Highway
C o n s t r u c t i o n , O p e r a t i o n and Maintenance
on S o i l s , W ater, F l o r a and Fauna

ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDE FOR DECISION MAKERS
P roced ure f o r Comparing P r i o r t o Con­
s t r u c t i o n A l t e r n a t i v e Routes
F i g u r e 1.

Environmental a s s e s s m e n t framework f o r highway r o u t i n g in
Michigan.

n
To p r o v id e i n f o r m a t i o n on what r e s u l t a n t enviro nm ents would have
to c o n t a i n t o s u p p o r t d e s i r e d f a u n a , a l l t h e d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l ­
a b l e on s p e c i f i c s p e c i e s r e q u i r e m e n t s was as se m bled .

H abitat r e q u ire ­

ments, d i s t r i b u t i o n and r e s i d e n t s t a t u s o f Michigan b i r d s was compiled
and

i s p r e s e n t e d in Appendix C.

gan

mammals i n c l u d i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n , s t a t u s , food p r e f e r e n c e s and h a b i ­

tat

r e q u i r e m e n t s the n f o l l o w i n Appendix D.
This c o m p i l a t i o n

Natural h i s t o r y i n f o r m a t i o n f o r Michi­

o f i n f o r m a t i o n s e r v e s as th e b a s i s f o r

examining

t h e e f f e c t s o f highway a c t i v i t i e s upon s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a and fauna
( C h a p te r I I I ) .

E v a lu a ti o n o f how highway a c t i v i t i e s impact e n v i r o n ­

mental c o n d i t i o n s can th en be f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e development o f an
envir onme nt-highway i n t e r a c t i o n m a t r i x ( C h a p te r IV).

Since o n ly p o r ­

t i o n s o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a r e needed a t any p o i n t i n t h e r o u t e s e l e c ­
t i o n p r o c e s s , a guide to d e c i s i o n makers i s th e n p r e s e n t e d .

This

guide p r o v id e s a pr ocedure f o r d i r e c t i n g t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a and
o r g a n i z i n g i n f o r m a t i o n needed in t h e r o u t e s e l e c t i o n d e c i s io n - m a k in g
process.

D e c is io n s can th en be made by f o l l o w i n g a s t e p - b y - s t e p p r o ­

c e d u r e on o b s e r v a t i o n s and i n v e n t o r i e s t o compile, p h y s ic a l and b i o l o ­
g i c a l a s p e c t s t o c o n s i d e r , problems t o a v o i d , and methods t o use in
p r e d i c t i n g im p a c ts .

CHAPTER I I I

EFFECTS OF HIGHWAY ACTIVITIES UPON SOILS,
WATER, FLORA, AND FAUNA

This framework s e r v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e some o f t h e i m p o r t a n t r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p s among s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a , and fauna which a r e impacted by
highway a c t i v i t i e s ( F i g . 2 ) .
s tr u c t i o n parameters.

The i n i t i a l s t e p i s t o a s s e s s pr e c o n ­

This i s i m p o r t a n t f o r two r e a s o n s .

F i r s t , pre­

c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s s e r v e as a s t a n d a r d i n m o n i t o r i n g ch anges.
Second, i f changes do o c c u r , t h e kind and e x t e n t o f change w i l l p a r ­
t i a l l y be dependent upon p r e - e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

This o p e r a t i o n

would c o n s i s t o f c o l l e c t i n g prim ar y and s eco nda ry d a t a r e l a t e d t o t h e
natu ral science parameters.
The second s t e p i s t o u t i l i z e b a s i c knowledge o f p a r a m e t e r changes
which may o c c u r as a r e s u l t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n .

This knowledge was ob­

t a i n e d from d a t a c o l l e c t e d in Michigan d u r in g r e c e n t highway s t u d i e s
by Davis and Humphrys ( 1 9 7 7 ) , Krauss (1978) and D a v i s , Thomas and
Humphrys ( 1978 ).

A n a l y s is o f t h e s e s t u d i e s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e from

t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l e d t h a t m o d i f i c a t i o n o f h y d r o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e rs
s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among a s s o c i a t e d s o i l s , f l o r a
and f a u n a .

These changes can now be p r e d i c t e d and e v a l u a t e d b e f o r e

highway c o n s t r u c t i o n .
E ffects o f Construction A c t i v i t i e s
The purp ose o f t h i s s e c t i o n i s t o p r e s e n t e f f e c t s o f highway con­
s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s upon h y d r o l o g i c systems which may a l s o be e v a l u a t e d
12

Pre -Con struction
H2 O Table Level
v
P ost-Con struc tion
—

r

---------

Proper Planning and
Implementation
HYDROLOGY

HYDROLOGY

HYDROLOGY

HgO lev el in c r e a s e s

H2 O lev el remains th e
same as p r e - c o n s t r u c t i o n

H2 O level decreases

I"

1

1

SOILS

SOILS

VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

Soil s a t u r a t i o n and
s u r f a c e ponding

Flora and fauna in area s
o t h e r than rig ht- of-w ay
remain s i m i l a r t o p r e - c o n s t r u c t i o n

Drying o f s o i l s and
orga nics now s u s c e p t i b l e
to wind erosi on

r

1

FLORA

HABITAT

Decrease in s p e c i e s ,
composition, d e n s i t y ,
d i v e r s i t y , and vigor.
t

Creation o f new h a b i t a t .
To some e x t e n t with proper
planning t h i s can be c o n t r o l l e d
and so s u b j e c t i v e d ecis io n s as to
whether pr e- o r po st-c on stru ct!'on
h a b i t a t i s b e s t o r what type o f
new h a b i t a t i s most d e s i r a b l e
must be made.

WILDLIFE
Decrease in a v a i l a b i l i t y
o f food, cover and
H2 O f o r upland s pec ies

------ 1>

FLORA
vj

Change in v e g etatio n
to l e s s H2 O - t o le r a n t
s p ecies
..................

1
WILDLIFE

-*1

Decrease in a v a i l a b i l i t y
o f food, cover and
H2 O f o r H2 O a s s o c i a t e d
s p ecies

Figure 2 . — E f f e c ts and r a m i f i c a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from the maintenance o r a l t e r a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g water t a b l e
levels.

14

in r e l a t i o n to im pacts upon s o i l s , f l o r a and faun a ( F i g . 3 ) .

This

framework o f f e r s a means o f a s s e s s i n g impacts i n t h e c o n t e x t o f an
i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y model which w i l l s e r v e as a guid e t o p l a n n e r s i n ­
volved in r o u t e l o c a t i o n and c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s .
This format i n c l u d e s a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e impacts o f p a r t i c u l a r
c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s i n a manner which supplements t h e m a t r i x .
Each a c t i v i t y i s p r e s e n t e d i n r e l a t i o n t o im pacts upon d r a i n a g e r e ­
gimes, s o i l s , f l o r a and f a u n a .
Surfacing
S u r f a c i n g i n v o l v e s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a paved o r o t h e r w i s e h a r d ,
s t a b l e , and impermeable s u r f a c e l a y e r .
and i n c r e a s e s l o c a l r u n o f f .

This d e c r e a s e s i n f i l t r a t i o n

Depending upon t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f a d j a ­

c e n t s o i l s , ground w a t e r r e c h a r g e may be a f f e c t e d i f r a i n f a l l r a p i d l y
flows o f f as s u r f a c e flow .
For t h e s a f e t y o f road u s e r s , t h e t r a f f i c s u r f a c e must be kept
as f r e e o f w a t e r as p o s s i b l e .

Th is i s accom plishe d by s h a p in g t h e

s u r f a c e such t h a t w a t e r w i l l flow away t o d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s which a r e
formed a t t h e road edge by t h e cu r b s o r in d i t c h e s a t t h e o u t e r edge
o f t h e s h o u l d e r s ( B a t s o n , 1968 ).

The flow o f s u r f a c e w a t e r a d j a c e n t

t o highways i s f r e q u e n t l y accompanied by d e t r i m e n t a l s o i l e r o s i o n
which may r e s u l t in t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f p r o d u c t i v e s o i l s , t h e c r e a t i o n
o f a r e a s o f u n s i g h t l y a p p e a r a n c e , and t h e c l o g g i n g o f d i t c h e s and
drainage s tr u c t u r e s .

Erosion may a l s o en dan ger t h e s t a b i l i t y o f s i d e

s l o p e s in embankment and c u t s e c t i o n s ( R i t t e r , 1951).
Not o n l y does s u r f a c i n g i n c r e a s e r u n o f f , b u t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e
r u n o f f , o r e f f l u e n t , may be a f f e c t e d as w e l l .

Both c o n c r e t e and

15

PRE-CONSTRUCTION
WATER RELATIONSHIPS

Drainage Regimes

Drainage
C a p a c ity o f
Soils

Water Table
Level and
P atterns of
Fluctuation

Runoff P a t t e r n s
D is ch arg e

Highway C o n s t r u c t i o n A c t i v i t i e s

Post-Construction
Mater R e l a t i o n s h i p s

E f f e c t s Upon
Soils

F lo r a

Fauna

F ig u re 3. — Framework f o r s t u d y i n g w a t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

16

bitum inou s s u r f a c e s l e a c h o u t chemical s u b s t a n c e s which a r e e v e n t u a l l y
c a rrie d in to adjacent watercourses.

Mostly c a r b o n a t e s and h y d r o x id e s

o f ca lciu m and magnesium come from cement p l a n t s and th e c o n c r e t e i t ­
s e l f , b u t b itum inous m a t e r i a l s may p r o v id e a v a r i e t y o f o r g a n i c c o a l t a r derivatives.

The g r e a t e s t l e a c h i n g o f t h e s e o c c u r s d u r in g and a f ­

t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , b u t l o n g - t e r m l e a c h i n g must a l s o t a k e p l a c e ( D a r n e l l ,
1976).
S u r f a c i n g r e s u l t s in t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e v e g e t a t i o n p r e s e n t
p r i o r t o c o n s t r u c t i o n and p r e c l u d e s any f u t u r e growth in t h e paved
area.

D e s t r u c t i o n o f v e g e t a t i o n r e s u l t s in a l o s s o f w i l d l i f e h a b i ­

t a t , which i s accompanied with a d e c r e a s e in th e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y
f o r both p l a n t and w i l d l i f e s p e c i e s .
Cut and F i l l
F i l l s f o r highways i n v o l v e t h e placement o f m in e ra l m a t e r i a l on
s t a b l e s u b s t r a t e s o r t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f u n s t a b l e s u b s t r a t e s , such as
p e a t o r muck, w i t h more s t a b l e m iner al m a t e r i a l .

Both t h e d i s p l a c e ­

ment o f u n s t a b l e m a t e r i a l and t h e f i l l i n g a f f e c t s s u r f a c e a n d / o r
ground w a t e r movement in w e t l a n d s by p r o v i d i n g an impermeable o r l e s s
permeable medium.
P l a c i n g f i l l o v e r p e a t o r i n p l a c e o f p e a t w i l l have an e f f e c t
upon r a t e s o f r u n o f f and ground w a t e r movement.
g e n e r a l l y have l a r g e r i n t e r s t i t i a l

F ill m aterial w ill

pores th a n does p e a t and as t h e s e

pores become clo gged with o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l from t h e s u r r o u n d i n g sub­
s t r a t e , p e r m e a b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s ( K r a u s s , 1978).
S u r f a c e and ground w a t e r movements may a l s o be a f f e c t e d by c u t
and f i l l o p e r a t i o n s , by e i t h e r c u t t i n g i n t o an a q u i f e r which i s und er

17
h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e , o r by p o s s i b l y r e p l a c i n g an impermeable l a y e r i n
the su b so il.

This impermeable l a y e r may c a u s e an e x t e n s i v e ground

w a t e r d r a i n in t h a t t h e w a te r may become d i v e r t e d from i t s o r i g i n a l
underground d r a i n a g e flow p a t t e r n ( P a r i z a k , 1970).

Changes i n ground

and s u r f a c e w a t e r d i v i d e s may a l s o oc cur c a u s i n g changes t o d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n and q u a n t i t y s tr e a m f lo w .

Cut and f i l l o p e r a t i o n s may a l s o

ca use i n c r e a s e d s e d i m e n t a t i o n o f s tr eam s which b i s e c t o r run a d j a c e n t
t o t h e o p e r a t i o n , due to i n c r e a s e d s ed im en t l o a d i n g o f r u n o f f .
Cut and f i l l s which t r a v e r s e v e g e t a t i v e communities u s u a l l y r e ­
s u l t i n t h e l o s s o f e x i s t i n g h a b i t a t t y p e s and t h e c r e a t i o n o f new
ones.

Cut and f i l l o p e r a t i o n s in Michigan o f t e n removed upland oak

and lowland c o n i f e r o u s woodland ( D a v i s , 1977 ).

These h a b i t a t s were

l o s t and r e p l a c e d w ith a f o r e s t f i e l d t r a n s i t i o n zone.

Vegetative

d i v e r s i t y , amount o f ed ge, and amount o f i n t e r s p e r s i o n were a l l i n ­
creased.

C a r ryin g c a p a c i t y f o r some s p e c i e s such as s o n g b i r d s and

snowshoe h a r e was i n c r e a s e d w h i l e f o r o t h e r s , such as d e e r and b e a r ,
i t was red uce d.
Dredging
R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e means o f d r e d g i n g , t h e prim ar y r e s u l t s a r e
t h e c r e a t i o n o f d e p r e s s i o n s o r d i t c h e s and t h e tem pora ry s u s p e n s io n
o f p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r i n a w a t e r body.

I f a s u f f i c i e n t amount o f

o r g a n i c m a t t e r i s a v a i l a b l e , d e p r e s s i o n s t e n d t o become a n a e r o b i c
i n t h e lower s t r a t a , due t o o r g a n i c d eco m p o s it io n i n t h e abs en ce
of light.
The c u t t i n g and d i g g in g a c t i o n o f d r e d g in g b r e a k s th ro u g h t h e
o x i d i z e d l a y e r o f a submerged s o i l and exposes t h e deep u n o x i d iz e d

18
layer.

Most o f t h e s ed im en ts removed from t h i s an oxic l a y e r and

p l a c e d i n s u s p e n s i o n a r e i n a c h e m i c a l l y redu ced s t a t e .

M aterials

removed from t h i s l a y e r g e n e r a l l y have high chemical and b i o l o g i c a l
oxygen demands.

Often t o x i c m a t e r i a l s such as hydrogen s u l f i d e ,

met hane, k e t o n e , a l d e h y d e s , and heavy m e ta ls a r e r e l e a s e d from anoxic
sedim en t and s ubs ed im en t m a t e r i a l .

Dredging i n c r e a s e s t u r b i d i t y which

re d u c e s l i g h t p e n e t r a t i o n , i n t e r f e r e s w it h p h o t o s y n t h e t i c p r o d u c t io n
o f oxygen, and t e n d s t o e l e v a t e w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e .
E v e n t u a l l y , t h e sedim en t i s d e p o s i t e d c r e a t i n g m o d if ie d bottom
topogra p hy and o b s t r u c t e d p a t t e r n s o f w a t e r c i r c u l a t i o n else w h ere
( D a r n e l l , 1976).
Wetland D r aining and F i l l i n g
Lowering o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e in w e t la n d s may r e s u l t i n more pr o­
d u c t i v e s o i l s i n t h e a r e a by d e c r e a s i n g a n a e r o b i c s o i l c o n d i t i o n s and
i n c r e a s i n g expos ure t o l i g h t ( D a r n e l l , 1976).

F i l l i n g w i l l caus e some

i n t e r f e r e n c e w i th e x i s t i n g s u r f a c e flow p a t t e r n s and p o s s i b l e c r e a t i o n
o f channel e r o s i o n .

Temporary and p o s s i b l y high permanent r a t e s o f

sedim entation w ill a ls o occur.
Dams and Impoundments
P r o d u c t i v e s o i l may be l o s t due t o i n u n d a t i o n o f w e t l a n d s .
w a t e r w i l l be l o s t as a r e s u l t o f e v a p o r a t i o n .

More

Due t o i n c r e a s e d s u r ­

f a c e w a t e r , w a t e r - i n t o l e r a n t p l a n t s may e x p e r i e n c e s e v e r e d i e - o f f .
Bank e r o s i o n may o c c u r a t t h e edges o f t h e pond o r in a r e a s o f r e l i e f
which were f o r m e r l y above w a t e r .

Sediments from upstream w i l l be de­

p o s i t e d as w a t e r v e l o c i t y d e c r e a s e s in t h e impoundment.

19
As w a t e r becomes impounded, t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e s and thermal
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n may o c c u r .

S t r a t i f i c a t i o n and s e d i m e n t a t i o n may cause

a n o x ic s u b s t r a t e c o n d i t i o n s which r e s u l t i n t h e r e l e a s e o f methane and
hydrogen s u l f a t e and a lo w ering o f pH.

Organic d e p o s i t s may o c c u r as

ab un dan t v e g e t a t i v e growth i s c r e a t e d .
Downstream from t h e impoundments, f l o o d damage i s m i t i g a t e d as
peak flows a r e d i s r u p t e d .

However, t h e r e may be a l o s s o f w a t e r , s i l t ,

and n u t r i e n t s which would have been s e a s o n a l l y r e p l e n i s h e d .

I f im­

poundment w a t e r i s r e l o c a t e d from t h e hy pol im nion, i t may be o f lower
pH and d i s s o l v e d oxygen and o f h i g h e r hydrogen s u l f a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
( D a r n e l l , 1975).
Spoil Banks
Spoil banks exposed t o r u n o f f may add s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o s tr e a m
s e d i m e n t a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r and m i n e r a l s due t o heavy l e a c h i n g
( D a r n e l l , 1976).

The heavy over burd en ca u s e s s o i l compaction and

i n t e g r a t i o n o f f o r e i g n s o i l p a r t i c l e s a t t h e s o i l s u r f a c e which w i l l
a l t e r i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g s o i l s .
Bridges
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f b r i d g e s w i l l c a u s e s h o r t - t e r m e r o s i o n and s e d i ­
mentation.

Very l i t t l e l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s a r e c r e a t e d by b r i d g e s

p r o p e r , e x c e p t p o s s i b l e channel s c o u r and e r o s i o n i n f l u e n c e s by
abutments ( P a r i z e k , 19 74) .
o f t e n a c t as dams.

F i l l s dev eloped f o r appr oa ch es to b r i d g e s

T his damming e f f e c t caus es t h e c r e a t i o n o f back­

w a t e r d u r in g f l o o d s t a g e s , i n c r e a s i n g t h e v e l o c i t y o f w a t e r moving
t h ro u g h t h e b r i d g e s i t e .

Such m o d i f i c a t i o n s in s u r f a c e w a t e r p a t t e r n s

o f t e n ca use a new s e t o f downstream problems.

20

Burning and Removal o f V e g e t a t i o n
Both bu rnin g and removal o f v e g e t a t i o n i n c r e a s e d r u n o f f and s o i l
e r o s i o n c a u s i n g i n c r e a s e s s e d i m e n t a t i o n and t u r b i d i t y o f s u r f a c e w a t e r s .
Drainage p a t t e r n s may a l s o be a l t e r e d due t o changes in d i s t r i b u t i o n
or loss of flo w -re sis ta n t m a te ria ls .

With i n c r e a s e d r a t e s o f r u n o f f ,

l o c a l s tr eam l e v e l s w i l l be l e s s s t a t i c .
to leaching.

S o i l s become more s u s c e p t i b l e

Some denuded a r e a s have been shown to l o s e l a r g e q u a n t i ­

t i e s o f d i s s o l v e d m i n e r a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y sodium, c a lc iu m , magnesium,
i r o n , p o tass iu m n i t r a t e s , and p h o s p h a t e s .

Leaching o f h i g h l y a l k a l i n e

ashe s cau s es immediate i n c r e a s e s in t h e pH o f t h e waterways ( D a r n e l l ,
1976).
S oil m o i s t u r e may be i n c r e a s e d o r d e c r e a s e d depending upon t h e
amount and t y p e o f m a t t e r removed.

In a Missou ri s t u d y ( F l e t c h e r ,

19 63), i t was found t h a t when l i t t e r was removed from a f o r e s t s o i l ,
s o i l d r y in g i n c r e a s e d by 10 p e r c e n t .

Tree removal d e c r e a s e d s o i l d r y ­

ing r a t e s (by t w o - t h i r d s ) , and removal o f both t r e e s and l i t t e r de­
c r e a s e d d ry in g r a t e s by ab out o n e - t h i r d .

A s u r f a c e f i r e which des ­

t r o y e d o n ly l i t t e r i n c r e a s e d t h e d r y in g r a t e by seven p e r c e n t when
m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n s were n e a r f i e l d c a p a c i t y and a b o u t 13 p e r c e n t
at l e s s e r p r o f i l e moisture c o n te n ts.

Thus, s o i l d r y in g may i n c r e a s e

as l i t t e r i s removed b u t i s o f f s e t by t h e l o s s o f r o o t a b s o r p t i o n
when t r e e s a r e removed.

I f s i g n i f i c a n t s o i l dryin g o c c u r s , s o i l may

be t r a n s p o r t e d by wind e r o s i o n .
Borrow P i t s
The e x c a v a t i o n o f borrow p i t s i n c l u d e s t h e removal o r d i s p l a c e ­
ment o f v e g e t a t i o n and t o p s o i l .

I f the a c t i v i t y i s su b je c t to exces­

s i v e r u n o f f , e r o s i o n o f exposed m a t t e r w i l l c au s e s e d i m e n t a t i o n o f

21

adjacent stream s.

I f e x c a v a t i o n e x te n d s below th e ground w a t e r t a b l e ,

t h e p i t may f i l l w ith w a t e r and c r e a t e a new a q u a t i c h a b i t a t .

I f the

e x c a v a t i o n i s above t h e w a te r t a b l e , t h e exposur e o f c o a r s e m ineral
m a t e r i a l may f a c i l i t a t e an i n c r e a s e in l o c a l ground w a t e r r e c h a r g e .
Borrow p i t s ob s erv ed on t h e s t u d y a r e a were a l l bein g u t i l i z e d
by water fo w l in t h e s p r i n g o f t h e y e a r .

These p i t s p r o v id e h a b i t a t

f o r s p e c i e s which p r i o r to c o n s t r u c t i o n did n o t u t i l i z e t h e a r e a .
With p r o p e r p lanning and c o o r d i n a t i o n between MDSHT and Michigan
Department o f N atu ral Resources (DNR) p e r s o n n e l , t h e s e p i t s a r e bein g
b u i l t and managed t o o p t i m i z e t h e i r w i l d l i f e p o t e n t i a l .
Fences and B a r r i e r s
Fences and b a r r i e r s may r e s t r i c t r u n o f f by a c c u m u la tin g mulch
and l i t t e r which w i l l c a u s e d e p o s i t i o n o f se dim ents from t h e r u n o f f .
G e n e r a l l y , f e n c e s have l i t t l e e f f e c t on a q u a t i c o r h y d r o l o g i c a l s y s ­
tems u n l e s s a b u i l d u p o f w a t e r b o r n e m a t e r i a l o c c u r s .
S e p a r a t i n g a community i n t o segments which a r e s m a l l e r t h a n t h e
home range o f t h e s p e c i e s i n q u e s t i o n can r e s u l t in an im als a v o i d i n g
an a r e a w hich, p r i o r t o d i s t u r b a n c e , was s u i t a b l e h a b i t a t .

Barriers

such as t h e highway and r e l a t e d s t r u c t u r e s w i l l a l s o r e s u l t in a v o i d ­
ance b e h a v i o r .

However, f e n c i n g has n o t proven t o be an a d e q u a te

d e te r r e n t fo r deer c r o s s in g s .
E r o s i o n , S e d i m e n t a t i o n , and S i l t a t i o n
I f an a c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e s e r o s i o n , t h e r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t impacts
upon s tr e a m e n v ir o n m e n ts .

I n i t i a l l y , a l o s s o f s o i l and n u t r i e n t s

o c c u r s on t h e er oded a r e a a t i n c r e a s i n g r a t e s .

As t h e m a t e r i a l b e­

comes suspended i n t h e water way, i n c r e a s e d t u r b i d i t y r e d u c e s l i g h t

22

a v a i l a b l e t o a q u a t i c v e g e t a t i o n , t h e r e b y lo w er ing p r o d u c t i v i t y .

If

v e l o c i t y o f flow i s d e c r e a s e d , s i l t a t i o n w i l l o c c u r and ca use t h e
c r e a t i o n o f a n o x ic c o n d i t i o n s in t h e s e d i m e n t , r e l e a s e o f hydrogen
s u l f a t e and o t h e r t o x i n s , and s mothering o f a q u a t i c f l o r a and f a u n a .
S i l t a t i o n may, however, add v a l u a b l e m i n e r a l s and n u t r i e n t s which may
increase floodplain p ro d u ctiv ity .
Culverts
Highway f a c i l i t i e s can r a i s e a n d / o r lower t h e ground w a t e r t a b l e
depending upon c u l v e r t placement and d r a i n a g e d e s ig n ( D a v i s , 1977).
More th a n h a l f o f 70 w e tl a n d road c r o s s i n g s o b s e rv e d in a Minne­
s o t a s u r v e y showed t i m b e r k i l l e d o r weakened by a r i s e in w a t e r t a b l e ,
which was ca us ed by t h e damming e f f e c t s o f t h e r oa ds and f a i l u r e t o
p r o v id e a d e q u a te c r o s s - d r a i n a g e .

The c h i e f problems were t h e abs en ce

of c u lv e rts or other c ro ss -d ra in a g e , discharge ditches or inadequate
c u l v e r t s , o r some combinatio n o f t h e above ( F i g . 4 ) .
When c u l v e r t s a r e s e t to o h i g h , ponding w i l l o c c u r , given an im­
permeable road grade.

There may a l s o be s e a s o n a l ponding o r i n t e r ­

f e r e n c e w ith s e a so n a l w a t e r l e v e l s and ground w a t e r f lo w , which may
have s i m i l a r e f f e c t s upon v e g e t a t i o n as ponding.
Ponding may n a t u r a l l y oc c u r d u r in g p e r i o d s o f heavy p r e c i p i t a ­
t i o n , and t h e w a t e r t a b l e w i l l d e c l i n e d u r in g d r y e r months o f t h e
growing s e a s o n .

T r e e s and o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n may s u r v i v e s e a s o n a l f l u c ­

t u a t i o n s , b u t i f th e f l u c t u a t i o n s change such t h a t t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s
h i g h e r du r in g t h e growing s easo n as a r e s u l t o f c u l v e r t p la c e m e n t , t h e
v e g e t a t i o n may n o t w i t h s t a n d t h e h i g h e r s e a s o n a l w a t e r t a b l e (and r e ­
s u ltin g loss o f aerobic s o i l ) .

S u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e s h o u ld be f a c i l i ­

t a t e d i n such w etland s i t e s t o m a i n t a i n n a t u r a l w a t e r t a b l e f l u c t u a t i o n s .

23

■

PEAT

6

— F

MINERAL SOIL

PEAT
MINERAL SOIL

ROAD
CULVERT

BO'ttS ^ T " *—

E__________.______________ D___________
MINERAL SOIL

DISCHARGE DITCH - F

F ig u r e 4 . - - H y d r o l o g i c problem and w a t e r t a b l e r e l a t i o n s in
ro a d s c r o s s i n g p e a t l a n d s a p p r o x i m a t e ly p a r a l l e l
t o t h e c o n t o u r . Arrows i n d i c a t e p r i n c i p a l zone
o f w a t e r f lo w . A - - U n d is tu r b e d swamp b e f o r e road
c o n s t r u c t i o n ; B— Poorly s i t e d c u l v e r t does n o t
r e l i e v e damming a c t i o n o f r o a d . Temporary o r
permanent pool o f s t a g n a n t w a t e r r e s u l t s ; C—
Problem i s s o lv e d when c o l l e c t o r d i t c h i s cu t
on upper s i d e o f t h e r o a d and c u l v e r t i s s e t
w ith i t s bottom s e v e r a l f e e t below swamp s u r ­
face.
( S t o e c k e l e r , 1965)
C u l v e r t placement may a l s o a f f e c t n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s where
l a m i n a r d r a i n a g e has been a l t e r e d t o c h a n n e l i z e d d r a i n a g e .

Staggered

c u l v e r t placement l e a d s t o a c u r v a t u r e flow o f w a t e r in t h e median
which r e s u l t s in ponding o r s t a g n a t i o n .

A comparison o f d r a i n a g e

f a c i l i t a t i o n t h r o u g h c u l v e r t place men t ( F i g . 5) i l l u s t r a t e s how s u r ­
f a c e flow and w a t e r l e v e l s may be a f f e c t e d .

For a comparison o f

c h a n n e l i z e d and l a m i n a r d r a i n a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s e e F i g u r e 6.
I f c u l v e r t s a r e spa ce d e v e n l y a c r o s s t h e t r a v e r s e d w e t l a n d with
c h a n n e l i z a t i o n o c c u r r i n g i n t h e median d i r e c t l y between p a r a l l e l e d

24

o
3
O

CD

3
O

z
3

o
m
x
h
X

o

CO

3
O
m

x

h
3
O

CO

3
O

CD

X
O

<

= Culvert

-► Direction
of flow

F i g u r e 5. — Laminar flow in r e l a t i o n t o c u l v e r t place m en t.

25

DRAINAGE PATTERNS
C ha nnelized

Laminar

Uniform S u r f a c e Water
Low Rates
Same Q u a n ti ty
More Water A v a i l a b l e
More W a t e r - T o l e r a n t
Less W a t e r - I n t o l e r a n t

D istribution
Flow Rates
S u r f a c e Water Q u a l i t y
Vegetation
P l a n t S pec ies

WATER TABLE DECREASE

S e g r e g a te d S u r f a c e Water
Higher Rates
Same Q u a n t i t y
Less Water A v a i l a b l e
Less W a t e r - T o l e r a n t
More W a t e r - I n t o l e r a n t

WATER TABLE INCREASE

Less Erosion
Impact on Many I n t o l e r a n t P l a n t s

G r e a t e r Erosion
D ie-o ff o f W ater-In to leran t Plants

Drainage Management: E x t e n s iv e
C u l v e r t s May Be Needed to
Avoid Ponding

Drainage Management: C u l v e r t s
E f f e c t i v e t o M a in tain
Flow Rates

WATER TABLE DECREASE

WATER TABLE INCREASE

I n c r e a s e d Soil Drying
Less W a t e r - T o l e r a n t P l a n t s
C h a n n e l i z a t i o n May Occur

Decreased Erosion
More W a t e r - I n t o l e r a n t P l a n t s

F i g u r e 6 . - - A comparison o f la m in a r and c h a n n e l i z e d d r a i n a g e c h a r a c ­
teristics .

26

c u l v e r t s , a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e can be m a i n t a i n e d w ith l i t t l e o r no vege­
ta tiv e die-off.

However, when n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s a r e n o t main­

t a i n e d , t h e r e s u l t i n g i n c r e a s e s in w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l s caused by t h e
i m p e r m e a b i l i t y o f ro ad f i l l m a t e r i a l and i n a d e q u a t e a r t i f i c i a l d r a i n ­
age r e s u l t s in v e g e t a t i v e d i e - o f f o f w a t e r - i n t o l e r a n t s p e c i e s ( F i g . 7 ) .
This comparison emphasizes t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f highways on
d r a i n a g e may be minimized by p r o p e r c u l v e r t place men t.
As high c u l v e r t s may i n c r e a s e upstream w a t e r l e v e l s , l i k e w i s e
c u l v e r t s p la c e d to o low may lower w a t e r t a b l e s , c a u s in g a l o s s o f
w a t e r - t o l e r a n t v e g e t a t i o n , p o s s i b l e e r o s i o n , and c h a n n e l i z a t i o n o f
l a m i n a r flow ( S t o c k e l e r , 1967).
Erosion C o n t r o l , La ndscap ing, and R e f o r e s t a t i o n
These measures a l l d e c r e a s e e r o s i o n and p r e s e r v e l o c a l q u a n t i t i e s
o f s o i l and mulch.

Less damage i s a s s o c i a t e d with peak f lo w s , l e s s

s e d i m e n t a t i o n o c c u r s i n nearby s t r e a m s , and i n f i l t r a t i o n and ground
w a t e r r e c h a r g e may be i n c r e a s e d .

R e f o r e s t a t i o n may c r e a t e a d d i t i o n a l

e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n l o s s e s which may d e c r e a s e s o i l m o i s t u r e .

Eros ion

r e s u l t i n g from c u t s and f i l l s can be minimized o r e l i m i n a t e d where
a d e q u a te e r o s i o n c o n t r o l meas ures a r e t a k e n .
Drainage and Water T a ble A l t e r a t i o n
Changes in flow p a t t e r n s and w a t e r t a b l e a p p e a r t o be t h e major
h y d r o lo g i c a l impacts o f highway c o n s t r u c t i o n .

S t o c k e l e r (1951, 1965,

and 1967) found t h a t p i p e l i n e s and r o a d s ca us ed t i m b e r d i e - o f f as a
r e s u l t o f increased water t a b l e l e v e l s .

A s t u d y i n Michigan e s t a ­

b l i s h e d t h a t w e t la n d a r e a s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d s u r f a c e and s u b s u r ­
f a c e w a t e r movements a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o a l t e r a t i o n by highways ( D a v i s ,

27

Spruce
Rood surface
Ri fie Peat end Coifrondale Muck
original ground water table
ground w ater flow

S an d and Grwel

Lim estone Bedrock

DEAD TREES

Sand and Gravel
ground water table
.CAPILLARY FRINGE

R i fl e Peat end Carbon dale Muck
Limestone Bedrock

F ig u r e 7 . — Water t a b l e changes a lo n g 1-75 n o r t h o f S t . Ignace c a u s ­
ing f lo o d e d c o n d i t i o n s and v e g e t a t i v e d i e - o f f .

28

1978; K r au ss , 1978) found t h a t due t o s o i l compaction and changes in
s o i l p a r t i c l e s i z e , p e r m e a b i l i t y changes o c c u r among t h e o r g a n i c s o i l
and f i l l m a t e r i a l .
in terstitial

F u r th e r m o r e , i n t e g r a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r i n t o

pores a t t h e o r g a n i c min eral f i l l

i n t e r f a c e ca u s e s a d e­

c r e a s e in p e r m e a b i l i t y sometimes g r e a t e r t h a n 50 p e r c e n t .

Based on

t h e s e f i n d i n g s , highways a r e e s s e n t i a l l y dams which r e t a r d o r p r e v e n t
w a t e r movement in w e t l a n d s .
An i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e in w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l

i s most l i k e l y

caused

by a com bination o f t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s :
1.

i n s u f f i c i e n t number o f c u l v e r t s ;

2.

improper c u l v e r t pla c e m e n t;

3.

i n s u f f ic ie n t hydraulic capacity o f c u lv e r ts ;

4.

damming from highway f i l l ;

5.

reduced h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y o f s u r f a c e and ground w a t e r

due to compaction o f s o i l s below t h e highway o r

a d e c l i n e in p o r o s i t y

due t o o r g a n i c i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h mineral f i l l ;
6.

i n c r e a s e d r u n o f f due t o : a) i n c r e a s e d a r e a o f t h e ground o r

s u r f a c e w a te r s h e d due t o highway l o c a t i o n ; b) l e s s u t i l i z a t i o n o f w a t e r
by v e g e t a t i o n ; c) d e c r e a s e d e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n ; d) beh ead ing o f a s p r i n g
o r a q u i f e r d u r in g c o n s t r u c t i o n ; e) i n c r e a s e d s e a l e d s u r f a c e in t h e
w a t e r s h e d — d e c r e a s e d i n f i 1t r a t i o n .
The above o c c u r r e n c e s which i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e w a t e r t a b l e
l e v e l s may o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y such t h a t a n e t i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e
results.
F a c t o r s exogenous t o highway a c t i v i t i e s such as p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
l a n d use 1n t h e w a t e r s h e d , o r downstream damming ca n n o t be c o n t r o l l e d
by highway p e r s o n n e l .

However, f a c t o r s which c au s e w a t e r t a b l e changes

29

and r e s u l t d i r e c t l y from c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t y may be c o n t r o l l e d .
P r o p e r c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e s can m i t i g a t e w a t e r t a b l e changes r e ­
s u l t i n g from i n a d e q u a t e p l a n n i n g .

The f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u re c o u ld be

ta k e n in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n p r e - c o n s t r u c t i o n w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l s .
The f i r s t s t e p i n v o l v e s t h e r e c o n n a i s s a n c e o f p r e - c o n s t r u c t i o n
h y d r o l o g i c a l p a r a m e te rs i n c l u d i n g w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l ; w a t e r s h e d s i z e ,
s h a p e , and r u n o f f ; r u n o f f d i s t r i b u t i o n ; s o i l p r o p e r t i e s ; and e x i s t i n g
vegetation.

Th is ex am in ation o f p r e - c o n s t r u c t i o n h y d r o l o g i c p a r a ­

m et er s can th en be used as s t a n d a r d s w ith which t o m o n ito r changes
d u r in g and a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , and i f d e s i r e d , as a s t a t u s quo t o
m aintain.
I f d e s i r e d , personnel may a p p ly c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s which
would p r e s e r v e t h e s t a t u s quo r e f l e c t e d by w a te r s h e d p a r a m e t e r s .

If

th e highway i s t o b i s e c t a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e w a t e r s h e d , flow p a t ­
t e r n s may change such t h a t r u n o f f i s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d a t a c u l v e r t
site.

This would most l i k e l y oc c u r in w e t l a n d a r e a s o f l a m i n a r f lo w ,

b u t may i n o t h e r a r e a s as well where c h a n n e l s , which o r i g i n a l l y t r a ­
v e r s e d t h e c o r r i d o r , have been r e r o u t e d t o o t h e r c u l v e r t c r o s s i n g s .
I t i s e s s e n t i a l t o i n c l u d e t h e i n c r e a s e d volume a t a c u l v e r t
s i t e which o c c u r s as a r e s u l t o f d i v e r s i o n by t h e highway.

I f the

s o i l s t h r o u g h which t h e w a t e r must d e t o u r a r e f a i r l y pe r m e a b l e , ad­
d i t i o n a l t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y ( l a r g e r o r more c u l v e r t s ) a t t h e s i t e w i l l
enable s u f f i c i e n t drainage.

On t h e c o n t r a r y , i f s o i l i n t h e a r e a i s

impermeable, c o n d u c t i v i t y o f w a t e r may be t o o low t o c o m p l e t e l y d r a i n
t h e a d d i t i o n a l i n p u t , and ponding w i l l o c c u r r e g a r d l e s s o f c u l v e r t
s i z e o r t h e number o f c u l v e r t s a t a s i n g l e c r o s s i n g .

This o c c u r s

p r i m a r i l y in w e t la n d a r e a s o f o r g a n i c s o i l s when l a m in a r flow i s

30

restricted.

The remedy i s t o p l a c e a s u f f i c i e n t number o f c u l v e r t s a t

c l o s e i n t e r v a l s a c r o s s t h e t r a n s v e r s e d l a m i n a r d r a i n a g e regime o r t o
p l a c e c u l v e r t s in a r e a s o f m i c r o - d r a i n a g e ways as wel l as a t t h e lo w e s t
e l e v a t i o n o f t h e w etl an d c r o s s i n g .
A l t e r a t i o n o f d r a i n a g e regimes w i l l a f f e c t t h e amount o f flow a t
a given highway c r o s s i n g and sho uld be c o n s i d e r e d in an a n a l y s i s o f
runoff p rio r to construction.

Other a c t i v i t i e s , such as be hea ding o f

s p r i n g s o r a q u i f e r s and a l t e r a t i o n o r l o s s o f v e g e t a t i o n , w i l l a l s o
a f f e c t r u n o f f and s h o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d as w e l l .

Although highways do

i n h i b i t w a t e r movement and highway c o n s t r u c t i o n may a l t e r r u n o f f r a t e s
and volume, meas ures which p r o v id e s u f f i c i e n t d r a i n a g e may minimize
w a t e r t a b l e ch anges.
P o t e n t i a l im pacts on v e g e t a t i o n a r e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e major p a r a ­
m eter s a f f e c t i n g v e g e t a t i v e ty p e ( F i g . 8 ) .

Any highway a c t i v i t y t h a t

a l t e r s one o f t h e s e p a r a m e te rs o r some com bination o f them can r e s u l t
i n v e g e t a t i v e ch an g es .

These c h a n g e s , in t u r n , a f f e c t t h e w i l d l i f e

h a b i t a t as i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 9.

Thus, p o t e n t i a l impacts o f p r o ­

posed highway a c t i v i t i e s c a n n o t be d e a l t w i th i n d e p e n d e n t l y .

A po­

t e n t i a l change o f one p a r a m e t e r , w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l , must be c o n s i d e r e d
as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a complex system wh ich , i n t u r n , a f f e c t s f l o r a ,
s o i l s , and f a u n a .

31

MAJOR PARAMETERS AFFECTING VEGETATIVE TYPE

Available
Ligh t

Soil
Type

Available
Water

Biotic
Factors

I f any o f t h e s e a r e changed, s i n g l y o r in c o m b in a tio n ,
in any p a r t i c u l a r v e g e t a t i v e t y p e (as o u t l i n e d i n t h e
Environmental-Highway I n t e r a c t i o n M a t r i x ) , t h e
f o ll o w in g may o c c u r :

Decrease in
Vegetative
Type

Vegetation
Remains S i m i l a r
to Pre-C onstruction

I n c r e a s e in
Vegetative
Type

Decrease in
Interspersion
and Edge

Interspersion
and Edge Remains
t h e Same

I n c r e a s e in
Interspersion
and Edge

Decrease in
D i v e r s i t y and
Composition

D i v e r s i t y and
Composition Remains
t h e Same

I n c r e a s e in
D i v e r s i t y and
Composition

Decrease in
Vigor and
Productivity

Vigor and
Productivity
Remains t h e Same

I n c r e a s e in
Vigor and
Productivity

F ig u re 8. — P o t e n t i a l Impacts o f highway a c t i v i t i e s on f l o r a .

32

PRE-CONSTRUCTION HABITAT

Post-Construction

Creation o f H abitat
I n c r e a s e in
A vailability of
Food, S h e l t e r ,
and Water

H a b i t a t Remains
Sim ilar to
Pre-C onstruction
State

Loss o f H a b i t a t
Decrease in
A vailability of
Food, S h e l t e r ,
and Water

I n c r e a s e in
C a r r y in g Cap a city

C a r rying C a p a c i ty
Remains t h e Same

Decrease in
C a r r y in g C ap a city

Change in
S p e c ie s Composition
S pecie s D i v e r s i t y

S p e c i e s Composition
S p e c ie s D i v e r s i t y
Remains t h e Same

Decreas e in
S p e c ie s Composition
S p e c ie s D i v e r s i t y

Animals Moving
i n t o t h e Area

Movement P a t t e r n s
U n a f f e c te d

Dis plac em en t o f
Animals

I n c r e a s e in T otal
Amount o f H a b i t a t
Type A v a i l a b l e t o
W ild life Species

No Impact on T otal
A vailable H abitat
f o r W i l d l i f e S p e c ie s

Decr eas e i n T otal
Amount o f H a b i t a t
Type A v a i l a b l e t o
W ild life Species

B eh a vio r P a t t e r n s
for U tilizatio n
Established

B e ha vio r P a t t e r n s
U n a f f e c te d

Be havio r P a t t e r n s
for U tilization
Disrupted

Population Likely
to Increase

P o p u l a t i o n U n a f f e c te d

P o p u l a t i o n Decreases

F ig u re 9 . - - P o t e n t i a l im pac ts o f highway a c t i v i t i e s on w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t s .

CHAPTER IV
ENVIR0NMENT-HI6HWAY INTERACTION MATRIX

This m a t r i x has been developed f o r use by MDSHT p er so n n el as an
a i d t o p l a n n i n g , d e s i g n i n g , and c o n s t r u c t i n g a highway i n Michigan.
The m a t r i x i s bas ed on t h e Leopold M a tr i x ( L eopold, 1971) and a s h o r t ­
ened v e r s i o n o f t h e Leopold M a tr ix developed and used by t h e Oregon
Highway Department ( C a n t e r , 1977).
The m a t r i x p r o v i d e s a v i s u a l d i s p l a y o f p o t e n t i a l l y impacted en­
vironmental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and major a c t i o n s c aus ing i m p a c t s ; i t s
primary ad vantag e b e in g a g r o s s s c r e e n i n g t e c h n i q u e f o r impact i d e n ­
tificatio n .

F u r t h e r a d v a n ta g e s o f t h i s m a t r i x a r e in i t s a b i l i t y to

be expanded o r c o n t r a c t e d in scope and t o be m o d ified in s t r u c t u r e .
The m a t r i x u t i l i z e d i n f o r m a t i o n such as b e n e f i c i a l , n e u t r a l , o r d e t r i ­
mental a s p e c t s o f en vironment-highway i n t e r a c t i o n s .

Such a m a t r i x

can be a more u s e fu l d e c i s io n - m a k i n g t o o l .
The m a t r i x i n c l u d e s t h r e e m ajor i n t e r c o n n e c t e d s e c t i o n s :
1.

Environmental C o n d i t i o n s — ba sed on t h e f o u r n a t u r a l s c i e n c e
pa r a m e te rs i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h e s t u d y :
a.

S o 1 l s - - m i n e r a l , o r g a n i c , and made- land s o i l s ; d r a i n a g e
c l a s s e s (Appendix B);

b.

Water— s t a t e , q u a l i t y , d r a i n a g e r e g i m e , and r e c h a r g e
potential

c.

(Appendix B);

F l o r a — v e g e t a t i o n c l a s s e s i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e MLCUCS (Ap­
pendix A);
33

34

d.

Fau na- -m ajor b i r d (Appendix C) and mammal groups (Appen­
d ix D).

2.

Highway A c t i v i t i e s — i n c l u d e a c t i o n s which may impact t h e f o u r
n a t u r a l s c i e n c e p a r a m e t e rs a t v a r i o u s s t a g e s o r w i t h i n s p a t i a l
b o u n d a r i e s i d e n t i f i e d w i th a highway p r o j e c t .

This s e c t i o n

i s divided into th re e p a r ts :
a.

A c t i v i t i e s o c c u r r i n g b e f o r e , d u r i n g , and a f t e r highway
c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g s i t e p r e p a r a t i o n and r e s t o r a t i o n ;

b.

Impacts o f h i g h w a y - r e l a t e d s t r u c t u r e s ;

c.

O p e r a t i o n a l impacts induced by t r a f f i c , a c c i d e n t s , o r
m a i n te n a n c e .

The j u n c t i o n between Environmental C o n d i tio n s (1) and Highway
A c t i v i t i e s (2) on t h e m a t r i x g r i d all ow s a sp ace o r box where p o te n ­
t i a l im pacts can be l i s t e d .

I f t h e box i s empty, t h e r e i s e i t h e r no

change t o t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p a r a m e te r o r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s o f such a
n a t u r e t h a t impacts a r e minimal o r e x t r e m e l y s h o r t - t e r m .

On t h e

o t h e r hand, t h e p r e s e n c e o f a code l e t t e r in t h e box i n d i c a t e s some
t y p e o f i n t e r a c t i o n which must be examined.

A l a r g e number o f code

l e t t e r s te n d s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t a highway a c t i v i t y has t h e p o t e n t i a l
t o cause major changes i n t h e en v ir o n m e n t.
3.

Impa cts— code l e t t e r s p r e s e n t on t h e m a t r i x r e p r e s e n t s i g n i ­
f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s between t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e p ar am eters
and highway a c t i v i t i e s .

They a r e l i s t e d in a s e p a r a t e T a ble

o f Impacts which t h e u s e r r e f e r s t o .

L e t t e r s a - j have been

a s s i g n e d t o s o i l s ; a^ and k-n t o w a t e r ; o - s t o f l o r a ; and
o , p , and t - v t o f a u n a .

35

Each code l e t t e r i s f u r t h e r broken down t o i n d i c a t e in what ways
a highway a c t i v i t y w i l l a f f e c t t h e s t a t e o r c o n d i t i o n o f a l i s t e d n a t ­
ural science parameter.

In most c a s e s , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n w i l l r e s u l t in

e i t h e r a b e n e f i c i a l (+) o r d e t r i m e n t a l

( - ) i m p a c t , o r t h e i n c r e a s e (+)

or decrease (-) of a p a r t ic u la r co n d itio n , q u a n tity , q u a lity , e tc .

A

code l e t t e r w i t h o u t a p lus o r minus would i n d i c a t e an i n t e r a c t i o n which
would b e n e f i t some a s p e c t s o f a p a r a m e t e r w h i l e b e in g d e t r i m e n t a l t o
other aspects.

A s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n f o llo w s each code l e t t e r e x p l a i n ­

in g th e n a t u r e o f t h e impact a s well as i t s p r e d i c t e d magnitude and
im p o rta n c e .
The use o f t h e Environment-Highway I n t e r a c t i o n M a tr ix i n highway
d e c i s io n - m a k i n g can be v a l u a b l e in p r e d i c t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f highways
on e x i s t i n g en vironments and t o compare r e s u l t a n t en vironme nts c r e a t e d
by h i g h w a y - r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s .

By e v a l u a t i n g v a r i o u s environmental

p a r a m e t e r s , a l t e r n a t e r o u t e s can be s u f f i c i e n t l y a n a l y z e d p r i o r to
highway l o c a t i o n and c o n s t r u c t i o n .

The m ajor f u n c t i o n o f t h e m a t r i x

i s t o p r e s e n t an o b j e c t i v e l i s t o f p o t e n t i a l im pacts r e s u l t i n g from
i n t e r a c t i o n s between n a t u r a l s c i e n c e p a r a m e t e r s and highway a c t i v i t i e s .
With t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , d e c i s i o n s can be bas ed on r e s e a r c h w h i l e r e ­
l i a n c e on p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n s can be r e d u c e d .
Im p a c ts , Code L e t t e r s , and D e f i n i t i o n s f o r P a r a m e te rs
a

Soil q u a n t i t y — t h e p h y s ic a l mass o f s o i l p r e s e n t i n a given
locality

a+

Buildup o r g ain o f p r o d u c t i v e s o i l th ro u g h a p r a c t i c e which
p h y s i c a l l y adds s o i l t o an a r e a , o r r e c l a m a t i o n p r a c t i c e s ,
such as a r t i f i c i a l d r a i n a g e , which c r e a t e s more p r o d u c t i v e

36

s o i l a l t h o u g h no new s o i l i s

deposited.

I t may a l s o r e f e r t o

e r o s i o n c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s as s o i l l o s s i s m i t i g a t e d ,
a-

Loss o f s o i l q u a n t i t y o c c u r s as a r e s u l t o f t h e mechanical r e ­
moval o f t h e s o i l from a s i t e t h ro u g h e x c a v a t i o n o r as a r e ­
s u lt o f erosion.
S u r f a c i n g , c u t t i n g and f i l l i n g , w e t l a n d f i l l , and b r i d g e s
a l l may ca u se changes in q u a n t i t y o f s o i l t o o c c u r on a l l
types o f s o i l .

Erosion c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s r e s u l t i n a b u i l d ­

up o f p r o d u c t i v e s o i l w h i l e borrow p i t s , s p o i l ban k s , h i g h ­
ways, and r oa ds c a u s e a l o s s o f q u a n t i t y o f s o i l ,
a

Water q u a n t i t y — r e f e r s t o t h e mass o f w a t e r p r e s e n t i n a giv en
w a t e r body, d r a i n a g e re gime , o r a q u i f e r .

a+

An i n c r e a s e i n w a t e r ,

a-

A decrease in water.
S u r f a c e w a t e r q u a n t i t y may be i n c r e a s e d by highways and
r oa ds i f w a t e r i s dammed o r by o t h e r dams o r impoundments.
I t i s d e c r e a s e d by s u r f a c i n g and b u r n i n g .

O th e r f a c t o r s

which may a f f e c t q u a n t i t y o f s u r f a c e w a t e r a r e d r a i n a g e a l ­
t e r a t i o n , flow m o d i f i c a t i o n , and d r e d g i n g .
Ground w a t e r may be i n c r e a s e d by impoundments and e r o s i o n
c o n t r o l and i s d e c r e a s e d by s u r f a c i n g , b u r n i n g , highways, and
r oads which e i t h e r i n c r e a s e r u n o f f a n d / o r d e c r e a s e i n f i l t r a ­
tion.

Ground w a t e r q u a n t i t y may a l s o be a f f e c t e d by d r a i n a g e

a l t e r a t i o n , flow m o d i f i c a t i o n , and removal o f v e g e t a t i o n .
Q u a n t i t y o f r e c h a r g e and r u n o f f i s a f f e c t e d by s u r f a c i n g ,
d r a i n a g e a l t e r a t i o n , flow m o d i f i c a t i o n , b u r n i n g , removal o f
v e g e ta tio n , wetland f i l l , or d r a in in g , erosion c o n t r o l ,

37

l a n d s c a p i n g , r e f o r e s t a t i o n , highways and r o a d s , dams, im­
poundments, f i r e s , and mechanical weed c o n t r o l .
b

Cation Exchange C a p a c ity (CEC)— i s a measure o f t h e t o t a l
amount o f ex ch an g eab le c a t i o n s t h a t can be h e l d by t h e s o i l .
CEC i s e x p r e s s e d a s a m i l l i e q u i v a l e n t p e r 100 grams o f s o i l
a t n e u t r a l i t y (pH=7) o r a t some o t h e r s t a t e d pH v a l u e s ( S t e f f e r u d , 1957).

Some f a c t o r s which a f f e c t CEC a r e t h e amount

o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r in t h e s o i l , s o i l p a r t i c l e s i z e , and pH.
In t h i s c o n t e x t , changes in c a t i o n exchange w i l l a l s o o c c u r
as r e p l a c e m e n t o f a v a i l a b l e exchange s i t e s w it h u n d e s i r a b l e
cations.
b+

Improvement o f CEC o c c u r s as o r g a n i c m a t t e r i s added t o t h e
s o i l , t h e s o i l r e c e i v e s a d d i t i o n a l f i n e p a r t i c l e s such as
c l a y o r s i l t o r pH i n c r e a s e s so t h a t l e s s s i t e s a r e o c c u p ie d
by hydrogen i o n s .

b-

Occurs as exchange s i t e s a r e l o s t t h ro u g h removal o f o r g a n i c
m a t t e r by burning o r l o s s o f v e g e t a t i o n o r e r o s i o n .

Sites

may a l s o be tak en up by u n d e s i r a b l e c a t i o n s when ca lciu m
hy d r o x id e io n s a r e i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e s o i l d u r in g a chemical
ch a n g e , p o s s i b l y as a r e s u l t o f chemical d e - i c i n g .
Chemical d e - i c i n g , b u r n i n g , and s u r f a c i n g a r e f a c t o r s
which c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e l o s s o f c a t i o n exchange s i t e s on
a ll so il types.

O r g a n i c s , which improve c a t i o n exchange

c a p a c i t y , a r e removed from t h e s o i l d u r i n g b u r n i n g .

Chemi­

cal d e - i c i n g may r ed u ce c a t i o n exchange c a p a c i t y as exchange
s i t e s become o c c u p ie d by u n d e s i r a b l e c a t i o n s .

38

c

E r o s io n r e f e r s t o t h e movement o f s o i l p a r t i c l e s v i a wind o r
w a t e r flow such as s p l a s h , s h e e t , r i l l , b u l l y o r i c e shove.

c+

P r a c t i c e s which ca u s e a d e c r e a s e in e r o s i o n by c a u s i n g flow
o f w a t e r t o slow,

c-

An i n c r e a s e in e r o s i o n which may o c c u r as a r e s u l t o f a c t i o n s
which expose t h e s o i l t o e r o s i v e f o r c e s , such a s removal o f
v e g e t a t i o n , b u r n i n g , o r d r a i n a g e changes ( i . e . , l a m i n a r flow
becomes channel flow) such t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y o f w a t e r flow
i n c r e a s e s in a given l o c a l i t y .
S u r f a c i n g , b u r n i n g , removal o f v e g e t a t i o n , and mechanical
weed c o n t r o l a r e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o e r o s i o n on a l l t y p e s
of so ils.

Erosio n c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s , l a n d s c a p i n g , r e f o r e s t a ­

t i o n , and b a r r i e r s h elp t o r ed u ce e r o s i o n ,
d

Leaching r e f e r s t o t h e downward movement o f elem en ts o r com­
pounds t h r o u g h t h e s o i l .

The r a t e o f l e a c h i n g r e l a t e s t o

s o i l s t r u c t u r e , t e x t u r e , and p r o f i l e , and t o t h e r a t e o f p e r ­
c o l a t i o n o f w a t e r th ro u g h t h e s o i l .
d+

I n c r e a s e in r a t e o f l e a c h i n g ,

d-

Decr eas e i n r a t e o f l e a c h i n g .
Leaching i s a f f e c t e d by s u r f a c i n g , b u r n in g , removal o f
v e g e t a t i o n , l a n d s c a p i n g , and r e f o r e s t a t i o n , and with dams
and impediments on a l l s o i l t y p e s ,

e

Mulch— accumulated o r g a n i c m a t t e r a t o r n e a r t h e s u r f a c e in
v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f d e c o m p o s iti o n .

e+

The s a v in g o r b u i l d u p o f mulch.

e-

The removal o f mulch o r any p r a c t i c e which ca u s e s mulch to
be removed.

39

Mulch b u i l d s up as a r e s u l t o f e r o s i o n c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s ,
l a n d s c a p i n g , r e f o r e s t a t i o n , and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b a r r i e r s
on a l l t y p e s o f s o i l s .
Red uctio n o f mulch o c c u r s i n c u t and f i l l o p e r a t i o n s ,
b u r n i n g , and removal o f v e g e t a t i o n .

C o n s t r u c t i o n o f dams

and impoundments removes s i t e s f o r mulch b u i l d u p due t o th e
inundation o f surface waters,
f

S t r u c t u r e - - t h e a g g l o m e r a t i v e f o rm a ti o n o f s o i l p a r t i c l e s .

f+

An improvement in s o i l s t r u c t u r e which i s b e n e f i c i a l t o p l a n t
growth.

f-

The breakdown o f a g g l o m e r a t e s .
S u r f a c i n g cau s es a breakdown i n s o i l s t r u c t u r e , w h i l e
d r a i n a g e a l t e r a t i o n , flow m o d i f i c a t i o n , l a n d s c a p i n g , and
r e f o r e s ta tio n c o n trib u te to b en eficial so il s tr u c t u r e ,

g

I n f i l t r a t i o n and p e r m e a b i l i t y r e f e r t o w a t e r e n t e r i n g t h e
s o i l a t t h e s o i l s u r f a c e and t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s o i l in
terms o f i t s a b i l i t y t o i n f i l t r a t e w a t e r .

g+

An I n c r e a s e in i n f i l t r a t i o n ,

g-

A d e c r e a s e in i n f i l t r a t i o n .
I n f i l t r a t i o n may i n c r e a s e as a r e s u l t o f d r a i n a g e a l t e r ­
a t i o n , flow m o d i f i c a t i o n , and bu r n in g on a l l s o i l t y p e s .

Im­

permeable s u r f a c e s ca u s e d by s u r f a c i n g d e c r e a s e i n f i l t r a t i o n ,
h

Ae ro bic c o n d i t i o n s r e f e r t o t h e amount o f oxygen in t h e s o i l .

h+

Creation o f aerobic con d itio n s in th e s o i l ,

h-

A l o s s o f oxygen in t h e s o i l .
Dams and impoundments c au s e a d e c r e a s e i n t h e a e r o b i c con­
d itio n s of the s o i l .

40

i

Soil and w a t e r q u a l i t y — t h e summation o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s im­
p a r t e d t o t h e s o i l and w a t e r by t h e p h y s i c a l , c h e m i c a l , and
b i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e in t e n d e d
use o f t h e s o i l and w a t e r .

i+

I n c r e a s e in q u a l i t y f o r i n t e n d e d u s e .

i-

Decrease i n q u a l i t y f o r in t e n d e d us e.
Changes in s o i l q u a l i t y o c c u r d u r in g b u r n i n g , removal o f
v e g e t a t i o n , e r o s i o n c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s , s p i l l s , and p o l l u t i o n s .
Changes i n w a t e r q u a l i t y o c c u r as a r e s u l t o f d r a i n a g e
a l t e r a t i o n , flow m o d i f i c a t i o n , d r e d g i n g , b u r n i n g , removal o f
v e g e t a t i o n , w e t l a n d f i l l i n g , d r a i n i n g , borrow p i t s , e r o s i o n
c o n t r o l , r e f o r e s t a t i o n , l a n d s c a p i n g , w aste d i s p o s a l , dams,
impoundments, f i r e s , s p i l l s , p o l l u t i o n , and chemical d e - i c i n g ,

j

S oil m o i s t u r e r e f e r s t o th e amount o f w a t e r in t h e s o i l

in­

c l u d i n g h y g r o s c o p i c , c a p i l l a r y , and f r e e w a t e r .
j+

An i n c r e a s e i n s o i l m o i s t u r e ,

j-

A d e c r e a s e in w a t e r c o n t e n t o f a s o i l .
Removal o f v e g e t a t i o n a f f e c t s s o i l m o i s t u r e w h il e l a n d ­
s c a p in g and r e f o r e s t a t i o n r e s u l t in an i n c r e a s e in s o i l
m oisture.

Dra inag e a l t e r a t i o n s , flow m o d i f i c a t i o n s , and

c u lv e rts decrease th e cap acity o f moisture fo r a l l soil
types.
k

Water t a b l e l e v e l i s t h e upper s u r f a c e o f ground w a t e r o r
t h a t l e v e l below which t h e s o i l i s s a t u r a t e d w ith w a t e r ;
lo c u s o f p o i n t s in s o i l w a t e r a t which t h e h y d r a u l i c p r e s ­
s u r e i s equal t o a t m o s p h e r ic p r e s s u r e .

41
k+

A r a i s i n g o f the w ater t a b l e l e v e l ,

k-

A lo w e r in g o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l .
The l e v e l o f t h e w a te r t a b l e i s lowered as a r e s u l t o f
f i l l i n g and d r a i n a g e a l t e r a t i o n m o d i f i c a t i o n s .

Dams and im­

poundments i n c r e a s e t h e w a t e r l e v e l a d j a c e n t t o t h e body o f
s u rface water.
1

Flow p a t t e r n r e f e r s t o p a t t e r n s o r s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
m igrating s u rface water.
Flow p a t t e r n s a r e a f f e c t e d by s u r f a c i n g , c u t t i n g and
f i l l i n g , d r a i n a g e a l t e r a t i o n m o d i f i c a t i o n s , d r e d g i n g , b urn­
i n g , removal o f v e g e t a t i o n , w e t la n d f i l l

o r d r a i n a g e , borrow

p i t s , s p o i l bank s, and e r o s i o n c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s in channel
d r a i n a g e and l a m i n a r d r a i n a g e .

Landscaping and r e f o r e s t a t i o n ,

w a s te d i s p o s a l , highways, r o a d s , b r i d g e s , dams, and impound­
m ents , c u l v e r t s , b a r r i e r s , p o l l u t i o n , and s p i l l s a l s o c o n t r i ­
b u te t o changes in flow p a t t e r n s in channel d r a i n a g e and
laminar drainage.
The flow p a t t e r n s o f s u r f a c e w a t e r a r e changed as a r e ­
s u l t o f b r i d g e s and c u l v e r t s .

Ground w a t e r flow p a t t e r n s a r e

a f f e c t e d by s u r f a c i n g , c u t t i n g and f i l l i n g , b u r n i n g , and wet­
la n d f i l l o r d r a i n a g e ,
m

Flood p r o b a b i l i t i e s o r c h a n c e s - - t h a t f l o o d s o f v a r i o u s magni­
tude w ill occur.

m+

An i n c r e a s e i n f l o o d p r o b a b i l i t i e s ,

m-

A decrease in flood p r o b a b i l i t i e s .
S u r f a c e w a t e r f l o o d p r o b a b i l i t i e s a r e i n c r e a s e d w ith s u r ­
f a c i n g l a n d , b u r n i n g , and removing v e g e t a t i o n .

D redging,

42

e r o s i o n c o n t r o l , l a n d s c a p i n g , and r e f o r e s t a t i o n a r e f a c t o r s
which minimize f l o o d p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f s u r f a c e w a t e r s ,
n

D is trib u tio n r e f e r s to s p a tia l lo c a tio n of water.
S u r f a c i n g , c u t t i n g and f i l l i n g , d r a i n a g e a l t e r a t i o n modi­
f i c a t i o n s , b u r n i n g , w e t la n d f i l l o r d r a i n a g e , borrow p i t s ,
e r o s i o n c o n t r o l , highways and road s c a u s e changes i n s p a t i a l
d is t r i b u t i o n o f su rfa c e w aters.
Ground w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a f f e c t e d by d r a i n a g e a l t e r ­
a t i o n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n , b u r n i n g , and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h i g h ­
ways and r o a d s .

o

S p e c ie s d i v e r s i t y - - t h e number o f d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s

occurring

in some l o c a t i o n o r under some c o n d i t i o n s .
o+ Change r e s u l t s in an i n c r e a s e o f s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y ,
o-

Change r e s u l t s in a d e c r e a s e o f s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y .
Highway a c t i v i t i e s can r e s u l t i n a + change when e x i s t i n g
h a b i t a t s a r e d i s t u r b e d i n a manner such t h a t t h e r e s u l t a n t
en vir on ment p r o v id e s t h e n e c e s s a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s t o s u p p o r t a
l a r g e r number o f s p e i c e s .

An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a + ( i n c r e a s e )

in d i v e r s i t y o f both fauna and f l o r a i s when o v e r s t o r y s p e ­
c i e s a r e removed i n a f o r e s t pro d u cin g a r e s u l t a n t e n v i r o n ­
ment o f an e a r l i e r s u c c e s s i o n a l s t a g e .

A - ( d e c r e a s e ) in

s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y o f b o th fa u na and f l o r a i s a p p a r e n t when
t h e s o i l s s u r f a c e i s paved w i t h c o n c r e t e ,
p

S p e c i e s c o m p o s i t i o n — t h e kinds o f s p e c i e s o c c u r r i n g in some
l o c a t i o n o r un de r some c o n d i t i o n s .

p+

Change r e s u l t s in an i n c r e a s e o f t h e s p e c i e s d e s i r e d by man.

p-

Change r e s u l t s in a d e c r e a s e o f t h e s p e c i e s d e s i r e d by man.

43

Avian d i v e r s i t y o f a herb ac eo us r a n g e l a n d co uld be com­
p r i s e d o f between 25-30 s p e c i e s w i th 3-5 o f t h e s e being up­
la n d game b i r d s .

I f t h i s h a b i t a t i s d i s t u r b e d so t h e r e s u l ­

t a n t en vironme nt i s a s h a llo w pond (borrow p i t ) , t h e a v i a n
d i v e r s i t y c o u ld remain between 25-30 s p e c i e s w i t h 3-5 b ein g
waterfowl.

S p e c ie s c o m p o s i t i o n , however, has changed from

s o n g b i r d s , b i r d s o f p r e y , and upland gamebirds t o water fowl
marsh and s h o r e b i r d s .

S p e c ie s com posi tion o f t h e v e g e t a t i o n

p r e s e n t in an envir onment i s a f f e c t e d i n a s i m i l a r manner.
In t h i s example, s p e c i e s in both t h e e x i s t i n g and r e s u l t a n t
envir onm e nts a r e d e s i r e d by man.

Thus, t h e q u e s t i o n becomes

which h a b i t a t o r com bination o f h a b i t a t s w i l l be t h e most
adva ntage ou s f o r t h e a r e a in q u e s t i o n ?
q

I n t e r s p e r s i o n — s c a t t e r e d among o t h e r t h i n g s , l o c a t e d her e
and t h e r e ; t h e a c t o f d i v e r s i f y i n g with t h i n g s s c a t t e r e d
h e r e and t h e r e .

q+

An i n c r e a s e in i n t e r s p e r s i o n .

An i n c r e a s e i n i n t e r s p e r s i o n

i s g e n e r a l l y b e n e f i c i a l beca use i t i n c r e a s e s t h e d i v e r s i t y ,
q-

A decrease in in te r s p e r s io n .

A d e c r e a s e in i n t e r s p e r s i o n i s

g e n e r a l l y d e t r i m e n t a l bec au se i t w i l l re duce t h e p l a n t d i v e r ­
s i t y and th u s p l a n t h a b i t a t t y p e s a v a i l a b l e t o a v a r i e t y o f
fauna.
I f a c u t i s e x c a v a te d th ro u g h an a c r e o f la n d c o n t a i n i n g
a m ature b r o a d l e a f f o r e s t t h a t has no o p e n i n g s , t h e e f f e c t
o f t h e c u t w i l l be t o i n c r e a s e i n t e r s p e r s i o n and t h u s d i v e r ­
sity .

Shrubs and herbaceous s p e c i e s w i l l e v e n t u a l l y move

i n t o t h e c u t , and t h e a c r e w i l l c o n t a i n two h a b i t a t t y p e s

44

r a t h e r th an one.

I f a c u t i s co nduc ted th ro u g h an a c r e o f

la n d in such a way t h a t t h e c u t moves through a b r o a d l e a f
f o r e s t , removes a small c o n i f e r s t a n d , and c u t s th ro u g h shru b
r a n g e l a n d , t h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t w i l l be a d e c r e a s e i n i n t e r s p e r ­
sion.

With t h e c u t e v e n t u a l l y s u p p o r t i n g he rbaceous and shru b

r a n g e l a n d , t h e h a b i t a t t y p e s in t h e a c r e o f la n d w i l l be
changed from t h r e e t o two.

A s i n g l e a c t i o n may have two op­

p o s i t e e f f e c t s , in one s i t u a t i o n b e n e f i c i a l , in a n o t h e r d e t r i ­
mental .
r

Edge— a s p e c i a l t y p e o f t r a n s i t i o n t h a t r e f e r s t o a very n a r ­
row o r s t r u c t u r a l l y a b r u p t j u n c t u r e between s e r a i communities;
t h e c l a s s i c a l example bein g t h e f o r e s t - f i e l d i n t e r f a c e .

r+

An i n c r e a s e in edge.

Edge i s g e n e r a l l y an a r e a w it h high

s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y becaus e two o r more h a b i t a t t y p e s a r e in
c l o s e p r o x im i t y and an im als move e a s i l y t o and from v a r i o u s
food, s h e l t e r , a n d / o r w a t e r s i t e s ,
r-

A d e c r e a s e in edge.

Edge i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o i n t e r s p e r s i o n .

An i n c r e a s e in edge i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an i n c r e a s e in i n t e r ­
s p e r s i o n and v i c e v e r s a .

In t h e p r e v i o u s example c o n c e r n i n g

i n t e r s p e r s i o n , a c u t which i n c r e a s e s i n t e r s p e r s i o n would i n ­
c r e a s e edge as w e l l .

A c u t pr oducin g a d e c r e a s e in i n t e r ­

s p e r s i o n would produce a d e c r e a s e 1n edge,
s

D e s t r u c t i o n — c e r t a i n highway a c t i v i t i e s w i l l r e s u l t in t o t a l
d e s t r u c t i o n a n d / o r permanent removal o f v e g e t a t i o n ,

s-

O b literatio n o f vegetation.
In an a r e a which has been s u r f a c e d , t h e v e g e t a t i o n o f t h e
a r e a has been c o m p le t e ly and per m an en tl y removed.

45

t

H a b i t a t — t h e p l a c e where an or ganism l i v e s , o r t h e p l a c e
where one would go t o f i n d i t .
Each organism has a s p e c i f i c s e t o f r e q u i r e m e n t s e s s e n ­
t i a l t o i t s s u r v i v a l and w e l l - b e i n g which c o n s t i t u t e s i t s
habitat.

Highway a c t i v i t i e s can r e s u l t in an i n c r e a s e ( t + )

o f a v a i l a b l e h a b i t a t f o r one s p e c i e s and a d e c r e a s e ( t - ) o f
a v a ila b le h a b ita t f o r another species sim ultaneously.

Cut

and f i l l o p e r a t i o n s th ro ugh a n o r t h e r n w h i t e c e d a r swamp r e ­
duce t h e amount o f w i n d - p r o t e c t e d w i n t e r s h e l t e r f o r d e e r ( t - )
but i n c r e a s e ( t + ) t h e f o r a g e a r e a f o r snowshoe h a r e .
t+

Change c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h a b i t a t r e s u l t i n g in an i n c r e a s e in
carrying capacity ( c re a tio n ),

t-

Change c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h a b i t a t r e s u l t i n g in a d e c r e a s e in
carrying capacity (d estru ctio n lo s s ).
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s — s i z e , amount o f edge, s p e c i e s composi­
t i o n , s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y , i n t e r s p e r s i o n , and p r o d u c t i o n o f
fo o d , s h e l t e r , and w a t e r ,

u

C a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y i s t h e number ( o r biomass) o f organisms o f
a given s p e c i e s which can s u r v i v e i n , w i t h o u t c a u s i n g d e t e r ­
i o r a t i o n o f , a give n ecosy ste m th ro u g h t h e l e a s t f a v o r a b l e
e n vironm e nta l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n a s t a t e d i n t e r v a l
o f time.

u+

Change r e s u l t s i n an i n c r e a s e i n c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y .
Highway a c t i v i t i e s can produce r e s u l t a n t envir onm ents t h a t
have more a n d / o r improved h a b i t a t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i e s .
Edge h a b i t a t f o r low n e s t i n g b i r d s , small mammals, and b i r d s
o f prey is o f te n c r e a te d .

When t h e amount o f h a b i t a t a v a i l ­

able in c r e a s e s , the a r e a 's carrying capacity also in c re a se s .

46

u-

Change r e s u l t s i n a d e c r e a s e i n c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y .
D e s t r u c t i o n o f h a b i t a t a v a i l a b l e t o a s p e c i e s , such as
o c c u r s wit h s u r f a c i n g , lowers t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e
area.

v

B e h a v i o r - - t h e re s p o n s e o f an i n d i v i d u a l , group, o r s p e c i e s t o
t h e whole range o f f a c t o r s c o n s t i t u t i n g i t s environ ment.

v+

Beh avio r changed r e s u l t s in an i n c r e a s e in c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y .
Highway s t r u c t u r e s such as b r i d g e s and s i g n s p r o v id e n e s t ­
ing s i t e s f o r b i r d s which would n o t have n e s t e d in an a r e a
where a highway i s l o c a t e d .

Barn swallows o b s e r v e d n e s t i n g

on b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e s i l l u s t r a t e how highway a c t i v i t i e s can
i n c r e a s e t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f an a r e a f o r a give n s p e c i e s ,
v-

Be havio r changed r e s u l t s in a d e c r e a s e i n c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y .
S e p a r a t i n g a community i n t o segments which a r e s m a l l e r
t h a n t h e home ra nge o f t h e s p e c i e s in q u e s t i o n can r e s u l t in
anim al s a v o i d i n g an a r e a which, p r i o r t o d i s t u r b a n c e , was
su itable habitat.

B a r r i e r s such as t h e highway and r e l a t e d

s t r u c t u r e s w i l l a l s o r e s u l t in an a v o id an ce b e h a v i o r ( v - ) .

ACTIONS THAT MAY IMPACT SOILS, WATER, FLORA, AND FAUNA

f
Z

a

«

!

E

1

g

2

*
s
»

m
i
2

o
I
3

**

§
O

*
CA

re
4

"

lO o*
±.re

cr
i

3*
o
3*
3’
«0

»
«

*0
1* 31
1

o

p ro .

re
4

1

T * 3 *0
3TOl
+ re
i

o

*7* 3 - 0

o

J ra .
+<i
1

re
4

o

4

4* 3 * 0
x *a

o

3 i

3
3

P

-*.n

a
re
4
cO
l

4 4

“ 1
4
■«n
•± a .
4 4.
re
4

0

a

rei

2 1
+ S
4

to
i

i
3

0
re
1
40
1

9 Z
2
°
m <»
cor>

“ * -*»n
jr .o .
+ 4
re
4
-«.ft
Jt.oL
+ <S
4

re1
«o
i

1 1
+ <i

re

O

rei

40

i

re

"T
3 O
1

C3
X
O
>
o
CA

®
5

CA
-i
rn
a
CA
“O
o
CA
£»
1
“

o
+
3

4

3 O
1

3
c
o

x-

o
♦

O
1
3

£
o
4

w

t>

2

?

CA

<2

5 5
* 5
? >

_

O)
cr

m n;

m

0

S g

m o

3J

g

§m

—

”

m

| °

|» §

-

2

-n j>

fl

-1

0

I

l 5

g

5

>

f

|

-

i g

O
4
re
+
4*

O

O
+
re
+_
*"

O

0
4

O

0
1

O

1

4
4’

O

re

0
1

4

4*
O
4
re

n i.o
-— 0.
re
“ V
— n to v

0
1

-— cl
re

re

0
4

<0cr

O

0
1

0

a

re

3
i
3

3

reo*
<c&0

1

11

0
1

0 0 .0
1 • 1

re

A
1

sr

0

O 0 .0
1 ■ 1

"7*

re

re <0A
1 ■ ■

0
4

0
1

re1

T 7
A «0 re
1 11

3
ar

9
r

0

0

pr

sr

O

0

‘to
4
sr

0

1

4

1

.-4
0 —

1

'to
4
gr
i
0

3

4

- 0

O
4

r ?
re to
re
1

1

£ A

O —.re
2Jf
J
ir ^
1 4
X*
T®
3

0 0 .0
1 11

re1

'(O
4
sr

-0 — . 4

re

4
4

1

0

T t

— re A CT
1 I
3* '— o . T T
re — CL
4

3
4

3
1

re

1

i

1

T j

O
4

0
1

a

a

1

+

0
4

0

O

4

O

o

o
1

4

O

0
4

0
1

PO O RLY D R A IN E D
M IN E R A L S O IL S

0

O

O

M A DE

LA N D

G R O U N D W A TER
O

O

—

C H A N N E L IZ E D
D R A IN A G E

—

D R A IN A G E

L A M IN A R

O
1
*3
i
CO
I

0
1
•o
1
CO

O
t
*o

0
1
■©

1

co
1

CO
1

CO
1

CO
i

CO
1
CO
1

CO
i

CO
1

CO
I

CO
1

CO
1

-4 O

-o
.o

CO ■4 O
1
*3

0
-0

CO
1

co

1

t 0
<o*o

CO

1

O
D

CO
1

CO
1

-t 0
<0*0

CO
1

co

1

CROPLAND ROTATION 8
P E R M A N E N T PASTURE

CO

CO

ORCHARDS, BUSH-FRUITS

CO
1

.0
0
*0

A

CO
1

O
*o

A

1

1

V IN E Y A R D S AND

JO

E N V IR O N M E N T /!

CO

Q.
CD
co
—•■
3*
2
§_
4
3
o’
3

a=
i>
m

0

RECHARGE

CO
4
c
o
c
CD

r~
c/>

O R G A N IC S O IL S

RUNOFF

0

CO
O

0
1

f?

t*

MOOERATELY D RA IN ED
M IN E R A L S O IL S

S U R F A C E WATER

3

O
4

W E L L D R A IN E D
M IN E R A L S O IL S

3

3
O

3 2.

0

0
1

4
1

1

O
1

t
1 1
re tot re■
1 t 1

'iO

1

0

O
3*
3T

0
1

0

3
i

3

CD

1
“

§2

P ITS

o
1
«o
4

re o ’
iO re
- -e x

0“
1

c/>
>

A N D C O N S T R U C T IO N
-n °

CA
"O
O

CONTROL

ft
1
«o
4

re o ’
i i
t T
—a.
4

1

A C T IV IT IE S

& N S F O R M A T IO N

BORROW

o
c

1

2>

J S T R U C T IO N
“
a

m

1

S

n

3J
m r

*

LAN
EROSION

|

4

a*
i

X
0
X

WAY
go

A

5

J3

A U T O M O B IL E

O
_
Q
O
3
9:

5

3 T
?
tO
4

H
RES1rORAl
ftPR< )T£C1

cn
T R U C K IN G

S a
3
o
CO
CD
O cO

I •
40 V

O’
1

S T R U C T U I* E S

c
U-

1

S

3* §
•o
3
o

F IR E S

2 , *o
9. 5
CO

VEHICLE C O L L IS IO N
WITH W IL D L IF E

3*
re

z

^
3

CO

1
O . .O

5
2
|_

o
3

S P IL L S

S

a

P

X

o

uj

25

t_>

2 .
-n

U

2

Q.

<
ce
ui
aO

P O L L U T IO N
L A N D ,W A T E R

3

.o
c
9 .-0

IO 7
’*** 4 cj
" ’a

or

s

o

RELATED

AIR,

to

**

CD

>.
<£

3

ft1

D E - IC IN G

i

o
1
«o
j4

CHEMICAL

CQ
3 S

M E C H A N IC A L
WEED
CONTRO L

T

»
£
SE
3=

1

D IS R U P T IO N

3
CD
3

9. 3
__c r
a o
-o e :
o —
o
J7*" CD*
CO
3
o
CD
X
o
S 3 3"
O
% 9: 3
o *2. (O
CD
°
5-’
re C
o
O
9 : 5 CD
4
O
o’
CO
3
•
O o’
3
.o o .
£
a
°3 g
5
- • co «
b c o tio

3
3

2 . *o

VEHICLE

m
3
<

+■ 3
O'
(D
3 O
A O

LU
y
a
=■
£
z

o

o q u an tity

3

g

PC
m
-<

n
(Q
c

CONDITIONS

t

1

1

S-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

a

1

1

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

a

1

1

q r s- q r s-

op qrs-

o p q rs- o p q rs- o p qrs- o p q rs- o p q rs-

a

1

1

o p

o p

op

a

1

1

1+

a

1+

a-

1

1

s-

s-

1

1

o p q
r s-

o p q
r s-

1

o p q

1

s-

s-

1

1

s-

s-

o p q
r s-

o p s-

o p s-

0+

1

1

0 p

0 P

1-

a+

1

1

o p q
r

o p q
r

o p q
r

5-

s-

a

o p q

o p q
r s-

1-

a-

o p

o

p

o p

o p q
r s-

op q
r s-

op q
r s-

o p q
r s-

o p q
r s-

o p q
r s-

1

1

a

op

1-

t-

o p

0 P

op q
r s-

o P q

o p t
u
o -p -tu-

r s-

o p q
r s-

op q
r s-

o p q
r s-

o p q
r s-

o p q
r s-

l- U -

u+

o p q
r

o p q
r

o P q
r

o pq
r

o p q
r

op q
r

o p q
r

O -p-s-

o -p-s-

o-p-q
r s-

o-p-q
r s-

o-p-q
r s-

o-p-q
r s-

o-p-q
r s-

t-u t- u-

t+ u t

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

1

1

s-

s-

S'

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

1

1

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

o p q
r ss-

p q
r ss-

s-

s-

t-

a

at
m

t-

u-

u-

t-

u-

t-

t-

u-

t u

u - o* p + l+ u t 0 p t u o p t u

s-

s-

s-

t-

SM ALL
MAM M ALS.

o

tn

FURBEARING A N D
GAME M A M M A L S

UPLAND
G A M E B IR D S

ae

t-

u-

t u
optu

u-

t u
o p t+ u *

0 p t
u

0 p 1
u

t u

o p t
u

t u

r u

o-p -tu-

t-u -

t u

t u

t u

0 p t
u
0 p t
u

o p t
u
0 p t
u

0 p t
u
o p t
u

0 p t
u

o p t

0 p t
u

0 + P + I+

o p t
u
t u

0 p I
u
0 p 1
u

0 p t
u
0 p t
u
t u

o

u

t u

t u

t-u o tp + t+
u+

u+
t-u -

1 u

s-

s-

u-

0+ P + I+

s-

s-

MARSH A N D
SHORE B IR D S

op qrs-

1

1

u-

>U1
<a.
u.

t u

1

1

W ATERFO W L

N O N -F O R E S T E D
W ETLANO S

FORESTED

W ETLANDS

FO REST

C O N IF E R MIXED

BROADLEAF

C O N IF E R O U S
FO REST

FAUNA

a

|+

4

SHRUB
RANGELAND

HERBACEOUS
RANGELAND

ORCHARDS, BUSH-FRU ITS
VINEYARDS AND
HORTICULTURAL AREAS

CROPLAND ROTATION 8
PERMANENT PASTURE

L A M IN A R

D R A IN A G E

C H A N N E L IZ E D
D R A IN A G E

RECHARGE

RUNOFF

9

BRO ADLEAF
FO REST

FLORA

W ATER

S O N G B IR D S

EN VIR O N M EN T A L

t+ u+

p t
u
0 p t
u
t u

t+ u+

t+U+

I+U+

Hu*

Hu+

t- » u +

t+ u+

0+P+I +
u+

Hu*

o p t*
u+

t-u -

l-u -

t-u -

t-u -

t-u -

t-u -

t-u -

l-u -

l-u -

t-u -

t-u -

»-u-

O tpM +
u+

o

o+ p+ tt
u+

CH-P+1 +

u+

o -p -tu-

1

0 p I
u

0 p t
u

o p t
u
t« u + v +

0 p t
u
Hu»v*

V

v+

v-

V-

vt
v-

v-

v-

V

v-

v-

v-

v-

v-

V

v-

v-

V

V

V-

v-

t u

0 P 1

0 p t
u

v1

tier)

f soil s tr u c tu r e

ersp ersio n

r edge

1

o -p-s-

O -p -S -

o-p-s-

o-p-s-

o-p-s-

o-p-s-

o p q
r so-p-s-

o-p-s-

o-p-s-

o -p -s-

o-p-s-

o -p-s-

o-p-s-

o-p-s-

s-

s-

s-

s-

o p q
r s-

u

o -p-s-

o-p-s-

t-u-

t-u -

t-u -

t-u -

1-u-

op t
u
t-u -

o-p-s-

O -p-5-

l-u -

t-u -

t-u -

t-u -

t-u -

t-u -

t-u -

V

V

0 p I
u

o p t
u

0 p t
u

o-p-t
u

o-p-tu-

o -p -tu-

t

u

op

op

0 p t
u

o p
u

0 p

op

o -p -tu-

o -p -tu-

g in fillro lio n -p erm eab ilily
s d e stru c tio n

o p q
r s-

t h ab itat

h aero bic c o n d itio n s
u c a rry in g c a p a c ity

m e n ta l i m p a c t; d e c re a s e of a co n d itio n , q u a n tity , q u a lity , e tc .)

i qu ality
v beh av io r

j soil m o is tu r e

t

k w a t e r t a b l e le v e l

t-u-

I flo w p o ttern s

CHAPTER V

ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDE FOR DECISION MAKERS

The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s guide a r e t o p r o v id e a s e t o f i n f o r m a t i o n
and p r o c e d u re s t h a t can a i d d e c i s i o n makers i n e v a l u a t i n g en vironm e nts
t h a t may be im pacted by highway a c t i v i t i e s .

This guide i s p r e s e n t e d

h e r e as a t o o l f o r highway p er so n n el t o examine both e x i s t i n g and r e ­
s u l t a n t e n v i r o n m e n ts .

However, t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r o c e d u r e s have

br oad a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o o t h e r c o r r i d o r a n a l y s e s performed in Michigan.
Impacts o f c o r r i d o r s have s i m i l a r e f f e c t s on t h e env ir onm ents th e y
t r a v e r s e , be t h e y t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s , p i p e l i n e s , f i r e l a n e s o r h ig h ­
ways.

Degree o f im pac ts o f t e n w i l l v a r y b u t t h e e c o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s

and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among them a r e t h e same.

Adoption o f t h e s e pro­

ce d u r e s r e d u c e s r e l i a n c e on p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n and f a c i l i t a t e s an i n ­
f o r m a t i o n - g a t h e r i n g c a p a b i l i t y which i s r e p l i c a b l e , q u a n t i f i a b l e and
l e g a l l y functional

( F i g . 11) .

The f i r s t s t e p in d e t e r m in i n g e f f e c t s o f highway a c t i v i t i e s i s t o
q u a n t i f y th e s i z e and t y p e o f v e g e t a t i v e communities t h e pr opose d c o r ­
rid o r w ill tra v e rs e .

S in c e NEPA d i r e c t i v e s r e q u i r e e x a m i n a ti o n o f

a l t e r n a t i v e s , t h i s w i l l n e c e s s i t a t e e x a m ination o f s e v e r a l p o t e n t i a l
routes.

I n f o r m a t i o n on v e g e t a t i v e ty p e s i s a v a i l a b l e f o r a r e a s o f

t h e s t a t e where imagery has been flown and photo i n t e r p r e t e r s have
c l a s s i f i e d t h e v e g e t a t i o n u s in g t h e MLCUCS.

This i n f o r m a t i o n i s c u r ­

r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e f o r highway p l a n n i n g r e g i o n s where f u t u r e c o n s t r u c ­
t i o n i s bein g c o n s i d e r e d .
48

49

ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDE FOR DECISION MAKERS

Q u antify S iz e and Type o f V e g e t a t i v e Communities
Proposed C o r r i d o r Will T r a v e r s e

I d e n t i f y Areas Known t o P o t e n t i a l l y I n c l u d e C r i t i c a l H a b i t a t s
f o r Rare o r Endangered P l a n t s and W i l d l i f e S p e c ie s

None P r e s e n t

Present

Continue
E v a lu a ti o n

Modify
Proposed Route

Q u a n tif y Loss o f H a b i t a t
R e s u l t i n g from P r o j e c t

Select
A l t e r n a t i v e Route

Q u a n t i f y C r e a t i o n o f New
H a b i t a t R e s u l t i n g from P r o j e c t

Determine E f f e c t s o f Proposed Highway A c t i v i t i e s on E x i s t i n g
and R e s u l t a n t Environments Using t h e
Environmental-Highway I n t e r a c t i o n M a tr ix f o r :

Water

Soils

Flora

Fauna

Rank Proposed Routes as t o L e a s t E n v i r o n m e n t a l l y Damaging

F i g u r e 11 . - D e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s t o s e l e c t l e a s t e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y
damaging r o u t e .

50

Once q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e s i z e and t y p e o f e x i s t i n g v e g e t a t i v e
communities i s d e t e r m in e d , highway p l a n n e r s have assembled t h e b a s i c
i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o begin an a s se s sm e n t o f p o t e n t i a l en vi ronme nta l
impacts.

This i s t h e p o i n t a t which many environmental a s s e s s m e n t s in

t h e p a s t have been c o n s i d e r e d co mplete.
Since no p r o j e c t r e c e i v e s ap pro va l i f end an ger ed s p e c i e s w i l l be
a d v e r s e l y im pacted by t h e proposed p r o j e c t , u n a c c e p t a b l e r o u t e s from a
l e g a l v i e w p o i n t can be q u i c k l y r u l e d out by i d e n t i f y i n g a r e a s known t o
i n c l u d e c r i t i c a l h a b i t a t s f o r end an ger ed f l o r a o r fauna.
A p r o c e d u re f o r c o n s i d e r i n g e n dangered a n d / o r t h r e a t e n e d f l o r a
d u r in g t h e r o u t e l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s i s i n d i c a t e d in F i g u r e 12.

By u t i l ­

i z i n g t h e h a b i t a t t y p e and d i s t r i b u t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n which f o llo w s in
c o n j u n c t i o n w i th t h e p r o c e d u re o u t l i n e d in Figure 1 2 , highway
p l a n n e r s can q u i c k l y d e t e r m in e i f pr oposed c o r r i d o r s t r a v e r s e c o u n t i e s
t h a t c o n t a i n c r i t i c a l h a b i t a t s f o r end an ger ed o r t h r e a t e n e d f l o r a .
The v e g e t a t i v e t y p e s and a s s o c i a t e d s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a and fauna con­
t a i n e d in Appendix B i n d i c a t e what s p e c i e s a r e l i k e l y t o be p r e s e n t
with t h e v e g e t a t i v e t y p e being c o n s i d e r e d .
F i e l d s u rv e y s t o d e t e r m in e i f any o f t h e s e s p e c i e s a r e p r e s e n t
and how t h e t o t a l amount o f c r i t i c a l
be conducted .

h a b i t a t w i l l be impacted can th e n

This p r o c e d u r e 1s much more e f f i c i e n t th a n s u g g e s t i n g

a c o r r i d o r and t h e n s e n d in g s t a f f o u t i n t o t h e f i e l d t o i n v e n t o r y
f l o r a and t o d e t e r m in e i f any en da nger ed o r t h r e a t e n e d s p e c i e s a r e
present.

By u t i l i z i n g t h e a f o r e m e n tio n e d p r o c e d u r e , t h e s p e c i e s

which f i e l d s t a f f w i l l be lo o k in g f o r a r e known in adva nc e.

This a l ­

lows f o r f u l l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f what s t a g e o f development t h e p l a n t i s
i n , t i m e o f t h e y e a r most e a s i l y o b s e rv e d i n t h e f i e l d , a s s o c i a t e d

51

Determine what c o u n t i e s t h e proposed
routes w ill tra v e rs e

Check ( F i g . 13). t o d e te r m in e i f any t h r e a t e n e d
o r end an ger ed s p e c i e s oc c u r

None o c c u r

S p e c ie s o c c u r in
counties

What h a b i t a t s w i l l t h e proposed r o u t e s t r a v e r s e ?
I n f o r m a t io n o b t a i n e d from MLCUCS

Are any o f t h e s e h a b i t a t s major h a b i t a t s f o r
t h r e a t e n e d o r endangered s p e c i e s as
i n d i c a t e d i n F ig u r e 13?

No h a b i t a t s t r a v e r s e d
th a t contain threatened

C ritical habitats
encountered

F i e l d s u r v e y s t o de te r m in e i f s p e c i e s a r e p r e s e n t
and how t o t a l amount o f c r i t i c a l h a b i t a t
w i l l be im pacted. P o s s i b l e r o u t e
m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o re duce o r e l i m i n a t e
a d v e r s e impact would a l s o be e v a l u a t e d
in t h e f i e l d

Chose between a l t e r n a t i v e r o u t e s and compare
b e s t r o u t e w i th no highway a l t e r n a t i v e

Figure

. — Proc ed ure s f o r c o n s i d e r i n g t h r e a t e n e d o r en danger ed f l o r a
d u r in g t h e r o u t e l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s .

52

p l a n t s p e c i e s , s o i l s and d r a i n a g e r e g im e s , t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g t h e
l i k e l i h o o d o f o v e r l o o k in g i m p o r t a n t f l o r a .
H a b i t a t t y p e and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f endangered and t h r e a t e n e d f l o r a
a r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e t o augment F ig u re 13.

G r e a t e r numbers o f r a r e s p e ­

c i e s a r e found in t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n and s o u th w e s t e r n c o r n e r s o f t h e
s t a t e and t h e n o r t h e r n t i p o f t h e Lower P e n i n s u l a ( F i g . 13) .

The

s m a l l e s t number o f r a r e s p e c i e s a r e found i n t h e c e n t r a l a r e a s o f
the s ta te .
Endangered and t h r e a t e n e d a q u a t i c and w e tla n d s p e c i e s a r e concen­
t r a t e d in s e v e r a l a r e a s o f t h e s t a t e .

Some a r e in t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n

c o r n e r o f t h e s t a t e , o t h e r s in t h e s o u t h w e s t , and s t i l l o t h e r s have a
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a and n o r t h e r n Lower P e n i n s u l a .
S p e c i e s o c c u r r i n g in r a n g e l a n d h a b i t a t s g e n e r a l l y show a s o u t h e r n d i s ­
tribution.

Woodland s p e c i e s show t h e l e a s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a t t e r n s

bec au se woodland i s well r e p r e s e n t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e .

Although

n o t d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s r e p o r t , end an ger ed and t h r e a t e n e d s p e c i e s a l s o
o c c u r on rock o u t c r o p s , b l u f f s , dune s, and o t h e r sandy a r e a s .

S pec ies

f o r which good h a b i t a t d a t a a r e l a c k i n g o r which o c c u r in more th a n
one t y p e o f h a b i t a t a r e a l s o ex c lu d e d .

For a complete l i s t o f endan­

g e r e d , t h r e a t e n e d o r r a r e v a s c u l a r p l a n t s in M ichiga n, u s e r s a r e r e ­
f e r r e d t o Wagner ( 1 9 7 7 ).
Appendix B a l s o p r o v i d e s t h e s t a t u s and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f endan­
gere d a n d / o r t h r e a t e n e d fauna so t h a t h a b i t a t s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e s e
s p e c i e s can be i d e n t i f i e d .

Once e s t a b l i s h e d , m o d i f i c a t i o n s , i f n e c e s ­

s a r y , t o av oid such a r e a s can be made and t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f o t h e r po­
tential

c o r rid o r s continued.

53

f/UA a a ;

t

a

*A s ' *

A • a.

A •.

A. Counties w ith a t r i a n g l e
have 24 t o 69 endan ge red
o r threatened species;
t h o s e with a s o l i d c i r c l e
have 15 t o 22.

H a b i t a t Type

Endangered
S p e c ie s

B. Counties w ith a t r i a n g l e
have 3 t o 5 t h r e a t e n e d
s p e c i e s ; t h o s e w it h a
s o l i d c i r c l e have from
none t o 2.

T h r e a te n e d
Speci es

T otal
S p e c ie s

Water ( 5)* and
Wetlands (6)

3

79

82

Rangeland (3)

3

30

33

Woodlands (4)

_4

25

29

10

134

144

T o ta l

♦Numbers c o r r e s p o n d t o t h o s e i n MLCUCS.
Figure 1 3 . — H a b i t a t t y p e and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f en dangered and t h r e a t e n e d
p l a n t s i n Michigan (Beaman, 197 7 ) .

54

Knowing what s o i l s , v e g e t a t i o n , d r a i n a g e r e g i m e s , and w i l d l i f e a r e
a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h e v e g e t a t i v e co v e r t y p e s p r o v id e s u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n
abou t what r e s u l t a n t environ ments w i l l be l i k e a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n .

To

p r o v id e d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on what r e s u l t a n t h a b i t a t s would have t o
c o n t a i n t o s u p p o r t d e s i r e d p l a n t and w i l d l i f e s p e c i e s , r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
each were examined.

H a b i t a t r e q u i r e m e n t s , food p r e f e r e n c e s , home r a n g e ,

s t a t u s , and d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r mammals (Appendix B) and b i r d s (Appendix C)
found in Michigan were as se mbled .
With t h e use o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n assembled on a s s o c i a t e d s o i l s ,
d r a i n a g e , v e g e t a t i o n , w i l d l i f e , and t h e d a t a a v a i l a b l e from t h e MLCUCS
(Appendix B), highway p l a n n e r s can q u i c k l y de t e r m in e t h e n a t u r e o f en­
vironments t o be t r a v e r s e d .
Highway c o r r i d o r s may r e s u l t in e i t h e r l o s s o f e x i s t i n g h a b i t a t o r
c r e a t i o n o f new h a b i t a t t y p e s .

Exact f i g u r e s o f such a c r e a g e may be

d i f f i c u l t t o c a l c u l a t e in t h e p r e - c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a g e due t o unknown
parameters.

Such p a r a m e t e r s i n c l u d e v a r y i n g t e c h n i q u e s used by con­

t r a c t o r s , time o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , e x i s t i n g w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , and a b i ­
l i t y o f c o n t r a c t o r s t o e n s u r e p e r s o n n e l f o ll o w s t a t e d plan s p e c i f i c a ­
tio n s.

However, an a t t e m p t s h o u ld be made t o q u a n t i f y t h e s e changes

in o r d e r t o de term in e o v e r a l l im pa cts o f highway a c t i v i t i e s .
Once t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r f l o r a and fauna a r e e s t a b l i s h e d , i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y how highway a c t i v i t i e s may impact t h e r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p s among w a t e r , s o i l s , f l o r a , and faun a in e x i s t i n g and r e s u l t a n t
en v i r o n m e n ts .

To de te r m in e t h e e f f e c t s o f proposed highway a c t i v i t i e s

on e x i s t i n g and r e s u l t a n t e n v ir o n m e n ts , t h e m a t r i x can s e r v e as a u s e ­
ful t o o l ( F ig . 10).

This m a t r i x p r o v id e s a v i s u a l d i s p l a y o f p o t e n ­

t i a l l y impacted environmental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and major a c t i o n s c a u s i n g

55

impacts.

Once p o t e n t i a l im pacts a r e i d e n t i f i e d , examples o f such im­

p a c t s and how t h e y a r e r e l a t e d can be found p r e s e n t e d in C h a p te r I I I .
The f i n a l s t e p in t h e r o u t e l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s wei g hin g o f
a l t e r n a t i v e s and t r a d e - o f f s among p o s s i b l e impacts and m i t i g a t i o n pro­
cesses.

U l t i m a t e l y , p l a n n e r s must make v a lu e judgements and t r a d e - o f f s

in d e t e r m in i n g w h e t h e r a change s h o u ld be av o id e d .
I t was n o t t h e aim o f t h i s p r o j e c t t o p r o v id e a means o f d e c i d i n g
where a highway s h o u ld be l o c a t e d .

R a t h e r i t was t o p r o v id e methods

f o r an o b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e env iron ment in q u e s t i o n , based on
n a t u r a l s c i e n c e p a r a m e te r s t h a t a r e m e a s u r a b le .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p s

among n a t u r a l s c i e n c e p a r a m e t e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d and e v a l u a t e d t o com­
par e highway r o u t e s in a more a n a l y t i c a l way.
and f i n a l

Thus, a pro po se d change

impact can be o b j e c t i v e l y e v a l u a t e d , making i t p o s s i b l e t o

compare s e v e r a l e x i s t i n g and r e s u l t a n t env ir onm ents b e f o r e r o u t e s e l ­
ection.

CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

All highway p r o j e c t s r e q u i r e an environ menta l impact a s s e s s m e n t
before construction is authorized.

Highway a g e n c i e s have been acknow­

led ge d as be ing among t h e l e a d e r s in f i l i n g environmental im pact s t a t e ­
ments.

However, a m ajor c r i t i c i s m o f a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f f i l e d E I S 's

i s t h a t , w h i l e NEPA g u i d e l i n e s a r e f o ll o w e d s u f f i c i e n t l y f o r l e g a l p u r ­
p o s e s , t h e s t a t e m e n t s a r e i n a d e q u a t e i n d e s c r i b i n g how t h e pr op ose d
p r o j e c t a c t u a l l y impacts t h e e n v ironm e nt.
I f e x i s t i n g and r e s u l t a n t envir onm ents impacted by highway a c t i ­
v i t i e s a r e t o be u n d er sto o d so t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o make
wise r e s o u r c e d e c i s i o n s i s p o s s i b l e , an e c o l o g i c a l approach f o r h i g h ­
way r o u t i n g must be a d o p te d .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r highway p e r s o n n e l t o

become aware o f t h e h o l i s t i c co nc ep t o f ec osyst em s which i s b u i l t upon
t h r e e m ajo r e c o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s .

They a r e : 1) t o p r o t e c t c r i t i c a l

en vironm ents and h a b i t a t s ; 2) t o a d o p t a l o n g - t e r m , c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y
approach t o eco syst em management; and 3) p r e v e n t i o n o f i r r e v e r s i b l e
changes in t h e environ ment.
The a d o p t io n o f an eco system approach w ith t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d
p r i n c i p l e s can improve t h e a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e and h e l p a s s u r e t h a t
p r o j e c t im pacts a r e e v a l u a t e d in a more meaningful manner.

By r e ­

f e r r i n g t o t h e m a t r i x , a highway d e c i s i o n maker can r e a d i l y s e e t h e
f a r - r e a c h i n g e nvironm e nta l im pacts r e s u l t i n g from t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
56

57

o p e r a t i o n , and m aintenance o f highways and r e l a t e d s t r u c t u r e s .

Each

a c t i v i t y p r e s e n t s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r impact in a l l n a t u r a l s y s t e m s .

On

t h e m a t r i x , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e d a r e , g e n e r a l l y , o f a primary
n a t u r e and can be d e a l t with as such.

For example, by a l l o w i n g f o r an

a d eq u ate number o f p r o p e r l y i n s t a l l e d c u l v e r t s , w a t e r impoundment can
be a v oided.

These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e economic and e n g i n e e r i n g in n a­

t u r e , and can be d e r i v e d by h y d r a u l i c r e s e a r c h o f t h e a r e a t r a v e r s e d
by t h e highway, c a l c u l a t i n g t h e amount o f w a t e r to be d r a i n e d , and en ­
s u r i n g t h a t t h e r e a r e s u f f i c i e n t funds a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e r e q u i r e d num­
ber o f c u lv e r ts .
A highway d e c i s i o n maker, t h i n k i n g in terms o f an eco sy st em ap­
proach t o problem s o l v i n g , w i l l a l s o c o n s i d e r t h e a r e a s a d j a c e n t t o
t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y (ROW) where t h e s e c o n d a ry impac ts o f highway a c t i ­
v i t i e s occur.

For example, t o o much d r a i n a g e w i l l ca use a d r y in g o f

o r g a n i c s o i l s r e s u l t i n g in a l o s s o f s o i l , v e g e t a t i o n dependent on
t h e s o i l , and a change i n w a t e r t a b l e l e v e l s .

Not enough o r i n t e r ­

rupted drainage w ill cause a lo ss o f w a t e r - i n t o l e r a n t p la n t s p e c ie s .
Some swamp s p e c i e s , on t h e o t h e r h an d, a r e t o l e r a n t t o a high w a t e r
t a b l e b u t a r e s e n s i t i v e and pe rhaps i n t o l e r a n t t o an e x te n d ed p e r i o d
o f excessive flooding.

In such c a s e s , w i l d l i f e a r e a l s o a f f e c t e d by

habitat a lte ra tio n .
A m ajor problem e n c o u n t e r e d by d e c i s i o n makers i s d e te r m in in g
which impacts a r e i m p o r t a n t .

I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t in an a n a l y s i s t h a t

s u b j e c t i v i t y i s i n t r o d u c e d ( C a n t e r , 1975).

Whether an impact i s impor­

t a n t o r not depends t o a g r e a t e x t e n t on who t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r o r ob­
server is .

This shows t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y and

h o l i s t i c "team" approach t o a n a l y s i s and problem s o l v i n g .

The d a t a

58

p r o v id e d by many d i s c i p l i n e s can be i n t e g r a t e d more o b j e c t i v e l y , b u t
t h e im port an ce o f im pacts must be weigh ted i n each c a s e t o add o b j e c ­
t i v i t y t o the f i n a l a n a l y s i s .
Thus, t h e t y p e s o f r e s u l t a n t environ ments c r e a t e d from highway
a c t i v i t i e s can be viewed e i t h e r as d e s i r a b l e o r u n d e s i r a b l e based on
v a l u e judgements o f t h e d e c i s i o n makers.
Van Winkle and o t h e r s (1976) d i s c u s s t h e r o l e o f e c o l o g i s t s in
d e t e r m in i n g t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f environ mental i m p a c t s .

T h e i r fram e­

work c h a r g e s t h e e c o l o g i s t o r ecos ystem manager t o be aware o f c e r t a i n
co n strain ts:
a.

knowledge l i m i t a t i o n s in a s s e s s i n g im pacts a c c u r a t e l y and
w i th some d eg r ee o f c e r t a i n t y ;

b.

t h e r o l e o f v alu e judgements in d e c i s i o n making; and

c.

t h e i n t e r f a c e between p r o g r e s s and en vironme nta l p r o t e c t i o n .

The s i z e and co m p l e x i ty o f an eco sys tem a lo n g w i t h a l a c k o f know­
ledge on t h e p a r t o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n t r o d u c e s a s e t o f compromises
which ecosystem managers must c o n s i d e r in a s s e s s i n g p r o j e c t i m p a c t s .
Andrews (1973) proposes a new t h o u g h t p r o c e s s f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e
consequences o f a l t e r n a t i v e a c t i o n s .

Basic t o t h i s approach i s t h e

r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t im pacts a f f e c t whole s y s t e m s , w h e t h e r n a t u r a l o r
artificial.
fects:

Highway a c t i v i t i e s can cause both g r o s s and s u b t l e e f ­

a change in w i l d l i f e s p e c i e s com po sition i s much l e s s drama­

t i c t h a n w id e s p re a d v e g e t a t i o n a l t e r a t i o n o r d i e - o f f .

Also t h e com­

p l e x i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among ecosystem components may n o t always be
qu ick t o show t h a t an impact has o c c u r r e d .

Thus, an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

n a t u r a l systems and how t h e y can be a l t e r e d i s n e c e s s a r y t o make v a l i d
p r e d i c t i o n s and c o n s c i e n t i o u s d e c i s i o n s .

59

Assessment o f highway im pacts s h o u ld be an on - g o in g p r o c e s s from
t h e i n i t i a l p l a n n in g s t a g e s u n t i l a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n i s com pl et ed .
All s t a g e s o f p l a n n i n g , c o n s t r u c t i o n , o p e r a t i o n and m aintena nc e should
be f l e x i b l e enough t o a l l o w f o r m o d i f i c a t i o n as new impacts a r e d i s ­
covered d u r in g and a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Once t h e approach i n t h i s

s t u d y f o r a n a l y z i n g highway-environment r e l a t i o n s h i p s has been u t i l ­
i z e d , m o n i t o r i n g and management programs sho uld be de ve loped.

Project

impacts sho uld be c o n t i n u o u s l y o b s e r v e d t o d e t e r m in e i f c u r r e n t p r a c ­
t i c e s a r e ad eq u ate f o r f u t u r e highway p r o j e c t s .
The e c o l o g i c a l approach de vel oped in t h i s s t u d y p r o v id e s t h e ba­
s i s f o r improved envir onm ental a s s e s s m e n t and more informed d e c i s i o n
making.

The framework o f t h e MLCUCS was expanded t o i n c l u d e a s s o ­

c i a t e d s o i l g r o u p s , d r a i n a g e r e g i m e s , w i l d l i f e s p e c i e s and end an ge re d
or threatened flo ra .

To p r o v id e i n f o r m a t i o n on what r e s u l t a n t e n v i r ­

onments would have t o c o n t a i n t o s u p p o r t d e s i r e d f a u n a , d e t a i l e d i n ­
f o rm ation on h a b i t a t r e q u i r e m e n t s , d i s t r i b u t i o n , r e s i d e n t s t a t u s , and
food p r e f e r e n c e s o f Michigan b i r d s and mammals was compiled.

This

c o m p i l a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n s e r v e s as t h e b a s i s f o r examining t h e e f ­
f e c t s o f highway a c t i v i t i e s upon t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among s o i l s , w a t e r ,
f l o r a and f a u n a .

Use o f t h e s p e c i e s r e q u i r e m e n t s , m a t r i x , a s s e s s m e n t

framework and gu id e f o r d e c i s i o n makers p r o v id e s a mechanism f o r more
e f f i c i e n t l y and e f f e c t i v e l y comparing p o t e n t i a l im pac ts o f a l t e r n a t i v e
r o u t e s in a more a n a l y t i c a l way b e f o r e r o u t e s e l e c t i o n .

The e c o l o g i ­

cal approach p r e s e n t e d was dev elop ed f o r highway r o u t i n g in Michigan.
However, wit h m o d i f i c a t i o n s t h i s ap proach can be u t i l i z e d f o r any ty p e
o f c o r r i d o r a n a l y s i s in M ichigan .

This ap proach r educes r e l i a n c e on

p erso nal o p i n i o n s , i s r e p l i c a b l e , q u a n t i f i a b l e and l e g a l l y f u n c t i o n a l .

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

CLASSIFICATION, DEFINITION, AND DESCRIPTION OF
MICHIGAN VEGETATIVE ASSOCIATIONS

3

RANGELAND*
Rangeland i s d e f i n e d as a r e a s s u p p o r t i n g e a r l y s t a g e s o f p l a n t s u c ­
c e s s i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f p l a n t communities c h a r a c t e r i z e d by g r a s s e s o r
s h r u b s . In c a s e s where t h e r e i s obvious ev id en ce o f s e e d i n g , f e r ­
t i l i z i n g o r o t h e r c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s , t h e s e a r e a s s h o u ld be mapped
as r o t a t i o n o r improved p a s t u r e ( A g r i c u l t u r a l Land, 2122 and 21 23).
31

Herbaceous Rangeland
Herbaceous r a n g e la n d s a r e dominated by n a t i v e g r a s s e s and f o r b s .
Such a r e a s a r e o f t e n s u b j e c t e d t o c o n tin u o u s d i s t u r b a n c e such
as mowing, g r a z i n g o r bu rnin g to m a i n t a i n t h e herb ac eo us c h a r ­
a c t e r . Typic al p l a n t s p e c i e s a r e q u a c k g r a s s , Kentucky b l u e g r a s s , up land and lowland s e d g e s , r e e d c a n a r y g r a s s , c l o v e r s ,
etc.

32

311

Upland Herbaceous Rangeland

312

Lowland Herbaceous Rangeland

Shrub Rangeland
Shrub r a n g e l a n d s a r e dominated by n a t i v e s h r u b s and low woody
plants.
I f l e f t u n d i s t u r b e d , such a r e a s a r e soon dominated by
young t r e e growth. T yp ic a l s h ru b s p e c i e s i n c l u d e b l a c k b e r r y
and r a s p b e r r y b r i a r s , dogwood, w i l l o w , t a g a l d e r , e t c .
321

Upland Shrub Rangeland

*Ran ge la nds, f o r e s t l a n d s , and w e tla n d s a r e c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o
p l a n t a s s o c i a t i o n s as t h e y a r e i d e n t i f i e d w it h t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f
e c o l o g i c a l s u c c e s s i o n in Michigan. D e f i n i t i o n s f o r w e t la n d s were ex­
t r a c t e d from G o l e t , F r a n c i s C. and L a rs o n , Joseph S. (G /L), " C l a s s i f i ­
c a t i o n o f F r e s h w a te r Wetlands i n t h e G l a c i a t e d N o r t h e a s t , " U.S. D e p a r t­
ment o f t h e I n t e r i o r , Bureau o f S p o r t F i s h e r i e s and W i l d l i f e Resource
P u b l i c a t i o n 116, 1974, m o d if ie d f o r Michigan c o n d i t i o n s (Michigan Land
Use C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and R e f e r e n c in g Committee, 1976).
60

61
4

FOREST LAND
F o r e s t l a n d s a r e l a n d s t h a t a r e a t l e a s t 10 p e r c e n t s to c k e d by t r e e s
pr od ucing an i n f l u e n c e on t h e c l i m a t e o r w a t e r regime. F o r e s t l a n d
can g e n e r a l l y be i d e n t i f i e d r a t h e r e a s i l y from h i g h - a l t i t u d e imagery.
Lands from which t r e e s have been removed t o l e s s th an 10 p e r c e n t
s t o c k i n g b u t which have n o t been dev elo ped f o r o t h e r use a r e a l s o
i n c l u d e d . For example, l a n d s on which t h e r e i s f o r e s t r o t a t i o n ,
i n v o l v i n g c l e a r - c u t t i n g and bloc k p l a n t i n g , a r e p a r t o f F o r e s t Land.
On such l a n d s , when t r e e s r each m a r k e t a b l e s i z e , which f o r pulpwood
in t h e S o u t h e a s t e r n U nited S t a t e s may o c c u r i n two t o t h r e e d e c a d e s ,
t h e r e w i l l be l a r g e a r e a s t h a t have l i t t l e o r no v i s i b l e f o r e s t
growth. The p a t t e r n can sometimes be i d e n t i f i e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f
c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s in t h e m i d s t o f a l a r g e expan se o f f o r e s t . Un­
l e s s t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e o f o t h e r u s e , such a r e a s o f l i t t l e o r no
f o r e s t growth s h o u ld be i n c l u d e d i n t h e F o r e s t Land c a t e g o r y .
Lands t h a t meet t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r F o r e s t Land and a l s o f o r a
h i g h e r use c a t e g o r y s h o u l d be p l a c e d i n t h e h i g h e r c a t e g o r y . Shrub
communities w i l l be mapped un der Rangeland ( u p la n d ) and Wetland
(low land).
41

B r oadleaved F o r e s t ( g e n e r a l l y deciduou s )
In Michigan t y p i c a l s p e c i e s a r e oak, m aple, b e e c h , b i r c h , a s h ,
h i c k o r y , a s p e n , cottonwoo d, and y e l l o w p o p l a r .

42

411

Upland Hardwoods

412

Aspen, White B i r c h , and A s s o c i a t e d S p e c ie s

413

Lowland Hardwoods

C o n if e r o u s F o r e s t
C o n if er o u s f o r e s t s i n c l u d e a l l f o r e s t e d a r e a s i n which t h e t r e e s
a r e p r e d o m in a n tly t h o s e w ith n e e d le f o l i a g e .
In Michigan t h e s e
would i n c l u d e s p e c i e s such as p i n e , s p r u c e , bals a m , l a r c h , hem­
l o c k , and c e d a r .

43

421

Upland C o n i f e r s

422

Lowland C o n if e r s

Mixed C o n i f e r - B r o a d l e a v e d F o r e s t
Mixed f o r e s t land i n c l u d e s a l l f o r e s t e d a r e a s where both b r o a d ­
l e a v e d and c o n i f e r o u s t r e e s a r e growing.
431

Upland Hardwoods and Pine A s s o c i a t i o n s

432

Aspen, Birch w i t h C o n i f e r A s s o c i a t i o n s

62

6

433

Lowland Hardwoods w i t h Cedar, S p r u c e , Tamarack, E t c . Asso­
ciations

434

Upland C o n i f e r s w i th Maple, Elm, Ash, Aspen, and B i r c h ,
E tc . A s s o c i a t i o n s

435

Lowland C o n i f e r s w ith Maple, Elm, Ash, Aspen, B i r c h , E tc.
Associations

WETLANDS
Wetlands a r e t h o s e a r e a s where t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s a t , n e a r , o r above
t h e l a n d s u r f a c e f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f most y e a r s . The hydro­
l o g i c regime i s such t h a t a q u a t i c o r h y d r o p h y ti c v e g e t a t i o n u s u a l l y
i s e s t a b l i s h e d , a l t h o u g h a l l u v i a l and t i d a l f l a t s can be non­
v e g e t a t e d . Wetlands a r e f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d w it h t o p o g r a p h i c lo w s ,
even in mountainous r e g i o n s . Examples o f w e tla n d s i n c l u d e m ar sh es ,
m u d f l a t s , wooded swamps, and f l o a t i n g v e g e t a t i o n s i t u a t e d on t h e
s h a l l o w margins o f b a y s , l a k e s , r i v e r s , ponds, s t r e a m s , and manmade impoundments such a s r e s e r v o i r s . They i n c l u d e wet meadows o r
per c h e d bogs i n high mountain v a l l e y s and s e a s o n a l l y wet o r f l o o d e d
b a s i n s o r p o t h o l e s w i t h no s u r f a c e w a t e r o u t f l o w . Shallow w a t e r
a r e a s w i th submerged a q u a t i c v e g e t a t i o n a r e c l a s s e d as Water and
a r e n o t i n c l u d e d in t h e Wetlands c a t e g o r y .
Wetland a r e a s d r a i n e d f o r any purpose belong t o o t h e r la n d use c a t e ­
g o r i e s , w h e th e r i t be A g r i c u l t u r a l Land, Range land, F o r e s t Land, o r
Urban and B u i l t - U p Land. When t h e d r a i n a g e i s d i s c o n t i n u e d and such
use c e a s e s , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n r e v e r t s t o Wetlands a f t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
v e g e t a t i o n i s r e - e s t a b l i s h e d . Wetlands managed f o r w i l d l i f e purposes
may show s h o r t - t e r m changes i n v e g e t a t i v e t y p e and wetne ss c o n d i t i o n
as d i f f e r e n t management p r a c t i c e s a r e u s ed, b u t a r e p r o p e r l y c l a s s i ­
f i e d Wetlands.
Two s e p a r a t e b o u n d a r i e s a r e i m p o r t a n t w i th r e s p e c t t o w e t l a n d d i s ­
c r i m i n a t i o n : t h e upper w e t l a n d boundary above which p r a c t i c a l l y
any c a t e g o r y o f l a n d c o v e r may e x i s t , and t h e boundary between wet­
la n d and open w a t e r beyond which t h e a p p r o p r i a t e Water c a t e g o r y
sh o u ld be employed.
F o r e s t e d Wetland and N o n - F o res ted Wetland a r e t h e Level I I c a t e ­
g o r i e s o f W etland s .
61

F o r e s t e d (wooded) Wetlands
F o r e s t w e tl a n d s i n c l u d e s e a s o n a l l y f lo o d e d bottom land hardwoods,
s h ru b swamps, and wooded swamps i n c l u d i n g t h o s e ar ou nd bogs .
Because f o r e s t e d w e t l a n d s can be d e t e c t e d and mapped u s in g s e a ­
sonal (w inte r/ summ er) im ag er y, and be caus e d e l i n e a t i o n o f f o r ­
e s t e d w e t l a n d i s needed f o r many e n vironm e nta l p l a n n i n g a c t i ­
v i t i e s , t h e y a r e s e p a r a t e d from o t h e r f o r e s t la n d . Wooded
swamps and f l o o d p l a i n s c o n t a i n p r i m a r i l y o a k , r e d m aple, elm,
a s h , a l d e r , and w il lo w . Bogs t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n l a r c h , b l a c k

63

s p r u c e , and h e a th s h r u b s .
w ill o w , and b u tt o n b u s h .
(611)

Shrub swamp v e g e t a t i o n i n c l u d e s a l d e r ,

Wooded swamps (mapped unde r f o r e s t r y c a t e g o r i e s 413, 422,
433, 435)
This c l a s s a p p l i e s t o w e tla n d s dominated by t r e e s . The
s o i l s u r f a c e i s s e a s o n a l l y f lo o d e d w i th up t o one f o o t
o f w ater. Several le v e ls o f v e g e ta tio n a re u s u a lly pre­
s e n t , i n c l u d i n g t r e e s , s h r u b s , and herb ac eo us p l a n t s .
B r oa dl ea ve d swamps would be p l a c e d in t h e f o r e s t r y c a t e ­
gory 413 and 433; c o n i f e r o u s swamps a r e p l a c e d i n f o r e s t r y
c a t e g o r y 422 and 435. Wooded bogs a r e p l a c e d in f o r e s t r y
c a t e g o r y 422 and 435

612

Shrub Swamps
This c l a s s a p p l i e s t o w e t la n d s
the soil surface is seasonally
as much as 12 i n c h e s o f w a t e r .
p l a n t s p r o v id i n g c o v e r b en eath
and s e n s i t i v e f e r n . Meadow o r
areas.

62

dominated by s hru bs where
o r per m an en tly f lo o d e d with
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c emergent
t h e s h ru b s a r e t h e sedge
marsh emergents occupy open

Non- Fores ted (non-wooded) Wetlands
N o n - f o r e s t e d w e t la n d s a r e dominated by w e tl a n d herbaceous vege­
t a t i o n . These w etlands i n c l u d e i n l a n d n o n - t i d a l f r e s h m ar sh es ,
f r e s h w a t e r meadows, wet p r a i r i e s , and open bogs. The f o ll o w i n g
a r e examples o f v e g e t a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i th n o n - f o r e s t e d w e t l a n d .
Na rro w- leav ed emergents such as c o r d g r a s s and ru sh a r e dominant
i n c o a s t a l m a r sh e s . Both n a r r o w - l e a v e d em ergents such as c a t ­
t a i l , b u l r u s h , se dg es and o t h e r g r a s s e s , and b r o a d - l e a v e d emer­
g e n ts such as w a t e r l i l y , p i c k e r e l w e e d , arrow arum, and ar row ­
head a r e t y p i c a l o f f r e s h w a t e r l o c a t i o n s . Mosses and se dg es
grow i n wet meadows and bogs.
(621)

Marshland Meadow
This c l a s s a p p l i e s t o w e t la n d s dominated by meadow emer­
g e n t s , w ith up t o s i x i n c h e s o f s u r f a c e w a t e r i n t h e
l a t e f a l l , w i n t e r and e a r l y s p r i n g . During t h e growing
s e a s o n , t h e s o i l i s s a t u r a t e d and t h e s u r f a c e exp ose d,
e x c e p t i n s h a ll o w d e p r e s s i o n s and d r a i n a g e d i t c h e s .
Meadows oc cur most commonly on a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d where
p e r i o d i c g r a z i n g o r mowing keeps s h ru b s from growing.

622

M udfl ats
M u d fla ts i n c l u d e a r e a s s u p p o r t i n g l i t t l e o r no v e g e t a t i o n
exposed d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f low w a t e r .

64

623

Shallow Marshes
This c l a s s a p p l i e s t o w e tl a n d s dominated by r o b u s t o r marsh
em e r g e n ts , with an a v e r a g e w a t e r depth o f l e s s th an s i x
i n c h e s d u r in g t h e growing s e a s o n . S u r f a c e w a t e r may be
p r e s e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r o r a b s e n t d ur in g t h e l a t e sum­
mer and ab norm al ly dry p e r i o d s . F l o a t i n g le a v e d p l a n t s
and submergents a r e u s u a l l y p r e s e n t in open a r e a s . Duck­
weed i s o f t e n ab undant in q u i e t w a t e r . Submergents a r e
p rim a rily shallow -w ater species l i k e c o o n ta il, bladderw ort,
and waterweed. Cover p l a n t s g e n e r a l l y occupy 50 p e r c e n t o f
t h e marsh a r e a .

624

Deep Marshes
This c l a s s a p p l i e s to w e t la n d s w i th an a v e r a g e w a t e r dep th
between s i x i n c h e s and t h r e e f e e t d u r i n g t h e growing s e a ­
son. Emergent marsh v e g e t a t i o n i s u s u a l l y dominant, w ith
s u r f a c e and submergent p l a n t s p r e s e n t in open a r e a s . Cover
p l a n t s g e n e r a l l y occupy l e s s th a n 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e marsh
area.

APPENDIX B

VEGETATIVE TYPES AND ASSOCIATED SOILS,
WATER, FAUNA AND FLORA

RANGELAND— Areas s u p p o r t i n g e a r l y s t a g e s o f p l a n t s u c c e s s i o n c o n s i s t ­
in g o f p l a n t communities c h a r a c t e r i z e d by g r a s s e s o r s h r u b s .
V egetative types i d e n t i f i e d w ithin t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n are
Upland Herbaceous Range land, Lowland Herbaceous Rangeland,
and Upland Shrub Rangeland. Each o f t h e s e v e g e t a t i v e t y p e s
p r o v id e h a b i t a t f o r s e v e r a l end an ger ed a n d / o r t h r e a t e n e d
p l a n t s p e c i e s t h a t a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i th r a n g e l a n d s . The
prim ary endangered p l a n t s i n c l u d e B a p t i s i a leucop haea (cream
w i l d i n d i g o ) , G enti ana s a p o n a r i a (so ap wort g e n t i a n ) , and
P e ta l ostemon purpureum ( r e d p r a i r i e c l o v e r ) . F a m il ie s which
c o n t a i n one o r more t h r e a t e n e d s p e c i e s i n r a n g e l a n d h a b i t a t
a r e Cyperaceae (1 s p e c i e s ) , Poaceae ( 4 ) , Acanthaceae ( 1 ) ,
Ap iaceae ( 1 ) , A s c l e p i a d a c e a e ( 3 ) , A s te aceae ( 1 0 ) , Convolv u l a c e a e ( 1 ) , Fabaceae ( 1 ) , G e n tia n a c e a e ( 1 ) , Lamiaceae ( 1 ) ,
Rosaceae ( 3 ) , S c h r o p h u l a r i a c e a e ( 1 ) , V i o l a c e a e (1) (Beaman,
1977).
S o i l s , d r a i n a g e and fauna a s s o c i a t e d w ith r a n g e l a n d s vary
from one v e g e t a t i v e t y p e t o a n o t h e r and a r e t h e r e f o r e d e s ­
c r i b e d f o r each o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .
Upland Herbaceous Rangeland— Dominated by n a t i v e g r a s s e s
and f o r b s .
S o i l s and W a t e r . S o i l s a r e well d r a i n e d t o m o d e r a t e ly
wel l d r a i n e d w it h c h a n n e l i z e d s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s .
Laminar d r a i n a g e w i l l o c c u r o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y o v e r f l a t ,
uniform a r e a s d u r i n g o r a f t e r heavy p r e c i p i t a t i o n . The
minera l n a t u r e o f t h e s o i l f a c i l i t a t e s high r a t e s o f i n ­
f i l t r a t i o n p r e v e n t i n g s e v e r e e r o s i o n when v e g e t a t i v e
c o v e r i s p r e s e n t . S u r f a c e w a t e r s m i g r a t e to ward lower
e l e v a t i o n s when g e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e sub­
s o i l p r e v e n t v e r t i c a l movement.
W i l d l i f e . W i l d l i f e s p e c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Upland Her­
baceous Rangeland a r e waterfowl ( n e s t i n g ) , marsh and
s h o r e b i r d s , uplan d game b i r d s , b i r d s o f p r e y , s o n g b i r d s ,
f u r and game mammals, and small mammals.
65

66
Lowland Herbaceous Rangeland— Dominated by n a t i v e g r a s s e s
and f o r b s .
S o i l s and M a te r . S o i l s a r e m o d e r a t e l y well d r a i n e d t o
somewhat p o o r l y d r a i n e d w ith c h a n n e l i z e d s u r f a c e d r a i n ­
age p a t t e r n s . Laminar flow o c c u r s o v e r f l a t , uniform
a r e a s d u r in g o r a f t e r p e r i o d s o f heavy o r f r e q u e n t p r e ­
cip itation.
U s u a lly high i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s depending
upon d i s t a n c e t o w a t e r t a b l e from t h e s o i l s u r f a c e .
L i t t l e damage from e r o s i o n o c c u r s given v e g e t a t i v e
c o v e r e x i s t s . Ground w a t e r may be n e a r t h e s o i l s u r ­
f a c e a t v a r i o u s tim es o f t h e y e a r , b u t i s u s u a l l y found
b en eath t h e s o i l s u r f a c e . Soil p r o f i l e s a r e well de­
velo ped with c o l l o i d a l m a t e r i a l being l e a c h e d from t h e
A h o r iz o n .
Wi 1 d l i f e . W i l d l i f e s p e c i e s a s s o c i a t e d with Lowland Her­
baceous Rangeland i n c l u d e water fowl ( n e s t i n g ) , upland
game b i r d s , s o n g b i r d s , f u r and game mammals, and small
mammal s.
Upland Shrub Rangeland— Dominated by n a t i v e sh rubs and low
wood p l a n t s .
S o i l s and W a t e r . S o i l s a r e well d r a i n e d t o m od e r a te ly
we ll d r a i n e d with c h a n n e l i z e d s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s .
The miner al n a t u r e o f t h e s o i l w ith weakly developed p r o ­
f i l e s f a c i l i t a t e s high r a t e s o f i n f i l t r a t i o n .
L ittle
e r o s i o n o ccurs u n l e s s heavy p r e c i p i t a t i o n caus es s p l a s h
e r o s i o n on s l o p i n g a r e a s w i t h o u t v e g e t a t i v e c o v e r . Such
c o n d i t i o n s may r e s u l t i n g u l l e y e r o s i o n .
W i l d l i f e . Upland Shrub Rangeland p r o v id e s h a b i t a t f o r
w a t e r f o w l , upland game b i r d s , b i r d s o f p r e y , s o n g b i r d s ,
f u r and game mammals, and small mammals.
FOREST LAND— Lands t h a t a r e a t l e a s t 10 p e r c e n t s to c k e d by t r e e s p r o ­
ducing an i n f l u e n c e on t h e c l i m a t e o r w a t e r regime. Vege­
t a t i v e ty p e s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a r e
B ro adleaved F o r e s t , C o n if e r o u s F o r e s t , and Mixed C o n i f e r B r oadleaved F o r e s t . Each o f t h e s e v e g e t a t i v e t y p e s i s
f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o subgroups ba sed on t h e topogra phy
where t h e y a r e p r e s e n t ( u p la n d o r l o w la n d ) . Each o f t h e s e
v e g e t a t i v e t y p e s p r o v id e h a b i t a t f o r s e v e r a l endangered
a n d / o r t h r e a t e n e d s p e c i e s o f p l a n t s . The primary s p e c i e s
found i n woodlands a r e A rnica c o r d i f o l i a ( h e a r t - l e a v e d
a r n i c a ) , Castan ea d e n t a t a (American c h e s t n u t ) , I s o t r i a
medeo loides ( s m a l l e r whorled p o g o n i a ) , and Polygonaturn
b i f l o r u m v a r . melleum ( S o lo m o n - s e a l ) . F a m ili e s which cont a i n one o r more t h r e a t e n e d s p e c i e s i n woodland h a b i t a t s
a r e Cyperaceae (1 s p e c i e s ) , L i l i a c e a e ( 4 ) , O r ch idac ea e ( 4 ) ,
A raliaceae ( 1 ), A risto lo c h ia c e a e ( 1 ), Asteraceae ( 1 ),

67

B o r ag in aceae ( 1 ) , C a p r i f o l i a c e a e ( 2 ) , E r i c a c e a e ( 1 ) , Fabaceae
( 1 ) , H i p pocas ta naceae ( 1 ) , Polemoniaceae ( 1 ) , and Ranunculaceae (1) (Beaman, 1977).
S o i l s , d r a i n a g e and fauna a s s o c i a t e d w ith F o r e s t Land v a r y
from one v e g e t a t i v e t y p e t o a n o t h e r and a r e t h e r e f o r e d e s ­
c r i b e d f o r each o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .
Upland Hardwoods— Deciduous s p e c i e s i n c l u d i n g s u g a r m aple,
r ed maple, elm, be ech, y e l l o w b i r c h , c h e r r y , r e d oak and
w h i t e oak.
S o i l s and W ater . S o i l s a r e well d r a i n e d t o m o d e r a t e l y
well d r a i n e d w it h c h a n n e l i z e d s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s .
U s u a l ly l i t t l e damage from e r o s i o n with high i n f i l t r a ­
t i o n r a t e s on l e v e l ground , however, heavy r u n o f f may
cause g u l l e y e r o s i o n as s u r f a c e w a t e r s m i g r a t e t o lower
e l e v a t i o n s o v e r exposed s o i l s u r f a c e s . S o i l s a r e m inera l
with g e n e r a l l y t h i c k e r A h o r iz o n s in maple and beech a s ­
s o c i a t i o n s th a n in oak o r b i r c h a r e a s . S o i l s i n maple
o r beech a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e l i k e l y t o be loams o r sandy
loams whereas b i r c h o r oak a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e san ds o r
loamy s a n d s .
M i l d l i f e . W i l d l i f e s p e c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Upland Hard­
woods a r e upland game b i r d s , b i r d s o f p r e y , s o n g b i r d s ,
f u r and game mammals, and small mammals.
Aspen, White B ir ch and A s s o c i a t e d S p e c ie s
S o i l s and W a te r . S o i l s a r e m o d e r a t e l y well t o somewhat
p o o r ly d r a i n e d w i th c h a n n e l i z e d d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s . S o i l s
a r e m ineral and sandy in t e x t u r e , w it h weakly dev el oped
h o r iz o n s and high i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s .
L i t t l e damage
from e r o s i o n o c c u r s give n a d e q u a te ground c o v e r and l e v e l
ground. S lo p i n g a r e a s w i t h exposed s o i l s a r e s u b j e c t t o
g u l l e y e r o s i o n d u r in g p e r i o d s o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n and heavy
surface runoff.
W i l d ! i f e . W i l d l i f e s p e c i e s found in Aspen and White
Birch A s s o c i a t i o n s a r e upland game b i r d s , b i r d s o f p r e y ,
s o n g b i r d s , f u r and game mammals, and small mammals.
Lowland Hardwoods--Deciduous s p e c i e s i n c l u d i n g a s h , elm and
maple.
S o i l s and W a te r . S o i l s a r e m o d e r a t e l y well d r a i n e d t o
somewhat p o o r ly d r a i n e d b u t may f r e q u e n t l y be p o o r l y
d r a i n e d i n elm o r ash a s s o c i a t i o n s . Both l a m i n a r and
c h a n n e l i z e d d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s a r e found depending upon
t h e depth t o t h e w a t e r t a b l e . L i t t l e damage from e r o ­
s i o n o c c u r s as a r e s u l t o f s u r f a c e r u n o f f i n t h e s e low­
lan d a r e a s . S i l t a t i o n from o v e r f l o w o f a d j a c e n t

68

waterways may a l t e r t e x t u r a l com posi ti on o f t h e s o i l .
S o i l s a r e p r e d o m in a n tl y minera l b u t may have a high p e r ­
c e n t a g e o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r in t h e A h o r i z o n . Ground w a t e r
may o c c u r a t t h e s u r f a c e dur in g most p e r i o d s and some lam­
i n a r flow w i l l move w a t e r h o r i z o n t a l l y a t v e r y slow r a t e s .
M i l d l i f e . Lowland Hardwoods p r o v id e h a b i t a t f o r b i r d s o f
p r e y , s o n g b i r d s , f u r and game mammals, and small mammals.
Upland C o n i f e r s — C o niferous s p e c i e s i n c l u d i n g w h i t e p i n e ,
r ed p i n e , j a c k p i n e , s c o t c h p in e and w h i t e s p r u c e .
S o i l s and M a t e r . S o i l s a r e well d r a i n e d t o m o d e r a te ly
well d r a i n e d w i th c h a n n e l i z e d d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s . High
i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s f a c i l i t a t e t h e v e r t i c a l movement o f
w a t e r th ro u g h t h e m i n e r a l , u s u a l l y sandy s p o d o s o l s o r
podzols which have weakly dev elope d p r o f i l e s . Thus
e r o s i o n i s o n l y a problem when v e g e t a t i v e co v e r i s l a c k ­
in g o r heavy r u n o f f o v e r s l o p e s cau ses t h e f o r m a t i o n o f
gullies.
M i l d ! i f e . M i l d ! i f e s p e c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i th Upland Coni­
f e r s i n c l u d e upland game b i r d s , b i r d s o f p r e y , s o n g b i r d s ,
f u r and game mammals, and small mammals.
Lowland C o n i f e r s — C o n if e r o u s s p e c i e s i n c l u d i n g c e d a r , b l a c k
s p r u c e , tamarack and balsam f i r .
S o i l s and M a te r . S o i l s a r e somewhat p o o r ly d r a i n e d t o
p o o r ly d r a i n e d i n c e d a r o r tamarack a s s o c i a t i o n s and
m o d e r a t e ly well d r a i n e d t o well d r a i n e d i n b a l s a m - f i r
and s p r u c e a s s o c i a t i o n s . The w a t e r t a b l e may be n e a r
o r a t t h e s o i l s u r f a c e where c e d a r and tamarack p r e ­
dom inat e, whereas w a t e r t a b l e s w i l l be f u r t h e r below t h e
s o i l s u r f a c e in s p r u c e and f i r a r e a s . Laminar d r a i n a g e
w i l l o c c u r depending upon t h e l e v e l o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e
and u n i f o r m i t y o f s o i l e l e v a t i o n .
I n filtra tio n rates
w i l l depend upon t h e dep th t o t h e w a t e r t a b l e and amount
o f o r g a n i c a c c u m u la tio n on t h e s o i l . G e n e r a l l y t h e r e i s
l i t t l e o r no e r o s i o n damage u n l e s s s e v e r e f l o o d i n g o c­
c u r s . S o i l s a r e m i n e r a l , o r min eral w it h a s i g n i f i c a n t
ov er burd en o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r .
W i l d l i f e . W i l d l i f e s p e c i e s found i n Lowland C o n i f e r s
a r e b i r d s o f p r e y , up land game b i r d s , s o n g b i r d s , f u r and
game mammals, and small mammals.
Upland Hardwoods and Pine A s s o c i a t i o n s — Both b r o a d l e a v e d
and decidu ous t r e e s a r e growing t o g e t h e r i n c l u d i n g p in e s
found i n Upland C o n i f e r s and decidu ous s p e c i e s found i n
Upland Hardwoods.

69

S o i l s and M a t e r . S o i l s a r e well d r a i n e d t o m o d e r a t e l y
well d r a i n e d w it h c h a n n e l i z e d s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s .
I n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s due t o t h e m in era l n a t u r e o f t h e s o i l
a r e g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r in b i r c h , c h e r r y , and oak s i t e s , and
lower i n m aple, elm, and beech a r e a s . L i t t l e damage from
e r o s i o n o c c u r s when t h e ground s u r f a c e and s l o p e s a r e
v e g e t a t e d . S i g n i f i c a n t s p l a s h e r o s i o n can o c c u r i f p r e ­
c i p i t a t i o n i s n o t i n t e r c e p t e d by t h e o v e r s t o r y canopy.
Large amounts o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n may m i g r a t e o v e r t h e s o i l
s u r f a c e and r e s u l t in g u l l e y e r o s i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y on
slopes.
In maple, elm o r beech a r e a s s o i l s a r e l i k e l y
t o be loamy w ith well d evelo ped p r o f i l e s , whereas in
b i r c h , oak o r c h e r r y a r e a s s o i l s a r e l i k e l y t o be sandy
w ith weakly dev elop ed h o r i z o n s .
M i l d l i f e . Upland Hardwoods and Pine A s s o c i a t i o n s p r o v id e
h a b i t a t f o r upland game b i r d s , b i r d s o f p r e y , s o n g b i r d s ,
f u r and game mammals, and small mammals.
Aspen, Birch and C o n i f e r A s s o c i a t i o n s
S o i l s and M a te r . S o i l s a r e m o d e r a t e l y well d r a i n e d t o
somewhat p o o r ly d r a i n e d w ith c h a n n e l i z e d s u r f a c e d r a i n ­
age.
I n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s a r e high which p r e v e n t s damage
from e r o s i o n by s u r f a c e r u n o f f when v e g e t a t i v e c o v e r i s
present.
I f ground c o v e r i s s p a r s e (<30%), g u l l e y e r o ­
s i o n may o c c u r d u r in g p e r i o d s o f heavy r u n o f f . S o i l s
a r e m in er al and sandy in t e x t u r e w i t h weakly dev elop ed
horizons.
Mi 1d l i f e . B i r d s o f p r e y , s o n g b i r d s , f u r and game mammals,
and small mammals a r e found i n Aspen, Birch and C o n i f e r
A ssociations.
Lowland Hardwoods w i t h C eda r, S p r u c e , Tamarack, E tc.
S o i l s and M a t e r . S o i l s a r e somewhat p o o r ly d r a i n e d t o
p o o r ly d r a i n e d . Both c h a n n e l i z e d and l a m i n a r s u r f a c e
d r a i n a g e may o c c u r . Rate o f i n f i l t r a t i o n w i l l depend
upon depth t o w a t e r t a b l e and t e x t u r e a t s o i l s u r f a c e
which may be a l t e r e d by s i l t a t i o n .
Small a r e a s o f low­
la n d p r o v id e e f f i c i e n t s ed im en t t r a p s f o r flo w in g s u r ­
f a c e w a t e r where d e p o s i t i o n o c c u r s . S oil may be m i n e r a l ,
o r m iner al w it h a s i g n i f i c a n t o r g a n i c ov er burd en w it h
high c a t i o n exchange c a p a c i t i e s f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s o f
time.
M i l d ! i f e . M i l d l i f e s p e c i e s found in Lowland Hardwood
with Ceda r, S p r u c e , Tamarack, E tc . A s s o c i a t i o n s a r e
b i r d s o f p r e y , s o n g b i r d s , f u r and game mammals, and
small mammals.

70

Upland C o n i f e r s w it h Maple, Elm, Ash, Aspen, Etc.
S o i l s and W a te r . S o i l s a r e g e n e r a l l y well d r a i n e d t o
m o d e r a t e l y well d r a i n e d w i th c h a n n e l i z e d s u r f a c e d r a i n ­
age.
Erosio n damage may o c c u r on s l o p e s and a r e a s w i th
s p a r s e v e g e t a t i v e c o v e r . S o i l s a r e m i n e r a l , sandy t e x t u r e d w i th low c a t i o n exchange c a p a c i t y and high i n f i l ­
t r a t i o n r a t e s . A h o r iz o n s a r e t h i n and s o i l p r o f i l e s
a r e weakly develop ed .
W i l d l i f e . Birds o f p r e y , s o n g b i r d s , f u r and game mam­
m a l s , and small mammals a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h i s h a b i t a t
ty p e .
Lowland C o n i f e r s with Maple, Elm, Ash, Aspen, B i r c h , E tc .
S o i l s and W a te r . S o i l s a r e m o d e r a te ly well d r a i n e d to
p o o r ly d r a i n e d where c e d a r and tam ar ac k pre dom in a te .
M o d erately well d r a i n e d s o i l s oc c u r where s p r u c e and
balsam p r ed o m in a te . Both c h a n n e l i z e d and l a m i n a r s u r ­
f a c e d r a i n a g e may o c c u r . Rates o f i n f i l t r a t i o n w i l l
depend upon depth t o w a t e r t a b l e and s o i l t e x t u r e .
L i t t l e e r o s i o n o c c u r s given abundant p l a n t growth un­
l e s s f l o o d i n g o c c u r s . S o i l s a r e m ineral o r mineral w it h
a s i g n i f i c a n t o r g a n i c o v er b u rd en .
W i l d ! i f e . W i l d l i f e s p e c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i th t h i s h a b i t a t
ty p e i n c l u d e b i r d s o f p r e y , s o n g b i r d s , f u r and game mam­
m a l s , and small mammals.
WETLANDS— Wooded swamps, sh rub swamps, marsh land meadows, m u d f l a t s ,
s h a llo w m arsh es, and deep m a r s h e s . Wetlands p r o v id e h a b i ­
t a t f o r many endanger ed a n d / o r t h r e a t e n e d p l a n t s p e c i e s .
Endangered s p e c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w it h w e t l a n d s and w a te r
h a b i t a t s a r e Che!one o b i i q u a ( p u r p l e t u r t l e h e a d ) , Nelumbo
p e n t a p e t a l a (American l o t u s ) , and S c i r p u s h a l l i i . F a m il ie s
which c o n t a i n one o r more t h r e a t e n e d s p e c i e s in wetlands
and w a t e r h a b i t a t s i n c l u d e Araceae (1 s p e c i e s ) , Cyperaceae
( 1 4 ) , J u n c a c e a e ( 3 ) , Lemnaceae ( 1 ) , L i l i a c e a e ( 3 ) , Orch ida ceae ( 4 ) , Poaceae ( 1 0 ) , Potamogetonaceae ( 5 ) , Ruppiaceae
( 1 ) , A ca nthac ea e ( 1 ) , A piace ae ( 1 ) , A s t e r a c e a e ( 3 ) , B r a s s i ca ceae ( 2 ) , Con vo lvulace ae ( 3 ) , E r i c a c e a e ( 1 ) , G en tian aceae
( 2 ) , H alo r ag aceae ( 1 ) , L e n t i b u l a r i a c e a e ( 1 ) , Malvaceae ( 1 ) ,
Nymphaeaceae ( 2 ) , Onagraceae ( 2 ) , Polemoniaceae ( 1 ) , Polygonaceae ( 1 ) , S a l i c a c e a e ( 1 ) , S a r r a c e n i a c e a e ( 1 ) , Scrophul a r i a c e a e ( 5 ) , V a l e r i a n a c e a e ( 1 ) , and V i o l a c e a e (1) (Bea­
man, 19 77) .
S o i l s and W a te r . Wetlands a r e t h o s e a r e a s where t h e
w a t e r t a b l e i s a t , n e a r o r above t h e l a n d s u r f a c e f o r
a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f most y e a r s . S i n c e t h e s e a r e a s
a r e a l l s a t u r a t e d as a r e s u l t o f high w a t e r t a b l e s ,

71

s o i l s a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h e s e v e g e t a t i v e t y p e s a r e predom­
i n a t e l y p o o r ly d r a i n e d o r g a n i c s and m i n e r a l s . Erosion
damage i s very l i m i t e d s i n c e most w etl and a r e a s a r e i n
low e l e v a t i o n s and a r e r e c e i v i n g sedim ents r a t h e r th a n
l o s i n g s o i l m a t e r i a l s . Some s o i l removal may o c c u r on
m u d f l a t s when mineral m a t e r i a l with l i t t l e o r no p r o f i l e
development i s exposed d u r in g p e r i o d s o f low w a t e r .
W i l d ! i f e . Wetlands p r o v id e h a b i t a t f o r w a t e r f o w l , marsh
and s h o r e b i r d s , b i r d s o f p r e y , s o n g b i r d s , f u r and game
mammals, and small mammals.

APPENDIX C

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND
RESIDENT STATUS OF MICHIGAN BIRDS

Waterfowl
Michigan p r o v i d e s h a b i t a t f o r 29 s p e c i e s o f waterfowl (Swans,
Geese, Ducks) which a r e members o f t h e o r d e r Ans eri form es and t h e
f a m il y A n a t i d a e . All o f t h e s e s p e c i e s o c c u r i n Michigan a t some
time o f t h e y e a r e x c e p t f o r t h e European Widgeon which i s a r a r e
visitor.
The two s p e c i e s o f swans o c c u r r i n g in Michigan a r e t h e W h i s t l i n g
Swan which p a s s e s thro ugh lower Michigan d u r in g m i g r a t i o n , and t h e
i n t r o d u c e d Mute Swan which n e s t s in n o r t h e r n lower Michigan. The Mute
Swans n e s t in c a t t a i l o r b u l r u s h marshes where th e y fe e d upon t h e
l e a v e s , s t e m s , and t u b e r s o f submergent and emergent v e g e t a t i o n . Some
o f t h e s e swans have been a b l e t o o v e r w i n t e r where f e e d i n g programs were
initiated.
Among t h e g e e s e , o n l y c e r t a i n i n t r o d u c e d Canada Geese b r e e d in
t h e s t a t e (McWhirter, 1977). Most Canada Geese and a l l Snow Geese a r e
m i g r a n t s . Some Canadas do o v e r w i n t e r i n t h e e a s t e r n and s o u th w e s t e r n
s e c t i o n s o f t h e s t a t e . Numbers o f g e e s e peak d u r in g t h e months o f
October-November and M a rc h - A p r il.
Geese f e e d i n s h a llo w w a t e r t o o b t a i n r o o t s , t u b e r s , and s h o o ts
o f a q u a t i c p l a n t s . However, t h e y p r e f e r c e r e a l and f e e d g r a i n s found
on a g r i c u l t u r a l u p l a n d s .
The 25 s p e c i e s o f ducks t h a t o c c u r r e g u l a r l y in Michigan may be
d i v i d e d i n t o d a b b l e r s and d i v e r s . Some s p e c i e s n e s t i n M ichigan , some
o v e r w i n t e r , some o c c u r a l l y e a r , and o t h e r s a r e t r a n s i e n t s .
Peak pop­
u l a t i o n s f o r a l l s p e c i e s u s u a l l y o c c u r in October-November and MarchA pril .
S p e c ie s t h a t do n o t n e s t in Michigan s e l e c t s i t e s in m ar sh es ,
hardwood, c o n i f e r and sh rub swamps, g r a s s y and s h ru b u p l a n d s , t r e e
c a v i t i e s i n wooded u p l a n d s , and on rock l e d g e s .
Food h a b i t s v a r y from s p e c i e s t o s p e c i e s b u t f o r t h e d a b b l e r s as
a g ro u p , i m p o r t a n t foods a r e s e e d s , r o o t s , t u b e r s , s t e m s , and l e a f y
p a r t s o f submergent and emergent v e g e t a t i o n , b e r r i e s , w a s t e c o r n ,
p h y t o p l a n k t o n ( S h o v e l e r ) , a c o r n s (Wood Duck), i n s e c t s ( d a b b l e r c h i c k s )
and m o l l u s k s . Da bb lers f i n d t h e i r food i n s h a l l o w w a t e r s o f m a r sh e s ,
swamps, ponds, l a k e s , m u d f l a t s and u p l a n d s .
72

73

Diving ducks as a group a r e more l i k e l y t o e a t animal m a t t e r .
T h e i r food c o n s i s t s o f i n s e c t s ( a d u l t and l a r v a e ) , c lam s, s n a i l s , f i s h ,
and f i s h eggs.
Plant m a te ria ls eaten are the seeds, r o o ts , t u b e r s ,
ste m s , and l e a f y p a r t s o f submergent and emergent p l a n t s . Divers a r e
known t o fe e d both i n s h a llo w o r deep a r e a s o f m ar sh es , pond s, l a k e s ,
and s tr e a m s .
Marsh and Shore Birds
For t h e pu rpose s o f t h i s r e p o r t , f i v e o r d e r s i n c l u d i n g 14 f a m i l i e s
and 73 s p e c i e s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d as marsh and s h o r e b i r d s .
The Gav iifor mes ( l o o n s ) a r e d i v i n g b i r d s found on l a k e s and a lo n g
c o a s t s where t h e y f eed on f i s h . Only t h e Common Loon n e s t s on Michi­
gan l a k e s . Nes ts a r e b u i l t i n t h e w a t e r on p i l e s o f v e g e t a t i o n among
weeds and b r u s h .
F ish make up t h e d i e t . The Common Loon i s c o n s i d e r e d
a common summer r e s i d e n t o f t h e n o r t h and a t r a n s i e n t i n s o u th e r n
Michigan ( W a lla c e , 1977). Some lo o n s a r e found on t h e G r e a t Lakes in
w inter.
Among t h e P o d i c ip e d if o r m e s ( g r e b e s ) o n l y one i s a summer r e s i d e n t ,
others are tr a n s ie n ts .
Grebes a r e found on t h e Great Lakes, i n l a n d
l a k e s , ponds and p o t h o l e s n e a r s h o re (W allace, 1977). A f l o a t i n g n e s t
i s c o n s t r u c t e d in t h i c k e t s . Grebes fee d on f i s h , f r o g s , i n v e r t e b r a t e s ,
i n s e c t s , s e e d s and o t h e r v e g e t a b l e m a t t e r ( W a ll a c e , 1977). They a r e
c o n s id e r e d common (W a lla c e , 1977 ).
P e l i c a n s and co rm orants belong t o t h e o r d e r P e l i c a n i f o r m e s . The
White P e l i c a n i s c o n s i d e r e d a c c i d e n t a l i n Michigan (McWhirter, 19 77) .
The D o u b l e - C r e ste d Cormorant i s t r a n s i e n t , though o c c a s i o n a l l y n e s t s
in t h e s t a t e and i s c o n s i d e r e d r a r e (W a lla c e , 1977). I t i s found on
i s l a n d s , alo n g c o a s t s and on l a k e s c l o s e t o i t s prim ar y food s o u r c e
f i s h (W all ace, 1977).
The o r d e r C ic o n ii f o r m e s ( h e r o n s , b i t t e r n s , e g r e t s and i b i s e s ) a r e
wading b i r d s found alo ng t h e edges o f l a k e s , ponds, r i v e r s and s tr e a m s
and i n m ar sh es . They n e s t in t r e e s .
F i s h , f r o g s and i n v e r t e b r a t e s
a r e t h e main food i t e m s . These b i r d s a r e summer r e s i d e n t s and a r e
common, r a r e (W a lla c e , 1977), o r i r r e g u l a r (McWhirter, 19 77).
C ran es , r a i l s and c o o ts a r e a l l members o f t h e o r d e r G ru ifo r m es.
They a r e
e i t h e r summer r e s i d e n t s o r t r a n s i e n t s . S a n d h i l l Cranes a r e
found i n g r a i n f i e l d s and marshes where t h e y e a t g r a i n , v e g e t a t i o n ,
f r o g s , c r a y f i s h and o t h e r i n v e r t e b r a t e s (W a lla c e , 1977). Wallace
(1977) s t a t e s t h e y a r e i n c r e a s i n g i n numbers.
The
r a i l and c o o t a r e found
in marshes and swamps where t h e y con­
struct a
f l o a t i n g n e s t among b u l r u s h e s . T h e i r d i e t c o n s i s t s o f s eeds
and i n s e c t s . These s p e c i e s ra nge from common t o uncommon ( W a ll a c e ,
1977).

74

The o r d e r with t h e l a r g e s t number o f s p e c i e s in t h e i r group i s t h e
C h a r a d r i i f o r m e s ( g u l l s , t e r n s , s a n d p i p e r s , p l o v e r s ) . Most o f t h e s e
s p e c i e s a r e t r a n s i e n t b u t some a r e summer r e s i d e n t s and o t h e r s a r e p e r ­
manent. H a b i t a t r a n g e s from c o a s t a l a r e a s , l a k e s , r i v e r s and marshes
t o meadows and upland f i e l d s .
N e s t in g a r e a s a r e gr a v e l and sa nd b e a c h e s ,
r o c k s , m a r s h e s , and upland p a s t u r e s .
Foods consumed a r e f i s h , c a r r i o n ,
i n s e c t s , m o l l u s k s , C r u s t a c e a , s e e d s , b e r r i e s , a l g a e , and o t h e r p l a n t
m a t e r i a l . S p e c ie s ra nge from common t o r a r e ( W a l l a c e , 1977; McWhirter,
1977). The P ip in g P l o v e r , a t r a n s i e n t o c c u r r i n g alo n g b e a c h e s , i s
l i s t e d as t h r e a t e n e d ( W a lla c e , 197 7 ) .
Upland Game B ir d s
There a r e 10 p s e c i e s o f uplan d game b i r d s i n M ichigan; e i g h t nonmi g r a t o r y s p e c i e s o f t h e o r d e r G a l l i f o r m e s ( g a l l i n a c i o u s b i r d s ) , and
two m i g r a t o r y s p e c i e s o f t h e o r d e r C h a r a d r i i f o r m e s ( s h o r e b i r d s ) . All
10 s p e c i e s a r e ground n e s t e r s .
The g a l l i n a c i o u s game b i r d s i n c l u d e g r o u s e , q u a i l , p h e a s a n t , p a r ­
t r i d g e , and t u r k e y . The r u f f e d g r o u s e ( Bonasa u m b e l !u s ) i s common in
n o r t h e r n Michigan, but e x i s t s o n l y i n small p ockets in s o u t h e r n Michi­
gan ( W a lla c e , 19 77 ). Although i t u t i l i z e s d i f f e r e n t s e r a i s t a g e s o f
hardwoods, t h e s p e c i e s i s p r i m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h sec o n d -g r o w th h a r d ­
woods, n o t a b l y aspen ( Populus s p p . ) . A v a r i e t y o f buds , t w i g s , l e a v e s ,
f r u i t s and b e r r i e s comprise i t s d i e t .
The s p ru c e g r o u s e ( C a n a c h i te s c a n a d e n s i s ) i s s c a r c e , o c c u r r i n g i n
t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a and in s c a t t e r e d a r e a s o f t h e n o r t h e r n Lower P en in­
s u l a ( W a l la c e , 1977). The s p e c i e s i n h a b i t s s p r u c e ( P i c e a s p p . ) f o r e s t s
and swamps. I t n e s t s under s p r u c e t r e e s and i n heavy b r u s h . C o n i f e r
buds, t w i g s , f r u i t s , l e a v e s and i n s e c t s c o n s t i t u t e i t s food.
The s h a r p - t a i l e d g r o u se ( P e d i c e t e s p h a s i a n e l l u s ) i s s c a r c e to d a y
in Michigan ( S t e a r n s and L i n d s l e y , 1977 ). The s p e c i e s i s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h p r a i r i e and b r u s h l a n d h a b i t a t s .
I t n e s t s in t a l l g r a s s , shrubby
u p l a n d s , o r i n v e g e t a t i o n a lo n g s t r e a m s .
In w i n t e r i t may u t i l i z e
wooded a r e a s . S h o o t s , t w i g s , l e a v e s , and buds make up most o f i t s d i e t .
The g r e a t e r p r a i r i e c h ick en (Tympanchus c u p i d o ) has been n e a r l y ex­
t i r p a t e d from Michigan ( W a l l a c e , 19 77 ). P r a i r i e l a n d s and marsh l a n d s
are i t s preferred h a b itats.
I t n e s t s in g r a s s , low s h r u b s , and o c c a ­
s i o n a l l y i n woodlands. Seeds and b e r r i e s comprise i t s d i e t .
The bo b - w h ite q u a i l ( C o lin u s V i r g i n i a n u s ) i s common i n s o u t h e r n
Michigan (McWhirter, 19 7 7 ) . The s p e c i e s n e s t s i n t a l l g r a s s found i n
shru bby f i e l d s and f e n c e rows. S e e d s , g r a i n s and i n s e c t s a r e i t s ma­
j o r food s o u r c e .
The r i n g - n e c k e d p h e a s a n t ( Phasia nus c o l c h i c u s ) i s a s u c c e s s f u l ,
i n t r o d u c e d s p e c i e s which i s common in Michigan ( W a l la c e , 197 7). The
s p e c i e s i s most abundan t where l a n d s a r e h e a v i l y c u l t i v a t e d i n row
crops.
I t n e s t s in g r a s s , sh rubb y e d g e s , f e n c e rows and i n r o a d s i d e
v e g e t a t i o n . Seeds and g r a i n s a r e i t s main food i t e m s .

75

The w i l d t u r k e y (M e le a g r is g a l l o p a v o ) i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ope n,
m at ure hardwood f o r e s t s i n t e r s p e r s e d w it h g r a s s y o p e n i n g s . Lindsay
(1967) e s t i m a t e s t h e s p e c i e s r e q u i r e s from 5,000 t o 15,000 a c r e s t o
be s u c c e s s f u l l y managed. Once removed from Michigan , i t has been s u c ­
c e s s f u lly reintroduced.
I t i s now common in some p a r t s o f t h e s t a t e .
Hardwood mast i s i t s most i m p o r t a n t f ood. S eed s , g r a s s e s , b e r r i e s ,
f r u i t s , and g r a s s h o p p e r s a r e a l s o e a t e n .
The American woodcock ( P h i l o h e l a m i n o r ) and t h e common s n i p e
( C a p e l l a g a l l i n a g o ) a r e c l a s s i f i e d t a x o n o m i c a l l y as s h o r e b i r d s , b u t
a r e c o n s i d e r e d as upland game b i r d s f o r management p u r p o s e s . Both
u t i l i z e upland a r e a s f o r p a r t o f t h e i r h a b i t a t .
The woodcock, o r t i m b e r d o o d l e , i s a common m i g r a n t p r e s e n t in
Michigan from s p r i n g t o f a l l (W a lla c e , 197 7). The s p e c i e s u t i l i z e s
bo gs, s h r u b l a n d s , p a s t u r e s , o l d f i e l d s and woody a r e a s . A l d e r ( Alnus
s p p . ) s w al es a r e used f o r daytime c o v e r ; o l d f i e l d s a r e used f o r n i g h t ­
tim e r o o s t i n g . Nests u s u a l l y a r e i n swamps, b r u s h l a n d s , o r more com­
monly, in f i e l d e d g e s . The woodcock f e e d s by pr o b in g m o i s t , s o f t s o i l s
f o r earthworms and i n s e c t s .
The common s n i p e , a l s o c a l l e d W i l s o n ' s s n i p e , o r j a c k s n i p e , i s
a n o t h e r common m i g r a n t t o Michigan p r e s e n t from s p r i n g t o f a l l (Wal­
l a c e , 1977). Bogs, m a r s h e s , and m u d f l a t s a r e i t s p r e f e r r e d h a b i t a t s .
Shallow f r i n g e a r e a s o f p e a t bogs a r e e x c e l l e n t b r e e d i n g h a b i t a t s and
need t o be p r e s e r v e d ( F o g a r t y and A r n o ld , 1977).
I n s e c t s , ear th worm s,
c r u s t a c e a n s and m o ll usk s com pris e i t s d i e t .
B i r d s o f Prey
B i r d s o f prey belong t o two o r d e r s : F a l c o n i f o r m e s , comprised o f
t h e v u l t u r e s , hawks, f a l c o n s , and e a g l e s ; and S t r i g i f o r m e s , made up o f
ow ls.
In Michigan t h e r e o c c u r one s p e c i e s o f v u l t u r e , 14 s p e c i e s o f
hawks, f a l c o n s and e a g l e s , and 11 s p e c i e s o f ow ls . Not a l l o f t h e s e
s p e c i e s r e s i d e i n t h e s t a t e . The P e r e g r i n e f a l c o n and t h e M e rl in o r
Pigeon hawk a r e t r a n s i e n t s , w h i l e among t h e owls t h e G r e a t Gray and
t h e Hawk owl a r e l i s t e d as a c c i d e n t a l s , o c c u r r i n g o n l y v e r y r a r e l y .
The o t h e r s a r e e i t h e r summer, w i n t e r , o r permanent r e s i d e n t s .
N e s t i n g and h a b i t a t r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e v a r i e d . Turkey v u l t u r e s n e s t
on t h e ground i n dense b r u s h , on c l i f f s , i n c a v e s , and i n r o t t e d s tum ps .
Most o f t h e hawks, f a l c o n s , and e a g l e s n e s t i n t r e e s i n d e c i d u o u s ,
c o n i f e r o u s o r mixed woods. E x c e p tio n s a r e t h e Rough-legged hawk which
a l s o n e s t s on c l i f f s o r al ong r i v e r banks and t h e Marsh hawk which n e s t s
on o r n e a r t h e ground i n m a r s h e s , swamps, s l o u g h s , wet meadows, and
g r a s s y and b rush y u p l a n d s . Bald e a g l e s and Osprey u s u a l l y n e s t i n t r e e s
n e a r w a t e r . General h a b i t a t r e q u i r e m e n t s ra n g e from marshes and c o a s t a l
a r e a s t o meadows, woodland e d g e s , and f o r e s t s .
C a r r i o n i s t h e food o f Turkey v u l t u r e s and may be a m a j o r p o r t i o n
o f t h e d i e t f o r Bald e a g l e s . Bald e a g l e s and Osprey a r e p r i m a r i l y f i s h
e a t e r s . Small mammals, b i r d s , f r o g s , s n a k e s , and i n s e c t s a r e t h e major
prey f o r t h e o t h e r b i r d s o f p r e y .

76

Wallace (1977) names o n l y t h e Turkey v u l t u r e , R e d - t a i l e d hawk,
Broad-winged hawk, Marsh hawk, and K e s tr e l (Sparrow hawk) as common.
Thus t h e m a j o r i t y o f b i r d s o f prey i n Michigan a r e c o n s i d e r e d t h r e a ­
tened, scarce or ra re .
Among t h e o w ls , most n e s t i n woodlands o r f o r e s t s in c o n s t r u c t e d
n e s t s o r t r e e c a v i t i e s . The Barn owl may a l s o n e s t under ground, alo ng
banks and even i n b u i l d i n g s . S h o r t - e a r e d owls n e s t on t h e ground in
f i e l d s and m a r s h e s . H a b i t a t r e q u i r e m e n t s i n c l u d e parks and s u b u r b s ,
open c o u n t r y such as meadows, f i e l d s and m a r s h e s , w o o d l o t s , and h a r d ­
wood and c o n i f e r o u s f o r e s t s .
R a b b i t s , s q u i r r e l s , o t h e r small mammals, b i r d s , and i n s e c t s a r e
t h e major prey s p e c i e s o f ow ls . Wallace l i s t s o n l y t h e G r e a t Horned
owl and t h e Scr ee ch owl ( r a r e i n n o r t h e r n Michigan) as common. Other
owls a r e uncommon, r a r e o r s c a r c e .
Songbirds
For t h e pu rp os es o f t h i s r e p o r t , seven o r d e r s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d
as s o n g b i r d s . These o r d e r s a r e Columbiformes ( d o v e s ) , Cuculiformes
( c u c k o o s ) , Ca primulgifo rm es ( w h i p - p o o r - w i l l s ) , Apodiformes ( s w i f t s and
hummingbirds), C a r a c i i f o r m e s ( k i n g f i s h e r s ) , P i c i f o r m e s ( w oodpeckers),
and P a s s e r i f o r m e s ( f l y c a t c h e r s , s w a l lo w s, w r e n s , t h r u s h e s , v i r e o s ,
w a r b l e r s , f i n c h e s , e t c . ) . Within t h e seven o r d e r s a r e 28 f a m i l i e s and
161 s p e c i e s .
For t h e names o f each s p e c i e s and i t s r e s i d e n c y s t a t u s ,
r e f e r t o t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t o f " R e s i d e n t S t a t u s o f Michigan B i r d s . "
There i s v i r t u a l l y no l a n d h a b i t a t i n which s o n g b ir d s do n o t o c­
c u r in Michigan. A change i n any h a b i t a t w i l l have some impact on t h e
d i v e r s i t y and c o m p o s it io n o f s p e c i e s i n t h a t a r e a . Due t o t h e l a r g e
number o f s p e c i e s , d i v e r s i t y o f h a b i t s and h a b i t a t s r e q u i r e d and t h e
l i m i t e d scope o f t h i s e s s a y , t h e highway d e v e l o p e r i s r e f e r r e d to
Bent ( 1 9 1 9 -1 9 6 8 ) , Wallace ( 1 9 7 7 ) , McWhirter ( 1 9 7 7 ) , Wood ( 1 9 5 1 ) , and
Zimmerman ( 1 9 5 9 ) , f o r d e t a i l e d n a t u r a l h i s t o r y i n f o r m a t i o n .

77

RESIDENT STATUS OF MICHIGAN BIRDS*

Key:

T = Transient

(UP) = Upper P e n i n s u l a

SR = Summer R e s id e n t

(N) = North

WR = Winter R e s i d e n t

(S) = South

PR = Permanent R e s id e n t
Acc = A c c id e n ta l o r Rare
V isitor

(SW) = Southwest
(GL) = G r e a t Lakes

Waterfowl
Mute Swan
W h i s t l i n g Swan
Canada Goose
Bran t
Snow Goose
Mai l a r d
Black Duck
Gadwal1
Pintail
Green-winged Teal
Blue-winged Teal
European Widgeon
American Widgeon
S h o v e le r
Wood Duck
Redhead
Ring-necked Duck
Canvasback
G r e a t e r Scaup
L e s s e r Scaup
Common Goldeneye
B u f f ie h e a d
01dsquaw
Eider (spp.)
White-winged S c o t e r
Surf Scoter
Common S c o t e r
♦Compiled by Michael Thomas in Davis ( 1 9 7 8 ).

Status
PR
T
T SR PR
Acc
T
PR
PR (s)
T
T
T
SR
Acc
T
T SR (UP)
SR
T
SR (N)
T
T
T WR (GL)
WR
T WR (S)
WR (GL)
Acc
T WR (GL)
Acc
Acc

78

Waterfowl

Ruddy Duck
Hooded Merganser
Common Merganser
R e d - b r e a s t e d Merganser

Status

T
SR
WR
WR

B ir ds o f Prey
Turkey V u l t u r e
Goshawk
S h a r p - s h i n n e d Hawk
C o o p e r 's Hawk
R e d - t a i l e d Hawk
R e d - s h o u ld e re d Hawk
Broad-winged Hawk
Rough-legged Hawk
Golden Eagle
Bald Eagle
Marsh Hawk
Osprey
Gyr fa lco n
P e r e g r i n e Falcon
M e rlin
Kestrel
Barn Owl
S creech Owl
G r e a t Horned Owl
Snowy Owl
Hawk Owl
B arred Owl
Great Gray Owl
Long- eared Owl
S h o r t - e a r e d Owl
Boreal Owl
Saw-whet Owl

SR
WR
SR PR (S)
SR PR (S)
SR PR (S)
SR
SR
WR
WR
PR
SR PR (S)
SR
Acc
T
T SR (N)
SR PR {S)
PR (S)
PR
PR
WR
Acc
PR
Acc
PR
PR
WR
PR

Marsh and Shore B ir d s
Common Loon
R e d - t h r o a t e d Loon
Red-necked Grebe
Horned Grebe
P i e d - b i l l e d Grebe
White P e l i c a n
D o u b l e - c r e s t e d Cormorant
Gr eat Blue Heron
Green Heron
L i t t l e Blue Heron
C a t t l e E g r et
Common E g r et

SR (UP)
T
T
T
SR
Acc
SR (UP)
SR
SR
Acc
SR (S)
Acc

Marsh and Shore Birds
Snowy Eg ret
Black-crowned Night Heron
Yellow-crowned Night Heron
L e ast B i t t e r n
American B i t t e r n
Glossy I b i s
S a n d h i l l Crane
King Rail
V i r g i n i a Rail
Sora
Yellow Rail
Black Rail
Common G a l l i n u l e
American Coot
Semi pal mated P lo v e r
P iping P lo ver
Kil 1 d e e r
American Golden P l o v e r
B l a c k - b e l l i e d P lover
Ruddy Tu rn sto ne
Whimbrel
Upland P l o v e r
S p o tte d Sandpiper
S o l i t a r y Sandp ip er
Wi 11e t
G r e a t e r Yell owlegs
L e s s e r Yell owlegs
Knot
Ruff
P u r p le S andpiper
P e c t o r a l Sand piper
White-rumped S an dpip er
B a i r d ' s Sandpiper
L e a s t S an dp iper
Dunlin
S h o r t - b i l l e d Dowitcher
L o n g - b i l l e d Dowitcher
S t i l t S andpiper
Semi palm ated Sandpip er
Western Sandpiper
B u f f - b r e a s t e d San d p ip er
Marbled Godwit
Hudsonian Godwit
Sanderling
American Avocet
Red P h alarope
W i l s o n ' s Phalaro pe
N orther n P ha larop e
P a r a s itic Jaeger
Glaucous Gull
I c e l a n d Gull

Status
Acc
SR
Acc
SR
SR
Acc
SR
SR (S)
SR
SR
T
SR
SR (S)
SR
T
SR (GL)
SR
T
T
T
T
SR
SR
T
Acc
T
T
T
Acc
Acc
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
Acc
Acc
Acc
T
Acc
Acc
Acc
Acc
Acc (GL)
Acc
Acc

80

Marsh and Shore Birds

Status

Great Bl ac k-bac ked g u l l
Herri ng Gull
R i n g - b i l l e d Gull
F r a n k l i n ' s Gull
B o n a p a r t e ' s Gull
L i t t l e Gull
F o r s t e r ' s Tern
Common Tern
Caspian Tern
Black Tern

UR
PR (GL)
PR (GL)
Acc
T
Acc
T
T SR (GL)
T
SR

Upland Game Birds
American Woodcock
Common Snipe
Turkey
Spruce Grouse
Ruffed Grouse
S h a r p - t a i l e d Grouse
G r e a t e r P r a i r i e Chicken
Bobwhite
Ring-necked P heas ant
Gray P a r t r i d g e

PR
PR
PR
PR

SR
SR
PR
(N) (Non-game)
PR
(N) (Non-game)
(N) (Non-game)
PR (S)
PR (S)
(S) (Non-game)

Songbirds
Rock Dove
Mourning Dove
Y e l l o w - b i l l e d Cuckoo
B l a c k - b i l l e d Cuckoo
Whip- po or-w ill
Common Nighthawk
Chimney S w i f t
R u b y - t h r o a te d Hummingbird
Belted K ingfisher
Yellow-shafted F lic k e r
P i l e a t e d Woodpecker
R e d - b e l l i e d Woodpecker
Red-headed Woodpecker
Y e l l o w - b e l l i e d S aps ucker
Ha ir y Woodpecker
Downy Woodpecker
Black -b ac ked T h r e e - t o e d Woodpecker
Nor thern T h r e e - t o e d Woodpecker
E a s t e r n Kingbird
Western King bird
Great C r e s t e d F l y c a t c h e r
E a s t e r n Phoebe
Y ellow -bellied F ly catch er

PR
SR PR OS)
SR
SR
SR
SR
SR
SR
SR
SR PR (S)
PR
PR (S)
SR
SR PR (S)
PR
PR
PR (N)
Acc
SR
Acc
SR
SR
SR (N)

81

Songbirds

Acadian F l y c a t c h e r
T r a i l l ' s Flycatcher
Least F lycatcher
E a s t e r n Wood Pewee
O live-sided Flycatcher
Horned Lark
Tree Swallow
Bank Swallow
Rough-winged Swallow
Barn Swallow
C l i f f Swallow
P u r p le M artin
Gray Jay
Blue Jay
Common Raven
Common Crow
Blac k- ca ppe d Chickadee
Boreal Chickadee
T u f t e d Titmouse
W h i t e - b r e a s t e d Nuthatch
R e d - b r e a s t e d Nuthatch
Brown Creeper
House Wren
Bewick's Wren
Win ter Wren
C a r o l i n a Wren
L o n g - b i l l e d Marsh Wren
S h o r t - b i l l e d Marsh Wren
Mockingbird
Catbird
Brown T h r a s h e r
Robi n
V a r ie d Thrush
Wood Thrush
Hermit Thrush
S w a in s o n 's Thrush
Gray-cheeked Thrush
Veery
Eastern Bluebird
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher
Golden-crowned K i n g l e t
Ruby-crowned K i n g l e t
Water P i p i t
Bohemian Waxwing
Cedar Waxwing
Northe rn S h r i k e
Loggerhead S h r ik e
Starling
White-eyed Vir eo
Y e l l o w - t h r o a t e d V ireo
S o l i t a r y Vir eo

Status

SR (S)
SR
SR
SR
SR (N)
PR
SR
SR
SR
SR
SR
WRS (N)
PR
PR (N)
PR
PR
PR (UP)
PR (S)
PR
SR PR (S)
SR (N), WR (S)
SR
SR (S)
T SR (N)
PR (S)
SR
SR
SR (S)
SR
SR
SR PR (S)
Acc
SR
SR (N)
SR (UP)
T
SR
SR
CD

SR (UP)
T
T
Acc
PR
SR
SR
PR
SR (S)
SR
SR (.N)

82

Songbirds

Red-eyed Vireo
P h i l a d e l p h i a V ireo
Warbling Vireo
B l a c k - a n d - w h i t e Warbler
P r o t h o n o t a r y Warbler
Worm-eating Warbler
Golden-winged Warbler
Blue-winged W ar bler
T e nness ee Warbler
Orange-crowned Warbler
N a s h v i l l e Warbler
P a r u la Warbler
Yellow Warbler
Magnolia W ar bler
Cape May Warbler
B l a c k - t h r o a t e d Green W ar bler
Cerulean Warbler
B la ck b u r n ian W ar bler
C h e s t n u t - s i d e d Warbler
B a y - b r e a s t e d Warbler
B la ck p o ll Warbler
Pine Warbler
K i r t l a n d ' s Warbler
P r a i r i e W ar bler
Palm Warbler
Ovenbird
No rthe rn W a te r th ru s h
L o u is ia n a W a t e r th ru s h
Kentucky W ar bler
C o n n e c ti c u t Warbler
Mourning Warbler
Y e l lo w th r o a t
Y e l l o w - b r e a s t e d Chat
Hooded W ar bler
W i l s o n ' s Warbler
Canada Warbler
American R e d s t a r t
House Sparrow
Bobolink
E a s t e r n Meadow!ark
Western Meadowlark
Yellow-headed B l a c k b i r d
Red-winged B l a c k b i r d
Orchard O r i o l e
N orther n O r i o l e
Rusty B l a c k b i r d
B r e w e r 's B l a c k b i r d
Common G rac kle
Brown-headed Cowbird
S c a r l e t Ta nag er
Cardinal

Status

SR
T
SR
SR
SR (S)
Acc
SR
SR
SR (UP)
T
SR (N)
SR (N)
SR
SR (N)
T
SR
SR
SR (N)
SR
SR (UP)
SR (UP)
SR (N)
SR
SR
T
SR
SR
SR
SR (SW)
SR (N)
SR
SR
SR
SR (SW)
T
SR
SR
PR
SR
PR (S)
SR (UP)
SR (UP)
SR
SR
SR
SR (UP)
SR (UP)
SR
SR
SR
PR (S)

83

Songbirds

R o s e - b r e a s t e d Grosbeak
Ind ig o Bunting
Dickcissel
P u r p le Finch
House Finch
Evening Grosbeak
Pine Grosbeak
Hoary Redpoll
Common Redpoll
Pine S i s k i n
American Go ldfin ch
Red C r o s s b i l l
White-winged C r o s s b i l l
R u f o u s - s i d e d Towhee
Savannah Sparrow
G rass hopper Sparrow
Le C o n te's Sparrow
Hens l o w 's Sparrow
S h a r p - t a i l e d Sparrow
Lark Bunting
Ve spe r Sparrow
Lark Sparrow
Dark-eyed Junco
Oregon Junco
T ree Sparrow
Chipping Sparrow
Cl a y - c o l o r e d Sparrow
F i e l d Sparrow
H a r r i s ' Sparrow
White-crowned Sparrow
Golden-crowned Sparrow
W h i t e - t h r o a t e d Sparrow
Fox Sparrow
L i n c o l n ' s Sparrow
Swamp Sparrow
Song Sparrow
Lapland Longspur
Snow Bunting

Status

SR
SR
SR
PR (N), WR (S)
Acc
PR (N ), WR (S)
WR
WR
WR
WR
DP

PR (N)
PR (N)
SR
SR
SR
T
SR
T
Acc
SR
^R
SR (N), WR (S)
Acc
WR
SR
T
SR
Acc
T
Acc
SR (N)
T
T
PR (S)
PR (S)
WR
WR

APPENDIX D

DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT REQUIREMENTS, STATUS AND
FOOD PREFERENCES OF MICHIGAN MAMMALS

SPECIES:

Pi del phis m ar su p ial i s
Common Name:

STATUS:

Opossum

Abundant (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: Omnivore

FOOD PREFERENCES: C a r r i o n , f r u i t s , n u t s , p o u l t r y , i n s e c t s ( B u r t , 1972);
m o s t ly animal food i n a l l s e a s o n s : w i n t e r — 83%, s p r i n g — 95%,
summer— 87%, f a l l — 83% ( M a r t i n , 1 9 6 1 ) ; from 52 stomachs 80%
was animal m a t t e r — c a r r i o n ; p l a n t s e a t e n were g r a p e s , pokeweed, e l d e r b e r r i e s , and ground c h e r r i e s ( P h y g a l i s s p . ) (Taube,
1947).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Wooded a r e a s ; a l m o s t any s h e l t e r i t can f i n d ; i t
may use d e s e r t e d dens o f o t h e r a n i m a l s , un der b u i l d i n g s , bru sh
p i l e s , o r use t r e e dens ( B u r t , 1972).
HOME RANGE: Mean d i s t a n c e — 697 f t (2 1 2 .5 m) (Holmes, 19 65); 1680 f t
(512 m) ( V e r t s , 196 3).

SPECIES:

Ursus amer icanus
Common Name:

STATUS:

Black b e a r

R a r e , p r o t e c t e d (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: Omnivore

84

85

FOOD PREFERENCES: B e r r i e s and o t h e r f l e s h y f r u i t s , as well as a c o r n s ,
b e e c h n u t s , and pi ne s ee ds a r e s t a p l e s . S e r v i c e b e r r y a l s o
consumed; animal food c o n s i s t s o f i n s e c t s , f i s h , and small
mammals ( B u r t , 1972).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: P r e f e r r e d denning s i t e s in Michigan a r e holes
b en eath logs o r f a l l e n t r e e s o r i n h i l l s i d e s ( E r i c k s o n ,
1964). Upland hardwoods a r e f a v o r e d d u r in g a l l s e a s o n s ,
b u t c o n i f e r swamps a r e a l s o h e a v i l y u t i l i z e d ( E r i c k s o n , 19 64) .
HOME RANGE: Normal movements o f marked b e a r s a v er ag e l e s s th an 5 mi
(8.1 km) ( E r i c k s o n , 1 9 64); and minimum summer and annual
home r an ges were e s t i m a t e d as a p p r o x i m a te ly 6 and 15 mi2
r e s p e c t i v e l y ( E r i c k s o n , 1964) .

SPECIES:

Procyon l o t o r
Common Name:

STATUS:

Raccoon

Abundant (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: Omnivore

FOOD PREFERENCES: Mostly animal m a t t e r : w i n t e r — 58%, s p r i n g — 96%,
summer--82%, f a l l — 58%; f r o g s , c r a y f i s h , g r a s s h o p p e r s , i n ­
s e c t s ( M a r t i n , 19 61); p l a n t f o o d s : f a l l and w i n t e r m a i n s t a y
i s a c o r n s , c o r n , and f l e s h y f r u i t s a l s o f a v o r i t e s ( M a r t i n ,
1 9 6 1 ) ; c o r n , h a y , and f r u i t most p r e f e r r e d , a l s o m ice, i n ­
s e c t s , o a t s , s o y b e a n s , s e e d s , and g r a s s ( F i s h e r , 1977).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Tr ee dens a r e much more common th a n ground dens
( B e r n e r , 196 5); p r e f e r hollow t r e e s f o r den s. R e s t i n g s i t e s
a r e u s u a l l y t r e e dens ( F i s h e r , 1977).
HOME RANGE: 8 9 -380 .5 a (36-154 h a ) , a v e r a g i n g 136 a (55 ha) ( F i s h e r ,
1977 ). Range from 1000-7000 f t ( 3 0 4 . 8 - 2 1 3 3 . 6 m), a v e r a g i n g
3194 f t (973.5 m ) ; home r a n g e s var y from 20 t o 83 a ( 8 -3 4 ha)
(S tr om b erg, 19 70) .

86

SPECIES:

Mustela erminea

Common Name:
STATUS:

S h o r t t a i l w e a s e l ; ermine

P r o t e c t e d —more abundant t h a n
M. f r e n a t a (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: C a r n iv o r e

FOOD PREFERENCES:

Small mammals and b i r d s ( B u r t , 1972 ).

HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Woodlands ( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) , marshes and me sic f o r e s t s
(Long, 197 4 ) ; c a v i t y o r burrow b e n e a th r o c k p l l e , w o o d p i l e , o r
b u i l d i n g ( B u r t , 19 72).
HOME RANGE:

SPECIES:

30-40 a ( 1 2 . 1 - 1 6 . 2 ha) ( B u r t , 1 9 7 6 ) .

Mustela f r e n a t a
Common Name:

STATUS:

L o n g t a i l e d weasel

P r o t e c t e d ; uncommon, per hap s
r a r e (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: C a r n i v o r e

FOOD PREFERENCES:

R a b b i t s , mice (Long, 1974; B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) .

HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: F o r e s t , b r u s h l a n d , p r a i r i e ( e s p e c i a l l y n e a r
w a t e r ) ; c a v i t i e s , burrows a s w i t h M. erm inea ( B u r t , 197 2).
HOME-RANGE:

30-40 a (12-16 ha) ( B u r t , 19 76).

87

SPECIES:

Mustela rixosa

Common Name:
STATUS:

L e a s t weasel

Rare and per hap s t h r e a t e n e d
(Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: C a r nivore

FOOD PREFERENCES:

M ice, i n s e c t s , and p o s s i b l y small b i r d s ( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) .

HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Meadows, f i e l d s , and p o s s i b l y woodlands ( B u r t ,
1 9 72); marshes and wet p r a i r i e s (Long, 19 7 4 ) .
HOME RANGE:

SPECIES:

Male i n w i n t e r a b o u t 2 a ( 0 . 8 ha) ( B u r t , 197 2 ) .

M ustela v iso n
Common Name:

STATUS:

Mink

Uncommon, p r o t e c t e d
(Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: C a r n iv o r e

6>> .*

• , «

>• • • • • •1> . *

!«>:♦•>
/•• • • p r,
p .s y

FOOD PREFERENCES: F i s h , m i c e , r a b b i t s , b i r d s , t u r t l e e g g s , and f r o g s
( B u r t , 1972).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Wooded s t r e a m s ; burrow In bank o f l a k e o r s tr e a m
o r ben ea th stump o r l o g ( B u r t , 197 2 ) .
HOME'RANGE: For m a l e , g r e a t e r th a n 1100 a ( 4 4 5 .2 ha) (McCabe, 1 9 4 9 ) ;
f o r f e m a l e , 1 9 . 4 t o 5 0 . 3 a ( 7 . 8 - 2 0 . 3 ha ) ( M i t c h e l l , 1 9 6 1 ) ;
a b o u t 20 a (8 ha) ( M a r s h a l l , 193 6 ) .

88

SPECIES:

Lutra canadensis

Coranon Name:
STATUS:

River o t t e r

P r o t e c t e d , f a i r l y common
(Long, 1974)
T h r e a t e n e d ( S t e a r n s and
L i n d s l e y , 1977)

CONSUMER: C a r n iv o r e

FOOD PREFERENCES: Forage f i s h most i m p o r t a n t (Knudsen and H a le , 1 9 6 8 ) ;
a m p h ib ia n s , c r a y f i s h , i n s e c t s , s n a i l s ( B u r t , 19 72 ).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS:
HOME RANGE:

SPECIES:

15 mi (24 km) o r more ( B u r t , 19 76).

M e p h it is m e p h i t i s
Common Name:

STATUS:

Bank burrows a l o n g s tr e a m o r l a k e ( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) .

S t r i p e d skunk

Abundant (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: Omnivore

FOOD PREFERENCES: Mostly animal f ood: a d u l t and l a r v a l I n s e c t s , g r a s s ­
hoppers, grubs, b e e t l e s , wasps, s p i d e r s , to a d s , f r o g s , l i z a r d s ,
m ic e; p l a n t foo d: f l e s h y f r u i t s p r i n c i p a l l y ( M a r t i n , 196 1 ) .
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Ground dens (S to r m , 1 9 6 6 ) . They do n o t h i b e r n a t e
b u t s t a y i n a c t i v e f o r e x t e n d e d p e r i o d s w i t h i n dens ( S u n q u l s t ,
19 74). Skunks s h i f t from above ground and hollow lo g n e s t
s i t e s t o underground dens 1n t h e f a l l ( H o useknecht, 196 9).
Summer n e s t s i t e s change a l m o s t d a i l y and do n o t cache food
I n dens b u t depend on f a t r e s e r v e s ( S u n q u l s t , 19 7 4 ) .

89

HOME RANGE: 31-114 a (12-46 h a ) ; d a l l y a c t i v i t y f o r males i s 0 . 5 mi
( 0 . 8 km), f o r fe males 0 . 2 t o 0 . 4 mi ( 0 . 3 2 - 0 . 6 4 km) ( B a i l y ,
1971). For r a b i d skunks I t was found t o be 990 x 880 yds
( 8 0 4 .7 x 9 0 5 . 3 m ) ; 9 8 . 5 $ o f 321 r a d i o p o s i t i o n s were w i t h i n
a 1 mi ( 1 . 6 km) r a d i u s (S to rm , 1 9 6 6 ) .

SPECIES:

Vulpes f u l v a
Common Name:

STATUS:

Red fox

Abundant (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: C a r n iv o r e

FOOD PREFERENCES: C h i e f l y meat w i t h b e r r i e s and f r u i t s i n s e a s o n , bulk
o f food i s small mammals ( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) . Mice, r a b b i t s , b i r d s ,
i n s e c t s ; f r e s h f r u i t s and s ee d a v e r a g e a b o u t 25$ o f t h e sum­
mer and f a l l d i e t ( M a r t i n , 1 9 6 1 ) . C h i e f prey s p e c i e s a r e
c o t t o n t a i l s , M ic rotus p e n n s y l v a n ic u s and Peromyscus s pp .
( A b i e s , 1969) .
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Not markedly d i f f e r e n t f o r r e d o r g r a y fox
( F oil m an, 1 9 7 3 ) ; r e s t a t midday (Sto rm , 1965 ).
HOME RANGE: 1 8 . 4 mi (31 km) ( P h i l l i p s , 197 2 ) . 955 a o r 1 . 9 x 1 . 4 mi
wide (386 ha) ( S to r m , 196 5 ) . 142 t o 400 a ( 5 7 . 5 - 1 6 1 . 9 ha)
( A b i e s , 196 9 ) .

SPECIES:

Uroc.yon c^ 'n e re o a r g e n t e u s
Common Name:

STATUS:

Gray fox

R a r e r th a n Red fox and
possibly threatened
(Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: Omnivore

90

FOOD PREFERENCES: Animal food: b i r d s , m ic e , r a b b i t s ; p l a n t foo d: f r u i t
and o t h e r p l a n t p r o d u c t s c o n s t i t u t e a small b u t f a i r l y c o n s i s ­
t e n t p a r t o f d i e t ( M a r t i n , 1961). C o t t o n t a i l , a r t h r o p o d s ,
small mammals and b i r d s c o n s t i t u t e 84% o f t h e d i e t (Yoho, 19 72).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: F o r e s t s and f a i r l y open b r u s h l a n d , den may be
i n hollow l o g s o r t r e e s , o r unde r a rock p i l e . Gray foxes
a r e a r b o r e a l ( B u r t , 1972).
HOME RANGE:

SPECIES:

0.25 t o 0 . 5 mi ( 0 . 4 - 0 . 8 km) r a d i u s (Long, 19 74).

Lynx r u f u s
Common Name:

STATUS:

Bobcat

Uncommon (Long, 1974)
T h r e a te n e d ( S t e a r n s and
L i n d s l e y , 1977)

CONSUMER: C a r n i v o r e

FOOD PREFERENCES:

R a b b i t s , m i c e , b i r d s (Long, 1974).

HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Swamps and broken c o u n t r y w i t h a d e q u a t e brush
c o v e r ; c a v i t i e s in t r e e s , and l o g s f o r dens ( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) .
HOME RANGE:

SPECIES:

U s u a lly w i t h i n 2 mi ( 3 . 2 km) r a d i u s o f den ( B u r t , 1976).

Marmota monax
Common Name:

STATUS:

Woodchuck

N e i t h e r abun dan t nor r a r e
(Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: Herbivore

91

FOOD PREFERENCES: Eats gree n v e g e t a t i o n i n summer and h i b e r n a t e s i n
w i n t e r ; food c o n s i s t s o f c l o v e r , g r a s s e s , and v e g e t a b l e s
( B u r t , 197 2 ) . The woodchuck e a t s o n l y green food— g r a s s e s ,
l e a v e s , and buds ( F a l l , 197 1 ) .
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Digs c o m p l i c a t e d burrow s y s t e m s , makes dens i n
f i e l d s , f e n c e rows and woodlands b o r d e r e d by c l e a r i n g s ( B u r t ,
197 2).
HOME RANGE: 0 . 2 5 t o 0 . 5 ml ( 0 . 4 - 0 . 8 km) 1n d i a m e t e r ( B u r t , 1972).
200 t o 300 f t ( 6 1 . 0 - 9 1 . 4 m) r a d i u s (Long, 1974).

SPECIES:

Tamias s t r i a t u s
Common Name:

STATUS:

E a s t e r n chipmunk

Abundant (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: Omnivore

FOOD PREFERENCES: Seeds o r n u t s o f woody p l a n t s ; a l s o c o r n , w h e a t, and
o t h e r c r o p p l a n t s as wel l as s e e d s o f weedy p l a n t s ; animal
m a t t e r i n c l u d e s i n s e c t s , young b i r d s , e g g s , and s n a i l s ( M a r t i n ,
19 6 1 ) . Summer— 87% p l a n t m a t e r i a l , f a l l — 91% p l a n t m a t e r i a l .
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Hardwood f o r e s t s , semi-open b r u s h l a n d ; r a r e l y i n
swamps ( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) ; m o s tly a ground d w e l l e r , uses t r e e s o n l y
o c c a s i o n a l l y ( B u r t , 197 2 ) .
HOME RANGE: Seldom more th a n 100 yd ( 9 1 . 4 m) d i a m e t e r ( B u r t , 1972).
200 f t (61 m) r a d i u s (Long, 19 74).

SPECIES:

T a m i a s c iu r u s hud sonic us
Common Name:

STATUS:

Red s q u i r r e l

Abundant (Long, 1974)

■m* \
p* • • • /

.
i •_

•V V
#

* 3

/

,

92

CONSUMER: Omnivore

FOOD PREFERENCES: N u ts , p i n e c o n e s , mushrooms, b i r d s ' e g g s , n e s t ­
l i n g s , m e a t, sap ( B u r t , 1972 ). P l a n t food: s eeds and f r u i t s
o f both c o n i f e r s and hardwoods; animal food: c a r r i o n , i n ­
s e c t s , young b i r d s , and eggs ( M a r t i n , 1961).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS:

C o n i f e r o u s and hardwood f o r e s t s ( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) .

HOME RANGE: P r o b ab ly l e s s th a n 200 yd (183 m) ( B u r t , 1972) .
600 f t (152-183 m) (Long, 1974).

SPECIES:

Sciurus c a ro lin e n s is
Common Name:

STATUS:

500 t o

Gray s q u i r r e l

Abundant (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: Omnivore

* * % ••• * /y

FOOD PREFERENCES: Animal food: i n s e c t l a r v a e , b i r d s ' e g g s , n e s t i n g s ;
p l a n t food i s by f a r t h e most i m p o r t a n t : w i n t e r — 98%,
s p r i n g — 100%, summer— 87%, f a l l — 98% ( M a r t i n , 19 61).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Hardwood f o r e s t s , n e s t s a r e e i t h e r i n hollow
t r e e s o r c o n s t r u c t e d l e a f n e s t s ( B u r t , 1972).
HOME RANGE:

SPECIES:

Males: 1 . 3 a ( 0 . 5 h a ) ; f e m a le s: 1 a ( 0 . 4 ha) (D o eb el, 197 4 ) .

Sciurus n ig e r
Common Name:

STATUS:

Fox s q u i r r e l

Abundant, s p r e a d i n g (Long, 1974)

93

CONSUMER: Omnivore

FOOD PREFERENCES: Oak a c o r n s , h i c k o r y n u t s , mushrooms, b i r d s ' e g g s ,
young b i r d s , i n s e c t s , f r u i t , and corn ( M a r t i n , 1961).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Tree c a v i t i e s o r w i l l c o n s t r u c t l e a f n e s t s ;
small a r e a s o f hardwoods I n t e r s p e r s e d w ith open farm l a n d ,
and wooded s tr e a m s ( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) .
HOME RANGE:

SPECIES:

About 400 f t (122 m) ( T r l p p e n s e e , 1948).

Castor canadensis
Common Name:

STATUS:

Beaver

Numbers d e c l i n i n g due t o
h a b i t a t l o s s , a b s e n t from
s o u t h e r n Michigan (Long,
1974)

**•••»

CONSUMER: H erbiv ore

FOOD PREFERENCES: Aspen— bark and tw i g s 840 k c a l / d a y ( 1 . 5 l b s as p en )
f o r m ai nten an ce o f 26 l b y e a r l i n g . 2040 k c a l / d a y ( 3 . 6 l b s
a s p e n ) f o r maximum growth ( B r e n n e r , 1967).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: F o r e s t s t a n d s o f a s p e n , p o p l a r , b i r c h , m ap le,
o r w illow by a l a k e o r s t r e a m ; b u i l d s lo dge i n t h e l a k e o r
s tr e a m bed o r has bank burrow where w a t e r too s w i f t f o r
lo d g e ( B u r t , 1972 ).
HOME RANGE: (Feeding r a n g e ) 1 . 0 a t o 1 . 8 a ( 0 . 4 h a - 0 . 7 ha) ( B r e n n e r ,
1967) .

SPECIES:

Ondatra z i b e t h l c a
Common Name:

STATUS:

Muskrat

F a i r l y ab und an t (Long, 1974)

94

CONSUMER: Omnivore

FOOD PREFERENCES: A q u a tic and marsh p l a n t s — c a t t a i l s , b u l r u s h , some
cla m s , s n a i l s , and c r a y f i s h ( B u r t , 1972).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: M arshes, po nds , l a k e s , and s t r e a m s ; heavy growth
o f r u sh o r c a t t a i l s ; b u i l d s " houses " o r bank burrows w it h
e n t r a n c e u s u a l l y below w a t e r ( B u r t , 1972).
HOME RANGE: 50 t o 100 yd ( 4 5 . 7 - 9 1 . 4 m) r a d i u s from den ( E r r i n g t o n ,
1961).

SPECIES:

E r e t h i z o n dorsatum
Common Name:

STATUS:

P orcu pin e

Never a b u n d a n t , b u t n o t
r a r e (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: Omnivore

FOOD PREFERENCES: Almost any p l a n t s p e c i e s , b ar k and wood, and some
meat ( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) ; decidu ous l e a v e s i n summer ( B r a n d e r ,
197 3).
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: F o r e s t d w e l l e r — a r b o r e a l , c a v i t y d w e l l e r ( l o g s ,
hollow t r e e s , c a v e s ) ( B u r t , 19 72).
HOME RANGE: Females 1n summer: 32 t o 36 a ( 1 3 - 1 4 . 6 ha) ( M a r s h a l l ,
196 2). Mean c r u i s i n g r a d i u s o f 492 f t (150 m) in summer
f o r a l l a nim als ( B r a n d e r , 19 73) .

SPECIES:

Lepus am ericanu s
Common Name:

STATUS:

Snowshoe ha r e

Abundant i n a p p r o p r i a t e
h a b i t a t (Long, 1974)

95

CONSUMER: Herbivore

FOOD PREFERENCES: S u c c u l e n t v e g e t a t i o n d u r i n g summer months, and t w i g s ,
bu d s , and bark o f small t r e e s d u r in g w i n t e r ( B u r t , 19 72).
White c e d a r , s p e c k l e d a l d e r , b l a c k s p r u c e , balsam f i r , wint e r b e r r y , and s u g a r maple tw i g s browsed (Bookhout, 1965).
A l s o , quaking a s p e n , r a s p b e r r y , and h a z e l n u t ( B i d e r , 19 61) .
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Spruce and c e d a r swamps, and n e a r b y wooded a r e a s
( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) ; "edge" a r e a s a r e h i g h l y us ed (Bookhout, 1965 ).
R e s t i n "forms" by logs o r b e n e a t h t r e e s In a r e a s o f dense
c o v e r d u r i n g t h e day ( B u r t , 1 9 7 2 ) .
HOME RANGE: Males i n w i n t e r — 19 a ( 7 . 6 h a ) ; males i n summer— 26 a
( 1 0 .5 h a ) ; f em al es i n w i n t e r — 16 a ( 6 . 4 h a ) ; fe m ales i n
summer— 15.4 a ( 6 . 3 ha) (Bookhout, 19 65).

SPECIES:

Sylvilagus flo rid an u s
Common Name:

STATUS:

C ottontail

Abundant (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: Her bivore

FOOD PREFERENCES: Summer— t e n d e r , h e r b a c e o u s p l a n t s ; w i n t e r — tw igs and
bar k o f young t r e e s : sumac, dogwood ( M a r t i n , 196 1 ) .
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Brushy a r e a s , edges o f swamps, open woods ( B u r t ,
1 9 72); p r i m a r i l y n o c t u r n a l , r a b b i t s spend t h e day 1n some
s h e l t e r e d s p o t , e i t h e r 1n heavy g r a s s , ground b u r r o w s , o r
brush p i l e s . A g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s w i t h c r o p l a n d s , g r a s s l a n d ,
woodland, and b r u s h l a n d e q u a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d and d i s t r i b u t e d ;
o l d woodchuck burrows a r e p r e f e r r e d o v e r v e g e t a t i v e co v er and
b r u s h p i l e s a r e a l s o used ( T r i p p e n s e e , 1 9 4 8 ) .
HOME RANGE: Males: 8 t o 20 a ( 3 . 2 - 8 . 1 h a ) ; f e m a l e s : a b o u t 3 a
( B u r t , 19 72) .

( 1 . 2 ha)

96

SPECIES:

Odocoileus v lrg in ian u s

Common Name:
STATUS:

W hite-tailed deer

Abundant, t h r o u g h o u t t h e
r e g i o n (Long, 1974)

CONSUMER: H erbivo re

FOOD PREFERENCES: S p r i n g — g r a m i n i d s , e v e r g r e e n ground p l a n t s ( b a r r e n
stra w b e rry , straw b erry , blue-bead l i l y , w in te r g re e n ) ; e a r ly
summer— aspen l e a v e s , g r a m i n i d s , bush h o n e y s u c k l e ; l a t e sum­
mer— aspen l e a v e s , bush h o n e y s u c k l e , a s t e r s ; f a l l — g r a s s e s
and s e d g e s , a c o r n s , a s t e r s , aspen l e a v e s , mushrooms (McCaffrey,
19 7 4 ) . W inter— n o r t h e r n w h i t e c e d a r ( p r e f e r r e d ) , s u g a r maple,
w i l l o w s , beaked h a z e l n u t , swamp b i r c h , s p e c k l e d a l d e r , w i n t e r b e r r y (Bookhout, 19 65). G r a s s e s and f o r b s when a v a i l a b l e ,
woody browse w i t h snowcover ( r e d and ground c e d a r ) ( C o b l e n t z ,
1970). Acorn a v a i l a b i l i t y p r o b a b l y has e f f e c t on w i n t e r s u r ­
v i v a l (more a c o r n s , b e t t e r s u r v i v a l ) (Duvendeck, 19 6 2 ) .
HABITAT REQUIREMENTS: Winter— low, c o n i f e r o u s a r e a s from mid-December
t o f i r s t o f A p r il (Bookhout, 196 5 ) . High c a r r y i n g - c a p a c i t y
w i n t e r y a r d c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l a r g e (40-160 a ) , f u l l y s t o c k e d ,
e v e n - a g e d s t a n d s , i n t e r s p e r s i o n on small t r a c t s l e a d s t o o v e r ­
use, th e re fo re , large tra c ts o f different-aged classes best
(Verme, 1965).
HOME RANGE: R a r e l y more th a n a ml ( 1 . 6 km) a c r o s s ( B u r t , 19 76). May
be found s e v e r a l mi from t r a d i t i o n a l w i n t e r i n g y a r d i n Nov­
ember (Verme, 19 73 ).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A b i e s , E. D. 1969. " A c t i v i t y S t u d i e s o f Red Foxes i n So uthe rn Wiscon­
s i n . " Journ al o f W i l d l i f e Management 33:145-153.
Andrews. 1973. "A P hil oso phy o f Environmental Impact Asse s sm ent."
J o u rn a l o f S o il and Water C o n s e r v a t io n 28:197-2 01.
B a i l y , T. N. 1971. " Biol og y o f t h e S t r i p e d Skunks on Southwestern
Lake E r i e Marsh." American Midland N a t u r a l i s t 85:196 -207 .
B a ts o n , R. G. and Pro udlo ve, J . A.
Barnes and Noble, In c.

1968.

Roads .

New York, N.Y.:

Beaman, John H. 1977. "Commentary on Endangered and T h r e a te n e d P l a n t s
in M ic h ig an ." The Michigan B o t a n i s t 16:110-122.
Bent, A r t h u r C. 1919-1968. L i f e H i s t o r i e s o f North American B i r d s .
U.S. N a t l . Mus. B u l l . , 21 v o l s . Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern­
ment P r i n t i n g O f f i c e .
B e r n e r , A l f r e d . 1965. " E c o lo g ic a l E v a lu a ti o n o f Large Tree C a v i t i e s
and Ground Burrows and T h e i r Use by Raccoons." M.S. t h e s i s ,
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
B i d e r , Roger J . 1961. "An E c o lo g ic a l Study o f t h e Hare Lepus am er ic a n u s ." Canadian J o u rn a l o f Zoology 39:81-103.
Bookhout, T. A. 1965. "Feeding Coac ti ons Between Snowshoe Hares and
W h i t e - T a i l e d Deer i n N or the rn M ic higan." T r a n s a c t i o n s , 30th
North American W i l d l i f e and Natu ral Resources Confer ence 30:321335.
B r a n d e r , Robert B. 1973. " L i f e - H i s t o r y Notes on t h e Porc upine i n a
Hardwood-Hemlock F o r e s t in Upper M ic h ig a n ." Michigan Academician
5:425 -433 .
B r e n n e r , F. J . 1967. " S p a t i a l and Energy Requirements o f B e a v e r s . "
. Ohio J o u rn a l o f S c ie n c e 67:242 -246 .
B u r t , W. H. 1972. Mammals o f t h e G r e a t Lakes R eg ion.
Michigan: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .
C a n t e r , L. 1977.
H i l l , Inc.

Environmental

Impact A sse ssm en t.
97

Ann A r b o r,

New York: McGraw-

98

C o b l e n t z , B. E. 1970. "Food H abits o f George Reserve Dee r."
o f Wi1 d l i f e Management 34:535-540

J o u rn a l

D a r n e l l , R. M. 1976. Impacts o f C o n s t r u c t i o n A c t i v i t i e s i n Wetlands
o f t h e U nited S t a t e s . U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency Eco­
l o g i c a l Research S e r i e s Rep or t EPA 6 0 0 / 3 -7 6 - 0 4 5 . C o r v a l l i s , Ore­
gon: U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
Davis, P. B. and Humphrys, C. R. 1977. E c o lo g i c a l E f f e c t s o f Highway
C o n s t r u c t i o n Upon Michigan Woodlots and W e t l a n d s . E a st Lans in g,
Michigan: A g r i c u l t u r a l Experiment S t a t i o n , Michigan S t a t e U nive r­
sity .
D av is, P. B . , Thomas, M. R. and Humphrys, C. R. 1978. E c o lo g ic a l Ef­
f e c t s o f Highway C o n s t r u c t i o n Upon Michigan Woodlots and W e tla n d s .
East L a n sin g , Michigan: A g r i c u l t u r a l Experiment S t a t i o n , Michigan
State U niversity.
D oebel, J . H. and McGinnes, B. S.
a Gray S q u i r r e l P o p u l a t i o n . "
860-867.

1974. "Home Range and A c t i v i t y o f
J o u rn al o f W i l d l i f e Management 38:

Duvendeck, J e r r y P. 1962. "The Value o f Acorns i n t h e D ie t o f Michi­
gan Deer." J o u rn al o f W i l d l i f e Management 26:3 7 1 -3 7 9 .
E r i c k s o n , A. W. 1964. "Bree ding Biology and Ecology o f t h e Black Bear
i n M ic higan." Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
E r r i n g t o n , P. L. n . d . Muskrats and Marsh Management.
P e n n s y lv a n ia : S t o c k p o le Co.

Harrisburg,

F a l l , M. 0. 1971. "Seasonal V a r i a t i o n s i n t h e Food Consumption o f
Woodchucks ( Marmota monax) . 11 J o u r n a l o f Mammalogy 52:370-3 75 .
F i s h e r , L. E. 1977. "Movements o f Raccoons i n Small Upland Woodlots
Devoid o f W a te r ." M.S. t h e s i s , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
F l e t c h e r , P e t e r W. and L u l l , Howard W. 1963. " S o il M o is tu r e D e p le tio n
by a Hardwood F o r e s t During Drouth Y e a r s . " S oil S c i e n c e S o c i e t y
o f America P roceedings 2 7 :9 4 - 9 8 .
F o g a r ty , M. J . and A r n o ld , D. A. 1977. Management o f M ig r a t o r y Shore
and Upland Game B ird s i n North Am erica. Washington, D.C.: The
I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f F ish and W i l d l i f e Agen cies .
Follman, E. H. 1973. "Comparative Ecology and B eh a vio r o f Red and
Gray Foxe s." Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Southern I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y .
G a y l i n , J . J . and R i c h a r d s , M. L. 1974. E c o lo g ic a l E f f e c t s o f Highway
C o n s t r u c t i o n Upon Michigan Woodlots and W et lan ds: An Ann otated
B i b l i o g r a p h y . E a st L a n sin g , M ich ig an : A g r i c u l t u r a l Experiment
S t a t i o n , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

99

Holmes, A. C. V. and S a n d e r so n , G. C. 1965. " P o p u l a t i o n s and Move­
ments o f Opossums in E a s t - C e n t r a l I l l i n o i s . " J o u r n a l o f W i l d l i f e
Management 29 :287 -2 95.
Houseknecht, C. R. 1969. "Denning H a b i ts o f t h e S t r i p e d Skunk and t h e
Exposure P o t e n t i a l f o r D i s e a s e . "
P roce ed in gs o f t h e Annual Con­
f e r e n c e o f t h e W i l d l i f e Disea se A s s o c i a t i o n (No. 3) 5:3 02-3 06.
Knudsen, G. J . and Hale , J . B. 1968. "Food H a b it s o f O t t e r s i n t h e
Great Lakes R egion." J o u r n a l o f W i l d l i f e Management 3 2 :8 9 -1 1 3 .
Krauss, D. 1978. "S oil P r o p e r t i e s in R e l a t i o n t o Highway C o n s t r u c t i o n
and Nor thern White- Cedar D ie -O ff in a No rthe rn Michigan Swamp."
M.S. t h e s i s , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
Leedy, Daniel L.
1975. Highway-W ildlife R e l a t i o n s h i p s : Volume I . A
S t a t e - o f - t h e - A r t R e p o r t . Federal Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n R ep ort
No. FHWA-RD-76-5. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department o f T r a n s ­
p o r t a t i o n , Feder al Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
Leopo ld, Luna B.
1971. A P rocedure f o r E v a l u a t i n g Environmental Im­
p a c t . U.S. Geo logical Survey C i r c u l a r 645. Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e .
L in d s e y , J . S. 1967. " H i g h l i g h t s o f Management." In O l i v e r H. Hewitt
( e d . ) , The Wild Turkey and I t s Management. Washington, D .C .: The
W ildlife Society.
Long, C h a r le s A.
1974. Environmental S t a t u s o f t h e Lake Michigan Re­
g i o n : Vol. 15. Mammals o f t h e Lake Michigan Drainage B a s i n .
Argonne, I l l i n o i s : Argonne N a tio n al L a b o r a t o r y .
M a r s h a l l , W. H. 1936. "A Study o f t h e W inter A c t i v i t i e s o f t h e Mink."
J o u r n a l o f Mammalogy 17:382-392.
M a r s h a l l , William H. e t a l .
1962. " E a r l y Summer A c t i v i t i e s o f Porcu­
p i n e s as Determined by R a d i o - P o s i t i o n i n g T e c h n i q u e s . " J o u rn a l o f
W i l d l i f e Management 2 6 : 7 5 - 7 9 .
M a r t i n , A. C . , Zim, H. S . , and N elson , A. L. 1961. American W i l d l i f e
and P l a n t s : A Guide t o W i l d l i f e Food H a b i t s . New York: Dover Pub­
l i c a t i o n s , Inc.
McCabe, R. A. 1949. "Notes on L i v e - T ra p p in g Mink."
lo gy 30:416-423.

J o u r n a l o f Mamma­

McCaffery, Keith R. 1973. " R o a d - K i lls Show Trends in Wisconsin Deer
P o p u l a t i o n s . " J o u rn a l o f W i l d l i f e Management 37:21 2-216 .
McWhirter, D. W. and B ea ver , D. L. 1977. Bir ds o f t h e C a p i t a l Count
Area o f Michigan: With Seasonal and H i s t o r i c a l A n a l y s i s . B i o l o g i c a l S e r v i c e s Vol. 5 , No. 5. E a s t L a n s i n g , M ich ig an : P u b l i c a t i o n
o f The Museum, Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

100
Michigan Land Use C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and R e f e r e n c in g Committee. 1976.
Michigan Land Cover/Use C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System. L a n s in g , M ich i­
gan: Michigan Department o f N atural R e s o u r c e s , D i v i s i o n o f Land
Resource Pro grams.
M i t c h e l l , J . L. 1961. "Mink Movements and P o p u l a t i o n s on a Montana
R i v e r . " Journ al o f W i l d l i f e Management 2 5 :4 8 -5 4 .
N ational Environmental P o l i c y Act o f 19 69, U.S. Code, Vol. 42, S e c s .
4321-4347 (197 0).
P a r i z e k , R ic hard R. 1972. "Impacts o f Highways on t h e Hydrogeologic
Environment."
In Donald R. Coates ( e d . ) , Environmental Gemophology and Landscape C o n s e r v a t i o n , pp. 151-199. S t r o u d s b e r g , Penn­
s y l v a n i a : Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross.
P h i l l i p s , R. L . , Andrews, R. D . , Storm, G. L . , and Bishop, R. A. 1972.
" D i s p e r s a l and M o r t a l i t y o f Red Foxes." J o u rn al o f W i l d l i f e Man­
agement 36:237-248.
R i t t e r , L. J . and P a q u e t t e , R. J .
The Ronald Pre ss Company.

1951.

Highway E n g i n e e r i n g ,

n .p .:

S t e a r n s , F o r e s t and L i n d s l e y , Diane. 1977. Environmental S t a t u s o f
t h e Lake Michigan Region: Vol. 11. N a tu r a l Areas o f t h e Lake
Michigan Drainage Basin and Endangered o r T h r e a t e n e d P l a n t and
Animal S p e c i e s . Argonne, I l l i n o i s : Argonne N a tio n al L a b o r a t o r y .
S t e f f e r u d , A l f r e d . 1957. S o i l : The Yearbook o f A g r i c u l t u r e — 1957.
House Doc. No. 30, 85th C o n g r e s s, 1 s t S e s s i o n . Was hington, D.C.:
U.S. Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e .
S t o e c k l e r , J . H. 1965. "D rainage Along Swamp F o r e s t Road s."
o f F o r e s t r y 63:7 7 2 -7 7 6 .

Journal

. 1967. S ize and Placement o f Metal C u l v e r t s C r i t i c a l
on P e a t! a n d Woods Road s. North C en tr al F o r e s t Experiment S t a t i o n
Research Note NC-37. S t . P a u l , M in n e s o ta : U.S. Department o f A g r i ­
c u l t u r e , U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e .
_________________ . 1967. Wetland Road C r o s s i n g s : D rai nag e Problems and
Timber Damage. North C e n tr a l F o r e s t Experiment S t a t i o n Research
Note NC-27. S t . P a u l , M in n es o ta: U.S. Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e ,
U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e .
Storm, G. L. 1965. "Movements and A c t i v i t i e s o f Foxes as Determined
by Radio T r a c k i n g . " J o u r n a l o f W i l d l i f e Management 2 9 : 1 - 1 3 .
S u n q u i s t , M. E. 1974. " W inter A c t i v i t y o f S t r i p e d Skunks (M e p h it is
m e p h i t i s ) in E a s t - C e n t r a l M in n e s o t a ." American Midland N a t u r a l i s t
(No. 2) 92:434-4 46.

101
T r i p p e n s e e , R. E. 1948. W i l d l i f e Management: Upland Game and General
P r i n c i p l e s . New York: McGraw-Hill, I n c .
VanWinkle, W. e t a l . 1976. "Two Roles o f E c o l o g i s t s i n D ef in in g and
Det er m ining t h e A c c e p t a b i l i t y o f Environmental I m p a c t s . " I n t e r ­
n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f Environmental S t u d i e s 9 :2 4 7 -2 5 4 .
Verme, Louis J .
1965. "Swamp C o n i f e r Deeryards in N or the rn Michigan:
T h e i r Ecology and Management." J o u rn al o f F o r e s t r y 63 :5 2 3 -5 2 9 .
Verme, L. J . 1973. "Movements o f W h i t e - T a i l e d Deer i n Upper M ic h ig an ."
J o u r n a l o f W i l d l i f e Management 37:545-552.
V e r t s , B. J . 1963. "Movements and P o p u l a t i o n s o f Opossums i n a C u l t i ­
v a t e d A r e a ." J o u r n a l o f W i l d l i f e Management 27:1 2 7 -1 2 9 .
Wagner, W. H. e t a l . 1977. "Michigan Endangered and T h r e a t e n e d Spe­
c i e s Program." The Michigan B o t a n i s t 16:9 9-1 22 .
W a lla c e , George J .
1977. Environmental S t a t u s o f t h e Lake Michigan
Region: Vol. 14. Bir ds o f t h e Lake Michigan Drainage B a s i n .
Argonne, I l l i n o i s : Argonne N a tio n al L a b o r a t o r y .
Wood, N. A. 1951. B irds o f M ic h ig an . Ann A r b o r, Michigan:
o f Zoology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan.

Museum

Yoho, N, S. and Henry, V. G. 1972. "Foods o f t h e Gray Fox ( Urocyon
c i n e r i o a r g e n t e u s ) o r European Wildhog ( Sus s e r o f a ) Range i n E a s t
T e n n e s s e e . " J o u r n a l o f Tenne sse e Academy o f S c ie n c e 4 7 :7 7 - 7 8 .
Zimmerman, D. A. and Van Tyne, J . 1959. A D i s t r i b u t i o n a l C h e c k l i s t
o f t h e B i r d s o f M ic h ig a n . Ann A r b o r, Michigan: Museum o f Zoology,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan (No. 6 08) .