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18 B E D F O R D RO W, L O N D O N WC1 R 4 E J , E N G L A N D

8117236

GUNNINGS, BARBARA BYRD

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS FACTORS AND SELF-PERCEIVED
ROLES OF BLACK ADMINISTRATORS IN PREDOMINANTLY WHITE PUBLIC
FOUR YEAR INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN

Michigan State University

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1981

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS FACTORS AND SELF-PERCEIVED
ROLES OF BLACK ADMINISTRATORS IN PREDOMINANTLY WHITE
PUBLIC FOUR YEAR INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER
EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN
By
Barbara Byrd Gunnings

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department Of Administration and Higher Education

1981

ABSTRACT
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS FACTORS AND SELF-PERCEIVED
ROLES OF BLACK ADMINISTRATORS IN PREDOMINANTLY WHITE
PUBLIC FOUR YEAR INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER
EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN
by

Barbara Byrd Gunnings

The major purpose of this study was to assess the
relationships between stress factors and the self-perceived
roles of black administrators in predominantly white public
four year institutions of higher education in Michigan.
Specifically, this study was aimed at determinations of:
(1)
role,

the relationship between stress and self-perceived
(2)

the relationships between self-perceived roles

and age, marital status,

sex, level of education, level of

job responsibility, level of income, and length of time in
the job,

(3)

the relationships between stress and age,

marital status, sex,

level of income, level of education,

level of job responsibility, and length of time in the job,
(4)

the relationships between role conflicts/ambiguities

and stress, and (5)

the relationship between stress and

illness.
The population for this study consisted of the 232
black administrators who were employed in the fifteen four
year institutions of higher education during the spring of
1980.

The total black administrative population was sur­

veyed and the resulting sample was composed of the 149

Barbara Byrd Gunnings

black administrators who responded to the survey.
The instrument used in this study was a question­
naire which was construced to gather information about the
demographics of the participants, the employing institu­
tions, the self-perceived roles of the participants, and
stress and illness data on the participants.
was developed during the course of this study.

The instrument
The princi­

pal source influencing the construction of the stress part
of the questionnaire was the framework for examining occu­
pational sources of stress that was provided by Cooper and
.Marshall in 1976.

The illness portion of the questionnaire

was extracted from a research project conducted by Parker
in 1979.

Parker developed a series of stress-linked ill­

nesses and behaviors as manifested in physical effects,
drug usage, behavioral effects and use of consulting serv­
ices.

The instrument, along with a cover of explanation,

was mailed to each of the black administrators in the
fifteen public four year institutions of higher education
in Michigan.

The sample consisted of the 149 black admin­

istrators who responded to the questionnaire.
The analysis of data included the use of the one­
way analysis of variance, cross tabulation and Chi Square
techniques to determine the nature of the relationships
specified in the five hypotheses.

The 0.05 level of sig­

nificance was used to analyze the results of the ANOVA
procedures and the Chi Square statistics.

Additional

analysis of the biographical data, stress data, and illness

Barbara Byrd Gunnings

data relied on descriptive statistics.
The results of this study can be summarized in the
following manner:
1.

There is no significant difference in the amount

of stress experienced by the black administrators who have
high self-perceived role functions and the amount of stress
experienced by black administrators who have low self­
perceived role functions.
2.

There are relationships between self-perceived

role functions of black administrators and the variables
of sex, level of job responsibility,
level of education.

level of income and

However, there are no relationships

between self-perceived role and age, marital status and
length of time in the job.
3.

There are relationships between stress and the

variables of sex and level of income while there are no
relationships between stress and age, marital status,

level

of education, level of job responsibility, and length of
time in the job.
4.

There is a significant difference in the amount

of stress experienced by black administrators who have high
role conflict/ambiguity functions and the amount of stress
experienced by black administrators who have low role
conflict/ambiguity functions.
5.

There is a significant difference in the amount

of stress experienced by black administrators who have high
illness functions and the amount of stress experienced by

Barbara Byrd Gunnings

black administrators who have low illness functions.
The importance of this study adds support for the
need of the conceptualization, development and implementa­
tion of a valid theoretical and practical approach to
educating and training black administrators.

This study

also adds support to the desirability of having departments
of higher education and administration address events which
significantly affect the effective and efficient performance
of their employees.

DEDICATION
To the memory of my dad, Willie Byrd,
whose love was undemanding and perfect.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indeed grateful to those who have contributed
to the success of this project through their inspiration,
love, sacrifice and constant support.

Realizing the risk

of an oversight, I extend my sincere thanks and appreciation
to specific individuals.
A genuine thanks to the members of my doctoral
committee, Dr. Van Johnson who served as chairman and to
Dr. Stanley Stark and Dr. Louis Romano.

A special debt of

gratitude is due Dr. Gloria Smith, faculty director of this
study.

Her assistance, support, guidance and encouragement

during my entire doctoral program made this experience more
bearable.
A special expression of appreciation and thanks is
due to Dr. John Schweitzer, Dr. Larry Lezotte and Dr.
Beverly Parker.

Their helpful suggestions and assistance

contributed much to the strength of this study.
To my mom, Mrs. Marie Byrd, I will be eternally
grateful for your pride and faith in me.

It has always been

a comfort and a source of inspiration for me.
Finally, to my husband Thomas and my daughter Sonya,
a special thanks for their love which I sometimes take for
granted.

Their constant support and belief in my abilities

are always a source of strength for me.
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF

TABLES.

.........................................

vi

LIST OF

F I G U R E S ...........................................

viii

LIST OF

APPENDICES.........................................

ix

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM........

1

Purpose of the S t u d y .............................
Significance of the Study.
.............
The Population and Subjects......................
Procedure..........................................
Delimitations of the S t u d y ......................
H y p o t h e s e s ........................................
Definition of T erms...............................
O v e r v i e w ..........................................

6
7
9
10
10
11
12
13

Chapter
I.

II.

RELATED LITERATURE ................................
Introduction ......................................
Role Theory........................................
Relationship of Role Conflict and Ambiguity to
Black A d m i n i s t r a t o r s ...........................
Race and Stress...................................
Stress and I l l n e s s ...............................
Summary............................................

III.

IV.

14
14
15
18
28
31
41

STUDY DESIGN AND PROCEDURES........................

42

O v e r v i e w ..........................................
P o p u l a t i o n ........................................
S u b j e c t s ..........................................
I n s t r u m e n t ........................................
Procedure..........................................
H y p o t h e s e s ......... I ............................
Treatment of D a t a .................................
Summary............................................

42
43
46
50
52
53
55
59

ANALYSIS OF D A T A ..................................
Introduction ......................................
Testing of Hypotheses.............................
iv

61
61
62

Additional Descriptive Analyses..................
Summary............................................

88
91

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
AND I M P L I C A T I O N S .................................

98

Introduction .....................................
Summary............................................
Conclusion and Discussion........................
Recommendations and Implications ...............

98
98
102
107

APPENDICES...................................................

Ill

LIST OF REFERENCES..........................................

123

V.

V

LIST OF TABLES

Racial-Ethnic Minority and Non-Minority Enrollment
Breakdown of Participating Institutions...........
Biographical Data of Black Administrators...........
Analysis of Variance for Stress and
Self-Perceived Ro le .................................
Cross Tabulation
of Self-Perceived
Role by Age . . .
Cross Tabulation
of Self-Perceived
Role by Sex . . .
Cross Tabulation
of Self-Perceived
Role by
Marital Status .....................................
Cross Tabulation of Self-Perceived Role by
Level of Education .................................
Cross Tabulation
of Self-Perceived
Role by
Length of Time
on the J o b .........................
Cross Tabulation
of Self-Perceived
Role by
Level of Income.....................................
Cross Tabulation of Self-Perceived Role by
Level of Job Responsibility........................
Cross Tabulation
of Stress by A g e ...................
Cross Tabulation
of Stress by Se x ...................
Cross Tabulation
of Stress by
Marital Status ... .
Cross Tabulation
of Stress by
Level of Education ..
Cross Tabulation
of Stress by
Length of
Time on the J o b .....................................
Cross Tabulation
of Stress by
Level of Income... .
Cross Tabulation
of Stress by
Level of Job
Responsibility .....................................
Analysis of Variance for Stress and Role
Conflict/Ambiguity .................................
Analysis of Variance for Stress and Illness.........
Characteristics of Respondents' Positions...........
Percentages of Responses to Sources of Stress
for Respondents.....................................
Percentages of Responses to Stress-Linked
Illnesses and Behaviors.............................

vi

44
47
63
65
67
68

70

71
73
74
76
78
79
81
82
83
85
87
89
91
92
95

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1
2.2
2.3

Getzel's and Guba's Model of Administration
as a Social Process.................................
Getzel's and Guba's Model of Administration
as a Social Process Modified to Apply to
School Administration...............................
A Model of Stress at W o r k .............................

vii

19
20
38

LIST OF APPENDICES

A.
B.
C.
D.

Stress-Self-Perceived Role Questionnaire..............
Cover Letter to Black Administrators from
Researcher............................................
Cover Letter to Black Administrators from
Faculty Director of Study ...........................
Follow-up Letter to Black Administrators..............

viii

Ill
120
121
122

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Stress is an intrinsic part of the condition of being
human.

A person experiences stress in all aspects of life;

however, stress can induce positive as well as negative re­
sponses from the individual.

Consider an athlete who seem­

ingly plays best when the competition is greatest.

The

threat of a superior performance from an opponent can cause
the athlete to perform at heights that might be unattainable
if the opponent were to display lesser skills.

Even the ex­

citement and happy reaction which culminates the anticipation
of opening a birthday present is also a response to a stress­
ful situation.
While these are considered as positive responses to
stress, the more common connotation of stress is in the con­
text of the negative responses which it generates from and
within the individual.

Generally these responses are evi­

denced through the effects on the mental and physical being.
Studies such as those by Brooks and Mueller
fuss and Czackes

(1966) and Drey-

(1959) have linked stressful situations with

changes in various

body chemicals and hormones.

Other at­

tempts at assessing stressful situations have indicated a

1

2
direct linkage between stress and such ailments as increased
heart rate

(French and Caplan, 1970), high blood pressure

(Cassel, 1975; and Harris and Singer,
(Rivers,

1977) , obesity

(Shirom et a l . , 1973)

terioration of mental health

(Brooks,

1965; and Kleiner and Parker,

1963).

Gross

1968), alcoholism
and the de­

197 3; and Kornhauser,

(197 0) views stress as a psychosocial pheno­

menon— a matter of the relation between the individual and
the structure within which he finds himself.

Here, stress

is related to the interacting factors of an individual's
personality and environment.

If this basic premise is ac­

cepted, it can be surmised that the interplay of race,
educational background and other demographic variables has
a direct affect on an individual's sensibility, perception
and response to the environment.
therefore,

Causes of stress can,

lie either in the individual, in the structural

environment, or in an interaction between individual and
environmental factors.
Since a large portion of one's waking hours is
spent in the work environment, increased attention is being
paid to occupational stress.

This focus is especially im­

portant in a dynamic society such as the United States be­
cause the working person must fit into an age of high tech­
nology, new expectations, and increasing demands.

The

federal government evidenced an awareness of the problem of
occupational stress when it awarded grants to Steve Sauter,
an industrial psychologist

(Harper, 1980).

The grants,

3
totaling over a hundred thousand dollars, were for the study
and measurement of stress-related symptoms of troubled
workers.

The symptoms were identified as hand tremors,

body sway, reaction time, coordination, concentration and
smoking withdrawal affects.
It is also recognized that some occupations are more
stress producing than others.
proclaimed,
igan, 1980).

Recent newspaper headlines

"Police Self-Destruct on Too Much Stress"

(Flan­

The article related that during the four month

period of January 1 to April 25, 1980 four Detroit police
officers committed suicide and two others made attempts on
their own lives.

A police psychologist attributed these

actions to the enormous stress that comes with being a po­
liceman.

The psychologist further intimated that rates of

suicide, divorce and stress-related illnesses such as heart
attacks, high blood pressure and alcoholism are much higher
for policemen than other professions.

It is noteworthy

that these same stress-linked health manifestations have
also been associated with the pressure-laden professions of
medical doctors and dentists.
Administration is also recognized as a highly stress­
ful occupation.

A review of the National Institute for Oc­

cupational Safety and Health stress research studies in 1977
supports this contention.

Over 22,000 health records of wor­

kers in 130 occupations were collected and evaluated for in­
cidence of stress-related diseases.

These studies revealed

that manager/administrator is the occupation category with

4
the seventh highest incidence of stress-related diseases.
Administrators in public institutions of higher ed­
ucation today face innumerable job stressors, some of which
are deadline pressures, demands to initiate innovative pro­
grams, evaluations, policy implementations, accountability
demands, and adjustment to numerous other variables and con­
cerns which make up the job.

Black administrators in predom­

inantly white institutions of higher education face addition­
al pressures that are directly related to race.

There is a

natural dilemma and irony in being in this position.

Black

administrators are confronted with the often conflicting de­
mands and expectations of black students,
fellow administrators.

faculty members and

Black students expect black adminis­

trators to serve as role models, surrogate parents, buffers,
advocates, and sources of continuing psychological support.
Black administrators in predominantly white environments are
expected to foster a tolerance for diverse and often conflic­
ting judgments while at the same time to serve as stimulating
and cohesive forces to help faculty and other administrators
understand the position of the black youth.

Black adminis­

trators must sometimes make use of such intervention strate­
gies as confrontation, negotiation, mediation and disengage­
ment.

They must sometimes use the position of employment to

serve as cross-cultural bridges and liaisons to effectuate
understanding and make working relationships possible.

Along

with these expectations, black administrators must also keep
a constant awareness and perception of their own roles in the

5
organizational structure.

Career development patterns and

organizational climate dictate that black administrators
must guard against becoming the "sole keeper of minority af­
fairs" to the exclusion of the burning issues in today's ac­
ademic revolution.

Few people are caught in the middle as

much as black administrators, particularly if they are sin­
cere in wanting to help black people, in being dedicated em­
ployees of the institutions, and in their own personal devel­
opment patterns.

This unique set of responsibilities, expec­

tations and conflicts provide fertile ground for generating
stress and its accompanying illnesses and responses.
Interwoven with the sources of stress generated by
the work environment is the source of stress which is inher­
ent in each individual.

Again, accepting the psychosocial

context of stress, it is understandable that individuals,
having different personalities, perceive and react to situa­
tions in different ways.

Individuals' personality character­

istics are important considerations in setting the dimensions
of work.

Both genetic and developmental influences stamp

each administrator as unique.

Black administrators in pre­

dominantly white colleges and universities bring to the edu­
cational arena a specific set of mores, customs and cultural
influences.

These characteristics, when viewed in context

with such influences as background, family and environmental
structure, affect how they perceive their work roles and
respond to stressfulness.
While it is difficult, or perhaps impossible to

isolate causality when dealing with stress, it is possible
to show relationships between self-perceived roles, environ­
mental factors, and stressful circumstances.

It is within

this framework that the impact of stress on black administra­
tors in predominantly white public institutions of higher ed­
ucation in Michigan will be examined.

Stress will be asses­

sed by looking at its manifestations in the individual's phy­
sical and behavioral operations.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to assess the relation­
ships between stress factors and the self-perceived roles of
black administrators in predominantly white public four year
institutions of higher education in Michigan.

This assessment

will examine the relationship between stress and the occur­
rence of stress-related illnesses in this same group.
Specific questions to be explored in this study are:
1.

Is there a relationship between stress and the

self-perceived role of black administrators?
2.

Are there relationships between self-perceived

roles and the demographic variables of age, marital status,
sex, level of income, level of education,

level of job re­

sponsibilities, and length of time in the job?
3.

Are there relationships between stress and the

demographic variables of age, marital status, sex, level of
income, level of education, level of job responsibilties,
and length of time in the job?

7
4.

Is there a relationship between the amount of

role conflicts and ambiguities experienced by black adminis­
trators and stress?
5.

Is there a relationship between the amount of

stress experienced by black administrators and the occurrence
of illnesses?
Significance of the Study
The initial framework within which stress was defined
emphasized the affect of environmental factors on the human
organism.

Love

(1944) viewed stress as an internal force

generated within a solid body by the action of an external
force which tends to distort the body.
ding Wolff

(1968) and Lazarus

Other writers, inclu­

(1971) have inferred that the

inner state of the individual also contributes to any resul­
ting state of stress.

Among these, Selye

(1955) postulated

that stress is a state of the organism that underlies both
its adaptive and maladaptive reactions.

Selye's paradigm of

the stress response contains four main elements:

the antece­

dent stressor; the mediating factors which increase or de­
crease the impact of the stressor; the adaptation syndrome
which indicates an intervening state of stress in the organ­
ism; and the consequent or maladaptive response.

For purpo­

ses of this study, stress will be viewed in the manner of
Selye because it allows for the individualistic, psychologi­
cal and social nature of stress.
Utilizing this framework of stress, the stressors and

8
mediating factors can be associated with the race and ethni­
city of the individual.

The general assumption which accom­

panies this framework is that race and cultural influences
are part of one's intrinsic make-up and thus affect one's de­
termination of what is a stressor as well as the actual med­
iating factors that affect the individual.

Therefore, it is

possible to assess particular sources of stress stemming from
the individual's race or ethnicity in terms of the likelihood
that these antecedent factors will increase or decrease the
intensity and the duration of the stress one experiences.
Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend

(1969) support this premise:

. . . Another class of stressors is related to the fact
that in our society upward mobility is the norm.
The
progression of ethnic groups over succeeding generations
is from positions of lower to positions of higher social
status.
Within the life span of any given individual,
however, the obstacles to such mobility are greater or
lesser depending on such characteristics as race and
class.
(p. 133)
Thus, black administrators working in predominantly white en­
vironments will perceive their environment and their roles in
those environments in a manner quite different than their
white co-workers.
The roles of black administrators in higher education
are important not only to the black student but to all stu­
dents in predominantly white educational institutions as
well.

Black administrators must possess the skills not only

to cope with the normally assigned administrative duties but
also with the special demands placed upon them by virtue of
their blackness.

This study will point up the need for the

9
conceptualization, development and implementation of a valid
theoretical and practical approach for educating and train­
ing black administrators.

Training opportunities must be

developed and revised which will help prepare black admin­
istrators for the multiple roles that must be fulfilled
ultimately.

This study will add support to the desirability

of having departments of higher education and administration
address events which significantly affect the effective and
efficient performance of their employees.
The data and conclusions provided by this study can
also be useful to practicing black administrators and all
within the institutional hierarchy who work and interact
with them.

This study will possibly clarify many of the

intrinsic and extrinsic variables acting on black adminis­
trators and will provide a basis for more cooperation and
understanding in the working environment.
The Population and Subjects
The population for this study will consist of two
hundred and thirty-two black administrators.

The administra­

tors will be those employed by the fifteen four year state
controlled institutions of higher education in Michigan.
The institutions from which the population will be drawn are
all predominantly white, that is, each participating insti­
tution has a student body that is at least seventy percent
white.

The total black administrative population of these

institutions will be surveyed.

Those persons who respond will

10
constitute a convenience sample since they will not be ran­
domly selected.

The scarcity of black administrators in pre­

dominantly white institutions of higher education in Michigan
necessitated that the entire population be surveyed.

The ad­

ministrators selected for this study will include all those
black persons who holds positions of presidents, vice-presi­
dents, deans, department chairmen, program directors, pro­
gram coordinators and their assistants.
Procedure
The procedure for gathering data will be to request
responses through a mail-in questionnaire.

The instrument

will contain data about:

(2) the employing

institutions,
illness.

(1) demographics,

(3) self-perceived role,

(4) stress, and

(5)

Portions of the questionnaire will be developed

specifically for this study.

The stress portion of the ques­

tionnaire will be developed by using the occupational sources
of stress compiled by Cooper and Marshall

(1976).

The format

for the illness portion of the questionnaire will be adapted
from part of an instrument developed by Parker

(1979).

Par­

ker compiled a list of stress-linked illnesses and behaviors
based on a careful review of the literature.

The question­

naire will consist of fixed-alternative, open-end, and Likert
type items.

The questionnaire will be pretested and refined

before it is mailed to the study participants.
Delimitations of the Study
This research is concerned with a population of
black administrators in the four year predominantly white

11
public institutions of higher education in the state of Mi­
chigan.

The race and ethnicity of the subjects, as well as

the character of the institutions in which they work, will
be delimiting factors affecting the external validity of
the interpretations.

Also, since a random sample of the pop­

ulation was not drawn, generalizations beyond those surveyed
will be restricted; however, this study will have important
implications for black administrators in particular and ed­
ucational adminstration in general.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses will be tested in this
study:
Hypothesis 1:

Black adminstrators in predominantly

white public four year institutions of higher education in
Michigan who have high self-perceived role functions experi­
ence more stress than black administrators who have low self­
perceived role functions
Hypothesis 2:

There are direct relationships between

the self-perceived role functions of black administrators in
predominantly white public four year institutions of higher
education in Michigan and the demographic variables of age,
marital status, sex, level of job responsibility, income le­
vel, level of education and length of time in the job
Hypothesis 3:

There are direct relationships between

the amount of stress experienced by black administrators to
predominantly white public four year institutions of higher

12
education in Michigan and the demographic variables of age,
marital status, sex, level of job responsibility,
level,

income

level of education and length of time in the job
Hypothesis 4:

Black administrators who encounter

more role conflicts and ambiguities experience greater
amounts of stress than black administrators who encounter
fewer role conflicts and ambiguities
Hypothesis 5:

Black administrators in predominantly

white public four year institutions of higher education in
Michigan who experience greater amounts of stress will be
prone to more illnesses than those black administrators who
experience less stress
Data for testing these hypotheses will be analyzed
from black administrators'

responses to a questionnaire

which contains demographic data, institutional and role
data, and stress and illness data.
Definition of Terms
In this study the following terms are defined to
promote clarity in regard to their use:
Administrators--Incumbents of line and staff posi­
tions equivalent to president, vice-president, provost,
dean, department chairmen, director, coordinator and all
the assistant positions
Predominantly White--Refers to those educational
institutions whose student body is at least seventy percent
white as reported by the National Center for Education

Statistics in 1979
Role— A series of unified expectations applied to
an incumbent of a particular position.

The administrator's

role in the institution is defined by the obligations and
responsibilities attached to the position
Role Ambiguity— The degree of uncertainty among
role expectations for an incumbent of a particular position
Stress— A response state or condition of a person
subjected to mental and/or physical influences or pressures
Overview
The need and purpose of the present research and
the hypotheses of interest have been described in Chapter
I.

In Chapter II of the literature pertinent to the study

will be reviewed.

In Chapter III the population,

subjects, procedures,

sampled

instrument, design and procedures for

analysis of data will be described.
tain an analysis of the results.

Chapter IV will con­

Finally, Chapter V will

include a discussion of the results and conclusions with
implications and recommendations for future investigation.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
Only since the racial upheavals of the late sixties
have public institutions of higher education been signifi­
cantly integrated to the extent that blacks were hired as ad­
ministrators in predominantly white educational institutions.
Until fairly recently, therefore, most black educational ad­
ministrators have functioned primarily as principals in seg­
regated public schools and as administrators in all-black
colleges and universities.

As a result, there are very few

empirical investigations related to stress and self-perceived
role of black administrators in predominantly white institu­
tions of higher education.

For this reason this review, par­

ticularly in the area of stress, focused upon related studies.
The review of the literature for this study will be
organized around four specific topics:

(1) role theory,

(2)

role conflict and role ambiguity as related to the black ad­
ministrator,

(3) race and stress, and (4) stress and illness.

Some of the review will rely on theoretical formulations and
scholarly speculation and treatises.

14

15

Role Theory
The concept of role has been the subject of numerous
theoretical formulations but it still remains a relatively
underdeveloped concept.

Many definitions of role are pre­

sented in the literature but it is noteworthy that the defi­
nitions represent different disciplines and different points
of view within single disciplines.

Anthropologists, psycho­

logists, and other social scientists tend to enumerate the
aspects of role theory that are pertinent

to the problems in­

herent in their respective disciplines and there is often
failure to differentiate clearly the various elements of role
theory.
One of the elements of central importance when focus­
ing on role theory is the speculation that human behavior is
influenced to some degree by the expectations that indivi­
duals hold for themselves or that other individuals hold for
them.

Bennett and Tumin

(1948) defined role as ". . . what

the society expects of an individual occupying a given sta­
tus."

Sargent

(1951), a psychologist, added another dimen­

sion when he related social position to the concept.
A person's role is a pattern or type of social behavior
which seems situationally appropriate to him in terms of
the demands and expectations of those in his group.
(p. 91)
Sargent then added that, in a sense, roles have ingredients
of cultural, personal and situational determination but never
is a role wholly personal, wholly cultural, nor wholly situ­
ational .

16
Parsons' major formulation of role is a more elabo­
rate example of treating role as an individual's definition
of his situation with reference to his and others' social po­
sitions.

A background frame of reference was offered by Par­

sons and Shils

(1951) when they postulated that the indivi­

dual is an actor whose actions take place in a situation con­
sisting of other actors or physical or cultural objects.
Each individual actor has a "system of orientations" or re­
lations to these objects.

Thus, role is viewed as a mode of

organization of the actor's orientation to the situation.
Parson

(1951) added another dimension to this connotation of

role when he pointed out that the "system of orientations"
involves interacting relationships that are reciprocal.

He

said that a role is a sector of a total orientation system of
an individual actor which is organized and integrated in a
particular interaction context with one or more actors in the
appropriate complementary roles.
It should be noted that this is just one of the con­
notations of role that Parsons expounded.

Gordon

(1966) ac­

cused Parsons of changing emphasis when his research interest
or analytical perspective shifted.

When discussing the re­

lationship of the individual to the social system itself, he
defined role in terms of common value orientations or stand­
ards.

This shift in connotations by Parsons points up the

diversity of the concept of role and is related to the com­
plexity of the many variables or elements of the concept.
These forestated definitions of role imply cultural

17
influences, but do not stress the importance of cultural pat­
terns.

Linton

(1936), an anthropologist, stressed cultural

patterns and gave primary emphasis to the normative patterns
influencing the behavior of occupants of positions in the so­
cial structure.

In what has probably become one of the most

quoted definitions of role, Linton defined role in terms of a
status.

According to Linton a status is a collection of

rights and duties which find expression through the medium of
the individual.
A role represents the dynamic aspect of a status.
The in­
dividual is socially assigned to a status and occupies it
with relation to other statuses.
When he puts the rights
and duties which constitute the status into effect, he is
performing a role.
(pp. 113-114)
Linton continued to explain that role and status are insepa­
rable and that any distinction between them is only academic.
Role and status are derived from social patterns and repre­
sent the minimum of attitudes and behaviors which the indi­
vidual must assume if one is to participate in the overt ex­
pression of the pattern.

Thus, status and role reduce the i-

deal patterns for social life to individual terms.
Since the primary focus of this undertaking is the
role perceptions of black administrators, the concept of role
elucidated by Linton with its emphasis on cultural and social
phenomena as related to individual behavior is germaine.
This connotation of role reduces it to a highly individualis­
tic nature and such variations as race, personality, family
background, educational level, sex, position in the adminis­
trative hierarchy and innumerable other variables are

18
considered to be contributing determinants of self-perceived
role.
Relationship of Role Conflict and Ambiguity
to Black Administrators
When the concept of role was applied to educational
administration the model of Getzel and Guba as depicted in
Guba (1958) supported viewing role as an interaction between
personal variables and institutional variables.
provides a schematic of the Getzel-Guba model.

Figure 2.1
Knezevich

(1975) viewed the Getzel-Guba model of administration as a
social process incorporating an institutional
dimension and a personal

(nomothetic)

(idiographic) dimension.

The nomo­

thetic dimension defines roles and expectations that will
fulfill the goals of the system while the idiographic dimen­
sion constitutes the individual personality and need dis­
positions .
Downey

(1960) took the Getzel-Guba model and modi­

fied it to apply to school administration.
this modification.

Figure 2.2 shows

The significance of the Getzel-Guba model

and its modified Downey version is that it hypothesized that
the individual who is in public school administration is
subjected to a number of interacting forces.

The individ­

ual's role perception and his behavior are based on these
nomothetic and idiographic dimensions.

According to Knezevich

(1975) this model also offers an explanation of how role con­
flict can occur.

He suggested that conflicts are inevitable

when the individual is expected to conform simultaneously to

19

(Institutional or nomothetic dimension)
Institution
4

-*■ Role

&

Expectations

I

Observed
Behavior

Social
system.
Individual

► Personality

Need/
dispositions

(Personal or idiographic dimension)

Figure 2.1.
Getzel's and Guba's model of administra­
tion as a social process.
SOURCE:
J. W. Getzels, "Administration as a Social
Process," in Andrew Halpin, e d . , Administrative Theory in
Education, Chicago, Midwest Administration Center, The Univ­
ersity of Chicago, 1958, chap. 7.

20

Culture

/

organisation

7

The School -* Informal

V a l u e s -^

Ethos

' Rolaa—

group

Expectations

\

^

► Climate— ► Norms -*■Behavior

\

Individual — ► Personality

► Needs

/
/

Environment

Resources

Limitations

Figure 2.2.
Getzel's and Cuba's model of administra­
tion as a social process modified to apply to school admin­
istration .
SOURCE:
L. W. Downey, "Who Shall Train Our Admin­
istrators," in D.
E. Tope, e d . , A Forward Look:
The Prep­
aration of School Administrators, 19 7 0 , Eugene: Bureau of
Education
Research, University of Oregon, 1960, p. 97.

I

J

21
contradictory and inconsistent demands.

Role conflicts also

occur when the patterns of expectations attached to a role
and the patterns of the needs of the individual are not
congruent.

In other words, the individual's personality

and/or moral value system is in conflict with the organi­
zational demands.
This delineation of role conflict is congruent with
Gross, Mason and McEachern

(1958) who defined role conflict

as "conflicting sets of legitimized role expectations"
246), and it is also in line with Seeman's

(1953)

(p.

formula­

tion in which role conflict is seen as "the exposure of the
individual in a given position to incompatible behavioral
expectations"

(p. 373).

Kahn and his associates

(1964) and Kahn and French

(1970) related conflict to pressure and distinguished at
least four types of conflict:

(1) conflict may arise from

the instruction to carry out a particular action when the
person knows that such action is at variance with previous
instructions;

(2) conflict may result from the incompatibil­

ity of information from different members of an organization;
(3) conflict can arise between different roles which may be
within or outside the person's work; and (4) conflict can
arise because personal values and needs are violated by cer­
tain job or task requirements.

According to Cox

(197 8), role

ambiguity exists when an individual has inadequate informa­
tion about his role at work.

Role ambiguity manifests itself

in a lack of clarity about work objectives, about colleagues'

22
expectations, about the scope and responsibilities of the
job, and about the job requirements
Wall, 1975; Cooper and Marshall,

(Kahn, 1974; Warr and

1976).

There have been a number of studies which show that
there is a considerable disparity between what a person
thinks his job is and what one's superiors think the job en­
tails.

Kahn and his associates

(1964) carried out what is

probably the most intensive study of role conflict.

They

conducted a national survey to determine the amount of role
conflict in the population.

They also carried out an inten­

sive survey in industrial locations with fifty-three focal
persons in the oil, automobile, electronics and machine parts
industries.

The national survey showed that the experience

of role conflict is common.

They found that thirty-five per­

cent of their fifteen-hundred respondents were unclear as to
their job responsibilities.

A similar proportion expressed

feelings of uncertainty and lack of clarity about what was
expected of them by their co-workers, and about their pros­
pects for promotion.

The respondents reporting role conflict

felt they were caught in the middle between two conflicting
persons or factions.

The fifty-three focal persons reported

results which lead to the conclusion that role conflict had
definite emotional costs and resulted in low job satisfac­
tion, low confidence in the organization, and a high degree
of job-related tension.
Kahn and his associates

(1964) also reported on the

impact of role ambiguity and found results that were

23
essentially comparable.

The consequences of ambiguity for

the individual were also low job satisfaction, low selfconfidence, a high sense of futility, and a high level of
tension.

The organizational determinants of conflict and

ambiguity were reported to be the requirement for crossing
organizational boundaries, the requirements for producing in­
novative solutions to nonroutine problems and the require­
ments for being responsible for the work of others.
Caplan

(1971) conducted a study of scientists, engin­

eers and administrators at the Goddard Space Flight Center
and reported results that were similar to those reported by
Kahn.

Caplan related that a high percentage

(60 percent)

of

the respondents reported some experience of role ambiguity
related to a lack of job satisfaction, and to feelings of
job-related threat to both psychological and physical well­
being.

In this study Caplan found that over a two-hour work

period, the' workers had mean heart rates which correlated
substantially with their subjective reports of role conflict.
In a further study French and Caplan

(1973) conducted a study

at the Kennedy Space Flight Center and showed that, in addi­
tion to being related to lack of job satisfaction and feel­
ings of job threat, role ambiguity could also be related to
anxiety and depression.
Black administrators in predominantly white public
four year institutions of higher education find themselves
in settings that are quite conducive to role conflict and
role ambiguity.

While the literature is scant in empirical

24
studies related specifically to the situation of black ad­
ministrators, there have been verifications of conflict and
ambiguity by some black administrators in this precarious po­
sition.

There is a disparity in the roles of the black ad­

ministrators in predominantly white educational institutions
and the roles of their white counterparts.

Some writings do

show that black administrators face unique and conflicting
tasks and expectations.

Black administrators'

roles are u-

nique in such aspects as the part ethnicity plays in their
being hired as administrators, in the expectations of their
fellow co-workers,

in the expectations of the black students

in particular, and in their own role perceptions.
Frazier

(1957) emphasized the ambivalence of a black

middle class person over moving toward the general society.
Frazier argued that in their restricted role as the elite of
a segregated community, black professionals will typically
find themselves squeezed between several conflicting pres­
sures:

the compulsion to demonstrate to whites their equal

intelligence, talent and respectability; the basic lack of
identification with the black masses; and a desire for white
acceptance.
Watson

(1972), in a paper presented to the First Na­

tional Congress of Black Professionals in Higher Education,
spoke of the difficult task of black administrators in pre­
dominantly white institutions.

He emphasized that black ad­

ministrators must attempt to bring about institutional change
in program and policies in order to provide greater relevancy

25
and opportunity for blacks.

According to Watson, the duality

of being a black and an administrator is seen in the chal­
lenge to not only live with the pressures of the situation
but to take advantage of them.
Motley

(1977), a black dean at Amherst College, found

himself in the anomalous situation of being his own nemesis.
The black dean is the sorely overburdened campus expert on
race relations who is constantly called upon to solve prob­
lems relating to black students, no matter how ill-related to
the duties of a dean.

Motley said that the black dean ends

up doing someone else's job at the expense of his own work,
thus running the risk of being labeled as incompetent.

It is

a "no-win" situation.
Mary Berry, a black female Ph. D. who was named a
provost at the University of Maryland at College Park in
1974, found herself in a similar position.
minority academics are frequently overused.
with Fischer

She agreed that
In an interview

(1975), Mary Berry reported that she found her­

self swamped with requests to serve on boards and commit­
tees— even listed by organizations about which she knew noth­
ing.

It was as though the organizations needed a female or

they needed a black.

In Mary Berry, they were "killing two

birds with one carefully aimed stone."
These testimonials of Motley and Berry are
supported by the few research studies that have been done in
the area of black and minority role perceptions and role con­
flicts.

Bush

(1977) reported on the ambivalence of the

minority administrator.

Bush conducted a study of thirty

black and Chicano administrators who were concentrated in
Southern California non-profit service and business organi­
zations.

The findings of this study support the hypothesis

that minority administrators perceive themselves as being re­
quired to have greater job entrance capabilities than their
white peers, receiving less organizational support than their
white peers, having limited channels for communication, and
having limited opportunities for upward movement in compari­
son with their white peers.
The findings of Bush are supported by the conclusion
of Lopez

(19 78) who conducted a survey of two hundred fifty-

seven Chicano community college administrators in order to
discover and describe the role perceptions, expectations and
conflicts specific to Chicano administrators.

The findings

revealed that Chicano administrators placed the highest value
on community and student expectations as determinants of
their role.

Being a catalyst for change was viewed as an im­

portant role by respondents and was identified as the role
which produced a high degree of role conflict.

Role conflict

was also found to increase as Chicano ethnicity was emphasi­
zed.

Other findings of the study were:

ethnic self-identi­

fication and institutional ethnic composition were found to
be significantly related to role conflict; and tokenism, as­
signment to policy-implementation rather than policy-making
roles, excessive job demands, and the need to disguise in­
stitutional reform efforts were felt to be major contributors

27
to role conflict.

While this study is specifically related

to the Chicano administrator, its findings do have implica­
tions for the black administrator, given the similar histo­
ries of discrimination and minority status.
The findings of the Lopez study of Chicano adminis­
trators closely parallel the findings of a survey of black
administrators in mid-western institutions conducted by
Jones

(1977).

In delineating the changing profile of black

administrators in predominantly white colleges and universi­
ties, Jones reported that the barriers to black participation
in administration were:
tration;

(1) their positions in the adminis­

(2) for many the fact that they were not faculty

members and

(3) systematic racism that requires great amounts

of time, energy, patience, study, analytical ability, and
interpersonal skill to combat through organization strate­
gies for change.
In a dissertation study designed to explore and com­
pare the self-perceived roles of black and non-black admin­
istrators who have comparable institutional affiliation and
who hold similar positions in selected predominantly white
institutions of higher education Cox

(1971) reported these

findings which are specifically related to role:
(.1) black administrators when compared to non-black
administrators appeared to have had proportionally more de­
cisions of an undesirable nature related to black students
and faculty;
(2) generally, black adminstrators were more involved

28
in routine, procedural, and human relations type functions
than the non-black administrator; and
(3)

black administrators generally have less admin­

istrative experience than non-black administrators.
The position of the black administrator in a predom­
inantly white institution of higher education is aptly de­
scribed by Moore and Wagstaff
promised land."

(1974) as an "alien in the

Moore and Wagstaff further conducted a sur­

vey among three thousand black educators in white colleges in
the United States.

The administrators in this group respon­

ded with some of their particular frustrations:

some had no

potential for upward movement; many were expected to be "ex­
pert" on blacks; many were hired primarily to relate to the
black public; and a significant number were frustrated be­
cause of a lack of definition in duties and a lack of real
authority.
The aforementioned studies clearly support the prem­
ise that the black administrator experiences role conflicts
and ambiguities.

These role ambiguities,

frustrations, in­

congruencies and conflicts are postulated to have a relation­
ship to stress and stress is known to manifest itself in a
number of illnesses and ailments.
Race and Stress
Most people would probably agree that the black ad­
ministrator in a predominantly white institution of higher
education is in an unusually stressful situation.

While

this assumption is generally accepted, a cause and effect
relationship between race and stress is not empirically doc­
umented in the literature.

This relationship is difficult

to establish because of the complexity of other variations
that may be involved such as heredity, diet, social status,
occupation, education, or a number of other variables.
example,

For

if black administrators in higher education experi­

ence a high prevalence of hypertension, a stress-related ill­
ness, it is virtually impossible to attribute this condition
solely to race.

It could be due to the administrator's diet,

or to a lack of formal administrative training, or a wide
range of other possibilities.

While racial differences are

particularly attractive and are popular explanations for var­
iation in behavior, it should be kept in mind that using race
to explain stress involves trying to establish causality and
this cannot be done.

Only the existence of a relationship

between the two variables can be shown.
Attempts at showing a relationship between racialcultural influences and stress or illness have relied mainly
on logical reasoning rather than empirical observations.
Levine and Scotch

(1970) cited evidence of attempts to jus­

tify this relationship by logic when they related the think­
ing of Siegerest

(1943) and Simmons and Wolff

(1954).

Sie-

gerest rationalized that such things as religion, philosophy,
education, and social economic conditions determined a man's
attitude toward life and therefore exerts great influence
on his individual disposition to disease.

The importance

30
of these cultural factors is still more evident when we con­
sider the environmental causes of disease.
Wolff

Simmons and

(1954) echoed Siegerest in that they postulated that

physical, social and cultural factors combine to make a whole
person, therefore it is equally imperative to consider their
effects on illness, accidents, or other ill-fated happenings.
Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend

(196 9) conducted an exten­

sive review of the literature in an attempt to show class and
race as status-related sources of stress.

While the results

of this investigation do not allow for any definitive conclu­
sions, the evidence does suggest that both lower-class and
middle-class blacks experience stressors more frequently than
their white class counterparts, and that middle-class blacks
and lower-class blacks appear to be relatively handicapped,
compared to their white class counterparts, by external fac­
tors that mediate the impact of stressors except in one re­
spect (lower class blacks appear to have more extrafamilial
sources of social support than lower class whites).

No de­

finitive conclusions could be drawn concerning internal fac­
tors that mediate the impact of stressors.
A survey of the literature did not reveal any empir­
ical studies relating race and stress nor any studies spe­
cific to the relationship between stress factors and the
black administrator in a predominantly white institution of
higher education.

31

Stress and Illness
During the early 1900's, infections and contagious
diseases were the major cause of illness and death in the
United States.

According to statistics reported by the Unit­

ed States Department of Health, Education and Welfare

(1962) ,

the major causes of death in 1900 were pneumonia and influen­
za, tuberculosis, and diarrhea and enteritis.

By contrast

in 1960 the three major causes of death were diseases of the
heart, malignant neoplasms, and vascular lesions affecting
the central nervous system.
diseases should be noted.

The shift away from infectious
One can attempt to explain this

shift by noting the improved medical technology which has
decreased the diseases of the 1900's.

The increased age

structure of the general population can also account for the
predominance of the causes of death of the I960's.
this cannot be accepted as a total explanation.
Martin

However,

Dodge and

(1970) reported that the variability of chronic dis­

ease patterns in the United States suggests causation other
than changes in age or medical technology.

Dodge and Martin

related certain variations in rates among area, age, sex,
and race categories that point toward a sociological theory
of social stress as accounting for chronic illnesses in mod­
ern t imes:
1.

Death rates from arteriosclerotic heart disease

are consistently higher for whites than nonwhites.

White

32

and nonwhite males consistently have higher rates than fe­
males.

Widowed persons have higher rates than the single,

married or divorced
2.

Coronary heart disease is persistently higher

along the eastern and western seaboards than in the inland,
rural, and farm states
3.

The age-adjusted death rate for coronary heart

disease in New York is consistently and appreciably higher
than the age-adjusted death rate from all causes in North
Dakota
Improved skills and technology cannot account for variations
by sex, color, marital status and state of residence.

Vary­

ing degrees of social stress are postulated to be a major
factor behind the variations of chronic disease mortality
evidenced among populations.
Not only are chronic diseases postulated to be
stress-linked, but there is an ever-growing body of evidence
to support the belief that stress, particularly occupational
stress, is a causal factor of coronary heart disease, peptic
ulcers, respiratory diseases, hypertension, headaches, men­
tal ill health, and a number of other physical ailments.
Many of the approaches to stress as a linkage to
disease received their initial impetus from the works of
Selye

(1955) who viewed stress as a response base concept.

Selye described a "general adaptation syndrome" which repre­
sented a pattern of defense reactions which progressed
through three identifiable stages.

According to Selye, when

33

an individual is exposed to a stressor, it goes through a
stage of alarm in which shock and countershock mechanisms
play a role, a stage of resistance, and finally a stage of
exhaustion.

Each of these stages are expressed biologically

in different ways but are intimately concerned with disturb­
ances recognized as disease states.

The human body responds

to a stressor in an attempt to reduce or remove the stressor.
The extent of the resultant bodily disorder is highly indi­
vidualistic and is dependent on the intensity and prolonged
nature of the stressor.

Illness or even death can be the

result of the defense against exposure to stressor agents.
Levi

(1969) described physiologically how the de­

fense function of the body operates.

According to Levi, the

reaction to stressors is initiated by the two parts of the
automatic nervous system, the sympathetic and parasympathe­
tic.

Together these attempt to adjust the various body

functions to meet the stressor.

Next, there is an increased

production of adrenaline by the adrenal glands, stimulated
via the sympathetic nervous system.

This increased produc­

tion of adrenaline coupled with impulses from the hypothalm u s , brings the pituitary and its hormones into the battle.
These hormones, in turn, influence the other endocrine
glands and their hormones, thereby regulating the somatic
defenses and adaptation.

Among these substances which are

discharged into the blood stream are the adrenocorticatropic
hormone

(ACTH), which acts upon the adrenal gland; the

gonadotropic hormones, which affect activity in the genital

34
glands; and the thyreotropic hormones, which regulate the
thyroid gland.
Levi further explained the physiological reaction of
the body to mental stressors.
Impulses are transmitted from the cerebral cortex to the
hypothalamus, which regulates not only the automatic
nervous system but also the pituitary— its posterior lobe
directly via nerve endings, its anterior lobe by a secre­
tion from the hypothalmus which flows through direct
vascular connections to the pituitary.
The increased
production of adrenaline, which is a result of the in­
creased sympathetic stimulation, also activates the pi­
tuitary.
This produces a radical adjustment of the bod­
y's processes.
(p. 38)
The body's adjustment to mental and physical stressors are of
approximately the same nature.

When the body attempts to

adjust to stressors and this attempt fails, diseases of ad­
aptation are produced.

Kagen and Levi

(1971) and Levi

(1974)

constructed a theoretical model to describe psychological
factors in the mediation of physical disease.

They proposed

the hypothesis that psychosocial stimuli together with the
psychobiological programme determine the occurrence of the
stress response, which in turn may provoke precursors of
disease, and then disease itself.
Research conducted during recent years has produced
a growing body of evidence that there is a direct relation­
ship between occupational stress and physical and mental
illness.

Cooper and Marshall

(1976) conducted an extensive

review of the literature relating stress to coronary heart
disease and mental ill health.

While admitting to methodo­

logical weaknesses in the studies reviewed and large gaps in

35
our knowledge, the extensive research provides seminal evi­
dence to support the notion that work environment and modern
organizations have an impact on the physical and mental
health of their members.

Not only is coronary heart dis­

ease linked to stress but other physical illnesses as well.
A few studies will be mentioned to support the contention
that stress and illness are related.
Any discussion of the physiological response to
stress generally recognizes, in addition to Selye, the work
of Cannon

(1931).

Cannon conducted extensive research on

cats to describe an active pattern of response to acute
stress of emergency situations.

The responses were charac­

terized as "fight" or "fright" and these behaviors were seen
as a function of the sympathetic nervous system and the ad­
renal medulla.

The former brings about the rapid change in

cardiovascular function.

Subsequent researchers have added

the "freeze" dimension to the "fight" or "flight" emergency
reaction.

Gray (1971) has described the emergency reaction

as an increase in the rate, strength and regularity of the
heart beat, contraction of the spleen, the release of glu­
cose stored as glycogen in the liver, the redirection of the
blood supply from the skin and the vicera to the muscles and
the brain, deepening of respiration and dilation of the
bronchi, dilation of the pupils, an enhancement of the blood
coagulation process and of the supply of blood lymphocytes.
Ehrstrom (1945) conducted studies of soldiers enter­
ing combat and revealed increases in blood pressure and other

36
vital signs.

Graham (19 45) reported on the prevalence of

hypertension increases for civilians under wartime condi­
tions.

These studies offer consistent support for the

"fight" or "flight" concept.
Other writers and social scientists have expanded
the initial concepts of stress to incorporate the stimulus
characteristics of environments as well as the individualis­
tic nature of the concept.

Korchin and Ruff

(1964) conducted

studies of the seven Mercury astronauts in the 1960's and
concluded that their personality characteristics and back­
grounds contributed to their high resistance to stress.
vine

Le­

(1967) conducted studies in which animals that were

stimulated in infancy showed a more effective physiological
response when stimulated in adult life than animals which had
not been stimulated in infancy.

Transferring their results

to human situations, Levine concluded that stress is partly
dependent on the nature of one's early environment.
These aforementioned studies offer empirical support
to the postulation of a direct relationship between stress
and physical illness.

There have also been studies that are

aimed at showing that managers and administrators experience
mental and physical disorders when they are placed in stress­
ful situations or at least when they perceive certain aspects
of their job as being stress-producing.
Swent and Gmelch

(1977) have categorized five

sources of stress for the educational administrator as

(1)

administrative constraints dealing with stressors realted to

37
time, meetings, work load and compliance with federal, state
and organizational policies;

(2) administrative responsi­

bility related to such tasks as supervision, evaluation and
negotiation;

(3) interpersonal relations with parents, school

personnel, staff and students;

(4) intrapersonal conflicts;

(5) role expectations dealing with stress caused by a dif­
ference in the expectations of self and the various publics
with which administrators must deal.

These publics include

students, parents, colleagues, boards, supervisors, members
of the community and the general public.
Black educational administrations have numerous re­
sponsibilities and obligations to various groups.

Each group

has expectations of the adminstrators and these expectations
may not be congruent with how the administrators perceive
their own roles or responsibilities.

Any discrepancy be­

tween the role expectations of the various clients and the
administrators'
of stress.

own expectations may create varying degrees

In addition, the administrators'

self-perceived

roles may be a source of stress, particularly if the admin­
istrators perceive that they must be all things to all
people.

Cooper and Marshall

(1976) have delineated the many

sources of stress at work in Figure 2.3 and have provided
a model to show how these sources of stress can lead to
ill health and disease.
French, Tupper and Mueller

(1965) looked at stress

specific to 122 university administrators and professors.
They looked at qualitative

(kind) and quantitative

(amount)

INTRINSIC TO JOB:
Poor physical
working conditions
Work overload
Time pressures
Physical danger, etc.

The individual:

ROLE IN ORGANIZATION:
Role ambiguity
Role conflict
Responsibility for people
Conflicts re organizational
boundaries (internal and
external, etc.)

Level of anxiety

CAREER DEVELOPMENT:
Overpromotion
Underpromotion
Lack of job security
Thwarted ambition, etc.

Type A
behavioral
pattern

Tolerance for
ambiguity

Diastolic blood pressure
Cholesterol level
Heart rate

Coronory
heart
disease

Smoking

U>
00

Depressive mood
Escapist drinking

RELATIONSHIPS AT WORK:
Poor relations with boss,
subordinates, or colleagues
Difficulties in delegating
responsibilities, etc.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
AND CLIMATE:
Little or no participation in
decision-making
Restrictions on behavior
(budgets, etc.)
Office politics
Lack of effective consultation,
etc.
Figure 2.3.

Level of
neuroticism

Mental
Job dissatisfaction

Extra-organizational
sources of stress:

Reduced aspiration,
etc.

Family problems
Life crises
Financial diffi­
culties, etc.

A Model of Stress at Work.

SOURCE:
Taken from Cooper, C. L. and Marshall, J.
"Occupational Sources of Stress: A
Review of the Literature Relating to Coronary Heart Disease and Mentall 111 Health," Journal of
Occupational Psychology, 1976, 49:12.

39

work overload in a large university and found that one
symptom of stress,
overload.

low self-esteem, was related to work

Qualitative overload was not significantly cor­

related to low-esteem among administrators but was signifi­
cantly correlated for professors.

The greater the "quality"

of work expected of professors the lower the self-esteem.
Swent and Gmelch

(1977) conducted a survey of 1,156

Oregon school administrators to ascertain what causes them
stress and how they cope with it.

In addition to reporting

on their perception of stress, the administrators were asked
to rate their health on a self-reporting five-point scale
from excellent to poor.

The data show that when health

status was compared to the individual stress categories as
well as to a composite score of all stressor items, the level
of health decreased as the level of stress increased.
Christenson and Hinkle

(1969) conducted studies on

two groups of managers who were working for the same company.
They found marked differences in the disease prevalence in
those groups who had completed college as opposed to those
who had not completed college prior to coming to the indus­
try.

This latter group shared a significantly greater num­

ber of illness of all sorts than the former group and were
found to be more susceptible to major and minor illnesses,
and also more susceptible to "emotional illness."
Kahn and his associates

(1961) conducted studies re­

lated to role conflict and ambiguity.

While no measure­

ments of physical illnesses were included in these studies,

40
individuals who experienced role conflicts or ambiguity were
found to have significantly higher symptom scores than did
those occupying roles in which there was no, or minimal,
evidence of conflict or ambiguity.
Jackson

(1962) conducted a study concerned with the

concept of status inconsistency as measured by the concord­
ance of scores given to the occupational level, education,
and racial ethnic background of individuals.

As in the Kahn

studies, no measurement of the occurrence of physical disease
was included.

However, a symptom query which measured health

status was found to be highest in those inconsistent status
patterns where ascribed status was superior to achieved sta­
tus.

Likewise, Abramson

Index Scores were highest

(1966)

found that Cornell Medical

(when controlled for age and sex)

when there was a discrepancy between occupational status and
educational level.
In summary, there are a wealth of studies which link
occupational stress and illness.

Administrators'

roles in

the organization in which they work can be potential stres­
sors, particularly if role conflicts and role ambiguities
exist.

While much of the evidence focused on coronary heart

disease, other symptoms of occupational ill health are evi­
denced.

It is obvious that there is sufficient evidence to

argue that stress does affect one's mental and physical
health and that methods of coping with stress must become a
necessary part of organizational life.

41

Summary
There are noticeable gaps and methodological weak­
nesses in the literature when one reviews the studies re­
lating to self-perceived role and stress.

There is a parti­

cular dearth of information concerning the self-perceived
roles of black educational administrators and the particular
stressors they must endure.

Because of this scarcity of in­

formation , it was necessary to look at studies related to
managers and administrators in business and industry and sup­
plement them with the few empirical studies that related di­
rectly to educational administrators.

The information gained

from these studies can be translated to the particular situ­
ation of black administrators.

Despite these gaps in our

knowledge, the research review here provides seminal evidence
to support the notion that there is a relationship between
stress and the self-perceived roles of black educational ad­
ministrators.

This literature review also provides a sound

basis on which to focus other research in this area.

CHAPTER III
STUDY DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
Overview
The major objective of this study was to investigate
the relationship between stress factors and the self-per­
ceived roles of black administrators in the four year public
institutions of higher education in Michigan.

More specifi­

cally, the objectives evolving from the statement of the pur­
pose were:
(1) to determine if there is a direct relationship
between the self-perceived roles of black administrators and
the amount of stress which the adminstrators experience,
(2) to determine if there is a direct relationship
between the self-perceived roles of black adminstrators and
each of the demographic variables of age, sex, marital sta­
tus, level of job responsibility, income level, level of ed­
ucation and length of time in the job,
(3) to determine if there is a direct relationship
between the stress experienced by black administrators and
each of the demographic variables of age, sex, marital sta­
tus, level of job responsibility, income level, level of ed­
ucation and length of time in the job,
(4) to determine if there is a direct relationship
42

43
between the amount of role conflicts and ambiguities experi­
enced by black administrators and the amount of stress they
experience, and
(5)

to determine if there is a direct relationship

between the amount of stress black administrators experience
and their proneness to illness.

This chapter will focus on

a discussion of the population, the subjects, the instrument,
the procedure, the hypotheses and the treatment of the data.
Population
The population from which the subjects for this study
were drawn consisted of the 232 black persons who were em­
ployed as administrators in the 15 public four year institu­
tions of higher education in the state of Michigan during
the spring of 1980.

The institutions from which the popula­

tion was drawn are:

Central Michigan University, Eastern

Michigan University, Ferris State College, Grand Valley State
College,

Lake Superior State College, Michigan State Univer­

sity, Michigan Technological University, Northern Michigan
University, Oakland University, Saginaw Valley State College,
University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, University of Michigan
at Dearborn, University of Michigan at Flint, Wayne State
University, and Western Michigan University.

These institu­

tions have at least seventy percent white student bodies as
reported by the National Center for Educational Statistics.
The enrollment breakdown for these institutions is seen in
Table 3.1.

44

TABLE 3.1
RACIAL-ETHNIC MINORITY AND NON-MINORITY
ENROLLMENT BREAKDOWN OF PARTICIPATING INSTITUTIONS

Institution

Total
Enrollment

Percent
Percent
Minority Non-Minority
Enrollment Enrollment

Central Michigan University

17,878

2.9

97.1

Eastern Michigan University

19,080

9.3

90. 7

Ferris State College

9, 880

6.3

93.7

Grand Valley State Colleges

6,259

6. 6

93.4

Lake Superior State College

1,913

2.5

97.5

46,760

7.1

92. 9

8,500

3.0

97.0

20,955

6.3

93.7

3, 053

13.0

87.0

32,248

10. 3

89. 7

University of Michigan-Dearborn

4,582

6.6

93.4

University of Michigan-Flint

3,300

14.2

85.8

Wayne State University

30,275

29.7

70.3

Western Michigan University

20,834

7.9

92.1

Michigan State University
Northern Michigan University
Oakland University
Saginaw Valley State College
University of Michigan—
Ann Arbor

NOTE:
Racial-Ethnic Minority, as defined by the National Center for Education Statistics, includes American
Indian-Alaskan Native, Black-Nonhispanic, Asian or Pacific
Islander, and Hispanic.
SOURCE:
National Center for Education Statistics,
Education Directory:
Colleges and. Universities, Washington,
1978-1979.

45
The names and addresses of the personnel directors
of the aforementioned colleges and universities were obtained
from the current Education Directory;
ties.

Colleges and Universi-

On March 10, 1980 letters were mailed out to the 15

personnel directors requesting them to provide the investi­
gator with the names, administrative titles and addresses of
the black administrators employed in their respective insti­
tutions.

For purposes of clarity and understanding, the term

administrator was defined in the letter as those line and
staff positions equivalent to presidents, vice-presidents,
provosts, deans, department chairmen, program directors,
program coordinators and all of the assistant positions that
are inclusive therein.

The letter also contained an expla­

nation of the nature and purpose of the study and indicated
that the findings could have important implications for the
future of higher education.

In addition, the letter con­

tained an assurance from the investigator that findings of
the study would be reported in aggregate form and that no
comparisons would be made on an individual or institutional
basis.
Of the 15 letters mailed, responses were received
from 9 of them within a two week period.

The listings from

the other six institutions were obtained by follow-up tele­
phone calls to the personnel directors and in three instan­
ces the listings were obtained by contacting other key per­
sons within the institutions who could provide the investi­
gator with the desired information.

The net result was that

46
a response was received from all 15 target institutions of
higher education.

From these responses a composite listing

of 232 black administrators was compiled.

The scarcity of

black administrators in higher education made it necessary
to survey the entire population.
Subjects
Of the 2 32 black administrators who were asked to
participate in the study, 149 or 64.2 percent usable respon­
ses were obtained

(N=149).

Since the entire population of

black administrators in the four year institutions of higher
education was surveyed, the 149 respondents constitute a
convenience sample of the population.

It was determined by

a listing of the specific job titles that various institu­
tions use different title designations.

The investigator

categorized the titles in the following area which repre­
sent the participants'

level of responsibility:

dents, vice-presidents and provosts;
deans and associate deans;

(1) presi­

(2) deans, assistant

(3) program directors, program

managers, department chairmen and supervisors;
coordinators and project coordinators;

(.4) program

and (5) administra­

tive assistants and administrative officers.
Background information was obtained by asking the
participants to respond to items on the questionnaire rela­
tive to their age, sex, marital status, number of children,
place of birth, educational background, books and articles
published, and tenure status.
marized in Table 3.2.

This information is sum­

47

TABLE 3.2
BIOGRAPHICAL DATA OF BLACK ADMINISTRATORS
Item

Frequency

Percent

SEX
Males

82

55.0

Females

67

45.0

20-29

27

18.1

30-39

65

43.6

40-49

39

26.2

50-59

15

10.1

AGE

3

60 and above
MARITAL STATUS
Single

23

15.4

Married

92

61.7

Divorced

22

14.8

Divorced and Remarried

7

4.7

Separated

5

3.4

None

32

21.5

One

34

22.8

Two

41

27.5

Three

26

17.4

Four and Over

16

10.7

Michigan

43

28.9

Southeast U. S.

56

37.6

Northeast U. S.

8

5.4

17

11.4

16

10.7

NUMBER OF CHILDREN

PLACE OF BIRTH

Northern Midwest
Southern Midwest

(except MI)

48

TABLE 3.2— Continued
Item

Frequency

Percent

Southwest U. S.

6

4.0

Outside Continental U. S.

3

2.0

Less than 1 year

14

9.4

1 to 4 years

25

16. 8

5 to 7 years

26

17.4

8 to 10 years

25

16.8

Over 10 years

59

39.6

Less than 1 year

23

15.4

1 to 4 years

63

42.3

5 to 7 years

26

17.4

8 to 10 years

25

16.8

Over 10 years

12

8.1

Less than 1 year

11

7.4

1 to 5 years

50

33. 6

6 to 10 years

52

34. 9

11 to 20 years

29

19.5

21 to 27 years

7

4.7

Below $20,000

60

40. 3

$20,000 to $29,999

49

32.9

$30,000 to $39,999

24

16.1

$40,000 to $49,999

12

8.1

4

2.7

TOTAL YEARS OF WORK IN HIGHER EDUCATION

TOTAL YEARS IN PRESENT JOB

TOTAL YEARS AT PRESENT INSTITUTION

PRESENT SALARY

$50,000 and over

49

TABLE 3.2— Continued
Item

Frequency

Percent

BOOKS PUBLISHED
None

116

77.9

1 to 3

29

19.5

4 to 6

3

2.0

7 to 9

1

0.7

None

78

52.3

1 to 3

39

26.2

4 to 6

11

7.4

7 to 9

5

3.4

16

10. 7

36

24.2

113

75. 8

28

18. 8

121

81.2

ARTICLES PUBLISHED

10 or more
IN TENURE TRACK
Yes
NO

HAVE TENURE
Yes
No

50

Instrument
The instrument

(Appendix A) used in this study was

a questionnaire which was constructed to gather information
about the demographics of the participants, the employing
institutions, the self-perceived roles of the participants,
and stress and illness data on the participants.

The demo­

graphic portion of the questionnaire was constructed by the
investigator and was needed in order to determine the rela­
tionship between particular background variables and self­
perceived roles as well as the relationship between certain
background variables and stress.

The demographic portion

of the questionnaire consisted mostly of fixed-alternative
items but contained a few open-end items.
The institutional and role data portion of the ques­
tionnaire contained fixed alternative items, open-end items,
and a section of Likert scaled items.

The fixed-alternative

items and the open-end items were designed to gather infor­
mation about the respondents'

level of administrative re­

sponsibility, methods of becoming aware of their position,
method of being selected for their position, tenure status,
academic department or unit of tenure, amount of time spent
on administrative responsibilities besides the administrative
duties.

The Likert scaled items consisted of a series of

statements designed to ascertain role perception data.
spondents were asked to complete the role perception

Re­

51
statements by selecting from these responses:
ly,

(2) often,

(3) sometimes,

(1) frequent­

(4) seldom, and (5) never.

The portion of the questionnaire designed to gather
information about stress was constructed by utilizing a Li­
kert scale with these responses:
agree,
agree.

(3) uncertain,

(1) strongly agree,

(2)

(4) disagree, and (5) strongly dis­

The principal source influencing the construction of

these items was Cooper and Marshall

(1976) who provided a

framework for examining occupational sources of stress.
After conducting an extensive review of the psychological and
medical literature, Cooper and Marshall determined that oc­
cupational sources of stress are related to factors intrinsic
to the job, the individual's role in the organization, career
development, organizational structure and climate, relation­
ships within the organization, extra-organizational sources,
and individual sources.

Utilizing this framework, the inves­

tigator developed items specific to sources of stress and
tension for the educational administrator.
The illness portion of the questionnaire was extrac­
ted from a research project conducted by Parker

(1979) .

Par­

ker conducted a review of the literature and developed a se­
ries of stress-linked illnesses and behaviors as manifested
in physical effects, drug usage, behavioral effects and use
of consulting services.

Respondents were requested to indi­

cate the frequency of occurrence of the stress-linked ill­
nesses and behaviors since assuming their present position.

52

The items which were included in the completed in­
strument had to be validated.

Black administrators who were

in attendance at the 1980 American Personnel and Guidance
Association conference were asked to complete the instrument
and review the items for clarity and relevance.

The pilot

instrument was then edited and used to solicit

information

from the black administrators who participated in this study.
Procedure
Two transmittal letters were prepared— one by the
investigator

(Appendix B) providing the subjects with di­

rections and the purpose of the study, and the other trans­
mittal letter

(Appendix C) by Dr. Gloria Smith, faculty

director of the study, explaining the important implications
of the project and requesting the support of the administra­
tors.

On April 22, 1980 these cover letters were mailed with

the questionnaire

(Appendix A) to the black administrators

who were selected to participate in the study.

A self-ad­

dressed stamped envelope was also enclosed with the question­
naire to facilitate convenience for the subjects to return
the completed questionnaire to the investigator.
On May 14, 1980 a follow-up letter
mailed to all the participants.

(Appendix D) was

Although 99 completed ques­

tionnaires had already been returned to the investigator, it
was necessary to send the follow-up letter to all adminis­
trators on the original listing since no coding procedure
had been used to identify those who had returned the

53
questionnaires.

This procedure was in keeping with the

promise of anonymity of the participants.

It was believed

that the absence of participant identification on the ques­
tionnaire would facilitate more honest responses as well as
increase the number of responses.
A total of 156 questionnaires were returned, con­
stituting a 67 percent return rate.

Seven of those returned

questionnaires were not usable because of the nature of the
positions as described in the job titles

(i. e. counselors,

laboratory technicians, and financial aid assistant).

The

usable return rate was 149 out of 232 or 64.2 percent.
Hypotheses
The data obtained from the questionnaires were used
to test the five hypotheses which were listed in Chapter I.
The hypotheses were stated in the null form and tested at
the 0.05 level of significance.

The hypotheses were listed

as follows:
Null Hypothesis 1:

There is no difference in the

amount of stress experienced by black administrators who
have high self-perceived role functions and the amount of
stress experienced by black administrators who have low
self-perceived role functions
Alternative Hypothesis 1:

There is a significant

difference in the amount of stress experienced by black ad­
ministrators who have high self-perceived role functions and
the amount of stress experienced by black administrators who

54
have low self-perceived role functions
Null Hypothesis 2:

There are no relationships be­

tween the self-perceived role functions of black administra­
tors and each variable:

age, sex, marital status, level of

job responsibility, income level, level of education and
length of time in the job
Alternative Hypothesis 2:

There are relationships

between the self-perceived role functions of black adminis­
trators and each variable:

age, sex, marital status, level

of job responsibility, income level, level of education and
length of time in the job
Null Hypothesis 3:

There are no relationships be­

tween the amount of stress experienced by black administra­
tors and each variable:

age, sex, marital status, level of

job responsibility, income level, level of education and
length of time in the job
Alternative Hypothesis 3:

There are relationships

between the amount of stress experienced by black administra­
tors and each variable:

age, sex, marital status, level of

job responsibility, income level, level of education and
length of time in the job
Null Hypothesis 4:

There is no difference in the a-

mount of stress experienced by black administrators who have
high role conflict and ambiguity functions and the amount of
stress experienced by black administrators who have low role
conflict and ambiguity functions
Alternative Hypothesis 4:

There is a significant

55
difference in the amount of stress experienced by black ad­
ministrators who have high role conflict and ambiguity
functions and the amount of stress experienced by black
adminstrators who have low conflict and ambiguity functions
Null Hypothesis 5:

There is no difference in the

amount of stress experienced by black administrators who
have high illness functions and the amount of stress exper­
ienced by black administrators who have low illness functions
Alternative Hypothesis 5:

There is a significant

difference in the amount of stress experienced by black
administrators who have high illness functions and the
amount of stress experienced by black administrators who
have low illness functions
Treatment of Data
The data from the questionnaire were analyzed by
use of the facilities of the computer laboratory at Michigan
State University.

The SPSS computer programs for frequen­

cies, cross tabulations, ANOVA, and Chi Squares were used
to analyze the five hypotheses.
The variables identified in the hypotheses were:
stress, self-perceived role, age, sex, marital status,
level of job responsibility,
education,

level of income, level of

length of time in the job, role conflict and

ambiguity, and illness.

The variables were operationally

treated in the following manner:

56
Stress— Two levels of the stress variable were de­
termined by first finding the mean value for items 1 through
25 of the stress portion of the questionnaire.

These items

were recoded so that low numbers represented low stress and
higher numbers represented high stress.

Mean scores were

determined and used as a basis for determining two levels of
stress.

Mean scores that are less than or equal to 3 repre­

sented low stress and those scores greater than 3 and less
than or equal to 5 were used as high stress functions.
Self-Perceived Role— Two levels of the self­
perceived role function were determined by utilizing the
items on the questionnaire relating to role perceptions.
These items were included in the institutional and role data
section of the questionnaire— numbers 1 and 9 through 19.
Mean scores for the self-perceived role variable were deter­
mined and those mean scores equal to or less than 3 were
used as low self-perceived role functions.

Those mean

scores greater than 3 and less than 5 were used as high self­
perceived role functions.
Age— The chronological ages of the respondents were
categorized according to years in the following manner:
20-29,

(2) 30-39,

(3) 40-49,

(4) 50-59, and

(.1)

(5) 60 and above.

Sex— The sex variable was categorized as:

(1) male

and (2) female.
Marital status— The categories for this variable
were:

(1) single,

and remarried, and

(2) married,

(3) divorced,

(5) separated.

(4) divorced

The category "widowed"

57
had been included on the questionnaire but since no
respondents checked this category it was deleted.
Level of Job Responsibility— The responses to the
request for specific job titles were categorized in the
following areas which represented the levels of job respon­
sibility:

(1) presidents, vice-presidents and provosts; (2)

deans, assistant deans and associate deans;

(3) program di­

rectors, program managers, department chairmen and supervi­
sors;

(4) program coordinators and project coordinators; and

(5) administrative assistants and administrative officers.
Level of Income— The categories for this variable
were:

(1) Below $20,000,

to $39,999,

(2) $20,000 to $29,999,

(3) $30,000

(4) $40,000 to $49,999 and (5) $50,000 and over.

Level of Education— These categories represented
the highest degree possessed and were coded as follows:
(1) no degree,

(2) bachelor's degree,

(4) specialist's degree and

(3) master's degree,

(5) doctorate degree.

Length of Time in the Job— This variable was cate­
gorized according to years
less than 1 year,

in thefollowing manner:

(2) 1 to 4, (3)

5 to 7,

(1)

(4) 8 to 10, and

(5) over 10 years.
Role Conflict and Ambiguity— Two levels of the role
conflict and ambiguity variable were determined by use of
items on the questionnaire

relating to role conflict and am­

biguity which are included in the
tionnaire.
19.

role portion of the ques­

These items are numbers 10, 12, and 16 through

Mean scores for the role conflict and ambiguity

58
variables were determined.

Those scores equal to or less

than 3 were used as the low role conflict and ambiguity lev­
el and those scores greater than 3 and less than or equal to
5 were used as the high role conflict and ambiguity level.
Illness— Two levels of the illness variable were de­
termined by first finding the mean value for items 1 through
34 of the illness portion of the questionnaire.
were recoded

These items

so that the number one represented low (less)

illness, number 2 was coded to equal zero, and number 3 was
coded to equal high

(more) illness.

Mean scores greater

than or equal to 1 and less than or equal to 2 represented
low illness.

Those scores greater than 2 and less than or

equal to 3 were coded as high illness.
It is recognized that the responding subjects in
this study represented a convenience sample and not a random
sample.

However,

statisticians have concluded that this

type of analysis can be carried out.

Selvin

(1970) pointed

out that designing nonexperimental studies so that tests of
significance can be used validly is possible.

The tests are

applicable when all relevant variables have been controlled
for either by prior design as in randomization or after the
data has been collected.

For example, biases can be con­

trolled by making sure that the survey design encompasses
all pertinent variables.

In this study design, race and em­

ployment in predominantly white institutions are important
variables that have been controlled in the study design.
Since the respondents are all black, they are quite similar

59
on many other extraneous variables, given their histories of
discrimination and minority status.

This similarity is

viewed as a control of the effect of some extraneous vari­
ables.

While randomization is better, when possible, it

must be recognized that even randomization does not eliminate
variables but it removes the systematic effect of uncon­
trolled variables.
Cornfield and Tukey

(1956) support carrying out this

type of analysis where the c columns are regarded as fixed.
They believe the analyses will have the same mean squares as
they would if they were taken as a random sample.

Cornfield

and Tukey stipulate that the question of these analyses is
not in their validity but in the limited inferences that can
be made from them.
We cannot point to a specific population from which the
c columns were a random sample, yet the final conclusion
is certainly not to just these c columns.
We are likely
to be better off . . . by introducing an unspecified
population of columns "like those observed," and making
the inference to the mean of this population.
(p. 913)
Summary tables were used to display data from the analyses.
Additional descriptive analyses were used to summarize the
demographic characteristics of the respondents.
Summary
This chapter has focused on a discussion of the re­
search design and methodology.
areas were presented:

Specifically, the following

a description of the population, the

characteristics of the subjects, the construction of the in­
strument, the data collection procedure, a statement of the

60
hypotheses, and the treatment of the data.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Introduction
In this chapter the data extracted from the ques­
tionnaire will be analyzed to test the five hypotheses which
were presented in Chapter III.

The respondents were 149

black administrators from the fifteen public four year in­
stitutions of higher education in Michigan.
chapter is a testing of the hypotheses.
cludes:

Part I of this

This section in­

(1) presentation of the analysis of variance which

compares the administrators with the high and low self­
perceived role functions with high and low stress levels,
(2)

presentation of cross tabulation and Chi Square data

which shows the relationship between the role functions of
the administrators and age, marital status,

sex, level of

job responsibility, income level, level of education and
length of time in the job,

(3) presentation of cross tabu­

lation and Chi Square data which shows the relationship be­
tween the stress functions of the administrators and age,
marital status, sex, level of job responsibility,

income

level, level of education and length of time in the job,
(4)

presentation of the analysis of variance which compares

the administrators who have high and low role conflictambiguity functions with high and low stress levels, and
61

62
(5)

presentation of the analysis of variance which compares

the administrators who have high and low stress levels with
high and low illness levels.

Part II of this chapter in­

cludes additional descriptive analyses of some of the infor­
mation relating to the positions the administrators hold
and the responses to the stress and illness questions.

A

summary section concludes this chapter.
PART I

Testing of Hypotheses
Null Hypothesis 1:

There is no difference in the

amount of stress experienced by the black administrators
who have high self-perceived role functions and the amount
of stress experienced by the black administrators who have
low self-perceived role functions
Alternative Hypothesis 1:

There is a significant

difference in the amount of stress experienced by the black
administrators who have high self-perceived role functions
and the amount of stress experienced by the black adminis­
trators who have low self-perceived role functions
The results of the analysis of variance are shown
in Table 4.1.

These results indicate that there is no sig­

nificant difference in the amount of stress experienced by
the black administrators who have high self-perceived role
functions and the amount of stress experienced by the black
administrators who have low self-perceived role functions.

TABLE 4.1
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR STRESS AND SELF-PERCEIVED ROLE
Sum of
Squares

DF

Mean
Square

207.338

1

207.338

Residual

TOTAL

Source of Variation

F

Significance
of F

207.338

.747

.389

1

207.338

.747

.389

40776.018

147

277.388

40983.356

148

276.915

Main Effects
Role
Explained

64
An F-probability of .747 with 1 degree of freedom was not
found to be significant at the 0.05 level of confidence.
The difference in the self-perceived role means
66.31) was not significant.

(68.76 and

Therefore, the null hypothesis

was not rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis 2:

There are no relationships be­

tween the self-perceived role functions of the black admin­
istrators and the variables of age, sex, marital status,
level of job responsibility,

level of income,

level of edu­

cation, and length of time in the job
Alternative Hypothesis 2:

There are relationships

between the self-perceived role functions of the black ad­
ministrator and the variables of age, sex, marital status,
level of job responsibility,

level of income,

level of edu­

cation, and length of time in the job
The relationships among the categorical variables
of self-perceived role and age are seen in Table 4.2.
two levels of self-perceived role

The

(low self-perceived role

and high self-perceived role) were cross tabulated with the
five categories of age
or older).

(20-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59, and 60

All age categories except 50-59 years old had

a majority of their respondents in the high self-perceived
role group.

The 50-59 years old category had 53.3% with

low self-perceived roles and 46.7% with high self-perceived
roles.

The Chi Square technique was used to test the in­

fluence of age on self-perceived role.

The Chi Square

value of 7.17538 with 4 degrees of freedom was not

TABLE 4.2
CROSS TABULATION OF SELF-PERCEIVED ROLE BY AGE

20-29
years

30-39
years

40-49
years

50-59
years

60 years
or older

Low selfperceived role

N=13
48.1%

N=23
35.4%

N=10
25.6%

N=8
53.3%

N=0
0%

High self­
perceived role

N=14
51.9%

N=42
64.6%

N=29
74.4%

N=7
46.7%

N=3
100%

Column
Total

N=27
18.1%

N=65
43.6%

N=39
26.2%

N=15
10.1%

N=3
2.0%

Chi Square = 7.17538 with 4 degrees of freedom.
Not significant at a = 0 . 0 5 .

N=149
100%

66
significant at the 0.05 level of confidence.

Therefore,

it

can be inferred that self-perceived role is not signifi­
cantly related to age.
Table 4.3 visually indicates the results of the
cross tabulation of self-perceived role by sex.
males responding,

Of the 82

2 3.2% indicated low self-perceived role

functions while 76.8% indicated high self-perceived role
functions.

Thirty-five

(52.2%) of the 67 responding females

indicated low self-perceived role functions while 32
(47.8%)

indicated high self-perceived role functions.

The

males showed noticeably higher self-perceived roles than
the females.

The Chi Square statistic of 12.25448 with 1

degree of freedom was found to be significant at the 0.05
level of confidence.

Therefore, it can be concluded that

there is a relationship of dependence between self-perceived
role and sex.
A graphic representation of the cross tabulation of
self-perceived role by marital status is seen in Table 4.4.
The greatest number of administrators
while 2 3 were single, 22 divorced,
married, and 5 were separated.
showed the highest percentage
role function.

(N=92) were married

7 were divorced and re­

The married respondents
(71.7%) of self-perceived

Only the single respondents show a high

self-perceived role function of under fifty percent.

The

Chi Square value of 7.02789 with 4 degrees of freedom was
not significant at the 0.05 level of confidence, therefore
inferring that self-perceived role is independent of marital

TABLE 4.3
CROSS TABULATION OF SELF-PERCEIVED ROLE BY SEX
Male

Female

Low self­
perceived role

N=19
23.2%

N=35
52.2%

High self­
perceived role

N=63
76.8%

N=32
47.8%

Column
Total

N=82
55.0%

N=67
45.0%

N=149
100%

Chi Square = 12.25448 with 1 degree of freedom.
Significant at
=0.05.

TABLE 4.4
CROSS TABULATION OF SELF-PERCEIVED ROLE BY MARITAL STATUS
uivorcea
and
Remarried

Single

Married

Low self­
perceived role

N=12
55.2%

N=26
28.3%

N=ll
50.0%

N=3
42.9%

N=2
40.0%

High self­
perceived role

N=ll
47.8%

N=66
71.7%

N=ll
50.0%

N=4
57.1%

N=3
60.0%

Column
Total

N=2 3
15.4%

N=92
61.7%

N=22
14.8%

N=7
4.7%

N=5
3.4%

Divorced

Chi Square = 7.02789 with 4 degrees of freedom
Not significant at a = 0.05

Separated

N=149
100%

status.
The cross tabulation of self-perceived role func­
tion by level of education is revealed in Table 4.5.

Five

levels of education were cross tabulated with two levels of
stress.

A general trend was seen which indicated that as

level of education increased, the percentage of respondents
with high self-perceived role function increased.

As level

of education decreased, the percentage of respondents with
low self-perceived role function increased.

The Chi Square

value of 19.88619 with 4 degrees of freedom is significant
at the 0.05 level of confidence.

Thus, it can be concluded

that a dependent relationship exists between self-perceived
role and level of education.
Table 4.6 is a visual representation of the cross
tabulation of self-perceived role by length of time on the
job.

The high and low self-perceived role functions were

cross tabulated with 5 categories of length of time on the
job.

These administrators who had been on the job less

than one year were the only group who registered a greater
percentage of low self-perceived roles.

While all other

length of time on the job categories had a greater percent­
age of high self-perceived role function than low self­
perceived role function, no definite pattern was estab­
lished.

The Chi Square statistic of 6.57367 with 4 degrees

of freedom was not significant at the 0.05 level of confi­
dence, thus inferring that self-perceived role is indepen­
dent of length of time on the job.

TABLE 4.5
CROSS TABULATION OF SELF-PERCEIVED ROLE BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION
No
degree

Bachelors
degree

Masters
degree

Specialist
degree

Doctoral
degree

Low self­
perceived role

N=2
100%

N=25
58.1%

N=19
31.7%

N=2
33.3%

N=4
15.8%

High self­
perceived role

N=0
0%

N=18
41.9%

N=41
68.3%

N=4
66.7%

N=32
84.2%

Column
Total

N=2
1.3%

N=4 3
28.9%

N=6 0
40. 3%

N=6
4.0%

N=38
25.5%

Chi Square = 19.88619 with 4 degrees of freedom
Significant at a = 0.05

N=149
100%

TABLE 4.6
CROSS TABULATION OF SELF-PERCEIVED ROLE BY LENGTH OF TIME ON THE JOB
Less than
1 year

1-4
years

5-7
years

8-10
years

over
10 years

Low self­
perceived role

N=12
52.5%

N=25
39.7%

N=6
23.1%

N=6
24.0%

N=5
41.7%

High self­
perceived role

N=ll
47.8%

N=38
60. 3%

N=20
76.9%

N=19
76.0%

N=7
58.3%

Column
Total

N=2 3
15.4%

N=6 3
42.3%

N=26
17.4%

N=25
16.8%

N=12
8.1%

Chi Square = 6.57367 with 4 degrees of freedom
Not significant at a = 0.05

N=149
100%

72
The relationships among the two levels of self­
perceived role and the five levels of income are seen in
Table 4.7.

Those administrators earning less than $20,000

per year had the greatest percentage of low self-perceived
role.

As the level of income increased, the percentage of

high self-perceived role function also increased and the
percentage of low self-perceived role function decreased.
The Chi Square value of 26.41919 with 4 degrees of freedom
is significant at the 0.05 level of confidence.

Therefore,

it can be concluded that self-perceived role is signifi­
cantly related to level of income.
Table 4.8 shows the cross tabulation of 5 levels of
job responsibility with 2 levels of self-perceived role.
The results show that as the level of job responsibility
increased, the percentage of respondents with high self­
perceived role functions also increased.
level of administrator

(specialist)

Only the lowest

registered a noticeably

large percentage of self-perceived role function.

The Chi

Square of 40.61565 with 4 degrees of freedom is significant
at the 0.05 level of confidence.

Therefore, it can be con­

cluded that there is a relationship of dependence between
level of job responsibility and level of self-perceived
role function.
The results of the cross tabulations and Chi Square
statistics revealed that there are relationships of depen­
dence between the levels of self-perceived role and the
variables of sex, level of education, level of income and

TABLE 4.7
CROSS TABULATION OF SELF-PERCEIVED ROLE BY LEVEL OF INCOME
Below
$20,000

$20,000
to
$29,000

$30,000
to
#39,000

$40,000
to
$49,000

$50,000
and
over

Low selfperceived role

N=35
58.3%

N=15
30.6%

N=4
16.7%

N=0
0%

N=0
0%

High self­
perceived role

N=25
41.7%

N=34
69.4%

N=20
83.3%

N=12
100%

N=4
100%

Column
Total

N=60
40.3%

N=49
32.9%

N=12
8.1%

N=4
2.7%

N=24
16.1%

Chi Square = 26.41919 with 4 degrees of freedom
Significant at a = 0.05

N=149
100%

TABLE 4.8
CROSS TABULATION OF SELF-PERCEIVED ROLE BY LEVEL OF JOB RESPONSIBILITY
Presidents
VicePresidents
Provosts

Deans

Program
Directors

Coordinators

Specialists

Low
Stress

N=1
10.0%

N=2
16.7%

N=14
19.4%

N=4
40.0%

N=33
73.3%

High
Stress

N=9
90.0%

N=10
83.3%

N=58
80.6%

N=6
60.0%

N=12
26.7%

Column
Total

N=10
6.7%

N=12
8.1%

N=72
48.3%

N=10
6.7%

N=45
30.2%

Chi Square = 40.61565 with 4 degrees of freedom
Significant at a = 0.05

N=14!
100%

75
level of job responsibility.

However, there were no

relationships of dependence between the levels of self­
perceived role of the black administrators and the variables
of age, marital status and length of time on the job.
Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted.
Null Hypothesis 3:

There are no relationships be­

tween the amount of stress experienced by black administra­
tors and the variables of age, sex, marital status, level
of job responsibility,

level of income, level of education,

and length of time in the job
Alternative Hypothesis 3:

There are relationships

between the amount of stress experienced by black adminis­
trators and the variables of age, sex, marital status,
level of job responsibility, level of income, level of
education,

and length of time in the job

The relationships among the categorical variables
of stress and age are seen in Table 4.9.
stress

The two levels of

(high stress and low stress) were cross tabulated

with the five age groupings
and 60 or o l d e r ) .

(20-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59,

The largest number of respondents

were in the 30-39 category.
in the 40-49 category,

(65)

Thirty-nine respondents were

27 respondents in the 20-29 cate­

gory, 15 respondents in the 50-59 category, and only 3
respondents 60 years old or older.

The largest percentage

of each age grouping fell in the low stress category.
The largest percentage of high stress
by the 30-39 age category.

(36.9%) was reported

The Chi Square technique was

TABLE 4.9
CROSS TABULATION OF STRESS BY AGE

20-29
years

40-49
years

30-39
years

50-59
years

6 0 years
or older

Low
Stress

N=20
74.1%

N=41
6 3.1%

N=29
74.4%

N=13
86.7%

N=3
100%

High
Stress

N=7
25.9%

N=2 4
36.9%

N=10
25.6%

N=2
13. 3%

N=0
0%

Column
Total

N=27
18.1%

N=65
43.6%

N=39
26.2%

N=15
10.1%

N=3
2.0%

N=14 9
100%
O !'

Chi Square = 5.3467 with 4 degrees of freedom
Not significant at a = 0.05
I

77
used to test the influence of age on stress.

The Chi

Square value of 5.3467 with 4 degrees of freedom was not
found to be significant at the 0.05 level.

Therefore, it

can be inferred that stress is not significantly related
to age.
Table 4.10 graphically indicates the results of the
cross tabulation of stress by sex.

As indicated, there

were 82

(55%) male respondents and 67 (45%)

female respon­

dents.

Twenty-two percent of the males indicated high

stress while 37.3% of the females indicated high stress.
The Chi Square statistic was computed to assess the statis­
tical significance of the relationships between the cross
tabulated variables.

The Chi Square value of 4.23846 with

1 degree of freedom is significant at the 0.05 level.
Therefore, it can be inferred that there is a relationship
of dependence between stress and sex.
A graphic representation of the cross tabulation of
stress by marital status is seen in Table 4.11.

The table

shows that the majority of the responding administrators
(61.7%) were married and the least number were separated
(3.4%) and divorced and remarried

(4.7%).

All marital

status categories reflected a high incidence of low stress
with only the category of divorced and remarried reflecting
a noticeable showing of high stress

(42.9%).

The Chi

Square value of 1.40653 with 4 degrees of freedom was not
significant at the 0.05 level, therefore inferring that
stress is independent of marital status.

TABLE 4.10
CROSS TABULATION OF STRESS BY SEX
Male

Female

Low
Stress

N=64
78.0%

N=42
62.7%

High
Stress

N=18
22.0%

N=25
45.0%

Column
Total

N=82
55.0%

N=67
45.0%

N=149
100%

Chi Square = 4.23846 with 1 degree of freedom
Significant at a = 0.05

TABLE 4.11
CROSS TABULATION OF STRESS BY MARITAL STATUS

D iv o r c e d

Divorced

and
Remarried

Separated

Single

Married

Stress

N=15
65.2%

N=67
72.8%

N=16
72.7%

N=4
57.1%

N=4
80.0%

High
Stress

N=8
34.8%

N=25
27.2%

N=6
27.3%

N=3
42.9%

N=1
20.0%

Column
Total

N=23
15.4%

N=92
61.7%

N=22
14.8%

N=7
4.7%

N=5
3.4%

LOW

Chi Square = 1.40653 with 4 degrees of freedom
Not significant at a = 0.05

N=149
100%

80
The cross tabulation of stress by level of educa­
tion is revealed in Table 4.12.

The two levels of stress

(low and high) were cross tabulated with five levels of
education ranging from those who had no college degree and
including the 4 3 with a bachelors degree, 60 with a
master's degree, 6 with a specialists degree and 38 with a
doctoral degree.

Only those administrators in the spe­

cialist degree category showed a greater percentage of high
stress than low stress.

The Chi Square value of 5.79778

with four degrees of freedom was not found to be signifi­
cant at the 0.05 level.

Therefore, it can be concluded

that stress is independent of level of education of the
black administrators.
Table 4.13 is a visual representation of the cross
tabulation of stress by length of time on the job.

The

high and low stress categories were cross-tabulated with
the five categories of length of time on the job (less
than one year,
10 ye a r s ) .

1-4 years, 5-7 years, 8-10 years, and over

High stress was not dominant in any time on the

job category.

The Chi Square of 6.34523 with four degrees

of freedom was not significant at the 0.05 level, thus it
is inferred that stress is independent of length of time
on the job.
The relationships among the two levels of stress
and the five levels of income are represented graphically
in Table 4.14.

The highest percentages of low stress were

registered by those administrators in the high income

TABLE 4.12
CROSS TABULATION OF STRESS BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION
Doctoral
degree

NO
degree

Bachelors
degree

Masters
degree

Stress

N=1
50.0%

N=31
72.1%

N=42
70.0%

N=2
33.3%

N=30
78.9%

High
Stress

N=1
50.5%

N=12
27.9%

N=18
30.0%

N=4
66.7%

N=8
21.1%

Column
Total

N=2
1.3%

N=43
28.9%

N=60
40.3%

N=6
4.0%

N=38
25.5%

LOW

Specialist
degree

Chi Square = 5.79778 with 4 degrees of freedom
Not significant at a = 0.05.

N=149
100%

TABLE 4.13
CROSS TABULATION OF STRESS BY LENGTH OF TIME ON THE JOB
1-4
years

5-7
years

8-10
years

over
10 years

N=20
87.0%

N=39
61.9%

N=19
73.1%

N=18
72.0%

N=10
83.4%

N=3
13.0%

N=24
38.1%

N=7
26.9%

N=7
28.0%

N=2
16.7%

N=2 3
15.4%

N=63
42.3%

N=26
17.4%

N=25
16.8%

N=12
8.1%

Less than
1 year
Low
Stress
High
Stress
Column
Total

Chi Square = 6.34523 with 4 degrees of freedom
Not significant at a = 0.05

N=149
100%

TABLE 4.14
CROSS TABULATION OF STRESS BY LEVEL OF INCOME

Below
$20 ,000

$20,000
to
29,999

$30,000
to
39,999

$40,000
to
49,999

$50,000
and
over

Low
Stress

N=42
70.0%

N=29
59.2%

N=20
83.3%

N=ll
91.7%

N=4
100%

High
Stress

N=18
30.0%

N=2 0
40.8%

N=4
16.7%

N=1
8.3%

N=0
0

Column
Total

N=6 0
40.3%

N=49
32.9%

N=24
16.1%

N=12
8.1%

N=4
2.7%

Chi Square = 9.27332 with 4 degrees of freedom
Significant at a = 0.05

N=149
100%

84
categories, namely,

$30,000 to $39,000; $40,999 to

$49,999; and $50,000 and over.

The Chi Square of 9.27332

was found to be significant at the 0.05 level.

Thus, it

can be inferred that there is a dependent relationship be­
tween stress and level of income.
The cross tabulation of stress by level of job
responsibility is represented in Table 4.15.
trators'

The adminis­

job responsibilities were categorized in five

levels of responsibility:

(1) presidents, vice-presidents,

provosts and assistant provosts,
and associate deans,
and managers,

(2) deans, assistant deans

(3) program directors, supervisors,

(4) coordinators, and

administrative assistants.

(5) specialists and

These five levels of job re­

sponsibility were cross tabulated with two levels of stress.
Each job category reported a greater percentage of low
stress with only coordinators and specialists reporting any
noticeably high stress, 40% and 37.2% respectively.

The

Chi Square of 8.28867 with four degrees of freedom was not
significant at the 0.05 level, thus inferring that stress
is independent of level of job responsibility.
The results of the cross tabulation and Chi Square
statistics revealed that there are relationships of depen­
dence between the amount of stress experienced by black
administrators and the variables of sex and level of in­
come.

However, there were no relationships of dependence

between the amount of stress experienced by black adminis­
trators and the variables of age, marital status, level of

TABLE 4.15
CROSS TABULATION OF STRESS BY LEVEL OF JOB RESPONSIBILITY

Presidents
VicePresidents
Provosts
Low
Stress

Deans

Program
Directors

Coordinators

Specialists

N=9
90%

N=12
100%

N=50
69.4%

N=6
60%

N=29
64.4%

High
Stress

N=1
10%

n

N=22
30.6%

N=4
40%

N=16
37.2%

Column
Total

N=10
6.7%

N=12
8.1%

N=7 2
48.3%

N=10
6.7%

N=45
30.2%

Chi Square = 8.28867 with 4 degrees of freedom
Not significant at a = 0.05

86
education, length of time on the job, and level of job
responsibility.

The null hypothesis is, therefore,

accepted.
Null Hypothesis 4:

There is no difference in the

amount of stress experienced by black administrators who
have high role conflict and ambiguity functions and the
amount of stress experienced by black administrators who
have low role conflict and ambiguity functions
Alternative Hypothesis 4:

There is a significant

difference in the amount of stress experienced by black
administrators who have high role conflict and ambiguity
functions and the amount of stress experienced by black
administrators who have low role conflict and ambiguity
functions
Table 4.16 is a visual representation of the results
of the analysis of variance used to analyze this hypothesis.
These results indicate that there is a significant dif­
ference in the amount of stress experienced by black admin­
istrators who have high role conflict and ambiguity func­
tions and the amount of stress experienced by black admin­
istrators who have low role conflict and ambiguity func­
tions.

An F-probability of 11.769 with 1 degree of freedom

is significant at the 0.05 level of confidence.
ference in the role conflict/ambiguity means
71.17)

is significant.

The dif­

(62.06 and

Therefore, the null hypothesis is

rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis 5:

There is no difference in the

TABLE 4.16
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR STRESS AND ROLE CONFLICT/AMBIGUITY

Mean
Square

F

1

3037.935

11.769*

0.001

3037.935

1

3037.935

11.769*

0.001

Residual

37945.421

147

258.132

TOTAL

40983.356

348

276.915

Source of variation

Sum of
Squares

DF

3037.935

Significance
of F

Main Effects
Role Conflict and
Ambiguity
Explained

♦Significant at

a,= 0.05

88
amount of stress experienced by black administrators who
have high illness functions and the amount of stress ex­
perienced by black administrators who have low illness
functions
Alternative Hypothesis 5:

There is a significant

difference in the amount of stress experienced by black
administrators who have high illness functions and the
amount of stress experienced by the black administrators
who have low illness functions
Table 4.17 visually indicates that there is a sig­
nificant difference in the amount of stress experienced by
the black administrators who have high illness functions
and the amount of stress experienced by the black adminis­
trators who have low illness functions.

The F-probability

of 10.699 is significant at the 0.05 level of confidence.
Therefore,

the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the

alternative hypothesis.
PxT.T I,.
Additional Descriptive Analyses
The biographical portion of the questionnaire was
analyzed to determine some of the important demographic
variables of the bl^ck administrators in higher education
in Michigan.

Table 3.2 in Chapter III provided some gen­

eral information about the personal characteristics of
the respondents.

Additional information specific to the

position of the administrators in the institutions is found

TABLE 4.17
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR STRESS AND ILLNESS
Sum of
Squares

DF

2780.566

1

2780.566

10.699*

0.001

2780.566

1

2780.566

10.699*

0.001

Residual

38202.790

147

259.883

TOTAL

40983.356

148

276.915

Source of Variation

Mean
Square

F

Significance
of F

Main Effects
Illness
Explained

♦Significant at a = 0.05.

90
in Table 4.18.

It was determined that about half (48.3%)

of the black administrators perform as program directors,
managers, supervisors, or department chairmen.

Only 10

(6.7%) held the high positions of president, vice-president
or provost.

While 93.3% of the respondents reported that

they had full-time jobs as administrators, they listed a
variety of additional responsibilities that they are called
upon to perform.

Some of these other responsibilities were

teaching both graduate and undergraduate students, counsel­
ing, advising, and participation in service and research
programs.

It was also interesting to note that 71.1% did

not feel that their jobs were created as a result of af­
firmative action policies.
The stress portion of the questionnaire was ana­
lyzed by calculating the percentages of responses to the
stress variables.

The administrators indicated their

feelings about selected variables being sources of stress
for them.
categories:

They selected their choices among five response
(1) strongly agree,

(4) disagree, and

(2) agree,

(5) strongly disagree.

(3) uncertain,

As indicated by

the responses, the variables which are the greatest sources
of stress for the black administrators are too much work,
time pressures, role conflict and ambiguity, inadequate
pay, institutional policies, and mood of the environment
(racist, sexist, isolated, apathetic).

A compilation of

the percentages of responses to the sources of stress is
seen in Table 4.19.

TABLE 4.18
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESPONDENTS' POSITIONS
Item

Frequency

Percent

SPECIFIC JOB TITLES
Presidents, Vice Presidents, Provosts
Deans, Assistant Deans, Assoc. Deans
Program Directors, Managers, Dept.
Chairmen, Supervisors
Program and Project Coordinators
Administrative Assistants and Officers

10
12

6.7
8.1

72
10
45

48.3
6.7
30.2

14
43

9.4
28.9

50
34
4

33. 6
22.8
2.7

3
1

2.0
0.7

76
36
13
11
5
2
6

51.0
24.2
8.7
7.4
3.4
1.3
4.0

43
106

28.9
71.1

139
10

93. 3
6.7

METHOD OF BEING HIRED
Recommendation of faculty committee
Screening committee of administrators
Recommendation of higher-level adminis­
trator
Promotion from a lower position
Screening committee of faculty & students
Screening committee of faculty and
administrators
Grant and fund development
METHOD OF FIRST BECOMING AWARE OF POSITION
Encouraged to apply by other administrator
Saw the position advertised
Was informed by a faculty colleague
Result of promotion
Informed by a friend
Result of reorganization
Created the position
JOB CREATED BECAUSE OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
Yes
No
TIME SPENT AS AN ADMINISTRATOR
Full-time
Part-time

TABLE 4.19
PERCENTAGES OF RESPONSES TO SOURCES OF STRESS FOR RESPONDENTS

Source of
Stress

1.

Too much work

2.
3.

Strongly
Agree

Agree

Uncertain

Disagree

Strongly
Disagree

22.8

22.8

16.1

30.2

8.1

Too little work

4.0

2.0

9.4

28.9

55.7

Poor physical working
conditions

6.0

7.4

9.4

38.3

38.9

4.

Time pressures

20.1

37.6

10.1

25.5

6.7

5.

Decision-making
pressures

11.4

28.2

12.1

36.2

12.1

Role conflict and
ambiguity

18.8

24.8

14.8

27.5

14.1

6.7

14.8

15.4

40.9

22.1

10.1

17.4

11.4

39.6

21.5

7.4

12.8

17.4

32.2

30.2

30.2

30.2

10.7

16.8

12.1

3.4

4.7

12.1

32.2

47.7

6.
7.
8.
9.

Too much responsibility
for people
Lack of participation in
decision making
Lack of job security

10.

Inadequate pay

11.

Feelings of incompetency

12.

Thwarted ambition

13.4

14.1

21.5

24.2

26.8

13.

Lack of opportunity for
professional development

16.8

18.8

10.7

30.2

23.5

TABLE 4.19— Continued

Source
14.
15.
16.

Strongly
Agree

Agree

Uncertain

Disagree

Strongly
Disagree

Lack of effective consultation with co-workers

10.7

13.4

8.1

41.6

26.2

Lack of effective consul­
tation with superiors

12.8

14.1

7.4

43.0

22.8

Inadequate program support
from administrators and
co-workers

10.7

22.8

10.7

40.9

14.8

6.0

11.4

13.4

40.9

28.2

17.

Restrictions on behavior

18.

Institutional policies

24.2

33.6

21.5

14.1

6.7

19.

Mood of the environment
(racist, sexist, isolated,
apathetic)

26.8

26.2

16.1

20.8

10.1

Difficulties in delegating
responsibility

7.4

14.1

8.7

47.7

22.1

Job demands versus
family demands

10.1

30.2

10.1

32.2

17.4

Job demands versus
own interests

7.4

30.2

10.7

36.9

14.8

23.

Your individual personality

6.0

24.2

14.1

37.6

18.1

24.

Your tolerance for
ambiguity

15.4

23.5

20.1

30.9

10.1

7.4

11.4

12.1

45.6

23.5

20.
21.
22.

25.

Your ability to cope
with change

94
Table 4.20 is a visual representation of the per­
centages of responses to the stress-linked behaviors that
were listed on the questionnaire.

The respondents indi­

cated the frequency of occurence of the behaviors or ail­
ments since assuming their positions as compared to before
assuming their positions.

The behaviors can be summarized

as those having physical effects, drug usage, behavioral
effects and use of consulting services.

Those behaviors or

illnesses which are noticeably more frequent since taking
the positions are upset stomach, very nervous, smoking,
buying spree, tired feeling, consulted with a doctor, back
problems, and migraine headaches.
Summary
Chapter IV focused on the presentation of the
analysis of data from the survey questionnaire.

The results

of the analyses of the five hypotheses lead to the con­
clusion that:
1.

There is no significant difference in the

amount of stress experienced by the black administrators
who have high self-perceived role functions and the amount
of stress experienced by black administrators who have low
self-perceived role functions.
2.

There are relationships of dependence between

the levels of self-perceived role and the variables of sex,
level of education, level of income and level of job re­
sponsibility.

However, there were no relationships of

95
TABLE 4.20
PERCENTAGES OF RESPONSES TO
STRESS-LINKED ILLNESSES AND BEHAVIORS

Behavior or
Illness

More than
before taking
this position

Never had
behavior
or same

Less than
before taking
this position

1. Loss of
appetite

10.1

81.9

8.1

2. Upset stomach

26.2

69.8

4.0

3. Very nervous

22.8

67.0

9.4

4. Trembling
hands

6.7

81.9

11.4

5. Nightmares

8.1

79.9

12.1

22.8

67.8

9.4

7. Use of tran­
quilizers

6.0

83.2

10.7

8. Use of
amphetamines

4.0

84.6

11.4

9. Use of marijuana

2.0

85.9

12.1

10. Buying spree

27.5

61.7

10.7

11. Shortness of
breath

12.1

81.9

6.0

12. Dizzy spells

10.7

81.2

8.1

13. Loss of weight

12.1

76.5

11.4

14. Cold sweats

10.1

81.9

8.1

15. Tired feeling

51.7

42.3

6.0

16. Drinking
alcohol

18.8

67.8

13.4

17. Consulted with
a doctor

23.5

68.5

8.1

18. Consulted with a
psychologist, psy­
chiatrist or
counselor
6.7

83.2

10.1

6. Smoking

96
TABLE 4.20— Continued

„ .
.
Behavior or
illness

More than
b
this posltio*

19. Consulted with
clergy

Never had
behavior
or same

Less than
before taking
this position

5.4

83.2

11.4

14.8

71.8

13.4

8.7

83.9

7.4

22. Hypertension or
high blood
pressure

16. 8

75.8

7.4

23. Skin problems

12.8

81.2

6.0

6.0

87.9

6.0

10.1

79.9

10.1

26. Ulcers

4.7

87.2

8.1

27. Asthma

2.0

89.9

8.1

28. Heart trouble

4.7

89.3

6.0

29. Urinary tract
infection

8.1

85.9

6.0

30. Diabetes

4.0

89.9

6.0

31. Cancer

4.0

87.9

8.1

32. Unusual pain

15.4

79.9

4.7

33. Back problems

24.2

69.1

6.1

99

79

a

20. Absent from work
due to illness
21. Nailbiting

24. Allergies
25. Sexual problems

34. Migraine
R

9

n

97
dependence between the levels of self-perceived role of
the black administrators and the variables of age, marital
status and length of time on the job.
3.

There are relationships of dependence between

the amount of stress experienced by black administrators
and the variables of sex and level of income.

However,

there were no relationships of dependence between the
amount of stress experienced by black administrators and
the variables of age, marital status, level of education,
length of time on the job, and level of job responsibility.
4.

There is a significant difference in the amount

of stress experienced by black administrators who have high
role conflict/ambiguity functions and the amount of stress
experienced by black administrators who have low role
conflict/ambiguity functions.
5.

There is a significant difference in the amount

of stress experienced by the black administrators who have
high illness functions and the amount of stress experienced
by the black administrators who have low illness functions.
Additional descriptive analyses focused on the
characteristics of the positions the respondents hold and
the percentages of responses to the stress and illness
data.

A discussion of these findings, along with recom­

mendations and implications for the future will be the
focus of Chapter V.

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
AND IMPLICATIONS
Introduction
A summary of the purposes of this study will be re­
viewed in this chapter.

A discussion of the implications

of the search of the theoretical literature, a description
of the population and instrument, the techniques of data
analysis, the conclusions and discussions, and recommenda­
tions and implications for future research endeavors will
also be presented.
Summary
The major purpose of this study was to assess the
relationships between stress factors and the self-perceived
roles of black administrators in predominantly white public
four year institutions of higher education in Michigan.
Specifically, this study was aimed at determiniations of:
(1) the relationship between stress and self-perceived role,
(2) the relationships between self-perceived roles and age,
marital status, sex, level of income, level of education,
level of job responsibility, and length of time in the
job,

(3) the relationships between stress and age, marital

status, sex, level of income, level of education,
job responsibility, and length of time in the job,
98

level of
(4) the

99
relationship between role conflicts/ambiguities and stress,
and (5) the relationship between stress and illness.

A

review of the literature highlighted the diverse nature of
the conceptions and formulations related to role theory.
Generally, the emphasis placed on 'the various elements of
role theory depends upon the discipline within which it is
discussed.

However, social scientists and educators sup­

port the postulation that one's role is influenced by the
expectations that individuals hold for themselves and that
others hold for them.

The particular role which a person

assumes will be determined by what one internally perceives
to be situationally appropriate and by the external expec­
tations and demands placed on that person.

Roles, then,

have ingredients of personal and situational determination.
Anthropologists added another dimension to the con­
cept of role by implying that role determinations involve
cultural and background influences.

Roles are seen as being

highly individualistic in that contributing elements are
personal, social and situational.

Therefore, black adminis­

trators' perceptions of their roles may not be congruent
with the general job descriptions nor with the perceptions
that others hold for them.

When black administrators'

per­

sonal perceptions are incompatible with organizational de­
mands and expectations a state of conflict results.
ambiguities often accompany role conflicts.

Role

Ambiguities are

manifested in a lack of clarity about work, objectives,

100
scope and responsibilities.
A number of studies were cited from the literature
to support the contention that role conflicts and ambiguities
are antecedents to stress.

Stress can be a threat to the

physiological and psychological well-being of pressure-laden
employees.

Black administrators in predominantly white in­

stitutions of higher education are in positions that are
quite conducive to role conflicts and ambiguities and there­
fore are subjected to great amounts of stress.

Role percep­

tions, expectations and conflicts specific to black adminis­
trators were delineated by experienced black administrators
as sources of stress and disillusionment.
stress include:

These sources of

lack of sensitivity by superiors to the

varied demands placed on them, lack of institutional support,
the expectation

that black administratrators handle all is­

sues relating to minorities, and the general feeling of be­
ing isolated and overworked.
The sources of stress for black administrators in
predominantly white institutions of higher education must be
dealt with if these administrators are to perform their jobs
effectively and efficiently.

While it is recognized that

stress is a natural part of everyone's life, prolonged and
excessive stress can lead to illness.

Research studies

cited in the literature review showed that stress manifests
itself in physical changes and mental alterations.

Physio­

logically and behaviorally, some of the disorders which have
been linked to stress are cardiovascular disease,

101
hypertension, skin problems, cancer, ulcers, headaches,
sexual dysfunction, excessive smoking and use of alcohol and
drugs.
The literature does not empirically document a cause
and effect relationship between race and stress.

Attempts

at establishing a relationship between racial-cultural in­
fluences of stress relied mainly on logical reasoning.

The

literature supports the postulation that the general life
styles of blacks are pressure-laden and that blacks exper­
ience a high prevalence of stress-related illnesses such as
hypertension, alcoholism and heart disease.
The literature relating to the relationship between
self-perceived roles and stress factors contains noticeable
gaps and methodological weaknesses.

There is a scarcity of

information related to the stress of education administrators
and particularly to black administrators.

However, the re­

search review did provide evidence to support the postula­
tion that there is a relationship between stress factors
and self-perceived roles of black educational administrators.
This study is one effort to bridge the gap in the dearth of
information.
The population for this study consisted of the 232
black administrators who were employed in the fifteen four
year institutions of higher education in Michigan during the
spring of 1980.

The total black administrative population

was surveyed and the resulting sample was composed of the
149 persons who responded to the survey.

102
The instrument used in this study was questionnaires
developed specifically for this study.

The instrument con­

tained data from the areas of biographies, institutions and
role, stress and illness.

The instrument contained fixed-

alternative type items, open-end items, and Likert scaled
i t ems.
The analysis of data included the use of one-way
analysis of variance, cross tabulation and Chi Square tech­
niques to determine the nature of the relationships speci­
fied in the five hypotheses.

The F-probability was tested

for significance at the 0.05 level.

Additional analyses

of the biographical data, stress data, and illness data
relied on descriptive statistics.
Conclusion and Discussion
The analysis of the hypotheses resulted in the
following conclusions and discussion:
1.

Findings resulting from the testing of Null Hy­

pothesis 1 indicated that there is no significant difference
in the amount of stress experienced by the black adminis­
trators who have high self-perceived role functions and the
amount of stress experienced by black administrators who
have low self-perceived role functions.
This finding is not congruent with the discussion
in the literature review.

The major proponents of role

theory emphasize that cultural influences and social pheno­
mena are determinants of role perceptions.

Studies

103
specific to black administrators like those by Cox
and Moore and Wagstaff

(1971)

(1974) support the theory that black

administrators generally perceive their jobs as encompas­
sing more duties and proportionately making a large number
of decisions relating specifically to blacks.

There is no

specific explanation for the lack of finding a significant
relationship between self-perceived role and stress in this
study.

However, it should be noted that after receiving

these findings, the researcher conducted an analysis of
variance by using only the extremely high self-perceived role
means and the extremely low self-perceived role means.

This

analysis produced an F-probability of 3.978 which was sig­
nificant at the 0.05 level.

These results were not used

because 72.5% of the sample cases were missing.

However,

this does indicate that when more definitive distinctions
are made between high and low self-perceived roles, there
is reason to believe that a significant relationship be­
tween self-perceived role and stress would result.
2.

Findings resulting from the testing of Null Hy­

pothesis 2 indicated that there are relationships between
self-perceived role functions of black administrators and
the variables of sex, level of job responsibility,
income, and level of education.

level of

However, there were no

relationships between self-perceived role and age, marital
status and length of time in the job.
These findings are supported in the review of the
literature.

Specifically, they lend support to the

104
postulation of Sargent

(1951) who said that roles have

ingredients of cultural, personal and situational deter­
mination.

Likewise, Parson's "system of orientations"

supports the reciprocal nature of interacting variables.
3.

Findings resulting from the testing of Null Hy­

pothesis 3 indicated that there are relationships between
stress and the variables of sex and level of income while
indicating no relationship between stress and age, marital
status,

level of education, level of job responsibility,

and length of time in the job.
This finding is supported in the literature.
Siegerest

(1943) and Wolff

(1954) offered rationalizations

that demographic variables and social conditions exert
great influence on an individual's disposition to stress
and disease.

Selye

(1956) also postulated that an indi­

vidual's adaptation response results from the interplay of
personal and environmental influences.

Parker

(1979)

found

a specific relationship between stress and marital status
of school counselors, such that single counselors experience
more stress than married counselors.

The results of this

study indicate that the specified variables of sex and level
of income interact to provide a significant relationship to
stress.
4.

Findings resulting from the testing of Null Hy­

pothesis 4 indicated that there is a significant difference
in the amount of stress experienced by the black adminis­
trators who have high role conflict/ambiguity functions and

106
the amount of stress experienced by black administrators
who have low role conflict/ambiguity functions.
This finding supports the studies related in the
literature.

Specifically, there is congruence with the

findings of Kahn and his associates

(1964) who conducted

extensive studies relating to role conflict and ambiguity.
Respondents from industrial locations were surveyed and
the conclusions were that role conflict and ambiguity had
definite emotional costs and resulted in low job satisfac­
tion, low confidence, a high sense of futility, and a high
degree of job-related tension.
5.

Findings resulting from the testing of Null

Hypothesis 5 indicated that there is a significant dif­
ference in the amount of stress experienced by the black
administrators who have high illness functions and the
amount of stress experienced by black administrators who
have low illness functions.
This finding parallels the studies related in the
literature which show that there is a definite relationship
between stress and illness.

There is empirical verifica­

tion which shows a direct linkage between stress and cer­
tain specific ailments.

More specific to educational

administrators, Swent and Gmelch (1977) conducted a study
of Oregon school administrators and concluded that when
health status was compared to individual stress categories
as well as a composite of all stressor items, the level of

107
health decreased as the level of stress increased.
Recommendations and Implications
The findings of this study have far-reaching impli­
cations for black and minority administrators, for their
majority co-workers, and for educational institutions which
train and employ black administrators.

One implication of

this study is to sensitize black administrators to the sub­
tleties and uniqueness of their experience.

It is implied

herein that black administrators should prepare themselves
both academically and psychologically for their unique tasks.
While the,re are no ready prescriptions for black
administrators to use in coping with stress, they should be
aware of the elements and variables that are stressful to
them and recognize the personal signs of stress.

By exam­

ining their own experiences and predicaments, by becoming
aware of the forces which are stress inducing as well as
those which are stress reducing, black administrators can
try alternative ways of carrying out their daily functions
or at least be prepared to meet them head-on.

Recommended

mechanisms for coping with administrative stress include:
being aware of one's own individual personality and toler­
ance level; understanding that stress alters performance;
recognizing the physical signs of stress; recognizing the
importance to organize and prioritize things; and developing
a system of alternatives to deal with stress.

108
For white administrators this study offers the op­
portunity for them to more clearly understand the unique
position of the minority administrator.

White educators can

raise their own awareness and the awareness of the institu­
tions which are responsible for the education and employment
of future black administrators.
Recommendations for future implementation by educa­
tional institutions include the use of black consultants in
general consultation and in-service training and continuing
education programs.

Black consultants have the advantage of

their knowledge of potential minority administrative man­
power, their ability to validate the kinds of experience and
training most effective in the direction of black adminis­
trators, and their ability to assist predominantly white in­
stitutions in techniques for most effective utilization of
black administrators.
It is further recommended that predominantly white
institutions of higher education design and implement a
research base by which the problems of black administrators
are more clearly defined, alternatives are developed, and
solutions are tested.

These institutions have the further

responsibility to design and teach empathetic skills for
white, black and all students who will be working in each
other's cultures on a variety of levels.

This can make an

important difference for their community, their people, and
for society.
Specific implications for future research are:

109
1.

This study should be replicated with a national

population of black administrators in higher education to
determine if the findings of this study are generalizable
to the national population.
2.

Studies should be designed using black admin­

istrators from predominantly black institutions of higher
education and black adminstrators from predominantly white
institutions of higher education to determine if there are
differences in their perceived role function and stress
function relationships.
3.

Studies should be designed with a population of

white administrators in predominantly white institutions of
higher education and black administrators in predominantly
white institutions of higher education to determine the
effect of race on role perceptions and stressfulness.
4.

Social scientists, educators and medical doctors

should pool their research efforts in the area of stress.
Methodologies, research instruments and perspectives can be
refined so that social scientists can become less dependent
on nonobjective, self-report measures and medical research­
ers can add behavioral and attitudinal data to the physio­
logical data.
5.

Some of the other research already done on

stress should be repeated using multivariate forms of anal­
ysis

(e. g., multiple-regression analysis)

in order to de­

termine how much each potential stressor contributes to the
manifestation of stress.

Simple correlational analysis

110
fails to point out the role of intervening variables.
6.

This study should be repeated, utilizing a ran­

dom sample from a national population so that generaliza­
tions can be made to a wider group.

Also more definitive

distinctions between high and low self-perceived role func­
tions could be developed.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE
The responses to this questionnaire will be confidential.
You will not be identified by name in the results.
DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Directions:

1.

What is your age?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

2.

Please circle the number of the response you
choose for each item and fill in the blank where
appropriate.

20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60 and above

What is your sex?
1.
2.

Male
Female

What is your marital status?

1 . Single
2. Married
3. Divorced
4. Divorced and Remarried
Separated
5.
6. Widowed
HOW many children do you have?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

None
One
Two
Three
Four and over

111

112
5.

Where were you born?
City________________________________State____________________

6.

What is the highest degree you now hold?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

No degree
Bachelor's degree
Master's degree
Specialist degree
Doctorate degree

7.

In what area is your highest degree?

8.

How would you characterize the institution from which you
received your undergraduate degree at the time of your
graduation?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

9.

Predominantly Black private
Predominantly Black public
Predominantly White private
Predominantly White public
Other (specify)_________________________________

How would you characterize the institution from which you
received your highest degree at the time of your gradu­
ation?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

10.

________________

Predominantly Black private
Predominantly Black public
Predominantly White private
Predominantly White public
Other (specify)_________________________________

How many total years of work experience to you have in
education (all levels)?
1. Less than one year
2 . One - Four
3 . Five - Seven
4. Eight - Ten
5. Over Ten years

11.

How many total years of work experience do you have in
higher education?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Less than one year
One - Four
Five - Seven
Eight - Ten
Over Ten Years

113
12.

How many total years of work experience do you have in
your present position?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Less than one year
One - Four
Five - Seven
Eight - Ten
Over Ten years

13.

How many years have you been at this institution?________

14.

What is your present yearly salary?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

15.

How many published books have you written, edited, or co­
authored?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

16.

Below $20,000
$20,000 - $29,999
$30,000 - $39,999
$40,000 - $49,999
$50,000 and over

None
1 - 3
4 - 6
7 - 9
10 or more

How many published articles have you written, edited, or
co-authored?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

None
1 - 3
4 - 6
7 - 9
10 or more
INSTITUTIONAL AND ROLE DATA

1.

What is the exact administrative title of the position
you now hold?

2.

How were you selected for your present
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

position?

By the recommendation of a faculty committee
By a screening committee of administrators
By a higher level administrator
By promotion from a lower level administrative posi­
tion
Other (specify)______________________________ __________

114
3.

How did you first become aware of the position you now
hold?
1.
2.
3.
4.

4.

Do you think the position itself was created primarily as
the result of the institution's affirmative action
policy?
1.
2.

5.

Yes
No

Do you have tenure?
1.
2.

6.

Was encouraged to apply by another administrator
Saw the position advertised
Was informed by a faculty colleague
Other (specifiy)_______________________________________

Yes
No

Are you in the tenure Track?
1.
2.

Yes
No

If yes, in what department or academic unit are you tenured?

7.

Are you a full-time or part-time administrator?
1.
2.

Full-time
Part-time

If part-time, what percent of your time is devoted to
other responsibilities?

8.

If you have other job-related responsibilities besides
your administrative duties, what is the nature of these
responsibilities?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Teaching graduates
Teaching undergraduates
Research programs
Service programs
Other (specify)________________________________________

115
Directions:

Insert the corresponding numbers which would
complete the statements.
1
2
3
4
5

(9)

-

Frequently
Often
Sometimes
Seldom
Never

I ____ have to make decisions which affect insti­
tution-wide policy.

(10) I am ____ assigned responsibilities that are not
commensurate with my authority.
(11) My recommendations are ____ acted upon favorably.
(12)

I ____ know what is going on in the upper levels
of administration.

(13)

I
prepare the budget for my area of responsi­
bility .

(14) I am ____ responsible for the identification and
interpretation of staffing needs of the people who
report to me.
(15)

I ____ recommend for promotion employees under my
supervision.

(16)

I ____ perform duties that are beyond the normal
realm of my job description.

(17) I ___ work extra hours because I am performing duties in the service of Blacks and other minorities.
(18)

I ____ perform services that a White administrator
in my position could not perform.

(19)

I ____ perform services that a White administrator
would not perform.

116
STRESS DATA
Directions:

To what extent do you agree or disagree that
each of the following statements adequately de­
scribes sources of stress or tension for you in
your particular job?
Indicate your response by
drawing a circle around the number which indi­
cates your reply.
12 3 4 5 -

Strongly Agree
Agree
Uncertain
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

1.

Too much wor'k

1

2.

Too little work

3.

3

4 5

1 2

3

4 5

Poor physical working conditions

1 2

3

4 5

4.

Time pressures

1 2

3

4 5

5.

Decision-making pressures

1 2

3

4 5

6.

Role conflict and ambiguity

1 2

3

4 5

7.

Too much responsibility for people

1 2

3

4 5

8.

No participation in decision-making

1 2

3

4 5

9.

Lack of job security

1 2

3

4 5

10.

Inadequate pay

1 2

3

4 5

11.

Feelings of incompetency

1 2

3

4 5

12.

Thwarted ambition

1 2

3

4 5

13.

Lack of opportunity for professional
development

1 2

3

4 5

Lack of effective consultation with
co-workers

1 2

3

4 5

Lack of effective consultation with
superiors

1 2

3

4 5

Inadequate program support from
administrators and co-workers

1 2

3

4 5

Restrictions on behavior

1 2

3

4 5

14.
15.
16.
17.

2

117
Institutional policies

19.

Mood of the environment
isolated, apathetic)

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

(racist, sexist,

Difficulties in delegating responsibility

1

2

3

4

5

Job demands versus family demands

1

2

3

4

5

22.

Job demands versus own interests

1

2

3

4

5

23.

Your individual personality

1

2

3

4

5

24.

Your tolerance for ambiguity

1

2

3

4

5

25.

Your ability to cope with change

1

2

3

4

5

•

20.
to
i-1

18.

118
Indicate the frequency of the occurrence of the following
behaviors or ailments you have exhibited since you have been
in your present position as compared to before you took this
position.
1 - More than before you took this position
2 - Same as before you took this position or
Never had the illness
3 - Less than before you took this position
More
1

Never or Same
2

Less
3

1.

Loss of appetite

2.

Upset stomach

1

2

3

3.

Very nervous

1

2

3

4.

Trembling hand

1

2

3

5.

Nightmares

1

2

3

6.

Smoking

1

2

3

7.

Use of tranquilizers

1

2

3

8.

Use of amphetamines

1

2

3

9.

Use of marijuana

1

2

3

10.

Buying spree

1

2

3

11.

Shortness of breath

1

2

3

12.

Dizzy spells

1

2

3

13.

Loss of weight

1

2

3

14.

Cold sweats

1

2

3

15.

Tired feeling

1

2

3

1

2

3

16.

*Drinking alcohol

17.

Consulted with a doctor

1

2

3

18.

Consulted with a psycholo­
gist, psychiatrist or
counselor

1

2

3

19.

Consulted with clergy

1

2

3

20.

Absent from work due to
illness

1

2

3

119
Nailbiting

More
1

Never or Same
2

3

Hypertension or high
blood pressure

1

2

3

Skin problems

1

2

3

Allergies

1

2

3

Sexual problems

1

2

3

Ulcers

1

2

3

Asthma

1

2

3

Heart trouble

1

2

3

Urinary tract infection

1

2

3

Diabetes

1

2

3

Cancer

1

2

3

Unusual pain

1

2

3

•1

2

3

1

2

3

Back problems
Migraine headaches

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B
INTRODUCTORY LETTER
2614 Cochise Lane
Okemos, Michigan 48864
April 22, 1980
Dear Administrator,
I am a graduate student of higher education and administration
at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, and currently
writing a doctoral dissertation. The title of my dissertation is "The
Relationship Between Stress Factors and the Self-Perceived Role of Black
Administrators in Predominantly White Public Four Year Institutions of
Higher Education in Michigan."
Recently I obtained a list of Black adminstrators from your in­
stitution and your name was included. You are, therefore, kindly re­
quested to help me in this study by completing the enclosed question­
naire, which may be filled out in approximately twenty minutes.
I realize that this request is an imposition upon your time,
however, my graduate committee, including Dr. Gloria Smith, the director
of my study, and I feel that this study has significance and importance
in our continuous effort to improve the quality of higher education.
Assessing the relationship between stress and role perceptions of educa­
tional administrators may also be of personal and professional interest
to you as an administrator. I will be happy to share the results with
you upon request. Your responses will be confidential and will be used
for statistical purposes only. Results will be analyzed in aggregate
form and under no circumstances will the responses be reported on an in­
dividual or institutional basis.
An addressed-stamped envelope is enclosed for your convenience.
An immediate response will be greatly appreciated. Thank you in advance
for your cooperation.
Sincerely,
Barbara B. Gunnings
Doctoral Student
Enclosures:

Letter from Dr. Gloria Smith
Questionnaire
Self-addressed stamped envelope

120

APPENDIX C

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVER S IT Y
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 48824

DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

May 5, 1980

Dear Fellow Administrator:
Research that has a direct application to the field
of administration in higher education can be of tre­
mendous value to those of us who are currently working
as administrators, as well as provide the basis for
sound educational and training programs for prospective
administrators.
One particular area of research that
needs to be investigated is the relationship between
stress and the self-perceived role of black administra­
tors in higher education.
I believe that the research undertaken by Barbara
Gunnings, who is completing her doctoral dissertation
at Michigan State University, will have important
implications for all of us.
How we learn to cope
with stress can largely determine the future of black
administrators in higher education.
I support the
study undertaken by Ms. Gunnings and hope that you
will help her by taking the time to complete the
enclosed questionnaire.
pin

1v

Gloria S. Smith, Ph.D.
Director of Urban Counseling

121

M SI! is an A ffirm a tive A ctio n /E a u a l Otitoortunitx Institution

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D
FOLLOW-UP LETTER
2614 Cochise Lane
Okemos, Michigan
4886 4
May 14, 1980
Dear Administrator:
A few weeks ago I sent you a questionnaire which is designed
to aid me in my dissertation study of "The Relationship Be­
tween Stress Factors and the Self-Perceived Role of Black
Administrators in Predominantly White Public Four Year In­
stitutions of Higher Education in Michigan."
The purpose of
this communication is to kindly request that you complete
and return the questionnaire, if you have not already done
so.
As you know, there is a scarcity of black administrators in
higher education and the success of this research depends on
a high percentage response.
If your questionnaire has been
returned or is in transit, please disregard this request.
Thank you again for your cooperation and interest.
Sincerely,

Barbara B. Gunnings
Graduate Student

122

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i