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8013820

Woods, Bennie Burk s

SIGNIFICANT CHARACTERISTICS OF PROFESSIONAL WOMEN
EMPLOYED IN PUBLIC TWO-YEAR AND FOUR-YEAR HIGHER
EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN MICHIGAN

Michigan State University

University
M icrofilms
International

Ph.D .

300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106

1979

18 Bedford Row, London WC1R 4EI, England

SIGNIFICANT CHARACTERISTICS OF PROFESSIONAL WOMEN EMPLOYED
IN PUBLIC TWO-YEAR AND FOUR-YEAR HIGHER
EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN MICHIGAN
By
Bennie Burks Woods

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan S ta te U niv ersity
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the requirements
f o r th e degree o f
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department o f A dm inistration
and Higher Education
1979

ABSTRACT
SIGNIFICANT CHARACTERISTICS OF PROFESSIONAL WOMEN EMPLOYED
IN PUBLIC TWO-YEAR AND FOUR-YEAR HIGHER
EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN MICHIGAN
- By
Bennie Burks Woods

The shortage o f women a d m in istra to rs has been a t t r i b u t e d to
the lack o f women who a re q u a l i f i e d f o r promotions and to the r e lu c ­
tance of women to seek appointment to policy-making p o s itio n s .
The purposes o f t h i s study were:

(1) to determine how many

women a re employed f u l l - t i m e in the p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s of higher
education in Michigan as fa c u lty o r in the c ap a c ity of a d m in is tra to r
in l in e o r s t a f f p o s i t io n s ; (2) t o determine how many o f th ese women
a re Caucasians, how many a re b lack, and how many belong to o th er
r a c i a l groups; (3) to determine the number and type of ad m in istra­
t i v e p o s itio n s held by th ese women; (4) to determine how many a s p ire
to move from f a c u lty to a d m in istra tio n or from one a d m in is tra tiv e
p o s itio n to a higher one o r vice v e rsa; and (5) to c h a ra c te r iz e
th ese women, f o r comparative purposes, according to t h e i r academic
p r e p a r a tio n , p ro fe s sio n a l e x p erien c e, and personal backgrounds, and
according to o th e r f a c t o r s such as c a re e r b a r r i e r s and c a re e r
in flu e n c e s as perceived by them.

Bennie Burks Woods
The population f o r t h i s study c o n siste d o f women adm in istra­
t o r s and women f a c u lty employed f u l l - t i m e in 16 fo u r-y e a r and 29
two-year p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher education in Michigan.
A mailed q u e stio n n a ire /o p in io n n a ire was used to c o l l e c t
data from 316 women a d m in istra to rs and f a c u l ty ; a t o t a l o f 224
women p a r t i c i p a te d ; o f th ese 201 q u e stio n n a ire responses were used
in th e study.
In o btaining info rm ation, a s e le c te d sample of f iv e female
a d m in istra to rs surveyed and fiv e fa c u lty members p rev io u sly surveyed
was interview ed by the re s e a rc h e r.
The a n a ly sis o f th e data included ta b u la tin g the frequency
and percentage of responses f o r both groups of a d m in istra to rs and
f a c u lty ; and computation of c ro s s -ta b u la tio n s among groups by
c u rr e n t c a re e r, p o s itio n s t a tu s and expressed goals.
The nature o f the data n e c e s s a r ily produced a co n sid era b le
number of r a t h e r s p e c i f i c fin d in g s .

The conclusions which a re drawn

here re p re se n ts an attem pt to bring these fin d in g s from the q u e stio n ­
n a ire and interview in to broader focus.
1.

In view o f th e women a d m in istra to rs included in the study

a p p lic a tio n o f A ffirm ative Action re g u la tio n s app aren tly was more in
theory than 1n p r a c t ic e .

Many of th e female a d m in is tra to rs and

f a c u l t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y the Caucasian group, in d ic a te d t h a t A ffirm ative
Action did not serve as a p o s itiv e in flu e n c e in t h e i r l i v e s .

This

a t t i t u d e was not r e f l e c t e d to the same e x te n t among m inority women,
which would lead to the conclusion t h a t A ffirm ative Action was more
im portant f o r m inority women aid in g them to obtain t h e i r p re s e n t
p o s itio n .

Bennie Burks Woods
2.

A number of women from both m inority and non-minority

groups expressed the view t h a t while they f e l t they possessed
lea d e rsh ip a t t r i b u t e s they had not been employed a t the level com­
mensurate with t h e i r t r a i n i n g and experience.

F u rth e r, sin ce the

m inority women in t h i s study reported holding p o s itio n s a t a lower
lev el than the non-m inority i t would appear t h a t they a re a t an
a d d itio n a l disadvantage.
3.

Not s u r p r i s i n g l y age was r e l a te d to the level o f admin­

i s t r a t i v e achievement by women in th e study.

I t i s q u ite l i k e l y t h a t

perhaps age i t s e l f was not the key f a c t o r so much as y e a rs of exper­
ience necessary to achieve the higher lev e l p o s itio n s .
4.

Since a consid erab le number of women interview ed in t h i s

study expressed s a t i s f a c t i o n in combining t h e i r domestic and pro­
fe s s io n a l r o l e s , and were a ls o s a t i s f i e d with t h e i r p re s e n t p o s itio n
s t a t u s , t h i s needs to be taken i n to c o n sid e ra tio n as a f a c t of l i f e
when d isc u ssin g th e problems o f women and t h e i r c a re e r a s p i r a t i o n s ,
the fu n ctio n in g and e ff e c tiv e n e s s o f A ffirm ative Action programs
and s i m il a r problems o f women in th e world o f work.

In th e view of

t h i s r e s e a r c h e r , however, t h i s does not obv iate the importance o f
in su rin g equal trea tm e n t f o r women in a l l types o f employment.

DEDICATION

The w r i t e r d e d ic ates t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n to her husband,
Winford Harold Woods, f o r h is u n tir in g e f f o r t s on her b e h a lf, and
to her daughter JoRuth Dian, who by the time she i s of age, research
in t h i s area hopefully w ill not be needed.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The w r i t e r wishes to acknowledge with a p p re c ia tio n the
guidance, a s s i s t a n c e , and support of her committee during the e n t i r e
period o f her doctoral s tu d ie s :

Dr. Walter Johnson, Chairman;

Dr. Louis C. Stamatakos, Dr. Richard L. Featherstone and Dr. G loria
Smith.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................... vi
Chapter
I.

THE PROBLEM............................................................................................

1

The Problem in B rie f H is to ric a l P e rs p e c tiv e .....................
1
6
Purpose o f The Study ...................................................................
7
R ationale f o r The Study...............................................................
Methodology............................................................................................. 10
Population and Sample ........................................................... 10
Data C o l l e c t i o n ............................................................................ 11
I n s t r u m e n t s .....................................................................................11
Data Treatm ent.................................................................................12
Basic Assumptions.................................................................................13
L im ita tio n s............................................................................................. 13
Overview of the Study........................................................................ 14
D e fin itio n o f Terms............................................................................ 15
II.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE................................................................17
In tro d u ctio n .................................................................................... 17
Women A d m inistrators a t a l l Educational Levels . . . .
17
Leadership Q u a l i t i e s .................................................................... 17
Background C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ............................................. . 22
Factors Related to the Employment o f Women ..................... 30
Career B a r r i e r A sp ira tio n .................................................. 30
Sex-Role S te re o ty p e s .................................................................... 38
Career In flu e n c e s, L e g isla tio n and Task Forces. . . 52
Women's Movement............................................................................ 54
A ffirm ative A ction ........................................................................ 55
Women in Higher Education................................................................58
Undergraduate Women S tu d e n ts................................................... 58
Women in P ro fessio n al Education ...................................... 60
Women Graduate Students ....................................................... 61
Women Faculty Members................................................................64
Women A d m in is tra to rs.................................................................... 67
Summary......................................................................................................71

iv

Chapter
III.

Page

METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................72
Population and Sample........................................................................73
Development o f the Survey I n s t r u m e n t ....................... . . 74
The Survey Q u estio n n aire........................................................... 75
The S tru c tu re d Interview O u tlin e ...........................................75
C o lle c tio n o f Data ....................................................................... 76
A nalysis o f D a t a ................................................................................ 77

IV.

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA.................................................................................79
Personal C h a r a c te r is tic s ........................................................... 79
Educational C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ........................................................... 88
P ro fe ssio n a l C h a r a c te r is ti c s .................................................. 93
A ttitu d e s Toward Factors Influencing Women's
Career Development........................................................................99
Comments from Interview s and Q u e stio n n aires........................ 105

V.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................. 110
P rin c ip a l Findings ....................................................................... I l l
Conclusions........................................................................................... 116
Recommendations f o r F u rth e r Research .................................. 118

APPENDICES................................................................................................................119
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................................................135

v

LIST OF TABLES

Table

Page

1

Q uestionnaire R e sp o n d e n ts........................•............................................... 77

2

Age Level o f A dm inistrators and Faculty .....................................

80

3

Race o f th e Respondents ......................................................................

81

4

S ib lin g P o sitio n o f Women Faculty and A dm inistration
Respondents . .
.................................................................................... 82

5

M arital S ta tu s o f Respondents ..........................................................

82

6

Humber o f S ib lin g s o f the Respondents .........................................

84

7

Educational Attainment o f Parents o f the Respondents. . . .

85

8

P rin c ip a l Occupation o f Parents o f the Respondents..................... 86

9

C urrent Employment o f Spouses ..........................................................

88

10

H ighest Degree Earned by A dm inistrators .....................................

89

11

Academic Major o f Highest Earned Degree .....................................

90

12

Year Highest Degree Was Conferred .................................................

92

13

A dm in istrato rs Working on Advanced Degrees......................................93

14

P o s itio n T i t l e s o f A dm inistrators ..................................................

94

15

Years P ro fe s s io n a lly Employed Full-Time .....................................

96

16

Years in P resent P o sitio n ..................................................................

97

17

Advancement Desired in the I n s t i t u t i o n o f Current
Employment..................................................................................................... 98

18

C areer Goals of the Respondents ......................................................

vi

98

Table

Page

19

Current Career P o sitio n S ta tu s and Goals of the
Respondents Expressed ....................................................................... 100

20

Reasons Given f o r the Shortage of Women A dm inistrators
(By All Respondents).............................................................................. 101

21

Reasons Given f o r Non-Appointment to A dm inistrative
P o sitio n s (By All Respondents)......................................................... 103

22

Reasons Agreed Upon by Respondents f o r Women Not
Accepting Advanced P o s i ti o n s ..............................................................104

23

P o s itiv e Influence in Own Career Development................................106

v ii

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
In tro d u ctio n
At a time when i n s t i t u t i o n s of higher education a re
experiencing decreasin g enrollm ent and budgetary c o n s t r a i n t s , they
a re being requ ired to implement p o l ic i e s and procedures to ensure
equ ity in p o s itio n f o r women.
At one time th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the i n s t i t u t i o n was to
s e t g u id e lin e s f o r female re c ru itm e n t and promotion.
r e g u la tio n s s e t th e s e g u id e lin e s .

Now fe d e ra l

Through p u b lic iz in g the s t a tu s

o f women f a c u l ty and a d m in is tra to rs on in d iv id u a l campuses and w ithin
t h e i r p ro fe s sio n a l a s s o c i a t io n s , women's academic groups a re e x e rtin g
p ressu re s f o r equal employment.

Under Executive Order 11246 and the

C ivil Rights Act over 250 d is c rim in a tio n s s u i t s have been f i l e d
a g a in s t c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s because o f unequal o p p o r tu n itie s .
The apparent sho rtage o f u pper-level women a d m in is tra to rs
and f a c u l ty i s the b a sis f o r t h i s study.
The Problem in B rie f H is to ric a l P e rsp e ctiv e
The a s p i r a t io n s o f most women f o r f a c u l ty and a d m in is tra tiv e
p o s itio n s in h ig h er education as r e c e n tly as one decade ago c e n te re d ,
by n e c e s s i t y , upon th e c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s founded f o r th e
education o f women.

There i s some i n d ic a tio n t h a t to d a y 's women

2
a re seeking to fin d o th e r ways o f achieving a d m in is tra tiv e and
fa c u lty ro le s w ith in the t o t a l range of higher education i n s t i t u t i o n s .
In the e a r ly 1800's women sometimes became educational admin­
i s t r a t o r s by s t a r t i n g t h e i r own scho ols.
did t h i s :
York.

Emma W illard was one who

In 1821 she founded th e Troy Female Seminary a t Troy, New

Another was Mary Lyon, Founder o f the Mt. Holyoke Female Sem­

in ary a t South Hadley, Massachusetts in 1837.^

Mary McLeon Bethune,

Lucy Laney and Ruth M. H arris were among o th e rs who c re a te d and
headed co-educational i n s t i t u t i o n s during t h i s perio d.

2

In the in tro d u c tio n to her h is to r y of higher education fo r
women, Newcomer wrote:

". . . t h a t higher education has been

t r a d i t i o n a l l y f o r men.

Only through perseverance and luck have

women succeeded in g e ttin g t h e i r s h a r e ."

The f i r s t A.B. degree

granted to women were a t Oberlin College in 1841, two hundred years
a f t e r th e e sta b lish m e n t o f Harvard College in 1636.

The most

dram atic r i s e in th e number o f women who received c o lle g e degrees
occurred between 1930 and 1945, when the need f o r a l i t e r a t e
population became in c r e a s in g ly im p o rta n t.^
During th e perio d o f World War II with i t s d r a in on the
manpower pool, women were req u ire d to f i l l many p o s itio n s previo usly
Thomas Woody, A H istory o f Women's Education in th e United
S t a t e s , 2 v o ls . (New YoriH The Science P re s s , 1929), 1:344-59.
2
William Moore, and Lonnie W agstaff, Black Educators in
White Colleges (San F ra n cisco , C a lif o r n ia : Jo ssey-B ass, I n c . , 1974),
p. 156.
3

Mabel Newcomer, A Century o f Higher Education f o r Women
(New York: Harper and B ro th er, 1959), pp. 2-7.

3
reserv e d p r i n c i p a l l y fo r men.

Since t h a t tim e, however, th e over­

a l l percentage o f women tea ch e rs and a d m in istra to rs in higher
4
education has been decreasing .
H i s t o r i c a ll y women in m inority groups have been th e l e a s t
re p re se n te d group holding u pper-level a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n s in
i n s t i t u t i o n s of h ig h er education.

There are sev eral f a c t o r s which

c o n trib u te d to t h i s s i t u a t i o n ; Watson i d e n t i f i e d th e se as being
th e lack of o p p o rtu n ity , t r a i n i n g , and placement.

5

The re c o g n itio n t h a t blacks a re not adequately rep re se n te d
in a d m in is tr a tio n and on f a c u l t i e s of i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher
education as been h ig h lig h te d more r e c e n tly as a r e s u l t o f both
the c i v i l r i g h t s and th e stu d e n t p r o t e s t movements.

This has

r e s u l te d in various e f f o r t s to a l t e r the s i t u a t i o n .

A dm inistrative

in te r n s h ip programs f o r m inority women, f o r example, and
a ff ir m a tiv e a c tio n p o l i c i e s have helped to some degree.
Elder s t a t e s t h a t "although th e p a tte r n i s slowly changing,
women a re l i t t l e c lo s e r to being f u l l p a r t i c i p a n t s in the processes
o f hig h er edu catio n —as f a c u l t y , stu d e n ts and a d m in is tra to r s —
than they were 100 y e a rs a g o ." 6

^Andrew J . DuBrin, Survival in the S e x is t Jungle (Chatsworth,
C a lif o r n ia : Books f o r B e tte r L iving, 1974), p. 24.
6Bernard C. Watson, "The Black A d m inistrato r in Higher
Education: C urrent Dilemmas, Problems and O p p o rtu n itie s ," paper
p re se n te d to th e F i r s t National Congress o f Black P ro fe ss io n a ls in
Higher Education, A u stin , Texas, A pril 1972.
6Peggy E lder, "Women in Higher Education:
f o r Sex," NASPA Jo u rn a l, 13 (F all 1977), 9.

Q u a lified Except

4
As re c e n tly as 1977, Freeman s ta te d :
Educational a d m in istra tio n i s a very male monopoly
p ro te c te d by t r a d i t i o n , p ro fessio n al o rg a n iz a tio n , boards
o f t r u s t e e s , and governmental agencies a t a l l l e v e ls . I t is
e s s e n t i a l , n e v e rth e le s s , t h a t higher education examine more
c lo s e ly th e p o te n tia l o f women who are able to perform
a d m in is tra tiv e fu n ctio n s re g a rd le ss o f r a c e . '
I f the number o f women in a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n s i s to
in c r e a s e , not only must i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a r r i e r s be e lim in ated but
a ls o women must be prepared to assume th ese r o l e s .

Women in

le a d e rs h ip p o s itio n s in higher education a re found mainly in those
f i e l d s which t r a d i t i o n a l l y have been occupied by women.

Lora

Robinson provides several examples in her study of i n s t i t u t i o n a l
v a r i a ti o n s in the s t a tu s o f academic women:
. . . few women a d m in istra to rs a re found in t r a d i t i o n a l l y
women f i e l d s . This was tru e a t th e U n iv e rsity of
Kentucky where women deans were in home economic and
n u rsin g , and women departmental chairmen were in dental
hygiene and medical technology, and home economics . . .
a t Purdue U niversity 215 women . . . were almost
completely lacking in h igh -level a d m in is tra tiv e
a u th o r ity . . . only the dean o f women and the dean of
the School o f Home Economic held p o s itio n s of
a u th o rity .8

^Gloria Freeman, A P r o f ile of Top-Level Women Admini s t r a t o r s in Higher Education (Washington, D.C.: ERIC Document,
EcF." 4'44'7l, T9777, p. T.---------D
Lora Robinson, " I n s t i t u t i o n a l A nalysis of Sex
D iscrim in atio n: A Review and Annotated B ibliography." p a r t
two (Washington: ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education,
June 1973).

5
WEAL in a s e c tio n on "Women As A dm inistrators" broadly
sta te s:
Few women head departm ents, o th e r than th e s t r i c t l y
'fe m a le' ones such as Home Economics. While th e re a re some
women in 'm iddle management' p o s itio n s in academia, th e re
a re very few in p o lic y making p o s itio n s . . . a d m in is tra tiv e
p o s itio n s in th e c o lle g e go mostly to men. In f a c t , the
propo rtio n o f women in c o lle g e educational lea d e rsh ip was
lower in the mid-1960's than i t was 25 o r even 10 y ears
b e fo r e .9
A 1973 survey by the National A ssociation o f S ta te Uni­
v e r s i t i e s and Land-Grant Colleges found t h a t although th e re had
been an in c re a s e in th e number o f women in a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s
in the previous two y e a r s , the p o s itio n s f i l l e d by women were in
". . . middle management o r in 'channeled f i e l d s , ' those f i e l d s
in which women have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been d i r e c t e d . " ^
In a d d itio n , Robinson s t a t e s t h a t as one climbs fo r
top a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n s very vew women a re v i s i b l e .

Only

about th r e e p e rc en t o f a l l women in th e lab o r fo rce reach
p o s itio n s o f management and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . ^
B ayer's 1972-73 study o f the teaching fa c u lty in higher edu­
c a tio n a ls o revealed t h a t th e t o t a l p ro p o rtio n of women f a c u lty
g

Women's Equity Action League, "Facts About Women in
Education," Women's Work Has J u s t Begun (Ann Arbor, Michigan:
I n s t i t u t e o f Continuing League Education, 1972), pp. 275-76.
10National A ssociatio n o f S ta te U n iv e rs itie s and LandGrant C o lleg es, C irc u la r Number 182, June 29, 1972, Washington,
D.C., p. 1.
^ R o b in so n , 0 £. c i t . , 'I n s t i t u t i o n a l A nalysis o f Sex
D isc rim in a tio n ," p. 3.

6

had n ot Increased a ppreciably in the p a st two y e a r s , and had
a c t u a l l y decreased in two and fo u r-y e a r c o l l e g e s J 2
For th e purpose o f making a v a ila b le more c a r e e r options
f o r a l l women in higher education the government, women r i g h t s
groups, and o th e r ra d ic a l women groups a re demanding t h a t edu­
c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a t t r a c t more women in to key policy-making
p o s i t io n s .
Career o p p o r tu n itie s f o r women re g a rd le ss of race w ill
improve only i f changes occur in our s o c i e t y 's concept o f appro­
p r i a t e sex r o l e s .
Purpose o f The Study
The absence o f up per-level women a d m in is tra to rs has been
a t t r i b u t e d to th e lack o f women who a re q u a li f ie d fo r promotions
and to the re lu c ta n c e o f women a d m in is tr a to r s to seek appointment
to policy-making p o s i t io n s .

On the o th e r hand a number o f

r e s e a rc h r e p o r ts have s u b s ta n tia te d t h a t women a re d isc rim in a te d
a g a in s t when i t comes to h ig h -le v e l a d m in is tr a tiv e appointments in
h igh er e d u catio n .

Since th e r e a re a few women who do achieve

a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s in h igh er e d u ca tio n , i t seems worthwhile
t o determ ine some of th e s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th ese
women and o f t h e i r environments which perm itted them to a t t a i n
to p - le v e l a d m in is tra tiv e p o sts.
17

Helen A s tin , and A. E. Bayer, "Sex D iscrim ination in
Academe," Educational Record. 53 (Spring 1972), 110-118.

7
This study has f i v e purposes.

The f i r s t i s to determine

how many women a re employed f u l l - t i m e in th e public i n s t i t u t i o n s
o f h ig h e r education in Michigan in the c a p a c ity of a d m in is tra to r in
a l i n e o r s t a f f p o s i t io n , and as f a c u l ty .

The second i s to d e te r ­

mine how many of th e s e women a re Caucasian, how many a re black,
and how many belong to o th e r r a c i a l groups.

The t h i r d is to d e te r ­

mine t h e number and type o f f a c u lty and a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s
held by the women in each r a c i a l group.

The fo u rth i s to d e te r ­

mine how many in each group a s p ir e to move from f a c u lty to admin­
i s t r a t i o n o r from one a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n to a higher one or
from a d m in is tr a tio n t o f a c u l ty .

The f i f t h and l a s t i s to c h a r a c te r ­

i z e th e s e women, f o r comparative purposes, according to t h e i r
academic p r e p a r a tio n , p ro fe s sio n a l e x p erien ce, and personal back­
grounds, and according to o th e r f a c t o r s such as c a r e e r b a r r i e r s ,
and c a r e e r in flu e n c e s as perceived by them.
R ationale f o r The Study
As young women in c r e a s in g ly in d ic a te t h e i r d iis s a tis f a c tio n
w ith m arriage and c h i l d - r a i s i n g as f u l l - t i m e , l i f e - l o n g o c cupatio ns,
and s e l e c t work lead in g to o th e r c a re e r s o f ch allen g e and f u l f i l l ­
ment, e d ucation becomes a necessary v e h ic le through which to
achieve t h i s f u l f i l l m e n t .

Many changes a re needed in th e educa­

t io n a l system to maximize the p o te n tia l o f th e s e women.

One area

o f concern i s th e v i s i b i l i t y o f women achieving in th e world of
e d u c a tio n .

Not only i s i t im portant to allow space f o r th e t a l e n t s

8
o f women a lre a d y working, but t h e i r presence is v i t a l to the
development o f health y s e lf-c o n c e p ts among to d a y 's s tu d e n ts .
Mary Bunting, concerned about women s tu d e n ts , deplored as
major problems w ith t h e i r education the "lack o f models a t the
to p , lac k o f encouragement along th e way, and the lack o f o ppo rtun ity
to use o n e 's s k i l l s once they a re developed."13
This same p o in t i s made over and over in th e background
l i t e r a t u r e on t h i s s u b j e c t . 1^
R eferring only b r i e f l y to th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r 's problems in
her a n a ly s is o f women in academe, Graham says:
The presence o f women in s e n io r a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s
w ill a ls o encourage the a b le young undergraduate and graduate
a t th e u n i v e r s it y to b e lie v e t h a t a s e c r e t a r i a l c a r e e r , even
a g l o r i f i e d one, need not be t h e i r vocational am bition, and
i t w ill remind th e young men who w ill l a t e r be employers o f
women t h a t women, too can be e x p e rt e x e c u tiv e s . No doubt i t
is a ls o n e ce ssa ry , on most campuses, to in cre ase th e number
o f young women in j u n i o r f a c u l ty and a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s
a t th e u n i v e r s it y . . . .15
And f i n a l l y Abramson concludes:
All th e arguments, th e excuses, th e inyths, th e admamant
r e f u s a l s to tak e a f f ir m a tiv e a c tio n toward e s ta b lis h in g
e q u ity do not change the f a c t t h a t sex d is c r im in a tio n i s
perhaps th e most s e rio u s problem in h ig h er e d u c a tio n .16
T^Mary Bunting, P a t r i c i a Graham, and Elga Wasserman,
"Academic Freedom and In c e n tiv e f o r Women," Educational Record, 51
(F all 1970), 388-91.
14A lice Rossi, "D iscrim ination and Demography R e s t r i c t
ODDortunities f o r Academic Women," Colleqe and U n iv e rs ity B usiness,
48 (Feb. 1970), 1-12.
15P a t r i c i a Graham, "Women in Academe," S c ien c e , 169
(S ept. 1970), 1288.
16Joan Abramson, The I n v i s i b l e Woman: D iscrim inatio n in the
Academic P ro fe ssio n (San Francisco: Jo ssey-B ass, 1975), p. 111.

9
Black women a d m in istra to rs in h ig her education have not
been a p r i o r i t y is s u e in predominantly white c o lle g e s.

P rio r

to the turb u len ce o f the l a t e 1960 's, black females p a r t i c i p a te d
in h ig her education p rim a rily as tea ch e rs and a d m in istra to rs in
a l l black c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s . 17
Moore and Wagstaff s t a te d :
The women's a c t i v i s t o rg a n iz a tio n s in academis, with
t h e i r voluminous re s e a rc h , t h e i r sp a te o f p u b lic a tio n s ,
and t h e i r hundreds of cases a g a in s t c o lleg e s and u n iv er­
s i t i e s charging d is c r im in a tio n , have not i s o l a t e d and
d e a l t with the problems o f black women in higher
e du cation. Black women fin d themselves under the
broad c a te g o rie s women o r m in ority women. And j u s t
as th e term m ino rity group conceals t h i s s i t u a t i o n
o f a s p e c i f i c m inority group, so th e category women , g
hides what is.hap pening to a s p e c i f i c group o f women.
Most s tu d ie s in h ig h er education do not mention black
women as academic p ro fe s s io n a ls a t a l l .

For some reason the

r e s e a rc h e rs who go in and count female heads f a i l to r e p o r t race
d iff e re n c e s o r what kind o f jo b s and ranks s p e c i f i c m inority
women hold, i f any.

While Caucasian women may s u f f e r only sex

d is c r im in a tio n , black women encounter both sex and race d isc rim ­
i n a t i o n . 19
In providing a more comprehensive p r o f i l e o f who and where
women a d m in is tra to rs and f a c u lty a r e , and what s i g n i f i c a n t elements
17I b i d . , Moore and W agstaff, Black Educators in White
C olleges, pp. 155-160.
18I b i d . , p. 157.

10
c o n trib u te d to t h e i r employment, t h i s study proposes to add some
knowledge, info rm atio n, understan din g, encouragement, and guidance
which may be useful to c o u n se lo rs, u n iv e r s ity a d m in is tr a to r s ,
adviso rs to women s tu d e n ts , a f f ir m a tiv e a c tio n o f f i c e r s , and
women's advocate groups.
I t is hoped t h a t th e inform ation c o lle c te d and analyzed
w i l l , in a d d itio n , provide younger, t a le n te d women with some models
to s tim u la te them in e s t a b l is h i n g s i m il a r a d m in is tr a tiv e lea d ersh ip
goals f o r themselves and to guide them in achieving these g o a ls.

As

more women o f a l l races a t t a i n a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n s and perform
s u c c e s s f u lly , both men and women w ill develop more fav o ra b le
a t t i t u d e s toward them, and thus some o f th e r e s t r i c t i v e c u ltu r a l
b iases which lead to d is c rim in a tio n w ill be e lim in a te d .
Methodology
The population f o r t h i s stu d y , th e re s e a rc h in stru m e n ts, the
data c o ll e c t io n and th e d ata tre a tm e n t a re describ ed below.
Population and Sample
The p op ulation used in t h i s study c o n siste d o f women
f a c u l ty and a d m in is tr a to rs employed f u l l - t i m e in Michigan public
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig her e d u ca tio n , as i d e n t i f i e d by the 1977-78
f a c u lty and s t a f f d i r e c t o r i e s o f t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n and by the Mich20
igan Department o f Higher Education Survey Report.
20
Michigan Department o f Higher Education Survey Report
(1977).

11
I n i t i a l l y , a l l two- and fo u r-y ea r a d m in istra to rs and a
s e le c tio n o f f a c u lty women in Michigan p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher
education were contacted and asked to p a r t i c i p a t e in the i n v e s tig a ­
tio n .

In o rd er to obtain in-depth inform ation, personal interview s

were conducted with s e le c te d f a c u lty members and a d m in is tra to rs .
Comparisons o f t h e i r p e rso n a l, e d u c a tio n a l, p ro fessio n al backgrounds,
c a re e r b a r r i e r s and c a r e e r in flu en ces were made.
Data C o lle ctio n
The instrum ents f o r t h i s d e s c r ip tiv e survey were t e s t e d in
a p i l o t study conducted a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity , and Mott,
and Baker J u n io r Colleges.

Women a d m in istra to rs and f a c u lty members

were contacted and asked to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s i n v e s tig a tio n by
completing the q u e stio n n a ire and taking p a r t in an in -d ep th i n t e r ­
view.

A cover l e t t e r did in d ic a te the problem, purpose, and endorse­

ment of the study , and assured the respondent o f c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y .
Comments were s o l i c i t e d from the p a r t i c i p a n ts in the p i l o t
study f o r th e purposes of determining necessary re v is io n s and
improving the e ff e c tiv e n e s s o f the instrum ents.
Instrum ents
This was a d e s c r ip tiv e survey u t i l i z i n g m ateria l compiled
from two sources:

q u e stio n n a ire s and in-depth in te rv ie w s.

Q uestionnaire P a rt I was an o p in io n n a ire re q u e stin g
personal view p o in ts .

12
Q uestionnaire P a rt II was a form req u estin g p e rso n al, edu­
c a t i o n a l , and p ro fe ssio n a l inform ation f o r the purpose of e s ta b ­
l is h in g s i m i l a r i t i e s and d iffe re n c e s among the women.
Q uestionnaire P a rt I I I was an in te rv ie w guide f o r se le c te d
sample o f women a d m in istra to rs in Michigan's i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher
education developed by the re s e a rc h e r with a s s is ta n c e from her
a d v iso r and o th e r a p p ro p ria te persons.
Q uestionnaire P a rt IV was an in te rv ie w guide f o r s e le c te d
sample o f female f a c u l t y , follow ing the same format as t h a t f o r
a d m in is tra to r s .
Personal interv iew s did allow f o r in-depth probing o f p e r­
sonal a t t i t u d e s , v a lu e s, views, and opinions the women may have about
t h e i r p o s itio n s and themselves.

Schedules were arranged and p a r t i c i ­

pants were n o t i f i e d in advance f o r each interv iew .
To a s c e r t a i n t h a t the inform ation from the in te rv ie w was
recorded c o r r e c t l y , each respondent was encouraged to g ra n t permission
f o r a tape recorded in te rv ie w .

Data obtained from the in terv iew was

supplementary to the q u e s tio n n a ire .
Data Treatment
The inform ation c o lle c te d from the survey instrum ents were
recorded and processed with th e a id o f a computer.

I t was f u r t h e r

c a te g o riz e d , t a l l i e d , c a lc u la te d to determine c e n tra l ten d e n cies,
frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n , v a ria n ce and p resented in t a b l e form f o r
comparison.

13
The interv iew s were taped and surmarized in w ritin g .

In fo r­

mation from th e q u e stio n n a ire s and from the in terv iew s were analyzed
s e p a ra te ly with the l a t e r serv ing as a d d itio n a l d e ta ile d inform ation.
Basic Assumptions
In t h i s stu d y , i t was assumed t h a t in o rd er to in v e s tig a te
and d e scrib e the e d u c a tio n a l, p e rs o n a l, and p ro fessio n al c h a r a c te r ­
i s t i c s o f women a d m in istra to rs and f a c u lty members toward t h e i r
employment an a p p ro p ria te method f o r d ata c o lle c tio n was the use of
th e q u e s tio n n a ire supplemented by s tr u c tu r e d personal in terv iew s.
I t was a ls o assumed t h a t the responding women a d m in is tra to rs and
f a c u l ty would provide honest and open answers and t h a t i t was f e a s i b l e
to g a th e r d i r e c t inform ation concerning c a re e r in flu e n c e s , c a re e r
b a r r i e r s , r o le c o n f l i c t s , a s p i r a t io n and m o b ility p a tte r n s from
those women p re s e n tly performing as a d m in istra to rs and f a c u lty in
p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher education in Michigan.
L im itations
The population of t h i s study was lim ite d to women adminis­
t r a t o r s and f a c u lty members employed f u l l- t i m e in Michigan pub lic
i n s t i t u t i o n s of hig h er education as i d e n t i f i e d by Michigan S ta te
Department o f Higher Education and th e 1977-78 f a c u l t y - s t a f f d i r e c ­
t o r i e s o f each p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n in Michigan higher education.
Secondly the study was lim ite d to e d u c a tio n a l, p e rs o n a l, p ro fessio n al
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t r e l a t e t o women achieving h ig h -le v el adminis­
t r a t i v e and f a c u l ty p o s itio n s and a ls o th e b a r r i e r s and in flu e n ce s

14
t h a t a ff e c te d a s p i r a t i o n s , r o le c o n f l i c t and m o b ility p a tte r n s o f
women in higher education a d m in is tra tio n , th e r e f o r e only c e r t a i n
conclusions have been drawn.
The f a c u l ty women included were those who held doctoral
deg rees, and spen t a t l e a s t th r e e - f o u r th s o f t h e i r time teaching .
L ibrary re se a rc h m a te ria ls a re lim ite d to ERIC, (th e Educa­
tio n a l Resources Inform ation Center o f the U.S. O ffice o f E ducation),
D is s e r ta tio n A b stra cts inform ation se a rc h e s , books and p e rio d ic a ls
on f i l e a t the Michigan S ta te U niv ersity L ibrary and the F l i n t Public
Main L ib ra ry , published and unpublished m a te r ia ls obtained through
i n t e r - l i b r a r y loan with Michigan S ta te U n iv e rsity L ib ra ry , and books
and m a te ria ls owned o r borrowed by t h i s re s e a rc h e r.
Overview o f th e Study
A study o f th e s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f women adminis­
t r a t o r s and f a c u l ty toward t h e i r employment in M ichigan's pub lic
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f hig h er education was presented in f iv e ch ap ters f o l ­
lowed by a bibliog rap hy and appendices.

The ch ap ters contained the

follow ing inform ation:
Chapter I:

The in tr o d u c tio n , the problem sta te m e n t, th e pur­

pose, th e r a t i o n a l e , th e assum ptions, the methodology, the l i m i t a ­
t i o n s , th e overview and d e f i n i t i o n s o f terms.
Chapter I I :

A review o f resea rch l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to the

Chapter I I I :

The methodology, p o p u la tio n , method o f data

study.

c o l l e c t i o n , development o f th e survey in stru m e n t, and a n a ly s is o f d a ta .

15
C hapter IV:
C hapter V:

Report and a n a ly s is o f th e fin d in g s o f th e study.
A summary o f the stud y, con clusion , and recom­

mendations f o r f u r t h e r resea rch .
D e fin itio n o f Terms
These d e f i n i t i o n s a re lim ite d f o r use in t h i s study.
Women a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . —women employed f u l l - t i m e p rim a rily in
p o s itio n s whose t i t l e s connote a u th o r i ty ; th e s e p o s itio n s e n ta il
broad r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r decision-m aking, su p e rv isio n o f s t a f f ,
and general management fu n c tio n .

These women may o r may not be

re s p o n s ib le d i r e c t l y to and only to th e p r e s id e n t, o r the Board o f
T ru ste e s.
Admi n i s t r a t i ve posi t i ons■—posi t i ons in Michigan's pub lic
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h er education which c a rry the follow ing t i t l e s :
(1) V ic e -P re s id e n t; (2) Dean or D ir e c to r; (3) Department Head/
C hairperson; (4 ) " A s s is ta n t," " A s s is ta n t t o , " and "A ssociate"; (5)
R e g is tr a r ; (6) Business Manager; (7) Coordinator o r Program D ire c to r
and (8) Head L ib r a ria n .
P u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h igher e d u c a tio n . — I n s t i t u t i o n s a t
the p o s t secondary le v e l supported by p ub lic funds which provide
degree programs and a re a c c re d ite d by agencies o f f i c i a l l y recognized
f o r th e U.S. O ffic e o f Education.
O ther r a c i a l groups. —Spanish-surnamed Americans, American
In d ia n s , and O r ie n ta ls .
l im ite d a n a l y s i s .

This d e f i n i t i o n can be used f o r only a

I t included only th ose groups who c o n s t i t u t e a

p o r tio n o f th e la b o r market being considered.

16

Career b a r r i e r . —any o th e r than personal boundary, l i m i t a ­
t i o n , o r o b s tru c tio n which prevents the advancement toward a c a re e r
o b je c tiv e .
Upward m o b ility . —upward o r v e r t i c a l movement, promotion,
and advancement o p p o rtu n itie s w ithin o r o u tsid e the i n s t i t u t i o n a l
stru c tu re .
F a c u lty . —female educators in teaching p o s itio n s who hold
a t l e a s t a doctoral degree.

CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In tro d u ctio n
An e f f o r t was made through reviewing r e la te d l i t e r a t u r e
to provide background inform ation on the s t a t u s o f p ro fessio n al
women in h ig h er edu cation .
s tu d ie d and documented:

Three major a re as o f i n t e r e s t were

(1) Women A dm inistrators a t a l l Edu­

c a tio n a l Levels; (2) Factors Related to Women Employment in
A d m in istra tio n ; and (3) Women in Higher Education.
Women Admi ni s t r a t o r s a t a l 1
Educational Levels"
Leadership Q u a litie s
A dm inistrators d i f f e r by the manner in which they work with
people—s tu d e n ts , p a re n ts , te a c h e rs and the community; however,
according t o S c h e tlin , lea d e rsh ip q u a l i t i e s needed by women in
a d m in is tr a tio n a re th e same as those req u ire d by men; they include
. . . p lan ning, o rg a n iz in g , s t a f f i n g , schedu ling, c o o rd in a tin g ,
d i r e c t i n g , s u p e rv is in g , r e p o r tin g , budgeting. I t helps i f
they develop s k i l l s in a re a s such as in te rp e rs o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
group dynamics, le a d e r s h ip , o rg a n iz a tio n a l th e o ry , communi­
c a t io n , n e g o tia tio n , management, and how to be a change a g e n t .21
21

Eleanor S c h e tlin M., "Wonderland and Looking Glass: Women
1n A d m in is tra tio n ," The Journal o f th e National A sso ciatio n of
Women Deans, A d m in istra to rs, and Counselors, 38 (Spring 1975). 104.

17

18
A study in Michigan by B arter determined the follow ing:
1.

Women te a c h e rs were more favorab le toward women p r i n ­
c ip a ls than men te a c h e rs.

2.

Women i n te r e s te d in the p rin c ip a l ship as a c a re e r
were more fav o rab le toward women p r in c ip a ls than women
not i n te r e s te d in t h a t c a re e r.

3.

Men te a c h e rs who had teaching experience with women
p r i n c i p a l s were more fav o rab le toward them than men
having no experience with them.

4.

The m a jo rity o f te a c h e rs r a te d men and women p r in c ip a ls
equal in a b i l i t y and personal q u a l i t i e s .

5.

Approximately 46 p e rc en t o f the men but only 7.8 per­
cent o f th e women te a c h e rs were d e f i n i t e l y i n te r e s te d
in th e elementary p rin c ip a l ship as a c a re e r.

6.

Men te a c h e rs were b e t t e r prepared academ ically than 2?
women tea ch e rs f o r appointments to the p rin c ip a l ship.

B a rte r concluded t h a t her data demonstrated t h a t q u a li f ie d
women can be su c ce ssfu l as p r i n c i p a l s and t h a t th e re are competent
23
women a d m in is tra to rs .
Meskin's study concluded t h a t th e re i s strong reason fo r
seeking women to f i l l le a d e rs h ip p o s itio n s in schools because o f
th e ir
. . . democratic le a d e r s h ip , thoroughness o f approach to
problem so lv in g , and bent toward i n s t r u c t i o n a l le a d e rs h ip ,
as well as th e general e ff e c tiv e n e s s o f t b e i r performance
as r a te d by both te a c h e rs and s u p e r i o r s . 24
^ A l i c e S. B a rte r, "The S ta tu s o f Women in School Adminis­
t r a t i o n , " Education D ig e st, 25 (October 1959), 41.

24

Joan D. Meskin, "The Performance o f Women School Adminis­
t r a t o r s —A Review of the L i t e r a t u r e ," A d m in is tra to r's Notebook, 23
(January 1975), 4.

19
She concluded t h a t p a s t performance o f c u rr e n t women admin25
i s t r a t o r s w arrants emphasis placed on rec ru itm en t.
Thurston in d ic a te d t h a t th e re a re c e r t a i n paths t h a t one
must follow in o rd er to become p r e s id e n t o f a two-year i n s t i t u t i o n .
They include teaching as well as q u a s i- a d m in is tra tiv e r o l e s .

She

challenged the v a l i d i t y o f a stu d e n t personnel background as a
s o l i d p re p a ra tio n f o r le a d e rs h ip fu n ctio n s because i t d o e s n 't
develop th e necessary le a d e rs h ip q u a li t y of persuasio n.

In

a d d itio n , her study p ic tu r e d the high level woman a d m in istra to r
as one who i s r e s i l i e n t and who can s u c c e s s f u lly handle g re a t
26
s t r e s s and challenge.
A study conducted by Reeves described women co lleg e admin­
i s t r a t o r s as needing a sense o f humor as a b u f fe r a g a in s t non27
e s s e n t ia l paperwork and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w ithout a u th o r ity .
A study o f e ig h ty women in lea d e rsh ip p o s itio n s in North
C arolina by Norman showed th e se women to be
. . . o f high i n t e l l i g e n c e , c o n fid e n t, s e l f - a s s u r e d ,
s u f f i c i e n t , r e s o u r c e f u l, temperamentally independent
u n in h ib ite d , able to face wear and t e a r w ithout
f a t i g u e , s o c i a l l y p r e c i s e , with a stro n g s e lf-im a g e ,
im a g in ativ e , s e lf-m o tiv a te d , c r e a t i v e , shrewd,

A lice J . Thurston, "A Woman P re sid e n t? —A Study o f
Two-Year College P r e s id e n ts ," The Journal o f the National Associ­
a tio n f o r Women Deans, A dm in istrato rs and Counselors, 38 (Spring

3S (SprTrigT975T7TO7

20
c a lc u la tin g w ith an i n t e l l e c t u a l approach to the
s i t u a t i o n . These women lea d ers a re high in a b i l i t y
to i n i t i a t e s t r u c t u r e in an o r g a n iz a tio n , and a re
c o n s id e ra te , tak in g in to account regard f o r w e ll­
being and s t a t u s and c o n trib u tio n s of fo llo w e rs,
scope o f i n i t i a t i v e , d e cisio n and a c tio n . They can
t o l e r a t e u n c e rta in ty and postponement and can recon­
c i l e c o n f l i c t i n g demands and m aintain c o rd ia l r e l a ­
tio n s with s u p e r i o r s .28
In measuring major dimensions o f human p e rs o n a lity Uehling
noted t h a t men and women agree on personal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s valued
in le a d e rs and t h a t they f u r t h e r agree t h a t the most e s s e n t ia l
le a d e rs h ip t r a i s t a re those predominantly considered masculine.
Men a re found to have d e l i b e r a t i v e and r is k - t a k i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
while women a re held to have g r e a t e r s tre n g th in warmth and personal
a ttra c tiv e n e ss.

29

Democratic le a d e r s h ip , valued as a t r a i t in a l l

p r i n c i p a l s , was a t t r i b u t e d to women p r in c ip a ls s i g n i f i c a n t l y more
o fte n than to men p r in c ip a ls in a study by Grobman and Hines.

30

Hoyle found t h a t a group of te a c h e rs in a survey r a te d female and
male p r in c ip a ls equal in a b i l i t y and personal q u a l i t i e s .

He noted

t h a t women te a c h e rs p r e f e r women p r in c ip a ls more o fte n than do men
te a c h e rs un less the men have experienced working with a female
p ri nci p a l .

31

28

Blanche Norman, "A Study o f Women in Leadership P o sitio n s
in North C a ro lin a ," The D elta Kappa Gamma B u l le t in , 36 (1970), 13.
2Q

(U.S.:

Barbara S. Uehling, Women and the Psychology o f Management
ERIC Document Reproduction S e rv ic e , ED 089 5bZ, 1973), p. 4.

30

Huida Grobman and Vynce A. Hines, "What Makes a Good P rin ­
c ip a l? " National A sso ciation o f Secondary School P r in c ip a ls B u l l e t i n ,
40 (November 1956), 10.
31 John Hoyle, "Who Shall Be A P r in c ip a l—A Man o r A Woman?"
National Elementary P r i n c i p a l , 48 (January 1969), 23.

21
Reed viewed the t r a d i t i o n a l l y feminine q u a l i t i e s o f f l e x ­
i b i l i t y and p e rsu asiv eness as in c re a s in g ly im portant lea d e rsh ip
tra its.

Q u a litie s which a re necessary to lea d ers of a l l sexes are

held in abundance by women.

These are concern f o r a l l humanity;

an understanding o f p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , and economic problems; and
32
a b i l i t y to communicate.
In an attem p t to determine whether or no t men behave more
a p p ro p r ia te ly than do women as secondary school p r in c ip a ls Morsink
compared th e le a d e rs h ip behavior o f f i f t e e n men and f i f t e e n women
p r in c ip a ls in Michigan as perceived by t h e i r f a c u lty members.

Her

fin d in g s showed no s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s between men and women in
the a re as o f c o n sid e ra tio n and to le ra n c e o f u n c e rta in ty .

In the

are as o f r e p r e s e n ta tio n , r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , p e rsu a siv e n e ss, i n i t i a t i o n
o f s t r u c t u r e , ro le assumption, production emphasis, p r e d ic tiv e accur
acy, i n t e g r a t i o n , and s u p e r io r o r i e n t a t i o n female p r in c ip a ls were
perceived by both male and female tea ch e rs as having s i g n i f i c a n t l y
high er a b i l i t i e s than those o f men p r i n c i p a l s .

Only in the area of

to le ra n c e o f freedom did M orsink's study in d ic a t e male p r in c ip a ls
33
have a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher score than t h a t of women p r i n c i p a l s .

op

Wayne 0. Reed, Women: A Resource in A dm inistration
(U.S.: ERIC Document Reproduction S e rv ic e , ED o8z 297, 1971J,
pp. 18-19.
33

Helen M. Morsink, "Leader Behavior o f Men and Women
Secondary School P r i n c ip a ls ," Educational Horizons, 46 (Winter
1968-69), 70.

22
Background C h a r a c te r is tic s
The research r e l a t i n g to p ro fessio n al women in higher educa­
tio n i s lim ite d and focuses on p e rso n al, educational and p ro fessio n al
c h arac teristics.
Some re s e a rc h e rs have found b i r t h o rd er to be a c o n s is te n tly
im portant v a ria b le ; f o r example, executive women tended to be the
34
f i r s t b o r n i f not th e only c h ild .
However, Fogarty, Rapoport and
Rapoport, in t h e i r highly s o p h is tic a te d s t u d i e s , considered t h i s
f a c t o r equivocal and b e st understood in i n t e r a c t i o n with more p ro x i­
mate f a c t o r s .

That i s , p a tte r n s adopted by the f i r s t b o r n depend on

in te rv e n in g v a ria b le s such as the advice or encouragement rec eiv e d ,
35
and the general environment o f f a c i l i t a t i o n o r i n h i b i t io n .
Childhood r o le models are a major in flu e n c e .

The impact o f

th e p a re n t c a re e r development may have im p lic a tio n s f o r the c h i l d 's
career in te r e s t.

Fogarty im plies t h a t whether or not the c h i l d 's

mother worked and how she f e l t about i t e x e r ts a stro n g in flu e n c e on
a young woman's c a r e e r p a tte r n .

3(5

Hennig found her 25 ex ecu tiv e

women a l l had clo se r e l a ti o n s h i p s with t h e i r f a t h e r s , although they
37
did not r e j e c t the female r o l e .
Plank and Plank, in t h e i r study
o f th e autobiographies o f famous women mathematicians found t h a t
^ M a rg a r e t Hennig, "What Happens on th e Way UP?" The MBA
Masters in Business A d m in istra tio n , 5 (March 1971), 9.
35
Michael P. Fogarty, Rhona Rapoport, and Robert N. Rapoport,
Sex, Career and Family (Beverly H i l l s , C a lifo rn ia : Saqe P ub lica­
t i o n , V97TJ', p. 311.
36Ib id .
37
Hennig, op. c i t . , "What Happens," p. 8.

23

th ese women had one im portant element in common:

they a ll described

an unusually clo se r e l a ti o n s h i p with t h e i r f a th e r s r a t h e r than
t h e i r mothers as they were growing up, and they attem pted to
p a tte rn themselves a f t e r t h e i r f a t h e r s .

38

In 1971, The National A ssociation o f Women Deans and
Counselors published a r e p o r t o f a survey o f i t s membership com­
p ile d with inform ation received from 1,203 respondents.

They

concluded t h a t o f th ese women 14 p e rc en t held doctoral degrees;
74 p ercen t held m a s te r's degrees; 46 p ercen t were over 45 y ears
o f age; and 25 p ercen t were under 30 y e ars o f age.

39

Several s tu d ie s o f women d o c to ra te s have re fu te d the
concept t h a t i t i s a waste o f time to educate women who w ill
not work, o r i f they do work w ill not be as productive as t h e i r
40
male colleagues.
A stin , in a survey o f a l l women d o c to ra te s
who received t h e i r degrees in 1957 and 1958 found t h a t 1,999
women d o c to ra te s demonstrated stro n g c a re e r commitment.

Seven

Eleanor Maccoby, "Women's I n t e l l e c t , " The P o te n tia l
of Women, ed. by Seymour M. Farber (Mew York: McGraw-Hi11
Book Company, 1963), p. 34.
39

Margaret C. Berry and Laurine E. F itz g e ra ld ,
" P r o f ile and S tatu s o f NAWDC Members," Journal o f th e National
A ssociation o f Women Deans and Counselors, 34 (Winter 1971),
w

w

.-------------------------------------------------------------------

40

Helen S. A s tin , The Woman Doctorate in America
(New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1969), p. 91; J e s s i e
Bernard, Academic Women (U n iv e rsity Park: The Pennsylvania
S ta te U n iversity P re ss, 1964.

24
y e a rs a f t e r g rad u a tio n , when the survey was completed, 91 p e r­
cen t o f th e women surveyed were in the lab o r fo rc e ; 79 percent
o f th e women had never i n te r r u p te d t h e i r c a r e e r s . 4^

The

m a jo rity o f th e women were employed in educational i n s t i t u t i o n s .
Women who had degrees in the humanities and so c ia l scien ces
were more l i k e l y to be employed in c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s ;
women with degrees in education tended to be employed in ju n io r
c o lle g e s and secondary schools; and the m ajo rity o f the sc ie n 42
t i s t s were working in government o r in d u stry .
A stin a ls o found t h a t th e women d o c to r a te s , however
highly ta l e n t e d and w ell-ed u cated , were not as su c ce ssfu l in
s a la r y and p o s itio n as men.

Nor did they show the same level

of s c i e n t i f i c and s c h o la rly p ro d u c tiv ity as academic men.43
Other s tu d ie s on the s c h o la rly p ro d u c tiv ity o f
academic women have found t h a t women, as a group, did produce
s i g n i f i c a n t l y fewer s c h o la rly a r t i c l e s and books than t h e i r
male c o u n te r p a rts , but I n s t i t u t i o n a l a f f i l i a t i o n ( j u n io r
c o lle g e o r u n iv e r s ity ) and type o f p o s itio n (re s e a rc h e r o r
te a c h e r) had g r e a t in flu e n ce on th e p ro d u c tiv ity o f women
44
d o c to r a te s .

41

A s tin , op. c 1 t . , The Woman D octorate, p. 72.

42Ib 1 d ., p. 83.
43I b i d . , p. 85.
44
Bernard, op. c i t . , Academic Women, p. 83.

25
A stin found t h a t c o n tr o llin g f o r the e f f e c t s of
personal and environmental v a r ia b le s , women who were in
re s e a rc h and teach in g r o le s in u n i v e r s i t i e s were as prod u c tiv e as t h e i r male colleagues.

45

In academe, s c h o la rly p r o d u c tiv ity , r a t h e r than
te a ch in g e f f e c tiv e n e s s or s e rv ic e , appears to be the primary
r e q u i s i t e f o r advancement in rank and s a la r y .

For a number

o f re a s o n s , women f a c u lty members were more l i k e l y to hold
te a ch in g or counseling p o s itio n s o r be employed in ju n io r c o l­
le g e s where th e p u b lic a tio n r a t e was low f o r both males and
fem ales; and women receiv ed le s s support f o r research o r
c r e a t i v e work.

Bayer rep o rte d t h a t 45 p ercen t of the male

f a c u l t y in u n i v e r s i t i e s received research su p p o rt compared
w ith 19 p e rc e n t o f women receiv in g support.

46

I t i s d i f f i c u l t to asse ss whether women d e li b e r a t e l y
choose p o s itio n s t h a t do not re q u ire research and c re a tiv e
a c t i v i t i e s because o f lack o f commitment to c a r e e r and advance­
ment o r whether they have le s s in c e n tiv e to be productive
because they have r e a l i s t i c a l l y assessed t h a t d isc rim in a to ry

45

A s tin , op. c i t . , The Woman D octorate, p. 83.

^ A l a n E. Bayer, "Teaching Faculty in Academe:
1972-73," American Council on Education Research Report, Vol.
8, No. 2 (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education,
1973), p. 29.

26
p r a c t ic e s p reven t them from rec e iv in g support f o r research
and l i m i t t h e i r chances f o r promotion.

Women who were a c tiv e

p r o f e s s i o n a l l y published fre q u e n tly and were found to re p o rt
employer d is c rim in a tio n a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r r a t e . ^
In summarizing her study o f women d o c to r a te s , Astin
s t a te d :
. . . they a re conmiitted to t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e and
c a r e e r s . They remain in the lab o r f o r c e , and they
c o n tr ib u te as te a c h e rs , s c h o la r s , and s c i e n t i s t s .
Even though the system has not a s s i s t e d women who
have home and fam ily r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in a d d itio n
to t h e i r p ro fessio n al r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , and though
i t has not rewarded p ro fe s sio n a l women e q u ita b ly ,
academic women have demonstrated stam ina, p e r s i s t ­
ence, and devotion to t h e i r commitments.48
In an e f f o r t to determine c a r e e r p a tte r n s o f women
a d m in is tr a to r s in higher e d u ca tio n , Gardner surveyed f i f t y one women in a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s in I l l i n o i s c o lleg e s
and u n i v e r s i t i e s .

The w r i t e r found t h a t the m a jo rity o f the

women were from small f a m ilie s ; were unmarried; had moved
from o f f i c e work o r teaching to a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s ;
s tr o n g ly supported th e p ro fe s sio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s in t h e i r
f i e l d s ; and tended to become a d m in is tra to rs f a i r l y e a rly
in l i f e —between th e ages o f 25 and 35.

The women who were

surveyed s t a t e d t h a t they had g e n e ra lly obtained t h e i r

47
48

B ernard, op. c i t . , Academic Women, p. 107.

Helen S. A s tin , "Career P r o f i l e s o f Women D o c to ra tes,"
Academic Women On The Move, ed. by A lice S. Rossi and Ann Calderwood
(New York: R ussell Sage Foundation, 1973), pp. 160-61.

27
p o s itio n s on t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e , and they i d e n t i f i e d th e a b i l i t y
to understand people, to organize work, and to accept re s p o n sidQ
b i l i t y w i l l i n g l y as important q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r advancement.
In a study of the c a re e r p a tte r n s o f stu d e n t personnel
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , Grant and Foy obtained d ata from 1,320 adminis50
t r a t o r s who rep re se n te d 499 c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .
The
r e s e a rc h e rs found t h a t women stu d e n t personnel a d m in is tr a to r s ,
r e g a rd le s s o f t h e i r p o s i t io n , were o ld e r than th e men in the pro­
f e s s io n .

Women a d m in is tra to rs were not as l i k e l y to be m arried; 32

p e rc e n t o f the women were m arried, as compared with 86 p e rc e n t o f
th e male a d m in is tra to rs .

The female a d m in is tra to rs had an average

tenu re o f seven y e a rs in t h e i r p o s itio n s .

Deans o f women had th e

most lo n g e v ity ; some had been in th e p o s itio n f o r tw e n ty -fiv e y e a r s .
The re s e a rc h e rs concluded t h a t advancement o p p o r tu n itie s f o r women
a d m in is tr a to r s were lim ite d .

While male stu d e n t personnel

a d m in is tra to rs can expect to be promoted to non -stu dent personel
a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s in h igh er e d u ca tio n , women a d m in is tr a to r s
". . . a re l e s s l i k e l y to re c e iv e promotions even though they a re
l i k e l y t o have more p ro fe s sio n a l t r a i n i n g and experience and be
51
somewhat o l d e r ."
49

Helen Rogers Gardner, "Women A d m inistrators in Higher Edu­
c a tio n in I l l i n o i s : A Study o f C urrent Career P a tte rn s" (unpublished
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Indiana U n iv e rs ity , 1966).
®®W. Harold G rant, and James E. Foy, "Career P a tte r n s o f
Student Personnel A d m in is tra to rs ," National A sso ciatio n Student
Personnel A d m inistrators J o u r n a l, 2 (October 1972), 106-13.
51 I b i d . , p. 113.

28
Rideout, in viewing th e upward m ob ility of women in higher
education a d m in is tr a tio n , rep o rte d the follow ing:
1.

Over 53.2 p e rc en t o f th e women a d m in is tra to rs had d o c to ra te
de g re es.

2.

T heir median age was 45 y e a r s .

3.

T heir median number of y e a rs o f p ro fessio n al employment was
24.

4.

38 p e rc en t had no c a r e e r i n te r r u p ti o n s .

5.

In th e cases o f i n t e r r u p t i o n s , the most f re q u e n tly c ite d
reasons was f o r academic study.

6.

Over h a lf o f the a d m in is tr a to r s were f u l l p ro fe s s o rs .

7.

Challenging work was th e h ig h e s t- r a te d job c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

8.

56.1 percent were or had been m arried.

9.

T heir median number o f c h ild re n was one.

10.

They came from small f a m ilie s .

11.

The m a jo rity o f t h e i r mothers had not been employed.

12.

T heir husbands, f a m i li e s , and o th e r women in a d m in istra tio n
were seen as having f a c i l i t a t e d t h e i r c a r e e r achievement,
however, th e respondents saw t h e i r own a t t i t u d e s as the
most f a c i l i t a t i n g in flu e n c e .

13.

The a d m in is tra to rs had a strong p ro fessio n al i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
and they saw being a woman an advantage in t h e i r c a re e r
achievement only i f they were in the home economics pro­
fessio n .

14.

Academic t r a i n i n g in a d m in is tra tio n and management, i n t e r n ­
sh ips o r o th e r e x p e r ie n tia l o p p o r tu n itie s in a d m in is tr a tio n ,
and f in a n c ia l a s s i s t a n c e a t th e graduate lev el were among
th e types o f support recommended as necessary f o r women
w ith a d m in is tr a tiv e a s p i r a t i o n s , 52

®^Anne H. Rideout, "The Upward M obility o f Women in Higher
Education: A P r o f i l e o f Women Home Economics A dm inistrators"
(unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U niversity o f M assachusetts, 1974).

29
Walsh in analyzing c a r e e r p a tte r n s o f women a d m in is tra to rs
observed th e fo llow ing:
1.

The m a jo rity o f women adm inistrators were n a tiv e born
Caucasians.

2.

They were th e only c h ild or the f i r s t born in a fam ily o f
two.

3.

They had p a re n ts , e s p e c i a l l y f a t h e r s , somewhat b e t t e r
educated.

4.

T heir mothers' occupation was homemaker o r housewife.

5.

The m a jo rity o f the women a d m in is tra to rs chose to combine
t h e i r p ro fessio n al ro le s with those o f wife and mother.

6.

The m a jo rity o f th e women a d m in is tra to rs tended to marry
l a t e r in l i f e than th e general population o f women.

7.

The m a jo rity o f the women a d m in is tra to rs married men of
equal o r g r e a t e r educational a ttain m en t who worked o u tsid e
o f academia.

8.

The m a jo rity o f the women obtained t h e i r a d m in is tra tiv e
p o s itio n by "chance."

9.

The m a jo rity o f women held middle-management p o s itio n s such
as deans, d i r e c t o r s , a s s o c ia te o r a s s is ta n c e deans, and
d i r e c t o r in the stu d e n t personnel a re a .

10.

The m a jo rity o f women a d m in is tra to rs viewed the "old buddy"
system as th e most e f f e c t i v e method of le a rn in g about
t h e i r p re s e n t p o s itio n s .

11.

The m ajo rity o f women a d m in is tra to rs in d ic a te d t h a t the
th re e most im portant f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g advancement included
being competent, being supported by t h e i r immediate
su p e rv iso r and being a b le to r e l o c a t e . 53
Lee in her study found the follow ing f a c t o r s as c o n trib u tin g

to p ro fessio n al achievement o f women in higher education.
A. Walsh, "Career P a tte rn s o f Women A dm inistrators in
Higher Education I n s t i t u t i o n s in C a lifo rn ia " (unpublished Ph.D.
d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e rsity o f C a lif o r n ia , 1975).

30
1.

The fam ily was the c r i t i c a l u n i t f o r development o f
competencies and a t t i t u d e s r e l a te d to achievement.

2.

O p p o rtu n ities f o r graduate study and f a c u lty support were
req u ired f o r p ro fessio n al development.

3.

Personal q u a l i t i e s such as d r iv e , t e n a c i t y , s k i l l in
working w ith people, love o f le a rn in g , in te l li g e n c e and hard
work helped.

4.

Most women were s a t i s f i e d with t h e i r c a re e r d e cisio n s and
rep o rted t h e i r c h ie f s a t i s f a c t i o n s to be teaching and
c o n ta c t with stu d e n ts and th e o p p o rtu n itie s f o r continued
growth t h a t c a re e rs in higher education provided.

5.

S i g n i f ic a n t d if f e re n c e s between f a c u lty and a d m in istra to rs
were r e la te d to t h e i r graduate experiences.

6.

Women not s a t i s f i e d with t h e i r c a r e e r d e cisio n s reported
t h a t neg ativ e fam ily e x p e c ta tio n s , lac k of o p p o r tu n itie s ,
d i s c r im in a tio n , and c o n f l i c t with t h e i r perception o f the
r o le o f women lim ite d t h e i r a s p i r a t io n s and achievem ents.54
Factors Related to the Employment o f Women
The l i t e r a t u r e discussed both p o s i t iv e and negative elements

t h a t a f f e c te d women's e f f o r t s toward achieving p o sitio n s in educa­
tio n a l a d m in is tra tio n .
under the t i t l e s of:

These elements a re discussed in t h i s s e c tio n
(1) a s p i r a t io n ; (2) s e x - r o le s te r e o ty p e s ;

(3) l e g i s l a t i o n and task fo r c e s ; (4) women's movement; and (5)
a f f ir m a tiv e a c tio n .
Career B a r rie r A sp iratio n
In an economically advanced s o c i e t y , th e amount o f time and
th e number o f y ears re q u ire d f o r household and c h ild - r e a r in g
54Lou1se Lee, "Factors Related to P ro fessio n al Achievement
o f Women: A Study o f C a lifo rn ia S ta te U n iv e rsity and College Women"
(unpublished Ph,D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U niv ersity o f Southern C a lif o r n ia ,
1975).

31
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s have been reduced s i g n i f i c a n t l y by technological
advances, and th e school system has assumed a g r e a t r e s p o n s i b i li t y
in the education and t r a i n i n g o f the young.

There i s nothing the

m ateria l c u ltu r a l o f i n d u s t r ia l iz e d s o c i e t i e s which should preclude
the f u l l e q u a liz a tio n o f women, y e t th e r e remains a lack o f
i n t e r e s t and re lu c ta n c e on the p a r t o f many women to s e r io u s ly
seek and assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and s t a t u s equal to men in the
55
s o c ie ty .
The emergence o f women in to f u l l e q u a l it y , i f not
hampered by th e m aterial asp ects o f the s o c i e t y , is hindered by
the c u lt u r a l mores and t r a d i t i o n s which in flu e n ce the s t a t u s , r o l e s ,
and self-im ag es o f women, and by th e o rg an iz atio n o f the s o c ie ty
which re q u ire s t h a t women assume major r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the care
o f c h ild re n and home.

I t i s d i f f i c u l t to s e p a ra te e f f e c t i v e l y

the s p e c i f i c consequences o f th e p ervasive p a tte r n s o f sex d is c r im i­
natio n in higher education from tho se o f the broader c u ltu r a l
phenomena which a f f e c t th e a s p i r a t io n s and achievement o r i e n t a t i o n
o f women and prevent so many p o t e n t i a l l y a b le women from becoming
p ro d u ctiv e, e f f e c t i v e members o f th e f a c u lty and a d m in istra tio n
o f higher education.

Considering the broad p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f women

1n the world o f work (women c o n s t i t u t e 39 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l
la b o r fo rc e ) i t i s noteworthy t h a t women a re underrepresented in
55

J e s s i e Bernard, "The S ta tu s o f Women in Modern P a tte rn s
o f C u ltu re ," The Annals, 375 (1968), 6-8.

32
resp o n sib le p o sitio n s in th e p ro f e s s io n s , government, b u sin e ss, and
CC
in d u s try , as well as in higher e du cation.
Howe s t a t e d , "The c ru c ia l is s u e in women's education is . . .
a s p i r a t i o n ."

She f u r t h e r noted t h a t women who e n te r c o lle g e do so

with high er achievement records but lower c a re e r goals than men.
Her indictm ent o f women's low a s p i r a t io n level in d ic a te s t h a t
women accep t an i n f e r i o r s t a tu s in the educational hierarchy and
57
c o n sid er t h i s s t a tu s a le g itim a te one.
Horner has developed a
concept of the "motive to avoid success" which she contends" . . .
58
a c ts as a psychological b a r r i e r to achievement in women."
She
observed t h a t most women who were achievem ent-oriented have a
motive to avoid su c ce ss, which was evidenced in " . . .

a d is p o s itio n

to become anxious about achieving su c ce ss, because they expect
negative consequences, such as so c ia l r e j e c t i o n an d /o r f e e lin g s o f
59
being unfeminine, as a r e s u l t o f succeeding."
Horner has a ls o
argued t h a t " . . .

th e motive to avoid success i s a l a t e n t , s t a b l e ,

p e rs o n a lity d is p o s itio n acquired e a r l y in l i f e in conjunction with
sex r o le standards and sexual i d e n t i t y . 60

H orner's more re c e n t

56

Cynthia Fuchs E pstein , "Women and th e P ro fe s s io n s ," New
G eneratio ns, 6 (Fall 1969), 16-17.
^ F lo r e n c e Howe, "Sexism and the A sp ira tio n s o f Women,"
Phi Delta Kappan, 55 (October 1973), 100.
58Matina S. Horner, "The Motive to Avoid Success and Changing
A sp ira tio n s o f C ollege Women," Women on Campus: 1970, Center fo r
Continuing Education (1970), 62.

59Ib id .
60Matina S. Horner, "Toward an Understanding o f AchievementRelated C o n flic ts in Women," Journal o f Social I s s u e s , 28 (February
1972), 164.

33
re s e a rc h revealed t h a t th e emphasis on the new freedom o f women
has n ot reduced th e incidence o f the motive to avoid su ccess.

She

found:
. . . mounting evidence . . . suggesting t h a t many achievemento rie n te d American women, e s p e c ia lly those high in th e motive
to avoid su c c e ss, when faced w ith th e c o n f l i c t between t h e i r
fem inine image and developing t h e i r a b i l i t i e s and i n t e r e s t s ,
compromise by d is g u isin g t h e i r a b i l i t y and a b d ic a tin g from
com petition in the o u tsid e w o rld .61
Horner a t t r i b u t e d th e increased and i n t e n s i f i e d f e a r of
su c c e ss , rep o rted by women in her more re c e n t s t u d i e s , to the
in creased
. . . e x te n t to which women have incorporated s o c i e t y 's a t t i t u d e s ,
and then tend to e v alu ate themselves in terms of th e s e a t t i ­
tu d e s , which s t r e s s the idea t h a t com petition, su c ce ss,
competence, and i n t e l l e c t u a l achievement a re b a s i c a l l y i n ­
c o n s i s t e n t with fe m in in ity .
Even with the removal o f many " . . .

leg al and educational

b a r r i e r s and d e s p ite the presence o f more o p p o rtu n itie s f o r women,"
Horner contended t h a t th e re was a ". . . s i g n i f i c a n t and in cre asin g
absence o f capable and tr a in e d American women from th e mainstream
o f thought and achievement in the society."® 3

Horner, w ritin g in

Psychology Today, declared t h a t c o lle g e women f e a r success and
fe e l n e g a tiv e ly toward o th e r women who seek o r achieve vocational
success.®4

She documented th e hypothesis t h a t women achievers

s u f f e r high a n x ie ty , thus " . . .

becoming unpopular, unm arriageable,

61 Ib id .
62 Ib id .
63 Ib id .
®4Mat1na S. Horner, "Woman's Will to F a i l ," Psychology Today,
3 (November 1969), 38.

34
and lonely."®®

H orner's stu dy, which revolved around s u b je c tiv e

sc o rin g o f s t o r i e s w r itte n by a sample o f men and women, concluded
th a t " . . .

women w ill f u l l y e x plo re t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l p o te n tia l

only when they do not need to compete—and l e a s t o f a l l when they
a re competent with men."®®
Berry and Kushner viewed th e f e a r of success describ ed by
Horner as a very re a l impediment to upward m o b ility o f women.®?
Tresemer reviewed previous s tu d ie s in f e a r o f success and concluded
a f t e r conducting h is own t h a t a tren d did e x i s t which e i t h e r i l l u s ­
t r a t e d a le s se n in g o f the f e a r o f success among women o r showed
t h a t th e f e a r o f success theory i s unproven.

He recommended

approaching H orner's views with c au tion.® 8 Another p o s itio n on
th e low a s p i r a t io n lev el o f women held by Smith in d ic a te d t h a t
th e c h i e f problem to be s e t t l e d by th e p ro sp e c tiv e woman adminis­
t r a t o r i s th e e stab lish m en t o f p r i o r i t i e s —domestic and p r o f e s s io n a l.
This a u th o r saw th e woman a d m in is tr a to r as needing g r e a t encourage­
ment from her husband because she would re c e iv e l i t t l e from her
contemporari e s . ®^
65I b i d . , p. 36.
65I b i d . , p. 38.
*^Jane Berry and Richard Kushner, "A C r i t i c a l Look a t th e
Queen Bee Syndrome," The Journal o f th e National A sso c ia tio n f o r
Women Deans, A d m in is tra to rs , and Counselors, 38 (Spring 1975), 173.
®8David Tresemer, "Fear o f Success:
Psychology Today, 7 (March 1974), 83.

Popular, b u t Unproven,"

®^Smith, op. c i t . , "Women A d m in istra to rs— Is The P ric e Too
High?" p. 99.

35
Most women tea ch e rs who hold advanced degrees in education
do not want to become a d m in is tra to rs because they have witnessed
the d i f f i c u l t i e s in o b tain in g p o s itio n s o f educational l e a d e r s h i p .70
Women have accepted an i n f e r i o r s t a t u s in educational systems or
a t l e a s t have an u nw illingn ess to s tr u g g le f o r p o s itio n s in the
a d m in is tr a tiv e h i e r a r c h y .7^ B a rte r found only 7.8 p ercen t o f the
women in elem entary schools in her study to be in te r e s te d in
a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s i t io n s .

The r e s u l t s o f her stu d y , which showed

t h a t men elementary te a c h e rs were b e t t e r prepared academ ically
f o r p rin c ip a l sh ip p o s itio n s than women elementary te a c h e rs led
B a rte r to conclude t h a t apathy on th e p a r t o f women te a c h e rs is a
f a c t o r in th e low number o f women in elementary le a d e rs h ip p o sitio n s
and t h a t q u a li f ie d women seeking th e p r in c ip a ls h ip a re given f a i r
72
c o n s id e r a tio n .
Lyon and S a a rio , a decade l a t e r , d eclared impro­
bable th e statem en t t h a t a l l women a re w itho ut i n t e r e s t in c a re e r
advancement. ^

70 Andrew Fishel and J a n ic e P o ttk e r , "Women Lose Out: Is
There Sex D iscrim ination in School A dm inistration?" The C learing
House, 47 (March 1973), 390.
7^ Howe, op. c i t . , "Sexism and the A sp ira tio n s o f Women,"
p. 101.
7^ B a r te r, op. c i t . , "The S ta tu s o f Women in School Adminis­
t r a t i o n , " p. 41.
7 3 C atherine Lyon, and Terry S a a rio , "Women in Public Edu­
c a tio n : Sexual D iscrim ination in Promotions," Phi D elta Kappan, 55
(October 1973), 131.

36

Psychological d is c rim in a tio n was i d e n t i f i e d by Krohn as
undermining women's a s p i r a t i o n s . 7^

Bach f u r t h e r noted t h a t ,

"Women who show i n t e r e s t in pursuing c a re e rs o u tsid e th e classroom
a re urged to become c o u n se lo rs, educational s p e c i a l i s t s , o r
s u p e r v is o r s ."

She found a stro n g psychological d e t e r r e n t to

a s p i r a t io n f o r a d m in is tr a tiv e p o sitio n s to be t h a t women a s p ir a n ts
a re viewed as o d d itie s by o th e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s .76
Cavender remarked t h a t w hile women a re o ften questioned
in in terview s regarding t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as wives and
m others, men a re never su bjected to questio n s regarding t h e i r
s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to in c a p a c ita tin g d ise a s e s which a re found in
higher frequency in men than in women.76

F u rther v a l i d i t y was

given by Van Meir to th e argument t h a t women a re discouraged in
interview s f o r a d m in is tra tiv e p o s i t io n s .

He s t a te d "c a re e r

i n te r r u p tio n s a ls o account in p a r t f o r th e lack o f women appointees
to educational a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s t s . " 77

In her so c io lo g ic a l

r e s e a rc h , E pstein c e r t i f i e d t h a t a la r g e percentage o f women with
B a r b a r a Krohn, "The Puzzling Case o f the Missing Ms.,"
N a tio n 's Schools and C o lle g e s, 1 (November 1974), 34.
76Louise Bach, "Of Women, School A d m in istra to rs, and D is c ip lin e ,"
Phi Delta Kappan, 57 (March 1976), 464.
76Edith Cavender, "Women in A dm inistration? You've Got To Be
Kidding"' National A sso ciation o f Secondary School P r in c ip a ls B u l l e t i n ,
58 (December 1974), 91.
77Edward J . Van Meir, "Sexual D iscrim ination in School Adminis­
t r a t i o n O p p o rtu n itie s ," The Journal o f th e National A ssociation f o r
Women Deans, A d m in istra to rs, and C ounselors, 38 (Sunmer 1975), 164.

37
p ro fe ssio n a l c a r e e r s do not have t r a d i t i o n a l family r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
and a re not considered normal in the American s o c ie ty
In a study in Minnesota o f the a s p i r a t io n o f tea ch e rs f o r
a d m in is tra tiv e p o s i t io n s , Wain concluded:
1.

There i s no d if f e r e n c e in th e a s p i r a t io n s o f women tea ch e rs
and th e a s p i r a t io n s o f men te a c h e rs f o r a school adminis­
t r a t i v e p o s itio n .

2.

Women tea ch e rs with l e s s than ten y e ars o f experience and
men te a c h e rs with l e s s than f iv e y e a rs o f experience a re
more l i k e l y to a s p ir e to an a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n .

3.

Women te a c h e rs who a re not m arried a re more l i k e l y to
a s p i r e to an a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n than those who a re
m arried.

4.

A high er percentage o f men te a c h e rs than women te a c h e rs
a re c e r t i f i e d f o r an a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s i t io n , and a higher
percentage o f men te a c h e rs than women te a c h e rs have taken
p ro fe ssio n a l education courses in p u r s u i t o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n .

5.

The main reason te a c h e rs do not a s p i r e to an a d m in is tr a tiv e
p o s itio n is t h a t they p r e f e r teaching and day-to-day
c o n ta c t with s tu d e n ts .

6.

Most te a c h e rs fe e l t h a t women a re n o t encouraged to apply
f o r o r prepare themselves p r o f e s s io n a lly f o r a d m in is tra tiv e
p o s i t io n s .
McCorkle in a d v isin g a s p ir in g women wishing to go in to

higher education a d m in is tra tio n in d ic a te d women should:
get academic c r e d e n t i a l ; have experience in a p ro fessio n al
f i e l d ; study theory o f a d m in is tr a tio n ; study theory o f higher
e du catio n; study theory o f n e g o tia tio n ; study theory o f law;
study th eo ry o f resea rch tec h n iq u e s; study theory o f how to
78Cynthia F. E p stein , " S tru c tin g Success f o r Women," The
Education D ig e st, 39 (February 1974), 57.
7!JJ u d ith Wain, " A ttitu d e s o f Teachers Toward Women School
A dm in istrators and th e A s p ira tio n s o f Teachers f o r A d m inistrative
P o s itio n s 1n th e S ta te o f M innesota," C a ta ly s t f o r Chanqe, 6 (F all
1976), 19.

38
work with people; r e t a i n t h e i r i d e n t i t y ; b e lie v e in themselves
as women; accept c h alle n g e; work hard; have high sta n d ard s;
i f they marry, they should marry men who see them as in d i ­
viduals.® 0
Sex-Role Stereotypes
The fe m in is t movement has stim u la te d an in cre asin g i n t e r e s t
in resea rch r e l a t i n g to sexual i d e n t i t y , feminine r o l e s , and how
81
the so c ia l c o n te x t o f women's l iv e s c r e a te s c o n f l i c t .
Research
d e alin g w ith achievement m otivation in pre-school and e a rly grade
school ages has shown t h a t g i r l s a re " . . .
f o r love r a t h e r than m aste rin g ."

motivated by a d e s ir e

The q u a l i t i e s needed f o r su stain ed

top performance, e s p e c ia lly as a d u lt ; a re not t y p i c a l l y learned by
l i t t l e g irls.

Boys a re encouraged toward independence and m astering

the environment, while g i r l s a re tau g h t to be more dependent and
l e s s adventurous.

Thus, as boys le a rn instrum ental independence,

g i r l s le a rn t h a t they a re rewarded more f o r non-com petitive,
conforming b eh av io r, which c o n tr ib u te s to the higher grades which
g i r l s earn throughout elementary and secondary sch ool.

Because

g i r l s g e t more p a re n tal p ro te c tio n and a re not encouraged to be
independent, they become more dependent on o th e rs f o r approval
and do not develop the s k i l l s nor th e s e lf-c o n fid e n c e to cope in

80E. M. McCorkle, "Top-Level Women A dm inistrators in Higher
Education: A Study o f Women P r e s id e n ts , Chief Academic O f f ic e r ,
and Academic Deans" (unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Oklahoma S ta te
U n iv e rs ity , 1975).
J u a n ita H. W illiams, "Fem ininity: A Deviancy Model o f
Normal P e r s o n a lity ," I n t e r p r e t a ti o n s o f Women: Readings in
Psychology, ed. by J u a n ita H. Williams (Lexington: Xerox College
P u b lish in g , 1973), pp. 290-95.

39
a c o m p e titiv e , achievem ent-oriented environm ent.82

Further research

has shown t h a t young g i r l s who have stro ng a f f i l i a t i v e needs and
lack s e lf -c o n fid e n c e avoid com petitive ta s k s o r instrum ental ta s k s
qq
because they c o n s i s t e n t l y underestim ate t h e i r own a b i l i t y .
The fe m in is t movement has not ap p reciab ly influenced th e
feminine r o le among the c o lleg e -ag e po p u latio n .

Bardwick has

reviewed a number o f re c e n t s tu d ie s which u t i l i z e d fe m in in ity m asc u lin ity s c a l e s , and found t h a t c o lle g e -a g e women who scored
"high feminine" ( t h a t i s , p re fe rre d th e c o n v en tio n a l, p a ssiv e ,
female r o l e ) were more o th e r - o r i e n t e d , e x h ib ite d l e s s e g o -s tre n g th ,
and were l e s s ach iev e m e n t-o rie n te d .8^
In a study o f women c o lle g e s e n i o r s , Gump explored th e
r e l a ti o n s h i p o f e g o -s tre n g th , achievement m o tiv a tio n , and c a re e r
g oals.

Gump found th a t :

. . . th e view o f fem inity most acc ep tab le to the women
p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the study was one which included th e r o l e
o f w ife and mother w hile pursuing c a re e rs t h a t would
g r a t i f y needs f o r s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n . Those stu d e n ts who
were more achievement o rie n te d s t i l l planned c a re e rs in the
t r a d i t i o n a l female f i e l d s , such as n u rsin g , e d u ca tio n , and
so c ia l work.85
82Lois Waldis Hoffman, "Early Childhood Experiences and
Women's Achievement Motives," Journal o f Social I s s u e s , 28
(February 1972), 192-93.
83I b i d . , p. 200.
®^Judith M. Bardwick, Psychology o f Women (New York:
Harper & Row, 1971), p. 67.
85Ja n ic e P o rte r Gump, "Sex-Role A ttitu d e s and Psychological
W ell-Being," Journal o f Social I s s u e s , 28 (February 1972), 79-84.

40
Other s tu d ie s r e l a te d to sex r o l e have presented data which
showed t h a t g i r l s who scored higher on m asc u lin ity s c a le s were
more c o n fid e n t, s e l f - r e l i a n t , a s s e r t i v e , c o m p e titiv e , and s e l f accepting than g i r l s who were t y p i f i e d as r e t i r i n g and passive
and scored high in feminity.®®
Nieboer noted t h a t th e d e a rth o f r o l e models f o r pro sp ectiv e
women a d m in istra to rs causes a s c a r c i t y in women a d m in is tra tiv e
a p p lic a n ts , w ith an ensuing lack o f in cre ase in female appointees
to such p o s itio n s .

87

Women c o lle g e stu d e n ts need dynamic, enlightened

women deans who w ill i n i t i a t e change in the t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c tu r e
o f the educational and so c ia l system, according to Gillies.®®
Hawley commented t h a t women who fe e l f r e e to compete w ith men in
male-dominated f i e l d s re p o r t e a r ly r e l a ti o n s h i p s o f e q u a lity with
s i g n i f i c a n t men.®9
Shelly portrayed th e school c h i l d 's view o f male and female
models as th e te a c h e r , woman; th e p r i n c i p a l , man.

The c h ild le a rn s

®®A. B. H e ilb rie n , "Sex-Role, Instrum ental Expressive
Behavior, and Psychopathology in Females," Journal o f Abnormal
Psychology, 13 (1968), 131-36.
®7Nancy Nieboer, "There Is A C ertain Kind o f Woman . .
The Journal o f th e National A sso c ia tio n o f Women Deans, A d m inistrators
and Counselors, 38 (Spring 1975), 99.
®®Jean G i l l i e s , "In Defense of th e Dean o f Women; A New Role
For A New World," The Journal o f The National A sso ciation f o r Women
Deans, A d m in istra to rs, and C ounselors, 36 (Spring 19^5), 158.
89Peggy Hawley, "P ercep tio ns o f Male Models o f Femininity
Related To Career Choice," Journal o f Counseling Psychology, 19
(Ju ly 1972), 308.

41

from th e r o l e thus e x h ib ite d t h a t man is a decision-making person
and t h a t woman i s a d ir e c tio n - s e e k in g one.

These r o le s played

o ut a t th e elem entary school lev el teach th e young male o r female
t h a t t h e r e i s no b u sin e ss l i k e e q u a lity between male and female
a d u l t s . 90

Sexton w rote, "The most damaging o f a l l sex s te r e o ty p e s ,

t h a t only males a re capable o f high level le a d e rs h ip , i s confirmed
in the minds o f th e young."9^

This ste re o ty p in g takes place in

th e schools when c h ild re n see le a d e rs h ip p o s itio n s held by men to
th e v i r t u a l exclusion o f women.92

Sexton placed blame f o r the

lack o f women a d m in is tra to r s on th e t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r
t h e i r f a i l u r e to r e c r u i t promising young women in to t h e i r programs.93
T ib b e tts viewed most women as being unaware o f the
d is c rim in a tio n in h e re n t in s e x - r o le s te re o ty p in g .

This author

claim ed, however, t h a t women must bear the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
i n i t i a t i n g r o l e changes.

94

"Women may very well be th e most

disadvantaged c la s s in American s o c i e t y ," claimed Green, but
they a re beginning to recognize t h a t they possess unused b rain s

Roles?"

90Ann Converse S h e lly , "Can We Find More Diverse Adult Sex
Educational L eadership, 31 (November 1973), 118.

9 1 P a tr ic ia Sexton, Women In Education (Bloomington, Indiana:
Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1976), p. 57.
92Ib id .
93I b i d . , p. 56.
^ S y lv ia - L e e T ib b e tt s , "Sex Role S te reo ty p in g : Why Women
D iscrim inate A gainst Themselves," The Journal o f th e National
A sso ciatio n f o r Women Deans, A d m in is tra to rs , and C ounselors, 38
(Spring 1575), 181.--------------------------------------------------------

42
and a b i l i t y . 95 On th e o th e r hand, Reed a s s e r te d t h a t " . . .
d is c r im in a tio n e x i s t s a g a in s t women in e d ucation , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t
the h ig h e s t l e v e l s ; . . .

i t e x i s t s mainly in the minds o f m en."9^

Funderburk suggested t h a t to overcome d is c rim in a tio n women must
o f f e r hig h er academic q u a l i f i c a t i o n s than those o f men and must
approach d isc rim in a to ry a t t i t u d e s w ith d i g n i t y . 97 Hennig and
Jardim s t a t e s :
Saying a person cannot be kept out d o e s n 't ensure t h a t t h a t
person can g e t i n , and more im p ortant, s ta y in . B e li e f s ,
a t t i t u d e s and assumptions which people have about themselves
and each o th e r and t h e i r r e s u l ti n g w illin g n e ss o r unw illingness
t o a c c e p t each o th e r a re untouched by law. . . . In o rd er to
ta k e advantage o f equal o p p o rtu n ity women must b e lie v e they
a r e , and in f a c t must be, as competent as t h e i r male co u n ter­
p a r t s . 98
Women a re th e v ictim s o f a two-pronged d is c rim in a tio n
d e v ic e , a s s e rte d D earing, which denies them access to a d m in is tr a tiv e
p o sitio n s.

The f i r s t being overeducated and under experienced:

secondly experienced and undereducated.

or

He held t h a t t h i s treatm en t

m aintains th e s t a t u s quo by the group holding power—men.99

Women

9% d ith Green, "Women: A S i g n i f ic a n t National Resource"
(U .S ., ERIC Document ED 082 297, 1971), p. 4.
96Wayne 0. Reed, "Women: A Resource in A dm inistration"
(U .S ., ERIC Document ED 082 097, 1971), p. 14.
97Earl C. Funderburk, "Women: T heir R e sp o n sib ility in
P ro fe ss io n a l Unity" (U .S ., ERIC Document ED 082 297, 1971), p. 28.
9®Margaret Hennig, and Anne Jardim , The Managerial Woman
(New York: Anchor P re ss , 1977), p. XIV.
99Bruce Dearing, "Opening Address" (U .S ., ERIC Document
ED 086 062, 1973), p. 1.

43
a re favored as p r i n c i p a l s over men only when the men tea ch e rs
j

responding to th e question posed have served w ith a female p r i n c i p a l .
The lo g ic Taylor then followed was t h a t as th e number o f women
p r in c ip a ls is d e c re a sin g , men w ill in c re a s in g ly r e p o r t a more
fav o ra b le d i s p o s i t i o n toward men principals.^®®
A f u r t h e r look a t ro le models and e x p ec ta tio n s f o r women
educators in d ic a te s t h a t so c ia l mores and ste re o ty p e s hamper a
woman’s p u r s u i t o f p ro fe s sio n a l g o a ls .

The American A ssociation

o f School A d m inistrators l i s t e d fo u r myths believed by Americans
which h in der women's a s p i r a t i o n s .

The f i r s t is t h a t man i s the

p ro v id er and woman the homemaker.

The second myth i s t h a t the

c o s t ly education of women is wasted on a sex t h a t does not have
many prod uctive y e a r s .

The t h i r d a t t i t u d e the a s s o c ia tio n

recorded i s t h a t women should not seek men's jo b s .

F in a lly , the

idea i s held t h a t men do n o t want to work f o r w o m e n .^

Clark

and o th e rs named a d d itio n a l myths:
. . . women
o th e r women
they become
power; they
b e s t s u ite d

a re too em otional; they do not want to work f o r
they a re too passiv e to be le a d e rs o r , c on versely,
too a g g re ssiv e and "unfeminine" in p o s itio n s o f
have high absentee and tu rn o v er r a t e s ; they a re
to c e r t a i n kinds o f j o b s . 102

^®®Harris A. T ay lo r, "Women in A d m in istra tio n ," American
School and U n iv e rs ity , 36 (December 1963), 122.
^ A m e r ic a n A sso c ia tio n o f School A d m in istra to rs, Sex E quality
in Educational A d m in istra tio n , A rlin g to n , V irg in ia , 1975, p. 4.
l ° 2Eunice Clark and o t h e r s , Women in A d m in istrativ e P o s itio n s
in Public Education (P h ila d e lp h ia Recruitment Leadership and T raining
I n s t i t u t e , Tempie Uni v ers i t y , 1974), p. 25.

44
These authors perceived th e h e sita n cy o f women to seek p o s itio n s
of a d m in is tr a tiv e le a d e rs h ip to be a r e s u l t o f so c ia l c o n d itio n in g .
Stereotyped sex r o l e s , remarked Kaye, a re c h ie f ly to blame f o r the
a t t i t u d e t h a t women should not be a d m in is tra to rs .

Women accept

the s te r e o ty p e s , and then p o lic ie s a re made to conform to the
ste re o ty p e s .^

Wain confirmed the b e l i e f t h a t " . . .

so cial

a t t i t u d e s and norms appear to c o n s t i t u t e the g r e a t e s t o b sta cles
to women a s p ir in g to a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s .
Nieboer pointed out t h a t th e q u a l i t i e s o f ". . . com p etition ,
independence, competence, i n t e l l e c t u a l achievement, and lead ersh ip "
105
a re a s s o c ia te d with men.
However, S c h e tlin challenged th e n\yth
t h a t men a re the ". . . r a t i o n a l , o b j e c ti v e , competent s e x . " ^
Zakrajsek d eclared t h a t home, sch ool, church, and s o c ie ty have
perpetuated the n\yth t h a t woman's temperament makes her l e s s
capable than a man.

Reasons c i t e d by Zakrajsek f o r th e small

percentage o f women a d m in is tra to rs included g r e a t e r jo b com petition,
lack o f guidance fo r g i r l s , few r o l e models f o r fem ales, s h o rt term
c a r e e r goals s a t i s f y i n g women, m arriage c o n f l i c t i n g with women's
103

Bernard W. Kaye, "Moving Women in to Educational Adminis­
t r a t i o n " {U.S., ERIC Document ED 105 549, 1975), p. 7.
104Wain, op. c i t . , " A ttitu d e s o f Teachers Toward Women School
A d m inistrato rs and th e A s p ira tio n s o f Teachers f o r A dm inistrativ e
P o s itio n s in th e S ta te o f Minnesota," p. 19.
l ° 5Nieboer, op, c i t . , "There Is A C ertain Kind o f Woman
. . . , " p. 99.
106S c h e tlin , op. c i t . , "Wonderland and Looking G lass:
in A d m in istra tio n ," p. 106.

Women

45
c a r e e r s , lack o f government aid f o r women, women's apathy in
seeking promotions, women's overuse o f sic k le a v e , lack o f job
c o n tin u ity among women, lack o f woman's d e s ir e f o r a d m in is tra tiv e
p o s i t io n s , and the emotional i n s t a b i l i t y o f women.

F ra z ie r

and Sadker viewed th e lack o f n a tio n al commitment to q u a lity
c h ild care as a r e a f f irm a tio n o f the so c ia l a t t i t u d e t h a t mothers
should sta y home and c are f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n . ^ 9
Guin H a l l 's l i s t i n g o f ste re o ty p e s included th e a t t i t u d e s
t h a t g i r l s w ill marry and be provided f o r by a husband, t h a t
women a re p h y s ic a lly weaker than men, t h a t m arried women with
c h ild re n a re t ie d to th e home, and t h a t n e ith e r men nor women
want to work f o r women.

Hall f u r t h e r m aintained t h a t a t t i t u d e s ,

myths, and ste re o ty p e s a re re fu te d by s t a t i s t i c s , l o g ic , and
r e a l i t y , but they in flu e n c e th e c a re e r s o f women d a i l y . ^
Early ste re o ty p in g by sex encourages in e q u a lity between
males and fem ales, according to V erheyden-H illiard.

Females and

males who spend t h e i r school y e a rs accepting the in d o c tr in a tio n
t h a t males a re s u p e rio r to females cannot expect to perform or

Barbara Z akrajsek, "Obtaining a P r in c ip a ls h ip ," National
A sso ciatio n o f Secondary School P r in c ip a ls B u l l e t i n , 60 (April
1976), 94.
108Nancy F r a z ie r , and ftyra Sadker, Sexism in School and
S ociety (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), p. 24.
^ 9Guin H a ll, "Changing Sex Roles in th e Labor Force,"
Phi Delta Kappan, 55 (October 1973), 136-37.

46
a s p ir e on an equal b a sis in th e p ro fe ssio n a l world.110

To

i l l u s t r a t e th e o f te n held no tio n t h a t women's productive y e a rs
a re few, Garson r e c i te d a q u e stio n o fte n asked p ro fessio n al
women:

"Are you s t i l l working?"111

The myth t h a t s h o r te r c a re e rs

a re more p re v a le n t among p ro fessio n al female educators was
exploded by Johnson, who claimed t h a t women have more y e a rs o f
s e r v ic e than do men and enjoy a long er l i f e s p a n .113
An unusual ste re o ty p e c a l le d th e "Queen Bee" was described
by S ta in e s , T r a v is , and E p stein .

These au th o rs viewed th e woman

a d m in is tr a to r as a token who d e n ig ra te s

th e e f f o r t s o f o th e r

women and r e fu s e s to i d e n t i f y w ith them.113

Berry and Kushner

re fu te d t h i s theory by p o in tin g o u t t h a t su ccessfu l women adminis­
t r a t o r s a re th e product o f fam ily and educational backgrounds
t h a t have supported females in le a d e rs h ip r o le s and have c u lt i v a t e d
the a b i l i t i e s req u ire d f o r male-dominated c a r e e r f i e l d s . 11^
n o t a r y Ellen V erheyden -H illiard, "Kindergarden: The
T raining Ground f o r Women in A d m in is tra tio n ," The Journal o f the
National A sso c ia tio n f o r Women Deans, A d m in is tra to rs , and C ou n ielo rs,
38 (Spring 1975), 151.
111 Helen S. Garson, "Hurray Up P le a s e , I t s Time," The
Journal o f th e National A sso c ia tio n f o r Women Deans, A d m in is tra to rs,
and C ounselors, 38 (Spring 1975), 168.
112Dorothy Johnson, "What Is th e Future o f Women In School
A dm inistration?" (U .S ., ERIC Document ED 082 297, 1971).
113Graham S ta in e s , Carol T r a v is , and Ja y a ra tn e E p stein ,
"The Queen Bee Syndrome," Psychology Today, 7 (January 1974), 55.
H 4 B e rry and Kushner, op. c i t . , "A C r i t i c a l Look a t th e
Queen Bee Syndrome," p. 175.

47
Women who do not conform to th e ty p ic a l o r "normal female"
r o l e and a re a s s e r t i v e , independent, and achievement o rie n te d a re
o f te n seen as being unfeminine by o th e r s .

Graham suggested t h a t

ste r e o ty p in g o f female r o le e x p ec ta tio n s was a major reason why
few women had been appointed to to p -le v e l a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s :
A d m in istrato rs a re expected to be independent and
a s s e r t i v e , behaviors understood as "tough and b itch y" when
d isp lay e d by women, but "clearheaded and a t t e n t i v e to
d e t a i l " when found in a man. Tolerance f o r men's behavior
i s a good deal broader than i t i s f o r t h a t o f women. Men
a r e perm itted t h e i r id io s y n c ra c ie s o f whatever s o r t , but
women a re expected to m aintain a much more p recario u s balance
between conspicuous competence and t a c t f u l fe m in in ity .
M a n ifesta tio n s o f independence and autonomy a re expected in
a male e x ec u tiv e; t h e i r presence in women makes some male
c o llea g u es c r i n g e . 115
Sizemore s t a te d :
Women should be more a g g re ssiv e in pursuing t h e i r r i g h ts
to f i l l a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s f o r which t h e i r education
and ex perience f i t them. They should bring to th e s e jobs
th e s e n s i t i v i t y n ecessary f o r e f f e c t i v e human and personal
r e l a t i o n s and should design and implement governance models
t h a t give every r o le incumbent some in p u t in to d e c is io n ­
making.116
T e s s le r in p re s e n tin g p r o f i l e s o f women c o lle g e p r e s id e n ts
concludes t h a t th e educational environment i s very im portant
^ P a t r i c i a Graham, "S tatu s T ra n s itio n o f Women S tu d e n ts,
F a c u lty , and A d m in is tra to rs ," Academic Women On The Move, ed. by
A lice S. Rossi and Ann Calderwood (New York: Russell Sage
Foundation, 1973), pp. 170-71.
115Barbara Sizemore, "Will The Woman A dm in istrator Make A
D ifference?" (Paper presented to American A sso ciation o f School
A d m in istra to rs Annual Meeting, A tla n tic C ity , New J e r s e y , February
1973).

48
because i t allows f o r the em otional, se x u a l, s o c ia l and c o g n itiv e
development o f young

w o m en .!

17

Several f a c t o r s were viewed by P e rrin as b a r r i e r s to th e
advancement o f women c o lle g e f a c u l ty members to h igh -level
academic a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s :

(1) women were victim s o f

sex d is c rim in a tio n ; (2) women did not a s p ir e to such p o s itio n s
because o f lack o f m otivation c re ate d by s o c ie ta l ex p ec ta tio n s
f o r women; (3) women underestim ated t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s ; and
(4) th e r e was a lack o f q u a li f ie d women in academe from which
to draw f o r such p o s i t i o n s . ^ 8
In her study o f b e l i e f s held by male and female te a c h e r s ,
Matheny found the follow ing f a c t o r s :
1.

The m ajo rity o f females te a c h e rs d id not see th e s e le c tio n
process in t h e i r school d i s t r i c t s f o r p r i n c ip a ls h ip o r
superintendency open to a l l who f i l l e d th e requirements
r e g a rd le s s o f sex. They did p erceiv e a b ia s in fav o r o f
males.

2.

Most disagreed t h a t men were b e t t e r s u ite d temperamentally
f o r a d m in is tr a tiv e jobs than were women.

3.

The m ajo rity agreed t h a t women must work harder than men
w ith s i m il a r t a l e n t and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s to achieve an
a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n .

4.

A m ajo rity agreed t h a t men received more encouragement from
t h e i r su p e rio rs to seek a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s than did
women w ith comparable a b i l i t y .

! !7 $ h irle y T e s s le r , " P r o f ile s o f S e lec te d Women College
P re sid e n ts R e fle c tin g T heir Emerging Role o f Women in Higher Edu­
c a tio n " (unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Boston C ollege, 1976).
!!®Ellen Hays P e r r in , "P erceptions o f Women College Faculty
Members Toward Careers in Academic A dm inistration" (unpublished
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U niversity o f P itts b u r g h , 1974).

49

5.

A m a jo rity agreed t h a t community a t t i t u d e s and t r a d i t i o n s
made i t d i f f i c u l t fo r women to succeed in a d m in is tra tiv e
p o s itio n s .

6.

A m a jo rity agreed t h a t Boards of Education h ired male
su p e rin te n d en ts over eq u ally q u a li f ie d females.

7.

Most agreed t h a t women were not counseled and encouraged
as much as men by c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s to prepare
f o r a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s .

8.

A m a jo rity agreed t h a t the women's movement was a p o s itiv e
fo rc e fo £ o b tain in g equal pay and job o p p o rtu n itie s f o r
women. 1 '
Timmons found t h a t a la rg e number o f teachers f e l t t h a t

p re ju d ic e in h ir in g p r a c tic e s and widely held so cial b e li e f s which
lim ite d th e a cc ep tab le ro le s o f women, c o n s titu te d the b ig g e s t
i ?n
o b s ta c le s to women d e s irin g to be school a d m in is tr a to r s .
Fleming, in an e f f o r t to determ ine whether o r not discrim i
natio n on th e b a sis o f sex e x is te d toward employing q u a lif ie d
women in a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n s in h ig her e d ucation, rep o rted
th e fo llow ings:
1.

Center d i r e c t o r s ra te d male a p p lic a n ts f o r th e p o s itio n
higher than female a p p lic a n ts f o r th e same p o s itio n .

2.

Deans o f c o lle g e s o f education and chairmen o f departments
of educational a d m in is tra tio n tend to r a t e , although not
s i g n i f i c a n t l y so , male a p p lic a n ts higher than female
a p p lic a n ts f o r th e p o s itio n .

^ 9P r i s c i l l a Matheny, "A Study o f the A ttitu d e s of Selected
Male and Female Teachers, A d m inistrators and Board o f Education
P re sid e n ts Toward Women in Educational A dm in istrativ e P o sitio n s"
(unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Northwestern U n iv e rs ity , 1973).
120joseph Edward Timmons, "A Study o f A ttitu d e s Toward
Women School A dm inistrators and th e A s p ira tio n s o f Women Teachers
f o r A d m inistrative P o s itio n s in the S t a te o f Indiana" (unpublished
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Indiana U n iv e rs ity , 1973).

50
3.

The younger the a d m in is tr a to r , th e more l i k e l y he o r she
was to r a t e th e female a p p lic a n t lower than the male.

4.

A dm inistrators in th e southern region of th e country tended
to e x h ib i t a g r e a te r degree of d isc rim in a tio n in th e r a tin g
o f a male a p p lic a n t over a female a p p lic a n t than adminis­
t r a t o r s in o th e r se c tio n s o f th e country.

5.

The number o f y e a rs the a d m in is tra to r had held h is o r her
p re s e n t p o s itio n had l i t t l e or no in flu e n ce on the r a tin g
of an a p p lic a n t c l a s s i f i e d by s e x . 121
Fleming f u r t h e r recommended t h a t sin c e community educational

philosophy espoused opp ortu n ity f o r fu lfu llm e n t f o r a l l , s e l f s a t i s f a c t i o n and worth o f each in d iv id u a l, le a d e rs in community
education should be made aware o f th e evidence o f bias toward men
over women by whatever methods were deemed most e f f e c t i v e to
c o r r e c t t h i s s i t u a t i o n . 122
Gassner in id e n tif y in g f a c t o r s which women a d m in istra to rs
found to be in flu e n ce s in t h e i r c a re e r advancement concluded t h a t
p a re n tal su p p o rt, encouragement from f a c u l t y , c o n ta c t with an
a c t iv e c a re e r woman, support from co lleagu es and su p e rv iso rs and
women's own acceptance o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and hard work were
considered to have p o s i t iv e in f lu e n c e , whereas in te r r u p ti o n of
employment, la c k o f m o b ility to accept advanced p o s i t io n s , nonacceptance as a p ro fessio n al p e e r, inadequate c h ild c a re c e n te rs
121Joan Fleming, "Assessment o f Employment P r a c tic e s Toward
Women A d m inistrators in I n s t i t u t i o n s o f Higher Education" (unpublished
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Arizona S t a te U n iv e rs ity , 1974).
122Ib id .

51
and lack o f o p p o rtu n itie s to serve on u n iv e r s ity committees were
considered to have negative in f lu e n c e .123
Taking a somewhat d i f f e r e n t approach, Simpson conducted a
study to determine th e employment a t t i t u d e s o f deans and d e p a rt­
mental chairmen in s ix Pennsylvania i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher edu­
c a tio n .

Resumes included equ ally q u a lif ie d male and female

a p p lic a n ts .

The a p p lic a n ts considered were two p a ir s o f females

w ith s u p e rio r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , and two p a irs o f males with su p e rio r
q u a lific a tio n s.

Simpson found t h a t :

(1) when equally q u a lif ie d

male and female a p p lic a n ts were considered, the male was ty p ic a l l y
chosen f o r employment; (2) a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t number of
the employing agents chose the s u p e rio r female candidates in p re fe r
ence to l e s s q u a li f ie d males; (3) t r a d i t i o n a l l y female employment
f i e l d s , such as nursing and home economics, chose more equally
q u a li f ie d females c a n d id a te s; (4) su b je c ts in the twenty to t h i r t y
age range and those over s i x t y y ears of age s e le c te d the h ig h est
number o f female c a n d id a te s; and (5) female su b je c ts se le c te d
s u b s t a n t i a l l y more female cand id ates than did males.

Simpson a lso

adm inistered an a t t i t u d e - s c a l e which measured th e s u b j e c t s '
a t t i t u d e toward women.

Subjects who s e le c te d a high number of

women candidates were more l i k e l y to express p o s i t iv e a t t i t u d e s

123M. H. Gassner, "Career P a tte rn s o f Women Adminis­
t r a t o r s . . . ." (unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Southern I l l i n o i s
U n iv e rs ity , 1976).

52
toward women, whereas th e s u b je c ts who s e le c te d low number of
females expressed n egative a t t i t u d e s toward women.12^
Career In flu e n c e s, L e g isla tio n
and Task Forces
Another f a c t o r which r e l a t e s to women in lea d e rsh ip
p o s itio n s in education is th e l e g i s l a t i o n which sought to e ra d ic a te
d is c rim in a tio n a t a l l le v e ls o f edu cation —from kindergarten
through graduate school.

T i t l e IX o f the Education Amendments

of 1972 s t a t e s :
No person in the United S ta te s s h a l l , on th e b a sis of
sex, be excluded from p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n , be denied the
b e n e f its o f , or be su b je cted to d is c rim in a tio n under any
e ducation programs re c e iv in g fe d e ra l f i n a n c ia l a s s i s t a n c e . 125
Compliance with T i t l e IX i s enforced by a c tio n s i n i t i a t e d
through fe d e ra l funding a g en c ie s.

In a d d itio n to th e emphasis

provided by T i t l e IX, T i t l e VII o f th e C ivil Rights Act o f 1964
p ro h ib ite d d isc rim in a to ry employment p r a c t i c e s . 126

The Equal

Employment O p p o rtu n ities Commission hears and monitors complaints
a g a in s t employers on grounds o f d is c rim in a tio n based on ra c e , c o lo r,
r e l i g i o n , n a tio n a l o r i g i n , and sex.

Executive Order 11246 and

11375 and Revised Order No. 4 were a ls o designed to c u r t a i l employ­
ment d is c r im in a tio n by s e x . 12^
12\a w r e n c e A. Simpson, "A Study o f Employing Agents' A t t i ­
tudes Toward Women in Higher Education" (unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a ­
t i o n , Pennsylvania S t a te U n iv e rs ity , 1969).
125Education Amendments o f 1972, 86 S t a t . , 1972, pp. 373-75.
126C ivil Rights Act o f 1964, 78 S t a t . , 1964, p. 262.
12^ C h a rlo tte B. Hallam, "Legal Tools To Fight Sex D iscrim ina­
t i o n , " Phi D elta Kappan, 55 (October 1973), 131.

53
An a d d itio n a l f a c t o r which a ff e c te d women seeking adminis­
t r a t i v e p o s itio n s was found in the work o f study commissions, sp e c ia l
conferen ces, and ta s k f o r c e s .

The United S ta te s commissioner of

Education formed a ta s k fo rc e in 1972 to determ ine th e in flu en ce
on women o f the programs o f th e O ffice o f Education.^2® The
National Education A sso ciatio n and the American Federation of
Teachers have held conferences a t th e n a tio n al level to condemn
sexism and c a l l f o r equal r i g h t s f o r women educators J 2^

The

American A sso ciatio n o f School A dm inistrators and the American
Educational Research A ssociation have focused on p r o je c ts to promote
understanding o f sex e q u a lity in e du catio n.
The U n iv e rsity Council f o r Educational A dm inistration has
undertaken a p r o je c t t h a t w ill provide m a te r ia ls to women adminis­
t r a t o r s and t r a i n e e s as well as to p ro fe s so rs o f educational
a d m in istra tio n to f a c i l i t a t e th e t r a i n i n g and in te r n programs of
p ro fe s s io n a ls in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . ^

Garson urged women adminis­

t r a t o r s to seek inform ation in books, j o u r n a l s , workshops, and
i n s t i t u t e s to enhance t h e i r s t y l e and e x p e r t i s e . ^
^ 8Ciark and o t h e r s , "Women in A d m in istrativ e P o s itio n s in
Public E ducation," p. 32,
^ 9 |< r0 hn, op. c i t . , "The Puzzling Case o f the Missing Ms,"
p. 35.
130The U n iv e rs ity Council f o r Educational A dm inistration
News, Ohio, " U n iv e r s itie s C o lla b o rate in Women’s Education Equity
Act P r o j e c t ," Columbus, 1976 (mimeographed).
131Garson, op. c i t . , "Hurry Up P le a s e , I t ' s Time," p. 170.

54
Women's Movement
Although the l i t e r a t u r e about th e women's movement i s exten­
s i v e , only the most p e r t i n e n t to p ic s are reviewed here.

Various

a sp ects o f t h i s movement have encouraged th e development and in c r e a s ­
ing approval o f a g r e a t e r v a r ie ty of l i f e s t y l e s f o r women than has
p rev io u sly c h a ra c te riz e d our s o c ie ty .

But in t h i s , as in o th e r

f a c e ts of p ro fe ssio n a l achievement, women simply have a harder time
132
than men because of the e x p ec ta tio n s o f our s o c ie ty .
Women have organized to focus on the needs o f p ro fe ssio n a l
women in c a r e e r advancement.

There i s a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t

d if f e r e n c e between th e a t t i t u d e s o f men and tho se o f women toward
the s t a t u s o f women, as rep o rte d by McEwen and S h e r t z e r J 33

G ille s

viewed th e women's movement as a g a th e rin g f o rc e which w ill
in c re a se o p p o rtu n itie s f o r women to achieve a d m in is tr a tiv e
p o s itio n s .

She c o r r e l a t e d th e r i s i n g numbers o f women in law,

m edicine, and scien ce w ith hig h er numbers o f women in le a d e rs h ip
r o le s in school s J 3^

Encouragement f o r women to j o i n one o f the

women's o rg a n iz a tio n s as a means o f supp orting improved s t a t u s
152 k . P a t r i c i a C ross, "The Woman S tu d e n t," Women in Higher
Education (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 19^2),
pp. 42-45.
^33Marylu McEwen, and Bruce S h e r tz e r , "An A nalysis of
D ifferences in P ro fe ssio n a l A ttitu d e s and B e lie fs Between Male
and Female Members o f th e College Stud ent Personnel P r o f e s s io n ,"
The JNAWDAC, 38 (Spring 1975), 142.
^ M a t h i l d a G i l l e s , "There Is a Future For Women in School
A d m in istra tio n ," U .S ., ERIC Document ED 082 297.

55
f o r women came from

D a le .

^5

j n a d d itio n , Barnes recorded t h a t

women in Los Angeles, C a li f o r n ia , were preparing themselves f o r
a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s by a cq u irin g th e necessary c r e d e n t i a l s .
Of th o se q u a l i f i e d f o r secondary p o s i t io n s , 26.7 p ercen t were
women; 40.3 p ercen t o f those q u a lif ie d f o r elementary p o sitio n s
were women.^38
The impetus o f th e women's movement, which has made women
more aware o f expanding c a r e e r o p p o r tu n itie s , is in c re a sin g the
number o f women who a s p i r e to p ro fe ssio n a l c a re e rs t h a t re q u ire
gradua t e t r a i ni ng. ^ 7
A ffirm a tiv e Action
A ffirm a tiv e a c tio n in public i n s t i t u t i o n s has been required
b u t o f te n has not been enforced u n t il a f t e r d is c rim in a tio n charges
have been made.138

However, such plans e x i s t a t s t a t e and local

l e v e l s in p u b lic e d u ca tio n , in i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher edu catio n ,
and in th e r e p o r ts o f ta s k f o r c e s J 39

These plans inclu de means

1

Charlene T. Dale, "Women Are S t i l l Missing Persons in
A d m in istra tiv e and Supervisor Jo b s," Educational L eadership, 31
(November 1973), 126.
^38 Thelma Barnes, "America's Forgotten M inority: Women
School A d m in is tra to rs ," National A ssociation o f Secondary School
P r in c ip a ls B u l l e t i n , 60 (April 1976), 92,
137c ro s s , op. c i t . , "The Woman S tu d e n t," pp, 42-45.
l 3 8 Hallam, op. c i t . , "Legal Tools to F ight Sex D isc rim in atio n ,"
p. 131.
139Krohn, op. c i t . , "The Puzzling Case o f The Missing Ms."
p. 36.

56
f o r id e n tify in g and removing b a r r i e r s which prevent q u a li f ie d women
from holding a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s .

Some school d i s t r i c t s and

u n i v e r s i t i e s have been moving from w ith in to accept th e challenge
to change the way they t r e a t women by ceasing to confuse brains
w ith brawn in h ir in g a d m in is tra to rs to run schools

e f f e c t i v e l y

.140

I n s t i t u t i o n s have been required to i n s t i t u t e s e l f - s t u d i e s to
determ ine i f they a re t r e a t i n g a l l personnel e q u ita b ly in r e c r u i t ­
ment, h i r in g , pay, f r in g e b e n e f its and p r o m o t i o n . ^
A ffirm a tiv e a c tio n can in c re a se the pool o f persons
a v a i la b l e fo r advancement and can in cre ase th e v i s i b i l i t y o f
women in the pool, s ta te d Dearing.

ld2

He advised t h a t women be

l i s t e d by t h e i r c r e d e n t i a l s and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s with th e American
A ssociation o f U n iversity Women and with th e Department of
H ealth, Education, and Welfare.

Kaye determined t h a t a ff ir m a tiv e

a c tio n should include a g g re ssiv e rec ru itm en t o f women candidates
f o r a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s i t io n s , placement o f more women on screening
committees, e stab lish m en t o f in s e rv ic e c a re e r development workshops
f o r women, awareness se s s io n s f o r men aimed a t a t t i t u d e s and
p r a c t ic e s t h a t p e rp e tu a te d is c r im in a tio n , rec ru itm en t o f women
f o r p ro fe ssio n a l t r a i n i n g 1n a d m in is tr a tio n , and local and
14Cfcharlene j . Dale, " L e t's Open D i s t r i c t Doors To Female
A d m in is tra to rs ," N a tio n 's Schools, 93 (June 1974), 12,
l ^ A l i c e F in s, "Sex and th e School P r in c ip a l: A Long Look
At T i t l e IX," National A ssociation o f Secondary School P r in c ip a ls
B u l l e t i n , 58 (September 19^4), 53-62.
^ 2 D e a r jng, Open Address, p. 3.

57
sta te -w id e data c o ll e c t io n o f e x is tin g o p p o rtu n itie s f o r administ r a t i v e appointments f o r women.

Taylor described a good

r e c r u i ti n g program as one which i d e n t i f i e s p o te n tia l female
candidates e a r ly in t h e i r teaching c a re e rs and provides stim ulus
f o r t h e i r completion o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n req u ire m e n ts.^ 44
Tokenism was describ ed by Garson as an in h e re n t danger in
a f firm a tiv e a c tio n programs which give a woman a p o s itio n in which
145
her d e c isio n s a re e i t h e r ignored by bypassed.
Z akrajsek, how­
e v e r , declared t h a t even through token p o s itio n s women can achieve
success and can prove the competencies o f women in a d m in is tra tio n .

14fi

Epstein commented t h a t , " c re a tio n of competence i s a r e s u l t
of o n -th e-jo b t r a i n i n g given only when im portant gatekeepers
147
decide a person has t a l e n t t h a t w ill develop."
T h erefo re, she
continued, the su b je c tiv e c r i t e r i a which gatekeepers use must
submit to a ff ir m a tiv e rec ru itm en t of q u a li f ie d women f o r p o s itio n s
o f a d m in is tra tiv e le a d e r s h ip .

Women must be judged by th e same

s e t o f stand ards as a re men and exposed to ta s k s whereby they can
l e a r n J 50

Hahn supported the p o s itio n t h a t gatekeepers must be

143

Kaye, op. c i t . , "Moving Women In to Educational Adminis­
t r a t i o n , " p. 3.
144Tayl o r , op. c i t . , "Women In A d m in istra tio n ," p. 23.
l ^ a r s o n , op. c i t . , "Hurry Up P le a s e , I t ' s Time," p. 171.
146Z akrajsek, op. c i t , , "Obtaining A P r i n c ip a ls h i p ," p. 98.
^ ^ E p s t e i n , op. c i t . , " S tru c tu rin g Success For Women,"
p. 59.
148Ib id .

58
encouraged to aid women who seek p o s itio n s o f le a d e rs h ip by becoming
t h e i r advocates.

She exhorted women to seek out and develop mentors

w ith in th e system who w ill help them achieve upward m o b i l i t y . ^
Women in Higher Education
Women make up a s u b s ta n tia l percentage o f th e t o t a l popul a t i o n in i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher ed ucatio n.

In t h i s s e c tio n o f

th e review o f r e l a te d l i t e r a t u r e th e follow ing to p ic s were i n v e s t i ­
gated:

(1) Undergraduate Women in Higher Education; (2) Women in

P ro fe ssio n a l Education; (3) Women Graduate S tu d en ts; (4) Women
F acu lty ; and (5) Women A dm inistrators.
Undergraduate Women Students
Throughout the p re s e n t c en tu ry , women have been more l ik e l y
to e n te r c o lle g e than men in th e same age group, but in re c e n t
y e ars the d if f e r e n c e s have been narrowing.

By 1972, women comprised

s l i g h t l y more than o n e -h a lf o f th e high school gradu ates and about
150
f o r t y - f i v e p ercen t o f th e c o lle g e e n t r a n t s .
The r i s e in th e
enrollm ent o f women during th e 1960's was undoubtedly influenced
by th e r i s e in per c a p ita income, th e l a t e r age o f m arriage, the
d e c lin in g b i r t h r a t e , th e expanding economy, and the a v a i l a b i l i t y
151
o f low -cost pu b lic community c o lle g e s ,
l 49Carole Hahn, "E lim inating Sexism From The Schools;
menting Change," Social E ducation, 39 (March 1975), 133.

Imple­

150Carnegie Corranission, O p p o rtu n ities f o r Women in Higher
Education (New York; McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973), p. 35,
151 U.S. O ffice o f Education, A Look At Women In Education:
t is s u e s and Answers f o r H.E.W., Report o f th e Commissioner's Task

59
The c u lt u r a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a r r i e r s which in flu e n c e the
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f women as f a c u l ty members and a d m in is tra to rs a ls o
has influenced th e lev el and q u a lity of p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f women
stu d e n ts in higher e ducation .

The p ro p o rtio n o f women from low

socio-economic s t a t u s groups who e n ro ll in c o lle g e i s lower than
the enrollm ent o f men in the same s t a t u s .

P arental a t t i t u d e s

toward c o lle g e education f o r women and e a r l i e r m arriages undoubtedly
c o n tr ib u te to th e lower enrollm ent r a t e o f low income women.
However, i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t ic e s in a l l o c a t i n g stu d e n t fin a n c ia l
a id and stu d e n t jobs a ls o tend to discourage women.

The Educational

T esting Service r e c e n tly documented a c l e a r p a tte r n o f sex
d isc rim in a tio n in stu d e n t f in a n c ia l a id .

Women averaged $215.00

l e s s in annual f in a n c ia l aid than men and were paid 78 percent
le s s in earned stu d e n t wages.

*

The pro po rtio n o f men and women high school g ra d u a te s,
from the middle and upper socio-economic le v e ls who e n te r c o lle g e
i s alm ost eq ual.

More than 90 p e rc e n t o f men and women from th ese
igo
groups a tte n d c o lle g e .
There i s wide v a r i a ti o n in th e types of
i n s t i t u t i o n s in which they f i r s t e n r o l l ; more women than men a re
adm itted to two-year c o lle g e s , s t a t e c o ll e g e s , and u n i v e r s i t i e s
Force on th e Impact o f O ffice o f Education Programs f o r Women
(Washington, D.C.; Department o f H ealth, Education, and W elfare,
1972), p. 8.
152I b i d . , p, 9.
1 53K. P a t r i c i a Cross, "College Women: A Research D e sc rip tio n ,"
Journal o f the National A sso c ia tio n Of Women Deans, A d m in is tra to rs,
and C ounselors, 32 (1968), 14.

60

t h a t a re la r g e ly involved in te a c h e r t r a i n i n g and l i b e r a l a r t s .
Women have th e g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t y in gaining admission to the
t h i r t y - f i v e most s e l e c t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s in th e country.

In 1972

women rep resen ted only 29 p e rc en t o f the admissions to th ese
i n s t i t u t i o n s , and only 32 p e rc en t o f the stu d e n ts adm itted to
co-educational u n i v e r s i t i e s . 154

I t i s d i f f i c u l t to document

d is c rim in a tio n in admission p r a c tic e s because c o lle g e s and u n i­
v e r s i t i e s do not make d ata a v a ila b le r e l a t i n g to the acceptance
and r e j e c t i o n o f a p p lic a n ts by sex.

In a study o f a p r iv a te

l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e and one s t a t e u n i v e r s i t y , Cross presented
da ta i l l u s t r a t i n g t h a t s u p e r io r female a p p lic a n ts a re l e s s l i k e l y
to be adm itted then eq u ally q u a li f ie d male a p p l i c a n t s J 5®
Women in P ro fe ssio n a l Education
In the p ro fe s sio n a l schools Robinson found t h a t the use o f
d isc rim in a to ry quotas has been widespread.

That women c o n s t i t u t e

only a small pro p o rtio n o f the law yers, v e t e r i n a r i a n s , p h y sic ia n s,
and eng ineers in th e United S ta te s not only r e f l e c t s th e h i s t o r y
of discouragement o f women a s p ir in g to p ro fe s sio n a l c a r e e r s , b u t
a ls o th e sy ste m atic exclusion o f women by p ro fe s sio n a l sc h o o ls.

156

^ U . S . O ffice o f Education, "A Look a t Women 1n Education,"
p. 9.
155
156

Cross, op. c i t . , "College Women," p. 16.

Robinson, op. c i t . , " I n s t i t u t i o n a l V a ria tio n s in the
S ta tu s o f Academic Women," p. 43.

61

The impact o f th e women's movement and Civil Rights l e g i s l a t i o n
has g r e a t ly in flu en ced p ro fe s sio n a l schools admission p o l i c i e s .
The number o f women e n ro lle d in law schools increased from le s s
than 4 p e rc e n t o f th e t o t a l law school enrollm ent in 1961 to 12
p e rc e n t in 1973.

During t h i s same p e rio d , the r e p r e s e n ta tio n of

women in medical schools in cre ased from 9 p e rc e n t in 1967 to 16
p e rc e n t in 1972.157
Women Graduate Students
As o f t h i s time the pro p o rtio n o f women stu d e n ts completing
gradu ate t r a i n i n g has g r e a tly decreased sin ce th e e a r ly decades of
th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , when 40 p e rc e n t o f the m a s te r 's degrees and
15 p e rc e n t o f the d o c t o r 's degrees were awarded to women.

In 1974

women re p re s e n t l e s s than 30 p e rc e n t of graduates earning m a s te r's
degrees and l e s s than 10 p ercen t o f graduates earning d o c t o r 's
d e g r e e s J 5® Economic and so c ia l f a c t o r s such as th e depression
and th e post-w ar p re s su re s toward e a r ly m arriage and la r g e fa m ilie s
undoubtedly have c o n trib u te d to th e d e c lin in g enrollm ent o f women
in g radu ate schools during th e p a s t f o r t y y e a r s .

But d isc rim in a to ry

admission p r a c t i c e s , in e q u ita b le f in a n c ia l a s s i s t a n c e p o l i c i e s ,
and lack o f f a c u l ty encouragement have discouraged academ ically
^ 7 Carnegie Commission, O p p o rtu n ities f o r Women in Higher
E ducation, pp. 100-03.
15 8 U.S. O ffic e o f Education, Earned Degrees Conferred
(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government P r in tin g O ffic e , 1974), p. 125.

62

q u a l i f i e d young women from e n te rin g and completing graduate educational
programs.

Heiss in d ic a te d :

Not excluding academic q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , sex is probably the
most d is c rim in a to ry f a c t o r applied in the d e cisio n whether to
admit an a p p lic a n t to graduate school. I t i s alm ost a foregone
conclusion t h a t among American i n s t i t u t i o n s women have g r e a te r
d i f f i c u l t y being admitted to doctoral study and, i f adm itted,
w ill have g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y being accepted than w ill men.
Department chairmen and f a c u lty members fra n k ly s t a t e t h a t
t h e i r main reason f o r r u lin g a g a in s t women i s "the p r o b a b ility
t h a t they w ill m arry." Some continue to use t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y
as th e r a t i o n a l e f o r w ith-holding fe llo w s h ip s , awards, placement,
and o th e r re c o g n itio n from women who a re allowed to r e g i s t e r
f o r graduate work. . . .159
Women c a r e e r development was influ en ced by the women's move­
ment.

Women who had chosen e a rly m arriage and fam ily r o l e s , are

a c c ep tin g th e f a c t t h a t in o rd e r to o btain p ro fe ssio n a l employment
t h a t i s m on etarily and psy c h o lo g ic ally rewarding, graduate t r a i n in g
i s n ecessary.

Less r i g i d admission stan dards have allowed these women

and o th e rs t o e n ro ll p a rt- tim e in p u r s u i t of the graduate degree.
But i n s t i t u t i o n a l residency requirem ents, lim ite d t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y
o f c r e d i t s , and lack o f encouragement and f a c u l ty supp ort continue
to i n h i b i t f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f women in graduate e d u c a t i o n J 60
The problems o f graduate school women d i f f e r f o r unmarried
women r e c e n t l y o u t o f c o lle g e and f o r m arried women w ith c h ild re n
<

(both th o se who r e t u r n w hile t h e i r c h ild r e n a re young and those
who postpone graduate work u n t i l t h e i r c h ild re n a re in sc h o o l).
The most appealing d iff e re n c e obviously comes from f a c u l t y 's
159A. M. H eiss, Challenges to Graduate Schools (San Francisco:
Jo ssey -B ass, I n c . , 1970), p. 93.
IGOcross, op. c i t . , "The Woman S tu d e n t," pp. 42-45.

63

a t t i t u d e s toward g ran tin g f in a n c ia l a s s i s t a n c e , and i t i s very
c lo s e ly r e l a te d to th e a b i l i t y o f a woman to study f u l l time.

A

married woman has added concerns even i f the u n iv e r s ity does perm it
her t o study p a r t- tim e .

Are courses a v a i la b l e a t the needed places

and a p p ro p ria te times to f i t her schedule?
c e n te r f o r her young c h ild re n ?

Is th e re a day care

Is i t p o ssib le f o r a p a rt-tim e

s tu d e n t to g e t f in a n c ia l a s s i s t a n c e ? ^
There a re o th e r s e x - r e la te d concerns f o r those young
females who e n te r graduate school with s u b s ta n tia l fam ily o b lig a tio n s .
Though claim s a re made t h a t a l l women a re d isc rim in ated a g a in s t
when f i n a n c ia l a id f o r graduate study is d i s t r i b u t e d , th e r e i s
s u b s ta n t ia l evidence t h a t t h i s g e n e ra lity does not hold f o r
fu ll-tim e s t u d e n t s . ^
S u b s ta n tia l changes have occurred and are s t i l l
o c c u rrin g , p a r t l y as a r e s u l t o f changes in law and re la te d
r e g u la tio n s and p a r t l y as a r e s u l t o f a new clim ate of opinion
among women and among men.

161

Mina Rees, “The Graduage Education o f Women,"
Women in Higher E ducation," ed. by W. Todd Furniss and
P a t r i c i a Graham (Washington, D.C.: American Council on
E ducation, 1974), p. 178.
162
A s tin , op. c i t . , The Woman Doctorate in America,
p. 103.

64

Women Faculty Members
College and u n i v e r s it y re p o rts on the s t a t u s o f women a t
in d iv id u a l i n s t i t u t i o n s began to appear in 1969.

The re p o r ts on

more than 145 c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s c o n s i s t e n t l y found
g e n eralize d i n s t i t u t i o n a l p a tte r n s o f d is c rim in a tio n a g a in s t women
in the lev el o f i n i t i a l appointment, r a t e of promotion, and f r in g e
b e n efits.

Women P h .D .'s were more a p t to re c e iv e f i r s t appointments

a t the l e c t u r e r or i n s t r u c t o r rank than men P h .D 's, which e f f e c t i v e l y
served to keep them o f f th e promotional la d d e r and ten u re t r a c k .
P a rt-tim e appointments were much more common f o r women, which a lso
d e le g a te s women to a p e rip h e ra l s t a t u s and o fte n excludes the
appointee from rec e iv in g f r i n g e b e n e f its such as sic k le a v e ,
v a c a tio n , and re tire m e n t b e n e f i t s .

When women were appointed to

t h e p ro fessio n al ra n k s, they remained a t the same rank f o r an
163
abnormally long t i m e . 10,3
In th e 1972-73 F acu lty Report of the American Council on
Education, i t was noted t h a t women f a c u lty members, as compared
with male f a c u l t y , ta u g h t more hours weekly and sp e n t more hours
164
in counseling s tu d e n ts .
Other re c e n t s tu d ie s r e l a t i n g to sex d is c rim in a tio n in
higher education considered a number of v a ria b le s which could
IG^Roblnson, op. c i t . , " I n s t i t u t i o n a l V ariatio n 1n the S tatu s
o f Academic Women," pp. 1-21.
164
Bayer, op. c 1 t . , Teaching Faculty in Academic: 1972-73,
p. 23.

65
Influence th e s t a t u s and p o s itio n o f women f a c u l ty .

165

These

s t u d i e s , a f t e r consid erin g d iffe r e n c e s in age m arital s t a t u s ,
p r o d u c tiv ity , ed u ca tio n , and c a re e r commitment, concluded t h a t
the resea rch :
. . . shows th e d e p re ssin g , indeed th e damning, r e a l i t y .
There i s no category [ o f f a c u lty ] in which men a re not
consid erably b e t t e r o f f than women. Not only in th e lowa c t i v i t y c a t e g o r i e s , where one might expect i t , b u t even
among men and women whose p u b lic a tio n r a t e s a re very
high. . . . In view o f such massive d if f e r e n c e s , th e re seems
l i t t l e reason to doubt t h a t women a re penalized f o r t h e i r
sex. Equivalent achievements a re rewarded very unev en ly.166
Colleges and u n i v e r s i t i e s have not demonstrated a strong
commitment to broadening the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f women as f a c u l ty
members in higher education.

Even w ith th e implementation of

fed e ral and s t a t e p o lic ie s governing equal employment f o r
m in o ritie s and women, th e o v e r - a ll proportion o f women fa c u lty
members has increased l e s s than one p ercen t sin c e 1968; from 19.1
in 1968-69 to 20.0 p ercen t in 1972-73.^
A ffirm ative a c tio n programs designed to in c r e a s e th e
p ro portio ns o f m in o r itie s and women on c o lle g e s and u n iv e r s ity
f a c u l t i e s seem to be moving a t a slow pace. The d a ta on
women suggest t h a t a ff ir m a tiv e a c tio n may have r e s u l te d more
in a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of women te a c h e rs among th e types o f
Helen S. A s tin , and Alan E. Bayer, "Sex D iscrim ination
in Academe," Academic Women on th e Move, ed. by A lice S. Rossi and
Ann Calderwood (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1973), pp. 333-55;
Carnegie Commission, O ppo rtu nities f o r Women in Higher E ducation,
pp. 109-23.
^ O l i v e r Fulton, "Rewards and F a irn ess: Academic Women in
th e United S ta te s" (unpublished m anuscript, Carnegie Commission on
Higher Education, 1973), pp. 35-36.
16?Bayer, op. c i t . , Teaching Faculty in Academe:
p. 14.

1972-73,

66

i n s t i t u t i o n s r a t h e r than the rec ru itm e n t o f women formerly
o u ts id e o f acadame: In both two-year and fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e s ,
th e p ro p o rtio n o f women on th e fa c u lty has a c t u a l l y declined
somewhat; in u n i v e r s i t i e s , th e pro p o rtio n has in creased from
14.8 p e rc en t in 1968-69 to 16.5 percen t in 1972-73.168
In t h e i r r e p o r t on th e s t a t u s o f women in higher e ducatio n,
the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education suggested t h a t the
in e q u ita b le s t a t u s o f women f a c u l ty members was not due to d e li b e r a t e
d is c r im in a tio n on the p a rt o f the u n iv e r s ity A d m in istra to rs, but
could be explained by c e r t a i n long-term tren d s such a s ,
changes in m arriage and b i r t h r a t e s , th e d e c lin e in th e r e l a t i v e
importance o f women's c o lle g e s , and th e long-term tren d toward
g r e a t e r s e x - d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f the f i e l d s in which men and
women received th e d o c to ra te [only re c e n tly beginning to be
r e v e r s e d ] . There a re a ls o in d ic a tio n s t h a t th e d e c lin e has
been encouraged by the g r e a t ly increased emphasis on re s e a rc h ,
e s p e c i a l l y in the s c ie n c e s , in the 1950's and 19 6 0 's. This
tre n d was e s p e c i a l l y im po rtan t, of c o u rse, in the u n i v e r s i t i e s
t h a t had long been le a d e rs in th e development o f graduate
education and re s e a rc h , but i t s in flu e n c e c l e a r l y t r i c k l e d
down to l e s s p r e s tig io u s u n i v e r s i t i e s and fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e s ,
which showed an in c re a s in g tendency to regard th e Harvards and
B e rk e le y 's as t h e i r models and to r e c r u i t f a c u l ty members with
a record o f re s e a rc h and p u b lic a tio n o r a t l e a s t the p o te n tia l
f o r such a record in th e f u t u r e . All t h i s m i l i t a t e d a g a in s t
women, and e s p e c ia lly m arried women. 169
With reg ard to the is s u e o f sex d is c r im in a tio n , the
Carnegie Commission on Higher Education f u r t h e r noted t h a t the
a d m in is tr a tiv e d e c isio n s r e l a t i n g to the re c ru itm e n t, s e l e c t i o n ,
and promotion o f f a c u l ty members were made w ith in the academic
departm ents and did n o t r e f l e c t g e n e ra liz e d p a tte r n s o f u n iv e r s ity
168I b i d . , pp. 21-23.
169

Carnegie Commission, O p p o rtu n itie s f o r Women in Higher
E ducation, p. 112.

67
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . ^

F aculty women who have sought r e l i e f f o r grievances

about employment through i n s t i t u t i o n a l grievance procedures have met
stro n g r e s i s t a n c e from c o llea g u es and a d m in is tra to rs .

In re p o rtin g

th e exp eriences o f s i x t y - f i v e women f a c u l ty members who had f i l e d
g riev a n ce s through u n iv e r s ity a d m in is tr a tiv e ch an nels, Theodore
w rote t h a t many o f the women found t h e i r c a re e rs in se rio u s
.
171
je o p a rd y .
Because th e in te r n a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l mechanisms which review
and remedy sex d is c rim in a tio n have no t been a v a ila b le or s u f f i c i e n t l y
r e s p o n s iv e , t h e Equal Opportunity Employment Commission has been
inundated w ith com plaints o f sex d is c rim in a tio n .
Women A d m in istra to rs
Because en trance i n to th e academic a d m in is tr a tiv e hierarchy
i s i n e x t r i c a b l y bound to women's p a r t i c i p a t i o n as graduate stu d e n ts
and as f a c u l ty and to t h e i r acceptance in academic c o ll e g i a l and
p ro fe s s io n a l groups, most o f the d is c rim in a to ry p a tte r n s t h a t have
l im i te d women's p rogress through the p ro fe ssio n a l ranks s i m ila r ly
have r e ta r d e d t h e i r e n try in to and advancement in a d m in is tr a tiv e
ranks.

Although d ata on women in a d m in is tra tio n is sp a rse and non-

uniform , two tre n d s a re s t r e s s e d in th e a v a ila b le re s e a rc h :

(1)

t h e h ig h e r th e p o s i t io n , th e fewer th e women; and (2) a d m in is tr a tiv e
u n i t s a r e headed by men and s ta f f e d by women.

Oltman's study o f 454

170I b i d . » p. 121.
^ A t h e a Theodore, "Academic Women in P r o te s t" (unpublished
m a n u sc rip t, Cambridge, Mass., 1974).

68
c o rp o ra te members o f the American A ssociation o f U niversity Women
in d ic a te d a conspicuous lack o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n by women in adminis­
t r a t i v e policy-making p o s i t i o n s . ^ 2
Ind iv idu al i n s t i t u t i o n a l re p o r ts on the s t a t u s o f women
f u r t h e r document th e lim ite d number o f women in p o s itio n s o f
a u th o r i ty and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

Women tend to remain in adminis­

t r a t i v e p o s itio n s which a re s t a r t i n g posts f o r men, o r a re found
in p o s itio n s which involve sex s te r e o ty p e s , such as th o se of
department head o f women's a t h l e t i c s , home economics, o r nursing.

173

The top woman a d m in is tra to r a t most American coeducational
u n i v e r s i t i e s i s u s u a lly th e dean of women.

With an educational

background in stu d e n t personnel a d m in is tra tio n , women have o ften
reached th e p o s itio n o f dean w ithout having been a member of the
174
te a ch in g f a c u l t y .
As many u n i v e r s i t i e s e lim in a te th e t i t l e s
o f Dean o f Men and Dean o f Women, the Dean o f Men o ften is
appointed to the p o s itio n o f Dean o f Student A f f a i r s , with the
Dean o f Women as his a s s i s t a n t .
Oltman compares th e p o s itio n of women a d m in is tra to rs with
t h a t o f women stu d e n ts :

" . . .

they a re working a t job s re q u irin g

^ 2Ruth Oltman, Campus 1970: Where Do Women Stand? Research
Report o f a Survey on Women in Acadame (Washington, D.C.: American
A sso c ia tio n o f U n iv ersity Women, 1970), p. 14.
^ R o b i n s o n ,
0p. c i t . , " I n s t i t u t i o n a l V ariation s i s the S tatu s
o f Academic Women," p. 235.

^ G r a h a m , op. c i t . , "S tatus T ra n s itio n s o f Women S tu d e n ts,
F a c u lty , and A d m in istra to rs," p. 170.

69
s k i l l s and a t t e n t i o n to d e t a i l but w ithout much r e l a ti o n s h i p to
policy-making o r i n f l u e n c e . 175
Women a d m in is tra to rs a re found most f re q u e n tly in p o sitio n s
t h a t a r e s tu d e n t- s e r v ic e o r ie n te d ; counseling programs, advisement,
resid en ce h a ll programs, tu to r in g programs, and special stu d e n t
population programs fre q u e n tly a re supervised by women.

The

p o s itio n s o f p r e s id e n t, v i c e - p r e s id e n t, p ro v o st, academic dean,
r e g i s t r a r , head l i b r a r i a n , and business manager a re r a r e l y held by
women.^78
A survey by th e National A ssociation o f Land-Grant Colleges
and S t a te U n i v e r s i ti e s , completed in 1973, re p o r ts t h a t 864 women
were " . . .

holding major a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n s a t th e se
177
in stitu tio n s ."
However, 425 o f th e s e women were in s t a f f

p o s itio n s as " a s s i s t a n t to" th e major a d m in is tr a tiv e o f f i c e r s ;
only t h i r t e e n women were f i l l i n g p o s itio n s t h a t could be considered
major decision-making p o s i t i o n s . ^ 78
Women c o lle g e a d m in is tra to rs a re found in sm a lle r percentage
than women elementary and secondary school a d m in is tr a to r s .

Not u n t il

Lorene Rogers was named in te rim p r e s id e n t o f th e U niv ersity o f
Texas a t Austin in 1974 did a s t a t e u n i v e r s it y have a woman
175

Oltman, op. c i t . , Campus 1970, p. 14.

176ibid.
^ N a t i o n a l A ssociatio n o f S ta te U n iv e rs itie s and LandGrant C o lleg es, C ir c u la r Number 182, 1973, p. 1.
178Ib id .

70
p re s id e n t.

Notable women c o lle g e p re s id e n ts e x i s t , but c h ie f ly

in p r i v a t e o r parochial i n s t i t u t i o n s . ^ 79
Sexton, in her stu dy, Women in Education, found:
Only a few fo u r-y ea r coeducational c o lle g e s have women
p r e s id e n ts . Even o f th e non-church women's sc h o o ls, only
e ig h t had women p re s id e n ts in 1971. None o f th e f i f t y
l a r g e s t c o lle g e l i b r a r i e s is headed by a woman, although
women l i b r a r i a n s a re abundant. Only a few academic deans
a re women, although th e re a re many deans o f w o m e n . 180
In higher education, n a ti o n a l l y in 1975, women c o n s titu te d
32 p ercen t o f i n s t r u c t o r s , 19 p ercen t o f a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o rs , 15
p ercen t o f a s s o c ia te p r o f e s s o r s , and 8 p e rc en t o f f u l l p ro fe s s o rs .
Although women made up as much as a q u a r te r o f a l l f a c u l t y , only
17 percent were a d m in is tra to rs and only 13 p ercen t were members
181
o f governing boards.
Thurston examined th e two-year c o lle g e
d i r e c t o r i e s to determine t h a t 3 p e rc e n t o f th e P re sid e n ts o f those
i n s t i t u t i o n s were womenJ82

Green noted th e absence o f women

among s t a t e c o lle g e o f f i c e r s and t h a t in i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher
education women were l e s s l i k e l y than men to be employed as
a s s o c ia te o r f u l l p ro fe s so rs J 82
179Krohn, op. c i t . , "The Puzzling Case o f th e Missing Ms.,"
pp. 33-34.
^®8Sexton, op. c i t . , Women in Education, p. 121.
181 Ib id .
182T hurston, op. c i t . , "A Woman P re sid e n t? —A Study o f TwoYear College P r e s id e n ts ," p. 118.
^ G r e e n , op. c i t . , Women:
p. 4.

A S i g n i f ic a n t National Resource,

71
Summary
I t was obvious from th e review o f r e l a te d l i t e r a t u r e t h a t
women fu n ctio n e f f e c t i v e l y as a d m in is tra to rs and t h a t b iases
e x is te d a g a in s t women a t a l l educational l e v e ls .

Educational

re s e a rc h e rs viewed th e follow ing f a c to r s as a f f e c t i n g women's
c a r e e r d e c isio n to seek p o s itio n s of le a d e rs h ip :

a sp ira tio n s ,

ro le -s e x s te r e o ty p in g , l e g i s l a t i o n and ta s k f o r c e s , the women's
movement, and a f f ir m a tiv e a c tio n programs.

The number of women

e n te rin g graduate schools has in c re a s e d , whereas the number
e n te rin g th e educational le a d e rs h ip arena has decreased.
G enerally, th e r e i s a shortag e o f women f a c u lty and a d m in is tr a to rs .
For th e s e reasons and o th e rs i t was th e w r i t e r 's plan to research
the pub lic two-year and fo u r-y e a r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher edu­
c a tio n and l i m i t th e fin d in g s to the s t a t e o f Michigan.

CHAPTER I I I
METHODOLOGY

The procedures employed fo r c o ll e c t in g and p resen tin g the
data in t h i s study included th e follow ing s te p s :

(1) th e population

and sample; (2) development o f th e survey instrum ent; (3) c o ll e c t io n
o f d a ta ; and (4) a n a ly s is o f d a ta .
The natu re o f th e inform ation sought and the wide d isp e rsio n
of th e population stu d ie d suggested the d e s c r i p t iv e methods o f
research as most a p p ro p ria te .

Good has recommended the d e s c r i p t iv e

resea rch method when th e inform ation being sought included " . . .
p re s e n t f a c t s o r c u rr e n t c o n d itio n s concerning the n a tu re o f a
group o f persons, a number o f o b j e c ts , or a c la s s o f e v e n ts, and
may involve th e procedure o f induction a n a l y s i s , c l a r i f i c a t i o n ,
enumeration, and m e a su re .'^ 84

S e l l t i z , Johoda, Deutsch, and Cook

recommended the use o f d e s c r i p t iv e s tu d ie s " . . .

when an a c c u ra te

d e s c r ip tio n o f a s i t u a t i o n or an a s s o c ia tio n between v a ria b le s is
185
th e purpose o f th e stu d y ."
184

^ C a rte r V. Good, E s s e n tia ls o f Education Research (New
York: A ppleton-C entury-C roft, Educational D iv isio n , Meredith
C orporation, 1972), p. 207.
^85C la ire S e l l t i z , Marie Johoda, Martin Deutch, and S t u a r t
W. Cook, Research Methods in Social R elatio n s (New York: H o lt,
R in eh art, and Minston, 1964), p. 78.

72

73
Population and Sample
The population stu d ie d was lim ite d to women fa c u lty holding
doctoral degrees and women a d m in istra to rs employeed f u l l- t i m e in 16
f o u r-y e a r and 29 two-year p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher education
in Michigan.

(The l a t t e r group included both do ctoral and non-

doctoral degree educational l e v e l . )

The p a r t i c i p a n t s included 128

two-year and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs and 73 two-year and fo u r-y e a r
f a c u lty members from th ese i n s t i t u t i o n s .
The a d m in istra to rs included women with th e t i t l e s (1) ViceP re s id e n t; (2) Dean o r D ire c to r; (3) Department Head/Chairperson;
(4) " A s s is ta n t," " A s sista n t t o ," and "A sso ciate"; (5) R e g is tr a r; (6)
Head L ib ra ria n ; (7) Coordinator o r Program D ire c to r; and (8) Business
Manager.
The f a c u l ty women included were those who held doctoral
d eg rees, and spent a t l e a s t th r e e - f o u r th s o f t h e i r time teach in g .
The su b je c ts surveyed were i d e n t i f i e d from the eudcation
D irectory 1977-78 o f Higher Education; c o lle g e catalogues 1977-78;
and the Michigan Department of Higher Education Survey Report.

186

The s e l e c ti o n of a d m in is tra to rs was r e s t r i c t e d to women who
were employed f u l l- t i m e as c e n tra l a d m in is tr a to r s , academic admin­
i s t r a t o r s , and Student Personnel A d m in istra to rs.

All such women

were co n tacted and asked to p a r t i c i p a t e in the study.
F acu lty women were s e le c te d from th e 45 p u b lic two and fo u ry e a r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher education because i t was f e l t by the
186
Michigan Department o f Higher Education Survey Report,
1977.

74
r e s e a rc h e r t h a t they met the educational q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r a
p o s itio n o f educational lea d e rsh ip (see d e f i n i ti o n o f term s).
In o b tain in g in-d ep th inform ation, a s e le c te d sample o f f iv e
female a d m in is tra to rs a lre a d y surveyed (two blacks and th re e Cau­
c a sia n s) and f iv e female fa c u lty members already surveyed (two
blacks and th r e e Caucasians) were chosen fo r personal in te rv ie w s.
These f iv e s e le c te d rep re se n te d a sample from both two and fo u r-y e a r
in stitu tio n s.
Development of the Survey Instrum ent
The q u e stio n n a ire was developed on the b a sis o f inform ation
gained through: (1) reviewing the l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g to the problem
o f the stud y; (2) in te rv ie w in g a number o f female a d m in is tra to rs
who i d e n t i f i e d f a c t o r s which had influenced t h e i r c a re e r development;
(3) c o n su ltin g w ith s t a f f members from the Office of Research Con­
s u l t a t i o n concerning the format and wording of th e survey instrum ent;
and (4) c o n su ltin g with members o f the d i s s e r t a t i o n guidance com­
m itte e .
The q u e s tio n n a ire was p r e - t e s t e d by d i s t r i b u t i n g i t to female
a d m in is tr a to r s and fa c u lty members employed a t th r e e i n s t i t u t i o n s :
Eight a d m in is tra to rs and f a c u lty e n ro lle d a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rsity
in th e Doctoral Seminar 999 f o r th e 1977 Fall term, s i x from Baker
J u n io r C ollege, and f iv e from Mott Community College.
were lo c a te d in F l i n t , Michigan.
in the o v e ra ll study.

The l a t t e r two

These in d iv id u a ls were not included

A fte r suggestions f o r changes and improvements

were in c o rp o ra te d , th e q u e stio n n a ire was adopted as the b a sic i n s t r u ­
ment f o r o b ta in in g the inform ation sought.

75
The Survey Q uestionnaire
The survey instrum ent used was a f o u r - p a r t q u e stio n n a ire
(see Appendix A).
P a rt I was an o p in io n n a ire which e l i c i t e d views from a l l
respondents regarding :

(1) f a c t o r s t h a t c o n trib u te d to the

sh ortage o f female a d m in is tra to rs ; (2) f a c t o r s t h a t c o n trib u te d
£
to the d e c is io n not to appoint females to p o s itio n s o f le a d e rs h ip ;
(3) f a c t o r s t h a t c o n trib u te d to fem a le 's d e c is io n s not to accep t
a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s i t io n s ; and (4) in flu e n ce s and b a r r i e r s which
respondents had experienced in t h e i r own c a r e e r development.
P a r t I I was a form req u e stin g p e rs o n a l, e d u c a tio n a l, and
p ro fe ssio n a l inform ation f o r th e purpose o f e s ta b lis h in g
s i m i l a r i t i e s and d if fe r e n c e s among th e females.
P a r t I I I was an in te rv ie w guide f o r a s e le c te d sample o f
female a d m in is tr a to r s in M ichigan's i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher edu­
c a tio n .

The guide was developed by th e r e s e a rc h e r w ith a s s is ta n c e

from her a d v iso r and o th e r a p p ro p ria te persons.
P a rt IV was an in te rv ie w guide f o r a s e le c te d sample o f
f a c u lty fem ales, follow ing th e same format as t h a t f o r a d m in is tra to r s .
The S tru c tu re d Interview O utline
The personal interview s allowed f o r in-d epth probing o f
personal a t t i t u d e s , v a lu e s , views, and opinions th e females had
about t h e i r p o s itio n s and them selves.

Schedules were arranged and

p a r t i c i p a n t s were n o t i f i e d in advance f o r each in te rv ie w .

To

76
a s c e r t a i n t h a t th e inform ation from th e in te rv ie w was recorded
c o r r e c t l y , each respondent was encouraged to g ra n t perm ission f o r
a tape recorded in te rv ie w .
Because th e term "d isc rim in a tio n " may encompass a v a r ie ty
o f a t t i t u d e s and b e h av io rs, respondents were asked to be s p e c if ic
in id e n tify in g th o se p a r t i c u l a r d is c rim in a to ry f a c t o r s t h a t they
considered to have acted as b a r r i e r s to t h e i r c a re e r development;
t h a t i s , those f a c t o r s t h a t they thought had influenced f a c u lty
in discouraging them during t h e i r graduate s tu d ie s o r subsequently
had lim ite d t h e i r acceptance as p ro fe ssio n a l p e ers.

In open-

ended response o p tio n s , th e respondents were a ls o given the
op portu n ity to i d e n t i f y o th e r f a c to r s which they f e l t had hindered
or otherw ise encouraged t h e i r c a r e e r development.
C o lle ctio n o f Data
Inform ation was obtained by:

(1) m ailing th e q u e stio n n a ire

accompanied by a cover l e t t e r and a stamped, s e lf -a d d re s s e d envelope
to the women a d m in is tr a to r s and f a c u l t y as describ ed p re v io u sly ;
(2) interv iew ing th e sample o f f i v e women a d m in is tr a to r s and f i v e
female f a c u lty members from those surveyed in o rd e r to add depth
and c l a r i t y to th e inform ation obtained from th e q u e s tio n n a ire .
I n i t i a l l y 316 q u e stio n n a ire s were mailed o u t with a cover
l e t t e r e x p la in in g th e general o b je c tiv e s o f th e i n v e s ti g a t i o n .
follow -up l e t t e r was s e n t to non-respondents th r e e weeks l a t e r .
(see Appendix A, B and C f o r copies o f the q u e s tio n n a ir e , cover
l e t t e r , and follow -up l e t t e r used in th e stu d y ).

A

77
Ten q u e s tio n n a ire s were retu rn e d f o r lack o f a forwarding
a d d re ss, o r because th e addressee had r e t i r e d o r was deceased.

A

t o ta l o f 224 completed q u e stio n n a ire s were retu rn ed and of t h a t
201 were used (see Table 1).

TABLE 1 . —Q u estionn aire Respondents.

P a r t ic ip a n t s
Two-year a d m in is tra to rs
Four-year a d m in is tra to rs

Mailed

Returned

84
108

65

19

Two-year f a c u lty
Four-year f a c u lty
TOTAL

Number
Used
56
72

84

10

105

10
65

63

316

224

201

Analysis o f Data
The retu rn e d q u e stio n n a ire s were divided in to four d i s c r e t e
groups based on c u r r e n t p o s itio n t i t l e s and types o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l
s e t t i n g o f th e respondents.
Group I was composed o f the p a r t i c i p a n t s p rev io usly defined
as a d m in is tra to rs in fo u r-y e a r pu blic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher edu­
c a tio n .
Group I I was composed o f th e p a r t i c i p a n ts defined as
a d m in is tra to rs in pu b lic two-year i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher education.
Group I I I was composed o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s defined as
f a c u l ty members in f o u r-y e a r p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f hig her edu­
c a tio n .

78
Group IV was composed o f the p a r t i c i p a n ts defined as
f a c u lty members in p ub lic two-year i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher edu­
c a tio n .
Q uestionnaire responses were key punched on cards f o r
a n a ly s is ; frequency and percentage ta b u la tio n s were completed f o r
each o f th e s e p a ra te groups f o r comparison purposes.

Two-way

c ro s s ta b u la tio n s and analyses o f a number o f v a ria b le s were
completed to in v e s ti g a t e p o ss ib le r e la tio n s h ip s between two or
more v a r ia b le s .

S t a t i s t i c a l Packages f o r the Social Sciences

computer programs were u t i l i z e d in the a n a l y s e s . ^ 7
The inform ation obtained during the ten in terview s has
been included in the d isc u ssio n o f r e s u l t s and recommendation
p o rtio n s o f th e study to lend depth and c l a r i t y to the study
re su lts.

^ N orm an H. Dye, Dale H, Bent, and C. Hadlai Hul l ,
S t a t i s t i c a l Package fo r th e S ocial S cien ces (New York: McGrawHi l l B b o O o m p a n y 7 W O )7 P P . 97-126.----------

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

As in d ic a te d p re v io u s ly , the purpose o f t h i s study i s to
d e scrib e th e p e rs o n a l, e d u c a tio n a l, and p ro fessio n al c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f women a d m in is tra to rs and f a c u l ty ; to i d e n t i f y s p e c i f i c f a c to r s
t h a t in flu e n ce d women's c a re e r development; and to i d e n t i f y b a r r i e r s
and in flu e n c e s which respondents experienced in t h e i r own c a re e r
development in s e le c te d two-and fo u r-y e a r pub lic i n s t i t u t i o n s of
higher education.
Responses were receiv ed from 128 a d m in is tra to rs and from 73
f a c u l ty members.

The a d m in is tra to rs who responded t o the survey

were broadly r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f the t r a d i t i o n a l a d m in is tra tiv e areas
o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y found in most i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h igh er education.
Since the respondents did not answer every q u e s tio n , the
t o t a l number in d ic a te d f o r each question may vary and th e r e f o re
the number in d ic a te d on the r e s p e c tiv e ta b le s may be d i f f e r e n t .
Personal C h a r a c te r is ti c s
Personal inform ation was obtained to provide a b e t t e r under­
stan d in g o f how c e r t a i n elements such as age, r a c e , p o s itio n among
s i b l i n g s , m a rita l s t a t u s , number o f c h ild r e n , educational attainm ent

79

80
o f p a re n ts , p r in c ip a l occupation o f p a re n ts and c u rre n t employment
o f spouse had in flu e n ce d the respondents' c a re e r advancement.
Tables 2 through 9 p re s e n t a summary o f the data on the
personal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f women a d m in istra to rs and f a c u lty .

TABLE 2 . —Age Level o f A dm in istrators and Faculty.

Age Level

2-Year
Faculty
N=10

4-Year
Faculty
N=63

N

N

%

20-29

1

Two-Year
A dm inistration
N=56

Four-Year
A dm inistration
N=72

%

N

%

N

%

1.6

2

3.6

4

5.6

10.7
14.3

8

11.1
13.9

30-34

3

30.0

12 19.6

35-39

4

40.0

11 17.5

6
8

40-44

1

10.0

11 17.5

15

26.8

10
9

45-49

1

10.0

9 14.3

9

16.1

12

50-54

1

10.0
—

14 21.6

8

14.3

21

16.7
29.2

7

12.5

8

11.1

55 o r o ld e r

5

7.9

12.5

Table 2 shows t h a t on average, fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e a d m in istra ­
t o r were s l i g h t l y o ld e r than the two-year c o lle g e a d m in is tr a to rs .
The g r e a t e s t d if fe r e n c e in age occurred between two-year adminis­
t r a t o r s in th e 40-44 category whereas f o r fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs
in the 50-54 category.
The respondents in t h i s study did not d i f f e r from the f a c u lty
and s t a f f surveyed by Bayer in 1972-73; Bayer found t h a t 58.7 per188
c e n t of teaching f a c u l ty rep o rted they were over age 40.
1 QQ

Bayer, op. c i t . , Teaching Faculty in Academe: 1972-73,
p. 13.

Table 3 presents a summary o f the ra c ia l background o f the
p a rtic ip a n ts .

TABLE 3 . —Race o f the Respondents.
Percentage Responding
Two-Year
A dm inistration
N=56
N
%

Four-Year
A dm inistration
N=72
N
%

Race

2 Year
Faculty
N=10
N %

4 Year
Faculty
N=63
N %

Caucasian

9

90.0

37

69.8

42

78.1

52

75.8

Black

1

10.0

10

15.9

6

10.7

8

11.1

7

9.7

4

7.1

—

Other

—

Over 75 percen t o f two and fo u r-y e a r a d m in istra to rs were
Caucasians; l e s s than 11 p e rc en t o f two and fo u r-y e a r a d m in istra to rs
were b lack; and 7.1 p e rc e n t of the fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs were of
o th e r ra c e s.

T hree-fourths o f the two and fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty members

were Caucasians; le s s than 16 p e rc en t of the two and fo u r-y e a r
f a c u lty members were black ; 9.7 p e rc en t o f the two and fo u r-y e a r
f a c u lty members were of o th e r ra c e s , as shown in Table 3.
Table 4 in d ic a te s t h a t o f the two-year f a c u l t y , 50 percent
were th e o l d e s t o f the s i b l i n g s ; o f the fo u r-y e a r f a c u l t y , 34.9
p e rc en t were the youngest; o f th e two-year a d m in is tra tiv e group,
42.9 p e rc en t were the o l d e s t o f th e s i b l i n g s , and 34.7 p e rc en t of
th e fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra tiv e group were youngest o f the s i b l i n g s .

82
TABLE 4 .—S ib lin g Position o f Women Faculty and Adm inistration
Respondents.

B irth Order

2 Year
Faculty
N=10
N %

4 Year
Faculty
N=63
N %

—

12 19.1

6

10.7

15

20.8

Only

Two-Year
A dm inistration
N=56
N
%

Four-Year
A dm inistration
N=72
N
%

Youngest

3

30.0

22 34.9

15

26.8

25

34.7

Middle

2

20.0

13 29.6

11

19.6

9

12.5

Oldest

5

50.0

16 25.4

24

42.9

23

31.9

The l a r g e s t p ercen t of both a d m in is tra tiv e and f a c u lty
groups were e i t h e r the youngest o r o l d e s t of t h e i r s i b l i n g s .
Hennig189 found in her study t h a t a d m in is tra tiv e women tended to be
the f i r s t b o r n i f not the only c h ild .

TABLE 5 . - •Marital S ta tu s o f Respondents.
2 Year
Faculty
N=10
N %

S ta tu s

Separated
Married

100.0

Two-Year
A dm inistration
N=56
N
%

Four-Year
A dm inistration
N=72
N
%

1.6

1

1.8

1

1.4

39 61.9

39

69.6

32

44.4

1

—

10

4 Year
Faculty
N=63
N %

Wi dowed

—

5

7.9

1

1.8

Divorced

—

9 14.3

5

8.9

17

23.6

Never
Married

—

9 14.3

10

17.9

22

30.6

189

'^ H e n n ig , op. c i t . , p. 9.

—

83

Table 5 in d ic a t e s t h a t the m ajo rity o f two-and fo u r-y e a r
a d m in is tr a to r s (69.6 p e rc e n t o f the two-year a d m in istra to rs and 44.4
p e rc e n t o f th e fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tr a to rs ) were m arried.

As f o r the

two- and fo u r-y e a r fa c u lty members, over 60 p e rc e n t o f each group
(61.9 p e rc e n t o f th e fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty group and 100 p ercen t of the
tw o-year f a c u l ty ) were married.
The respondents in both a d m in is tra tiv e groups d i f f e r mostly
in the divorced and never m arried c a te g o r ie s .

The divorce r a t e of

the fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs was t r i p l e t h a t of the two-year admin­
istra to rs.

In the never-m arried category th e re were twice as many

fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tr a to r s as th e r e were two-year a d m in is tra to rs .
Centra rep o rte d t h a t 39 p e rc en t of the women receiv in g
d o c to ra te s in 1950 and 1960 had never m arried, but only 30 percen t
o f th e 1968 d o c to ra te s were never m arried, in d ic a tin g an in c re a sin g
tr e n d toward m arriage in younger women d o c to ra te s .

190

Table 6 p re s e n ts a breakdown o f the number o f s i b l in g s o f
the re sp o n d en ts.

S ev e n ty -e ig h t p o in t s i x p e rc e n t o f the two- and

f o u r-y e a r a d m in is tr a to r s rep o rte d having no c h ild r e n ; 36.9 percent
rep o rte d having one c h i l d , 44.1 p e rc e n t r e p o rtin g having two
c h il d r e n , 22.2 p e rc e n t re p o rte d having t h r e e , 13.7 p e rc en t reported
having fo u r c h il d r e n , 3.2 p e rc e n t rep o rte d having f i v e c h ild r e n ,
and 1 .4 p e rc e n t re p o rte d having seven c h ild re n .

ion

John A. C entra, Women, Men, and th e D o ctorate, P rinceton:
Educational T esting S e rv ic e , 1974, p. 104.

84
TABLE 6 .—Number o f S iblings o f the Respondents.

C hildren

2 Year
Faculty
N=10
N %

4 Year
Faculty
N=63
N %

0

2

20.0

18

28.5

20

34.2

32

44.4

1
2

5

50.0
10.0
—

31.7
19.1

9
16

16.1
30.2

15
10

20.8

1

20
12
6
2
2

9.5
3.2
3.2

7

12.5

3
1

5.4
1.8

7
6
1

9.7
8 .3
1.4

2

3.2

—

1

1.6

—

3
4
5

1

10.0
—

6

1

10.0
—

7

Two Year
A dm inistration
N=56
N
%

Four Year
A dm inistration
N=72
N
%

13.9

—
1

1.4

F o rty -e ig h t p o in t f iv e p ercen t o f the two- and fo u r-y e a r
f a c u l ty rep o rte d having no c h ild re n ; 81.7 p e rc en t rep o rted having
one c h i l d , 29.1 p e rc en t rep o rted having two c h ild r e n , and a sm aller
percentage rep o rte d having th re e or more c h ild re n .
The m ajority of th e respondents had small fa m ilie s .
Table 7 re v e a ls t h a t 40 p ercen t o f the two and fo u r-y e a r
a d m in is tr a to r s ' mothers completed elementary l e v e l; 97 p ercen t com­
p le te d high school; 24 p e rc e n t completed c o lle g e , 2 y r . ; 20 p e rc en t
completed c o lle g e , 4 y r . ; and 9 p ercen t completed graduate le v e l.
F ifty -se v e n p o in t e ig h t p ercen t of the two and fo u r-y e a r
a d m in is tr a to r s ' f a t h e r s completed elem entary; 70 p e rc en t completed
high schoo l; 25 p e rc en t completed c o lle g e , 2 y r . ; 26 p e rc en t com­
p le te d c o lle g e , 4 y r . ; and 24 p e rc en t completed graduate.

85
TABLE 7 .— Educational Attainment o f Parents of the Respondents.

Educational
Level

2 Year
Faculty
N=10
N
%

4 Year
Faculty
N=63
N
%

2 Year
Admin.
N=56
N
%

2 Year
Admin.
N=72
N
%

M others'
El ementary
High School
College (2 y r )
College (4 y r )
Graduate

2
1
6
1

20.0
10.0
60.0
10.0

15
20
11
13
4

23.8
31.7
17.5
20.6
6.3

9
31
9
5
2

16.1
55.4
16.1
8.9
3.6

17
30
13
8
4

23.6
41.7
18.1
11.1
5.6

F a th e rs '
Elementary
High School
College (2 y r )
College (4 y r )
Graduate

2 20.0
1 10.0
2 20.0
3 30.0
2 20.0

12
20
9
9
13

19.0
31.7
14.3
14.3
20.6

18
22
7
5
4

32.1
39.3
12.5
8.9
7.1

17
22
9
12
12

23.6
30.6
12.5
16.7
16.7

—

Twenty-four p e rc en t of th e two- and fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty
members' mothers completed elem entary l e v e l; 52 p e rc e n t completed
high scho ol, 28 p e rc e n t completed c o lle g e (2 y r . ) , 81 p e rc en t com­
p le te d c o lle g e (4 y r . ) , and 16 p e rc en t completed graduate le v e l.
T h irty -n in e p e rc en t of the two- and fo u r-y e a r fa c u lty
members' f a t h e r s completed elem entary l e v e l; 41 p e rc e n t completed
high sc h o o l, 34 p e rc e n t completed co lleg e (2 y r . ) , 44 p e rc e n t com­
p le te d c o lle g e (4 y r . ) , and 45 p ercen t completed graduate l e v e l.
At th e graduate lev e l the resp ond en ts' f a t h e r s were some­
what b e t t e r education than t h e i r mothers. The e du catio nal lev el of
191
th e p a re n ts ' survey by Bayer
did d i f f e r from the fin d in g s o f
^ B a y e r , op. c i t . , "Teaching Faculty in Academe: 1972-73,"
p. 14.

86
t h i s study.

He concluded t h a t the average edu cation al level o f the

mothers was completion o f high school.

Mothers in t h i s study had

completed two-year c o lle g e .

TABLE 8 . —P rin c ip a l Occupation of Parents o f the Respondents.
2 Year
Faculty
N=10
N
%

4 Year
Faculty
N=63
N
%

2 Year
Admin.
N-56
N
%

Mothers'
P r o f e s s io n a l/
White C o lla r
Manager/
P ro p r ie to r

3

8

12.7

7

12.5

8

11.1

1

1.6

4

7.1

1

1.4

Blue C o lla r/
Farmer

3

30.0

13

20.6

7

12.5

15.3

Housewife

4

40.0

41

65.0

38

67.9

11
52

72.9

F a th ers'
P ro fe s s io n a l/
White C o lla r

7

70.0

34

54.0

13

23.2

38

52.8

Manager/
P r o p rie to r

2

20.0

5

7.9

19

33.9

6

8.3

Blue C o lla r/
Farmer

1

10.0

21

33.3

24

42.9

24

34.7

Occupation

30.0
--

4 Year
Admin.
H-72
N
to
C?

Table 8 shows t h a t the m a jo rity o f the respon dents' mothers
had n ot been employed.

The p rin c ip a l occupation o f the respon dents'

mothers was housewife o r homemaking:

Of the working m others, 42.7

p e rc en t o f th e two and fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty members' mothers were
employed in P ro fe ssio n a l o r White C o lla r jo b s , while 23.6 p e rc en t

87
of th e two and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tr a to r s ' mothers were employed in
p ro fe ssio n a l o r white c o l l a r jo b s , 1.6 p e rc e n t of th e fo u r-y e a r
f a c u lty members' mothers were employed as managers o r p r o p r i e t o r s '
8.5 p e rc e n t of the two- and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tr a to r s ' mothers were
employed as managers or p r o p r i e t o r s ; 50.6 p ercen t of th e two- and
f o u r-y e a r fa c u lty members' mothers were employed as blue c o l l a r or
farm workers; 27.8 p e rc e n t o f the two- and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tr a to r s '
mothers were employed as blue c o l l a r o r farm workers.
The employment r a t e o f the respondents' mothers was somewhat
h igh er than th e n a tio n a l average o f women employed in w h i t e - c o ll a r
and p ro fe s sio n a l p o s itio n s .

Forty p e rc en t of the women employed in

1974 were in w hite c o l l a r o r p ro fessio n al p o s itio n s .

192

The p r in c ip a l occupation of the respondents' f a th e r s was
p ro fessio n al and w h i t e - c o ll a r .

Seventy-six p e rc en t o f the two- and

fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tr a to r s ' f a t h e r s were employed in p ro fe ssio n a l or
w h i t e - c o ll a r jo b s ; 42.2 p e rc en t o f the two- and fo u r-y e a r admin­
i s t r a t o r s ' f a t h e r s were employed as managers or p r o p r i e t o r s ; 27.9
p e rc en t o f the two- and fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty members' f a t h e r s were
employed as managers o r p r o p r i e t o r s ; 77.6 p e rc en t of th e two- and
fo u r -y e a r a d m in is tr a to r s ' f a t h e r s were employed as b l u e - c o l l a r or
farm workers; and 43.3 p e rc e n t o f the two- and fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty
members' f a t h e r s were employed as b l u e - c o ll a r or farm workers.

192

U.S. Department o f Labor, Women's Bureau, Twenty Facts
on Women Workers (Washinqton, D.C.: U.S. Government P rin tin q
O ffic e , 1974), p. 1.

88
TABLE 9 . —C urrent Employment o f Spouses.

Occupation

2 Year
Faculty
N=10
N
%

P r o f e s s io n a l/
White c o l l a r

9

P r o p r ie to r /
Manager
B lu e-C o llar/
Farmer

90.0

4 Year
Faculty
N=63
N
%

37

—

—

58.7
—

1

1.6

2 Year
Admin.
N=56
N
%

4 Year
Admi n .
N=72
N
%

20

35.7

25

34.7

9

16.1

2

2.8

4

7.1

3

4 .2

Table 9 shows t h a t the m ajo rity o f th e spouses o f the married
respondents were employed in p ro fe ssio n a l o r w h i t e - c o ll a r jo b s.
Over 50 p ercen t o f th e two and fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty rep o rte d t h a t
t h e i r spouses were employed in p ro fe s sio n a l or w h i t e - c o ll a r p o si­
t i o n s ; 70.4 p ercen t o f the two- and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs rep o rte d
t h e i r spouses were employed in p ro fe ssio n a l or w h i t e - c o ll a r p o si­
t i o n s ; 19 p e rc en t o f the two- and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs were
employed as p r o p r i e t o r s o r managers; 11 p e rc e n t o f th e two- and
fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs were employed as b l u e - c o ll a r or farm
workers; and 2 p e rc e n t of the two- and fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty were
employed as b l u e - c o l l a r o r farm workers.
Educational C h a r a c te r is ti c s
An earned d o c to r a te , e x te n siv e experience as a f a c u lty
member, and experience in academic a d m in is tra tio n a re alm ost u n iv er­
s a l requirem ents f o r appointment t o p o s itio n s in the c e n tr a l admin­
i s t r a t i o n o f th e u n iv e r s ity .

89
Since the focus o f t h i s study i s on women fa c u lty members
seeking a d m in is tra tiv e appointment, i t was assumed to be d e s ira b le
f o r these women to have achieved the d o c to ra te degree to be assured
o f th e p o s itio n should t h e i r educational c r e d e n t i a l s be challenged.
For t h i s reason, only f a c u lty women holding th e earned do cto rate
degree were used.
Tables 10 through 13 re p re se n t a summary o f the educational
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of women a d m in is tra to rs and women f a c u lty members.

TABLE 10.—Highest Degree Earned by A dm inistrators.
Percentage Responding
Two Year
A dm inistration
N=56
N
%

Degree

Four Year
A dm inistration
N=72
N
%

1

1.8

5

7.0

B a c h e lo r's Degree

11

19.6

5

6.9

M a ste r's Degree

34

60.7

23

31.9

Educational S p e c i a l i s t

3

5.4

1

1.4

D octorate Degree

7

12.5

38

52.8

Some College

Table 10 in d ic a te s t h a t th e m a jo rity o f th e two-year admin­
i s t r a t o r s did no t have degrees beyond the m a s te r 's le v e l; 12.6
p e rc e n t o f the two-year a d m in is tra to rs had earned d o c to ra te s.

The

degree s t a t u s o f th e f o u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs revealed t h a t 52.8

90
p ercen t held th e d o c to ra te degree.

A higher percentage of the

respondents in t h i s study had doctoral degrees than the women surveyed
by Bayer in 1972-73.193
Of th e fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs , 31.9 p ercen t held the
m a s te r 's degree; 1.4 p e rc en t held the educational s p e c i a l i s t ' s degree,
6 .9 p ercen t held the b a c h e lo r 's degree, and 7.0 p e rc en t had some
c o lle g e .

Of th e two-year a d m in is tra to rs , 5.4 p e rc en t held the edu­

c a tio n a l s p e c i a l i s t ' s degree, 60.7 p ercen t held the m a s te r's degree,
19.6 p ercen t held the b a c h e lo r's degree, and 1.8 p ercen t had some
c o lleg e .

TABLE 1 1.—Academic Major o f Highest Earned Degree.
Percentage Responding
Academic Area

2 Year
Faculty
N=10
N %

Business
A dm inistration
--

Social Science

4 Year
Faculty
N=63
N %

2 Year
Admin.
N=56
N %

4 Year
Admin.
N=72
N %

7

11.1

6

10.7

4

5.6

10

15.9

4

7.1

10

13.9

Education

6

60.0

25

39.7

22

39.3

38

52.8

Arts

1

10.0

10

15.9

13

23.2

13

18.1

Natural Science

1

10.0

7

11.1

1

1.8

3

4.2

Human Services

2

20.0

4

6.3

10

17.9

4

5.6

193I b id ., p. 15.

91
Table 11 shows t h a t 99.7 o f the f a c u lty and 92.1 p ercen t of
th e a d m in is tr a to r s received t h e i r h ig h e s t degree in education.

Of

the a d m in is tra tiv e group, 41.3 p ercen t received t h e i r h ig h est degree
in A rts ; 23.5 p e rc e n t in Human S e rv ic e s, 16.3 p ercen t in Business
A d m in istra tio n , 21.0 p e rc en t in Social Science, and 6.0 p ercen t in
Natural Science.

Of the two- and fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty group 25.9

pe rc e n t receiv ed t h e i r h ig h e s t degree in A rts; 26.3 p e rc en t in Human
S e rv ic e s, 11.1 p e rc e n t in Business A dm in istration, 15.9 percent in
Social Science, and 21.1 p e rc en t in Natural Science.
These fin d in g s a re d i f f e r e n t from those o f Bayer.

194

Only

20 p e rc e n t of the women d o c to ra te s in h is study had earned t h e i r
d o c to ra te in e du cation.

The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education

Report a ls o found t h a t a m a jo rity of women a d m in is tra to rs in higher
195
education had earned t h e i r d o c to ra te s in ed ucation.
The re p o r t
c i t e d the in c re a s in g number of higher education a d m in istra tio n pro­
grams which can award th e c e r t i f i c a t i o n , th e Ph.D ., req u ired f o r
advanced a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n s to women who have earned t h e i r
f i r s t degree in home economics, elementary e ducatio n, n u rsin g , so c ia l
work, and th e more t r a d i t i o n a l women's academic d i s c i p l i n e s as a
primary reason f o r the number o f women a d m in is tra to rs with d o c to ra te s
in e d u c a tio n .196

The m ajo rity o f female a d m in is tra to rs and f a c u l ty

194I b i d . , p. 26.
195Carnegie Commission, op. c i t . , "O p p o rtu n ities f o r Women
in Higher E ducation," p. 84.
l9 6 I b id . , p. 86.

92

members in th e two-year c o lle g e s had earned t h e i r h ig h e s t degree
in education and had followed the t r a d i t i o n a l ro u te o f advancement
to academic a d m in istra tio n from the f a c u l ty ranks.

TABLE 1 2 .—Year Highest Degree Was Conferred.
Percentage Responding
Year

2 Year
Faculty
N=10
N
%

4 Year
Faculty
N=63
N
%

2 Year
Admin.
N=56
N
%

4 Year
Admin.
N=72
N
%

P r io r to 1950

—

1

1.6

2

3.6

3

4.2

1951-1955

—

1

1.6

1

1.8

6

8.3

1956-1960

—

5

7.9

5

8.9

2

2.8

1961-1965

—

27

42.9

8

14.3

8

11.1

1966-1970

2

20.0

21

33.3

13

23.2

21

29.2

1971-1975

7

70.0

7

11.1

20

35.7

21

29.2

1976 o r l a t e r

1

10.0

7

12.5

8

11.1

--

Seventy p e rc en t o f the two-year f a c u l ty receiv ed t h e i r
h ig h e s t degrees between 1971 and 1975; 42.9 p e rc e n t of the fo u ry e a r f a c u l ty between 1961 and 1965; 35.7 p e rc e n t o f the two-year
a d m in is tr a to r s between 1971 and 1975; and 58.4 p e rc e n t of the fo u r
y e a r a d m in is tra to r s between 1966 and 1975 as shown in Table 12.
Table 13 in d ic a te s t h a t th e re i s no d if f e r e n c e 1n the
number o f people in both the two- and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra tiv e
groups who a re working toward the advanced degree.

93
TABLE 13 .—A dm inistrators Working on Advanced Degrees.
Degree
B ach elor's

M aster's

N

%

N

%

Two-Year
A d m inistrato rs

1

1.8

5

8.9

Four-Year
A dm in istrato rs

2

2.8

7

9.7

P o s itio n Level

Education
S p e c ia list
N
%

1

1.4

Doctorate
N

%

5

8 .9

7

9.7

The re s e a rc h e r had a n tic ip a te d fin d in g more non-doctor degree
f o u r - y e a r a d m in is tra to rs to be p re s e n tly pursuing th e term inal
degree.

This data does not support such an assumption.
P rofessio nal C h a r a c te r is ti c s
P ro fe ssio n a l inform ation was obtained to i d e n t i f y the

respondents regarding the a d m in is tr a tiv e area of employment, time
in p r o fe s s io n a l employment, y e ars in p re s e n t p o s i t io n , d e s ir e fo r
advancement in c u rre n t i n s t i t u t i o n , c a r e e r g o a ls , and r e l a ti o n s h i p
between c a r e e r p o s itio n s t a t u s and goals of the a d m in is tra tiv e
and f a c u l ty groups.
Tables 14 through 19 p re s e n t a summary of the data on
p ro fe s s io n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f women a d m in is tra to rs and women
f a c u lty .
From Table 14 i t can be seen t h a t th e g r e a t e s t percentage
o f th e women a d m in is tra to rs held appointments as program d i r e c t o r s .
The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the p opulation surveyed in t h i s study among the

94
TABLE 14.--P o s itio n T itle s o f Adm inistrators.
2 Year A dm inistration
___

Number
V ice-P resid en t

4 Year A dm inistration

Percentage

Number

Percentage

—

1

1.4

D ean/D irector o f
School

5

8.9

10

13.9

Department Head

4

7.1

9

12.5

7

12.5

18

25.0

L ibrary D ire c to r

8

14.3

2

2.8

R e g is tra r

4

7.1

2

2.8

28

50.0

30

41.7

56

100.0

72

100.0

A s s is ta n t Dean or
D irec to r
A s s is ta n t to Dean or
Di r e c t o r
A ssociated Dean o r
Di r e c to r

Program Di r e c t o r
TOTAL

various a d m in is tra tiv e a re a s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s s i m il a r to the
d i s t r i b u t i o n of women a d m in is tr a to r s found in Oltman's 1970 study.
Ottman

1Q8

197

found the number o f women in a d m in is tra tio n has in creased

during th e p a s t e ig h t y e a rs .

She found two women in the p o s itio n

o f p re s id e n t and th re e in the p o s itio n o f v i c e - p r e s id e n t in la rg e
coeducational u n i v e r s i t i e s between 1967 and 1970.
1Q7

Oltman, op. c i t . , Campus 1970, p. 14.

198I b id . , pp. 14-16.

In t h i s study

95
one p a r t i c i p a n t held the p o s itio n o f v ic e -p re s id e n t in a coeduca­
tio n a l u n iv e r s ity .
The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e respondents among a d m in is tra tiv e
a re a s shows t h a t 1.4 p e rc e n t held the t i t l e o f V ic e-P re sid en t, 22.8
p e rc e n t held the t i t l e of Dean or D irec to r o f School, 19.6 percent
held th e t i t l e o f Department Head, 37.5 p ercen t held the t i t l e of
L ib ra ry D ire c to r , 9.9 p e rc en t held the t i t l e o f R e g is tr a r , and more
than 90 p e rc e n t held th e t i t l e o f D ire c to r o f a major program.
S ix ty p e rc en t o f the two-year f a c u lty were p ro fe s s io n a lly
employed f u l l - t i m e f o r 10 to 14 y e a r s , 30.1 p e rc en t o f the fo u r-y e a r
f a c u l t y f i v e to nine y e a r s , 26.8 p e rc en t of th e two-year adminis­
t r a t o r s 10 to 14 y e a r s , and 25.1 p ercen t o f the fo u r-y e a r adminis­
t r a t o r s f o r fiv e to nine y ears and 10 to 14 y e a r s , as shown in
Table 15.

The average number o f y ears o f p ro fe ssio n a l f u l l- t i m e

employment f o r fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs was 10; f o r two-year
a d m in is tr a to r s n in e; f o r fo u r-y e a r fa c u lty 9 .5 ; and f o r two-year
f a c u l ty 1 .5 .
Table 16 shows t h a t more than h a lf o f both th e two-year
and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs had been in t h e i r p re s e n t p o s itio n
th r e e y e a rs o r l e s s , whereas the m ajo rity o f the two-year f a c u lty
had been in t h e i r p o s itio n s s ix y e a rs o r l e s s and the fo u r-y ea r
f a c u l t y ten y e a rs o r l e s s .
The p ro fe s sio n a l l i t e r a t u r e on women a d m in is tra to rs has
tended to i n d ic a te t h a t women a re making some progress in o btain in g

TABLE 15.—Years Professionally Employed Full-Time.
Frequency and Percentage
Level

0-4
N

Two Year Faculty

5-9
%

—

N
3

%
30

10-14
N
%
6

15-19
N
%

60

—

20-24
N
%
1

10

25+
N

%
—

N

Total
%

10

100

Four Year Faculty

4

6.4

19 30.1

16 25.4

9

14.3

10 15.9

5

8.0

63 100

Two Year
Adm inistration

3

5.4

12 21.5

15 26.8

8

14.3

9 16.2

9

16.2

56 100

Four Year
Adm inistration

8

11.2

18 25.1

8 11.2

9

12.6

11 15.3

18

25.1

72 100

97
TABLE 16.--Years 1n Present Position.
Frequency and Percentage
Level
N

0-3
%

N

4-6
%

N

7-9
%

N

10+
%

N

Total
%

Two-Year
Faculty

1

10.0

6

60.0

2

20.0

1

10.0

10

100

Four-Year
Faculty

16

25.4

16

25.4

9

14.3

21

33.3

63

100

Two-Year
Adminis.

28

50.0

12

21.4

7

12.5

9

16.1

56

100

Four-Year
Adminis.

38

51.4

18

25.0

7

9.7

10

13.9

72

100

a d m in is tr a tiv e and f a c u lty p o s itio n s in higher education.

A m ajo rity

o f th e a d m in is tra to rs held t h e i r previous p o s itio n more than th re e
y e a rs and were promoted w ithin the same a d m in is tra tiv e u n i t , i n d i ­
c a tin g t h a t c a re e r advancement o p p o rtu n itie s were a v a ila b le to the
women a d m in is tra to rs who were surveyed.

Likewise women f a c u lty

have remained in t h e i r p o s itio n s and achieved re g u la r promotions and
o th e r f e a tu r e s t h a t recognize the s t a t u s o f f a c u lty persons.
Table 17 shows t h a t th e m a jo rity o f a d m in is tra to rs (over
80 p e rc en t) and f a c u l ty members (over 85 p e rc en t) did not d e s ire
advancement to higher p o s itio n s from the ones they held w ith in
t h e i r c u rr e n t i n s t i t u t i o n of employment.
t h e i r c u rr e n t p o s itio n s .

They were s a t i s f i e d with

Women not s a t i s f i e d with t h e i r p o s itio n

in d ic a te d d isc rim in a tio n because o f sex and race and lack o f
o p p o rtu n ity .

98
TABLE 1 7 .—Advancement Desired in the I n s t i t u t i o n o f Current
Employment.
Percentages
Yes
No

P o s itio n Level
Two-Year Faculty

Number

100.0

10

Four-Year Faculty

11.1

87.3

63

Two-Year A dm inistrator

12.5

83.9

56

Four-Year A dm in istrator

11.1

87.5

72

The m a jo rity o f the a d m in is tra to rs and f a c u lty members i n d i ­
cated t h a t t h e i r p re s e n t p o s itio n i s t h e i r h ig h e s t c a r e e r g o a l, as
shown in Table 18.

TABLE 1 8.—Career Goals of the Respondents.

P o sitio n Level

Number Responding
-- ----------------------------------------------------Higher
Same
Lower
N

Two-Year Faculty

—

10

10

Four-Year Faculty

6

57

63

Two-Year A dm inistrators

1

32

23

56

Four-Year A dm inistrators

2

35

35

72

Twenty-three o f the two-year a d m in is tr a to rs and 35 o f the
fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs s t a t e d they wanted to move to a lower
p o s itio n from the one held.

99
Howe s t a t e d , "The c ru c ia l issu e in women ( c a re e r development)
i s . . . low a s p i r a t i o n . "

She f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t the concept o f the

"motive to avoid success" a c ts as a psychological b a r r i e r to achieve199
ment in women.
Some o f the l i t e r a t u r e regarding su ccessfu l women adminis­
t r a t o r s pointed out t h a t many women lack the necessary q u a l i t i e s f o r
coping w ith su c ce ss-stam in a, r e s i l i e n c y , a b i l i t y to fu n ctio n under
the extreme p re ssu re s and s t r e s s e s which occur in a com petitive world;
f o r some women a d m in is tr a to r s , th e d riv e f o r success involves nervewracking te n s io n s which make t h e i r l iv e s both f r u s t r a t i n g and
co n flict-rid d en .
Table 19 In d ic a te s t h a t from o b se rv a tio n , the p o s itio n
women a d m in is tr a to r s and f a c u l ty now hold appears to be p o s i t iv e l y
r e l a t e d w ith th e goals they held f o r them selves.

Of the 15 deans,

13 department heads, ten l i b r a r y d i r e c t o r s , s ix r e g i s t r a r s , and
73 f a c u l ty members, most a s p i r e to r e t a i n the s t a t u s they now
enjoy.

Of the 58 program d i r e c t o r s and 25 a s s i s t a n t , " a s s i s t a n t

t o , " o r " a s s o c ia te " dean o r d i r e c t o r s most did not a s p ir e to
r e t a i n th e s t a t u s they now enjoy.
A ttitu d e s Toward Factors Influencing
Women's Career Development
The respondents were asked to s tro n g ly a g re e , a g re e , d i s ­
agree o r s tro n g ly d isa g re e w ith a s e r i e s o f statem ents r e l a t i n g to
199

p. 100.

Howe, op. c i t . , "Sexism and The A sp ira tio n o f Women,"

100

TABLE 1 9 .—C urrent Career P o sitio n S ta tu s and Goals o f the Respondents
Expressed.
§oals_Freguency_and Percentage__
Career P o s itio n
S ta tu s

Lower
N %

Same
N %
1

V ic e -P re sid e n t

Higher
N
%

100

Total
N
%
1

.5

15

7.3

Dean

3

19.8

9

59.2

Department Head

4

35.7

9

64.3

13

7.1

15

60.0

10

40.0

25

12.9

L ibrary D ire c to r

1

11.1

9

88.9

10

4.6

R e g is tr a r

2

33.3

4

66.7

6

3.1

33

58.9

25

41.1

58

28.9

67

97.1

73

35.6

A s s i s t a n t Dean/
Di r e c t o r
A s s i s t a n t to Dean o r
Di r e c t o r
A ssociate Dean or
D ire c to r

Program D ire c to r
Faculty

3

6

19.8

9.7

commonly s t a t e d reasons as to why women have not accepted advanced
p o s i t i o n s , why women have n o t been appointed to a d m in is tra tiv e and
f a c u l t y p o s i t i o n s , and why th e re i s a shortage o f women adminis­
t r a t o r s and f a c u l t y .

They were a ls o asked t o r a t e p o s i t iv e and

neg ativ e c o n d itio n s in t h e i r own c a re e r development.

Table 20

summarizes th e reasons given f o r shortage of women a d m in is tra to rs
as agreed upon by th e respondents.

TABLE 20.—Reasons Given fo r the Shortage o f Women Administrators (By A ll Respondents).
Factors Which I n f lu ence Women Admini s t r a t o r Shortage

2 Year Faculty
4 Year Faculty
N=10
N=63
Agree
Disagree Agree
Disagree
N %
N %
N
%
N
%

Women p r e f e r to sta y
home when they have
small c h ild ren .

8

80

2

20

30

47.6

32

50.8

32

57.2

14.9 41.1

41

56.9

3

4

7

70

3

30

54

85.7

9

14.2

46

92.2

10

59

82.0

12

16.

I t i s believed by
some t h a t women a re
■ not good admin­
istrato rs.

2 Yr. Adm inistrator
N=56
Agree
Disagree
N
%
N
%

17.8

4 Yr. Adm inistrator
N=72
Agree
Disagree
\\
%
N
%

102

Table 20 shows t h a t the m a jo rity o f th e respondents agreed
t h a t th e sh o rta g e o f women a d m in istra to rs is because " I t i s believed
by some t h a t women a re n o t good a d m in istra to rs" and "Women p r e f e r
to s ta y home when they have small c h ild r e n ."
In a study o f p ro fe ssio n a l f a m i li e s , Hoistrom found younger
p ro fe s sio n a l women were more acceptin g o f women working f u l l- t i m e
when t h e i r c h ild re n were s m a l l . ^
Table 21 summarizes the reasons given f o r non-appointment
to p o s itio n s o f le a d e rs h ip as agreed upon by the respondents.
The m a jo rity o f respondents agreed t h a t non-appointment to
a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s i s a r e s u l t o f "Sex" and "Lack o f
A d m in istra tiv e E xperience."

The respondents' opinions regarding

ra c e was no t d i f f e r e n t .
Table 22 summarizes the reasons given by th e respondents
f o r women n o t a c c ep tin g advanced p o s i t io n s .

A m a jo rity o f the

respondents agreed t h a t p ro fe ssio n a l women in higher education
do n o t take advantage o f o p p o r tu n itie s f o r advancement simply
because "The p o s itio n o ffe re d no o p p o rtu n ity f o r advancement,"
"Required ex ce ssiv e t r a v e l i n g ," "Would exceed t h e i r husband's
p o s i t i o n ," o r because women "P re ferre d to remain in teaching or
c o u n selin g ."

Lynda Hoistrom, "Women Career P a tte r n s : Appearance and
R e a l it y ," Journal o f National A sso ciatio n o f Women Deans and
C ounselors, 36:2 (W inter, 1972), p ."163.
—

TABLE 21.--Reasons Given fo r Non-Appointment to Adm inistrative Positions (By A ll Respondents).
Factors which I n flu enced th e Decision
Not to Appoint Women
to Admin. P ositions

2 Year Faculty
4 Year Faculty
N=10
N=63
Agree Disagree Agree
Disagree
N % N % N
%
fi
%

2 Yr. Adm inistrator
N=56
Agree
Disagree
N
%
N %

4 Yr. A dm inistrator
N=72
Agree
Disagree
N
%
U
%

Sex

8 80

2

20

52

82.5

10

15.9

50

89.2

6

10.7

57

79.2

14

19.5

Race

5

50

5

50

32

50.7

30

47.6

37

66.0

19

34.0

32

44.5

39

51.2

Lack o f Administra­
t i v e Experience

9

90

1 10

52

82.5

11

17.4

43

76.8

13

23.3

57

79.2

15

20.0

TABLE 22.—Reasons Agreed Upon by Respondents f o r Women Not Accepting Advanced P o sitio n s.
Factors Which In flu enced Decision Not
to Accept Advanced
P osition

2 Year Faculty
N=10
Agree Disagree
N % N %

4 Year Faculty
N=63
Agree
Disagree
N
%
N
%

2 Yr. Adm inistrator
4 Yr. Adm inistrator
N=56
N=72
Agree
Disagree
Agree
Disagree
N
56
N
% N
%
N
56

31

50.0

30

47.6

32

57.1

24

39.5

35 47.2

34

46.6

34.8

P referred to remain
in teaching o r
counseling

7

70

3 30

The p o sitio n offered
no opportunity f o r
advancement

8

80

2

20 44

69.8

18

28.6

34

60.8

21

37.5

47 65.3

25

Required excessive
tr a v e lin g

9

90

1 10 42

66.7

20

31.8

33

59.0

22

39.3

41 56.9

30 41.7

P osition would
exceed husband's

3

30

7 70

66.7

20

31.8

42

75.0

13

23.2

48 66.7

23

42

32.0

105
Table 23 summarizes th e one f a c t o r t h a t the m ajo rity o f
respondents d id not agree upon as a p o s i t iv e in flu e n c e in t h e i r
own c a r e e r development.

All respondents were asked to in d ic a te

the e x te n t to which c e r t a i n f a c t o r s (see Q uestionnaire Da) served
as im portant in flu e n c e s in t h e i r c a re e r development.

From the

example shown in t h i s t a b l e , i t can be seen t h a t only one was
checked w ith g r e a t frequency.
In id e n tify in g p o s i t iv e in flu e n c e s in the respondents' own
c a re e r development, the m ajo rity disagreed t h a t "A ffirm ative
a c tio n p o lic ie s " served as p o s i t iv e in flu e n c e s in t h e i r l i v e s , as
shown in Table 23.
The m a jo rity o f the respondents did not in d ic a te b a r r i e r s
in t h e i r own c a re e r development.
Comments from Interview s
and Q u estio n n aire?
Inform ation from personal in te rv ie w s which c o n siste d o f a
s e le c te d sample of f iv e female a d m in is tr a to rs alread y surveyed and
f iv e f a c u lty members alread y surveyed was used by th e re s e a rc h e r.
To a s c e r t a i n t h a t the inform ation from the in te rv ie w was recorded
c o r r e c t l y , each respondent granted perm ission f o r a tape recorded
in te rv ie w .
From th e in te rv ie w s and q u e s tio n n a ir e s , the re s e a rc h e r has
combined comments which were ty p ic a l of a l l the comments t h a t were
made (see Appendices A and B f o r a l l comments).

TABLE 23.—Positive Influence in Own Career Development.
2 Year Faculty
Influence

Affirm ative Action
P o lic ie s

N=1°
Agree Disagree
N X N %

3

30

7

70

4 Year Faculty

2 Yr. Adm inistrator

4 Yr. Adm inistrator

N=63
Agree
Disagree
N
%
N
%

N=56
Agree
Disagree
H
%
H
%

N=72
Agree
Disagree
H
%
N
%

13

20.6

50

69.4

19

33.9

36

64.3

20

25.8

50

69.5

107

A.

Two- and Four-Year A d m inistrators: Reasons f o r not applying
fo r a h igher a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n produced the follow ing
comments.
I fe e l t h a t women themselves too o ften are a f r a i d to even
apply f o r higher a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s . Often the men
who f i n a l l y accept th e p o s itio n s have no more and sometimes
l e s s to o f f e r than women who f e l t inadequate f o r the same
p o s itio n .
In many c a se s, I fin d women must prove t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s
by t h e i r performance. Men seem to be accepted w ithout proof.
Women are not taken s e r io u s ly . Men never view women as
capable in d iv id u a ls able to assume managerial ro le s . Women
have not learn ed the p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g i e s necessary to
promotional m o b ility . Valued q u a l i t i e s in men are often
not valued in women, y e t such q u a l i t i e s a re necessary fo r
promoti on.
According to some of th e resea rch I have seen, some women
have lowered t h e i r own a s p i r a t io n s to f i t what they perceived
as r e a l i t y , o r have chosen th e path of l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e to
the more t r a d i t i o n a l female work r o le s .

B.

Free d isc u ssio n of b a r r i e r s in c a r e e r development produced the
follow ing remark:
I do b e lie v e d is c rim in a tio n e x i s t s here, but not the kind
t h a t can be rep o rte d to the proper a u t h o r i t i e s ; i t ' s very
s u b tle .

C.

Reasons given on women not accepting p o s itio n s o f le a d ersh ip :
Although women would l ik e to see more women in ad m in istra ­
t i o n , when given the o pp ortu nity they a re o ften t h e i r own
wrost enemies, t h a t i s , queen bee syndrome. Women d o n 't
accept a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s because (1) a f e e lin g of
tokenism; (2) b u i l t in v e h ic le f o r f a i l u r e . My own c a re e r
development has been most in fluen ced by personal ambition.
I t i s such " i s o l a t i n g out" t h a t has biased many adminis­
t r a t o r s toward female e x ec u tiv es.
Even some male fin a n c ia l aid o f f i c e r s used to look down
t h e i r noses a t me when I showed up a t S ta te A ssociatio n
m eetings. Other women, perhaps s u r p r i s i n g l y , a re not
n e c e s s a r ily p ro fe s sio n a l women's b e s t f rie n d s o r su p p o rte rs.
They a re n o t always t h r i l l e d to see one g e t ahead. Some

108
female je a lo u s y sometimes e n te rs in . My own c a r e e r develop­
ment has been influenced by "being in th e r i g h t place a t the
r i g h t time" and e s ta b lis h in g a c a re e r re p u ta tio n in my
c o lle g e of high r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and c a p a b ility .
Lack o f se lf-c o n fid e n c e and lack of high c a re e r goals are
the reasons women do not accept a d m in istra tiv e p o s itio n s .
I was influenced by a need fo r personal challenge.
D.

C o n flic t in ro le s produced the follow ing comment:
I had a l i b e r a t atmosphere a t home while growingu p mother had a c a r e e r . I have a c o n f l i c t between motherhood
and jo b ; sometimes my job d u tie s are l e f t undone because I
do not take work home. The g r e a t e s t advantage of being a
female a d m in is tra to r i s "to be a r o le model f o r o th ers to
see t h a t a woman can be a good a d m in is tra to r ."

E.

Two- and Four-Year F aculty: When asked about b a r r i e r s in own
c a re e r development the follow ing remarks were made.
I r e a l l y have not experienced any re a l b a r r i e r s in achieving
my goal as a p ro fe s sio n a l woman in th e f i e l d of education.
I have found my p ro fe s sio n a l d e cisio n s respected and I
fe e l I have been able to bring about change because o f my
p re s e n t p ro fessio n al r o le .
Demonstration of competence in communication, a n a ly s is of
is s u e s , and d e c isio n making i s th e most important in seeking
promotion, although in r e a l i t y p o l i t i c s and f r ie n d s h ip are
o ften the determining f a c t o r .

F.

When asked have you every a c t iv e l y sought a more advanced
p o s i t io n , th e follow ing was given:
I ap p lied f o r an a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n . To d a te , even
with a follow-up l e t t e r and phone c a l l , I have not y e t
received acknowledgment t h a t my a p p lic a tio n was received.
Such procedures do not seem t o in d ic a te t h a t women a p p lic a n ts
a re being a c t iv e l y sought f o r such p o s itio n s !

G.

Free d isc u ssio n o f advantage o f being female a d m in is tra to r
produced the follow ing comment:
I see no p a r t i c u l a r advantage, o th e r than money in being
an a d m in is tra to r . I enjoy teaching and doing research :
Few a d m in is tra to rs devote much time t o those a c t i v i t i e s . I
su sp ec t I play a f a r more expective r o le as a p ro f e s s o r —a
r o l e in which I can s tim u la te stu d e n ts and c o llea g u es.
As you can see from my responses I do n o t fe e l d isc rim in ated

109
a g a in s t in these a re a s . On the c o n tra ry , I have received
sc h o la rs h ip s , fe llo w s h ip s , research g r a n ts , have published
research papers w ithout an undue number of r e j e c t i o n s , have
tau g h t numerous small upper lev e l c o u rses, have c e r t a i n l y
been accepted as a peer by my c o lle a g u e s , and i f anything,
have been overburdened by the number o f appointments to
s i g n i f i c a n t policy-making committees.
H.

When asked about promotion due to compliance with l e g i s l a t i o n
on women's r i g h t s the follow ing comment was given.
I have e x is te d w ithou t women's l i b and w ithout a ffirm a tiv e
a c tio n and fin d no d if fe re n c e in the way women a re t r e a te d
in the world of academia.

I,

Advice from women a d m in is tra to rs and women f a c u lty members, as
in d ic a te d from th e q u e stio n n a ire s and in te rv ie w s , fre q u e n tly
had to do w ith confidence and self-know ledge.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Be aware o f your s tr e n g th s .
Have confidence t h a t you can do th e job.
Understand y o u r s e lf .
Analyze your s tre n g th s and weaknesses.
Be honest. Say what you fe e l needs to be s a id .
D on't be defen siv e because you a re a woman a d m in is tra to r,
Be your own person.
Be y o u r s e lf . A dm inistration i s not any one way of
doing th in g s . Use your own s t y l e .

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The shortage of women a d m in istra to rs has been a t t r i b u t e d to
the lack o f women who are q u a li f ie d f o r promotions and to the r e lu c ­
tance o f women to seek appointment to policy-making p o s itio n s .
The purposes o f t h i s study were:

(1) to determine how many

women are employed f u l l - t i m e in the pub lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher
education in Michigan as f a c u lty or in the c ap a c ity o f a d m in is tra to r
in l in e o r s t a f f p o s itio n s ; (2) to determine how many o f these women
are Caucasians, how many a re black, and how many belong to o th er
r a c ia l groups; (3) to determine the number and type o f a d m in istra ­
t i v e p o s itio n s held by th ese women; (4) to determine how many a s p ir e
to move from f a c u lty to a d m in istra tio n o r from one a d m in is tra tiv e
p o s itio n to a h igh er one or vice v e rsa ; and (5) to c h a ra c te r iz e
th ese women, f o r comparative purposes, according to t h e i r academic
p r e p a ra tio n , p ro fe s sio n a l ex p erien ce, and personal backgrounds, and
according to o th e r f a c t o r s such as c a r e e r b a r r i e r s and c a re e r
in flu e n c e s as perceived by them.
The population f o r t h i s study c o n siste d o f women adminis­
t r a t o r s and women f a c u lty employed f u l l - t i m e in 16 fo u r-y e a r and 29
two-year p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher education in Michigan.

110

Ill
A mailed q u e s tio n n a ire /o p in io n n a ire was used to c o l l e c t
inform ation from 316 women a d m in istra to rs and f a c u l ty ; a t o t a l of
224 women p a r t i c i p a t e d ; o f th ese 201 q u e stio n n a ire responses were
used in the study.
In o btain in g inform ation beyond t h a t generated by the ques­
t i o n n a i r e , a s e le c te d sample of f iv e female a d m in istra to rs and f iv e
f a c u lty members p rev io u sly surveyed, was interview ed by the
re se a rc h e r.
The a n a ly s is o f the d ata generated by the q u e stio n n a ire
included ta b u la tin g th e frequency and percentage of responses f o r
both groups o f a d m in is tra to rs and f a c u lty ; and computation of c ro s s ­
ta b u la tio n s among groups by c u rr e n t c a r e e r , p o s itio n s t a t u s and
expressed g oals.
P rin c ip a l Findings
P rin c ip a l fin d in g s from the study a re summarized here under
seven broad c a te g o rie s .
A.

Women A d m inistrators:
1.

Personal C h a r a c te r is ti c s

Women aged 50 to 54 y e ars comprised the l a r g e s t

group o f fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs and 40 to 44 y e a rs comprised the
l a r g e s t age group o f two-year a d m in is tr a to rs .
2.

Over 75 p e rc e n t o f both groups were Caucasian.

3.

S eventy -eigh t p o in t s i x p e rc e n t o f both groups

rep o rte d having no c h ild re n .
4.

The l a r g e s t percentage o f both groups rep o rted

being e i t h e r the youngest o r o ld e s t o f t h e i r s i b l i n g s .

112

5.
6.

The m ajo rity o f both groups were m arried.
F athers o f both groups were somewhat b e t t e r educated

than t h e i r mothers.
7.

S eventy-six p e rc e n t (51) of the f a t h e r s o f th e two-

and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs worked in p ro fessio n al o r w h ite - c o lla r
jo b s.
8.

Forty-two p o in t two p e rc en t of the two-year and

fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tr a to r s ' f a t h e r s worked as managers or p r o p r i e t o r s .
9.

Seventy-seven p o in t s i x p e rc en t (49) o f the two-

and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tr a to r s ' f a t h e r s worked as b l u e - c o ll a r or farm
workers.
10.

In both groups the p r in c ip a l occupation of t h e i r

mothers was homemaking.
11.

The m ajo rity of the spouses of both groups were

employed in p ro fe s sio n a l or w h ite - c o lla r p o s itio n s .
B.

Women A d m in istrato rs:
1.

Educational C h a r a c te r is ti c s

The g r e a t e s t d if f e r e n c e in educational a tta in m e n t

f o r a d m in is tra to rs occurred a t th e d o c to ra te l e v e l.

Over h a l f of

the fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs held the d o c to ra te degree w hile over
h a l f o f the two-year a d m in is tra to rs held the m a s te r 's degree.
2.

Over h a l f o f both groups received t h e i r h ig h e s t

degree in ed ucatio n.
3.

The m a jo rity o f fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tr a to rs receiv ed

t h e i r h ig h e s t degree from 1966 to 1975; th e m a jo rity o f two-year
a d m in is tra to rs rec eiv e d t h e i r h ig h e s t degree from 1971 to 1975.

113
4.

There was no major d iff e re n c e in the number o f people

in both groups who were working toward advanced degrees.
C.

Women A d m inistrators:
1.

P rofessio nal C h a r a c te r is tic s

The m ajo rity of both groups held appointments as

program d i r e c t o r s , f o r example:

d i r e c t o r o f stu d e n t a c t i v i t i e s and

d i r e c t o r o f f i n a n c ia l a id s .
2.

More than h a l f o f both groups had been in t h e i r

p re s e n t p o s itio n th re e y e ars o r l e s s .
3.

The average number of p ro fe ssio n a l f u l l - t i m e employ­

ment f o r fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra to rs was ten y e ars and f o r two-year
a d m in is tr a to r s nine y e a rs.
4.

A m ajo rity o f both groups advanced to t h e i r p re se n t

p o s itio n from o th e r a re as of a d m in istra tio n .
5.

A m in ority o f both groups had held f u l l - t i m e f a c u lty

appointments p r i o r to t h e i r p re s e n t p o s itio n .
6.

The m a jo rity o f both groups did not d e s ir e advance­

ment to a h ig her p o s itio n from the one they held w ithin t h e i r
c u rre n t i n s t i t u t i o n .
7.

The m a jo rity o f both groups in d ic a te d t h e i r p re s e n t

p o s itio n as being t h e i r h ig h e s t c a re e r goal.
D.

Women F aculty:
1.

Personal C h a r a c te r is tic s

Women aged 35 to 39 y e ars comprised the l a r g e s t age

group o f two-year f a c u l ty ; 50 to 54 y e ars comprised the l a r g e s t age
group o f fo u r- y e a r f a c u lty .
2.

Over 65 percent o f both groups were Caucasians.

114
3. Eighty-one poin t seven p ercen t of both groups
rep o rte d having a t l e a s t one c h ild .
4.

The l a r g e s t percentage of both groups rep o rted

being e i t h e r th e youngest o r o ld e s t o f t h e i r s i b l in g s .
5.

Fathers of both groups were somewhat b e t t e r educated

than t h e i r mothers.
6.

The g r e a t e s t m ajority o f both groups were m arried.

7.

Over 50 percent of the f a t h e r s o f both groups worked

in p ro fe ssio n a l o r w h ite - c o lla r p o s itio n s .
8.

Twenty-seven p o in t nine p e rc en t o f the two- and

fo u r-y e a r f a c u l ty f a t h e r s worked as managers o r p r o p r ie to r s .
9.

F o rty -th re e p o int th ree p e rc en t of the f a t h e r s of

both groups worked as b l u e - c o ll a r o r farm workers.
10.

The p rin c ip a l occupation o f the re sp o n d e n t's f a th e r s

was p ro fe ssio n a l or w h ite - c o lla r jo b s.
11.

The m ajo rity of th e spouses o f both groups were

employed in p ro fessio n al o r w h ite - c o lla r p o s itio n s .
E.

Women F aculty:
1.

Educational C h a r a c te r is ti c s

All two- and fo u r-y e a r f a c u l ty p a r t i c i p a n ts held

th e d o c to ra te degree.
2.

E ighty-nine p o in t seven p e rc e n t o f th e group as a

whole receiv ed t h e i r h ig h e s t degree in education.
3.

The m a jo rity o f th e fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty received t h e i r

h ig h e s t degree between 1961 and 1965; the m a jo rity o f the two-year
f a c u lty receiv ed t h e i r h ig h e s t degree between 1971 and 1975.

115
F.

Women Faculty:
1.

P ro fessio n al C h a r a c te r is tic s

The m ajo rity o f both groups spent over h a lf of

t h e i r time teaching.
2.

The m ajo rity o f the two-year f a c u lty had been in

t h e i r p re s e n t p o s itio n s s i x y e ars o r l e s s ; the m ajo rity o f the foury e a r fa c u lty had been in t h e i r p re s e n t p o s itio n s ten y ears o r l e s s .
3.

The average number o f f u l l - t i m e p ro fe ssio n a l employ­

ment fo r the fo u r-y e a r f a c u lty was 9.5 y e a rs and f o r the two-year
f a c u lty 1.5 y e a rs.
4.

A m a jo rity o f both groups advanced to t h e i r p re se n t

p o s itio n from pu b lic school teaching.
5.

The m a jo rity o f both groups did not d e s ir e advance­

ment to a higher p o s itio n from the one they held w ith in t h e i r
c u rr e n t i n s t i t u t i o n of employment.
6.

The m a jo rity of both groups in d ic a te d t h e i r p re s e n t

p o s itio n as being t h e i r h ig h e s t c a re e r goal.
G.

Women A d m inistrators and Faculty: Influences and
B a rrie rs in Own Career Development
1.

The m a jo rity of two- and fo u r-y e a r a d m in is tra tiv e

and f a c u lty groups in d ic a te d the follow ing as in flu e n c e s in t h e i r
own c a r e e r development:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.

Parental Support
Encouragement from College Faculty
Contact with Career Woman
Support from Husband
Support from Supervisor
Acceptance of Extra R e sp o n sib ility
P ro fe ssio n a l A sso ciations
U n iv e rs ity Committees.

116

2.

The m ajo rity of a l l groups did not in d ic a te b a r r i e r s

in t h e i r own c a re e r development.
Conclusions
The natu re o f the data and inform ation c o lle c te d n e c e s s a rily
produced a co nsiderable number o f r a t h e r s p e c i f i c fin d in g s .

The

conclusions which a re drawn here re p re se n ts an attem pt to bring
th ese fin d in g s from th e q u e stio n n a ire and in terv iew in to broader
focus.
1.

In view o f th e women a d m in istra to rs included in the

study, a p p lic a tio n o f A ffirm ative Action re g u la tio n s apparently was
more in theory than in p r a c t ic e .

Many of the female a d m in is tra to rs

and f a c u l t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y the Caucasian group, in d ic a te d t h a t Affirma­
t i v e Action did not serve as a p o s i t iv e in flu en ce in t h e i r l i v e s .
This a t t i t u d e was not r e f l e c t e d to the same e x te n t among m in ority
women, which would lead to the conclusion t h a t A ffirm ative Action
was more im portant f o r m inority women aid ing them to obtain t h e i r
p re s e n t p o s itio n .
Dearing supported the concept o f A ffirm ative Action when
he concluded t h a t i t can in c re a s e the pool o f persons a v a ila b le
f o r advancement and can in c re a se the v i s i b i l i t y o f women in the
p o o l. 202
2.

A number o f women from both m ino rity and non-m inority

groups expressed the view t h a t while they f e l t they possessed
202

Dearing, op. c i t . , Open Address, p. 3.

117

lea d e rsh ip a t t r i b u t e s , they had not been employed a t the level com­
mensurate with t h e i r t r a i n i n g and experience.

F u rth e r, sin ce the

m inority women in t h i s study reported holding p o s itio n s a t a lower
lev el than th e non-m inority women, i t would appear t h a t they are a t
an a d d itio n a l disadvantage.

However, th e re was evidence obtained

in th e p re se n t study to support t h i s assumption.
Epstein contended t h a t the emergence o f m inority women in
p a r t i c u l a r in to f u l l e q u a lity i s hindered by th e c u ltu r a l mores
and t r a d i t i o n s which in flu en ce the s t a t u s , r o l e s , and self-im age
. ,nrnan 203
o f women.
3.

Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , age was r e l a te d to the lev el o f admin­

i s t r a t i v e achievement by women in the study.

I t is q u ite l ik e l y

t h a t perhaps age i t s e l f was not th e key -factor so much as y e ars of
experience necessary to achieve the h igher lev e l p o s itio n s .
4.

Since a co n sid era b le number of women interview ed in

t h i s study expressed s a t i s f a c t i o n in combining t h e i r domestic and
p ro fessio n al r o l e s , and were a ls o s a t i s f i e d w ith t h e i r p re s e n t
p o s itio n s t a t u s , t h i s needs to be taken in to c o n sid e ra tio n as a
f a c t of l i f e when d isc u ssin g the problems o f women and t h e i r c a re e r
a s p i r a t i o n s , the fun ctio n in g and e f f e c tiv e n e s s of A ffirm ative Action
programs and s i m il a r problems o f women in the world of work.

In

the view o f t h i s re s e a r c h e r , however, t h i s does not ob viate the
importance o f in su rin g equal trea tm e n t f o r women in a l l types o f
employment.
203

E p stein , op. c i t . , "S tru c tu rin g Success f o r Women," p. 59.

118
Recommendations f o r Further Research
A g re a t deal remains to be done in r e l a t i o n to women ro le s
as f a c u lty members and a d m in istra to rs.
gested.

A long l i s t could be sug­

As one considers p o ssib le s tu d ie s which a re d i r e c t l y

r e la te d to t h i s study, however, the following are recommended fo r
c on sideration :
1.

A study o f personal and p rofessio nal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

women employed in p riv a te two-year and fo u r-y ea r higher education
i n s t i t u t i o n s in Michigan as a p a r a l le l to t h i s study.
2.

I t would be worthwhile to r e p l i c a t e the p resen t study in

o th er s t a t e s , r e g io n a lly or n a tio n a lly to determine the e x te n t of
agreement o f the fin din gs from t h i s study.
3.

An in-depth study is needed of the impact of A ffirm ative

Action on women's c a re e r a s p ir a tio n s and t h e i r r e a l i z a t i o n o f goals
f o r both m inority and non-minority groups.
4.

Given the v a ria tio n s in fin d in g s concerning how women

view c a re e r goals and a s p i r a t io n s , t h e i r views regarding competition
in th e p ro fessio n al job marketplace and s i m il a r c o n s id e ra tio n s ,
th e re is need f o r f u r t h e r research on women's a s p i r a t io n s , s e l f concept, s o c ie ta l and c u ltu r a l impact as they r e l a t e to women's
ro le s and exp ectatio n s with regard to achieving g r e a te r e q u a lity
in both th e a d m in istratio n and academic realms.

APPENDICES

SIGNIFICANT CHARACTERISTICS OF PROFESSIONAL WOMEN
EMPLOYED IN PUBLIC TWO-YEAR AND FOUR-YEAR HIGHER
EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN MICHIGAN
QUESTIONNAIRE
Code Number
Note: For t h i s study, th e term " ad m in istrato r" was defined as one
who was involved in decision-m aking, sup erv isio n o f s t a f f , and
general management fu n ctio n s in l i n e or s t a f f p o s itio n s .
Your response to each item should r e f l e c t your personal b e l i e f or
o p in ion . Please c i r c l e th e most a p p ro p ria te response according to
the follow ing:
1.
2.
3.
4.

SA—I s tro n g ly agree with the statem ent
A--I agree with the statem ent
D—I Hisagree with the statem ent
SD—I s tro n g ly d isa g re e with th e statem ent
PLEASE RESPOND TO ALL STATEMENTS

A. A small number o f a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s in h igh er education
a re held by women. I t has been suggested t h a t women do not have th e
necessary q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o r commitment f o r appointment to th ese
p o s itio n s .
The lack o f women a d m in is tra to rs has been most e f f e c te d by:
1.

Women lackin g a d m in is tra tiv e a b i l i t y

SA A D SD

2.

Women not being as commited to c a re e rs as men

SA A D SD

3.

Women not wanting t o work f o r another woman

SA A D SD

4.

Women p r e f e r r in g to s ta y home when they have
small c h ild re n

SA A D SD

5.

Women being too emotional to be good adminis­
tra to rs

SA A D SD

6.

Women not wanting p o s itio n s o f a u th o r i ty and
re sp o n sib ility

SA A D SD

7.

Women p r e f e r r in g teach in g and counseling r o le s

SA A D SD

8.

Married women not wanting to exceed t h e i r
husband's p o s itio n

SA A D SD

120

121
9. The b e l i e f by some people t h a t women a re not
good a d m in is tra to rs

SA A D SD

B.
Women have a c t iv e l y sought a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n s in higher
education but some did not o b tain them.
The d e c isio n not to appoint women to a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n s
has been most influenced by;
10.

Women a p p lic a n ts lacking educational q u a l i f i c a ­
tio n s

SA A D SD

11.

Women a p p lic a n ts lacking a d m in is tr a tiv e e x p e ri­
ence

SA A D SD

12.

S t a f f re lu c ta n c e to work f o r a woman

SA A D SD

13.

U n iv e rsity nepotism r u le s

SA A D SD

14.

Women a p p lic a n ts being too young

SA A D SD

15.

Women a p p lic a n ts being too old

SA A D SD

16.

Women a p p lic a n ts being s in g le

SA A D SD

17.

Women a p p lic a n ts being married

SA A D SD

18.

Sex

SA A D SD

19.

Race

SA A D SD

20.

P ast Involvement in c o n tro v e rs ia l campus
is s u e s

SA A D SD

21.

Other

SA A D SD

C. In some cases women have been o ffe re d a more advanced admi ni s t r ;
t i v e p o s itio n which they did not a c c e p t.
Women's d e c isio n s not to accep t a d m in is tra tiv e p o s itio n s
would most l i k e l y be influ enced by th e f a c t t h a t :
22.

The p o s itio n o ffe re d no o p p o rtu n ity f o r advance­
ment

SA A D SD

23.

P o s itio n would exceed husband's

SA A D SD

24.

The p o s itio n re q u ire d ex cessiv e t r a v e lin g

SA A D SD

25.

The p o s itio n l e f t l i t t l e f r e e time to be with
fam ily

SA A D SD

122

26.

They f e l t incapable o f handling th e c o n f l i c t
in h e re n t in th e p o s itio n

SA A D SD

27.

They p re fe rre d to remain in teachin g or
counseling

SA A D SD

28.

Other

SA A D SD

Da.

My own c a re e r development has been most influenced by :

29.

Parental support fo r educational and c a r e e r
goals

SA A D SD

30.

Encouragement from high school tea ch e rs

SA A D SD

31.

Encouragement from c o lle g e f a c u lty

SA A D SD

32.

C ontact with an a c t iv e c a r e e r woman

SA A D SD

33.

Support from husband f o r c a r e e r commitment

SA A D SD

34.

Support from colleague o r su p e rv iso r f o r
advancement

SA A D SD

35.

Acceptance o f e x tra r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

SA A D SD

36.

P a r t i c i p a t i o n in e x tra r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

SA A D SD

37.

P a r t ic ip a t io n in p ro fessio n al a s s o c ia tio n s

SA A D SD

38.

A ffirm a tiv e a c tio n p o l ic i e s a t your i n s t i t u t i o n

SA A D SD

39.

Geographic m o b ility

SA A D SD

40.

Other

SA A D SD

Db. The follow ing are sometimes considered b a r r i e r s to c a re e r
development.
In your own c a re e r development to what degree have these
served as b a rr i e rF I
41.

I n te rru p te d employment due to pregnancy o r
fam ily r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

SA

A D SD

42.

Terminated p o s itio n because husband obtained
employment elsewhere

SA

A D SD

43.

Inadequate c h ild c a re f a c i l i t i e s

SA

A D SD

123

44.

Im p o s s ib ility o f r e lo c a tio n

SA A D SD

45.

D i f f i c u l t y in o b tain in g resea rch g r a n t( s )

SA A D SD

46.

D i f f i c u l ty in publishing journ al a r t i c l e s

SA A D SD

47.

Assignment o f only la rg e undergraduate courses

SA A D SD

48.

O ffer o f only p a rt time appointment

SA A D SD

49.

No acceptance as pro fessio n al peer by colleagues

SA A D SD

50.

No o p p o rtu n ity to p a r t i c i p a t e on u n iv e r s ity
policy-making committees

SA A D SD

51.

Other

SA A D SD

124
BACKGROUND DATA
Please check the most a p p ro p ria te answer fo r each o f th e follow ing
item s. In d ic a te your response by w ritin g in the answer when c a lle d
fo r.
Professional H istory
1.

How many years have you been p r o f e s s io n a lly employed f u ll- tim e ?
(Enter a p p ro p ria te number) _____________________

2.

Are you p r e s e n tly p r o f e s s io n a lly employed f u l l- t i m e ?
( ) Yes
( ) No

3.

Howmany years o f a d m in is tr a tiv e o r su p e rv iso ry experience did
you have p r i o r to assuming your p re se n t p o s itio n ? (Enter
a p p o rp ria te number) ____________________

4.

What was your immediate previous p o sitio n ?

5.

How long did you hold your previous p o s itio n ?
( ) 0-3 years
( ) 4-6 years
( ) 7-9 years
( ) 10 o r more y ears

6.

What i s your p re s e n t p o sitio n ?
(
) I n s t r u c t o r (What academic d i s c i p l i n e ? ____________________ )
(
1Department Chairperson/Head (What d e p a r tm e n t? ____________)
(
) R e g is tra r
(
) L ibrary D ire c to r
(
) A d m inistrator (What t i t l e ? ________________________________)
(
) Combination assignment (Specify: _________________________ )
(
) Other (P lease sp e c ify : ____________________________________ )

7.
(
(
(
(
8.

How long have you held t h i s p o s itio n ?
) 0-3 years
) 4-6 years
) 7-9 years
) 10 o r more y e a rs

What i s th e o f f i c i a l rank o f your p o s itio n ?
) P ro ffe sso r
) A sso ciate p ro fe s so r
A s s is ta n t p ro fe s so r
In stru cto r
I I A d m in istrativ e appointment only
( ) Other (p le a s e sp e c ify : _________________

125
9.

10.

Do you hold ten u re a t your i n s t i t u t i o n ?
( ) Yes
( ) No
How
( )
( )
( )
( )

did you acq u ire your p re s e n t p o sitio n ?
Was r e c r u ite d
Made a p p lic a tio n t o t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n
Was promoted fromw ithin th e i n s t i t u t i o n
Other (P lease s p e c ify :_____________________________________ )

11. What per c e n t o f your time i s devoted to each o f th e follow ing?
(Total should equal 100%)
( ) A dm inistration
( ) Research
( ) Teaching
( ) Other (P lease sp e c ify : ___________________________________ )
12. Have you had periods o f non-employment sin c e you
h ig h e s t degree?
( ) Yes
( ) No

received your

13.

I f y e s, what was th e lo n g e s t period during which you were not
employed?
( ) 0-1 y e ar
( ) 2-3 y ears
( ) 3-4 y ears
( ) 5 or more y e ars

14.

What was your reason fo r leav in g your previous employment?
( ) P o s itio n
( ) Husband changed employment
( ) Family r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
( ) Pregnancy
( ) Other (P lease sp e c ify : _____________________

15.

P lease i n d ic a te th e number o f p ro fessio n al o rg a n iz a tio n s to which
you c u r r e n t ly belong.
( ) 7 o r more

16.

)

Have you held o f f i c e in any p ro fe s sio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n ?
(
Yes
( ) No

126

17.

In d ic a te which committee w ith in your c o lle g e o r u n iv e r s ity you
c u r r e n t ly serv e o r have served on.
Department:

Personnel
Curriculum
Welfare
Budget
Other

( )
( j

U n iv e rsity :

( )

Senate
Curriculum
Wei fa re
Budget
A ffirm ative
Action
Other

{ )
( )
( )
( )

18.

Have you attend ed any management or a d m in is tr a tiv e t r a i n in g
seminars?
( ) Yes
( ) No

19.

Have you p a r t i c i p a te d in an a d m in is tr a tiv e in te rn s h ip program?
( ) Yes
( ) No

20.

I f y e s, what was th e length o f th e in te r n s h ip ?
( ) 1-6 weeks
( ) 6 weeks-3 months
( ) 3-6 months
( ) Over 6 months

21.

Have you ever ap p lied f o r an a d m in is tr a tiv e p o sitio n ?
( ) Yes
( ) No

22.

I f "yes" to questio n 21, did you o b tain th e p o s itio n ?
( ) Yes
( ) No

23.

I f "no" to q u e stio n 21, p le a se in d ic a te why n o t.
( ) S a t i s f i e d with c u r r e n t p o s itio n
( ) Did not know o f vacancy when i t occurred
( ) Not q u a li f ie d by education
( ) Not q u a li f ie d by experience
( ) Other (P lease sp e c ify : __________________________________

24.

Do you have reason to b e lie v e you l a s t promotion o r job was
secured due to compliance with re c e n t l e g i s l a t i o n on women's

25.

Do you d e s i r e to advance to a higher p o s itio n w ith in your
in stitu tio n ?
Yes
No

127
26.

What professional p o sitio n is your highest career goal?

27.

Do you p erceive any c o n f l i c t between your fam ily r o l e , your
r o l e as a woman and your r o le as an a d m in istra to r?

28.

What do you perceive to be th e g r e a t e s t advantage o f being a
female in an a d m in is tr a tiv e p o sitio n ?

Personal H istory
Please check th e most a p p ro p ria te answer fo r each.
1.

What i s your age?
( ) 20-29
) 30-34
( ) 35-39
{ ) 40-44
( ) 45-49
( ) 50-54
( ) 55-

2.

What i s your race?
( ) Caucasian
( ) Black
( ) Other (P lease sp e c ify : _____________________________________)

3.

Specify th e number o f c h ild re n you have in each categ o ry .
(Enter th e number beside each categ o ry ; put 0 i f none.)
( ) Under 6 years
( ) 6-12 y ears
( ) 13-18 years
( ) Over 18 y ears

4.

Are you th e p rin c ip a l wage e a rn e r in your household?
( ) Yes
( ) No

128
5.

What i s your c u rr e n t m arital s ta tu s ?
( ) Married, l iv i n g with spouse
{ ) Separated
( } Divorced
( ) Widowed
( ) Never Married

6.

I f c u r r e n t ly m arried, how long?
( ) Less than 4 y ears
( ) For 5-10 years
( ) More than 10 years
( ) Not c u r r e n t ly married

7.

When did you f i r s t marry, i f ever?
( ) Before c o lle g e
( ) During c o lle g e
( ) A fte r c o lle g e , but b efore graduate school
( ) During m a s te r's program
( ) A fte r m a s te r's program
( ) During do cto ral program
( ) A fte r doctoral program

8.

I f c u r r e n t ly m arried , what i s th e h ig h e st lev el o f formal
education achieved by your husband?
( ) Elementary
( ) High School
( ) College Two-year
( ) College Four-year
( ) Received graduate degree
( ) Other (P lease sp e c ify : ____________________________________ )

9.

What was th e h ig h e s t lev el o f education achieved by your mother?
( ) Elementary
( ) High School
( ) College Two-year
( ) College Four-year
( ) Received graduate degree
( ) Other (P lease sp e c ify : ____________________________________ )

10.

What was th e h ig h e s t level o f education achieved by your fa th e r?
( ) Elementary
( ) High School
( j College Two-year
( ) College Four-year
( ) Received graduate degree
( ) Other (P lease s p e c ify : ____________________________________ )

11.

What i s your husband's c u rr e n t occupation? (Leave blank i f not
m arried) _______________________________________________________

129
12.

What was your f a t h e r 's p rin c ip a l occupation while you were
growing up?

13.

What was your m other's p rin c ip a l occupation while you were
growing up?

14.

Do you th in k your mother wanted to work while you were growing
up?
Yes
No

15.

Specify th e number o f s ib lin g s you had while growing up?
(E nter 0 i f none.)
( ) S iste rs
( ) Brothers

16.

Where were you in the b i r t h order in your family?
( ) Only
( ) Youngest
( ) Oldest
( ) Other (Please sp e c ify : ____________________________________ )

Educational H istory
P lease check the most a p p ro p ria te answer f o r each.
1.

What is th e h ig h est degree you now hold?
( ) BA o r BS
( ) MA o r MS
( ) Ed. S.
( ) Ph. D.
( ) Other (P lease sp e c ify :

2.

In what major academic f i e l d i s your h ig h e s t degree?

3.

Are you c u r r e n tly working toward another degree?
( ) Yes
( ) No
I f y e s , what degree? ____________________________

4.

What y e ar d id you re c e iv e you h ig h e s t degree?
( ) p r i o r to 1950
( ) 1951-1955
( j 1956-1960
( ) 1961-1965
( ) 1966-1970
( ) 1971-1975
( ) 1976 o r l a t e r

130
5.

At th e graduate l e v e l , did you re c e iv e fin a n c ia l support from
any o f th e follow ing? (Checkthose a p p ro p ria te )
( ) Fellowship
( ) Scholarship
( ) A s s is ta n ts h ip
( ) Sabbatical pay
( ) None
___________________________________ )
( ) Other (Please sp e c ify :

6.

Any

7.

I f you would l i k e a summary o f the r e s u l t s o f t h i s stud y, please
check here.

o th e r comments: ________________________________________

131
INTERVIEW GUIDE
1. The small number o f women a d m in is tra to rs i s a t t r i b u t e d to the
lack o f q u a li f ie d women, women's re lu c ta n c e to leave teaching
and counseling r o l e s , the d i s l i k e o f c o n f l i c t r o l e s ; to what
f a c t o r s do you a t t r i b u t e the sho rtag e o f women a d m in istra to rs?
2. What f a c t o r s do you fe e l may a c t as in c e n tiv e s and b a r r i e r s in
women's p ro fessio n al advancement?
3. Do you fee l women a re g e n e ra lly accepted as p ro fessio n al peers
by t h e i r colleagues?
Do you now f e e l / i n the p a st accepted as a co lleagu e?
4.

What r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s / d u t i e s do you enjoy most in a d m in istra tio n ?
Enjoy l e a s t ?

5. Have you ever a c t iv e l y sought a more advanced p o s itio n ?
I f you were not a p po inted, why not?
6.

What t a l e n t s , ed u ca tio n , ex p erien c e, personal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
do you fe e l would c o n tr ib u te to women's upward m o b ility in
h ig her education a d m in istra tio n ?
Would tend to i n h i b i t advancement?

7. What personal f a c t o r s do you fe e l c o n trib u te d to your own
upward m obility ? ( A b ility - P a s t experience-Hardwork-Mentor)
8.

What a re th e reasons women do no t seek the more advanced
a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s in higher education?
What f a c t o r s prevent you from seeking th e more advanced adminis­
t r a t i v e p o s itio n s ?

132
G-4606 Beecher Rd. F-6
F l i n t , Michigan 48504
November 8 , 1978
Dear

:

Although th e re have been some re c e n t s tu d ie s o f c o lle g e and u n iv e r s ity
a d m in is tra tio n in g e n e ra l, we know very l i t t l e about women who hold
th e decision-m aking appointments in public i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher
education in Michigan.
I am a docto ral candidate in higher education a t Michigan S ta te
U n iv e rsity . My experience as a resource person, f a c u l ty member and
a d m in is tra to r has led me to t h i s study.
The study focuses on s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f women a d m in istra ­
t o r s and f a c u l ty as r e l a te d to t h e i r employment and has f iv e purposes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

to determ ine how many women a re employed f u l l - t i m e as
f a c u lty o r a d m in is tra to rs in public i n s t i t u t i o n s o f higher
education in Michigan
to
determ ine the r a c ia l background o f th e s e women
to
determ ine the types of p o s itio n held
to
determ ine t h e i r p ro fessio n al a s p i r a t io n s
to
draw some comparisons with re s p e c t to t h e i r academic,
p e rs o n a l, and p ro fe ssio n a l v a ria b le s which a f f e c t t h e i r
c a re e r development

The p rin c ip a l reso u rce instrum ent i s a q u e s tio n n a ir e . Completion
w ill take some o f your tim e, but th e lack o f data concerning the r o le
o f p ro fessio n al women is q u i te e v id e n t and much needed. T herefo re,
your f u l l response would be an im portant c o n tr ib u tio n .
The code number appearing on th e q u e stio n n a ire i s only f o r th e purpose
o f follow -up where n ecessary . Your name and your i n s t i t u t i o n w ill not
be i d e n t i f i e d in any way in th e d i s s e r t a t i o n or any subsuquent published
m a te ria l.
A s e lf-a d d re s s e d stamped envelope i s enclosed f o r your convenience.
I hope you w ill fin d i t p o s s ib le to respond w ith in ten days from th e
time re c e iv e d . I f you have any q u e stio n s regarding th e q u e stio n n a ire
or th e study, p le a se fe e l f r e e to c o n ta c t me a t phone (313) 732-3563
or my a d v is o r, P ro fe sso r W alter Johnson, Dept, o f Higher Education
A d m in istra tio n , Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity , East Lansing, Michigan
48824, phone (517) 353-8768.
The population o f t h i s study i s q u ite sm a ll, th e r e f o r e your p a r t i c i p a ­
t io n i s v i t a l . Again, thank you f o r your c o o p e ra tio n .
S in c e re ly ,

{djrsrvrutS LUpvdoj
Bennie Woods
Enclosure

133

4606 Beecher F-6
F l i n t , Michigan 48504
November 15, 1978
D e a r __________________________ :
Two-weeks ago a q u e stio n n a ire was mailed to you designed to ob tain
some s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p ro fessio n al women in p ub lic
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f hig h er ed ucation.
As o f t h i s d a te , I have not received a response from you. I r e a l i z e
t h a t you perhaps h a v e n 't had time to complete i t in two weeks as
o r i g i n a l l y re q u e ste d . Since completion o f th e q u e stio n n a ire holds
r e le v a n t inform ation fo r my stu d y , I am s t i l l in te r e s te d in and in
need o f your p a r t i c i p a t i o n . This study i s being done in cooperation
with th e College of Education, Department o f Educational Adm inistra­
t i o n , Michigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity , where I am a do cto ral c a n d id a te .
In th e event th e q u e stio n n a ire se n t e a r l i e r i s not r e a d ily a v a i la b l e ,
I am enclosing ano ther copy. I f you have retu rn e d the q u e s tio n n a ire ,
p le a se d isre g a rd t h i s l e t t e r .
S in c e re ly ,

Bennie Woods

134

MICHIGAN PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Four-year pu b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s
1. C entral Michigan U n iv e rsity ............................... Mt. P leasant
2. E astern Michigan U n iv e rsity ............................... Y p sila n ti
3. F e r r i s S ta te College ...................................... . B i g Rapids
4 . Grand Valley S ta te College ............................... A llendale
5. Lake Superior S ta te College . . . . . . S au lt S te . Marie
6. Michigan S t a te U n iv e rsity
............................... East Lansing
7. Michigan S ta te U n iv e rsity
............................... F l i n t
8 . Michigan Technological U n iv e rsity . . . .
Houghton
9. Northern Michigan U n iv e rsity ............................... Marquette
10. Oakland U n iv e rsity .................................................. Rochester
......................... U niv ersity Center
11. Saginaw Valley S ta te College
12. The U n iv e rsity o f Michigan ............................... Ann Arbor
13. The U n iv e rsity o f Michigan ................................ Dearborn
14. The U n iv e rsity o f Michigan ................................ F lin t
15. Wayne S ta te U n iv e rs ity
....................................... D e tro it
Two-year pub lic i n s t i t u t i o n s
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.

Alpena Community College ....................................... Alpena
Bay De Noc Community C o l l e g e .......................... Escanaba
..................................................
. U n iv ersity Center
D elta College
Glen Oaks Community C o l l e g e ................................. C e n tre v ille
Gogebic Community College
................................. Ironwood
Grand Rapids Ju n io r College ................................. Grand Rapids
Henry Ford Community College
........................... Dearborn
Highland Park College
.......................................... Highland Park
Jackson Community College
................................. Jackson
Kalamazoo Community College . . . . . .
Kalamazoo
Kellogg Community College
................................. B a ttle Creek
K irtla n d Community College ................................. Roscommon
Lake Michigan College
.......................................... Benton Harbor
Lansing Community College
................................. Lansing
Macomb Community College ....................................... Warren
Mid-Michigan ................................................................ H arrison
Monroe County Community College
. . . .
Monroe
Montcalm Community College ................................. Sidney
C harles Steward Mott College
.......................... F l i n t
Muskegon Community College ................................. Muskegon
North C entral Michigan College ........................... Petoskey
Northwestern Michigan College ............................. Traverse C ity
Oakland Community College
................................. Bloomfield H ills
S t . C l a i r County Community College . . . P o rt Huron
S c h o o lc ra ft College
.............................................. Livonia
Southwestern Michigan College ........................... Dowagiac
Washtenaw Community C ollege . . . . . . Ann Arbor
Wayne County Community C ollege .......................... D e tro it
West Shore Community College
.......................... S c o t t v i l l e

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135

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Psychology Today 3 (November
-------- ----------

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Krohn, Barbara. "The Puzzling Case of th e Missing Ms."
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