INFORMATION TO USERS

This was produced from a copy of a document sent to us for microfilming. While the
most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document
have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material
submitted.
Ih e following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand
marking or notations which may appear on this reproduction.
1. The sign or “target” for pages apparently lacking from the document
photographed is “Missing Page(s)”. If it was possible to obtain the missing
page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages.
This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating
adjacent pages to assure you of complete continuity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark it is an
indication that the film inspector noticed either blurred copy because of
movement during exposure, or duplicate copy. Unless we meant to delete
copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed, you will find a
good image of the page in the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part of the material being photo­
graphed the photographer has followed a definite method in “sectioning”
the material. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand comer
of a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with
small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again—beginning
below the first row and continuing on until complete.
4. For any illustrations that cannot be reproduced satisfactorily by
xerography, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and
tipped into your xerographic copy. Requests can be made to our
Dissertations Customer Services Department.
5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases we
have filmed the best available copy.

Universe

M odfilm s
international
3 0 0 N. Z E E B R O A D . A N N A R B O R . Ml 4 8 1 0 6
18 B E D F O R D ROW. L O N D O N W C 1 R 4 E J . E N G L A N D

8020688

C o l e , R ic h a r d T h o m a s

A DESCRIPTION OF THE ESTABLISHMENT, OPERATION, AND
FUNCTION OF THE MICHIGAN EDUCATION SEMINARS

Michigan State University

University
Microfilms
International

Ph.D.

300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor. MI 48106

1980

18 Bedford Row, London WC1R 4EJ, England

Copyright 1980
by
Cole, Richard Thom as
All Rights Reserved

©

Copyright by
RICHARD T. COLE
1980

A DESCRIPTION OF THE ESTABLISHMENT, OPERATION,
AND FUNCTION OF THE MICHIGAN EDUCATION SEMINARS

By
Richard T. Cole

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e re quir em ents
f o r t h e degree o f
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department o f A d m in is tr a tio n and Higher Education

1980

ABSTRACT

A DESCRIPTION OF THE ESTABLISHMENT, OPERATION,
AND FUNCTION OF THE MICHIGAN EDUCATION SEMINARS
By
Richard T. Cole

The Purpose o f t h e Study
The primary purpose o f th e r e s e a r c h e r was t o d e s c r i b e th e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t , o p e r a t i o n , and f u n c t io n o f t h e Michigan Education
Seminars.

This seminar s e r i e s , sponsored by th e I n s t i t u t e f o r

Educational L e a d e rs h ip , Washington, D.C., was des igned by t h e
r e s e a r c h e r to engage M ic higan's t o p - l e v e l s t a t e e d u c a t io n a l l e a d e r s
in d i s c u s s i o n s o f a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s ,
and o t h e r p o l i c y i s s u e s t h a t could a f f e c t p u b l i c e d u c a tio n i n t h e
state.
Design o f t h e Study
The r e s e a r c h e r i d e n t i f i e d t h e p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l
l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e s t a t e e d u catio n p o l i c y community.

He e n l i s t e d

t h e commitment o f many o f t h e s e l e a d e r s t o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e
Michigan Education Seminars s e r i e s .

He rec orded and t r a n s c r i b e d t h e

s e s s i o n s and m ain tained a f i e l d d i a r y .

These d a t a were combined

with t h e r e s u l t s o f i n t e r v i e w s conducted a t t h e end o f th e f i r s t y e a r
o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .

The o v e r a l l a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e d a t a c o n s t i t u t e s

the b asis fo r the research conclusions.

R ich ard T. C o le

Fin ding s and Conclusions
1.

The d e c i s io n t o p r o h i b i t th e Michigan Education Seminars

from being used as a c o ns ensus -s eekin g body w i t h i n th e e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y community may have been a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r in f o s t e r i n g
open d i s c u s s i o n s among a d v e r s a r i e s .
2.

To p-lev el e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y makers from d i v e r s e i n t e r ­

e s t a r e a s were w i l l i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e seminar s e r i e s .
3.

E s t a b l i s h i n g t h e image o f t h e seminar c o o r d i n a t o r as a

n e u t r a l among th e v a r io u s segments o f t h e e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y commu­
n i t y was an im p o rta n t element o f t h e s e r i e s ' c r e d i b i l i t y .
4.

The

c a r e f u l p r o c e ss

s ucc es s o f th e seminar s e r i e s was r e l a t e d t o th e
used t o i d e n t i f y p o l i c y l e a d e r p a r t i c i p a n t s ,

and t o

i n s u r e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a l l segments o f th e e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y com­
munity.
5.

The power t o i n f l u e n c e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y i s not l i m i t e d

t o th o s e who hold o f f i c i a l
t u r e , nor i s i t

p o l i c y p o s i t i o n s w i th in th e power s t r u c ­

l i m i t e d t o th e o f f i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h i n t h i s

community.
6.

The seminar s e r i e s provided o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t o p - l e v e l

p o l i c y makers t o s o c i a l i z e with one a n o t h e r and t h i s s o c i a l i z a t i o n
was c o n s id e re d im p o rtan t by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s .
7.

The s e r i e s provided im port an t o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e

exchange o f in form ati on among p o l i c y makers w i t h i n th e same branches
and a g en cie s o f government.

R ich a rd T. C o le

8.

The s e r i e s provided l e a d e r s with a chance t o develop an

un d e r sta n d in g o f t h e t e c h n i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t formed t h e b a s i s
o f t h e o f f i c i a l p o l i c y p o s i t i o n s of t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

This work i s d e d i c a te d to th e people who c o n s t i t u t e th e edu­
c a t i o n a l policy-making process o f Michigan.
sionately a t t h e i r jobs.

Most o f them work p a s ­

I t i s t h i s p a s sio n t h a t o f t e n i g n i t e s i n t o

n e a r - v i o l e n t disa gr ee m en ts over t h e s t y l e o r method o f meeting the
e d u c a t i o n a l needs o f Michigan school c h i l d r e n .

I t i s a system in

which p o l i t i c a l and p h y s ic a l v io le n c e o c c a s i o n a l l y em er ge s--a system
in which grown men a r e s t i l l allowed t o f i g h t f o r ca u s e s.
I t i s a l s o a system in which e x c e l l e n c e p r e v a i l s .

I t i s th e

p o r t r a y a l o f t h e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y system in Michigan as " f r a g ­
mented," w it h o u t r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e e x c e l l e n c e o f i t s l e a d e r s h i p and
i t s d e d i c a t i o n t o common g o a l s , t h a t i s t h e g r e a t e s t f a u l t i n the
abundance o f l i t e r a t u r e .
I t i s t o t h e s e s e l f l e s s l e a d e r s t h a t t h i s work i s d e d i c a t e d .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Sam Moore—chairman, c h i e f a d v i s o r , c h e e r l e a d e r , and
f r i e n d — sa^d i t had t o be d i f f e r e n t .

B i l l Bridgeland and Ted Duane,

premier s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , whose p e r s i s t e n t demands and c o n s i s t e n t
devotion t o q u a l i t y a r e r e f l e c t e d in t h i s work.

The p r a c t i c a l ad v ice

and c o n s ta n t encouragement o f "Mayor" Gordon Thomas and Louise Sause
c o n s t i t u t e s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e s tu d y .

B a t t i n g cle a n - u p

was Louis Romano, whose m eti cu lo u s e d i t i n g kept t h e game from going
into extra innings.

The valu e o f h i s en thusiasm cannot be o v e r s t a t e d .

V i r g i n i a Wiseman has made t h e complex seem p o s s i b l e .

Susan

Cooley, my e d i t o r and t y p i s t , was among V i r g i n i a ' s most s i g n i f i c a n t
contributions.
Roger U l r i c h , th e l a t e Tony Stamm, John P o r t e r , B i l l F i t z ­
g e r a l d , and J e r r y Coomes have been g r e a t t e a c h e r s and very s u p p o r t i v e
employers th ro ugh out th e co u r se o f my formal academic t r a i n i n g .

To

them I am most g r a t e f u l .
The c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f Phil Kearney to my l e a r n i n g and my l i f e
c ontinue t o be s i g n i f i c a n t .

And t o t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational

Le ad ership and i t s l e a d e r , Sam Hal p e r i n , many thanks f o r th e oppor­
t u n i t y t o do t h i s .
C l i f f and Lois have always been t h e r e , and Pas has m ai ntai ne d
he r moral s u p p o rt through even th e to u g h e s t o f tim e s .

iv

Lest we f o r g e t , t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o t h i s
e f f o r t should n o t be over looked.

v

WARNING TO READER:

I t i s th e custom, i f not t h e o f f i c i a l p r a c t i c e , o f w r i t e r s in
every f i e l d t o " r e p a i r " q u o t a t i o n s .
to t a l k w e l l .

I t i s never easy f o r most people

By t h a t i s meant t h a t most q u o t e s , when t r a n s c r i b e d

v er ba tim, could c r e a t e th e impression t h a t th e person being quoted i s
inarticulate.
Tape t r a n s c r i p t s e x i s t f o r n e a r l y a l l quoted m a t e r i a l .
Despite t h i s f a c t , a l l q u o t a t i o n s have been given punctuation t h a t
r e l a y s em p h as is - -h o p ef u lly c o r r e c t l y .

S t u t t e r i n g , stammering, or

verbal s t r i k e - o u t s , o f c o u r s e , were e d i t e d .

C o r r e c t io n o f t e n s e s ,

p r e p o s i t i o n a l placement, and o t h e r kinds of im po rta nt s y n t a c t i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s were given t o a l l q u o t a t i o n s .
Although t h e r e s e a r c h e r attem pted t o be p r e c i s e in his
r e c o u n t, a l l quoted m a te r ia l should be seen as paraphrased t o t h i s
li m i t e d e x t e n t .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF T A B L E S ......................................................................................................

xi

Chapter
I.

II.

III.

INTRODUCTION

.........................................................................................

1

I n t r o d u c t i o n ....................................................................................
Purpose o f th e Study ..................................................................
C en tr al Questions o f th e Study .............................................
Nature o f th e S t u d y .......................................................................
Importance o f t h e Study t o Education ...............................
T h e o r e t i c a l Foundations o f t h e Study ...............................
P a r t i c u l a r i z i n g Versus G e n e r a l i z i n g A n a ly s is . . .
The Open Systems Framework .................................................
Examining a System as "Open" .............................................
A s s u m p t i o n s .........................................................................................
L i m i t a t i o n s of th e S t u d y ..........................................................
Procedures f o r Data A n a l y s i s .................................................
D e f i n i t i o n s o f Major Terms .....................................................
O v e r v i e w .............................................................................................

1
2
3
4
5
8
8
9
12
14
17
19
22
22

THE MICHIGAN EDUCATIONAL POLICY PROCESS: A
RESEARCH REVIEW ................................................................................

24

I n t r o d u c t i o n ....................................................................................
The E d u c a t i o n a l - P o l i t i c a l System i n Michigan . . . .
The Elements o f Michigan Educ ational P o l i c y Making .
The Executive Branch ..............................................................
The L e g i s l a t i v e Branch ..........................................................
Educational and Other I n t e r e s t Groups ...........................
Summary.................................................................................................

24
25
30
32
39
41
46

METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................

49

I n t r o d u c t i o n ....................................................................................
Fieldwork Overview .......................................................................
The Adequacy o f Fieldwork Methodology ...........................
The P o s i t i o n a l A n a ly s is ..............................................................
The Executive Branch ..............................................................
The L e g i s l a t i v e Branch ..........................................................

49
50
51
54
55
58

vii

Page

IV.

The Educational I n t e r e s t Groups ........................................
Other I n t e r e s t G r o u p s ..............................................................
The R eputational A n a l y s is —An O v e r v i e w ...........................
The R e p u ta ti o n a l Le ad ership
...........................................
S e l e c t i n g t h e P a r t i c i p a n t s .....................................................
The Execu tiv e Branch ..............................................................
The L e g i s l a t i v e Branch .........................................................
The Educ atio nal I n t e r e s t Groups ........................................
Other I n t e r e s t G r o u p s ..............................................................
The Exc lusion o f C e r t a i n P o l i c y Leaders .......................
Observing and Recording Formal S es sions ...........................
Reading Documentary M a t e r i a l s .................................................
The P o s t - F i r s t - Y e a r I n te r v i e w .................................................
S e l e c t i n g th e I n te rv ie w e e s .................................................
The I n t e r v i e w Format ..............................................................
E v a lu a ti n g th e Methodology .....................................................
Type o f Study ...............................................................................
The Role o f t h e R e s e a r c h e r .................................................
I n t e r v i e w s ....................................................................................
S o u r c e s ............................................................................................
S a m p l i n g ........................................................................................
Common Language ...........................................................................
I n t i m a c y ........................................................................................
P u b li c P r e s e n t a t i o n o f Data .................................................
Chapter Summary ...............................................................................

63
71
74
75
85
86
87
88
89
89
92
93
95
95
96
98
99
101
102
103
103
103
104
104
105

THE SEMINARS........................................................................................

106

I n t r o d u c t i o n ....................................................................................
Overview o f t h e Seminars .........................................................
Summary o f t h e Six S e m i n a r s .....................................................
Seminar 1: I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Key Education
I s s u e s —September 14, 1977, East Lansing,
M i c h i g a n ....................................................................................
Seminar 2: The Impact o f a C o n s t i t u t i o n a l
Convention on Michigan Educ ation—December 14,
1977, Lansin g, Michigan .....................................................
Seminar 3: The Impact o f Dec-lining Enr ollm en t—
March 6 , 1978, Lansing, Michigan ...............................
Seminar 4: Educational P o l i c y i n th e C a r t e r
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n —and a Federal Department o f
Edu cat io n; An Address by Dr. William P i e r c e ,
Execu tiv e Deputy, U.S. O f f i c e o f Ed ucat io n—
Apr il 14, 1978, East Lansing, M i c h i g a n ..................
Seminar 5: Michigan Education Seminar Meets t h e
Federal Government—June 2 , 1978, D e t r o i t ,
M i c h i g a n ....................................................................................

106
108
109

viii

109
Ill
116

126
129

Page

Seminar 6: Manpower T r a in in g and Education: The
CETA/YEDPA Program and th e Governor's
Recommendations on Declining En rollm en ts- June 5, 1978, East Lansing, M i c h i g a n ......................
C r i t e r i a f o r S e l e c t i n g th e Seminar f o r
I n t e r a c t i o n Analysis .............................................................
Session Attendance .................................................................
U n i v e r s a l i t y and Currency o f th e S ubj ec t ..................
Evidence o f I m p a c t .................................................................
A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Data .............................................................
Summary...........................................................................................
A Summary Analysis o f Some Major Exchanges Among
P a r t i c i p a n t s .................., ........................................................
R a t i o n a l e .......................................................................................
An Overview o f Session Number 3 .......................................
The Role of th e Department in th e Seminar ..................
The Role o f t h e Department o f Management and
Budget in th e S e m i n a r .........................................................
The L e g i s l a t o r s ' I n t e r e s t ....................................................
Educational I n t e r e s t Group Leaders Speak f o r
T h e ir A s s o c i a tio n s .............................................................
Educational I n t e r e s t Group R e p r e s e n ta ti v e s
Speak f o r T h e m s e l v e s .........................................................
Summary...........................................................................................
V.

132
139
140
146
147
147
148
149
149
150
151
160
162
167
171
173

ANALYSIS................................................................................................

177

I n t r o d u c t i o n ...................................................................................
S t r u c t u r e o f th e An alysis .........................................................
The S e l e c t i o n o f t h e Iss u es ....................................................
The Function of the C oo rdina tor and S t r a t e g i e s o f
E n l i s t i n g P a r t i c i p a n t s .........................................................
The P r o f i l e of Some o f th e P a r t i c i p a n t s ..........................
Function o f t h e S t e e r in g Committee ...................................
R e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e Education Commission of
th e S t a t e s ...................................................................................
R e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational
L e a d e r s h i p ...................................................................................
The P er ceived Purpose o f th e S e m i n a r s ...............................
The Question o f Consensus .........................................................
Impact Upon R e l a t i o n s h i p s .........................................................
The Major Iss ues ..........................................................................
The Promotion o f th e I s s u e s ....................................................
Major Weaknesses o f th e Seminars ........................................
The Question o f S u r v i v a l .........................................................
Summary o f t h e C h a p t e r .............................................................

177
183
187

ix

193
203
217
222
226
231
235
242
248
253
257
260
267

Page

............................

273

The Case in R e v i e w ...........................................................................
The Major Assumptions ..................................................................
The Environment o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars . .
The Pronouncements in t h e L i t e r a t u r e ....................................
The S t r a t e g i e s o f R e s e a r c h .........................................................
S e l e c t i n g t h e P opulati on ..............................................................
The S t e e r i n g Committee ..................................................................
Methodologies Employed ..................................................................
De sc rib ing t h e R e s e a r c h e r ' s Major Findings ......................
Recommendations f o r F u r th e r Study ........................................
Recommendations f o r Future Seminars ....................................
Research Extensions .......................................................................
E p i l o g u e .................................................................................................

273
275
279
281
283
284
285
286
287
295
297
302
308

APPENDICES..............................................................................................................

311

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A.

MICHIGAN EDUCATION SEMINARS PARTICIPANTS ................................

312

B.

THE RESEARCHER'S BACKGROUND

...........................................................

324

C.

SAMPLE MICHIGAN EDUCATION SEMINARS AGENDA

BIBLIOGRAPHY

............................

329

..........................................................................................................

332

x

LIST OF TABLES

Table

Page

1.

P a r t i c i p a n t Attendance

2.

Seminar P a r t i c i p a t i o n , by Category

.............................................

142

3.

Attendance a t t h e Seminar Ses si on on Declining
Enrollment, by Category ..................................................................

143

The O r i g in a l P a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e Michigan Education
S e m i n a r s .................................................................................................

313

O r igin a l P a r t i c i p a n t s in th e Michigan Education
Seminars, September 14, 1977, by S e c t o r ...............................

316

P a r t i c i p a n t s in th e Michigan Education Seminars,
September 1978

318

O r i g in a l S t e e r i n g Committee o f th e Michigan Education
S e m i n a r s .................................................................................................

323

Al.
A2.
A3.
A4.

........................................................................

xi

141

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Introduction
In 1977, t h e r e s e a r c h e r organ ize d a forum o f s t a t e - l e v e l
e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a c t o r s in Michigan; t h a t forum was t h e Michigan
Education Seminars.

The p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e forum were l e a d e r s from

th e e x e c u t i v e and l e g i s l a t i v e branches o f government, e d u c a t i o n a l
i n t e r e s t group l e a d e r s , and knowledgeable o u t s i d e r s .

The p r e s e n t

study i s a c a s e s tudy o f th e Michigan Education Seminars.

The

r e s e a r c h e r a c t e d as both f i e ld w o r k e r and c o o r d i n a t o r o f t h e Seminars
from 1977to 1979.
The seminar s e r i e s d e r iv e d from a program o f t h e I n s t i t u t e
f o r Educational Leadership (IEL) in Washington, D.C.

IEL provid e s

funding t o i n d i v i d u a l s in s e v e r a l s t a t e s to c r e a t e forums f o r educa­
t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n s a t th e s t a t e le v e l o f l e a d e r s h i p .

Although IEL

o f f e r s funding and program g u idance, s t a t e a s s o c i a t e s (sem inar c o o r ­
d i n a t o r s ) a r e f r e e t o c o n f i g u r e t h e i r s e r i e s a cco r d in g t o t h e i r own
p e r c e p t i o n s o f s t a t e needs and t h e i r perso nal a b i l i t i e s .

Th is i s

th e f i r s t major s tu d y o f th e IEL s t a t e seminars program in i t s
history.
The Michigan Education Seminars were o r ganiz ed a cco r d in g
t o a plan d e s c r i b e d l a t e r in t h i s document.

The for m ation o f th e

2

seminar s e r i e s was seen as having p o t e n t i a l p o s i t i v e consequences
f o r an e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y pro cess d e s c r i b e d as c o n f l i c t o r i e n t e d and
fragmented.

The importance t o e d u catio n o f t h i s study c e n t e r s on

i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r being r e p l i c a t e d a t v a r io u s l e v e l s o f ed uca ti onal
p o l i c y making in Michigan and o t h e r s t a t e s , and t o be p e r p e t u a te d a t
the s t a t e l evel in Michigan,
Purpose o f th e Study
This

i s a c t i o n r e s e a r c h in which th e primary purpose o f the

r e s e a r c h e r was to d e s c r i b e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , o p e r a t i o n , and f u n c tio n
o f th e Michigan Education Seminars.

The p r o j e c t r e p r e s e n t s an e f f o r t

t o e s t a b l i s h a forum f o r key e d u cati o n al p o l i c y makers and i n t e r e s t group l e a d e r s in t h e ed u c a ti o n a l community a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l in
Michigan.

The environment was designed t o c r e a t e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r

informal exchange between educati onal p o l i c y a d v e r s a r i e s .

A r e d u c tio n

in t h e c o n f l i c t - o r i e n t e d n a t u r e o f t h e s t a t e e d u catio n al p o l i c y process
as th e r e s u l t o f such a forum was p r e d i c t e d .
The Michigan Education Seminars framework provided th e
r e s e a r c h e r with a f i e l d s e t t i n g f o r th e o b s e r v a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l
interaction.

The

d e f i n i t i o n o f th e f i e l d o f study as t h e s t a t e edu­

c a t i o n a l p o l i c y community allowed t h e r e s e a r c h e r to provide a n a l y t i ­
c al i n s i g h t s t h a t extended beyond what occ urre d w i t h i n t h e seminar
s e s s i o n s a lo n e .
A secondary purpose o f th e r e s e a r c h e r was t o make s p e c i f i c
recommendations f o r th e r e p l i c a t i o n , e x t e n s i o n , and expansion o f
t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

Program m o d i f i c a t i o n s a r e a l s o

3

s ugg es ted .

A c e n t r a l q u es ti o n o f th e r e s e a r c h e r i s whether the

seminar s e r i e s w i l l s u r v i v e .
Central Questions o f t h e Study
Some o f th e major q u e s ti o n s t h a t th e study helps t o answer
were:
1.

Who a r e the l e a d e r s o f Michigan e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y

2.

To what e x t e n t can t h e l e a d e r s o f th e d i v e r s e elements

making?

o f th e e d u catio n al policy-making community be expected t o p a r t i c i p a t e
in an informal d i s c u s s io n forum such as t h a t designed f o r t h i s study?
3.

What a r e some o f th e f a c t o r s in th e s t a t e ' s e ducati onal

policy-making community t h a t can be manipulated t o i n f l u e n c e the
p a r t i c i p a t i o n of l e a d e r s o f th e e d u catio n al policy-making community
in th e seminar s e s s i o n s ?
4.

To what degree w i l l th e i n f o r m a l i t y o f the seminar

s e s s i o n s —as defined by a lac k o f d e c i s i o n making o r consensus
se ek ing— i n f l u e n c e the degree and s t y l e o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the
policy leaders?
5.

To what degree i s the perceived r o l e o f the c o o r d i n a t o r

o f th e seminar s e r i e s s i g n i f i c a n t in c o n t r o l l i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of
the s tu d y —and th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th e ed u c a ti o n a l p o li c y l e a d e r s ?
6.

To what degree w ill t h e concept o f th e seminar s e r i e s

be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e s t a t e e d u catio n al p o l i c y environment, and
what s t e p s can be taken by t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o encourage t h e s u r v i v a l
and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f th e seminar s e r i e s ?

4

Nature o f t h e Study
The r e s e a r c h e r conducted a f i e l d study o f t h e Michigan Educa­
t i o n Seminars between J u l y 1, 1977, and December 31, 1978.

Top -lev el

s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y l e a d e r s who took p a r t in t h e forums a r e
d e f i n e d , and th e formation and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e seminar s e r i e s a r e
described.

Also d e s c r i b e d and analyzed i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between

the Michigan Education Seminars and th e o v e r a r c h in g e d u c a t i o n a l
policy-making process o f th e s t a t e .
The conceptual framework o f t h e study was d e r i v e d from open
systems t h e o r y , in which t h e r e s e a r c h e r was r e q u i r e d t o view t h e s y s ­
tem under s tudy from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f i t s i n t e r a c t i o n s w ith and
dependencies upon o t h e r environments.

The r e s e a r c h e r d i d n o t a t te m p t

t o develop g e n e r a l i z e d t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s based on h i s f i n d i n g s .
R a th e r , he demonstrated th e u t i l i t y o f c e r t a i n e x i s t i n g g e n e r a l i z a ­
t i o n s as a p p l i e d t o t h i s r e s e a r c h .
systems t h e o r y was used.

To ach iev e t h i s o b j e c t i v e , open

The open systems framework i s d e s c r i b e d more

f u l l y l a t e r in t h i s c h a p t e r .
A f i e l d stu d y model was a p p l i e d in t h e r e s e a r c h .

The i n v e s ­

t i g a t o r used a combination o f s o c i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h and p r a c t i c a l
p o l i t i c s to e s t a b l i s h and an aly ze t h e Michigan Education Seminars.
A p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making process in Michigan was used t o i d e n t i f y seminar p a r t i c i ­
pants.

S t a t e l e a d e r s were i d e n t i f i e d by examining o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

c h a r t s and then by i n t e r v i e w in g s e l e c t e d l e a d e r s to determ ine who

5

was " re p u te d " t o have th e most i n f l u e n c e upon th e policy-making
process.
Importance o f t h e Study t o Education
The study c o n t a i n s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a procedure whereby a
forum o f t o p - l e v e l s t a t e e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y makers was convened f o r
p e r i o d i c d i s c u s s i o n s o f a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s .
This stu d y i s a u s efu l to ol f o r e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y makers and s t u ­
d e n ts o f t h e policy-making process who may draw from t h e e x p e r ie n c e s
o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r and, p e r h a p s , r e p l i c a t e th e Michigan Education
Seminars in a v a r i e t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y s e t t i n g s .
The e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y proc es s a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l i s c h a r ­
a c t e r i z e d by i n t e n s e co m p etitio n f o r i n c r e a s i n g l y l i m i t e d fu nd ing.
This i n t e n s e c o m p e titio n in e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making should n o t be
presumed t o be l i m i t e d t o s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i t i c s .

In t h i s

d i s s e r t a t i o n th e r e s e a r c h e r e s t a b l i s h e s and a n aly zes a process t h a t
has s i g n i f i c a n t p o t e n t i a l f o r reducing th e c o n f l i c t o r i e n t a t i o n o f
e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y p r o c e s s e s .

The r e s e a r c h desig n and implementation

s t r a t e g i e s may pr ovide im port ant c l u e s t o l o c a l and r e g i o n a l school
o f f i c i a l s se ek ing c o n f l i c t - r e s o l u t i o n mechanisms.
of process.

This i s a study

To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e process f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and

implementation o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars can be adopted
by a l o c a l school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , f o r example, and a p p l i e d t o a l o c a l l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y community, i t s valu e t o e d u c a t io n might be
significant.

6

A s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o r a union r e p r e s e n t a t i v e moving i n t o a new
community might f i n d th e p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s process
an extremely useful s h o r t c u t in c h a r t i n g th e ed uca ti onal p o l i c y pro­
ce ss in th e community.

The process o f p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l

a n a l y s i s used by th e r e s e a r c h e r t o i d e n t i f y seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s can
be seen as an a d a p ta ti o n o f the pro cess used by news r e p o r t e r s e n t e r ­
ing a new " b e a t . "

The u t i l i t y o f t h i s method i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

i t s a b i l i t y t o provide a sense o f th e network upon which th e r e p o r t e r
must depend f o r important s t o r i e s .

The p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l

a n a l y s i s process permits an in d i v i d u a l t o i d e n t i f y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
l e a d e r s and to rank o r d e r them in terms o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e importance
in in f lu e n c in g th e outcomes o f th e p o l i c y p r o c e s s .

The i d e n t i f i c a ­

t i o n o f th e s t r a t e g i e s o f p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s may
help ed uca tional p o l i c y a c t o r s to develop s y ste m a ti c procedures f o r
g e t t i n g a p o l i t i c a l "lay o f th e la n d ."
In a more s p e c i f i c s e n s e , th e f i n d i n g s of th e p o s i t i o n a l and
r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e Michigan s t a t e - l e v e l e d u catio n al p o lic y
process may be useful to a v a r i e t y o f e d u catio n al p o l i c y a c t o r s .
Leaders o f t h e s t a t e educational p o l i c y process in Michigan were
c a t e g o r i z e d accor ding t o the segment o f th e p o l i c y process th ey r e p ­
r e s e n t e d a t th e time th e study was conducted.

The s p e c i f i c p o l i c y

a c t o r s who occupy p o s i t i o n s of prominence in t h e s t a t e pro cess were
found t o be f a i r l y t r a n s i e n t .

However, much o f th e inform ation

provided w i ll be useful f o r i n d i v i d u a l s who want t o know more about
th e make-up o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e s t a t e e d u catio n al p o l i c y

7

process.

In t h e f u t u r e , t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e stu d y w i l l p r o v id e an

im p o rta n t h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e .
The r e s e a r c h e r c o n c e n t r a t e d on a n aly zin g c e r t a i n o v e r t
s t r a t e g i e s he used t o e s t a b l i s h t h e Michigan Education Seminars as a
n e u t r a l forum f o r e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers.

Among t h e most im port an t

o v e r t s t r a t e g i e s employed was t h e p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t a t t e m p t i n g t o
use t h e seminar s e r i e s as a co n s e n su s -s e e k in g o r a decisio n-m ak ing
forum.

The a n a l y s i s o f t h e e f f e c t o f t h i s d e c i s i o n on t h e seminar

s e r i e s may have r a m i f i c a t i o n s f o r ev ery l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
making.

The Michigan S t a t e Department o f E d u c atio n , f o r example,

c u r r e n t l y has more than t h i r t y a d v i s o r y committees.

The l e a d e r s h i p

o f t h i s s t a t e agency may be i n c l i n e d t o r e e v a l u a t e t h e e f f i c a c y o f
a tt e m p t i n g to use such forums f o r consensus s e e k i n g , as a r e s u l t o f
t h i s s tu dy.
The Michigan Education Seminars r e l i e d on t h e p h i l a n t h r o p y
and "guidance" o f t h e n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r Educ ationa l Le ad ersh ip
(IEL).

The r o l e o f th e IEL in a t t e m p t i n g to i n f l u e n c e seminar c o n t e n t

i s d i s c u s s e d l a t e r in t h i s s tu d y .

That d i s c u s s i o n might be h e l p f u l

to IEL and o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s se ek in g t o e s t a b l i s h forums 1n which
e d u c a t i o n a l o r o t h e r p o l i c i e s can be d i s c u s s e d .
F i n a l l y , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s s tu d y may i n f l u e n c e th e
o v e r a l l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making pr o c e ss a t th e
s t a t e le v e l in Michigan.

One o f t h e o r i g i n a l o b j e c t i v e s was t o

d i s c u s s s t r a t e g i e s t h e r e s e a r c h e r and o t h e r s used t o i n c r e a s e t h e
l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

To do

t h i s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r chose t o use a v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t means t o

8

" i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e " t h e seminar s e r i e s .

Among t h e s e means were th e

e s ta b l i s h m e n t o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p with th e n a t i o n a l l y based Education
Commission o f th e S t a t e s .
IV.

This r e l a t i o n s h i p i s d i s c u s s e d in Chapter

Also, s i n c e th e r e s e a r c h e r was not a p a r t o f any o f f i c i a l gov­

ernment agency or educational i n t e r e s t group, he was f o rc ed to r e s i g n
h i s d u t i e s as c o o r d i n a t o r o f th e s t a t e seminar s e r i e s t o f a c i l i t a t e
its institutionalization.

The s e l e c t i o n o f su c c e ss o rs having been

accomplished, th e l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e s u r v iv a l o f t h e seminar s e r i e s
can be b e t t e r e s t i m a t e d .
T h e o r e t i c a l Foundations o f th e Study
P a r t i c u l a r i z i n g Versus
G e n e r a li z i n g An alys is
The r e s e a r c h e r concluded t h a t a " p a r t i c u l a r i z i n g a n a l y ­
s i s " ( U p s e t , Trow, & Coleman, 1970) framework was s u i t a b l e both t o
t h i s form o f f ie ld w o rk and t o the o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e s t u d y .

In a

f ie ld w o rk model, th e r e s e a r c h e r d e f i n e s th e f i e l d , e n t e r s i t with
as much advance in form ation as p o s s i b l e , o b s e r v e s , r e c o r d s , ana­
l y z e s , and r e p o r t s .

For t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o have a "conceptual map"

(Lu tz, 1977) t o d e f i n e and c o n ta i n t h e f i e l d o f s tu d y , a s e t of
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s must be s t a t e d .

I f nothing e l s e , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s

r ev eal t h e b i a s e s o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r .

In t h i s s tu d y , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s

a r e p r e se n t e d in th e form of s p e c i f i c assumptions.

No a t te m p t was

made to draw a s e t of g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s from th e e x p e r ie n c e s d e s c r ib e d
in t h i s stu dy.

9

When a s o c i a l s e t t i n g i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f an
e x i s t i n g s e t o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , f ie ld w o r k becomes t o t h e s o c i a l
s c i e n c e s what f i e l d t e s t i n g i s to t h e b i o l o g i c a l o r p h y s ic a l s c i ­
ences .

When d e r iv e d from a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , o r a s e t o f g e n e r a l i z a ­

t i o n s , f ie ld w o rk can de m onst rate t h e v a l i d i t y o f c e r t a i n g e n e r a l i ­
zations.

L i p s e t e t a l . d e f in e d t h e unique i d e n t i t i e s o f t h e two

r e s e a r c h approaches:
When an e m p ir ic a l a n a l y s i s o f a s i n g l e c a s e i s t o be
c a r r i e d o u t , i t can be o f e i t h e r o f two g en er al typ es as
follows:
a . D e s c r i p t i o n and e x p l a n a t i o n o f a s i n g l e c a s e , t o
pr ovid e i n f o r m a t i o n con ce rn ing i t s p r e s e n t s t a t e , and t h e
dynamics through which i t c o n t i n u e s as i t does. This may
be c a l l e d p a r t i c u l a r i z i n g a n a l y s i s .
b. The development o f e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o r
th e o r y through t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s i n g l e c a s e , us in g i t
n o t t o d i s c o v e r an y th i n g about i t as a system , but as an
e m p i r i c a l b a s i s e i t h e r f o r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o r t h e o r y con­
s t r u c t i o n . This may be c a l l e d g e n e r a l i z i n g a n a l y s i s
(p. 169).
---------------The way t h a t general laws and p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r ie n c e s a r e
t r e a t e d p r o v id e s t h e b a s i s f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between p a r t i c u l a r i z ­
ing and g e n e r a l i z i n g a n a l y s i s .

P a r t i c u l a r i z i n g r e s e a r c h "uses p r e ­

v i o u s l y known g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s in o r d e r t o help make p a r t i c u l a r
s ta te m e n ts " ( L i p s e t e t a l . , 1970, p. 169).

These g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s

pr ovide a framework w i t h i n which t h e p erso nal o b s e r v a t i o n s o f th e
r e s e a r c h e r can be used.

In p a r t i c u l a r i z i n g a n a l y s i s , t h e g e n e r a l i z a ­

t i o n i s used t o a s s i s t th e a n a l y s t in making p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e m e n t s .
The Open Systems Framework
This i s a stu d y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l be h a v io r and o f i n d i v i d u a l s
w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n .

Major elem en ts o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e

10

i d e n t i f i e d , and an a t t e m p t i s then made t o i d e n t i f y and d e s c r i b e
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between them.

At t h e same t i m e , an a t t e m p t i s

made t o d e f i n e th e environment w i th in which t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o p e r ­
a t e s , and t o i d e n t i f y i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h e r e i n .
To be a p p r o p r i a t e to t h i s s t u d y , a concep tu al scheme was
r e q u i r e d t h a t met t h e dual c h a l l e n g e o f o p e r a t i o n and a n a l y s i s .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e concep tu al framework had t o be r e l e v a n t t o a fu n­
damental s i t u a t i o n f a c i n g both th e p o l i t i c a l o p e r a t i v e and th e
researcher.

The open systems framework a c h ie v e s t h i s u t i l i t y .

A

system i s d e s c r i b e d , in an open systems framework, from t h e s t a n d ­
p o i n t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f i t s elements with elements o f o t h e r
systems.

For an i n d i v i d u a l who i s enmeshed in a p o l i t i c a l system,

an open systems framework pr ov ides a l o g i c a l means o f viewing th e
system in which he works.

Lutz (1977) s uggested t h a t in t h e p o l i t i ­

cal world o f a school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , f o r example, t h e p o s s e s s i o n
o f a "conce ptual map" i s i n s tr u m e n ta l t o s u r v i v a l .

S i m i l a r l y , Mann

(1975) noted t h a t a c o n s i s t e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e i s
e s s e n t i a l t o a competent a d m i n i s t r a t o r .

Without an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

g u i d e , an a d m i n i s t r a t o r may be un ab le t o d i s c r i m i n a t e between r e l e v a n t
and i r r e l e v a n t e v e n t s .

Mann a l s o s uggested t h a t t h e s o c i a l a n a l y s t

must be s e n s i t i v e to
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of r e l e v a n c i e s —t o t h e s e l e c t i o n and v a l u a t i o n
o f o b j e c t s , e v e n t s , symbols, c o n d i t i o n s , and o t h e r a c t o r s .
These r e l e v a n c i e s a r e , so t o spea k, carved from a t o t a l num­
be r o f phenomena p r e s e n t in t h e o v e r a l l s e t t i n g . Of t h e phe­
nomena which might have been r e l e v a n t , t h e a c t o r s ( d e c i s i o n ­
makers) endow only some with s i g n i f i c a n c e (p. 57) .

11

An open systems a n a l y t i c a l framework i s a l s o u s e fu l from th e
standpoint of research.

A b a s i c problem in s tu dying o r g a n i z a t i o n s

i s t h a t t h e environments in which t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s e x i s t a r e them­
s e l v e s changing.

Open systems th e o r y accommodates to t h i s c o n d i t i o n

o f s h i f t i n g ground by emphasizing t h e n e c e s s i t y t o view a l l sy stem ic
phenomena in t h e c o n t e x t o f o t h e r r e l a t e d systems o r subsystems.
Landau (1961) sug ges ted t h a t t h e primary f u n c t i o n o f systems
t h e o r y i s t h a t i t s pragmatic n a t u r e p e r m its t h e a n a l y s t t o c a t e g o r i z e
data.

Because r e s e a r c h , l i k e t h e l i f e s i t u a t i o n s i t a t t e m p t s t o

r e p r e s e n t , i s i m p e r f e c t , and because a l l r e s e a r c h r e q u i r e s some form
o f compromise wit h i d e a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , one o f t e n t u r n s t o h e u r i s t i c s .
H e u r i s t i c t h e o r y i s " not so much a p r e d i c t i v e scheme as a method o f
a n a l y t i c a l l y s e p a r a t i n g and c a t e g o r i z i n g items in exp e r ie n c e " (Mann,
1975, p. v i i i ) .

Mann proposed t h a t a l l models o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

r e s e a r c h "should be t r e a t e d as h e u r i s t i c s and n o t as a l g o r it h m s :
They a r e h e l p f u l but unguaranteed a s s i s t s t o p r o b le m - s o lv in g , not
p r e c i s e s t e p s le a d in g in e x o r a b ly t o
Wirt (1972) d e f in e d such an

d e f i n i t i v e answers" (p. v i i i ) .
a n a l y t i c a l framework as

mechanisms
f o r c o n v e r t i n g in p u ts i n t o o u t p u t s , demands and s u p p o rts i n t o
p o l i c y . The conve rsion i s new as i t s machinery—e l e c t i o n s ,
r e f e r e n d a , b o a r d s , l e g i s l a t u r e s , a l l c a r e f u l l y a u t h o r iz e d by
some c h a r t e r o r c o n s t i t u t i o n —as well as i t s personnel —
e x e c u t i v e , j u d i c i a l and l e g i s l a t i v e . The personnel c o n s t a n t l y
i n t e r a c t in th e co nversi on p r o c e s s , e i t h e r w it h th o s e o u t s i d e
o r i n s i d e th e p o l i t i c a l system.
And t h e i r b e havior stems from
r o l e d e f i n i t i o n imposed by t h a t
system (p. 16).
Easton (1965) provided a " s i m p l i f i e d model o f a p o l i t i c a l
system" (p. 3 2).

This model p o r tr a y e d a p o l i t i c a l system as one

12

t h a t simply r e l a t e s with i t s g r e a t e r environment.

Demands and sup­

p o r ts a r e process ed th rough t h e system and r e s u l t in p o l i c y .

Systems

a n a l y s i s was an i m p o r ta n t conceptual t o o l in t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h .
Examining a System as "Open"
An examination of a p o l i t i c a l system as an open system
r e q u i r e s study o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e system under stu d y
and i t s l a r g e r environment.

According t o Wirt and K i r s t (1972),

"This o r i e n t a t i o n pr o v id e s a dynamic view o f t h e p o l i t i c a l system and
n o t th e s t a t i c one found in e a r l i e r , t r a d i t i o n a l , l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l
a n a l y s e s " (p. 13).
A p o l i t i c a l system i n t e r a c t s with i t s l a r g e r environment;
in so doing i t i n t e r a c t s with o t h e r p o l i t i c a l systems as w e l l .
t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n an environment i s formed.

In

An open systems frame­

work i m p l i e s , i f n o t r e q u i r e s , an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f
competing as well a s a l l i e d systems.
I t maximizes t h e chance f o r i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y exchanges by
f o cu sin g th e a t t e n t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t d i s c i p l i n e s upon a com­
mon o b j e c t in e x p e r i e n c e ( t h e p o l i t i c a l system) and upon th e
concept o f "system" a l s o common to o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s (Wirt &
K i r s t , 1972, p. 240).
The c o n s i s t e n c y between t h e study and t h e p r a c t i c e o f p o l i ­
t i c s i s t i e d t o th e open systems framework.

Such a framework

" f o r c e s t h e s t u d e n t t o see t h e p o l i t i c a l subsystem o p e r a t i n g con­
s t a n t l y in r e l a t i o n to o t h e r s o c i a l subsystems" (Wirt & K i r s t , 1972,
p. 240).
Modern systems r e s e a r c h can be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from e a r l i e r
systems r e s e a r c h on t h e b a s i s o f an open systems c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n .

13

Much e a r l y r e s e a r c h i n t o o r g a n i z a t i o n s was r e p r e s e n t e d by a c lo se d
system model.

The r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t systems must somehow be r e l a t e d

to t h e i r environments f orc ed t h e development o f open systems models.
The r e s e a r c h e r adopted th e open systems framework because i t
i l l u m i n a t e s exchanges between a system and i t s environment.

This

was c r u c i a l t o th e p r e s e n t s tu d y because t h e Michigan Education Semi­
nars i s so c l e a r l y dominated by i t s environment.

A f t e r examining

th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t develop between systems— t h e i r in t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s
—a p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e s u r v i v i a l o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n such as t h e Michigan
Education Seminars may be made.

Once t h i s p r i n c i p l e i s a c c e p t e d ,

s t r a t e g i c plan ning t o i n f l u e n c e th e l i k e l i h o o d o f system s u r v i v a l
can be und er taken .
I n s o f a r as i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n becomes a p r e r e q u i s i t e
f o r s t a b i l i t y , t h e d e t e r m i n a ti o n o f p o l i c y w i l l n e c e s s i t a t e
not only a b i a s toward g o a l s t h a t a r e con gru ent with th e
o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s own c h a r a c t e r , but a l s o t h e s e l e c t i o n o f
g o a l - p a t h s t h a t o f f e r maximum convergence as r e g a r d s th e
i n t e r e s t s o f o t h e r p a r t i e s (Emery & T r i s t , 1965, p. 2 9).
The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f s o c i a l f o r c e s as independent
v a r i a b l e s w i t h i n a p o l i t i c a l subsystem were t h e s u b j e c t s o f t h i s
s tu d y .

The r e s e a r c h e r was mainly i n t e r e s t e d in i d e n t i f y i n g and

d e s c r i b i n g f o r c e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e a p u b l i c p o l i c y subsystem and n o t
upon t h e p o l i c y t h a t i s d e r i v e d .

What d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h i s s tudy from

what Dye (1976) c a l l e d a " p o l i c y - d e t e r m i n a t i o n " approach i s t h e
emphasis on "pro c ess " r a t h e r than " p r o d u c t. "
Central t o open systems t h e o r y a n a l y s i s i s t h e co ncept o f
system s u r v i v a l o r p e r s i s t e n c e .

Through th e p r o c e ss o f im p o r t a t i o n

and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f energy i n t o a new and e x p o r t a b l e e n e r g y , a

14

system a c h iev es t h e c o n d i t i o n o f n e g a t i v e e n t r o p y .

Entropy i s a

term drawn from b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e , and r e f e r s t o t h e n a t u r a l tendency
o f a system t o d i e u n l e s s i t i s r e g e n e r a t e d .

A system i s c o n s id e re d

t o be n e g a n tr o p ic when i t a t t a i n s s t a b i l i t y —when i t r e v e r s e s or
holds in check t h e n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n o f e n t r o p y .
The view o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars as open, i n t e r ­
a c t i n g wit h i t s g r e a t e r environment, c r e a t e s a s t a t e t h a t ac co rding
t o Emery (1965) "m aintains t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e organism [ o r g a n i z a t i o n ]
f o r work, w i th o u t which a d a p t a b i l i t y , and hence s u r v i v a l , would be
im po ss ible" (p. 22) .
Assumptions
The p r e s e n t stu d y i s an a n a l y s i s o f th e key p o l i c y a c t o r s in
e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan.

Excepting th e j u d i c i a r y , i t

encompasses th e v a r i e t y o f " p o l i c y e l i t e s " w i t h i n and o u t s i d e o f
s t a t e government whose involvement i s c r i t i c a l t o th e d i s p o s i t i o n o f
e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y .

The predominant assumption o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r was

t h a t th e development o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars would be a
welcomed a d d i t i o n t o t h e m i l i e u o f e d u c a t io n p o l i t i c s a t t h e s t a t e
level.

A secondary assumption was t h a t th e seminars could o u t l i v e t h e

r e s e a r c h e r ' s te n u r e as c o o r d i n a t o r , and in t h i s s en se be i n s t i t u t i o n ­
alized.

In conducting t h e s t u d y , t h e r e s e a r c h e r a l s o made t h e f o l ­

lowing assumptions:
1.

The Michigan Education Seminars should be viewed from an

open systems framework.

A p o l i t i c a l system can be s t u d i e d w i t h i n t h e

c o n t e x t o f i t s c o n s t a n t exchanges with a l a r g e r s o c i a l o r d e r .

An

15

open systems a n a l y s i s e n t a i l s a w i l l i n g n e s s to d e s c r i b e th e l a r g e r
environment in which th e system o r subsystem under study i s c o n t a i n e d ,
or co n tro lled .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s e a r c h e r provided b a s ic in fo rm ation

on th e environment o f government, o f p o l i t i c s , and o f ed u c a t io n a l
p o l ic y making in Michigan.
2.

Another assumption was t h a t t h e goal d e s c r ib e d by Samuel

Halperin (1974), D i r e c t o r o f t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Le ad ers h ip ,
could be r e a l i z e d .

He contended t h a t " i t i s im port an t to develop

p a t t e r n s t h a t may help narrow the chasm between key a c t o r s whose
f u l l e s t t a l e n t s a r e neces sary in o r d e r f o r our ed u c a tio n a l system t o
o p e r a te with a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f success" (p. 189).
3.
policies.

Open exchanges between p o l i c y makers r e s u l t in b e t t e r
Besides assuming t h a t f u r t h e r i n g th e exchange between

p o l i c y makers i s , by d e f i n i t i o n , a us efu l endeavor, Moore (1971)
proposed t h a t th e o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e p o l i c y makers a r e
the d i r e c t b e n e f a c t o r s o f such exchanges:
In te ra gency co o p e r a tio n means tra n s c e n d i n g merely a community
c a l e n d a r . The open s h a r i n g o f r e s o u r c e s —both m a t e r ia l and
p e r s o n a l —and i n t i m a t e involvement o f a broad a r r a y o f i n t e r ­
e s t e d people in m u l t i p l e comnunity ag encie s a r e e s s e n t i a l
(P- 12).
The valu e o f i n te ra g e n c y s h a r in g was assumed in t h i s s tu d y , and p r o ­
vided t h e l in k ag e between th e o r y and p r a c t i c e .
4.

The environment o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars can

n u r t u r e open communication between p o l i c y makers with d i v e r g e n t views.
Duane (1977) suggested t h a t c u r r e n t p o l i t i c a l t r e n d s have in c r e a se d
p o l a r i t y among i n t e r e s t groups.

This p o l a r i t y has as much produced

as i t has been a byproduct o f modern " c o n f l i c t p o l i t i c s . "

I t was

16
assumed t h a t some o f t h e p o s i t i v e q u a l i t i e s o f a consensus e n v i r o n ­
ment could be o b t a in e d in t h e Michigan e d u c a t io n a l policy-making
m ili e u w i t h o u t e s t a b l i s h i n g consensus as e i t h e r an a t t a i n a b l e o r an
a c c e p t a b l e o b j e c t i v e o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .
5.

The Michigan Education Seminars can be examined a s a

system in a s t r u g g l e f o r s u r v i v a l .

The system i s assumed t o be

engaged in a c o n s t a n t s t r u g g l e t o o b t a i n a t l e a s t as much energy
( in f o r m a t io n exchange) from i t s l a r g e r environment as i t puts o u t .
Without such a balanc e o f t r a d e , i t i s p o s i t e d t h a t a system w i l l
d i e - - t h a t e n tr o p y e x i s t s .
6.

The e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n o f th e Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l

p o l i c y community can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as c o n f l i c t o r i e n t e d .

I t was

f u r t h e r assumed t h a t an e f f o r t t o reduce h o s t i l i t i e s o f i n t e r e s t
groups w i t h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e ss would be us efu l
as complex and comprehensive e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e s a r e interwoven
through a proc es s t h a t r e q u i r e s i n p u t from a wide range o f i n t e r e s t s .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e c r e a t i o n o f a forum t h a t a vo id s consensus s eek in g and
d e c i s i o n making has a t l e a s t two b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s .

F irs t, this

type of system b r in g s i n t o f u l l e r view p o l i c y concerns o f t h o s e
p a r t i e s most l i k e l y t o be a f f e c t e d by such p o l i c i e s .
i t s e r v e s as a h a r b i n g e r .

In t h i s s en se

Second, through an open d i s c u s s i o n o f a

f u l l range o f i s s u e s , common goals and i n t e r e s t s become more obvious .
7.

I t was assumed t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e Michigan Edu­

c a t i o n Seminars r e p r e s e n t t h e key p o l i c y makers in t h e s t a t e .
8.

I t was assumed t h a t a r e d u c t i o n in t h e c o n f l i c t - o r i e n t e d

n a t u r e of th e Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y community would r e s u l t in

17

s t a t e p o l i c y t h a t b e t t e r r e f l e c t s t h e needs o f th e v a r i e t y o f i n t e r ­
e s t s r e p r e s e n t e d in the p r o c e s s .
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study
The study o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars was l i m i t e d by
several f a c t o r s .

Among th e most s e v e re l i m i t a t i o n s was i t s cas e

stu dy d e s ig n .
To begin w i t h , in p a r t i c u l a r i z i n g a n a l y s i s t h e r e s e a r c h e r
a p p l i e s a s e r i e s o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o r assumptions to a given e x p e r i ­
enc e.

The purpose i s not t o pro vide but r a t h e r t o t e s t g e n e r a l i z a ­

t i o n s upon which as se ssm en ts o f r e a l i t y a r e made.

A particularizing

a n a l y s i s i s t h e r e f o r e l i m i t e d to a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t c a s e ;
hence e x t e n s io n o f th e f i n d i n g s t o o t h e r s e t t i n g s should be made
with c a u t i o n .
The r e s e a r c h method o f t h i s ca s e stu d y was a f u r t h e r l i m i ­
tation.

A f ie ld w o r k model was used t o a n a l y z e th e f o r m a t i o n , o p e r a ­

t i o n , and f u n c t i o n o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.
im p re c is e .

Fieldwork i s

I t r e l i e s u l t i m a t e l y on t h e ac cu rac y o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s

observations.

The e x t e n t t o which a r e s e a r c h e r becomes " invo lved " in

a system o r ca s e under study compromises h i s / h e r a b i l i t y t o pro v id e a
detached o r o b j e c t i v e account.

In t h e system under s t u d y , t h e

r e s e a r c h e r was f o rc e d t o be an i n t i m a t e o f many o f t h e f o r c e s t h a t
assembled to c r e a t e t h e system.

Without t h i s i n t i m a c y , t h e r e s e a r c h e r

would n o t have been p e r m it t e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o conduct t h e s tu d y .
He would n o t have been s e l e c t e d t o shape and c o o r d i n a t e t h e Michigan
Education Seminars.

Whereas t h e i n t i m a t e involvement o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r

18

in th e f i e l d under study c r e a t e d a c o n d i t i o n under which c o n s i d e r a b l e
" c o lo r " could be provided t h e a c c o u n t , t h e s u b j e c t i v e n a t u r e o f th e
a n a l y s i s must be co n s id e red a l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e s tu d y .
From t h e s ta n d p o i n t o f th e i n h e r e n t b e n e f i t s o f a study in
which v a r i a b l e s can be i s o l a t e d and manipulated t o measure s p e c i f i c
environmental e f f e c t , t h i s study was f u r t h e r l i m i t e d .

The r e s e a r c h e r

was o p e r a t i n g in an environment in which t h e v a r i e t y o f a c t o r s
involved and t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d r e q u i r e d t h a t many
c o n d i t i o n s simply be "allowed t o develop." C on ditions d evel op ing in
combinations made th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t
re la tio n s h ip s d i f f i c u l t to assess.
The study was i n f l u e n c e d , i f not c o n t r o l l e d , by p o l i t i c a l
exigencies.

The r e s e a r c h e r formed t h e Michigan Education Seminars in

a p o l i t i c a l environment c h a r a c t e r i z e d by temporary c o a l i t i o n s o f
i n d i v i d u a l s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

As a consequence, t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e

p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s could be a f a c t o r i n , b u t n o t t h e
s o l e d ete r m in a n t o f , t h e s e l e c t i o n o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e Michigan
Education Seminars.

D e s p ite t h e c a r e taken by t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o

i d e n t i f y " p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s " t h a t in f l u e n c e d t h e s e m in a r s '
c o n f i g u r a t i o n and c o n t r o l , t h e i r " p o l i t i c a l " f u n c t i o n l i m i t e d h i s
a b i l i t y t o adopt e x c l u s i v e l y s c i e n t i f i c methods.
The very n a t u r e o f t h e p r o c e ss o f i n t e r v i e w i n g e l i t e s runs
co u n te r t o th e s t r i c t d i s c i p l i n e t h a t accompanies i n t e r v i e w i n g .

No

s t r i c t p a t t e r n o f q u e s ti o n i n g could be followed in t h e formal i n t e r ­
viewing t h a t provided t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o r t h e
"p o st-first-y e a r" analysis.

No two i n t e r v i e w e e s could be approached

19

identically.

As a consequence, t h e i n a b i l i t y t o r e p o r t i n t e r v i e w

f in d i n g s in a b s o l u t e o r q u a n t i f i a b l e terms must be c o n s id e re d a
major l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e s tu d y .
Procedures f o r Data A n a ly s is
Procedures f o r d a t a a n a l y s i s a r e d e t a i l e d com pletely in
Chapter I I I —The Methodology Used in This Study.
o f t h i s procedure

A b r i e f overview

i s , however, w ar ran ted i n t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n .

The d a t a g e n e r a te d in t h i s r e s e a r c h came in as g r e a t a
v a r i e t y o f forms as did th e d a t a - c o l l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s .
i n clu d ed :

The d a ta

th e r e s e a r c h e r ' s i m p r e s s i o n s , w r i t t e n r e c o r d s o f formal

and informal i n t e r a c t i o n s between th e r e s e a r c h e r and members o f th e
s t a t e policy-making community and c e r t a i n o u t s i d e r s , au dio t a p e s o f
seminar and s t e e r i n g committee m e e t i n g s , newspaper ac co unts o f c e r ­
t a i n a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o t h e seminar s e r i e s , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t s
and o t h e r w r i t t e n documents o f s t a t e pol icy-m aking o r g a n i z a t i o n s ,
and t r a n s c r i p t s o f i n t e r v i e w s w it h t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y makers b e f o r e
and a f t e r th e f i r s t y e a r ' s seminar programs.
For each c a te g o r y o f d a t a a v a r i e t y o f a n a l y t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s ,
d e s c r i b e d by example in t h e f o llo w in g p a r a g r a p h s , were employed.
In ev ery c a s e , t h e method o f d a t a a n a l y s i s s e l e c t e d depended on th e
p a r t i c u l a r needs o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r .
Techniques o f d a ta a n a l y s i s used in t h i s stu d y accomplished a
v a r i e t y o f pu r p o ses .

In t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , i n f o r m a tio n tak en from

t h e a n a l y s i s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t s was used t o begin t h e pr o c e ss
o f s e l e c t i n g th e stu d y p a r t i c i p a n t s .

From t h i s l i s t o f t o p - l e v e l

20

ed u c a tio n a l p o l i c y l e a d e r s in Michigan was drawn a l i s t o f i n d i ­
v i d u a l s who p a r t i c i p a t e d in th e r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s .

The r e p u t a ­

t i o n a l a n a l y s i s provided th e r e s e a r c h e r with d ata t h a t would be
c r i t i c a l to th e conduct o f a comprehensive a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t a t e ' s
e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y environment.

I t a l s o served as th e b a s i s f o r t h e

s e l e c t i o n of seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s .
To c a r r y o u t th e r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , th e r e s e a r c h e r con­
ducted a s e r i e s o f i n t e r v i e w s with known s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t io n a l
p o l i c y a c t o r s , in which they were asked t o l i s t t h e "top te n " i n d i ­
v i d u a l s in t h e s t a t e who r e g u l a r l y in f l u e n c e d e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y .
The r e s e a r c h e r counted t h e t o t a l number o f tim es a p o l i c y a c t o r
named in any i n t e r v i e w had been named by a l l th e i n t e r v i e w e e s .

Any

a n a l y s i s o f t h i s n a t u r e must be tempered by th e knowledge o f t h e
researcher.

As d i s c u s s e d l a t e r in more d e t a i l , t h e r e a r e a number of

p o s s i b l e reasons why a s t a t e l e g i s l a t o r would name h i s l o c a l school
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t o such a l i s t o f s t a t e powers.

Mixed i n t o t h e numeri­

cal a n a l y s i s and th e perso na l im pre ssi ons o f th e r e s e a r c h e r f o r th e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y makers was a v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s .
Leaders were i d e n t i f i e d through informal c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i th o t h e r
p o l i c y makers who were n o t fo rm a ll y i n t e r v i e w e d .

The seminar s t e e r i n g

committee meeting audio t a p e s and t h e seminar s e s s i o n t a p e s f u r ­
nish ed s u g g e s t i o n s f o r o t h e r p o t e n t i a l seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s .
As a n o th e r example, t o a n a l y z e i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t occu r re d
between p a r t i c i p a n t s a t a s p e c i f i c seminar s e s s i o n , t h e r e s e a r c h e r
combined t h e f oll ow in g d a t a :

h i s per so nal r e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i ­

c a l environment t o which comments by p a r t i c i p a n t s r e l a t e d , w r i t t e n

21

tes tim ony provided by seminar s p e a k e r s , audio t a p e s and t r a n s c r i p t s
o f t h e seminar s e s s i o n , h i s minutes from th e seminar s e s s i o n , and
accounts provided in th e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r formal i n t e r v i e w s .

The

r e s e a r c h e r pr oc es sed t h e s e d a t a and p r e s e n t e d them in a f a s h i o n t h a t
w i l l help th e r e a d e r gain a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s i n t e r ­
p r e t a t i o n o f major elements o f th e study o f t h e Michigan Education
Seminars.
The a n a l y s i s c h a p t e r s o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n (Chapters IV and V)
a r e o r ganized a c cording t o c a t e g o r i e s t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r determined
would lend themselves to a c l e a r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a .

For

example, t h e d ata t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r judged r e l e v a n t t o an un der ­
s ta n d i n g o f t h e proc es s used t o s e l e c t seminar i s s u e s were a n a ly z e d .
Other c a t e g o r i e s o f a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e :

the function of the coordi­

n a t o r , a p r o f i l e o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e seminar s e r i e s , t h e
f u n c t i o n o f t h e seminar s t e e r i n g committee, and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t h e seminar s e r i e s and t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educ ational Leader­
s h i p and th e Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s .

Further a n a ly tic a l

c a t e g o r i e s depended h e a v i l y on th e r e s u l t s o f t h e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r
interview s.

These c a t e g o r i e s o f a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e :

t h e seminar

p a r t i c i p a n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e m i n a r s ' p u rpose, t h e e f f e c t o f t h e
seminar s e r i e s on r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e p o l i c y - a c t o r p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
t h e major i s s u e s o f t h e s e m in a r s , t h e use o f the seminars as a forum
through which p o l i c y a c t o r s could promote s p e c i f i c p r o p o s a l s , t h e
major weaknesses o f t h e seminar s e r i e s , and th e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e
seminars can be i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d i n some form.

22

The method o f a n a l y s i s , t h e r e f o r e , l i k e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f th e
seminar s e r i e s , was s i t u a t i o n s p e c i f i c .

In ever y cas e t h e r e s e a r c h e r

a ttem pted t o p r e s e n t , in a broad a r r a y o f forms, d a t a t h a t had been
c o l l e c t e d through a wide v a r i e t y o f methods.
D e f i n i t i o n s o f Major Terms
To e l i m i n a t e p o s s i b l e c onfusion o r m i s u n d e r s ta n d in g , t h e
f o ll o w in g major terms a r e d e f in e d in t h e c o n t e x t in which th e y a r e
used in t h i s stu dy.
E n tr o p y :

The tendency o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n t o d i e u n l e s s i t

is regenerated.
Open systems framework:

The view o f a system as i n t e r a c t ­

ing wit h o t h e r systems in i t s environment.
Particularizing research:

Research in which t h e u t i l i t y o f

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s i s demonstrated through t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a s p e ­
c i f i c case.
Positional a n a l y s is :

The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

l e a d e r s h i p through a review o f o f f i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t s .
R e p u t a t io n a l a n a l y s i s :

The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

l e a d e r s h i p through an asse ssm en t o f t h e o p in i o n s o f knowledgeable
sources.
Overvi ew
Chapter I c o n ta in e d a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e n a t u r e , p u r p o se , and
importance o f t h e s t u d y .

Also i n c lu d e d were a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n of

t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t io n s o f t h e s t u d y , r e s e a r c h assumptions and
l i m i t a t i o n s , d a t a - a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s , and d e f i n i t i o n s o f ter ms.

23

A review o f r e s e a r c h on th e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y pr o c e ss
in Michigan i s found in Chapter I I .
The study methodology i s d e t a i l e d in Chapter I I I .

The com­

monly used f ie ld w o rk te c h n i q u e s employed in con du cting t h e s tu d y a r e
e x p la in ed in d e t a i l .
In Ch apter s IV and V, t h e r e s e a r c h a n a l y s i s i s p r e s e n t e d .
The p r o c e ss f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g and o p e r a t i n g t h e seminar s e r i e s i s
discussed a t length.

Included a r e t h e r o l e o f t h e c o o r d i n a t o r , th e

f u n c t io n o f th e s t e e r i n g committee, and th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e
seminar s e r i e s and o t h e r systems.

Also c o n t a in e d in Chapter V i s

a review o f t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e s i x s u b j e c t se m i n a r s ; f o r one seminar
s e s s i o n , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s between p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e t h oro ughly a n aly zed .
Major f i n d i n g s o f t h e stu d y a r e d e s c r i b e d in Chapter VI.
The r e s e a r c h e r

poses f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a b l e q u e s t i o n s and pr ovide s

s p e c i f i c recommendations f o r e x t e n s i o n , e x p a n s io n , and m o d i f i c a t i o n
o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .

CHAPTER II
THE MICHIGAN EDUCATIONAL POLICY PROCESS:
A RESEARCH REVIEW
Introduction
Governmental u n i t s have p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s .

The c e n t r a l

p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n o f a governmental u n i t i s th e a r b i t r a t i o n o f d i s ­
pu tes a r i s i n g over t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f economic r e s o u r c e s .

The c h a r ­

a c t e r o f a p o l i t i c a l system can be de f in e d in terms o f t h e pro cess
i t uses t o r e s o l v e d i s p u t e s a r i s i n g o u t o f t h i s a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s .
Such d i s p u t e s a r e "imbedded in a network o f economic, p s y c h o lo g i­
c a l , s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l and moral components" (Mann, 1975, p. 13).
The co nver si on p r o c e s s e s t h a t det er m ine how t h e d i s p u t e s
over t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f economic r e s o u r c e s w i t h i n th e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l system in th e S t a t e o f Michigan a r e r e so lv e d must be
r e c o g n iz e d .

Once t h e s e p r o c e s s e s a r e r e c o g n iz e d , t h e f i n d i n g s o f

t h i s stu d y can have f u l l e r meaning.

More than simply e x p l a i n i n g

how t h e components o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l - p o l i t i c a l system compete f o r
l i m i t e d e d u c a tio n a l r e s o u r c e s , i t was assumed in t h i s s tu dy t h a t "the
co nversi on systems t h a t a l l o c a t e e d u c a tio n a l r e s o u r c e s a t t h e s t a t e
l e v e l do n o t o p e r a t e in d e p e n d e n tl y o f t h e i r environment" (Wirt &
K i r s t , 1975, p. 121).

The environment o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l - p o l i t i c a l

system, t h e r e f o r e , was p e r c e i v e d t o extend beyond t h e network o f
24

25

e d u c a to r s who r e p r e s e n t e d u c a t io n a l s p e c i a l - i n t e r e s t groups and i n t o
th e l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l aren a composed o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n s r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r f o r m u l a t i n g and implementing s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y .
Besides t h e body o f l i t e r a t u r e t h a t was reviewed t o develop
t h e co nce ptual framework o f t h i s study (Chapter I ) , r e s e a r c h r e l a t i n g
t o t h e s p e c i a l s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y environment was t h oro ughly
examined.

The l a t t e r body o f r e s e a r c h i s d i s c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p t e r .
The E d u c a t i o n a l - P o l i t i c a l System in Michigan

M ic higan's e d u c a t i o n a l - p o l i t i c a l system has been t h e s u b j e c t
o f numerous r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s .
sim ilar findings.

Many o f t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s have r e p o r t e d

One stream o f o b s e r v a t i o n s i n th e l i t e r a t u r e

r e l a t e d t o t h e c r i p p l i n g e f f e c t o f t h e i n f i g h t i n g t h a t occur s when
t h e f o r c e s c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e e d u c a t io n a l policy-making community in
Michigan compete f o r l i m i t e d economic r e s o u r c e s .
F r e q u e n t ly schoolmen themselves have made t h e i r own p r o ­
grams easy t o oppose. Far and away t h e most common handicap
t o i n c r e a s i n g school s u b s i d i e s in th e e i g h t s t a t e s ( in t h i s
stu dy) has been t h e i n a b i l i t y o f schoolmen t o work and speak
as one f o r a r e s p o n s i b l e gen er al school a i d b i l l .
Effective
o r g a n i z a t i o n i s e x c e p t i o n a l ( B a i l e y , F r o s t , Marsh, & Wood,
1970, p. 246).
Hines and a s s o c i a t e s (1974) suggested t h a t d i v i s i o n and
i n f i g h t i n g between e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups causes l e g i s l a t o r s t o
be f r u s t r a t e d with and u l t i m a t e l y h o s t i l e t o th e e n t i r e e d u c a t io n a l
community, and t h a t such d i v i s i o n and i n f i g h t i n g a r e a f e a t u r e o f
Michigan school p o l i t i c s .

They s t a t e d , "The i n a b i l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l

i n t e r e s t groups t o a l i g n over common i s s u e s can be r a t h e r common,

26

e s p e c i a l l y in times when demands a r e i n exces s o f e x i s t i n g revenues"
(p. 21).
Bridgeland and Duane (1978) d e s c rib e d th e e d u catio n al p o l i c y ­
making environment in Michigan as a " m u l t i - c o n f l i c t " a r e n a .

Hines

e t a l . s a i d t h a t t h e " s e p a r a t e groups come t o th e l e g i s l a t u r e more in
c o n f l i c t than in consensus" (p. 23) .

Wirt and K i r s t (1975) a s s e r t e d

t h a t t h i s " p a t t e r n has r e s u l t e d from th e i n a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n
to agree upon common goals" (p. 126).
Although " c o n f l i c t , d i s t r u s t and withdrawal o f s upp ort ar e
e v id e n t a t every l e v e l o f t h e educa tion system" (Mann, 1975, p. 1 ) ,
such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have been given p a r t i c u l a r emphasis in th e
Michigan s t a t e e du cati o nal p o l i c y r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e .

S c r ib n e r

and E n g l e r t (1977) observed t h a t "Michigan's i n t e n s e p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e
has importa nt im p l i c a t i o n s and perhaps f u t u r e consequences f o r edu­
c a t i o n a l p o licy " (p. 140).

M as ters, S a l i s b u r y , and E l i o t (1970)

d e s c ri b e d th e w a r l ik e c h a r a c t e r o f Michigan e d u cati o n al p o l i c y making
as being w ithou t a formula to achieve consensus:

"In Michigan t h e r e

i s no continuous o r r e g u l a r p a t t e r n o f decision-making" (p. 69).
Hines e t a l . a l s o n o t e d t h a t a tte m p ts t o put consensus-making groups
t o g e t h e r have f a i l e d .

"The Michigan s i t u a t i o n i s compounded because

the Educational Council, a l o o s e l y k n i t group composed o f r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i v e s from the i n t e r e s t groups, has been unable t o come to
agreement over most i s s u e s o f any consequence" (p. 21).
In d e s c r i b i n g th e Michigan e d u catio n al policy-making m il ie u
as "fr agm ented, " Iannaccone (1967) wrote:

27

The term, e ducational o l i g a r c h y , d e s c r i b e s t h e i r l e a d e r ­
s h i p . Michigan's fragmented s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r e s t s and i n t e r ­
a c t i o n p a t t e r n with tne l e g i s l a t u r e i n d i c a t e s a d i v i s i o n o f
c o n t r o l , a p u l l i n g a p a r t o f l e a d e r s , a s e p a r a t i o n along i n t e r ­
e s t l i n e s , but with s tr o n g s t a t e - w i d e a s s o c i a t i o n s competing
f o r th e l e g i s l a t i v e e a r (p. 288).
S c r ib n e r and E n g le r t con cu rre d, d e s c r i b i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e as
" p o l a riz e d " and " f i e r c e l y p a r t i s a n " (pp. 138, 140).
On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s review o f th e l i t e r a t u r e , i t might be
concluded t h a t in no s t a t e in th e n a t i o n could a p r o j e c t t h a t
r e q u i r e s th e involvement o f the b r o ad est a r r a y o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s in informal d i s c u s s i o n s on p o l i c y i s s u e s be more
ambitious than in Michigan.

The development o f t h e Michigan Education

Seminars appeared t o be h ig hly u n l i k e l y i f i t was t o be assumed t h a t
ed u c a ti o n a l p o lic y makers in c o n f l i c t would n o t be l i k e l y t o engage in
c i v i l d ialogu e in any form.

Perhaps f a c t o r s o t h e r than th e c o n f l i c t -

o r i e n t e d n a t u r e o f educational p o l i c y making could be more damaging
t o a policy-making community wanting t o develop s upport f o r programs
t h a t f u r t h e r i t s general good.

According to Dra ch ler (1977),

P o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s have noted a
and p r a c t i c e s t h a t l i m i t th e s c h o o l ' s
ing p u b lic s u p p o rt. Among them a r e :
t h a t they a r e not engaged in p o l i t i c s
involvement. . . (p. 138).

s e r i e s o f c o n d iti o n s
e f f e c t i v e n e s s in g a i n ­
(a) schoolmen pretend
and o f t e n deny t h e i r

Attempts to view ed u c a tio n a l p o l i c y making as a p o l i t i c a l
have beem promoted f o r s evera l decades in th e United S t a t e s .

Campbell

and Mazzoni (1976) observed t h a t :
The p o l i t i c i z a t i o n o f s t a t e school p o l i c y making i s d i s t r e s s ­
ing t o th o s e who hold t h a t ed ucation d e c i s i o n s should flow
from th e e x p e r t i s e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s , i n s t e a d o f from th e
i n fl u e n c e -b a s e d accommodations o f contending groups. From

28

t h e s ta n d p o i n t o f comprehensive planning and r a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n
making, a p l u r a l i s t i c system has some obvious drawbacks (p. 78).
Some i n d i v i d u a l s have argued t h a t ed u c a t io n a l p o l i c y making
should be f r e e from p o l i t i c s .

Education should be s c i e n t i f i c :

Decisions about who and what t o teach should be made on th e b a s i s
o f competencies and s o c i e t a l needs and not on th e b a s i s of p r a c t i ­
c a l, p o l i t i c a l considerations.

Wirt and K i r s t (1975) d e s c r i b e d t h e

o r i g i n of t h e a p o l i t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f educational p o l i c y
making:
At t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , a nationwide i n t e r l o c k i n g
d i r e c t o r a t e o f p r o g r e s s i v e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s i d e n t s , school
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , and law a l l i e s emerged from th e bu s in es s and
p r o f e s s i o n a l e l i t e s in th e c i t i e s . One o f t h e aims o f i t s
members was to emancipate t h e schoo ls from p a r t i s a n p o l i t i c s
and e x c e s s iv e d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . They saw p o l i t i c a l co r ru p ­
t i o n as t h e prime cause o f th e i n e f f i c i e n c y o f educa tion in
l a r g e c i t i e s . Indeed, many p o l i t i c i a n s a t t h a t time regarded
t h e s ch oo ls as a us efu l s upport f o r th e s p o i l s systems and
awarded j o b s and c o n t r a c t s as p o l i t i c a l fa v o rs (pp. 6 - 7 ) .
De spite t h e f a c t t h a t at te m p t s have been made and probably
w i ll continue t o be made t o l i m i t p a r t i s a n involvement in e d u c a t i o n ,
the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e ed u c a ti o n a l policy-making system
and t h e g r e a t e r p o l i t i c a l environment cannot be overlooked.

Boocock

(1976) suggested t h a t p o l i t i c s cannot be s e p a r a te d from c o n s id e r a ­
t i o n s o f e d u catio n al p o l i c y , and held t h a t i t i s "im p ort ant t o keep
in mind t h a t a l l changes in the e d u cati o n al system a r e shaped by
i d e o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s t h a t a r e themselves in f l u x . . ."
(p. 25).
Others have suggested t h a t not only i s th e world o f ed uca tion
p o l i c y making i n d i s t i n c t from t h e world o f p o l i t i c s , b u t , f u r t h e r ,
t h a t l i t t l e j u s t i f i c a t i o n e x i s t s f o r att e m p t in g t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e

29

t h e o r i e s o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s from o t h e r t h e o r i e s o f p o l i t i c a l
b e h a v io r .

P e t e r s o n and Williams (1972) s t a t e d ,

Only i f i t can be shown t h a t e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s a r e d i s ­
t i n c t i v e in some fundamental r e s p e c t from p o l i t i c s in o t h e r
p o l i c y a r e a s can one speak o f a p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y o f edu­
c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . . . . We doubt t h a t any such claim can
be s u b s t a n t i a t e d (p. 151).
In a comprehensive review o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on e d u c a ti o n a l
p o l i c y making, Lutz (1977) w r o t e , "These works were co nvin cing pro o f
t h a t p o l i t i c s in e d u c a ti o n p o l i c y making a r e e v i d e n t a t ev ery govern­
mental l e v e l and in every phase o f o p e r a t i o n " (p. 1 9).

He observed

t h a t a lt hough th e a p o l i t i c a l myth o f e d u c a t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o be so
much t h e s u b j e c t o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making, t h e general consensus
ap pea rs t o be t h a t such d i s c u s s i o n s a r e l a r g e l y o f a h i s t o r i c a l
nature.
The e x i s t e n c e o f t h e a p o l i t i c a l myth has been a s i g n i f i c a n t
f o r c e in d eter m in in g t h e s tu d y as well as t h e p r a c t i c e o f e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y making.

The tendency f o r r e s e a r c h e r s and p r a c t i t i o n e r s t o

view t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making system as a "closed sy ste m "—
f r e e s t a n d i n g , a l b e i t surrounded by p o l i t i c s — i s s t i l l e v i d e n t .
D r a c h le r (1977) sugges ted t h a t i t was t h e e n c o u n te r o f t h e s e "old
f o r c e s " w ith newer, more prag m at ic l e a d e r s in e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
making t h a t f i r s t shaped t h e modern p o l i t i c s o f urban e d u c a t i o n .
The l i t e r a t u r e o f p o l i t i c s and e d u c a ti o n i s t h e work o f a
small group o f p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s and e d u c a t o r s . . . .
The r e a l i t y o f t h e p o l i t i c s o f e d u c a ti o n in urban a r e a s
i s obvious t o l e g i s l a t o r s and c i t i z e n s a l i k e (p. 188).
In Michigan, t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e dependency o f e d u c a t i o n
upon p o l i t i c s i s n e a r l y u n i v e r s a l .

Thus, a t t e m p t i n g t o d e v i s e a

30

system designed t o minimize unnec es sa ry p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t w i t h i n
t h e system i s given a head s t a r t by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t debates
about t h e a p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e o f th e e d u c a tio n a l policy-making pr o c e ss
are not required.
In i t s p r e s e n t - d a y c o n t e x t , t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f ed u c a t io n a l
p o l i t i c s d i f f e r s l i t t l e from th e d e f i n i t i o n o f p o l i t i c s in g e n e r a l .
The s tu d y o f t r a d e o f f s , b a r g a i n s , and compromise o f p u b l i c d e c i s i o n s
i s as r e l e v a n t t o e d u c a tio n as i t i s t o any o t h e r s o c i a l d i s c i p l i n e .
The c e n t r a l theme in many i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i t i c s has t o do with who has how much power over whom
and how t h a t power ( o r i n f l u e n c e , a u t h o r i t y , o r c o n t r o l ) i s
e x e r c i s e d ( S c r i b n e r & E n g l e r t , 1977, p. 25).
The Elements o f Michigan Educational P o l i c y Making
In a n a ly z in g what has been s a i d about t h e v a r io u s elements o f
t h e Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e s s , some method o f c a t e ­
g o r i z i n g f i n d i n g s was r e q u i r e d .

M a s te r s , S a l i s b u r y , and E l i o t (1970)

d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l s i x groups t h a t p a r t i c i p a t e i n Michigan educa­
tional p o l i t i c s :

t h e Michigan A s s o c i a tio n o f School Boards, t h e

Michigan Education A s s o c i a t i o n , t h e Michigan F e d e r a t io n o f T e a c h e rs ,
t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f County School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and t h e
Michigan C o n s o lid ated P ar e n t-T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n .

(The County

School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s were p u t out o f b u s in e s s in t h e 1960s, with
the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f Michigan i n t e r m e d i a t e school d i s t r i c t s . )
Masters and h i s a s s o c i a t e s i d e n t i f i e d t h o s e s i x c a t e g o r i e s as i n f l u ­
encing th e o f f i c i a l e d u c a t i o n a l pr oc es s a t t h e time o f t h e i r s tu d y .
They d id n o t , however, ad d r e ss t h e f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e o f f i c i a l edu­
c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e s s t h a t make t h e f i n a l d e c i s i o n s .

31

In condu cting t h e i r c a s e s t u d i e s o f twelve e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making p r o c e s s e s , Campbell and Mazzoni (1976) used t h e f oll ow ing
groups o f r e s p o n d e n t s :

s t a t e board members, t h e c h i e f s t a t e school

o f f i c e r , s t a t e department of e d u c a tio n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t h e s t a t e
board o f e d u c a tio n l i a i s o n , t h e go v e r n o r, th e g o v e r n o r ' s education
s t a f f , t h e d i r e c t o r o f f i n a n c e o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , l e g i s l a t i v e educa­
t i o n o r f i n a n c e committee l e a d e r s , l e g i s l a t i v e house l e a d e r s , and
e d u c a t io n a l i n t e r e s t group l e a d e r s .

Included in e d u c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t

groups were t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n s and school board a s s o c i a t i o n s .
Iannaccone (1967) d e s c r i b e d th o s e groups "coming t o t h e
l e g i s l a t u r e " as in c lu d i n g t h e f o llo w i n g i n t e r e s t groups:

s t a t e w id e

a s s o c i a t i o n s o f school board members, t e a c h e r s o f t h e AFT and NEA
s t a t e a f f i l i a t e s , school a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and p a r e n t gr oups .

Wirt and

K i r s t (1975) i d e n t i f i e d t h e f o ll o w in g elements o f e d u c a ti o n a l c o a l i ­
tions:

s t a t e t e a c h e r s gr oups, school board a s s o c i a t i o n , school

a d m i n i s t r a t o r g r oups, b u s in e s s g r o u p s, and, in some s t a t e s , t h e
American A s s o c i a t i o n o f U n i v e r s i t y Women, t h e American Legion, and
o t h e r e s s e n t i a l l y none du ca tion al c i v i c groups.
For t h e purposes o f t h i s s t u d y , f o u r c a t e g o r i e s o f i n t e r e s t s
were c o n s id e r e d d i s t i n c t components o f t h e e d u c a tio n a l policy-making
pro cess in Michigan.

They a r e as f o llo w s :

(1) t h e e x e c u t i v e branch

o f s t a t e government, (2) t h e l e g i s l a t i v e branch o f s t a t e government,
f3) e d u c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t g roups, and (4) o t h e r i n t e r e s t groups t h a t
i n f l u e n c e s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making.

In t h e ensuing review o f

what o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s have w r i t t e n about t h e r o l e and i n f l u e n c e o f

32

t h e s e groups in Michigan, t h e l a s t two c a t e g o r i e s a r e combined because
o f th e p a u c i t y o f l i t e r a t u r e on o t h e r i n t e r e s t g roups' i n f l u e n c e on
e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y making.
The Executive Branch
The l e g i s l a t i v e a r en a i s t h e scene o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f i n t e r ­
a c t i o n s between major e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a c t o r s .

P a r t o f t h e reason

f o r t h i s i s t h a t t h e S t a t e Board o f Education i s seen as having l i t t l e
power to i n s t i t u t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y , and i t s r e s t r i c t e d i n f l u e n c e
on t h e l e g i s l a t u r e i s p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r what l i m i t e d s t a t u s
i t has w i t h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community in Michigan.
S c r ib n e r and E n g l e r t (1977) c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e S t a t e Board o f
Education as being
empowered with l i t t l e a u t h o r i t y and r e l e g a t e d t o a c o n s t i t u ­
t i o n a l l y de f in e d p o s i t i o n . . . . The board i s p r i m a r i l y
dependent on p r o f e s s i o n a l s w i t h i n t h e Michigan Department of
Educ ation; t h i s dependence e f f e c t i v e l y i s o l a t e s th e board
from e x t e r n a l p a r t i s a n i n f l u e n c e s , i n f l u e n c e s p r e s e n t i n t h e
e x e c u ti v e and l e g i s l a t i v e branches o f Michigan government
(pp. 141-42).
Wirt and K i r s t (1975) d e f i n e d t h e Michigan S t a t e Board o f
Education as p r i m a r i l y a " l e g i t i m a t i n g agency f o r broad p o l i c i e s ;
i t l e a v e s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n to t h e s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and t h e s t a t e
department" (p. 118).
The a u t h o r i t y o f t h e S t a t e Board of Education i s g e n e r a l l y
acknowledged t o be minimal.

Campbell and Mazzoni (1976) concluded

t h a t th e board has " l i t t l e a u t h o r i t y as p o l i c y makers" and t h a t i t
i s so "overshadowed by t h e c h i e f s t a t e school o f f i c e r in th e agency
arena as to r a i s e doubt about what p o l i c y making f u n c t i o n s , i f any,

33

they performed beyond t h e one t h a t was l e g a l l y r e q u i r e d [ p o l i c y
enactment]" (p. 6 9).

Other w r i t e r s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e S t a t e

Board o f Education i s g e n e r a l l y a weak f o r c e in s t a t e e d u c a tio n a l
p o l i c y making, t h a t i t i s g e n e r a l l y ignored i f not rebuked by th e
l e g i s l a t u r e , and t h a t i t i s overshadowed by t h e s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
Wirt and K i r s t (1975) observed:
The b o a r d ' s problem i s t h a t l o c a l i s m makes enforcement
o f i t s p o l i c i e s very d i f f i c u l t . Local d i s t r i c t s can f i n d
ways t o circumvent t h e s t a t e because t h e board u s u a l l y has
no c l e a r enforcement s t r a t e g i e s . F u r t h e r , s t a t e boards
have l i t t l e tim e o r i n c l i n a t i o n t o check c a r e f u l l y on l o c a l
compliance, but must r e l y on s t a f f work o f t h e s t a t e s u p e r ­
i n t e n d e n t . . . (p. 118).
Campbell and Mazzoni (1976) found some m e r i t in t h e co ntinued
e x i s t e n c e o f a s t a t e board o f e d u c a ti o n in t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making community in Michigan and el se w h ere .

The a u t h o r s suggested

t h a t , however t e n t a t i v e th ey a r e ,
s t a t e boards g iv e some c o n t i n u i t y t o t h e l i f e o f an o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n , t h a t th ey pr ovid e e d u c a tio n some i n s u l a t i o n f o r d a y - t o day p o l i t i c s , and t h a t th e y s e r v e as u s e fu l l i n k s t o t h e
b r oader community and t h a t they lend some p r e s t i g e t o t h e
i n s t i t u t i o n (p. 73) .
The S t a t e Department o f Education has been c o n s id e re d a
somewhat autonomous and a r a t h e r i n f l u e n t i a l f o r c e in e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y making in t h e s t a t e .

As d i s t i n c t from t h e r o l e o f t h e c h i e f

s t a t e school o f f i c e r —th e head o f t h e de partm ent—which w i l l be
covered l a t e r , t h e s t a t e de par tm ent has "become i n c r e a s i n g l y p o l i t i ­
c i z e d and p l u r a l i s t i c " (p. 7 8).

S c r ib n e r and E n g l e r t (1977) sugges ted

t h a t t h e autonomy o f t h e s t a t e department i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s t a t u ­
t o r y a u t h o r i t y and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y v e s te d in i t :

34

Although th ey have evinced c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t in edu­
c a t i o n , t h e e x e c u t i v e and l e g i s l a t i v e branches p o s s e s s l i t t l e
i n f l u e n c e —beyond c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s —
over t h e on-going o p e r a t i o n s o f th e s t a t e de pa rtm en t o f edu­
c a t i o n (p. 136).
S c r i b n e r and E n g l e r t a l s o p o s i t e d t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y two
f o r c e s shape t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s w i t h i n t h e dep ar tm en t.
The c l e a r e s t and perhaps t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t f o r c e i s
t h e prowess and t h e s t y l e o f t h e s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f pub­
l i c i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e d e p a r t m e n t ' s l e a d e r ; and s e c o n d a r i l y . . .
th e almost c o n t r a d i c t o r y v a l u e o r i e n t a t i o n s t h a t d i v i d e d e p a r t ­
ment pe rsonnel i n t o two g r oups, which t h e r e s e a r c h e r s have
c a t e g o r i z e d as t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s and r e f o r m e r s .
Not a m o n o li th , u n i t e d in purpose and a c t i o n , t h e d e p a r t ­
ment i s d iv id e d i n t e r n a l l y between t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s , who
f a v o r a s e r v i c e r o l e f o r t h e d ep ar tm en t, and t h e r e f o r m e r s ,
mainly newer p e r s o n n e l , who e n v i s i o n t h e depar tm en t as cham­
pion o f e d u c a t i o n a l e q u a l i t y i n Michigan (p. 147).
Although some time has passed s i n c e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e two
elements o f t h e depar tm en t has been a n a l y z e d , t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e
depa rtmen t has remained v i r t u a l l y unchanged over th e p a s t t e n y e a r s . *
Much o f t h e p e r c e iv e d i n f l u e n c e o f t h e S t a t e Department o f
Education comes from i t s a b i l i t y t o a l l o c a t e r e s o u r c e s w i t h i n t h e
e d u c a tio n a l-p o litic a l process.

Wirt and K i r s t (1975) viewed th e

s t a t e agency as t h e " l o c u s o f a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f a u t h o r i t a ­
t i v e a l l o c a t i o n o f v a l u e s , whether i n f o r m u l a t i n g s p e c i f i c r e g u l a ­
t i o n s , a l l o c a t i n g f e d e r a l funds t o l o c a l d i s t r i c t s , o r e x e c u t in g t h e
more d e t a i l e d d e c i s i o n s o f t h e s t a t e board" (p. 118).
Some r e s e a r c h e r s have viewed t h e s t a t e dep ar tm en t as being a b l e
t o d i s t r i b u t e r e s o u r c e s with almost t o t a l d i s r e g a r d f o r normal p o l i t i ­
cal c o n t i n g e n c i e s and cons equences.

S c r i b n e r and E n g l e r t (1977) s t a t e d ,

*A new permanent s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was a p p o i n te d in Jan ua ry
1980.

35

The Michigan Department o f Education i s a b l e t o a l l o c a t e
f e d e r a l funds u n f e t t e r e d by o b l i g a t i o n s t o s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t
gro up s, p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , and s t a t e o f f i c i a l s . This f r e e ­
dom i s t h e consequence o f a unique combination o f e v e n ts and
circu m st an ce s (p. 136).
These a u th o r s emphasized t h a t th e Michigan Department o f Education i s
a b l e to o p e r a t e , a t l e a s t t o some d e g r e e , in dependently o f t r a d i t i o n a l
p o l i t i c a l consequences:
The Michigan Department o f Education a l l o c a t e s f e d e r a l a id
undaunted by ed uca ti onal i n t e r e s t gr ou ps, s t a t e government,
o r th e p u b l i c . Education i n t e r e s t groups wrangle unceas­
i n g l y as to t h e purpose and g o a l s ; f i e r c e l y p a r t i s a n p o l i ­
t i c s d iv i d e and conquer the l e g i s l a t u r e and t h e e x e c u t iv e
branches o f s t a t e government; and f e d e r a l aid i s s u e s do
not impel Michigan c i t i z e n s to a c t i o n (p. 131).
Bridgeland and Duane (1979) suggested t h a t t h e g o v e r n o r ' s
s t a f f recognized th e r e l a t i v e independence o f t h e departm ent, and
se v e r a l o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s have observed t h e ap p a r e n t i n s u l a t i o n
between t h e department and th e educati on al i n t e r e s t groups and impor­
tan t others.

Bridgeland and Duane warned t h a t t h e department must

tak e a c t i v e s t e p s to guard a g a i n s t f u r t h e r i n s u l a t i o n , and, in f a c t ,
to remove some o f th e e x i s t i n g i n s u l a t i o n .

Campbell and Mazzoni

(1976) came to s i m i l a r c o nclus io ns in t h e i r study o f t h e Michigan
educati onal system.

They recommended

t h a t t h e s t a t e e d u catio n al agency a c t i v e l y encourage the
v a r io u s ed u c a tio n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s to i d e n t i f y t h e i r common
i n t e r e s t s , i n t e r e s t s t h a t could s e r v e as the b a s i s f o r
i s s u e o r i e n t e d c o a l i t i o n s among t h e s e groups in p u r s u i t o f
improved e ducation (p. 79).
Whereas s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s have suggested t h a t th e d e p a r t ­
ment i t s e l f may be da nger ously f a r removed from normal c o n tin g e n c ie s
of r ein fo r cem en t and punishment, t h e s u g g e s t io n t h a t t h e same d i s ­
ta n c e e x i s t s between t h e c h i e f s t a t e school o f f i c e r (CSSO) and his

36

personnel was n o t found in the l i t e r a t u r e .

In f a c t , t h e l i t e r a t u r e

c o n t a in e d th e o p p o s i t e s e n t i m e n t - - t h a t t h e CSSO o ccupies a p o s i t i o n
o f n e a r l y unchallenged a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n h i s d ep ar tm en t, i f n o t w i t h i n
t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community in Michigan.
The l i t e r a t u r e on t h e Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making com­
munity c o n s i s t e n t l y s t a t e d t h a t a t any giv en moment no s i n g l e i n d i ­
vid ual (with t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t io n o f t h e gover nor) can have more
i n f l u e n c e on th e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y o f t h e s t a t e than can t h e CSSO.
In f a c t , in Michigan, t h e CSSO i s seen as r e l a t i v e l y independent o f
and never s u b s e r v i e n t t o t h e governo r.

The CSSO does n o t s i t in on

c a b i n e t m ee tin g s , alth o u g h occupying a s t a t u t o r y p o s i t i o n on t h e s t a t e
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e board and on t h e s t a t e municipal f i n a n c e commission (a
f a c t n o t noted in t h e l i t e r a t u r e ) .
Wirt and K i r s t (1975) sugges ted t h a t th e i n f l u e n c e o f any CSSO
depends on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s .

Among t h e s e a r e " th e s t r e n g t h and a c t i v ­

ism o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , governor and t h e s t a t e board.
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s have dominated weak boar ds.

Some s t a t e

Others have been l i m i t e d

s e v e r e l y by a s t r o n g l e g i s l a t u r e " (p. 118).
The impotence o f t h e s t a t e board in Michigan has been c l e a r l y
established.

Perhaps no s i n g l e impression should be made more c l e a r :

The m a n i p u la t io n and c o n t r o l o f th e S t a t e Board o f Education in Michi­
gan do not seem to be a g r e a t c h a l l e n g e o r o f g r e a t v a l u e .

But t h e

CSSO's domination o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , which has a l s o undergone major
p a r t i s a n s h i f t s dur in g h i s t e n u r e , i s even more f a s c i n a t i n g .

Campbell

and Mazzoni (1976) noted t h a t "some a ppointed c h i e f s , n o t a b l y th o s e
in Texas and Michigan, have achieved c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e with t h e

37

l e g i s l a t u r e " (p. 71) .

S c r ib n e r and E n g l e r t (1977) went f u r t h e r :

"The major a r c h i t e c t o f t h e p a t t e r n s o f a l l o c a t i o n i n Michigan i s
th e s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n " (p. 131).

Whether

t h e power o f t h e c h i e f s t a t e school o f f i c e r in Michigan i s s t a t u t o r y
and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l , o r t h e r e s u l t o f a system t h a t has become so
fragmented by competing groups as t o make him t h e on ly i n d i v i d u a l
with enough power i n t a c t t o c o n t r o l i m p o rta n t d e c i s i o n s , i s a ques­
t i o n t h a t i s not answered in th e l i t e r a t u r e .
Another f a c t o r t o be c o n s id e re d as a p o s s i b l e cause o f th e
high s t a t u s o f t h e CSSO in Michigan p e r t a i n s t o h i s unique c h a r i s ­
m a tic q u a l i t i e s .

When he was app ointed in 1970, John W. P o r t e r

became t h e f i r s t blac k CSSO in t h e n e a r l y 200 -ye ar h i s t o r y o f th e
nation.

He i s s a i d t o be th e only employee in Michigan h i s t o r y t o

have r i s e n through t h e ranks from a j a n i t o r i a l p o s i t i o n ( t h e lowest
p o s i t i o n in s t a t e s e r v i c e ) t o t h e t o p a u t h o r i t y l e v e l .

This r i s e

o c c u r re d over a p e r io d o f j u s t f i f t e e n y e a r s .
There i s s u b s t a n t i a l reas on t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e power o f t h e
c u r r e n t CSSO w i l l not be e a s i l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o h i s s u c c e s s o r . *

The

l i t e r a t u r e , much o f which pred ated t h e c u r r e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s r i s e
t o power, c o n ta in e d r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e about t h e c h a r i s m a t i c (or p e r ­
haps le g e n d a r y ) n a t u r e o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
One o f t h e key p o i n t s t o c o n s id e r i n a s s e s s i n g t h e r e l a t i v e
s t r e n g t h o f t h e CSSO in e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s i s t h e s t r e n g t h and
* A f t e r t h i s l i t e r a t u r e review was w r i t t e n , P o r t e r r e s i g n e d
h i s p o s i t i o n as CSSO and was s u b s e q u e n tl y a ppointed p r e s i d e n t o f
E a ste r n Michigan U n i v e r s i t y , Y p s i l a n t i .

38

a u t h o r i t y o f t h e governor in t h e s e m a t t e r s .

I t might be e a s y t o

assume t h a t when a CSSO dominates th e ed u c a tio n a l policy-making p r o ­
c e s s in t h e e x e c u t i v e branch i t i s a s ig n o f weakness in t h e c h i e f
executive.

The importance o f r e c o g n i z in g what t h e l i t e r a t u r e seems

to ob scure in t h i s r eg ar d should n o t be underplayed.

The l i t e r a t u r e

on t h e p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e s s in Michigan p o r t r a y s
th e g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e a s being only mode ra tely involved in t h e educa­
t i o n a l p o l i c y p r o c e s s , and as a consequence i m p l ie s t h a t t h e g o v e r n o r ' s
a u t h o r i t y in t h e s e m a t t e r s i s a l s o l i m i t e d .

Campbell and Mazzoni

(1976) sugges ted t h a t "governors a r e drawn i n t o e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y
making p a r t i c u l a r l y as school f in a n c e becomes a more v i s i b l e s t a t e
i s s u e " (p. 71).
In t h e i r 1973 s tu d y , Campbell and Mazzoni noted t h a t M ichigan 's
governor was o r i e n t e d toward a c h i e v i n g f i s c a l reform in school f in a n c e
and t a x a t i o n .

As t h e i s s u e o f school f in a n c e became r e s o l v e d ,

l a r g e l y as a r e s u l t o f t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e governor and h i s a i d e s ,
th e governor and h i s a i d e s became l e s s v i s i b l e as e d u c a tio n a l powers.
Wirt and K i r s t (1975) s t a t e d t h a t , in g e n e r a l , t h e r o l e o f t h e governor
in e d u c a tio n "has been r e s t r i c t e d by th e l a c k o f e x p e r t s t a f f in h is
o f f i c e wit h a viewpoint independent from a s t a t e departm ent o f edu­
c a t i o n " (p. 116).
But whereas in Michigan th e g o v e r n o r ' s e d u c a ti o n a l s t a f f
may be d i s h e a r t e n e d by a r e l a t i v e i n a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l a depar tment
o f ed ucati on t h a t i s viewed as an autonomous agency w i t h i n t h e execu­
t i v e b ranch, th e governor h i m s e l f may be s a t i s f i e d w ith t h i s r e l a ­
tionship.

Nowhere in t h e l i t e r a t u r e was t h e r e found eviden ce t h a t

39

any r e s e a r c h e r has i n te rv i e w e d t h e c u r r e n t govern or, o r one o f
his predecessors, to e s ta b lis h or re fu te t h i s suggestion.

Cer­

t a i n l y h i s a p p a r e n t d e c i s i o n t o l i m i t h i s o f f i c i a l i n t e r n a l educa­
t i o n s t a f f t o one h i g h - l e v e l a n a l y s t su g g ests t h a t th e governor i s
no t d i s s a t i s f i e d wit h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p he s h a r e s with t h e c u r r e n t
superintendent.
There has been l i m i t e d d i s c u s s i o n in t h e l i t e r a t u r e on the
r o l e o f t h e governor in t h e e d u c a tio n a l policy-making p r o c e s s .

There

has been even l e s s d i s c u s s i o n on th e r o l e o f t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e .
The f o ll o w in g s e c t i o n c o n t a i n s a review o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on th e
l a t t e r topic.
The L e g i s l a t i v e Branch
Campbell and Mazzoni (1976) observed t h a t
th e governors and t h e l e g i s l a t u r e . . . m ain ta in c o n t r o l o f
s t a t e f i n a n c i a l a id l e g i s l a t i o n . I s s u e s o f e d u c a t io n a l
f in a n c e i n e v i t a b l y involve judgments on e d u c a t io n a l programs
and p r i o r i t i e s , so t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s e p a r a t i o n o f edu­
c a t i o n from general s t a t e government can never extend t o many
im port an t e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e s (pp. 114-15).
Few s t u d i e s have emphasized t h e r o l e o f l e g i s l a t i v e o f f i c i a l s
as p o l i c y i n i t i a t o r s o r res p o n d en ts in Michigan.

The l e g i s l a t i v e

pr o c e ss i s acknowledged t o be t h e primary e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y ­
making p r o c e ss in Michigan ( S c r i b n e r & E n g l e r t , 1977).

As a

r e s u l t , r e s e a r c h devoted to an e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e proce ss o f
i n f l u e n c i n g s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making has been aimed a t th e
e x e c u t i v e ag e n c ie s and pr edominantly a t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t
groups.

40

Whereas no r e s e a r c h e r on t h e Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making process has d i r e c t e d h i s / h e r a t t e n t i o n t o a d i s s e c t i o n o f t h e
f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , much can be i n f e r r e d ab out th e l e g i s ­
l a t u r e from a review o f th e r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e .
The dra m atic s h i f t t h a t oc curre d dur in g t h e 1960s from r u r a l Republican t o urban-Democratic domination has been s a i d t o have been
a f a c t o r in th e s h i f t o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f power among t h e i n t e r e s t
groups ( S c r i b n e r & E n g l e r t , 1977; Wirt & K i r s t , 1975).
A r e l a t i v e independence from t r a d i t i o n a l labor-management
c o a l i t i o n s in t h e l e g i s l a t u r e on e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e s has been a t t r i b ­
uted t o s e v e r a l f a c t o r s .

S c r i b n e r and E n g l e r t suggested t h a t a l l

l e g i s l a t o r s i d e n t i f y t o some deg re e with school board members as
f e l lo w e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s .

Iannaccone (1967) s t a t e d t h a t co m p etitio n

between th e two major t e a c h e r groups has se rved t o fragment t h e power
of l a b o r .

Wirt and K i r s t mentioned t h a t t h e l e g i s l a t u r e i s l a r g e l y

u nres po nsive to e d u c a tio n i s s u e s because l a b o r and management r a r e l y
combine t o e x e r t t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e i n f l u e n c e on t h e l e g i s l a t i v e p r o c e s s .
Several r e s e a r c h e r s noted t h a t t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , in g e n e r a l ,
i s unrespons ive t o t h e s t a t e school board (Campbell & Mazzoni, 1976;
S c r ib n e r & E n g l e r t , 1977; Wirt & K i r s t , 1975).

S c r i b n e r and E n g l e r t

observed t h a t t h e CSSO i s perhaps t h e s in g l e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c o n s i s ­
t e n t f o r c e upon th e l e g i s l a t u r e .
Although t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r such a s i t u a t i o n was seen t o e x i s t ,
t h e l e g i s l a t u r e i s r a r e l y d r iv e n t o a c t i o n on e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e s by
th e govern or ( S c r i b n e r & E n g l e r t , 1977).

41

Although t h e l e g i s l a t u r e i s o f t e n viewed as t h e f o c a l p o i n t
f o r t h e s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l policy -m ak ing p r o c e ss in Michigan, l i t t l e
has been done to i d e n t i f y i t s r o l e as an i n i t i a t o r o f e d u c a tio n a l
policy proposals.
Educational and Other I n t e r e s t Groups
Among t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s, t h e major d i v i s i o n
occurs between l a b o r and management gro up s.

Campbell and Mazzoni

(1976) sugge sted t h a t t h i s d i v i s i o n i s so profound t h a t i t has
" h in d e r e d , i f not c r i p p l e d " any chance o f t h e fo rm at ion o f a s t a t e
e d u c a ti o n a l c o a l i t i o n in Michigan and in s e v e r a l o t h e r s t a t e systems
(p. 72 ).

S c r i b n e r and E n g l e r t (1977) sugg es ted t h a t t h e r i v a l r y

between l a b o r and management i n t e r e s t s in Michigan has g r e a t l y
dimin ish ed th e p o t e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e o f an e d u c a t i o n a l c o a l i t i o n on
t h e S t a t e Department o f E ducation.

Wirt and K i r s t (1975) a l s o f e l t

t h a t in many s t a t e s e d u c a t i o n a l c o a l i t i o n s composed o f l a b o r and
management f o r c e s have u n i t e d t o e x e r t t h e i r combined i n f l u e n c e on
t h e l e g i s l a t i v e and e x e c u t i v e p r o c e s s .

Although, in Michigan, an

" e d u c a tio n a l c o u n c i l " e x i s t s t h a t comprises r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f both
t h e l a b o r and management s i d e s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o ­
c e s s , n e i t h e r t h e l i t e r a t u r e nor perso nal e x p e r ie n c e i n d i c a t e d t h e
importance o f t h i s group as a f o r c e in e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making.
In most s t a t e s a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s in h i s t o r y , t h e i n t e r e s t
groups f a v o r i n g s t a t e a s s i s t a n c e have formed temporary c o a l i ­
t i o n s and in some c a s e s long s ta n d in g a l l i a n c e s . These c o a l i ­
t i o n s may develop i n t o permanent o r g a n i z a t i o n s , may be ad hoc
one- tim e a f f a i r s , o r may be t h e s t r a t e g i c d e v ic e s o f t h e S t a t e
Department o f Education. T h e ir aim i s t o a g g r e g a te p o l i t i c a l
r e s o u r c e s . . . (Wirt & K i r s t , 1975, p. 125).

42

S c r ib n e r and E n g l e r t (1977) observed t h a t alth o u g h t h e b a r ­
ga in in g power o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups v a r i e s in both deg re e
and in k in d , some groups have s u c c e s s f u l l y amassed t h e elem en ts o f
power n e c e s s a r y t o per su ad e d e c i s i o n makers p e r i o d i c a l l y t o respond
t o t h e i r demands.

But, in g e n e r a l , " la c k o f consensus among t h e

v a r i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s and d i f f e r e n t power bases d i s s i p a t e s t h e i r b a r ­
ga in in g power" (p. 136).
Campbell and Mazzoni (1976) a l s o re co gnized t h i s s e p a r a t i o n
between l a b o r and management in Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making.
These groups were d i v i d e d s h a r p l y on q u e s t i o n s o f c o l l e c ­
tiv e bargaining l e g i s l a t i o n , ten u re, a c c o u n ta b ility , c e r t i f i ­
c a t i o n , p r o f e s s i o n a l p r a c t i c e s b o a r d s , s e vera nce pay, u n l im ite d
s i c k pay and a h o s t o f o t h e r l a b o r management i s s u e s . . .
(p. 72).
Ag ains t t h i s f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f t h e labor-management elements
o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan must be held some r e c o g n i ­
t i o n o f t h e a l l i a n c e s t h a t e x i s t between l a b o r g r o u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
in e d u c a t i o n , and l a r g e r s t a t e w i d e l a b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

Iannaccone

(1967) observed t h a t open c o n f l i c t in t h e l e g i s l a t i v e p r o c e s s o f te n
draws
such o r g a n i z a t i o n s as t h e AFL-CIO in Michigan i n t o t h e educa­
tional b a ttle s .
[The American F e d e r a t i o n o f Teachers i s an
a f f i l i a t e o f t h e AFL-CIO]; o t h e r w i s e t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s
would never have been in v o l v e d . The pr o c e ss m o b i l i z e s s o c i a l
power from f a r - f l u n g networks n o t u s u a l l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e
l e g i s l a t i v e p r o c e s s . . . (p. 292).
T h e r e f o r e , whatever p u b l i c p o l i c y b a r g a in in g power t h e Michigan
F e d e r a tio n o f Te achers h a s , l i e s " i n t h e s u p p o rt o f o r g an ized la b o r "
( S c r i b n e r & E n g l e r t , 1977, p. 137).

Whereas t h e Michigan F e d e r a t i o n

o f Teachers i s much s m a l l e r than i t s r i v a l Michigan Education

43

A s s o c i a t i o n , t h e F e d e r a t i o n r e l i e s on i t s a l l i a n c e w ith t h e s t a t e
AFL-CIO f o r p r o t e c t i o n , i f n o t f o r l e a d e r s h i p and c o n t r o l .
The Michigan Education A s s o c i a t i o n , on t h e o t h e r hand,
r e l i e s on a l a r g e membership.

Because o f co m p e t iti o n f o r membership

and an a t t i t u d i n a l change among t e a c h e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e in r u r a l
and l a r g e suburban d i s t r i c t s , t h e MEA has tended t o move toward
t e a c h e r m i l i t a n c y ( S c r i b n e r & E n g l e r t , 1977, p. 127).

Wirt and K i r s t

(1975) noted t h a t t h e "MEA i s re gard ed by t h e l e g i s l a t u r e as a
t e a c h e r - w e l f a r e b a r g a i n i n g age nt" (p. 123).
R e l a t e d l y , Duane and Bridgeland (1978) observed t h a t t h e b a s i s
o f t h e MEA's power r e s t s in i t s a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l a r e s o u r c e a l l ocation process:
I t i s widely a s s e r t e d by n o n - l e g i s l a t i v e i n t e r v i e w e e s ,
t h a t t h e ty p e o f power e x e r c i s e d by t h e MEA i s s a n c t i o n o r
impact a r i s i n g from t h e promise o f rewards o r t h e t h r e a t
o f punishments in campaign f i n a n c i n g . . . (p. 15).
Although t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e MEA t o speak f o r a broad a r r a y o f educa­
t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s has been reduced by e x p e l l i n g n a t i o n a l - and s t a t e l e v e l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s from i t s r a n k s , i t i s s t i l l p e r c e i v e d as a
powerhouse in Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making.

Duane and Bridge­

land a t t r i b u t e d t h e MEA's power p o t e n t i a l t o i t s " n i n e t y thousand
members, o r 82% o f t h e p u b l i c school t e a c h e r s , and a p r o f e s s i o n a l
s t a f f o f 131 i n c l u d i n g f o u r f u l l - t i m e l o b b y i s t s " (p. 1 4).

They empha­

s i z e d , however, t h a t d e s p i t e i t s g r e a t p o t e n t i a l t h e MEA "does not
a p p a r e n t l y wield commensurate c o n t r o l over s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l ic y "
(p. 13).

44

Although some r e s e a r c h e r s f e e l t h a t t h e MEA has not y e t
reached i t s f u l l p o t e n t i a l f o r c o n t r o l o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making p r o c e s s , Campbell and Mazzone (1976) s t a t e d t h a t " i t would be
d i f f i c u l t to e x a g g e r a te t h e tremendous r e s o u r c e advantage t h a t t h e
t e a c h e r a s s o c i a t i o n s have over competing groups" (p. 72).
The Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s (MASA), th e
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and u p p e r - l e v e l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
s t a f f , has shown t h e most remarkable r e d u c t i o n in s t a t u s as a power
f o r c e in Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making in r e c e n t ti m e s .
th e r ea so ns f o r t h i s reduced i n f l u e n c e a r e :

Among

i t s r e c e n t (1960s)

independence from th e National Education A s s o c i a t i o n a f f i l i a t e MEA;
t h e emergence o f t h e school boards a s s o c i a t i o n , with a c e n t r a l s t a f f ­
ing c a p a c i t y f o r l o c a l school d i s t r i c t s pr o v id in g such s e r v i c e s as
in su r an ce and n e g o t i a t o r s ; and t h e emergence o f t h e m i l i t a n t t e a c h e r s '
o r g a n i z a t i o n s as a c o o r d in a te d and w e l l - f i n a n c e d power f o r c e in con­
f l i c t with t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e group.
De spite i t s a p p a r e n t l y l i m i t e d a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e t h e s t a t e
e d u c a t io n a l policy-making p r o c e s s , t h e MASA was r e c e n t l y d e p i c t e d as
p o t e n t i a l l y being a m ajor, i f not t h e major, f o r c e o u t s i d e o f govern­
ment w i t h i n e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan.
The e d u c a t i o n group with t h e g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e
i n Michigan i s MASA. R ep r es en tin g n e a r l y ev ery community,
i t s members a r e reg ar de d as " a u t h o r i t i e s " on e d u c a t io n mat­
t e r s a t t h e lo c a l l e v e l . Because s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e gen­
e r a l l y p er ceiv ed t o promote t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e e n t i r e d i s t r i c t ,
MASA holds t h e s t r o n g e s t b a r g a i n i n g p o s i t i o n ( S c r i b n e r &
E n g l e r t , 1977, p. 123).
Wirt and K i r s t (1975) obs erved t h a t because o f t h e p o s i t i o n
i t s members hold as " h ig h l y r e s p e c t e d members o f t h e i r communities

45

with an image as l o c a l e x p e r t s on e d u c a t i o n , [MASA] enj oys e a s i e r
ac ces s t o s t a t e l e g i s l a t o r s th an do t e a c h e r s " (p. 123).
Much has changed, however.

Besides t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s

o f t h e e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y f o r c e s having s h i f t e d i n t e r n a l l y because o f
th e d i s a f f i l i a t i o n o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s from th e NEA, and as a r e s u l t
o f t h e i n c r e a s e d s t a f f c a p a c i t y o f t h e school board a s s o c i a t i o n a t
th e s t a t e l e v e l , r e l a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l power has s h i f t e d wit h l a r g e r
s h i f t s in demographic and s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s .

In te n y e a r s , f o r example,

th e l e g i s l a t i v e power has s h i f t e d from an a g r i c u l t u r e - b a s e d Repu bli­
can P a r t y to an u r b a n - l a b o r Democratic "sometimes c o a l i t i o n . "

Teach­

e r s , once unsure o f t h e i r own s t a t u s as a l a b o r o r a p r o f e s s i o n a l
group, have " taken t h e oath" and th e s h e l t e r o f t h e more l i b e r a l
c l i m a t e o f a l a b o r - o r i e n t e d l e g i s l a t u r e , and have emerged looking
much more l i k e a l a b o r union.
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , on th e o t h e r hand, have been d r iv e n i n t o
c o a l i t i o n s wit h t h e i r school boards and t h e i r s t a t e a s s o c i a t i o n , and
have emerged with s tr e n g t h e n e d l i a i s o n t o a much weakened Republican
P a r ty in t h e l e g i s l a t u r e .

F u r t h e r , Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School

Board members a r e " a p t to have a b e t t e r r a p p o r t with s t a t e l e g i s l a ­
t o r s [ th a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ] , s i n c e , l i k e l e g i s l a t o r s , most a r e e l e c t e d
by t h e i r own lo c a l c o n s t i t u e n c y " ( S c r i b n e r & E n g l e r t , 1977, p. 137).
Among t h e o t h e r ed u c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s, none s h a re s t h e
s t a t u s o f t h e two t e a c h e r and two major management gro up s.

S c r ib n e r

and E n g l e r t observed t h a t t h e b ar g a in in g "power o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i s p r a c t i c a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t " (p. 137)

The i n t e r m e d i a t e

school d i s t r i c t in Michigan l a c k s p r e s t i g e among e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t

46
g r oups, and i s p e r c e iv e d as a s e r v i c e u n i t l i n k i n g t h e departm ent
wi th the lo cal d i s t r i c t s —s u b s e r v i e n t to b o th , and not in any r e a l
sense a p o l i c y f o r c e in t h e s t a t e .
The Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s
i s seen as a f o r c e on t h e Department o f Education s o l e l y in t h e
policy-making ar e n a .
Whereas permanent e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups and t h e i r
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s c o n s t i t u t e a dominant f o r c e in t h e e d u c a tio n a l
policy-making pr o c e ss in Michigan, the p r o c e ss i s i n c r e a s i n g l y b a r raged w i th ad hoc, s i n g l e - i s s u e i n t e r e s t groups.

However i n f l u e n t i a l

t h e s e groups a r e , t h e i r impact normally does n o t extend beyond t h e i r
s i n g l e i s s u e o f concern.

Probably f o r t h i s reason more than any

o t h e r , t h e t r e a t m e n t o f community e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups and
ad hoc committees has been l i m i t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e .
Summary
S everal r e s e a r c h e r s have helped b r i n g i n t o focus c e r t a i n
a s p e c t s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e s s in Michigan.
Although t h e r e i s not complete agreement in t h e f i n d i n g s , some s i m i ­
l a r themes seem common.
1.

There i s g e n e r a l agreement t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s ' movement,

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e Michigan Education A s s o c i a t i o n , has ach ieved con­
s i d e r a b l e growth in s t a t u s as an e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y f o r c e in th e
p a s t several y ears.
2.

A dr am atic s h i f t in power i s o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n management.

Power i s s h i f t i n g from th e once-powerful Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f

47

School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s t o th e newly r e s p e c t e d Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n
o f School Boards.
3.
e d u c a tio n a l

There was alm ost no r e f e r e n c e in t h e l i t e r a t u r e t o noni n t e r e s t groups and t h e i r d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on th e educa­

t i o n a l policy-making process in Michigan.
In t h e e x e c u t i v e branch o f government, f o u r elements o f t h e
po licy-making process have been e x t e n s i v e l y analyzed in t h e l i t e r a ­
t u r e both as i n i t i a t o r s o f and resp ondents to p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e :
t h e S t a t e Board o f Edu cation, t h e Department o f Ed ucat io n, t h e s t a t e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , and t h e governor.
4.

The S t a t e Board o f Education has been seen as impotent

in every sense ex ce pt

perhaps i n s o f a r as th e implementation o f r u l e s

and r e g u l a t i o n s t o accompany s t a t u t o r y changes i s concerned.
5.

The Department o f Education i s d i v i d e d .

On one s i d e o f

t h i s e x e c u t i v e agency s ta n d t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s , " who claim to see
them selv es as merely s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s , p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y t i e d to a
co ncept o f l o c a l i s m .

On t h e o t h e r s i d e a r e th e r e f o r m e r s — th e

outspoken ad voca te s o f s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n and c o n t r o l .

The department

i s seen as r e l a t i v e l y autonomous in t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s p r o ­
vided by s t a t e and f e d e r a l p o l i c y .

The weight o f such funding g iv es

g r e a t power t o th o s e who a r e p o s i t i o n e d to d i s p o s e i t .
6.

The l i t e r a t u r e sup por ted t h e i n t u i t i v e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t

t h e CSSO i s a major f o r c e in s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making.

Research

conducted on t h e r o l e o f t h e CSSO showed th e c u r r e n t h o l d e r o f t h e
o f f i c e t o be a powerful f o r c e .

Not only does he appea r t o o p e r a t e

r e l a t i v e l y in d e p e n d e n tly o f t h e board t h a t a p p o i n te d him, b u t i t i s

48

a l s o c l e a r t h a t he i s not under t h e d i r e c t c o n t r o l o f e i t h e r th e
governor o r t h e l e g i s l a t u r e .
7.

The governor was n o t viewed as a major f o r c e in educa­

t i o n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan, ex c e p t when he wants t o be.

On

c e r t a i n i s s u e s l i k e school f i n a n c e , th e governor has demonstrated
l e a d e r s h i p —t h e a b i l i t y t o d i r e c t a major reform o f t h e s t a t e ' s
school f in a n c e s t r u c t u r e .

There i s l i t t l e ev id ence o f r e c e n t educa­

t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p by t h e g o v e r n o r.*
8.

The l e g i s l a t u r e has not been t h e s u b j e c t o f much d i s ­

c u s s i o n in t h e l i t e r a t u r e on e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan.
I t has g e n e r a l l y been acknowledged t h a t t h e l e g i s l a t u r e i s t h e t a r g e t
o f a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t gr oups, t h e CSSO and his
s t a f f , t h e S t a t e Board o f E duc atio n, t h e governor and h i s s t a f f , and
others.

But l i t t l e has been done t o s tudy t h e s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s ,

i n t e r n a l t o t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , by which d e c i s i o n s conc er ning e d u c a t io n a l
p o l i c y a r e made.

Of a l l t h a t t h e l i t e r a t u r e in t h i s f i e l d r e v e a l e d ,

th e lack o f a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i n t e r n a l e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t e p o l i c y pro­
c e s s of th e l e g i s l a t u r e i s per haps th e most noteworthy.

♦This o b s e r v a t i o n may be a r e s u l t o f t h e r e l a t i v e p a u c i t y
o f r e c e n t r e s e a r c h on e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan. Also,
in f a i r n e s s , i t must be r e s t a t e d t h a t in one c a s e stu d y t h e g o v e r n o r ' s
e d u c a t io n a d v i s o r s e x p r ess ed concern about t h e r e l a t i v e independence
o f t h e s t a t e e d u c a ti o n agency. Whereas t h i s may be o f concern t o
t h e g o v e r n o r ' s s t a f f , t h e r e i s no reason t o s u s p e c t t h a t in t h i s
r e gard t h e g o v e r n o r ' s s t a f f n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t s h i s perso nal f e e l ­
i n g s . The governor a ppears t o be c o n t e n t with t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t
c u r r e n t l y e x i s t s between him and t h e CSSO. There was no ev idence in
the l i t e r a t u r e to the contrary.

CHAPTER I I I

METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The methodology o f t h i s stu d y was com patible with th e o v e r ­
a l l g oals o f the r e s e a r c h .

To s e l e c t t h e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s , f o r

example, a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n model was developed t h a t accommodated the
a n a l y t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r while acknowledging th e
p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c s o f forming a p o l i c y cou ncil o f e d u c a t io n a l
elites.
The r e s e a r c h e r ' s f i r s t t a s k was t o c r e a t e a forum in which
t o p - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers could p a r t i c i p a t e in d i s c u s s i o n s
of actual or p o te n tia l educational policy issu es.

The f i r s t r e q u i r e ­

ment was t o i d e n t i f y which elements o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making
community should be involved in i t .

A methodology by which the

r e s e a r c h e r accomplished t h i s f u n c t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l in t h i s
chapter.
L i t e r a t u r e o f t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educ atio nal L ead er ship (IEL)
d e s c r ib e d t h e A s s o c i a t e s Program, under which s t a t e e d u c a tio n a l
seminars in t h i r t y s t a t e s a r e funded, as "an evolving IEL a c t i v i t y
which provide s seminars and o t h e r forums f o r l e g i s l a t o r s and o t h e r
p o l i c y makers a t s t a t e c a p i t a l s . "

VJith l i t t l e d i r e c t i o n from th e

IEL, t h e r e s e a r c h e r proceeded t o e n l i s t major s t a t e p o l i c y a c t o r s in
Michigan i n t o t h e Michigan Education Seminars.
49

Much o f th e

50

methodology s e c t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , c o n t a i n s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e sampling
pr oce ss used in t h e s tu d y .

Results of the p a r tic ip a n t- s e le c tio n

pr oce ss a r e r e p o r t e d in much t h e same way t h a t samples a r e i d e n t i f i e d
in o t h e r s t u d i e s .
Fieldwork Overview
In t h i s s e c t i o n th e r e s e a r c h e r s u g g e sts t h a t many o f th e
tec h n iq u e s o f f ie ld w ork as a form o f r e s e a r c h p a r a l l e l t h e te chniq ues
of successful p o l i t i c a l o p e ra tiv e s.

In D e x t e r ' s (1970) words,

"Research demands . . . b a la n c i n g s t r a t e g i e s and t a c t i c s in l i g h t
of o v e r a l l purpose s , both t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l " (p. 11).
The s i m i l a r i t i e s between D e x t e r ' s comments on r e s e a r c h and
Bridgeland and Duane's remarks on t h e p o l i t i c s o f e d u c a ti o n ar e more
than i n t e r e s t i n g .

Dexter r e f e r r e d t o "b ala ncin g" a c t s in r e s e a r c h ;

Bridgelan d and Duane r e f e r r e d t o "compromise and balan ce " i n p o l i t i c s .
The l a t t e r a u t h o r s c e n t e r e d d i s c u s s i o n s in a " m u l t i - c o n f l i c t ar ena" o f
school p o l i t i c s , whereas Dexter t a l k e d o f " s t r a t e g i e s and t a c t i c s o f
research."

Dexter e x p la in e d t h a t th e s i m i l a r i t i e s between systems

r e s e a r c h and p o l i t i c a l endeavors l i e in th e f a c t t h a t th e e nds ,
"both t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l , " and n o t th e means, a r e t h e s u b j e c t .
Bridgeland and Duane d e f i n e d p o l i t i c a l ends in terms o f p o l i c y .
Not u n l i k e t h e manner in which o t h e r s have d e s c r i b e d p o l i t i c s ,
Dexter sug ges ted t h a t f i e ld w o r k , o r f i e l d r e s e a r c h as i t i s o f te n
c a l l e d "always ought t o be and f r e q u e n t l y i s a process o f c o n t i n u i n g
dis co v e ry " (p. 11).

Geographical and c u l t u r a l bo unda ries surround

51

what a r e p er ceiv ed as p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s .

As Wolin (1972) s t a t e d ,

in r e s e a r c h "a f i e l d i s de f in e d by th e way we propose t o s tudy i t "
(p. 15 ).

F i e l d r e s e a r c h e r s e n t e r environments and r e p o r t t h e i r

findings.
In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , t h e r e s e a r c h e r tra n scen d ed one o f
the normal b a r r i e r s o f f ie ld w o r k .
was known by the s t u d y ' s s u b j e c t s .

From t h e o u t s e t t h e r e s e a r c h e r
Because th e r e s e a r c h e r was p e r ­

s o n a l l y and p r o f e s s i o n a l l y a c q u a in t e d with th e major a c t o r s in th e
e d u c a t io n a l policy-making p r o c e ss in Michigan, h i s a c c e s s t o t h i s
p o l i c y network was both n a t u r a l and complete.
Bordeleau (1977) c h allen g ed h i s c o l l e a g u e s t o engage in t h i s
form o f r e s e a r c h :
I f we a r e t o gain r e f l e c t i o n s which a r e more than p a r ­
t i c u l a r s , p l a i n l y we need a g r e a t e r moving abou t by e d u c a t o r s
who can and w i l l w r i t e . We p e r c e i v e m e r i t in a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s
by e d u c a t o r s whose work has p o l i t i c a l o v e r t o n e s . T h e ir
acco unts can c a p t u r e elements o f p o l i c y f o rm u l a t io n t h a t s l i p
through t h e f i n g e r s o f w r i t e r s us ing o t h e r ge ne ral approaches
(p. 19).
To d e f i n e th e f i e l d o f t h i s s tu d y , one must c o n s i d e r th e
e n t i r e p o l i t i c a l m i l i e u o f t h e S t a t e o f Michigan.

The f i e l d o f t h i s

s tu d y was expanded beyond t h e s e s s i o n s o f th e Michigan Education
Seminars on t h e presumption t h a t t h e seminar s e r i e s i n t e r a c t e d with
t h e b r oader environment o f s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s .
The Adequacy o f Fieldwork Methodology
Lutz (1977) i d e n t i f i e d f ou r methods t h a t can be used t o c o l ­
l e c t d a t a on p o l i t i c a l systems and " t o answer q u e s t i o n s ab o u t power

52

in p o l i t i c s " (p. 33).

Those methods--survey r e s e a r c h , r e p u t a t i o n a l

a n a l y s i s , i s s u e a n a l y s i s , and s o c io - a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h - - a r e
d i sc u s s e d in th e fo llow ing parag ra ph s.

I t bea rs r e p e a t i n g t h a t i t i s

doubtful i f any s i n g l e method of p o l i t i c a l system r e s e a r c h i s so
comprehensive as to be s i n g l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o th e
comprehensive study o f a p o l i t i c a l system.
One method f o r a nalyzing a p o l i t i c a l system i s survey r e s e a r c h .
Through survey r e s e a r c h a p o p ula tion i s drawn; a sample i s s e l e c t e d
from which to c o l l e c t answers abou t, f o r example, p o l i t i c a l v a l u e s .
Some elements of survey r e s e a r c h were used in t h i s s tu d y .

Certainly,

th e p a r t i c i p a n t - s e l e c t i o n and e l i t e - i n t e r v i e w process es o f t h e study
a r e comparable t o survey r e s e a r c h .
R eputationa l a n a l y s i s was a n o t h e r methodology used in t h i s
s tudy.

With r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , system l e a d e r s o r informants ar e

i d e n t i f i e d based on th e p e r c e p t io n s o f o t h e r s f a m i l i a r with th e
power s t r u c t u r e , and through an i n t e r v i e w p r o c e s s , th e major a c t o r s
in th e system a r e i d e n t i f i e d .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , one f i r s t a t te m p ts to

s e l e c t p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r s , and then to i d e n t i f y th e system o f l e a d e r ­
s hip w it h i n th e e d u cati o n al policy-making community by in te r v ie w in g
"knowledgeable i n s i d e r s " - - o f t e n p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r s .

An advantage of

r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s l i e s in i t s a b i l i t y t o uncover p o l i c y f o r c e s
who might n o t appear on formal o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t s .
Another method f o r stu dying p o l i t i c a l systems i s i s s u e
a n a l y s i s , which " u t i l i z e s h i s t o r i c a l method as well as o b s e r v a t i o n
of present issues.

I t s fundamental te chnique i s t h e d i r e c t study o f

53

p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e s " (Lutz, 1977, p. 39) .
dary methodology o f t h i s s tu d y .

I s s u e a n a l y s i s was a secon­

A major purpose o f t h e seminar

s e r i e s was t o pro v id e a forum in which p o l i c y makers could d i s c u s s
var io u s a s p e c t s o f c u r r e n t o r p o t e n t i a l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s .
The f a c t t h a t no c l e a r formula could be a p p l i e d t o each i n d i v i d u a l
i s s u e under d i s c u s s i o n does not s u g g e s t t h a t i s s u e a n a l y s i s , however
in f o r m a l, did not pl ay a r o l e in t h e d i r e c t i o n and outcomes o f t h i s
study.
A f o u r t h c a te g o r y o f p o l i t i c a l r e s e a r c h , s o c i o - a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
r e s e a r c h , perhaps b e s t d e s c r i b e s t h e fundamental methodology o f t h i s
stu dy.

F ie ld a n a l y s i s r e l i e s c h i e f l y on p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n in

varying d e g r e e s .

In t h i s form o f r e s e a r c h ,

The r e s e a r c h e r r e c o u n ts a l l formal o r informal ac co unts
o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s o bs erv ed , and makes use o f in fo rm ant d e s c r i p ­
t i o n , informal in t e r v i e w s and depending on t h e n a t u r e o f th e
stu d y on q u e s t i o n n a i r e s and surveys ( L u tz , 1977, pp. 39-40).
The r e s u l t s o f t h e s tu dy a r e r e p o r t e d in a form t h a t i s
l a r g e l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l in n a t u r e .

Bordeleau (1977) c a l l e d upon

e d u c a t o r s to e n t e r t h e world o f p o l i t i c s , both as a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s
and as s c r i b e s .

In d e s c r i b i n g h i s t e c h n i q u e , Bordeleau s a i d ,

We p e r c e i v e m e r i t in a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s by e d u c a t o r s whose
work has p o l i t i c a l o v e r t o n e s . T h e ir ac co unts can c a p t u r e
elements o f p o l i c y f o rm u la tio n t h a t s l i p through t h e f i n g e r s
o f w r i t e r s u s in g t h e o t h e r general approaches (p. 19) .
L utz's objection to the costs of socio-anthropological tech ­
niques was n o t a f a c t o r in t h i s s t u d y .

The i n q u i r y r e q u i r e d an

e x t e n s i v e p er so n al and f i n a n c i a l commitment by t h e r e s e a r c h e r .
Whether t h e f i n d i n g s were t o be r e p o r t e d o r n o t , many o f t h e s e

54

c o s t s would have oc curre d anyway.

However, w it h o u t t h e framework

o f a formal s t u d y , l e s s c a r e would have been taken to keep d e t a i l e d
records.
Dexter (1965) proposed t h a t f i e l d r e s e a r c h "always ought to
be and f r e q u e n t l y i s a pro cess

o f c o n t in u i n g disc ov ery " (p. 11 ).

He

a l s o s a i d t h a t r e s e a r c h "demands . . . b alan cin g s t r a t e g i e s and
t a c t i c s in l i g h t o f o v e r a l l p u r p o s e s , both t h e o r e t i c and p r a c t i c a l "
(p. 4 3).

Thus f i e l d study i s a b a la n c in g a c t between two c o n t r a s t i n g

co n c e p t s .
making.

A system i s formed t o stu d y elements o f p u b lic p o l i c y
At t h e same ti m e , t h e

p o l i t i c a l system r e q u i r i n g t h e

f i e l d i s analyzed as a s e n s i t i v e
g e n t l e m an i p u l a tio n o f an e x p e r ie n c e d

p o litical practitioner.
Some might choose to c a l l t h i s s tu dy a "cas e study" o f th e
Michigan Education Seminars.

Such a d e f i n i t i o n would l i k e l y c o n s i d e r

th e " co nta ined" n a t u r e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n under re v ie w , t h e l o n g i ­
t u d i n a l n a t u r e o f th e r e s e a r c h , and t h e i n t i m a t e involvement o f th e
researcher.
The P o s i t i o n a l An alysis
P o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s was among t h e primary methods th e
r e s e a r c h e r used t o begin t h e pr oc es s o f i d e n t i f y i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l s
with whom t h e power t o i n f l u e n c e s t a t e school p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s was
centralized.

I t was the b a s i s o f t h e sample s e l e c t i o n .

F i r s t , th e r e s e a r c h e r s e l e c t e d as h i s u n i t s o f a n a l y s i s th e
f o u r s e c t o r s o f s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making i n Michigan

55

( e x e c u t i v e br an ch , l e g i s l a t i v e bran ch , e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t gro up s,
and o t h e r i n t e r e s t g r o u p s ) .

Next, th e r e s e a r c h e r analyzed each s e c ­

t o r t o determine t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h a t s e c t o r .

From t h i s , the

incumbents o f key p o s i t i o n s on o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t s o f i n f l u e n t i a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n s could be i d e n t i f i e d .

What foll ow s i s a d i s c u s s i o n o f

t h e f i n d i n g s o f th e p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s w i t h i n each major segment o f
th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community, with t h e purpose of i d e n t i f y ­
ing t h e key p o s i t i o n s on th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t .

Throughout th e

d i s c u s s i o n , t h e r e a d e r w i l l n o t i c e a d i s t i n c t i o n between the " p o s i ­
t i o n a l " l e a d e r s and t h o s e who a r e o f t e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l s making key
d e c i s i o n s in and around government.
The Executive Branch
The gover nor heads th e e x e c u t i v e branch o f s t a t e government.
In th e e x e c u t i v e branch o f s t a t e government in Michigan, th e S t a t e
Board o f Education i s a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y , with th e p r e s i d e n t o f th e
board heading t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t .

P o s i t i o n a l a n a ly s e s a r e

in adequate in i d e n t i f y i n g ever y i n d i v i d u a l who makes key p o l i c y
decisions.

For example, t h e governor may play a very l i m i t e d r o l e

in d a y - t o - d a y s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making.

His a b i l i t y t o d e s i g ­

n a t e key a i d e s t o i n f l u e n c e th e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s
w a r r a n t s t h e i n c l u s i o n o f t h e s e a i d e s in an a n a l y s i s o f t h e power
structure.

The r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , d i s c u s s e d in t h e ne xt major

s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r , uncovered much o f t h i s "hidden" l e a d e r s h i p .
A d e f i c i e n c y o f p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s i s t h a t i t can leave th e

56
impression t h a t a h i g h - p o s i t i o n e d l e a d e r may, by v i r t u e o f h i s / h e r
p o s i t i o n , be a s i g n i f i c a n t f o r c e in a power s t r u c t u r e .

The same

s ta te m e n t can be made ab out o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
The S t a t e Board o f Education in Michigan was d e s c r i b e d in
th e l i t e r a t u r e as p la y in g a r o l e in t h e outcome o f major e d u c a tio n
p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s w i t h i n th e S t a t e o f Michigan.

The r o l e o f th e

S t a t e Department o f Education would s u g g e st t h a t i t s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
s u p e r v i s o r y board i s in a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i o n .

A v a r i e t y o f reasons

e x i s t to s u g g e s t t h a t th e f u n c t io n o f t h e S t a t e Board o f Education i s
mostly cer em o n ial.

The Michigan Department o f Education i s headed

by an a p pointed c h i e f s t a t e school o f f i c e r (CSSO), th e s t a t e s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t , whose appointment i s a major r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e s t a t e
boar d.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e rv e s a t t h e p l e a s u r e o f th e boar d.

His c h i e f a s s i s t a n t , t h e deputy s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , s e rv e s a t h is
pleasure.
The dep ar tm en t i s or g a n iz e d i n t o s i x t e e n s e r v i c e a r e a s ,
which a r e c l u s t e r e d under f i v e a s s o c i a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s . *

The CSSO,

h i s deputy, and h i s f i v e a s s o c i a t e s appear t o hold t h e key p o l i c y ­
making and p o lic y - im p le m e n ta ti o n p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e dep ar tm en t.
Besides t h e s e key a c t o r s w i t h i n th e department a r e two a s s i s t a n t
*The f i v e a s s o c i a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t p o s i t i o n s a r e : A s s o c i a t e
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t, School Program Development; A s s o c i a t e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t ,
Research and School A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; A s s o c i a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t , Higher
Education Planning and C o o r d i n a tio n ; A s s o c i a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t ,
R e h a b i l i t a t i o n ; and A s s o c i a t e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t, F i n a n c i a l , L e g i s l a t i v e ,
and Personnel S e r v i c e s . Within each o f s i x t e e n department s e r v i c e
a r e a s , d i r e c t o r s have s i g n i f i c a n t a u t h o r i t y in p o l i c y form atio n and
p o l i c y implemen tation . However, t h e i r a b i l i t y t o ex tend p o l i c y
a u t h o r i t y beyond t h e i r s p e c i f i c a r e a s o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i s l i m i t e d .

57

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , one f o r school and community a f f a i r s and one f o r
public a f f a i r s .
The s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , a lthoug h a p pointed by t h e s t a t e
board, d e r i v e s much o f h i s p o l i c y a u t h o r i t y from c e r t a i n c o n s t i t u ­
t i o n a l and s t a t u t o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f o f f i c e .

He/she i s

in th e l i n e o f s u c c e s s io n f o r th e gove rnor ship in th e e v en t o f a
s u c c e s s f u l impeachment, a r e s i g n a t i o n , o r d e a t h .

He/she s i t s on t h e

s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e council with th e g o v ern or, th e a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l ,
t h e s e c r e t a r y o f s t a t e , and t h e s t a t e t r e a s u r e r .

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t

i s n o t , however, a member o f t h e g o v e r n o r ' s c a b i n e t .
The c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s d e f i n i n g th e powers of th e
s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n a r e broad ( A r t i c l e V I I I ,
Sec. 2) :
The s t a t e board o f e d u c a ti o n s h a l l ap p o in t a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
o f p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n whose term of o f f i c e s h a l l be determined
by t h e board. He s h a l l be t h e chairman o f t h e board w ith o u t
t h e r i g h t t o v o t e , and s h a l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e e x ecu tio n
o f i t s p o l i c i e s . He s h a l l be t h e p r i n c i p a l e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r
o f a s t a t e depar tment o f e d u c a ti o n which s h a l l have powers and
d u t i e s pro vid ed by law.
No o t h e r d u t i e s a r e p r e s c r i b e d t o t h e s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f p u b l i c
i n s t r u c t i o n in t h e s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n ; however, t h e s t a t u t e s c o n ta in
numerous o b l i g a t i o n s .
The deputy s u p e r i n t e n d e n t i s th e only person in t h e s t a t e
department b e s id e s t h e CSSO who i s n o t p r o t e c t e d by c i v i l s e r v i c e
status.

Despite th e r i g i d c i v i l s e r v i c e r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t has c o n s i d e r a b l e freedom in s e l e c t i n g h i s / h e r a s s o c i a t e s and
directors.

58

The im p o rtan t proc es s o f l e g i s l a t i v e b i l l a n a l y s i s i s l a r g e l y
c o n t r o l l e d by t h e D i r e c t o r o f L e g i s l a t i o n and School Law, who i s in
th e s e r v i c e a r e a o f f i n a n c i a l , l e g i s l a t i v e , and personnel s e r v i c e s .
The D i r e c t o r o f L e g i s l a t i o n and School Law i s t h e d e p a r t m e n t 's lobby­
i s t a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l , and as such p r o v id e s t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
d i r e c t access to th e l e g i s l a t i v e p r o c e s s .

Co nv er se ly, t h e department

l o b b y i s t o f t e n i s t h e l e g i s l a t u r e ' s p o i n t o f ac c e s s t o t h e burea ucr acy .
Perhaps t h e most powerful o f t h e a s s o c i a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
in t h e a r e a o f p u b l i c p o l i c y making i s t h e A s s o c i a t e S u p e r in te n d e n t
f o r Fin an ce , L e g i s l a t i o n , and P e r s o n n e l .

This o f f i c e r i s the d e p a r t ­

mental spokesman and a d m i n i s t r a t o r on budget i s s u e s , which a r e gen­
e r a l l y co n s id e red t o be t h e most p o l i t i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e s t a t e p u b l i c
policy questions.
At th e o t h e r end o f th e power spectrum among th e a s s o c i a t e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e th e a s s o c i a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s f o r v o c a ti o n a l
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n .

The d u t i e s o f t h e A s s o c ia te

S u p e r in te n d e n t f o r R e h a b i l i t a t i o n a r e so c l e a r l y d e f i n e d by s t a t e
and f e d e r a l s t a t u t e t h a t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y t o shape p u b l i c p o l i c y i s
lim ited.

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e p o s i t i o n o f A s s o c i a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t

f o r Higher Education Planning and Co ordinat ion i s l a r g e l y without
duties.

The r e l a t i v e autonomy o f t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s and c o l l e g e s makes

th is position prim arily t i t u l a r .
The L e g i s l a t i v e Branch
I d e n t i f y i n g th e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p
w ith in t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e i s d i f f i c u l t .

One o f th e c h a l l e n g e s o f

59

t h e p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s was t o l i m i t t h e number o f p o s i t i o n s w i th in
th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t t h a t were i d e n t i f i e d as l e a d e r s h i p p o s i ­
tions.

To t h e elemen tary school t e a c h e r in Dowagiac, t h e most t r i v i a l

s t a f f j o b in th e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e might seem t o be a p o s i t i o n o f
high esteem.

In r e a l i t y , however, such a p o s i t i o n g u a r a n te e s no

a b i l i t y to influence policy.

T h e r e f o r e , in d ec id in g which p o s i t i o n s

w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e l i k e l y a u t h o r i t y , t h e r e s e a r c h e r
must det ac h h im s e l f somewhat from pr ev io u s knowledge about t h e "movers
and sha ke rs " w it h in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n .

R a t h e r , h e / s h e must concen­

t r a t e on th o s e p o s i t i o n s from which t h e power t o i n f l u e n c e p o l i c y
d e c i s i o n s appe ar s to be d e l e g a t e d and r e s e r v e informed judgments f o r
th e r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s .
At th e time when p a r t i c i p a n t s o f t h e Michigan Education Semi­
nar s were s e l e c t e d , th e Michigan house o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s comprised
s i x t y - s i x Democrats

and f o r t y - f o u r R epu blica ns.

The s t a t e s e n a t e

comprised t w e n t y - f o u r Democrats and f o u r t e e n R epublican s.
The person in the top l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n in t h e e n t i r e l e g i s ­
l a t u r e i s t h e spea ke r o f t h e house.

Because o f h i s a u t h o r i t y t o

a p p o i n t house committee members, t o a p p o in t house s t a f f , and to a s s i g n
b i l l s to house committees o f h i s c h o o s in g , t h e s p e a k e r has more o f f i ­
c i a l a u t h o r i t y than any o t h e r member o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e .

There i s no

comparable p o s i t i o n in th e s e n a t e .
The s peak er i s not al one in h i s p o t e n t i a l t o w ie ld g r e a t
a u t h o r i t y on e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y making in t h e s t a t e house o f r e p r e ­
sentatives.

Much e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t th e s t a t e l e v e l ,

i s i n f l u e n c e d , i f not c o n t r o l l e d , by th e bud getar y p r o c e s s .

This

60

p la c e s t h e chairman o f t h e A p p r o p r ia ti o n s Committee in a p o s i t i o n
o f g r e a t a u t h o r i t y on e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s .

Whether t h e app ro p­

r i a t i o n s chairman w ie ld s h i s a u t h o r i t y d i r e c t l y on e d u c a tio n a l
policy-making i s s u e s , o r r e l i n q u i s h e s t h i s a u t h o r i t y t o subcommittee
chairmen o r s t a f f , i s an assessment t h a t ca nnot be made in a p o s i ­
tional analysis.
The m i n o r i t y p a r t y cannot be ignored in an a n a l y s i s o f a
legislature.

The a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e roughly 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e

votes on any i s s u e b e f o r e t h e s t a t e house o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s must be
acknowledged.

The c h i e f m i n o r i t y p o s i t i o n i n t h e s t a t e house i s t h e

house m i n o r i t y l e a d e r .
Besides being involved in t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n p r o c e s s , two
s ta n d i n g committees o f t h e house f i n d e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e s w i t h i n t h e i r
regular ju ris d ic tio n .

Other committees a r e p e r i o d i c a l l y involved

w i th i s s u e s t h a t , on s e v e ra l l e v e l s , i n f l u e n c e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y .
The two committees in th e house t h a t r e g u l a r l y i n f l u e n c e e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y i s s u e s a r e th e house Education Committee and t h e house Committee
on Co lleg es and U n i v e r s i t i e s .

Therefore, the chairpersons of these

committees must be i ncluded in any p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e ed uca ­
t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p o f th e l e g i s l a t u r e .
At t h e house s t a f f l e v e l , th e d i r e c t o r o f t h e House F is c a l
Agency should be in cluded in any a n a l y s i s o f p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p
on e d u c a tio n a l i s s u e s .

Because so many of t h e major e d u c a t i o n a l

i s s u e s u l t i m a t e l y re v o l v e around q u e s t i o n s o f money, t h e d i r e c t o r s
o f t h e two l e g i s l a t i v e f i s c a l ag en ci es t h a t s e rv e as a d v i s o r s to t h e
e n t i r e l e g i s l a t u r e a r e a t t h e top o f t h e p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s .

Other

61

s t a f f p o s i t i o n s in t h e l e g i s l a t u r e a r e l e s s c l e a r l y d e f in e d in terms
of positional leadership.

The m a j o r i t y e x e c u t i v e s e c r e t a r y o f t h e

house, f o r example, i s in a p o s i t i o n o f e x e r c i s i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l e a d e r ­
s h i p in e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s ; however, occupancy o f t h i s p o s i t i o n
i m p l ie s nothing about t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o r a b i l i t y o f t h i s s t a f f l e a d e r
t o e x e r c i s e a u t h o r i t y over e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y .

The r o l e s o f s t a f f

l e a d e r s o f both p a r t i e s o f the house, and t h e committee s t a f f r o l e s ,
a r e so po o r ly d e f i n e d in terms o f a u t h o r i t y as t o w ar ran t t h e i r i n c l u ­
s i o n in a p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s .
In th e s e n a t e , t h e r o l e s o f th e l e a d e r s and s t a f f a r e even
l e s s c l e a r l y d e f in e d than th e y a r e in th e s t a t e house o f r e p r e s e n t a ­
tives.

Although th e Democrats hold an even more commanding m a j o r i t y

in t h e s e n a t e than in t h e house, t h e l e a d e r s h i p in t h a t chamber i s so
fragmented by c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s , by s e n a t e r u l e s , and by t r a ­
d i t i o n a s t o make t h e p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s almost m ean ingless .
The p r e s i d e n t o f t h e s e n a t e i s (by c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n )
th e l i e u t e n a n t gov er no r.

With a 24-14 Democrat margin, a Republican

l i e u t e n a n t governor can do l i t t l e more than m o nit o r t h e s e n a t e f o r
t h e govern or.

The a b i l i t y o f t h e s e n a t e p r e s i d e n t t o a s s i g n b i l l s t o

committees has been eroded i f not r e p l a c e d by a hybrid p roce ss t h a t
p e r m it s t h e s e n a t e m a j o r i t y l e a d e r t o c o n t r o l t h i s p r o c e s s .

The

s e n a t e m a j o r i t y l e a d e r occu pies th e dominant p o s i t i o n of l e a d e r s h i p
on th e s e n a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t .
with s e v e r a l s e n a t o r s .
appropriations.

Again, h i s a u t h o r i t y i s shared

Foremost i s t h e chairman o f t h e committee on

62

During t h e p e r io d o f t h i s study t h e r e were two s t a n d i n g edu­
c a t i o n a l committees in t h e s e n a t e :

t h e Education Committee and th e

Committee on Colleg es and U n i v e r s i t i e s .

The c h a i r p e r s o n s o f t h e s e

committees must be incl uded in a p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s .

Also , however

fragmented t h e i r power, th e e x e c u t i v e a s s i s t a n t s t o t h e s e n a t e
m a j o r i t y l e a d e r and t h e p a r t i s a n r e s e a r c h s t a f f l e a d e r can be viewed
as ho ldin g key p o s i t i o n s in th e s e n a t e .

The top l e a d e r s h i p p o s i ­

t i o n in th e m i n o r i t y p a r t y in th e s e n a t e i s th e s e n a t e m i n o r i t y l e a d e r .
The d e f i c i e n c i e s o f a p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s become c l e a r in
examining t h e l e a d e r s h i p of a l e g i s l a t u r e .

For example, t h e c h a i r ­

per so ns o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t i n g subcommittees f o r e d u catio n a r e probably
th e most i m p o rt a n t s i n g l e f o r c e s in i n f l u e n c i n g s t a t e l e g i s l a t i v e
e d u c a ti o n p o l i c y w i t h i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e chambers.

A reputational

a n a l y s i s t h a t in c l u d e s in fo r m atio n based on ex p e r ie n c e in t h e system
r e v e a l s i m p o r t a n t f i n d i n g s abou t t h e " r e a l " l e a d e r s h i p — in fo r m a tio n
n o t obvious from a review o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t s .

Certain

l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f members, f o r example, p a r t i c u l a r l y t hose who occupy
t h i r d - and f o u r t h - l e v e l p o s i t i o n s in t h e f i s c a l a g e n c i e s , o r on th e
l e a d e r s ' s t a f f s , do not show up on a p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , u n l e s s , o f
c o u r s e , so many o t h e r p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r s a r e i nc luded as t o d i s t o r t
th e a c t u a l l e a d e r s h i p c h a i n s w i t h i n th e system.

This phenomenon w i l l

be f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d in t h e s e c t i o n devoted t o t h e r e p u t a t i o n a l
methodology.
Note: The c o u r t s —a major p u b li c p o l i c y f o r c e in American e d u c a t i o n —
have been ignored in t r a d i t i o n a l reviews o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
s t r u c t u r e . Perhaps no f o r c e has played a more dominant r o l e in f o r c ­
ing p o l i c y change in t h e a r e a s o f school f i n a n c e , d e s e g r e g a t i o n , and

63
The Educational I n t e r e s t Groups
A p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e e d u c a ti o n a l i n t e r e s t groups
r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f both th e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h i n t h i s ca te g o r y
and o f t h e l e a d e r s w i t h i n th e o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

Not a l l o f t h e o r g a n i ­

z a t i o n s t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s i n Michigan could be
incl ud ed in t h i s s tu d y .

There a r e f a r too many such o r g a n i z a t i o n s ,

and new ones emerge every y e a r .

The o r g a n i z a t i o n s incl uded in t h i s

stu dy were s e l e c t e d because o f t h e s i z e o f t h e i r membership and s t a f f ,
and because o f t h e i r v i s i b i l i t y w i t h i n th e e d u c a tio n a l proc es s in
Michigan.

Prev iou s knowledge o f t h e p r o c e s s , much o f which was

confirmed in t h e l i t e r a t u r e review, was used t o i d e n t i f y th o s e major
ed u c a ti o n a l i n t e r e s t groups o f which a p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s was to be
conducted.
A n a t u r a l c a t e g o r i c a l s e p a r a t i o n w i t h i n e d u c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t
groups i s th e labor-management d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n .

The s e p a r a t i o n o f

th e school a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' o r g a n i z a t i o n from t h e Michigan Education
( t e a c h e r s ' ) A s s o c i a t i o n in t h e 1960s helped t o d i s t i n g u i s h between
l a b o r and management.
In t h e t e a c h e r s ' movement, two o r g a n i z a t i o n s —t h e Michigan
Education A s s o c i a t i o n (MEA) and t h e Michigan F e d e r a t io n o f Teachers
(MFT)—p la y a dominant r o l e .

The MEA has enjoyed t h e g r e a t e s t growth

in l e a d e r s h i p in t h e p a s t decade.

I ts adm inistrative leadership is

a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n than has t h e j u d i c i a l branch. Because t h e i r unique
p o s i t i o n as a r b i t e r s o f s o c i a l p o l i c y r e q u i r e s t h a t th e c o u r t s be
detached from t h e p r e l i m i n a r y proc es s l e a d in g to e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
making upon which th ey may u l t i m a t e l y r u l e , t h e i n c l u s i o n o f t h e
c o u r t s and t h e i r o f f i c i a l s w i t h i n t h i s stu d y was not judged t o be
appropriate or possible.

64
s p l i t between an e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r and an e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t .

The

e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t , u n l i k e h i s c o u n t e r p a r t in t h e school boards
a s s o c i a t i o n , i s given a f u l l - t i m e j o b , an o f f i c e in th e main "union
h a l l , " and a home n e a r t h e s t a t e c a p i t o l .

The p r e s i d e n t of t h e MEA,

with h i s co nn ection t o more than 80,000 s t a t e teacher-members, i s
t h e head o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n .

S h a r in g , o r perhaps "vying f o r , " th e

l e a d e r s h i p o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e an e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r and s t a f f .
Much o f the e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y o f t h e MEA i s t r a n s m i t t e d i n t o the
p o l i c y proc es s through i t s lobbying arm, t h e P ublic A f f a i r s D i v i s i o n .
This d i v i s i o n employs s e v e r a l f u l l - t i m e l o b b y i s t s whose s o l e duty i t
i s t o monitor and i n f l u e n c e l e g i s l a t i v e and e x e c u t i v e p o l i c y .

Since

i t i s a c e n t r a l i z e d a s s o c i a t i o n , with no dominant l o c a l o r r e g i o n a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e Michigan Education
A s s o c i a t i o n i s f a i r l y easy t o i d e n t i f y .
This i s n o t t h e c a s e , however, with t h e MEA's c o u n t e r p a r t
Michigan F e d e r a tio n o f Teachers (MFT).
t h e s t a t e AFL-CIO.

The MFT i s an a f f i l i a t e o f

Although t h e MFT r e l i e s on t h e AFL t o a s s i s t i t

in d i f f i c u l t p o l i c y - p e r s u a s i o n p r o j e c t s , th e l e a d e r s h i p o f th e MFT
o p e r a t e s in d ep en d en tly o f th e major union.

The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e MFT,

however, o f t e n f i n d s a " t a i l wagging t h e dog" phenomenon, because t h e
D e t r o i t F e d e r a ti o n o f Teachers i s not only t h e l a r g e s t MFT a f f i l i a t e ,
but i t i s a l s o dominant.

Although t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t o f th e

MFT would show i t s p r e s i d e n t to be t h e l e a d e r o f t h e s t a t e a s s o c i a t i o n ,
th e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e D e t r o i t MFT c h a p t e r commands much more p u b l i c
attention.

The p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , t h e r e f o r e , in c lu d e d in i t s

65

f i n d i n g s th e l e a d e r s o f both the s t a t e and t h e D e t r o i t c h a p t e r .
N e i t h e r group has r e g u l a r l e g i s l a t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r management education a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e
more d i f f i c u l t t o an aly ze than t h e t e a c h e r s ' a s s o c i a t i o n s .

The two

major groups in t h e s t a t e —th e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School Admin­
i s t r a t o r s (MASA) and t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School Boards (MASB) —
have a d j a c e n t o f f i c e s in downtown Lansing.

There, l e a d e r s o f t h e two

a s s o c i a t i o n s a t te m p t t o p r e v e n t t e a c h e r s from becoming th e uncon­
t e s t e d dominant e d u c a ti o n f o r c e in th e s t a t e p o l i c y p r o c e s s .

The

two gr ou ps, even when combined, have extr em ely small memberships in
comparison t o t h e t e a c h e r s ' a s s o c i a t i o n .
i t y they command i s remarkable.

In t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e a u t h o r ­

The e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r s o f both

o r g a n i z a t i o n s must be in cl uded in t h e p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s .

Both

gr oups, however, a r e o r ganized with s tr o n g p u b l i c a f f a i r s and l e g i s ­
l a t i v e d i r e c t o r s t o pr ovid e d a i l y ac c e s s t o th e p o l i c y makers.
Pro vid ing l i a i s o n t o th e Department o f Education and t h e s t a t e board
o f e d u c a t io n i s a l s o among t h e d u t i e s o f t h e s e e x e c u t i v e s .
Several o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s a l s o f a l l w i t h i n t h e management
branch o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups.

The p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s

o f t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e v e a l e d l i t t l e o t h e r than a s t a f f c h i e f
( e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r ) who has i r r e g u l a r i n t e r a c t i o n w it h t h e p u b l i c
p o l i c y makers.

Among t h e s e groups a r e t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f E le­

mentary and Middle School P r i n c i p a l s and t h e Michigan Middle C i t i e s
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Group, a l t e r n a t e l y c a l l e d th e Middle C i t i e s Education
A s s o c i a t i o n (MCEA). MCEA r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e dozen o r so l a r g ­
e s t Michigan d i s t r i c t s , w it h t h e e x c e p ti o n o f t h e D e t r o i t P u b l ic Sch ools.

66
The d i f f i c u l t y a t t h i s p o i n t was n o t t o i d e n t i f y t h e c h i e f
i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e s e s m a l l e r e d u catio n o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
t h e s e groups a r e run by s tr o n g l e a d e r s o r l e a d e r - t e a m s .

Generally,
R a th e r , t h e

d i f f i c u l t y was d ec id i n g which groups were s i g n i f i c a n t enough f o r c e s
to be included in a study o f t h e policy-making p r o c e s s .

The r e p u t a ­

t i o n a l a n a l y s i s was h e l p f u l in making such judgments.
The p r i v a t e s e c t o r o f e d u c a ti o n in Michigan i s c e r t a i n l y
worthy o f note in a p o l i c y study o f t h i s kind.

Although an o f f i c i a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n known as th e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f Nonpublic Schools
s hare s in t h e c r e d i t f o r th e nonpublic s e c t o r ' s c o n s i d e r a b l e s ucc es s
w i t h i n th e l e g i s l a t i v e proce ss during t h e p a s t decade, th e primary
c r e d i t belongs t o t h e Michigan C a t h o l i c Conference (MCC).
The f i r s t q u e s ti o n t h a t must be answered her e i s why t h e MCC
i s c a t e g o r i z e d with th e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups i n s t e a d o f with
" o th e r " gr oups .

C e r t a i n l y t h e MCC can n o t be th ought o f a s e x c l u ­

s i v e l y i n t e r e s t e d in th e p u b l i c p o l i c y o f t h e s t a t e ' s e d u c a tio n a l
system.

However, t h e same can be s a i d o f t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n

of School Boards, th e Michigan Education A s s o c i a t i o n , and t h e o t h e r
groups t h a t have i n t e r e s t s t h a t tr a n s c e n d t r a d i t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l
policy questions.
The MCC i s a r e q u i r e d p a r t i c i p a n t in many major d i s c u s s i o n s
o f school p o l i c y because o f i t s tremendous a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e the
outcome o f any p o l i c y a c t i o n .

F r eq u en tly in th e p a s t decade, i t has

been m oti vated t o voice concern ab out many ed u c a ti o n a l i s s u e s .

The

MCC has been p a r t i c u l a r l y vocal in a r e a s o f school f i n a n c e , and i t

67
r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n t e r e s t s o f one major segment o f t h e p r o v i d e r s o f
school s e r v i c e s .
The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t o f t h e MCC i s o f l i t t l e val ue in
id en tify in g the positio n al leadership.

Normally, t h e e x e c u t i v e

d i r e c t o r o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n i s presumed t o be i t s most powerful
internal leader.

But in c e r t a i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s th e " p u b l i c a f f a i r s

d i r e c t o r " i s a more dominant p u b l i c p o l i c y f o r c e than i s t h e c h i e f
adm inistrator.

For t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h i s de cade, th e l e a d e r s h i p

o f th e MCC has been sh ared by i t s d i r e c t o r and i t s d i r e c t o r o f p u b l i c
affairs.

Both l e a d e r s have been l a r g e l y independent o f one a n o t h e r ,

with p er so n al a c c e s s t o i m p o rta n t board members.
The K-12 management s e c t o r , a lth o u g h s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n f e r i o r
t o the t e a c h e r groups in g r a s s r o o t s p o t e n t i a l and c a n d i d a t e f i n a n c ­
i n g , i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y s u p e r i o r in "lobbying r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . "

Of th e

roughly f o r t y t o f i f t y f u l l - t i m e e d u c a t i o n a l l o b b y i s t s whose primary
endeavors a r e t o monitor and t o i n f l u e n c e th e l e g i s l a t i v e p r o c e s s ,
more than h a l f a r e employed by i n d i v i d u a l lo c a l o r i n t e r m e d i a t e school
d i s t r i c t s o r com binations o f t h e s e management e n t i t i e s .

When working

a s a c o a l i t i o n , t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s can s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e educa­
tional policy.

I n d i v i d u a l l y , t h e i r power seems much l e s s r e a l .

I t would be

fruitless

t o a tt e m p t t o i d e n t i f y i n d i v i d u a l

d i s t r i c t l o b b y i s t s on o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t s .

T h e ir i n f l u e n c e on t h e

p o l i c y pr o c e ss comes from t h e i r r e g u l a r a b i l i t y t o c a p i t a l i z e on t h e
p erso nal and p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s they have developed and n u r t u r e d
while r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r employers in t h e s t a t e c a p i t o l .

In a couple

o f d i s t i n c t c a s e s , t h e s e l o b b y i s t s have s i g n i f i c a n t l y more a b i l i t y t o

68

i n f l u e n c e s t a t e p u b l i c p o l i c y than t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s do;
in such ca s e s they occupy p o s i t i o n s o f g r e a t s t a t u s , i f not g r e a t
t i t l e , w i t h i n t h e s t a t e e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y p r o c e s s .
In t h e p u b l i c h ig h e r e d u c a tio n management s e c t o r in Michigan,
t h e p r e s i d e n t s o f t h e major u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e p u b l i c p o l i c y l e a d e r s .
Michigan has t h i r t e e n f o u r - y e a r p u b l i c u n i v e r s i t i e s .

Among t h e s e ,

Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan, and Wayne
S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y have been given c e r t a i n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l and s t a t u ­
t o r y d i s t i n c t i o n s such as s t a t e w i d e e l e c t e d boards o f t r u s t e e s .

The

remainder o f th e p u b l i c u n i v e r s i t i e s have boards a ppointed by t h e
gover nor.

The p r e s i d e n t s o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s can make s i g n i f i c a n t

p o l i c y advances by a w e l l - ti m e d t r i p t o t h e s t a t e c a p i t o l .

The pub­

l i c p o l i c y impact o f t h e deans o f Michigan u n i v e r s i t y c o l l e g e s o f
educati on i s not dem onstrab le in sweeping reforms they have promoted.
R a t h e r , t h e s e o f f i c i a l s a r e empowered to a f f e c t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g , and th us e d u c a t io n a l achievement in t h e s t a t e ' s
p u b l i c school sy stem s, through a c t i o n s t h a t th ey may t a k e a t t h e u n i ­
v ersity level.
The f o u r - y e a r h i g h e r e d u c a tio n i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e n o t r e p r e ­
s e n te d by a s i n g l e advocate o f p u b l i c h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n .

Their s t a t e

a s s o c i a t i o n , a lthoug h i t may be a powerful f o r c e in molding the
i n t e r n a l p o l i c i e s o f s t a t e f o u r - y e a r i n s t i t u t i o n s , i s a n o n e n t i t y in
the e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l m i l i e u o f Lansing.

In f a c t , th e p r e v i o u s l y

s i l e n t Michigan c h a p t e r o f t h e American A s s o c i a t i o n o f U n i v e r s i t y
P r o f e s s o r s has taken i t upon i t s e l f t o s t e p forward t o make a
h e r e t o f o r e - u n h e a r d - o f budget p r e s e n t a t i o n on h i g h e r e d u c a t io n t o th e

69

g o v e r n o r ' s c h i e f budget o f f i c e r .

College p r e s i d e n t s a r e ne ver s u s ­

pected o f r e p r e s e n t i n g i n t e r e s t s exten ding beyond t h e i r " p r o v i n c e . "
The community c o l l e g e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, have a f a i r l y
v i s i b l e s t a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e Michigan Community College As socia ­
t i o n (MCCA), which can from time t o ti m e t h r e a t e n t o a f f e c t s t a t e
p o l i c y on tw o-yea r i n s t i t u t i o n s .

The l e a d e r s o f t h e MCCA must be con­

s i d e r e d in a p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e p u b l i c policy-making power in
the s t a t e .

The p r e s i d e n t s o f c e r t a i n community c o l l e g e s must a l s o be

c o n s id e r e d as independent f o r c e s w ith in t h e e d u c a tio n a l policy-making
community in Michigan.

In c e r t a i n c a s e s , t h e a b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n i n d i ­

vidual community c o l l e g e p r e s i d e n t s t o m anipulate s t a t e p o l i c y in a
way t h a t u l t i m a t e l y b e n e f i t s a l l community c o l l e g e s may f a r s u r p a s s
any such a b i l i t y t h a t t h e i r o f f i c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n (MCCA) has ev e r
demonstrated.
In t h e p r i v a t e h i g h e r e d u c a tio n s e c t o r , p u b l i c p o l i c y d i r e c ­
t i o n i s more c l e a r l y c e n t e r e d in a s i n g l e a s s o c i a t i o n —t h e A s s o c i a tio n
o f Independent Colleg es and U n i v e r s i t i e s (AICUM).

AICUM must be

judged t o be among t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t , however s u b t l e , of t h e edu­
c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups in Michigan.

I t s c l e a r o b j e c t i v e s and smooth,

q u i e t s t r a t e g i e s have r e s u l t e d in s t a t e programs t h a t have, a t t i m e s ,
outra ged t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r .

Even a t t h i s moment, a w e l l - f i n a n c e d

campaign t o s t r i p l e g i s l a t i v e l y a u t h o r i z e d p r i v a t e c o l l e g e funding
programs i s t h r e a t e n e d .

The s t r e n g t h o f th e AICUM c e n t e r s in i t s

a c t i v e alumni; i t s l a r g e and powerful ( l a r g e l y honorary) c o l l e g e
boards o f t r u s t e e s ; i t s more th an t h i r t y c o l l e g e s ; i t s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
with th e c h urch, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e powerful Michigan C a t h o l i c Conference;

70

and i t s c e n t r a l i z e d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p .

AICUM i s c o n t r o l l e d

by an e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r who o p e r a t e s through a h i g h l y p e r s o n a l i z e d
and informal network with h i s board-member p r i v a t e c o l l e g e p r e s i ­
dents.
There i s v i r t u a l l y no orga nize d f a c u l t y p o l i c y f o r c e a t t h e
s ta te level.

Unlike th e K-12 s e c t o r , in which t h e power i s d i v i d e d ,

a t l e a s t somewhat, between a l a b o r and a management s e c t o r as well as
a p u b l i c and a p r i v a t e d i v i s i o n , th e h ig h e r e d u c a tio n s e c t o r has no
c l e a r h ig h e r e d u c a tio n l a b o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a t t h e s t a t e p o l i c y l e v e l .
The p r o s p e c t s f o r c l e a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h i s l e v e l seem r a t h e r dim,
because t h e American A s s o c i a t i o n o f U n i v e r s i t y P r o f e s s o r s (AAUP) and
t h e MEA v i e t o r e p r e s e n t f a c u l t y members in c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g ,
whereas f a c u l t y a t h i g h e r - s t a t u s and d i v e r s i f i e d i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e
th e U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan and Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y r e f u s e t o
be o rganiz ed by anyone.
fied.

The MEA l e a d e r s h i p has a l r e a d y been i d e n t i ­

No c l e a r voice f o r h ig her e d u cati o n has emerged from w i t h i n

t h e MEA in the p u b l i c p o l i c y p r o c e s s .

The AAUP has only r e c e n t l y

s t a f f e d a Lansing o f f i c e with an e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r .
Perhaps a hundred o t h e r groups and formal a s s o c i a t i o n s
o c c a s i o n a l l y come i n t o c o n t a c t with th e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y e s t a b ­
lish m e n t .

This p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s was designed t o i d e n t i f y t h e major

p o l i c y l e a d e r s and t h e p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t s o f
th e i n d i v i d u a l s who might be expected to wield t h e power o f t h e edu­
cation policy establishment.

71

Other I n t e r e s t Groups
Other i n t e r e s t groups were de f in e d as p o l i c y f o r c e s t h a t ,
although they have " bro ader p o l i c y p u r p o s e s ," can be c a l l e d upon to
e x e r t i n f l u e n c e on t h e ed u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y p r o c e s s .

Some gro up s, l i k e

th e s t a t e AFL-CIO, have a formal l i n k to e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups,
in t h i s ca s e t h e American F e d e r a ti o n o f T e achers .

The AFL-CIO could

t h e r e f o r e be c a l l e d an e d u c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t group r a t h e r than an
" o t h e r i n t e r e s t gr oup," u n l e s s t h e c a te g o r y " e d u c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t
group" im plies some dee per and more e x c l u s i v e involvement in educa­
tio n al policy questions.
Perhaps t h e two l a r g e s t s ta t e w id e groups t h a t o c c a s i o n a l l y
invol ve themselves in e d u c a tio n a l p o l i t i c s a r e th e United Auto Workers
(UAW) and t h e Michigan S t a t e Chamber o f Commerce.

Although they have

no r e g u l a r involvement in e d u c a t i o n , th e y do have i n t e r m i t t e n t ,
i s s u e - s p e c i f i c involvement.
The Chamber r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t a t e ' s b u s in e s s l e a d e r s .

This

group i s l i k e l y t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as " a n t i - t a x , " " a n t i - s p e n d , " and
"anti-education."
I f th e Chamber r e p r e s e n t s a c o n s e r v a t i v e vie w p o in t , t h e UAW
represents a lib e ra l po sitio n .

This l a r g e s t o f Michigan u n i f i e d

la b o r unions c an , on o c c a s i o n , be a s i g n i f i c a n t f o r c e in determ ining
t h e outcome o f key l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i o n s in t h i s domain.
I t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t t o s e p a r a t e t h e p o s i t i o n a l from
th e r e p u t a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y l e a d e r s h i p of
th e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n e i t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n .

In t h e Chamber, both

the p r e s i d e n t and t h e v i c e - p r e s i d e n t a r e former employees o f t h e s t a t e

72

Department o f Educ atio n.

The power of t h e UAW, on t h e o t h e r hand,

i s voiced by a small c ad r e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l l o b b y i s t s .

The i n v i t a t i o n

t o be in clu d ed in t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e Michigan Education Seminars
was extended t o t h e l e a d e r s o f both o f t h e s e groups.
Another c a te g o r y o f o u t s i d e groups must be c o n s id e re d f o r
i n c l u s i o n in any forum o f s t a t e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y makers.

However

o f t e n th e f a c t may be ignored o r d e n ie d , e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y in t h i s
s t a t e i s o c c a s i o n a l l y in f l u e n c e d by t h e media.
i n t o a t l e a s t two c a t e g o r i e s :

Media can be d i v id e d

p r i n t and e l e c t r o n i c media.

The p o s i ­

t i o n a l l e a d e r s o f t h e media, t h e e d i t o r s and t h e s t a t i o n managers,
t a k e l i t t l e i n t e r e s t in i n f l u e n c i n g p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y .

The

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r e p o r t i n g s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y making
i s l a r g e l y assumed by t h e two major w ire s e r v i c e s .
Other groups such as t h e League o f Women V o t e r s , t h e s t a t e
P ar e n t-T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n , and t h e American A s s o c i a t i o n o f Univer­
s i t y Women a r e r e l a t i v e l y q u i e t p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y pro cess a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l .

Since t h e t h r e e a s s o c i a t i o n s shared

i n fo r m a tio n on e d u c a tio n pro vided by a s i n g l e l e a d e r in Lansing, th e
now-deceased v i c e - p r e s i d e n t o f t h e League, a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e i r
p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p was c o n s id e re d i r r e l e v a n t .
The p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s r e p o r t e d in t h i s study provided a
s t a r t i n g p o i n t from which t o i d e n t i f y t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l and in d i v i d u a l
p o l i c y f o r c e s w i t h i n th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making m i l i e u o f t h e S t a t e
o f Michigan.

To l o c a t e t h e key p l a y e r s in Michigan e d u c a ti o n a l

policy-making c i r c l e s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r f i r s t had t o de te r m in e th e

73

major segments o f t h e policy-making community by c a t e g o r y .

These

c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s were u s e fu l in drawing f i n e r l i n e s o f policy-making
leadership.
In t h i s s tu d y , f o u r c a t e g o r i e s of e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p were
employed:

t h e e x e c u t i v e b ran ch, th e l e g i s l a t i v e b r an ch, e d u c a t i o n a l

i n t e r e s t gr oups, and o t h e r i n t e r e s t groups.

From t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s ,

im port ant l e a d e r s were i d e n t i f i e d by reviewing t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
c h a r t s o f th e v a r i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

Although in t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e

p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s t h e r e s e a r c h e r r e l i e d on h i s perso nal e x p e r i e n c e s
to s e p a r a t e , f o r example, " s i g n i f i c a n t " groups from o t h e r s , even t h a t
p r o c e ss was n o t t o t a l l y s u b j e c t i v e .

I t was based on t h e p r i n c i p l e

t h a t , a t l e a s t t o some d e g r e e , t h e amount o f a u t h o r i t y an i n d i v i d u a l
has w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n i s determined by t h e formal p o s i t i o n h e /s h e
occupies.

The pr o c e ss o f s o r t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s , however, much l e s s

objective.
In each o f t h e t h r e e aforemention ed p o l i c y c a t e g o r i e s — th e
e x e c u t i v e bran ch , t h e l e g i s l a t i v e b r anch, and e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t
grou ps —c e r t a i n i m p o rta n t l e a d e r s in th e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a r e a were
not i n clu d ed in t h e p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s .

The d i r e c t o r o f t h e s t a t e ' s

budget o f f i c e was n o t i d e n t i f i e d , alt h o u g h he p o s s e s s e s g r e a t power.
Every s t a t e l e g i s l a t o r , from time t o tim e , w ie ld s i m p o rta n t power in
th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e s s .

Among t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t

g r o u p s, ad-hoc committees and o r g a n i z a t i o n s o c c a s i o n a l l y had a s i g ­
n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e e d u c a t i o n a l po licy-making p r o c e s s .

These

74

groups were not included in th e p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , and were l a r g e l y
excluded from th e s tu dy f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a so n s .
A r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s i s f a r more useful than a p o s i t i o n a l
a n a l y s i s in i d e n t i f y i n g l e a d e r s who play th e g r e a t e s t r o l e in shaping
s t a t e e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y .

The next s e c t i o n c o n t a i n s a d i s c u s s io n of

the r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s undertaken in t h i s s tud y.
The R eputational A n a ly s is —An Overview
Real r a t h e r than " p o s i t i o n a l " l e a d e r s h i p in a p u b l i c p o l i c y
pro cess i s n o t e a s i l y d efined o r i d e n t i f i e d .

In th e f i r s t p l a c e ,

l e a d e r s h i p i s probably b e s t de f in e d as a p o t e n t i a l o r a c a p a c i t y .
In a p o l i t i c a l s e n s e , power i s evidenced by th e a b i l i t y o f i t s pos­
s e s s o r t o ach iev e p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s .

I f th e p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n ­

ment concurs in a l e a d e r ' s a b i l i t y t o provide rewards o r punishments,
the l e a d e r i s p o r tr a y e d as powerful.
Many e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i t i c a l o p e r a t i v e s p e r c e i v e power as t h e
f u n c tio n o f an i l l u s i o n c r e a t e d by i t s p o s s e s s o r .

Much p o l i t i c a l

b ehav io r i s d i r e c t e d toward c r e a t i n g t h i s i l l u s i o n o f power.

The

e x t e n t to which one c r e a t e s an i l l u s i o n o f power i s th e e x t e n t to
which h e/she w i l l f i n d i t i n c r e a s i n g l y easy to e x e r c i s e h i s / h e r w i l l
upon t h e system—t o d e l i v e r o r t o withhold th e re s o u r c e s t h a t h e /s h e
a l l e a g e s t o have a t h i s / h e r d i s p o s a l .

An i n d i v i d u a l ' s a b i l i t y t o

m a i n t a i n power w i t h i n a p o l i t i c a l system depends p a r t l y on t h a t
p e r s o n ' s a b i l i t y to r e c e i v e c r e d i t f o r th e wides t p o s s i b l e v a r i e t y o f
p o l i t i c a l outcomes.

75

E a rly in t h e s t u d y , t h e r e s e a r c h e r s p e n t more than t h i r t y
minutes each w it h f i f t e e n t o p - l e v e l p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r s , drawing a
l i s t o f t h e " t e n most powerful l e a d e r s in Michigan e d u c a t i o n . "

By

us ing t h i s r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e , t h e r e s e a r c h e r a t te m p te d
to de te rm ine who th o s e people w i t h i n t h e system were who reached
a c r o s s t h e b r o a d e s t spectrum o f i n f l u e n c e s - - t h o s e who had c r e a t e d
t h e g r e a t e s t image o f power.

Whereas th e p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s was to

a l i m i t e d degree a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p p o t e n t i a l
of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s
was employed t o e x p lo r e t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e e x e r c i s e o f power w i t h i n
th e system.
Formal i n t e r v i e w s were conducted a t t h e o u t s e t o f t h e study to
help i d e n t i f y t h e "most powerful" e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y makers in Michi­
gan.

These formal i n t e r v i e w s were supplemented wit h p r i v a t e co n v e r ­

s a t i o n s with o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers o r knowledgeable i n s i d e r s
a t the s ta te lev el.

The r e s u l t s o f l e s s formal c o n v e r s a t i o n s were

blended i n t o t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e formal i n t e r v i e w s t o f o rm u la t e a sub­
s t a n t i a l in t e r v i e w e e sample o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a c t o r s a t t h e
s ta te level.
The R e p u ta ti o n a l Le adership
S e l e c t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t o be i n te r v ie w e d a s p a r t o f th e
r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f M ic h ig a n 's s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l power s t r u c t u r e
p a r t l y depended on t h e i r a v a i l a b i l i t y t o be i n t e r v i e w e d .

The purpose

o f t h e s e i n t e r v i e w s was t o g e n e r a t e a l i s t o f t h i r t y - f i v e t o f o r t y
i n d i v i d u a l s who would become t h e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e Michigan

76
Education Seminars.

I n d i v i d u a l s r e p r e s e n t i n g s e v e r a l o f t h e major

segments w i t h i n t h e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s ( t h e e x e c u t i v e b r an ch, t h e l e g i s ­
l a t i v e b r anch, t h e ed u c a ti o n a l i n t e r e s t gr ou ps, and o t h e r i n t e r e s t
groups) were i n t e rv i e w e d to d e f i n e th e e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y l e a d e r s h i p
a t the s t a t e le v e l.
I n te rv i e w f o r m a t . —Each i n t e r v i e w e e in t h e r e p u t a t i o n a l
a n a l y s i s was t o l d t h a t th e r e s e a r c h e r had r e c e iv e d a g r a n t from a
Washington, D.C.-based e d u c a t io n a l i n s t i t u t e to develop a p o l i c y forum
f o r t o p - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers in Michigan.

The purpose o f

th e i n t e r v i e w was to i d e n t i f y i n d i v i d u a l s who should be included in
discussions of actual or p o ten tial educational is s u e s —individuals
who c o n s i s t e n t l y in f l u e n c e d t h e outcome o f t h e s e d e c i s i o n s a t th e
s ta te level.
The i n t e r v i e w e e s were asked t o rank t h e " ten most powerful
e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers" a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l , by name.

In some

c a s e s , in t e r v i e w e e s were a b l e t o name te n i n d i v i d u a l s w ith o u t d i f f i ­
culty.

They were not prompted ab out c a t e g o r i e s from which t o draw

t h e i r candidates f o r d i s t i n c t i o n .

However, in n e a r l y ev e r y c a s e ,

in t e r v i e w e e s broke t h e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y system down i n t o t h e same
f o u r g en er al c a t e g o r i e s used by th e r e s e a r c h e r t o s e p a r a t e t h e var io u s
segments o f t h e e d u c a ti o n a l policy-making community.
The e x e c u t iv e b r a n c h . —The i n d i v i d u a l mentioned most f r e ­
q u e n tl y as a major p o l i c y l e a d e r in s t a t e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y making
in t h e e x e c u t i v e branch was t h e s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f p u b l i c
i n s t r u c t i o n , John W. P o r t e r .

(S ince th e time o f t h e r e p u t a t i o n a l

a n a l y s i s , P o r t e r has r e s i g n e d from t h a t p o s i t i o n ) .

On no l i s t ,

77
however, was he ranked as t h e g r e a t e s t power.

This may be a t t r i b u t e d

t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t i s r a r e l y v i s i b l e as a major
adv oc ate w i t h i n t h e formal e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e s s —h i s
p o s i t i o n s a r e e i t h e r implied o r a r e t r a n s m i t t e d through a i d e s .
Most n o t a b l e i s th e f a c t t h a t no i n t e r v i e w e e mentioned e i t h e r
Governor M il l i k e n o r h i s c h i e f a i d e , Doug Smith.

A number o f w r i t e r s

c i t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e review recogn ized t h a t t h e g o v e r n o r ' s
a u t h o r i t y t o e x e r c i s e c o n t r o l over th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making
process i s normally l i m i t e d t o i s s u e s o f s t a t e f in a n c i n g o f e d u c a t i o n .
At t h e time o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s , th e g o v e r n o r ' s c h i e f e d u c a ti o n a l
a s s i s t a n t was new to th e j o b , and had n o t become e s t a b l i s h e d as a
le a d e r in e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making.

However, t h e g o v e r n o r ' s former

a i d e , James P h e l p s , was th e second most o f t e n mentioned e x e c u t i v e
branch l e a d e r in e d u c a tio n a l i s s u e s .

Only months b e f o r e , Phelps had

moved from h i s o f f i c e w i t h i n t h e g o v e r n o r ' s q u a r t e r s t o an a s s o c i a t e
s u p e rin t e n d e n c y w i t h i n t h e s t a t e Department o f Edu cation.

His p o s i ­

t i o n as l e a d e r o f t h e r e s e a r c h and school a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d i v i s i o n o f
th e s t a t e dep ar tm en t pla ce d him in a key p o s i t i o n t o i n f l u e n c e school
policy.

However, much o f h i s p e r c e iv e d i n f l u e n c e may have r e s u l t e d

from h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e gov ernor.

His e x p e r ie n c e as a l e a d e r

in school f i n a n c e i s s u e s c o n t r i b u t e d t o h i s high s t a t u s as an educa­
tional leader.
The d i r e c t o r o f t h e s t a t e Department o f Management and Budget,
Gerald M i l l e r , was acknowledged by s e v e r a l i n t e r v i e w e e s to be a major
f o r c e on e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s .

His annual recommendations f o r

school f i n a n c e packages plac ed him in a p o s i t i o n o f

constant influence

78

over school r e s o u r c e s .

Although n o t a member o f t h e g o v e r n o r ' s

i n t e r n a l s t a f f , t h e d i r e c t o r of t h i s major depar tment o f s t a t e govern­
ment i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as " t h e governor" by p o l i c y a c t o r s in t h e
e d u c a t i o n a l and o t h e r p o l i c y communities.

The power o f t h e s t a t e

budget d i r e c t o r t o i n f l u e n c e t h e s t a t e budget i s extreme.

I t is

u s u a l l y viewed as a n e g a t i v e i n f l u e n c e .
The Department o f E d u c a t io n ' s budget o f f i c e r , Robert McKerr,
is a l s o c o n s t a n t l y engaged in budget d e c i s i o n s t h a t have a broad
e f f e c t on t h e s c h o o ls .

In te rv i e w e e s o c c a s i o n a l l y mentioned him as

a powerful l e a d e r .
F i n a l l y , r e c e i v i n g mention as an emerging e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
l e a d e r was t h e D i r e c t o r o f School Law and L e g i s l a t i o n , P a t r i c i a
Widmayer.

Although she was r e l a t i v e l y new t o t h e j o b , Widmayer's

a u t h o r i t y was c o n s id e re d t o be r e l a t e d t o t h e a b i l i t y o f th e occupant
o f t h i s p o s i t i o n t o c o n t r o l t h e flow o f in fo r m ati o n from th e d e p a r t ­
ment to t h e l e g i s l a t u r e and v i c e v e r s a .
The l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h . - - S p e a k e r o f t h e House Bobby Crim was
i d e n t i f i e d as t h e key l e a d e r on e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e s in th e l e g i s l a ­
ture.

Not s u r p r i s i n g was th e omission o f t h e s e n a t e m a j o r i t y l e a d e r

from th e l i s t .

The s e n a t e , u n l i k e t h e house, has r u l e s and t r a d i ­

tions t h a t severely lim it the a u th o rity of i t s leader.

The s p e a k e r ,

on t h e o t h e r hand, b e s id e s having s u b s t a n t i a l o f f i c i a l a u t h o r i t y , i s
a "school guy."

A former t e a c h e r , school l o b b y i s t , and l e g i s l a t i v e

s t a f f member, t h e s p e a k e r i s a rec ogn ized e x p e r t on school f i n a n c e .
His e x p e r i e n c e in t h e l a t e 1960s as a s t a f f member on a comprehensive
Michigan school f i n a n c e s tu dy undoubtedly c o n t r i b u t e d t o h i s e x p e r t i s e

79

and i n t e r e s t in t h i s a r e a o f government.

Equa lly i m p o r t a n t , however,

may be h i s a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l t h e outcome o f major e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
i s s u e s through h i s c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l a i d e , Gene Caesar.
Caesar was t h e only l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f member mentioned by t h e
i n t e r v i e w e e s in t h e r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s a s a major f o r c e in educa­
t i o n a l p o l i c y making.

Perhaps most im port ant i s t h e f a c t t h a t sev ­

e r a l i n t e r v i e w e e s l i s t e d C ae sar, n o t Crim, as t h e major f o r c e on
s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making.

This was unexpected because o f th e

g r e a t d i s t a n c e on t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t between t h e s p e a k e r and h i s
e d u c a t i o n a l a i d e - - a t l e a s t two l e v e l s o f s t a f f members a r e between
t h e s peaker and t h i s a i d e .

Even more unexpected i s th e f a c t t h a t t h e

power o f t h i s a i d e i s so u n c o n te s te d .
The remainder o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s from t h e l e g i s l a t i v e branch
who were l i s t e d w i t h i n t h e " top te n" by v a r i o u s i n t e r v i e w e e s were
members of t h e l e g i s l a t u r e .

Included on t h e l i s t were t h e e d u c a t io n

subcommittee chairmen o f both l e g i s l a t i v e a p p r o p r i a t i o n s committees
and th e former e d u c a tio n committee chairman f o r whom t h e s t a t e school
a i d a c t was named, S e n a to r G i l b e r t Bu rsley.

Beneath t h e s e l e g i s ­

l a t o r s in p e r c e i v e d power in t h e l e g i s l a t i v e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a r en a
were t h e two chairman o f t h e e d u c a ti o n committees.

Others r e c e i v i n g

mention were t h e chairman and vic e- ch airm an o f t h e Senate Appropri a­
t i o n s Committee.
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t in t e r v i e w e e s p e r c e iv e d th e v i c e chairman o f t h e A p p r o p r ia t io n s Committee, S e n a to r B i l l i e Huffman, as
being more i n f l u e n t i a l th a n h i s committee chairman, S e n a t o r Jerome
H a r t.

This i s proba bly a t t r i b u t a b l e t o two f a c t o r s .

F i r s t , a t the

80
time o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s , Huffman was g e n e r a l l y reg arde d as one o f th e
two o r t h r e e most i n f l u e n t i a l members o f th e s t a t e s e n a t e .

Second,

Huffman's r o l e in determining t h e outcome o f t h e h ig h e r e d u c a t io n
budget b i l l i s well documented and h ig h l y r e s p e c t e d , as i s h i s pr o­
c l i v i t y f o r f i g h t i n g f o r h i s l o c a l school d i s t r i c t ' s budg et--a nd
winning.
Whereas the chairman o f t h e s e n a t e Education Committee,
S e n a to r Jack Faxon, was r a t e d somewhat h i g h e r in t h e e d u c a t i o n a l
power s t r u c t u r e than was h i s house c o u n t e r p a r t , Rep. L u c i l l e
McCollough, n e i t h e r was th ought to be as i n f l u e n t i a l as were th e
a p p r o p r i a t i o n s chairmen and subcommittee chairmen.

This v e r i f i e s a

well-worn axiom o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e — t h a t money i s power.

The e x e r ­

c i s e o f power r e q u i r e s a m an ip u la tio n o f th e reward systems upon
which th e process r e v o l v e s .
Of t h e f i f t e e n members o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e who were given
c r e d i t f o r an a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y , t h r e e were
Republicans.

Although much o f t h i s d is c r e p a n c y between Democratic

and Republican i n f l u e n c e r e s u l t e d from t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e m a j o r i t y
Democrats t o det er m ine committee as sig nmen ts and th e l e g i s l a t i v e
agenda, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l impression o f t h e Democrats as t h e " spe nders "
and t h e " b l e e d e r s , " as opposed t o t h e im pres sio n o f Republicans as
f i s c a l c o n s e r v a t i v e s , pro bably had a s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t on t h e s e data
and, in f a c t , may be ev iden ce o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e s e i m p r e s s io n s .
The e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s . —More than in any o t h e r c a t e ­
gor y, l e g i s l a t i v e i n t e r v i e w e e s a ttem p ted t o " load t h e d a ta " in th e
c a te g o r y o f e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups.

For example, an unusual

81
number o f u n i v e r s i t y p r e s i d e n t s and l o c a l school d i s t r i c t s u p e r i n ­
te n d e n t s appeared on t h e l e g i s l a t o r s ' l i s t s o f t h e t o p ten p o l i c y
leaders.

Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , th e l e g i s l a t o r s sh ared a common t e r r i ­

t o r y with the e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

The p r o c l i v i t y o f l e g i s ­

l a t o r s t o name o t h e r w is e innocuous e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s among
p er ceiv ed e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y l e a d e r s might have been m o tivate d by
a v ariety of f a c to rs .
The i n t e r v ie w e e s had been t o l d t h a t t h e r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s
was being conducted t o determine who would be i n v i t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e
in a s ta t e w id e forum f o r e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y makers.

T h e r e f o r e , one

m o t iv a ti o n f o r l e g i s l a t o r s ' a t t e m p t i n g t o i n c l u d e t h e i r l o c a l educa­
t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r on t h e i r l i s t o f " t e n most i n f l u e n t i a l " was the
d e s i r e t o c u r r y th e f a v o r o f a back-home p o w e r - - t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s
might be i n v i t e d t o t o p - l e v e l s t a t e forums.

This c y n ic a l i n t e r p r e t a ­

t i o n must be tempered by t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t l e g i s l a t o r s n a t u r a l l y
d e s i r e t o upgrade t h e s t a t u s o f l o c a l l e a d e r s , an a c t i o n t h a t
i n c r e a s e s th e p er ceiv ed power of l o c a l e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .
The l e g i s l a t o r hopes t h a t t h i s i n c r e a s e d power can be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
more money f o r t h e l o c a l d i s t r i c t .

T h i s , o f c o u r s e , would a l s o make

th e l o c a l l e g i s l a t o r ap pear more power ful.
A second i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , however, i s l e s s c y n i c a l .

This i s

t h a t c e r t a i n l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s may, in f a c t , be doing an e x c e l ­
l e n t jo b o f lobbying.

As a consequence, t h e l e g i s l a t o r p e r c e i v e s th e

l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r as a very powerful f o r c e in e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
making.

F u r t h e r , an i n d i c a t i o n by t h e l e g i s l a t o r t h a t h i s lo cal

e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r i s a powerful f o r c e may, in f a c t , be a

82

s ta t e m e n t t h a t th e l e g i s l a t o r i s making about h i m s e l f :

"I am a power­

fu l l e g i s l a t o r and I am going t o t e l l t h e i n t e r v i e w e r who i n f l u e n c e s
me.

Because h e / s h e i n f l u e n c e s me--a powerful l e a d e r - - h e / s h e i s a l s o ,

in f a c t , a powerful l e a d e r . "
When taken as a group, l e g i s l a t o r s did not d i f f e r d r a m a t i c a l l y
from t h e r e s t o f t h e in t e r v i e w e e s i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f e d u c a tio n a l
power f o r c e s .

The ch o ic e s from o u t s i d e and from w i t h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l

i n t e r e s t groups of who were " t h e most powerful o f t h e most powerful"
were a v a r i e d and ev enly d i s t r i b u t e d sample o f ever y element o f th e
educational policy process previously described.
The c h i e f e x e c u t i v e s o f both t e a c h e r s ' unions were i d e n t i ­
f i e d as major powers, with th e MEA l e a d e r p o l l i n g only s l i g h t l y b e t t e r
than t h e l e a d e r o f th e American F e d e r a ti o n o f Te ac her s.

Rep resenta ­

t i v e s o f both major management gro ups, t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t h e
school b o a r d s , were mentioned.

In t h i s c a s e , however, i t was th e

management l o b b y i s t s , and not t h e management e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r s o r
a s s o c i a t i o n p r e s i d e n t s , who were named.

In f a c t , in t h e e d u c a t i o n a l

policy-making p r o c e s s , l o b b y i s t s g e n e r a l l y did much b e t t e r i n an
a n a l y s i s o f p e r c e iv e d power th an did t h e i r b o s s e s .
This phenomenon might be a t t r i b u t a b l e t o a v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s .
F i r s t , t h e l o b b y i s t s a r e c l o s e r than t h e i r bosses t o t h e p o l i c y pro­
c e s s , a r e o f t e n depended on to make d e c i s i o n s and r e p o r t l a t e r , and
as a consequence may, i n f a c t , be th e s i n g l e most powerful f o r c e in
s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making as f a r as t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s
a r e concerned.

Second, t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s were L a n s i n g - o r i e n t e d , and

83

t h e l o b b y i s t s a r e o f t e n simply b e t t e r known t o l e g i s l a t o r s and execu­
t i v e l e a d e r s than a r e t h e i r b o s s e s .
One o f t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g s about t h e e d u c a tio n a l
i n t e r e s t groups was t h a t , under r a r e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , one does not have
t o be p e r s o n a l l y known t o p o l i c y makers t o be c o n s id e r e d a powerful
force.

This i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i f one i s t h e p r e s i d e n t o f a p u b l i c

c o l l e g e , and i f t h a t c o l l e g e i s one o f th e "Big Three "—Wayne S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan, o r Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
Perhaps an even more compelling o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h a t t o be a powerful
c o l l e g e p r e s i d e n t one must a l s o r e p r e s e n t a "Big Ten" school —
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o r t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan.

Even though

l e g i s l a t o r s c r i t i c i z e d C l i f t o n Wharton, then p r e s i d e n t o f Michigan
S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , f o r h i s absence from t h e s t a t e c a p i t o l , he was
c i t e d as a major f o r c e in e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y making.
The only i n d i v i d u a l who drew as much ac claim durin g t h e repu­
t a t i o n a l i n t e r v i e w s as t h e p r e s i d e n t s o f t h e "Big Three/B ig Ten"
s c h o o ls was t h e l o b b y i s t f o r t h e C ity o f D e t r o i t s c h o o l s , Richard
Smith.

The as se ssm en t o f Smith a s a major power in Michigan educa­

tional p o l i t i c s is r e la tiv e ly universal.

A fter a l l , his d i s t r i c t

demands and r e c e i v e s a l a r g e s h a re o f t h e s t a t e school a i d funds every
year.

Also , Smith has b u i l t a complex network o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s with

l e g i s l a t o r s and s t a f f members from a c r o s s t h e s t a t e .

His d i s t r i c t

has t h e s t r o n g e s t t i e s t o big l a b o r , big b u s i n e s s , and big government.
I t was no s u r p r i s e t o f i n d him among t h e f i n a l i s t s in t h e "most power­
f u l " c a te g o r y .

84

Perhaps a t t h i s p o i n t i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o ob serve t h a t a
r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f e d u c a tio n a l power e l i t e s t r o n g l y resembles
a personality contest.

This may be what makes r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y ­

s i s such an i n t e r e s t i n g method f o r p o l i t i c a l system r e s e a r c h :

It

c h a r a c t e r i z e s th e d i s c i p l i n e t h a t i t a tt e m p ts to stu d y.
In th e nonpublic s e c t o r , both t h e e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r o f th e
P r i v a t e College A s s o c i a t i o n , John Gaffney, and t h e p u b l i c a f f a i r s
d i r e c t o r o f th e Michigan C a t h o l i c Conference, Ed F a r h a t , were i d e n t i ­
f i e d a s powerful f o r c e s in t h e e d u c a tio n a l policy-making p r o c e s s - again no s u r p r i s e .

The omission of a p r i v a t e c o l l e g e p r e s i d e n t from

the l i s t i s somewhat i n t e r e s t i n g .

This omission i s much l e s s s u r ­

p r i s i n g , however, in l i g h t o f previous o b s e r v a t i o n s about th e "Big
Three/B ig T e n ." *
Other i n t e r e s t g r o u p s . — In t h e o t h e r i n t e r e s t groups c a t e ­
gory, t h e l o b b y i s t o f th e United Auto Workers, Frank G a r r i s o n , and
th e e d u c a tio n a l w r i t e r o f th e D e t r o i t Free P r e s s , William Gran t,
r e c e i v e d some mention as major e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y f o r c e s in Michi­
gan.

The im pre ssi on t h a t t h e i r i n t e r e s t in an e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e

could g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e the e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y p rocess i s w e l l r e c ognized.

*So as n o t t o be accused o f being o v e r ly emphatic about t h e
importance o f a t h l e t i c prowess in th e h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making p r o c e s s , i t should be pointed o u t t h a t durin g t h e co u r s e o f
t h i s w r i t i n g Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y r e t u r n e d v i c t o r i o u s from
th e NCAA c o l l e g e b a s k e t b a l l f i n a l s only t o f i n d t h e chairman o f
t h e house A p p r o p r i a ti o n s Committee c a l l i n g f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
a m u l t i - m i l l i o n - d o l l a r s p o r t s aren a in East Lansing as a reward f o r
t h e achievements o f t h i s "academic" i n s t i t u t i o n .

85

Selecting the P a rtic ip a n ts
The r e s e a r c h e r c o n s id e re d p a r t i c i p a n t s e l e c t i o n t o be th e
c r i t i c a l element o f a s u c c e s s f u l study o f t h i s n a t u r e .

Selecting

the p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r t h e seminar s e r i e s involved c o n s o l i d a t i n g
i n fo r m a ti o n t h e r e s e a r c h e r had c o l l e c t e d over t h e y e a r s , as well as
th e r e s u l t s o f th e p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l
analyses.
Besides th e academic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f who should be in cluded
in t h e s tu d y —who should be named, o r i n v i t e d t o be, a p a r t i c i p a n t in
t h e Michigan Education Seminars—o t h e r p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s were
tak en i n t o ac c o u n t.

Academic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s were t h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t

r e f l e c t e d a c t u a l power p o s i t i o n s in t h e policy-making p r o c e s s .

Prac­

t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s were n o t i o n s o f " p o l i t i c a l " e t i q u e t t e t h a t
required in v itin g c e rta in individuals to p a r tic ip a te .
The l i s t o f p a r t i c i p a n t s was l a t e r expanded by p o l i t i c a l
n e c e s s i t y a s well as by desig n to i n c l u d e a v a r i e t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s
who, a lt hough th e y were not u n i v e r s a l l y r ec og nized s t a t e - l e v e l educa­
t i o n a l p o l i c y l e a d e r s , f o r one reas on o r a n o t h e r could n o t be
neglected.

I t must a l s o be p o in te d o u t t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t

l i s t was l i m i t e d f o r c e r t a i n s t r a t e g i c and r e s e a r c h purposes d e s c r i b e d
as s t r a t e g i e s in Chapter IV.
At a l a t e r p o i n t in t h i s s t u d y , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e
Michigan Education Seminars and t h e Michigan c h a p t e r o f t h e Educational
Commission o f t h e S t a t e s —t h e Michigan Education C ounc il—i s d i s c u s s e d .
Although n o t a l l o f t h e members o f t h i s g u b e r n a t o r i a l l y a p p o in t e d t e n member commission appear ed on t h e i n i t i a l l i s t o f p a r t i c i p a n t s , a l l o f

86
them were i n v i t e d t o th e f i r s t meeting o f t h e Michigan Education
Seminars and were s u b se q u e n tl y added t o th e permanent p a r t i c i p a n t
list.
As noted in Chapter I I , pr ev io u s r e s e a r c h on e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y making in Michigan pr ovided l i t t l e guidance in i d e n t i f y i n g
the major f o r c e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h a t p r o c e s s in t h i s s t a t e .

To

review, in r e c r u i t i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r t h e Michigan Education Semi­
n a r s , th e r e s e a r c h e r began by i d e n t i f y i n g major c a t e g o r i e s o f p o l i c y
actors.

From t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s , f i n e r i n t e r n a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s were

made t o in c l u d e t h e p r oper combination o f p o l i c y makers in t h i s p r o ­
cess.

(See appendices f o r t h e names o f seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s c a t e ­

g o r iz e d ac co rdin g t o t h e f o u r segments of e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making
in Michigan [Appendix A], and l i s t e d a l p h a b e t i c a l l y [Appendix B ] ) .
The Executive Branch
The most obvious c a t e g o r y f o r i n c l u s i o n in th e Michigan Edu­
c a t i o n Seminars was t h e e x e c u t i v e branch o f s t a t e government.

Members

o f t h i s branch f o rm u la te e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s and, more i m p o r t a n t ,
i n t e r p r e t and e n f o r c e such p o l i c i e s .
What segments o f t h e e x e c u t i v e branch o f s t a t e government
play th e s t r o n g e s t r o l e in e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making?

The p o s i ­

t i o n a l a n a l y s i s sugge sted t h a t t h e c e n t e r o f e x e c u t i v e power could
be found in t h e g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e .
g e s te d o th e r w i s e .

The r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s sug­

In th e g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e , one a i d e a t t e m p t s to

s o r t o u t t h e a c t i v i t y o f th e l e g i s l a t u r e , t h e s t a t e Board o f Education

87

and Department o f E duc ation, and t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups as
he a d v i s e s t h e governor on e d u c a t i o n a l a f f a i r s .
Also w i t h i n t h e e x e c u t i v e branch a r e t h e s t a t e Board o f Edu­
c a t i o n and t h e s t a t e Department o f Ed uc atio n.

In s e l e c t i n g p a r t i c i ­

pan ts f o r t h e Michigan Education Seminars, t h e r e s e a r c h e r c o n s id e re d
i t e s s e n t i a l t h a t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f both t h e g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e and
th e e d u c a tio n department be in c lu d e d .
Beyond t h e e d u catio n department and t h e a d v i s o r t o t h e gov er ­
n or, o t h e r e x e c u t i v e branch ag e n c i e s p la y a r o l e in f o r m u la t in g s t a t e
e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y .

The g o v e r n o r ' s c h i e f f i s c a l a d v i s o r , t h e d i r e c t o r

o f t h e s t a t e Department o f Management and Budget, p r e s e n t s s t a t e
school recommendations t o t h e l e g i s l a t u r e .

The Department o f Labor

and th e Department o f Commerce a l s o p l a y a r o l e in shaping e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y w i t h i n t h e e x e c u t i v e branch o f government—p o l i c y t h a t o f t e n
t r a n s l a t e s i n t o s t a t e law and f in a n c e fo rm ula s .
The L e g i s l a t i v e Branch
The l e g i s l a t i v e branch o f government i s a n o t h e r i m p o rta n t
i n f l u e n c e on s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y .

Under M ic h ig a n 's c o n s t i t u ­

t i o n , t h e s t a t e Board o f Education i s v i r t u a l l y powerless t o impose
re quire m en ts on lo c a l school d i s t r i c t s w ith o u t t h e mandate of p u b l i c
law.

The l e g i s l a t u r e has emerged a s t h e f i n a l b a t t l e g r o u n d f o r much

s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y .
The l e g i s l a t u r e i s fragmented by p a r t i s a n d i f f e r e n c e s , urbanr u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s , and labor-management d i f f e r e n c e s .

The l e g i s l a t i v e

p roc es s i s b e s e t o r b l e s s e d , depending on o n e ' s p h il o s o p h y , with

88
r a p i d and r e l a t i v e l y extreme t u r n o v e r in l e a d e r s h i p and i n member­
ship.

During t h e p e r i o d from 1965 t o 1974, t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f th e

Michigan l e g i s l a t u r e s h i f t e d from Republican P a r ty domination t o Demo­
c r a t i c P a r t y c o n t r o l (and back and f o r t h w i t h i n th e s e n a t e ) .

Because

o f t h i s c o n d i t i o n and o t h e r s , c e r t a i n l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f members have
m ai ntained i n f l u e n c e over many elements o f t h i s segment o f t h e educa­
t i o n a l policy-making community.

T h e i r involvement as well as t h a t o f

c e r t a i n l e g i s l a t o r s in th e Michigan Education Seminars was c o n s id e re d
imperative.
The Ed uc atio nal I n t e r e s t Groups
A t h i r d c a t e g o r y from which to draw s u b j e c t s f o r t h i s s tu d y
was t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups.

There a r e s e v e r a l ways to

d i v i d e t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups segment o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l
policy-making community.

F i r s t , t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups can

be s e p a r a t e d along labor-management l i n e s .

Thus t e a c h e r groups become

one s ubcate gory and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e groups a n o t h e r .

Second, ed uca­

t i o n a l groups can be d iv id e d a c c o r d in g to t h e lev el o f e d u c a t i o n a l
programming w i t h which th ey a r e most concerned.

Thus K-12 becomes one

c a t e g o r y , community c o l l e g e s become a n o t h e r , and f o u r - y e a r i n s t i t u ­
t i o n s and t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t r e p r e s e n t them become y e t a n o t h e r .
T h i r d , an a d d i t i o n a l i m p o rt a n t s u b c a t e g o r i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n must be
made between government and nongovernment s c h o o ls .

Within t h e ca te g o r y

o f p r i v a t e ( n o n p u b li c , nongovernment) s c h o o l s , a f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a ­
t i o n must be made.

In Michigan, t h e p r i v a t e s chools speak p r i m a r i l y

89

through th e o f f i c e o f a major r e l i g i o u s a s s o c i a t i o n , whereas p r i v a t e
c o l l e g e s have an independent a s s o c i a t i o n .
Other I n t e r e s t Groups
S t i l l other forces d ir e c tly a f f e c t the educational p o licy ­
making proc es s in Michigan, i f only from time t o tim e.
c o n s t i t u t e d t h e f o u r t h major c a te g o r y o f p o l i c y a c t o r s .

These f o r c e s
To begin

w i t h , th e media must be c o n s id e r e d a p o t e n t f o r c e in i n f l u e n c i n g s t a t e
e d u catio n al p o l i c y .

Big l a b o r and big b u s in e s s a l s o o c c a s i o n a l l y

i n t e r v e n e in t h e proce ss t h a t r e s u l t s in s t a t e school laws and reg u­
lations.

Groups l i k e th e League o f Women Voters have played a v i t a l

r o l e in e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan, d e s p i t e an o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n a l purpose t h a t s u g g e s ts t h a t e d u c a tio n i s not t h e g r o u p 's p r i ­
mary purpose.
The Exclusion o f C e r ta in
P o lic y Leaders
The i n d i v i d u a l s o r i g i n a l l y i n v i t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e
Michigan Education Seminars in September 1977 numbered t h i r t y - e i g h t .
By t h e w i n t e r of 1978-79, l e s s than e i g h t e e n months l a t e r , th e l i s t
had grown t o i n c l u d e more th an 100 names.

(See Appendix C f o r th e

l i s t of seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s in September 1978.)

S everal o f t h e

l e a d e r s o f t h e Michigan e d u c a ti o n community were excluded from t h e
original p a rtic ip a n t l i s t .

How c e r t a i n l e a d e r s were excluded from

t h e o r i g i n a l l i s t o f p a r t i c i p a n t s i s a s u b j e c t worthy o f d i s c u s s i o n .
The r e s e a r c h e r was f o r c e d , by both t h e des ig n o f t h e study
and t h e purpose o f t h e s e m in a r s , t o l i m i t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e forums.

90

The a p p r o p r i a t e s i z e f o r t h e seminar was de f in e d as one in which th e
p a r t i c i p a n t s would have t h e o p p o r tu n i t y t o i n t e r a c t with one a n o t h e r
in response to t h e formal p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l edu­
cational issue.

The study was n o t designed t o be a l e c t u r e s e r i e s ,

a lth o u g h in some cases e l em en ts , a t l e a s t , o f some o f th e s e s s i o n s
resembled t h a t format.

A group o f f o r t y t o f i f t y p a r t i c i p a n t s was

c o n s id e re d t o be t h e maximum-sized group in which a program o f t h i s
n a t u r e could be conducted with a r e a s o n a b le e x p e c t a t i o n o f f r e e flow ing c o n v e r s a t i o n .
One of t h e f a c t o r s t h a t caused c e r t a i n t o p - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l
l e a d e r s to be o m itte d from t h e o r i g i n a l l i s t was r e l a t e d t o t h e
r e s e a r c h e r ' s p r a c t i c a l judgment about th e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s .

The

r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s made c l e a r , f o r example, t h a t t h e spea ker o f
t h e house i s c o n s id e re d t o be a major f o r c e in e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
making.

Much o f t h i s r e p u t a t i o n must be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t

in h i s corps o f a s s i s t a n t s was Gene Caesar.

C a e s a r ' s powers a r e

d i s c u s s e d a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s th ro u g h o u t t h i s s tu d y .

However, as has

a l r e a d y been n o t e d , Speaker Bobby Crim must be c o n s id e r e d a major
spokesman f o r e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e s i n h i s own r i g h t .

Because he i s t h e

l e a d e r o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , t h e demands on h i s time a r e so g r e a t t h a t
t h e r e was l i t t l e hope o f h i s a v a i l a b i l i t y , even i f he wanted t o
a t t e n d t h e formal s e s s i o n s o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

At

th e same tim e , h i s s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t in e d u c a tio n plac ed him i n an
e x c e l l e n t p o s i t i o n t o be c a l l e d upon a s keynote s p e a k e r a t one o f t h e
s e s s i o n s , an i n v i t a t i o n he r e a d i l y a c c e p te d .

Governor William M il l i k e n

was excluded from t h e i n v i t a t i o n l i s t f o r many o f t h e same r e a s o n s .

91
In t h e c a s e s o f both th e spea ker o f t h e house and t h e g o vernor, to p
e d u c a ti o n a l s t a f f l e a d e r s a r e g e n e r a l l y re gard ed a s r e p r e s e n t i n g , i f
not s h a p in g , t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y views o f t h e i r b o s s e s .

Both

c h i e f a i d e s , Crim's Caesar and Mi 11i k e n 1s Smith, agr eed t o p a r t i c i p a t e
f u l l y in t h e seminars.
Others mentioned in th e r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s as ed u c a t io n a l
p o l i c y l e a d e r s were excluded f o r a n o t h e r r e a s o n .

One o f t h e i s s u e s

t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r was i n t e r e s t e d in examining was t h e e x t e n t to
which p u b lic ed u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y makers a t th e s t a t e l e v e l would view
th e Michigan Educational Seminars as a s t a t u s o r g a n i z a t i o n .

In

o t h e r words, to what e x t e n t would i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e i n f l u e n t i a l in
t h e proc es s f e e l t h a t t h e i r e x c lu s io n from t h e Michigan Education
Seminars was im port an t?

The only way t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r could

expe ct t o answer t h i s q u e s ti o n unambiguously was t o ex clude c e r t a i n
of t h e s e l e a d e r s and w a i t f o r t h e i r r e a c t i o n .

To some e x t e n t , t h e

r e s e a r c h e r was " f i s h i n g " f o r r e a c t i o n - - a n d r e a c t i o n was forthcoming.
This s t r a t e g y i s d i s c u s s e d more thoro ughly in Chapter IV.
Once an i n i t i a l f o rm u la t io n o f c a t e g o r i e s o f i n t e r e s t in th e
e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y p rocess was e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e process o f i d e n t i f y ­
ing t h e major a c t o r s w i t h i n each o f t h e s e segments began.

Balance

between s p e c i f i c c a t e g o r i e s o f p o l i c y making was sought in f o r m u l a t ­
ing t h e f i r s t l i s t o f p a r t i c i p a n t s .

An a t t e m p t was made t o i n s u r e

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n from th e e x e c u t i v e bran ch , t h e l e g i s l a t i v e br an ch ,
t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s , and o t h e r i n t e r e s t groups.
not d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e such a b a l a n c e .

I t was

More co m plicated was

92

a t t a i n i n g a balance between v a r io u s segments o f each c a t e g o r y .
Within t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , f o r example, th e r e s e a r c h e r sought b i p a r t i s a n
p a r t i c i p a t i o n f o r many r e a s o n s .

Although t h e l e g i s l a t i v e process in

Michigan i s dominated by one p a r t y , th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y l e a d e r s from both p a r t i e s i s o f t e n n e c e s s a r y t o pass key p o l i c y
issues.
The r e s e a r c h e r a l s o f e l t i t was i m p o rta n t t o m a in ta in a
balance between l e g i s l a t o r s and l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f .

Whereas t h e rep u­

ta tio n a l analysis v e r ifie d t h a t c e r ta in l e g i s l a t o r s a t the s t a t e
l ev el a r e perceived as th e dominant policy-making f o r c e s w i t h i n t h i s
branch o f government, i t i s t h e l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f who s u r v i v e t h e
elections.

S u c c e s s f u l , hard -w or king, and powerful l e g i s l a t o r s a r e

o f t e n th e ones whose s u c c e s s i v e v i c t o r i e s l ead them away from s t a t e l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making.

E i t h e r then run f o r h i g h e r o f f i c e ,

o f te n c o n g r e s s io n a l s e a t s , o r they a r e put i n t o " l e a d e r s h i p " p o s i ­
t i o n s in t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , and t h u s a r e f o rc ed by an expanded r o l e to
l i m i t t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n .

Hence

th e l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f members can be seen as th e power behind t h e
throne.
Observing and Recording Formal S es sio n s
The method of sample s e l e c t i o n was i n s t r u m e n t a l in t h e con­
s tru c tio n of th is research.

The m o nit ori ng and subsequent a n a l y s i s

o f t h e pr o c e ss r e q u i r e d a v a r i e t y o f s ta n d a r d f i e l d work methods.
During t h e co u r s e o f t h e s t u d y , au dio r e c o r d s o f ev ery s e s ­
s io n o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars were m a in ta i n e d .

These

93

re cord s were o f t e n , alt houg h not alway s, t r a n s c r i b e d ve rbat im .

Much

o f t h e r e c o rd in g t h a t was done by th e r e s e a r c h e r immediately b e f o r e ,
d u r in g , and immediately a f t e r t h e o f f i c i a l seminar s e s s i o n s was not
of t h e n a t u r e t h a t could be c a p tu r e d on audio t a p e .

Much o f th e

t a p e - r e c o r d e d i n fo r m a t io n d i d not r e l a t e s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e sub­
s t a n c e o f t h e p o l i c y d i s c u s s i o n s t h a t took p l a c e .

The r e s e a r c h e r

mai ntained perso nal notes about h is c o n v e r s a t i o n s with p o l i c y makers
and about his p e r c e p t i o n o f the s u b t l e i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t o f t e n
o c curre d between them.
In a d d i t i o n t o th e audio t a p e o f t h e s e s s i o n and t h e personal
no t e s o f the r e s e a r c h e r , t h e s e c r e t a r y o f t h e seminar s e r i e s recorded
h i g h l i g h t s o f t h e formal s e s s i o n , which th e r e s e a r c h e r l a t e r used to
r e t r a c e c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o r comments.

A f t e r ever y formal s e s s i o n

o f t h e Michigan Educ atio nal Seminars, t h e r e s e a r c h e r reviewed t h e
audio t a p e s .

In ev ery c a s e , he p r e p a re d a p o s t- s e m i n a r r e p o r t and

su bm it te d i t to th e I n s t i t u t e f o r Edu cational Le ad er ship.
Reading Documentary M a t e r i a l s
The c h a l l e n g e o f s e l e c t i n g a d i s c u s s i o n agenda f o r a s t a t e ' s
to p e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers i s an immense one.

In r e a l i t y , t h e s e

i n d i v i d u a l s have r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e a c c e s s t o f u t u r e i s s u e s , t o i s s u e s
developing in o t h e r s t a t e s o r n a t i o n s , o r t o i s s u e s emerging in th e
s t a t e ' s e lem entary and secondary school systems o r in i t s c o l l e g e s .
Most o f what t h e s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y maker does seems to
involve t h e d a y - t o - d a y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f h i s / h e r o f f i c e .

94

The problem t h a t th e r e s e a r c h e r faced in p r e p a r i n g f o r semi­
nars on i s s u e s t h a t were not immediately b e f o re th e p u b l i c p o l i c y
p r o c e s s , o r t h a t were a p pearing in co n fusi ng c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , was
i d e n t i f y i n g t h e key p o i n t s from which c i v i l d i s c u s s i o n o f th e i s s u e s
could d e p a r t .

This proc es s normally involved i d e n t i f y i n g e x p e r t s who

could p r e s e n t d i v e r s e p o s i t i o n s on im p o rtan t i s s u e s .

Once extreme

p o s i t i o n s were i d e n t i f i e d , th e p o s s i b i l i t y of c r e a t i n g a balanc ed
d i s c u s s i o n was enhanced.
Beyond i d e n t i f y i n g th e v a r io u s p o s i t i o n s on key i s s u e s o r
p o t e n t i a l i s s u e s was th e problem o f i d e n t i f y i n g i s s u e s t h a t were not
f u l l y developed.

One method o f i d e n t i f y i n g p o t e n t i a l i s s u e s was

s c r e e n i n g documentary m a t e r i a l s .

For example, t h e annual r e p o r t s of

IEL A s s o c i a t e s from t h e o t h e r s t a t e s were a u s e fu l so u rce o f id e a s
f o r s em in ar s .

Other sour ce s were l e t t e r s and memos from t h e I n s t i ­

t u t e f o r Educational Le aders hip .

Educ ational p e r i o d i c a l s , o f c o u r s e ,

pr ovid e d a n o t h e r means o f both i d e n t i f y i n g t h e i s s u e s and, once th e
i s s u e s were i d e n t i f i e d , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s t h a t could
be r e p r e s e n t e d in wel l-ro und ed d i s c u s s i o n s .
The r e s e a r c h e r a l s o wrote t o e i g h t major e d u c a t io n a l o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n s in t h e s t a t e , and asked t o be plac ed on t h e i r m ailin g l i s t s .
Among th e m a il in g s t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r r e g u l a r l y r e c e i v e d and perused
were t h e r e g u l a r p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e Michigan Education A s s o c i a t i o n ,
t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School Boards, th e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n
o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f Elementary
Principals.

95

In a d d i t i o n to a l l t h e aforemention ed r e s o u r c e s , t h e p u b l i c
p r e s s provided v a l u a b l e , a l b e i t o c c a s io n a l c l u e s t o impending educa­
t i o n a l p o l i c y q u e s t i o n s and the v a r i e t y o f p o t e n t i a l a r e a s o f d i s p u t e .
The P o s t - F i r s t - Y e a r In te rv ie w
A major purpose o f t h i s stu d y was t o anal yze t h e e f f e c t o f
t h e Michigan Education Seminars on th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making
pro cess and on t h e p o l i c y makers.

A v a r i e t y o f methods were a v a i l ­

a b l e t o accomplish t h i s a n a l y s i s .

For example, t h e growth o f t h e

l i s t o f p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e seminar co uld be taken as one measure o f
th e program's s u c c e s s .

The informal o b s e r v a t i o n s made by i n d i v i d u a l s

involved in the s e s s i o n s could a l s o be t h e b a s is o f v a l i d measures
f o r t h e stu d y.
To i d e n t i f y th e e f f e c t o f th e Michigan Education Seminars on
t h e p o l i c y makers and t h e p r o c e s s o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making a t t h e
s t a t e l e v e l , an i n t e r v i e w pro ce dure was des ig n e d .

Over a thre e-m on th

p er iod in 1978, in t e r v i e w s were conducted in a v a r i e t y o f s e t t i n g s
with n i n e t e e n i n d i v i d u a l s who had been r e g u l a r p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e
Michigan Education Seminars.
S e l e c t i n g t h e I n te rv iew ees
I n te r v ie w e e s were s e l e c t e d from t h e f o u r major c a t e g o r i e s o f
e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers used th ro u g h o u t t h e study:

the executive

b ranch, t h e l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h , e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t gr o ups, and o t h e r
i n t e r e s t groups.

An a tt e m p t was made t o s e l e c t i n t e r v i e w e e s who would

r e p r e s e n t t h e v a r i e t y o f i n t e r e s t s o r d i s p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n each o f
these cate g o rie s.

For example, w i t h i n t h e l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h ,

96

in t e r v i e w e e s in cluded l e g i s l a t o r s and s t a f f , Republicans and Democrats
from t h e house and s e n a t e , as well as n o n p a r t i s a n l e g i s l a t i v e o f f i c e r s .
Within th e e x e c u t i v e branch, i n t e r v i e w e e s incl uded dep ar tm en tal p e r ­
sonnel and a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e governor.
The I n te rv i e w Format
The i n t e r v i e w format was designed t o provid e i n fo r m a t io n t h a t
would be used f o r an e v a l u a t i o n o f th e e f f e c t o f t h e p r o c e ss o f th e
Michigan Education Seminars.

The i n t e r v i e w s pro vid ed a means f o r t h e

r e s e a r c h e r t o i d e n t i f y c e r t a i n p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e program p a r t i c i ­
pants.

(See Appendix D f o r a l i s t o f th e q u e s t i o n s used in th e

p o s t- f ir s t- y e a r interview s.)

These p e r c e p t i o n s were th en an aly zed

f o r s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s .

The i n t e r v i e w s were de signe d t o

pr ov ide i n fo r m a tio n on t h e f o ll o w in g s u b j e c t s :
How s u c c e s s f u l was t h e r e s e a r c h e r in i d e n t i f y i n g t h e major
f o r c e s in t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making process in Michigan, and how
balan ced was th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s from th e s t a n d ­
p o i n t o f th e i n te rv ie w e e ?
How a p p r o p r i a t e was t h e i n i t i a l judgment o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r
to a v o id a t t e m p t s a t consensus fo rm at io n du rin g t h e formal s e s s i o n s
o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars?

Did t h e avoidance o f " t a s k o r i e n ­

t a t i o n " c o n t r i b u t e to t h e success o f t h e seminars?
In what ways did th e seminars a f f e c t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers r e p r e s e n t i n g normally a n t a g o n i s t i c i n s t i ­
t u t i o n s , and in what ways did t h e seminars a f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between p o l i c y makers w i t h i n i n s t i t u t i o n s having a l l i e d i n t e r e s t s ?

97
How were r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s w i t h i n t h e i r own
i n s t i t u t i o n s a f f e c t e d by t h e seminars?

This q u e s ti o n was designed

to uncover p o l i c y makers' r e a c t i o n s t o t h e i s s u e s p r e s e n t e d du rin g
the formal p o l i c y s e s s i o n s , and in r e g a rd t o a n c i l l a r y exchanges t h a t
oc c u r re d as a consequence o f th e se minar s.
Did th e seminar program a f f e c t s p e c i f i c p o l i c y a c t i o n s taken
o r observed by e d u catio n i n s t i t u t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n th e Michigan
Education Seminars?
Are t h e r e o t h e r forums in Michigan s e r v i n g a purpose s i m i l a r
t o t h a t o f th e Michigan Education Seminars?
Assuming t h a t th e Michigan Education Seminars would not
always be c o o r d in a te d by t h e c o o r d i n a t o r o r funded by t h e I n s t i t u t e
f o r Educational Le ad ers h ip , who w i t h i n t h e Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l
policy-making community could assume t h e r o l e c u r r e n t l y being f i l l e d
by t h e I n s t i t u t e ' s a s s o c i a t e in Michigan?
was pursued f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s .

This l i n e o f q u e s t i o n i n g

F i r s t , t h i s q u e s ti o n r e i n f o r c e d an

e a r l i e r s u g g e s t io n t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r was r e l a t i v e l y d e t a c h e d , a t
l e a s t as much as p o s s i b l e , from a d e s i r e t o be a s s u r e d t h a t t h e Michi­
gan Education Seminars was f i l l i n g a g r e a t need.

Second, th e

r e s e a r c h e r was a t te m p t in g to uncover i n f o r m a tio n t h a t would l ead t o a
p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e s em inars ' p o t e n t i a l f o r s u r v i v a l .
What were th e major reaso ns p o l i c y makers p a r t i c i p a t e d in
th e Michigan Education Seminars?

This q u e s tio n was posed in such a

way t h a t t h e res ponse could be both i n t r o s p e c t i v e ( " I p a r t i c i p a t e d
because. . . . " ) and s p e c u l a t i v e ("Most o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s p a r t i c i ­
pated because. . . . " ) .

98

F i n a l l y , because one o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e s tu d y was t o
provid e guidance t o f u t u r e c o o r d i n a t o r s in Michigan o r t o th o s e
wishing t o r e p l i c a t e t h i s study e l se w h e re , a q u e s ti o n was incl uded
t h a t was designed t o provide i n s i g h t i n t o t h e weaknesses o f th e c u r ­
r e n t seminar form at.
The s y s t e m a t i c o r "formal" i n t e r v i e w s , as d i s t i n g u i s h e d from
" in fo rm al" c o n v e r s a t i o n s , were o f t e n followed by personal c o n t a c t s
o f a l e s s formal n a t u r e —t e l e p h o n e c a l l s , casua l c o n v e r s a t i o n s in
t h e h a l l s o f t h e c a p i t o l , and t h e l i k e .

These d i s c u s s i o n s c l a r i f i e d

i s s u e s t h a t had been r a i s e d and pro vide d a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t s i n t o th e
f u n c t i o n and e f f e c t o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .

These f ollow-ups were

normally conducted w i t h i n a few days a f t e r th e formal i n t e r v i e w .
During th e i n t e r v i e w s , t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s were encouraged to
e l a b o r a t e on t h e i r answers, o r t o r a i s e q u e s t i o n s o f t h e i r own.
s t r i c t i n t e r v i e w q u e s ti o n sequence was fo llo we d.

No

A f t e r each formal

i n t e r v i e w , t h e r e s e a r c h e r t r a n s c r i b e d t h e r e s u l t s o f th e i n t e r v i e w
and rec or de d each comment on a c h a r t t h a t was c a t e g o r i z e d by q u e s t i o n .
In t h i s way, th e r es po nses t o each q u e s t i o n could be viewed and
an aly zed as a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y .
E v a lu a tin g th e Methodology
In answering th e q u e s t i o n :

"How well d i d th e d a t a - c o l l e c t i o n

procedure f i t t h e purpose o f t h e study?" s e v e r a l f a c t o r s must be con­
sidered.

I t must be remembered t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l q u e s ti o n o f th e

study p e r t a i n e d to t h e e f f e c t and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c p o l i c y
forum— t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

99

Type o f Study
The study was t o be conducted in a forum t h a t had not y e t
been c r e a t e d .

Thus, a t th e o u t s e t , one purpose o f th e study was to

c r e a t e an environment in which th e i m p o rt a n t e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
makers would r e a d i l y and r e g u l a r l y p a r t i c i p a t e .
Other q u e s t i o n s such as th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p o s i t i o n a l and
r e p u t a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p , t h e assessm en t o f th e p o t e n t i a l f o r s u r v i v a l
o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n , and t h e e f f e c t o f t h e p o l i c y d i s c u s s i o n s on
a c t u a l p o l i c y became secondary t o t h e i n s tr u m e n ta l i s s u e o f whether
such a forum c o u ld , in f a c t , be c r e a t e d .

Thus t h e concepts o f method­

ology and s t r a t e g y tended to o v e r la p in t h i s s tu d y .

In s h o r t , to

stu dy t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n t h e e n v i r o n ­
ment d e f in e d as t h e Michigan Education Seminars, t h e r e s e a r c h e r was
faced with i n s u r i n g i t s s u r v i v a l f o r a t l e a s t t h e e i g h t e e n months
w i t h i n which t h e d a ta were t o be c o l l e c t e d .
The s tu d y was conducted on s i t e .

There was no way t h a t t h e

r e s e a r c h e r could have remained detach ed from t h e environment in o r d e r
to i n c r e a s e t h e o b j e c t i v i t y o f h i s f i n d i n g s .

By t h e same t o k e n , a

v a l i d premise o f f i e l d stu d y i s t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r i s r e q u i r e d to
r e p o r t h i s personal e x p e r ie n c e s in the f i e l d .

Although i t would have

been p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r a c t with p o l i c y l e a d e r s w i t h i n t h e i r own e n v i ­
ronments and r e p o r t t h e f i n d i n g s , not an uncommon p o l i c y r e s e a r c h
p r o c e d u re , t h e idea behind t h i s study r e q u i r e d g e t t i n g t h e l e a d e r s
i n t o a n o t h e r environment, a f o r e i g n environment, a " n e u t r a l s e t t i n g . "
To do t h i s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r not only had t o i n t e r a c t w it h t h e s u b j e c t s ,

100
but he a l s o had t o employ a v a r i e t y o f p e r s u a s i v e s t r a t e g i e s t o g u a r ­
a n t e e t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n on a t l e a s t a minimal b a s i s .
For example, in t h i s study th e r e s e a r c h e r inte rv ie w ed a t
leng th n e a r l y h a l f o f the o r i g i n a l t h i r t y - e i g h t p a r t i c i p a n t s b e f o r e
they became involved in th e program.

Many o f th ese in te rv i e w s were

designed t o i d e n t i f y th e r e p u t a t i o n a l l e a d e r s w ith in th e s t a t e educa­
t i o n a l policy-making community, and to make c e r t a i n t h a t no p o s i ­
t i o n a l le a d e r s were overlooked as " r e p u t a t i o n a l l e a d e r s . "

An

a d d i t i o n a l f u n c t io n of t h e s e i n t e r v i e w s , however, was t o d is c u s s a t
len gth th e p o t e n t i a l f o r th e c r e a t i o n o f such a n e u t r a l forum, what
i t could do, how o f te n i t could be convened, who should lead i t , and
what should be th e scope o f the iss u e a r e a s .

Also d is c u s s e d were

t a c t i c s t h a t could be used t o encourage p a r t i c i p a t i o n - - a c o - o p t a t i o n
s t r a t e g y , perhaps, but a l s o an e x c e l l e n t means o f developing an
under stan ding o f what would m otivate p o l i c y l e a d e r s t o p a r t i c i p a t e in
th e s e s e s s i o n s .
The problem o f c r e a t i n g t h e environment, s u s t a i n i n g t h e e n v i ­
ronment a t l e a s t through i t s developmental s t a g e , and th e problems
in h e r e n t in i n t e r p r e t i n g human behavior based upon o b s e r v a ti o n s in a
n a t u r a l s e t t i n g r e q u i r e d the use of a f i e l d study model.

This model

proved t o be an a c c e p t a b l e one in which t o conduct th e s tu d y .
Nelson (1975) i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e types o f f i e l d s t u d i e s :
e x p l o r a t o r y , d e s c r i p t i v e , and hypothes is or model t e s t i n g .

Other

f i e l d r e s e a r c h e r s have avoided such c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s because o f th e
tremendous ov e r la p t h a t e x i s t s between each c a t e g o r y .

This study was

c l e a r l y e x p l o r a t o r y , in t h a t th e t e r r i t o r y in which i t was conducted

101
was l a r g e l y a pr oduct o f t h e s tu d y .

The forum was e s t a b l i s h e d , i t s

p a r t i c i p a n t s s e l e c t e d , and i t s purpose and f u n c t i o n s l a r g e l y allowed
t o evolve.
Besides t h i s e x p l o r a t o r y element o f th e r e s e a r c h , a d e s c r i p ­
t i v e element a l s o e x i s t e d .

The r e s e a r c h e r s t a t e d as a s p e c i f i c

o b j e c t i v e o f th e study th e p roductio n o f in fo r m a tio n t h a t would be
us efu l t o o th e r s wishing t o r e p l i c a t e t h e stu d y o r t o avoid i t s p i t ­
falls.
To th e e x t e n t t h a t t h e b a s i c assumptions o f t h i s s tudy could
c o n s t i t u t e hypotheses o r models, t h i s f i e l d r e s e a r c h might be d e s c rib e d
as model t e s t i n g .

The r e s e a r c h e r was pr ovided with l i t t l e s p e c i f i c

in fo r m a tio n about t h e a p p r o p r i a t e pr oc ed ure s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g such a
forum.

Conv ersations with o t h e r s from a c r o s s t h e United S t a t e s who

were cond ucting p o l i c y forums under t h e a u s p ic e s of t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r
Educationa l Leadership were of l i m i t e d v a lu e .

The I n s t i t u t e prov ides

l i t t l e l e a d e r s h i p , all ow ing each s t a t e seminar t o develop in a s t y l e
t h a t i s most compatible with t h e local policy-making environment and
t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f th e s t a t e c o o r d i n a t o r .
This f i e l d stu d y was p r i m a r i l y o f th e e x p l o r a t o r y f i e l d model
genre.

This model, all ow in g c o n s i d e r a b l e f l e x i b i l i t y t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r ,

was t h e b a s i s of t h e s tu d y .

I t was seen as ade qu ate f o r th e study

when p a i r e d with th e d e s c r i p t i v e pro ce dures employed.
The Role o f the Resear cher
The r o l e of th e r e s e a r c h e r i s th o ro u g h ly analyz ed in a l a t e r
chapter.

(The f i e l d w o r k e r ' s c r e d e n t i a l s a r e included as Appendix B.)

102

However, t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s r o l e c o n t r o l l e d t h e method o f data
c o l l e c t i o n , a d i s c u s s i o n o f i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y w i t h i n t h e domain o f
t h i s methodology c h a p t e r .
expected

In f i e l d r e s e a r c h , t h e r e s e a r c h e r i s

to develop a r o l e t h a t is most com patible with t h e n a t u r e

o f t h e s tu d y .

In t h i s s t u d y , t h e r e s e a r c h e r was r e q u i r e d t o t a k e an

a c t i v e r o l e in t h e development and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .
The r e s e a r c h e r e n t e r e d t h e environment wit h a h i s t o r y o f working
with and r e l a t i n g to t h e s u b j e c t s o f th e s tu d y .

This background

provided him with s evera l i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s and p o s i ­
t i o n s o f t h e l e a d e r s o f th e policy-making community, and g r e a t l y
aid ed in t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s e forums.
The l i t e r a t u r e o f f i e l d r e s e a r c h o f f e r s a wide v a r i e t y of
a c c e p t a b l e o p tio n s f o r t h e r o l e o f th e r e s e a r c h e r , from n o n p a r t i c i p a t ­
ing o b s e r v e r t o a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t .
r o l e o f th e r e s e a r c h e r .

This r e s e a r c h was t i e d t o t h e

I t was r e q u i r e d t h a t th e r e s e a r c h e r i d e n t i f y

th e degree t o which he would a c t i v e l y engage in de ter m in ing t h e
p o l i c i e s and a c t i o n s o f th e system in which he was immersed f o r
r e s e a r c h (and o t h e r ) purpose s .

Because th e r e s e a r c h e r was r e q u i r e d

t o i d e n t i f y e x p e r ie n c e s t h a t were t o become s i g n i f i c a n t in d e te r m in ­
ing t h e outcome o f h i s a n a l y s i s , f i e l d r e s e a r c h was seen t o be a
p r a c t i c a b l e methodology f o r a study o f t h i s n a t u r e .
I n te rv ie w s
The range o f i n t e r v i e w e e s used in t h i s study was r e p r e s e n t a ­
t i v e o f t h e p o p u la ti o n o f e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y makers a t th e s t a t e
level.

In th e i n t e r v i e w s , c a r e was tak en t o s e l e c t i n t e r v i e w e e s who

103
r e p r e s e n t e d t h e f o u r segments o f e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s and t h e v a r i o u s
i n t e r e s t o r d i s p o s i t i o n a l s u b c a t e g o r i e s w i t h i n each i n t e r e s t segment.
The wide v a r i e t y o f in t e r v i e w e e s r e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s study l e n t
c r e d i b i l i t y t o the i n t e r v i e w i n g p r o c e s s .
Sources
Besides t h e formal i n t e r v i e w p r o c e s s , a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r a c ­
t i o n s oc c u r re d with s our ce s w i t h i n t h e s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y com­
munity.

These i n t e r a c t i o n s provided a check on t h e ac cu rac y o f t h e

re s e a rc h e r's observations.

Besides ed u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y makers, o t h e r

p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e s tu d y — "knowledgeable o u t s i d e r s " —provided a
b a s i s f o r c r o s s - c h e c k in g the r e s e a r c h e r ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s .
Sampling
Although t h e le ngth and thoroughness o f th e i n t e r v i e w s v a r i e d
c o n s i d e r a b l y , a t th e beginning of t h e study a m a j o r i t y o f t h e i n v i t e d
p a r t i c i p a n t s were p e r s o n a l l y in t e r v ie w e d .

The proc es s used f o r

sampling i n s u r e d t h a t a l l o f t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
makers in t h e s t a t e would be i d e n t i f i e d .
both p a r t i c i p a n t s and i n t e r v i e w e e s .

These p o l i c y makers became

In th e f i n a l i n t e r v i e w , a l l f o u r

o f t h e e d u c a ti o n a l i n t e r e s t segments and t h e v a r i o u s s u b c a t e g o r i e s o f
i n t e r e s t o r d i s p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e s e segments were r e p r e s e n t e d .
Common Language
The c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e f i e l d da ta i s s a i d t o i n c r e a s e with
t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a common language between t h e r e s e a r c h e r and h is
subjects.

The e x t e n s i v e p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r

104
allowed him to communicate in t h e s p e c i a l language o f t h e s t a t e
policy lead ers.
Intimacy
The c r e d i b i l i t y o f f i e l d d a t a i s t h r e a t e n e d when t h e r e s e a r c h e r
i s s a i d t o "go n a t i v e . "

The l i k e l i h o o d o f t h i s danger i s i n c r e a s e d

when th e r e s e a r c h e r b r in g s e x i s t i n g personal r e l a t i o n s h i p s with sub­
j e c t s i n t o t h e stu dy.

Such person al r e l a t i o n s h i p s can be s a i d to

i n f l u e n c e th e r e s e a r c h e r ' s a b i l i t y to a n a l y z e o b j e c t i v e l y t h e r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p s and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n t h e community under s tu d y .
The problem becomes g r e a t e r when t h e p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r a tt e m p ts
t o " g e t th e d i s t a n c e " r e q u i r e d f o r o b j e c t i v e r e s e a r c h .
The c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h i s r e p o r t was moderated by t h e degree
o f in ti m ac y between the r e s e a r c h e r and many o f th e s u b j e c t s o f t h i s
s tu d y .

On t h e o t h e r hand, a high degree o f s o c i a l i z i n g o f t e n

le a d s

to the c o lle c tio n of data th a t enrich a f i e l d re p o rt.
P u b lic P r e s e n t a t i o n o f Data
The r e s e a r c h e r w i l l s h a r e th e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s study with
i n d i v i d u a l s ca pable o f d e t e c t i n g i n a c c u r a t e f i n d i n g s .
has taken p a r t i c u l a r c a r e

The r e s e a r c h e r

t o o b t a i n and, in some c a s e s , r e p o r t

d e t a i l e d t r a n s c r i p t s from c o n v e r s a t i o n s , p u b l ic m e e t i n g s , and i n t e r ­
views.

This r e p o r t could r e c e i v e wide a t t e n t i o n w i t h i n t h e educa­

t i o n a l policy-making community in Michigan.

To t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t

d o e s , i t s c r e d i b i l i t y w i l l be judged by t h o s e who a r e most cap ab le
o f making such judgments— th e major p o l i c y makers in Michigan educa­
tional p o litic s .

105

Chapter Summary
A method f o r d i v i d i n g t h e e d u c a t io n a l po licy-making pr o c e ss
in Michigan was employed, which r e s u l t e d i n f o u r major c a t e g o r i e s :
t h e e x e c u t i v e bran ch , t h e l e g i s l a t i v e bran ch , t h e e d u c a t io n a l
i n t e r e s t g r oups, and o t h e r i n t e r e s t groups.
Since t h e sample o f th e p o p u la ti o n t o be s t u d i e d c o n s t i t u t e d
t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e s t u d y , e . g . , t h e r e g u l a r program p a r t i c i ­
p a n ts and t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l i n t e r v i e w s , t h e process
used to s e l e c t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i ncluded in t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s was
d e s c rib e d in t h i s c h a p t e r .
The p r o c e s s f o r o b s erv ing and r e c o r d i n g t h e formal s e s s i o n s
of th e Michigan Education Seminars was a l s o d e s c r i b e d , as was t h e
procedure of g a t h e r i n g in form ation through informal d i s c u s s i o n s with
sources and r ea ding r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e .
The p r o c e ss f o r a n a l y z in g th e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e seminars was
described.

The formal a n a l y t i c a l i n t e r v i e w format was d i s c u s s e d ,

as was t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s .
F i n a l l y , t h e methodology was e v a l u a t e d in terms o f t h e type
o f study condu cted , t h e r o l e o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r , and t h e r o l e o f t h e
interviews.

Also d i s c u s s e d were t h e r o l e o f t h e s o u r c e s , t h e le n g t h

o f t h e s t u d y , t h e sampling t e c h n i q u e s , and o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t pla ced
the r e s e a r c h e r in a p o s i t i o n o f p rovid ing v a l i d and c o n s i s t e n t i n t e r ­
p r e t a t i o n s o f th e r e s u l t s .
Other f a c t o r s t h a t w i l l be used t o jud ge t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f
t h e s t u d y , such as t h e p u b l i c p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s and r e p l i ­
c a t i o n s , were a l s o d i s c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p t e r .

CHAPTER IV
THE SEMINARS
Introduction
This c h a p t e r pr ov ides an overview o f t h e s i x seminars t h a t
o c c u r re d d ur in g t h e term o f t h e s tu d y .

The summary o u t l i n e s th e

r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l s em in ar s , p r o f i l e s t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
and d e s c r i b e s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e major exchanges.

As s uc h, t h e

f i r s t s e c t i o n of th e c h a p t e r provid e s a quick review o f th e seminar
year.
In t h e second segment o f t h i s c h a p t e r , th e r e s e a r c h e r i d e n t i ­
f i e s a s i n g l e seminar s e s s i o n .

From t h i s s e s s i o n he can draw many

o f t h e s p e c i f i c exchanges t h a t oc curre d between p a r t i c i p a n t s and
s p e c u l a t e on t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e .

The r e s e a r c h e r d e s c r i b e s t h i s s e c ­

t i o n o f t h e c h a p t e r as an " i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s " alth o u g h i t i s c e r ­
t a i n l y more than t h e i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t oc curre d dur in g t h e seminar
t h a t i s being a n a ly z e d .

In f a c t , t h e r e s e a r c h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t so

many s u b t l e f o r c e s come i n t o p la y in a p o l i c y s e t t i n g as t o make an
a n a l y s i s o f ver bal exchanges between a c t o r s l a r g e l y i r r e l e v a n t and
p o t e n t i a l l y i r r e s p o n s i b l e in t h e i r a b i l i t y to c r e a t e f a l s e impres­
sions.
The r e s e a r c h e r s e l e c t e d one seminar f o r a more d e t a i l e d
a n a l y s i s o f s e v e r a l o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s between p a r t i c i p a n t s du rin g
t h e sem inar .

The p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r a c t i o n s were s e l e c t e d because o f
106

107

t h e i r a b i l i t y t o draw a t t e n t i o n t o c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e
seminar s e r i e s t h e r e s e a r c h e r f e e l s a r e most noteworthy.
To s e l e c t t h e seminar f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f key i n t e r a c t i o n s ,
t h e r e s e a r c h e r compares th e s i x seminars on l i n e s ra ng ing from amount
and mix o f p a r t i c i p a n t a t t e n d a n c e
o f t h e seminar i s s u e .

to t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y and c u r re n c y

Other f a c t o r s a r e a l s o c o n s id e r e d .

Taped t r a n s c r i p t s o f t h e seminars e x i s t , as do o t h e r r e c o r d s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t o s u g g e s t t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l i s cap ab le o f p ic k in g
a p a r t t h e hidden planned ( o r i n s t i n c t i v e ) meanings f o r p o l i t i c a l
a c t i o n s in t h e s e s e s s i o n s would r e q u i r e a t a l e n t s u i t a b l e f o r study
by p a r a p s y c h o l o g i s t s .

I t i s im port ant t h a t in ever y c a s e d i s c u s s e d

in any p a r t o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , th e r e s e a r c h e r r e c o g n i z e t h e wide
v a r i e t y o f p o s s i b l e ways o f ac c o u n tin g f o r any p a r t i c u l a r ver bal
exchange.
N o n e t h e le s s , th e c h a p t e r i s im port ant f o r a v a r i e t y o f
reasons.

Among t h e s e a r e :
1.

I t s a b i l i t y to provid e a panorama o f t h e e n t i r e seminar

2.

I t s a b i l i t y t o pro vide a f e e l o f th e type and i n t e n s i t y

series.

o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t occu r re d w i t h i n t h e s e s s i o n s .
3.

The de gree to which th e proc es s o f s e l e c t i n g t h e seminar

t o a n a ly z e could be seen as a w e l l - d i s g u i s e d q u a l i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n
of the e n t i r e s e r ie s .
4.

The degree t o which t h e c h a p t e r dem onstrates t h e

r e s e a r c h e r ' s w i l l i n g n e s s t o a llo w t h e forum to be man ipulat ed i n t o

108
becoming a v e h i c l e f o r a s p e c i f i c e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y p o s i t i o n funding f o r d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t d i s t r i c t s .
Overview o f t h e Seminars
During t h e time frame covered by t h i s s tu d y , s i x formal
s e s s i o n s o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars were conducted.
nars were s i m i l a r i n t h e
1.

All seminars

Semi­

fo llow ing ways:
were agreed upon, i f not plan ned , by a

seminar s t e e r i n g committee t h a t met fo rm a lly t h r e e tim es during
t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e seminar program.
2.

Each seminar (with th e e x c e p tio n o f t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y o r

planning one) c e n t e r e d on a d i s c u s s i o n o f one o r two major s u b j e c t s
o f a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y impact.
3.

Each seminar (ag ain e x c e p tin g th e i n t r o d u c t o r y o r

plann in g seminar) had one o r more primary s p e a k e r s .

The s peakers

g e n e r a l l y made a formal p r e s e n t a t i o n and then responded to ques ­
tions.
4.

Each seminar

p e r m it t e d

some degree o f exchange between

seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s , o f te n through t h e s e s s i o n c h a i r p e r s o n .
5.

Seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s were i n v i t e d from a l i s t o f i n f l u ­

e n t i a l s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers and s e l e c t e d o t h e r s t h a t grew
in number from t h i r t y - e i g h t t o over one hundred.
6.

A l a r g e number o f "guest " p a r t i c i p a n t s a t t e n d e d many o f

t h e seminar s e s s i o n s .

These i n d i v i d u a l s incl ude d co-workers and c o l ­

leag ues o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , s t u d e n t s , and o t h e r s .

109

7.

The le n g th o f th e i n d i v i d u a l seminar s e s s i o n s ranged

from two and o n e - h a l f to f o u r hours.
Within t h i s framework, a b r i e f review o f t h e s i x seminar
s e s s i o n s i s given.

From t h e s e s ix sem inars , one i s s e l e c t e d

(Seminar 3: The Impact o f Dec lining Enrollment) as t h e s u b j e c t o f a
more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f some o f th e elements o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
between some seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s t h a t oc cur red dur ing th e s e s s i o n .
Much o f th e summary i s taken from t h e r e p o r t on t h e seminars t h a t
was i s s u e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educ ational Leader­
s hip in September 1978.
Summary o f t h e Six Seminars
Seminar 1: I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Key
Education Iss u es- -S ep tem b er 14,
1977, E a st Lansing, Michigan
Approximately t h i r t y Michigan e d u catio n p o l i c y l e a d e r s p a r ­
t i c i p a t e d in t h e f i r s t meeting o f Michigan Education Seminars (MES).
The f i r s t o r d e r o f b u s in e s s was a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e purpose and g o a ls
o f MES.
The a t t e n d i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s a f f i r m e d t h e c o o r d i n a t o r ' s op in io n
t h a t the s e s s i o n s should pr ov ide a " n e u t r a l " forum.

The p a r t i c i p a n t s

were n e a r l y unanimous in e s t a b l i s h i n g t h a t th e s e s s i o n s should be
" d i s c u s s i o n and o p inion o r i e n t e d " r a t h e r then " debate and consensus
oriented."

This d i s c u s s i o n provided t h e f i r s t and only a tte m p t t o

a c h ie v e consensus undertaken by t h e Seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s dur in g t h e
year.

I t was e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e Michigan Education Seminars would

be " p ro c e ss " r a t h e r than "produc t" o r i e n t e d .

110

During t h e s e s s i o n an i s s u e q u e s t i o n n a i r e developed by t h e
Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s was d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
and they completed t h e s e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s immediately.

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e

asked f o r an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and a ranking o f major s t a t e e d u c a ti o n a l
i s s u e s in Michigan.

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were l a t e r t a b u l a t e d w it h t h e

r e s u l t s c i r c u l a t e d t o MES p a r t i c i p a n t s .

The r e s u l t s of t h i s q u e s t i o n ­

n a i r e would be h e l p f u l in i d e n t i f y i n g f u t u r e seminar agenda i te m s.
The f o ll o w in g i s a l i s t i n g by rank o r d e r o f p e r c e iv e d impor­
t a n c e o f th e e d u c a tio n a l i s s u e s i d e n t i f i e d by th e MES p a r t i c i p a n t s :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

Educational Finances
Assessment and E v a lu a ti o n Tied with Basic S k i l l s Development
F ederal-S tate Relations
A l t e r n a t i v e Educational S t r u c t u r e s
Equal O ppo rtun ity f o r Unique P o p u la ti o n s
Competency-Based Education
Earl y Childhood Development
P ublic Opinion and Involvement
Cost B e n e f i t s and Cost E f f e c t i v e n e s s A nalys is
Governance and S t r u c t u r e
Educator P r e p a r a t i o n U t i l i z a t i o n and Ev alu ation
Education Administration/Management Planning
Equal Rights f o r Women
Ch ild Abuse
I n d iv id u a l Rights and R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
Ed ucat io nal Personnel B e n e f i t s / C o l l e c t i v e Bargaining
Curriculum: Programs and Reform
Discipline
A c c r e d i t a t i o n and Consumer P r o t e c t i o n
Educational Technology
A n c i l l a r y S e r v ic e s

Many o f the i s s u e s i d e n t i f i e d on t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e were sug­
g e s te d as p o t e n t i a l seminar t o p i c s f o r t h e 1977-78 seminar y e a r .

The

s u g g e s t io n was a l s o made t h a t t h e Michigan Education Seminars provid e
a forum f o r ed u c a to r s t o d i s c u s s t h e p o t e n t i a l impact on e d u c a ti o n
p o l i c y o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l convention in Michigan.

Several o f t h e

p a r t i c i p a n t s were n o t , a t t h a t ti m e , aware t h a t t h e q u e s ti o n of

Ill

whether o r not a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l convention should be c a l l e d would
a u t o m a t i c a l l y appear o f th e 1978 Michigan General E l e c t i o n b a l l o t .
Other i s s u e s sug gested a t t h i s seminar as p o t e n t i a l f u t u r e
seminar t o p i c s inclu ded f e d e r a l and s t a t e r e l a t i o n s , d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l ­
ments, minimal co mpetencies, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between b u s in e s s and
i n d u s t r y and e d u c a t i o n , and j o b t r a i n i n g .

A s u g g e s ti o n was made,

a l s o , t h a t th e s t e e r i n g committee i d e n t i f y t o p i c s t h a t would bring
p r o v id e r s o f o t h e r s o c i a l s e r v i c e s t o g e t h e r with t h e school community
f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f s u b j e c t s o f mutual concern.
The d i s c u s s i o n o f p o t e n t i a l seminar i s s u e s was followed by a
s o c i a l hour and d i n n e r .

During t h e d i n n e r , an informal o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

meeting was held in which th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Educ ational
Council and the Michigan Education Seminars as c o - sp o n s o rs o f t h e
seminar s e r i e s was confirmed.
Seminar 2: The Impact o f a C o n s t i t u ­
t i o n a l Convention on Michigan Education--December 14, 1977, Lansing,
Michigan
By December of 1977, th e l i s t o f i n v i t e d p a r t i c i p a n t s had
grown t o n e a r l y f i f t y Michigan e d u catio n p o l i c y a c t o r s .

Outside th e

e d u c a ti o n a l community, o t h e r f o r c e s in Michigan p o l i t i c s took n o te o f
the scheduled seminar on "The Impact o f a C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Convention on
Michigan Education.

The t o t a l a t t e n d a n c e a t t h i s s e s s i o n exceeded

sev en ty peo ple.
P o l i t i c a l f o r c e s , both in f a v o r o f and a g a i n s t th e q u e s ti o n o f
a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n v e n t io n , saw th e Michigan Education Seminars as a
unique chance to reach o u t and touch l e a d e r s in t h i s very im po rta nt

112

segment o f Michigan p o l i t i c s .

As a consequence, t h e chairmen o f

M ic higan's two major p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s were anxious t o a d d r e s s edu­
c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s on t h i s im p o r t a n t s u b j e c t .
A r t i c l e XII, S e c tio n 3, o f t h e Michigan C o n s t i t u t i o n s t a t e s :
Sec. 3. At th e ge ne ral e l e c t i o n t o be hel d i n t h e y e a r 1978,
and in each 16th y e a r t h e r e a f t e r , and a t such times as may be
prov ided by law, t h e q u e s t i o n o f a g en er al r e v i s i o n o f th e
C o n s t i t u t i o n s h a l l be s u b m itted t o t h e e l e c t o r s o f t h e s t a t e .
This p r o v i s i o n was a t t a c h e d t o t h e Michigan C o n s t i t u t i o n by
i t s fra mer s in 1963.

The purpose o f th e December 14th s e s s i o n simply

s t a t e d was t o b r in g t o t h e e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p o f Michigan a b a l l o t
q u e s ti o n t h a t would be p r e s e n t e d t o t h e v o t e r s o f t h i s s t a t e w i t h i n
one y e a r — should t h e S t a t e o f Michigan have a C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Conven­
tion?
The seminar s e s s i o n was d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e segments.

The

f i r s t segment o f t h e seminar l a i d t h e groundwork f o r what was t o come.
During t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Convention o f 1961-62, which produced t h e
Michigan C o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1963, a f i l m was produced by Wayne S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y e n t i t l e d "Michigan Can Lead t h e Way."
t o t h e Michigan Education Seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s .

The f i l m was shown
The f i l m , a l b e i t only

a s u r f a c e s tu d y o f t h e "Con-Con," r e f r e s h e d t h e memories o f t h e s t a t e ' s
e d u c a t i o n a l i n f l u e n t i a l s as t o what t h e key i s s u e s o f t h e con ven tion
were.
Two o f th e c e n t r a l a c t o r s in t h e co nventi on f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h ­
ened t h e im pre s sio n t h a t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Convention o f 1961-62 was
an im p o r t a n t e v en t i n Michigan h i s t o r y .

Weldon Yeager, a Republican

d e l e g a t e t o Con-Con (and s u b s e q u e n t l y a s t a t e l e g i s l a t o r ) was f i r s t

113
t o provid e h i s im pressio ns o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n - b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s .

A

major i n t e r e s t o f Yeager durin g th e convention o f 1961-62 and s in c e
has been q u e s t i o n s o f gen er al and educa tion t a x a t i o n .

He provided a

p o s i t i o n in f a v o r o f r e t a i n i n g t h e e x i s t i n g c o n s t i t u t i o n , and modify­
ing o u td a te d o r i n e f f e c t i v e p r o v i s i o n s through amendment.

Adelaide

Hart was a Democratic d e l e g a t e t o th e 1961-62 conven tio n.

As a mem­

b e r o f th e Convention Committee on Education, H a r t , a former t e a c h e r ,
became a le a d in g a u t h o r i t y on e d u c a ti o n a l i s s u e s in th e c o n s t i t u t i o n .
She a l s o spearheaded t h e e f f o r t in 1962 t o block t h e passage by th e
v o t e r s o f th e c o n v e n t i o n ' s p r o d u c t.
a few hundred v o te s s t a t e w i d e .

She f a i l e d in her e f f o r t by only

Since 1963, Hart has watched the l e g i s

l a t u r e and t h e c o u r t s as they have at tem pte d t o implement and i n t e r ­
p r e t what in h er opin ion i s a d e f e c t i v e document.

She i d e n t i f i e d

those e d u c a t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s t h a t have been a l t e r e d s i n c e 1963, and
she recommended s e v e r a l changes t o t h e e d u c a ti o n s e c t i o n s o f th e con­
s t i t u t i o n t h a t could be adopted in a new convention.
With t h e h i s t o r y o f th e 1963 c o n s t i t u t i o n pr o v id e d , we moved
t o t h e nex t segment o f th e Michigan Education Seminar program.

Both

t h e Republican and Democratic p a r t i e s o f Michigan were, in December
o f 1977, in t h e pr o c e ss o f ho lding p a r t y h e a r in g s on the q u e s ti o n o f
c a l l i n g a new conventi on.
th is process.

Both Yeager and Hart had p a r t i c i p a t e d in

Also p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h i s proc es s were th e two major

s t a t e p a r t y chairmen, and both chairmen were p r e s e n t to t e s t i f y b e f o r e
th e e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p in Michigan.
Morley Winograd, th e S t a t e Democratic Chairman, kicked o f f
t h i s segment by f o r e c a s t i n g what t h e e d u c a t io n a l community would l e a r n

114

as f a c t w i t h i n th e ne xt s e v e r a l months— t h a t a " t a x r e v o l u t i o n was
o c c u r r in g in Michigan."

Winograd t e s t i f i e d t h a t th ro ugho ut t h e s t a t e

he had heard time and time again t h a t people a r e "fed up with p r o p e r t y
taxes."

Concomitantly, Winograd ob serv ed, Democrats were t e l l i n g him

t h a t they were convinced t h a t "while t h e c o s t o f education i s going up,
t h e q u a l i t y o f e d u catio n i s going down."

Winograd p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e

school community would be faced with s e p a r a t e i s s u e s on th e 1978 b a l ­
l o t t o both l i m i t s t a t e t a x a t i o n and s t a t e spen ding , and t o l i m i t
local p r o p e r t y ta x e s while p e r m i t t i n g th e development o f a "voucher
plan" f o r e d u c a t i o n .
Republican Chairman William McLaughlin did not r e f u t e Winog r a d ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s about t h e s t a t u s o f t h e tax r e v o l t and t h e c i t i ­
zens' perception of t h e i r schools.

But he did emphasize t h a t in h i s

o p i n i o n , and th e op in ion o f h i s P a r t y , holding a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l con­
ve n tio n would be t h e wrong t h i n g t o do a t t h i s time.

McLaughlin id e n ­

t i f i e d a s e r i e s o f reaso ns why t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l conv en tion q u e s ti o n
should be d e f e a t e d .

Among h i s reasons a g a i n s t th e i s s u e were:

(1) the

c o n s t i t u t i o n has worked well to p r o t e c t b a s i c freedoms; (2) i t lacks
l e g a l m a t u r i t y , and needs more time t o develop; (3) i t has been very
r a r e l y amended; (4) many o f t h e proposed changes could be taken c a r e
o f by t h e L e g i s l a t u r e ; (5) t h e r e i s no p e r f e c t c o n s t i t u t i o n ; and
(6) t h e c o s t o f a con ve ntion i s very high.
The p a r t y chairmen and t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s from th e 1961-62 con­
ve n tio n were met with a b a r ra g e o f q u e s t i o n s from MES p a r t i c i p a n t s .
Many o f t h e q u e s t i o n s were h i g h l y t e c h n i c a l , in v o lv in g th e d e l e g a t e
nomination and e l e c t i o n pr o c e ss and t h e p r o c e ss f o r w r i t i n g and

115

ad op ting the new c o n s t i t u t i o n .

Subsequent feedback confirmed t h a t

much o f t h e in form ation provided dur ing t h i s segment o f th e s e s s i o n
was taken back to the major e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s in t h e s t a t e ,
and t h a t i t helped to shape t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n s on t h i s
question.
A f t e r a b r i e f break in t h e s e s s i o n , S enator J ac k Faxon,
Chairman o f th e Michigan Senate Education Committee, a MES p a r t i c i ­
p a n t , and a Democratic co nvention d e l e g a t e in 1961-62, provided h is
i n s i g h t and o b s e r v a t i o n s about what has happened "between then and now."
His p r e s e n t a t i o n o u t l i n e d th e "gra ve dangers" o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l con­
vention.

Unlike h i s Democratic c o l l e a g u e , Winograd, S enato r Faxon con­

cluded t h a t "amendment" i s a b e t t e r pro cess than t h e co nvention when
i t comes t o s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n s .
From " i n s i g h t s and o b s e r v a t i o n s , " th e Seminar moved t o a more
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f what has happened t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n between
1963 and 1978.

P r e s e n t i n g a paper on t h i s s u b j e c t was Robert Q u e l l e r ,

Research D i r e c t o r f o r the esteemed C i t i z e n s ' Research Council of
Michigan.

Q u e l l e r ' s paper i d e n t i f i e d th e two changes t h a t have been

proposed f o r t h e educati on s e c t i o n o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n s in c e 1963.

In

t h e t a x s e c t i o n , t h r e e att e m p t s t o p er m it g raduate d income t a x a t i o n
have f a i l e d .
S e n a t o r B urs le y, chairman o f th e seminar c o - sp o n s o rin g Educa­
t i o n a l Council of Michigan, concluded t h e c o n f e re n c e by emphasizing
t h a t in h i s o p inion th e goal o f t h e c onfere nc e had been accomplished.
"Our goal was t o b r in g o u t i n t h e open some o f th e major e d u catio n
i s s u e s t h a t might s u r f a c e i f t h e r e i s a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l convention

116
c a l l e d by th e people o f Michigan, and t o g e t our s t a t e l e a d e r s h i p
t h i n k i n g about them."
Seminar 3: The Impact o f Declining
En rollm en ts—March 6, 1978T
Lansing, Michigan
For a v a r i e t y o f reasons t h a t w i ll be e l a b o r a t e d upon a t a
l a t e r p o i n t , Seminar 3 i s t h e s e s s i o n t h a t has been chosen f o r th e
more d e t a i l e d i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s t h a t f o ll o w s .
The American p u b lic e d u cati o n system has gone through a s e r i e s
o f dr a m a tic ad ju st m e n t s t o changing e n r o l lm e n ts in t h e p a s t two dec­
ad es .

In th e p e r io d beginning s e v e ra l y e a r s a f t e r th e end o f World

War I I , p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n began t o f e e l th e i n t e n s e p r e s s u r e c r e a t e d
by r a p i d l y expanding e n r o l lm e n t s .

In t h e l a t e f i f t i e s , th e b i r t h r a t e

began t o peak, alt hough i t i s only in r e t r o s p e c t t h a t th e peak i s
r e cognized f o r t h e d r am atic impact i t would have on e d u c a t io n a l pro­
gramming.

Beginning in t h e e a r l y s i x t i e s , school e n r o l lm e n ts began

t o plummet.
The e f f e c t s o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts in Michigan p u b l i c edu­
c a t i o n have been f e l t f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s .

I t i s only in th e l a s t few

y e a r s t h a t th e impact o f t h i s n a t i o n a l phenomenon could be seen a t
eve ry l e v e l o f e d u c a t io n in Michigan.

What i s th e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t

en r o llm e n t s w i l l c o n t i n u e to d e c l i n e ?

How can school d i s t r i c t s , and

c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , respond to e n r o l lm e n t l o s s e s ?
lems a r e a s s o c i a t e d with e n r o llm e n t drops?

What prob­

Who on th e s t a t e lev el i s

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r monitori ng t h i s problem and pr o v id in g a s s i s t a n c e t o
d i s t r i c t s and i n s t i t u t i o n s a tt e m p t i n g t o respond t o a s s o c i a t e d problems?

117

On March 6, about 50 e d u c a tio n p o l i c y l e a d e r s in Michigan were
assembled by the Michigan Education Seminars t o ad d r e ss t h e problem o f
d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s .

Some o f t h e most q u a l i f i e d e x p e r t s in Michigan

e d u cati o n were assembled t o p r e s e n t e n r o llm en t p r o j e c t i o n s and to pro­
pose means o f responding to d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n ts t h a t could be d i s ­
cussed in an open forum on t h i s s u b j e c t .
Among th o s e p r e s e n t i n g in form ation on th e d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm en t
problem in Michigan e d u c a t i o n were:
Dr. Malcolm Katz, Deputy S t a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t o f P ublic
Instruction;
Dr. Fred Whims, D i r e c t o r , Education D i v i s i o n , Michigan
Department o f Management and Budget;
Dr. Fred Ign ato v ic h and Dr. Stan Hecker, College of
Education, Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Dr. David Goldberg, D i r e c t o r o f t h e D e t r o i t Popu lation
Study, The U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan;
Dr. Homer E l s e r o a d , D i r e c t o r o f Elementary and Secondary
E du c atio n, Education Commission o f th e S t a t e s , Denver;
S e n a to r Kerry Kammer, Chairman, Senate A p p r o p r ia ti o n s Sub­
committee on Educ ation;
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Jim O ' N e i l l , Chairman, House A pp r o p ria ti o n s
Sub-Committee on Education.
The f o llo w in g i s a b r i e f summary o f t h e major p o i n t s o f the
p r e s e n t a t i o n s on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s .
The Michigan Department o f Education completed a comprehensive
t a s k f o r c e r e p o r t on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s in May o f 1977.

T h e ir

e n r o llm e n t p r o j e c t i o n s f o r Michigan p u b l i c e d u c a tio n were not o p t i ­
m istic.
. Between 1975 and 1985, Michigan w i l l l o s e 20 p e r c e n t of
i t s ele m en tary school e n r o llm e n t .
. By 1992, th e number o f Michigan high school g r a d u a t e s w i l l
be a t l e a s t o n e - t h i r d l e s s than t h e number o f 1972 g r a d u a t e s .

118
Most e x p e r t s agree t h a t t h e r e a r e two major cau ses o f d e c l i n ­
ing e n r o l lm e n ts in Michigan.

F i r s t , and most o bvious, i s t h e dr amatic

r e d u c t i o n in l i v e b i r t h s in Michigan.
a high o f 208,000.

In 1957, t h e b i r t h r a t e reached

This r e s u l t e d in an e lem entary e n r o llm e n t peak a t

th e k i n d e r g a r t e n le ve l in t h e 1962-63 school y e a r .
t h i s f i g u r e was a b i r t h r a t e o f 131,000 in 1976.

In c o n t r a s t t o
Second, M ic higan's

d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t problems a r e compounded by an economy t h a t has
been marked by a f a i r l y dr amatic l o s s o f i n d u s t r y t o th e s u n - b e l t and
other s t a t e s .

Michigan has been l o s i n g i n d u s t r y , and w ith i t go work­

e r s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s .
S everal problems a r e a s s o c i a t e d w it h e n r o llm e n t l o s s e s in t h e
p u b l i c s c h o o ls .

Katz r e f e r r e d t o t h i s a s t h e "c as ca ding e f f e c t s " o f

declining enrollments.
. Teaching, a p r o f e s s i o n which once claimed " m o b i l it y " as a
major drawing c a r d , i s now a r e l a t i v e l y s t a t i c p r o f e s s i o n .
The i n c r e a s i n g av erage age o f t e a c h e r s on a s t a f f has
caused t h e av erage s a l a r i e s o f s t a f f members t o go up.
. As th e av erage age (and y e a r s o u t o f c o l l e g e ) o f t e a c h e r s
i n c r e a s e s , t h e need f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l development programs
i n c r e a s e s . P r o f e s s i o n a l development w i l l i n f l a t e av erage
per pupil e d u c a tio n a l c o s t s .
. The t e a c h e r t e n u r e commission i s under i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e
as t h e docket o f ca s e s brought by t e a c h e r s who have been
r e l e a s e d by d i s t r i c t s a t t e m p t i n g t o a d j u s t t o d e c l i n i n g
e n r o llm e n ts co n ti n u e s t o grow.
Among th e Department o f Education s u g g e s t i o n s f o r responding
t o e n r o llm en t drops were:
1.

The a doption o f f u r t h e r s t a t e school a i d ad ju s tm e n t s f o r
d i s t r i c t s s u f f e r i n g l a r g e e n r o l lm e n t d e c l i n e ;

2.

th e i n n o v a t i v e u t i l i z a t i o n o f v acan t K-12 school b u i l d ­
ings by i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t s and community c o l l e g e s ;

119

3.

t h e u t i l i z a t i o n by t h e s t a t e o f l o c a l school d i s t r i c t
p r o j e c t i o n s in school bonding program a p p r o v a l s .

Dr. Fred Whims, o f t h e S t a t e Department o f Management and
Budget, i n d i c a t e d t h a t he had s u p e r v i s e d an ind ependent s t a f f a n a l y ­
s i s o f t h e impact o f e n r o l lm e n t l o s s e s upon l o c a l school d i s t r i c t s .
T h e i r f i n d i n g s were t o be su bm it te d t o t h e govern or.

(The 0MB recom­

mendations s u b s e q u e n tl y were r e p o r t e d t o t h e Michigan Education Semi­
n a r s by Douglas Smith, S pe cial A s s i s t a n t t o t h e Governor, a t a s e s ­
s ion held on June 5, 1978.
Whims s t a t e d t h a t t h e major purpose o f th e Department o f Man­
agement and

Budget stu d y was t o develop a model t h a t could determine

howd i f f e r e n t ty p e
d rop s.

school d i s t r i c t s a r e a f f e c t e d by l a r g e e n r o llm e n t

But, th e r e p o r t by Whims was not l i m i t e d t o K-12 e d u c a t i o n .

For example, Whims observed t h a t :
1.

s t a t e c o l l e g e and u n i v e r s i t y e n r o llm e n ts have dropped by
ab ou t 1 p e r c e n t p e r y e a r f o r t h e p a s t t h r e e y e a r s ;

2. t h r e e u n i v e r s i t i e s (W.S.U.,
E.M.U., W.M.U.) a r e c u r ­
r e n t l y be a r in g t h e g r e a t e s t burden o f th e e n r o llm e n t
decline;
3.

major e n r o llm e n t drops a r e beginning t o occu r a t th e
community c o l l e g e l e v e l .

Whims i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s t a t e ' s budget department was pr epare d
t o recommend t o t h e governor t h a t s t a t e e f f o r t s to r e l i e v e some o f t h e
problems a s s o c i a t e d with e n r o llm e n t drops be c o n t i n u e d , and perhaps
expanded.
Dr. Fred I g n a to v ic h and Dr. Stan Hecker a r e two acknowledged
e x p e r t s in Michigan e d u cati o n in t h e a r e a o f p o p u l a t i o n p r o j e c t i o n .
T h e ir method o f p o p u l a tio n p r o j e c t i o n , a " c o h o r t s u r v i v a l " p r o c e s s ,

120

p rovid e s a presumably a c c u r a t e method o f p r o j e c t i n g school popula­
t i o n s over a tw e n t y - y e a r p e r io d .
T h e ir p r e s e n t a t i o n was

o f a "good news--bad news" n a t u r e .

F i r s t t h e good news:
. 1977 saw th e f i r s t measurable i n c l i n e (ro ug hly 6 p e r c e n t )
in b i r t h r a t e in Michigan in s e v e r a l y e a r s .
Now th e bad news:
. The e n r o llm en t d e c l i n e s w i l l c o n t i n u e . Minor i n c r e a s e s in
th e b i r t h r a t e can s t a b i l i z e p o p u l a t i o n s , b u t many d i s t r i c t s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y in urban c e n t e r s , should ex p e c t c o ntinued
declines;
. There w i l l be 14,600 fewer te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s in Michigan
by 1981, f a r more than th e number t h a t co uld be assumed by
attritio n .
Dr. David Goldberg, a U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan s o c i o l o g i s t and
recognized p o p u la tio n s t u d i e s e x p e r t , c o n c e n t r a t e d h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n
on t h e impact o f K-12 d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts on h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n .
Unlike most o f his c o l l e a g u e s , Goldberg appealed t o th e MES p a r t i c i ­
p ants not t o o v e r r e a c t t o e n r o llm e n t l o s s e s a t t h e K-12 le v e l when
p r o j e c t i n g f u t u r e h i g h e r education e n r o l lm e n t s .

"I d o n ' t b e l i e v e we

a r e f a c i n g d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts in c o l l e g e . . . where we a r e d e a li n g
with a p o p u l a ti o n t h a t has a ch o ic e about going t o s c h o o l. "

Goldberg

emphasized t h a t t h e c o l l e g e e n r o l lm e n t r a t e has been r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e .
Where many e x p e r t s f e e l t h e low-enro llm ent t i d e h a s n ' t h i t t h e c o l l e g e
l ev el y e t , Goldberg sugges te d t h a t c o l l e g e e n r o llm e n t w i l l not be
a f f e c t e d d r a m a t i c a l l y by a lower b i r t h r a t e and o u t - m i g r a t i o n :
. f i r s t - t i m e e n r o llm e n ts in u n i v e r s i t i e s c o n s t i t u t e only
17-18 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l . According t o Goldberg, more
o l d e r people a r e going t o c o l l e g e ;
. female e n r o l l e e s a r e i n c r e a s i n g as a p e r c e n ta g e o f t h e t o t a l ;

121

. p a r t o f th e d e c l i n i n g b i r t h r a t e i s a f u n c t i o n o f f a m i l i e s
spac ing t h e i r c h i l d r e n over a lo n g e r p e r io d o f tim e. One
o f t h e e f f e c t s o f t h i s sp ac ing i s t h a t more money w i l l be
a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e fa m ily t o send t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o s t a t e
c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .
Goldberg s a i d t h a t d e s p i t e Whims' p r e s e n t a t i o n t o t h e c o n t r a r y ,
t o t a l e n r o l lm e n t s a r e a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g a t Michigan u n i v e r s i t i e s and
c o l l e g e s and t h e t r e n d , he e x p e c t s , w i l l c o n t i n u e .
Dr.
tion

Homer E l s e r o a d , D i r e c t o r o f Elementary and Secondary Educa­

f o r t h e Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s (ECS), was asked to

pro vid e MES with t h e n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e on what i s being done on a
s t a t e - b y - s t a t e l e v e l t o deal wit h d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s .

He spoke o f

th e u n i v e r s a l problems o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s , t h e a n c i l l a r y i s s u e s ,
and the v a r io u s s t a t e methods o f d e a l i n g with t h e problem.
The n a t i o n a l school e n r o llm en t i s f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t with th e
p i c t u r e in Michigan.

Some s t a t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e s o - c a l l e d sun

b e l t s t a t e s , a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g an i n c r e a s e caused by i n - m i g r a t i o n .

The

e n r o llm e n t drops t h a t a r e o c c u r rin g a c r o s s t h e n a t i o n ap ply f a i r l y
e q u a l l y t o both p u b l i c and p r i v a t e s c h o o ls .

The t r e n d , a ccording t o

E l s e r o a d , i s not ex pected t o bottom-out u n t i l about 1983.
Theimpact o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t , when compounded w i th
tion

infla­

r a t e s , has been d e v a s t a t i n g t o c e r t a i n d i s t r i c t s . The im p o sitio n

of new programs has a l s o d r a m a t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e d c o s t s over th e p a s t
several y ears.

E ls eroad l i s t e d as examples handicapped programs,

compensatory e d u c a t i o n , e a r l y child ho od programs, and a c c o u n t a b i l i t y
and competency laws t h a t r e q u i r e expanded a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e s .
A l a r g e number o f s t a t e l e g i s l a t o r s have a tt e m p te d t o e a s e t h e
burden on d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t d i s t r i c t s by a v a r i e t y o f ad ju stm e n ts

122

t o s t a t e school a i d p l a n s .

Most o f t h e s e ad ju stm en ts have come in t h e

form of " hold -h arm less '' p r o v i s i o n s , all ow in g d i s t r i c t s in d e c l i n e to
use an av erage o f p r ev io u s y e a r s ' e n r o llm e n t o r t o count "phantom
s t u d e n t s , " some p e r c e n ta g e o f th e l o s s ov er th e previous y e a r s .
D i s t r i c t s c a p i t a l i z i n g on e n r o llm e n t l o s s have used t h i s prob­
lem as an i n c e n t i v e f o r reduced p u p i l - t e a c h e r r a t i o s , school c o n s o l i ­
d a t i o n and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , and t h e c l o s i n g o f o b s o l e t e f a c i l i t i e s .
Other d i s t r i c t s have found means o f t u r n i n g vaca nt b u i l d i n g s over t o
a l l i e d s o c i a l agencie s f o r o t h e r u s e s , such as s e n i o r c i t i z e n and com­
munity c e n t e r s .
The d e c l i n i n g en r o llm e n t has f a c i l i t a t e d change in t e n u r e and
t e a c h e r c o n t r a c t laws.

I f t h e "bad" s i t u a t i o n o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l ­

ment is producing any unifo rm ly "good" r e s u l t , i t i s in "h elping s t a t e
educa tion ag encies and l o c a l d i s t r i c t s develop th e c a p a c i t y t o do
b e t t e r planning, b e t t e r p ro je c tio n s .

. . . "

The summary d i s c u s s i o n o f th e seminar on t h e impact o f d e c l i n ­
ing e n r o l lm e n ts was " th e l e g i s l a t i v e r e a c t i o n . "

No two more d i r e c t

and i n f l u e n t i a l l e g i s l a t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s could have been i d e n t i f i e d t o
r e a c t t o t h e seminar s u b j e c t than t h e chairmen o f t h e two e d u cati o n
a p p r o p r i a t i o n s sub-committees o f t h e l e g i s l a t u r e —S enato r Kerry Kammer
and R e p r e s e n t a t i v e James O ' N e i l l .

This segment o f th e program was

c h a i r e d by MES S t e e r i n g Committee member/Senate F i s c a l Agency D i r e c t o r
Eugene Farnum.
Farnum began t h e s e s s i o n by p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t S e n a to r Kammer
was ta k i n g th e problem o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts i n t o h i s own hands—
h i s w if e was soon due t o d e l i v e r t h e i r second c h i l d .

Later th a t

123

ev en ing, t h e s ch ools o f Oakland County had a new s t u d e n t f o r t h e f a l l
o f 1983.
Kammer began h is p r e s e n t a t i o n by u n v e i l i n g some " i n s t a n t
answers" t o t h e problems o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s .

One p a r t i c i p a n t ,

he s a i d , had sug ges ted t o him th e expansion o f t h e K-12 system o f K-36,
with a mandatory school age o f 42.

Perhaps t h e g r e a t e s t problem with

d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t i s t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o comprehend as a prob­
lem,

s a i d Kammer.

" I t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r us in t h e p o l i t i c a l ar ena t o

communicate t o our c o n s t i t u e n t s why c o s t s c o n t i n u e t o r i s e or c o n tin u e
to s t a y t h e same when th e number of p u p i l s d e c l i n e .

To t e l l someone

t h e i r school d i s t r i c t has dropped from 18,000 t o 15,000 and y e t t h e r e
h a s n ' t been an a p p r e c i a b l e r e d u c ti o n i s c o s t i s one o f t h e d i f f i c u l ­
t i e s . . . i t ' s not e a s i l y communicated, i t ' s not e a s i l y t o l d . "
Kammer observed t h a t d i f f e r e n t communities can absorb d i f f e r ­
e n t p e r c e n ta g e s o f c o s t s from en r o llm e n t d e c l i n e s , and he s a i d he
wanted to f i n d o u t what f a c t o r s c o n t r o l t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s .

He a l s o

observed t h a t his c o l l e a g u e , R e p r e s e n t a t i v e O ' N e i l l , was perhaps f i r s t to
p o i n t o u t how u n f o r t u n a t e i t i s t h a t d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts have only in
t h e p a s t two or t h r e e y e a r s been s i g n i f i c a n t enough as a p o l i t i c a l
i s s u e t o command a s earc h f o r s o l u t i o n s .

C e r t a i n urban a r e a s s u f f e r e d

l o s s e s s e v e r a l y e a r s ago, t h e i r e n r o llm en t drop has t a p e r e d o f f , and
they a r e now not e l i g i b l e f o r f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e funding s o l u t i ons.
Jim O 'N eill has handled e d u catio n funding in t h e House o f
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f o r many y e a r s .

His d i s t r i c t , Saginaw, i s an urban

c e n t e r t h a t s u f f e r e d major e n r o l l m e n t d e c l i n e s e v e r a l y e a r s ago.

He

124

stated:

"I'm s o r r y I'm not t h a t u p s e t with i t [ d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t ]

r i g h t now because we've been through th e t r a u m a t i c c o n d i t i o n o f d e c l i n ­
ing e n r o llm e n t in my a r e a . "

O ' N eil l s t r e s s e d t h a t th e h i s t o r y o f t h e

problem o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s must be taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n when
th e s t a t e a c t s t o deal with t h i s problem.

He a l s o emphasized t h e

extreme d i f f i c u l t y t h a t l e g i s l a t o r s have in e x p l a i n i n g how t h e y can
design programs t h a t fund more f o r l e s s .
An e s s e n t i a l p o l i t i c a l problem a s s o c i a t e d w it h d e c l i n i n g
en r o llm e n ts i s school c l o s i n g s .

"When you t a l k about c l o s i n g a s c h o o l ,

o r c o n s o l i d a t i n g a d i s t r i c t , " s a i d O ' N e i l l , " a l l anyone can remember
i s t h e 1946 Husky team t h a t went u n d e f e a te d , and th ey a r e looking
forward t o t h a t happening again in 1980.

And i f you c l o s e t h e i r

school in 1979, th ey w o n 't ev e r have t h a t chance to win a g a i n . "
"Another problem a s s o c i a t e d with th e en r o llm e n t d e c l i n e , " he
co n t i n u e d , " i s a problem with K-12 d i s t r i c t s a c c e p tin g t u i t i o n s t u d e n t s
from s m a l l e r d i s t r i c t s - - a problem o f ' r a i d i n g . '

In t h e o ld day s, i t

used t o be t h e s t a r q u a r t e r b a c k o r t h e b a s k e t b a l l c e n t e r , but now
i t ’s f o r warm b o d i e s . "
During t h e q u e s tio n and answer p e r i o d , Kammer and O 'N e i ll were
asked abou t p o s s i b l e s t a t e i n c e n t i v e s t h a t could be pro vided f o r school
d i s t r i c t consolidation.
th is notion.

Both l e g i s l a t o r s expres sed ap p rehensi on about

In f a c t , O 'N eill sug ges ted t h a t a more r e a s o n a b l e a l t e r ­

n a t i v e might be to e l i m i n a t e d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm en t a i d , thus f o r c i n g
c o n s o l i d a t i o n upon d i s t r i c t s too small t o o th e r w is e o p e r a t e e f f i ­
ciently.

125

Kammer suggested t h a t perhaps t h e major o b s t a c l e t o a school
d i s t r i c t a d j u s t i n g t o changing enrollm ents i s neighborhood p o l i t i c a l
p r e s s u r e t h a t makes i t v i r t u a l l y impossible t o c l o s e a school.

He

stated,
I s o r t o f h ate to see any school b u il d in g go o u t o f p u b l ic
ownership. There was a long per iod o f time when t h e s e school
b u i l d i n g s were u n d e r - u t i l i z e d , and now in my a r e a a t l e a s t , I
am seein g them come i n t o f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n . They a r e being
used f o r many o t h e r t h i n g s b es id e s th e K-12 program. I see them
being used f o r evening c o u r s e s , r e c r e a t i o n , drama c l a s s e s ,
tumbling—they have become community c e n t e r s , so t o speak. I
am lo a t h e t o see them go o u t o f p u b l ic ownership o r us e. I'm
j u s t wondering whether th e f e d e r a l government . . . makes commit­
ments r e g u l a r l y f o r t h e purchase o f land and f a c i l i t i e s t o pro­
vide r e c r e a t i o n a l o p p o r tu n i t y . I f they were t o somehow tak e
over . . . th e o b l i g a t i o n o f thos e b u i l d i n g s , and perhaps l e a s e
back classrooms to th e s c h o o l s , t h i s might make i t p o s s i b l e f o r
d i s t r i c t s to a d j u s t , and keep th e p a r e n t s o f f t h e i r back.
Several p a r t i c i p a n t s expressed concern over t h e impact t h a t
th e d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t c r i s i s i s having on th e te aching p r o f e s s i o n .
Mary Kay Kosa, a classroom t e a c h e r and a former MEA p r e s i d e n t , s a id :
I ' v e never f e l t so old in my l i f e as I do now because I'm one
o f those people who a r e a t t h e upper edge o f t h e t e a c h in g l e v e l .
I t h i n k th o s e o f us who have been in p u b l ic ed uca tion f o r a long
time a r e very concerned t h a t t h e r e a r e few avenues f o r new,
young people in th e teach in g p r o f e s s i o n . . . .
E a r l y - r e t i r e m e n t i n c e n t i v e s was one o f t h e methods suggested
f o r brin gin g younger t e a c h e r s i n t o th e p r o f e s s i o n .
The s e s s io n was concluded with general o b s e r v a t i o n s about th e
heightened awareness o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s about t h e s h o r t - r a n g e and
long -range r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f the problem o f d e c l i n i n g e n rollm ents f o r
Michigan e d u c a ti o n .

126
Seminar 4: Educ ationa l P o l i c y in t h e
C a r t e r A d m i n i s t r a t i o n —and a Federal
Department o f E ducation; An Address
by Dr. William P i e r c e , Executive
Deputy, U.S. O f f i c e o f Educ ation—
April 14, 1978, East Lansing, Michigan
What promised t o be j u s t a n o t h e r speech on e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
and t h e need f o r a f e d e r a l department o f e d u c a ti o n t u r n e d out t o be a
d e l i g h t f u l , in f o r m a l , and i n f o r m a tiv e a f t e r n o o n w it h Dr. William
P i e r c e (Execu tive Deputy Commissioner o f USOE) as he t a l k e d w ith h i s
many f r i e n d s a t t e n d i n g t h e f o u r t h s e s s i o n o f t h e 1977-78 Michigan Edu­
c a t i o n Seminars on th e s u b j e c t , "Educational P o l ic y in t h e C a r t e r
Administration."

His many f r i e n d s in Michigan e d u c a t io n c a l l him

" B i l l , " and th ey have watched him r i s e from Deputy S t a t e S u p e r in t e n ­
d e n t o f P u b li c I n s t r u c t i o n in Michigan t o a c t i n g U.S. Corranissioner on
Education.
Augmenting th e au die nce o f n e a r l y f i f t y , in c l u d i n g g r a d u a t e edu­
c a t i o n s t u d e n t s , u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s , e x e c u t i v e s from t h e s t a t e ' s
l e g i s l a t i v e bran ch , school d i s t r i c t o f f i c i a l s , and o f f i c i a l s o f the
s t a t e ' s major e d u c a t i o n - r e l a t e d a s s o c i a t i o n s , were members o f t h e DOE
A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Co unci l, p e r s o n a l l y i n v i t e d by S u p e r in te n d e n t o f P ublic
I n s t r u c t i o n John P o r t e r .
S e n a t o r B u r s le y , Chairman o f t h e Education Council o f Michigan,
c a l l e d th e s e s s i o n to o r d e r and announced t h a t in r espons e to an
e a r l i e r MES seminar on " d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s , " Douglas Smith o f t h e
g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e had asked t o p r e s e n t Governor M i l l i k e n ' s p r o p o s a ls
on t h e s u b j e c t a t t h e nex t s e s s i o n o f t h e MES. The r e q u e s t was warmly
received.

127

He a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t a nationw ide e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y l e a d e r
i s s u e s urv ey , which MES p a r t i c i p a n t s completed a t t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n
o f 1977-78, had been t a b u l a t e d .

School f i n a n c e , S e n a to r Bursley

r e p o r t e d , had l o s t i t s

crown as t h e

number one e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e in

America.

t i t l e was an

i s s u e t h a t has r a p i d l y gain ed i t s

Assuming th e

s t a t u s as a heavyweight:

" b a s i c s k i l l s and minimal co mpetencies."

In concluding t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e program, Bursley i n t r o d u c e d
Dr. Frank Hartman, t h e f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i v e l i a i s o n f o r t h e S t a t e
Department o f Edu cation.

Hartman i n t r o d u c e d P i e r c e .

P i e r c e ' s comments were both i n f o r m a t i v e and e n t e r t a i n i n g .
For example:
On h i s b o s s ' s a t t i t u d e s ab out smoking:
NEW S e c r e t a r y C a li f a n o s a y s : "USOE has done t h e l e a s t o f any
agency t o c a r r y o u t h i s i n i t i a t i v e a g a i n s t smoking. I f you
g e t beyond t h e jokes and l i s t e n t o what he i s sa ying ab ou t
kids who smoke . . . t h e r e i s c e r t a i n l y medical eviden ce t o
support his p o s itio n ."
On t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e move t o c r e a t e a f e d e r a l
department of e d u c a ti o n :
"Nobody r e s i s t s change. . . . We a l l j u s t r e s i s t being changed."
On S e c r e t a r y C a l i f a n o ' s p er ceiv ed r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e new f e d e r a l
de par tm ent o f e d u c a t io n :
"As I watch him, he i s so i n t e n t on t r y i n g t o bring ab out edu­
c a t i o n a l change, he j u s t d o e s n ' t want t o l o s e t h e p r i n c i p a l
v e h i c l e he has t o accomplish t h a t . "
On t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f massive i n c r e a s e s in f e d e r a l e d u c a t io n
financing:
"This a d m i n i s t r a t i o n does n o t view t h e f e d e r a l well as bottom­
less."
On S e c r e t a r y C a l i f a n o ' s " P r o j e c t Common Sense" t o d e b u r e a u c r a t i z e
th e HEW r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s :
"You'd t h i n k t h a t a bunch o f f o l k s who were supposedly e d u c a t e d ,
and edu ca ted through t h e s c h o o ls we say a r e doing a good j o b ,
could w r i t e r e g u l a t i o n s so t h a t people could rea d them and under­
s t a n d them."

128
On whose f a u l t t h i s i s :
"The l a w y e r s ' . "
On community-school r e l a t i o n s :
"We simply ca nnot t u r n ou r back on t h e r o l e o f t h e community,
o f t h e mayor, o f the i n d u s t r i e s , in t h i s whole b u s i n e s s of
e ducating k i d s . "
On th e concept o f g en er al a i d t o e d u c a ti o n :
"That does not seem t o be pop ula r with t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a t
t h i s ti m e . "
On th e p o l i t i c a l c l o u t pro vid ed e d u catio n because o f i t s r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p in th e H e a lt h , Education and Welfare Department:
"I t h i n k we g e t squeezed between h e a l t h and w e l f a r e . "
On minimal competencies:
" A f te r you have achieve d e q u a l i t y o f a c c e s s , you have t o ask
th e q u e s ti o n 'a c c e s s t o w h a t? " '
On th e c o n g r e s s io n a l r e a c t i o n t o t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s elemen­
t a r y and secondary e d u c a ti o n amendments p r o p o s a l:
" I f you read HR 15 c a r e f u l l y , alth ou gh Congress d i d not a c c e p t
many o f our p r o p o s a l s , t h e f i n a l v e r s i o n c o n t a i n s s i g n i f i c a n t
amounts o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s p r o p o s a l s . "
What he d o e s n ' t miss abou t Michigan:
"The w e a th e r ."
P i e r c e i d e n t i f i e d s e v e r a l a r e a s o f p o l i c y concern in th e c u r ­
rent adm inistration.

Among t h e s e a r e :

1.

th e c r e a t i o n o f a f e d e r a l department o f e d u c a t i o n ;

2.

a concern f o r c h i l d r e n from middle-income f a m i l i e s seeking
a s s i s t a n c e in h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , w i th o u t l o s i n g s i g h t o f
the b a s ic purpose o f Basic Op portunit y G r a n t s , and o t h e r
programs aimed a t c h i l d r e n from a p o verty background;

3.

a concern over e d u c a ti o n a l q u a l i t y ;

4.

an examination o f th e common co re c u r ri c u lu m c o n c e p t,
with an emphasis on b a s ic s k i l l s ;

5.

a gl obal p e r s p e c t i v e - - t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s from a v a r i e t y o f v ie w p o in ts ; and

6.

e f f i c i e n c y a t th e f e d e r a l l e v e l —s t r e a m l i n i n g t h e USOE.

129

P i e r c e a l s o e x p la in e d t h a t i n t e r n a l teams had been developed
w ith in USOE t o e s t a b l i s h p o l i c y in t h e f o ll o w in g a r e a s :
1.

t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n — "What i s th e r o l e o f th e f e d e r a l gov­
ernment in t e a c h e r educ at io n?"

2.

g i f t e d and t a l e n t e d s t u d e n t s ,

3.

t h e urban high s c h o o l,

4.

community-school r e l a t i o n s , and

5.

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between formal and informal e d u c a t i o n .

P i e r c e s a i d t h a t he sensed a r e t u r n t o " c o m p e t itiv e g r a n t s "
r a t h e r than general e d u catio n a i d .

He s a i d t h a t he d o e s n ' t , however,

see t h i s movement as an a tte m p t to reduce th e s t a t e ' s r o l e .

He empha­

s i z e d t h a t i n t e g r a t i o n and d e s e g r e g a t i o n programs a r e e n jo ying renewed
i n t e r e s t in Washington.

P i e r c e was o p t i m i s t i c t h a t a new f e d e r a l edu­

c a t i o n agency w i l l be c r e a t e d w it h i n t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s f i r s t term.

He

c i t e d s e v e r a l a r e a s o f r e s i s t a n c e g e n e r a t e d l a r g e l y by f o r c e s t h a t do
not want t o be c o n tain ed in such a new departm ent, and he emphasized
t h a t such a department could pr ovide g r e a t e r communication between
th e f e d e r a l , s t a t e , and l ocal governments.
Seminar 5: Michigan Education Seminar
Meets th e Federal Government—June 2,
1978, D e t r o i t , Michigan
One o f th e b e s t r ea so ns f o r a s t a t e e d u c a tio n seminar s e r i e s
to be a f f i l i a t e d with a n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n such as t h e I n s t i t u t e
f o r Educational Leadershp i s t h a t i t pr o v id e s o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s t a t e
ed u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s and policymakers with a n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e t o
meet and c o n f e r .

One such occ as ion oc curre d in e a r l y June when

el ev en p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e Michigan Education Seminars met with s i x t e e n

130
f e d e r a l o f f i c i a l s who were completing a t o u r o f ESAA and ESEA T i t l e I
programs i n t h e C i ty o f D e t r o i t .
The f e d e r a l o f f i c i a l s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c e n t r a l o f f i c e o f H e a l th ,
Education and Welfare Department, t h e National I n s t i t u t e o f Ed uc atio n,
t h e United S t a t e s O f f i c e of E d uc atio n, and t h e Congress.

The expres sed

purpose o f teaming MES p a r t i c i p a n t s with t h e f e d e r a l o f f i c i a l s p a r ­
t i c i p a t i n g in t h e IEL-funded D e t r o i t s i t e s tu d y was t o i n t e r a c t with
them on t h e s u b j e c t o f th e implementation o f t h e D e t r o i t compensa­
t o r y educa tion and d e s e g r e g a t io n programs funded by th e f e d e r a l gov­
ernment.

The d i s c u s s i o n evolved e a r l y i n t o an e x c e l l e n t give and

t a k e between Michigan e d u c a ti o n p o l i c y l e a d e r s and t h e i r f e d e r a l c o l ­
le a g u e s .
Donna Gold, o r g a n i z e r of th e t r i p f o r IEL, opened th e program
by emphasizing t h a t th e t r i p t o D e t r o i t "was not an i n v e s t i g a t i o n . "
I t was e s s e n t i a l l y designed t o gi ve c e r t a i n f e d e r a l o f f i c i a l s an
o p p o r tu n i t y t o t a k e a hands-on look a t how f e d e r a l programs "work a t
t h e s t a t e l e v e l and how th e y d o n ' t work."

Before a d i s c u s s i o n on th e

s t a t e d t o p i c s could b e g in , however, a HEW o f f i c i a l asked MES p a r t i c i ­
pan ts t o i d e n t i f y some major e d u c a t io n a l i s s u e s f a c i n g Michigan.

Some

o f t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d a r e h i g h l i g h t e d below:
Higher Educ ation— " t h e in a d e q u a t e competency l e v e l of s t u d e n t s
e n t e r i n g Michigan h i g h e r ed ucation"
One p a r t i c i p a n t observed t h a t "roughly 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u ­
d e n ts e n t e r i n g our u n i v e r s i t y do not make t h e c u t o f f p o i n t f o r
ta k i n g normal coursework." Another p a r t i c i p a n t s t r e s s e d t h e need
f o r improved "Upward Bound" funding by r e p o r t i n g t h a t a p p r o x i ­
mately 85 p e r c e n t o f a l l e n t e r i n g freshmen a t one major s t a t e u n i ­
v e r s i t y a r e " i n g r e a t need o f improved communication s k i l l s . "

131

Minimal Competency T e s t in g
The D e t r o i t schoo ls r e p o r t e d t h a t th e y a r e in t h e pr o c e ss o f
developing a t e s t f o r high school g r a d u a t i o n . The Department o f
Education expres sed some n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s about 12th grad e t e s t ­
i n g , b u t s t r e s s e d t h a t i t had made s t r i d e s in s t a t e w i d e as sessm en t
and l i f e - r o l e competency models.
"The ban d- aid approach w i ll not work," s a i d one s t a t e o f f i c i a l .
"We need t o work over t h e whole system . . . t o deal with compe­
t e n c i e s e a r l y on. " We a r e most con c e r n e d ," he c o n t i n u e d , "with
t h e e n t i r e q u e s ti o n o f secondary [ e d u c a t i o n ] r efo rm ."
The s t a t e ' s compensatory e d u c a t io n d i r e c t o r , Eugene Paslov
(now I n te r i m S t a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t o f P u b l ic I n s t r u c t i o n ) , o u t l i n e d
f i v e concerns r e g a r d in g T i t l e I , and asked th e f e d e r a l o f f i c i a l s
to t a k e t h e s e concerns to h e a r t and t o Washington:
1.

Formula: Michigan o f f i c i a l s a r e concerned t h a t c e r t a i n o f th e
new a l l o c a t i o n p r o p o s a l s w i ll caus e l e a d e r s t a t e s such as
Michigan t o " ta k e a bath" in T i t l e I fundin g;

2.

P r o f e s s i o n a l Development: There i s a c l e a r need f o r t h e f e d ­
e r a l government t o advance e f f o r t s t o fund programs t o t r a i n
compensatory educa tion p e r s o n n e l;

3.

Secondary Educ ation: Because o f problems in h ig h e r e d u catio n
r e p o r t e d e a r l i e r , and f o r many o t h e r r e a s o n s , e f f o r t s should
be made to advance s e c o n d a ry - l e v e l compensatory e d u c a ti o n
programs;

4.

P a r e n ta l Involvement: "We would l i k e t o see l e g i s l a t i o n speak
more f o r c e f u l l y to p a r e n t a l inv olvement."

5.

Youth Employment and T r a i n i n g : We h a v e n ' t done much a t th e
f e d e r a l o r th e s t a t e l e v e l t o a r t i c u l a t e t h e myriad o f p r o ­
grams aimed a t youth t r a i n i n g , employment, j o b development,
c areer education, a l t e r n a t i v e education, out-of-school youth,
and t h e l i k e .
Federal and s t a t e educati on policymakers d i s c u s s e d a v a r i e t y

of o t h e r i s s u e s , i n c l u d i n g :
A f e d e r a l department of e d u c a t i o n —most o f t h e MES p a r t i c i ­
pants had heard Deputy U.S. Commissioner o f Education William
P i e r c e on t h i s s u b j e c t j u s t one month e a r l i e r ;
The tax l i m i t a t i o n movement— i s t h i s e f f o r t going t o be
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f u l l f e d e r a l e d u c a ti o n funding as t h e only
way t o run t h e scho ols?

132

Upward bound—w ith r e - a u t h o r i z a t i o n o f t h i s program due next
y e a r , which a s p e c t s should be s t r e s s e d by s t a f f ?
S t a t e - f e d e r a l r e l a t i o n s — s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y in
Michigan, a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e s e n t f u l o f s o - c a l l e d f e d e r a l
t u rn ke y programs. Various s u g g e s t io n s were made as t o how
f e d e r a l - s t a t e r e l a t i o n s in e d u c a tio n p o l i c y making could be
improved.
Seminar 6: Manpower T r a i n i n g and
Education; The CETA/YEDPA Program
and th e Governo r's Recommendations
on D eclining E n r o l lm e n ts —June 5,
1978, E a st Lansing, Michigan
About t h i r t y Michigan e d u c a tio n p o l i c y l e a d e r s a t t e n d e d t h e
s i x t h s e s s i o n o f th e Michigan Education Seminars.

The s i x t h s e s s i o n

of t h e Michigan Education Seminars f o r 1977-78 was " s p e c i a l " f o r s e v ­
eral reasons.
F i r s t , i t marked t h e completion o f t h e f i r s t y e a r o f program­
ming

under t h e c u r r e n t c o o r d i n a t o r —a y e a r marked by th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n

o f over one hundred policymakers a t var io u s l e v e l s o f Michigan educa­
tional p o l i t i c s .
Second, i t wast h e f i r s t seminar in which
p a n ts were a b l e t o see
p o l i c y feedback .

th e r e g u l a r p a r t i c i ­

t h e impact o f t h e i r l a b o r s in

terms o f d i r e c t

The g o v e r n o r ' s s p e c i a l a s s i s t a n t f o r e d u c a t i o n ,

Douglas Smith, brought t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a s e r i e s o f recommenda­
t i o n s on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s , i n f l u e n c e d , i f not g e n e r a t e d , by an
e a r l i e r seminar s e s s i o n .

I t was a t t h i s s i x t h MES s e s s i o n t h a t a

s e r i e s o f recommendations from th e g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e on th e c o n t r o ­
v e r s i a l i s s u e o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t funding were u n v e i l e d .

This

a c t i o n o c c u r re d in t h e m id st o f t h e annual school a i d s t r u g g l e which
was o c c u r r i n g in l e g i s l a t i v e h a l l s .

I t cued, i f i t d i d n ' t o u t l i n e ,

133
th e Go ve rn or's r e a c t i o n t o pending l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i o n on t h i s c r i t i ­
cal i s s u e in Michigan e d u c a ti o n .
T h i r d , t h i s seminar marked t h e accomplishment o f an e a r l i e r
s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e o f th e c o o r d i n a t o r - - t o b r in g e d u c a to r s t o g e t h e r with
a l l i e d s o c i a l s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f a s u b j e c t of
mutual concern and i n t e r e s t .

The l e a d e r s i n both t h e S t a t e Dep ar t­

ment o f Education and t h e S t a t e Department o f Labor p a r t i c i p a t e d in
t h e f o r m u la ti o n o f t h e seminar program and th e u l t i m a t e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of the m aterial.
This s e c t i o n o f t h e summary i s s e p a r a t e d i n t o two p a r t s and
p r e s e n te d in t h e same o r d e r as t h e seminar program.
The g o v e r n o r ' s recommendations on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s . - -An
e a r l i e r seminar s e s s i o n in March had been devoted t o th e s u b j e c t o f
declining enrollm ents.

At t h a t s e s s i o n , t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e Education

D i v i s i o n o f t h e S t a t e Department o f Management and Budget i n d i c a t e d
t h a t a study on t h e e f f e c t o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t on v a r i o u s - s i z e d
school d i s t r i c t s was in pr o c e ss a t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e gove rn or.
i t s e l f , was news t o many s t a t e e d u c a tio n l e a d e r s .

This,

Following t h e March

s e s s i o n , t h e c o o r d i n a t o r met with Douglas Smith, t h e g o v e r n o r ' s edu­
c a t i o n a d v i s o r , who i n d i c a t e d a w i l l i n g n e s s to f l o a t t h e f i n d i n g s o f
the report

and i t s recommendations a t a f u t u r e MES s e s s i o n .

Time was

made a v a i l a b l e a t t h e June 5 s e s s i o n f o r Smith t o p r e s e n t h is f i n d i n g s .
Smith began with a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l overview o f t h e devel op­
ment o f t h e d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t c r i s i s in Michigan e d u c a t i o n .

He

i d e n t i f i e d t h e development o f t h e d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t as a problem
being r e l a t e d t o a school a i d formula " d r iv e n by s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t . "

134
He s a i d t h e g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e has developed d a ta t h a t i n d i c a t e d t h a t
no more th an 40-50 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t a t e funds l o s t in a d e c l i n i n g
e n r o l lm e n t s i t u a t i o n could be absorbed i n t h e f i r s t y e a r .

The v a r i ­

a b l e s s t u d i e d by t h e Department and t h e g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e t o d e t e r ­
mine a d i s t r i c t ' s a b i l i t y t o a d j u s t t o e n r o llm e n t d e c l i n e s in c lu d e d :
1.

amount o f d e c l i n e ,

2.

u n i f o r m i t y o f d e c l i n e t h ro ughout t h e K-12 d i s t r i c t ,

3.

l o c a t i o n o f school d i s t r i c t (a comparison o f r u r a l ve rsu s
urban d i s t r i c t s ) , and

4.

school and c l a s s s i z e .

F a c to r s i d e n t i f i e d t h a t need a d d i t i o n a l s tu d y i n clu d ed :
1.

t h e age and m a t u r i t y of t h e f a c u l t y and

2.

t h e age o f th e b u i l d i n g s .

From t h e s e f a c t o r s a model was b u i l t t o see how, given v a r io u s
a s su m p tio n s, t h e d i s t r i c t could respond t o d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s .
According t o Smith, a p r e l i m i n a r y u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e model d e s c rib e d
i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e d i s t r i c t s having t h e g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t y adapting
t o e n r o l lm e n t d e c l i n e a r e small d i s t r i c t s

with low d e c l i n e . Large

school d i s t r i c t s with l a r g e d e c l i n e s " a r e

more e a s i l y a b l e t o t a k e

t h e a c t i o n s t o b r in g t h e budget back down

t o a p l a c e where i t matches

t h e kind o f p o t e n t i a l revenue l o s s t h a t occurs

with a l o s s o f e n r o l l ­

ments."
Smith i n d i c a t e d t h a t using a spectrum ranging from small d i s ­
t r i c t s a t one end t o l a r g e d i s t r i c t s a t t h e o t h e r end (with v a r i o u s
r a t e s o f d e c l i n e ) t h e governor m odifi ed an e a r l i e r e x e c u t i v e proposal
on d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t fund ing.

The g o v e r n o r ' s r e v i s e d proposal

i d e n t i f i e d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 7,500 s t u d e n t s as th e brea king p o i n t between

135

l a r g e and small d i s t r i c t s .

The formula r e f l e c t e d t h e t h i n k i n g t h a t

l a r g e r d i s t r i c t s could be ex pected to ab sorb a g r e a t e r p er cen tag e o f
l o s t revenue through i n t e r n a l a d ju s tm e n t s .

Therefore, smaller d is ­

t r i c t s would r e c e i v e a h ig h e r r a t e o f r e t u r n from t h e s t a t e f o r th e
s o - c a l l e d "phantom s t u d e n t . "

Smith p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h i s would be th e

f i r s t y e a r t h a t a "major ex p e n d i tu r e " would be made f o r d i s t r i c t s
s u f f e r i n g e n r o llm e n t d e c l i n e s .

He a l s o p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e g o v e r n o r ' s

funding formula would be l a r g e l y ignored by t h e l e g i s l a t u r e t h i s y e a r .
Smith made two o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o t h i s s u b j e c t .
An a tt e m p t should be made t o deal with e n r o llm e n t d e c l i n e s " w i th i n
t h e c o n f in e s o f t h e formula— th e fewer c a t e g o r i c a l s we have th e b e t ­
ter.

The problem i s a f o r m u l a - r e l a t e d problem."

Second, th e problem

o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n ts r e l a t e s to t h e o v e r a l l adequacy of s t a t e
school f i n a n c i n g .

" I f you d i d n ' t have enough money in t h e f i r s t

p l a c e , you a r e t r y i n g t o go back t o a p la c e . . . which w a s n ' t ad e­
q u a te to begin w i t h . "
As somewhat i n c i d e n t a l , but meaningful i n s i g h t s , Smith recom­
mended t h a t t h e e n t i r e e d u cati o n community c o n f r o n t t h e i s s u e of
expanding n o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o s t s .

One o t h e r a r e a o f concern expres sed

by Smith i s t h a t we d o n ' t know what we a r e spending on s p e c i a l educa­
t i o n s t a t e w i d e , and how much t o t a l funding i s coming from where.

An

a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e use o f c a t e g o r i c a l s f o r d e a l i n g with d e c l i n i n g
en r o llm en t would be to improve th e " f r o n t - e n d " of th e formula so t h a t
i t would cover t h e c o s t o f d e c l i n e .
The Manpower T r a i n i n g / E d u c a t i o n —CETA-YEDPA Program. —This
segment o f t h e June 5, 1978, MES s e s s i o n was o rganized to provid e a

1 36

p e r s p e c t i v e from th e f e d e r a l , s t a t e , and lo cal l e v e l s t o Michigan
e d u cati o n po licymaker s.

"The Federal P e r s p e c t i v e " was pro vided by

C h r i s t i n e Chudd, youth program s p e c i a l i s t with t h e U.S. Department
o f Labor.

"The S t a t e P e r s p e c t i v e " was provided by a j o i n t p r e s e n t a ­

t i o n o f program s p e c i a l i s t s from both t h e Department o f Education
and th e Department o f Labor:

Richard J a c k so n , Michigan Department

o f Edu cation, and Robert P endleto n, Michigan Department of Labor.
An overview o f t h e s t a t e p e r s p e c t i v e was provided by S t a t e Superin ­
te n d e n t John W. P o r t e r , who b e s id e s h i s many o t h e r achievements has
served on a p r e s i d e n t i a l panel on t h i s s u b j e c t .

"The Local P er sp ec­

t i v e " was provided by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e major s t a t e r e c i p i e n t
o f CETA-YEDPA f u n d in g , t h e D e t r o i t P u b l i c Schools.

R ep res en ting

M ic higan's l a r g e s t school d i s t r i c t was P e t e r Manos.
Chudd's p r e s e n t a t i o n i d e n t i f i e d t h e g o a l s o f new f e d e r a l
l e g i s l a t i o n d e f i n i n g and funding youth employment t r a i n i n g programs.
One o f h i s major premises was t h a t through th e CETA program a c l o s e r
a l l i a n c e can be b u i l t between t h e e d u catio n and t h e employment and
manpower t r a i n i n g communities.
Dr. John P o r t e r , M ich igan 's S t a t e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P ublic
I n s t r u c t i o n , b e l i e v e s t h a t youth employment and t r a i n i n g i s th e
"second most importa nt item t h a t I have t o deal with n ex t t o t h e o v e r ­
a l l q u a l i t y o f Michigan e d u c a t i o n .
I have come a c r o s s . "

I t i s t h e most e l u s i v e i s s u e t h a t

P o r t e r has long been in volv ed in t h e i s s u e o f

youth employment and t r a i n i n g .

He has served on a p r e s i d e n t i a l panel

on t h i s s u b j e c t , and in r e c e n t months has helped t o e s t a b l i s h a c l o s e

137

working r e l a t i o n s h i p with Michigan Labor Department D i r e c t o r
C. P a t r i c k Babcock.

Babcock says t h a t a r t i c u l a t i o n o f CETA-type

programs w ith t h e e d u c a t i o n community i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e achievement
o f i t s lo ng-r ange g o a l s .
Richard J ackson, o f th e Michigan Department o f E duc ation,
p r e s e n t e d t h e D epa rtm en t's p o s i t i o n on CETA programs.

He s a i d th e

Department i s i n t e n t on a c h ie v i n g a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between edu­
c a t i o n and youth employment—t h a t t h i s i s a c e n t r a l i s s u e in th e
d e l i v e r y o f s e r v i c e s t o youth and t h a t he saw th e MES s e s s i o n as a
unique chance t o a d v i s e l o c a l e d u c a ti o n s e r v i c e p r o v id e r s how t o b e t t e r
u t i l i z e t h e myriad o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s under CETA-YEDPA.

"Some e d u c a t o r s ,

s a i d J ackson, " a r e f e a r f u l about programs w i t h i n CETA moving i n t o
education."

To some degree t h i s f e a r grows out o f a f e e l i n g t h a t

CETA-type programs encourage s t u d e n t s t o drop out o f school programs.
About t h e YEDPA program, Jackson s a i d " t h e s e a r e dem onst rat ion p r o ­
j e c t s —exper im ents . . .

t o t e s t a v a r i e t y o f hypotheses . . .

e x p lo r e ways t o deal with t r a n s i t i o n from school t o work.

to

The f e d ­

e r a l government i s beginning t o r eco g n ize t h a t a p r i o r i t y a c t i v i t y
f o r youth must be t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f b a s i c s k i l l s .

Work must be a

p a r t o f t h e o v e r a l l program, b u t work should be secondary and comple­
mentary [ t o t h e b a s i c e d u c a ti o n program]." Jackson i d e n t i f i e d a
v a r i e t y o f measures taken by th e Department o f Education t o c r e a t e
a b e t t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between school and a d u l t l i f e .

Among t h e s e

measures a r e a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r n a l t a s k f o r c e s on t h e s u b j e c t ,
c r e a t e d and c h a i r e d by S u p e r in te n d e n t P o r t e r , and in l i a i s o n with t h e
S t a t e Department o f Labor.

138
Bob Pendelton o v er sees t h e s e c t i o n o f th e Department o f Labor
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f CETA.

He began h i s p r e ­

s e n t a t i o n t o MES by emphasizing t h a t CETA i s due f o r a c o n g r e s s io n a l
r e w r i t e and t h a t now i s th e time f o r t h e school community to speak up
and voice t h e i r concerns in Washington, D.C.

Educations have a

g r e a t r o l e to play in a l l o f th e CETA programs in Michigan, s a i d
Pen dleton.

Over $500 m i l l i o n CETA funds w il l be expended in Michigan

th is year.
Under CETA programs f o r t h e " s t r u c t u r a l l y unemployed" t h e r e i s
almost no i n t e r e s t in p l a c i n g e d u c a t i o n a l re quire m en ts on th e program
p a r t i c i p a n t s , Pendleton p o i n te d o u t .

In Washington a c r i t i c a l CETA

deba te evolves around t h i s q u e s t i o n o f what s e r v i c e s should be p r o ­
vided t o , and what should be r e q u i r e d o f , t h e s t r u c t u r a l l y unemployed.
Pendleton s a i d he welcomed t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to ad d r e ss t o p - l e v e l edu­
c a t i o n p o l i c y l e a d e r s , " t o a l e r t you t h a t t h e r e i s a l a r g e amount o f
CETA money in t h e s t a t e - - a n d a l o t o f a r e a s in which e d u c a t o r s can
make a d i f f e r e n c e .

There i s a r o l e f o r e d u c a t o r s in CETA," Pendleton

stressed.
S u p e r in te n d e n t P o r t e r s a i d t h a t one o f h i s primary goals as th e
c h i e f s t a t e school o f f i c e r in Michigan i s t o " achieve a l i n k a g e
between secondary e d u c a tio n and employment--as s t r o n g as th e lin k a g e
between secondary and h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n .

We want to have t h e Michigan

Departments o f Education and Labor be t h e employer o f l a s t r e s o r t f o r
s t u d e n t s and unemployed a d u l t s , " s a i d P o r t e r .

"The s t a t e should be

compelled t o see t h a t young people g e t j o b s . "
P o r t e r i d e n t i f i e d seven major problems in t h i s p o l i c y a r e a :

139
1.

A l ack o f c o o r d i n a t i o n between s c h o o ls and l a b o r — "we a r e
working on t h a t " ;

2.

A l ack o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between i n - s c h o o l y outh and
o u t - o f - s c h o o l y o u th ;

3.

The absence o f a c l e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between e d u c a t o r s and
employment— th e s t u d e n t has no in s u r a n c e t h a t he can g e t
a job;

4.

The la c k o f s t a n d a r d s between CETA and v o c a tio n a l educa­
tion;

5.

The l a c k o f c o m p a t i b i l i t y between summer school e x p e r ie n c e
and y e a r - r o u n d e x p e r i e n c e s r e l a t e d t o s c h o o li n g ;

6.

The lack o f a n a t i o n a l commitment t o reduce youth unem­
ployment;

7.

The l a c k o f n a t i o n a l , s t a t e , and lo c a l mechanisms t o l i n k
j o b s and youth t o g e t h e r .

P o r t e r committed h i m s e l f to a d d r e s s i n g t h e s e problems during
th e n e x t s e v e r a l months.

The D e t r o i t P ublic Schools i s t h e major

r e c i p i e n t o f CETA-YEDPA funds in Michigan.

P e t e r Manos, P r o j e c t

D i r e c t o r , ad d r e s s e d MES co ncerning th e problems o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
t h a t c o n f r o n t a l o c a l school embarking upon t h i s p r o j e c t .

This was

a most u s e fu l segment o f t h e program, i f f o r no o t h e r reason th an i t
gave t h e f e d e r a l and s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a c l e a r view o f th e many
o b s t a c l e s , where removal could l ead t o a more d i r e c t and complete
achievement o f t h e l o f t y g o a l s o f CETA-YEDPA.
C r i t e r i a f o r S e l e c t i n g t h e Seminar
f o r I n t e r a c t i o n A n a l y s is
The March 2, 1978, seminar s e s s i o n on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t was
s e l e c t e d f o r an a n a l y s i s o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n among p a r t i c i p a n t s .

A

v a r i e t y o f t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s o f th e s ix seminar s e s s i o n s were i d e n t i ­
f i e d in t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h i s c h a p t e r .

The r e s e a r c h e r s e l e c t e d

t h e d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t s e s s i o n t o review in d e t a i l , based on sev­
eral additional c r i t e r i a .

140
Ses sion Attendance
How well a t t e n d e d were t h e s e s s io n s * a n d which seminar s e s s i o n s
involved t h e b r o a d e s t c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a n t s ?
Of t h e s i x s e s s i o n s , p a r t i c i p a n t a t t e n d a n c e ranged from a high
o f t h i r t y - n i n e (March 16, 1978, D eclining E n r o llm e n t s , Lansing) t o a
low o f ten (June 2, 1978, Federal Education O f f i c i a l s , D e t r o i t ) .
The p a r t i c i p a n t a t t e n d a n c e i s , a t b e s t , an e s t i m a t e .

During

ev er y s e s s i o n c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s came and went, and i t i s suspecte d
t h a t a number o f i n v i t e d p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e n o t r e p r e s e n t e d on th e s p e ­
c i f i c session attendance sheets.

F u r t h e r , " p a r t i c i p a n t " i s de f in e d

as an i n d i v i d u a l who was s e l e c t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e seminar s e s ­
s io n and was r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e " p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t " of th e seminar
series.

Seminar a t t e n d e e s who were s p e c i a l g u e s t s o f o f f i c i a l

p a r t i c i p a n t s , s p e a k e r s in t h e s e s s i o n , o r o t h e r s a r e not r e f l e c t e d in
t h e seminar a t t e n d a n c e f i g u r e s .

(See Table 1, P a r t i c i p a n t A tte n d a n c e . )

A d e f i n i t i o n o f a s e s s i o n as "wel1- a t t e n d e d " must, however,
i n c l u d e more i n fo r m a tio n than t h e simple t o t a l number o f i n v i t e d
seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s who a t t e n d e d .

To ju dge how w e l l - a t t e n d e d th e

v a r i o u s s e s s i o n s were, t h e r e s e a r c h e r looked a t t h e f o u r i n d i v i d u a l
c a t e g o r i e s o f seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s :

e x e c u t i v e br an ch , l e g i s l a t i v e

b r a n c h , e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t g roups, and o t h e r i n t e r e s t groups.
Although Table 2 pr o v id e s a d e t a i l e d r e p o r t o f t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n
o f segments o f each o f th e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s o f seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
an overview o f each one o f t h e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s provid e s s u f f i c i e n t
d e t a i l t o make a judgment ab out which seminar was b e s t a t t e n d e d .

141

Table 1 . —P a r t i c i p a n t a t t e n d a n c e .
Ses sion

Ses si on T i t l e

Total P a r t i c i p a n t s 9

Seminar 1

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Key Education
I s s u e s —September 14, 1978

27

Seminar 2

The Impact o f a C o n s t i t u t i o n a l
Convention on Michigan Educa­
t i o n —December 14, 1977

31

Seminar 3

The Impact o f D eclining E n r o l l ­
ments—March 6, 1978

39

Seminar 4

Educational P o lic y in t h e
C a r t e r A d m i n i s t r a t i o n —and a
Federal Department o f Educa­
t i o n ; An Address by Dr. William
P i e r c e , Executive Deputy, U.S.
O f f i c e o f E d u c a t io n - - A p ril 14,
1978

17

Seminar 5

Michigan Education Seminar
Meets t h e Federal Government—
June 2, 1978

10

Seminar 6

Manpower T r a in in g and Education:
The CETA/YEDPA Program and th e
Gove rn or's Recommendations on
D eclining E n r o llm en ts —June 5,
1978

17

P a r t i c i p a n t s in c lu d e t h o s e a t t e n d e e s who were i n v i t e d t o
a t t e n d t h e s e s s i o n from t h e MES p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t . The numbers do
not r e f l e c t a t t e n d e e s who were not r e g u l a r l y i n v i t e d p a r t i c i p a n t s
in MES.

142

September
Planning

December 12, 1977
C o n s t i t u t io n

March 6, 1978
Declining E n r o l l.

April 14, 1978
Federal Education

June 2, 1978
Fed. Ed. ( D e t r o i t )

June 5, 1978
CETA/YEPDA

Totals

Average

14, 1977

Table 2 . —Seminar p a r t i c i p a t i o n , by c a te g o r y .

G o vernor' s Offi ce

1

1

0

0

1

1

4

1

Michigan Department of Educ.

3

3

5

5

3

3

22

4

Other

0

1

1

0

0

0

2

0

4

5

6

5

4

4

28

5

House Republicans

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

House Democrats

2

0

4

0

0

0

6

1

Senate Republicans

2

2

2

0

2

3

11

2

Senate Democrats

1

2

2

1

1

0

7

1

Nonpar ti sa ns

1

2

3

1

0

1

8

1

6

6

11

2

3

4

32

5

Higher Education

2

6

4

1

2

1

16

3

K-12 Labor

3

2

4

1

0

0

10

2

K-12 Management

4

4

3

2

0

3

16

3

K-12 P r i n c i p a l s

1

1

2

0

0

0

4

1

10

13

12

4

2

4

45

8

7

6

10

5

1

5

34

6

27

31

39

17

10

17

Executive Branch

Total
L e g i s l a t i v e Branch

Total
Educational I n t e r e s t Groups

Total
Other I n t e r e s t Groups
T otal Attendance

141 24

143

Table 3 . —Attendance a t t h e seminar s e s s i o n on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t ,
by c a t e g o r y .
Execu tiv e Branch
Phil Hawkins, D i r e c t o r o f P la n n in g , Michigan Department of Education
Malcolm Katz, Deputy S t a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t o f Public I n s t r u c t i o n
Robert McKerr, A s s o c i a t e S u p e r in te n d e n t f o r Fin an ce , Michigan
S t a t e Department o f Education
Dan S h u l t z , A d m i n i s t r a t i v e A s s i s t a n t t o t h e Deputy S u p e r in te n d e n t
o f P u b l ic I n s t r u c t i o n
Fred Whims, A n a l y s t, Michigan Department o f Management and Budget
P at Widmayer, D i r e c t o r , O f f i c e o f L e g i s l a t i o n and School Law,
Michigan Department o f Education
L e g i s l a t i v e Branch
Thomas B e r n t h a l , A d m i n i s t r a t i v e A s s i s t a n t t o S e n a to r G i l b e r t Bursley
G i l b e r t B u r s le y , S t a t e S e n a t o r , Member, S t a t e Committee on Education
Eugene C ae sar, Education C o n s u l t a n t t o t h e Speaker o f t h e House
Eugene Farnum, D i r e c t o r , Senate F i s c a l Agency
Kerry Kammer, S t a t e S e n a t o r , Chairman, Senate A p p r o p ria ti o n s Sub­
committee on A p p r o p r i a t i o n s
B i l l K ieth, S t a t e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e , Vice-Chairman, House Committee on
Education
James O ' N e i l l , S t a t e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e , Chairman, House A p p r o p r i a t i o n s
Subcommittee on A p p r o p r i a tio n s
Xylphia Orr, A d m i n i s t r a t i v e A s s i s t a n t t o Eugene Caesar
Gary S u l l e n g e r , F i s c a l A n a l y s t, House F is c a l Agency
Tom Wagomen, F is c a l A n a l y s t, House F is c a l Agency
W ilfre d Webb, A d m i n i s t r a t i v e A s s i s t a n t to S e n a to r B i l l i e Huffman
Educ atio nal I n t e r e s t Groups
Fred B e r t o l a e t , A s s i s t a n t Dean, College o f Ed ucat io n, U n i v e r s i t y of
Michigan
Lloyd C o f e r , A s s i s t a n t t o t h e P r e s i d e n t , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Robert Ewigleban, P r e s i d e n t , F e r r i s S t a t e College
Ed F a r h a t , P u b lic A f f a i r s D i r e c t o r , Michigan C a t h o l i c Conference
S i s t e r Monica K ostelney, A d m i n i s t r a t i v e A s s i s t a n t , Michigan C a t h o l i c
Conference
Henry Linne, P r e s i d e n t , Michigan F e d e r a t io n o f Teachers
William Mays, E xe cu tive D i r e c t o r , Michigan Elementary and Middle
Schools P r i n c i p a l s A s s o c i a t i o n
Manuel P i e r s o n , Dean, Studen t S e r v i c e s , Oakland U n i v e r s i t y

144

Table 3 . —Continued.
Educational I n t e r e s t Groups ( c o n t ' d )
Eldon R o s eg ar t, L e g i s l a t i v e L i a i s o n , Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School
Boards, Member, Waterford P ub lic Schools Board o f Education
David Ruhala, L e g i s l a t i v e L i a i s o n , Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School
Boards
A1 S h o r t , L e g i s l a t i v e L i a i s o n , Michigan Education A s s o c i a t i o n
Dan Wellburn, L e g i s l a t i v e L i a i s o n , Michigan Education A s s o c i a t i o n
Other I n t e r e s t Groups
William B r id g elan d , F a c u l t y , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Edward Duane, P r o f e s s o r , College o f Social S c i e n c e s , Michigan S t a t e
University
David Goldberg, D i r e c t o r , P o p ulati on S t u d i e s C e n te r , U n i v e r s i t y o f
Michigan
Stan Hecker, P r o f e s s o r , College o f E duc atio n , Michigan S t a t e Uni­
versity
Fred I g n a t o v ic h , P r o f e s s o r , College o f E d u c atio n , Michigan S t a t e
University
Mary Kay Kosa, Michigan Education A s s o c i a t i o n
E l i z a b e t h Kummer, V i c e - P r e s i d e n t , League o f Women Voters
Samuel Moore I I , P r o f e s s o r , College o f E d u c atio n , Michigan S t a t e
University
Roger T i l l e s , A tt o r n e y , Washington, D.C.

1 45

P a r t i c i p a t i o n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e e x e c u ti v e branch o f
government was c l e a r l y t h e most c o n s i s t e n t o f any ca te g o r y o f p o l i c y
makers in th e s i x seminar s.

In f a c t , e x e c u t iv e branch p a r t i c i p a t i o n

ranged from a low o f f o u r ( t h r e e s e s s i o n s :

September 14, 1978,

Planning; June 2, 1978, Federal Education, D e t r o i t ; June 5, 1978,
CETA) t o a high of s i x (March 6, 1978, Declining Enrollm ent).

A

minimum o f t h r e e o f f i c i a l s from th e Michigan Department o f Education,
and a maximum o f f i v e , p a r t i c i p a t e d in any i n d iv id u a l seminar.
An average o f f i v e l e g i s l a t i v e i n v i t e e s p a r t i c i p a t e d in th e
seminar s e s s i o n s .

L e g i s l a t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s r e p o r te d in Table 2,

in f i v e d i s t i n c t c a t e g o r i e s .

The c a t e g o r i e s , which combine l e g i s l a ­

t i v e members and s t a f f , i n c lu d e :

House Democrat, House Republican,

Senate Democrat, Senate Republican, and n o n p a r tis a n ( s t a f f ) .

Le gis­

l a t i v e seminar p a r t i c i p a t i o n ranged from a high o f ele ven (March 6,
1978, Declining Enrollments) to a low of two (June 2, 1978, Federal
Education, D e t r o i t ) .
Among ed u c a ti o n a l i n t e r e s t gro up s, i n v i t e e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
t h e seminars ranged from a high of t h i r t e e n (March 6, 1978, Declining
Enrollm ents) to a low o f two (June 2, 1978, Federal Education,
D etroit).

An av erage o f e i g h t e d u catio n al i n t e r e s t group r e p r e s e n t a ­

t i v e s from th e i n v i t e d p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t p a r t i c i p a t e d in each o f the
s i x seminars.
From t h e " o th e r" i n t e r e s t groups c a t e g o r y , an average o f s i x
i n d i v i d u a l s a t t e n d e d th e s e s s i o n s .

P a r t i c i p a t i o n ranged from ten

(March 6, 1978, Declinin g Enrollments) to one (June 2, 1978, Federal
Education, D e t r o i t ) .

146

The b e s t - a t t e n d e d seminar was t h e s e s s i o n on d e c l i n i n g
e n r o l lm e n t s .

Th is s ta t e m e n t i s t r u e in terms o f t h e t o t a l number o f

po licy -m ak er p a r t i c i p a n t s in a t t e n d a n c e ( t h i r t y - n i n e as compared t o
an average o f t w e n t y - f o u r f o r t h e s i x s e m i n a r s ) .

The d e c l i n i n g -

e n r o llm e n t seminar a l s o drew t h e l a r g e s t number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s from
each of t h e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s o f p o l i c y makers ( e x e c u t i v e bran ch ,
l e g i s l a t i v e br an ch , e d u c a t io n a l i n t e r e s t gro up s, and o t h e r i n t e r e s t
grou p s) .

(See Table 3 . )

U n i v e r s a l i t y and Currency
o f th e Su b je c t
The seminar on d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t involved th e d i s c u s s i o n
o f a s u b j e c t t h a t was both u n i v e r s a l —a f f e c t i n g ever y element o f
e d u c a t i o n —and c u r r e n t —both t h e l e g i s l a t i v e and e x e c u t i v e branches
were c o n s id e r i n g t h e problem a t t h e time o f t h e sem inar .

For th e

purposes o f cond ucting an a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n among seminar
p a r t i c i p a n t s , both o f t h e s e f a c t o r s were c o n s id e r e d im p o r ta n t .
In th e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e seminar s e s s i o n
would be presumed t o invol ve a g r e a t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f p o l i c y
makers i f the s u b j e c t a r e a o f i n t e r e s t was n o t c o nfined t o a s p e c i f i c
group.

The d a t a r e f l e c t i n g t h e a t t e n d a n c e in t h e seminar s e s s i o n may,

in f a c t , be t h e b e s t measure o f t h e u n i v e r s a l i n t e r e s t o f t h e i s s u e .
I f t h i s r a t h e r commonsense presumption can be made, th en t h e s e s s i o n
on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n ts may have been t h e b e s t a t t e n d e d by a l l c a t e ­
g o r i e s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers because o f t h e u n i v e r s a l
appeal of t h e s u b j e c t .

147

A secondary reason f o r th e i n t e r e s t in t h e s u b j e c t of e n r o l l ­
ment d e c l i n e s may have been t h e c u r re n c y of t h e i s s u e .

In th e K-12

and th e h i g h e r e d u c a tio n communities, p u b lic p o l i c y q u e s t i o n s on how
t o handle e n r o l lm e n t l o s s e s were being d i s c u s s e d ev er y day.

In th e

K-12 s e c t o r , in f a c t , b a s ic school f in a n c e q u e s ti o n s on t h e funding
o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts t o t a l l e d more than $20 m i l l i o n a d d i t i o n a l .
In previous y e a r s t h e governor had vetoed p r o p o s a l s f o r f in a n c i n g
e n r o l lm e n t l o s s e s .

His d i s p o s i t i o n , a t t h e time o f t h e sem inar ,

toward such funding could have s i g n i f i c a n t consequences as th e f i n a l
funding package was being pr epare d f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n t o him.
Evidence o f Impact
The purpose o f t h i s study was not t o f i n d ev id ence o f th e
d i r e c t impact o f th e Michigan Education Seminars on t h e s t a t e ' s
public policy.

However, in t h e cas e o f t h e s t a t e p o l i c y toward

d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t fu n d in g , evidence i s p r e s e n t e d t h a t s u g g e sts
t h a t t h e Michigan Education Seminars process may have s i g n i f i c a n t l y
in f l u e n c e d th e outcome o f t h e eventual p u b l i c p o l i c y a c t i o n .

As a

consequence, t h e importance o f a n a l y z in g t h e comments o f v a r io u s
a c t o r s w i t h i n th e seminar s e s s i o n on t h i s s u b j e c t adopted a c e r t a i n
lim ited relevancy.
A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Data
D e t a i l e d tap ed t r a n s c r i p t s were made o f each o f th e s ix semi­
n a r s e s s i o n s durin g t h e s tu d y .

Those r e c o r d i n g s , and s u p p o r tin g

w r i t t e n t r a n s c r i p t s , n o te s o f th e c o o r d i n a t o r , s u p p o r t i v e documents,
and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s , were reviewed t o s e l e c t a seminar upon which to

148
do a l i m i t e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between p a r t i c i p a n t s and
within the sessions.
Since ver ba tim record s were kept f o r each s e s s i o n , t h e a v a i l a ­
b i l i t y o f d e t a i l e d r eco rd s played no r o l e in t h e s e l e c t i o n o f th e
s e s s i o n f o r more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s .

In form ation c o n ta i n e d on th e

t r a n s c r i p t s , however, was an im p o rtan t c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

The most common

com plaint heard about t h e seminar s e s s i o n s was t h a t to o many o f t h e s e
s e s s i o n s were l e c t u r e o r i e n t e d .

To d i s c u s s th e i n t e r a c t i o n among

seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s in a p a r t i c u l a r s e s s i o n , t h e r e f o r e , a s e s s i o n
had t o be s e l e c t e d in which s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n between p a r t i c i ­
pa nts o c c u r re d .

Although t h e t o t a l t i m e - i n i n t e r a c t i o n was not c a l ­

c u l a t e d f o r each s e s s i o n , t h e r e s e a r c h e r concluded t h a t i n t e r a c t i o n
among p a r t i c i p a n t s and between p a r t i c i p a n t s and speakers in each o f
two s e s s i o n s f a r exceeded i n t e r a c t i o n in any o f th e o t h e r s e s s i o n s .
The two s e s s i o n s in which th e g r e a t e s t amount o f i n t e r a c t i o n among
p a r t i c i p a n t s o c c u r re d were June 2 , 1978- -Feder al Education ( D e t r o i t ) - and March 6 , 1978—D ec lining En rollm en ts.

Because o f t h e v a r i e t y of

o t h e r f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g t o th e c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a n t s , and t h e u n i ­
v e r s a l i t y and cu r re n cy o f t h e s u b j e c t , t h e March 6, 1978, seminar on
d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n ts was t h e c l e a r ch o ic e f o r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
analysis.
Summary
An a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a n t s in a s p e c i f i c
s e s s i o n o f th e Michigan Education Seminars was conducted.

Seminar 3:

The Impact o f D eclining E n r o llm en ts, March 6 , 1978, Lansing, Michigan,

149
was s e l e c t e d as t h e prope r s e s s i o n o f t h e s i x upon which t o conduct
such an a n a l y s i s f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s , i n c l u d i n g :
1.

Attendance a t t h i s s e s s i o n was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a
broad c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f e d u c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s .

2.

The s u b j e c t was c u r r e n t .

3.

The s u b j e c t a f f e c t e d a v a r i e t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s .

4.

There i s evide nc e t h a t t h e p u b l i c p o l i c y r e s o l u t i o n of
t h e s u b j e c t was s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r e d by t h e s e s s i o n .

5.

There was ample i n t e r a c t i o n among p a r t i c i p a n t s and between
p a r t i c i p a n t s and g u e s t spea ker s dur ing t h i s s e s s i o n .
A Summary A naly s is o f Some Major Exchanges
Among P a r t i c i p a n t s

R a tio n a le
Through t h e a n a l y s i s o f s e v e r a l s e t s o f exchanges o f p a r t i c i ­
pan ts i n t h e March 6, 1978, Michigan Education Seminar on d e c l i n i n g
e n r o l l m e n t s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r demonstrates a few im p o rtan t p o i n t s .
The primary purpose o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s t o de m onst rate th e f i g u r a t i v e
n a t u r e o f i n t e r a c t i o n in t h i s s e r i e s o f seminars o f t o p - l e v e l s t a t e
e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y makers.

The r e s e a r c h e r warns t h a t a l i t e r a l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n s and exchanges among p o l i c y makers
engaged in a p o l i c y forum can be dang er ou sly m i s l e a d i n g .

In an

a t te m p t t o dem on st rat e t h i s p o i n t , t h e r e s e a r c h e r t a k e s a s e r i e s o f
s ta t e m e n ts from th e t r a n s c r i p t o f t h e seminar s e s s i o n on d e c l i n i n g
enrollm ents.

He a tte m p ts t o i d e n t i f y s e v e r a l f a c t o r s about t h e p e r ­

son making t h e s t a t e m e n t , t h e person t o whom i t i s p o s s i b l e t o presume
th e s ta t e m e n t was being made, t h e presumed p o s i t i o n o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n

150
r e p r e s e n t e d by the person making t h e s t a t e m e n t , t h e a c t i o n t h a t th e
s t a te m e n t may have s i g n a l l e d , and t h e wide v a r i e t y o f p o s s i b l e i n t e r ­
p r e t a t i o n s o f the m o t iv a tio n and meaning o f th e s ta t e m e n t .

Emphasis

in t h e a n a l y s i s i s placed on a v a r i e t y o f elements o f th e message,
i n c l u d i n g th e s e n d e r , t h e r e c e i v e r , and th e t e x t o f t h e message
itself.
An Overview o f Session Number 3
The seminar on d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts has been d i s c u s s e d a t
s e v e r a l o t h e r p o i n t s in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

A summary o f t h e agenda

and p r e s e n t a t i o n s a t th e seminar were d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r in t h i s chap­
ter.

Various a s p e c t s o f th e seminar

a r e a l s o reviewed in Chapter IV.

For example, under th e subheading "The Major I s s u e s , " a major d i s ­
c us si on occu r re d on th e way t h a t t h e s u b j e c t o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts
came t o be a t o p i c o f a Michigan Education Seminar s e s s i o n .
To re view , th e r e s e a r c h e r was approached by Doug Smith,
e d u cati o n a d v i s o r t o t h e gov er no r, with t h e s u g g e s tio n t h a t a seminar
s e s s i o n be devoted t o t h i s i s s u e .
rationale.

Smith was very c l e a r in h i s

The r e s o l u t i o n o f th e d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t i s s u e would be

s u b s t a n t i a l l y in f l u e n c e d by th e g o v e r n o r ' s budget o f f i c e —p a r t i c u l a r l y
Dr. Fred Whims, D i r e c t o r o f t h e Education D iv is io n o f t h e Department
o f Management and Budget.

Smith f e l t t h a t in o r d e r f o r t h e budget

d i v i s i o n t o become r e sp o n s iv e t o t h e d i f f i c u l t q u e s tio n o f e n r o l lm e n t
l o s s e s , th ey would have t o e x p e r i e n c e , f i r s t hand, some o f th e major
concerns o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e e d u catio n community of t h e s t a t e .
The Michigan Education Seminars, t h e n , could become t h e forum to

151

pr ovid e such exposure t o t h e g o v e r n o r ' s budget a d v i s e r s .

I t could

a l s o expose t h e e d u c a t i o n a l community to an i n t e r n a l problem f a c i n g
Smith.
L e g i s l a t i v e e f f o r t s in y e a r s p a s t t o i n s t i t u t e a “holdharmless" p r o v is i o n f o r d i s t r i c t s s u f f e r i n g s e v e re e n r o l l m e n t d e c l i n e s
had only been approved by t h e governor a t a very l i m i t e d l e v e l .

It

i s a l s o im p o rta n t t o no te t h a t a t t h e time o f t h e sem in ar , th e c h i e f
budget o f f i c e r o f t h e Michigan Department o f Education had been t o l d
by th e g o v e r n o r ' s budget o f f i c e r s t h a t t h e con ce pt o f i n c r e a s i n g th e
funding f o r e n r o l lm e n t l o s s was n o t viewed with f a v o r .
For f u r t h e r background, i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o n o te t h a t pro­
p o s a ls f o r funding e n r o l lm e n t l o s s e s were not unifo rm ly well r e c e i v e d
in t h e l e g i s l a t u r e .

Also , t h e proposal t h a t had been proposed by th e

S t a t e Department o f Education c a l l e d f o r a $30 m i l l i o n budget c a t e ­
gory f o r funding d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s .
in March.

The seminar s e s s i o n was held

The l e g i s l a t i v e budget p roc es s t r a d i t i o n a l l y begins durin g

t h i s p e r i o d , and i s normally concluded by t h e middle o r end o f June.
The g o v e r n o r ' s budget recommendation f o r e d u c a t i o n , o f f e r e d in J a n ­
ua ry, c o n t a in e d no p r o v i s i o n t o i n c r e a s e funding o f e n r o llm e n t l o s s e s .
I t i s w i t h i n t h i s framework t h a t t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o c c u r re d .
The Role o f th e Department
in the Seminar
P o l i t i c s cannot be analyze d o r i n t e r p r e t e d as d i s t i n c t from
t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s in v olv ed.

The o r i g i n a l agenda f o r t h e March 6 ,

1978, seminar o r d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s was to have included th e
f o ll o w in g :

P a r t I was t o have been a twenty-minute i n t r o d u c t o r y

152

p r e s e n t a t i o n by Dr. Fred Whims, e d u c a tio n d i v i s i o n d i r e c t o r o f th e
Michigan Department o f Management and Budget.

Whims was scheduled

to kick o f f t h e seminar program with a r e p o r t on h i s d e p a r t m e n t 's
" p r o j e c t t o a s s e s s th e impact o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts on Michigan
education."
The purpose o f p u t t i n g t h e Department o f Management and Budget
a t t h e beginning o f th e agenda was because i t was t h i s department
t h a t th e seminar s e s s i o n was designed t o f l u s h .

In o t h e r words, s i n c e

the major e d u c a t io n a s s o c i a t i o n s and th e e d u c a ti o n departm ent were
a l r e a d y committed t o s u b s t a n t i a l funding f o r e n r o l lm e n t l o s s , i t was
th e budget o f f i c e t h a t was t o become th e t a r g e t of t h e s e s s i o n .

They

were bloc king th e f u n d i n g - - t h e y should be f o rc e d t o ex p r e ss th e
" s t a t e ' s co n c e r n ."
A p p a r e n t ly , however, t h e Deputy S t a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t o f P u b l ic
I n s t r u c t i o n , Malcolm Katz, took some o f f e n s e a t t h e n o tio n t h a t t h e
Department o f Management and Budget would be d i s c u s s i n g t h e s t a t e ' s
concern.

His a s s i s t a n t i n s i s t e d t h a t s i n c e t h e department had e a r l i e r

done a major s tudy on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t , c o o r d i n a t e d by Katz, he
should be plac ed a t t h e head o f t h e agenda.

The r e s e a r c h e r could

n o t d is s u a d e th e d ep ar tm en t-- an advoc ate o f d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t
f undin g— from p u t t i n g themselves in t h e p o s i t i o n o f running i n t e r ­
f e r e n c e f o r t h e g o v e r n o r ' s budget o f f i c e .
Katz began h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n by excus ing h im s e lf from a need
t o r e p o r t any d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l I m e n t d ata by t a k i n g c r e d i t in advance
f o r what Drs. Stan Hecker and Fred Ig n a to v ic h o f Michigan S t a t e Uni­
v e r s i t y were about t o r e p o r t in t h e i r s t a t i s t i c a l review o f M ic higan's

153
e n r o l lm e n t s i t u a t i o n .

He s a i d :

"I am s u r e t h a t Drs. Hecker and

I gn ato v ic h w i l l be r e p o r t i n g l a t e r on some o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d ­
ings r e l a t i v e t o p r o j e c t i o n s f o r Michigan.

T h e ir work was done in

a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e Department; t h e r e i s no need t o do t h a t tw i c e .
. . .

We d i d , a y e a r and a h a l f o r so ago, u n d erta ke a major study

of d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s . "
Katz went on t o say t h e s tu dy produced f o u r recommendations.
The major recommendations c e n t e r e d on funding f o r d i s t r i c t s t o absorb
th e e f f e c t o f l a r g e e n r o l lm e n t d e c l i n e s .
K a t z ' s co ncluding comment should be read in t h i s c o n t e x t :

He

i s now a s e l f - a p p o i n t e d spokesman o f an e x e c u t i v e branch whose l e a d e r
had c o n s i s t e n t l y opposed (once to th e p o i n t o f veto ) l e g i s l a t i v e
e f f o r t s to fund an e n r o l l m e n t - d e c l i n e formula.

Katz s a i d :

"The

a c t i o n s , however, t h a t have been tak en f o ll o w i n g t h e s e [Department
s tu d y ] recommendations have not been followed up t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t
they have n o t been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o l e g i s l a t i o n a t t h i s ti m e ."
The message s e n d e r , Malcolm Katz, Deputy S t a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t
o f P u b li c I n s t r u c t i o n , did n o t a t t a i n t h i s p o s i t i o n i n th e S t a t e
Department o f Education because o f an i n a b i l i t y t o rea d p o l i t i c a l
charts.

The lo n g -ti m e former s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f M ic higan's East

Lansing School D i s t r i c t , one o f t h e s t a t e ' s r i c h e s t d i s t r i c t s , Katz
was e i t h e r i l l - a d v i s e d on th e d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t i s s u e o r he simply
misspoke h i m s e l f .

But h i s comment, in any c a s e , seemed t o l a y t h e

blame f o r t h e m i s e r l y funding o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t t o d a t e a t t h e
steps of the l e g i s l a t u r e .

The comments o f both e d u c a ti o n a p p r o p r i a ­

t i o n s subcommittee chairmen o f th e l e g i s l a t u r e would l a t e r bea r

154
w it n e s s t o a l e g i s l a t i v e r e l u c t a n c e t o e x p r e s s enthusiasm f o r much
funding.

But t h e i r voti ng be h a v io r would l a t e r s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e

symbolism o f t h e i r o b j e c t i o n s .

The l e g i s l a t u r e had taken p o s i t i v e

funding a c t i o n on d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t f o r two c o n s e c u t i v e y e a r s ,
d e s p i t e g u b e r n a t o r i a l r e s i s t a n c e , i n c l u d i n g v e to a c t i o n , t h e f i r s t
year.
To determine who was t h e t a r g e t o f K a t z 's message and how his
message was i n t e r p r e t e d during t h e s e s s i o n and l a t e r by t h e r e s e a r c h e r ,
more i n fo r m a tio n i s r e q u i r e d .

Since K a t z ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n had been

imposed upon t h e agenda, th e r e s e a r c h e r moved immediately to an i n t r o ­
duct ion o f Dr. Fred Whims.

Whims' comments were followed by

Drs. Ig natovic h and Hecker (Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , College o f
E d u c a t i o n ) , a u t h o r i t i e s on K-12 p o p u la ti o n p r o j e c t i o n s , and to
Dr. David Goldberg ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan, Cen ter f o r P o p u lati o n
S t u d i e s ) , an a u t h o r i t y on h i g h e r e d u catio n e n r o l lm e n t s .

Therefore,

more than one hour had e la p s e d between K a t z ' s comments and t h e f i r s t
l i n e o f q u e s ti o n i n g from t h e a u d i e n c e .

I t must, f u r t h e r , be p ointed

out t h a t in h i s t estim ony Whims had n o t i f i e d t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t h a t
t h e budget o f f i c e was in t h e p r o c e ss o f co nducting a major s tu dy on
th e impact o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t s upon t h e f i n a n c e s o f d i f f e r e n t ­
s i z e d school d i s t r i c t s .
The f i r s t q u e s t i o n in t h e q u e s ti o n and answer p e r i o d was,
on i t s f a c e , a r a t h e r academic one d i r e c t e d t o Stan Hecker.
Dr. W i lfr e d Webb (former s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e Hazel Park Schools,
who was the n an e d u c a t io n c o n s u l t a n t t o t h e vice -ch airm an o f th e
Senate Committee on A p p r o p r i a t i o n s ) asked Hecker i f any study had

155

ev er been done t o t i e t h e impact o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts t o t h e s i z e
o f th e school d i s t r i c t .
f o r H ecker's work.

E a r l i e r , Katz had taken c r e d i t i n advance

Now Webb, whether by a c c i d e n t o r d e s ig n , was

help in g s e t up Katz f o r Gene Ca esa r—as i f Caesar needed h e lp .
Hecker s a i d "No."
The n e x t q u e s t i o n came from Gene C ae sar, e d u c a tio n a d v i s o r
to t h e s p e a k e r o f t h e s t a t e house.

Caesar s a i d :

"Regarding Dr. K a t z ' s

p r e l im i n a r y p r e s e n t a t i o n — in 1975-76, t h e l e g i s l a t u r e mandated t h e
stu d y by t h e department [ o f e d u c a t i o n ] along t h e l i n e s t h a t Dr. Whims
has d e s c r i b e d , and somewhat o f t h e o r d e r Dr. Webb i s d e s c r i b i n g .

I

was somewhat d i s t u r b e d t h a t yo ur t a s k f o r c e r e p o r t made no r e f e r e n c e
t o t h a t f i r s t r e p o r t , al th o u g h some o f y o u r f i n d i n g s were somewhat
c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o g en er al assumptions made a t t h a t tim e.

Why d i d n ' t

t h e t a s k f o r c e c a l l upon t h e r e s u l t s of t h e e a r l i e r study ?"
A hush drew over t h e crowd.

Caesar had a s s a u l t e d Katz.

Caesar seemed t o be ac c u s in g Dr. Katz o f having b u r ie d t h e r e s u l t s
of a department stu d y on d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts done under a l e g i s ­
l a t i v e mandate in 1975-76.

The a c c u s a t i o n im plied t h a t t h e e a r l i e r

s tu d y had been b u r ie d because o f a d i f f e r e n c e in t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e
two s t u d i e s .
Katz was r e q u i r e d t o respond.
a id to his defense.

Katz t o Caesar:

His re s p o n s e pro vide d l i t t l e
"I can only speak f o r my

beginning w i th t h e department [Katz had j o i n e d t h e depar tment in
l a t e 1975],

To i n q u i r e what t h e r e s u l t s were o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r

s t u d y , I have no f a m i l i a r i t y with i t .

The s tu d y h er e a t hand [1977]

was r e l a t e d , a s I i n d i c a t e d , t o a f i r s t s tu d y o f what known o b j e c t i o n s

156

would be [ s i c ] .

I t h i n k you a r e r e f e r r i n g , i f I am not m ista k e n ,

Gene, t o a f i n a n c i a l impact s tu d y .

Does anyone have any comment on

that?"
Katz was c l e a r l y f l u s t e r e d by Caesar.

He had asked t o speak

as c o o r d i n a t o r o f what he r e p o r t e d t o be a comprehensive Department
o f Education s tudy on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s .

He had sugge sted t h a t

l e g i s l a t i v e i n a c t i o n was t h e cause o f t h e problem in a d d r e s s i n g f i n a n ­
c i a l problems r e l a t e d t o d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s —a t o t a l l y i n a c c u r a t e
observation.

He had been a b l e t o ex pres s no knowledge o f a study on

the f i n a n c i a l impact o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts done two y e a r s e a r l i e r
in t h e dep ar tm en t.

He was unable t o answer a f a i r l y d i r e c t charge

by a h ig h -r a n k in g l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f person t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e
e a r l i e r department s tu d y had been b u r ie d because o f t h e i r c o n f l i c t
with f i n d i n g s o f t h e more r e c e n t s tu d y .
p u b l i c l y s o l i c i t h e lp .

The b e s t he could do was

And help was on t h e way.

Bob McKerr, lo n g -tim e d i r e c t o r o f t h e e d u c a ti o n d e p a r t m e n t 's
f in a n c e d i v i s i o n , has as much c r e d i b i l i t y on d e p o s i t in t h e s t a t e
l e g i s l a t u r e as anyone in t h e school community.

F o r t u n a t e l y f o r Katz,

McKerr was i n a t t e n d a n c e a t t h e seminar s e s s i o n on March 6, 1978.
He jumped t o K a t z ' s r e l i e f .

McKerr s t a t e d :

"On th e p a r t i c u l a r sub­

committee o f which I was chairman, we d i d look a t t h a t r e p o r t , Gene,
and we d i d n ' t use i t .

I t se rv ed i t s purpose in t h a t i t i d e n t i f i e d

e s s e n t i a l l y one t h i n g and t h i s i s t h a t t hose d i s t r i c t s t h a t had
e x perienced d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t s did not reduce s e r v i c e s b u t went out
and gained a d d i t i o n a l m i l l a g e t o c o n tin u e t h e i r programs.

The p a r ­

t i c u l a r s tu d y Dr. Katz r e f e r r e d t o r e a l l y was o f a d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e .

157

That i s , not a tte m p tin g to deal with what d i s t r i c t s had done in th e
p a s t , b u t to i d e n t i f y some o f t h e problems o f t h e f u t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y
in l i g h t o f t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts in t h e y e a r s
t o come—t o i d e n t i f y some o f t h e problems and some o f t h e s o l u t i o n s .
We did u t i l i z e t h e s t u d y . "
Caesar:

"Will t h a t f i r s t s tu d y be a v a i l a b l e t o Dr. Whims?"

McKerr:

" I f he wants i t . "

McKerr had helped r e e s t a b l i s h th e c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e d e p a r t ­
ment, i f n o t o f i t s deputy d i r e c t o r .

I t could be s p e c u l a t e d t h a t

McKerr had s e v e r a l advan tage s ov er Ca esar.
respect.

F i r s t , McKerr had C a e s a r ' s

They had s p a r r e d b e f o r e ; th e y had a l s o c o - a u th o r e d mono­

graphs on school f i n a n c e .

McKerr a l s o knew t h a t he had g r e a t c r e d i ­

b i l i t y among l e g i s l a t o r s and o t h e r s in t h e a u d ien ce.

Most s i g n i f i ­

c a n t l y , he knew t h a t t h e r e was prob ab ly n o t a n o t h e r person in t h e room
b e s id e s Caesar who had rea d t h e n o w - t h r e e - y e a r - o l d department r e p o r t —
and no one, i n c l u d i n g C ae sa r, would remember i t s s p e c i f i c c o n c l u s i o n s .
The s u b s ta n c e o f C a e s a r ' s comments got l o s t in th e s t y l e o f
th e exchange.

I f he was r i g h t , and pr obably only he and [ p e rh a p s ]

McKerr knew, t h e department had g o t t e n o f f t h e hook.
The p o i n t o f r e p o r t i n g t h i s exchange was t o show how t h e
exchange t h a t many seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s remember so c l e a r l y bore so
l i t t l e re la tio n s h ip to a reso lu tio n to the issue.

In t h e pr esen ce o f

t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y makers from t h e l e g i s l a t i v e bran ch , t h e c r e d i b i l i t y
of th e e x e c u t i v e branch— p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e e d u c a ti o n dep ar tm en t— had
been t h r e a t e n e d .

The a t t e n t i o n became fo c u se d , i f only f o r a t im e ,

on t h e Department o f E d uc atio n, and not on t h e Department o f Management

158

and B u d g e t- - th e o r i g i n a l t a r g e t o f the program s t r a t e g y .

Had th e

educati on department people asked t h e r e s e a r c h e r why t h e budget
o f f i c e was g iv in g t h e " S t a t e ' s Concern" i n s t e a d o f simply imposing
themselves on t h e agenda, a c o s t l y and t o t a l l y i r r e l e v a n t d i s t r a c ­
t i o n could have been av oided .
What m o tivate d Katz t o i n s i s t upon being place d on t h e
agenda?

One should presume t h a t Katz i s a h i g h l y d e d i c a t e d p u b l i c

s e r v a n t who b e l i e v e s very s t r o n g l y in t h e open exchange o f id e a s in
a p u b l i c forum.

One should a l s o presume t h a t he f e l t he had a l e g i t i ­

mate and im port an t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o make, and under such cir c u m sta n c e s
he i s o b l i g a t e d to do so.
in v o lv ed , t o o .
t h i s con fer en ce?

There may have been an element o f p r i d e

Why was th e e d u c a t i o n department not asked t o keynote
He should have a s ked.

Perhaps Katz was f e e l i n g a

c e r t a i n re se ntm ent t h a t t h e s t a t e budget o f f i c e c o n s t a n t l y plays such
a major r o l e in programmatic a s p e c t s o f s t a t e e d u c a t io n p o l i c y .
I t should be remembered t h a t th e s t a t e budget o f f i c e o f th e
Department o f Management and Budget (DMB) i s o f f i c i a l l y t h e ac c o u n t­
ing arm o f s t a t e government in Michigan.

In f a c t , however, i t i s t h e

"laundry" f o r much o f t h e g o v e r n o r ' s policy-making s t a f f .

Much o f

th e c e n t r a l o f f i c e o f DMB was s h i f t e d d i r e c t l y from t h e g o v e r n o r ' s
p o l i c y s t a f f in t h e mid-1970s as a means, some s u g g e s t , o f d r a m a t i c a l l y
reducing t h e p a y r o l l o f the g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e w ith o u t r e ducin g his
staff.
Whims, a c l a s s i f i e d c i v i l s e r v a n t , in h i s a d d r e s s t o t h e
seminar s e s s i o n , spoke f o r t h e governor ab ou t d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s :

159

"This i s a broad i s s u e and one t h e governor i s very much concerned
about."

Perhaps Katz wanted to be on t h e agenda because he r e s e n t s

t h e f a c t t h a t a c i v i l - s e r v i c e u n i t c h i e f in t h e budget o f f i c e o f t h e
S t a t e Department o f Management and Budget could e x p r e ss t h e gover­
n o r ' s concern about an i s s u e , a n d h i s b o s s, t h e S t a t e S u p e r in te n d e n t
o f P u b li c I n s t r u c t i o n , i s not p e r m it t e d membership in t h e g o v e r n o r ' s
cabinet.
Caesar could have been f a c t u a l l y a c c u r a t e in accus ing Katz
and th e depar tment o f burying f a c t s on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s .

He

could simply have been t e s t i n g K a t z ' s o v e r a l l knowledge o f t h e sub­
ject.

Perhaps Caesar was gran dst an d in g - -s h o w in g o f f f o r th e fun o f

i t o r f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f a new s t a f f a s s i s t a n t who accompanied him
t o t h e meeting.

Although t h e r e s e a r c h e r has o c c a s i o n a l l y heard th e

gra ndst and ch ar ge a p p l i e d t o C ae sar, he has never found a Caesar
s ta t e m e n t t o be t o t a l l y w i th o u t s u b s ta n c e .

G e n e r a l l y , alth o u g h th e

approach may be un iquel y " C a e s a r i a n , " t h e r e i s an un d er ly in g
im port ant o b s e r v a t i o n being made—one from which much can be l e a r n e d .
But, a g a i n , th e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s on what was
going on w it h i n th e m ee ting, and t h i s emphasis can be j u s t a s mis­
le a d i n g abou t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e seminars as i t would be t o
a s c r i b e s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e Katz-Caesar i n t e r a c t i o n , i n s o f a r as t h e
outcome o f th e d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t - f u n d i n g q u e s t i o n i s concerned.
The s u b s ta n c e o f t h e s e s s i o n on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s was in what was
done in p r e p a r a t i o n o f i t , and in t h e kind o f a c t i v i t y i t might
trigger.

By i t s e l f , t h e seminar s e s s i o n was simply an e x h i b i t i o n

h a l l , a dem onstration c e n t e r .

P o l i c y was n o t made t h e r e .

160

The Role o f th e Department o f
Management and Budget in t h e Seminar
The purpose o f in v o lv i n g Fred Whims in t h e seminar s e s s i o n
was t o put him on t h e s p o t .

He and h i s department were, ac co rd in g

t o many s o u r c e s , c h i e f l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e g o v e r n o r ' s o p p o s i t i o n t o
i n c r e a s e d d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t f und ing.
Whims:

"There a r e times when I f e e l c o m f o rta b le ap pea ring

in f r o n t o f a group o f i n d i v i d u a l s .

This i s not one o f them. . . .

No one in t h e s t a t e i s happy with t h e i s s u e t h a t i s b e f o r e u s . "
Whims r e cognized t h a t t h e e d u c a t i o n community was n o t p le a s e d with
th e way DMB was d e a l i n g wit h d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t f unding.
"We a r e in t h e pro cess o f r e c o g n iz in g t h e problem in K-12,
and i t i s now on us in community c o l l e g e s and f o u r - y e a r i n s t i t u t i o n s . "
This s ta t e m e n t appeared t o be a c l u e t o f u t u r e a c t i o n by DMB.

In

budget t e r m in o lo g y , a problem i s r ec og nized when funding i s provided
t o deal w ith i t .

Whims then went on t o make h i s p r e v i o u s l y r e f e r r e d

to e x p r e s s i o n o f th e g o v e r n o r ' s co nc er n.

He went one s t e p f u r t h e r :

"I r e a l l y t h i n k i t would be more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r Doug Smith to be
her e speaking tod ay on t h i s i s s u e .
Where was Doug Smith?

I know he i s on y our committee."

The r e s e a r c h e r did not know Smith

would a b s e n t h i m s e l f from a meeting he had c a l l e d .

Was Whims s i g ­

n a l l i n g t h a t he was s u s p i c i o u s t h a t he had been s e t - u p by S mith-brought b e f o r e th e e d u c a tio n community to a d d r e s s an i s s u e t h a t he
had a d d r e s s e d in p r i v a t e through th e promotion o f g u b e r n a t o r i a l
o p p o s i t i o n t o i n c r e a s i n g d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t funding?

"I t h i n k he

[Doug Smith] c o n v e n i e n t l y g o t h i m s e l f o u t o f t h i s , " s a i d Whims t o

161

th e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s .
of le g itim a te reasons.

Smith could have been a b s e n t f o r a v a r i e t y

R e g a r d le s s , h i s judgment t o a b s e n t h im s e lf

from t h e meeting probably was in t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t o f h i s o v e r a l l
strategy.
Whims c o n ti n u e d :

"As we g e t i n t o t h i s c r u c i a l i s s u e , we a r e

f i n d i n g t h a t t h e unanswered q u e s t i o n i s not whether t h e r e i s d e c l i n ­
ing e n r o l l m e n t , b u t r a t h e r should d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts be funded.
. . .

We a g r ee t h a t t h e r e a r e d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s - - a n d t h a t d e c l i n ­

ing e n r o llm e n ts should be funded. . . . The q u e s tio n i s now how
much should th e funding be. . . . W e r e a l l y do not have good d ata t o
a s s i s t us in t h i s d e c i s i o n . . . .

We a r e developing a c a s e s tudy t o

a s s i s t u s ."
The prec ed in g paragraph s t r i n g s t o g e t h e r e s s e n t i a l components
o f th e f i r s t f i v e minutes o f Whims' comments.

He had made an impor­

t a n t co n c e s sio n t o t h e school community—he would fund e n r o llm e n t
l o s s e s a t some l e v e l .
Whims s a i d h i s study would be done w i t h i n s e v e r a l weeks, and
a t t h a t p o i n t t h e e x t e n t o f t h e g o v e r n o r ' s s upport would be made pub­
lic.

The s a l e had been made.

enced.

The e s s e n t i a l f i g u r e had been i n f l u ­

He was us ing t h e Michigan Education Seminars t o a l e r t th e

Michigan school community t h a t th e t h i n k i n g o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was
changing on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t.
Whims oc cu pies an extr em ely i m p o rt a n t p o s i t i o n in t h e Mi 11iken
adm inistration.

So well con ce aled a r e h i s powers, however, t h a t he

was not mentioned by any o f t h e in t e r v i e w e e s dur in g t h e r e p u t a t i o n a l
analysis

as a major f o r c e in school p o l i c y making.

His b o s s , Gerald

162

M i l l e r , was mentioned, however.

Since e d u catio n p o l i c y in K-12 and

h ig h e r e d u catio n l i e s e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h i n Whims' j u r i s d i c t i o n in th e
budget o f f i c e o f DMB, h i s p o t e n t i a l t o have s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e
upon th e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y process i s unquesti oned.

His remarks

acknowledged t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a problem and "re cognized" a need t o
tak e a c t i o n .
I t i s i m p o rta n t t o remember t h a t a t t h i s p o i n t t h e e n counte r
between Katz and Caesar had n o t o c c u r r e d .
and Caesar was e x p l o s i v e .

The exchange between Katz

Whims' monologue, al though more s u b t l e ,

was f a r more s i g n i f i c a n t t o p a r t i c i p a n t s who were concerned about
th e l i k e l y e x e c u t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n o f d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t fu ndin g.
The L e g i s l a t o r s ' I n t e r e s t
The Michigan Education Seminars have been d e s c r i b e d as a
" h a r b i n g e r " — pr o v id in g a warning o f p o t e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s .

The

March 6, 1978, semin ar on d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts provided an im port ant
i n s i g h t i n t o t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f key l e g i s l a t o r s on th e q u e s ti o n o f
f in a n c in g d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s .
ceived

The g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e was t h e p e r ­

logjam on d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t f undin g.

The l e g i s l a t u r e had

s e v e r a l times expres sed a commitment t o f i n a n c i n g i n o r d i n a t e e n r o l l ­
ment drops in l o c a l d i s t r i c t s .

By 1978, however, much o f t h e e n r o l l ­

ment l o s s t h a t was r e l a t e d to t h e f l i g h t to t h e suburbs had a l r e a d y
occurred.

I n n e r - c i t y school p o p u l a t i o n s were beginning t o s t a b i l i z e .

Now, e n r o l lm e n t l o s s was almost t o t a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f a d e c l i n i n g
birth rate.

I t was o c c u r r i n g in th e s ubur bs .

163

Four l e g i s l a t o r s were p r e s e n t a t t h e March 6, 1978, seminar.
Then-Senator Gil B u r s le y , * Republican from Ann Arbor and chairman
o f th e Education Council o f Michigan (ECS), was s e r v i n g as a
co-chairman a t t h e s e s s i o n on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s .

I t was never

mentioned during t h e seminar t h a t in the l a t e 1960s and e a r l y 1970s
Bursley had been a s t a t e l e a d e r in th e "ZPG" ( z e ro p o p u la tio n growth)
movement.

The e d u catio n a p p r o p r i a t i o n s subcommittees o f t h e s e n a t e

and house were both p r e s e n t a t t h e seminar s e s s i o n .

S e n a to r Kerry

Kammer (D-Pontiac) r e p r e s e n t s a d i s t r i c t t h a t i n c l u d e s , as a major
p o r t i o n o f t h e d i s t r i c t , th e i n n e r - c i t y P o n ti a c school d i s t r i c t .
Jim O 'N eil l (D-Saginaw) r e p r e s e n t s a n o th e r o f t h e o l d e s t and most
urban school d i s t r i c t s in Michigan.

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e William Keith

(D-Garden C ity ) was v ice- ch airm an o f th e house Educ ation Committee a t
the time o f th e seminar s e s s i o n .

His d i s t r i c t i n c l u d e s th e school

d i s t r i c t s o f Garden C i t y , I n k s t e r , and p a r t o f Westland.

These com­

m u n iti e s l a r g e l y r e p r e s e n t a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f D e t r o i t s uburb s.
Garden C ity i s an o ld w h it e community, a bedroom suburb o f D e t r o i t .
I n k s t e r i s a l s o an old community, pr edom inantly b l a c k ; i t s r e s i d e n t s
f o r t h e most p a r t work in t h e a r e a ' s au tom obile f o r g e s and assembly
plants.

Westland was c a l l e d th e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t township in th e

mid-1960s.

Also a wh ite D e t r o i t bedroom sub urb, Westland underwent

dram atic p o p u la tio n growth through t h e mid-1970s.
To a t t r i b u t e a c c u r a t e meaning to t h e s ta t e m e n t s and o b s e r ­
v a t i o n s o f p o l i c y makers, i t i s i m p o rt a n t t o u ndersta nd where they
*In t h e f a l l o f 1978, Bursley r e s i g n e d h is Senate s e a t to
become P r e s i d e n t of Clear y C o ll e g e , Y p s i l a n t i , Michigan.

164

came from.

During t h e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r v i e w s , one o f t h e i n t e r ­

viewees who could be c l a s s i f i e d as a knowledgeable o u t s i d e r express ed
t h a t he had tak en some o f f e n s e a t t h e f a c t t h a t dur in g th e s e s s i o n
on d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t one l e g i s l a t o r had "expre ss ed p r o v i n c ia l i s m "
in r e l a t i n g h i s f e e l i n g s on t h e e n t i r e d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t s i t u a t i o n
to h i s l e g i s l a t i v e d i s t r i c t .
A c a r e f u l review o f t h e r e c o rd shows t h a t a l l o f th e l e g i s ­
l a t o r s who d i s c u s s e d the s u b stan ce o f t h e i s s u e t i e d t h e i r a n a l y s i s
to th e e x p e r ie n c e s o f t h e i r l o c a l d i s t r i c t .

More i n t e r e s t i n g , p e r ­

haps , i s the f a c t t h a t t h i s phenomenon i s not r e s e r v e d e x c l u s i v e l y
for le g isla to rs.

Dr. Stan Hecker, Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y p r o ­

f e s s o r , in responding t o q u e s t i o n s from t h e f l o o r , t i e d most o f h i s
resp onses t o h i s exp e r ie n c e s in h elping t h e Livonia P u b li c Schools
respond t o e n r o l lm e n t d e c l i n e s .
In t h e co urse o f t h e i r formal p r e s e n t a t i o n s , Kammer and
O 'N e i ll both express ed grave r e s e r v a t i o n s about K-12 d e c l i n i n g en r o llm en t f i n a n c i n g .

This probably came as q u i t e a shock t o a number

of t h o s e in th e a u d ie n ce.

In f a c t , t h i s "shock e f f e c t " may have been

th e very reason f o r t h e i r e x p r e s s i n g concern about d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t
f und in g.

Kammer:

D ecli ning e n r o l lm e n t i s something. Perhaps i t s g r e a t e s t d i f ­
f i c u l t y i s t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o comprehend. I t ' s d i f f i ­
c u l t f o r us , in t h e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a , t o communicate t o our
c o n s t i t u e n t s why c o s t s c o n t i n u e t o r i s e o r c o n t i n u e t o s t a y
the same when t h e number o f p u p i l s d e c l i n e s . To t e l l some­
one t h e i r school d i s t r i c t has gone from 18,000 t o 15,000 and
y e t t h e r e h a s n ' t been an a p p r e c i a b l e r e d u c t i o n in c o s t i s one
o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s .
I f anyone has an easy e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t
can be unde rst oo d by t h e p a r e n t s o f th o s e 18,000 c h i l d r e n —
p a r t i c u l a r l y when th e d i s c u s s i o n comes t o which s chools s h a l l

165

be c l o s e d - - i f anyone has t h e answer, I ' d l i k e t o know i t .
I t ' s not e a s i l y communicated, i t ' s not e a s i l y t o l d .
Kammer co ntin ued:
My commitment [ i s ] t h a t I w i l l do what I can t o b r in g an
e q u i t a b l e i n c r e a s e in d o l l a r s t o t r e a t t h e d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l ­
ment problem. I d o n ' t b e l i e v e i t w i l l be an e a s i l y s old
improvement by any means. I t ' s going t o t a k e a l o t o f com­
munication t o t h o s e l e g i s l a t o r s t h a t r e p r e s e n t growth a r e a s
and th o s e l e g i s l a t o r s who r e p r e s e n t urban communities whose
a r e a s have a l r e a d y gone through t h e d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t
e x p e r i e n c e f i v e , s i x , seve n, o r e i g h t y e a r s a g o - - t e n y e a r s
ago. And a t t h a t p o i n t th e y were c r y i n g f o r a s s i s t a n c e t o
he lp them meet t h e i r d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t s i t u a t i o n . At
times t h e r e was j u s t one v o te on committees f o r t h a t a s s i s t a n c e
and everyone t u r n e d a d e a f e a r t o t h o s e urban communities. I
t h i n k i t should be s a i d , and I t h i n k Rep. O 'N e ill w i l l say i t
a g a i n , as a m a t t e r o f f a c t I t h i n k he s a i d i t f i r s t , t h a t i t ' s
u n f o r t u n a t e t h e r e w a s n ' t t h e same l e v e l o f commitment and sup­
p o r t f o r d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t f i v e o r s i x y e a r s ago when t h e r e
were j u s t a few a f f e c t e d communities a s much as t h e r e i s now
when w e ' r e f i n d i n g i n c r e a s i n g numbers o f school d i s t r i c t s
a f f e c t e d by d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t c ir c u m s ta n c e s .
O ' N eill p r i m a r i l y echoed Kammer's comments:
I'm s o r r y . I'm n o t t h a t u p s e t wit h i t r i g h t now because
we've been through our t r a u m a t i c c o n d i t i o n with d e c l i n i n g
en r o l lm e n t in my a r e a . D eclining e n r o llm e n t i s an old problem
t o some o f us. I t ' s a new problem t o many, many more, and
t h a t ' s why I t h i n k i t has become such a s e r i o u s problem—
because t h e r e a r e more school d i s t r i c t s becoming invo lv ed in i t .
Perhaps I can b e s t inform you o f my p o s i t i o n by t h e p a r a ­
graph o f a l e t t e r I wro te l a s t week--I w o n ' t r e a d t h e whole l e t ­
t e r . I a d d r e s s e d i t t o a school man in t h e s t a t e o f Michigan,
a very r e s p e c t e d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f s c h o o l s . The para grap h [ s a y s ] :
"I am f u l l y aware o f t h e d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t problem. However,
I a l s o r e c a l l t h a t a few y e a r s ago many o f t h e s e same school
d i s t r i c t s were clamoring f o r a f o u r t h Frid ay and second semes­
t e r count o f s t u d e n t s because o f i n c r e a s i n g e n r o l l m e n t s . At t h e
same t i m e , i n n e r - c i t y school d i s t r i c t s were e x p e r i e n c i n g th e
tr a u m a ti c e f f e c t o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s because o f t h e f l i g h t
of c i t i z e n s from t h e i n n e r - c i t y school d i s t r i c t s . A b s o lu te ly
no s u p p o r t was given in t a k i n g t h i s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n in t h e
f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e a i d b i l l . The s t a t e a i d b i l l s i x t o
e i g h t y e a r s ago s e v e r e l y p e n a l i z e d t h e young p e o p l e , t a x p a y e r s ,
and employees l e f t in t h o s e i n n e r - c i t y school d i s t r i c t s .
In
f a c t , school people from t h o s e i n n e r - c i t y school d i s t r i c t s and
t h e i r e l e c t e d l e g i s l a t o r s had t o f i g h t o f f a t t e m p t s o f t h o s e

166
d i s t r i c t s g aining s tu d e n t s a t t h e i r expense from having double
counts o f membership placed in s t a t e a id b i l l s . This i s f a c t ,
not f i c t i o n . "
O'N eill con tinu ed :
I w i l l be very ho nes t with you. I w i l l look very c l o s e l y a t
any d e c l i n i n g enr ollm en t formula t h a t we adopt keeping t h i s
in mind because t h e c i t y o f Saginaw, which I r e p r e s e n t , we
got h i t hard in 1970-71-72. In f a c t , we heard tes tim on y l a s t
week from P o n t ia c . From P o n t i a c , I t h i n k t h e gentlemen s a id
in 1971, 3,000 s tu d e n t s they l o s t . Nothing was done. I d o n ' t
know how those d i s t r i c t s s u rv iv e d . Probably th ey c u t t h e i r
t h r o a t . Probably th ey did away with a r t and music, in tra m ural
s p o r t s , t h i n g s such as t h i s . I t h i n k a l l o f us should t a k e
t h i s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n when th ey d i s c u s s t h i s problem of
d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n ts .
The message was coming through c l e a r l y .

Three key l e g i s ­

l a t i v e l e a d e r s were p u t t i n g th e word out t h a t t h e i r d i s p o s i t i o n was
q u i t e t h e o p p o s it e of p r o v i n c i a l .

They r e p r e s e n t a r e a s t h a t w i ll be

l a r g e l y unaided by d e c l i n i n g enr ollm en t f u n d i n g - - d i s t r i c t s t h a t were
ignored f i v e or s i x y e a r s e a r l i e r when "white f l i g h t " from Pontiac
and Saginaw was causing dramatic d e c l i n e s in school p o p u la t io n s in
these d i s t r i c t s .

They were t a l k i n g about t h e i r d i s t r i c t s , but they

were using t h e i r own d i s t r i c t s as a means o f e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r gen­
erosity.

They were support ing in c r e a se d funding f o r d e c l i n i n g

enrollm ent d e s p i t e th e t r e a t m e n t t h e i r d i s t r i c t s had r e c e iv e d in
years past.
Perhaps t h i s message was being d i r e c t e d a t t h e education
i n t e r e s t group l e a d e r s who might other wise have taken Whims' comments
as a cue t h a t t h e war was o v e r - - t h a t t h e r e was no need to apply
fu rth e r pressure.

Perhaps they were c r e a t i n g an atmosphere in which

they could t r a d e o f f t h e i r s upp ort f o r d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t funding
f o r t h e s upport o f c e r t a i n ed ucation i n t e r e s t groups f o r o t h e r reforms.

167

O ' N e ill sugges ted t h a t perhaps t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f school
d i s t r i c t s i s t h e p r o p e r answer t o problems c r e a t e d by e n r o llm e n t
declines.

He s t a t e d :

"I have asked Dr. P o r t e r t o look i n t o i t and

t o come up wit h a p o s s i b l e program o r a s u g g e s tio n f o r th e c o n s o l i ­
d a t i o n o f [ l o c a l ] school d i s t r i c t s . . . i n t e r m e d i a t e school d i s ­
t r i c t s i s a n o t h e r can o f worms.
t o be proposed. . . ."

I t h i n k some i n c e n t i v e s w i l l have

To O ' N e i l l , school d i s t r i c t c o n s o l i d a t i o n

poses no p a r t i c u l a r p o l i t i c a l problem.

His r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d i s t r i c t

i s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a s i n g l e school d i s t r i c t , Saginaw, one o f th e
s ta te 's largest.

His d i s t r i c t had a l r e a d y undergone s u b s t a n t i a l

e n r o llm e n t d e c l i n e s .

Any d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t funding formula would

g e n e r a l l y take d o l l a r s out of t h e b a s i c formula and d i s t r i b u t e them
to t h o s e suburban s c h o o ls s u f f e r i n g t h e most d r am atic school a i d
losses.

His comments a b o u t c o n s o l i d a t i o n got th e a t t e n t i o n o f David

Ruhala, deputy d i r e c t o r o f t h e s t a t e school board a s s o c i a t i o n .
Edu cational I n t e r e s t Group Leaders
Speak f o r T h e i r As so ci at ioil s'
When one t a l k s c o n s o l i d a t i o n t o t h e school boards a s s o c i a t i o n ,
one t h r e a t e n s t h e i r membership.

Ruhala s t a t e d :

"On t h a t q u e s t i o n ,

have any p r o p o s a l s d e a l t with t h e t h i n g Rep. O ' N eil l j u s t emphasized—
t h a t per haps we need t o s t a r t looking a t some i n c e n t i v e s — some b u i l t in f i n a n c i a l , o r f i s c a l , s t a t e a i d i n c e n t i v e s f o r d i s t r i c t s to
c o n s o l i d a t e on a v o l u n t a r y b a s i s ? "

He c o n ti n u e d :

P o l i t i c a l l y t h e s t i c k w o n ' t work. A s s o c i a t i o n s such as
ours and o t h e r s w i l l oppose mandatory c o n s o l i d a t i o n ; whereas
i f t h e r e a r e ways we can encourage d i s t r i c t s where f e a s i b l e
through f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e s t o go on some kind o f c o n s o l i ­
d a t i o n , then I t h i n k we ought t o t r y i t b e f o r e we t r y th e

168
mandatory o r s t i c k approach which has f a i l e d s e v e r a l ti m e s .
With a l l due r e s p e c t t o a l l t h e p r o p o sa l s t h a t S e n a t o r Bursley
and o t h e r s have in tro d u c e d t o encourage d i s t r i c t s —o r t o f o r c e
d i s t r i c t s —t o c o n s o l i d a t e , I t h i n k i t has got t o be t r i e d on
an i n c e n t i v e approach f i r s t .
I s anyone working on t h i s kind
o f concept? T h a t ' s c e r t a i n l y something we hope t h e department
w i l l take a look a t in t h e i r s tu d y . Not j u s t t o stu d y th e
f e a s i b i l i t y o f i t but a l s o how we can develop some i n c e n t i v e
appr oaches.
We would be t h e f i r s t t o admit t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n d i s t r i c t s
t h a t ought t o be c o n s o l i d a t i n g . But we a l s o w i l l oppose as
f i r m l y as we can any kind o f mandatory [ c o n s o l i d a t i o n ] approach
u n l e s s i t ' s done on a v o l u n t a r y b a s i s . I t h i n k t h e r e can be
i n c e n t i v e s b u i l t i n . I'm not a f i s c a l e x p e r t , b u t I t h i n k we
ought t o be a b le t o b u i l d in some i n c e n t i v e s t o encourage
th o s e s m a l l e r K-12 o r i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t s t o look toward
reorganization.
Kammer:

"I t h i n k we have t o be c a r e f u l t h a t th e c o s t o f

t h e c a r r o t s d o e s n ' t exceed th e c o s t o f t h e j a c k a s s . "

[Raucous

laughter.]
O 'N eill:

"Another t h i n g [we could do] i s t o d e l e t e th e

$6 m i l l i o n from d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s .

By going bankrupt maybe th ey

[ s m a l l e r o u t s t a t e d i s t r i c t s ] would be f o r c e d t o c o n s o l i d a t e .

That's

n o t a very happy a l t e r n a t i v e , but I t h i n k t h a t i t might be a f a c t
of l i f e . "
Katz:

"Dr. P o r t e r i s p e r s o n a l l y c h a i r i n g a group t o c o n s i d e r

consolidation plans.

The i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e looking

a t consolidation of d i s t r i c t s . "
B i l l s t h a t would f o r c e school c o n s o l i d a t i o n s u r f a c e p e r i o d i c ­
a l l y in th e l e g i s l a t u r e .

They a r e normally promoted by e d u c a t i o n -

o r i e n t e d l e g i s l a t o r s , and th ey a r e always opposed by t h e school
boards a s s o c i a t i o n .

An a s s o c i a t i o n , any a s s o c i a t i o n , i s o b l i g a t e d to

f i g h t f o r t h e l i f e o f a member t h a t i s t h r e a t e n e d by l e g i s l a t i o n .

169

This i s a primary f u n c t i o n o f an a s s o c i a t i o n .

The school board

a s s o c i a t i o n i s no d i f f e r e n t .
Although mandatory school d i s t r i c t c o n s o l i d a t i o n , o r r e o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n , o r a nnexation b i l l s s u r f a c e p e r i o d i c a l l y in t h e s t a t e l e g i s ­
l a t i v e hopper, th ey always seem t o be s p u rr e d by a d i f f e r e n t i s s u e
(c u rr iculum q u e s t i o n s , school f i n a n c e , now en r o l lm e n t d e c l i n e s ) .
These b i l l s never seem t o p a s s , and th ey always leave hard f e e l i n g s
between t h e school boards a s s o c i a t i o n and t h e "education" l e g i s l a ­
tors.

"Education" l e g i s l a t o r s tend t o be t h e b l e e d e r s and t h e

s p e n d e r s - - g e n e r a l l y urban Democrats o r l i b e r a l Republicans l i k e Bursley
who a r e n o t t h r e a t e n e d by mandatory c o n s o l i d a t i o n because i t can have
very l i t t l e impact upon t h e i r d i s t r i c t .

This s o r t o f r e v e r s e p r o v in ­

c i a l i s m —D e t r o i t and Ann Arbor l e g i s l a t o r s t r y i n g t o de cide w h a t ' s
b e s t f o r Ubly, Tyre, and Bad Axe school c h i l d r e n —has done a g r e a t
deal to c r e a t e an appearance o f an " a n t i - e d u c a t i o n " element in t h e
legislature.

Since Ruhala could see t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a r e s u r f a c i n g

o f t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s s u e , he used t h e Michigan Education Seminars
forum t o warn th e departments (e d u c a tio n and perhaps a l s o management
and budget) t h a t u n l e s s t h e y want a f i g h t on t h e i r hands th ey had
b e t t e r not mix up t h e d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t funding with mandatory
consolidation.

He l e f t h i m s e lf some b r e a t h i n g s p a c e , however, by

su g g e s tin g t h a t i f c o ntinued c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d , perhaps an
" i n c e n t i v e " plan could be a c c e p t a b l e .
T h r eate n in g t h e Department o f Education i s one t h i n g .

The

school boards a s s o c i a t i o n can b r in g t h e wrath o f th e l e g i s l a t u r e upon
t h e departm ent i f i t i s so i n c l i n e d .

The department u n d e r sta n d s t h e

170

g r a s s - r o o t s a u t h o r i t y o f th e school boards a s s o c i a t i o n almost i n s t i n c t ­
ively.

But l e g i s l a t o r s tend t o r e a c t somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y t o t h r e a t s .

Perhaps Kammer o v e r a c te d in s u g g e s ti n g t h a t t h e " c o s t o f t h e c a r r o t
was g r e a t e r than th e c o s t o f th e j a c k a s s . "

I t was a s t r o n g remark

nevertheless--and a c tu a lly q u ite out of c h aracter fo r the tenacious
red-headed boy-wonder s t a t e s e n a t o r from P o n t i a c .
Ruhala was using th e seminar forum as an o p p o r t u n i t y t o pro­
mote the views o f h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n .

He was being very d i r e c t about

i t - - p e r h a p s hoping t h a t h i s openness would avoid a c o n f r o n t a t i o n t h a t
could s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i s r u p t th e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y community.

Ruhala

was unabashed in his a tt e m p ts t o i n f l u e n c e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e
seminar forum.

One p r o f e s s o r who was involved i n t h e seminar programs

commented more than once ab out Ruhala "lobbying" o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s i n
t h e seminar.
During t h e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r v i e w , when asked i f he had
had an o p p o r t u n i t y t o promote p r o p o s a l s du rin g t h e seminar s e s s i o n ,
Ruhala s a i d :
a l i t t l e b it."

"No problem, but you might vary t h e i n t e r a c t i o n format
Ruhala s ugg ested th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f small i n t e r a c t i o n

groups.
Ruhala was f l a u n t i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n .

The

t a r g e t of h i s i n f l u e n c e a t t h a t time was pr obably t h e e d u c a t io n d e p a r t ­
ment.

But i t appe ar s t h a t Kammer, e s p e c i a l l y —a l e g i s l a t i v e l e a d e r -

found i t n e c e s s a r y t o a t t e m p t to rebuke Ruhala.
R u h a la 's a t t e m p t t o i n f l u e n c e p a r t i c i p a n t p o l i c y makers not
t o a t t e m p t to s o lv e t h e d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t problem with f orc ed
c o n s o l i d a t i o n was d i r e c t and t o t h e p o i n t .

No l e s s o v e r t was t h e

171

a tte m p t o f Dan Well bu r n , MEA head l o b b y i s t , who followed Kanmer's
remark t o Well b u r n ' s r i v a l school board r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
Educational I n t e r e s t Group
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s Speak f o r Themselves
Well burn s t a t e d :
Now t h a t we have Dave R u h a la 's a t t e n t i o n . . . no one has
s a i d an y t h in g abou t inducements f o r e a r l y r e t i r e m e n t . The
r e t i r e m e n t law i s a l r e a d y w r i t t e n t o fund 55/30 and o u t f o r
r e t i r e m e n t . [A t e a c h e r i s e l i g i b l e f o r f u l l r e t i r e m e n t com­
p e n s a t io n i f h e / s h e i s 55 y e a r s o f age and has 30 y e a r s o f
te a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e or a c c e p t a b l e c r e d i t . ] I f we gi v e some
i n c e n t i v e s , some t e a c h e r s might t a k e e a r l y r e t i r e m e n t s .
T h a t ' s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t might be looked a t .
I am very
much o f f th e r e c o rd her e as f a r as my a s s o c i a t i o n g oes , but
i t d o e s n ' t h u r t t o s tu dy some o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s .
Well b u r n ' s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t h is p o s i t i o n was not n e c e s s a r i l y
c o n s i s t e n t with th e p o s i t i o n o f h i s a s s o c i a t i o n pro bably d i d n ' t fool
many o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s .

What he was proposing was t h a t in o r d e r to

open up some j o b s f o r new t e a c h e r s in t h i s e r a o f e n r o llm e n t d e c l i n e s ,
t h a t s t a t e should s u b s i d i z e e a r l y - o u t programs f o r t e a c h e r s .

Wellburn,

l i k e Ruhala, t a l k e d abou t i n c e n t i v e s — he c a l l e d them inducements.
There was no evid ence in any o f th e s i x s e s s i o n s o f seminar
p a r t i c i p a n t s s u g g e s t i n g p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n s t o problems t h a t would be
a g a i n s t t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , o r a g a i n s t an
o f f i c i a l organizational p o sitio n .

W e llb u r n 's s u g g e s t i o n t h a t he was

n o t re a d in g from t h e g r a i l when he proposed inducements f o r e a r l y
r e t i r e m e n t weakens in t h e c o n t e x t o f Mary Kay Kosa's comments about
f i v e minutes l a t e r .

Kosa was p r e s i d e n t o f t h e MEA around t h e l a t e

1960s and e a r l y 1970s.

She c u r r e n t l y s e r v e s on a v a r i e t y o f commit­

t e e s a s a MEA r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .

She s t a t e d :

1 72

Many o f us f e e l a concern about a lac k o f young people coming
i n , and t h i n k t h a t i t i s time f o r us t o move out and o f f e r
more o p p o r tu n i t y f o r young people t o g e t i n t o th e p r o f e s s i o n .
However, we a r e not old enough t o r e t i r e [ 5 5 ]. We have d e v e l ­
oped a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f income which we d o n ' t see any o t h e r
avenues to go i n t o . So, i f you could move th e r e t i r e m e n t age
down . . . you may have c o n s i d e r a b l e numbers o f t e a c h e r s l e a v ­
ing t h e p r o f e s s i o n .
The f a c t o f the m a t t e r i s t h a t d e s p i t e Well b u r n ' s pl eadin gs
to t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t he was promoting reg ard in g e a r l y
r e t i r e m e n t inducements—which was r e i n f o r c e d by Kosa—was not l i k e l y
to c o s t Wellburn h i s j o b .

Several times du rin g t h e seminar s e s s i o n s ,

p a r t i c i p a n t s suggested t h a t they were speaking on t h e i r own b e h a l f —
not f o r t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n .

Never, however, did t h e r e s e a r c h e r record

an oc cu rre nce when an in d i v i d u a l promoted a n otion t h a t appeared t o
be a g a i n s t th e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f h i s / h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n .
One school l o b b y i s t who r e c e n t l y s h i f t e d from one management
a s s o c i a t i o n t o a n o t h e r found him self in a p o s i t i o n o f having t o sup­
p o r t a b i l l he had opposed f o r n e a r l y twenty y e a r s .

" I ' v e opposed

th e b i l l so long t h a t I b e l i e v e i t i s bad l e g i s l a t i o n .

How can I

argue f o r i t now?" th e l o b b y i s t commented to th e r e s e a r c h e r .
The l i k e l i h o o d t h a t seasoned o r g a n i z a t i o n a l spokesmen would
a s c r i b e p o s i t i o n s on major i s s u e s t h a t d e v i a t e from th e o f f i c i a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n i s h ighly u n l i k e l y .

In t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e

i n d i v i d u a l s who p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e seminars were g e n e r a l l y major
p o l i c y a c t o r s —people who p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e development o f th e p o s i ­
tions of t h e i r organizations.

The o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s p o s i t i o n s should be

presumed t o be consonant with t h e i r personal p o s i t i o n s .

173

Second, among t h e most common t h e o r i e s o f p er s u a s io n i s t h a t
a p e r s o n ' s a t t i t u d e s a r e shaped by what h e / s h e s a y s .

I f an i n d i v i d u a l ,

as in t h e ca s e o f th e l o b b y i s t who changed j o b s a f t e r twenty y e a r s ,
says a n ything long enough, one might l o g i c a l l y presume t h a t h e /s h e
w i l l begin t o b e l i e v e i t .
T h i r d , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e a l l e g e d n e u t r a l i t y o f any forum,
common s en se would p r e v e n t a p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r from espousing a n o ti o n
h e /s h e would l a t e r be f o r c e d t o oppose.

What would be worse i s f o r

such a l e a d e r t o oppose a p o s i t i o n h e / s h e i s f o r c e d t o s u p p o r t in
t h e f o rm a l, l e s s " n e u t r a l " s e t t i n g .
Although th e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p a r t i c i p a n t s t o exp res s personal
p o s i t i o n s was noted t o e x i s t ( during t h e formal p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r
i n t e r v i e w ) , no s o l i d eviden ce o f such an o ccu r ren c e was found d e s p i t e
t h e r h e t o r i c of Wellburn and s e v e r a l o t h e r s .
Summary
The d i s c u s s i o n o f some of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t o c c u r re d
dur ing one o f th e s e s s i o n s o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars i s
o f l i m i t e d us e.

In t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e r e s e a r c h e r would q u e s t i o n

t h e v a l i d i t y o f any s u g g e s t i o n t h a t what o c curre d w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s
o f any p a r t i c u l a r seminar s e s s i o n i s o f s u b s t a n t i v e importance.
Whether dr am atic o r a t i o n s , f o r example, a r e

e v e r s i n g u l a r l y r esp o n ­

s i b l e f o r a l t e r i n g a j u r o r ' s o p in i o n i s q u e s t i o n a b l e .

That such a

m o d i f i c a t i o n o f p o s i t i o n o f t e n o ccurs in an informal meeting o f to p lev el p o l i c y makers i s u n l i k e l y .

For t h e most p a r t , t h e s e s s i o n s

were used by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s to up da te t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n a l p o r t f o l i o s

174

on t h e i s s u e s o f th e day.

When the s e s s i o n s w itn e s s e d heated

exchanges between v a r i e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
community, such exchanges were r a r e l y based on t h e s u b s t a n c e o f th e
i s s u e o f t h e day.
f o r example.

Such was t h e cas e with th e Caesar-Katz exchange,

The i s s u e Caesar r a i s e d was not what t h e department

found in i t s as sessment o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t .

Rather, the issue

revolved around whether Katz had used t h e d ata g e n e r a t e d two y e a r s
e a r l i e r —whether he even knew i t e x i s t e d .

Deeper th an t h a t , th e

i s s u e might have been why Caesar had n o t been asked t o p a r t i c i p a t e in
t h e s tu d y , whether th e r e s u l t s would be given t o t h e Department o f
Management and Budget, whether Katz had i n s u l t e d t h e l e g i s l a t u r e with
h i s i l l - a d v i s e d i n s i n u a t i o n t h a t t h e l e g i s l a t u r e had f a i l e d to e n a c t
t h e i m port an t d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t recommendations to t h e S t a t e Board
o f Education.

In any e v e n t , probably t h e on ly major s i g n i f i c a n c e o f

th e Katz-Caesar v o l l e y was t h a t i t d i s t r a c t e d from t h e main a t t r a c t i o n —
Fred Whims and th e Department of Management and Budget.
The f a c t t h a t t h e seminar program e x i s t e d and t h a t Doug Smith
had a r ra n g e d to put Fred Whims on t h e agenda may have r e s u l t e d in an
i n c r e a s e in th e d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t s e c t i o n o f t h e s t a t e a i d a c t o f
more tha n $20 m i l l i o n .

Whether t h i s was "good" o r not i s a q u e s ti o n

t h a t can never be answered.

Several l e g i s l a t o r s and o t h e r s r a i s e d

some s u b t l e problems with d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t funding dur ing t h e
session.

Had Whims wit hhel d a l l o f h i s judgment u n t i l he had heard

everyone e l s e in t h e meeting spea k, he might have been much l e s s
" o p t i m i s t i c " abou t d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t f u n d in g .
t o be f i r s t on t h e agenda.

But he was scheduled

And d e s p i t e K a t z ' s untimely s u g g e s t io n

175

t h a t i t was th e l e g i s l a t u r e t h a t had f a i l e d t o f i n a n c e e n r o llm e n t
l o s s e s a d e q u a t e l y , Whims went ahead in d e s c r i b i n g new s t e p s " th e
governor" was ta k i n g t o deal with e n r o l I m e n t - l o s s f undin g.

Whether

Katz had opened t h e s e s s i o n o r n o t , Caesar may s t i l l have used t h e
o p p o r tu n i t y to a t t a c k t h e e d u catio n department f o r i t s a l l e g e d f a i l u r e
t o r e p o r t a d e q u a te ly t h e f i r s t d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t r e p o r t .
The comments o f S en ator Kammer, Rep. O ' N e i l l , and Rep. Keith
r e g a rd in g t h e i r concerns ab ou t f in a n c i n g d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts were
p r i m a r i l y symbolic.
in y e a r s p a s t .

All t h r e e had su pport ed a i d f o r e n r o l lm e n t l o s s e s

And in t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , Kammer and O ' N e i l l ' s

s u p p o rt was a n e c e s s a r y r e q u i s i t e f o r r a i s i n g t h e d e c l i n i n g - e n r o l l m e n t
funding from $6 m i l l i o n t o $26 m i l l i o n .
The exchange between Kammer and Ruhala ap pea rs on t h e r ec ord
to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y more h o s t i l e than in r e a l i t y i t pro ba bly was.
Ruhala gave a f u l l minute on i n c e n t i v e s , and in f i v e seconds Kammer
l e v e l e d him by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e i n c e n t i v e was o f g r e a t e r c o s t
than was t h e valu e o f th e d i s t r i c t s Ruhala was s u g g e s t in g r e c e i v e
it.

R u h ala's comments may have disc ouraged t h e Department o f Educa­

t i o n from promoting c o n s o l i d a t i o n as a means o f d e a li n g with d e c l i n i n g
e n r o l lm e n t s —but i t i s doubtful t h a t th ey would have done t h a t in any
case.

Again, th e c e n t r a l i s s u e was how t h e Department o f Management

and Budget would u l t i m a t e l y a d v i s e th e governo r.
not made in the seminar s e s s i o n .

That d e c i s i o n was

And t h e seminar d i s c u s s i o n probably

d i d l i t t l e more th an pro v id e a d e a d l i n e f o r c e r t a i n a c t i o n s t o be
taken w i t h i n t h e Department o f Management and Budget.

176
Other examples o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t occu r re d w i t h i n th e
seminar s e s s i o n s f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e t h e i n h e r e n t problems with l i t ­
e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e d i s c u s s i o n s between t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y
makers.

The rec o u n ti n g o f t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s provid e s i n t e r e s t i n g

i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e com plexity o f communications between p o l i c y a c t o r s
r e p r e s e n t i n g d i v e r s e view points i n an informal p o l i c y forum.

They

r e f l e c t t h e tendency f o r p o l i c y a c t o r s a t t h i s l e v e l t o use t h e s e
seminars t o r e i n f o r c e r e l a t e d lobbying s t r a t e g i e s and t o r e s t a t e
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n s sometimes under t h e banner o f per so nal o p i n ­
ions.

The i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t occu rs w i t h i n t h e s e s e s s i o n s , however,

pro bably bears l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e f i n a l p o l i c y d e c i s i o n under
discussion.

And a c a s u a l , l i t e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e exchanges

between l e a d e r s a t t h i s l e v e l may be ex tremely m is le ad in g t o t h e
novice p o l i c y a n a l y s t .

CHAPTER V
ANALYSIS
Introduction
This i s a stu d y o f th e development, o p e r a t i o n , and f u n c t i o n
o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

The a n a l y s i s c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s

a d i s c u s s i o n o f elements o f t h e impact o f th e Michigan Education
Seminars on t h e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y m i l i e u o f t h e s t a t e .
The r e s e a r c h e r has segmented t h e a n a l y s i s c h a p t e r o f t h i s
d is s e r ta tio n into a v a rie ty of subchapters.

This c h a p t e r begins

with a b r i e f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f th e a n a l y s i s .

It

i s followed by a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e p r o c e ss in th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e
issues.
The t h i r d s e c t i o n i n c l u d e s t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t o r
and s t r a t e g i e s employed in e n l i s t i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s .

This d i s c u s s i o n

i s followed by a d i s c u s s i o n o f p r o f i l e s o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e
seminar s e r i e s and a review o f t h e r esp o nses t o t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t
were posed t o many o f t h e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s a f t e r th e f i r s t
y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .
The remaining s e c t i o n s i n c l u d e Function o f t h e S t e e r in g
Committee, R e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e Education Coimiission o f t h e S t a t e s ,
R e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educ ationa l L e a d e rs h i p , The

177

178
Perceived Purpose o f th e Seminars, The Question o f Consensus, Impact
Upon R e l a t i o n s h i p s , The Major I s s u e s , The Promotion o f I s s u e s ,
Major Weaknesses o f the Seminars, The Question o f S u r v i v a l , and
Summary o f Chapter.
For t h e f i r s t s ev eral s e c t i o n s o f th e a n a l y s i s c h a p t e r ,
t h e r e s e a r c h e r r e l i e s upon a v a r i e t y o f inform ation bas es.

The

importance o f th e personal o b s e r v a t i o n s and r e a c t i o n s of the
r e s e a r c h e r in a f i e l d study must be emphasized.

The v a r i e t y of

o t h e r da ta bases used to analyze th e e f f e c t of t h e method o f develop­
ing t h e seminar s e r i e s in c lu d e s :

th e r e s e a r c h o f o t h e r s , t h e o r i g i ­

nal p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a ly s e s used by th e r e s e a r c h e r to
develop t h e l i s t o f p o t e n t i a l p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e Michigan Educa­
t i o n Seminars, informal i n t e rv ie w s with some o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s
in the Michigan Education Seminars over t h e e ig h te e n months of the
s tu d y , and t h e formal in t e rv i e w s conducted with n in e te e n o f t h e
seminar p a r t i c i p a n t p o l i c y a c t o r s conducted a f t e r th e f i r s t y e a r
o f t h e seminar s e r i e s was completed.
Formal in te rv i e w s form th e b a s i s f o r much o f th e a n a l y s i s
section.

In th e s e c t i o n s beginning with "The Function o f t h e S t e e r ­

ing Committee" and concluding with the "Summary o f th e C h a p te r , " th e

179
a n a l y s i s r e f l e c t s s p e c i f i c comments on t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in te rv ie w ed
a f t e r t h e f i r s t y e a r o f th e seminar s e r i e s .
The r e s e a r c h e r s e l e c t e d a group t o be t h e s t e e r i n g committee
f o r th e seminar s e r i e s b e f o re t h e f i r s t formal seminar s e s s i o n .

This

o r i g i n a l group o f s i x p o l i c y a c t o r s in Michigan was l a r g e l y made up o f
"frien d s" of the re se a rc h e r.

The s t e e r i n g committee helped t o pro vid e

some degree o f o f f i c i a l s a n c t i o n f o r t h e seminar s e r i e s .

The s t e e r i n g

committee was g r a d u a l l y expanded t o number f o u r t e e n s t a t e - l e v e l p o l i c y
actors.

The r o l e o f th e s t e e r i n g committee, i t s impact on t h e d i r e c ­

t i o n o f the seminar s e r i e s , and i t s f u n c t io n o f p r o v id i n g some degree
o f " p o l i t i c a l i n s u l a t i o n " f o r t h e r e s e a r c h e r a r e an aly zed in t h e
s e c t i o n e n t i t l e d "The F unction o f th e S t e e r i n g Committee."
The seminar s e r i e s could be viewed as a subsystem w i t h i n
l a r g e r system o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan.

th e

In t h i s con­

t e x t , t h e Michigan Education Seminars must be seen as having i n t e r a c t e d
wi th a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r systems o r subsystems.

I n t e r a c t i o n s between

th e Michigan Education Seminars and o t h e r systems o r subsystems could
be seen each time a seminar was convened.

During t h e s e s e s s i o n s ,

p o l i c y a c t o r s r e p r e s e n t i n g a wide v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l i n t e r e s t s brought
t h e a t t i t u d e s and p o l i c y p o s i t i o n s o f t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o b ear upon
th e group d i s c u s s i o n .
One o f th e systems with which th e Michigan Education Seminars
could be seen as having i n t e r a c t e d was t h e Michigan c h a p t e r o f the

180

Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s .

I t s l e a d e r s h i p became d i r e c t l y

involved i n th e o p e r a t i o n o f th e Michigan Education Seminars as a
co - sp o n s o r o f th e seminar s e r i e s .

Devices used by t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o

e n l i s t t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s ,
and then t o har ne ss o r l i m i t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n on t h e
seminar s e r i e s , a r e analyzed w i t h i n th e s e c t i o n e n t i t l e d " R e l a t i o n s h i p
to t h e Education Commission o f th e S t a t e s . "
The I n s t i t u t e f o r Educationa l Le ad ership (IEL) was r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r pr o v id in g th e f in a n c i n g f o r t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

Some

c r i t e r i a f o r r e p o r t i n g on t h e l i m i t e d number o f r e q u i r e d s t a t e seminars
a r e ex pres sed in c o n t r a c t l e t t e r s and o t h e r documents o f IEL.

The

e x t e n t o f t h e a c t u a l c o n t r o l o r i n f l u e n c e o f IEL on t h e s t a t e seminar
in Michigan i s an aly zed w i t h i n t h i s s e c t i o n .

Although per so nal o b s e r ­

v a t i o n s and r e f e r e n c e s t o w r i t t e n documents o f IEL form t h e b a s is
o f t h i s s e c t i o n , some a tt e m p t was a l s o made in t h e f i n a l i n t e r v i e w s —
th o s e conducted a f t e r th e f i r s t y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s e m i n a r s —
t o uncover t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o f t h e r o l e o f IEL
in i n f l u e n c i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s t a t e seminar s e r i e s .
I t i s in t h e s e c t i o n s beg inning with "The L i s t o f P a r t i c i ­
p a n ts" where t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r v i e w s become
most i m p o rt a n t in th e a n a l y s i s o f t h e development, f u n c t i o n , and
o p e r a t i o n o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.
i m p o rt a n t q u e s ti o n was answered:

In t h i s s e c t i o n , an

How well d i d t h e a t t e n d a n c e a t t h e

seminar s e r i e s r e p r e s e n t a l l o f t h e major i n t e r e s t groups in edu­
cation?

181

The ne xt s e c t i o n , "The Purpose o f th e Seminar," i s an a tt e m p t
t o develop a d e f i n i t i o n o f the purpose o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .

In

much the same way t h a t p u b l i c p o l i c y i s imputed from i t s impact upon
th e s o c i e t y t h a t i t i s a p p l i e d t o , t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f purpose o f th e
s e r i e s i s imputed from th e a n a l y s i s o f th e s p e c i f i c e x p r e s s i o n s o f
th ose p o l i c y a c t o r s in Michigan who p a r t i c i p a t e d in i t .
Furthermore, th e q u e s ti o n o f th e e f f e c t o f th e d e c i s i o n
t o p r e c lu d e th e seminar s e r i e s from dec ision-m ak in g o r cons ensusseeking b e havior i s a n aly zed .

The conceptual underpinnings o f t h i s

im p o rtan t d e c i s io n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d in t h i s s e c t i o n .
What impact did t h e seminar s e r i e s have on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between l e a d e r s o f d i v e r s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making community a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l ?

What impact did th e seminar

s e r i e s have upon th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between l e a d e r s w i t h i n t h e same
branches o f government or s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n a l i n t e r e s t groups?

These

q u e s t i o n s were asked d i r e c t l y o f the p a r t i c i p a n t s of th e Michigan Edu­
c a t i o n Seminars in th e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r v i e w s .

The r es po nses t o

t h e s e i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s a r e r e p o r t e d and analyze d in t h e s e c t i o n
e n t i t l e d "Impact Upon R e l a t i o n s h i p s . "
Although t h i s study cannot be d e s c r i b e d as a p o l i c y a n a l y s i s
because o f i t s p r o c e ss o r i e n t a t i o n , p a r t i c i p a n t s were asked t o d i s c u s s
t h e impact t h a t the s e s s i o n had upon t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s with r eg ar d
t o two s p e c i f i c p o l i c y i s s u e s .

These i s s u e s were p r e s e n t e d and d i s ­

cussed in seminar s e s s i o n s durin g t h e f i r s t y e a r s o f i t s e x i s t e n c e as

182

i t was c o n s t i t u t e d f o r t h i s s tu d y .

The q u e s t i o n s were s e l e c t e d to

r e f l e c t two d i s t i n c t type s o f p o l i c y i s s u e s .
The f i r s t , t h e p o t e n t i a l impact o f a proposed s t a t e c o n s t i t u ­
t i o n a l co n v e n ti o n , was analyzed because o f i t s broad-sweeping n a t u r e .
Also, t h i s q u e s ti o n was n ot "imminent" in t h e sense t h a t i t was, a t
t h a t time, t h e s u b j e c t o f heated d eb ate w it h i n t h e s t a t e e d u c a ti o n a l
policy-making community o f Michigan.
The second i s s u e , t h e impact o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t s on
e le m e n t a r y , sec ondar y, and h i g h e r e d u c a ti o n in Michigan, was both c u r ­
r e n t and un res olved a t t h e time o f t h e seminar s e r i e s in which i t was
discussed.
What impact d id th e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e two q u e s t i o n s have on
t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making m i l i e u o f Michigan?

This q u e s ti o n i s

a na lyze d in th e s e c t i o n e n t i t l e d "The Major I s s u e s . "

Again, th e

a n a l y s i s i s dominated by a d i s c u s s i o n o f formal i n t e r v i e w s with seminar
p a r t i c i p a n t p o l i c y a c t o r s conducted a t t h e c o n c lu s io n o f t h e f i r s t
y e a r o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .
F i n a l l y , th e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e seminar
s e r i e s t o s u r v i v e a f t e r t h e r e s e a r c h e r completes th e stu d y i s
im p o r t a n t .

This q u e s ti o n pe r m its t h e e v a l u a t i o n , in t a n g i b l e te r m s ,

o f t h e o v e r a l l su ccess o f t h e s t u d y .

As i t was th e e x p l i c i t i n t e n t

o f t h e r e s e a r c h to i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e t h e seminar s e r i e s given t h e
need f o r such a s e r i e s , t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e "Question o f S u r v iv a l"
p r o v id e s u s e fu l i n s i g h t s of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t o t h e s e p r o s p e c t s .

1 83

In t h e summary o f th e c h a p t e r , the r e s u l t s o f th e a n a l y s i s
o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars a r e reviewed.
S t r u c t u r e o f th e Analys is
How t h e Michigan Education Seminars s e r i e s was t o be
analyzed was seen to be a c r i t i c a l element in a l l t h a t was to
f ollow.

Questions analyzed by t h e r e s e a r c h e r b e f o r e t h e f i r s t semi­

nar s e s s i o n t o determine t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e seminar
s e r i e s in c lu d e d :

t h e r o l e o f t h e s t e e r i n g committee; t h e r e l a t i o n ­

s hip o f th e seminar s e r i e s t o t h e Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s
and t o t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educationa l L ead er shi p; th e method o f
s e l e c t i n g i s s u e s f o r d i s c u s s i o n in th e sem in ars; th e s e l e c t i o n o f
th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e seminar s e r i e s ; and t h e ground r u l e s f o r
th e seminar s e r i e s , i n c l u d i n g th e q u e s ti o n o f whether an a tt e m p t
would be made t o use th e seminar s e r i e s as a co n s e n su s -s e e k in g
device.
Before t h e f i r s t seminar s e s s i o n , t h e r o l e o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r
as th e c o o r d i n a t o r of th e seminar s e r i e s was th o ro ughly d i s c u s s e d
w ith s e v e r a l i n d i v i d u a l s .

All o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s were t o become

p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e seminar s e r i e s .

Some o f t h e s e pe rso ns played an

a c t i v e r o l e in t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f th e r e s e a r c h .
A system was d evise d t o i d e n t i f y and s e l e c t t h e seminar p a r ­
t i c i p a n t s t h a t r e l i e d h e a v i l y on " e l i t e i n t e r v i e w in g " t e c h n i q u e s .

E lite

184

i n t e r v i e w i n g te c h n i q u e s have been d e s c r i b e d as th e most f l e x i b l e
i n t e r v i e w i n g t e c h n iq u e s a v a i l a b l e t o th e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t in a s tudy
of th i s nature.

The review o f corre spo nde nc e and t h e f i e l d d i a r y

methods were a l s o used.
At t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e seminar s e r i e s ,
twenty p a r t i c i p a n t s were i d e n t i f i e d t o be surveyed.

The q u e s ti o n s

f o r th e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r v i e w were s e l e c t e d and c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d ­
ing t o t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s f o r r e v e a l i n g im p o rtan t f i n d i n g s abou t th e
impact o f t h e seminar s e r i e s on a v a r i e t y o f elements o f t h e p o l i c y ­
making p r o c e s s .

Also d i s c u s s e d i n t h e i n t e r v i e w s were i m p o rta n t qu es­

t i o n s r e l a t e d t o t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e s u r v i v a l —t h e " i n s t i t u t i o n a l i ­
z a t i o n " — o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

The i n t e r v i e w s were a l s o

used t o develop a homogenized d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e purpose o f th e seminar
sessions.
Q ues tio ns t h a t would r e v e a l t h e i n t e r v i e w e e ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f
the importance o f t h e consensus o r p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s
were in c lu d e d in t h e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r v i e w .

The q u e s t i o n was used

t o b r in g ev id en ce o r t o r e f u t e t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e av oidance
o f c o n s e n s u s - s e e k in g o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e seminar s e r i e s would p r o ­
duce an environment in which meaningful d i s c u s s i o n s between
d i v e r s e i n t e r e s t group l e a d e r s i n e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y in Michigan
would o c c u r .

The i n t e r v i e w a l s o a t te m p te d t o e s t a b l i s h whether t h e

185

p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t no o t h e r p o l i c y d i s c u s s i o n forum s i m i l a r t o t h e Michi­
gan Education Seminars e x i s t s in t h i s s t a t e .
The p a r t i c i p a n t s , t h e i r r o l e s , and t h e i r r e a c t i o n t o t h e semi­
nar p ro cess and format were c o n s id e re d t o be o f v i t a l i n t e r e s t .

As

a consequence, q u e s t i o n s des igne d t o r e v e a l th e i n t e r v i e w e e s ' p e r ­
c e p t i o n s o f th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d i v e r s e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t
groups in th e seminar s e r i e s were inclu ded in t h e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r
interview .

The r e s e a r c h e r developed i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s which

were designed t o uncover th e impact o f the seminar s e r i e s upon th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f i n d i v i d u a l s between d i v e r s e e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n s and w i t h i n t h e i r own o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

Such q u e s t i o n s helped

develop c l u e s ab ou t th e m o t i v a t i o n f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t o p - l e v e l
Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a c t o r s in th e seminar s e r i e s .
Two o f th e major i s s u e s which became s u b j e c t s o f t h e Michigan
Education Seminars s e r i e s were d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l i n t h e i n t e r v i e w s .
An a tt e m p t i s made to d e te r m in e , i n t h i s minor d e v i a t i o n from th e
"pro c ess o r i e n t a t i o n " o f th e s t u d y , what p o l i c y impact t h e s e i s s u e
d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h e seminar had upon o f f i c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l (and
governmental) a c t i o n s .

An a n a l y s i s o f th e degree t o which t h e p a r ­

t i c i p a n t s may have used t h e seminar s e r i e s t o e x p r e s s o f f i c i a l p o s i ­
t i o n s o f t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and t o i n f l u e n c e o t h e r s in t h i s r e g a r d ,
i s aid ed by one of t h e i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s .
F i n a l l y , and most s i g n i f i c a n t , i s t h e q u e s ti o n o f system
survival.

One o f t h e i n t e r v i e w q u e s ti o n s e r i e s a t t e m p t s t o reve al

t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e sem inar s.

186

The s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s asked o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t i n t e r v i e w e e s
can be seen t o r e f l e c t t h e i s s u e s p er ceiv ed t o be c r i t i c a l t o a f u l l
under st an ding o f t h e development, f u n c t i o n , and o p e r a t i o n o f the
Michigan Education Seminars.
There a r e many unique ad vantages o f using a subsystem l i k e
t h e Michigan Education Seminars
public policy process.

as a l a b o r a t o r y f o r r e s e a r c h in th e

For example, many o f th e b a s i c assumptions

which a f f e c t e d t h e design o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n can be t r a c e d spe­
c i f i c a l l y t o person al s t a t e m e n t s , r e c o r d s , and r e p o r t s .

Many

elements o f t h e seminar s e r i e s t h a t an unknowing f u t u r e h i s t o r i a n
might p e r c e i v e t o have simply evolved were, in f a c t , c o n t r i b u t e d , and
were o f t e n s t a t e d e x p l i c i t l y t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o r t o o t h e r s .
Such i s the n o t i o n , f o r example, with th e req uire m en t t h a t
th e

Michigan

Education Seminars would not engage in dec ision-m ak in g

o r c o n s e n su s -s e e k i n g b e h a v i o r .

In t r a c i n g formal r e c o r d s , one f i n d s

evidence o f t h e b a s i s f o r t h e d e c i s i o n not to use th e seminar s e r i e s
as a c o ns ensus -s eeking mechanism.

The m in u te s, in f a c t , o f th e

f i r s t s e s s i o n o f th e Michigan Education Seminars (September 14, 1977)
r e f l e c t both a r e l u c t a n c e t o a tt e m p t consensus seek ing and t h e j u s t i ­
fic a tio n for th is position.

The s t r e n g t h o f t h e f i e l d study grows

with t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f such o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s .

The maintenance

o f such r e c o r d s was im port an t t o both th e a n a l y s i s and s t r u c t u r e o f
th e s e r i e s .

18 7

The S e l e c t i o n o f th e Iss u es
The Michigan Education Seminars, du rin g i t s f i r s t y e a r of
o p e r a t i o n as c o n s t i t u t e d f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h , was composed o f s i x f o r ­
mal seminar s e s s i o n s .

In t h e s e s e s s i o n s as many as one hundred

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community g athered
t o l i s t e n to p r e s e n t a t i o n s and exchange views on a v a r i e t y o f sub­
jects.

The method whereby t h e s e s u b j e c t s were s e l e c t e d was seen as

c r i t i c a l t o t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r s ucc es s o f th e seminar s e r i e s .
A v a r i e t y o f g u i d e p o s t s , or gener al r u l e s , guided
in t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e i s s u e s f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e seminar s e s ­
sions.

The r e s e a r c h e r p r o j e c t e d t h a t in o r d e r t o remain an e f f e c t i v e

c o o r d i n a t o r o f th e seminar s e s s i o n s , he would have to r e f r a i n from
g iv in g the impression t h a t th e id e a s f o r th e seminar d i s c u s s i o n t o p i c s
were h i s .

The r u l e t h a t a l l seminar i s s u e s would ap pe ar t o have come

from someone o t h e r than t h e r e s e a r c h e r , t h e r e f o r e , was never v i o l a t e d .
A second r u l e was t h a t t h e e d u c a t io n p o l i c y i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d
be o f a t l e a s t minimal s i g n i f i c a n c e t o a l l segments o f th e e d u c a t io n a l
policy-making community in Michigan.

Although t h i s r u l e was never

f o r g o t t e n , some seminars were t a r g e t e d t o p a r t i c u l a r segments o f th e
e d u c a t io n a l community.

In t h e s e c a s e s , seminar p a r t i c i p a t i o n was

promoted by a tt e m p t i n g to p o i n t o u t t o a l l p o t e n t i a l p a r t i c i p a n t s th e
p o s s i b l e r a m i f i c a t i o n s to t h e b r o a d e s t p o s s i b l e c o n s t i t u e n c y o f th e
i s s u e being d i s c u s s e d .
Another general r u l e was t h a t t h e i s s u e s t h a t would be s e l e c t e d
f o r t h e seminar s e r i e s would be i s s u e s upon which t h e d i s c u s s i o n s
could s i g n i f i c a n t l y impact.

In o t h e r words, t h e r e would be l i t t l e

188

m e r i t in d eb atin g th e r e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f t h e Headlee Amendment—a
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l tax- 1 i m i t a t i o n amendment in Michigan—in t h e Michigan
Education Seminars.
o p p o s i t i o n to i t .

Educational o r g a n i z a t i o n s were u n i f i e d in t h e i r
A f t e r i t s p a s s a g e , however, a d i s c u s s i o n o f i t s

impact on th e e d u c a t i o n a l community would be in o r d e r .
An a tte m p t was made t o i d e n t i f y i s s u e s f o r which new m a t e r i a l s
could be g e n e r a t e d .

The o p p o r t u n i t y f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o make formal

p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o such a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
l e a d e r s h i p in Michigan was n o t t o be taken l i g h t l y .

Co untless hours

o f p r e p a r a t i o n could go i n t o t h e development o f m a t e r i a l s t o be p r e ­
s e n te d a t th e seminar s e s s i o n s , and t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f such g e n e r a ­
t i o n o f such m a t e r i a l s was seen as a us efu l s e r v i c e o f t h e seminar
series.
An a n a l y s i s o f t h e s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s t h a t le d t o t h e s e l e c ­
t i o n o f c e r t a i n i s s u e s on th e agenda, item by it e m , i s i n d i c a t e d a t
t h i s time.
Approximately

f o r t y members o f t h e s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t io n a l

policy-making community p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e i n i t i a l seminar o f t h e
series.

This seminar was designed t o pr ovid e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e kinds

o f i s s u e s t h a t t h e membership o f t h i s community would l i k e to see and
h ea r d i s c u s s e d in t h e seminar s e s s i o n s .
In t h i s s e s s i o n t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s were unanimous in a f f i r m i n g
t h a t t h e s e s s i o n s should a tt e m p t t o be " n e u t r a l , " t h a t th ey should
n ot be consensus o r i e n t e d , and t h a t t h e i s s u e s should meet c e r t a i n
c r ite r ia of acceptability.

189
During t h e s e s s i o n a q u e s t i o n n a i r e developed by t h e Education
Commission o f th e S t a t e s was c i r c u l a t e d and completed by t h e p a r t i c i ­
pants.

The purpose o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was t o r a n k - o r d e r , from a

l i s t o f p o t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n a l i s s u e s , th o s e i s s u e s t h a t seemed a t
t h a t time t o be o f g r e a t e s t co ncern.

Two o f t h e i s s u e s on t h i s l i s t

were t o become f u t u r e s u b j e c t s a t Michigan Education Seminar s e s s i o n s .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s u l t s , t h e n , provided t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e
s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s e seminar i s s u e s .
During th e d i s c u s s i o n o f pending e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e s t h a t
ensued a t t h e convening seminar , t h e q u e s ti o n o f th e f u t u r e c o n s t i ­
t u t i o n a l b a l l o t i s s u e c a l l i n g f o r a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l conv en tion was
r a i s e d as having im po rt an t p o s s i b l e consequences t o th e e d u c a t i o n a l
community.

Since t h i s i s s u e a l s o met th e af orementioned c r i t e r i a ,

i t was immediately scheduled f o r d i s c u s s i o n a t a f u t u r e seminar.
The I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational L e a d e r s h i p o c c a s i o n a l l y sug ge sted
i s s u e s f o r seminar d i s c u s s i o n .

The seminar s t e e r i n g committee

reviewed many o f t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s in t h e s e v e r a l formal and informal
meetings t h a t occ urred dur ing t h e e i g h t e e n months o f t h i s s tu d y .

It

was in t h e s e s e s s i o n s t h a t d e c i s i o n s could be made about which IEL
s u g g e s t i o n s would be a c c e p te d .

The seminar s t e e r i n g committee p r o ­

vided th e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s e i s s u e s f o r seminar
discussion.
In one c a s e , an i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c i p a n t o f th e Michigan Education
Seminars sug ges ted a seminar t o p i c in o r d e r t o a s s i s t him in o b t a i n i n g
a commitment on t h e i s s u e from w i t h i n t h e branch o f government in which
he s e rv e d .

This s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n i s rec ounte d in t h e a n a l y s i s o f

190
"The Major I s s u e s " provided l a t e r in t h i s c h a p t e r and in Chapter VI.
The i s s u e was d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s , and t h e q u e s t i o n was what a c t i o n
s t a t e government would t a k e t o a s s i s t school d i s t r i c t s r e e l i n g under
its effects.

This i s s u e was tak en b e f o r e t h e s t e e r i n g committee f o r

co ncurrence in i t s i n c l u s i o n as a seminar t o p i c , and f o r t h e p o l i t i ­
cal i n s u l a t i o n t h a t th e r e s e a r c h e r f e l t he needed.
Another seminar program was devoted t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e
p o t e n t i a l f o r a f e d e r a l department o f e d u c a t i o n .

The q u e s t i o n o f

such a f e d e r a l agency had s u r f a c e d in s e v e r a l seminar s e s s i o n s and
in th e d i s c u s s i o n s o f th e seminar s t e e r i n g committee.

The p o t e n t i a l

o f using t h i s s u b j e c t as a d i s c u s s i o n item f o r s t a t e seminars was
a l s o r a i s e d by IEL.

The th en - d e p u ty United S t a t e s Commissioner o f

Education was r e c r u i t e d f o r a Michigan Education Seminars d i s c u s s i o n
on t h e s u b j e c t o f a f e d e r a l e d u c a tio n department and f o r a more gen­
e r a l d i s c u s s i o n on s t a t e - f e d e r a l r e l a t i o n s .
Another

i s s u e t h a t became th e f o cal p o i n t o f a Michigan Edu­

c a t i o n Seminar was a d i s c u s s i o n w it h f e d e r a l e d u c a ti o n and c o n g r e s ­
s io n a l o f f i c i a l s in D e t r o i t on th e s u b j e c t o f compensatory e d u c a ti o n
and b using.

These o f f i c i a l s were in D e t r o i t to meet with t h e school

o f f ic ia ls of th a t d i s t r i c t .

They had asked t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educa­

t i o n a l L ead er ship to a r r a n g e a meeting with s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t io n a l
p o l i c y makers in which t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s could be checked a t th e
end o f t h e i r o f f i c i a l i n s p e c t i o n .

Several o f t h e ge neral r u l e s f o r

i s s u e s e l e c t i o n were v i o l a t e d f o r t h i s seminar.

The v i o l a t i o n o f

t h e s e r u l e s can be l i n k e d t o t h e r a t h e r l i m i t e d t u r n o u t a t t h i s
seminar.

191

For i n s t a n c e , t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h i s i s s u e was seen as coming
d i r e c t l y from t h e r e s e a r c h e r via IEL.
ing committee d i s c u s s i o n o f i t .

There was no seminar o r s t e e r ­

The i s s u e not only a p p l i e d t o a

l i m i t e d segment o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l community, t h e K-12 s e c t o r , but i t
a p p l i e d to an even more l i m i t e d segment, t h e C ity o f D e t r o i t .

Since

th e d i s c u s s i o n could have l i t t l e impact upon t h e f e d e r a l law on com­
p en s ato ry e d u c a tio n or on school b u s in g , t h e r e seemed to be l i t t l e
way th e s e s s i o n could meet t h e r u l e t h a t r e q u i r e d p o t e n t i a l impact
as a c r i t e r i o n .

T h i s , however, did not t u r n o u t t o be t h e c a s e .

One

o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a t t h i s s e s s i o n was then d i r e c t o r o f compensatory
e d u cati o n programs in the s t a t e e d u c a tio n departm ent, Eugene P as lo v.
P as lo v, who has s i n c e r e p l a c e d John P o r t e r as ( i n t e r i m ) c h i e f s t a t e
school o f f i c e r in Michigan, made s e v e r a l s p e c i f i c recommendations f o r
program r e v i s i o n s .

Whether t h e USOE o f f i c i a l s and c o n g r e s s i o n a l s t a f f

a c t e d on t h e s e recommendations i s unknown, but c e r t a i n l y t h e p o t e n t i a l
f o r impact was found t o e x i s t in t h i s seminar.

No new m a t e r i a l s

could be g e n e r a te d f o r t h i s se m in ar ; hence a n o t h e r r u l e o f i s s u e
s e l e c t i o n was v i o l a t e d .
D e s p i te i t s l i m i t e d t u r n o u t , t h e r e seemed t o be no l a s t i n g
n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o f s e l e c t i n g t h i s i s s u e as one o f t h e s i x seminar
issues fo r the y e a r.

In d i s c u s s i o n s with p a r t i c i p a n t s held a f t e r

t h i s s e m i n a r , t h e n e a r l y u n i v e r s a l com p la in t about t h e s e s s i o n was
t h a t i t was held in D e t r o i t a t 8 :0 0 a.m.

D e t r o i t i s roughly n i n e t y

m ile s s o u t h e a s t o f t h e c e n t e r o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan:
Lansing, t h e s t a t e c a p i t a l .

192
The f i n a l seminar s e s s i o n o f t h e y e a r was unique f o r s e v e r a l
reasons.

F i r s t , i t was a tw o - p a r t seminar.

and d i s t i n c t t o p i c s on th e agenda.

There were two s e p a r a t e

Second, one element o f t h e s e s ­

sion was devoted t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e d i r e c t p o l i c y impact o f a
previous seminar on t h e s u b j e c t o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s .

I t was in

t h i s seminar s e s s i o n t h a t Doug Smith, t h e g o v e r n o r ' s e d u c a tio n a d v i s o r ,
brought t o t h e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s a s e r i e s o f recommendations f o r
p r o v id in g s p e c i a l f i n a n c i a l a i d t o Michigan d i s t r i c t s s u f f e r i n g d r a ­
matic en r o l lm e n t d rops.

This i s s u e

and i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s on th e

seminar s e r i e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d a t a l a t e r p o i n t in t h e d i s s e r t a ­
tion.
The second segment o f t h i s seminar s e s s i o n allowed t h e
accomplishment o f one o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s t h a t had been ex pres sed
f o r t h e seminar in t h e convening s e s s i o n , in September 1977.

This

i s s u e was t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f f e d e r a l Comprehensive Employment and
T r a in i n g Act f u n d in g , and t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s program on educa­
t i o n in Michigan.

One o f t h e c e n t r a l p r e s e n t e r s a t t h i s s e s s i o n was

th e s t a t e c h i e f school o f f i c e r , John P o r t e r , who s t r e s s e d t h a t th e
involvement o f e d u c a t i o n a l

o f f i c i a l s in a f f a i r s t h a t

had been t r a d i ­

t i o n a l l y in t h e e x c l u s i v e domain o f t h e S t a t e Department
was a major concern of h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

o f Labor

He emphasized t h a t t h e

youth t r a i n i n g programs in employmen t-related f i e l d s

" i s th e second

most i m p o rta n t item t h a t I have t o deal wit h n e x t t o

the overall

q u a l i t y o f Michigan e d u c a t i o n . "
A v a r i e t y o f i s s u e s was p r e s e n t e d to p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r d i s ­
c u s s i o n dur in g t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars as

193
i t was c o n s t i t u t e d f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h .

Most o f t h e s e items met t h e

v a r i e t y o f c r i t e r i a e s t a b l i s h e d t o s e l e c t agenda i s s u e s .

In t h e cas e

where t h e c r i t e r i a were n o t met, th e a t t e n d a n c e a t t h e s e s s i o n was
d r a m a t i c a l l y reduced.

This r e d u c t i o n in a t t e n d a n c e may have been

an a r t i f a c t , however, r e l a t e d more t o t h e geogr aphic l o c a t i o n o f th e
seminar than t o t h e o t h e r c r i t e r i a f o r seminar i s s u e s e l e c t i o n .
The Function o f t h e C o o r d in a to r and S t r a t e g i e s
of E n listin g P a rtic ip a n ts
The f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t o r i s o n e o f t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t
issues of th is research.

The c o o r d i n a t o r o f t h e seminar s e r i e s i s

a l s o t h e r e s e a r c h e r in t h i s s tu d y .

The dual r o l e played by th e

r e s e a r c h e r , as c o o r d i n a t o r , provided both b e n e f i t s and o b s t a c l e s to
the r e s e a r c h .
As c o o r d i n a t o r , th e r e s e a r c h e r was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e l o g i s ­
t i c s o f t h e seminar.

He was r e q u i r e d t o walk t h e p o l i t i c a l fence of

s e l e c t i n g meaningful and sometimes c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s w h ile av o id ­
ing th e a l i e n a t i o n o f any r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e s t a t e e d u c a tio n a l
policy-making community.

This f u n c t i o n was aided by t h e i n i t i a l

d e c i s i o n to e l i m i n a t e s i t u a t i o n s in which any o r g a n i z a t i o n o r i n d i ­
vidual could be outv ote d in t h e proce ss o f consensus s e e k in g .
As r e s e a r c h e r , t h e c o o r d i n a t o r had t o r e c o rd and an aly ze
ev e r y t h i n g from formal seminar and s t e e r i n g committee s e s s i o n s to
t h e most t r i v i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s with e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y l e a d e r s .
There i s no c l e a r formula f o r s p e c i f y i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
degree o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th e r e s e a r c h e r in a f i e l d s tu d y .
charge o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , however, s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d th e

The

194
a b i l i t y t o be an ything o t h e r than a com pletely p a r t i c i p a t i n g o b s e r v e r
o f the p r o c e ss .
F i e l d work i s normally d e f in e d as a form o f cas e stu d y in
which the r e s e a r c h e r can vary in h i s degree and l ev el o f involvement
w ith th e environment under s tu d y .

The range o f involvement runs

from t h e detached o b s e r v e r - r e c o r d e r t o t h e r o l e o f a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t .
Of th e problems accompanying a c t i v e involvement in a f i e l d
s t u d y , one t h a t i s widely mentioned in t h e l i t e r a t u r e i s th e phe­
nomenon of "going n a t i v e " ( J unker, 1960; Wax, 1971).

Going n a t i v e i s

d e s c r i b e d as t h e l o s s o f detachment t h a t can accompany a s s i m i l a t i o n
i n t o a community o f s tu d y .

O b je c tiv ity is often s a c r if ic e d a t the

a l t a r o f intim ac y in a f i e l d s t u d y .

What t h e r e s e a r c h e r l o s e s by a

gradual i n a b i l i t y to s ta n d back and a n a ly z e a process as a pure
r e s e a r c h e r , however, may be re gai ned in h is a b i l i t y t o pro v id e c o l o r t o
th e ac c o u n t.

Color i s developed through r e c o r d i n g and r e p o r t i n g events

and r e l a t i o n s h i p s in ways t h a t can only come from involvement.

Such

involvement in f i e l d s t u d i e s i s s a i d t o be r e l a t e d t o a c c e p t a n c e of
t h e r e s e a r c h e r by t h e major a c t o r s in t h e environment.
The degree o f involvement o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n h i s f i e l d may
be l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e complexity o f t h e environment under
s tu d y .

The complexity o f t h e environment may o r may n o t be r e l a t e d

to th e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f t h e people who compose t h e environment.
Uniqueness o f th e environment i s a n o t h e r f a c t o r presumed t o be r e l a t e d
t o t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e f i e l d worker t o become involved in i t .
F a c to r s such as t h e co mplexity and uniqueness o f t h e f i e l d
under stud y a f f e c t t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o remain de ta ched

195

from t h e a f f e c t i v e domain o f t h e f i e l d w h i le he a t t e m p t s t o i n t e r ­
p r e t what i s happening t h e r e .
The u l t i m a t e q u e s ti o n i s not what t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r o l e o f th e
f i e l d worker should be in t h e study o f an environment.

R a th e r , t h e

q u e s t i o n i s t o what degree has t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t been r e q u i r e d t o
become an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e environment under study in o r d e r t o
be a b l e t o d e s c r i b e i t in t h e r i c h n e s s o f d e t a i l n e c e s s a r y f o r mean­
i n g fu l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a n a l y s i s .

On t h i s general q u e s ti o n t h e r e

can be no consensus in t h e l i t e r a t u r e because t h e l i t e r a t u r e i s
c o n s i s t e n t in r e c o g n iz in g t h a t a l l f i e l d s a r e in some r e g a r d s unique.
Among th e unique q u a l i t i e s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i s t h e f a c t t h a t
th e concept o f "going n a t i v e " does n o t r e a l l y a p p l y .

In t h i s

r e s e a r c h , t h e r e s e a r c h e r began as a " n a t i v e " —an ac c e p t e d member of
th e l a r g e r p o l i c y environment i n t o which t h e Michigan Education Semi­
nars was des igne d t o become a subsystem.

His a b i l i t y t o r e p o r t was

a f u n c t i o n o f h i s i n t i m a t e knowledge o f t h e f i e l d .

This knowledge

can a l s o be a t t r i b u t e d t o h i s su c c e ss in e s t a b l i s h i n g th e subsystem
t h a t became t h e f o cal p o i n t o f t h e f i e l d s t u d y , t h e Michigan Educa­
t i o n Seminars.
His a b i l i t y t o r e p o r t , f u r t h e r , was a f u n c t i o n o f h i s a b i l i t y
to a t t a i n some l e v e l o f s c i e n t i f i c detachment—not t o m ain t a in i t .
Hence t h e term "going n a t i v e " does n o t a c c u r a t e l y apply t o th e cas e
stud y in p o i n t .

R a t h e r , a new term— " g e t t i n g c i v i l i z e d " — i s more

a c c u r a t e in r e f l e c t i n g t h e r e s e a r c h phenomenon d e s c r i b e d in t h i s
section.

S c i e n t i f i c detachment o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r was not to be l o s t by

196
involvement in t h e f i e l d .

S c i e n t i f i c detachment was t o be gained by

th e conduct of t h i s r e s e a r c h .
To maximize h i s e f f e c t i v e n e s s in f i e l d r e s e a r c h , t h e r e s e a r c h e r
must study "what r o l e he ought t o p l a y , and w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h e
p o s s i b l e , ad ap t h im s e lf t o t h a t r o l e , r e a l i z i n g always t h a t changing
s i t u a t i o n s may c a l l f o r a changing r o l e ( D ex ter, 1970, p. 14).

In

t h i s cas e the p o l i t i c a l o p e r a t i v e was t o adopt t h e t o o l s o f th e
r e s e a r c h e r w ith o u t l o s i n g the q u a l i t i e s o f t h e " n a t i v e " t h a t allowed
h im s e lf t o have e n t r y t o th e f i e l d .

P a r t i c u l a r l y when d e a l i n g with

what c e r t a i n s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s a r e fond o f c a l l i n g " p o l i c y e l i t e s , "
th e r e s e a r c h e r must be w i l l i n g t o adopt unique and i n n o v a t i v e p r a c ­
t i c e s f o r g e t t i n g i n t o th e envir onme nt.

But even f o r t h e r e s e a r c h e r

who has a l r e a d y achieved such s t a t u s , t h e problems of d e a l i n g w it h
t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y a c t o r s a r e complex.
In i n t e r v i e w i n g s i t u a t i o n s , f o r example, i n f l u e n t i a l people
a r e o f t e n u n w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t th e assumptions o f an i n t e r v i e w e r .
What d e t a i l may be l o s t in many f i e l d s t u d i e s w i t h i n a p u b l i c p o l i c y
forum because o f t h e r e l u c t a n c e o f th e i n t e r v i e w e e t o r e l a t e personal
ac co unts t o an u n t r u s t e d o r unknown s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t ?

P u b l ic p o l i c y

makers o f t e n a r e r e l u c t a n t , o r o t h e r w is e u n a b l e , t o conform t o s t a n ­
d a r d iz e d l i n e s o f d i s c u s s i o n i n i n t e r v i e w s .

S t a n d a r d iz e d i n t e r v i e w i n g

and o t h e r r e s e a r c h te c h n iq u e s have been found t o be i n a d e q u a t e t o
accommodate i n fo r m a tio n which may t u r n o u t t o be extre mely im p ort ant
in develop ing t h e complete, t e c h n i c o l o r p i c t u r e o f t h e f i e l d o f stu d y
(D exter, 1970; Dye, 1976).

197

D e x t e r ' s (1970) o b s e r v a t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t :

"In e l i t e i n t e r ­

viewing i t ca nnot be assumed—as in a t y p i c a l s u rv ey —t h a t per sons
o r c a t e g o r i e s o f pe rson s a r e e q u a l l y im port ant" (p. 6 ) .

The f i e l d

worker must be a b l e t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between t h e a b i l i t i e s o f c e r ­
t a i n res pond en ts in i n t e r v i e w s t o pr ovid e a c c u r a t e a c c o u n t s .
must be a b le to i d e n t i f y t h e b i a s e s o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e e .

He

I t is strongly

sugges ted in t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t , in o r d e r t o be more e f f e c t i v e in a
p u b l i c p o l i c y s e t t i n g , t h e f i e l d worker must a t t e n d t o developing
t h e r a p p o r t and r e l a t i o n s h i p s between h im s e lf and t h e s u b j e c t s o f
th e s tu d y t o p er m it t h e accomplishment o f th e o b j e c t i v e s o f th e
research.
The r e s e a r c h e r i n t h i s stu d y was a re co gnized p a r t i c i p a n t in
th e p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e s s .

He employed i n t e r v i e w ­

ing te c h n i q u e s t h a t b e s t s u i t e d t h e needs o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a t hand.
In s i t u a t i o n s where th e i n t e r v i e w e e could pro v id e a c l e a r e r acc oun t
under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p o o r ly l i t r e s t a u r a n t s and e x t r a - d r y m a r t i n i s ,
such an environment was p rovid e d.

I f i t meant r e c o r d i n g th e ob s erv a­

t i o n s o f th e i n t e r v i e w e e on th e back o f a

place m at,

a p p r o p r i a t e t o o l o f f i e l d r e s e a r c h was employed.

th e n such an

Accounts o f such

i n t e r v i e w s were then l a t e r t r a n s c r i b e d on to a more permanent r e c o r d .
I f t h e f i e l d r e s e a r c h e r would have been una ble t o d i f f e r e n t i ­
a t e r e l a t i v e d egrees o f importance o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s in t h e s t u d y ,
h i s a b i l i t y t o f u n c t i o n as a c o o r d i n a t o r o f t h e seminar s e s s i o n s ( o r
as a p a id p r o f e s s i o n a l l o b b y i s t ) would have been i n s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n .

198
No such r e p o r t s were heard dur ing o r subsequent t o t h e time o f t h i s
stu dy.
Dye recommended such a c t i v e involvement in a p u b l i c
p o l i c y f i e l d s tu d y .

He c r i t i c i z e d th o s e " s c i e n t i s t s who argue

f o r minimizing t h e d i r e c t d i s c i p l i n a r y l i n k s to government out
o f a concern about t h e development o f s c i e n t i f i c th eo r y " (p. 13).
In f a c t , Dye a dvis e d t h a t i t i s n o t o u t s i d e th e p r o p e r domain o f a
p u b l i c p o l i c y a n a l y s t , more th an simply t o conduct t h e s t u d y , t o
a d v i s e p o l i c y a c t o r s in t h e development o f t h e i r d i s p o s i t i o n s and
a t t i t u d e s toward p u b l i c p o l i c y i s s u e s :

" I t i s b e t t e r t o p r o v id e gov­

ernment p o l i c y makers w ith s o c i a l s c i e n c e i n fo r m a t io n than t o l e t them
a c t w it h o u t i t " (p. 14).
In t h i s f i e l d work, t h e r e s e a r c h e r was no l e s s a p a r t i c i ­
p a n t in th e environment than any o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t .

For a l l i n t e n t s

and p u r p o s e s , t h e subsystem under s tu d y w i t h i n t h e b r oader f i e l d o f
e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan d i d not e x i s t b e f o r e t h e p l a n ­
ning and implementation o f t h i s r e s e a r c h .

E l a b o r a t e s t r a t e g i e s were

employed t o e n l i s t t h e a c t i v e involvement o f t o p - l e v e l s t a t e educa­
t i o n a l p o l i c y a c t o r s in t h e forum under s tu d y .

Without t h e s e s t r a t e ­

g i e s , s e s s i o n s o f th e seminar could not have been convened.
Although t h e s t r a t e g i e s used t o e n l i s t p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e
r e f e r r e d t o in v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y , i t i s worth reviewing
a few examples now.
Car ef ul s e l e c t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r t h e seminar s e r i e s
o c c u r re d b e f o r e t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n .

In some c a s e s , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

c h a r t l e a d e r s were s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u e s t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e seminar

199

s e s s i o n and t o a u t h o r i z e , i f not enco ura ge, t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e s
to a t t e n d t h e s e s s i o n s .

In one c a s e , a per so na l f r i e n d (and f o r ­

mer employer) was e n l i s t e d p a r t l y t o lend t h e l e v e r a g e o f h i s
o f f i c e and t h e r e s p e c t o f h is r e p u t a t i o n t o t h e seminar s e s s i o n s .
John P o r t e r , t h e n - c h i e f s t a t e school o f f i c e r i n Michigan, played
a major r o l e in ap plying both t h e s a n c t i o n and t h e l e v e r a g e t o
i n s u r e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f o t h e r departm ent o f f i c i a l s in t h e programs
o f Michigan Education Seminars.

His a c t i v e involvement in t h r e e

o f th e seminars i s presumed t o have s t i m u l a t e d th e a t t e n d a n c e a t
th o s e s e s s i o n s .
Another s t r a t e g y f o r involvement o f p a r t i c i p a n t s t h a t i s
touched upon a t o t h e r p o i n t s w i t h i n t h i s stu d y i s th e s t r a t e g y of
exclusion.

There a r e c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s who i t was p r e d i c t e d could

n o t be d i r e c t l y convinced to involve themselves in t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f
th e Michigan Education Seminars.

With c e r t a i n o f them, a w a i t i n g

game was play ed .
On a t l e a s t two d i s t i n c t o c c a s i o n s , and p o s s i b l y as many
as f i v e , t h e r e s e a r c h e r was approached by p o l i c y makers who wanted
to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e seminars o u t o f a p e r c e iv e d anger a t not
having been i n v i t e d .

Here, t h e f a c t t h a t r e s e a r c h was being con­

d u c t e d , a f a c t w e l l - p u b l i c i z e d among key p a r t i c i p a n t s , provided
an a l i b i and allowed an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e s t r a t e g y of

200
e x c l u s io n , f o r , in f a c t , th e s t r a t e g y o f e x c l u s io n a l s o p e r m i t t e d t h e
r e s e a r c h e r t o have something o f a c o n t r o l group.

By e x cluding c e r ­

t a i n l e a d e r s from t h e p a r t i c i p a n t i n v i t e e l i s t , t h e r e s e a r c h e r could
argue t h a t he had e s t a b l i s h e d a c o n t r o l group o f " o t h e r t o p - l e v e l
p o l i c y makers."

This c o n t r o l group p r o c e d u re , he could a r g u e , gave

him an o p p o r t u n i t y to see whether t h o s e l e a d e r s who were not a t t e n d ­
ing th e s e s s i o n s , t h o s e who were not r e c e i v i n g Michigan Education
Seminars m a t e r i a l s , were, n o n e t h e l e s s , informed o f some o f i t s
activities.
F i n a l l y , t h i s s t r a t e g y t r i p l e d as a means o f excl uding c e r ­
t a i n p o l i c y makers who were seen as being p o t e n t i a l l y d i s r u p t i v e o r
d i v i s i v e , o r were perhaps p er ceiv ed as being too busy even t o b o th e r
to in v ite to the reg u lar sessions.
Perhaps t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t e n l i s t m e n t o r involvement s t r a t e g y
was t h e "honesty i s t h e b e s t p o li c y " s t r a t e g y .

Many o f t h e o r i g i n a l

seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s were in te rv ie w e d in p r i v a t e s e s s i o n s b e f o r e t h e
completion o f th e planning o f t h e s em in ar s , long b e f o r e t h e f i r s t
s e s s i o n i n September 1977.

They were t o l d in t h i s i n t e r v i e w t h a t a

seminar on e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s was being planned f o r t o p - l e v e l
l e a d e r s in t h i s f i e l d .

They were t o l d t h a t t h e y were being i n t e r ­

viewed because they were c o n s id e re d t o be e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y l e a d ­
ers.

They were asked t o help i d e n t i f y o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n t i a l

in s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making, because w ith o u t t h e i n v o l v e ­
ment o f such l e a d e r s t h e pro gram's p o t e n t i a l could n o t be r eac hed .

201
A f t e r a l l t h i s , th e s t a g e was s e t t o ask t h e i n t e r v i e w e e to h im se lf
make a commitment t o a t t e n d t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

In

some ca s es th ey were a l s o asked t o p a r t i c i p a t e on t h e s t e e r i n g com­
m ittee.
This s t r a t e g y was extrem ely e f f e c t i v e .
t i o n or d e c e p t i o n .

I t in vo lved no d i s t o r ­

Such t a c t i c s were c o n s id e r e d t o be o u t s i d e th e

realm o f a p p r o p r i a t e s t r a t e g i e s f o r e n l i s t m e n t in what was hoped to
become a c r e d i b l e and h o s p i t a b l e e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e - d i s c u s s i o n forum.
A t o t a l l y uninvolved and detached s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t could
not have conducted t h i s r e s e a r c h .

To have e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e p u t a ­

t i o n as a n e u t r a l a c t o r in t h e policy-making p r o c e s s , y e a r s o f e f f o r t
in o p e r a t i n g as a l i a i s o n between th e v a r io u s elements o f t h e educa­
t i o n a l policy-making community were i n v e s t e d .

The s u g g e s ti o n t h a t

th e r e s e a r c h e r was a " n e u t r a l " —a s u g g e s ti o n t h a t w i l l be v e r i f i e d
i n t h e i n t e r v i e w a n a l y s i s — bears no r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e degree o f
intimacy he shared with any o f th e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e
p u b l i c policy-making p r o c e s s .
S t o r i e s o f th e r e s e a r c h e r ' s having been seen s l i c i n g a d r i v e
onto th e road o f f t h e e i g h t h t e e a t F o r e s t Acres Golf Course where he
was pla yi ng a round with t h e e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r o f t h e Michigan Edu­
c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n could be shar ed with th e head o f t h e school admin­
i s t r a t o r s ' a s s o c i a t i o n w ith o u t damaging th e p e r c e i v e d n e u t r a l i t y o f
th e r e s e a r c h e r .

The d i r e c t o r o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' group could

r e l a t e e q u a l l y amusing s t o r i e s a b o u t being in volved wit h t h e lobby­
i s t from th e D e t r o i t s ch oo ls in a h e a d - s ta n d in g c o n t e s t on th e
r e s e a r c h e r ' s pontoon b o a t.

Both a s s o c i a t i o n l e a d e r s were aware

202
o f t h e deep f r i e n d s h i p between th e r e s e a r c h e r and t h e p u b l i c a f f a i r s
d i r e c t o r o f t h e Michigan C a t h o l i c Conference, and th ey used t h i s
knowledge to t r a n s m i t messages du rin g t h e p e r i o d immediately p r eced ­
ing one o f t h e g r e a t e s t s t r u g g l e s between t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e
e d u cati o n s e c t o r s in Michigan o f t h e c e n t u r y .

Numerous examples

e x i s t where, w ithout th e i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s with t h e p a r t i c i ­
pants in th e p u b l ic p o l i c y s tu d y , t h e c o l o r demanded of a f i e l d
study o f p u b l i c p o l i c y systems would be a b s e n t .
F u r t h e r , and perhaps more im p o r t a n t , i s th e f a c t t h a t th e
suc ce ss o f t h e s tudy was c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n
o f t h e s e " i n t i m a t e s " in o r d e r f o r i t t o be s u c c e s s f u l , a t l e a s t
during i t s fo rm at ive p e r i o d .

The s t r a t e g i e s o f e n l i s t m e n t were

l a r g e l y dependent upon s o l i c i t i n g f r i e n d s in t h e p o l i c y pro cess
f o r a commitment to p a r t i c i p a t e .

These i n t i m a t e s a l s o provided

u s e fu l guidance as t h e program developed.
At s e v e r a l p o i n t s in th e s t u d y , i t was found t h a t w it h o u t
making c o n s i d e r a b l e m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o th e program c o n t e n t o r process
o r p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t , t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e seminars could have been
threatened.

One such example occu r re d when a program to inv olve

f e d e r a l e d u c a ti o n o f f i c i a l s in a d i s c u s s i o n o f mandatory s p e c i a l
ed u catio n in Michigan was proposed.

This example i s d i s c u s s e d

in t h e s e c t i o n o f th e a n a l y s i s c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d "The Function
o f t h e S t e e r i n g Committee."

However, i t i s im po rt ant to note a t

t h i s j u n c t u r e t h a t w ith o u t a c e r t a i n l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f member being
committed t o t h e s ucc es s o f t h e seminar s e r i e s , a seminar could

203

have been held t h a t had p o t e n t i a l f o r s e v e r e l y d i s r u p t i n g t h e e n t i r e
s t a t e government o f Michigan.
The r o l e o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r in t h i s f i e l d study demanded, more
than simply p e r m i t t e d , h i s a c t i v e involvement as a p a r t i c i p a n t in
the f i e l d .

In p o l i t i c s , f r i e n d s h i p i s o f t e n t h e commodity o f exchange.

To deny t h i s would be to d i s c r e d i t a system t h a t o p e r a t e s , in t h i s
r e g a r d , on a very s a c r e d and high code.

The v a lu e s ex press ed through

f r i e n d s h i p in p o l i t i c s a r e t h e valu es t h a t a r e , a t t h e same t im e , both
h ig h ly r e s p e c t e d and d e s p is e d .

I t was f r i e n d s h i p with many o f th e

in s t r u m e n t a l p o l i c y a c t o r s t h a t was c a l l e d upon t o e n l i s t t h e i r
i n i t i a l involvement.

I t was f r i e n d s h i p t h a t in many r e s p e c t s i n f l u ­

enced th e pr o c e ss t h a t was used to shape t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e
s e m i n a r s , and i t w i l l be f r i e n d s who have been c a l l e d upon to c a r r y
o u t t h e seminars in t h e f u t u r e .
The r o l e o f th e r e s e a r c h e r in t h i s f i e l d study must be under­
stood a s something d i f f e r e n t from the t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l s c ie n c e
model f o r f i e l d r e s e a r c h .

Rather than being seen as an o u t s i d e r who

moved i n , t h e r e s e a r c h e r in t h e study must

be seen as t h e i n s i d e r who

moved, t o some d e g r e e , ou t.
The P r o f i l e o f Some o f t h e

Participants

The p r o c e ss o f s e l e c t i n g th e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t s

in th e

Michigan Education Seminars combined a v a r i e t y o f metho dologies.
A s s o c i a te s who occupied t o p - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y p o s i t i o n s were
i d e n t i f i e d and e n l i s t e d t o help d es ig n th e program o u t l i n e and th e

204

s tr a te g ie s of enlistm ent.

O r g a n iz a t io n a l c h a r t s o f the major s e g ­

ments o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community in Michigan were
reviewed t o de term in e " p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r s . "

Positional lead ers,

and t h o s e p e r c e iv e d as knowledgeable i n s i d e r s , were p o l l e d t o d e t e r ­
mine th o s e who may not have key o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n s but were
p e r c e iv e d g e n e r a l l y to be l e a d e r s on e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s .
This pr o c e ss o f p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s was thoro ug hly
d e s c r i b e d in t h e methodology c h a p t e r o f th e d i s s e r t a t i o n .
A v a r i e t y o f p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s were a l s o c o n s i d e r e d in dev elop­
ing th e p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t f o r t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

By

p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r s u g g e st s t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t
was balanced so as n o t t o give t h e im pres sio n t h a t any p a r t i c u l a r
s e c t o r o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community was dominant in
t h e seminar s e r i e s .

Such an im pre ssi on would j e o p a r d i z e t h e "neu­

t r a l i t y " o f t h e forum t h a t was a primary o b j e c t i v e o f th e r e s e a r c h
to e s ta b li s h .
The l e g i s l a t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s , f o r example, were s e l e c t e d to
r e f l e c t t h a t element o f t h e l e g i s l a t i v e process w i th r e l a t i v e l y lim ­
i t e d power t o a f f e c t e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y —namely, th e Repu blica ns.
Although t h e i r d i s t i n c t m i n o r i t y s t a t u s in both chambers o f t h e l e g i s ­
l a t u r e p u t s them a t a d i s t i n c t p o l i t i c a l d i s a d v a n t a g e , t h e i r absence
from th e seminar s e s s i o n s would be seen as a perso nal and a p o l i t i ­
c a l a f f r o n t t o an i m p o rt a n t element o f p u b l i c p o l i c y making in Michi­
gan.

Thus, whereas t h e p o s i t i o n a l and r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e

l e g i s l a t u r e shows few Republicans in p o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y , they

205

were, n o n e t h e l e s s , well r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e l i s t o f seminar p a r t i c i p a n t invitees.
In ca s e s when i t was obvious t h a t an u n d e r l in g was a c t u a l l y
a g r e a t e r i n f l u e n c e on t h e pr oc es s than was h i s b o s s , sometimes
p o l i t i c s d i c t a t e d th e appointment o f both t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t
f o r th e Michigan Education Seminars.
In many c a s e s , i t was p o s s i b l e t o i n c l u d e in t h e membership o f
th e Michigan Education Seminars p a r t i c i p a n t s with such wide and
v a r i e d backgrounds in t h e p u b l i c p o l i c y pr o c e ss t h a t t h e e x a c t seg ­
ment o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y community i n t o which th e y could be
p r o p e r l y c a t e g o r i z e d was obs cu re d.

A review o f some o f t h e s e ca s e s

w i l l give t h e r e a d e r s e v e r a l im p r e s s io n s .

F i r s t , t h e e d u c a ti o n a l

policy-making community i s a d i v e r s e group o f i n d i v i d u a l s with v a r i e d
backgrounds.

Second, o f t e n peo ple i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l pol icy-making

pr oce ss a t t h e s t a t e level r e p r e s e n t more than one i n t e r e s t a t once.
T h i r d , l e a d e r s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community a t th e
s t a t e l e v e l a r e o f t e n c a t a p u l t e d i n t o t h e s e p o s i t i o n s with r e l a t i v e l y
l i t t l e background in education p e r s e .

F o u r th , l e a d e r s o f t e n switch

p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l pol icy-making community, eviden ce o f
t h e v alu e t h a t d i v e r s e i n t e r e s t s hold in a knowledge o f t h e p r o c e s s .
For example, J e r r y Dunn, one o f th e most powerful p u b l i c school
d i s t r i c t l o b b y i s t s in th e s t a t e , was c l a s s i f i e d as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f
t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t group segment o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making community, and i t can be s u g g e ste d t h a t he r e p r e s e n t e d t h e
a d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s view point in K-12 e d u c a t i o n .

However, i t could a l s o

be s uggested t h a t he r e p r e s e n t e d t h e h i g h e r e d u c a ti o n community, s i n c e

206

he i s a Regent o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan.

William K e i th , t h e

vice -c ha irm an o f th e House Education Committee, brought t o t h e Michi­
gan Education Seminars t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f a major p o l i c y f o r c e in t h e
e d u c a t io n a l process in t h e l e g i s l a t u r e .

A Democrat, R e p r e s e n t a t i v e

Keith a l s o brought to t h e Michigan Education Seminars th e p e r s p e c t i v e
o f a l o c a l school board member.

He had served on t h e Garden C ity

school board f o r over a decade b e f o r e being e l e c t e d t o th e Michigan
legislature.
The f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s no c l e a r path t o t h e p i n n a c l e o f t h e
ed u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y process a t t h e s t a t e lev el in Michigan i s b e s t
demonstrated by th e s t o r y o f Gene C ae sar, cowboy book w r i t e r .

Actors

a t t h e top le v e l have f r e q u e n t l y endured a wide v a r i e t y o f p o l i c y
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e f o re a r r i v i n g a t t h i s le v e l of l e a d e r s h i p .

But j u s t

as f r e q u e n t l y , i t seems, th ey have not.
C ae sa r, judged by many t o be t h e s i n g l e most i n f l u e n t i a l f o r c e
in th e e d u c a t io n a l policy-making process in Michigan, came t o t h e
l e g i s l a t u r e as a r e l a t i v e l y low -le vel House s t a f f e r in t h e l a t e 1960s
a f t e r a s u c c e s s f u l c a r e e r as a n o v e l i s t and f r e e - l a n c e magazine
w riter.

His f e a t u r e s in Argosy and T r u e - type magazines i n t h e f i f t i e s

and s i x t i e s p la c e d Norman M a il e r and Jimmy B r e s l i n as c o n te m p o r a r i e s .
He won n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n as "cowboy w r i t e r o f t h e y e a r " in th e
1960s.
Caesar i s known f o r h is quick and c le a n r e s e a r c h , h i s b l u n t
memos on school f i n a n c e , and h i s quick-draw s t y l e o f p o l i t i c s .

He i s

both f e a r e d and r e s p e c t e d in Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l / p o l i t i c a l c i r c l e s .

207

In 1971, S enator G i l b e r t B u r s le y , Republican o f Ann Arbor, was
named chairman o f t h e Senate Education Committee.

In what may have

been one o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n t moves o f h i s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r , Burs ley
named Caesar to be his a i d e t o t h e committee.

C a e s a r ' s j o b was to

r e w r i t e th e S t a t e School Aid Act, s h i f t i n g i t o u t o f t h e d e d u c t i b l e
m i l l a g e formula t h a t had se rved t h e s t a t e ' s wealthy d i s t r i c t s so well
in t h e p a s t i n t o a p o w e r - e q u a l i z a ti o n formula des igned t o reduce th e
p er pu pil spending d i s c r e p a n c i e s between t h e s t a t e ' s r i c h e s t and poor­
est d istric ts.

Meanwhile, with Caesar in t h e Senate a n a l y z i n g , w r i t ­

in g , and t a l k i n g about a plan t h a t could be used t o r e c t i f y many o f
t h e s t a t e ' s school f i n a n c e problems, t h e e x e c u t i v e s e c r e t a r y to House
Speaker William Ryan was a l s o working on th e same problem.
Booby Don Crim had devoted t h e b e t t e r p a r t o f h i s p o l i t i c a l
l i f e to school f in a n c e i s s u e s .

A f t e r lo s i n g h i s Davison House s e a t

in 1966, Crim lobbied f o r an i n t e r m e d i a t e school d i s t r i c t and se rved
on th e Michigan School Finance Study p u b l is h e d in 1969 and named
f o r i t s s e n i o r a u t h o r , J . Alan Thomas.
Crim's plan d i f f e r e d in d e t a i l , i f n o t o b j e c t i v e , from C a e s a r ' s .
But Crim, not s a t i s f i e d with being t h e most powerful l e g i s l a t i v e a i d e
in t h e Michigan l e g i s l a t u r e — some say in i t s h i s t o r y — ran ag ai n f o r
t h e l e g i s l a t i v e s e a t he l o s t s i x y e a r s e a r l i e r .

This time he won,

and h i s school f in a n c e plan gained new s t a t u s .
In an unpr ecedented l e g i s l a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p v o t e , Crim, f r e s h ­
man l e g i s l a t o r from Davison, was named M a j o r i t y F l o o r Leader o f th e

208

Michigan House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , number two p o s i t i o n in th e lower
chamber.

His move from c h i e f a i d e o f th e Speaker in November 1971

t o House M a jo r ity F loor Leader in January 1972 gave th e l e g i s l a t i v e
oddsmakers new reason f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t when major school f in a n c e
reform was passed i t would be named a f t e r Bobby D. Crim.
What follo w e d, through mid-yea r 1973, was one o f th e most
b i t t e r l e g i s l a t i v e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y b a t t l e s o f t h e decade, and i t
b o i l e d down t o Crim versus Caesar.

Incredibly clever p o litic a l

m a n ip u l a tio n , some c a l l e d i t v i c i o u s , led t o th e passage o f a new
school a id a c t f o r Michigan, and when i t was signed i t bore t h e name
o f G i l b e r t E. Bu rsley.

Ca esar, a Senate s t a f f member, had won.

He

had dev ise d a formula f o r school f in a n c e and a p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g y so
e x a c t i n g as t o be a b l e t o b e a t t h e M a jo r i ty F lo o r Leader o f th e
Michigan House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s in h is own chamber with h i s own
Democratic v o t e s .
The e l e c t i o n s o f 1974 found Bursley r e e l e c t e d , b u t th e Repub­
l i c a n s in a 24-14 m i n o r i t y .

The Democrats took th e committee c h a i r ­

manships, and with them went C a e s a r ' s job as e d u c a ti o n committee a i d e .
Few o b s e rv e r s would have guessed t h a t Caesar would land so
s q u a r e l y on h i s f e e t .

But he d i d , as c h i e f education a d v i s o r t o h i s

former a d v e r s a r y , th e new Speaker o f th e House, Bobby D. Crim.
Several o f t h e o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e seminar s e r i e s have
made a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r e s t i n g c a r e e r moves in th e s t a t e p o l i c y a r e n a .
Roger T i l l e s went from n o n p a r t is a n D i r e c t o r o f School Law and
L e g i s l a t i o n f o r th e Department o f Education to member o f t h e S t a t e
Board o f Education t o Executive S e c r e t a r y to t h e Speaker, Crim, of

209

th e S t a t e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w i t h i n a p e r io d o f a few
months.
Doug Smith went from a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a s s i s t a n t t o Burs ley
(where he s t u d i e d under Caesar) to t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f
School Boards (under David Ruhala) t o e d u c a tio n a d v i s o r t o t h e Gover­
nor in a few weeks.
As has been mentioned, J e r r y Dunn i s both l o b b y i s t f o r a con­
f i g u r a t i o n o f lo cal school d i s t r i c t s and r e g e n t a t th e U n i v e r s i t y of
Michigan, a Democrat.

He was e l e c t e d r e g e n t s h o r t l y a f t e r l o s i n g h i s

s e a t in t h e Michigan Senate in t h e same y e a r t h a t Crim f i r s t l o s t h is
s e a t in t h e Michigan House—1966.
This r e s e a r c h e r came t o Lansing as a i d e t o Republican Senate
Education Committee chairman in 1970.

In 1973, when Roger T i l l e s

l e f t his jo b as school law and l e g i s l a t i o n d i r e c t o r f o r t h e d e p a r t ­
ment, t h i s r e s e a r c h e r took i t .

L a te r in 1974, he l e f t t h a t job

to become e x e c u t i v e s e c r e t a r y t o t h e M a jo r it y Leader o f th e S e n a te ,
William B. F i t z g e r a l d .

With F i t z g e r a l d ' s dumping in 1976, he

became a p r i v a t e s e c t o r l o b b y i s t , a f t e r a s h o r t brea k as a f u l l ­
time day s t u d e n t a t Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

Through some o f th e

p e r i o d covered by t h i s s t u d y , he was a s s o c i a t e campaign manager f o r
F i t z g e r a l d ' s i l l - f a t e d run f o r t h e s e a t occupied by incumbent
Mi 11iken.
Appendix A c o n t a i n s t h r e e t a b l e s showing t h e composition o f
th e Michigan Education Seminars from September 1977 t o f a l l 1978.

210
Table Al i s a l i s t o f t h e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t s o f t h e Michigan Edu­
c a t i o n Seminars—t h o s e who were i n v i t e d t o t h e convening s e s s i o n on
September 14, 1977.

Table A2 i s a l i s t o f t h e s e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t s ,

c a t e g o r i z e d by e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y segment:

e x e c u t i v e br an ch , l e g i s ­

l a t i v e bran ch , e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t group, and o t h e r i n t e r e s t group.
Table A3 shows t h e growth o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars up t o
September 1978.

By t h a t ti m e, t h e p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t had grown t o

n e a r l y one hundred.

The p a r t i c i p a n t i n v i t a t i o n l i s t was t o pass th e

one hundred mark in t h e e a r l y f a l l o f 1978.

I t c u r r e n t l y exceeds

120 .
Examples have been provided t h a t d e p i c t th e tendency
o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a c t o r s a t t h e s t a t e le v e l in Michigan t o remain,
d e s p i t e j o b changes , in p o s i t i o n s o f i n f l u e n c e w i t h i n t h i s community.
F u r th e r examples o f such t r a n s i e n c y e x i s t .

However, i t i s i n t e r e s t ­

ing t h a t t h e r e a r e segments o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making commu­
n i t y in Michigan t h a t can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as q u i t e s t a b l e .
Of t h e t h r e e o r i g i n a l seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s who were members
o f t h e l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f o f th e l e g i s l a t u r e , only one, T i l l e s , has
moved, and he did so t o run f o r p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e .

T illes is currently

in law p r a c t i c e in Washington, D.C., and i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t one
o f h i s "anchor ac coun ts " in Washington i s t h e Michigan Department o f
Education.
Among th e l e g i s l a t o r s th e m s e lv e s , only f i v e o f th e e i g h t
o r i g i n a l seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e s t i l l members o f th e l e g i s l a t u r e .
In t h e S t a t e S e n a te , th e 1978 e l e c t i o n p r e s e n t e d f o u r t e e n new members
o f t h i s body o f t h i r t y - e i g h t .

Most o f t h e Senate changeover was

211
caused when members " f e l l t o a m b itio n " —running f o r h i g h e r e l e c t i v e
o f f i c e and mostly f a i l i n g .
One f i n d s a t t r i t i o n o f a l l forms among t h e Michigan Education
Seminars.

Although much o f th e a t t r i t i o n i s among t h e l e g i s l a t o r s ,

they and o t h e r s have l e f t t h e ranks due t o d e a t h , l o s s o f e l e c t i o n
r e l a t e d to scandal and o v e r - a m b i t i o n , promotion, withdrawal r e l a t e d
to p o l i t i c a l e x h a u s t io n , and simple d is a p p e a r a n c e from t h e scene.
How well t h e s e e d u c a t io n p o l i c y maker a t t r i t i o n d a t a would compare
with a l i s t of p o l i c y makers involved with o t h e r s o c i a l s e r v i c e d i s ­
c i p l i n e s i s unknown.

But one t h i n g i s c e r t a i n :

Reg ard le ss o f how

f a m i l i a r one was with t h e e d u c a t io n a l policy-making s t r u c t u r e a t th e
s t a t e l e v e l , a prolonged absence from th e scene could produce a
r a t h e r dr am atic form o f c u l t u r e shock upon r e e n t r y .
F u r t h e r s p e c i f i c examples o f such changes f o ll o w .

Edward

V andette, a lth o u g h s t i l l a s t a t e board member d e s p i t e an uns uccess fu l
a tt e m p t t o win a c o n g r e ss io n a l primary, i s no l o n g e r p r e s i d e n t o f th e
boar d.

Michael Usdan (who i s c r e d i t e d w ith c o n ceiv in g t h e idea f o r

s t a t e seminars l i k e t h e Michigan Education Seminars while an a s s o ­
c i a t e a t t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educationa l Le ad er ship) i s no l o n g e r
p r e s i d e n t o f M e r r i l l - P a l m e r I n s t i t u t e in D e t r o i t .

He i s c u r r e n t l y

Commissioner o f Higher Education in C o n n e c t i c u t .
Other im port an t changes in c lu d e John P o r t e r ' s r e s i g n a t i o n as
s t a t e school c h i e f and his acce p ta n c e as head o f E a s te r n Michigan
University.

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e W illi an Keith i s s t i l l v ice- ch airm an o f

t h e House Committee on Edu cation.

A f t e r h i s r e e l e c t i o n , however, he

was a p p o in te d t o head t h e House Committee on C olleges and U n i v e r s i t i e s .

212
J e f f r e y Graham has moved from Deputy D i r e c t o r o f t h e S t a t e Department
o f Commerce t o Governor M i l l i k e n ' s i n n e r c i r c l e o f a d v i s o r s .
Edmund F arhat i s no l o n g e r p u b lic a f f a i r s d i r e c t o r o f th e
Michigan C a t h o l i c Conference.

He r e si g n e d h i s p o s t in December 1978

to move i n t o a lobbying jo b c r e a t e d when t h i s r e s e a r c h e r became a s s o ­
c i a t e manager o f t h e F i t z g e r a l d f o r Governor campaign.

David Ruhala

r e c e n t l y announced h i s r e s i g n a t i o n as th e l e g i s l a t i v e d i r e c t o r (many
contend de f a c t o head) o f th e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School Boards
t o become an o i l l o b b y i s t .

He w i l l be r e p l a c e d by Kathleen S t r a u s s ,

Michigan Education Seminars s t e e r i n g committee member and a i d e to
S e n a to r Education Committee Chairman Jack Faxon.
S enator Gil Bursley i s s t i l l a c t i v e in Michigan Education
Seminars and t h e Education Commission o f th e S t a t e s , d e s p i t e his
r e s i g n a t i o n from t h e l e g i s l a t u r e t o become p r e s i d e n t o f Clear y Col­
l ege in Y p s i l a n t i .

Joe B i l l i n g s l e y , one o f t h e c h a r t e r Michigan

Education Seminars members, l i t e r a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d , some s p e c u l a t e
overseas.
Not to be f o r g o t t e n i s R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Mel Lars en , who r e s ig n e d
from t h e Michigan l e g i s l a t u r e t o run f o r S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e in 1978.
An a c t i v e Michigan Education Seminars p a r t i c i p a n t , a f t e r h i s p r e d i c t ­
a b le l o s s t o Richard A u s t in , Larsen ran a campaign w i t h i n t h e Mil l i k e n
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o become t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e S t a t e Department o f Com­
merce.

He l o s t a g a in .

G e tt in g t h i s j o b was t h e Republican S t a t e

P a r t y Chairman, William McLaughlin, whose vaca ted p o s i t i o n was run
f o r and won by Mel Larsen.

213

Although not a u n i v e r s a l r u l e , movement o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
a c t o r s from c h a i r t o c h a i r w i t h i n th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making com­
munity i s commonplace.

Perhaps th e most n o t a b l e d e v i a t i o n from t h e

p a t t e r n o f movement from branch t o branch o f government, even from
p a r t y to p a r t y , i s John P o r t e r , c h i e f s t a t e school o f f i c e r through
most o f t h e time in which t h i s r e s e a r c h was conducted.
Coming t o Lansing in t h e l a t e 1950s, a s c h o l a r - a t h l e t e from
Albion College with a t e a c h i n g c e r t i f i c a t e , P o r t e r was t o l d t h a t th e
te a c h i n g jo b he had been promised in t h e c i t y s c h o o ls was no longer
va c a n t , th e quota o f black t e a c h e r s having been f i l l e d .

Forced to

work as a j a n i t o r in the s t a t e c a p i t o l b u i l d i n g , P o r t e r a t th e Civil
S e r v ic e 01 le v e l moved from t h e lowest lev el s t a t e c l a s s i f i e d p o s i ­
t i o n t o t h e h i g h e s t , as a s s o c i a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f th e Higher Educa­
t i o n D i v i s i o n , in a p eriod o f a l i t t l e more than te n y e a r s .

As f a r

as anyone around Lansing i s a b l e t o t e l l , P o r t e r i s th e on ly man in
th e s t a t e ' s h i s t o r y who so th oro ughly t r a v e l e d th e s t a t e employment
ladder.

For th o s e a n a l y s t s who viewed th e Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l

p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e in th e e a r l y 1970s t o have r e p o r t e d on th e
mystique o f t h e s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w ith o u t having r e p o r t e d as a major
f a c t o r in t h i s mystique h i s lege nd ar y climb through t h e bure au cracy
was an i n c r e d i b l e o v e r s i g h t .
A common th r e a d weaves i t s way thro ug h t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e
e d u c a t io n a l policy-making community o f t h i s s t a t e .

Most o f th e i n d i ­

v i d u a l s who have been, or w i l l be, named as members o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p
o f t h i s community can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as hard worker s.

They a r e

uniformly d e d i c a t e d t o th e b e tt e r m e n t o f t h e s t a t e ' s e d u c a ti o n a l

214

system.

Most o f t h e l e a d e r s work p a s s i o n a t e l y a t t h e i r j o b s .

It is

t h i s p a s s i o n t h a t o f te n i g n i t e s i n t o n e a r - v i o l e n t d is ag ree m en ts
between f a c t i o n s o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l community over th e s t y l e o r method
o f meeting th e e d u c a tio n a l needs o f Michigan school c h i l d r e n .

I t is a

system in which p o l i t i c a l and p h ys ic a l v i o l e n c e o c c a s i o n a l l y emerges.
C l a s s i c b a t t l e has occ urre d between Caesar and Crim, Crim and Dunn,
B i l l i n g s l e y and almost everyone whom he has met from time t o tim e.

It

i s a system in which grown men a r e s t i l l allowed t o f i g h t f o r ca u s e s .
I t i s a l s o a system in which, f o r t h e most p a r t , e x c e l l e n c e
prevails.

I t i s t h e p o r t r a y a l o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y system as

fragmented, w ith o u t r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f i t s l e a d e r s h i p
and i t s d e d i c a t i o n t o a common purpose, t h a t i s th e g r e a t e s t f a u l t
o f the abundance o f l i t e r a t u r e on th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o ­
ce s s in Michigan.
How well did th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e Michigan Education Seminars
r e f l e c t t h e composition o f th e e d u c a t io n a l policy-making community o f
Michigan?

This q u e s t i o n was asked o f th e i n t e r v i e w e e s in t h e p o s t -

f i r s t - y e a r survey conducted by th e r e s e a r c h e r .
G e n e r a l l y , i n t e r v ie w e e s saw t h e seminar s e s s i o n s as being com­
posed o f i n d i v i d u a l s r e p r e s e n t i n g ever y major s e c t o r o f e d u c a t io n a l
p o l i c y making.

T h e ir re sp onses r e f l e c t th e f e e l i n g t h a t n e i t h e r th e y ,

nor t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n , were advantaged by t h e mix o f p o l i c y makers
i ncluded in t h e s e s s i o n s .
O v e r a l l , re spon se s to t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e
l e a d e r s o f th e major e d u c a ti o n a l policy-making groups ranged from
"one l i k e s t o t h i n k [ t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n was good]" t o "the

215

seminars were K-12 heavy."

The l a t t e r o b j e c t i o n was r a i s e d by only

one i n d i v i d u a l .
I t should be noted t h a t in th e i n t e r v i e w s e t t i n g , e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y makers c r e a t e d t h e same f o u r e s s e n t i a l segments o f t h e p o l i c y ­
making community used by th e r e s e a r c h e r t o i d e n t i f y p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r
t h e study:

e x e c u t i v e branch l e a d e r s h i p , l e g i s l a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p , edu­

c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t group l e a d e r s h i p , and o t h e r i n t e r e s t group l e a d e r ­
s h ip .
During t h i s phase o f th e i n t e r v i e w i n g , o t h e r a t t i t u d e s o f some
o f th e major p a r t i c i p a n t s were r e v e a l e d .

A university professor,

f o r i n s t a n c e , d e s c r i b e d t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s as a "core o f people who
could not a f f o r d to be a b s e n t . "

This r e v e a l s an im p o rtan t p e r c e p t i o n

o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e e ' s concept o f m o tiv a ti o n o f a t t e n d a n c e in th e Michi­
gan Education Seminars.

He th ou ght t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s were m o t i ­

vated t o a t t e n d t h e seminars p a r t l y o u t o f a d e s i r e not to be l e f t
o u t o f th e a c t i o n , and he c i t e d as evidence t h e f a c t t h a t on s e v e r a l
occas io n s key p o l i c y makers had s e n t a i d e s a p p a r e n t l y t o r e cord and
r e p o r t what had t r a n s p i r e d in t h e s e s s i o n .
Robert McKerr used t h i s i n t e r v i e w as an o p p o r t u n i t y t o chide
th e r e s e a r c h e r .

He sugg es ted t h a t th e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t was

incom plete— t h a t i t d id n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e t r u e l e a d e r s in ed u c a tio n a l
p o l i c y making.

McKerr was not on t h e o r i g i n a l l i s t o f p a r t i c i p a n t s ,

and he complained r a t h e r b i t t e r l y o f t h i s f a c t when he c a l l e d th e
r e s e a r c h e r b e f o re th e second s e s s i o n and wanted t o know why he had
been l e f t o f f t h e l i s t .

216
A l o c a l school d i s t r i c t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a i d t h a t a "wide
v a r i e t y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s " p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e sem inar s.

He s a i d

t h a t he viewed such p a r t i c i p a t i o n as n e c e s s a r y because i s s u e s in
e d u c a tio n "have gone i n t o a n o t h e r dimension.
management v e r su s l a b o r environment.

I t i s no lo n g e r a

The environment e s t a b l i s h e s t h e

need f o r multidimen sio nal r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . "
One re sp onden t sugg es ted t h a t i t was t h e s t e e r i n g committee
t h a t provided t h e co r e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e Michigan Education Semi­
nars.

He s a i d t h a t t h e remainder o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s seemed to d r i f t

in and o u t o f t h e v a r i o u s s e s s i o n s , dependent e n t i r e l y upon how
c l o s e l y th ey p e r c e iv e d t h e s e s s i o n s to be w i t h i n t h e s p e c i f i c domain
of t h e i r organizational in t e r e s t s .
As has been noted e a r l i e r , t h e only n e g a t i v e comment r e g a rd i n g
t h e b al an ce o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in th e Michigan Education s e s s i o n s came
from two i n d i v i d u a l s .

One s a i d i t was "K-12 heavy."

The o t h e r , a

c o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r p a r t i c i p a n t , su gges te d t h a t t h e "K-12 r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
is small."
The g o v e r n o r ' s educati on a d v i s o r , Doug Smith, suggested t h a t
t h e "continued a t t e n d a n c e of a wide v a r i e t y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups was t h e b e s t i n d i c a t i o n t hus f a r o f th e
su ccess o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars."
An a n a l y s i s o f th e raw numbers provid e s very l i t t l e in fo r m a tio n
on t h i s p o i n t .

The p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t grew from l e s s th an f o r t y t o

over one hundred p a r t i c i p a n t i n v i t e e s .

Although c e r t a i n segments o f

t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y community have more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s on t h e l i s t
than do o t h e r s , t h i s bears l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o who a c t u a l l y showed

217

up a t t h e seminar s e s s i o n s .

Attendance f i g u r e s were p r e s e n t e d in

Chapter IV.
Function o f t h e S t e e r i n g Committee
The need f o r t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o d e s i g n a t e a group o f i n d i ­
v i d u a l s from w i t h i n th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community as a
s t e e r i n g committee f o r th e seminar s e r i e s was one way f o r him t o
i n s u l a t e h im s e l f from some o f t h e p o s s i b l e n e g a t i v e p o l i t i c a l con­
sequences o f a t t e m p t i n g such an endeavor.
The seminar program was des igned t o pro v id e us efu l info rm a­
t i o n on p o t e n t i a l o r a c t u a l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s t o t o p - l e v e l
s t a t e p o l i c y makers.

The e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers th em selv es ,

t h e r e f o r e , were l o g i c a l c a n d i d a t e s f o r d e c id in g what i s s u e s th ey
wanted t o en dor se o r propose f o r i n c l u s i o n on t h e seminar agenda.
The i n i t i a l seminar s e s s i o n was an e x p l o r a t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l
i s s u e s f o r Michigan Education Seminars.

Such a l a r g e and v a r i e d

number of p o t e n t i a l i s s u e s e x i s t e d a f t e r t h i s f i r s t s e s s i o n t h a t t h e
r e s e a r c h e r needed help s o r t i n g and e s t a b l i s h i n g p r i o r i t i e s .
The s t e e r i n g committee a l s o pro vid ed a b u f f e r between t h e p a r ­
t i c i p a n t s and th e r e s e a r c h e r .

I t would have been im p o ss i b le t o have

scheduled ev ery p o t e n t i a l seminar s u b j e c t t h a t was r e q u e s t e d .

Some

s u b j e c t s were so c o n t r o v e r s i a l and e x p l o s i v e t h a t t h e y would have
c r e a t e d s e v e r e trauma w i t h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community.
The s t e e r i n g committee provided a l o g i c a l means o f approving and
c e r t i f y i n g c o n t e n t o f t h e seminar s e s s i o n s .

A committee comprised

o f some o f t h e s t a t e - l e v e l p o l i c y maker p a r t i c i p a n t s was charged
with s a n c t i o n i n g , i f not d e v e l o p in g , t h e program.

218
The most i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c u s s i o n s on major e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
i s s u e s o f t e n occu r re d w i t h i n th e s t e e r i n g committee m e e tin g s.
s t e e r i n g committee meetings were m in i - s e m i n a r s .

The

The s t e e r i n g commit­

t e e was composed o f f o u r t e e n i n d i v i d u a l s by t h e end o f t h i s r e s e a r c h .
Many o f t h e members o f t h e s t e e r i n g committee were s i g n i f i c a n t l e a d ­
e r s in t h e i r segment o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community.
The f i r s t s e s s i o n o f t h e s t e e r i n g committee was held two weeks
b e f o re t h e i n i t i a l seminar s e s s i o n .* Before t h e n , each i n d i v i d u a l
member o f th e s t e e r i n g committee had been i n t e rv ie w e d in an i n f o r ­
mal s e t t i n g .

They were asked t o meet t o d i s c u s s t h e p o t e n t i a l

com position o f such a seminar s e r i e s .

They pr ovided evidence

t h a t would l a t e r become a p a r t o f t h e d a ta used in t h e r e p u t a ­
t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f th e s t a t e ' s e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community.
During t h i s i n i t i a l s e s s i o n o f th e s t e e r i n g committee, t h e r e s e a r c h e r
reviewed h i s c o n t r a c t with t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Edu cational Le ad ersh ip
and i d e n t i f i e d h i s perso nal o b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e Michigan Education
Seminars program.

I t was a l s o a t t h e o r i g i n a l semin ar s t e e r i n g

committee meeting t h a t t h e q u e s ti o n o f whether t h e seminars should
be used t o develop s p e c i f i c p o l i c y recommendations was f i r s t d i s ­
c u s se d .

Unanimous agreement was reached on t h i s p o i n t —t h e s t e e r i n g

*The o r i g i n a l s t e e r i n g committee o f t h e Michigan Education
Seminars was: J e f f r e y Graham, Deputy D i r e c t o r o f t h e Michigan D epart­
ment o f Commerce; E l i z a b e t h Kummer, L e g i s l a t i v e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t and
Education D i r e c t o r f o r t h e Michigan League o f Women V o t e r s ; Eugene B.
Farnum, D i r e c t o r o f t h e Senate F i s c a l Agency; Roger B. T i l l e s ,
M a j o r i t y Exe cu tiv e S e c r e t a r y , Michigan House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , and
S t a t e Chairman o f NOLPE (N at ional O r g a n iz a ti o n f o r Legal Problems in
E ducation); P a t r i c i a Widmayer, L e g i s l a t i v e and School Law D i r e c t o r f o r
t h e Michigan Department o f Education; and Gary S u l l e n g e r , F i s c a l
A n a l y s t , E duc atio n, Sen ate F i s c a l Agency. This a ppears as Ta ble A4
i n Appendix A.

219

committee concu rre d with th e r e s e a r c h e r t h a t co n s e n su s -s e e k in g and
dec ision-making beh av ior would not be an a p p r o p r i a t e o b j e c t i v e o f th e
sessions.
Several o f t h e s t e e r i n g committee members were aware o f t h e
h i s t o r y o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

Sponsoring two seminars

on compensatory e d u c a t i o n , i t had been t h e goal o f th e e a r l i e r Michi­
gan Education Seminars t o recommend changes in th e b a s i c a c t which
could be implemented by th e l e g i s l a t u r e .

As th e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r

i n t e r v i e w s r e v e a l , a t l e a s t one o f th e major f o r c e s in t h e e a r l i e r
Michigan Education Seminars saw t h i s co n s en su s -s eek in g and p o l i c y recommendation a s p e c t as t h e cause o f i t s q u i e t demise.
I t was a l s o p o in te d o u t during t h i s f i r s t meeting t h a t t h e
r e s e a r c h e r in te n d e d to b u i l d a s tr o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e Educa­
t i o n Commission o f t h e S t a t e s (Michigan C o u n c il) .

There was s u p p o rt

f o r t h i s recommendation, and t h e i n i t i a l approach t o o f f e r S en at or
Bursley c o - s p o n s o r s h ip o f t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n was s u p p o rte d .
The s t e e r i n g committee d i s c u s s e d a v a r i e t y o f i s s u e s t h a t
could be used as p o t e n t i a l items f o r t h e Michigan Education Seminars
agendas and agr eed t o t h e d a t e and p l a c e o f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y , o r con­
vening, s e s s i o n .

The seminar program was o f f i c i a l l y launched.*

*By June 1978, t h e s t e e r i n g committee o f t h e Michigan Educa­
t i o n Seminars had been expanded from t h e e a r l i e r l i s t t o i n c l u d e
B u r s le y ; William Bridgeland and Edward Duane, s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s from
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y and e a r l y p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h i s r e s e a r c h ;
David Ruhala, Deputy Executive D i r e c t o r ( l e g i s l a t i v e d i r e c t o r ) o f t h e
Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School Boards; William K ieth, Vice-Chairman
o f t h e House Committee on Educ ation; Doug Smith, Education Advisor t o
Governor Mil l i k e n ; and William Sederburg, then s e n a t e s t a f f member and
now s t a t e s e n a t o r .
Subsequent a d d i t i o n s included David Haynes, A d m i n i s t r a t i v e
A s s i s t a n t to t h e Chairman o f t h e Senate Subcommittee on A p p r o p r ia t io n

220
Perhaps no f u n c tio n o f t h e s t e e r i n g committee, as i t developed,
was more im po rt an t than th e check t h a t i t pro vided t h a t no o v e r ly
e x p l o s i v e i s s u e got placed on t h e formal seminar agenda.
The f oll ow ing ac count i s inclu de d as a means o f dem onst rat ing
t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s t e e r i n g committee in th e o p e r a t i o n o f th e
Michigan Education Seminars.
In October 1977, a recommendation was made by t h e I n s t i t u t e
f o r Educational Le adership f o r t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e a s s o c i a t e s (seminar
c o o r d i n a t o r s ) t o conduct a s e s s i o n w i t h i n t h e i r s t a t e on th e s u b j e c t
o f how well t h e i r s t a t e s p e c i a l education laws f i t t h e req uirem en ts
o f P.L. 94-142, th e newly en acted f e d e r a l Education o f All Handicapped
Act.
In th e second s t e e r i n g committee s e s s i o n , which was held in t h e
s t a t e c a p i t o l b u i l d i n g in October 1977, t h e seminar c o o r d i n a t o r
recommended t h a t such a s e s s i o n be th e s u b j e c t o f a seminar f o r th e
Michigan Education Seminars program.

He p r e s e n t e d t o t h e s t e e r i n g

committee a proposed agenda f o r such a s e s s i o n .

The agenda would have

inclu ded a r e p o r t by th e s p e c i a l e d u c a tio n d i r e c t o r o f t h e Michigan
Department o f E d uc ation , an opinio n by t h e l e g a l ad vo ca te f o r th e
Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f Retarded C i t i z e n s , a panel d i s c u s s i o n with
v ar io u s l e g i s l a t i v e and e x e c u t i v e s t a f f members, and a p o s s i b l e p r e ­
s e n t a t i o n by a f e d e r a l o f f i c i a l c o n v e r sa n t in t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f 94-142.
f o r E ducation, Kerry Kammer; Kathleen S t r a u s s , Special A s s i s t a n t t o
th e Senate Education Committee and i t s chairman, Jack Faxon; Thomas
B e r n t h a l , then A s s i s t a n t t o Bursley and now A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r of
t h e Michigan Community College A s s o c i a t i o n ; and Robert Muth, Execu­
t i v e D i r e c t o r o f th e Middle C i t i e s Education A s s o c i a t i o n .

221
I t was l e a r n e d in t h i s s e s s i o n t h a t a s p e c i a l s tudy com­
m i t t e e had been formed by th e department t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s very
question.

F u r t h e r , and perhaps more im p o r t a n t , i t was l e a r n e d t h a t

a d i s c u s s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e pre se nce o f a f e d e r a l o f f i c i a l ,
o f th e implementation o f t h i s f e d e r a l a c t could j e o p a r d i z e every
f e d e r a l d o l l a r coming i n t o Michigan.
A telegram had been s e n t only a few days e a r l i e r t o th e Senate
M a jo r it y Leader from th e National Conference o f S t a t e L e g i s l a t u r e s
(NCSL).

The te le gram warned about p u b li c e v a l u a t i o n o f th e s t a t e ' s

programs f o r the handicapped.

The telegr am s p e c i f i e d t h a t a ju d g ­

ment o f noncompliance by t h e f e d e r a l government, r e g a r d l e s s o f th e
cir cu m st ances o r s e v e r i t y , could r e s u l t in a complete w ith h o ld in g of
a l l f e d e r a l d o l l a r s to th e s t a t e u n t i l t h e noncompliance was e i t h e r
dispro ven or r e s o l v e d .
A memo was s e n t t o th e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Leader­
s h i p , wit h a copy o f the NCSL te le g r a m , and i t was recommended t h a t
IEL r e v i s e i t s r e q u e s t s f o r such meetings in t h e s t a t e s .

Such meet­

ings could r e s u l t in th e p r o d u c t io n o f s e l f - i n c r i m i n a t i n g e v id e n c e —
e viden ce produced a t t h e r e q u e s t o f IEL—which could s e v e r e l y d i s ­
r u p t s t a t e and f e d e r a l r e l a t i o n s .
The s t e e r i n g committee o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars
provided guidan ce , p o l i t i c a l i n s u l a t i o n , c r e d i b i l i t y and s t a t u s ,
i d e a s , and a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r s e r v i c e s .

The s t e e r i n g committee

a l s o w i l l pro vide lo ng -ter m s t a b i l i t y t o t h e seminar s e r i e s .

222
R e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e Education Commission
of the States
One o f th e f i r s t r e s e a r c h goals was t o use t h e Michigan
Council o f t h e Education Coirmission o f t h e S t a t e s (ECS) as a n o t h e r
v e h i c l e f o r f u l f i l l i n g many n e c e s s a r y f u n c t i o n s .
The Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s i s h ead q u a r te re d
in Denver, Colorado.

In every s t a t e c a p i t a l , an ECS c h a p t e r o f

s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y l e a d e r s , ap pointed through a v a r i e t y o f
s t a t e - d e t e r m i n e d mechanisms, meets p e r i o d i c a l l y to d i s c u s s concerns
about t h e c o n d i t i o n o f e d u catio n in t h e s t a t e and in t h e n a t i o n .
Another i m p o rta n t annual i s s u e o f th e s t a t e ECS c h a p t e r i s t o
s e l e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o a t t e n d t h e n a t i o n a l co n v e n ti o n .

ECS i s

p a r t n a t i o n a l t e s t i n g company, p a r t n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h
o r g a n i z a t i o n , and p a r t e d u c a t i o n a l - s o c i a l group.

Its v is ib ility

as a major f o r c e in Michigan e d u c a tio n a l p o l i t i c s has been l e s s
than high.
Why did t h e r e s e a r c h e r want to e s t a b l i s h a permanent working
r e l a t i o n s h i p with ECS?

What did he have to o f f e r ECS?

F i r s t , th e r e s e a r c h e r , along w ith h i s IEL c o l l e a g u e s , was
asked t o e s t a b l i s h a r e l a t i o n s h i p with ECS by th e D i r e c t o r o f the
I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Le ad ersh ip in Washington, D.C., Sam H a lp e r i n .
At th e f i r s t n a t i o n a l meeting o f s t a t e a s s o c i a t e s - - d i r e c t o r s o f s t a t e
e d u c a t i o n a l s e m i n a r s - - t h a t th e r e s e a r c h e r a t t e n d e d , Halper in asked a l l

223

a s s o c i a t e s t o g e t t o g e t h e r w ith t h e s t a t e ECS c h a p t e r s .

No e x p l a n a ­

t i o n was r e q u e s t e d .
Second, t h e Michigan Education Seminars had no l e g a l s ta n d in g
t o hold a meeting in Michigan.

One o f t h e prominent r e a so n s f o r

d i s c o u r a g in g consensus seeking was because t h e r e s e a r c h e r f e l t t h a t
th e seminars had no l e g a l o r s t a t u t o r y a u t h o r i t y t o i n c l u d e o f f i c i a l s
of t h e government in dec is ion-m ak ing s e s s i o n s .
ECS, Michigan c h a p t e r , i s i d e n t i f i e d in t h e s t a t u t e , and
a l th ough i t , t o o , has no de cisio n-m aking a u t h o r i t y i t i s something o f
a l egal e n t i t y .

On th e o t h e r hand, th e Michigan Education Seminars

and i t s p a r e n t IEL had v i r t u a l l y no l e g a l s ta n d i n g in t h e s t a t e .
The ECS spokesman in Michigan was, a t t h e time o f t h e i n i t i a ­
t i o n o f th e seminar s e r i e s , S en at or G i l b e r t B urs le y.

Whatever p r e s ­

t i g e or r e s p e c t t h e r e s e a r c h e r might have had in Michigan e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i t i c s a t th e time o f t h e i n i t i a l s e s s i o n o f th e s e m i n a r s , Bur sley
had more.

He has served on n a t i o n a l commissions o f ECS and has

gained n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n f o r Michigan f o r h i s f o r w a r d - th i n k i n g
p o s i t i o n s on im port ant e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e i n v o l v ­
ing school f in a n c e and e d u c a t i o n a l programs f o r m igra nts and t h e d i s ­
advantaged.
Bursley had something e l s e t o o f f e r t h e Michigan Education
Seminars by h i s l e a d e r s h i p o f ECS--Republican c r e d e n t i a l s a t t h e t o p .
The r e s e a r c h e r i s a Democrat, and i t was im p o r t a n t t h a t t h e Michigan
Education Seminars not be encumbered w ith p a r t i s a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
Bursley was i d e a l .

224
The ECS, on t h e o t h e r hand, was m otivated by a need t o do
something t o j u s t i f y i t s e x i s t e n c e in Michigan.
r a t h e r casua l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

Again, t h i s i s a

However, s e v e r a l o f t h e p o s t - f i r s t -

y e a r i n t e r v i e w e e s noted t h a t b e f o r e t h e Michigan Education Seminars,
t h e ECS in Michigan had had no s u b s t a n t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
no money e i t h e r .

They had

With Bursley no lo n g e r chairman o f an e d u c a ti o n

committee with a bu dget , he l i k e l y had nowhere t o draw expense money
t o pay f o r th e lunch or t h e d i n n e r meetings o f t h e EDS.

The Michigan

Education Seminars had a budget and a reason t o meet with t h e l e a d e r ­
s hip o f Michigan ECS, so a marri age t h a t may have been based p a r t i a l l y
upon money was made.
Meetings o f t h e ECS and th e s t e e r i n g committee, o r a co r e o f
the s t e e r i n g committee, o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars were o c c a ­
s i o n a l l y held in tandem.

Several members o f th e Michigan Education

Seminars (and i t s s t e e r i n g committee) were a l s o members o f t h e ECS.
There i s c u r r e n t l y an i n t e r l o c k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between boar ds o f
both o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
Much o f th e working r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t developed between ECS
and t h e Michigan Education Seminars c e n t e r e d on t h e personal r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p between t h e r e s e a r c h e r , B u r s le y , h i s a i d e , Tom B e r n t h a l , and
t h e l a t e Liz Kummer, who s a t as m em be r-s ec re tary o f ECS in Michigan.
At t h a t , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p was sometimes s t r a i n e d .
Such was t h e cas e when, in November 1977, i t was l e a r n e d
t h a t t h e ECS o f Michigan, ov er t h e s i g n a t u r e o f chairman B u r s le y ,
had s e n t a formal ECS q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o t h e e n t i r e p a r t i c i p a n t
m ailing l i s t o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e

225

was a r e f i n e d form o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t h a t had been c i r c u l a t e d a t
th e September 14 seminar s e s s i o n .

I t asked p o t e n t i a l res p o n d e n ts ,

f o r t h e second tim e , t o r a n k - o r d e r e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s in
Michigan by p e r c e iv e d importance.

The a c t i o n was i r r i t a t i n g f o r s e v ­

eral reasons.
F i r s t , t h e r e s e a r c h e r le a r n e d about th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e when his
d o c to r a l committee chairman, a p a r t i c i p a n t in th e seminar s e s s i o n s ,
showed i t t o him.

He had not been s e n t a copy.

Second, he d i d n ' t

want t h e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s to begin t o f e e l l i k e guinea p i g s —a
p o i n t made very e m p h a t i c a l l y t o th e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational
Leadership when i t attem pte d a s i m i l a r scheme.
Again viewing t h e Michigan Education Seminars as an open s y s ­
tem w i t h i n a l a r g e r open system, i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p , which has e a r l i e r
been d e s c r i b e d as c o - e q u a l , i s i n t e r e s t i n g .

ECS had energy t o import

to t h e Michigan Education Seminars in t h e form o f p r e s t i g e , c o u n t e r ­
b a la n c in g p a r t i s a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and t h e l i k e .

The Michigan Educa­

t i o n Seminars had money and a program with s t a f f .

ECS could t a k e i t s

meaning from th e Michigan Education Seminars and r e t u r n t h e s t a t u s o f
i t s n a t i o n a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in t r a d e .
One t h i n g ECS had t o o f f e r t h e Michigan Education Seminars,
however, was n o t r e a l i z e d u n t i l l a t e .

Ways t o " i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e "

t h e Michigan Education Seminars were s oug ht.

The program could not

simply be tu rn e d over t o ECS and be expec ted t o s u r v i v e .

But what

could be done in t h e f u t u r e would be t o depend on ECS t o pro v id e th e
look o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n , t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f l e a d e r s h i p on t h e

226
s t e e r i n g committee, and t h e r e g u l a r i t y o f programming n e c e s s a r y to
in c r e a s e th e l i k e l i h o o d o f th e s u r v i v a l o f t h e sem inar s.
Relationship to the I n s t i t u t e for
Educ ational Le adership
The tendency might be t o look upon t h e Michigan Education
Seminars as a r e l a t i v e l y f r e e - s t a n d i n g system w i th in Michigan.

In

many cas es s t a t e seminars might be more a c c u r a t e l y viewed simply as
subsystems o f t h e l a r g e r IEL, f o r alth ou gh evid en ce i s p r e s e n t e d
in t h i s s e c t i o n t h a t IEL a tte m p ts to e x e r t i n f l u e n c e upon i t s
s t a t e programs, i t w i l l a l s o be demonstrated t h a t such i n f l u e n c e can
be s a f e l y ign ore d.
To review, IEL i s an umbrella o r g a n i z a t i o n a f f i l i a t e d with
George Washington U n i v e r s i t y in Washington, D.C.

I t s programs range

from t h e seminar s e r i e s in over t h i r t y s t a t e c a p i t a l s t o a National
P ub lic Radio program c a l l e d "Options in Educ atio n."
I t s a s s o c i a t e d i r e c t o r f o r s t a t e programs i s one o f t h e most
h ig h ly r e s p e c t e d s t a t e agency e d u c a ti o n a l r e s e a r c h e x p e r t s in th e
United S t a t e s .

C. P h i l i p Kearney d e s ig n e d , o r a t l e a s t s i g n i f i ­

c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e d , t h e Michigan a c c o u n t a b i l i t y model and i t s r e l a t e d
readin g and mathematics s t a t e w i d e asse ssm ent program.

He i s con­

s i d e r e d to have been one o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e s on t h e p r o f e s ­
s io n a l development o f John W. P o r t e r , s t a t e school c h i e f dur in g most
o f t h i s s tu d y .

At t h e same t im e , a m a j o r i t y o f t h e d i v e r s e elements

o f th e p u b l i c p o l i c y proc es s in Michigan have a g r e a t fondness f o r

227

Kearney.

P r e s e n t l y he i s one o f s e v e r a l s t r o n g c a n d i d a t e s t o f i l l

the vacancy o f th e s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t p o s i t i o n .
Kearney i s a per so na l f r i e n d o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r .

His d e s i r e s

to dem on st rat e t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r an e f f e c t i v e e d u c a t i o n a l seminar
s e r i e s m otiv ated him t o e n t r u s t t h i s program to t h e r e s e a r c h e r as
one o f h i s f i r s t o f f i c i a l a c t s a s IEL a s s o c i a t e d i r e c t o r .
be an o v e r s t a t e m e n t , and somewhat f i g u r a t i v e .

This might

However, t h e impor­

tan ce of making c e r t a i n t h a t t h e Michigan Education Seminars was
among t h e most o u t s t a n d i n g in t h e n a t i o n was l a r g e l y m otiv ated by
a d e s i r e t o f u l f i l l a personal as well as p r o f e s s i o n a l commitment
t o Kearney.
R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r th e c o o r d i n a t o r o f t h e Michigan Education
Seminars were l o o s e l y d e f i n e d in a l e t t e r from Kearney t o t h e
r e s e a r c h e r , dat ed June 21, 1977:
1.

Plan and implement t h e MES, condu cting a minimum o f f i v e ,
and p r e f e r a b l y more, seminar a c t i v i t i e s durin g t h e MES y e a r ,
i . e . , J u l y 1, 1977, through June 30, 1978.

2.

Provide our o f f i c e , t h e a s s o c i a t e s program, with:
(a) advance in f o r m a ti o n about coming MES a c t i v i t i e s ,
(b) b r i e f summary-evaluations o f each MES a c t i v i t y ,
(c) a p p r o p r i a t e f i n a n c i a l r e p o r t i n g .

3.

Maintain c o n t i n u i n g c o n t a c t with TAP and IEL, i n c l u d i n g p a r ­
t i c i p a t i o n in t h e semi-annual c o n f e re n c e s o f IEL A s s o c i a t e s .

4.

Submit an annual r e p o r t a t th e end o f t h e MES y e a r t o i n c l u d e :
(a) an a n a l y s i s of t h e Michigan e d u c a tio n p o l i t i c a l s c e n e ,
i d e n t i f y i n g major i s s u e s and p r o j e c t i n g MES a c t i v i t i e s in
terms o f t h e s e i s s u e s ;
(b) a summary o f t h e y e a r ' s a c t i v i t y ; and
(c) an a p p r a i s a l o f MES in terms o f i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s and how
i t might improve i t s programs.

228

The c r i t e r i a used by IEL t o s e l e c t s t a t e a s s o c i a t e s were o u t ­
l i n e d in a l e t t e r from IEL D i r e c t o r Sam Halper in t o Laura B ornholt,
V i c e - P r e s i d e n t f o r Education o f t h e L i l l y Endowment, I n d i a n a p o l i s ,
I n d ia n a , in 1978:
How i s t h e a s s o c i a t e chosen? The a s s o c i a t e i s t h e key person
in t h e program. The appointments o f a s s o c i a t e s a r e made on
an annual b a s i s and r e p r e s e n t t h e most im p o rtan t s e t o f d e c i ­
s io n s made by TAP a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l . The pr og ram 's s u c ­
c e s s in any given s t a t e i s l a r g e l y dependent upon t h e a s s o ­
c i a t e —on h i s o r her c h a r a c t e r , r e p u t a t i o n , e n ergy, p o l i t i c a l
a c c e p t a b i l i t y and general a b i l i t y t o g e t p o l i c y makers t o
respond p o s i t i v e l y t o seminar i n v i t a t i o n s .
During t h e co u r se o f t h i s s tu d y , t h e d i r e c t involvement
IEL was l i m i t e d .
researcher.

with

Kearney was in r e g u l a r phone c o n t a c t wit h t h e

Several meetings o c c u r r e d , two in Washington, D.C., one

in Toronto, and one in Reno, Nevada, and Sacramento, C a l i f o r n i a , in
which t h e a s s o c i a t e s from th ro ugho ut t h e c o untr y were assembled to
p a r t i c i p a t e in t h r e e - d a y seminars t o d i s c u s s t h e i r s t a t e program.
IEL r e g u l a r l y i s s u e d memoranda in which p a r t i c u l a r l y s u c c e s s f u l semi­
na rs i n o t h e r s t a t e s could be promoted.
The I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Le ad ership provided s p e c i a l
funding f o r programs in p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t a r e a s and ap pealed t o t h e
a s s o c i a t e s to hold s e s s i o n s on t h e s e t o p i c s .

One such recommenda­

t i o n was e n t i t l e d "How Well Does t h e Michigan Mandatory S pec ial Edu­
c a t i o n Act (198, P.A. 1979), and I t s Ru les , Implement t h e Federal
Education o f All Handicapped Act?"

The e f f e c t o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r sug­

g e s t i o n was d i s c u s s e d in an e a r l i e r s e c t i o n o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .
However, i t i s im po rt an t t o no te t h a t IEL does encourage a s s o c i a t e s
to hold s p e c i f i c seminars on p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t s from time to time.

229

Over t h e co urse o f t h e y e a r and a h a l f o f t h i s s t u d y , Kearney
was a r e g u l a r p a r t i c i p a n t in t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

His

p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e s e sem inar s, however, was as an o u t s i d e o b s e r v e r .
He seemed i n c l i n e d t o r e f r a i n from a c t i v e involvement in t h e p o l i c y
discussions.

His pres en ce a t t h e v a r io u s s t a t e s e m i n a r s , however,

i s designed with a s p e c i f i c purpose in mind.

One purpose i s t o pro ­

vide IEL with th e d i r e c t c o n t a c t from t h e s t a t e e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y ­
making p r o c e ss e s a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y .
During th e co urse o f t h i s s tu d y , t h e r e s e a r c h e r met wit h IEL
a s s o c i a t e s from a c r o s s t h e United S t a t e s .

During t h e s e s e s s i o n s ,

a s s o c i a t e s d i s c u s s e d v a r io u s a s p e c t s o f programs o c c u r r i n g th ro u g h o u t
th e c o u n t r y .

At one o f t h e s e s e s s i o n s , t h e announcement was made

t h a t IEL would h i r e an i n d i v i d u a l from among t h e a s s o c i a t e s t o c o o r ­
d i n a t e a p r o j e c t des igned to provid e a panoramic view o f e d u c a tio n a l
p o l i c y making and major e d u c a ti o n a l i s s u e s a c r o s s t h e United S t a t e s .
The r e s e a r c h e r was a p poin te d t o a s t e e r i n g committee charged with
responding t o t h i s a c t i v i t y .

The c o n t r a c t e r was P r o f e s s o r E l l i s

Katz, D i r e c t o r o f t h e American I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e Study o f F e d e r a lism ,
Temple U n i v e r s i t y , P h i l a d e l p h i a .
Among t h e s u g g e s t io n s made by Katz in h i s s tu d y o u t l i n e was
t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e a s s o c i a t e s program seminars a c r o s s t h e
United S t a t e s be s e n t a "comprehensive" survey in s tr u m e n t t o d e t e r ­
mine major s t a t e p o l i c y i s s u e s .
At th e IEL semi-annual meeting in which t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e
was d i s c u s s e d , th e r e s e a r c h e r r a i s e d s tr o n g o b j e c t i o n s t o i t s d i s ­
tribution.

The o b j e c t i o n s r a i s e d were based upon t h e q u e s t i o n a b l e

230

s c i e n t i f i c v a l i d i t y o f t h e i n s tr u m e n t and t h e mea ning less r esp onses
i t would g e n e r a t e ; t h e f a c t t h a t in some s t a t e s q u e s t i o n n a i r e s had
a l r e a d y been d i s t r i b u t e d to seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s , t h e impression
t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e conveyed t h a t t h e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s were
becoming a p a r t o f some n a t i o n a l exper iment was a bad one; t h e com­
p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s t a t e seminars were extr e m e ly d i f f e r e n t and
because o f t h e v a r i e d samples, d ata would be r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i ­
c a n t ; and t h a t th e a s s o c i a t e s were t h e o r e t i c a l l y s e l e c t e d based
upon t h e i r v a s t knowledge o f s t a t e i s s u e s , and they were cap ab le o f
answering most o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s .
The r e s e a r c h e r ' s o b j e c t i o n s were n e a r l y t o t a l l y d i s r e g a r d e d .
When word was l e t o u t t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were t o be s e n t d e s p i t e
o b j e c t i o n s o f a t l e a s t one s t a t e a s s o c i a t e , t h e r e s e a r c h e r responded
w i th a twenty-page r espons e t o t h e survey q u e s t i o n s .

No q u e s t i o n ­

n a i r e s were s e n t t o Michigan.
The s u g g e s tio n has been made in c o n t r a c t l e t t e r s and o f f i c i a l
documents o f t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Le aders hip t h a t t h e s t a t e
e d u c a t io n seminars a r e f a i r l y f r e e to be run a c c o r d in g t o lo c a l s t a n ­
d a r d s.

However, s u b t l e p r e s s u r e s from IEL i n f l u e n c e , i f n o t c o n t r o l ,

th e o p e r a t i o n o f s t a t e seminars around t h e c o u n t r y .
Two examples have been g iv e n .

In t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , a

s p e c i a l e d u c a ti o n con f e re n c e was being proposed t h a t in t h e eyes o f
the s t e e r i n g committee o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars could have
been s e v e r e l y damaging t o t h e s t a t e ' s economy as well as t o t h e c r e d i ­
b i l i t y o f t h e s t a t e seminar s e r i e s .

231

The second example showed th e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational
Le adership c o n s e n t in g t o r e f r a i n from d i r e c t surveys o f s t a t e
seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s in Michigan only a f t e r s tr e n u o u s o b j e c t i o n s
o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r were r a i s e d .

The r e s e a r c h e r was engaged in

what he b e l i e v e d to be th e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f
IEL.
The Michigan Education Seminars i s a r e l a t i v e l y independent
and r e l a t i v e l y f r e e - s t a n d i n g program.

I t s d e s c r i p t i o n as a subsy s­

tem i s more a c c u r a t e in terms o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e l a r g e r
system o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s i n Michigan than i t is t o i t s r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p wit h IEL.
The Per ce ived Purpose o f t h e Seminars
The Michigan Education Seminars has been d e s c r i b e d by
th e r e s e a r c h e r a s a program in which t o p - l e v e l s t a t e e d u c a tio n
p o l i c y makers can be convened f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f a c t u a l o r p o t e n ­
t i a l e d u c a tio n p o l i c y q u e s t i o n s f a c i n g t h e s t a t e e d u c a t io n p o l i c y
process.

One goal o f the r e s e a r c h e r was t o c r e a t e an environment

in which t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y makers could engage in an open exchange
o f i n f o r m a t i o n , a t t i t u d e s , and i d e a s on p o t e n t i a l l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l
issues.
This r e s e a r c h was a id ed by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e environment in
which i t was conducted was t h e planned p r o duct o f a r e s e a r c h and
implementation e f f o r t c o o r d i n a t e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r h i m s e l f .

Even

232
under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o p i n p o i n t a d e f i n i t i v e
s ta te m e n t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l purpose t h a t would be m u tually a c c e p t a b l e
t o a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e stu dy.

Purpose, l i k e p o l i c y , i s b e s t

imputed by t h o s e who use and o t h e r w is e a r e a f f e c t e d by i t .
The r e s e a r c h e r sought t o e s t a b l i s h j u s t what th e purpose o f
th e Michigan Education Seminars was, dur in g th e co urse o f t h e r e s e a r c h ,
by as kin g t h o s e most a f f e c t e d by i t to e x p l a i n i t .

To t h a t end, a

q u e s t i o n was developed f o r t h e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r v i e w t h a t would
pose th e q u e s t i o n d i r e c t l y :

"Des cribe t h e major purpose o f th e

Michigan Education Seminar."

The r e a c t i o n s o f th e n i n e t e e n i n t e r v i e w e e s ,

a l th ough d i s t i n c t in some p a r t i c u l a r way, were a t t h e same time almost
e e rily sim ilar.
In t h e f i r s t p l a c e , i t was c l e a r from t h e i n t e r v i e w s t h a t th e
concept o f t h e n e u t r a l forum had p e n e t r a t e d t h e voca bular y o f many o f
the p a r tic ip a n t policy a c to rs.

Besides r e f e r e n c e t o t h e " n e u t r a l i t y "

o f t h e forum, a p a r a l l e l o b s e r v a t i o n was f r e q u e n t l y re cord ed in th e
in t e r v i e w s e s s i o n s .

One r e p e a te d s ta te m e n t o f purpose f o r t h e Michi­

gan Education Seminars was t o "bri ng t o g e t h e r " d i v e r s e elements o f
th e e d u c a tio n a l policy-making p r o c e ss .
In t h e s ix seminars t h a t were conducted du rin g t h e term of
t h i s r e s e a r c h , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e e x e c u t i v e bran ch , t h e l e g i s l a t u r e ,
ed u c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t g r ou ps, and o t h e r i n t e r e s t groups were brought
t o g e t h e r t o d i s c u s s a broad a r r a y o f a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l p u b l i c p o l i c y
issues.

But t h e concept o r n otion o f " b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r " seemed to

r e f l e c t more than t h e simply p h ys ic a l pr ese nce o f o t h e r w i s e a d v e r ­
s a r i e s in t h e same room.

Many p a r t i c i p a n t s noted t h a t t h e seminar

233

environment was h o s p i t a b l e .

A c e n t r a l element in the d e f i n i t i o n

o f t h e s e r i e s ' pu rpose , t h e r e f o r e , r e l a t e d t o t h e environmental
conditions i t created.

A l a r g e number o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s who

were in te rv ie w e d noted t h e "unique ne ss " o f th e environment produced
by th e Michigan Education Seminars.
" N e u t r a l i t y " and " h o s p i t a l i t y " were a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e semi­
n a r s e s s i o n s by t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s .

The c a p a c i t y o f t h e s e r i e s to

draw t o g e t h e r a " d i v e r s i t y " o f e d u c a tio n i n t e r e s t s was a l s o noted
by s e v e r a l p a r t i c i p a n t s as an element o f "purpose" o f th e s e r i e s .
One l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f person s t r e s s e d t h a t " t h e major pur­
pose [ o f t h e s em in ar s] i s t o b r i n g a d i v e r s e group o f e d u c a t io n a l
p o l i c y makers t o g e t h e r on a s i n g l e e d u c a t i o n a l problem o r a fa m il y
o f problems."

Eugene Farnum, D i r e c t o r o f the Senate F i s c a l Agency,

went beyond s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i t was simply a d i v e r s e community o f top
e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y makers t h a t d e f i n e d t h e purpose o f th e Michigan
Education Seminars.

He sugge sted t h a t t h e major purpose i s " t h e

c r o s s - f e r t i l i z a t i o n o f id e a s among d i v e r s e p o l i c y ty p e s w i t h i n th e
state.

We managed t o b r in g t o g e t h e r t h e i n t e r e s t groups in an atmos­

phere t h a t was n e u t r a l .

I t was a n e u t r a l forum."

Then-deputy d i r e c t o r o f th e Michigan School Boards A s s o c i a t i o n ,
David Ruhala, d e s c r i b e d t h e n e u t r a l i t y of th e s e r i e s as a " b a r r i e r f r e e environment in which l e a d e r s can d i s s o c i a t e themselves from
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n s and begin t o communicate with one a n o t h e r .
They can t a l k abou t i s s u e s w it h o u t f e e l i n g t h a t th e y a r e on t h e s p o t . "
Perhaps t h e n e a r l y u n i v e r s a l p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e p r o v i s i o n o f a
n e u t r a l environment being an element o f t h e s e m in a r s ' purpose was

234

r e l a t e d t o a f e e l i n g t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s were not being
i n j e c t e d i n t o p o l i c y d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h i n t h e seminar s e s s i o n s .

In

c o n t r a d i c t i n g t h i s p e r c e p t i o n , no ev idence e x i s t s o f a p a r t i c i p a n t
( in a seminar s e s s i o n ) e x p r e s s i n g a p o s i t i o n o r an a t t i t u d e t h a t
was c o n t r a r y t o what would be t h e exp ec ted p o s i t i o n o f h i s / h e r
association.
Another element o f "purpose" a t t r i b u t e d t o th e seminar s e s ­
s io n s by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s du rin g the formal i n t e r v i e w s was " info rma­
tional."

One i n te r v ie w e e sugges te d t h a t i t was not th e e d u c a t i o n a l

i s s u e s t h a t were brought b e f o r e t h e Michigan Education Seminars t h a t
were o f g r e a t e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e in terms o f th e forum's c a p a b i l i t i e s
f o r exchanging i n f o r m a t io n .

R a th e r , " t h e Michigan Education Seminars

i s an e f f o r t t o a p p r i s e e d u catio n d e c i s i o n makers or l e a d e r s o f th e
b r oader i s s u e s a f f e c t i n g e d u c a t i o n . "
In t h e o r i g i n a l memorandum d e s c r i b e d by th e r e s e a r c h e r a t
t h e i n i t i a l s e s s i o n o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars, he s a i d , "I
see t h e seminar s e r i e s as an o p p o r tu n i t y t o pr ovide h i g h - l e v e l
exposure t o i s s u e s t h a t range beyond t r a d i t i o n a l boun daries o f t h e
school community, but t h a t perhaps t r e a t e d u c a t io n as one component,
a l b e i t most im p o r ta n t , o f b r oader s o c i a l programs."

This o b j e c t i v e

was a ddress ed in a t l e a s t t h r e e o f t h e seminars t h a t were conducted
du rin g t h e e i g h t e e n months o f t h i s formal s tu d y .

Perhaps t h e b o l d e s t

example o f t h i s was th e seminar s e s s i o n t h a t a d d r e s s e d th e p r o s p e c t s
f o r a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l convention and i t s p o t e n t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e

235

e d u c a t io n a l community o f t h e s t a t e .

A second example o f t h i s would

be t h e seminar t h a t focused on t h e s u b j e c t o f CETA-YEDPA f e d e ra l
funding f o r j o b t r a i n i n g and o p p o r t u n i t y - r e l a t e d programs.
A m in o r i t y o f the in te r v ie w e e s suggested t h a t an element o f
th e purpose of th e Michigan Education Seminars was t o bring t o g e t h e r
th o s e i n d i v i d u a l s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f p u b l i c educa­
t i o n a l p o l i c y w i th t hose upon whom p u b l i c p o l i c y would u l t i m a t e l y
impact.
Among t h e most f r e q u e n t l y mentioned elements o f "purpose"
a t t r i b u t e d to t h e seminar s e s s i o n s by the p a r t i c i p a n t in t e r v i e w e e s
were:

th e p r o v is i o n o f a " n e u t r a l " and " h o s p i t a b l e " forum; th e

a b i l i t y o f th e s e r i e s to a t t r a c t a " d i v e r s i t y " o f e d u catio n i n t e r ­
e s t s ; and t h e a b i l i t y of the s e r i e s to pro vid e in fo r m a ti o n t o
p o l i c y l e a d e r s - - i n f o r m a t i o n reg ard in g e d u c a ti o n a l i s s u e s and i n f o r ­
mation r e g a r d in g broad er s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s t h a t a f f e c t
education.
The Question of Consensus
As has been sugg es ted e a r l i e r , t h e only i s s u e in th e c u r r e n t
h i s t o r y o f th e seminar s e r i e s f o r which a consensus a c t i o n was taken
was t h a t consensus would never be sought again in th e Michigan Edu­
c a t i o n Seminars.

Several o f the i n t e r v i e w respon ses provided impor­

t a n t i n s i g h t s i n t o th e e f f e c t o f th e d e c i s i o n by th e r e s e a r c h e r not
to al low t h e seminar s e r i e s t o be used t o g e n e r a t e consensus o p i n ­
ions.

236

For a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r prev en ted t h e semi­
nars from being used as a co n s e n su s -s e e k in g o r g a n i z a t i o n .
1.

The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h a s s l e would be i n c r e d i b l e .

would keep th e r e c o r d s ?
v otes ?

Who

What pro cess would be used t o t a k e th e

Would t h e Middle C i t i e s Education A s s o c i a t i o n , f o r example,

have t h e same number o f votes as t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School
Boards?

Would th e MEA with i t s f i v e r e s i d e n t p a r t i c i p a n t s have f i v e

votes w h ile t h e MFT with i t s sometimes p a r t i c i p a t i o n have one vote?
When t h e consensus a c t i o n was r e p o r t e d , would each group p a r t i c i ­
p a t i n g be r e q u i r e d t o sign o f f , and would t h e s i g n - o f f s be
recorded?
2.

How i s d i s s e n t handled in a consensus s i t u a t i o n ?

one have to g e t consensus on what consensus means?

Would

How does one

determine what r u l e s f o r consensus t o use t o g e t consensus on
what consensus means?

Does "consensus" s u g g e s t "unanimity" o r

" m a jo rit y ? "
3.

Would t h e q u e s t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e Michigan Edu­

c a t i o n Seminars r e q u i r e d e f i n i t i o n in t h e s t a t u t e s ?

Under whose

a u t h o r i t y would th e p a r t i c i p a n t s be s e l e c t e d ?
4.

How does an o f f i c i a l p o l i c y maker e x p r e s s h i s consensus

op inion ( h i s vote) w i th o u t p rem ature ly committing h i m / h e r s e l f to
what may become a p o l i t i c a l l y u n ten ab le i s s u e ?
5.

How would one p r o t e c t th e Michigan Education Seminars from

becoming what so many a d v i s o r y and ad hoc committees seem t o have
become--a dumping ground f o r c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s t h a t p o l i c y makers

237

do not want t o d ecid e (as t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n and th e law r e q u i r e them
to do)?
6.

What meaning would a consensus d e c i s i o n have to t h e

average l e g i s l a t o r , f o r example?

Would h e / s h e c a r e t h a t some s e l f -

a n nointed ad v is o r y group had given him /her a consensus d e c i s io n ?
Would h e /s h e r e s e n t having been p r ecluded from p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e
compromise t h a t le d t o consensus?
7.

Does t h e concept of consensus d e c i s i o n making imply t h a t

a l l groups a r e always p a r t i a l l y c o r r e c t ? —o r t h a t t h e i r c o r r e c t n e s s
on an i s s u e can o r should be determined by th e p o l i t i c a l manipula­
t i o n s o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e a b l e t o make in a p o l i t i c a l consensus-making
procedure?
8.

What impact do t h e p r o s p e c t s o f coming t o a cons ensus-

seek in g s t a g e in a d eb ate have f o r l i m i t i n g f r e e d i s c u s s i o n ?

Would

a p o l i c y a c t o r under such c ir c u m st a n c e s be p e r m itt e d th e luxu ry o f
showing t h e s u b s t a n c e o f h is hand, o r would he be r e q u i r e d t o pl ay
h i s cards c l o s e t o h i s v e s t?
At t h e i n i t i a l convening s e s s i o n o f t h e Michigan Education
Seminars, September 14, 1977, th e a t t i t u d e on t h i s q u e s t i o n was q u i t e
clear.

Under no circum stance could t h e d i v e r s e group o f people who

were being asked to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e s e forums be expected to
co n t in u e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i f the y were c o n s t a n t l y engaged in a s t r u g g l e
t o a c q u i r e s u f f i c i e n t s u p p o rt to pe rm it t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r p o l i c y p o s i ­
t i o n t o be r e p r e s e n t e d as a consensus p o s i t i o n .
This p o i n t was made very c l e a r by th e t h e n - P u b l i c A f f a i r s
D i r e c t o r o f t h e Michigan C a t h o l i c Conference, Ed F a r h a t , who observed

238

t h a t on q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g government a i d t o p r i v a t e e d u c a tio n
t h e r e could be no p o s s i b l e ci rcu m st an ce w i t h i n a group c o n s t i t u t e d
along th e l i n e s o f th e Michigan Education Seminars under which t h e
p o s i t i o n o f h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n toward t h e s u b j e c t could p r e v a i l in
a public vote.
Although th e f e e l i n g s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s on th e q u e s t i o n
o f consensus se ek in g in th e Michigan Education Seminars seemed
obvious, th e r e s e a r c h e r b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s o f th e
unanimous o p p o s i t i o n t o co n s en su s -s eek in g b e havior would be o f
interest.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e second q u e s t i o n f o rm ally posed dur in g th e

formal i n t e r v i e w s was, "Should th e Michigan Education Seminars be
t a s k o r i e n t e d - - s h o u l d o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n s be developed?"
The r es po nses to

t h i s q u e s ti o n seem t o r e f l e c t th e segments

o f t h e e d u c a tio n a l policy-making community from which t h e
came. For example, t h e

interviewees

l a t e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t o f t h e League o f Women

V o t e r s , E l i z a b e t h Kummer, p er ceiv ed her r o l e in t h e governmental
pro cess to be one t h a t hinged upon he r a b i l i t y t o move im port an t
p u b l i c p o l i c y i s s u e s forward by caus in g d i v e r s e elements o f th e
e d u c a t io n a l policy-making community t o communicate with one a n o t h e r
u n t i l compromise could be found.

She was emphatic in her o p p o s i t i o n

t o a t a s k - o r i e n t a t i o n framework f o r t h e Michigan Education Seminars.
"Although you must have some s o r t o f s t r u c t u r e , with a t a s k o r i e n t e d
format you can g e t bound in p o l i t i c a l gamesmanship."
A l e g i s l a t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e expr es sed equal concern with the
q u e s ti o n o f t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n f o r t h e Michigan Education Seminars pr o­
gram.

He s t r e s s e d t h a t under such a format t h e Michigan Education

239

Seminars could " i n t e r f e r e with th e committee system o f t h e l e g i s l a ­
ture."

He f u r t h e r s t r e s s e d t h a t w it h in t h e S t a t e Department o f Edu­

c a t i o n an e l a b o r a t e a d v i s o r y committee system a l r e a d y e x i s t s t o pr ovid e
homogenized recommendations t o t h e e x e c u tiv e branch o f government.
The a d v i s o r y co uncil system o f which t h i s i n t e r v i e w e e spoke
comprises more than t h i r t y i n d i v i d u a l a d v i s o r y c o u n c i l s t o t h e Michigan
S t a t e Board o f Edu cation .

Among them a r e t h e a d v is o r y c o u n c i l s on

Adult and Continuing Education S e r v i c e s , A rts and Edu cation, B il in g u a l
Education, Compensatory Education S e r v i c e s , Elementary and Secondary
Education, Equal Educ ational O p p o r tu n ity , and s e v e r a l o t h e r s .
In an informal c o n v e r s a t i o n between then-Deputy U.S. Commis­
s i o n e r o f E du cation, Dr. William P i e r c e , a former deputy s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
o f p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n in Michigan, and t h e r e s e a r c h e r , a f t e r a s e s s i o n
a t which Dr. P i e r c e addres sed th e Michigan Education Seminars p a r ­
t i c i p a n t s , he made t h e f o llo w in g o b s e r v a t i o n .

Dr. P i e r c e sug ge sted

t h a t one o f , i f not t h e most, s i g n i f i c a n t changes t h a t he had seen
in t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making pr o c e ss in t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s was
t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f a d v i s o r y and ad hoc committees charged with
developing p o l i c y recommendations f o r t h e formal p o l i c y promulgation
bodies .

To p a r a p h r a s e h i s comments, he s u ggested t h a t t h e r e were two

e s s e n t i a l purposes f o r t h e a d v i s o r y committee t o an e x e c u t i v e branch
agency.
The f i r s t purpose was t h a t t h e a d v i s o r y committee was a body
t o which t h e o f f i c i a l government agency could s h i p h i g h ly c o n t r o ­
v e r s i a l i s s u e s t h a t i t d id not f e e l equipped t o r e s o l v e on i t s own.

240
This a c t i o n can be tak en with t h e f u l l knowledge t h a t t h e a d v i s o r y
committee i s even more poor ly p o s i t i o n e d t o r e s o l v e t h e i s s u e through
co ns ensus, and as a consequence t h e " n o - a c t io n " a c t i o n can be taken
by th e bure au cracy w it h o u t f e a r of being accused o f being "bureau­
cratic."
In th o s e c a s e s where t h e agency wants to adopt a c o n t r o v e r ­
s i a l p o l i c y w i th o u t s u f f e r i n g th e p o s s i b l e consequences o f such an
a c t i o n , t h e a d v i s o r y committee can be a dvise d t h a t i f i t does not come
up with an a l t e r n a t i v e w i t h i n a f ix e d p e r i o d , t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l a c t i o n
w i l l be ta k e n .
One o f the seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s d e s c r i b e d t h e Michigan Educa­
t i o n Seminars as " pro c ess " r a t h e r than "p roduct" o r i e n t e d .

He sug­

g e s te d t h a t r a t h e r than a tt e m p t t o develop s p e c i f i c p o l i c y recommen­
d a t i o n s in t h e f u t u r e , t h e Michigan Education Seminars should c o n t i n u e
with th e c u r r e n t approach.

He d e s c r i b e d t h e seminars as s e s s i o n s in

which the e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y makers r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e w i d e s t p o s s i b l e
views on th e v a r i e t y o f i s s u e s p r e s e n t e d can openly a r t i c u l a t e th e
b a s is f o r t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n with t h e i r a d v e r s a r i e s .
A second q u e s t i o n asked o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s r e v e a l e d an
im port ant s e t o f o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t r e l a t e t o t h e q u e s ti o n o f consen­
sus.

The in t e r v i e w e e s were asked whether th e y were involved in any

forums t h a t a r e s i m i l a r in de sig n o r c o n t e n t t o t h e Michigan Educa­
t i o n Seminars.

A c l e a r m a j o r i t y o f th o s e i n te r v ie w e d noted t h a t t h e

major d i s t i n c t i o n between th e Michigan Education Seminars and any
o t h e r forum in v o lv in g s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a c t o r s i s t h a t

241

the Michigan Education Seminars does n o t a tt e m p t t o seek p o l i c y
recommendations.
The s i n g l e most commonly mentioned ed u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y forum
in which th e p o l i c y members s a id th e y p a r t i c i p a t e d , o t h e r than t h e
Michigan Education Seminars, was t h e Educational Forum.

The Educa­

t i o n a l Forum i s a group o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f e i g h t o f t h e major
s t a t e w i d e ed u c a t io n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s .

In i t s m eetings, e x e c u t i v e and

l e g i s l a t i v e pending a c t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d .

Although no member o f t h e

e x e c u t i v e or l e g i s l a t i v e branch i s an o f f i c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e in th e
Educational Forum, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from t h e s e segments o f t h e govern­
ment a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y i n v i t e d t o d i s c u s s p u b lic p o l i c y i s s u e s with
the leaders of the various organizations represented.
Consensus se ek ing i s a c r i t i c a l element o f t h e Educational
Forum.

Keith Ge iger , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e Michigan Education As socia­

t i o n , d e s c r ib e d th e p r o c e ss used in th e Educ ational Forum t o a r r i v e a t
consensus:

"We a g r ee t o d i s a g r e e on c e r t a i n i s s u e s and then t o ex clude

t h e a r e a s o f disagr eem ent from t h e d i s c u s s i o n . "

Another e d u c a t i o n a l

i n t e r e s t group r e p r e s e n t a t i v e in th e Educational Forum sug ges ted in
an i n t e r v i e w t h a t p o s i t i o n s were taken i n t h e Educationa l Forum under
th o s e cir c u m sta n c e s when unanimous agreement could be reac hed .
David Ruhala, o f th e school boards a s s o c i a t i o n , suggested
t h a t t h e r e were t h r e e s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e Michigan
Education Seminars and t h e Ed ucational Forum:
(1) The Educational Forum i s r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e e d u c a tio n a l
i n t e r e s t groups f o r o f f i c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
(There i s no
membership from t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers from t h e execu­
t i v e o r l e g i s l a t i v e branches o f government, and only t h e most
i n f l u e n t i a l o f t h e p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n a l groups a r e r e p r e s e n t e d . )

242

(2) The Ed uc atio na l Forums a r e meetings w ith o u t t h e o f f i c i a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s . They in v o lv e second and t h i r d t i e r
organizational leaders.
(3) The major d i f f e r e n c e between
th e Educational Forum and th e Michigan Education Seminars
i s t h a t t h e Educ ationa l Forum a tte m p t s t o a r r i v e a t o f f i c i a l
positions.
Two o f t h e formal i n t e r v i e w s sugg es ted t h a t th e Education
L e g i s l a t i v e Advisory Council (ELAC) f o r th e Michigan Department o f
Education bears some s i m i l a r i t y t o th e Michigan Education Seminars.
ELAC i s a group o f school l o b b y i s t s , p r i m a r i l y , who a r e p e r i o d i c a l l y
convened by t h e Department o f Education t o review pending l e g i s l a ­
t i v e and e x e c u t i v e a c t i o n s .

One l e g i s l a t i v e i n te r v ie w e e sug gested

t h a t "ELAC t a k e s p o s i t i o n s on l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t i s a l r e a d y developed.
MES does not deal with s p e c i f i c l e g i s l a t i o n . "

A representative of a

major e d u c a ti o n a l i n t e r e s t groups s a i d simply:

"ELAC i s s i m i l a r [ t o

t h e Michigan Education Seminars] but d i f f e r e n t . "
The major d i f f e r e n c e between t h e Michigan Education Seminars
and any o t h e r forum in which p a r t i c i p a n t s were involved c e n t e r e d on
t h e non -c o nse nsus- se ekin g n a t u r e o f th e Michigan Education Seminars.
Consensus se ek ing was seen as an o b j e c t i v e t o be avoided in t h e semi­
na r s e s s i o n s .

The r e s e a r c h e r c i t e d a v a r i e t y o f l o g i s t i c a l problems

with consensus s e e k in g , i n c l u d i n g t h e tendency f o r consensus seeking
to encourage " p o l i t i c a l gamesmanship," t h e p o s s i b l e i n t e r f e r e n c e with
th e l e g a l - p o l i t i c a l p o l i c y d e t e r m in a t i o n p r o c e s s , and t h e "pro c ess
o r i e n t a t i o n " o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .
Impact Upon R e l a t i o n s h i p s
One o f t h e major assumptions o f t h e s tu d y was t h a t t h e Michi­
gan Education Seminars would have a p o s i t i v e impact upon th e

243

r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t e x i s t e d , o r were to e x i s t , between t h e major edu­
c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a c t o r s in the s t a t e .
ful

Again t h e i n t e r v i e w s were h e l p ­

in p r o v id i n g i n s i g h t s i n t o t h i s i s s u e .
The assumption was r e a l l y s t a t e d in two p a r t s .

F i r s t , i t was

assumed t h a t the p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e Michigan Education Seminars
would p o s i t i v e l y a f f e c t t h e a b i l i t y o f p o l i c y makers r e p r e s e n t i n g
a d v e r s a r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s to begin t o r e l a t e t o one a n o t h e r on a p e r ­
sonal b a s i s .

I t was assumed t h a t by d i s c u s s i n g problems c o n f r o n t i n g

the e d u c a t i o n a l community, most a s s o c i a t i o n and government l e a d e r s
would r e a l i z e t h a t d e s p i t e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s in proposed appr oaches
o r s o l u t i o n s , t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s were s i m i l a r .
The second p a r t o f th e as sum ption, however, i s more s u b t l e .
One

of th e major problems c o n f r o n t i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f e d u catio n

today d e r i v e s from t h e i n a b i l i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e same branch
o f government, t h e same d e p a r t m e n t, t h e same p o l i t i c a l p a r t y , t h e same
a s s o c i a t i o n o r a r e l a t e d one t o communicate common goals to one
a n o t h e r and t o a g r ee upon p r i o r i t y s o l u t i o n s .

A seminar s e r i e s o f

th e n a t u r e o f th e Michigan Education Seminars could t h e r e f o r e provid e
an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r i n t e r - as well as i n t r a - a g e n c y communication.
A s e p a r a t e but r e l a t e d assumption in vo lved t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f
m o t i v a t i o n f o r a t t e n d i n g t h e s em in ar s .

In o t h e r words, an a t t e m p t

was made t o impute from t h e ver bal e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s
th e reasons why they a t t e n d e d t h e s e m in a r s , and in t h i s way t o g e t a
b e t t e r un d e r sta n d in g o f t h e s t r e n g t h s o f t h e program.

Many o f t h e

respon ses to t h e q u e s ti o n r e g a rd in g m o t i v a t i o n f o r a t t e n d i n g th e
seminar s e s s i o n a r e p laced in t h i s s e c t i o n because t h e "impact upon

244

r e l a t i o n s h i p s " was one o f t h e major r ea so ns c i t e d by th e p a r t i c i ­
pan ts f o r why they thought p o l i c y makers a t t e n d e d t h e s e s s i o n s .
A l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f d i r e c t o r s a i d t h a t one o f t h e r ea so ns
he a t t e n d e d t h e seminar s e s s i o n s was because i t gave him an oppor­
t u n i t y to see one o f h i s key s t a f f members in a c t i o n —and t h a t he
gained i n c r e a s i n g c o n f id en ce in t h i s s t a f f member as a consequence.
An e d u c a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n l e a d e r s a i d t h a t he used t h e semi­
nar s e s s i o n t o develop m a t e r i a l s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n s f o r h i s membership.
He s a i d t h a t upon h i s r e t u r n from a seminar s e s s i o n he would s i t down
wi th h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p u b l i c a t i o n e d i t o r and d i s c u s s id e a s f o r
f e a t u r e and news ac co unts o f th e i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d .
Doug Smith, t h e e d u c a t io n a d v i s o r t o th e governor, s a i d t h a t
the d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm en t seminar provided t h e b e s t example o f how th e
e x i s t e n c e of a program such as t h e Michigan Education Seminars can
g r e a t l y enhance i n t r a - b r a n c h c o o p e r a t i o n .

"I have s p e n t more time

b a t t l i n g with t h e Department o f Management and Budget on t h e i s s u e o f
d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t than w i th any o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y f o r c e in
th e s t a t e . "

Smith r e f e r r e d t o a s t r u g g l e t h a t had been o c c u r r i n g

w i t h i n th e e x e c u t i v e branch o f s t a t e government on t h e q u e s ti o n o f
whether t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s h o u ld , by s p e c i a l c a t e g o r y , fund d i s ­
t r i c t s t h a t a r e s u f f e r i n g an i n o r d i n a t e l y high e n r o l lm e n t l o s s .
s e s s i o n on d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t came a t a c r u c i a l tim e .

"The

I had j u s t

fought a major b a t t l e with t h e Department o f Management and Budget,
and a t a c r u c i a l time they were asked t o come in t o a seminar and
make a commitment t o th e e d u c a t i o n a l community.

That i s a major p u r ­

pose t h a t t h e Michigan Education Seminars program s e r v e s , " s a i d Smith.

245

The Department o f Management and Budget had t o come o u t and
say something, and what th e y s a i d t o t h e e d u c a t io n community was t h a t
they would be w i l l i n g to reexamine t h e q u e s ti o n o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l ­
ment.

They promised t o r e t u r n to t h e Michigan Education Seminars

with some s p e c i f i c p r o p o s a l s t o d i s c u s s w ith th e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y
forces represented.
A s s o c i a t e S t a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t o f P u b li c I n s t r u c t i o n , Robert
McKerr, t e s t i f i e d t o t h e ac curacy o f S m i th 's o b s e r v a t i o n s .

He sug­

g e s te d in th e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r v i e w t h a t he had observed a
dr amatic s h i f t on t h e q u e s ti o n o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s w it h i n th e
e x e c u t i v e branch o f s t a t e government.

He a t t r i b u t e d t h i s s h i f t in

p o l i c y as having been i n i t i a t e d by th e f a c t t h a t both t h e g o v e r n o r ' s
e d u cati o n a d v i s o r , Doug Smith, and a key spokesman on t h e i s s u e from
th e Department o f Management and Budget had been on th e same seminar
program.
The f a c t t h a t t h e two key e x e c u t i v e branch a c t o r s on t h e
q u e s t i o n o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t had been f o rc ed t o make a p r e s e n t a ­
t i o n on an i s s u e which had, h e r e t o f o r e , been u n resolved w i t h i n th e
e x e c u t i v e branch f o rc e d them t o g e t t o g e t h e r and work o u t t h e i r d i f ­
ferences.

The f a c t t h a t t h e o th e r w i s e somewhat i s o l a t e d Department

o f Management and Budget w it n e s s e d f i r s t hand t h e e d u c a t io n a l com­
m u n i t y ' s agony on t h e q u e s t i o n o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t provided
i n c e n t i v e f o r r e s o l u t i o n o f th e i s s u e .
E l i z a b e t h Kummer, o f t h e League o f Women V o t e r s , recog nized
th e f u n c t i o n o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars in pr o v id in g a mech­
anism t o help f o s t e r i n t r a - a g e n c y communication.

246
Tom B e r n t h a l , t h e n - A d m i n i s t r a t i v e A s s i s t a n t t o S e n a to r G i l b e r t
B u r s le y , s a id t h a t "on a s o c i a l b a s i s , i t [MES] h e l p s .

The f a c t

t h a t we d i d n ' t deal with s p e c i f i c l e g i s l a t i o n allowed us t o communi­
c a t e on a h i g h e r plan e with t h e members o f th e l e g i s l a t u r e and l e g i s ­
l a t i v e s t a f f who were p r e s e n t a t t h e s e s s i o n s .

And t h e f a c t t h a t

t h i s communication oc curre d in th e pre se nce o f t h e t o p - l e v e l educa­
t i o n a l i n t e r e s t group l e a d e r s p e r m it te d th e d i s c u s s i o n t o be q u i t e
ho nes t and open."
A l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f a n aly st said t h a t the issues discussed
r a i s e d q u e s ti o n s t h a t r e q u i r e d i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c i p a n t s from th e same
agency t o g e t t o g e t h e r a f t e r th e seminar and develop answers.
On a n o th e r level o f communication, one o f th e primary func­
t i o n s o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars i s t h a t i t provid e s th e
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s o c i a l exchange between people who a r e normally in
a p o s i t i o n t h a t could be d e s c r i b e d as a n t a g o n i s t i c w i t h i n t h e p o l i c y ­
making m i l i e u o f th e s t a t e .

Through t h e s e s o c i a l ex changes, t h e

ed u c a tio n a l p o l i c y makers begin to develop a s en se o f common purpose
and begin t o see t h a t , in many c a s e s , disa gree men ts a r e o f t e n on
th e s u b j e c t o f form r a t h e r than s u b s t a n c e .
The o v e r a l l r e a c t i o n t o th e d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s on t h e impact
of the Michigan Education Seminars on r e l a t i o n s h i p s between i n d i ­
v id u a ls in t h e e d u c a tio n a l policy-making community o f t h e s t a t e was
t h a t i t provided a forum f o r s o c i a l and i n f o r m a t io n a l exchange.
The e x p r e s s io n o f o p p o s i t e p o s i t i o n s by component a d v e r s a r i e s can
lead t o a thorough d i s c u s s i o n o f th e problem being ad d r e s s e d .

In

247

t h i s manner, common ground can be found and e l i m i n a t e d from t h e
de b a te .

C o n c e n tr a ti o n then c e n t e r s on t h e major i s s u e s o f d i s ­

agreement.
In t h e e d u c a t io n a l policy-making proce ss o f Michigan, much o f
the t e n s i o n t h a t e x i s t s has been between l a b o r and management on th e
t r a d i t i o n a l i s s u e s t h a t d i v i d e them.

In t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e common

goal o f d e l i v e r y o f a b e t t e r e d u c a ti o n a l s e r v i c e has been obscured
f o r both th e major p o l i c y a c t o r s and perhaps th e knowledgeable o b s e rv ­
e r s o f the p r o c e s s .
Perhaps t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e t h a t th e Michigan Education
Seminars played dur ing the term o f t h i s r e s e a r c h was t h a t i t provided
an o p p o r tu n i t y f o r d i v e r s e elements in t h e e d u c a t io n a l policy-making
community to r e l a t e t o one a n o th e r on a more personal b a s is than i s
normally provided in t h e decision-making p r o c e s s .

In t h i s c o n t e x t ,

th e s o c i a l hours t h a t o f te n followed t h e sem inars , and th e informal
d i n n e r s and o t h e r meetings t h a t were g en er ated among r i v a l s as a
consequence o f t h e s e s o c i a l h o u r s, could be co n s id e red among t h e most
s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s of such a program.
There seems t o be a common p e r c e p t i o n among c e r t a i n " o u t ­
s i d e r s " t h a t t h e upper ec helons o f p o l i c y - o r i e n t e d a s s o c i a t i o n s and
o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e in c o n s t a n t i n t e r a c t i o n with one a n o t h e r .

A sort

of c o n s p ir a c y t h e o r y , t h i s n o tio n can probably be t r a c e d t o t h e days
o f p o l i t i c s t h a t were dominated by t h e " s m o k e - f i l l e d room" approach.
There seemed t o be l i t t l e ev idence o f t h i s c o n d i t i o n e x i s t i n g in
e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making in Michigan today.

The o p p o r t u n i t y f o r

educational policy ac to rs to r e l a t e to t h e i r ad v ersaries in a social

248
s e t t i n g was one o f t h e major r e a so n s given f o r why they had a t t e n d e d
the sessions.
The i n t e r v i e w s confirmed t h a t im port ant s o c i a l exchanges among
e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y makers had been s t i m u l a t e d by MES a t two l e v e l s .
I n te rv ie w e e s sugges ted t h a t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y was provided by MES t o
i n t e r a c t with o t h e r l e a d e r s w i t h i n t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , as well as
with l e a d e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g o t h e r i n t e r e s t s .
The Major Is s u e s
This i s a p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d stu d y o f a major subsystem w i t h i n
th e e d u c a tio n a l policy-making environment o f Michigan p o l i t i c s .
i s n ot a p o l i c y a n a l y s i s .

It

An e n t i r e d i s s e r t a t i o n , o r perhaps many,

could be devoted to an e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e impact t h a t seminar s e s ­
s io n s such as t h e ones c o n s t i t u t e d f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h have on th e
s p e c i f i c en acted p o l i c y o f e d u c a ti o n a l i n t e r e s t groups and govern­
ment.
N o n e t h e le s s , a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f th e p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s
o f th e Michigan Education Seminars was c o n s id e re d t o be o f poten­
t i a l i n t e r e s t t o s t u d e n t s o f th e policy-making p r o c e s s .

As a

consequence, i n t e r v i e w e e - p a r t i c i p a n t s were asked t o r e p o r t upon
t h e impact o f t h e seminar s e s s i o n s on two s p e c i f i c p o l i c y i s s u e s and
t h e i r reso lu tio n w ithin t h e i r organization.

E a r l i e r r e f e r e n c e s to

p o l i c y a c t i o n s on d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts have appeared in o t h e r s e c ­
t i o n s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e s tu d y .

The d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t i s s u e

was s e l e c t e d f o r a minor impact a n a l y s i s because a t t h e time o f i t s

249

p r e s e n t a t i o n t o th e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s i t was an unresolved i s s u e ,
i t was r e l e v a n t to a l a r g e number o f th e r e g u l a r p a r t i c i p a n t s in
a t te n d a n c e , an o f f i c i a l a c t i o n o f t h e government was about t o be taken
(o r a t l e a s t t h e p o t e n t i a l e x i s t e d ) , and th e r e s e a r c h e r had reason
to b e l i e v e t h a t evidence could be p r e se n t e d t h a t d i r e c t l y li nked gov­
ernmental a c t i o n t o a d i s c u s s io n t h a t occur red w it h in t h e seminar.
The second i s s u e , th e q u e s ti o n o f a p o t e n t i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
convention and i t s p o s s i b l e impact upon e d u c a t i o n , was s e l e c t e d f o r a
minor p o l i c y impact a n a l y s i s because i t was not o f immediate urgency:
The q u e s ti o n was t o be on th e b a l l o t more than one y e a r a f t e r th e
d is c u s s io n in th e seminar , i t was r e l e v a n t t o a l a r g e number o f th e
i n t e r e s t groups and g o vernm ental-l eader p a r t i c i p a n t s , and the n a t u r e
o f any a c t i o n taken by an a s s o c i a t i o n o r governmental e n t i t y could
not i n f l u e n c e th e s p e c i f i c q u e s tio n o f whether th e i s s u e would
appear on t h e b a l l o t .

R ath er, p o l i c y l e a d e r s were, a t t h a t p o i n t ,

deciding how to a d vis e t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s and members.
L i t t l e evidence e x i s t s t h a t th e d i s c u s s i o n on t h e c o n s t i t u ­
t i o n a l convention had a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on any o r g a n i z a t i o n r e p r e ­
sented in t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

In what tur ne d out to

be somewhat o f an o v e r s t a t e m e n t , Tom B e r n t h a l , A d m in i s tr a tiv e
A s s i s t a n t to Senator G i l b e r t B urs le y, s a i d t h a t th e "con-con s e s s i o n
caused a s h i f t in Sen at or B u r s l e y ' s p o s i t i o n on th e i s s u e .

He i s now

an ad v o c a te ."
Several group l e a d e r s r e p o r t e d t h a t the y used t h e s e s s i o n t o
i n i t i a t e d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h i n t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s on t h e q u e s tio n o f
the u l t i m a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n on t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l convention.

250

E l i z a b e t h Kummer " u t i l i z e d t h e background i n fo r m a tio n p r e s e n t e d a t
th e s e s s i o n on t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l conv en tio n.

We were in th e pro­

ce ss of g e t t i n g conc ur re nce a g a i n s t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l convention
issue.

Nothing t h a t was p r e s e n t e d a t th e seminar gave us any

reason f o r f e e l i n g t h a t we were wrong in our p o s i t i o n . "
Gene Farnum, D i r e c t o r o f t h e Senate F i s c a l Agency, s a i d t h a t
th e q u e s ti o n o f a p o t e n t i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l con ve ntion f o rc e d th e
Senate F i s c a l Agency t o begin pl a n n i n g " to watch t h e i s s u e as i t
develops and to t h i n k about i t s impact on s t a t e f i n a n c i n g . "
One e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t group l e a d e r s a i d t h a t t h e d i s c u s ­
s io n on t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l co nvention had a c l e a r impact upon h is
o r g a n i z a t i o n . "Morley Winograd's* comments confirmed h i s p e r c e p t i o n
o f what needed t o be done t o immediately ad d r e ss th e p u b l i c a t t i t u d e s
ab ou t p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n .
t i o n a l Forum.

We used th e con-con m a t e r i a l s in t h e Educa­

I t helped t h e Edu cation al Forum come t o

an o p in io n on

t h e s u b j e c t , and i t a l s o was in s t r u m e n t a l in t h e r e f o r m a t io n o f t h e
E duc ationa l Forum's Council A g ain s t P a r o c h i a d ."
On t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars' impact
on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t f i n a n c i n g in Michigan, t h e ev idence i s most
clear.

The most d r am atic example o f t h e e f f e c t o f t h e seminar s e r i e s

on t h e d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t f i n a n c i n g i s s u e was pro vide d by s t a t e
e d u c a ti o n depar tment f in a n c e c h i e f Robert McKerr.

McKerr sugg es ted

t h a t t h e seminar on t h i s s u b j e c t was d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a
♦Morley Winograd was a t t h a t time th e Chairman o f t h e Michigan
Democratic P a r t y . He has s i n c e r e s i g n e d and was r e p l a c e d by O l i v i a
"Libby" Maynard, F i t z g e r a l d ' s running mate in t h e 1978 g u b e r n a t o r i a l
campaign.

251
major s h i f t i n th e p o s i t i o n o f t h e Michigan Department o f Man­
agement and Budget (DMB):

"The Department o f Management and Budget

switched i t s p o s i t i o n on t h e submission o f t h e g o v e r n o r ' s budget
between Christmas o f 1977 and May o f 1978.

P r i o r t o our c o n f e r e n c e ,

th e Department o f Management and Budget was saying t h a t s i n c e t h e r e
i s no ev idence o f im pa ct, how do you propose t o v e r i f y t h e e f f e c t i v e ­
ness o f t h e [ d e c l i n i n g en r o llm e n t f i n a n c i n g ] program?"
In th e d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t sem inar , t h e c h i e f o f t h e Dep ar t­
ment o f Management and B udget's e d u c a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n p r e s e n t e d t h e
d e p a r t m e n t 's p o s i t i o n on a panel t h a t had been s e l e c t e d by th e gov er ­
n o r ' s e d u c a tio n a l a d v i s o r , Doug Smith.

At t h a t s e s s i o n , t h e DMB was

being f o rc e d t o make i t s p o s i t i o n a g a i n s t d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t f i n a n c ­
ing a p u b l i c one.

Smith l a t e r t e s t i f i e d in t h e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r ­

view t h a t i t was t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n t h a t f o r c e d t h e depar tment to " g e t
o f f t h e dime."
One l e g i s l a t i v e a n a l y s t - i n t e r v i e w e e su gges te d t h a t t h e s e s s i o n
on d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n ts "changed th e appr oach.
in c r e a s e d funding t h i s y e a r .

There i s d r a m a t i c a l l y

Our forum prov ided t h e b a s i s f o r d i s ­

c u s s io n a t a very c r i t i c a l p o i n t in th e p r o c e s s .

I t presented the

problem, s t i m u l a t e d t h i n k i n g , and f o r c e d th o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who were
hedging t h e i r b e t s t o make a c l e a r and p r e c i s e commitment t o th e edu­
c a t i o n a l p o l i c y community."
A u n i v e r s i t y p a r t i c i p a n t observed t h a t t h e d i s c u s s i o n on
d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t s pro vided t h e c l e a r e s t example o f t h e " p a r o c h ia l
nature" of the s ta t e l e g i s l a t o r .

"[One l e g i s l a t o r ] s a t around and

t a l k e d about h i s d i s t r i c t c o n s t a n t l y . "

Two im port ant messages were

252

a b s e n t from t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n .

F i r s t , in th e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , th e

l e g i s l a t o r i s in a p o s i t i o n where he has very l i t t l e t o r e l a t e t o o t h e r
than h i s l o c a l d i s t r i c t —a t l e a s t t h i s i s normally t h e c a s e .
t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y h i s jo b :

Further,

t o r e l a t e to th e problems o f h is l ocal

d i s t r i c t and t o work on s o l u t i o n s t h a t , wh ile th ey meet t h e needs o f
h i s lo cal d i s t r i c t , a r e a p p r o p r i a t e in a bro ad er p o l i c y c o n t e x t .
second p o i n t i s more i m p o r t a n t , however.

The

In t h e pr esen ce o f a D ep ar t­

ment o f Management and Budget o f f i c i a l who was saying t h e r e i s no way
t o g a t h e r evidence o f t h e impact o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t f in a n c i n g
in s t a t i s t i c a l t e r m s , a p o l i t i c a l d i s p l a y t h a t g iv e s t h e b u r e a u c r a t
a n o th e r measure o f impact can be im port ant.
A l e g i s l a t i v e a n a l y s t s a i d t h a t th e d i s c u s s i o n on d e c l i n i n g
e n r o llm e n ts "fo r c e d us to go back and do some double chec king.
s t i l l t h i n k t h a t Goldberg was wrong."

We

The a n a l y s t was r e f e r r i n g t o

David Goldberg, an economist from t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan, who
p r e s e n t e d h i s o p inion on t h e impact o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n t s on h i g h e r
education.

Among h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s was t h a t d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n ts in

ele m entary and secondary e d u c a ti o n were l a r g e l y i r r e l e v a n t t o h ig h e r
e d u cati o n in Michigan.

He observed t h a t u n i v e r s i t i e s can a d j u s t t h e

impact o f e n r o llm e n t d e c l i n e s by a d j u s t i n g e n t r a n c e s ta n d a r d s and by
r e d i r e c t i n g t h e i r p i t c h f o r new s t u d e n t s a t d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s .
The purpose o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars was not t o
influence public policy d i r e c t ly .

I t is process-oriented research.

I t s o b j e c t i v e s a r e p r o c e ss o r i e n t e d .

The assumptions o f t h e s tudy

253

c l e a r l y s t a t e th e r e s e a r c h e r ' s b e l i e f t h a t t h e seminar s e r i e s w i l l
a f f e c t p u b lic p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s .

But th e r e s e a r c h e r a l s o re cog­

nized t h e d i f f i c u l t y a s s o c i a t e d with v a l i d a t i n g such c la i m s .
There i s s u b s t a n t i a l reason to b e l i e v e t h a t th e seminar
s e s s i o n on d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts had a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on th e
government's r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e f i n a n c i n g q u e s t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d with
th e i s s u e .

The impact on t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l convention i s s u e i s

less c le a r.
The Promotion o f t h e Is s u e s
A c o n s i d e r a b l e q u e s ti o n t h a t d e s e rv e s f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n
i s to what e x t e n t forums such as th e Michigan Education Seminars
should c r e a t e an atmosphere in which e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y a c t o r s
a r e encouraged to promote o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o r perso nal c a u s e s .

As

was t h e cas e with many o f t h e q u e s t i o n s used t o s t i m u l a t e d i s c u s ­
s io n dur ing th e i n t e r v i e w s , a somewhat i n d i r e c t approach was taken
to e x p l o r e whether th e seminar s e s s i o n s were being used f o r t h i s
purpose.

The evidence on t h i s p o i n t i s q u i t e c l e a r .

The Michigan

Education Seminars i s seen as an im port ant v e h i c l e f o r some
p o l i c y makers to promote proposed s o l u t i o n s t o e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
problems.
S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e q u e s ti o n was asked o f th e n i n e t e e n p o s t fir s t- y e a r interview ee-participants:

"Did you have t h e o p p o r tu ­

n i t y t o promote p r o p o s a l s t o deal with th e problems f a c i n g th e
e d u c a ti o n a l community in Michigan?"

254

"Yes, I had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to p r e s e n t my p o s i t i o n .

I

d i d n ' t t a k e f u l l advantage o f i t , " s a i d one r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e
e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community.

She went on t o say t h a t alt hough

she d i d n ' t p r e p a re adequate summaries f o r he r membership on th e i s s u e s
p r e s e n t e d , she did note t h a t many o r g a n i z a t i o n s had.

Among th e

o r g a n i z a t i o n s c i t e d was th e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School Boards (MASB).
She s a i d t h a t she had observed in a v a r i e t y o f MASB p u b l i c a t i o n s
durin g t h e co u r se o f t h e s tudy t h a t r e f e r e n c e s were made t o t h e Michi­
gan Education Seminars and t o th e p o s i t i o n s p r e s e n t e d dur ing t h e s e
seminars by th e v a r i e t y o f i n t e r e s t groups i n v o l v e d .

She used t h i s

q u e s t i o n as an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c r i t i c i z i n g th e c o o r d i n a t o r o f t h e Mich­
igan Education Seminars f o r not having provided more c l e a r , c o n c i s e ,
and t im e l y summaries o f t h e s e s s i o n s to be d i s t r i b u t e d among th e or ga n­
i z a t i o n s , and she was n ot al one in t h i s c r i t i c i s m o f th e r e s e a r c h e r .
However, she r e a l l y d i d n ' t answer t h e q u e s t i o n t h a t was posed.
The i s s u e was not whether t h e seminars provided an o p p o r tu ­
n i t y f o r t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o promote w i t h i n t h e i r own o r g a n i z a t i o n s
o r o u t s i d e in t h e p u b l i c world o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making com­
munity i s s u e s t h a t were p r e s e n t e d a t t h e sem inar .

Rather, th e question

was w h e th e r , w i t h i n th e sem in ar , t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of
th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o promote
i s s u e s o r p o s i t i o n s th e y brought i n t o t h e seminar and a s a consequence
t o modify t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s on t h e s e q u e s t i o n s .
A f t e r t h i s q u e s ti o n was reviewed, i t was m od ifi ed in l a t e r i n t e r v i e w s
to a d d r e s s s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e q u e s ti o n o f t h e i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d du rin g
th e seminar s e s s i o n s upon o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s .

255

A l e g i s l a t i v e a n a l y s t - i n t e r v i e w e e s uggeste d t h a t t h e Michigan
Education Seminars i s "wide open f o r anyone w ith a p e t i n t e r e s t t o
p r e s e n t i s s u e s t h a t th ey want p r e s e n t e d .

I t pr ov ides an o p p o r t u n i t y

for gentle leadership."
A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l o c a l school d i s t r i c t r e f u s e d t o comment
on th e q u e s t i o n .

I t was n o t c l e a r t o t h e i n t e r v i e w e r whether th e

r e f u s a l to comment was r e l a t e d t o t h e lack o f c l a r i t y o f t h e ques ­
t i o n , t h e r e f u s a l on t h e p a r t of t h e i n t e r v i e w e e t o expose h im s e lf as
having used t h e Michigan Education Seminars t o promote t h e i n t e r e s t s
o f h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , o r t o some o t h e r f a c t o r .
One i n t e r v i e w e e who was a l s o a p a r t i c i p a n t in t h e s t e e r i n g
committee sugges ted t h a t i t was in t h e s t e e r i n g committees o f the
Michigan Education Seminars where th e s p e c i f i c p o s i t i o n s o f th e
o r g a n i z a t i o n s were most c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e d , and where t h e i n t e r e s t
in p e r s u a s i v e appeal was g r e a t e s t .

I t was a t t h e s e s e s s i o n s where

t h e agendas were s e t f o r t h e Michigan Education Seminars, and where
t h e s p e c i f i c p r e s e n t e r s were i d e n t i f i e d .

T h e r e f o r e , i t was in t h e s e

s t e e r i n g committees where a t l e a s t one i n t e r v i e w e e f e l t t h e g r e a t e s t
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p e r s u a s i o n , and f o r i n f l u e n c i n g th e t o t a l e d u c a t i o n a l
policy-making p r o c e s s , could be e x e r c i s e d .

" I f a person were p a r a ­

n oid, he would b e l i e v e t h a t th e s t e e r i n g committee was a b i z a r r e
cabal."

He sug ges ted t h a t one way o f d e a l i n g with t h i s b a s ic p aranoia

would be t o r e l e a s e p e r i o d i c "one pagers" about t h e kinds o f t h i n g s
t h a t were t a l k e d about in t h e s t e e r i n g committee.
The i n t e r v i e w e r r a t i o n a l i z e d t h a t he had a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s
throu ghout t h e s e s s i o n s o f f e r e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o any p a r t i c i p a n t

256

t o t a k e p a r t in t h e Michigan Education Seminars s t e e r i n g committee.
He a l s o s t r e s s e d t h a t he had r e p o r t e d on t h e d i s c u s s i o n s o f th e
s t e e r i n g committee in th e formal s e s s i o n s o f t h e seminars and r e p e a t ­
e d l y asked f o r v o l u n t e e r s f o r th e s t e e r i n g committee.
This re sp ondent a l s o observed t h a t , in some c a s e s , p a r t i c i ­
pants appeared to be r a t h e r i n t i m i d a t e d by t h e makeup o f t h e p a r t i c i ­
pants in t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y forum t h a t was provided by t h e Michigan
Education Seminars.

He c i t e d t h e example o f t h e P u b lic A f f a i r s D ir e c ­

t o r o f t h e Michigan C a t h o l i c Co nf erence, Ed F a r h a t , who "appeared t h a t
he was going t o swallow h i s c i g a r when t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f th e impact
upon P a r o c h i a i d in r e l a t i o n t o t h e p o t e n t i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l convention
was mentioned.

This was t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n , and F a r h a t knew t h a t he

was badly outnumbered.11 The r espondent observed t h a t he l a t e r saw
Ed F a r h a t in p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n with S e n a to r Gil B u r s le y , and
implied t h a t he perceived t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n t o c e n t e r on t h e q u e s ti o n
o f t h i s u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n by t h e p r i v a t e school community.
Another r e sponden t from t h e academic community observed t h a t
" t h e r e was a l o t o f p l a y in g t o t h e g a l l e r y o c c u r r i n g dur in g t h e semi­
nar sessions.

A l o t o f people looked l i k e th ey were a t t e m p t i n g t o

impress somebody with t h e i r p o s i t i o n s on i s s u e s . "
S e n a to r Kerry Kammer, Senate A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Education Sub­
committee Chairman, s a i d t h a t he d i d n ' t see t h e Michigan Education
Seminars as a forum in whidh he should p r e s e n t h i s person al views on
e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s , as much as he saw t h e seminars as a means
f o r him to ob ser ve t h e a t t i t u d e s o f e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t groups—

257

a t t i t u d e s t h a t would soon come t o p la y as t h e l e g i s l a t o r s de bated t h e
i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d in t h e seminar s e s s i o n s .
Bob Muth, Execu tiv e D i r e c t o r o f t h e Middle C i t i e s Education
A s s o c i a t i o n , d e s c r i b e d t h e Michigan Education Seminars as a " l e a r n i n g
s i t u a t i o n f o r me.
th ey say i t .

You d i s c o v e r what people say and you examine how

I t g iv e s you a much broa de r base o f u n d e r s ta n d i n g —

maybe not on t h e i s s u e , but on t h e a c t o r s t h a t w i l l determine th e
outcome o f t h e i s s u e in t h e p u b l i c p o l i c y p r o c e s s . "
Doug Smith, Education Advisor t o t h e g o vernor, sugges ted
t h a t t h e Michigan Education Seminars i s t h e only forum in which he
could g e t " t h e g u t - l e v e l r e a c t i o n of a d i v e r s e group o f p o l i c y makers.
I t saved me time by p r ovid ing me wit h a c a p t i v e a u d i e n c e . "
Major Weaknesses o f t h e Seminars
The f a c t t h a t t h e seminar s e r i e s , t h e Michigan Education
Seminars, i s viewed as a s u c c e s s f u l and meaningful a d d i t i o n t o th e
e d u c a ti o n a l policy-making community o f t h e s t a t e i s obvious t o th e
researcher.

An im po rt ant component o f t h i s " a c t i o n r e s e a r c h , " how­

e v e r , i s t o p r o v id e f u t u r e c o o r d i n a t o r s of t h i s o r s i m i l a r seminar
s e r i e s with s e v e r a l recommendations f o r improving upon th e a b i l i t y
t o achiev e some o f t h e b a s i c o b j e c t i v e s t h a t have been s t a t e d e a r l i e r .
As such, t h e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r v i e w was seen as an o p p o r t u n i t y t o
po ll some o f t h e more a c t i v e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s were were p a r t i c i ­
pa n t s in t h e seminar s e s s i o n s .
One major weakness o f t h e seminar s e r i e s could a l s o be seen
as a major weakness o f t h e r e s e a r c h .

The i n d i v i d u a l s

who f o r some

258

reason o r a n o th e r did not p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e seminar s e r i e s were
l a r g e l y ignore d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r .

Beyond a c e r t a i n p o i n t , few

a tte m p ts were made t o e n l i s t r e l u c t a n t p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e seminar
sessions.

The r e c r u i t m e n t and e n l i s t m e n t s t r a t e g i e s used by t h e

r e s e a r c h e r were c l e a r l y d e l i n e a t e d a t an e a r l i e r p o i n t in t h i s d i s ­
sertation.
What became even more obvious t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r as he con­
ducted t h e formal e v a l u a t i v e i n t e r v i e w s was t h a t he had not i n t e r ­
viewed any o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s who had been given t h e chance t o
p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e seminar s e s s i o n s but had r e f u s e d .
did not p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e seminar s e s s i o n s .
t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s were l e g i s l a t o r s .

Many i n d i v i d u a l s

The l a r g e s t group o f

And t h e r e i s l i t t l e b a s i s f o r

s p e c u l a t i n g on t h e i r r e l u c t a n c e o r i n a b i l i t y t o a t t e n d seminar s e s ­
sions.

But t h e importance o f t h e i r a t t e n d a n c e i s n o t t o be c o n s id e re d

a g iven, e i t h e r .

N o n e th e l e s s , a major weakness o f t h e seminar—t h a t

some p o t e n t i a l p a r t i c i p a n t s did not a t t e n d t h e s e s s i o n s — becomes a
major weakness o f th e r e s e a r c h .

The r e s e a r c h e r did n o t a tte m p t t o

f i n d out why.
The val ue o f as kin g t h e q u e s t i o n d i r e c t l y — "What was th e major
weakness o f th e seminar s e r i e s ? " — i s q u e s t i o n a b l e .

Several o f th e

weaknesses a r e ap p a r e n t in o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t many o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s
made on o t h e r q u e s t i o n s .
The seminar d id n o t r e a l l y pr ovid e a s i g n i f i c a n t o p p o r t u n i t y ,
a t t i m e s , f o r exchange and d i a l o g u e .

I t o f t e n was l e c t u r e o r i e n t e d ,

with l i t t l e time f o r q u e s ti o n and answer p e r i o d s , and as such perhaps
th e use o f t h e word "seminar" i s a misnomer.

259

The o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t fav o red t h e K-12
s e c t o r o f p u b l i c e d u catio n was t o some e x t e n t c o u n te rbalanced by th e
o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t i t favored h i g h e r education p a r t i c i p a n t s .
the l a t t e r i s more t r u e th an i s th e former.

Certainly

Perhaps a weakness of

t h e seminar was t h a t i t s s u b j e c t m a t t e r was more o r i e n t e d toward th e
K-12 s e c t o r than i t was toward t h e h i g h e r e d u c a t io n s e c t o r o f p u b l i c
(o r p r i v a t e ) e d u c a t i o n .

But i f t h i s i s t r u e , a minor m o d i f i c a t i o n or

adjustm en t could c o r r e c t t h e d e f e c t .
The f e e l i n g o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r t h a t a t times th e promotion o f
th e Michigan Education Seminars bordered on a "Barnum and Bailey "
app ro ac h, and t h a t i t was becoming known as "Rick C o l e ' s Seminar,"
was c o u n ter b ala n ced by th e o b s e r v a t i o n s of E l i z a b e th Kummer.

She

s a i d t h e r e s e a r c h e r was too low key, t h a t he hid under a b u s h e l,
t h a t he t r i e d to pass th e c r e d i t f o r th e program o f f " t o everyone
o t h e r than h i m s e l f . "
The s u g g e s t i o n t h a t th e seminar would have been a more p o p u la r
forum i f t h e r e s e a r c h e r had s p e n t more time promoting and r e p o r t i n g on
i t was a l s o c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d .

One resp on den t sugge sted t h a t t h e some­

what am ateurish approach to t h e promotion o f t h e seminar s e r i e s con­
t r i b u t e d t o i t s impression as a " n e u t r a l forum."
In t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , t h e weaknesses o f t h e seminar w i l l be
judged in t h e c o n t e x t o f th e a b i l i t y o f f u t u r e c o o r d i n a t o r s t o c a r r y
on with th e program.

260

The Question o f Su rv ival
The q u e s tio n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e s u r v i v a l o f th e Michigan
Education Seminars i s d i s c u s s e d in t h e next c h a p t e r in a c o n t e x t t h a t
demon strates t h e v a l i d i t y o f some o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t came from
th e formal i n t e r v i e w s .

Again, t h i s i s a q u e s ti o n t h a t w i l l u l t i m a t e l y

be answered in r e t r o s p e c t .

One can only s p e c u l a t e a t t h i s p o i n t .

How­

e v e r , an a tte m p t was made t o p r o j e c t i n t o t h e f u t u r e by as kin g t h r e e
i n d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s t o t h e n in e te e n i n t e r v i e w e e - p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e
p o s t- f ir s t- y e a r interview s.

The q u e s t i o n s were:

"Assuming t h a t th e

I n s t i t u t e f o r Educationa l Leadership chose t o a p p o in t a new c o o r d i ­
n a t o r f o r t h e Michigan Education Seminars, in which segment o f th e edu­
c a t i o n a l policy-making community would one look t o f i n d t h e person who
could most a p p r o p r i a t e l y c o o r d i n a t e t h i s program ( t h e e x e c u t i v e bran ch ,
t h e l e g i s l a t i v e bran ch , e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t gr oups, o r o t h e r ) ? "
Second, "Can you name an i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n any segment o f t h e educa­
t i o n a l policy-making community who might be a l i k e l y c a n d i d a t e f o r
o p e r a t i n g t h e seminars?"

And t h i r d , "What would you e s t i m a t e th e t o t a l

c o s t o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h i s program t o be over t h e c o u r s e o f one y e a r ? "
The q u e s ti o n o f th e c o s t o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars
s e r i e s was dropped from th e i n t e r v i e w i n g f orm at.

The i n t e r v i e w e r

q u i c k l y sensed t h a t th e i n t e r v i e w e e s were r e l u c t a n t t o answer t h e
q u e s t i o n - - p o s s i b l y o u t o f a f e a r t h a t s i n c e t h e s e were e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y makers r e p r e s e n t i n g th e government o r l a r g e a s s o c i a t i o n s , th ey
were about t o be " h i t up" f o r f unding.

Th is was f a r from t h e c a s e .

On t h e q u e s ti o n o f which segment o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making community co uld c o n ceiv ab ly be c a l l e d upon t o o p e r a t e t h e
Michigan Education Seminars, t h e r e sp o n s e s were r e l a t i v e l y uniform.

261
Through a proce ss o f e x c l u s i o n , most o f th e in t e r v i e w e e s concluded
t h a t no segment o u t s i d e o f t h e i r own could pr ovid e an i n d i v i d u a l who
would be s u f f i c i e n t l y i m p a r t i a l o r viewed as s u f f i c i e n t l y " n e u t r a l "
to o p e r a t e th e Michigan Education Seminars e f f e c t i v e l y .

In f a c t ,

w ith only one e x c e p t i o n , t h e r e was no s u g g e s tio n by an i n te r v ie w e e
who had been asked t o respond to t h i s q u e s t i o n t h a t h e/she was in a
p o s i t i o n to o p e r a t e t h e sem in ar s.
This p r e s e n t s a very i n t e r e s t i n g dilemma.

Most o f th e

in t e r v i e w e e s seemed to f e e l t h a t th e s u c c e ss o f th e Michigan Edu­
c a t i o n Seminars was l a r g e l y a r e s u l t o f th e f a c t t h a t th e c o o r ­
d i n a t o r o f th e pr og ra m --t he r e s e a r c h e r - - w a s n o t viewed as being
a l i g n e d with a v a r i e t y of d i v e r g e n t e d u c a t i o n a l and o t h e r i n t e r e s t s .
He was sometimes c a l l e d i n t o t h e middle o f e d u c a tio n a l d i s p u t e s
t o n e g o t i a t e d i f f i c u l t arguments between "two f r i e n d s " on a
limited basis.

He was seen as a p r o f e s s i o n a l l o b b y i s t r e p r e s e n t ­

ing a v a r i e t y o f s t a t e w i d e a s s o c i a t i o n s , none o f which were
d i r e c t l y concerned with e d u c a ti o n a l i s s u e s .

He was known t o be

doing r e s e a r c h f o r a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n - - a person who was i n t e r ­
e s t e d in th e "academic" q u e s t i o n s s ur roun ding e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
making.
Gene Farnum, D i r e c t o r o f the Senate F i s c a l Agency, acknowl­
edged t h a t in the Michigan Education Seminars he and h i s e d u c a ti o n
a n a l y s t , Gary S u l l e n g e r , were p r e s e n t i n g t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e l e g i s ­
lature:

" I f I a s s i g n S u l l e n g e r , t h e r e i s no way he can f u n c t i o n

w ith o u t c a r r y i n g the l e g i s l a t i v e man tle.

You c o u l d n ' t ask MEA t o

262
c o o r d i n a t e t h e s e s e s s i o n s and ex p ect t h a t they would be n e u t r a l in
t h e i r d e a l i n g w ith t h e school boards.

You c o u l d n ' t ex p ect th e school

boards to f u n c t i o n in such a s e s s i o n .

You could pick someone from a

school of e d u c a tio n t o o p e r a t e th e Michigan Education Seminars, but
he would have to have h e l l i s h personal c r e d e n t i a l s in th e p o l i t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e of e d u c a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n making in o r d e r t o have s u f f i c i e n t
c r e d i b i l i t y to c a r r y t h e program o f f . "
Bob McKerr, from th e Department o f E duc atio n, s a i d :
c o u l d n ' t ex pec t t h e department t o do i t .

"You

People would say i t was

being done with u l t e r i o r m o ti v e s . "
Tom B e r n t h a l , A d m i n i s t r a t i v e A s s i s t a n t t o S en ator B u r s le y ,
suggested t h a t "we a l r e a d y have a number o f a d v i s o r y c o u n c i l s .

I

see t h i s as a chance t o g e t o u t s i d e o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making
community and t o look in .

In o r d e r to do t h a t you need someone from

o u t s i d e t h e e d u c a t io n a l policy-making community t o h elp you do i t . "
Sen at or Bursley observed t h a t t h e Department o f Education
p o l i c y c o u n c i l s a r e concerned with co ns ensus , t h a t th e y pro vide a
forum f o r t h e v a r i e d v a r i e t y o f s i d e s o f any i s s u e t o be p r e s e n t e d ,
but th ey a r e n o t o r i o u s f o r promoting th e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e Department,
a s well th ey should be.
Another re sp ondent sugges ted t h a t "you c e r t a i n l y d o n ' t want t o
put i t with t h e governo r.

You w e r e n ' t looked a t as coming from any

sphere of i n t e r e s t , but i t t a k e s a c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l i t y t o o p e r a t e a
forum o f t h i s ty p e .

Doug Smith [ t h e g o v e r n o r ' s e d u c a t i o n a d v i s o r ]

263

has t h e p e r s o n a l i t y t o run i t i f he were d i s s o c i a t e d from t h e gover ­
n o r's o ffic e ."
Another u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r took a d i f f e r e n t t a c k .

"Almost

anyone w ith t h e r i g h t kind o f t e c h n i c a l and people s k i l l s could b i r d dog t h e s em in ar s .

The c r i t i c a l element i s in t h e s t e e r i n g committee."

Although t h i s op in ion w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in g r e a t e r d e t a i l in a l a t e r
c h a p t e r , i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o d i s a g r e e with t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e r e a r e o t h e r s w it h i n o r perhaps o u t s i d e o f t h e
ed u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e s s who could be ex pected t o c o o r d i n a t e
th e program e f f i c i e n t l y .
One o b s e r v e r s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e o p e r a ­
t i o n o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars could not be p laced w ith an
o r g a n i z a t i o n such as th e Education Forum, which was p r e v i o u s l y
described.

" I t must have funding t h a t i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from a l l

other organizations within the s t a t e . "
When asked s p e c i f i c a l l y whether t h e Education L e g i s l a t i v e
Advisory Council could o p e r a t e t h e Michigan Education Seminars o r
whether t h a t forum could be broadened to i n c l u d e t h e Michigan Educa­
t i o n Seminars, t h e gener al consensus was t h a t , a g a i n , t h e Education
L e g i s l a t i v e Advisory Council i s an animal o f th e Michigan Department
o f Education and must be viewed as such.

As a consequence, t h e forums

could not be viewed as n e u t r a l an d, in t h e words o f David Ruhala o f
t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School Boards, " t h e l e a d e r cannot be a
major a c t o r in t h e p u b l i c p o l i c y p r o c e s s . "
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Keith observed t h a t " t h e o r g a n i z e r o f t h e group
ca nnot p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e d e b a te on t h e major i s s u e s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e

264

group.

There must be o b j e c t i v i t y — th e agenda must be seen as in d e ­

pendent o f t h e major a c t o r s .

There must be a s t a t u s o r g a n i z a t i o n

involved such as t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Le adership in o r d e r
t o p u ll i t o f f . "
Bob Muth o f t h e Middle C i t i e s Education A s s o c i a t i o n s a i d ,
"The Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s i s c l o s e t o being a b l e to
manage the Michigan Education Seminars.

People in th e group a r e

a f r a i d o f t h e Michigan Department o f Education and i t s i n c r e a s i n g
r o l e in s t a t e p o l i c y making."
Doug Smith, th e Education Advisor to t h e go v e r n o r, suggested
t h a t "maybe t h e g o vernor, bec au se o f h i s s t a t e s m a n l i k e r e p u t a t i o n
could c o o r d i n a t e th e Michigan Education Seminars."

But Smith sug­

g e s te d t h a t i t would be t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e governor as a s t a t e s ­
man, and not h i s r o l e as th e l e a d e r o f s t a t e p o l i c y , t h a t would make
th is possible.

" I t i s , " s a i d Smith, t h e g o v e r n o r ' s " p e r s o n a l i t y and

s t y l e o f l e a d e r s h i p " t h a t make h i s l e a d e r s h i p o f th e Michigan Educa­
t i o n Seminars a p o t e n t i a l r e a l i t y .
Smith e x p l a in e d how th e e x e c u t i v e branch must be s e p a r a t e d
between t h e governor and t h e Michigan Department o f Education.

The

Department i s somewhat independent o f the go v e r n o r, s a i d Smith.
Des pite th e p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t e x i s t s between th e governor
and t h e de par tm en t, i t i s a "major occu rre nce" when Governor Mil l i k e n
and John P o r t e r g e t t o g e t h e r .

He sugges ted t h a t t h e l e a d e r s h i p r o l e

of t h e governor and h i s p o s i t i o n o f c o o r d i n a t i n g th e major p o l i c y
f o r c e s t o develop v i a b l e s t a t e e d u c a ti o n p o l i c y p u t t h e governor in
t h e p o s i t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l l e a d e r s h i p in t h e Michigan Education

265

Seminars.

“ I f you b e l i e v e in t h e premise o f t h e Seminars [ n e u t r a l i t y ]

you c a n ' t have anyone e l s e provid e i t s l e a d e r s h i p . "
E l i z a b e t h Kummer o f t h e League o f Women V o t e r s , and a l s o
s e c r e t a r y o f the Michigan Education Council o f t h e Education Commis­
s io n o f t h e S t a t e s , sug gested t h a t t h e Michigan Education Seminars
was t h e c o n t r i b u t o r t o t h e e s ta b li s h m e n t o f an i d e n t i t y f o r ECS in
Michigan.

“Without i t we would have been hard pr e ss e d t o have any

impact on t h e p o l i c y process whatsoever. "
Tom Bernthal sug ges ted t h a t "I d o n ' t t h i n k th e Education
Commission o f t h e S t a t e s would have been sunk w ith o u t t h e Michigan
Education Seminars.

But t h e Michigan Education Seminars gave t h e

Education Commission o f th e S t a t e s in Michigan a s h o t in t h e arm.
This program i s e x a c t l y what ECS should be do ing—a good blend o f
Washington, D.C., and Denver."

Bernthal went on t o conclude t h a t t h e

arrangement between t h e Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s and th e
Michigan Education Seminars was one o f t h e most p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f
t h e study and implied t h a t perhaps th e Education Commission o f th e
S t a t e s should be looked toward f o r f u t u r e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e Michigan
Education Seminars.
An o b j e c t i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h i s s e c t i o n could lead th e r e a d e r
t o assume t h a t once t h e c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h e r drops t h i s as signm ent, t h e
seminar s e r i e s w i l l be doomed t o f a i l u r e .
t h a t t h i s is not the case.

The r e a d e r w i l l f i n d l a t e r

In f a c t , t h e r o l e o f t h e c o o r d i n a t o r o f

th e seminar and t h e importance o f h i s p er ceiv ed n e u t r a l i t y co uld be
g r e a t l y o v e r s t a t e d by th e i n t e r v i e w e e s .

266

In t h e f i r s t p l a c e , i t was t h e r e s e a r c h e r who conducted t h e
i n t e r v i e w s with th e p o l i c y a c t o r s who p a r t i c i p a t e d in th e se minar s.
T h e ir comments and r e f l e c t i o n s pro bab ly were b i a s e d by t h e pre se nce o f
the r e s e a r c h e r in t h i s e v a l u a t i o n .

Second, t h e q u e s t i o n o f s u r v i v a l

was couched in an a tt e m p t t o g e t t h e i n t e r v i e w e e t o recommend someone
t o tak e th e p l a c e o f t h e c u r r e n t c o o r d i n a t o r .

The p a r t i c i p a n t s were

a p p a r e n t l y q u i t e p le a s e d wit h th e way t h a t t h e seminars were being
conducted.

The seminar s e r i e s had n o t embarrassed them.

The seminar

s e r i e s had not been used to promote p o s i t i o n s t h e y did n o t a g r e e w it h .
They were neve r asked t o g iv e t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s stamp o f approval
to any a c t i o n o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .

Perhaps most i m p o r t a n t , th e

r e s e a r c h e r was c a r e f u l n o t t o imply by as kin g t h e q u e s ti o n about who
could t a k e over t h e program t h a t he was i n t e r v i e w in g them f o r t h e j o b .
Since th ey pro bably did n o t , in most c a s e s , p e r c e i v e themselves to be
e l i g i b l e c o o r d i n a t o r s , why should the y recommend someone e l s e and
lea ve t h e door open t o t h e sem in ar s ' being conducted by an ad v er sar y ?
T h i r d , t h e co ncept o f t h e n e u t r a l i t y o f t h e seminars may have l i t t l e
t o do wit h t h e p e r c e i v e d n e u t r a l i t y o f th e c o o r d i n a t o r .

Perhaps t h e

seminar could be t u r n e d o v e r t o a c o a l i t i o n o f o t h e r w i s e a d v e r s a r i e s .
Other c o n f i g u r a t i o n s could be contem plated .
The s o l u t i o n t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r developed f o r han dli ng t h e
t r a n s i t i o n o f l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars— th e
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s — i s d e t a i l e d in th e "Epilogue"
to the d i s s e r t a t i o n .

S u f f i c e i t t o say t h a t t h e r es po nses to th e

q u e s t i o n s asked o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t - i n t e r v i e w e e s t h a t a r e d e t a i l e d in

267

t h i s s e c t i o n p ro vide few c lu e s t o t h e s o l u t i o n t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h e r
used t o h elp i n s u r e t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.
Summary o f t h e Chapter
Nineteen formal i n t e r v i e w s were conducted a t th e c o n c lu s io n
o f t h e formal s tudy o f th e Michigan Education Seminars.

The i n t e r ­

views were designed to i d e n t i f y s p e c i f i c a t t i t u d e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e
development, f u n c t i o n , and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .

Questions

r e l a t i n g t o t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r f u t u r e s u r v i v a l o f t h e seminar s e r i e s
were a l s o aske d.

The in t e r v i e w s pr ovid e th e b a s i s f o r t h e a n a l y s i s .

But t h e a n a l y s i s i s supplemented with many o f th e o t h e r r e s e a r c h
too ls of the fieldworker.
The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f th e Michigan Education Semi­
nars was seen as c r i t i c a l t o th e development o f t h e program.

How

th e seminar s e r i e s was to be analyz ed provided im p o rtan t c lu e s t o how
i t could be developed and c o o r d i n a t e d .

The r e s e a r c h e r reviewed t e c h ­

niques i n c lu d in g t h e p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e policy-making commu­
n i t y o f Michigan.

He a l s o reviewed t h e p a r t i c u l a r d i f f i c u l t i e s in

conducting in t e r v i e w s with e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y e l i t e s .

He a l l u d e d to

e a r l i e r methodological c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y , in c l u d i n g th e
keeping and a n a l y s i s o f w r i t t e n r eco rd s and th e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
seminar s e s s i o n s .
The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e i s s u e s t o be p r e s e n t e d t o t h e seminar
p a r t i c i p a n t s during th e s e s s i o n s o f th e Michigan Education Seminars
was a l s o d i s c u s s e d .

The pr oc es s f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s e i s s u e s

was c a r e f u l l y o u t l i n e d .

268

In some r e s p e c t s th e

function of thecoordinator

o f th e semi­

na r s e r i e s was seen as most c r i t i c a l to t h e success o f t h e program.
C o n s id e r a tio n s r e g a rd in g t h e r o l e o f th e r e s e a r c h e r in f ie ld w o rk
were reviewed.

Unlike most f ie ld w o rk models, where a t r a i n e d

s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t must e n t e r a f i e l d and m a in ta in th e s c i e n t i f i c
detachment r e q u i r e d t o r e p o r t h i s f i n d i n g s a c c u r a t e l y , t h i s s tudy
was d i f f e r e n t .

Here, t h e r e s e a r c h e r was a l r e a d y a " n a t i v e " and

h i s j o b was t o o b t a i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c detachment needed t o r e p o r t
h i s f i n d i n g s in a u s a b le and meaningful way.
The o v e r t s t r a t e g i e s
ect-~to

r e c r u i t and e n l i s t

used t o develop s u p p o rt f o r th e p r o j t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y makers f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n

in t h e s t e e r i n g committee and th e r e g u l a r s e s s i o n s o f t h e Michigan
Education Seminars—were d e s c r ib e d with examples o f how t h e s e
s t r a t e g i e s had been put i n t o p l a c e .
Some o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o f th e Michigan Education Seminars
were p r o f i l e d .

Among th e b i o g r a p h i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s was t h e f a c t

t h a t so many o f t h e t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y a c t o r s in Michigan p o l i t i c s
seem t o move in and around v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s of power.

I n te rv ie w

resp onses were c i t e d , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in the semi­
n a r s e s s i o n s g e n e r a l l y though t th e e n t i r e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making
community o f Michigan was well r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e seminar s e r i e s .
The f u n c t io n o f t h e s t e e r i n g committee was o u t l i n e d with a
d i s c u s s i o n of how i t s o r i g i n a l members were r e c r u i t e d , and empha­
s i s on th e f a c t t h a t personal f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h i n th e e d u c a tio n a l

269
policy-making community had been r e l i e d upon f o r he lp in b u i l d i n g
th e o r i g i n a l s u p p o rt f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t .
Also d i s c u s s e d was t h e u n d e r ly in g r a t i o n a l e behind th e e f f o r t
t o develop a c l o s e working r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e Michigan c h a p t e r o f
the Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s .

A discussion of the v a rie ty

o f reaso ns why t h e Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s in Michigan would
have been i n t e r e s t e d in teaming up wit h t h e Michigan Education Semi­
nars o c c u r r e d .

Among t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t reasons c i t e d was t h e f a c t

t h a t th e Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s c h a p t e r in Michigan was
l a r g e l y a group w i th o u t a f u n c t i o n b e f o r e i t s c o - s p o n s o r s h i p o f th e
Michigan Education Seminars s e r i e s .
The I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Le ad ersh ip i s t h e p a r e n t o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n f o r th e Michigan Education Seminars s e r i e s .

I t p r o v id e s t h e

f i n a n c i n g , t h e s a n c t i o n , and some o f t h e i d e a s f o r t h e s t r u c t u r i n g
and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

In th e s e c t i o n in

which t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two o r g a n i z a t i o n s was d i s c u s s e d ,
evidence was p r e s e n t e d o f t h e s u b t l e b u t r e a l i n f l u e n c e s t h e I n s t i ­
t u t e a t te m p t s t o e x e r t on i t s member s t a t e seminar s e r i e s .

Also

d i s c u s s e d were t h e s t e p s tak en to avoid t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s and th e
consequences o f t h i s a c t i o n .

In t h a t s e c t i o n i t was concluded t h a t

alth o u g h th e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educatio na l Le aders hip does , in f a c t ,
e x e r t i n f l u e n c e upon i t s member s t a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i t w i l l al low
t h e s t a t e programs t o remain r e l a t i v e l y autonomous.

I t was a l s o

concluded t h a t , in an open systems framework, t h e Michigan Educa­
t i o n Seminars could o n ly l o o s e l y be c o n s i d e r e d a subsystem o f the
I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Le ad ers h ip .

I t s h o u ld , however, be

270

c o n s id e re d a subsystem w i t h i n th e l a r g e r e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making
system in Michigan.
In p u r s u i t o f some o f t h e br oad er q u e s t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d wit h
the development, f u n c t i o n , and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e Michigan Education
Seminars, a d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e purpose o f th e Michigan Education
Seminars was developed by a n aly zin g t h e way i t s purpose was d e s c r i b e d
by p a r t i c i p a n t s .

M e m be r- part icipants o f t h e Michigan Education Semi­

na rs p er ceiv ed th e o r g a n i z a t i o n as a " n e u t r a l forum."

In f a c t , th e

term " n e u t r a l forum" was used by many of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s .

Above

t h i s , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s saw t h e seminars as a means o f " g e t t i n g
t o g e t h e r " a broad c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f t h e very d i v e r s e e d u c a t i o n a l
policy-making community o f th e s t a t e .
Seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t the d e c i s i o n to av oid th e
c r e a t i o n o f a co n s en su s -s eek in g purpose f o r t h e Michigan Education
Seminars was a good one.

A wide v a r i e t y o f r ea so ns

was given f o r

why t h e d e c i s i o n t o avoid a co n s e n su s -s e e k in g atmosphere in th e
seminar s e r i e s seemed l o g i c a l as t h e program was being developed.
The p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e in t e r v i e w e e s confirmed t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h i s
judgment.

The d e c i s i o n to avoid consensus was among th e most s i g ­

n i f i c a n t reaso ns f o r t h e s uc ce ss o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .
The Michigan Education Seminars can be seen as i n f l u e n c i n g
two major t y p e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t o p - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
a c t o r s in Michigan.

In t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s

r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e s e r i e s had a p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s
w ith a d v e r s a r i e s in t h e policy-making p r o c e s s .

They a l s o r e p o r t e d ,

271

however, t h a t perhaps t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t t h e seminar had was
upon r e l a t i o n s h i p s with o t h e r l e a d e r s in t h e i r own o r g a n i z a t i o n .
Evidence was p r e se n te d o f t h e i n t e r - a g e n c y communication t h a t was
developed w i t h i n th e e x e c u t i v e branch and r e s u l t e d in s u b s t a n ­
t i a l l y modified s t a t e p o l i c y , d i r e c t l y as a r e s u l t o f t h e seminar
series.
The o p p o r tu n i t y f o r p o l i c y makers to g e t t o g e t h e r with t h e i r
a d v e r s a r i e s in a h o s p i t a b l e c l i m a t e was shown t o be a major moti­
v a t o r f o r a tte n d a n c e a t t h e seminar s e s s i o n s .
Two major i s s u e s were d i s c u s s e d in a minor p o l i c y impact
analysis.

The i s s u e s were chosen t o be analyze d f o r d i f f e r e n t

r e a s o n s , but both were s u b j e c t s o f independent seminar s e s s i o n s .
In th e c a s e o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l convention b a l l o t q u e s ti o n t h a t ,
in 1977, was more than one y e a r away from ap p ea ring on t h e s t a t e ' s
b a l l o t , th e evidence o f impact o f t h e seminar s e r i e s i s l i m i t e d .
But in t h e c as e o f t h e f in a n c i n g o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t , s e v e ra l
seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s recogn ized t h a t t h e Michigan Education Semi­
nars broke a major log-jam in t h e e x e c u t i v e branch o f government.
The seminar s e s s i o n was designed by t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a d v i s o r t o t h e
governor t o accomplish t h i s purpose.
Several seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t the y used th e
s e s s i o n s t o promote i s s u e s b e f o re t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s in th e p o l i c y ­
making p r o c e s s .
Although some o f t h e problems enco untere d by t h e Michigan
Education Seminars appeared s c a t t e r e d thr ou gho ut the a n a l y s i s c h a p t e r ,
a s p e c i f i c q u e s ti o n on t h e major weaknesses o f t h e seminar r e v e a l e d

272

l i t t l e us efu l in f o r m a t io n .

The r e s e a r c h e r s p e c u l a t e d t h a t his

p r e s e n c e , asking th e e v a l u a t i v e q u e s t i o n , may have i n t i m i d a t e d t h e
r e sp o n d e n t s .

He a l s o s p e c u l a t e d t h a t had he been more c a r e f u l to

s e l e c t some i n t e r v i e w e e s who had not expres sed an i n t e r e s t in coming
t o t h e seminar s e s s i o n s , t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e a n a l y s i s might have been
more meaningful.
The i s s u e o f th e s u r v i v a l o f th e Michigan Education Seminars
was e x p lo red with t h r e e b a s ic i n t e r v i e w q u e s t i o n s .

In e s s e n c e ,

i n t e r v i e w e e s were asked t o help s e l e c t a new c o o r d i n a t o r .

They were

uniformly r e l u c t a n t t o recommend t h a t anyone new be a p pointed t o
c o o r d i n a t e th e Michigan Education Seminars.
The a n a l y s i s of th e Michigan Education Seminars showed t h e
seminar s e r i e s f i l l i n g a void in th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making com­
munity in Michigan.

Both th e seminar s e r i e s and i t s c o o r d i n a t o r

were well r e c e i v e d in t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community.

The

seminar s e s s i o n s were well a t t e n d e d and seemed t o f u l f i l l a v a r i e t y
o f d i f f e r e n t purposes f o r th e a t t e n d e e s .

CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The Case in Review
The Michigan Education Seminars i s a s e r i e s o f informal s e s ­
s io n s in which l e a d e r s in s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y making in
Michigan p e r i o d i c a l l y meet t o d i s c u s s a wide v a r i e t y of a c t u a l or
p o t e n t i a l e d u catio n p o l i c y i s s u e s .

The seminars in t h e i r c u r r e n t

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and p o l i t i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n were formed in J u l y 1977.
The r e s e a r c h e r organ iz ed and o p er ated t h e Michigan Education
Seminars with the funding s upport o f th e Ford Foundation, under th e
a u s p ic e s o f t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Le ad ership (IE L), Washington,
D.C.

I n d i v i d u a l s who were found t o f r e q u e n t l y a f f e c t p u b l i c e d u catio n

p o l i c y in Michigan were i n v i t e d t o be p a r t i c i p a n t s in seminar s e s s i o n s
conducted from September 1977 through December 1978.

The temporal

bo unda ries o f t h i s study a r e J u l y 1, 1977, through December 1, 1978.
Six s e p a r a t e s e s s i o n s ranging from two t o f o u r hours in l e n g th
were conducted durin g th e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.
These s i x seminars in volved more than one hundred l e a d e r s i n M ic hig an's
l e g i s l a t i v e and e x e c u t i v e branches o f s t a t e government, school admin­
i s t r a t o r and t e a c h e r l o b b y i s t s , d i r e c t o r s o f s t a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r
t e a c h e r s , school board members, and o t h e r s .

A v a rie ty of u n iv e rsity

o f f i c i a l s and f a c u l t y from Michigan p u b l i c and p r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s
were a l s o involved in th e s tu d y .

Most n o t a b l e among t h e s e were a t
273

274

l e a s t t h r e e u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s who have p u b lish ed in t h e general
ar ea o f p u b l i c p o l i c y a n a l y s i s , two o f whom have w r i t t e n e x t e n s i v e l y
on t h e s u b j e c t o f Mich igan 's p u b l i c p o l i c y p r o c e s s .

The o r i g i n a l

founder o f t h e A s s o c ia t e s Program, th e program under which t h e IEL
funds and s u p e r v i s e s the Michigan Education Seminars, s a t as a p a r ­
t i c i p a n t in th e f i r s t and s e v e r a l subsequent Michigan Education Semi­
nars.

At t h a t time t h e p r e s i d e n t o f a h i g h e r e d u c a t io n i n s t i t u t i o n

in Michigan, t h e A s s o c i a t e Program f ounder, Michael Usdan, a s s i s t e d
the r e s e a r c h e r as he began to f o r m a li z e t h e process o f in v o lv in g edu­
c a t i o n a l p o l i c y l e a d e r s in th e planned s e s s i o n s .
Several o t h e r l e a d e r s a t var io u s l e v e l s in M ichigan 's o f f i ­
c i a l p u b l i c e d u catio n p o l i c y process a t t e n d e d from one t o as many as
s i x o f the seminar s e s s i o n s .
The r e s e a r c h e r r e p o r t e d th e a c t i v i t y of th e f i r s t y e a r ' s
programs o f th e Michigan Education Seminars in a f i e l d study on th e
o r g a n i z a t i o n and c o o r d i n a t i o n o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f what i s seen as a
s e p a r a t e system w i t h i n t h e Michigan e d u catio n p o l i c y p r o c e s s .
t h i s , th e r e s e a r c h e r f i r s t formed t h e system.

To do

A primary measure o f

th e s u c c e s s f u l formation o f such a system i s th e c a l i b e r o f i t s p a r ­
t i c i p a n t s and t h e i r degree o f commitment to th e co ncept o f th e Michigan
Education Seminars.
The r e s e a r c h e r used an " e l i t e in te r v i e w in g " pro cess which,
when combined with a knowledge o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t s o f th e
v a r i o u s segments o f th e s t a t e ' s power s t r u c t u r e , was used t o both
i d e n t i f y t h o s e w i t h i n th e p r o c e ss who were r e p o r t e d t o be i n f l u e n t i a l

275

as well a s to s e c u re t h e commitment o f t h e s e i n t e r v i e w e e s t o j o i n
th e p r o c e s s .
The r e s e a r c h was p r e d i c a t e d on a v a r i e t y o f e x p r ess ed as well
as implied assumptions.
The Major Assumptions
A major implied assumption i s t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n o f a m u l t i ­
i n t e r e s t , m u l t i - i s s u e , e d u c a tio n p o l i c y d i s c u s s i o n group f o r s t a t e
l e a d e r s would be "good" f o r th e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s .

This assumption

o b viously d e r i v e s from a more b a s i c b e l i e f t h a t not a l l i s well with
p u b l i c e d u catio n p o l i c y in Michigan and t h a t t h e p o l i c y i s somehow
r e l a t e d to t h e proce ss by which i t i s made.

These c o n s t i t u t e one

type o f a s sum pti ons —assumptions t h a t a r e b a s i c a l l y i n t u i t i v e , r e i n ­
f o rc e d by perso na l e x p e r ie n c e s and not d isp roved in t h e l i t e r a t u r e .
Assumptions o f a n o t h e r kind amount t o a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
way in which t h e r e s e a r c h e r views, s t u d i e s , r e p o r t s , and o p e r a t e s
w i t h i n th e s t a t e p u b l i c policy-making p r o c e s s .

These assumptions

c o n s t i t u t e t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s view o f t h i s world.
The r e s e a r c h e r s u b s c r i b e s t o an open systems a n a l y t i c a l frame
work.

C o n t r a s t e d t o a c l o s e d system approach in which a system i s

s t u d i e d as a s i n g l e , f r e e - s t a n d i n g organism, an open systems frame­
work views systems as i n t e r a c t i n g with o t h e r systems.

More than

simply a d i f f e r e n t way o f looking a t t h i n g s , t h e open systems frame­
work d e f i n e s i n t e r a c t i o n in terms o f imported and ex p o r te d en er gy,
w it h o u t with e n t r o p y , th e n a t u r a l tendency o f a l l systems t o move
toward e x t i n c t i o n , could not be n e g a te d .

The open system t h e o r i s t ,

276

t h e n , c o n c e n t r a t e s on a more complex, i f not t h e b i g g e r , p i c t u r e - t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e s u b j e c t system r e l a t i n g t o o t h e r sy stem s.

Evi­

dence o f d i r e c t impact o f th e Michigan Education Seminars on s p e c i f i c
s t a t e p o l i c y a c t i o n s t e s t i f i e s to t h e importance o f t h i s conc ep tual
framework, as well as f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f negantropy.
The e x i s t e n c e o f negantr opy i s an e s s e n t i a l c r i t e r i o n in t h e
d e f i n i t i o n o f a system as open.

The absence o f negantropy i s , o f

c o u r s e , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f e n t r o p y , which, as has been s t a t e d s e v e r a l
tim es w i t h i n t h i s r e p o r t , i s th e n a t u r a l tendency f o r a l l syst em s,
b i o l o g i c a l o r s o c i a l , t o move toward t h e i r own d e a t h .
Since a p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o r " s u r v i v a b i l i t y " o f
t h e Michigan Education Seminars was c o n s id e re d t o be an e s s e n t i a l
o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , a focusing on t h e r o l e o r co nc ep t o f
ne gantropy was c o n s id e re d e s s e n t i a l t o t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h i s r e s e a r c h .
Since i t was accep ted by t h e r e s e a r c h e r t h a t open systems
w i l l s t r u g g l e t o ach ie ve a s t a t e o f neg an tropy, in p u r s u i t o f th e
f o u n t a i n - o f - y o u t h as i t i s , no a tt e m p t was made by t h e r e s e a r c h e r
t o d i s s o c i a t e h im s e lf from t h i s e f f o r t .

In o t h e r words, t h e r e s e a r c h e r

e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s u c c e s s f u l a t t a i n m e n t o f a " b e t t e r " p u b l i c e d u c a t io n
p o l i c y pr o c e ss in Michigan as a h ig h e r l e v e l goal th a n , s ay, s c i e n ­
t i f i c detachment.

Much in th e way t h a t t h e o r n i t h o l o g i s t would be

i n c l i n e d t o f i x t h e broken wing o f an e a g l e in o r d e r to have a sub­
j e c t t o s t u d y , th e r e s e a r c h e r fough t f o r t h e a ccep ta nce o f th e
Michigan Education Seminars.
Besides t h e evidence p r e s e n t e d on t h e d i r e c t p o l i c y impact
o f t h e seminar s e r i e s on s t a t e p o l i c y , ev idence i s a l s o p r e s e n t e d t o

in
s uggest t h a t an e s s e n t i a l cor e o f s t a t e p o l i c y makers i s a l s o con­
c e r n e d , though perhaps n o t e q u a l l y , with th e q u e s ti o n o f t h e s u r v i v a l
o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

T h e ir i n t e r e s t , f o r example, in

help in g t o i d e n t i f y a f u t u r e seminar s e r i e s c o o r d i n a t o r s ug ges ts
t h a t t h e s e r i e s w i l l c o n t i n u e long a f t e r t h i s r e p o r t i s p r e s e n t e d .
As eviden ce o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s involvement in t h e system and com­
mitment t o i t s s u r v i v a l , t h e d i r e c t q u e s ti o n o f whether o r not t h e
Michigan Education Seminars w i l l o r should s u r v i v e was never asked.
Another s e t o f assumptions i s o p e r a t i o n a l in n a t u r e .

The

su ccess o f t h e s tu d y , i t was assumed, f o r example, would be c o n t i n ­
gent upon th e r e s e a r c h e r a p plying p o l i t i c a l l e v e r a g e upon t h e i d e n t i ­
f i e d p o l i c y makers t o g e t them t o p a r t i c i p a t e .

The e n l i s t m e n t of

such commitment should not be l e f t t o chance in e f f e c t i v e p o l i t i c a l
strategy.

Leverage can be b e h a v i o r a l l y d e f in e d in much t h e same way

t h a t power i s d e f i n e d in th e l i t e r a t u r e .

Although no common d e f i n i ­

t i o n e x i s t s f o r th e word "power," i t i s f r e q u e n t l y d e f in e d in t h e con­
t e x t o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s a b i l i t y t o a d m i n i s t e r con se qu en ce s, both
n e g a t i v e and p o s i t i v e , to beh av io r .
To apply le v e r a g e f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a v a r i e t y o f t a c t i c s were
employed.

These t a c t i c s i ncluded e s t a b l i s h i n g d i r e c t l i n e s o f com­

mun ication with p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r s in o r g a n i z a t i o n s in o r d e r to en s u re
the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of s u b o r d i n a t e s who were o f t e n t h e re p u te d l e a d e r s
w it h in th e p o s i t i o n a l l e a d e r ' s a r e n a ; i n s u r i n g t h a t t h e i s s u e d i s ­
c u s s i o n s were led by i n d i v i d u a l s whose s t a t u s commanded a c e r t a i n
f o l l o w i n g ; and s e l e c t i n g i s s u e s upon which im p o rtan t a t t i t u d i n a l
b i a s e s could and would be openly d i s c u s s e d .

278

Another assumption in t h i s o p e r a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y was t h a t ,
s i n c e t h e r e was no s t a t u t o r y a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f Michigan
Education Seminars, c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s must be honored.

The r e s e a r c h e r

saw no r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to s u b s c r i b e t o t h e r i g i d le g a l s ta n d a r d s o f
M ic h ig an's open meeting a c t .

This a c t p e r t a i n s t o p u b lic bodies.

These bodies a r e d e f in e d i n terms o f t h e i r s p e c i f i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in
the law, and not in terms o f t h e i r membership.

This r e a l i z a t i o n c a r ­

r i e d more r e s t r i c t i o n s than i t did freedom, however.

How could th e

r e s e a r c h e r j u s t i f y th e p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n s o f th e Michigan Education
Seminars?

Since no answer was r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , he developed the

fo llow ing l o g i c , which s e r e n d i p i t o u s l y provided a key t o t h e s e r i e s '
s u c c e ss .
The p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e s e s s i o n s were to be i n d i v i d u a l s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p u b l i c d e b a te and a c t i o n on p u b l i c q u e s t i o n s .

The

c o o r d i n a t o r had no a u t h o r i t y t o p l a c e them i n t o a p r i v a t e meeting a t
which commitments on p u b l i c q u e s t i o n s were made.

F u r t h e r , i t dawned

upon th e r e s e a r c h e r t h a t such meetings would c e r t a i n l y lead t o t h e
eventual e x t i n c t i o n o f th e seminar s e r i e s , as such p u b lic d e c i s i o n s
o f t h e nonpublic and n o n o f f i c i a l Michigan Education Seminars would be
disavowed (along with t h e forum) by p a r t i c i p a n t s with d i s s e n t i n g
op in io n s .
Thus, i t became obvious to t h e r e s e a r c h e r t h a t , above any­
t h in g e l s e , consensus a t t e m p t s and subsequent " o f f i c i a l " p o s i t i o n s
were t o be avoided by th e Michigan Education Seminars.

Consensus

occurs a f t e r th e f a c t ; i t i s a r e p o r t t h a t r e q u i r e s no formal s t r u c t u r e
f o r th e r e c o r d in g o f v o t e s .

"No d i s s e n t was heard" i s one meaning o f

279

cons ensus.

"Unanimity was r e c o r d e d , " as t h e term consensus seems t o

imply to so many o f i t s s e e k e r s , was not c o n s id e re d t o be an o b j e c ­
t i v e o f the seminar proceedings.
The Environment o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars
To cope with a complex environment, one must f i r s t d e f i n e
it.

The environment o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars i s t h e e n t i r e

p u b l i c p o l i c y process o f th e s t a t e o f Michigan.

I t s s t a t u s i s not

de f i n e d in t h e s t a t u t e s , but i t i s guar an tee d by th e c o n s t i t u t i o n .
The s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e concept i s profound.
t a t i o n s o f an environment, one l i m i t s i t .

I f one p e r c e i v e s th e l i m i ­
But t h e impact o f the

se m inars , o r i t s c a p a c i t y to reach i n t o complex s u p e r s y s t e m s , was not
li m i t e d by th e r e s e a r c h e r .

R a th e r , i t was presumed t h a t t h e s u r v i v a l

o f t h e system was c o n t i n g e n t upon i t s a b i l i t y t o i n t e r a c t with l a r g e r
and perhaps more o f f i c i a l environments.
Thus t h e schematic f o r t h e Michigan Education Seminars i s not
the t r a d i t i o n a l one o f p l a c i n g a n o t h e r p l a n e t w i t h i n a common atmos­
pher e o r b i t i n g around a s i n g l e sun.

The schem atic f o r t h e system

c r e a t e d i s more one o f adding a sun t o a l a r g e body o f p l a n e t s p r e ­
v i o u s l y seeming t o be i n random o r b i t .

The goal was to p l a c e some

o r d e r in th e u n i v e r s e .
The s u b j e c t system then becomes somewhat unique.

I t i s viewed

as a system which can r e s o l v e d i s p u t e s , e x p lo r e s t r a t e g i e s , and tak e
other necessary steps to prevent in te rn e c in e warfare.

I t becomes

t h e o b j e c t p rovid ing g r a v i t y t o th e p o l i c y u n i v e r s e .

I t both gives

advance warning o f c r i s i s and provid e s a magnetic f o r c e f o r helping

280

form a more uniform o r b i t f o r th e v a r io u s s phere s o f i n f l u e n c e in
t h e e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y p r o c e s s .
The environment o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars cannot be
defined.

An example o f t h e unique program approach o f th e seminar

s e r i e s being reviewed and d i s c u s s e d in an i n t e r n a t i o n a l f oundation
board meeting can be g i v e n —as can i t s d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e upon f e d ­
eral o f f i c i a l s .
The co nce pt o f " c o n n e c t i v i t y " i s im p o rta n t in u n d e rstanding
the f u ll s ig n ific a n c e of th is research.

I t proposes t h a t an open

s y s t e m 's i n t e r a c t i o n with o t h e r open systems, t h e b a s ic t e n e t of
general systems t h e o r y , can be d e f in e d in terms o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between elements o f t h e two environments.

The f a c t t h a t t h e s e c r e ­

t a r i e s o f two r i v a l l a b o r unions a r e lo v e r s could be an example o f
c o n n e c t i v i t y between t h e s e two environments.

The c o n n e c t i v i t y need

not be formal o r o f f i c i a l l y s an c tio n e d to e x i s t .
I f t h e s u r v i v a l o f a system i s c o n t i n g e n t upon c o n n e c t i v i t y ,
i t makes sense f o r t h e system " t o have f r i e n d s in high p l a c e s . "

This

r e s e a r c h e r o p e r a te d in t h e knowledge t h a t not a l l l e a d e r s h i p appea rs
on t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t .

Leaders whose "unceremonial" p o s i t i o n s

i n s u l a t e them from t h e p u b l i c consequences of c o r p o r a t e o r burea u­
c r a t i c d e c i s i o n s o f t e n make t h e s e d e c i s i o n s n o n e t h e l e s s .
Environments, t h e r e f o r e , cannot be s e p a r a t e d as t o power o r
i n f l u e n c e on simply a v e r t i c a l diagram; t h a t i s , in terms o f t h e o f f i ­
c i a l i n f l u e n c e o f t h e v a r i e t y o f l e v e l s o r p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n an o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n , o r in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s p o s i t i o n o f s t a t u s w i t h i n th e
policy-making community.

Environments can be viewed on a h o r i z o n t a l

281

measure.

In o t h e r words, a lthou gh i t seems environments a r e a f f e c t e d

by i n d i v i d u a l s a t a v a r i e t y o f l e v e l s , t h e y a r e a l s o in f l u e n c e d by
environments o t h e r w is e viewed as d i s t i n c t .
A f i e l d , t h e r e f o r e , i s d e f in e d by s i t u a t i o n s t h a t a r e w i t h i n
th e p r a c t i c a l a b i l i t y o f

the researcher to describe.

But th e t e n ­

dency t o draw a " closed- s ystem s" schem atic o f t h e environment o f th e
Michigan Education Seminars was avoided in t h i s r e s e a r c h , as i t i s
avoided by s u c c e s s f u l p o l i t i c a l o p e r a t i v e s .
The Pronouncements in t h e L i t e r a t u r e
The l i t e r a t u r e provided general guidance to th e conduct of
th is research.

That M ic higan 's e d u c a tio n p o l i c y environment was among

t h e most c o n f l i c t - o r i e n t e d o f any o f th e American s t a t e s s t u d i e d was
i n t e r e s t i n g but n o t u s e f u l .

I f a n y t h i n g , t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n por­

t r a y e d an environment t h a t would be r e s i s t a n t to a t te m p t s t o en cour­
age communication r a t h e r th an an environment t h a t was r i p e f o r i t .
In t h i s sense t h e r e s e a r c h is m i s le a d in g .
The h i s t o r y o f t h e a p o l i t i c a l myth, t h a t e d u c a ti o n should be
f r e e o f p o l i t i c s , was n o t r e l e v a n t t o d e v i s i n g s t r a t e g i e s t o work wit h
t h e sample drawn f o r t h i s s tu d y .

The r e s e a r c h e r w i l l d e b a te anyone

so n ai ve as t o assume t h a t t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y pro­
ce s s in Michigan d o n ' t u nderstand t h e c o n n e c t io n between e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i t i c s and p o l i t i c s in g e n e r a l .
There i s no r e a l d i s t i n c t i o n t o be found in t h e l i t e r a t u r e
between e d u c a t io n a l p o l i t i c s and p o l i t i c s .

This r e s e a r c h e r found no

c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h which sugges ted t h a t e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s i s anything

28 2

o t h e r than p o l i t i c s .
e x e r c i s e o f power.

This r e s e a r c h presumes t h a t p o l i t i c s i s t h e
The end, e d u cati o n in t h i s c a s e , can be meaning­

f u l l y s e p a r a t e d from t h e means, p o l i t i c s .

P o l i t i c s i s t h e medium

and not t h e message.
Host r e s e a r c h e r s acknowledge t h a t t h e ed ucati on p o l i c y proc es s
can be segmented as t o f u n c t i o n .

Thus t h e l e g i s l a t i v e , t h e e x e c u t i v e ,

th e j u d i c i a r y , i n t e r e s t g r oup s, and o t h e r s seem t o be r e a so n a b ly
d i s c r e t e c a t e g o r i e s i n t o which a l l e d u c a ti o n p o l i c y a c t o r s w i l l f a l l .
Within t h e s e segments, an un d e r sta n d in g o f p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c s , t h e
names and f a c e s , and a d i s t i n c t knowledge o f th e s p e c i f i c system under
study becomes e s s e n t i a l as an a n t e c e d e n t c o n d i t i o n o f f u r t h e r under­
s ta n d i n g o f t h e system.

Thus, l a b o r and management a s s o c i a t i o n s

d i v i d e , as do p u b l i c and p r i v a t e g r o ups, as does "lower" and h i g h e r
education.

As t h e c a t e g o r i e s become more d i s c r e t e , s p e c i f i c knowledge

o f t h e system becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y im p o r ta n t .

A small AFL-CIO a f f i l i ­

a t e d t e a c h e r s ' union can be s a i d to have g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l impact on
p u b l i c p o l i c y than can a l a r g e r independent t e a c h e r s ' a s s o c i a t i o n .
Whether t h e power i s e x e r c i s e d i s a n o t h e r i s s u e .
The l i t e r a t u r e s u p p o r ts ca sual o b s e r v a t i o n s abou t t h e chang­
ing b ala n ce o f power in t e a c h e r s ' and managers' a f f a i r s in s t a t e
policy.

I t av oids s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , a body

undergoing r e c e n t r a p i d changes.

The l i t e r a t u r e he lp s i d e n t i f y t h e

philoso phy and s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s t a t e de par tment o f e d u c a t i o n , b u t i t
cannot acc oun t f o r changes t h a t o c c u r re d ov er th e p a s t t h r e e y e a r s .
The l i t e r a t u r e does n o t p o r t r a y an un d e r sta n d in g o f t h e p o t e n t i a l

283

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e United Auto Workers in major e d u c a t i o n a l d e b a t e s .
The pe ople dev elop in g t h e p o l i c y do.
The i n t e r v i e w s and e x p e r ie n c e with t h e l e a d e r s in Michigan
p o l i t i c s were much more u s efu l than was t h e l i t e r a t u r e in pr o v id in g
p r a c t i c a l in f o r m a ti o n t h a t guided t h e fo rm at io n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars.
The S t r a t e g i e s o f Research
This r e s e a r c h i s o r i e n t e d toward a dem onst ration o f s k i l l s
r a t h e r than a thorough e x p l o r a t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n .

The

need t o f i n d a r e s e a r c h model which presumed, i f not r e q u i r e d , a
p r a c t i c a l a b i l i t y t o ap ply l e a r n i n g was r e q u i r e d .

The f i e l d methods

provided t h a t model.
The r e s e a r c h e r adopted an approach t o t h e r e s e a r c h t h a t would
not presume t h a t g r e a t ge ner al knowledge would d e r i v e from i t .

He

tu rn e d t o th e a g e - o l d d i s t i n c t i o n between p a r t i c u l a r i z i n g and gen­
e ra liz in g research.

This r e s e a r c h may produce general p r i n c i p l e s ,

such as th e p r i n c i p l e on co nsen su s, but i t ca nno t v e r i f y t h e s e p r i n ­
ciples.

What t h e r e s e a r c h could do i s t a k e some common p r i n c i p l e s ,

such as t h o s e making up t h e g en er al systems conceptual framework,
and t e s t t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s in a c t i o n .

Thus we have t h e stu d y o f th e

p a r tic u la r c a s e --p a rtic u la riz in g research.
Although eviden ce o f t h e d i r e c t impact o f t h e Michigan Edu­
c a t i o n Seminars upon p u b l i c e d u c a tio n p o l i c y can be p r e s e n t e d , t h i s
is not a policy a n a ly sis.
is the public policy.

In p o l i c y a n a l y s i s , t h e dependent v a r i a b l e

M anipulation s in t h e p o l i c y environment a r e

284

c o n t r o l l e d t o produce d i s c r e t e e v e n t s d e f i n e d in terms o f p u b l i c
policy.

This i s a s tudy in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r .
The major elements o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e i d e n t i f i e d , and

an a t te m p t i s made t o i d e n t i f y and d e s c r i b e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
t h e s e el em ents.

At t h e same t i m e , an a tte m p t i s made t o d e f i n e t h e

environment w i t h i n which t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n e x i s t s and th o s e with which
i t interacts.
S e l e c t i n g t h e Population
The p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h i s s tu dy a r e s a i d t o r e p r e s e n t th e
e l i t e i n Michigan e d u c a t io n p o l i c y making.

The p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t was

drawn from t h e p o s i t i o n a l and r eputed l e a d e r s o f t h e p r o c e s s .

At

t h e same ti m e , ad ju st m e n t s to th e p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t were made to pro­
vide p o l i t i c a l b a l a n c e ; t h a t i s t o s ay, b alan ce between l a b o r and
management views, b al an ce between K-12 and h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n , b al an ce
between Democrats and Republicans.
C e r t a i n l e a d e r s were excluded from p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
nor and th e house spea ker were not asked t o p a r t i c i p a t e .
demands a r e g r e a t .

The gove r­
T h e i r time

T h e i r s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e s t a t e could make t h e i r

p a r t i c i p a t i o n command performances f o r s t a f f and t h e p r e s s and could
severely d isru p t the discussions.

T h e ir s u b o r d i n a t e s a r e l a r g e l y

empowered to speak on t h e i r b e h a l f , and th e y a r e ca p a b l e o f doing
that.
The r e s e a r c h e r a l s o l e f t v a r io u s l e a d e r s o f f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t
l i s t as a means o f pr o v id in g a p a r t i a l c o n t r o l .

One way of measur­

ing t h e pr o c e ss impact o f th e seminar s e r i e s was t o begin t h e pr o c e ss

285
o f conducting th e seminars and t o see who steppe d forward t o r e q u e s t
an i n v i t a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e .
Comparing t h e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t i n v i t e e l i s t (September
1977) with t h e much-expanded 1978 l i s t , one f i n d s t h a t t h e growth in
p a r t i c i p a t i o n was l a r g e l y in people who were a t th e f r i n g e s o f power
in e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y making.

I f nothing e l s e , t h i s f a c t sup p o rts

th e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t th e process o f i d e n t i f y i n g th e o r i g i n a l p a r t i c i ­
pants was thorough.
The S t e e r in g Committee
A s t e e r i n g committee, which grew t o number f o u r t e e n e ducation
p o l i c y a c t i v i s t s , provided g r e a t s u p p o rt in t h e achievement of
Michigan Education Seminars g o a l s .

The s t e e r i n g committee met f r e ­

q u e n t ly to d i s c u s s p o t e n t i a l seminar i s s u e s .

These d i s c u s s i o n s became

a s e p a r a t e s e r i e s o f m in i-s e m in a rs —n o - h o ld s - b a r r e d d i s c u s s i o n s in
which t h e major ed u c a t io n a l i s s u e s f a c i n g t h e s t a t e were i d e n t i f i e d
and an alyzed in terms r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e major e d u c a t i o n a l i n t e r ­
e s t s in Michigan.
The s t e e r i n g committee a l s o helped i d e n t i f y p o t e n t i a l new
participants.

I t s an c tio n e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r

ran ging from t h e d e c i s i o n o f l e t t e r h e a d to t h e s e l e c t i o n o f seminar
speakers.

I t provided d i r e c t i n t e r c h a n g e with t h e Education Council

o f Michigan, a g u b e r n a t o r i a l l y a p pointed body o f a dozen e d u c a ti o n
l e a d e r s who a r e th e formal ag en t o f th e Education Commission o f t h e
S t a t e s in Michigan.

This r e l a t i o n s h i p , t r i g g e r e d by c r e a t i n g an

o v er la p p in g d i r e c t o r s h i p between th e seminar s e r i e s and t h e e d u catio n

286

c o u n c i l , i s seen as a key to t h e lo ng-t er m s u r v i v a l o f both e n t i t i e s
in t h i s s t a t e .
Besides t h e c r e d i b i l i t y provided th e seminar s e r i e s by a
high-powered s t e e r i n g committee, such a committee a l s o p rovid e s
p o l i t i c a l p r o t e c t i o n , i f n o t a deg re e o f i n s u l a t i o n , f o r t h e coor­
dinator.
Methodologies Employed
The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of segments of t h e ed u c a t io n a l p o l i c y ­
making community and t h e e n l i s t m e n t o f s e l e c t e d p a r t i c i p a n t s resembles
a s t r a t i f i e d sample s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s .
F i e l d methodology i s seen as an a p p r o p r i a t e methodology f o r
t h i s r e s e a r c h l a r g e l y because i t i s a most f l e x i b l e , comprehensive
r e s e a r c h model.

I t per mits t h e r e s e a r c h e r to adopt a s i t u a t i o n a l

e t h i c , t o respond t o changing c o n d i t i o n s , and to m an ipulate e n v i r o n ­
mental events toward d e s i r e d outcomes.
A r e s e a r c h model has a varying c a p a c i t y to per mit d e s c r i p ­
t i o n , e v a l u a t i o n , p r e s c r i p t i o n , and e x p l a n a t i o n .

The f i e l d model,

in a p a r t i c u l a r i z i n g fremework, pr o v id e s t h e d e s c r i p t i v e and ex p lan a­
t o r y s en se o f c o l o r a b s e n t from o t h e r app ro ac he s.

I t a l s o permits

t h e development o f e l e g a n t combinations o f simple s o c i a l r e s e a r c h
tec h n iq u e s as r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e s a r e pursued.
This study combined p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y ­
s i s , i s s u e s u r v e y s , and o t h e r d is c o v e ry te ch n iq u es t o pro vide a
r e s e a r c h p r o to t y p e t h a t could be d e s c r i b e d as s o c i o - a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l .

287
D es cri bing t h e R e s e a r c h e r ' s Major Findings
The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e r e s e a r c h o f t h i s s tu dy ca nno t be s e p ­
a r a t e d from th e o r g a n i z a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e Michigan Education
Seminars as a new f o r c e a t t h e c e n t e r o f s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s .
Extens ive i n t e r v i e w in g was conducted a f t e r t h e f i n a l s e s s i o n o f th e
f i r s t y e a r ' s o p e r a t i o n of t h e seminar s e r i e s .

What t h e i n t e r v i e w s ,

and r e l a t e d d a t a - c o l l e c t i o n d e v i c e s , produced i s a s e r i e s o f general
c o n c l u s i o n s - - c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t may have a broad er a p p l i c a t i o n t o th e
c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f s i m i l a r forums f o r t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y
makers.

The c o n c lu s io n s a r e n o t meant to be wide-sweeping g e n e r a l i z a ­

t i o n s ; t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n t o o t h e r systems can only ap ply t o t h e
exp e r ie n c e s o f th o s e who might a tt e m p t t o t r a n s f e r such i n fo r m a t io n
in th e f u t u r e .

The c o n c lu s io n s r e p o r t e d a r e based upon t h e f i n d i n g s

of t h e study of th e Michigan Education Seminars and a r e r e p o r t e d
within t h i s context.
1.

They ar e n o t e x h a u s t i v e as r e p o r t e d .
Perhaps th e most c o u n t e r - i n t u i t i v e co n c lu s io n o f t h i s

stu dy i s t h a t a tte m p ts to engage in consensus se ek in g in ad-hoc
committees and o t h e r forums o f p o l i c y makers may be a s e r i o u s impedi­
ment to t h e development o f r a p p o r t and u n d e r s ta n d i n g between th e
adversaries a t th is level.
The e x p e r ie n c e o f o p e r a t i n g t h e Michigan Education Seminars
led t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e absence o f a co n s e n su s -s e e k in g
or compromise-seeking o b j e c t i v e o f t h e seminar s e r i e s f r e e d t h e s e r i e s
and i t s p a r t i c i p a n t s from t h e t y p i c a l p a r l i a m e n t a r y and p o l i t i c a l
entanglements t h a t normally accompany t h e seek ing o f such o b j e c t i v e s
in o f f i c i a l p o l i c y s e t t i n g s .

288

S p e c i f i c q u e s ti o n i n g o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s who were i n t e rv ie w e d
a f t e r th e f i r s t y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e seminar s e r i e s confirmed th e
p e r c e p t i o n of the r e s e a r c h e r t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t p o l i c y makers
enjoyed t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o engage in d i s c u s s i o n s o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l
policy issu es.

The absence o f a concern f o r s eeing t h a t t h e i r o f f i c i a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n s appeared on th e r e c o r d o r in t h e compromise
recommendations aid ed in th e development o f a h o s p i t a b l e c l i m a t e .

No

recommendations were sought in t h e seminar s e r i e s * and no recommen­
d a t i o n s were made.
The r e s e a r c h e r found t h a t a s e t t i n g in which d i s c u s s i o n and
not d e c i s i o n was t h e medium seemed t o a l l e v i a t e any f e a r s o f o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s t h a t th e y o r t h e i r segment o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making community was u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d .

Everyone had a chance t o voice

h i s / h e r op in ion or t h a t o f h i s / h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n .

Traditional p o l i t i ­

cal maneuvers to c o a l e s c e , f i l i b u s t e r , b o y c o t t , and th e l i k e were
unnec es sa ry.

P a r t i c i p a n t s e xp ress ed a d e s i r e t o i n s u r e t h a t such a

n e u t r a l atmosphere be mai nta ined by t h e Michigan Education Seminars
in t h e f u t u r e .
There was no e x p r e s s i o n by any o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t h a t t h e
seminar should be used t o develop o f f i c i a l o r u n o f f i c i a l recommenda­
t i o n s t o any body.

T h e i r i n t e r v i e w s were s i m i l a r in s t r e s s i n g t h a t

th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t e r r i t o r y in which a " t im e -o u t " from t h e game
o f e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s could be taken was an e s s e n t i a l i n g r e d i e n t
in t h e success o f th e program.
2.

Another somewhat c o u n t e r - i n t u i t i v e co n c l u s io n o f t h e

stu d y i s t h a t t o p - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a d v e r s a r i e s have a genuine

289

r e s p e c t f o r t h e opinions o f one a n o t h e r , and th e y welcome t h e oppor­
t u n i t y to engage in an exchange o f t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s on
policy iss u e s .

No evidence e x i s t s t h a t i s more convincing on t h i s

p o in t than i s th e r e g u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e Michi­
gan e d u c a t io n a l policy-making community in t h e seminar s e r i e s .
One q u e s t i o n in t h e p o s t - f i r s t - y e a r i n t e r v i e w asked th e
p a r t i c i p a n t - i n t e r v i e w e e s t o d e s c r i b e th e purpose o f t h e seminar as
they saw i t .

The most u n i v e r s a l d e s c r i p t i o n i ncluded r e f e r e n c e to

the o p p o r tu n i t y t o d i s c u s s i s s u e s with t h e i r a d v e r s a r i e s .
r e l a t e d co n c l u s io n i s o f f e r e d .

A secondary

That i s t h a t t h e a d v e r s a r i e s w i t h i n

th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e s s r e c o g n iz e t h a t beyond t h e d i f ­
f e r e n c e s t h a t e x i s t among t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e branches o f government
and o r g a n i z a t i o n s , p o l i t i c a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f t e n f o r c e t h e i r u n i v e r ­
s a l d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e improvement of t h e e d u c a t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e to
become obscured.
F u r t h e r , th e r e s e a r c h e r c o n clu ded, and th e p a r t i c i p a n t s
r e p o r t e d , t h a t in Michigan, a t l e a s t , no s i m i l a r forum e x i s t s in which
t o p - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers can meet and c o n f e r on im p o rta n t
policy questions without fe a r o f organizational or o th e r p o l i t i c a l
reprisal.

The i n f o r m a l , u n o f f i c i a l , and c o n s e n s u s - a v o id in g c h a r a c t e r

o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p o s i t i v e r e c e p ­
t i o n t h a t t h i s forum has been g iv e n .
3.

Besides t h e c o n s e n s u s - a v o i d in g n a t u r e o f t h e seminar

s e r i e s , o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e i m port ant in e s t a b l i s h i n g an atmosphere o f
n e u t r a l i t y f o r a forum o f t o p - l e v e l s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers.
That t h e maintenance o f an atmosphere o f n e u t r a l i t y i s an i m p o rta n t

290

key to t h e success o f an informal forum o f t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y makers
i s an im port ant co n clu s io n o f t h i s s tu d y .
The in t e r v i e w s and o t h e r d a t a - g a t h e r i n g te c h n iq u e s employed
by th e r e s e a r c h e r p a i n t e d a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f th e seminars as a n e u t r a l
forum.

The p a r t i c i p a n t s d e s c r i b e d t h e forums as s e s s i o n s in which

they had no r e l u c t a n c e t o i d e n t i f y t h e concerns and p o l i t i c a l f e a r s
of th e i r organizations.
The p a r t i c i p a n t s d e s c r i b e d th e r e s e a r c h e r as a " n e u t r a l " in
the process.

They r e l i e d on him on s e v e r a l occas ions t o pro v id e

counsel and s u g g e s tio n s f o r th e r e s o l u t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t p o l i c y d i s ­
putes.

They p er ceiv ed him as a p p r o p r i a t e l y a c ad em ically and e x p e r i e n ­

t i a l ly grounded t o be an i m p a r t i a l r espondent t o concerns t h a t th ey
would r a i s e in p r i v a t e m e e tin g s.

They perceived t h a t i t was n e i t h e r

t h e e x p r e s s e d nor t h e hidden agenda o f t h e c o o r d i n a t o r t o put any
p a r t i c i p a n t on th e s p o t o r to embarrass him /her.

The e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f t h i s "forum and c o o r d i n a t o r n e u t r a l i t y " i s judged t o be an e s s e n ­
t i a l i n g r e d i e n t o f t h e su c c e ss o f th e Michigan Education Seminars and
should be used as a model in s i m i l a r forums.
4.

Other r e s e a r c h e r s a t t e m p t i n g to e s t a b l i s h s i m i l a r forums

should t a k e note o f th e c a r e f u l proce dure t h a t was employed in t h i s
r e s e a r c h to i n s u r e t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f a l l major elements o f t h e
e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making community in Michigan.

The r e s e a r c h e r has

concluded t h a t t h e involvement o f a l l major segments o f t h e educa­
t i o n a l po licy-making community was e s s e n t i a l in t h e success o f th e
seminar s e r i e s .

291

Evidence o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h i s c o n c l u s io n , a t l e a s t in
i t s r e le v a n c e t o t h i s s p e c i f i c s t u d y , l i e s in t h e u n i v e r s a l e x p r e s ­
sion of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t h a t t h e forum p a r t i c i p a n t l i s t did not
f avor any segment o f th e e d u c a ti o n a l policy-making community.

It

i s im porta nt t o r e f l e c t her e upon e a r l i e r c o n c l u s io n s .
Would t h i s p e r c e p t i o n have been t h e same i f , f o r example,
th e forum were engaging in th e development o f p o l i c y recommendations
f o r th e l e g i s l a t u r e ?

One can only s p e c u l a t e t h a t i f a consensus on

th e i s s u e ,pf a i d t o p r i v a t e elem en tary and secondary e d u c a tio n a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s had been s ought, f o r example, t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
the nonpublic e d u catio n community would have f e l t g r o s s l y outnumbered
and would have been f o rc ed to b o y c o tt th e m eetings.

As i t was, how­

e v e r , th e p r i v a t e e d u c a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s were given t h e o p p o r tu ­
n i t y to i n f o r m a l l y e x p r e s s t h e i r concerns t o a wide a r r a y o f p u b l i c
ed u c a tio n a l l e a d e r s a t t h e very time when t h e two segments were o t h e r ­
wise in open w a r fa r e over a proposed c o n s t i t u t i o n a l b a l l o t i s s u e on
s t a t e a id f o r p r i v a t e e d u c a t i o n .
5.

The power t o i n f l u e n c e t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making

p rocess i s not l i m i t e d t o th o s e who hold t h e o f f i c i a l p o l i c y p o s i ­
tio n s within the policy s tr u c t u r e .

The b e s t ev id ence o f t h i s c o n c l u ­

sion i s p r e s e n t e d in th e r e p u t a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e e d u c a t io n a l power
s t r u c t u r e of Michigan.

This a n a l y s i s shows t h a t s e v e r a l o f t h e p o s i ­

t i o n a l l e a d e r s o f t h e power s t r u c t u r e i n d i c a t e d l o w e r - l e v e l s t a f f and
b u r e a u c r a t s a r e o f t e n in p o s i t i o n s o f g r e a t i n f l u e n c e in det er m in ing
the outcome o f im p ort ant p o l i c y q u e s t i o n s .

292

The f i n d i n g t h a t w it h i n t h i s e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y community in
Michigan t h e p o s i t i o n a l - e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s o f t e n occupy t h e i r o f f i ­
c i a l p o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y f o r a s h o r t p e r io d o f time provide s
f u r t h e r evidence f o r t h i s c o n c lu s io n .

Educational p o l i c y l e a d e r s in

th e l e g i s l a t u r e , f o r example th e e l e c t e d l e a d e r s , o f t e n q u i c k l y move
up a n d / o r o u t o f the e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y system.

Sometimes, however,

a f t e r th ey leave th e o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y , th ey remain
s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e r s i n th e p r o c e s s .

I t would be p o s s i b l e t o sug­

g e s t t h a t th e r e s e a r c h e r a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y f i t s t h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a ­
tion.
U sually a change in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t has l i t t l e to
do with t h e change in t h e l e g i s l a t i v e s t a f f and t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c
s t r u c t u r e , althou gh change in p o s i t i o n and s t a t u s does occu r h e r e , t o o .
Although t h i s f a c t might not be r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t to t h e r e s e a r c h e r o r
t h e p o l i c y a n a l y s t , i t i s very c l e a r t o th e l e a d e r s w i t h i n t h e p o l i c y
structure.
6.

There i s s u b s t a n t i a l b e n e f i t t o a p o l i c y s t r u c t u r e when

t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y a d v e r s a r i e s a r e given t h e chance t o " s o c i a l i z e " wit h
one a n o t h e r .

Many o f t h e p o l i c y l e a d e r s who p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e semi­

n ars c i t e d as one o f i t s g r e a t e s t b e n e f i t s t h a t i t gave them an oppor­
t u n i t y t o meet t h e i r a d v e r s a r i e s in a n o n a d v e r s a r i a l s e t t i n g .

The

o p p o r t u n i t y t o exchange j o k e s , per so nal an ec dote s about t h e i r prob­
lems w i t h i n t h e i r own p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , and t o d i s c u s s t h e i r
e x p e r i e n c e s "growing up" in t h e p o l i c y s t r u c t u r e , was r e p o r t e d by th e
p o l i c y makers as one o f t h e most im p o rtan t a s p e c t s o f t h e Michigan
Education Seminars s e r i e s .

293

Perhaps i t i s worth n o ti n g a personal o b s e r v a t i o n o f th e
researcher a t th is point.

P o l i t i c s must be address ed in a " b u s i n e s s ­

l i k e " manner in o r d e r f o r an i n d i v i d u a l t o have lo ng-t er m s u c c e s s as
an o p e r a t i v e in th e p r o c e s s .

He/she cannot " t a k e t h i n g s p e r s o n a l l y . "

To a per so n, th e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y e l i t e w i t h i n th e s t a t e ca nno t t a k e
t h e i r b u s in e s s too s e r i o u s l y , e i t h e r , and e x p ect t o have l o n g e v i t y .
They occupy t h e i r p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l power s t r u c t u r e
because o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t o maneuver w i t h i n t h e i r own o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
power s t r u c t u r e .

They have le a r n e d how n o t t o savor to o much t h e i r

v i c t o r i e s , and how not t o s u f f e r too much t h e i r l o s s e s .

Without

t h i s d i s p o s i t i o n a l s k i l l , the y would be unable t o m ai n ta in t h e i r
a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n t h e i r own power s t r u c t u r e .

Whereas t h e i r c o n s t i t u ­

ency may ex pec t them t o be c h a u v a n i s t i c , th e r e s u l t s r e q u i r e d in v o lv e
b u i l d i n g c o a l i t i o n s with former enemies and n e g o t i a t i n g d i s p u t e s with
former f r i e n d s .
temporary n a t u r e .

The only t h i n g t h a t i s permanent in p o l i t i c s i s i t s
Perhaps i t i s t h i s reas on t h a t t h e e d u c a ti o n a l

p o l i c y makers in Michigan r e p o r t t h a t t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n a s p e c t o f th e
seminar s e r i e s was very im p o rta n t to t h e s e r i e s ' s u c c e s s .

The s e r i e s

gave a d v e r s a r i e s t h e chance t o grow t o l e a r n one a n o t h e r ' s l i m i t s and
abilities.
7.

The o p p o r t u n i t y f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s t o d i s c u s s

i s s u e s w ith c o l l e a g u e s w i t h i n t h e i r own o r g a n i z a t i o n in t h e pre se nce
o f a d v e r s a r i e s i s an i m p o r ta n t a s p e c t o f an informal p o l i c y - i s s u e
forum o f t h e n a t u r e o f th e Michigan Education Seminars.

Several o f

th e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s r e p o r t e d t a k i n g g r e a t i n t e r e s t in watching

294

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o l l e a g u e s o p e r a t e w i t h i n a forum comprised o f t h e
w id e s t p o s s i b l e range o f a n t i p a t h e t i c d i s p o s i t i o n s .
In some c a s e s , lo w e r - le v e l l e a d e r s had th e o p p o r t u n i t y t o see
th e kinds o f d i f f i c u l t n e g o t i a t i n g s i t u a t i o n s t h e i r l e a d e r s a r e con­
f r o n t e d with each day.

In o t h e r c a s e s , i n fo r m a t io n was p r e s e n t e d in

th e s e s s i o n s t h a t p e r m it te d t h e l e a d e r s o f a p a r t i c u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n
to go home and review t h e i r p o s i t i o n s w it h i n th e c o n t e x t o f t h i s
e n lig h ten m en t.
In a t l e a s t one major c a s e , a l e a d e r w i t h i n t h e e x e c u t i v e
branch used t h e forum to f o r c e a n o t h e r l e a d e r w i t h i n one o f t h e major
s t a t e departments in th e same branch t o " f i s h o r t o c u t b a i t " in a
p u b l i c meeting.

He put a c o l l e a g u e w it h i n th e same branch o f govern­

ment i n t o a p o s i t i o n where th e o f f i c i a l , e x p r ess ed p o s i t i o n o f t h e
Governor had t o be c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e d .

This e x p e r ie n c e was c r e d i t e d

w ith making a major advance in t h e i m p o rta n t s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y
q u e s t i o n o f what t o do about " d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s in K-12 educa­
tion."
8.

At t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l s o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n , l e a d e r s a r e

not o f t e n p e r m itt e d t h e luxu ry o f engaging in th e " t r i v i a l i t y " o f
im p o r ta n t p o l i c y q u e s t i o n s .

They a r e s h i e l d e d by t h e i r s t a f f s from

th e im p o rtan t a n t e c e d e n t s t o t h e p o l i c y p o s i t i o n s t h a t t h e y a r e l a t e r
expected to defend a n d / o r a d m i n i s t e r .

The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f an i n f o r ­

mal s t a t e - l e v e l p o l i c y i s s u e forum can be an im p o rta n t avenue f o r a
t o p - l e v e l p o l i c y l e a d e r t o reduce t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f being t ra p p e d
i n t o d e f endin g a p o s i t i o n t h a t i s p o l i t i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o d e fend.

295

The o p p o r t u n i t y t o p e r i o d i c a l l y engage in p o l i c y d i s c u s s i o n s
in which o t h e r w i s e t r i v i a l d e t a i l i s reviewed in t h e pr ese nce o f t h e
major spokesmen f o r t h e a d v e r s a r y f o r c e s in t h e d i s p u t e was a welcome
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r many o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o f t h e seminar s e r i e s .
Several l e a d e r s r e p o r t e d t h a t th e reason t h a t th e y p a r t i c i ­
pated in t h e seminar s e r i e s was t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e y were g e t t i n g a
l i t t l e look a t the background t h a t r e s u l t e d in t h e formal p o s i t i o n o f
th e ir organizations.

They simply d id n o t want t o be l e f t out o f a

p e r i o d i c d i s c u s s i o n on i s s u e s t h a t a t t h a t t i m e , o r in t h e f u t u r e , could
be li n k e d t o t h e i r p o l i t i c a l s u r v i v a l .
In s e v e r a l c a s e s , a l s o , p a r t i c i p a n t p o l i c y makers r e p o r t e d
t h a t th ey used t h e p o l i c y forum to express perso na l concerns about
th e d i r e c t i o n o f s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y in th e pr esen ce o f many o f
the a c t o r s with whom th e y would e v e n t u a l l y have t o r e s o l v e d i s p u t e s .
In t h i s s e n s e , t h e seminar provided a soap box and could be viewed
as a h a r b i n g e r .

Lest one f o r g e t , i t provided a good forum f o r c e r ­

t a i n p o l i c y l e a d e r s t o g e t t h e word t o t h e i r s t a f f s .
9.

Perhaps t h e most i m p o rt a n t c o n c lu s io n o f th e s tu d y i s

t h a t such a seminar o f t o p - l e v e l s t a t e p o l i c y makers could be
asse m bled --a nd t h a t th e i n t e r e s t in th e programs could be m ain ta i n e d .

Recommendations f o r F u r t h e r Study
A fin a l section of th i s d is s e r ta tio n addresses potential
f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n o f f u t u r e r e s e a r c h a b l e p r o p o s i t i o n s o r o f those
p r o p o s i t i o n s from which new p r o p o s i t i o n s could be d e r i v e d .

This i s ,

296

o f c o u r s e , t h e most d e s i r a b l e endeavor o f a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
f o r i t perm its p r e d i c t i o n s as well as s p e c i f i c recommendations.
Under t h e c a t e g o r y o f r e s e a r c h a b l e q u e s t i o n s , two p o s s i b i l i ­
t i e s seem obvious t o th e r e s e a r c h e r .

F i r s t , a f o ll o w - u p s tu d y on t h e

Michigan Education Seminars a d d r e s s i n g a s p e c i f i c q u e s ti o n as t o i t s
impact on th e t o t a l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y m i lie u in Michigan could be
conducted in f i v e o r t e n y e a r s .

Whether o r n o t t h e Michigan Educa­

t i o n Seminars s t i l l e x i s t s in i t s c u r r e n t form o r some v a r i a t i o n o f
t h e c u r r e n t theme becomes somewhat i r r e l e v a n t .

This s tu d y could ad d r e ss

th e m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f th e program p r o c e s s t h a t occ ur over a f i v e - y e a r
p e r i o d , based on a r e s e a r c h methodology q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e one
employed in t h e c u r r e n t s tu d y .

He/she could a l s o f i n d a way o f a t t e m p t ­

ing t o a d d r e s s s p e c i f i c p o l i c y i s s u e s and t o d ete r m in e t h e impact o f
th e Michigan Education Seminars on t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f th o s e i s s u e s .
A second a l t e r n a t i v e would be f o r a r e s e a r c h e r t o immediately
begin t o s tu d y c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s t h a t r e l a t e t o t h e Michigan Education
Seminars, such a s i t s impact on p o l i c y , and could fo ll o w t h e Michigan
Education Seminars through i t s nex t y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n , f o r example,
t o d ete r m in e whether examples such as t h e one c i t e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r
in which t h e s t a t e ' s p u b l i c p o l i c y on t h e q u e s t i o n o f " d e c l i n i n g
e n r o l l m e n t s " could be found in t h e f u t u r e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e Michigan
Education Seminars.

From a communications s c i e n c e s t a n d p o i n t , a

r e s e a r c h e r could examine t h e Michigan Education Seminars and stu d y
th e q u e s ti o n o f whether t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t develop dur in g d i s c u s ­
s i o n s in t h e formal s e s s i o n s o f t h e Michigan Educ ation Seminars have

297

a d i r e c t e f f e c t on t h e a b i l i t y o f p u b l i c p o l i c y makers to communi­
c a t e with one a n o t h e r b e t t e r in t h e i r d a y - to -d a y i n t e r a c t i o n s .
Recommendations f o r Fu tu re Seminars
For t h e i n d i v i d u a l a t te m p t in g to e s t a b l i s h a program s im i ­
l a r t o th e Michigan Education Seminars in t h i s s t a t e o r i n a n o t h e r
s t a t e , a few o f t h e recommendations t h a t fo ll o w may be very u s e f u l .
F i r s t , th e a b i l i t y o f t h e seminars to be rec ognize d as a c r e d i t a b l e
i n s t i t u t i o n w ith in t h e p u b l i c p o l i c y process seems hinged l a r g e l y
upon t h e o f f i c i a l co n n e c ti o n s t h a t can be made between th e l e a d e r s h i p
o f t h e e d u c a tio n seminars program and t h e o f f i c i a l e d u c a tio n a l e s t a b ­
li s h m e n t.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , as a primary o b j e c t i v e o f a

p o t e n t i a l c o o r d i n a t o r o f a seminar s e r i e s l i k e t h e Michigan Education
Seminars, o f a s t e e r i n g committee comprised o f a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f th e
l e a d e r s o f the e d u c a t i o n a l community, or whatever p o l i t i c a l community
t h e seminars a r e aimed a t , seems c r u c i a l .
A second o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h a t th e a t t e m p t t o m a in ta in the
i n t e r e s t in th e Michigan Education Seminars program, and i t s p a r t i c i ­
p a t i o n , seems incumbent to a c e r t a i n de gree upon t h e c r e a t i o n o f an
au ra o f e x c l u s i v i t y s urr ound in g t h e program and i t s o p e r a t i o n .

One

o f t h e dangers t h a t t h e next c o o r d i n a t o r ( s ) o f th e Michigan Education
Seminars w i l l c o n f r o n t i s t h a t t h e Michigan Education Seminars, in
many r e s p e c t s , have become so p o p u la r a s t o a t t r a c t th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n
o f an e x trem ely broad c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making
community in t h i s s t a t e .

In many c a s e s , l o w e r - l e v e l p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e

not involved because o f t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to s c o r e high on as se s sm ents
o f t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n s a s l e a d e r s in t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making

298

community.

In o r d e r f o r th e Michigan Education Seminars, o r any

seminar program o f i t s n a t u r e , t o co n t in u e t o reach i n t o t h e h i g h e s t
l e v e l s o f p u b l i c p o l i c y making, i t seems c r i t i c a l t h a t c h i e f s be
speaking w i th c h i e f s and t h a t t h o s e In d ia n s who a r e in vo lved in t h e
program a r e t h e r e c l e a r l y because o f t h e i r recog nized a b i l i t y to
o r c h e s t r a t e th e p o l i t i c a l proc es s in such a manner t h a t t h e i r w i l l
can be e x e r c i s e d upon i t .
The f u t u r e c o o r d i n a t o r o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars
must not be a f r a i d to "go com pletely n a t i v e . "

By t h i s i s meant t h a t

t h e prop er p o l i t i c a l approach t o th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a " n e u t r a l forum"
may be c o n t i n g e n t upon a form o f p o l i t i c s t h a t could be most simply
d e s c r i b e d as "Sw iss."

By t h a t i s meant t h a t t h e c o o r d i n a t o r o f t h e

seminar s e s s i o n must view h i m s e l f in a p o s i t i o n o f being dependent on
th e v a r i e t y o f f o r c e s in th e e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y pr o c e ss f o r t h e s u c ­
c e s s f u l a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e seminar program.

As a

consequence, he must be in a p o s i t i o n where o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i v e s , l e g i s l a t o r s , and members o f th e e x e c u t i v e branch and
o t h e r s who may be a t odds, o r in t h e Swiss a nalogy, a t war wit h one
another, are

beholden to him /her t o t h e degree t h a t some form o f

p o l i t i c a l l e v e r a g e can be e x e r c i s e d t o en s u re t h e i r f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n
and t o keep t h e c o o r d i n a t o r from becoming engaged in w a r f a r e .

In

o r d e r t o do t h i s , t h e c o o r d i n a t o r , i t seems t o me, must p l a c e h im s e lf
in a p o s i t i o n as an a r b i t r a t o r in t h e system, one who i s recog nize d
f o r h i s a b i l i t y t o c a r r y messages from one camp t o a n o t h e r and to
a r ra n g e s e s s i o n s in which v a r io u s p o t e n t i a l l y e x p l o s i v e i s s u e s can
be r e s o l v e d s h o r t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l w a r f a r e .

299

The c o o r d i n a t o r o f f u t u r e Michigan Education Seminars, or
o t h e r s i m i l a r s em in ar s , must be co nsci ous o f a need t o make t h e i s s u e s
p r e s e n te d t o t h e program p a r t i c i p a n t s ge neral enough t o be a p p e a l in g
t o a broad base o f i n t e r e s t s whose p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e program i s
ne c e s s a r y f o r i t s s u c c e s s .

At t h e same t i m e , however, he must be cog­

n i z a n t o f th e f a c t t h a t p u b l i c p o l i c y makers a r e faced with a wide
v a r i e t y o f ch o ic e s about how t o spend t h e i r working days in t h e i r most
p r o d u c t i v e ways, and as a consequence must make d e c i s i o n s o f where and
how t o spend t h e i r tim e , based upon t h e c r i t i c a l n e s s o f i s s u e s t o be
discussed.

As a consequence, n o t a l l i s s u e s can be l o f t y , e s o t e r i c ,

and p h i l o s o p h i c a l - - s o m e must be c u r r e n t , m ean in g f u l, and p o t e n t i a l l y
dram atic in t h e i r n a t u r e and in t h e i r p o t e n t i a l impact on th e p u b l i c
policy process.
The c o o r d i n a t o r o f t h e seminar s e s s i o n must be f u l l y
c o g n iz a n t o f t h e p o l i t i c a l powder keg upon which he i s s i t t i n g .
E a r l i e r , t h e Michigan Education Seminars had been d e f i n e d as more
th an a n o t h e r simple system i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l policy-making p r o c e s s .
In f a c t , t h e r e s e a r c h e r a ttem p te d t o d e s c r i b e th e Michigan Education
Seminars a s t h e f o r c e t h a t pr o v id e s o r d e r t o t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y ­
making p r o c e s s and in many ways i s th e sun in t h a t p l a n e t a r y s t r u c ­
t u r e o f s t a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n t e r e s t gr ou ps.

Whereas t h i s analogy

may n o t s t r e t c h t o th e Michigan Education Seminars' t a k i n g c r e d i t f o r
pr o v id i n g energy upon which t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e ss o p e r a t e s , t h e a n a l ­
ogy c e r t a i n l y could be s t r e t c h e d t o i n c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e
Michigan Education Seminars p r o v id e s a magnetic a t t r a c t i o n which helps
to keep th e v a r io u s e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s in c o m pati ble o r b i t s .

300

In o r d e r t o be maximally s u c c e s s f u l in e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s kind o f
c h a r a c t e r f o r a system such as th e Michigan Education Seminars, th e
c o o r d i n a t o r must be extre mely c a r e f u l not t o put h i m s e l f in t h e p o s i ­
t i o n of a p pearing t o be in c o n t r o l o f th e in fo r m atio n t h a t i s being
p r e s e n te d t o t h e seminar p a r t i c i p a n t s .

Under no cir c u m sta n c e s should

h e /sh e ignor e th e o p p o r t u n i t y t o provid e c r e d i t t o a s t e e r i n g commit­
t e e o r t o an i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c i p a n t f o r t h e s u g g e s ti o n o f an i s s u e
t h a t is brought b e f o re t h e seminar s e s s i o n .

He should a l s o c a p i t a l i z e

on t h o s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t may p r e s e n t themselves f o r a seminar p a r ­
t i c i p a n t to c o o r d i n a t e a p a r t i c u l a r s e s s i o n o f t h e seminar program.
F i n a l l y , th e importance o f a voiding a consensus format f o r
a Michigan Education Seminars ty pe program has been s t r e s s e d and
r e s t r e s s e d th ro ughout t h i s r e p o r t .

An extrem ely i n t e r e s t i n g endeavor

would be f o r a r e s e a r c h - o r i e n t e d p u b l i c p o l i c y a n a l y s t t o conduct a
s tu d y in which th e e f f e c t o f th e consensus o r i e n t a t i o n could be
s e p a r a t e d , i d e n t i f i e d , and analyzed.

One would have t o des ig n a

s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h model in o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c ­
t i v e n e s s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t a t te m p t t o a c h ie v e consensus and to
c o n t r a s t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i th o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n s in which consensus i s not s ough t.
As has been p r e v i o u s l y mentioned, t h e Acting Commissioner o f
Edu c atio n , William P i e r c e , commented t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r in an informal
d i s c u s s i o n on changes in e d u c a t i o n a l p u b l i c p o l i c y making a c r o s s
t h e s t a t e s , t h a t t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f c o n s e n s u s - s e e k in g a d v i s o r y com­
m i t t e e s was perhaps th e s i n g l e most s i g n i f i c a n t change in e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c y making t o have occ urre d in t h e p a s t decade.

He i d e n t i f i e d a

301

v a r i e t y o f r ea so ns why t h e formation o f ad v is o r y c o u n c i l s in many
r e s p e c t s has tended t o i n c r e a s e t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c d e f i c i e n c i e s o f
s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

Among those he

sugges ted was t h e tendency f o r t h e o f f i c i a l e d u c a tio n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
to throw to a d v i s o r y commissions tho se i s s u e s upon which th e o f f i c i a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n was not y e t ready t o t a k e a p o s i t i o n .

I f the advisory

committee i s o r g a n iz e d in such a f a s h i o n t h a t a wide v a r i e t y of
d i v e r g e n t i n t e r e s t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d on a s p e c i f i c i s s u e , t h e bu reauc­
racy re c o g n iz e s t h a t t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a s p e c i f i c recommendation
coming from t h a t a d v is o r y committee i s f a i n t .

On t h e o t h e r hand, i f

an e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n does have an i s s u e t h a t i t r e c o g n iz e s t h e
a d v i s o r y committee w i l l come to quick and c l e a r consensus on, and i f
t h a t consensus p o s i t i o n i s p r e d i c t e d t o be c o n s i s t e n t w it h t h e d i s p o ­
s i t i o n o f th e o f f i c i a l e d u c a tio n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , then t h e i s s u e i s
a l s o r e f e r r e d t o t h e a d v i s o r y committee with t h e knowledge t h a t t h e
a d v i s o r y committee w i l l s a n c t i o n t h e pr edetermined b ehavior o f t h e
educational organization.

The Michigan Department o f Education has

over t h i r t y a d v i s o r y committees, one f o r each o f i t s major s e r v i c e
a r e a s and s e v e r a l o t h e r s t h a t c r o s s t h e s e r v i c e - a r e a b o r d e r s .
I t seems t o t h i s r e s e a r c h e r t h a t under t h e r i g h t circum­
s ta n c e s t h e S t a t e Department o f Education could be o f f e r e d a proposal
by an e n t e r p r i s i n g p u b l i c p o l i c y a n a l y s t t o modify t h e ch arge o f a t
l e a s t s e v e r a l o f th e Department o f Education p o l i c y - a d v i s o r y bodies
i n such a way t h a t i t no lo n g e r became t h e re quire m ent o f t h o s e bodies
t o seek and a c h i e v e consensus b e f o re b r in g i n g a p o s i t i o n t o t h e s t a t e
board o r t o th e S t a t e Department o f Education h i e r a r c h y .

The a d v i s o r y

302

committee could become a forum in which th e v a r i e t y o f d i v e r g e n t a t t i ­
tudes on a s p e c i f i c p u b l i c p o l i c y i s s u e could be r a i s e d and d i s c u s s e d .
The c o o r d i n a t o r o f th e a d v i s o r y committee would then be in a p o s i t i o n
t o r e p o r t to t h e S t a t e Board o f Education o r th e S t a t e Department o f
Education in a manner t h a t r e f l e c t s t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e v a r i e t y o f
d i f f e r e n t i n t e r e s t s in v olved.

Th is would throw back i n t o th e la p o f

the o f f i c i a l p u b l i c p o l i c y body t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a l i g n i n g i t s e l f
with th e p o s i t i o n s o f whatever i n t e r e s t s with which i t happens to be
in agreement.
In t h i s manner, none of th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o r s t a t u t o r y resp on­
s i b i l i t i e s o f th e o f f i c i a l government body would be v i o l a t e d by th e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p o l i c y a d v i s o r y group.

The p o l i c y a d v i s o r y group

could n o t be in a p o s i t i o n o f s t a l l i n g im p ort ant p u b l i c p o l i c y d e c i ­
sions.

I t would n o t be used as a p l a c e in which t h o s e d e c i s i o n s would

be s t a l l e d because o f t h e a d v i s o r y g r o u p ' s i n h e r e n t i n a b i l i t y t o come
t o cons ensus.

R a t h e r , t h e f u n c t i o n o f such an a d v i s o r y committee would

be d i s c u s s i o n o r i e n t e d , with much o f t h e p o l i t i c a l m an ip u la ti o n and
maneuvering t h a t oc cur s in such bodies being avoided because o f the
u n d e r sta n d in g t h a t a consensus p o s i t i o n i s n e i t h e r d e s i r e d nor r e q u i r e d .
Research Ex tens io ns
Many o f t h e o t h e r recommendations o r p o t e n t i a l a r e a s o f
f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n t o some o f t h e q u e s t i o n s examined in t h i s study
could be c a l l e d r e s e a r c h e x t e n s i o n s .
e x t e n s io n s have been a t t e m p t e d .

In a t l e a s t two c a s e s such

In one ca se t h e e f f o r t was e x trem ely

s u c c e s s f u l ; in o t h e r c a s e s i t would be premature t o j u d g e .

The

303

e x t e n s io n s o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars program come in a t
l e a s t t h r e e d i s t i n c t c a t e g o r i e s o r forms.
In t h e f i r s t c a s e , t h e concept o f t h e Michigan Education
Seminars could be s p e c i a l i z e d t o deal with i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n th e
p u b l i c p o l i c y forum who r e p r e s e n t a s p e c i f i c group o r i n t e r e s t .

As

an example, t h e Michigan Education Seminars form at and s t a t u s were
used t o c r e a t e a Michigan Education W r i te r s Seminar in November o f
1978.

As a j o i n t e f f o r t with t h e Michigan P ress A s s o c i a t i o n and t h e

O f f i c e o f P ublic Info rm ation o f th e S t a t e Department o f Ed uc ation,
e d u cati o n w r i t e r s from a c r o s s th e s t a t e o f Michigan were i d e n t i f i e d
and t h e i r e d i t o r s were s e n t a l e t t e r from th e e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r o f
th e Michigan Pre ss A s s o c i a t i o n as k in g t h e e d i t o r t o send t h e e d u catio n
w r i t e r t o a c onfere nc e in Lansing.

At t h i s c o nfere nc e t h e S t a t e

Department o f Education l e a d e r s h i p and o t h e r l e a d e r s in th e educa­
t i o n a l p u b l i c p o l i c y forum ad dres sed a v a r i e t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l i s s u e s
in a s e s s i o n t h a t provided co ntinuo us i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e members o f
th e p r e s s .

The program was based on t h e n o ti o n t h a t t h e members o f

t h e Michigan e d u c a t i o n p r e s s corps were l a r g e l y w i th o u t a c c e s s t o th e
b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t could help them n a v i g a t e through t h e s t a t e
e d u c a t i o n a l p u b l i c p o l i c y p r o c e s s and would l e a d t o a more a c c u r a t e
and complete a n a l y s i s o f im p o rtan t e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s in t h e
press.
Roughly twenty e d u c a ti o n w r i t e r s from a c r o s s th e s t a t e o f
Michigan a t t e n d e d t h e Michigan Education W r i t e r s ' Seminar.

P r esen ­

t a t i o n s were made by th e Michigan Department o f Education l e a d e r s h i p ,
a v a r i e t y o f t h e e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r s and e l e c t e d l e a d e r s o f s e v e r a l

304

s t a t e e d u c a tio n a s s o c i a t i o n s , and s e v e r a l l e g i s l a t i v e e d u c a t io n l e a d ­
e r s i n c lu d i n g th e Speaker o f t h e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .

The S t a t e

Department o f Education used t h i s o p p o r tu n i t y t o p r e s e n t s e v e r a l docu­
ments t o t h e members o f t h e Michigan p r e s s t h a t would a s s i s t them in
an al yzi ng e d u c a t io n a l q u e s ti o n s c o n f r o n t i n g them in th e d a y - t o - d a y
f u n c t io n i n g o f t h e i r jo b s as e d u catio n w r i t e r s .

The program concept

was o f f e r e d by th e s e n i o r e d u c a tio n w r i t e r in t h e s t a t e , B i l l Gr ant,
t h e e d u c a ti o n w r i t e r f o r th e D e t r o i t Free P r e s s , who was th e keynote
sp ea ke r a t t h e morning s e s s i o n f o r t h e Education W r i t e r s ' Seminar.
Grant s t r e s s e d t h a t th e number of e d u catio n w r i t e r s in a t t e n d a n c e
being young and r e l a t i v e l y in e x p e r i e n c e d w r i t e r s was a r e f l e c t i o n o f
t h e amount o f s t a t u s t h a t t h e major e d i t o r s and newspapers a s c r i b e d
to th i s subject area.

But he s t r e s s e d t h a t i n o r d e r t o do a more

e f f e c t i v e j o b o f r e p o r t i n g , much o f t h e i n fo r m a t io n t h a t was being
o f f e r e d a t t h e s e s s i o n would be extr em ely u s e f u l , e s p e c i a l l y t o th e
f l e d g l i n g newspaper pe rson.
A s i m i l a r format could be used f o r a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r groups
to pr ov ide a c c e s s t o t o p - l e v e l s t a t e educati on l e a d e r s and to i n v i t e
th o s e s t a t e e d u catio n l e a d e r s to a s e s s i o n with a p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r ­
ested constituency.

One example t h a t has been o f f e r e d i s f o r a

Michigan e d u catio n la w y er s' s em inar, in which t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s r e p ­
r e s e n t i n g school d i s t r i c t s and t e a c h e r s on t h e v a r i e t y o f e d u c a t i o n r e l a t e d q u e s t i o n s t h a t th e y f a c e in t h e i r d a y - to -d a y j o b s could be
c a l l e d t o g e t h e r and in tro d u c e d t o t h e p o l i c y makers a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l
who w r i t e t h e laws under which t h e l e g a l community o p e r a t e s .

School

b u i l d i n g managers could a l s o be c a l l e d t o g e t h e r f o r such a meeting.

305

Such a s e s s i o n could be more s p e c i a l i z e d than would be t h e c a s e f o r
t h e e d u c a tio n w r i t e r s o r t h e e d u c a tio n law yers, but i t could i n c lu d e
d i s c u s s i o n s with l e g i s l a t o r s and members o f th e e x e c u t i v e branch on
q u e s ti o n s of bonding, m i l l a g e e l e c t i o n s , and such q u e s t i o n s as th e
use o f computerized energy management t o reduce school e x p e n d i t u r e s .
A second a r e a o f l o g i c a l expansion f o r Michigan Education
Seminars type programming would be i n t o a d i f f e r e n t le v e l o f educa­
t i o n a l p o l i c y making.

The idea i s to mix t h o s e t o p - l e v e l s t a t e edu­

c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers with l o c a l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers and
im plementers.

Such a proposal was o r i g i n a l l y o f f e r e d by a combination

of u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s who served as p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e Michigan
Education Seminars.

The proposal su gges te d t h a t t h e Michigan Educa­

t i o n Seminars become a v e h i c l e by which s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers
a r e p e r i o d i c a l l y assembled and taken i n t o l o c a l communities f o r what
in e f f e c t would be town meetings with e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers r e p ­
r e s e n t i n g th e v a r i e t y o f i n t e r e s t s w i t h i n a given r egio n o f t h e s t a t e .
The proposal was d i s c u s s e d with t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Leader­
s h i p in Washington, and t h e s u g g e s ti o n was made t h a t a more compre­
hensiv e proposal be d r a f t e d and p r e s e n te d t o a f o u n d a tio n t h a t may be
i n t e r e s t e d in funding such a p r o j e c t .
Almost c o i n c i d e n t a l t o t h a t d i s c u s s i o n , th e Mott Foundation
in F l i n t , one o f t h e l a r g e s t f o u n d a tio n s in th e w o r ld , approached t h e
c o o r d i n a t o r o f th e Michigan Education Seminars with a very s i m i l a r
s u g g e s t i o n and sug ges ted t h a t t h e Mott Foundation be t h e r e c i p i e n t
o f t h e proposal on t h i s p r o j e c t .

306
A proposal was d r a f t e d with th e involvement of s e v e r a l o f the
p a r t i c i p a n t s who were i n s tr u m e n ta l in de veloping t h e idea in t h e f i r s t
i n s t a n c e and su bm it te d t o th e Mott Foundation.

The proposal sug ges ted

simply t h a t a group o f s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y makers be
assembled and develop a program e x p l a i n i n g th e p r o c e s s e s by which
e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s were made a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l .

A program

o f t h i s n a t u r e could be used t o d i s c u s s s p e c i f i c i s s u e s c o n f r o n t i n g
th e s t a t e e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y community and, as a consequence, l e a d e r s
in th e s t a t e ed u c a t io n a l p o l i c y community would have a much b e t t e r
n otion o f what the lo c a l r e a c t i o n s to th o s e i s s u e s might be.

There

were a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r p o t e n t i a l f u n c t i o n s f o r t h i s ty pe o f program­
ming t h a t were d e s c r i b e d in t h e p r o p o s a l.
A t h i r d ar ea o f p o t e n t i a l s p i n o f f f o r t h e Michigan Education
Seminars would be t o t a k e th e co ncept o f i d e n t i f y i n g and c o l l e c t i n g
t o p - l e v e l e d u c a ti o n a l p o l i c y makers f o r d i s c u s s i o n s on a c t u a l o r
p o t e n t i a l p u b lic p o l i c y q u e s ti o n s and applying i t to o t h e r a r e a s
in which p u b l i c p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t .

Examples o f t h e s e

p o s s i b l e a r e a s o f e x t e n s i o n might be t h e law enforcement community,
t h e s o c i a l s e r v i c e s community, mental h e a l t h and c o r r e c t i o n s , o r any
of t h e v a r i e t y o f a r e a s where s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t groups with g e n e r a l l y
common goals f i n d e f f o r t s t o ach ie v e t h o s e g o a l s thw arted by t h e i r
i n a b i l i t y t o communicate with one a n o t h e r .
P a r t i a l l y as a r e s u l t o f t h e model pro vided by t h e Michigan
Education Seminars, a p r o j e c t i s c u r r e n t l y being c o n s id e r e d t o develop
a Michigan mental h e a l t h news s e r v i c e .

The f u n c t i o n o f t h a t s e r v i c e

would be t o c r e a t e a mechanism whereby t h e v a r i e t y o f i n t e r e s t s

307

l o c a t e d throughout t h e s t a t e who have r e g u l a r concerns about p u b l i c
p o l i c y i s s u e s c o n f r o n t i n g t h e mental h e a l t h community could be advise d
of t h o s e developing p o l i c y i s s u e s .

More im p o r t a n t , however, i s t h e

underst anding on t h e p a r t o f th o s e who would be t h e primary sponsors
of t h e Michigan mental h e a l t h news s e r v i c e t h a t t h e e d i t o r i a l board
o f the Michigan mental h e a l t h news s e r v i c e , being composed of t h e
major mental h e a l t h i n t e r e s t groups and perhaps government o f f i c i a l s
involved in q u e s ti o n s o f mental h e a l t h , would be r e q u i r e d t o meet
p e r i o d i c a l l y to review t h e method by which th e mental h e a l t h news
s e r v i c e a n aly zes and r e p o r t s th e v a r i e t y o f i s s u e s with which they
a r e concerned.

This i s su gges ted t o have g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r d r a ­

m a t i c a l l y expanding t h e amount o f communication between t h e major
p o l i c y a c t o r s in t h e mental h e a l t h community and could be a model
t h a t could be a p p l i e d t o a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r s e t t i n g s .
S p e c u la t io n along t h e s e l i n e s prov id e s p a r t i a l documentation
f o r t h e s p e c i a l s t a t u s t h a t should be a s c r i b e d t o a c t i o n - s o c i a l
research.

I t bears im port an t testim ony t o t h e need f o r i n d i v i d u a l s

i n t e r e s t e d in t h e development and o p e r a t i o n o f emerging power s t r u c ­
t u r e s t o c a r e f u l l y examine what has o c c u r re d in t h i s s tu d y as r e p o r t e d .
I t should a l s o provid e i n c e n t i v e f o r i n d i v i d u a l s who were n o t involved
in t h e f o rm ati on o r o p e r a t i o n o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars to
invo lve themselves in a more thorough and perhaps detached a n a l y s i s
o f t h e program and i t s impact and perhaps more im port ant i t s promise
t o t h e p u b l i c p o l i c y process in Michigan and t o p u b l i c p o l i c y making
in g e n e r a l .

308

Epilogue
The a n a l y s i s o f t h e development, f u n c t i o n , and o p e r a t i o n o f
the Michigan Education Seminars was " a c t i o n r e s e a r c h . "

A major goal

o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r was s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o design a program s e r i e s t h a t
would h elp reduce t h e t e n s i o n t h a t e x i s t s w i t h i n a community o f p o l i c y
makers a t th e s t a t e lev el t h a t , a t l e a s t , could be seen as having one
common g o a l — th e improvement o f e d u catio n in th e s t a t e o f Michigan.
A secondary goal was c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e s u c c e s s f u l a t t a i n m e n t o f th e
first.

This goal can b e s t be express ed as t h e " i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n "

of t h e system.
An e s s e n t i a l component of th e r e s e a r c h was t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n o r more than one o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t o which t h e
Michigan Education Seminars could be t r a n s f e r r e d , and th e i d e n t i f i c a ­
t i o n o f a person o r per sons from w i t h i n th e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( s ) who would
be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s .
In September 1979, t h e f i n a l recommendation o f t h i s r e s e a r c h
was framed.

Th is recommendation i s in cluded as an " ep il o g u e " t o t h e

d i s s e r t a t i o n because t h e recommendation was not framed u n t i l a f t e r
t h e f i n a l d r a f t o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n had been w r i t t e n , and a c t u a l l y
oc c u r re d long a f t e r t h e c o n c l u s io n o f t h i s s tu d y .

But t h e recommen­

d a t i o n i s being in c lu d e d in t h e f i n a l t e x t o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n because
o f i t s p o t e n t i a l importance in documenting t h e success o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r
in a t t a i n i n g h i s o v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e s .
On August 15, 1979, t h e r e s e a r c h e r wrote t h e D i r e c t o r o f The
A s s o c i a t e s Program, I n s t i t u t e f o r Educ ationa l L ead er ship ( IEL)—t h e
p a r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e Michigan Education Seminars—and fo rm a ll y

309

announced h i s d e s i r e t o r e s i g n as c o o r d i n a t o r o f th e seminar s e r i e s .
In h i s l e t t e r he recommended t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e Michi­
gan Education Seminars and t h e Educ ationa l Council o f Michigan (Educa­
t i o n Commission o f t h e S t a t e s ) be s tr e n g t h e n e d by t h e s e l e c t i o n of th e
d e - f a c t o c h a i r p e r s o n o f t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n as th e new c o - c o o r d i n a t o r of
t h e Michigan Education Seminars.

The Education Commission o f t h e

S t a t e s in Michigan i s l a r g e l y shepherded by Doug Smith, t h e r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i v e o f th e n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h airm an-- M ichigan's Governor
William Mil l i k e n .

Smith i s M i l l i k e n ' s ed uca tion a d v i s o r .

To b ala n ce t h e ap pointm ent- -and m ain ta in t h e p e r c e iv e d neu­
t r a l i t y o f t h e seminar s e r i e s —t h e r e s e a r c h e r recommended t h a t David
Haynes be d e s ig n a t e d c o - c o o r d i n a t o r .

Haynes i s c h i e f a i d e t o th e

chairman o f t h e Michigan Senate A p p r o p r ia tio n s Subcommittee on Edu­
c a t i o n , S enator Kerry Kammer.

Haynes, being a employee o f a Demo­

c r a t in t h e l e g i s l a t i v e bran ch , would seem t o b alan ce well th e
involvement o f Smith, an employee o f t h e Republican head o f t h e
e x e c u t i v e branch o f s t a t e government in Michigan.

(S ince t h e s e l e c ­

t i o n , Haynes has become D i r e c t o r o f S t a t e and Federal R e l a t i o n s f o r
th e Grand Rapids P u b l i c S c h o o ls . )
On September 25, 1979, a formal l e t t e r was s e n t t o Smith and
Haynes r e q u e s t i n g t h a t t h e y a c c e p t t h e o f f e r t o be c o - c o o r d i n a t o r s o f
th e Michigan Educ ation Seminars f o r t h e y e a r 1979-80.
agreed t o u n dertake t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

They

The gavel was tu rn e d

over t o Haynes and Smith a t t h e October 11, 1979, seminar on t h e
"Educa tional P r o g r e s s in Michigan in t h e Decade o f t h e S e v e n t i e s , "
which was th e l a s t s e s s i o n c h a i r e d by t h i s r e s e a r c h e r .

310

Nothing can g u a r a n te e th e suc ce ss o f t h e seminar s e r i e s of
th e f u t u r e .

However, th e r e s e a r c h e r p r e d i c t s t h a t whatever accomp­

lish m ents he had as c o o r d i n a t o r du rin g th e f o rm a ti v e y e a r s o f th e
Michigan Education Seminars w i l l be m u l t i p l i e d in f u t u r e y e a r s .

And

he i s s a t i s f i e d in l e a v i n g t h e seminar s e r i e s in t h e hands o f Smith
and Haynes t h a t he has s u c c e s s f u l l y d is c h a rg e d h is duty t o t h e I n s t i ­
t u t e f o r Educationa l L e a d e rs h ip , t o th e e d u c a t io n a l p o l i c y makers o f
Michigan, and to t h e d o c t o r a l committee who s u p e r v is e d t h i s d i s s e r ­
t a t i o n and p e r m it te d t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o engage in im p o rtan t " a c t i o n
research."

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
MICHIGAN EDUCATION SEMINARS PARTICIPANTS

312

APPENDIX A
Table Al.--The o r i g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e Michigan Education Seminars.
Fred B e r t o l e t

A s s o c i a t e Dean, College o f Educatio n,
The U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan

Joseph B i l l i n g s l e y

L e g i s l a t i v e Agent, Michigan F e d e r a ti o n o f
Teachers

William M. Bridgeland

A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r , Social S c ie n c e s ,
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

G i l b e r t Bursley

Member, Sen ate Committee on A p p r o p r ia ti o n s ,
and Chairman, The Michigan Education Coun­
c i l o f th e Education Commission o f th e
States

Gene Caesar

M a jo r it y Education S p e c i a l i s t , Michigan
House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s

Lloyd Cofer

A s s i s t a n t t o th e P r e s i d e n t , Michigan S t a t e
University

Herman Coleman

Executive D i r e c t o r , Michigan Education
Association

Edward A. Duane

A s s o c i a te P r o f e s s o r , Social S c ie n c e s ,
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

Gerald Dunn

Regent, The U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan, and
L o b b y i s t , M e tr o p o l i t a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r
Improved School L e g i s l a t i o n

Robert Ewigleben

P r e s i d e n t , F e r r i s S t a t e College

Edmund F a r h a t

P ubli c A f f a i r s D i r e c t o r , Michigan C a t h o l ic
Conference

Eugene Farnum

D i r e c t o r , Senate F i s c a l Agency

Jack Faxon

Chairman, Senate Committee on Education

John Gaffney

P r e s i d e n t , A s s o c i a t i o n o f Independent
Co lleg es and U n i v e r s i t i e s o f Michigan

Keith Goldhammer

Dean, C olleg e o f E d uc atio n, Michigan S t a t e
University

J e f f r e y Graham

Deputy D i r e c t o r , Michigan Department o f
Commerce
313

314
Table A 1 . -- C ontinued.
B i l l Grant

Education W r i t e r , The D e t r o i t Free P r e s s

William J o w e tt

Member, House A p p r o p r ia tio n s Committee

Kerry Kairaner

Chairman, Senate A p p r o p r i a ti o n s Sub­
committee on Education

C. P h i l l i p Kearney

A s s o c i a t e D i r e c t o r f o r S t a t e Programs,
I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational Leadership

William R. Keith

Vice-Chairman, House Committee on Education

Mary Kay Kosa

Former P r e s i d e n t , Michigan Education
Association

E l i z a b e t h Kummer

L e g i s l a t i v e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t and Education
D i r e c t o r , League o f Women Voters o f
Michigan

Melvin Larsen

Member, House Committee on A p p r o p ria ti o n s

Samuel Moore II

P r o f e s s o r , Department o f A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
and Higher E du c atio n, Michigan S t a t e Uni­
versity

Earl Nelson

Chairman, Senate A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Sub­
committee on Soc ial S er v ic es

James O ' N eill

Chairman, A p p r o p ria ti o n s Subcommittee on
Education

James Phelps

A s s o c i a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t o f P ublic
I n s t r u c t i o n , S t a t e Department o f Education

John P o r t e r

S t a t e S u p e r in te n d e n t of P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n

George P o t t e r

Chairman o f th e Board, Jackson Community
College

Eldon Ros eg ar t

Member, Waterford Board o f Ed ucat io n, and
A s s i s t a n t , Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School
Boards

Douglas Smith

S pe cial A s s i s t a n t to t h e Governor ( f o r
Education)

315
Table A1. —Continued.
Gary S u l l e n g e r

Education F i s c a l A n a l y s t, Senate F is c a l
Agency

Roger 8. T i l l e s

Executive S e c r e t a r y t o t h e Speaker,
Michigan House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , and
Chairman, Michigan C h a p te r , National
O r g a n iz a tio n f o r Legal Problems in Edu­
cation

Michael Usdan

P r e s i d e n t , The M e r r i l l - P a l m e r I n s t i t u t e

Edward Vandette

P r e s i d e n t , S t a t e Board o f Education

Dana Whittmer

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , P o n ti a c P u b l ic Schools

P a t r i c i a Widmeyer

D i r e c t o r , L e g i s l a t i o n and School Law,
S t a t e Department o f Education

316

Table A2.—O r ig in a l p a r t i c i p a n t s in the Michigan Education Seminars,
September 14, 1977, by s e c t o r .

Executive Branch
—Go ve rn or's O f f i c e
Doug Smith,* Education Advisor
- - S t a t e Board o f Education
Edward Vandette
--D epartment o f Education
John P o r t e r , * CSSO
James P h e lp s, A s s o c i a t e S u p e r in te n d e n t (Program)
P a t r i c i a Widmayer, Lob by ist
--Department o f Commerce
J e f f r e y Graham, Deputy D i r e c t o r
l e g i s l a t i v e Branch
—S e n a t o r s (Democrat)
Jack Faxon,* Education Chair
Kerry Kammer, Education A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Ch air
Earl Nelson, Social S e r v ic e A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Chair
- - S e n a t o r s (Republican)
G i l b e r t B u r s le y , * A p p r o p r i a tio n s Committee Member
—Senate S t a f f ( N onp ar tisan )
Eugene Farnum, F is c a l Agency D i r e c t o r
Gary S u l l e n g e r , F i s c a l Anal yst
--House Members (Democrat)
William K e i th ,* Education Vic e-C hair
James O ' N e i l l , Education A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Ch air
—House Members (Republican)
William J o w e t t , A p p r o p r ia ti o n s Member
Melvin La rsen , A p p r o p r i a ti o n s Member
—House S t a f f (Democrat)
Roger T i l l e s , M a jo r ity Executive S e c r e t a r y
Gene C ae sa r, Education Advisor t o th e Speaker
Education I n t e r e s t Groups
- - L a b o r (K-12)
Joe B i l l i n g s l e y , MFT Lobbyist
Herman Coleman,* MEA D i r e c t o r

317

T a b l e A 2«— C o n t i n u e d .

—Management (K-12)
J e r r y Dunne, M u l t i - D i s t r i c t Lob byist
Eldon R o s e g a r t, MASB Analyst
—Nonpublic (K-12)
Edmund F a r h a t , P ubli c A f f a i r s D i r e c t o r , C a t h o l i c Conference
—Higher Education ( P u b lic )
Robert Ewigleben, P r e s i d e n t , F e r r i s S t a t e
Keith Goldhammer, Dean, E duc atio n, Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
—Higher Education (Nonpublic)
John Gaffney, D i r e c t o r , P r i v a t e Higher Education A s s o c ia ti o n
Other I n t e r e s t s
E l i z a b e th Kummer,* V i c e - P r e s i d e n t , League o f Women Voters
William G r a n t, D e t r o i t Free Press
Fred B e r t o l a e t , A s s i s t a n t Dean, E duc atio n, U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan
Edward Duane, P r o f e s s o r , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
William B r id g e la n d , P r o f e s s o r , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Samuel Moore I I , P r o f e s s o r , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
C. P h i l i p Kearney, D i r e c t o r , A s s o c i a t e s Program
Michael Usdan, D i r e c t o r , M e r r i l l - P a l m e r I n s t i t u t e

*Members o f the Michigan Education Council (ECS).

Table A3.—P a r t i c i p a n t s in th e Michigan Education Seminars, September
1978.
Babcock, C. P a t r i c k

D i r e c t o r , Michigan Department o f Labor

B e r n t h a l , Tom

A d m i n i s t r a t i v e A s s i s t a n t to Sen at or
G i l b e r t Bursley

B e r t o l a e t , Fred

A s s o c i a t e Dean, College o f Ed uc atio n ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan

B i l l i n g s l e y , Joseph

L e g i s l a t i v e Agent, Michigan F e d e r a tio n
o f Teachers

B r andt, August

D i r e c t o r o f Government R e l a t i o n s , F l i n t
Community Schools

Burns, Jo Ann

Lansing P ublic Schools

B u r s le y , G i l b e r t *

Member, Senate Committee on Appropria­
t i o n s ; Chairman, The Michigan Education
Council of th e Education Commission o f
th e S t a t e s

B ri d g e la n d , William M.*

A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r , Social S c i e n c e s ,
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

C ae sar, Gene

M a jo r it y Education S p e c i a l i s t , Michigan
House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s

Ca ndoli, I . Carl

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , Lansing P u b li c Schools

C o fer, Lloyd M.

Member, Education Council o f Michigan

Coleman, Herman

Executive D i r e c t o r , Michigan Education
Association

Cook, Thomas G.

Dean, School o f Education and Learning
R es ou rce s, F e r r i s S t a t e College

Duane, Edward A.*

A s s o c ia t e P r o f e s s o r , S ocial S c i e n c e s ,
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

Dunn, Gerald

Regent, The U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan;
D i r e c t o r , Metro. A s s o c i a t i o n f o r
Improved School L e g i s l a t i o n

E a r l y , Ronald

Michigan Education A s s o c i a t i o n

Eckstein, Peter

Research A s s o c i a t e , United Auto Workers

319

Table A3.—Continued.
E l l i o t t , Don

Deputy Executive D i r e c t o r , Michigan
A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m in i s tr a to r s

Ewigleben, Robert

P r e s i d e n t , F e r r i s S t a t e College

F a r h a t , Edmund

P u b l i c A f f a i r s D i r e c t o r , Michigan
C a t h o l i c Conference

Farnum, Eugene*

D i r e c t o r , Senate F i s c a l Agency

Faxon, Jack

Chairman, Senate Committee on Education

Gaffney, John

P r e s i d e n t , A s s o c i a t i o n o f Independent
Colleg es and U n i v e r s i t i e s o f Michigan

Goldhammer, Keith

Dean, College o f E duc ation, Michigan
State University

Graham, J e f f r e y *

Exe cutive A s s i s t a n t t o the Governor

G rant, B i l l

Education W r i t e r , The D e t r o i t Free P ress

H aueter, J osephine

Michigan Department of Ed uc atio n, School
Law C o n s u lta n t Emeritus

Hawkins, P h i l i p H.

S pecial A s s i s t a n t f o r P l a n n i n g , Michigan
Department o f Education

J o w e t t , William

Member, House A p p r o p r i a tio n s Committee

Kammer, Kerry

Chairman, Senate A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Sub­
committee on Education

Katz, Malcolm

Deputy S u p e r in t e n d e n t, Michigan Depar t­
ment o f Education

Kearney, C. P h i l i p

A s s o c i a te D i r e c t o r f o r S t a t e Programs,
I n s t i t u t e f o r Educationa l Leadership

K e i th , William R.*

Vice-Chairman, House Committee on
Education

Kosa, Mary Kay

Member, Education Council o f Michigan

K o s t ie l n e y , S i s t e r Monica

P u b lic A f f a i r s A s s i s t a n t f o r E duc atio n,
Michigan C a t h o l i c Conference

320

Table A3.— Continued.
Kummer, E l iz a b e th *

L e g i s l a t i v e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t and Education
D i r e c t o r , League o f Women Voters o f
Michigan

L ars en , Melvin

Member, House Committee on A p propri a­
tions

Linne, Henry

P r e s i d e n t , Michigan F e d e r a t i o n o f
Teachers

Mays, William, J r .

Execu tiv e S e c r e t a r y , Michigan Elementary
and Middle School P r i n c i p a l s A s s o c i a t i o n

Manthe, Daniel R.

A s s i s t a n t t o th e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , Wayne
County I n te r m e d i a t e School D i s t r i c t

McAnaw, Richard

P u b li c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Programs, Western
Michigan U n i v e r s i t y

McCollough, L u c i l l e

C h a i r p e r s o n , House Educ ation Committee,
House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s

McKerr, Robert N.

A s s o c i a t e S u p e r in t e n d e n t f o r Business and
F in a n c e , Michigan Department o f Education

Moore, Samuel, II

P r o f e s s o r , Department o f A d m in i s tr a tio n
and Higher E d u c a tio n , Michigan S t a t e
University

Murphy, David

A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r , Senate F i s c a l
Agency

Muth, Robert

Execu tiv e D i r e c t o r , Middle C i t i e s Edu­
c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n ; A s s i s t a n t t o Dean
f o r Programs, C ollege o f E d u c atio n ,
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

Nelson, Earl

Chairman, Senate A p p r o p r i a t i o n s Sub­
committee on Social S e r v ic e s

O ' N e i l l , James

Chairman, A p p r o p r ia tio n s Sub-committee
on E duc atio n , Michigan House o f Repre­
sentatives

P h e l p s , James

A s s o c i a t e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P ublic
I n s t r u c t i o n , S t a t e Department o f Edu­
cation

T a b le A 3 .— C o n tin u e d .

P i e r s o n , Manuel H.

Dean, S tudent S e r v i c e s , Oakland Univer­
sity

P o r t e r , John

S t a t e S u p e r in te n d e n t o f P u b lic I n s t r u c ­
tion

P o t t e r , George

Member, National Board f o r Community
C o l l e g e s , and Education Council o f
Michigan

P r o p h e t, Matthew

Deputy S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , Lansing P u b l ic
Schools

R a n v i l l e , Michael

Educ ation S p e c i a l i s t , Sen ate Democratic
Staff

R o s e g a r t, Eldon

Member, Waterford Board o f E duc ation;
A s s i s t a n t , Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f
School Boards

Ruhala, David*

A s s i s t a n t Executive D i r e c t o r f o r S t a t e
and Feder al R e l a t i o n s , National Asso­
c i a t i o n o f School Boards

Sede rb urg, William*

Executive D i r e c t o r f o r L e g i s l a t i o n ,
House Republican S t a f f

Smith, Douglas*

S pe cial A s s i s t a n t t o t h e Governor f o r
Education

Smith, Richard L.

A s s is ta n t Superintendent, Office of
L e g i s l a t i v e A f f a i r s , D e t r o i t P ublic
Schools

S t r a u s , Kathleen

S t a f f D i r e c t o r , Sen ate Education
Conmittee

S u l l e n g e r , Gary L.*

Education F i s c a l A n a l y s t , Sen ate F i s c a l
Agency

T i l l e s , Roger B.

Chairman, Michigan C h a p te r , National
O r g a n i z a t io n f o r Legal Problems in
Education

Usdan, Michael

P r e s i d e n t , The M e r r i l l Palmer I n s t i t u t e

V a n d e t t e , Edward

P r e s i d e n t , S t a t e Board o f Education

322

T a b le A 3 .— C o n tin u e d .

Wagamon, Tom

A n a l y s t, House F i s c a l Agency

Wei bu rn, Dan E.

L e g i s l a t i v e A f f a i r s D i v i s i o n , Michigan
Education A s s o c i a t i o n

Whitmer, Dana

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , P o n ti a c P u b li c Schools

Widmayer, P a t r i c i a *

D i r e c t o r , L e g i s l a t i o n and School Law,
S t a t e Department o f Education

Cole, Richard T.

C o o r d i n a t o r , Michigan Education Seminars

G r i f f i t h s , Ginny

S e c r e t a r y , Michigan Education Seminars

New P a r t i c i p a n t s :
Evans, Eva L.

D i r e c t o r o f Education P l a n n i n g , Lansing
School D i s t r i c t

Kosovac, Dorothy A.

Adu lt Education A s s o c i a t i o n o f Michigan

P r i n c e , Henry

S t a t e D i r e c t o r , American A s s o c i a t i o n of
University Professors

Copp, C h a r l o t t e

P r e s i d e n t , League o f Women Voters

F i e d l e r , James D., J r .

Department o f Management & Budget,
O f f i c e o f t h e Budget—Education D iv i s io n

Haynes, David

O f f i c e o f S e n a t o r Kammer, Michigan S t a t e
Senate

Lobenherz, B i l l

Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School Boards

Whims, F r e d e r i c k R.

D i r e c t o r , Education D i v i s i o n , O f f i c e of
th e Budget, Department o f Management &
Budget

♦Michigan Education Seminars S t e e r i n g Committee.

323

Table A 4 . ~ O r i g i n a l s t e e r ing committee o f t h e Michigan Education
Seminars.

J e f f r e y Graham

Deputy D i r e c t o r , Michigan Department o f
Commerce

E l iz a b e th Kummer

V i c e - P r e s i d e n t , League o f Women Voters

Gary S u l l i n g e r

A n a l y s t, Senate F iscal Agency

Roger T i l l e s

Executive S e c r e t a r y to th e Speaker o f the
House, and P r e s i d e n t , National Organization
f o r Legal Problems in Education (Michigan)

P a t r i c i a Widmayer

D i r e c t o r o f L e g i s l a t i o n and School Law,
Michigan Department o f Education

APPENDIX B
THE RESEARCHER'S BACKGROUND

324

APPENDIX

B

The r e s e a r c h e r became involved in t h e s t a t e - l e v e l e d u c a ti o n a l
policy-making process in Michigan wh ile he was an un dergra duate ps y­
chology s t u d e n t i n t e r n a t Western Michigan U n i v e r s i t y , Kalamazoo.

A

Michigan s t a t e s e n a t o r was i n s t r u m e n t a l in a c q u i r i n g s t a t e funding
f o r an exp er im en tal school program in which t h e r e s e a r c h e r worked.
The s e n a t o r , then-Chairman o f the S t a t e Senate Education Committee,
h i r e d t h e r e s e a r c h e r as h i s c h i e f a s s i s t a n t in 1970, and he held
t h i s p o s i t i o n u n t i l 1973.
While a Senate s t a f f member, t h e r e s e a r c h e r was r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r r o u t i n e Sen ate Education Committee as signments and served as
c h i e f s t a f f member on one o t h e r s ta n d i n g committee and two s p e c i a l
Senate committees.

In one ca s e he pr ep ared a s p e c i a l Senate Education

Subcommittee r e p o r t on th e use o f drugs to c o n t r o l t h e b ehavio r of
school c h i l d r e n .

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s p r o j e c t r e c e i v e d widespread

a t t e n t i o n in th e p r e s s .
The second p r o j e c t was more comprehensive.

A s p e c i a l Senate

subcommittee was formed to examine th e pr oc ed ure s f o r t r a i n i n g and
c e r t i f y i n g Michigan school t e a c h e r s .

In 1971, t h e r e s e a r c h e r began

assembling panels o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f i n t e r e s t gr ou ps, e . g . ,
t e a c h e r s ' unio n, school board and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' a s s o c i a t i o n , deans
of teacher co lleg es.

Informal d i s c u s s i o n s and committee h e a r i n g s ,

combined with p r i v a t e i n t e r v i e w s and independent r e s e a r c h , r e s u l t e d
in a committee r e p o r t t h a t j u s t i f i e d a l e g i s l a t i v e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n
toward e x t e n s i v e reforms in t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g .
325

326

In 1973, Dr. John W. P o r t e r , M ic higan's c h i e f s t a t e school
o f f i c e r , h i r e d t h e r e s e a r c h e r a s D i r e c t o r o f School Law and L e g i s l a ­
t i o n f o r th e S t a t e Department o f Educatio n.

As th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s

l o b b y i s t , he e s t a b l i s h e d h im s e lf w ith in t h e school p o l i c y community
in s e v e r a l ways.

As th e d e p a r t m e n t 's o f f i c i a l spokesman b e f o re th e

l e g i s l a t u r e , he could vouch f o r o r speak a g a i n s t th e fav ore d programs
o f e d u c a t io n a l i n t e r e s t groups on b e h a l f o f t h e S t a t e Board o f Educa­
tion.

Also, th e r e s e a r c h e r was viewed as t h e c h i e f l o b b y i s t f o r th e

l e g i s l a t u r e w i t h i n th e S t a t e Board and Department o f Edu cation.
Because o f h i s p u b l i c l y r e p o r t i n g to the board on l e g i s l a t i v e t r e n d s
and p o s i t i o n s , t h e l e g i s l a t o r s and s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t groups now had
some way o f s p e a k in g , however i n d i r e c t l y , to th e boar d.

They only

needed to persuade him o f th e r e le v a n c y o f t h e i r remarks.
Since most o f th e major e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y i s s u e s drop i n t o
o r emerge from t h e l e g i s l a t i v e a r e n a , th e Educational L e g i s l a t i v e
Advisory Council (ELAC) o f t h e Michigan Department o f Education can
be t h e scene of hea ted de b a te s by d i v e r s e elements o f t h e school
p o l i c y community a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l .
man o f ELAC.

The r e s e a r c h e r served as c h a i r ­

He e s t a b l i s h e d ELAC as a " n e u t r a l " s e t t i n g {as few hidden

agenda items as p o s s i b l e ) and e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f as an advoc ate of
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n among e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a d v e r s a r i e s .
The r e s e a r c h e r r e t u r n e d t o t h e S t a t e Senate in 1975.

Whereas

he had l e f t as c h i e f s t a f f member to a committee c h a i r e d by a Repub­
l i c a n s e n a t o r , he r e t u r n e d l e s s than two y e a r s l a t e r as t h e c h i e f
s t a f f member t o th e M a jo r it y Leader o f t h e Michigan S e n a t e , a Democrat.
I t was as Senate M a jo r i ty Exe cu tiv e S e c r e t a r y t h a t he had, in some

327

r e s p e c t s , the g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e on school p o l i c y in Michigan.

In

t h i s p o s i t i o n , one with l i t t l e d i r e c t o r o f f i c i a l t i e t o th e educa­
t i o n a l community, he was c a l l e d upon to n e g o t i a t e d i s p u t e s w ithin
va rio us segments o f t h e school community.
During 1975-76, th e r e s e a r c h e r helped r e s o l v e c r i s e s over
school f in a n ce b i l l form and s ponso rsh ip in th e Senate.

He worked

as an a r b i t r a t o r between la b o r and management f o r c e s on a t e a c h e r
s t r i k e b i l l t h a t was passed by t h e l e g i s l a t u r e and u l t i m a t e l y o v e r ­
ru le d by e x e c u tiv e v e to .

He helped pass a r e v i s e d school code, a

process he had begun with t h e department.

He s e t up t h e f i r s t l e g i s ­

l a t i v e meeting in which l e g i s l a t i v e l e a d e r s made a p u b li c commitment
to r e s o l v i n g l o c a l d i s t r i c t s ' f i s c a l problems c r e a t e d by dramatic
e nr ollm en t dr ops.

The r e s u l t a n t l e g i s l a t i o n was a l s o vetoed by th e

governor.
In th e s p rin g o f 1976, t h e r e s e a r c h e r organ ize d an e f f o r t to
d e f e a t Proposal C, th e tax-1 i m i t a t i o n p r o p o s a l.

With t h e approval o f

th e Senate M a jo r ity , he i d e n t i f i e d a l i s t o f p o t e n t i a l p a r t i c i p a n t s
f o r a campaign t o d e f e a t the proposal and c a l l e d t h e f i r s t o r g a n i z a ­

ti o n a l meeting a t the Michigan C a t h o l i c Conference o f f i c e b u i l d i n g in
Lansing.

The proposal was d e f e a t e d in 1976, l a r g e l y by a u n i f i e d

school community--labor and management, p u b l ic and p r i v a t e , "lower"
and " highe r" e d u c a ti o n .

The absence o f such a c o a l i t i o n in 1978 i s

p a r t i a l l y to blame f o r th e subsequent passage o f a s i m i l a r p r o p o s a l.
In e a r l y 1977, Democratic s t a t e s e n a t o r s , r e e l i n g under t h e p r e s s u r e s
o f an i n c a l c u l a b l e v a r i e t y o f p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s , chose a new Senate
l e a d e r , and th e r e s e a r c h e r began t o s earc h f o r a new j o b .

328

By t h e s p r i n g o f 1977, t h e r e s e a r c h e r was back in t h e t h i c k
o f t h e p u b l i c p o l i c y p r o c e s s , t h i s time from a new vantage p o i n t .

He

had j o i n e d a "lobbying" f ir m t h a t had among i t s c l i e n t e l e more than
twenty powerful Michigan p r o f e s s i o n a l and t r a d e a s s o c i a t i o n s and
b u s in e s s c o n c e r n s .

The I n s t i t u t e f o r Ed ucatio na l L ead er ship asked

him e a r l y i n t h e summer o f 1977 t o begin a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the
Michigan Education Seminars.
began.

I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t h e stu d y

Since t h e n , th e r e s e a r c h e r has been a s s o c i a t e campaign

manager o f a g u b e r n a t o r i a l campaign and i s a founding d i r e c t o r o f a
p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s c o n s u l t i n g firm t h a t i s r e p r e s e n t i n g a v a r i e t y o f
p u b l i c and p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s .
I n t e r e s t and working knowledge w i t h i n th e s u b j e c t system i s
a n e c e s s a r y , i f not s u f f i c i e n t , c o n d i t i o n o f good f ie ld w o r k .

As

Dexter (1970) s t a t e d , "The i n t e r v i e w e r must have some c a p a c i t y t o
c a t c h th e i n t e r v i e w e e ' s meaning, t o p e r c e i v e t h e framework in which
he i s t a l k i n g , i f he i s t o g e t much out o f th e i n t e r v i e w .
he i s merely r e c o r d in g ver bal beh av ior" (p. 19).

O ther wise,

APPENDIX C

SAMPLE MICHIGAN EDUCATION SEMINARS AGENDA

329

MICHIGAN EDUCATION SEMINARS AGENDA
Lansing H ilton Inn
(Room - Regency A)
7501 West Saginaw
Lansing, Michigan
March 6 , 1978

12:00

LUNCH IN REGENCY "A" (Lunch w i l l be b u f f e t s t y l e ; cash bar
w i l l be a v a i l a b l e )
Welcoming comments from t h e c o - s p o n s o r s : Richard T. Cole,
C o o r d i n a t o r , Michigan Education Seminars; S enato r G i l b e r t
B u r s le y , Chairman, Education Council o f Michigan (ECS).
"THE IMPACT OF DECLINING ENROLLMENTS"

1:00

STATE CONCERN
I n t r o d u c t i o n ; t h e Michigan Department o f Management and
Budget p r o j e c t t o a s s e s s t h e impact o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o llm e n ts
on Michigan e d u c a tio n .
Dr. Fred Whims, Department o f Management and

1:20

Budget.

K-12 IMPACT
P r e s e n t a t i o n on K-12 e n r o l lm e n t p r o j e c t i o n s f o r Michigan
p u b l i c and p r i v a t e s c h o o ls on a s t a t e and re g io n a l b a s i s ,
and th e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e p r o j e c t i o n s .
Dr. F r e d e r i c k Ign ato v ic h and Dr. S ta n le y Hecker, P r o f e s s o r s ,
Department o f A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and Higher E ducation, MSU.

1:40

POST-SECONDARY

IMPACT

P r o j e c t i o n s of p o s t- s e c o n d a r y e n r o llm e n t in Michigan as a
f u n c t i o n of demographic and o t h e r r e l a t e d f a c t o r s .
Dr. David Goldberg, P r o f e s s o r o f Sociology and D i r e c t o r o f
D e t r o i t Area Study, U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan.
330

331

2:00

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ( f i r s t t h r e e sp e a k e rs )

2:30

WHAT OTHER STATES ARE DOING
A d i s c u s s i o n o f v a r io u s s t a t e l e g i s l a t i v e approaches t o t h e
problems c r e a t e d by d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s .
Dr. Homer E l s e r o a d , D i r e c t o r o f Elementary and Secondary
Ed ucat io n, Education Commission o f t h e S t a t e s , Denver,
Colorado.

3:00

REACTIONS OF KEY LAWMAKERS
The two s t a t e l e g i s l a t o r s most r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e Michigan
e d u cati o n budget w i l l make comments, and f i e l d q u e s t i o n s on
t h e i s s u e o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l lm e n t s .
S enator Kerry Kammer, Chairman o f t h e Senate A p p r o p r ia t io n s
Sub-committee on Education;
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e James O ' N e i l l , Chairman o f t h e House Approp­
r i a t i o n s Committee on Education.
Panel c o o r d i n a t o r :
F is c a l Agency.

Eugene Farnum, D i r e c t o r o f t h e Senate

BIBLIOGRAPHY

332

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A l l i s o n , Graham T. The Essence o f D e c i s i o n .
Brown and C o., 1971.

Boston:

L ittle,

A l l p o r t , Floyd H. "Local Com plexities o f Group A c t i v i t i e s . " In
P h i lo s o p h i c a l Problems o f th e Social S c i e n c e s . Ed ited by
David Braybrooke. New York: Macmillan, 1965.
B a i l e y , Stephen K., ed. Schoolmen in P o l i t i c s .
Syracuse U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1962.

S y r a c u se , N.Y.:

B a n f i e l d , E. C . , and Wilson, J . 0. C i ty P o l i t i c s .
Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963.

Cambridge, Mass.:

Bar be r, James D. The P r e s i d e n t i a l C h a r a c t e r ; P r e d i c t i n g Performance
Prentice-H all,
_in _th e White House. Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . :
Berke, Joel S . , and K i r s t , Michael W., e d s . Federal Aid to Educ ation:
Who B e n e f i t s ? Le xington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1972.
B e r t a l a n f f y , Ludwig von. General Systems Theory.
G. B r a z i l l e r P r e s s , 1968.

New York:

_________. P e r s p e c t i v e s on General Systems Theory: S c i e n t i f i c
P h i l o s o p h i c a l S t u d i e s . New York: G. B r a z i l l e r P r e s s , 1975.
_________. The Relevance o f General Systems Theory.
G. B r a z i l l e r P r e s s , 1972.

New York:

Bonjean, Charles M., and Olsen, David M. "Community L e ad ers h ip :
D i r e c t i o n s o f Res earch ." In Community P o l i t i c s . Ed ited by
Bonjean, C l a r k , and LineberryT New York: The Free P r e s s ,
1971.
Boocock, Sarane Spence. " S t u d e n t s , Schools and Educ atio nal P o l i c y . "
Occasional p a p e r , Aspen I n s t i t u t e f o r Humanistic S t u d i e s ,
Program on Education f o r a Changing S o c i e t y . Cambridge,
Mass., 1976.
Bordeleau, J . J . "The R e s e a r c h e r ' s C r a f t : A Review o f Approaches."
The P o l i t i c s o f Education B u l l e t i n 2 (1977): 17-21.

333

334

Braybrooke, David, ed. P h i l o s o p h i c a l Problems o f th e So c ia l S c i e n c e s .
New York: Macmillan, 1965.
_________, and Lindblom, Char le s E. A S t r a t e g y o f D e c is io n ; P o l i c y
E v a lu a ti o n as a Social P r o c e s s . New York: Free P ress o f
Glencoe, 1963.
B r id g e la n d , William M., and Duane, Edward A. "Power Assessments o f
th e Michigan Department o f E d u c a tio n . " Michigan Academician
(Spring 1978).
B r i d g e l a n d , William M.» and Thomas, David M. "Leadership C o n f l i c t
in Two Michigan School D i s t r i c t s . " Urban Education 13
( January 1979).
Campbell, Alan K. "Who Governs Our Schools?"
December 21, 1968, p. 63.

Saturda y Review,

Campbell, Roald F. e t a l . S t r e n g t h e n i n g S t a t e Departments o f Educa­
t i o n . Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1969.
Campbell, Roald F . , and Mazzoni, Tim L . , J r .
" S t a t e Governance o f
th e P u b l i c S ch o o ls." Planning and Changing 2 (1975): 67-80.
_________. S t a t e P o l i c y Making f o r th e P u b li c S c h o o l s .
McCutchan P u b l is h in g Co., 1976.

B e r k e le y , C a.:

C a s t l e s , F r a n c i s S. P r e s s u r e Groups and P o l i t i c a l C u l t u r e : A Com­
p a r a t i v e S tu d y . London: Routledge and Kegan P a u l , 1967.
Conant, James B. Shaping Educational P o l i c y .
H i l l , 1964.

New York:

McGraw-

Cronin, Thomas E . , and Thomas, Norman C. " Edu ca tional P o l i c y Advisors
and t h e Great S o c i e t y . " P u b li c P o l i c y 18 (1970): 659-86.
Dahl, Robert A. Modern P o l i t i c a l A n a l y s i s .
N . J . : P r e n t i ' c e - H a l l , 1970.
_________.

Who Governs?

New Haven:

2d ed.

Englewood C l i f f s ,

Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1961.

D e x te r , Lewis Anthony. E l i t e and S p e c i a l i z e d I n t e r v i e w i n g .
111.: Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1970.

Evanston,

_________. "Some S t r a t e g i c C o n s i d e r a ti o n s in I nnovatin g L e a d e r s h i p . "
In S t u d i e s in L e a d e r s h i p . Ed ited by Alvin Gouldner. New
York* Russel! and R u s s e l l , I n c . , 1965.
D r a c h l e r , Norman. "Education and P o l i t i c s in Large C i t i e s , 19501970." In The P o l i t i c s o f E d u c a tio n , PP* 188-217. The
N at iona l Study f o r t n e P o l i t i c s o t E d u c atio n. Chicago, 1977.

335

Duane, Edward A. "Power A nalys is in Educ ationa l P o l i t i c s . "
Academician (Summer 1977): 92-100.

Michigan

_________. "Reviving Local School Power: S c h o o l - S i t e Decis ion-Making."
Michigan School Board Journ al (Februar y 1978).
_________, and B rid g e la n d , William M. "Power P a t t e r n s Among Michigan
Ed ucational I n t e r e s t Groups: A R e p u tati o n al A n a l y s i s . " Paper
p r e s e n t e d t o t h e Michigan Academy o f A r t s and S c i e n c e s ,
Y p s i l a n t i , Michigan, March 17, 1978.
_________. "The 'Fragmented' P a t t e r n o f S t a t e Educational Groups
R e v i s i t e d : Michigan." Unpublished m a n u s c r i p t , 1978.
Dye, Thomas R. P o li c y A n a l y s is : What Governments Do, Why They Do
I t , and What D if f e r e n c e I t Makes. U n i v e r s i t y : U n i v e r s i t y
o f Alabama P r e s s , 1976.
East on, David. A Framework f o r P o l i t i c a l A n a l y s i s .
N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1965.
. A Systems A n a ly s is o f P o l i t i c a l L i f e :
1965.

Englewood C l i f f s ,

New York:

Wilev.

_________, and Dennis, J a c k . C h ildren in th e P o l i t i c a l System.
York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.
E l i o t , C harles W. "Educ atio na l Reform and th e S oc ial O r d e r . "
School Review 17 (April 1909): 220.

New
The

E l i o t , Thomas H. "Toward an Understanding o f P u b lic School P o l i t i c s . "
American P o l i t i c a l S cience Review 53 (1950): 1032-51.
Emery, F. E . , and T r i s t , E. L. “The Causal T e x tu r e o f O r g a n i z a t i o n a l
Environments." Human R e l a t i o n s 1 (1965):
Goldhammer, K eith. Book Review.
1 (1965): 69.

Educ atio nal A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Q u a r t e r l y
-----------

Gouldner, A l v in , ed. S t u d i e s in L e a d e r s h i p .
R ussell, I n c . ,1 9 6 5 .

New York:

R usse ll and

Gray, William , ed. General Systems Theory and P s y c h i a t r y .
L i t t l e , Brown and Co. , 1969.

Boston:

Gregor, A. James. " P o l i t i c a l S cien ce and t h e Uses o f Fu nctio na l
A n a l y s i s . " American P o l i t i c a l S cien ce Review 62 (1968): 425.
Grusky, Oscar, and M i l l e r , George, e d s . The Sociology o f O r g a n iz a ­
t i o n s : Basic S t u d i e s . New York: The Free P r e s s , 19/0.

336

G u t h r ie , James, e t a l .
P r e s s , 1971.

Schools and I n e q u a l i t y .

Cambridge:

MIT

H a b e r str o h , Chadwick J . " O r g an iz ati o n Design and Systems A n a l y s i s . "
In Handbook o f O r g a n i z a t i o n s . Edited by James G. March.
Chicago: Rand McNally, 1965.
H a lp e r in , Samuel. " P o l i t i c i a n s and Educators: Two World Views."
Phi Delta Kappan (November 1975): 189-90.
Hearn, Gordon, ed. The General Systems Approach.
on Social Work Ed ucat io n, 1969.

New York:

Council

________ . The General Systems Approach t o th e Understanding o f
Groups. Health Education Monograph 14. New York: The
S o c i e t y o f Health E d u c a to rs , 1962.
Hines, Edward R.; A u fderh eide, J . Alan; S i e g e l , Peggy M.; M o f f a t t ,
Linda C.; and Smith, William. " S t a t e P o l i c y Making f o r th e
P u b lic Schools o f Michigan." A r e p o r t o f th e Educational
Governance P r o j e c t , The Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Columbus,
Ohio, 1974.
Hollander, Edwin P . ; and J u l i a n , James W. "Contemporary Trends in
th e A n a ly s is o f Leadership P r o c e s s e s . " Psy c holo gical B u l l e t i n
71 (1969): 387-97.
Hunter, Floyd. Community Power S t r u c t u r e .
o f North C a r o li n a P r e s s , 1953.

Chapel H i l l :

Iannaccone, Laurence. P o l i t i c s in E d u c a tio n .
Applied Research in E du cation , 1967.

New York:

University
Cen ter f o r

_________, and C i s t o n e , P e t e r J . The P o l i t i c s o f E d u c a tio n . Eugene,
Oregon: ERIC Clea ringho use on Educational Management, Uni­
v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1974.
Iannaccone, Laurence, and L u t z , Frank W. P o l i t i c s , Power, and P o lic y :
The Governing o f Local School D i s t r i c t s . Columbus, Ohio:
C. E. M e r r i l l , 1 9 7 0 . -----------------------------J a n i s , I r v i n g L e s t e r . Victims o f Groupthink: AP syc holo gical Study
o f Foreign P o l i c y D ecis ions and F i a s c o e s . Boston: HoughtonM i f f l i n , 1972.
J u n k e r , Buford.
1960.
Kariel,

F i e l d Work.

Chicago:

U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s ,

Henry S. Open Systems: Arenas f o r P o l i t i c a l
111.: Peacock P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 1969.

Action.

Itasca,

337

K e r l i n g e r , Fred N. "The Mythology o f Educational Research: The
D e s c r i p t i v e Approach." School and S o c ie ty 93 (1965): 222-25.
Kerr, Norman D. "The School Board as an Agency o f L e g i t i m a t i o n . "
Sociology o f Education 38 ( F a ll 1964): 34-59.
K i r s t , Michael W. Government Without Pas sin g Laws; C o n g r e s s 's Nons ta t u t o r . y Techniques f o r A p p r o p r i a ti o n s C o n t r o l 7 Chapel H i l l :
U n i v e r s i t y o f North C a r o l in a P r e s s , 1969.
_________, e d . The P o l i t i c s o f Education a t th e Local , S t a t e and
Federal L evels. Ber kel ey , C a l . : McCutchan P u b lis h i n g C o r p . ,

M

_________. S t a t e , School and P o l i t i c s : Research D i r e c t i o n s .
Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1972.
_________, and Mosher, E d ith K. " P o l i t i c s o f Educ atio n."
Educational Research 39 (December 1969): 623-40.

L e xington,

Review o f

Landau, M art in. "On th e Use o f Fu nc tion al Anal ysis in American
P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e . " Social Research 35 (1968).
_________. "On t h e Use o f Metaphor in P o l i t i c a l A n a l y s i s . "
Research 28 (1961): 343-53.

Social

Lee, A lf r e d McClung. " P ow er se ek er s." In S t u d i e s i n L e a d e r s h i p .
Edited by Alvin Gouldner. New Yorkl R us se ll and R u s s e l l ,
I n c . , 1965.
L i p s e t , Seymour; Trow, Martin A.; and Coleman, James A. " G e n e r a l i z ­
ing From a Case Study: Problems o f A n a l y s i s . " In The S o c i­
ology o f O r g a n i z a t i o n s , p. 169. Ed ited by Oscar Grusky and
George A. M i l l e r .
Lu sthaus, Evelyn W.; L us th aus, Ch ar les S . ; and M i l s t e i n , Mike M.
" I n f l u e n c i n g P a t t e r n s o f Emerging Education I n t e r e s t Groups
in Urban Communities." P lanning and Changing (Summer 1976):
15-29.
Lu tz, Frank W. "Methods and C o n c e p t u a l i z a ti o n s o f P o l i t i c a l Power
in E d u c a tio n ." In The P o l i t i c s o f E d u c a tio n . Edited by
J ay D. S c r i b n e r . Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s ,
1977.
_________. S t r u g g l e f o r Power in E d u c a tio n . New York:
Applied Research in E d u c atio n , 1966.

Center fo r

_________, and Iannaccone, Laurence. "Power R e l a t i o n s h i p s and School
Bo ards ." Journ al o f Education ( K a ra id u d i, I n d ia ) 9 (October
1965): 1-9“

338

Mahood, H. R., ed. P r e s s u r e Groups in American P o l i t i c s .
S c r i b n e r , 1967.

New York:

Mann, Dale. P o lic y Decision-Making in Education: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o
C a l c u l a t i o n and C o n t r o l . New York: Teachers College P r e s s ,

:

1975

M asters, Nicholas A.; S a l i s b u r y , Robert H.; and E l i o t , Thomas H.
"Michigan: The Lack o f Consensus." In The P o l i t i c s of Edu­
c a t i o n a t t h e Local , S t a t e and Federal L e v e l s . Edited by
Michael W. K i r s t . Ber ke ley, C a l . : McCutchan, 1970.
McCall, George J . , and Simmons, J . L. I s s u e s in P a r t i c i p a n t Obser­
v a t i o n . Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. C o . , 1969.
McGreqor, D. The Human Side o f E n t e r p r i z e .
1960.

New York:

McGraw-Hill,

McIntosh, Stephan S. " E q uil ib rium and S t a b i l i t y . " In General Systems
and O r g a n iz a tio n Theory: Methodological Aspects" Ed ited by
Arlyn J . Melcher. Kent, Ohio: Center f o r Business and Econ­
omic Research, 1975.
McNamara, William. "Washington--The I n s t i t u t e f o r Educational
L e a d e r s h i p ." Change (February 1975): 44.
Melcher, Arlyn J . , ed. General Systems and O r g a n iz a ti o n Theory:
Methodological A s p e c t s . Kent, Ohio: Cen ter f o r Business
and Economic Res ea rch , 1975.
Mesarovic, M. D. General Systems Theory: Mathematical F o u n d a ti o n s .
New York: Academic P r e s s , 1975.
Milburn, Thomas W.; Negandhi, Anant R .; and Robey, D a n i e l . " E v a l u a t­
ing Systems Theory Concepts: Comments." In General Systems
and O r g a n i z a t i o n s . Edited by Alvin J . Melcher\ Kent, Ohio:
Center f o r Business and Economic Res earch, 1975.
M i l l s , C. Wright.
1956.

The Power E l i t e .

London:

Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,

M i l s t e i n , Mike, and J e n n i n g s , Robert E. "Educational I n t e r e s t Group
Leaders and S t a t e L e g i s l a t o r s : P e r c e p t i o n s o f th e P o l i c y ­
making P r o c e s s . " Educational A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Q u a r t e r l y ( F a ll
1973): 54.
_________. Educ ational Policymaking and t h e L e g i s l a t o r s .
P r a e g e r , 1972.

New York:

339

Moore, Omar K., and Anderson, Alan R. " P u z z l e s , Games and Social
I n t e r a c t i o n . " In P h i l o s o p h i c a l Problems in t h e Social
S c i e n c e s . Ed ited by David Braybrooke. New York: Macmillan,
1965.
Moore, Samuel A. I I . "Competition, Not Cooperation Is t h e Name o f
the Game." P o l i t i c s and Education (August 1971): 7-11.
________ . " O r g a n iz a ti o n a l I n e r t i a and R e s i s t a n c e t o Change."
Educational Forum 16 (November 1976): 33-36.

The

Morphet, Edgar L . , and J e n s e n , David L . , ed s . Emerging S t a t e Respon­
s i b i l i t i e s f o r E d u c a tio n . Denver: The Improving Education
Le aders hip, 1970.
Nelson, Robert N e i l . "A F i e l d Study o f t h e Means by Which t h e Michi­
gan Department o f Education Reduces U n c e r t a i n t y in I t s Envi­
ronment." Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
1975.
________ . "Michigan Department o f Education: An Open Systems Analy­
s i s o f th e P o l i c y - R e l a t e d Role o f a Major Educational
Bu rea ucr ac y." Unpublished p a p e r , AERA Co nference, 1977.
Parkay, F o r r e s t . "In n o v a tio n in a Chicago I n n e r - C i t y High S c h o o l."
Phi Del ta Kappan (February 1976): 384.
P e t e r s o n , P a u l , and W illiam s, Thomas. "Models o f Decision-Making."
In S t a t e , School and P o l i t i c s . Ed ited by Michael W. K i r s t .
Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1972.
Po ls by, Nelson. Community Power and P o l i t i c a l Theory.
Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963.

New Haven:

Popper, Kar l. "Unity o f Method in th e Natur al and Social S c i e n c e s . "
In P h i lo s o p h ic a l Problems o f th e Social S c i e n c e s . Edited by
David Braybrooke. New York: Macmillan, 1965.
P r e s t h u s , Robert V.
Tu sca lo os a:

Behavioral Approaches t o P u b l ic A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
U n i v e r s i t y o f Alabama P r e s s , 1965.

_________. E l i t e Accommodation in Canadian P o l i t i c s .
Engl a n d : Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973.
________ . E l i t e s in th e P o lic y P r o c e s s .
v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1974.

London:

Cambridge,

Cambridge Uni-

________ . Men a t th e Top: A Study in Community Power.
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1964.

New York:

340

Rose, Arnold M. The Power S t r u c t u r e .
P r e s s , 1971.

New York:

Oxford U n i v e r s i t y

S a l i s b u r y , Robert H. " P o l i t i c a l S t r a t e g i e s f o r Educational Innova­
t i o n . " In S t a t e , School and P o l i t i c s . Ed ited by Michael
K i r s t . Le xington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1972.
S c r i b n e r , Jay D. "The P o l i t i c s o f Federal Aid to Education in
Michigan." In Federal Aid t o Educ ation: Who B e n e f i t s ? .
Ed ited by Joel S. Berke and Michael W. K i r s t . Le xin gton,
Mass.: Lexington Books, 1972.
_________, and E n g l e r t , Richard M. "The P o l i t i c s o f Educ ation: An
I n t r o d u c t i o n . " In The P o l i t i c s o f E d u c a tio n . Edited by
Jay D. S c r i b n e r . Chicago: The U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s ,
1977.
S e l z n i c k , P. Le ad ersh ip in A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
P e t e r s o n , 1957.

Evanston, 111. :

S k in n e r , B. F.
1953.

New York:

S cience and Human B e ha vio r.

Row

Macmillan,

S u t h e r l a n d , John W. A General Systems Philosophy f o r th e S ocial and
Behavioral S c i e n c e s . New York: B r a z i l l e r , 1973.
T a y lo r , Donald. "Decision-Making and Problem S o l v i n g . " In Handbook
o f O r g a n i z a t i o n s . Ed ited by James G. March. Chicago: Rand
McNally, 1965.
Thompson, James D.
1967.

O r g a n i z a t i o n s i n A cti on.

New York:

McGraw-Hill,

_________, and McEwen, William J . " O r g a n iz a tio n a l Goals and Environ­
ment: Goal S e t t i n g as an I n t e r a c t i o n P r o c e s s . " American
S o c i o l o g i c a l Review 23 (February 1958).
Thompson, John Thomas. P o l i c y Making in American P u b l ic E d u c a t io n .
Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l 1 , 1976.
Truman, D. B. The Governmental P r o c e s s .
I n c . , 1951.

New York:

A lf r e d A. Knopf,

Usdan, Michael. The P o l i t i c a l Power o f Education in New York S t a t e .
New York: I n s t i t u t e o f A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Res earch, Teachers
C o l l e g e , Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , 1963.
_________. "The Role and F u tu re o f S t a t e Educ ational C o a l i t i o n s . "
E duc ationa l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Q u a r t e r l y 5 (Spring 1969).

341
_________. "The Role o f a Major Educational Bureaucr acy."
A d m in i str a tio n Q u a r t e r l y 2 (Spring 1969).
Wax, R os ali e H. Doing F i e ld Work.
P r e s s , 1971.

Chicago:

Educational

U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago

Wenninger, Eugene P. "Entropy, Eq uilibrium and O r g a n iz a tio n s :
Problems o f C o n c e p tu a li z a ti o n . In General Systems and
O rg an iz at ion Theory: Methodological A s p e c t s . Kent, Ohio:
Center f o r Business and Economic R e s e a r c h , 1975.
Whyte, William Foote. "Informal Leadership and Group S t r u c t u r e . "
In S tu d ie s in L e a d e r s h ip . Edited by Alvin W. Gouldner.
New York: Russell and R u s s e l l , I n c . , 1965.
Wirt, F r e d e ri c k W. "American Schools as a P o l i t i c a l System." In
S t a t e , School and P o l i t i c s . Edited by Michael W. K i r s t .
Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1972.
________ , and K i r s t , Michael W. P o l i t i c a l and Social Foundations of
Educ ation. Berkeley, CalT: McCutchan P ub lish in g Co rp.,
1975.
_________. The P o l i t i c a l Web o f American S c h o o ls .
Brown and Co., 1972.
Wolin, Sheldon. " P o l i t i c s , Education and Theory."
and P o l i t i c s . Edited by Michael W. K i r s t .
Lexington Books, 1972.

Boston:

L ittle,

In S t a t e , School
Lexington, Mass.:

Z e i g l e r , Harmon L. "Who Governs American Education: Research S t r a t e ­
g i e s . " In S t a t e , School and P o l i t i c s . Edited by Michael W.
K i r s t . Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1972.