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8303787

Golanda, Eugene Louis

THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL
LEADER: AN ANALYSIS O F THE PERCEIVED INSTRUCTIONAL
SUPERVISORY SKILLS, ATTITUDES, AND PRACTICES OF SELECTED
MICHIGAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS

Michigan Stale University

University
Microfilms
International

PH.D.

300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106

1982

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University
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THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL LEADER:
AN ANALYSIS OF THE PERCEIVED INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISORY SKILLS,
ATTITUDES, AND PRACTICES OF SELECTED MICHIGAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
PRINCIPALS

by
Eugene Louis Golanda

A DISSERTATION
Submitted t o
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the req uirem en ts
f o r t h e degree o f
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department o f Education
1982

ABSTRACT

THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL LEADER:
AN ANALYSIS OF THE PERCEIVED INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISORY SKILLS,
ATTITUDES, AND PRACTICES OF SELECTED MICHIGAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
PRINCIPALS
By
Eugene Louis Golanda

The purpose o f t h i s stu dy was t o d eter m in e i f e lem entary school
p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e i v e themselves t o be s k i l l e d in and r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s in t h e i r s c h o o l s .

C o n c u r r e n t l y , th e

study a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s to
various s it u a t i o n a l f a c to r s r e la te d to the p r in c ip a ls h ip .

Data was

c o l l e c t e d us ing an i n s t r u m e n t p r e p a re d by th e r e s e a r c h e r .

Of th e

200 p r i n c i p a l s randomly s e l e c t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e , 103 responded.
T h i r t y - o n e hypotheses were t e s t e d using Chi-Square a t t h e .05
level of s ig n ific a n c e .

In g e n e r a l , th e f i n d i n g s o f t h e hypotheses

t e s t i n g revealed th a t:
1. P erceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e and p e r c e i v e d r e s ­
p o n s i b i l i t y t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s were
r e l a t i v e l y u n r e l a t e d to t h e f o l l o w i n g a s p e c t s o f th e p r i n ­
c i p a l s h i p : t h e age o f p r i n c i p a l s ; th e number o f s c h o o ls a
p r i n c i p a l a d m i n i s t e r s ; school e n r o l l m e n t ; t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e
t h e number o f t e a c h e r s s u p e r v i s e d ; d i s t r i c t s i z e ; t e n u r e as
a p r i n c i p a l ; and formal e d u c a t i o n ;
2. P r i n c i p a l s wish t o become more s k i l l e d a t c l i n i c a l s u p e r ­
visory functions;
3. Female p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e iv e d the m se lves as a c c e p t i n g more

Eugene Louis Golanda
*

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s
and as being more s k i l l e d i n per forming t h e s e f u n c t i o n s ;
4.

P r i n c i p a l s d i d n o t s e p a r a t e t h e f o r m a t i v e from t h e summative
a s p e c t s o f s u p e r v i s i o n ; and

5. P r o f e s s i o n a l development programs appear ed t o have a p o s i t i v e
impact on botli t h e p e r c e i v e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p r i n c i p a l s to
perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s and on t h e i r p e r c e i v e d
e x p e r t i s e t o perform t h e s e same f u n c t i o n s .
As a r e s u l t o f t h e f i n d i n g s , i t was concluded t h a t ;
1.

Many p r i n c i p a l s do n o t a p p ear t o be a c t i v e l y in v o lv e d

in t h e

improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n in a s y s t e m a t i c manner;
2. Many p r i n c i p a l s do n o t a p p ear t o be knowledgeable abou t t h e i r
r o l e in the t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s ;
3. Many p r i n c i p a l s ap pe ar t o l a c k e f f e c t i v e s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s
and a t t i t u d e s de signe d t o improve t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l s k i l l s
of teachers;
4. Most p r i n c i p a l s d e s i r e t o improve th e s i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r ­
ship s k i l l s ;
5. P r o f e s s i o n a l development programs a p p ear t o p o s s e s s th e
a b i l i t y t o pro v id e p r i n c i p a l s with improved a t t i t u d e s and
improved s k i l l s t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s ;
and
6. Female p r i n c i p a l s may be more i n c l i n e d th an male p r i n c i p a l s
t o become e f f e c t i v e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r s .

DEDICATION
This study i s d e d i c a t e d t o a l l t h e im port ant women in my l i f e .

i

Acknowledgements

S in c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n and g r a t i t u d e a r e extended t o many i n d i v i d u a l s
and groups f o r t h e i r encouragement and c o n t r i b u t i o n s th ro ug ho ut t h i s
s tu d y . Among those acknowledged a r e :
My wife and c h i l d r e n f o r t h e i r p a t i e n c e and n u tu r in g a s s i s t a n c e ;
My committee chairman, Dr. Howard Hickey, f o r h i s f r i e n d s h i p ,
guidance and i n v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e ;
Committee members Dr, Louis Romano, Dr. James McKee, and Dr.
Glen Cooper, f o r t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o s e rv e and f o r t h e i r ad vice and
he lp f u l a s s i s t a n c e ;
Carol Cummings and C l i f f Nelson f o r te a c h in g me about t e a c h i n g ,
l e a r n i n g , and c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n and f o r i n s p i r a t i o n ;
Dr. Herbert Rudman f o r h i s a d v i c e , c o u n s e l, and u rg in g ;
The Grand Ledge School System f o r s u p p o rtin g t h i s e f f o r t with
finances;
My r e s e a r c h c o n s u l t a n t from th e MSU O f f ic e o f Research C o n s u l t a t i o n ,
J a n i c e Elsmore, who provided e x c e l l e n t ad v ic e ;
The p r i n c i p a l s of Grand Ledge f o r t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n ;
The members of MEMSPA who p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h i s s tu d y , whogave of
t h e i r time and were w i l l i n g t o re veal something o f th em selv es , and to
t h e l e a d e r s h i p and s t a f f o f MEMSPA f o r t h e i r e f f o r t s and sp onso rsh ip
o f t h i s s tu d y ;
And f i n a l l y , t o th e f a c u l t y and s t a f f o f Neff Elementary School
f o r performing so well w ith o u t b e n e f i t o f a p r i n c i p a l f o r much o f th e
time i t took to complete t h i s s tu d y , and e s p e c i a l l y to J a n i c e Barcy
f o r her p a t i e n c e , typing and r e - t y p i n g and optimism t h a t success
would u l t i m a t e l y p r e v a i l .

Table o f Contents
Page

L i s t o f Tables and Graphs
Chapter I

vi

Introduction

1

School Size
Program Complexity
D i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f Control
B i f u r c a t i o n o f th e P r i n c i p a l
Limiting th e Scope o f t h e
Investigation
Focus of the Study
Statem ent o f th e Problem
Statemen t o f t h e Purpose
S p e c i f i c O b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s Study
Hypotheses
Assumptions
C o n s tr u c t io n o f th e Q u e s t io n a ir e
P i l o t Study
L i m i t a t i o n s o f th e Study
D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f the Study
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e Study
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
A d m in is tr a tio n o f t h e Q u e s t i o n a i r e
S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures
O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e Study
Chapter II

3
4
6
9

...............................
...............................

...............................

A S e l e c t e d Review o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e ...............

Fo reward
The E f f e c t s o f School on Learning and
The P r i n c i p a l ' s Impact on School
Effects
Summary o f School E f f e c t s Research
...............................
The E v a lu a tiv e Role o f P r i n c i p a l s in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Improvement
Summary o f th e E v a lu a ti v e Role o f
P r i n c i p a l s in t h e Improvement o f
Instruction
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n

iii

11
12
13
14
14
15
18
IS
20
20
21
23
26
29
30
30
31
31
32
61:
62
93
94

Page

Summary o f t h e Review o f t h e
L i t e r a t u r e Focusing on
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n
Other M a te rial R ela ted t o t h i s
Study
Summary
Chapter I I I

107
128

Research Design and Procedures ......................

Introduction
Sample Po p u la tio n
Research Hypotheses
I n s t r u m e n t a ti o n
P i l o t Study
R eliability
Procedures f o r Data A n a ly s is
S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures
Summary
Chapter IV

106

...............................

A n a ly s is o f th e Data

Introduction
P r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e Data
The Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed
by Elementary P r i n c i p a l s f o r
C l i n i c a l S up er v is o r y A c t i v i t i e s
.............................
Per ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e t o Perform
C l i n i c a l Sup er v is o r y Functions
...............................
T e s t i n g o f t h e Hypotheses
A nal ysis o f t h e Data
Sex D if f e r e n c e s in Regards to
C l i n i c a l S up er v is o r y P r a c t i c e s
...............................
Age D i f f e r e n c e s
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y F a c to r s
School Size
Experience F a c t o r s
...............................
Years o f Teaching Experience
Tenure as a P r i n c i p a l
D i s t r i c t Enrollment
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Program
Influences
Role P e r c e p tio n I n f l u e n c e s
Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l
S u p e r v is io n Process
Formative Versus Summative
E v a lu a tio n s
Extra Teaching R e s p o n s i b i l i t y

iv

129
129
129
130
132
133
134
134
136
136
137
137
137
151
152
154
221
221
222
223
224
225
225
226
226
226
227
228
228

Page

Actual Versus Ideal Perceived
E x p e r t i s e to Perform C l i n i c a l
Sup er v is o r y Functions
P erceived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y as R el at ed
t o Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e t o Perform
C l i n i c a l S up er v is o r y Functions
...............................
Summary o f Fin ding s
Summary
Chapter V

Summary, F i n d i n g s , Conclusions and
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r Future Research
.....................

Introduction
Findings
Conclusions
Im p l i c a t i o n s f o r P r a c t i c e
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r Research
Recommendations
Concluding Sta tem en t
Appendix A

229
230
231
232
232
233
235
239
240
242

L etters

243

L e t t e r Sent with t h e ILQ
L e t t e r Received from C l i f f Nelson
Appendix B

228

...............................

In st rument

244
245
246

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Le ad ersh ip Q u e s t i o n a i r e ...........................
B ib lio g r ap h y

247
256

Books
Periodicals
Unpublished M a te ri a l
Yearbooks, N e w s l e t t e r s , Reports
and Pamphlets

v

257
261
266
269

L i s t o f Tables and Graphs
Page

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Table 3.1 — Per ceived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l i a b i l i t y
R e s u lt s of th e ILQ T e s t - R e - t e s t

136

Table 3 . 2 - - Perceived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e
R e l i a b i l i t y R e s u lts o f th e ILQ T e s t - R e - t e s t

136

Table 3. 3 — Per ce iv ed Ideal E x p e r tis e
R e s u l t s o f th e ILQ T e s t - R e - t e s t

136

Table 4-1 - - Sex D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Sample

139

Ta ble 4-2 - - The R e l a t i o n s h i p of Age to Sex o f
Elementary P r i n c i p a l s

140

6.

T a b i ‘; 4-3 — Age D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Sample

139

7.

Ta ble 4-4 — School R es pons ib le For

141

8.

Table 4-5 — Stud en t Enrollment in S ch oo l(s)

141

9.

Table 4-6 - - Years o f Teaching Experience

142
..........

142

10.

Table 4-7 - - Elementary P r i n c i p a l s h i p Experience

11.

Table 4-8 — D i s t r i c t Enrollment

143

12.

Table 4-9 - - Classroom Te achers Supervised

143

13.

Table 4-10 - - Total Teachers Su pe rv ise d

144

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Table 4-11 - - Frequency o f Required Ev alu ati on
o f Tenured Teachers

144

Table 4-12 - - Formal Education in S u per vis io n
o f Teaching

145

Table 4-13 — Extra Systemwide R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

..........

145

Table 4-14 — P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Program
on S upervis ion o f I n s t r u c t i o n

146

Ta ble 4-15 - - E v a lu a tio n f o r S t r i c t l y Format! .
Reasons

146

vi

19.
20.

21.

22.
23.

24.
25.
26.

Table 4-16 - - P e r c e iv e d E v a l u a t i v e Role o f
P rincipals

148

Table 4-17 — P e r c e iv e d A u t h o r i t y o f
P r i n c i p a l s to Make I n s t r u c t i o n a l Program
Decisions

148

Table 4-18 — P e r c e p t i o n s o f P r i n c i p a l s Regarding
T h e i r P o t e n t i a l E f f e c t on S tu d e n t Learning
Outcomes

149

Table 4-19 — P e r c e p t i o n s o f P r i n c i p a l s Regarding
t h e E f f e c t s o f T eac he rs on L ear ning

149

T able 4-20 - - P e r c e p t i o n s o f P r i n c i p a l s Regarding
t h e A b i l i t y o f Te ac he rs to Exert an E f f e c t Upon
t h e Unmotivated Child

150

Table 4-21 — P r i n c i p a l Use o f C l i n i c a l
S u p e r v is i o n Method

150

Graph 4-1 - - P r i n c i p a l Responses to R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
Assumed f o r C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is o r y A c t i v i t i e s

153

Graph 4-2 - - Mean P e r c e i v e d P r e s e n t and Ideal C l i n i c a l
S u p e r v is i o n E x p e r t i s e o f Sampled Michigan Elementary
School P r i n c i p a l s on a Continuum From One {Very Weak)
t o Six (Very S tro n g )

155

27.

Ta ble 4-24 - - The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Sex o f Elementary
P r i n c i p a l s t o P e r ceiv ed E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Suggest
Methods t o Improve I n s t r u c t i o n
157

28.

T able 4-25 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Sex o f Elementary
P r i n c i p a l s t o P e r c e i v e d E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Help
T eac he rs Teach Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s

157

T able 4-26 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Sex o f Elementary
P r i n c i p a l s t o P e r c e iv e d E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s to
Conduct P r e - O b s e r v a t i o n Con fe re nc es

158

29.

30.

T able 4-27 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Sex o f an Elementary
P r i n c i p a l t o P e r c e iv e d E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s to Conduct
a P o s t - O b s e r v a t i o n Confer ence
158

vii

Page

31.

32.

Table 4-28 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Sex t o t h e Per ceived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a Pre- O bser vati on Conference with
Te achers

160

Table 4-29 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Age t o t h e Perceived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y of P r i n c i p a l s t o Lead Teachers in an
A n a ly s is o f Teaching S k i l l s

163

33.

Table 4-30 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Age t o th e P er ceived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s to Provide a Climate Conducive
f o r Teacher C o n s u l t a t i o n
164

34.

Table 4-31 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Age to P erceived Frequency
o f Use o f a C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n Model
164

35.

Table 4-32 — R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e Number o f Schools a P r in c i p a l
i s Responsible f o r Adm inist ering and th e Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e
o f P r i n c i p a l s to Perform Cl i n i c a l Supe rvisory
Functions
166

36.

Table 4-33 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Number o f Schools
a P r i n c i p a l Must Adm inister t o th e Pe rceived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed by t h e P r i n c i p a l to Help Teachers
..............
Teach S tu d en ts Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s

168

Table 4-33A — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Number of Schools
a P r i n c i p a l Must Administer t o th e Perceived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed by t h e P r i n c i p a l to Help Teachers
Acquire A c tiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n o f S tu d en ts

168

Table 4-34 - - R e l a t i o n s h i p o f S tu d e n t Enrollment o f a
P r i n c i p a l ' s School ( s ) t o Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed
f o r th e A n a ly s is o f Data Obtained from aClassroom
Obs erv ation P r i o r t o a Conference with a Teacher ..........

171

Table 4-35 - - R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Studen t Enrollment o f a
P r i n c i p a l ' s School(s ) to Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
Lead er ship o f an A nalys is o f a Teaching S k i l l with
a Teacher

172

Table 4-36 - - R e l a t i o n s h i p o f S tu d e n t Enrollment o f
P r i n c i p a l ' s School{s ) t o Scores o f Per ce ived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed f o r C l i n i c a l S up er visor y
A ctivities

176

37.

38.

39.

40.

vi i i

Page

41.

Table 4-37 — R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e Number o f Years
o f Teaching Experience o f a P r i n c i p a l and th e
Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed by P r i n c i p a l s
to E s t a b l i s h a Climate Encouraging S t a f f
Consultation of the Principal

176

42.

Table 4-38 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Number o f
Classroom Teachers Super vised by a P r i n c i p a l and th e
P r a c t i c e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Keep Appointments a t Agreed-Upon
Times f o r Ob servation o f Teachers
178

43.

Table 4-39 - - The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f D i s t r i c t - E n r o l l m e n t
t o t h e Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e Scheduling o f
Appointments with Teachers by P r i n c i p a l s f o r C l i n i c a l
S up er v is o r y I n t e r a c t i o n

178

Table 4-40 - - The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f D i s t r i c t Enrollment
t o th e Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e Leadership o f
t h e A n a l y s is o f Teaching S k i l l s by t h e P r i n c i p a l ..........

184

44.

45.

Table 4-41 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Tenure o f P r i n c i p a l s
in th e P r i n c i p a l s h i p to t h e i r P er ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
Assumed f o r th e A n a ly s is o f Data Obtained from th e
Obs ervation o f Teaching
187

46.

Table 4-42 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Formal Education in
S u p e r v is io n t o th e Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e of P r i n c i p a l s
to Help Teachers to Cause S tu d e n ts to Spend Time
on Task

192

Table 4-43 - - The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Formal Education
in S u p e r v is io n and Ev alu ati on o t the P er ce ived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y by P r i n c i p a l s t o Observe Teaching a t
Agreed-Upon Times

194

Table 4-44 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l
Development Programs in C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n o r
Teacher E v a lu a tio n t o th e Per ceived E x p e r t i s e o f
Principals
t o Conduct Formative E v a lu a ti o n

196

Table 4-45 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l
Development Programs in C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n or
Teacher E v a lu a ti o n t o t h e P erceived E x p e r t i s e o f
Principals
t o Conduct aP r e -O b s erv a ti on C o n f e r e n c e . . . .

196

47.

48

49.

ix

Page

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

Table 4-46 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p of P r o f e s s i o n a l
Development Programs in C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n
o r Teacher Ev alu ation t o th e P erceived E x p e r t i s e
o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Observe Te achers a t AgreedUpon Times

197

Table 4-47 - - The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l
Development Programs in C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n o r Teacher
Ev alu ation t o t h e P er ce ived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s
t o Help Teacher Acquire Teaching S k i l l s Proven by
Research t o be E f f e c t i v e

197

Tabel 4-48 - - The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l
Development Programs in C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n or Teacher
E v a lu a tio n t o t h e P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s
to Help Teachers Understand t h e Learning Process .........

199

Table 4-49 - - The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l
Development Programs in C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n o r Teacher
E v a lu a ti o n to t h e P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
P r i n c i p a l s t o Conduct P r e -O b s e rv a ti o n Conferences . . . .

199

Table 4-50 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l
Development Programs in C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n o r
Teacher E v a lu a ti o n a t th e P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
o f P r i n c i p a l s to Observe Teachers a t Agreed-Upon
Times

200

55.

Table 4-51 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p of P r o f e s s i o n a l Development
Programs in C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n o r Teacher
E va lu a tion to th e P erceiv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s
t o Conduct Monthly Formative S t a f f E v a la u tio n s
...........
200

56.

Table 4-52 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l
Development Programs in C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n o r Teacher
E va lu a tion to t h e P er ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
P r i n c i p a l s to Perform C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is o r y Functions . .

202

Table 4-53 - - The P e r c e p ti o n o f A u t h o r i t y Over the
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Program Held by Elementary P r i n c i p a l s

202

57.
58.
59.

..

Table 4-54 — The P er ce ived E f f e c t s o f P r i n c i p a l s on
Stu den t Learning as R e f l e c t e d by T e s t Scores
.............

204

Table 4-55 — P r i n c i p a l P e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e D i f f e r e n c e
Teachers Make in S tu dent Le arning

204

x

Page

60.
61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

Table 4-56 - - P r i n c i p a l P e r c e p t i o n s o f T e a c h e rs ' A b i l i t y
t o "Get Through t o " th e Most Unmotivated Child
...........

205

Table 4-57 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Role P e r c e p tio n t o th e
P er ceived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s to Conduct P r e Obs ervation Conferences

205

Table 4-58 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e P erceived Role
Assumed by P r i n c i p a l s and t h e Per ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e o f
P r i n c i p a l s t o Lead Teachers in an Anal ysis o f a
Teaching S k i l l

207

Table 4-59 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e P er ceived Role
Assumed by P r i n c i p a l s and th e P er ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e o f
P r i n c i p a l s t o Help Teachers Match I n s t r u c t i o n a l
M a t e r i a l s t o I n s t r u c t i o n a l Goals

207

Table 4-60 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Role P e r c e p t io n t o
t h e P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Help
Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e and Self- Im pr ov e T h e ir
Teaching

209

Table 4-61 - - The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e P erceiv ed Frequency
o f Use o f C l i n i c a l S up er v is io n t o t h e P er ce ived
E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s to Conduct Pre- O bser vation
Conferences

209

Table 4-62 - - The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e Perceived
Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n to th e
Perce ived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Observe
Teaching a t Agreed-Upon Times

211

.....

Ta ble 4-63 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e P er ce ived Frequency
o f Use o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n t o t h e P er ce ived
E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Methods t o Teachers

212

Table 4-64 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e Perceived
Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n t o th e
Perce ived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Help Teachers
Match I n s t r u c t i o n a l M a t e r i a l s t o I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Goals

213

Table 4-65 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e Per ce iv ed
Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n t o th e
P er ce ived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s to Help Teachers
S e l f - E v a l u a t e and S elf-Im prove

214

xi

Pase
70.

71.

72.

73.

Table 4-66 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Perceived
Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l S u per v is ion t o t h e
Per ceived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Supe rvise
Teaching f o r Formative Reasons a t Leas t Monthly

..........

215

Table 4-67 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Per ceived
Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n t o th e
Perceived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s to
Sjeparately E v a lu a te Teachers f o r Formative Reasons . . .

217

Table 4-68 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Perceived
Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l Supervis ion to t h e
Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Conduct
P r e-O b s erv a tio n Conferences

218

Table 4-69 — The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e P er ceived
Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n t o th e
P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Observe
Teaching a t Agreed-Upon Times

219

x ii

THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL LEADER:
AN ANALYSIS OF THE PERCEIVED INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISORY SKILLS,
ATTITUDES, AND PRACTICES OF SELECTED MICHIGAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
PRINCIPALS.
Introduction
"One day, Pooh Bear v i s i t e d h i s f r i e n d Rabbit and a t e so much
lunch t h a t he s tu c k in the e x i t .

C h r i s t o p h e r Robin, unable to

e x t r i c a t e him, t o l d him he would have to s t a y s tu c k f o r a t l e a s t
a week u n t i l he had reduced enough to g e t o u t .
Pooh Bear was o f cour se u p s e t a t t h e news and s a i d t e a r f u l l y :
'Then would you read t o me from a S u s t a i n i n g Book, such as would
h e l p and comfort a Wedged Bear in a Great T i g h t n e s s . 1"
This passage from A.A. M iln e 's s t o r y o f Winnie t h e Pooh bears
a c o n s i d e r a b l e l i k e n e s s t o t h e problems co n f ro n ted by t o d a y ' s
el em en tar y school p r i n c i p a l s who ap pe ar to be " in a Great T i g h t n e s s . "
U n f o r t u n a t e l y a " S u s ta i n i n g Book" may not a l l e v i a t e t h e problem f o r
th e uncomfortable p r i n c i p a l .
I f one were t o ask th e q u e s t i o n , "Who i s t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l
l e a d e r o f t h i s school?" to almost any i n d i v i d u a l , i t seems r e a s o n a b le
t o ex p ect t h a t th e answer w i l l almost a s s u r e d l y be "The p r i n c i p a l ,
o f c o u r s e . " For whether i t i s w r i t t e n in t h e j o b d e s c r i p t i o n of a
p r i n c i p a l o r not and o f t e n i t i s j u s t i m p l i c i t l y understood and not
w r i t t e n , th e p r i n c i p a l o f a school i s assumed by most informed
c i t i z e n s t o be t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r o f a s ch ool.

1

2

This e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t th e p r i n c i p a l i s a person who p o s s e s s e s
s i g n i f i c a n t power* a u t h o r i t y , and e x p e r t i s e to lead th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l
p r o c e ss i s one which has deep h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s and i s one which
most a d u l t s grew up w i th .

Even though time and c ir c u m s ta n c e s have

changed d r a m a t i c a l l y , people a r e p e r s i s t e n t in t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s .
In t h e s e p r e f a c i n g remarks, i t i s im p o rtan t t o i d e n t i f y and
un derst and th o s e f a c t o r s which have made i t i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t
f o r p r i n c i p a l s to meet t h e r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s held f o r them.

Clearly

p r i n c i p a l s have been ex pected t o lead and to a c t i v e l y p la y o u t t h e
ro le of in stru c tio n a l leader.

This e x p e c t a t i o n had i t s r o o t s in

e a r l i e r times and with e a r l i e r t i t l e s such as "hea dm as ter"; t h e
t i t l e l i t e r a l l y im plies p o w e r - a u t h o r i t y and e x p e r t n e s s .

One might

s im ila r i ly a t t r i b u t e to the t i t l e of principal the expectation th a t
th e o f f i c e h o ld e r i s th e main o r f i r s t and b e s t t e a c h e r a v a i l a b l e
t o lead t h e school as i t seeks t o accomplish i t s m is s i o n .
Numerous events have o c c u r re d h i s t o r i c a l l y which l a y cause to
q u e s ti o n t h e seemingly ob vious.

Recent s t u d i e s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s h i p ,

reveal mountainous o b s t a c l e s t o t h i s "person in charge" i n c l u d i n g
i n c r e a s i n g s i z e s o f s c h o o l s , sy stem s, and s t a f f s , i n c r e a s e d
p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m o f t h e e d u c a t o r , program complexity demands,
d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f c o n t r o l , and b i f u r c a t i o n o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n .

No

i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e problem c o n f r o n t i n g t h e p r i n c i p a l o f t h e 1980's
would be complete w i th o u t a b r i e f s ynop sis o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l changes
which th e p r i n c i p a l s h i p has e xperienced in j u s t t h e p a s t f i f t y y e a r s .

3

School s i z e
In 1931-32 t h e s t u d e n t p o p u l a ti o n a t t h e elem en tary school
l e v e l stood a t 21,27 8,000 ; by 1980 t h a t p o p u l a ti o n had burgeoned
t o 46,09 4,000 .

Over t h i s same time t h e number o f s ch ools t o ser ve

t h e l a r g e r p o p u l a tio n had a c t u a l l y reduced.
had 232,750 el em en tar y s c h o o ls .

In 1931-32 t h e coun try

By 1980 t h a t number had been

reduced t o a n et d e c r e a s e o f 69% and t h e r e d u c t i o n in th e number o f
el em en tar y s ch oo ls i s c o n t i n u i n g r a p i d l y .

In 1931-32 t h e c o untry

had 127,531 school d i s t r i c t s ; in 1980 t h e co rre s p o n d in g number was
16,012 r e s u l t i n g in a n e t d e c r e a s e o f 87% J
P r o f e s s i o n a l i s m of t h e Educator
One t r u i s m t h a t could be e x p r ess ed f o r a l l p r o f e s s i o n a l s i s
t h a t they ex p e c t t o e x e r c i s e independent judgement based upon t h e i r
a c q u i r e d s p e c i a l i z e d knowledge.
The p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m o f e d u c a tio n had o c c u r re d on a massive
scale.

In 1930-31 appr oximate ly 12% o f a l l el em en ta ry t e a c h e r s were

college graduates.

In t h e 1980's i t is n o t uncommon t o f i n d s t a t e s

r e q u i r i n g t h e m a s te r de gr ee as a minimum s ta n d a r d f o r permanent
certification.

In a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d o f time we have moved

from t h e normal school to th e g r a d u a t e s c h o o l.
One obvious e f f e c t o f t h i s i n c r e a s e d p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m on th e
p a r t o f t e a c h e r s has been t o erode t h e t r a d i t i o n a l b a s i s f o r t h e
p rin c ip a l's authority.

In t h e 1 930's t h e p r i n c i p a l could be r i g h t l y

^D ig e s t o f Educational S t a t i s t i c s , Washington D.C.: U.S.
O f f i c e o f E duc ation, D iv i s io n o f Educational S t a t i s t i c s : 1980
LI 12 A35.

4

viewed as t h e person "who knows b e s t " by those t e a c h e r s he o r she
s u p e r v i s e d who were l e s s e xperienced and l e s s well t r a i n e d .

In th e

community t h e p r i n c i p a l could c o n f i d e n t l y speak out as a voice f o r
the teach ers.

The p r i n c i p a l o f t h e I98U1s i s surrounded by f a c u l t y

members who a r e as well o r more e x p er ien ced and educated as he or
she.

The p r o p e n s i t y o f t e a c h e r s t o view t h e p r i n c i p a l as t h e one

"who knows b e s t " has l a r g e l y d i s s i p a t e d .
In a d d i t i o n , th e p u b l i c i s now b e t t e r e d u c a te d .

By 1980, 23.1%

o f a l l a d u l t s between t h e ages o f 25 and 29 were c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s .
Thus, having completed c o l l e g e does n o t mean as much to th e p a r e n t s .
Too, t o d a y ' s school p r i n c i p a l i s now being c o n f ro n te d with an
i n c r e a s i n g l y e x p er ien ced and s t a b l e s t a f f .

Teacher t u r n o v e r has

d ecr ea se d s u s t a n t i a l l y r e s u l t i n g in a d e c r e a s e in t h e d i f f e r e n c e
between th e t e a c h e r ' s and th e p r i n c i p a l ' s e x p e r ie n c e l e v e l .

This

t o o , f u r t h e r erod es t h e p r i n c i p a l ' s a b i l i t y to a c t from a "knowing
best" stance.
Program Complexity
There has o c c u r re d a r a p i d movement from a time p e r io d when t h e
school p o p u la t io n was a r e l a t i v e l y homegrown group t o a time when t h e
school po p u la ti o n more f u l l y r e f l e c t s t h e complexity o f th e l a r g e r
s o c i e t y which surro un ds t h e school.

In 1930, 28.8% o f a l l s t u d e n t s

who were s eventeen gr a d u a te d from high s c h o o l ; by 1980, 74.8%.
The s t u d e n t body has changed remarkably.

Those who were p r e v i o u s l y

dropping o u t o f school f o r o t h e r p u r s u i t s now were s t a y i n g in s c h o o l.
The 198 0 's s t u d e n t group i s a much more heterogeneous group than

5

t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s o f t h e 1 9 8 0 's .
One o f th e most obvious consequences o f t h i s i n c r e a s e d d i v e r s i t y
a r e th o s e s t u d e n t s c l a s s i f i e d as e x c e p t i o n a l .
s t u d e n t s in 1932 numbered 164,000.
to 4 .03 m i l l i o n !

Special e d u c a ti o n

By 1980 t h i s number had skyrock eted

The p a s t decade has a l s o seen a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e

in th e demands t o do something about th o s e e x c e p t io n a l s t u d e n t s on
t h e o t h e r end of th e spectrum t o o ; programs f o r t h e g i f t e d and th e
t a l e n t e d s t u d e n t s a r e a byproduct o f + . is demand from t h e c i t i z e n c y .
The p r i n c i p a l o f th e 1980's a d m i n i s t e r s programs f o r y o u n g s t e r s who
were n o t p r e v i o u s l y se rved e f f e c t i v e l y by s c h o o ls .
I t can c o r r e c t l y be s a i d t h a t our school s o c i e t y has moved from a
s i n g l e , o n e - t r a c k c u r ric u lu m a t t e n d i n g t o t h e needs o f a r a t h e r
homogeneous group o f s t u d e n t s , to a tw o - tr a c k system o f th e 1940's and
19 50's which r e f l e c t e d t h e academic and v o c a t io n a l t h r u s t o f th e
comprehensive high school — onward t o an i n f i n i t e number o f t r a c k s in
t h e 1970's and t h e 1 9 8 0 ' s , r e p r e s e n t e d by modular s c h e d u lin g in high
s c h o o ls and open concepts a t th e el em en tar y l evel and a l t e r n a t i v e
s ch oo ls a t both l e v e l s .

The awesome complexity o f t h e c u r ric u lu m and

a n c i l l a r y programs o f t h e 1980's cannot be overemphasized when compared
with t h e c u r r ic u lu m o f e a r l i e r and s im p le r y e a r s .
The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e demands f o r t o d a y ' s p r i n c i p a l have, l i k e w i s e ,
become i n c r e a s i n g l y co m p licated .

A look a t t h e s t a f f i n g p a t t e r n s o f
p
a 1970 's elem entary school emphasizes t h i s com plexity. The t y p i c a l

^Blood, Ronald E. and James P. M i l l e r J r . , The New Mexico
P r i n c i p a l s h i p Study, P a r t I F a c to r s A f f e c t i n g th e P r i n c i p a l s h i p
Yesterday and Today, 31p Paper p r e s e n t e d a t th e annual meeting o f
t h e American Educational Research A s s o c i a t i o n (San F r a n c i s c o , CA, April
8-12, 1979.

6

el em en tar y school d e s c r i b e d here by Blood and H i l l e r f o r i l l u s t r a t i v e
purposes i s s t a f f e d by:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

23.5 F.T.E. classroom t e a c h e r s , grades K-6
8 . 8 F.T.E. s p e c i a l t e a c h e r s ( l i b r a r y , a r t ,
P . E . , music)
7.5 F.T.E. i n s t r u c t i o n a l a i d e s
5.70 o t h e r s t a f f in c l u d i n g s e c r e t a r i e s , c u s t o d i a n s ,
s t u d e n t i n t e r n s and o t h e r a i d e s
8 bus d r i v e r s
3 p a r t time cooks o r k it c h e n h e l p e r s .

Thus, conc eiving th e school as being composed o f only a p r i n c i p a l
and classroom t e a c h e r s r e a l l y i s a g r o s s o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n .

I t is

not unusual in t h e 19 80's f o r t h e r e g u l a r classroom t e a c h e r s o f a
school t o be outnumbered by th e a n c i l l a r y s t a f f and s p e c i a l i z e d
t e a c h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y i f one adds th o s e s p e c i a l i s t s provided t o th e
sc h o o ls by i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t s .

I t i s in t h i s much more complex

o r g a n i z a t i o n s e t t i n g t h a t t o d a y ' s p r i n c i p a l i s c a l l e d upon to a d m i n i s t e r .
D i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f Control
The h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n in t h i s c o u ntr y has been one which has
honored local c o n t r o l .

This r e l i a n c e on t h e l o c a l , la y co n tr o l o f

sch oo ls i s unique in a l l t h e world.

Most o t h e r c o u n t r i e s p lace t h e

r e g u l a t o r y f u n c t i o n o f e d u cati o n on th e n a t i o n a l government.

Our

h i s t o r y has been one o f l o c a l c o n t r o l and l a y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; i t
was in t h i s c o n t e x t in which p r i n c i p a l s t r a d i t i o n a l l y o p e r a t e d .
I n i t i a l l y , school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t were a c t u a l l y c l e r k s o f t h e l o c a l
b oards.

Boards o f e d u c a tio n a d m i n i s t e r e d th e s ch oo ls d i r e c t l y .

School d i s t r i c t s were small and t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s were
u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d t o r e s i d e w i t h i n th e d i s t r i c t .

The s e l e c t i o n

pr oce ss and t h e v i s a b i l i t y o f t h e e d u c a to r s t o t h e community tended

7

t o i n s u r e a commonality o f purpose and e x p e c t a t i o n a b o u t what was t o
be t a u g h t and how i t was t o be t a u g h t .
t o t h e e d u c a t o r s and t h e c i t i z e n r y .

Who was i n c o n t r o l was c l e a r
3
According to Z i e g l e r , e t . a l . ,

t h i s condition p revailed u n til the tu rn of the century.
"In P i t t s b u r g , f o r example, t h e school system c o n s i s t e d
o f 33 s u b - d i s t r i c t b o a r d s . Each board p o s s e s s e d a u t h o r i t y t o
l e v y t a x e s and t o a p p o i n t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h i n g p e r s o n n e l .
The c e n t r a l b o a r d , composed o f one r e p r e s e n t a t i v e from each
s u b - d i s t r i c t was r e l a t i v e l y p o w e r l e s s . The socio-ec onom ic
s t a t u s o f s u b - d i s t r i c t boards was r o u g h ly co n g r u e n t w it h t h e
s ta tu s of s u b -d is tr ic t populations."
Under t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h u s d e s c r i b e d i t i s r e l a t i v e l y eas y to
u n d e r s ta n d why t h e c o n t r o l o f th e school was so c l e a r and d i r e c t as
4
viewed from t h e eyes o f t h e p r i n c i p a l . Z i e g l e r , e t . a l . ,
indicated
t h a t by t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , and c l e a r l y durin g t h e comparison
p e r io d used t o r e f l e c t upon t o d a y , t h e 1 9 3 0 's c o n t r o l o f t h e s c h o o ls
had begun a g i a n t s h i f t i n g .

Growing p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m had le d t o an

e v e r i n c r e a s e d emphasis upon t h e use o f e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r t s .
"By 1920 t h e norm o f school board n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n had become so p e r v a s i v e t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
would p r o t e c t as encroachment l a y i n f l u e n c e which would have
been customary b e f o r e t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y . "
The r a p i d s h i f t o f c o n t r o l by e x p e r t s combined w it h t h e growth
o f t h e school systems and s c h o o ls le d t o t h e n a t u r a l b u r e a u c r a t i c
p r a c t i c e o f t h e ap p o in tm en t o f more e x p e r t s and t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e
number o f c e n t r a l o f f i c e p e r s o n n e l .

The c l a r i t y o f j u s t who was

i n c o n t r o l and in ch ar g e was b eg in n in g t o become b l u r r e d .

3L . H . Z i e g l e r , H . J . T u c k er, and L.A. Wilson, "How School Control
was W r estled from t h e People" Phi D elta Kappan, March 1977, p. 535-536.
‘N b ' i d .

8

By th e 1 9 5 0 's , changes o f an e q u a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t n a t u r e were
underway.

The Brown d e c i s i o n o f 1954 was h i s t o r i c a l l y symbolic o f

t h e changes s t i l l t o come which would cause a f u r t h e r e r o s i o n in
t h e a b i l i t y o f even l o c a l e d u c a to r s t o c o n t r o l school p r a c t i c e s .
Covert d e c i s i o n s which followe d magnified t h i s f a c t , followed c l o s e l y
by th e promulgation o f v a r i o u s r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s o f f e d e r a l
a g e n c i e s , a l l o f which c r e a t e d t h e i r impact upon local c o n t r o l .

The

Department o f HEW, l a t e r t o become t h e s e p e r a t e Department of Edu cation,
t h e O f f i c e o f C iv il R i g h t s , t h e Occupational S a f e t y and Health
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , P ubli c Act 94-142, and T i t l e IX a l l e x e r t d i r e c t
i n f l u e n c e on th e d a i l y o p e r a t i o n of t o d a y ' s s c h o o ls .
Rather than being a b l e t o look to one or two s o u rc e s f o r guidance
and d i r e c t i o n as t h e p r i n c i p a l o f t h e e a r l y 1 900's was a b le t o do,
th e p r i n c i p a l o f th e 1980's must now t u r n in a l l d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e
compass.

According t o Z i e g l e r , e t . a l . ,

school b u r e a u c r a c i e s grew

in s i z e p r i m a r i l y t o deal with t h e o t h e r b u r e a u c r a c i e s which our
s o c i e t y had spawned, which in t u r n c r e a t e d more " o f f i c i a l s " who to
some deg re e or a n o t h e r c o n f i s c a t e d a t h i n s l i c e o f t h e c o n t r o l of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l s ch o o l.
The p r i n c i p a l o f t h e 198 0 's i s f aced with numerous and d i v e r s e
demands from f e d e r a l , s t a t e and l o c a l s o u r c e s .

The o t h e r personnel

a t t h e l ocal school le v e l a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y looking p a s t t h e p r i n c i p a l
for d irection.

School c u s t o d i a n s may look to a d i r e c t o r o f maintenance

f o r d i r e c t i o n ; c a f e t e r i a h e l p e r s may look t o a food s e r v i c e d i r e c t o r ;
s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n t e a c h e r s may a c c e p t only t h e word o f th e s p e c i a l

^ibi.d.

9

e d u c a t io n c o o r d i n a t o r t o answer t h e i r q u e s t i o n s ; and b i - l i n g u a l
t e a c h e r s may shun t h e p r i n c i p a l t o look f o r t h e i r d i r e c t i o n from
t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t o r even t h e s t a t e
level.

C e r t i f i e d and n o n - c e r t i f i e d personnel a l i k e a l l pay some

homage t o a u t h o r i t y from sou rc es o t h e r than t h e school p r i n c i p a l ,
who i s ex pected t o be " in c h a r g e ."
The p r i n c i p a l o f th e 1980's in comparison with th e p r i n c i p a l
o f th e 1 930's i s c o n f ro n te d with a ka le id o sc o p e of demands f o r
control.

Not only i s h i s o r h e r be h a v io r d i r e c t e d by s t a t e and

f e d e r a l c o u r t s and an army o f governmental a g e n c i e s , b u t now he or
she i s a l s o co n f ro n ted with a s t r i k i n g l y d i v e r s e community whose
formal and informal a d v i s i n g groups d i r e c t t h e p r i n c i p a l in somewhat
inco m p a tib le d i r e c t i o n s .

The o l d and well e s t a b l i s h e d n o tio n t h a t

th e p r i n c i p a l i s t h e "person in charge" becomes l e s s v i a b l e as
a c t u a l c o n t r o l over th e a f f a i r s o f th e school become e v e r more
diverse.
Bifurcation of the Principal
In th e more uncomplicated times o f t h e 1 9 3 0 's , 19401s and even
1 9 5 0 ' s , ed u c a to r s sh ared th e same p r o f e s s i o n a l um bre ll a.
a l l changed today.

This i s

In 1973 school a d m i n i s t r a t o r s l e f t the National

Educ ational A s s o c i a t i o n .

School s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e now viewed

contemptously by many as "board men" and as a r e s u l t o f t h i s
occ urp nc e, p r i n c i p a l s become t h e men o r women in th e middle o f t h e
hourglass.

10

Numerous a r t i c l e s in t h e 1970's have focused on whether o r not
t h e p l a c e o f the p r i n c i p a l should be on th e "management team."

These

arguments a r e c l e a r evid en ce o f t h e p r e c a r i o u s no mans land of t o d a y ' s
principal.

Court ca se r e s u l t s have only served t o f u r t h e r th e

s ever an ce o f t i e s with e i t h e r t e a c h e r s o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
The s t r e s s o f t h e b a t t l e f o r c o n t r o l has added s t i l l a n o th e r
c h a p t e r in t h e s t o r y o f s u r v i v a l f o r th e p r i n c i p a l ; i n c r e a s i n g l y
p r i n c i p a l s a r e t u r n i n g t o formal organ iz ed unions th e m se lv e s .

As

C

Blood and M i l l e r

have p o i n t o u t .

"As p r i n c i p a l s have sought t o defend t h e i r s t a t u s , th ey
have a tte m pted t o form independent b a r g a in in g gr oups. P r i n c i p a l s
perceive t h a t issues a f fe c tin g the d a ily operation of t h e i r
s ch ools a r e being decided through n e g o t i a t e d c o n t r a c t s with
t e a c h e r s b a r g a i n i n g d i r e c t l y with boards o r t h e i r a ppointed
p r o f e s s i o n a l n e g o t i a t o r s . Working h o u r s , c l a s s s i z e , g r ie v a n c e
p r o c e d u r e s , i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g , and more a r e decided in t h e s e
n e g o t i a t i o n s , w h ile t h e p r i n c i p a l s s t a n d a n x i o u s ly on th e
s i d e l i n e s u s u a l l y not p r iv y t o t h e proceedings u n t i l th ey a r e
comp lete. In an a t t e m p t t o a m e l i o r a t e t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e
p r i n c i p a l s a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o o r g a n i z e themselves - The p u b l i c and some v e s t i g e s o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a r e c a l l i n g f o r
t h e p r i n c i p a l t o a g a i n "t a k e c h a r g e . "

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o no te t h a t

in s p i t e o f a l l t h e a d v e r se c ir c u m s ta n c e s which e x i s t , acco rding to
r e c e n t s t u d i e s o f th e p r i n c i p a l s h i p
am b it ion f o r most.

7

the p o sitio n is s t i l l a fin a l

Could i t be, however, t h a t th e " a d m i n i s t r a v i a "

with which t o d a y ' s p r i n c i p a l must cope, and t h e cir c u m sta n c e s t h a t
have caused t h i s demise from c o n t r o l , have r e s u l t e d in a s t r i p p e d
down v e r s i o n o f th e once proud head mas ter, who today has never

6 op.cit.
P a l a r i s , William and S a l l y Z a k a r e i j a , The Elementary School
P r i n c i p a l s h i p in 1978: f\_ Research S tu d y : A r l i n g t o n , V i r g in i a ^
National A s s o c i a t i o n o f Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s , 1979. p . 11.
7

acquired t h e n e c e s s a r y a r t , s k i l l s and knowledge o f t e a c h i n g l e t alo ne
th e a b i l i t y t o te a c h t e a c h e r s ?

Could i t be t h a t th e p r i n c i p a l t o o ,

has become and a d m i n i s t r a t o r f i r s t and forem os t and has f o r g o t t e n h is
or her origin?
L im iting t h e Scope o f th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n
I n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p i s an i d eal t h a t appe ar s to be one o f th e
f i r s t mentioned, most d i s c u s s e d , and l e a s t accomplished r o l e s o f t h e
elem en tary p r i n c i p a l .

M az za re lla r e p o r t e d t h a t , "No p a r t o f th e

p r i n c i p a l ' s r o l e i s debated with mor efe rvor than th e r o l e he o r she
D

must play in th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l program."

She c o n tin u e s by s a y in g ,

"One reason t h e p r i n c i p a l ' s r o l e i n th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l program i s
w r i t t e n about with so much f e r v o r i s t h a t most p r i n c i p a l s today have
q
almost no thin g a t a l l t o do w ith i n s t r u c t i o n . "
I n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p s k i l l s a r e th o s e t o o l s which th e p r i n c i p a l
o r s u p e r v i s o r uses to become in volved in t h e improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n
They i n c l u d e , ac cording t o Cawelti

10

:

Curriculum development - doing needs a s s e s s m e n t s , s e t t i n g g o a l s ,
s e l e c t i n g l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s ( m e t h o d s ) and c u r ric u lu m e v a l u a t i o n .
C l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n - engaging in no t h r e a t plannin g s e s s i o n s
with th e t e a c h e r s , developing o b s e r v a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , obser ving
i n s t r u c t i o n , and a p o s t - o b s e r v a t i o n a n a l y s i s o f th e t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g

M a z z a r e ll a , JoAnn, "The P r i n c i p a l ' s Role in I n s t r u c t i o n a l Planning
NAESP, School Le ad ership D i g e s t , No.
(Washington, D.C.; National
A s s o c i a t i o n o f Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s , 1976) p . 7.
q
l o c . c i t . , p . 17.
8

8

C a w e lti, Gordon, "Focusing I n s t r u c t i o n a l L ead er ship on Improved
S tu den t Achievement" 11 page Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Annual Meeting of
th e American A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s ( 1 1 2 th , Aneheim,
C a l i f o r n i a , February 15-18, 1980).
1 0

12

p r o c e s s . Various kinds o f s y s t e m a t i c cl as sr o o m o b s e r v a t i o n systems
may be u t i l i z e d .
S t a f f development — must be bas ed on what we know ab o u t how
a d u l t s l e a r n and on both p e r c e i v e d needs o f t e a c h e r s and g o a l s o f
t h e school and d i s t r i c t .
Te ac he r e v a l u a t i o n — bo th " f o r m a t i v e " and "summative" e v a l u a t i o n s
must o c c u r , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

Formative e v a l u a t i o n

r e f e r s t o t h o s e a t t e m p t s by a p r i n c i p a l o r s u p e r v i s o r t o improve
i n s t r u c t i o n a l s k i l l s o f t e a c h e r s ; summative e v a l u a t i o n i s t h e e v a l u a t i o n
t h a t o c c u r s in a judgemental and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e v e i n .
Focus o f This Study
While a l l a s p e c t s o f a p r i n c i p a l ' s r o l e in t h e improvement o f
i n s t r u c t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t t o s t u d y , i t i s u n r e a l i s t i c t o a t t e m p t to
a c h i e v e t h i s purp ose in one r e s e a r c h p a p e r .

Thus, t h i s r e s e a r c h w i l l

fo cu s on t h e e l e m e n ta r y p r i n c i p a l a s a c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r w h ile a l s o
c o n s i d e r i n g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e p r i n c i p a l t o s t a f f development
and f o r m a t i v e t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n as th e y a r e r e l a t e d t o a p r i n c i p a l ' s
involvement in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n o f t e a c h e r s .

The e x t e n t to

which a p r i n c i p a l i s in v o lv e d in t h e improvement o f c u r r i c u l u m , with
s t a f f development i s s u e s not r e l a t e d to cl as sr o o m t e a c h i n g improvement,
and t h e r o l e play ed by t h e p r i n c i p a l i n t h e summative e v a l u a t i o n o f
t e a c h e r s , a s w ell a s t h e numerous o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r o l e s which
a r e u s u a l l y d e s c r i p t i v e o f a p r i n c i p a l ' s t o t a l j o b d e s c r i p t i o n o r jo b
e x p e c t a t i o n w i l l n o t be i n c l u d e d f o r a t t e n t i o n w i t h i n t h e scope o f
t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n e x c e p t in t h o s e i n s t a n c e s where i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t e d

13

t o t h e s e t o p i c s w i l l bea r upon t h e primary focus.
S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h i s r e s e a r c h w i l l a tte m p t t o pr ovide some answers
t o th e f ollow in g q u e s t i o n s : Is c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n , f o rm a tiv e s t a f f
e v a l u a t i o n , and co rre spond ing s t a f f development p r a c t i c e s o c c u r r i n g in
Michigan elementary s chools?

Does t h e formal or informal t r a i n i n g o f

an elementary p r i n c i p a l d i c t a t e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e use o f
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n and o t h e r ty pe s o f s u p e r v i s i o n ?

Does t h e s i z e o f

th e school in terms o f s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t , th e number o f t e a c h e r s t o
be s u p e r v i s e d , th e s e x , a g e, t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e , t e n u r e in p o s i t i o n ,
number o f s ch ools t o a d m i n i s t e r , e x t r a te a c h i n g or a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , o r p e r c e p t i o n s o f autonomy b ear any s i g n i f i c a n c e t o
t h e r o l e th e elem entary school p r i n c i p a l performs o r would i d e a l l y
wish t o perform in r e g a rd s t o th e improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n ?

Does a

p r i n c i p a l ' s s en se o f e f f i c a c y s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l
leadership a c t i v i t i e s or a ttitu d e s ?

Do p r i n c i p a l s r e a l l y f e e l q u a l ­

i f i e d to a s s i s t t e a c h e r s in t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t e a c h i n g s k i l l s t h a t
w il l produce b e t t e r r e s u l t s f o r s t u d e n t s ?

What o b s t a c l e s , r e a l or

imagined, do p r i n c i p a l s e x p e r ie n c e t h a t a r e impediments t o t h e i r b e ­
coming more d i r e c t l y and e f f e c t i v e l y involved in th e classroom
t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g proce ss ?
S tatement o f t h e Problem
The problem to be i n v e s t i g a t e d in v o lv es th e p o s s i b l e lac k o f
c l i n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o r f o rm a t iv e s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s which may
occur i n Michigan ele men tary s c h o o l s , which in t u r n would r e f l e c t
n e g a t i v e l y on t h e r o l e o f th e ele men tary school p r i n c i p a l as an

14

instructional leader.

This s tu d y i s designed to i n v e s t i g a t e th e

p e r c e p t i o n s o f elementary school p r i n c i p a l s r e g a rd i n g c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s io n a c t i v i t i e s and t o compare t h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s to o t h e r
s e l e c t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s h i p . The f a c t o r s t o be
measured in t h i s study a r e t o be o b t a i n e d by means o f t h e I n s t r u c t ­
ional Leadership Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (ILQ) which was developed by th e
researcher.
S tatement of t h e Purpose
The r e s e a r c h e r ' s purpose in t h i s stu d y i s t o determ ine i f
p r i n c i p a l s o f elemen tary s c h o o ls p e r c e iv e themselves t o be s k i l l e d
in and r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s and t o d is c o v e r
to what e x t e n t elem en tary school p r i n c i p a l s d e s i r e t o improve t h e s e
supervisory s k i l l s .

C o n c u r r e n t l y , i t was a l s o deemed im port ant t h a t

an as se ssm en t be made o f how v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n a l f a c t o r s o f th e
p r i n c i p a l s h i p p o s s i b l y a f f e c t upon t h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s .
S p e c i f i c O b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s Study
The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s tu d y i s to c o l l e c t e m piri ca l data which
w i l l be usefu l in underst and in g th e p e r c e iv e d involvement in and
a t t i t u d e s towards s e l e c t e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p a c t i v i t i e s by
Michigan elem en tary school p r i n c i p a l s .

The s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s o f

t h i s s tu dy ar e to a s s e s s Michigan elem en tary school p r i n c i p a l s ' :
1.

Per ce ived c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y p r a c t i c e s and a t t i t u d e s ,

2.

P erceived s en se o f e f f i c a c y as r e l a t e d t o t h e i r p erceived
a t t i t u d e s , e x p e r t i s e , and p r a c t i c e s in s e l e c t e d s u p e r ­
visory a c t i v i t i e s ,

15

3.

P erceived s en se o f a u t h o r i t y as r e l a t e d to t h e i r perceived
a t t i t u d e s , e x p e r t i s e , and p r a c t i c e s i n s e l e c t e d
supervisory a c t i v i t i e s ,

4.

Age and sex f a c t o r s as r e l a t e d t o t h e i r p erceiv ed a t t i t u d e s ,
e x p e r t i s e , and p r a c t i c e s in s e l e c t e d s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s ,

5.

A d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as r e l a t e d t o t h e i r p er ceiv ed
a t t i t u d e s , e x p e r t i s e , and p r a c t i c e s in s e l e c t e d
supervisory a c t i v i t i e s .

6

.

7.

8

.

Formal and informal e d u c a t io n a l backgrounds in s u p e r v i s i o n
as r e l a t e d t o t h e i r p e r c e iv e d a t t i t u d e s , e x p e r t i s e , and
p r a c t i c e s in s e l e c t e d s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s ,
P r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e as r e l a t e d t o t h e i r p e r c e i v e d a t t i t u d e s ,
e x p e r t i s e , and p r a c t i c e s in s e l e c t e d s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s ,
P er ce ived s u p e r v i s o r y r o l e as r e l a t e d t o t h e i r perceived
a t t i t u d e s , e x p e r t i s e and p r a c t i c e s in s e l e c t e d s u p e r v i s o r y
activities.
Hypotheses

The f o llo w in g hypotheses have been f o rm u lated as a r e s u l t o f an
e x t e n s i v e review o f th e l i t e r a t u r e and a l s o t o f u l l y i n v e s t i g a t e
specific

th e

o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s tu d y ; t h e s e hypotheses may be found in

t h e i r t e s t a b l e f o r m a £ u m ‘. ha>t&r,atll:.
0

H,
1

Per ce iv ed a c t u a l e x p e r t i s e w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower th an
p e r c e i v e d id eal e x p e r t i s e s c o r e s in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n
a c t i v i t i e s , s i n g l y and c o l l e c t i v e l y .

H?

Female p r i n c i p a l s w i l l s c o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r than male
p r i n c i p a l s on p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .

H«

Female p r i n c i p a l s w i l l s c o re s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r than male
p r i n c i p a l s on p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
assumed.

H.

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
age and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .

He

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between age and p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
assumed.

16

Hg

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between th e number o f s ch oo ls s u p e r v is e d and p er ceiv ed
c lin ic a l supervisory ex p e rtise .
There w il l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t h e number o f s ch oo ls s u p e r v is e d and p e r c e i v e d
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

Hg

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between school e n r o llm e n t in schools s u p e r v is e d and p er ceiv ed
c lin ic a l supervisory e x p e rtise .

Hg

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t h e e n r o llm e n t in s c h o o ls s u p e r v i s e d and per ce ived
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed,

H-.Q Teaching e x p e r ie n c e o f p r i n c i p a l s w il l have no s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .
H,,

Teaching e x p e r i e n c e o f p r i n c i p a l s w il l have no s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed,

H

There w ill be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between number o f classroom t e a c h e r s u p e rv is e d and
p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .

H13

There W1^ be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between number o f classroom t e a c h e r s s u p e r v is e d and p er ceiv ed
c l i n i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

H,,

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t h e t o t a l number o f t e a c h e r s s u p e r v i s e d and
p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .

, 2

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between th e t o t a l number o f t e a c h e r s s u p e r v is e d and
p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y assumed.
H,g

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between d i s t r i c t s i z e and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
expertise.

H, t

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between d i s t r i c t s i z e and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

H,«

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
l o n g e v i t y as a p r i n c i p a l and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
expertise.

17
H,g

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
l o n g e v i t y as a p r i n c i p a l and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

H

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
e x t r a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p r i n c i p a l s and p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v is o r y e x p e r t i s e .

2

0

bL.

There w ill be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
e x t r a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p r i n c i p a l s and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

Hpn

The number o f formal t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n s r e q u i r e d w i l l equal
t h e number o f f o rm a tiv e t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n s performed.

H

The amount o f formal e d u c a tio n in s u p e r v i s i o n w i l l have no
s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
expertise.

2 3

H2 * The amount o f formal e d u c a ti o n in s u p e r v i s i o n w i l l have no
s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H2 c

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p
between s t a f f development in s u p e r v i s i o n and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l
supervisory e x p e rtise .

H

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p
between s t a f f development in s u p e r v i s i o n and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

H

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p e r c e iv e d sense o f a u t h o r i t y and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l
supervisory ex p e rtise .

H2p

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p
Between p e r c e i v e d sense o f a u t h o r i t y and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

Hpq

There w ill be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p e r c e iv e d s en se o f e f f i c a c y and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l
supervisory ex p ertise.

H,n

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p e r c e i v e d s en se o f e f f i c a c y and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

H-,

There w il l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between perceived r o l e as a c l i n i c i a n and p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l
supervisory e x p e rtise .

? 6

2 7

18

H3o There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p er ceiv ed r o l e as a c l i n i c i a n and p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H

3 3

There w ill be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between perceiv ed use o f t h e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n model and
perceived c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n e x p e r t i s e .

H3 - There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p er ceiv ed use o f th e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n model and
p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H

3 5

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t * d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p erceived c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e and per ce ived
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
Assumptions

The f oll ow ing assumptions were made when d e s ig n in g t h e proposed
study:
1.

I t i s assumed t h a t th e p e r c e p t i o n s o f elementary p r i n c i p a l s
can be a c c u r a t e l y measured.

2.

The in s tr u m e n t developed t o o b t a i n th e d a ta r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s
r e s e a r c h i s assumed t o be ad equate f o r t h i s purpose.

3.

I t i s assumed t h a t th e p a r t i c i p a n t s w i l l a c c u r a t e l y express
t h e i r t r u e f e e l i n g s about th e s i t u a t i o n being examined.

4.

I t i s assumed t h a t th e in fo r m a tio n given by t h e re sp ond en ts
w ill be f a c t u a l and a c c u r a t e .

5.

I t i s assumed t h a t t h e sample w i l l be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f
elem en ta ry p r i n c i p a l s i n Michigan, a p p r o p r i a t e l y s e l e c t e d ,
and adequate t o p er m it c o n c l u s io n s and i n f e r e n c e s f o r t h e
p o p u l a t io n from which i t is drawn.
C o n s tru c t io n o f t h e Q u e s tio n n a ir e

A t h r e e p a r t q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t i n g o f e i g h t y - o n e ite m s , u t i l i z i n g
twenty-one independent v a r i a b l e s and twenty dependent v a r i a b l e s , was
d r a f t e d t o g a t h e r t h e d e s i r e d in fo r m a tio n t h a t w i l l answer th e q u e s ti o n s
posed by th e s ta t e m e n t o f t h e problem.

19

I n d iv id u a l q u e s ti o n s were developed a f t e r an e x t e n s i v e reviewing
o f tex tb ooks on s u p e r v i s i o n and survey forms o f r e c e n t s t u d i e s
r e f l e c t i n g on th e elem en tary school p r i n c i p a l s h i p and e s p e c i a l l y t hose
se ek ing in fo r m a tio n r e l a t i v e to p e r s p e c t i v e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p
by elementary school p r i n c i p a l s .

Questions were developed a l s o from

th e r e s e a r c h e r ' s perso nal i n t e r e s t .
The i n s t r u m e n t c o n t a i n s f o u r types o f q u e s t i o n s ; q u e s t i o n s o f
(1) f a c t , (2) i n f o r m a t i o n , (3) s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n , and (4) op in io n .
Emphasis was place d on s t r u c t u r e d q u e s ti o n s t h a t p r e s e n t e d th e
resp ondents with f i x e d response items worded t o induce s i n g l e ch o ic e ,
o b j e c t i v e answers; f o rc e d ch oic e q u e s t i o n s a l s o f a c i l i t a t e data
ha ndling.
Concerns r e g a r d i n g th e c l a r i t y and v a l i d i t y o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e
were a s s e s s e d th ro ughout th e f o r m u la tio n s ta g e s o f t h e in s t r u m e n t .
Counsel and a review o f t h e t o t a l in s tr u m e n t procedure was o b tain ed
from t h e O f f ic e o f Research C o n s u l t a t i o n a t Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
In a d d i t i o n , a n a t i o n a l l y r ec og nized a u t h o r i t y in e d u c a ti o n a l r e s e a r c h ,
Dr. Herbert Rudman, e v a l u a te d t h e c l a r i t y , o r g a n i z a t i o n , and c o n t e n t
o f t h e procedural plan and survey form.

Face v a l i d i t y was o b tain ed

using adv ice from Mr. C l i f f Nelson and Mrs. Carol Cummings, n a t i o n ­
a l l y r ec ogn ized e x p e r t s i n c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .
A copy o f t h e survey in s tr u m e n t w i l l be found in t h e appendix
along with a l e t t e r from C l i f f Nelson.

20

P i l o t Study
A p i l o t stu d y to determine t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e
was conducted du rin g th e month o f Octo ber, 1981.
from Region

8

Fifteen p rin c ip a ls

o f t h e MEMSPA were asked to t e s t th e in s t r u m e n t on

two s e p a r a t e o c c a s i o n s , with two weeks o f s e p a r a t i o n between
adm inistration of the t e s t s .
phases o f t h e t e s t i n g .

th e

Ten p r i n c i p a l s a c t u a l l y completed both

The Pearson p r oduct moment c o r r e l a t i o n was

used t o determ ine th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t .

The q u e s t i o n ­

n a i r e demonstrated a r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f .96 on th e p o r t i o n o f
t h e in s tr u m e n t measuring p e r c e iv e d e x p e r t i s e .

The p e r c e iv e d r esp o n ­

s i b i l i t y s e c t i o n demonstrated o r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f .92.
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was deemed to be q u i t e r e l i a b l e f o r use in
t h i s s tu d y .
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s study a r e l i m i t e d by th e n e c e s s i t y to use
a q u e s t i o n n a i r e in o b t a i n i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y d a t a .

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e

p r e s e n t s p o t e n t i a l o b s t a c l e s t o t h e i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y o f t h e s tu d y .
For example, i t i s d i f f i c u l t to e s t a b l i s h a p r e c i s e measure o f t h e
r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e due to th e n o n - r e t u r n s .
In a d d i t i o n , even though every a s s u r a n c e o f anonymity was g i v e n ,
some resp onden ts may have f e l t t h r e a t e n e d by having to

provide

r es po nses t h a t could be c o n s tr u e d by them as being c r i t i c a l o f them­
s e lv e s, t h e i r schools, or t h e i r d i s t r i c t s .

21

V a r i a b l e s t h i s stu d y does n o t e x p l o r e o r ex p e c t t o have no
b e a r in g on the outcome i n c l u d e b u t a r e not l i m i t e d to :
The r o l e o f th e t e a c h e r ,
The r o l e o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ,
The s i z e o f t h e d i s t r i c t ,
The socio-economic level o f t h e s c h o o l,
The v a r i a b i l i t y o f study background,
The s e l f - c o n c e p t o f s t u d e n t s ,
Stu den t a t t i t u d e s towards th e e d u c a t io n a l p r o c e s s ,
Teacher a t t i t u d e s toward t h e e d u c a tio n a l p r o c e s s ,
Teachers s e n s e o f e f f i c a c y ,
Pupil-teacher r a tio s ,
Community i n t e r e s t in t h e s c h o o l,
Adult e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l ,
Total e x p e n d i t u r e o r p e r - p u p i l e x p e n d i t u r e ,
Preparation of teach ers,
S a l a r i e s o f t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,
School c l i m a t e .
D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e Study
This s tu d y i s in ten d ed t o an a ly z e t h e work a t t i t u d e s and o p i n i o n s
o f elem en tary school p r i n c i p a l s i n t h e S t a t e o f Michigan.

The study

i s c o nfined to a sample o f t h e membership o f th e Michigan Elementary
and Middle School P r i n c i p a l s A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e 1980-81 school y e a r .
I t i s f u r t h e r d e l i m i t e d to o n l y elem en tary p r i n c i p a l s from t h i s
organization.
MEMSPA i s a v o l u n t a r y group t h a t does c o n t a i n in membership t h e
m a j o r i t y o f t h e e s ti m a t e d 1800 Michigan e lem entary p r i n c i p a l s h i p s .
D e t r o i t p u b l i c school p r i n c i p a l s , however, a r e known t o hold few
memberships in MEMSPA.

Due to t h i s f a c t , t h e r e a d e r should e x e r c i s e

c a u t i o n when drawing study c o n c lu s io n s a b o u t a l l elem en tary school
p r i n c i p a l s in t h e s t a t e .

The i n f e r e n c e s from t h e stu d y should be

22

made only with r e g a rd s t o th e p r i n c i p a l s who comprised t h e p o p u l a t i o n
from which t h e sample i s drawn, a l th ough th e i n v e s t i g a t o r c o n s i d e r s
t h e MEMSPA ele men tary school p r i n c i p a l s to be g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f t h e t y p i c a l elemen tary school p r i n c i p a l in Michigan.
Immediately th e q u e s ti o n i s a s ked, "Why ex clude p r i n c i p a l s from
th e C i t y o f D e t r o i t ? "

I f t h e purpose o f t h e study is t o examine th e

i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p p r a c t i c e s o f t h e elem en tary p r i n c i p a l , then
D e t r o i t elementary school p r i n c i p a l s should be omitted because as a
group,

" t h a t i s not one o f th e

The r o l e o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l

r o l e s o f th e p r i n c i p a l in t h a t system.
l e a d e r i s d e l e g a te d t o an a s s i s t a n t

p r i n c i p a l o r d i r e c t o r o f c u r ric u lu m .
The resp o n s es on t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e a r e used only f o r comparison
purposes o f th e group as a whole.

No value s judgement o f t h e r es pon ses

as being e i t h e r bad o r good i s i n te n d e d .
Other l i m i t a t i o n s i n c l u d e :
1. The d a ta used in t h i s study i s t o be c o l l e c t e d from Michigan
elementary school p r i n c i p a l s . T h e r e f o r e , s p e c i f i c f i n d i n g s
w i l l be l i m i t e d t o t h i s p o p u l a t i o n .
2.

Data o b t a i n e d from t h i s s tu d y a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o Michigan and
p o s s i b l y o t h e r a r e a s o r s t a t e s i n th e United S t a t e s . However,
i f an a tte m p t i s made t o g e n e r a l i z e and extend th e f i n d i n g s
o f t h i s geo graphical a r e a t o o t h e r a r e a s w i t h o u t c o n s id e r i n g
s i m i l a r i t i e s i n s i t u a t i o n , a l i m i t a t i o n w i l l be p r e s e n t .

3. This stu d y i s l i m i t e d by th e n a t u r e o f t h e f o rc e d choice
questionnaire.
4. The degree o f c o o p e r a tiv e n e s s o f th e Michigan el em en tar y school
p rincipals co n stitu tes a lim ita tio n .

Nordstrom, P a t r i c i a A. , The Elementary School P r i n c i p a l as an
I n s t r u c t i o n a l L e a d e r , Unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f
Michigan, 19?8, p. 44

23

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e Study
To t h e e x t e n t t h a t s c h o o ls do make a d i f f e r e n c e in what and how
much c h i l d r e n l e a r n , i t can s a f e l y be argued t h a t t h e d i r e c t t e a c h i n g
p r o c e s s , t h a t which happens between t h e t e a c h e r and t h e s t u d e n t , i s
per haps t h e most c r i t i c a l a s p e c t o f t h i s p r o c e s s .

Kenneth E r i c k s o n ,

in h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a s tu d y o f cla ssr oom s u p e r v i s i o n summed up t h e
p l i g h t o f t h e cla s sr o o m t e a c h e r in t h i s manner:
"The a c t o f t e a c h i n g n o r m a lly i s a p r i v a t e a c t i v i t y in
t h a t i t u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s o f one t e a c h e r w i t h i n t h e w a l l s o f
one c l a s sr o o m . O p e r a t i n g o u t o f view o f t h e i r p e e r s , t e a c h e r s
t e n d t o be de nied a c c e s s t o fee db ac k which co uld h e lp them
d evelop i n t o t h e s k i l l e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s th e y wish t o be. As a
r e s u l t , each t e a c h e r ' s s t y l e u s u a l l y dev el ops w i t h o u t b e n e f i t
o f o b j e c t i v e d a t a which co uld f a c i l i t a t e b e t t e r d e c i s i o n s
ab out t e a c h i n g
.

" 1 2

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o d i s c o v e r t h e e x t e n t to which e l em en tar y
p r i n c i p a l s have begun t o use t h e t o o l s o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n , which
i s t h e o n l y s u p e r v i s o r y t e c h n i q u e t h i s r e s e a r c h e r has found t h a t has
shown s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n h e l p i n g t o change t h e h a b i t s o f
teachers.
A b r i e f explanation o f c l i n i c a l supervision is necessary.
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n c y c l e a s ad v o cate d by Cogan,

13

Goldhammer,

The
14

and o t h e r s i s based on t h e b e l i e f t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n can be improved
b e s t by g i v i n g d i r e c t f eed ba ck t o a t e a c h e r on a s p e c t s o f t e a c h i n g

1

?

H u l l , Ray and John Hansen, Classroom S u p e r v is i o n and
Informed A n a l y s is o f B e h a v io r : A Manual f o r S u p e r v is i o n
(Eugene, Oregon*, U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1970) ED 071161.
^
Cogan, M o r r i s , C l i n i c a l S u p e r v i s i o n , (B osto n, Mass.:
Houghton M i f f l i n , 1973).
1

^Goldhammer, R o b e r t, C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n
H o l t , R i n e h a r t and S i n s t o n , 1969).

(New York;

24

t h a t a r e o f concern t o t h e t e a c h e r r a t h e r than items on r a t i n g
s c a l e s o r items t h a t a r e p r i m a r i l y t h e concern o f t h e p r i n c i p a l
or supervisor.
This c y c l e begins w it h a p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n conf e re n c e durin g
which t h e t e a c h e r and p r i n c i p a l e s t a b l i s h r a p p o r t ( o r perhaps r e ­
e s t a b l i s h r a p p o r t ) , plan th e l e s s o n , o r i e n t themselves a b o u t th e
s t u d e n t s t h a t w i l l be in v o lv e d , and plan what methods o f o b s e r v a t i o n
w i l l be u t i l i z e d .
The n e x t s t e p in t h e i r proce ss r e s u l t s when th e l e s s o n s o r
segment o f i n s t r u c t i o n i s obs erved in th e agreed upon manner.

The

o b s e r v e r o f t e n w i l l w r i t e down verbatim as much o f th e classroom
d i a l o g u e as p o s s i b l e , o r o t h e r mechanical means t o r e c o rd th e
i n t e r a c t i o n may be used i n c l u d i n g video t a p e , t a p e r e c o r d e r , o r
systems such as F lan d er s I n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s .
Following t h e a c t u a l o b s e r v a t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e s u p e r v i s o r
then a n a ly s e s t h e e v e n t s t h a t oc c u r re d from t h e d a t a , u s u a l l y during
t h i s phase o f t h e proce ss th e s u p e r v i s o r works a lo n e w ith o u t t h e
te a c h e r's assistance.

The o b s e r v e r t h e n , a f t e r t h i s review o f t h e

d a t a , decides on and pla ns s t r a t e g i e s f o r p r e s e n t i n g t h i s i n fo r m a t io n
t o th e t e a c h e r .
The p o s t - o b s e r v a t i o n a l c onfere nc e th en occu rs between t e a c h e r
and p r i n c i p a l .

I t i s d u r in g t h i s c o n f e re n c e t h a t a c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s

i s made o f what o c c u r r e d .

This a n a l y s i s , most g e n e r a l l y i s a j o i n t

e f f o r t which in c l u d e s not only an e x p l a n a t i o n o f what o c c u r r e d , but
why c e r t a i n a c t i o n s o r r e a c t i o n s on t h e p a r t o f t h e t e a c h e r o r s t u d e n t s

25

ensued.

This a n a l y s i s then l e a d s t o t h e l i n k i n g pin l a s t phase o f

th e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n c y c l e .
The c r i t i q u e o r p o s t - c o n f e r e n c e a n a l y s i s s e s s i o n in v o lv e s a
c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f what could have been done o r could be done t o
improve t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s .

This i s where s t a f f

development, e i t h e r f o r a s i n g l e t e a c h e r o r a whole s t a f f , would
occ ur.

This i s u s u a l l y f o llo w e d , perhaps a t t h e same m ee ting,

by renewed plann ing or even a f u l l p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n c onfere nc e which
would h o p e f u l ly r e s u l t in e f f o r t s t o improve upon what has p r e v i o u s l y
o c c u r re d in t h e classr oom s e t t i n g .
Some have argued t h a t clas sr oo ms in s c h o o ls a r e soon to be
r e p l a c e d by more s c i e n t i f i c a l l y r a t i o n a l modes o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

But

such claim s have been made f o r s e v e ra l d ec ad es , a t l e a s t , b u t th e
classroom has been a remarkable p e r s i s t e n t way o f o r g a n i z i n g t e a c h i n g
and l e a r n i n g in s c h o o l s .

Moreover, a l t e r n a t i v e s to t h e classroom

have seldom demonstrated t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y and o f t e n fa d e back i n t o
con ve ntional classr oom forms w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t t i m e .

The

classroom as a c e n t e r o f l e a r n i n g a ppears i d e a l l y s u i t e d t o th e
i n s t i t u t i o n a l purposes and demands o f common s c h o o lin g and does
n o t appear to be f a d i n g o u t o f e x i s t e n c e .
The r o l e o f t h e e lem entary p r i n c i p a l as an i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r
has been "cussed" and d i s c u s s e d by many.

I t i s im p o r t a n t t h a t r e s e a r c h

d i s c o v e r by what means p r i n c i p a l s e x e r c i s e i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p ,
and perhaps even more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i f th ey do so a t a l l , a t l e a s t
where i t could make a d i f f e r e n c e .

26

In a d d i t i o n , t h i s study should be o f s i g n i f i c a n t val ue t o many
o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s and groups:
1.

I t could a s s i s t departments o f h i g h e r e d u c a ti o n in
developing cu rri cu lum f o r s u p e r v i s o r s o f t e a c h e r s ;

2.

The r e s u l t s should be u s e f u l as feedback f o r p r i n c i p a l s
and s u p e r v i s o r s ; i t should en ab le them t o compare t h e i r
p r a c t i c e s with t h e s ta n d a r d s d isc o v e re d t o e x i s t ;

3.

The r e s u l t s could pro vide in f o r m a t i o n o f val ue t o boards
o f e d u c a tio n and f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s who s u p e r v i s e
p rincipals;

4.

The r e s u l t s o f t h e study could prove v a l u a b l e t o o t h e r
a g e n c ie s and groups concerned with t h e work o f s u p e r v i s i o n
such as t h e Michigan Department o f Education and th e
Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n f o r S u p e r v is io n and Curriculum
Development.
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms

The f o llo w i n g s p e c i f i c meanings a r e used f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f
c e r t a i n t e c h n i c a l terms used in t h i s s t u d y .

Whenever p o s s i b l e ,

d e f i n i t i o n s were o b ta in e d from th e D i c t i o n a r y o f Educ ationa l Terms.

15

Other d e f i n i t i o n s s p e c i f i c a l l y used f o r terms o f t h i s study were
d e f in e d by th e r e s e a r c h e r a f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n and a review o f the
literature.
Elementary School

--

Any p u b l i c school which i s o rganized

t o in c lu d e any combination o f a m a j o r i t y o f grad es between k i n d e r g a r t e n
and grade s i x o r between p r e - k i n d e r g a r t e n t o grad e s i x .
C e r t i f i e d Teacher

—

Any person p o s s e s s i n g a v a l i d t e a c h i n g

c e r t i f i c a t e who i s engaged in th e t e a c h i n g o f e lem entary s t u d e n t s
w i t h i n a s c h o o l.
Classroom Teacher

—

Any c e r t i f i c a t e d t e a c h e r who p la n s and

^ G o o d , C a r t e r V. D i c t i o n a r y o f E d u c a t i o n , (New York:
McGraw H ill Book C o . , 1959).

27

guide s th e development o f t h e l e a r n i n g e x p e r ie n c e s o f p u p i l s in
clas sro om s i t u a t i o n s and i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e a c t i v i t i e s and
conduct o f p u p i l s in c l a s s s i t u a t i o n s .
I n s t r u c t i o n a l L e aders hip

—

The s e t o f a c t s o r beh av iors

des igne d t o gu id e and d i r e c t t e a c h e r s t o t h e f o r m u la t io n and
performance o f a d e s i r e d p r o f i c i e n c y o f i n s t r u c t i o n .
Elementary P r i n c i p a l

—

An a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and s u p e r v i s o r y

o f f i c e r charged by a l o c a l board o f e d u c a t io n f o r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
of an elem entary s c h o o l; u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o a s i n g l e school o r
a t t e n d a n c e a r e a ; may or may n o t engage in t e a c h i n g .
School Climate

—

The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l " p e r s o n a l i t y " o f a

s c h o o l; f i g u r a t i v e l y , " p e r s o n a l i t y " i s t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l what
" c li m a te " i s t o t h e s c h o o l.
S u p e r v is io n

--

The p r o c e ss o f a s s i s t i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l t e a c h e r s

improve t h e c o n t e n t , p r o c e s s e s , and outcomes o f t h e i r work.
Teacher E v a lu a tio n

—

An e s t i m a t e o f measure o f t h e q u a ! i t y

o f a p e r s o n ' s te a c h i n g based on one o r more c r i t e r i a such as pupil
achiev em en t, pupil a d j u s t m e n t , pupil b e h a v i o r , and t h e judgements o f
school o f f i c i a l s , p a r e n t s , p u p i l s , o t h e r t e a c h e r s o r t h e t e a c h e r
personally.
Teacher Change

—

Any change in a t e a c h e r ' s t h i n k i n g , u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,

o r p r o f e s s i o n a l b e h a v io r .
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n

—

P e r s o n - t o - p e r s o n s u p e r v i s i o n focused upon

th e improvement o f t h e classroom performance o f a t e a c h e r by way o f
o b s e r v a t i o n , a n a l y s i s and t r e a t m e n t o f t h a t performance.

28

General Supervis ion

—

All a c t i v i t i e s o f a s u p e r v i s o r y n a t u r e

i n c l u s i v e o f but not l i m i t e d t o i n - s e r v i c e programming, develop ing
and implementing c u r r i c u l a , o r i e n t a t i o n programs f o r new t e a c h e r s ,
improving s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r r e l a t i o n s , and t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n .
Summative E v a lu a ti o n s

—

Formal e v a l u a t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s used

f o r th e purpose o f co n t in u i n g o r d i s c o n t i n u i n g a t e a c h e r ' s t e n u r e ,
g r a n t i n g t e n u r e t o a t e a c h e r o r f o r use as a means t o f o r m a lly
comment a t e a c h e r o r award m e r i t pay.
Formative E va lu a tion

—

An informal e v a l u a t i o n used s o l e l y as a

means t o improve t e a c h i n g performance and promote t e a c h e r change.
Sense o f E f f i c a c y

—

The e x t e n t to which a p r i n c i p a l b e l i e v e s

t h a t th e school under h i s / h e r i n f l u e n c e can make a d i f f e r e n c e in what
children learn.
School Autonomy

—

The e x t e n t t o which a p r i n c i p a l can make

d e c i s i o n s ; a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , f i n a n c i a l o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l , which a f f e c t
th a t school.
P er ceived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e

—

Each r e s p o n d e n t ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f th e

degree t o which he o r she i s a c t u a l l y in volved in t h e performance o f
l i s t e d in stru c tio n a l leadership behaviors.
P er ce ived Ideal E x p e r t i s e

--

Each r e s p o n d e n t ' s p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e

degree t o which he o r she should be involved in t h e performance o f th e
l i s t e d in s tr u c tio n a l leadership behaviors.
ILQ

--

The in s t r u m e n t used by each surveyed e lem entary p r i n c i p a l

t o provide background i n f o r m a t i o n , d e s c r i b e t h e a c t u a l p e r c e p t i o n s o f
and id eal p e r c e p t i o n s f o r a s p e c t s o f t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p r o l e .

29

P r e -O bs erv a tion Conference - A meeting between th e t e a c h e r and
t h e s u p e r v i s o r during which t h e s u p e r v i s o r o b t a i n s in fo r m a tio n r e l a t i v e
t o th e i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t i s to be observed by th e s u p e r v i s o r .
Ob servation - The a c t u a l pr oce ss by which a s u p e r v i s o r an aly s es
th e classroom performance o f a t e a c h e r .
P ost- O b s erv ati o n Conference - The meeting between t e a c h e r and
s u p e r v i s o r t h a t oc cur s a f t e r th e s u p e r v i s o r has conducted an o b s e r v a t i o n
o f th e t e a c h e r ’ s classroom performance.
MEMSPA - The Michigan Elementary and Middle School P r i n c i p a l s
A s s o c i a t i o n , fo rm er ly known as t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f Elementary
School P r i n c i p a l s .
A d m i n is t r a ti o n o f th e Q u e s tio n n a ir e
In November, 1981, q u e s t i o n n a i r e s (ILQs) were mailed t o two hundred
a c t i n g elemen tary school p r i n c i p a l s holding membership in MEMSPA; t h e s e
two hundred p r i n c i p a l s were randomly s e l e c t e d .

A cover l e t t e r a p p e a l ­

ing to s e l f - i n t e r e s t and a l t r u i s m was in clu d ed with each q u e s t i o n ­
n a i r e , sig n ed by Dr. Howard Hickey, t h e spon so ring p r o f e s s o r o f t h e
r e s e a r c h e r , Mr. William Mays, e x e c u t i v e s e c r e t a r y o f MEMSPA and t h e
researcher.

(See Appendix)

A stamped s e l f - a d d r e s s e d r e t u r n envelope

was included f o r t h e r e s p o n d e n ts ' convenience.
A d e a d l i n e o f November 30, 1981 was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e r e t u r n
date.

A planned f o llow -up l e t t e r was n o t deemed t o be n e c e s s a r y due

t o an adequate i n i t i a l r es po nse.
For t h e purposes o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e us eab le r es po ns es

30

from t h e s urv ey ed p o p u la tio n *

1 0

0

o r more r e t u r n s was c o n s i d e r e d

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y e f f e c t i v e t o a c h i e v e t h e p u r p o se s o f t h i s s t u d y .
S t a t i s t i c a l P roc ed ur es
The Chi Square T e s t o f S t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e was e l e c t e d
to t e s t the hypothesis of t h i s study.

Chi Square was chosen due to

th e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e sample and because i t o f f e r s th ro ugh c r o s s
t a b u l a t i o n s an e f f e c t i v e means o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e r e s u l t s ,

Chi Square

w i l l d e te r m in e w hether s i g n i f i c a n t s y s t e m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t
between i n d ep en d en t and dep endent v a r i a b l e s .

C r am er 's V measures

th e s t r e n g t h o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a r i a b l e s .
S i g n i f i c a n c e was t e s t e d a t t h e ,05 l e v e l .

O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e Study
C hapte r II c o n s i s t s o f a s e l e c t e d rev iew o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e and
o f r e s e a r c h on i s s u e s c o n s i d e r e d r e l e v a n t
C ha pter I I I d e s c r i b e s t h e p r o c e d u re s

to t h i s s tu d y .
used in t h e s tu d y i n c l u d i n g

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f ( ) t h e p o p u l a t i o n , ( ) t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and
1

2

i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , and (3) t h e means t h a t were used to a n a l y z e t h e d a t a .
C hapter IV p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e d a t a
a n a l y s i s i n c l u d i n g t h e t e s t s o f h y p o th e s e s .
In C hapter V t h e s t u d y i s summarized

and t h e c o n c l u s i o n s

and recommendations d e r i v e d from t h e f i n d i n g s a r e

given.

CHAPTER I I
A SELECTED REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Foreward
Although t h e elem en tary p r i n c i p a l as an i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r has
been e x t e n s i v e l y d i s c u s s e d in p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l s , books, and a t
con f e re n c e s and has been th e s u b j e c t o f numerous r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s by
s c h o l a r s , few s t u d i e s or a r t i c l e s have c o n c e n t r a t e d on th e r o l e o f th e
p r i n c i p a l in h e lp in g t o d i r e c t l y improve th e t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s .
The l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t some e d u c a t o r s ap pea r u n c e r t a i n o f the
l e g i t i m a c y and i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l per forming i n s t r u c t i o n a l
leadership a c t i v i t i e s .

The m a j o r i t y o f a u t h o r s seem t o s h a r e th e

b e l i e f t h a t i t i s im p e r a tiv e t h a t t h e elem en tary p r i n c i p a l assume t h e
role of in stru c tio n a l leader.

However, t h e r e appe ar s to be a growing

m i n o r i t y t h a t b e l i e v e t h e r e a r e too many roadblocks to overcome f o r
th e p r i n c i p a l t o assume t h i s r o l e in any o t h e r but a fig urehood manner.
This c h a p t e r reviews p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e d e s c r i b i n g th e r o l e
o f t h e p r i n c i p a l as an i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r .

S e c ti o n A looks i n t o the

q u e s t i o n o f school e f f e c t s on l e a r n i n g with p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on
t h e p r i n c i p a l s ' involvement in t h e p r o d u c tio n o f t h e s e e f f e c t s .

Sec tion

B delve s i n t o th e proce ss o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement w ith emphasis on
th e r o l e p r i n c i p a l s can o r do assume in th e f o rm ativ e development o f
teachers.

Then, in S e c tio n C, an e f f o r t w i l l be made to review th e

background o f a s u p e r v i s o r y pr o c e ss c a l l e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n ; t h i s

31

32

a n a l y s i s seems e s p e c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e s i n c e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y methods
ap pe ar t o be th e only documented means a ppearing in r e s e a r c h t h a t have a
d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e impact on t e a c h e r development and s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g .
The f i n a l segment, S e c tio n D, w i l l look a t v a r io u s r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s and
o t h e r m a t e r i a l s r e l a t e d t o t h e c o n t e n t o f t h i s stu dy.
S e c ti o n A
The E f f e c t s o f School on Learning
and
The P r i n c i p a l ' s Impact on School E f f e c t s
The l a s t decade and o n e - h a l f has seen a r e v o l u t i o n in t h i n k i n g
about t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s c h o o l s .

During t h e eu phor ic e r a o f the

e a r l y 1960's i t was commonly b e l i e v e d t h a t through e f f o r t s such as
Head S t a r t and Elementary and Secondary Education Act o f 1965
s ch ools could accomplish t h e g r e a t s o c ia l change.
In 1966 James Coleman

s h a t t e r e d t h i s n a t i o n ' s f a i t h in s ch ools by

s t a t i n g t h a t home background was t h e major c o r r e l a t e o f s t u d e n t achievement
and when t h i s was c o n t r o l l e d ; s ch oo ls had l i t t l e e f f e c t .
t h e Classroom by Silberman

17

And C r i s i s in

concluded:

" I t might indeed be concluded from widely p u b l i c i z e d r e p o r t s
t h a t t h e s c h o o ls a r e p a t h o l o g i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h a t n e i t h e r
e d u c a t o r s nor r e s e a r c h workers know how t o cu re t h e i r problems
and i n c r e a s e t h e i r p r o d u c t i v i t y . "

1 fk

Coleman, James S . , e t . a l . , E q u a li t y o f Educationa l O pp ortun ity
(Washington, D.C.: U. S. O f f i c e o f E ducation, 1966)'.
17

Silberman , Charles E . , C r i s i s in t h e Classroom (New York:
Random House, 1970).

33

C h r i s t o p h e r Jenks

18

s t a t e d t h a t luck i s th e most i m p o rt a n t

d e te r m in a n t o f e d u c a t i o n a l and o ccu p atio n al a t t a i n m e n t and improvements
in s ch oo ls can not and do n o t i n c r e a s e t h e e d u c a t io n a l and s o c ia l
m o b i l i t y o f t h e poor.

Stevens

19

r e v e a l e d t h a t l e a r n i n g i s spontaneous

and t h a t m a t u r a ti o n a l f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l caus e l e a r n i n g
r e g a r d l e s s o f v a r i a t i o n s in th e l e a r n i n g environment.

Nichols r e p o r t e d

t h a t t h e p r e s t i g i o u s Rand Study im plied t h a t " i f a l l s c h o o ls a r e e q u a l l y
e f f e c t i v e but a r e not e q u a l l y expe ns iv e t h e pr uden t man might reach a
f a i r l y obvious c o n c l u s i o n . "

20

The eviden ce appeared t o be convincing

t h a t in th e United S t a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in i n t e l l i g e n c e and in school
achievement were determined l a r g e l y by e v e n t s o u t s i d e t h e c o n t r o l s o f
school s.
Then s tr o n g new evidence appeared which began to chip away a t th e
dismal r e p o r t s o f th e e a r l i e r r e s e a r c h e r s .

This new in fo r m a tio n s a i d

t h a t school e f f e c t s may or may not be l a r g e r e l a t i v e t o t h e e f f e c t s o f
o t h e r f a c t o r s , but they a r e not u n im p o rta n t , u n i n t e r e s t i n g or of l i t t l e
va lu e .

1R

J e n k s, C h r i s t o p h e r e t . a l . , I n e q u a l i t y : A Reassessment of th e
E f f e c t o f Family and Schooling in America Trrew~York: Basic BooFs, 1972).
19

S te v e n s , John M., The Process o f S c h o o l i n g : A Psychological
Examination (New York: H o lt, R in e h a r t and Winston, 1967)!
^ N ich o ls , Robert C., School E f f e c t s on Achievement {Paper p r e s e n t e d
as p a r t o f a symposium, Searching f o r School" E f f e c t s Through Conventional
M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a ly s is and Through th e Study o f School O u t l i e r s : American
Educational Research A s s o c i a t i o n Annual Meeting, San F r a n c i s c o ,
C a l i f o r n i a , April 22, 1976).
2

34

Wahl b e r g , e t . a l .

21

r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e i r r e s e a r c h showed t h a t mastery

l e a r n i n g demonstrated r e s u l t s c o n s i s t e n t l y s u p e r i o r t o conventional
i n s t r u c t i o n on achievement, r e t e n t i o n and a t t i t u d e s .

Also th ey found

t h a t programmed i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s had c o n s i s t e n t l y produced more
f a v o r a b l e r e s u l t s in producing h ig h e r achievement than did t r a d i t i o n a l
clas sroo ms.

They found in a d d i t i o n t h a t r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n and computor

a s s i s t e d i n s t r u c t i o n was about e q u a l l y as e f f e c t i v e a s t h a t found in normal
clas sroom s.
These a u th o r s at tem pte d a l s o t o look a t t e a c h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and p r a c t i c e s t h a t seemed t o make a d i f f e r e n c e in l e a r n i n g and concluded
that,
"These r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t achievement i s enhanced under t e a c h e r s
who a r e c l e a r about t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s , goals and methods f o r
l e a r n i n g ; who a r e f l e x i b l e in t h e i r r es po nses t o s t u d e n t s ; who show
enthusiasm f o r t h e le ss o n and f o r s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g ; who a r e b u s i n e s s l i k e
and t a s k o r i e n t e d ; who use s t u d e n t id eas in le a d in g th e l e s s o n ; who
a tte m p t t o e l i c i t answers to q u e s ti o n s by s t u d e n t s r a t h e r than t e l l
th e answers; who use s t r u c t u r i n g comments t h a t inform th e s t u d e n t o f
th e purpose and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e l e s s o n c o n t e n t ; and who avoid
e x c e s s iv e c r i t i c i s m
.

Nichols

" 2 2

r e p o r t e d t h a t a l a r g e New York Study r e v e a l e d t h a t t e a c h e r s '

e x p e r i e n c e , age , e d u catio n and s a l a r y were a l l r e l a t e d t o achievement
a f t e r i n p u t c o n t r o l s a t a high l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .

This f l i e s in t h e

f a c e o f th o s e who say t h a t no thing but background o f s t u d e n t s m a t t e r s in
learning.

^ W a h l b e r g , H er ber t J . , e t . a l . , "The Quiet Revolution in Educational
Research" Phi D el ta Kappan, 6 1 : 3 , November, 1979, p. 179-183.

22ibid
23

op.cit.

35

Perhaps Benjamin Bloom did more f o r e d u catio n than w ill be
a p p r e c i a t e d dur in g his l i f e t i m e .

A f t e r p r ovid in g e d u catio n with

t h e i n v a l u a b l e t o o l , th e Taxonomy o f Educational O b je c tiv e s

24

he

followed t h i s up with a Handbook on Formative and Summative
25
Eva lu ati on of Student Learning and then produced Human C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and School Learning

26

in which one d i s c o v e r s something Bloom r e f e r s

to as "Learning f o r M ast ery."

According t o Bloom, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a r e

e f f e c t i v e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t th e y h e lp t o ach iev e t h e primary goal o f
th e school which i s l e a r n i n g on t h e p a r t o f t h e p u p i l s .

Any o t h e r

i n d i c a t o r s such as economic e f f i c i e n c y , mora le, e t c . , a r e a t b e s t only
i n d i r e c t i n d i c a t o r s o f goal achievement.

At worst he b e l i e v e s th e

e f f o r t s to ach ie v e t h e s e secondary goals as though th ey were primary
can lead one in th e wrong d i r e c t i o n s .

The r a t i o n a l e f o r "Learning f o r

Mastery" i s based upon f i v e l e a r n i n g v a r i a b l e s which a r e :
1.

A p ti tu d e f o r p a r t i c u l a r kinds o f l e a r n i n g

2.

Q u a lit y o f i n s t r u c t i o n

3.

A b i l i t y t o und er sta nd i n s t r u c t i o n

4.

P e r ser v era n ce

5.

Time allowed f o r l e a r n i n g

^ B lo om , Benjamin S . , Toxonomy o f Educational O b j e c t i v e s , (New
York, Longman, 1956).
nc

Bloom, Benjamin S . , J . Thomas Hastings and George F. Madaus,
Handbook on Formative and Summative Ev alu ati on o f Stu den t L e a r n i n g ,
{New York, McGraw-Hill I n c . , 1971).
Bloom, Benjamin S . , Human C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and School Learning
(New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1976}.
2

6

36

According t o Bloom, any s t r a t e g y f o r l e a r n i n g must i n c l u d e some
way o f fo cu si ng on t h e s e f i v e v a r i a b l e s .

He b l u n t l y s t a t e s t h a t 95%

c f a l l s t u d e n t s can l e a r n th e b a s ic s k i l l s asked f o r by ou r s c h o o l,
and in doing so c h a lle n g e s t h e normal curve f o r l e a r n i n g .
In a n o th e r major s t u d y , Marcus, e t . a l .

27

found t h a t s u c c e ss fu l

el em en tar y s ch oo ls were s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r schools
in th e f o ll o w in g dimensions:
1.

The e x t e n t t o which t e a c h e r s p a r t i c i p a t e in p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s ,

2.

The amount and kind o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l s u p e r v i s io n and guidance
provided t o t e a c h e r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e e x t e n t t o which t e a c h e r s
a c c u r a t e l y p e r c e i v e t h e p r i n c i p a l s i n s t r u c t i o n a l norms,

3.

The e x t e n t t o which t h e long range o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e school
a r e shared by t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,

4.

The

amount o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l s upport provided to t e a c h e r s ,

5.

The

amount o f t e a c h e r s a t i s f a c t i o n .

Marcus, e t . a l , , a l s o found t h a t l e a d e r s h i p in scho ols tended t o
be r e l a t e d to achievement.

They found f o u r s i g n i f i c a n t a t t r i b u t e s o f

e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p f o r b e t t e r s c h o o ls :
1.

A d m i n i s t r a t o r s in b e t t e r s ch ools assumed more r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
fo r policy decisions,

2.

A d m i n i s t r a t o r s emphasized t h e importance o f s e l e c t i n g
b a s ic i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s ,

3.

A d m i n i s t r a t o r s assumed more r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e s e l e c t i o n
o f b a s ic i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s ; and

27

Marcus, Alf re d C., e t . a l . , A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Le adership From a
Sample of Successful Schools From th e National Eva !uation o f t h e
Emergency School A c t . (Santa Monica, C a l i f o r n i a : System Development
C o r p . , April 1976) p. 37,

37

4.

A d m i n i s t r a t o r s e f f e c t i v e l y communicated a p o i n t o f view
concerning t e a c h in g p r a c t i c e s . "We s u g g e s t t h i s p o i n t s to
a p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p in
s u c c e s s f u l s c h o o ls . A d m i n i s t r a t o r s who advance in
ed u c a tio n a l philoso phy in c o n c r e t e te r m s , who succeed
in communicating t h i s view and whose concern and energy
focus s h a r p l y on i n s t r u c t i o n a r e th o s e who a r e more l i k e l y
to manage s u c c e s s f u l s c h o o l s
. "

2

8

In an a r t i c l e in t h e National Elementary Principal^ Alan Newberry,
a S u p e r in te n d e n t o f s ch oo ls in Canada, r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f
s t u d i e s he reviewed showed t h a t c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p r i n c i p a l s
were t o t a l l y u n r e l a t e d t o b e t t e r s c h o o ls , th e y were f a c t o r s o f d r e s s ,
academic p r e p a r a t i o n , s e x , m a r i t a l s t a t u s , and l e n g t h o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
experience.

29

Newberry a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t c e r t a i n per so nal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
p r i n c i p a l s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o b e t t e r e d u c a ti o n and he
s p e c i f i c a l l y mentioned s i x : i n t e l l i g e n c e , group s k i l l s , s c h o l a r s h i p ,
mature judgement, good h e a l t h , and per so na l s e c u r i t y .

Newberry

r e v e a l e d s e v e r a l such p r o f e s s i o n a l s k i l l s r e l a t e d t o s uc ce ss as a
p r i n c i p a l : human r e l a t i o n s s k i l l s , communication s k i l l s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s , d e c i s i o n making s k i l l s , r e s e a r c h s k i l l s , c urri culum
development s k i l l s and change s t r a t e g y s k i l l s .

This d e s c r i p t i o n o f

s k i l l s , however, was not well enough d e f i n e d as t o pro v id e p r a c t i c a l
a s s i s t a n c e t o t h o s e wishing to a c q u i r e s u p e r i o r e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s
fo r schools.

28
on

l o c . c i t . p. 15.

Newberry, Alan J . H . , "What Not to Look f o r in an Elementary
School P r i n c i p a l " , National Elementary P r i n c i p a l , 56:04 March/April
1977, p. 241-44. p. 42.

38

Jane G o l d s te in

30

i n v e s t i g a t e d c e r t a i n te a c h i n g behav iors t h a t

might be r e l a t e d to s t u d e n t achievement and d isc o v e re d t h a t :
1.

Teachers with a u t h o r i t a r i a n management be hav ior were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y and n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o s t u d e n t beh avior.

2.

Teachers who e x e r c i s e d e f f e c t i v e group proce ss s k i l l s as
a management tech n iq u e had a d i r e c t and s i g n i f i c a n t l y
p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p to s tu d e n t s on t a s k b e h a v io r .

3.

Teachers with a p er m is siv e management s t y l e were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d in a n e g a t i v e manner t o s t u d e n t
on t a s k b e h a v io r .

David B e r l i n e r and William T ik uno ff

31

e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d ten

e f f e c t i v e te a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s and s i x i n e f f e c t i v e p r a c t i c e s t h a t were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g in r eading and mathematics.
E f f e c t i v e Teacher Behaviors
1.

Teacher r e a c t s c o n s t r u c t i v e l y ( o v e r t , v e r b a l , no nve rb al) to
s t u d e n t ' s f e e l i n g s and a t t i t u d e s .

2.

Teacher l i s t e n s a c t i v e l y t o what a s t u d e n t i s s a y i n g , r eading
reciting.

3.

Teacher g i v e s a d i r e c t i o n o r a t h r e a t and fo llo w through with
it.

4.

Teacher seems c o n f i d e n t in t e a c h i n g a given s u b j e c t and
demon strates a g r a s p o f i t .

5.

Teacher checks on s t u d e n t s p r o g r e s s r e g u l a r l y and a d j u s t s
in s tr u c tio n accordingly.

6.

Teacher e x p r e s s e s p o s i t i v e , p l e a s a n t , o p t i m i s t i c a t t i t u d e s
and f e e l i n g s .

G o l d s t e i n , Jane M., Managerial Behavior o f Elementary School
Teachers and S tu den ts on Task Be havio r, UnpublisHed Ed.C. D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Houston, 1978, 153p.
31B e r l i n e r , David and William T i k u n o f f , "The C a l i f o r n i a Beginning
Teacher E v a lu a ti o n Study: Overview o f th e Ethnographic Study", Journal
o f Teacher Education 27 (1976) p. 24-30.

39

7.

T eac her seems t o p e r c e i v e l e a r n i n g r a t e o f s t u d e n t s and
a d j u s t s t e a c h e r pace a c c o r d i n g l y .

8.

T eac her en co urag es s t u d e n t s t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r
own clas sw ork .

9.

T eac her c a p i t a l i z e s i n s t r u c t i o n a l l y on unexpe cted i n c i d e n t s
t h a t a r i s e d u r i n g c l a s s ti m e .

10.

Teacher p r e p a r e s s t u d e n t s f o r l e s s o n by r e v i e w i n g , o u t l i n t n g ,
e x p l a i n i n g o b j e c t i v e s , and summarizing.
I n e f f e c t i v e T eac her Behaviors

1.

T eac her s w i tc h e s a b r u p t l y , e . g . from i n s t r u c t i o n to
cl as sr oom management.

2.

Teacher b e r a t e s c h i l d in f r o n t o f o t h e r s .

3.

Teacher f i l l s "empty" time p e r i o d s w i t h "busywork."

4.

T eac her makes a s t a t e m e n t whose consequences would be
rid ic u lo u s i f c a r rie d out.

5.

Teacher o f t e n t r e a t s whole group as "one" in o r d e r t o
maintain peer c o n tro l.

6.

T eac her c a l l s a t t e n t i o n t o s e l f f o r no a p p a r e n t i n s t r u c t i o n a l
pu rpose .
In a look a t how t r a d i t i o n a l methods o f t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n s r e l a t e

t o improving s t u d e n t ach iev em en t, Medley

32

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was

l i t t l e , i f a n y , r e l a t i o n s h i p between r a t i n g s o f t e a c h e r ' s e f f e c t i v e n e s s
and measures o f pupil g a i n s .
Kounin

i d e n t i f i e d f o u r i n t e r r e l a t e d c l u s t e r s o f management

Medley, Donald M., "Closing t h e Gap Between Research in Te acher
E f f e c t i v e n e s s and t h e Teacher Ed uc ation Curriculum" J o u r n a l o f Research
and Development in E d u c a t io n , 7 ( F a l l 1973) p. 39-46.
33
Kounin, J . S . , D i s c i p l i n e and Group Management in C las sr o o m s ,
{New York: Holt R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1970T

40

s t r a t e g i e s t h a t seem e s p e c i a l l y tuned to environmental demands o f
classrooms:
1.

" W i th i tn e ss o r awareness of classroom e v e n t s , and
communication o f t h i s awareness t o s t u d e n t s ,

2.

Ov erlap , o r th e a b i l i t y t o handle two o r more e v e n t s a t
the same ti m e,

3.

Group f o c u s , o r t h e a b i l i t y t o i nvolve as many s t u d e n t s
as p o s s i b l e in each a c t i v i t y ,

4.

Movement management, o r th e a b i l i t y t o provide pace,
v a r i e t y and smooth t r a n s i t i o n between a c t i v i t i e s .

Kounin found t h a t t e a c h e r s who use t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s tended t o
have h ig h e r l e v e l s o f work involvement among s t u d e n t s , which in t u r n
was r e l a t e d very c l o s e l y w it h e d u c a t io n a l p r o d u ct.
Speaking a t a n a t i o n a l convention f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and o t h e r
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , Gordon Cawelti

34

s t a t e d t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e le a d e r

beh av ior enhances s t u d e n t achievement.

He r e f e r r e d t o em pirica l

s t u d i e s which s h o u ld , he b e l i e v e s , compel c l o s e a t t e n t i o n to s t a f f
development a c t i v i t y and u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g programs.
According t o C a w e lti, a p p r o p r i a t e l e a d e r behavior (mixing concern
f o r go als and people) which uses t h e e x i s t i n g proce ss s k i l l s o f
i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement (c u rr ic u lu m p l a n n i n g , c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n ,
s t a f f development, t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n ) must focus on th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f e f f e c t i v e te a c h i n g i f improved achievement i s t o r e s u l t .

34C a w e l ti , Gordon, Focusing I n s t r u c t i o n a l Leadership on Improved
S tu den t Achievement 11 p. paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Annual Meeting o f t h e
American A s s o c ia tio n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s (112th Anaheim, C a l i f o r n i a
February 15-18, 1980).

41

Cawelti s t a t e s t h a t t o d a y ' s i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r must p o s s e s s
s k i l l s in f o u r a r e a s which a r e p r o c e s s s k i l l s — t h e s e a r e t h e t o o l s
th e p r i n c i p a l must use t o become i n v o l v e d i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l

improvement.

Curriculum Development — Doing needs a s s e s s m e n t s , s e t t i n g g o a l s ,
s e l e c t i n g c o n t e n t and l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s (methods) and c u r r i c u l u m
e v a l u a t i o n . Knowledge o f change s t r a t e g i e s i n c l u d i n g e f f e c t i v e
group p a r t i c i p a t i n g and l o n g - r a n g e p la n n in g s k i l l s a r e e s s e n t i a l .
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n — Engaging in a n o - t h r e a t pla n n in g
s e s s i o n w it h t h e t e a c h e r s , d e v e lo p in g an o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y ,
o b s e r v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n , and c o o r d i n a t i n g a p o s t - o b s e r v a t i o n a l
analysis of the teach in g -learn in g process.
S t a f f Development — I t must be based on what i s known about
how a d u l t s l e a r n and on both p e r c e i v e d needs o f t e a c h e r s and
goals o f the le a d e r
Teacher E v a lu a ti o n — Most People cont en d t h a t t h e prim ar y
purpose o f t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n must be f o r improvement r a t h e r than
t e r m i n a t i o n , and t h a t i s as i t should be in most i n s t a n c e s . Good
t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e d u re s should f oc us on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g t h a t a r e drawn from r e s e a r c h and e x p e r i e n c e
and minimize a t t e n t i o n to long l i s t s o f f a c t o r s u n r e l a t e d t o
s u c c e s s in t h e cla s sr o o m .
"The e v i d e n c e on how much time p r i n c i p a l s spend on t h e i r
p r o c e s s s k i l l s now i s grim — v e r y t y p i c a l l y in t h e a r e a o f 10 t o
20% o f t h e t o t a l working h o u r s. B e t t e r tim e management i s
e s s e n t i a l and c e n t r a l o f f i c e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s must dev elop a
committment t o h e lp re duc e t h e paperwork and " a d m i n i s t r i v i a "
35
which d e t e r s p r i n c i p a l s from p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p . "
(Note t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f number o f p e r so n s s u p e r v i s e d i s not
even d i s c u s s e d . )
Young

in d icates th a t a f t e r the i n i t i a l in serv ice sessions,

t h e r e must be f o ll o w - u p e x p e r i e n c e s a f f o r d i n g t e a c h e r s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y

35

C a w e l t i , l o c , c i t . p. 12.

36Young, B e t t y S . , " P r i n c i p a l s Can Be Promoters o f Teaching
E f f e c t i v e n e s s . " T h r u s t f o r E d u c a tio n a l L e a d e r s h i p (March, 1980}
p. 11-12.

42

f o r feedback on t h e i r t e a c h i n g and coaching f o r improvement.
This a u t h o r urges use o f t h e TIME Model:
T - - Theory - - base t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n on some t e s t e d th e o r y o r
c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n t h a t i s o f proved m e r i t — avoid cookbook
approaches.
I - - I n s t r u c t i o n and I n t e r a c t i o n - - g iv e t r a i n e e s p l e n t y o f time
t o d i s c u s s , r a i s e q u e s t i o n s , c r i t i q u e and s hare e x p e r i e n c e s .
M - - Modeling - - show t h e t r a i n e e t h e beh av ior being s o u g h t, use
l i v e c l a s s e s , r eal p e o p le , and video t a p e o r f i l m s .
E - - Enactment — compels th e t r a i n e e to a c t u a l l y do th e kind o f
t e a c h i n g , s u p e r v i s i o n , e v a l u a t i o n , e t c . , you a r e t r y i n g to
teac h them.
In r e c e n t y e a r s s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s have c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r
e f f o r t s on hel pi ng t e a c h e r s f i n d ways t o improve th e b a s ic s k i l l s
o f t h e ir students.

Teacher e f f e c t i v e n e s s r e s e a r c h focuse s on

i n d iv id u a l t e a c h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in examining th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to varying l e v e l s o f s t u d e n t achievement.
The " e f f e c t s o f sch o o lin q " r e s e a r c h looks a t t h e classr oom o r school
as t h e foca l p o i n t in making a d i f f e r e n c e in s t u d e n t achievement.
And f i n a l l y some very u s efu l r e s e a r c h i s now emerging from s t u d i e s o f
t h e psychology o f l e a r n i n g .
Following i s a co m pilation by Cawelti o f t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f t e a c h e r s , classr oom and schools which most c o n s i s t e n t l y ap pe ar to
have a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o e f f e c t i v e te a c h in g o r high achieving'/
s chools :
1.

Teachers have high e x p e c t a t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s ,

2.

There i s more f re que nit monitori ng o f s t u d e n t p r o g r e s s , and
t e a c h e r s a c t u a l l y a s s u r e s t u d e n t a t t e n t i o n by using te ch n iq u es
to a s s u r e a l l s tu d e n t s respond t o q u e s t i o n i n g .

43

3.

Teachers a r e a b l e to r o u t i n i z e classr oom management t a s k s ;
th e y have a " b u s i n e s s l i k e " o r t a s k - o r i e n t e d beh av ior but a r e
not r e p r e s s i v e .

4.

Studen ts spend adequate time on t a s k in b a s ic s k i l l i n s t r u c t i o n
and p r o v is i o n i s made f o r c o r r e c t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n .

5.

S tude nts have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to l e a r n c r i t e r i o n m a t e r i a l s ;
th ey a r e t a u g h t t h a t m a t e r i a l upon which th ey a r e t o be
tested.

6.

There i s an a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y o f m a t e r i a l s ;
i f i t i s too d i f f i c u l t , t e a c h e r s must spend too much time
explaining.

7.

There i s a s t r o n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r in t h e b u i l d i n g who
i s s u p p o r t i v e o f t e a c h e r s and r e s p o n s iv e t o t h e i r needs.

8.

There i s a f a v o r a b l e c l i m a t e f o r l e a r n i n g with t e a c h e r s
using p r a i s e in moderation and holding a p o s i t i v e r eg ar d
f o r s t u d e n t s and t h e p r i n c i p a l ; e f f o r t s a r e made to e s t a b l i s h
f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s towards t h e s u b j e c t .

These a r e a l l f a c t o r s under t h e c o n tr o l o f th e s c h o o l.

There

a r e o f cour se o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t ap pea r to i n f l u e n c e achievement
p o s i t i v e l y , but they a r e n o t under th e d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s ch o o l.
Included would be c l a s s s i z e , p a r e n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n , e a r l y childhood
e d u c a t i o n , and of c o u r s e , s ocio economic s t a t u s .

However, th e e i g h t

f a c t o r s l i s t e d have had t h e most c o n s i s t e n t r e s e a r c h s u p p o r t to d a t e
in r e g a r d s to th o s e t h i n g s o v e r which t h e school can e x e r t some c o n t r o l .
A critical

i s s u e which immediately a r i s e s i s whether o r not t h e s e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e amenable t o improvement.

37

According t o Kerman,

38

C a w e lti, o p . c i t . , p. 11.

OO

Kerman, Sam, "Teacher E x p e c ta tio n s and S tu d e n t Achievement",
Phi D elta Kappan, 60 (June 1979) p. 716-718.

44

Brophy and Evertson
classr oom s k i l l s .

39

t e a c h e r s can be t r a i n e d o r r e t r a i n e d t o improve

This r e s e a r c h i s i m p o rta n t in t h a t i t shows t h a t

simply being aware o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f good t e a c h e r s and scho ols
i s n o t enough — i t i s only a s t a r t .

C l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n and p r o f e s s i o n a l

development a r e e q u a lly as im p o r t a n t .
Cawelti d e s c r i b e s e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s as th o s e who most c o n s i s t e n t l y
a r e a b l e to apply t h e r i g h t mix o f concern f o r g o a l s and people - "They know when one o r th e o t h e r kind o f b e h a v io r , o r b o t h , i s needed."
Perhaps th e most im port ant o f th e many im port ant p o i n t s made
by Cawelti i s t h a t t h e weight o f evidence p o i n t s h e a v i l y to t h e f a c t
t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement i s a f u n c t io n o f the school b u ild i n g
lev el and cannot be accomplished a t t h e system level o r i n d i v i d u a l
level.
The ideas o f Cawelti a r e sh ared almost com pletely by F i e d l e r ,
Hersey, and Blanchard.

41

42

^ B r o p h y , J e r e E. and Carolyn E v e r ts o n , " P ro c e s s -P r o d u c t
C o r r e l a t i o n in th e Texas Teacher E f f e c t i v e n e s s Study: Final Report"
Aus tin Texas: U n i v e r s i t y of Texas, 1974.
40

C a w e l t i , Gordon, o p . c i t . , p. 3.

^ F i e l d e r , F red , A Theory o f Leader E f f e c t i v e n e s s (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co ., 1967).
Hersey, Paul and Kenneth Blanchard, Management o f O r g an izatio n al
Behavior: U t i l i z i n g Human Re so urc es, Th ird E d i t i o n . (Englewood C l i f f s ,
New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e H a l l , 1977).

40

45

"Although t h e p r i n c i p a l r e l i e s on t e a c h e r s t o tea ch a program
and draws on c o n s u l t a n t s f o r s p e c i a l needs, i t i s t h e p r i n c i p a l who
43
must make programs work." says Sandra S c o f i e l d .
Across a number o f s t u d i e s in t h i s decade t h a t looked a t
s u c c e ss fu l schools and compared them t o th e l e s s s u c c e s s f u l , a
composite p i c t u r e has emerged t h a t i s worth c o n s i d e r i n g .

The elements

t h a t seem to make a d i f f e r e n c e fo llo w :
1.

Heading s u c c e s s f u l programs a r e STRONG PRINCIPALS: l e a d e r s

wi th c l e a r p o i n t s o f view ab out schooli ng and i n s t r u c t i o n ; le a d e r s
with s tr o n g commitments t o r ea din g and high e x p e c t a t i o n s o f s t a f f s .
2.

HIGH EXPECTATIONS o f c h i l d r e n mark s u c c e s s .

Even in i n t e r ­

c i t y schoo ls t e a c h e r s who avoided p e s s i m i s t i c views o f c h i l d r e n and who
conveyed optimism and firm e x p e c t a t i o n s o f achievement g e t achievement.
3.
high.

In s chools where c h i l d r e n achiev ed STAFF MORALE was g e n e r a l l y
Teachers and p r i n c i p a l s saw themselves as invo lved in a common

missio n and fu n c tio n e d as a team*
4.

Suc ce ssfu l s ch oo ls were ORDERLY w it h o u t being r e p r e s s i v e .

I t i s becoming p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e a t l e a s t some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f e f f e c t i v e t e a c h e r s o f b a s i c s k i l l s — perhaps not w i t h o u t r e s e r v a t i o n ,
b u t well enough t o s uggest g u i d e l i n e s and provoke d i s c u s s i o n .

^ 3Scofie ld » Sandra " P r i n c i p a l s Make a D i f f e r e n c e : The Role They
Play in Q u a l i t y Reading Programs" OSSC B u l l e t i n , Vol. 22, No. 10, 1979.

46

The more e f f e c t i v e t e a c h e r (1) spends more time i n s t r u c t i n g
s t u d e n t s ; (2) uses be hav ior management te c h n iq u e s e f f e c t i v e l y ; (3)
uses o v e r t , a c t i v e respons es and provide s ample feedback on r e s p o n s e s ;
(4) moves from prompted t o unprompted l e a r n i n g , moving c h i l d r e n to
independent p r a c t i c e only when th e y have ac hie ved minimal mastery o f a
s k i l l ; (5) ex p e c ts mastery with r a t e as well as accuracy as a c r i t e r i o n ;
and (6) i s very well o r g a n iz e d .
Mastery l e a r n i n g i s r e l a t e d t o t h e e f f e c t i v e t e a c h e r s t u d i e s
d e s c r i b e d above in a t l e a s t two a s p e c t s : (1) i t assumes t h a t a l l c h i l d r e n
w i l l be t a u g h t t o c r i t e r i o n r a t h e r than le a v i n g some behind and (2) i t
assumes t h a t a l l c h i l d r e n should m a s te r b a s ic s k i l l s and t h e r e f o r e must
be given s u f f i c i e n t i n s t r u c t i o n to do so .
Among t h e musts f o r a p r i n r i p a l in accomplishing t h e goal of a
s u c c e s s f u l s ch o o l, th e p r i n c i p a l i s a SUPERVISOR in t h e cl assroom; as
primary s u p e r v i s o r i n th e b u i l d i n g , t h e p r i n c i p a l i s aware of the
a c t i v i t i e s o f a l l s upport personnel such as c o n s u l t a n t s , remedial
t e a c h e r s , a i d e s , and th e l i k e .

I t i s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e p r i n c i p a l

t o a s s u r e c o n t i n u i t y and c o n s i s t e n c y .
Drawing on knowledge o f e f f e c t i v e p r a c t i c e s th e p r i n c i p a l as
s u p e r v i s o r , can focus classroom o b s e r v a t i o n s on d e s ir e d b e h a v i o r s .
D e t a i l e d p o s i t i v e d i s c u s s i o n o f s p e c i f i c s k i l l s can pay o f f in b e t t e r
teaching.

47

Good p r i n c i p a l s observe th e f o llo w in g :
1.

Is th e t e a c h e r using th e program?

I f n o t , i f t h e t e a c h e r has

v a r i e d t h e p l a n , t h e p r i n c i p a l needs t o know and a g r e e with t h e re a s o n .
2.

Is t h e o b j e c t i v e o f each segment o f t h e l e s s o n c l e a r ?

The

t e a c h e r should be a b l e to a r t i c u l a t e th e o b j e c t i v e and e x p l a i n o r
demonstrate t h a t m a t e r i a l s have been o r ganiz ed t o c o r r e l a t e with t h e
objective.

She/he should a l s o convey c l e a r l y to th e s t u d e n t s t h e

o b j e c t i v e s o f th e t a s k th ey a r e a bout.
3.

Are t r a n s i t i o n s from o b j e c t i v e t o o b j e c t i v e and from group t o

group smooth and o r d e r l y ?
4.

Is th e t e a c h e r e n t h u s i a s t i c ?

a t a good pace?

Responsive?

Does s h e /h e move

Does s h e /h e pro vide feedback t h a t i s focused on a

s p e c i f i c s k i l l o r process?
5.

Does seatwork r e i n f o r c e s k i l l s p r e v i o u s l y ta u g h t?

s k i l l s been s u f f i c i e n t l y p r a c t i c e d under d i r e c t s u p e r v i s io n ?

Have
Are

t h e r e arrangements f o r checking seatwork and f o r g e t t i n g feedback?
Are t h e r e o p tio n s f o r c h i l d r e n who f i n i s h e a r l y ?
6.
to read?

Are supplementary m a t e r i a l s a v a i l a b l e ?

Does anyone choose

Is t h e r e a chance in t h e day t o t a l k about r ea di ng ?

Does

the t e a c h e r ev e r read t o t h e c h i l d r e n ?
Donald Burns concluded t h a t
" t e a c h e r s in high a c h i e v in g d i s t r i c t s f e e l t h a t t h e i r morale
o r s o c i a l e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e being more s a t i s f i e d and th ey have a
b e t t e r sense o f accomplishment than t e a c h e r s in low a ch iev in g
d i s t r i c t s . One can el ude t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l s of th e low

48

a c h ie v in g d i s t r i c t s o p e r a t e more on t h e b a s i s o f r u l e s o r p o l i c i e s
and tend to avoid t h e f a c e - t o - f a c e s i t u a t i o n s , w h il e a t t h e same
time pro vid ing c l o s e r s u p e r v i s i o n and a r e l e s s s e n s i t i v e t o s t a f f
f e e l i n g s and a t t i t u d e s than p r i n c i p a l s o f th e high a ch iev in g
d i s t r i c t s . “44
In looking a t t h e f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t e a c h e r s Burns found t h a t
t e a c h e r s o f high a c h ie v in g d i s t r i c t s were:
1.

more c o n s i d e r a t e o f p u p i l s ,

2.

had t h r e e y e a r s o f t e a c h in g e x p e r ie n c e {f iv e o r more was
found t o be n o t i m p o r t a n t ) ,

3.

had l e s s t u r n o v e r ,

4.

l i v e d in t h e d i s t r i c t ,

5.

a t t i t u d e s towards s t u d e n t s , school and community was b e t t e r ,

6.

j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n was b e t t e r .

Looking a t t h e p r i n c i p a l s , Burns concluded t h a t p u p i l s i n high
achievin g d i s t r i c t s had p r i n c i p a l s who l i k e d t h e i r j o b s .
F a c t o r s r e l a t e d to s t u d e n t s in high a c h i e v i n g d i s t r i c t s :
1.

t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s and e x p e c t a t i o n s were h i g h e r ,

2.

f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n a l s t a t u s was h i g h e r ,

3.

a t t i t u d e s toward school and e d u c a tio n were b e t t e r ,

4.

f e e l i n g s about themselves and school were b e t t e r ,

5.

t h e i r voca bu lary was g r e a t e r .

In t h e low a c h ie v in g d i s t r i c t s s t u d e n t s d i d n ' t f e e l t h a t t h e i r
t e a c h e r s l i k e d them o r helped them l e a r n , and t h a t t h e i r t e a c h e r s had
a poor a t t i t u d e toward them, t h e school and t h e community

^ B u r n s , Donald W., "An I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f S e l e c t e d F a c t o r s That May
I n f l u e n c e Pupil Achievement in Michigan Schools" {Unpublished Ph.D,
D i s s e r t a t i o n , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1972).

49

The only f a c t o r r e l a t e d t o t h e s cho ols in high a c h ie v i n g d i s t r i c t s
was t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n c l i m a t e .
The only f a c t o r in v o lv i n g school f in a n c e which seemed to be
d i f f e r e n t between high and low a c h ie v in g d i s t r i c t s was th e ta x s uppo rt
shown f o r o p e r a t i o n and bonding programs.
As e a r l y as 1963 Keeler and Andrews found t h a t l e a d e r beh av ior of
p r i n c i p a l s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o t e s t achievement o f s t u d e n t s .
They s t a t e d :
"All o f t h e s t a t i s t i c s g iv e s tr o n g s u p p o r t t o the h y pothesis
t h a t l e a d e r be h a v io r o f t h e p r i n c i p a l as p e r c e iv e d by h i s s t a f f ,
was s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to th e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s ch ools . . .
The weight o f evidence su pp ort ed t h e h y p o th e s is t h a t t h e morale
o f t h e s t a f f o f a school . . . was r e l a t e d t o p r o d u c t i v i t y ! "
A

S up po rting t h i s theme was Heichberger and Young

Cl

who r e p o r t e d

t h a t in t h i s survey o f t e a c h e r s in s e l e c t e d r u r a l and suburban New York
el em en tar y s c h o o l s , 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e t e a c h e r s s a i d t h a t t h e most
e f f e c t i v e way a s u p e r v i s o r could improve i n s t r u c t i o n in t h e scho ols
involved working w ith f a c u l t y t o s o lv e i n s t r u c t i o n a l problems and to
improve i n s t r u c t i o n a l s k i l l s .
A r t i c l e s in t h e NAESP Communicator in 1979 and 1980 c o n t a in i n fo r m a t io n
t h a t aga in speaks t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e p r i n c i p a l ' s l e a d e r s h i p
in producing p o s i t i v e school e f f e c t s .

Schools r e a l l y can make a d i f f e r e n c e

in t h e achievement l e v e l s of s t u d e n t s .

And th e key f a c t o r in making good

45K ee ler , B.T. and J.H.M. Andrews, "The Leader Behavior o f
P r i n c i p a l s , S t a f f Morale and P r o d u c t i v i t y " A l b e r t a Journ al of
R es earch, 9 ' (3) (September 1963),
46H eichberger, Robert L. and James M. Young, J r . , "Teacher P e r c e p tio n s
o f P r i n c i p a l s , S t a f f Morale and P r o d u c t i v i t y " Phi Delta Kappan 57
(November 1975) 210.

50

s ch ools work i s t h e " P r i n c i p a l P r i n c i p l e . "

This a r t i c l e c i t e d a

co n c l u s i v e study c a r r i e d o u t by t h e e d i t o r o f Education U.S.A.

"In

each c a s e , s t r o n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p from t h e p r i n c i p a l was
determined t o be a major f a c t o r in th e s t u d e n t ’s s u c c e s s .
What do s u c c e s s f u l p r i n c i p a l s do?

According t o t h i s s o u r c e ,

" P r i n c i p a l s o f e f f e c t i v e s ch ools a r e s tr o n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s who
know how t o manage time and pe op le e f f e c t i v e l y . "

48

They t a l k e d of

p r i n c i p a l s who d e l e g a t e a u t h o r i t y and c o n c e n t r a t e t h e i r time on p r i o r i t y
goals a s s o c i a t e d with improving i n s t r u c t i o n .

Secondly, e f f e c t i v e

s ch ools e s t a b l i s h t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f b a s ic s k i l l s as t h e i r main g o a l.
T h i r d , in e f f e c t i v e s c h o o ls , p r i n c i p a l s have high e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r a l l
s t u d e n t s ; th ey communicate t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s t o s t u d e n t s , t e a c h e r s and
p a r e n t s and e n l i s t t h e i r s u p p o rt to ach iev e t h e s e i d e a l s .

And f i n a l l y ,

e f f e c t i v e p r i n c i p a l s have a c l e a r s en se o f purpose.
In an e a r l i e r a r t i c l e o f t h e NAESP Communicator t h e e d i t o r s t a t e d
"There a r e some bad s c h o o ls with good p r i n c i p a l s , but t h e r e a r e no
good s c h o o ls with bad p r i n c i p a l s .

A §ood p r i n c i p a l i s a n e c e s s a r y but

not s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n f o r a s u c c e s s f u l s c h o o l . "

49

The e d i t o r goes on

^ NAESP Communicator, Vol. I l l , No. 6, Nov. 13, 1979.
^NAESP Communicator, Vol IV, No. 15, April 15, 1980.
^NAESP Communicator, Vol. IV. No. 15, April 15, 1981.

51

t o d e s c r i b e th e o p e r a t i n g s t y l e o f t h e e f f e c t i v e p r i n c i p a l :
"Successful p r i n c i p a l s do not t r y to a d m i n i s t e r t h e i r schools
from th e o f f i c e . You c a n ' t be an i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r i f you d o n ' t
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y v i s i t c l a s s e s and respond to what you see durin g
th o s e v i s i t s . Furthermore, s u c c e s s fu l p r i n c i p a l s have a
commitment t o e d u c a t in g a l l th e c h i l d r e n in t h e i r school — and
hold s t a f f members r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s e e in g t h a t a l l s t u d e n t s a r e
given a chance to s ucc ee d."
In an i n t e r e s t i n g study by James and Larry Reynolds an e x t e n s i v e
look i s given t o a p r i n c i p a l ' s w i l l i n g n e s s t o g e t in volved in such
e d u c a tio n a l i n n o v a ti o n s as cu r ricu lu m o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement t h e
These a u t h o r s say:
"An a d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s power t o inno vat e i s
c o n d iti o n e d by t h e a n t i c i p a t e d r e a c t i o n o f h ig h e r l e v e l s o f a u t h o r i t y .
There i s always t h e danger t h a t h i s d e c i s io n w i l l be vetoed a t a
h i g h e r l e v e l . Because h i s f u t u r e power i s determined by his p r e s e n t
s u c c e ss e s and f a i l u r e s , in n o v a tio n w i l l seldom be proposed when
th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r a n t i c i p a t e s r e j e c t i o n by a s u p e r o r d i n a t e . To do
so i s t o j e o p o r d i z e h i s s t a t u s and f u t u r e power. The e x t e n t t o
which t h i s i n f l u e n c e s th e b e h a v io r o f an i n d i v i d u a l may be r e l a t e d
t o h i s r i s k t a k i n g . Some men a r e more w i l l i n g t o gamble than
o t h e r s . " 51
Goetz in a stud y of 203 el em en tar y s ch ools in 74 Michigan school
d i s t r i c t s , examined t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h i r t e e n s i t u a t i o n a l and
personal v a r i a b l e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e el em en ta ry p r i n c i p a l and b u i l d i n g
in n o v a t i o n .

He found t h a t th e p r i n c i p a l ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e

in th e p r e s e n t b u i l d i n g c o r r e l a t e d n e g a t i v e l y ( - . 3 5 ) with innovati on in
instruction.

Total a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e x p e r ie n c e as a p r i n c i p a l was a l s o

found t o be n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d ( - . 2 9 ) w i th i n n o v a t i o n .

Both f i n d i n g s

Reynolds, James A. and Larry J . Reynolds, Innovation R el at ed to
th e Tenure S uc ce ssion P a t t e r n and Reference Group O r i e n t a t i o n o f th e
Prin cipaTT Final Report (Washington, D.C.: Cen tr al Midwestern Regional
Educational L a b o ra t o r y , O f f i c e o f Education (DHEW) 1967 175 pp.

52

were s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .01 l e v e l .
Carlso n

53

52

s a i d t h a t t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n t e x p e c t a t i o n hel d f o r

p ersons h i r e d from o u t s i d e t h e system th an f o r t h o s e h i r e d from w i t h i n
t h e system.

The i n s i d e r , he s a y s , i s h i r e d w i th t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

t h a t he w i l l keep t h i n g s as th e y a r e , w h i l e t h e o u t s i d e r may be ex p ected
to make ch anges.
In a 1981 a r t i c l e in Phi D elt a Kappan, Edward Wynne e x p r e s s e d h i s
f i n d i n g s in t h i s manner:
“ In good s c h o o ls t h e s t a f f — e s p e c i a l l y t h e s u p e r v i s o r s —
and even t h e s t u d e n t s and p a r e n t s evolved a c l e a r i d e a o f what
c o n s t i t u t e s good performance. Without t h i s , p eo p le ca nno t know
what i s e x p ected o f them, nor can th ey a c t in a c o h e r e n t f a s h i o n .
In some s c h o o ls t h e s e common co n c e p ts o f good performance evolved
th ro ugh a t a c i t , i n t u i t i v e p r o c e s s .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e good
s c h o o ls were s m a l l , had h i g h l y s t a b l e s t a f f s , o r were s t a f f e d by
members o f r e l i g i o u s o r d e r (who had undergone an e l a b o r a t e
s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s ) . They a l l u n d e r sto o d t h a t a good t e a c h e r
' c a r e s ' , even more i m p o r t a n t , t h e y knew t h a t c a r i n g i s d i s p l a y e d in
o b s e r v a b l e c o n d u c t , e . g . , r e g u l a r and t i m e l y a t t e n d a n c e , well
organized lesson p lan s, reasonably o rd erly c l a s s e s , r o u tin e ly
a s s i g n e d and a p p r o p r i a t e l y graded homework, f r i e n d l y b u t a u t h o r i t a t i v e
r e l a t i o n s with s t u d e n t s , p u r p o s e f u l use o f c l a s s t i m e , and s u p p o r t i v e
r e l a t i o n s w i th c o l l e a g u e s . "54
The a u t h o r emphasized t h e a b s o l u t e need f o r an e x c e l l e n t p r i n c i p a l
in o r d e r t o a llo w t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t o o c c u r .

52Goetz, F r a n c i s R . , Inn o v atio n and t h e P u b lic Elementary School
Principal
(Unpublished Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Wayne S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1965).
^ C a r l s o n , Richard L . , " B a r r i e r s t o Change in P u b l i c S ch oo ls" Change
P r o c e s s e s i n t h e P u b l ic Schools (Eugene, Oregon: The C en ter f o r th e
Advanced Study o f Ed ucat io nal A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1965).
5\ l y n n e , Edward A . , "Looking a t Good Schools" Phi D e lt a Kappan, 62:5
( J a n u a r y , 1981) pp. 337-81.

53

Wiggins
b e h a v io r .

55

looked a t how t h e school a f f e c t e d t h e p r i n c i p a l ' s

He found t h a t o f t e n a school has " . . .

t h e p r e se n c e o f a

compelling school c l i m a t e s t a b i l i t y which has t h e e f f e c t o f s o c i a l i z i n g
th e p r i n c i p a l ' s beh av io r . . . Climates d i d not change when p r i n c i p a l s
were r e p l a c e d . "

However, Wiggins found t h a t th e p r i n c i p a l ' s b e havio r

was l i k e l y to become s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o th e c l i m a t e o f t h e school
as t h e le n g t h o f h i s t e n u r e i n c r e a s e d .
N. L. Gage has engaged in r e s e a r c h on school e f f e c t s f o r s e v e ra l
years.

He has w r i t t e n numerous a r t i c l e s on h is f i n d i n g s - - one o f

which appeared in th e November 1978 i s s u e o f Phi Delta Kappan.

In

t h i s a r t i c l e , Gage r e v e a l e d seven " t e a c h e r - s h o u l d " p r a c t i c e s t h a t he
says r e f e r t o ways o f t e a c h i n g t h a t a r e " r e l a t i v e l y s p e c i f i c and
o b je c tiv e ly observable,"

Furthermore, he s t a t e s , t h e s e " t e a c h e r - s h o u l d

s ta te m e n ts seem c o n s i s t e n t with t h e c o n c lu s io n s o f Rosenshine, Medley and
o t h e r s ."
1.

Teachers should have a system o f r u l e s t h a t allows p u p i l s
t o a t t e n d t o t h e i r personal and pro ce dura l needs w i th o u t
having t o check with th e t e a c h e r .

2.

Teachers should move around th e room a l o t , monitori ng p u p i l ' s
seatwork and communicating t o t h e i r p u p i l s an awareness o f
t h e i r b e h a v i o r , wh ile a l s o a t t e n d i n g t o t h e i r academic
needs.

3.

When p u p i l s work in d e p e n d e n tl y , t e a c h e r should i n s u r e t h a t th e
assignments a r e i n t e r e s t i n g and w o r th w h ile , y e t easy enough to
be completed by each s t u d e n t working w i t h o u t t e a c h e r d i r e c t i o n .

4.

Teachers should keep t o a minimum such a c t i v i t i e s as g iv in g
d i r e c t i o n s and o r g a n i z i n g t h e c l a s s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n .

Wiggins, Thomas W., "A Comparative I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f P r in c i p a l
Behavior and School Clim ate" , The Journal o f Educational Research
66 ( 3 ) , (November 1972) pp. 103-05.

54

5.

In s e l e c t i n g p u p i l s t o respond t o q u e s t i o n s , t e a c h e r s
should c a l l on a c h i l d by name b e f o re as kin g th e
q u e s t i o n , as a means o f i n s u r i n g t h a t a l l p u p i l s ar e
given an equal number o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o answer
questions.

6.

With l e s s a c a d e m ic a ll y o r i e n t e d p u p i l s , t e a c h e r s should
always aim a t g e t t i n g t h e c h i l d t o g iv e some kind o f
re sp on se t o a q u e s t i o n . R ephr as in g, g i v i n g c u e s , o r
as k in g f o r new q u e s t i o n s can be u s efu l te ch n iq u es f o r
b r in g i n g f o r t h some answers from a p r e v i o u s l y s i l e n t pupil o r
one’ who says "I d o n ' t know" o r answers i n c o r r e c t l y .

7.

During re a d in g group i n s t r u c t i o n t e a c h e r s should g iv e a
maximal amount o f b r i e f feedback and pr ovide f a s t paced
a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e " d r i l l " t y p e . 56

McLaughlin and March an alyzed in g r e a t d e t a i l t h e Rand Study which
was a l a r g e , e x p e n s i v e , f o u r y e a r , two phase s tu dy o f f e d e r a l l y funded
programs.

This study i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as t h e Change Agent Study.

The f i r s t phase o f t h i s stu d y a d d r e s s e d t h o s e f a c t o r s

a f f e c t i n g the

i n i t i a t i o n and implementation o f l o c a l "change age nt" p r o j e c t s .

The

second phase o f th e s t u d y examined th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l and p r o j e c t f a c t o r s
t h a t i n f l u e n c e d th e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f i n n o v a tio n s a f t e r t h e s p e c i a l funding
was t e r m i n a t e d .
In t h e f i r s t phase o f t h e s t u d y , 293 l o c a l p r o j e c t s were su rv eyed,
and f i e l d work was conducted in 24 school d i s t r i c t s .

The second phase

o f th e stu d y invo lved a survey o f 100 p r o j e c t s in twenty s t a t e s and
f ie ld w ork in t h i r t e e n school d i s t r i c t s .
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s study have been widely r e p o r t e d and
anal yze d.

McLaughlin and Marsh c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n on s t a f f

development and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r e d u c a t i o n .

56Gage, N. L.» "The Yield o f Research on Te aching", Phi Delta
Kappan 60:3 (November 1978) pp. 229-35.

55

Among t h e i r many f i n d i n g s , McLaughlin and Marsh determined
th a t:

1.

The commitment o f t e a c h e r s t o a change i s v i t a l ,

2.

S t a f f t r a i n i n g was i n s tr u m e n ta l and v i t a l t o p o s i t i v e
s t u d e n t outcomes,

3.

S k i l l , s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g o f s t a f f had a l i m i t e d e f f e c t on
s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g which ended o r g r e a t l y diminished soon
a f t e r a p r o j e c t was ended. S k i l l , s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n was
d e f i n e d as i n s t r u c t i o n given t o s t a f f on how to c a r r y o u t a
new re a d in g program, f o r example. I t was what i s regarded
as a t y p i c a l s t a f f development program. This approach did
improve t h e performance of s t u d e n t ' s t e s t r e s u l t s , but only
in t h e s h o r t run.
McLaughlin and Marsh s t a t e d t h a t , " S k i l l - s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g
a c t i v i t i e s only have t r a n s i e n t e f f e c t b e c a u s e , by th e m se l v e s ,
th e y do n o t s u p p o rt s t a f f l e a r n i n g and t e a c h e r ch an ge. The
t r a i n i n g which t e a c h e r s r e c e i v e d under t h e group t r a i n i n g
methods ena bled t e a c h e r s t o implement t h e new programs, but
th e y d id not n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s t i t u t e t e a c h e r a s s i m i l a t i o n o f
t h e new te c h n iq u e s and p r o c e d u r e s . "Thus, when t h e s u p p o rt
o f t h e funded p r o j e c t o p e r a t i o n were removed, t e a c h e r s
d i s c o n t i n u e d using th e p r a c t i c e s t h a t a p p a r e n t l y enhanced
s t u d e n t performance because th ey had never r e a l l y l e a r n e d
them i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . "

4.

In c o n t r a s t t o s t a f f t r a i n i n g o r ski 11- s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g ,
s t a f f s u p p o rt a c t i v i t i e s , which involved a c t u a l classr oom
a s s i s t a n c e and e v a l u a t i o n , had s t r o n g p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t
e f f e c t s on th e l o n g e r term p r o j e c t outcomes.
The a u t h o r s d e s c r i b e d i t in t h i s way: " T r a in i n g i s
e s s e n t i a l l y an i n fo r m a t io n t r a n s f e r — p r o v id in g t e a c h e r s ^
with n e c e s s a r y t e c h n i q u e s . But, as t h e f i r s t phase o f t h i s
stu d y found, th e process o f implemention i s a process o f
mutual a d a p t a t i o n in which t e a c h e r s modify t h e i r
p r a c t i c e s t o conform t o p r o j e c t req u ire m e n t s and

5 j5

p r o j e c t t e c h n o l o g i e s , a r e adap ted t o t h e d a y - t o - d a y
r e a l i t i e s o f th e school and clas sr oo m. S t a f f s u p p o rt
a c t i v i t i e s , in p a r t i c u l a r classroom a s s i s t a n c e from
r e s o u r c e personnel and p r o j e c t m e e tin g s , can p ro vide
t h e feedback p r o j e c t s t a f f need to make t h e s e
m o d i f i c a t i o n s . Through t h e s e s u p p o rt a c t i v i t i e s ,
s k i l l — s p e c i f i c e t r a i n i n g can be ’' i n d i v i d u a l i z e d "
f o r p r o j e c t t e a c h e r in terms o f timing and c o n t e n t
m odification."
5.

The u t i l i z a t i o n o f " o n - l i n e " a s s i s t a n c e was o f tremendous
importance t o t e a c h e r s in a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e changes in
t h e i r t e a c h i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r th e p r o j e c t , but t h i s was
t r u e only when th e t e a c h e r s involved deemed t h i s
a s s i s t a n c e t o be h e l p f u l . "Numerous v i s i t s to t h e
classroom by d i s t r i c t or p r o j e c t s t a f f were c o u n t e r ­
p r o d u c t iv e when t e a c h e r s d i d n o t f e e l they were being
helpe d. This a s s i s t a n c e a c t u a l l y i n t e r f e r r e d with
p r o j e c t i m p lem en tati o n ."

6.

I t was b e t t e r f o r p r o j e c t s to use no o u t s i d e c o n s u l t a n t s
tha n t o use poor ones - - "and much b e t t e r than to use
poor ones o f t e n . " Good c o n s u l t a n t s helped t e a c h e r s
by p rovid ing c o n c r e t e p r a c t i c a l a d v i s e - - a c t u a l l y
showing them how t o ad ap t p r o j e c t methods o r m a t e r i a l s
to t h e i r own s i t u a t i o n s .
"Good c o n s u l t a n t s a s s i s t e d
t e a c h e r s in l e a r n i n g how t o s o l v e problems f o r th em selves ,
r a t h e r th en by s o lv in g problems f o r them. I n e f f e c t i v e
c o n s u l t a n t s , on t h e o t h e r hand, o f t e n f u r n i s h e d a d v i s e
t h a t was too a b s t r a c t to be u s e f u l . Many o f t h e s e
"poor c o n s u l t a n t s " were viewed by t h e p r o j e c t t e a c h e r s
as being u n w i l l i n g o r unable t o deal with young c h i l d r e n
th em selv es . "Many were good p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , but not
p r a c t i c a l l y , in t h e d a y - to - d a y approach and f o ll o w - u p . "

7.

The more s p e c i f i c t h e goal o r o b j e c t i v e was t o th e
t e a c h e r s in v o lv e d , t h e h i g h e r t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f g o a ls
a c h i e v e d , t h e g r e a t e r t h e s t u d e n t achievement r e s u l t s ,
and t h e g r e a t e r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f usage o f t h e methods
and m a t e r i a l s a f t e r t h e p r o j e c t ended. Most p a r t i c u l a r l y
o f importance in r e g a r d t o goal s p e c i f i c i t y was th e
conceptual c l a r i t y o f t h e g o a l s , o r " t h e e x t e n t to
which p r o j e c t s t a f f a r e c l e a r about what th ey a r e t o do
and u n dersta nd t h e r a t i o n a l e u n d e r ly in g p r o j e c t
a c t i v i t i e s . " This conceptual c l a r i t y , i t was found,
"must be achieved during t h e proce ss o f p r o j e c t
implementation — i t ca nnot b e ‘g i v e n ’ t o s t a f f a t the
outset.

S-

Teacher imputs can s i g n i f i c a n t l y improve t h e implementation

V,

57

o f a p r o j e c t . Teachers a r e in a much b e t t e r p o s i t i o n
than anyone e l s e t o i d e n t i f y and recommend f e a s i b l e
s o l u t i o n s t o problems t h a t a r i s e . When t e a c h e r s had an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o make d e c i s i o n s about t h e p r o j e c t s in
which they were in v o l v e d , th e implemented p r o j e c t was
improved, and, in a d d i t i o n , s t a f f c l a r i t y was enhanced.
The very f a c t t h a t t e a c h e r s were asked f o r t h e i r a d v is e
brought abou t a s en se o f ownership.
9.

10.

The a t t i t u d e o f t h e b u i l d i n g p r i n c i p a l was v i t a l t o
the s ucc es s o f p r o j e c t s . This was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e
in terms o f whether o r n o t a program was m aintained
a f t e r a hoopla was o v e r . P r i n c i p a l s a l s o played a
key r o l e in th e o r i g i n a l implementation o f a p r o j e c t .
The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e o f a school was a d e f i n i t e
f a c t o r in th e ac ce ptance o r non-ac ce ptan ce o f a p r o j e c t ' s
g o a l s , and in t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f th e p r o j e c t ' s goa ls
a f t e r th e p r o j e c t ending d a t e . Good working r e l a t i o n s h i p s
among t e a c h e r s "enhanced implementation and promoted
c o n t i n u a t i o n o f p r o j e c t methods and m a t e r i a l s . "
The q u a l i t y o f a s c h o o l ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n c l i m a t e —
whether t e a c h e r s f e l t t h e i r school was a good school to
work i n , had e s p i r i t de c o r p s , was e f f i c i e n t , and was
managed e f f e c t i v e l y by t h e p r i n c i p a l - - very d e f i n i t e l y
in f lu e n c e d th e outcomes o f t h e p r o j e c t g o a l s . 57

In looking a t im p o rtan t t a s k s o f t e a c h i n g t h a t make c o n s i s t e n t
58
d i f f e r e n c e s in what and how much c h i l d r e n l e a r n , Medley and Crook
r e p o r t e d t h e y found f i v e d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e t e a c h e r t a s k s t h a t d i s p l a y e d
such c o n s is t e n c y :
1.

M ain taining p u p i l s t a s k involvem ent,

2.

Teaching in l a r g e gr oups,

3.

Minimizing d i s r u p t i v e pupil b e h a v i o r ,

McLaughlin, Milbrey W. and David D. Marsh, " S t a f f Development
and School Change" Teachers College Record, Vol. 80, no. 1,
September 1978, p. 69-93.
CO
Medley, Donald M. and P a t r i c i a R. Crook, "Research in
Teacher Competency and Teaching Task s", Theory I n t o P r a c t i c e .

58

4.

Super vis ing pupil se atw ork ,

5,

Managing small group a c t i v i t y .

Medley and Crook s t r o n g l y concluded t h a t t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f teach in g
performance should be based on s ucc es s in performing t a s k s o f te a c h i n g
r a t h e r than on competencies d i s p l a y e d o r s t a t e d in a n o th e r way,
te a c h i n g should be judged on th e be hav ior o f t h e p u p i l s r a t h e r than on
t h a t of the teacher.
David B e r l i n e r has been in volved in t h e study o f school e f f e c t s
f o r over a decade.

He has uncovered some im p res siv e f i n d i n g s r e l a t e d

t o e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g .

Here a r e a few o f h i s major

c o n c lu s io n s :
1.

There i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a l l o c a t e d time and
achievement. Not ever y stu d y shows i t but in g e n e r a l , th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between a l l o c a t e d time in an academic c o n t e n t
a r e a and achievement in t h a t c o n t e n t ar ea i s p o s i t i v e and
substantial.

2.

A good number o f e m piri ca l s t u d i e s have been done which
c o n s i s t e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d and r e e s t a b l i s h a s u b s t a n t i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p between engaged time — th e time a s t u d e n t w il l
a t t e n d t o th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s or a c t i v i t i e s in an
i n s t r u c t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n and academic l e a r n i n g .

3.

For younger s t u d e n t s in g e n e r a l , and f o r s t u d e n t s with
g e n e r a l l y lower a b i l i t y , a high le v e l o f su c c e ss appe ar s to
be a very i m p o r ta n t v a r i a b l e in l e a r n i n g .
In th e o p p o s it e
d i r e c t i o n , i t can a l s o be s a i d t h a t m a t e r i a l s and a c t i v i t i e s
t h a t y i e l d a low s u c c e ss r a t e f o r s t u d e n t s a r e c o n s i s t e n t l y
and n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with achievement.

4.

Academic Learning Time (ALT) o r engaged time with m a t e r i a l s
o r a c t i v i t i e s t h a t produce a high s u c c e ss r a t e t h a t ar e
r e l a t e d t o t h e outcome measures i s p e r s u a s i v e l y connected
with s t u d e n t achievement.

59

5.

O p p ortunity to l e a r n , combined with c u r ric u lu m congruency
and c o n t e n t coverage a r e d i r e c t l y and p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to
achievement. When s t u d e n t s a r e given t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n
what i s being t e s t e d and t h e m a t e r i a l i s a d e q u a t e ly covered
i s t o t a l , high s t u d e n t achievement r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d .

6.

All o f t h e s e t r e n d s can be brought t o g e t h e r under a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
which B e r l i n e r r e f e r s to as " d i r e c t i n s t r u c t i o n . " This
a t t r i b u t e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a t r a d i t i o n a l classr oom type
approach t o l e a r n i n g i n c o r p o r a t i n g a high degree of academic
o r i e n t a t i o n , t e a c h e r l e d , n o t "open" o r " h u m a n i s t i c " , where
i n s t r u c t i o n a l time and time on t a s k and s t u d e n t involvement
i s high. " D i r e c t i n s t r u c t i o n appe ar s t o be one o f th e most
powerful p r e d i c t o r s o f s t u d e n t a c h i e v e m e n t . "59

Rosenshine found t h a t t h e f oll ow ing t e a c h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
were r e l a t e d t o s t u d e n t achievement.
1.

Classroom time i s s t r u c t u r e d by th e t e a c h e r .

2.

Teacher devotes classroom time t o r ea din g and mathematics
i n s t r u c t i o n by means o f t e x t b o o k s , academic workbooks, and
verbal i n s t r u c t i o n .

3.

Teacher a s s i g n s seatwork i n v o l v i n g academic workbooks through
which s t u d e n t s work a t t h e i r own pace.

4.

Teacher o r g a n i z e s s t u d e n t s i n t o small groups and s u p e r v i s e s
t h e i r work.

5.

Teacher d i r e c t s a c t i v i t i e s w i th o u t g i v i n g s t u d e n t s ch oice o f
a c t i v i t i e s o r r ea so ns f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s .

6.

Teacher asks d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s t h a t have only a s i n g l e answer.

7.

Teacher encourages s t u d e n t s t o a tt e m p t to answer q u e s t i o n s
even when they d o n ' t know th e answer.

8.

Teacher immediately r e i n f o r c e s s t u d e n t s on t h e ac cu rac y
o f t h e i r answers.

9.

Teacher asks a new q u e s t i o n a f t e r s t u d e n t has given a c o r r e c t
answer.

59B e r l i n e r , David C . , "Using Research on Teaching f o r th e
Improvement o f Classroom P r a c t i c e " Theory In to P r a c t i c e .

60

10.

Teacher giv es t h e c o r r e c t answer a f t e r a s t u d e n t has given an
i n c o r r e c t answer.°0

N. L. Gage

fil

found t h e s e school e f f e c t s to be s i g n i f i c e n t l y

im port an t:
Teachers should have a system of r u l e s t h a t allow p u p i l s to
a t t e n d t o t h e i r per so nal and procedural needs w it h o u t having t o check
with t h e t e a c h e r .
Teachers should move around t h e room a l o t , mon it ori ng p u p i l ' s
seatwork and communicating t o t h e i r p u p i l s an awareness o f t h e i r
b e h a v i o r , w h ile a l s o a t t e n d i n g t o t h e i r academic needs.
Teachers should keep to a minimum such

a c t i v i t i e s as g iv in g

d i r e c t i o n s and o r g a n i z i n g t h e c l a s s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n .

Teachers

can do

t h i s by w r i t i n g th e d a i l y sch ed ule on t h e b o ard, i n s u r i n g t h a t p u p i l s
know where to go, what t o do, e t c .
In s e l e c t i n g p u p i l s to respond t o q u e s t i o n s , t e a c h e r s should
c a l l on a c h i l d by name b e f o r e as k in g t h e q u e s ti o n as a means o f i n s u r i n g
t h a t a l l p u p i l s a r e given an equal number o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s to answer
questions.
With l e s s a c a d em ically o r i e n t e d p u p i l s , t e a c h e r s should always

fin
Rosenshine, Barak "Classroom I n s t r u c t i o n " in The Psychology o f
Teaching Methods: The Seventy F i f t h Yearbook o f t h e National S o c ie ty
f o r th e Study o f E d u c a tio n , ed. N. L. Gage (Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y o f
Chicago P r e s s , 1976) pp. 335-71.
61Gage, N. L. The S c i e n t i f i c Basis o f t h e A r t o f Teaching {New York:
T e a c h e r ' s College P r e s s , 1979C p. 39.

61

aim a t g e t t i n g the c h i l d t o gi ve some kind o f res ponse t o a q u e s t i o n .
Rephrasing, g i v i n g cu e s , o r as kin g a new q u e s t i o n can be useful
te c h n iq u e s f o r b r in g i n g f o r t h some answer from a p r e v i o u s l y s i l e n t
pupil o r one who says "I d o n ' t know" o r answers i n c o r r e c t l y .
During r ea di ng group i n s t r u c t i o n , t e a c h e r s should give a
maximal amount o f b r i e f feedback and pro v id e f a s t - p a c e d a c t i v i t i e s o f
t h e " d r i l l " ty pe.
Summary o f School E f f e c t s Research
While i t i s im poss ib le t o ove rlook th e importance o f a s t u d e n t ' s
background in th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f academic achievement, i t ap pea rs
l i k e w i s e f o o l i s h to over look t h e overwhelming evidence t h a t s chools
and what occ ur s in them a l s o be a r h e a v i l y on what and how much c h i l d r e n
l e a r n , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r a p t i t u d e s , home environment and s o c i o ­
economic s i t u a t i o n s .
In simple t e r m s , t h e school e f f e c t s r e s e a r c h seem t o condense
down t o i n c l u d e t h e f o ll o w in g :
1.

In d iv id u al s ch oo ls d i f f e r widely in t h e i r academic success
a f t e r th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f s t u d e n t background f a c t o r s .

2.

The l a r g e s t s i n g l e u n i t f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e u t i l i z a t i o n o f
improvement tec h n iq u e s a ppears t o be th e s i n g l e school —
p r e f e r a b l y a small school.

3.

Teaching te c h n iq u e s and m a t e r i a l s ap pea r t o be s t r o n g l y
c o r r e l a t e d with s t u d e n t achievement.

4.

The p r i n c i p a l o f a school i s a key i n d i v i d u a l in t h e
d e t e r m in a tio n o f s t u d e n t achievement and school s u c c e s s .

62

S e c ti o n B
The E v a lu a tiv e Role
o f Principals
in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Improvement
Many e d u c a to r s doubt p r i n c i p a l s have much impact on th e academic
achievement o f s t u d e n t s .

When one t a k e s i n t o ac count th e p o r t i o n

o f achievement which can be e x p la in e d by such f a c t o r s as c u l t u r a l ,
s o c i e t a l , s o c i a l , and home background, th e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t o f school
p r i n c i p a l s may, in d e e d , ap pear t o be i n s i g n i f i c a n t .

But schools pr ovide

th e environment in which s t u d e n t s with d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
backgrounds and m o t i v a t i o n a r e fo rm a lly t a u g h t academic s k i l l s .

As

t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e a d e r o f s c h o o l s , " p r i n c i p a l s have a tremendous
i n f l u e n c e on t h e human environment w ith in s ch ools and t h e r e f o r e on th e
CO

achievement o f s t u d e n t s , "
There i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e ev idence r e g a rd in g th e s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e
th e management system o f an e n t e r p r i s e has on th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h a t
e n t e r p r i s e as a whole.
"In p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r a t e o f e f f e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f new
knowledge in t h e management system i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e
r a t e o f e f f e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f new knowledge w i t h i n t h a t system
as a whole. Educational management can be viewed as an im port ant
causal f a c t o r in th e improvement o r l a c k o f improvement in e d u c a t i o n . "
The need to reduce t h e d i s p a r i t y between th e le v e l o f performance
o f p r a c t i c i n g school l e a d e r s and t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s held f o r t h e i r

62Matthews, Kenneth M. "The P r i n c i p a l and Stu den t Achievement"
Georgia P r i n c i p a l , 12:2 (Win ter, 1976) pp. 29-38.
63Klepak, D a n ie l, D i r e c t o r , School F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g Reading
Achievement (Albany, New York: O f f i c e o f Education Performance and
Review 1974).

63

positions is c r u c ia l.

Over t h e p a s t two decades t h e r e has been

much a c t i v i t y t o develop remedies t o improve t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f e d u c a t i o n .
The y e a r s have brought f o r t h massive f e d e r a l e f f o r t s , s u b s t a n t i a l
fo u n d atio n g r a n t s , and i n c r e a s e d spending on th e s t a t e and l ocal
levels.

"In our massive t h r u s t toward e d u c a tio n a l improvement however,

i t i s a s ob er ing f a c t t h a t the e d u c a tio n a l l e a d e r h im s e l f has been
th e most n e g l e c t e d . 1,64
Recent s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t im p o rtan t d i f f e r e n c e s in pupil
l e a r n i n g can occu r between schools with n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l f a c i l i t i e s ,
s t a f f and socioeconomic c l a s s o f s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t s .

Differences

found by t h e s e s t u d i e s were p r i m a r i l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e l e a d e r
b e havior o f th e p r i n c i p a l and h i s o r h e r s t a f f .

As M i l l e r

65

points

o u t , t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s now su pport ed both by t h e o r y and r e s e a r c h .
Improving s k i l l s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l may have a s i g n i f i c a n t pay off in
improved s t u d e n t performance.

M i l l e r notes t h a t modeling by th e

p r i n c i p a l i s a powerful tool t h a t p l a c e s t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r in an
e x c e l l e n t p o s i t i o n t o i n f l u e n c e t e a c h e r b e h a v i o r , and through t h i s
th e l e a d e r can a f f e c t pupil achievement.
As w i l l be p o in te d o u t , t h e r e i s widespread e x p e c t a t i o n , with few
d i s s e n t e r s w i t h i n t h e e d u c a tio n a l world , t h a t p r i n c i p a l s should and

fid

B a r r i l l e a u x , Louis E . , John Schermerhorn, J r . , and J . Stevens
Weish The Research Action C o n t e n t : An I n t e r v e n t i o n S t r a t e g y jji Educational
Management Development, 34 p. paper p r e s e n te d a t t h e annual meeting o f
The American Educational Research A s s'n (60th Washington D.C., March 31 April 4, 1975).
65M i l l e r , William C . , "Can a P r i n c i p a l ' s Improved Behavior R e s u l t
in Higher Pupil Achievement?" Educational L e a d e r s h i p , 33 (February 1976)
pp. 336-38.

64

do provide

instructional leadership.

The co n tin u in g growth o f t e a c h e r s

i s a c e n t r a l ar ea o f concern f o r t h e s u p e r v i s in g p r i n c i p a l .

The r o l e

o f t h e p r i n c i p a l as i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r would appear t o be enhanced
in th o s e s ch oo ls in which i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s a r e made a t t h e b u i ld in g
level.

M azzarella

fifi

s u g g e sts t h i s as an im p o rtan t development which

could occ ur a s , and i f , d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f s ch oo ls o c c u r .

Purkerson

67

a l s o c a l l s f o r more personnel a t t h e b u i l d i n g r a t h e r in t h e c e n t r a l
o f f i c e t o improve i n s t r u c t i o n .

And as Paul Houts has w r i t t e n , "Autonomy,

with i t s accompanying r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s o f t e n a superb c a t a l y s t f o r
dynamic l e a d e r s h i p . "

68

I f p r i n c i p a l s a r e t o improve i n s t r u c t i o n then they must a s s i s t
t e a c h e r s in improving t h e i r t e a c h i n g , and t h i s i s an extr emely complex
process.

6 6

M a z z a r e lla , Joann, "The P r i n c i p a l ' s Role in I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Planning" NAESP School L ead er ship D i g e s t , 2nd S e r i e s , No. 8,1976.
67
P ur ke rson, Ray, "Wasted Days and Wasted N ights: Role P e r c e p tio n s
o f P r i n c i p a l s " NAESP B u l l e t i n 61 (December, 1977) pp. 26-29
68

Houts, Paul L . , "The Changing Role o f t h e Elementary School
P r i n c i p a l " National Elementary P r in c i p a l 55 (November - December
1975) p. 68.

65

"Such work e n t a i l s complex i n t e l l e c t u a l t a s k s o f d i a g n o s i s ;
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and d e c i s i o n making which must be accomplished
q u i c k l y and p u b l i c l y . While t e a c h i n g in v o l v e s c o n f r o n t i n g u n c e r t a i n
p r a c t i c a l problems, t e a c h e r s t y p i c a l l y have l i t t l e tim e, o r no
p l a c e , in which t o r e f l e c t about t h e i r d e c i s i o n s . The workday
i s an i n t e n s e , continuous flow in which t h e t e a c h e r i s c o n s t a n t l y
on s t a g e . Teaching, c l e a r l y , i s s t r e s s f u l w o r k . "69
"Teaching i s , a f t e r a l l , a c r a f t ; i t in v o l v e s i n t e r a c t i n g in
a d i r e c t , hands on way with t h e f e e l i n g s , minds, e x p e c t a t i o n s and
knowings o f l i v i n g human p e r s o n a l i t i e s . But u n l i k e o t h e r c r a f t s —
p a i n t e r s o r woodcarvers — f o r example — who r e c e i v e v i s i b l e
feedback on t h e consequences o f each movement o f t h e i r brushes o r
knives - - t e a c h e r s r a r e l y see immediately t h e consequences o f t h e i r
comments, q u e s t i o n s , o r g e s t u r e s . Even in th e a g g r e g a t e , e f f e c t s
o f t e a c h e r a c t s a r e r a r e l y d i s c e r n i b l e by way o f t h e low i n f e r e n c e
o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n venti onal in s c i e n t i f i c en dea vors. The work o f
t e a c h i n g cons equen tl y i s highly i n t u i t i v e . Te achers a r e o b l i g a t e d
to c u l t i v a t e sound p r o f e s s i o n a l judgement — t h e a b i l i t y to a c t
upon d e c i s i o n s 7with minimal i n fo r m a tio n and e n t a i l i n g ambigious
consequences.
Teachers pro bably have a powerful motive f o r personal adequacy and
f o r t h e enhancement o f t h e s e l f t h a t p s y c h o lo g is ts say i s th e und er ly ing
motive f o r a l l b e h a v i o r . ^

Teaching p r e s e n t s such f r e q u e n t c h a l le n g e s

to t e a c h e r s t h a t unless th ey were s t r o n g l y m o t i v a t e d , th e y would n ot
s t r i v e f o r t h e competency, personal and p r o f e s s i o n a l s t r e n g t h v i t a l f o r
a te a c h e r's survival.

Perhaps more than any o t h e r o c cupational group,

t e a c h e r s a r e in a p o s i t i o n t o r e c o g n iz e t h a t a l l persons have a need

69Zechman, Harry T . , "Are P r i n c i p a l s Competent in t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l
L ead er ship Domain" NAESP B u l l e t i n , 61 (December 1977) pp. 21-25.
^ S a n d e r s , Donald P. and Marion Schwab, "A School Context f o r
Teacher Development" Theory I n to P r a c t i c e 16:4 (December 1979) pp. 271-771
^ S a n d e r s , e t . a l . l o c . c i t . p. 272.

66

f o r personal m as tery and coping a b i l i t y .
" r e t r e a t i n t o i n d i f f e r e n c e and detachment"

Although many t e a c h e r s do
72

t h e reason can be l in k e d

as much t o t h e way s chools a r e organ ize d as t o any in a d e q u a c ie s o f
teachers.
However, v S l e s'

h e f f o r t s as t e a c h e r s might m uster t o improve

t h e i r performance could a f f e c t t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l cla s s r o o m s , t h i s
development i s l i k e l y to have very l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on th e t o t a l
performance o f a s c h o o l .
" I f a given t e a c h e r ' s development a f f e c t s on ly t h e t e a c h i n g
done in a c e l l u l a r clas sroom , i t probably w i l l have l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e
on t h e o v e r a l l l e a r n i n g o f even t h a t c l a s s . The p r o p o r t i o n o f th e
t o t a l school e x p e r i e n c e th o s e s t u d e n t s undergo in t h a t s i n g l e
room i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll ; t h e impact o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l ar ra ngem ents ,
o f t h e ethos o f t h e s c h o o l, and o f th e o t h e r t e a c h e r s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y
g r e a t e r . "73
The development o f improved te a c h i n g s k i l l s f o r an e n t i r e s t a f f
i s a more co m plica ted and demanding t a s k th a n t h a t r e q u i r e d to a s s i s t
one t e a c h e r t o improve, but t h e group e f f o r t i s more l i k e l y t o r e s u l t
in s i g n i f i c a n t and l a s t i n g improvement in t h e s c h o o l ' s o p e r a t i o n .

74

The a t t i t u d e , a b i l i t y , and energy o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and ed u c a ti o n a l
l e a d e r o f th e school as a u n i t , t h u s , i s v i t a l t o t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n o f
change.

In o r d e r f o r th e change t o begin in a school th e p r i n c i p a l

must b e l i e v e t h a t he o r she has t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e

^2Combs, A r t h u r , e t . a l . , Per ceptual Psychology (New York: Harper
and Row, 1976).
70
J a n o w itz , M o r r is , I n s t i t u t i o n Bu ilding in Urban Education
(Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1969(.
^ S an d ers, e t. a l . , ibid.

67

development o f th e t e a c h e r s .

The a u t h o r i t y o f a p r i n c i p a l i s a n e c e s s a r y

r e q u i s i t e f o r t h i s improvement in i n s t r u c t i o n , but as Markowitz
p o i n t s o u t , such a u t h o r i t y i s two-pronged:
" S u p e rv i s o rs d a i l y f a c e th e dilemma o f a u t h o r i t y . As
middle management p e r s o n n e l , th e y have two committments: (a)
t o t h e achievement and s u r v i v a l co ncerns o f ed u c a t io n a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n s and (b) t o human concerns t h a t r e v o l v e around
t h e f e e l i n g s , worth , and independence o f human b e i n g s
.

"

7 5

Although t e a c h e r s e v a l u a t i o n i s not t h e only approach which
p r i n c i p a l s may u t i l i z e in th e improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n , c urri culum
re form , e d u c a tio n a l tech n o lo g y , and t h e development o f " t e a c h e r proof"
m a t e r i a l s a l l have t h e same g o a l , " t h e b e s t way t o improve i n s t r u c t i o n
i s t o improve t e a c h i n g , and th e only way t o improve t e a c h i n g i s to
change t e a c h e r b e h a v i o r

.

"

7 6

The q u e s t i o n which now, i m p o r t a n t l y ,

must be r a i s e d i s "Do t e a c h e r s need t o have t h e i r s k i l l s improved?"
The answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n i s o b v io u s, s i n c e a l l b e havio r can
be improved in one dimension or a n o t h e r .

More i m p o r t a n t l y , however,

t e a c h e r s themselves see th e overwhelming need f o r improvement.

In a

study r e p o r t e d by Dols, 213 ex p e r ie n c e d t e a c h e r s were asked i f they
were t e a c h i n g as well as th e y knew how, and a l l ad m itted t h a t they
were n o t

7

.

7 7

In a n o t h e r a r t i c l e , Zelenak r e v e a l e d t h a t t e a c h e r s want

c

Markowitz, S h i r l e y , "The Dilemma o f A u t h o r it y in S up er v is o r y
Behavior" Educational Le adership 33 (February 1976) pp. 367-72, p. 367.
7 fi

Medley, Donald M., "A Process Approach t o Teacher Eva lu a ti on"
National Elementary P r i n c i p a l 52 (February 1973) pp. 33-35, p. 34.
Dols, Richard A . , P r i n c i p a l : Teacher o f Teachers 7 page paper
p r e s e n te d a t t h e NASSP Convention ( A t l a n t i c C i t y , New J e r s e y , March 1- 6,
1974) p . s .
7

7

68

to be e v a l u a t e d , but they approve o f e v a l u a t i o n d i r e c t e d a t th e
improvement o f t h e i r s k i l l s and n o t e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e i r a b i l i t y
7 0

wherein th ey must f e a r f o r t h e i r p o s i t i o n s .
I t i s very im p o rtan t t o c o n c e n t r a t e a t t e n t i o n now on th e o b j e c t
of evaluations.

U n i v e r s a l l y , i t seems, t h e purpose o f e v a l u a t i o n is

given to be t h e improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n .
r e s u l t in improved s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r .

This in t u r n should

However, i t i s im p o rtan t t h a t

e d u c a to r s d e s i r i n g th e f i n a l outcome, improved s t u d e n t b e h a v io r , cannot
focus t h e i r a t t e n t i o n on t e s t s and s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r .

As Combs s u g g e s t s ,

t e a c h e r s cannot be held a c c o u n t a b l e f o r th e be h a v io r o f s t u d e n t s any
more than anyone e l s e .

79

"Teachers can be hel d ac c o u n ta b le f o r being informed on
s u b j e c t m a t t e r . They can be held a c c o u n t a b le f o r being concerned
ab ou t t h e w e l f a r e o f s t u d e n t s and knowledgable about t h e i r behavior.
They can be held r e s p o n s i b l e f o r an u n d e rstand in g o f human b e h a v io r ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y be h a v io r o f t h e i r s t u d e n t s . Teachers can be held
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e purposes t h a t th ey t r y t o c a r r y o u t and t o be
aware o f purpose s . F i n a l l y , t e a c h e r s can be held r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
th e methods t h a t th ey use in c a r r y i n g o u t t h e i r own and s o c i e t y ’s
purpose s. Teachers do n o t have t o be a b l e to g u a r a n te e outcomes;
r a t h e r th ey must defend what th e y a r e doing in a p r o f e s s i o n a l
s e n s e . "80

^ Z e l e n a k , Mel J . and B i l l C. S n i d e r , "Teachers D o n 't R e s i s t
Evalu ati on - I f I t ' s f o r t h e Improvement o f I n s t r u c t i o n " Phi Delta Kappan
55 (April 1974).
70
Combs, A r t h u r , Educational A c c o u n t a b i l i t y : Beyond Behavior
O b j e c t i v e s (Washington D.C. A s s o c i a t i o n f o r S u p e r v is io n and Curriculum
Development, 1972).
on

House, E r n e s t R . , "Beyond A c c o u n t a b i l i t y " P r o f e s s i o n a l Supervis ion
f o r P r o f e s s i o n a l T e a c h e r s , ed. Thomas J . Sergiovanni (Washington, D.C.
A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Supervis ion and Curriculum Development, 1975) p. 76.

69

I t i s im p o rta n t t o remember, however, as one views th e t e a c h e r ' s
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n , t h a t i f t h e t e a c h e r s f a i l t o measure
up t o t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , i t i s th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e a d e r who
b e a r s t h e f i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e l e a r n i n g , or l ack o f i t t h a t
occu rs in h i s o r her s c h o o l.
I f improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n i s t o be th e main purpose o f t h e
e v a l u a t i v e f u n c t i o n , who then should be involved in th e p r o c e ss o f
a t t e m p t i n g t o accomplish t h i s purpose?

While v a r io u s views a r e held

r e g a r d i n g t h e answer t o t h i s i m p o rta n t q u e s t i o n , i t i s perhaps a moot
q u e s ti o n in t h a t in most S i t u a t i o n s t h e b u i l d i n g p r i n c i p a l i s d e le g a te d
t h e s o l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e e f f o r t .
"Primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r fo rm a lly e v a l u a t i n g in d i v i d u a l
classroom t e a c h e r s in t h e school d i s t r i c t s i s under taken by
p r i n c i p a l s in 92.5 p e r c e n t o f t h e elem en tary s c h o o l s . O n e- th ird
o f t h e school d i s t r i c t s ‘r e q u i r e t e a c h e r s t o e v a l u a t e t h e m s e l v e s ' ;
o t h e r school d i s t r i c t s s u g g e s t i t t o t e a c h e r s as an o pti on and
encourage them t o s hare t h e r e s u l t s with t h e p r i n c i p a l
" 8 1

Seventeen p e r c e n t o f th e elem entary s ch oo ls in the responding
d i s t r i c t s r e q u i r e s t u d e n t e v a l u a t i o n o f classroom t e a c h e r s as p a r t o f
t h e formal rec orded e v a l u a t i o n .

Many o t h e r school d i s t r i c t s s u g g e s t

o r even r e q u i r e t h a t s t u d e n t s e v a l u a t e t e a c h e r s but t h e r e s u l t s a r e
f o r th e s o l e use o f t h e t e a c h e r and do not become p a r t o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s
pi

E v a lu a tin g Teacher Performance ( A r l i n g t o n , V i r g i n i a : Educational
Research S e r v i c e , I n c . , 1978').

70

personnel f i l e .

"Peer e v a l u a t i o n o f classroom t e a c h e r s t a k e s p l a c e in

3.2 p e r c e n t o f t h e e lem en ta ry s c h o o ls .
e v a l u a t i o n in

0

. 6

P a r e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e in t e a c h e r

p e r c e n t of t h e respond ing school d i s t r i c t s

. "

8 2

According t o one s t u d y , t h e r e may be a t r e n d developing toward
using p e e r s ( t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f one t e a c h e r by a n o t h e r ) in th e e v a l u a t i o n
process.

According to NSPRA, t e a c h e r s a r e r e c e p t i v e t o th e idea o f being

e v a l u a t e d by a p e e r , not only because th ey f e e l f e l lo w t e a c h e r s w i l l be
more s y m p a t h e t i c , b u t because th e y b e l i e v e t h a t a f e l l o w t e a c h e r i s
more competent t o judge what t r a n s p i r e s in a classroom th a n an a d m i n i s t r a t o r
o r s u p e r v i s o r who i s l e s s f a m i l i a r with t h e clas sr oom .

Among th e c i t e d

drawbacks o f p eer e v a l u a t i o n a r e t h e f o ll o w in g :
1.

Administ rat or: ; would have to f i n d time and money t o r e l e a s e
t e a c h e r s V.
t h e i r own classrooms t o a p p r a i s e f e l lo w t e a c h e r s ;

2.

Admini< t> / , r s would have t o t r a i n t e a c h e r s i n a p p r a i s a l
s k i l l s an

3.

Some t e a c h e r s a r e r e l u c t a n t to judge t h e i r f e l l o w t e a c h e r s .

83

Although i t might seem a t f i r s t g la n c e t h a t an o u t s i d e s u p e r v i s o r ,
w i th s o l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r f o r m a tiv e e v a l u a t i o n might appea r t o be
a b l e t o do a s u p e r i o r j o b o f t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f th e
s u p e r v i s o r has t h e n e c e s s a r y background and s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s .

And i f

DO
E v a lu a tin g Teachers f o r P r o f e s s i o n a l Growth: C u r r e n t Trends in
School P o l i c i e s and Programs ( A r l i n g t o n , V i r g i n i a : National School
P u b li c R e l a t i o n s A s s o c i a t i o n , 1974) 64 pp. p. 10.
OO
Eva lu ati ng Teachers Performance op. c i t . p. 3.

71

th e r o l e t h e s u p e r v i s o r a c c e p t s does n o t co-mingle t h e summative with
t h e f o rm ativ e f u n c t i o n s , r a r e l y does t h i s p o s i t i o n e x i s t .

The rea so ns

f o r t h e f a i l u r e t o u t i l i z e t h i s conce pt may l i e with t h e a d d i t i o n a l
c o s t s t h a t a r e i n v o l v e d , o r they may be p h i l o s o p h i c a l in n a t u r e .

84

Thus, in g e n e r a l , e i t h e r by des ig n o r f i a t , elementary p r i n c i p a l s
a r e p r i m a r i l y and s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r both t h e f o rm ativ e and
summative e v a l u a t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s .
in t h i s e v a l u a t i o n process ?

What means does t h e p r i n c i p a l use

How do t e a c h e r s f e e l about t h e proc ess?

What roadblocks do p r i n c i p a l s f a c e t h a t s ta nd in th e way o f t h e i r
performing t h i s r o l e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y and what means must be tak en by
p r i n c i p a l s t o overcome t h e s e o b s t a c l e s ?
Jones se es t h e c u r r e n t method o f t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n as . . .

an

ongoing t r a d i t i o n having l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p to i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement.
He f u r t h e r s u g g e s ts t h a t n e i t h e r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s who a r e doing th e
e v a l u a t i n g nor t h e t e a c h e r s who a r e being e v a l u a t e d gi ve much credence
t o t h e c u r r e n t system o f e v a l u a t i o n , which he claims is s u i t e d only
b u i l d ev idence o f poor te a c h i n g and i s
improve i n s t r u c t i o n . 8*’

to

n o t used as an in s tr u m e n t to

McNeil makes i m p l i c i t in h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f

t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n and improvement t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e p r e s e n t
e v a l u a t i v e proc ed ure s a r e f o r t h e most p a r t o b j e c t i o n a b l e t o p r i n c i p a l s

84

E v a lu a ti n g Teachers Performance op. c i t .

p. 3.

J o n e s , Anthony S . , "A R e a l i s t i c Approach t o Teacher Ev alu ation"
The C le a r in g House 46 (1972) pp. 474-491, p. 474*
8

5

72
QC
and t e a c h e r s a l i k e .

An i n s p e c t i o n o f t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n systems

completed by t h e National A s s o c i a t i o n Research D iv is io n in 1963, 1968,
and 1971 r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e usual approach t o t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n i s
f o r t h e b u i l d i n g p r i n c i p a l t o p e r i o d i c a l l y , a lthough seldom r e g u l a r l y ,
f i l l o u t a check l i s t t y p e form on which he o r she i n d i c a t e s t h e degree
t o which a t e a c h e r p o s s e s s e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s k i l l s l i s t e d on
th e form,
According t o W e i s e n s t e i n ,

87

the p rin cipal i s s t i l l

th e b e s t choice

t o e v a l u a t e t e a c h e r s , f o r m a t i v e l y and summatively, when c o n s i d e r a t i o n
i s given t o what t h e y have t o work w i t h .

Wayson i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e

p r i n c i p a l w i l l , in almost every s c h o o l, p la y a key r o l e f o r developing
t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n t o a c h ie v e i t s g o a l s .

The s t r a t e g i e s t h e p r i n c i p a l

must u t i l i z e i n c l u d e :
1.
The p r i n c i p a l must have a program o r he must ap pear t o have a
program. The a u r a o f "knowing what he i s doing" i s i n v a l u a b l e
f o r b u i l d i n g person al s e c u r i t y and i s e s s e n t i a l f o r i n f u s i n g
s e c u r i t y and d i r e c t i o n i n t o an o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t g a in s n e c e s s a r y
c o n f id en ce from s t a f f s u p e r v i s o r s and c o n s t i t u e n t s .

McNeil, John D., Toward Accountable T e a c h e r s , T h e ir App ra isal
and Improvement (New York: H o lt , R in e h a r t and Winston, Inc. 1971) p. 47.
8

8

0 7

W e i s e n s t e i n , Greg T . , "Teacher E v a l u a t i o n : The P r i n c i p a l s Role:
OSSC B u l l e t i n 20:3 (November, 1976} 28 pp. p. .
8

73

2.
The p r i n c i p a l must p r o t e c t h i s t e a c h e r s from t h e c o n s t r a i n t s
t h a t now p r e v e n t them becoming th e t e a c h e r s who can f u n c t i o n in
th e s ch o o l. He e n a b le s them to experiment and t o u t i l i z e f a i l u r e
c o n s t r u c t i v e l y . He p r o t e c t s them from o t h e r school personnel
who claim t o have s u p e r i o r t r a i t s .
In f a c t , t h e p r i n c i p a l w i l l
be more h i g h l y tax ed to p r o t e c t h is s t a f f from f o r c e s w i t h i n
th e school system than from w ith o u t.
3.
The p r i n c i p a l s e r v e s h i s s t a f f as a r e s o u r c e g a t h e r e r . He
has t o develop his own l i n e s and sources o f s upply. He cannot
w a i t f o r th e system to move a t i t s own pace, p a r t i c u l a r l y in
d i s t r i c t s which a r e i n c r e d i b l y slow and s t i n g y . He i s a b l e to
develop rewards f o r th e types o f beha vior s r e q u i r e d in th e
school.
4.
Above a l l , th e p r i n c i p a l i s t h e t r u l y e d u c a ti o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
i s a r i s k t a k e r . He cannot f e a r f o r h i s j o b o r h i s personal
s e c u r i t y . He does not look f o r per m ission to educa te or f o r
the methodology to do so. He unabashedly p r e s e n t s th e s c h o o l ' s
problems t o s t a f f , s u p e r i o r s and c i t i z e n s . He does n o t quail
b e f o re th e p u b l i c nor c o l l a p s e f o r th e f i r s t c r i t i c . The
p r i n c i p a l w i l l have t o weigh and r e d i r e c t c r i t i c i s m s and s u g g e s t i o n s ,
i n t e r p r e t i n g o b j e c t i v e l y and r e s i s t i n g th e te m p t a t i o n t o a c t
p r e c i p i t a n t l y . He must know - - through knowledge and i n t u i t i o n - when not t o a c t
. °

8

While i t i s im p o r ta n t f o r one to l e a r n how p r i n c i p a l s should
i d e a l l y perform , i t i s e q u a l l y as im p o r ta n t t o view t h e i r usual
performance.

Young e x p l a i n s t h a t th e usual t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n system

works something l i k e t h i s :
"Once o r twice a y e a r th e s u p e r v i s o r v i s i t t h e t e a c h e r ' s
c l a s s , completes a l e n g t h l y check l i s t ( c o n t a i n i n g many items
which a r e s u p e r f i c i a l and i r r e l e v a n t ) , c a l l s a s h o r t co nf ere nc e
a t which he p r e s e n t s his e v a l u a t i o n f o r a s i g n a t u r e ( a f t e r which
i t w i l l be f i l e d ) and t u r n s t o th e t e a c h e r t o ask i f he has any
q u e s t i o n s . "89

Wayson, William W., Schools f o r Educating Res ponsible C i t i z e n s
f o r 2000 A.D. (March 1977) ED130421
8

8

^ Y o u n g , David B., E f f e c t i v e Sup er v is in g C on f er en ces : S t r a t e g i e s
f o r Modifying Teacher B e h a v io r , 23 p. paper p r e s e n t e d a t th e Annual
Conference o f the A s s o c i a t i o n f o r S u p e r v is i o n and Curriculum Development,
Chicago, I l l i n o i s , 1969, p . 3.

74

Young c a l l s f o r a new model in which th e f o llo w i n g a c t i v i t i e s
t a k e pla ce :
1.

The p r i n c i p a l observe s and codes t h e t e a c h i n g performance.

2.

The p r i n c i p a l provide s feedback t o th e t e a c h e r .

3.

Together th e y an aly ze t h e t e a c h in g b e h a v i o r , p a t t e r n s and
strategies.

4.

The p r i n c i p a l conducts t r a i n i n g .

5.

The t e a c h e r i s given an o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r a c t i c e th e new
be h a v io r .

6

.

7.
8

.

Follow-up o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e held with coding o f th e t e a c h i n g .
The new beh av ior i s an aly zed by th e two p a r t i e s t o g e t h e r .
The c y c le i s r e p e a t e d a s o f t e n as n e c e s s a r y .

Although t h i s pr oce ss ap pea rs to be a d e f i n i t e improvement on th e
normal procedure d e s c r i b e d by Young, i t s t i l l le a v e s many gaps,
p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e acce p ta n c e o f what i s o bs erv ed, a d e f i n i t i o n o f
terms a c c e p t a b l e to b o th , and an agreement on th e e v id en ce and c o l l e c t i o n
p r o cedure s .
Another c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e adopted by many ele men tary p r i n c i p a l s i s
th e avoidance o f s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y when given c h o ic e .

Kowalski

s t a t e s t h a t when a s s i s t a n c e i s a v a i l a b l e , p r i n c i p a l s d e l e g a t e t h e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e v a l u a t i o n t o an a s s i s t a n t in most c a s e s .

90

She

a l s o supported t h e i n fo r m a t io n given e a r l i e r in r e g a r d s t o who i s
involved in e v a l u a t i o n .

She r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l in elementar y

Kowalski, Joan P. S u l l i v a n , Ev alu ating Teacher Performance ERS
Report ( A r l i n g t o n , V i r g i n i a : Educational Research S e r v i c e , 1 9 7 8 ) 2 3 4 p.
9

0

75

sch oo ls has primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s ; one
t h i r d o f th e d i s t r i c t s r e q u i r e t e a c h e r s t o e v a l u a t e them se lves; and
t h r e e p e r c e n t u t i l i z e pee r e v a l u a t i o n .
I f th e in fo r m a tio n which Deal pr o v id e s can be p r o j e c t e d u n i v e r s a l l y ,
p r i n c i p a l s a r e even more d i s s a t i s f i e d with t h e system o f t e a c h e r
e v a l u a t i o n than a r e th e t e a c h e r s .

He a l s o s t a t e s t h a t p r i n c i p a l s ar e

r a r e l y e v a l u a t e d by t h e i r s u p e r i o r s on t h e i r a b i l i t y in t h i s a r e a ,
but a r e "being judged p r i m a r i l y on t h e i r i n n o v a tiv e n e s s and on t h e i r
a b i l i t y to keep t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s happy."

91

I f keeping t e a c h e r s happy i s a goal o f p r i n c i p a l s , then G u t h r i e ' s
d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e t e a c h e r ' s e v a l u a t i o n proc es s i s eviden ce o f a t l e a s t
one means u t i l i z e d t o accomplish t h i s f e a t .
" t h e ceremonial c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s . "

Guthrie c a l l s t h e pro cess

He examined t h e w r i t t e n r e p o r t s o f

e v a l u a t i o n s f o r f i f t y one t e a c h e r s from a t o t a l sample o f s ix hundred.
The o b s e r v a t i o n r e p o r t s were pla ced i n t o a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system and
were viewed as e i t h e r r i t u a l i s t i c or goal o r i e n t e d .

R itu alistic

s ta te m e n t s were d e f in e d as th o s e n o t d i r e c t l y o r s p e c i f i c a l l y d e a lin g
with t h e improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n ( i . e . , "I enjoyed th e c l a s s . "
"A good l e a r n i n g environment e x i s t e d . " and "I was pleas ed with my v i s i t . " )
Goal o r i e n t e d s ta te m e n t s were d e f in e d as those t h a t r e f e r r e d t o a
s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n wherein i m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y an
a t t e m p t was made t o improve e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e .

Deal, T e rr en ce E ., e t . a l . , " V i l l i a n s as Victims" Evaluating
P r i n c i p a l s " Phi Delta Kappan, 59 (December, 1977) pp. 273-74.
9

1

76

Another s e t o f c a t e g o r i e s was e s t a b l i s h e d t o examine e v a l u a t i v e
to n e ; t h a t i s th e q u a l i t i e s o f p r a i s e o r c r i t i c i s m in t h e w r i t t e n
documents.

Each s ta t e m e n t was c l a s s i f i e d as p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e o r

n e u t r a l in t h e s e t e r m s .
These a u th o r s hypothesize d t h a t :
1.

R i t u a l i s t i c s ta t e m e n t s would appea r more o f t e n than goal
oriented statem ents;

2.

Stat em en ts w i l l ten d to be p o s i t i v e r a t h e r than n e g a t i v e
o r n e u t r a l ; and

3.

R i t u a l i s t i c s t a t e m e n t s w i l l be p o s i t i v e .

All t h r e e o f t h e s e hypotheses were s u s t a i n e d ;

92
8 6

percent of all

the s ta te m e n ts were r i t u a l i s t i c and 14 p e r c e n t were goal o r i e n t e d ;
72 p e r c e n t o f th e s ta te m e n ts were p o s i t i v e , 28 p e r c e n t n e u t r a l o r
negative.

While 72 p e r c e n t o f t h e r i t u a l i s t i c s ta t e m e n t s were p o s i t i v e ,

on ly 51.5 p e r c e n t o f t h e goal o r i e n t e d s ta t e m e n t s were coded in t h a t
category.
"In t h e i n q u i r y , we have found t h a t one a s p e c t o f p r i n c i p a l te a c h e r i n t e r a c t i o n , p r i n c i p a l s w r i t t e n r e p o r t s o f classroom
o b s e r v a t i o n i s pervaded by r i t u a l i s m , a r i t u a l i s m t h a t te nds t o
be p o s i t i v e o r l a u d i t o r y in t o n e , n o t c r i t i c a l . Thus, th e t i t l e ,
th e ceremonial c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s , "
"The ceremonial c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s p l a i n l y i s f u n c t i o n a l f o r
t h e p r i n c i p a l - t e a c h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p ; i t can be viewed as one form
o f a d a p t a t i o n on th e p a r t o f p r i n c i p a l s t h a t guards th e d e l i c a t e
b alan ce in r o l e r e l a t i o n s between themselves and t e a c h e r s . I t s
consequences f o r s t u d e n t s a r e l e s s c l e a r . In any c a s e , t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n r e p o r t i s u n l i k e l y t o be a v e h i c l e f o r t h e promotion
o f s e r i o u s d i a l o g u e on i n s t r u c t i o n between p r i n c i p a l s and
teachers."
QO
G u t h r ie , Harold D. and Donald J . Will o v e r , The Ceremonial
C o n g r a t u l a t i v e : An A n a l y s is o f P r i n c i p a l s " O bser vat ion Reports of
Classroom Teaching" The High School J o u r n a l , Volume LVI,
pp. 286.
6

77

"We r e a l i z e t h a t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n r e p o r t may be b u t a p a l e
shadow t h a t f a i l s t o r e f l e c t a f a r r i c h e r and more goal o r i e n t e d
i n t e r a c t i o n , but t h a t p o s s i b i l i t y seems remote t o u s . Als o, we
a r e aware t h a t t e a c h e r s a r e , t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t 'on s t a g e ’ during
o b s e r v a t i o n s . Yet t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s only b u t t r e s s t h e c o n c l u s io n
t h a t th e p r e s e n t system o f classroom o b s e r v a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l l y un­
im p o rta n t as a method o f improving i n s t r u c t i o n
.

"

"

3

G o ld s te in co n ti n u e s t o b e r a t e t h e p r e s e n t system o f e v a l u a t i o n :
Many s u p e r v i s o r s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p e r t in academic
a r e a s they a r e asked to s u p e r v i s e .
There i s l i t t l e genuine t r u s t in t h e s u p e r v i s o r y pro cess
which i s viewed by t e a c h e r s as f a r more e v a l u a t i v e than h e l p i n g .
The s u p e r v i s o r y pr oc es s i s too f r e q u e n t l y re gard ed as a
pro forma e x e r c i s e by s u p e r v i s o r s and t e a c h e r s a l i k e - - a
g en te el kind o f u n d e r sta n d in g t h a t e i t h e r both p a r t i e s ag r ee
o r th ey a g r e e t o d i s a g r e e . Changes o f b e h a v i o r seldom r e s u l t
from t h i s kind o f ' d e t e n t e ' .
Experienced t e a c h e r s ar e t h e most bored w it h t h e process
and s a d ly a r e th e l e a s t l i k e l y to chan ge
.

9 4

Singing t h e same e s s e n t i a l t o n e , b u t in a d i f f e r e n t key Cummings
and Schwab contend t h a t t h e a p p r a i s a l p r o c e s s ,
" o f t e n te n d s t o flow only from the s u p e r i o r t o th e s u b o r d i n a t e
so t h a t t h e l a t t e r f e e l s h e /s h e must defend h i m s e l f / h e r s e l f and t o
j u s t i f y h i s / h e r a c t i o n s . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s u p e r i o r a l s o
f e e l s uncomfortable because o f t e n he o r she does not po ssess
adequate a p p r a i s a l s k i l l s , o b j e c t s t o making judgements about
s u b o r d i n a t e s , and r e a l i z e s t h a t h e /s h e may n o t be a b l e t o implement
remedial m e a s u r e s . "95
In an i n t e r e s t i n g d i s s e r t a t i o n , Gosling found t h a t :
1.

P r i n c i p a l s met minimal re q u ire m e n ts f o r e v a l u a t i o n ;

93lo c c i t . pp. 284-90.
9 4 G o l d s te in , W il liam , "An E nlightened Approach t o S u p e r v is in g
Teachers" The C l e a r i n g House, 46 (March, 1972) pp. 391-94.
Cummings, L. L. and Donald P. Schwab, Performance in O r g a n i z a t i o n s :
Deter minants and A p p r aisal (Glenview, I l l i n o i s : S c o t t Foresman and
Company, 1973) p. 105.

78

2.

E va lu a ti on tended to be d i r e c t e d toward p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t ;
r e l a t i v e l y few d i r e c t c r i t i c i s m o f t e a c h e r ' s work were found;

3.

L i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e was found f o r e v a l u a t i o n s o f te n u r e d versus
non-te nure d t e a c h e r s ;

4.

P r i n c i p a l s used coping mechanismsto eas e t h e i r e v a l u a t i v e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in c l u d i n g g iv in g a s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f
p r a i s e and f in d i n g reasons o t h e r than th e t e a c h e r t o
e x p la i n in ad eq u ate o r poor performance; and

5.

P r i n c i p a l s f a i l e d t o e v a l u a t e in s e l e c t e d a r e a s

. 9 6

Strong s u p p o r t f o r th e importance o f e x p e r t i s e and s p e c i f i c i t y
as a b a s i s f o r working w i th t e a c h e r s on i n s t r u c t i o n a l problems was
t h e focus o f a n o th e r s t u d y ' s r e s u l t s .

This s tu d y a l s o showed t h a t

th e p r i n c i p a l was one o f th e l e a s t l i k e l y per sons t o whom t e a c h e r s
97
would go i f they had a problem."
P r i n c i p a l s may view themselves a s i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s b u t t e a c h e r s
tend t o view them more as managers.
th e study by S e i f e r t and Beck

98

While 8135 o f th e p r i n c i p a l s , in

saw themselves as i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s ,

only 3135 o f t h e i r t e a c h e r s saw them in t h i s l i g h t .

The m a j o r i t y o f

th e p r i n c i p a l s p o l l e d s a i d th ey spend l e s s than 5035 o f t h e i r time on

96

G os lin g, Arthur W. Teacher E v a l u a t i o n : An Examination o f Formal
E x p e c t a t io n s and Actual C o n t e n t , Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Indiana
U n i v e r s i t y 1978, 103 pp.
Gordon, Dick, The Importance o f A d m i n i s t r a t i v e E x p e r t i s e in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p , 23 p. pape r p r e s e n t e d a t th e American Educational
Research A s s o c i a t i o n Annual Meeting ( 5 5 t h , New York, February 4 - 7 , 1971).
9

7

^ S e i f e r t , Edward H. and John J . Beck, "Elementary- H n c i p a l s :
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Leaders o r School Managers?" Phi D el ta Kappan, 62
(March 1981) p. 528.
9

79

i n s t r u c t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s and 67% i n d i c a t e d they would l i k e t o spend
more time a t t h i s r o l e .

Teachers f e l t in 28% o f t h e ca s es t h a t p r i n c i p a l s

chose not to focus on t h i s r o l e , b ut 40% f e l t t h a t p r i n c i p a l s were
overburdened by time c o n s t r a i n t s which pr evented more a c t i v i t y in
instruction.

In r eg ard s t o e v a l u a t i o n , 73% o f th e p r i n c i p a l s c o n t a c t e d

b e l i e v e they can h elp t e a c h e r s improve t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n a l s k i l l s
(females more than m a l e s ) .

P r i n c i p a l s with l e s s e x p e r i e n c e seem more

l i k e l y to see th e need f o r a p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n c o n f e r e n c e .

Also , p r i n c i p a l s

o f s m a l l e r s ch ools a r e more l i k e l y t o see th e advantage o f t h i s te c h n iq u e .
Popham

99

claims t h a t t h e r e i s ev iden ce showing t h a t r a t i n g s c a l e s ,

used by p r i n c i p a l s f o r e v a l u a t i n g t e a c h e r per formance, a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y
c o r r e l a t e d with pupil growth t o w a r ra n t t h e i r widespread use; th e
r e s u l t s a r e t y p i c a l l y i n c o n s i s t e n t and co nfusing says t h e a u t h o r .
The a t t i t u d e t h a t t e a c h e r s have toward t h e e v a l u a t i o n pro cess i s
im p o rta n t a p p a r e n t l y .

Zelanak and S n i d e r ^ ^ comparing a t t i t u d e s o f

t e a c h e r s found t h a t t e a c h e r s who b e l i e v e d t h a t th e purpose o f th e
e v a l u a t i o n s was f o r improving i n s t r u c t i o n as opposed t o being used
f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e purposes were more p o s i t i v e toward t h e
evaluation process.

^Pop ham , W. James " P i t f a l l s and P r a t f a l l s o f Teacher Eva lu a tion "
Educational Le ad ersh ip 32 (November 1974) pp. 141-146.
^ Zela nak, Mel H. and B i l l C. S n i d e r , "Teacher P e r c e p t i o n s o f
the Teacher E v a lu a ti o n Pro ce ss" C a l i f o r n i a Journ al o f Educational
Research (May 1974) p. 117.
0

0

80

^ ergiov an ni says:
"By and l a r g e th e t e a c h e r s we have now a r e t h e t e a c h e r s we
w i l l have in th e y e a r s t o come. I t i s wis hf ul t h i n k i n g t o assume
t h a t s c h o o ls w i l l improve o r t h a t changes w i l l be accep ted more
r e a d i l y by i n f u s i o n o f s u b s t a n t i a l 'new b lood' i n t o th e s c h o o ls .
Improvements must be made by r e l y i n g on the t e a c h e r s we now have.
Thus, keeping t e a c h e r s in e f f e c t i v e s e r v i c e as i n t e r e s t e d , growing,
and h ig h ly m o tivated i n d i v i d u a l s becomes a prime focus o f
supervision."
"Few o t h e r f i e l d s can match ' t h e l a b o r i n t e n s i v e r e c o rd o f
p u b l i c e d u c a tio n in t h a t f o u r o u t o f f i v e d o l l a r s s p e n t in e d u c a t io n
a r e s p e n t on s a l a r i e s f o r t e a c h e r s
F u r t h e r , s ch ools a r e
or g a n iz e d so t h a t t e a c h e r s have wide d i s c r e t i o n .
Indeed d i s c r e t i o n
a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e s as one moves down th e e d u c a ti o n a l h i e r a r c h y
i n t o th e clas sroom s. The l e s s v i s a b l e o n e ' s job i s to o t h e r a d u l t s ,
th e more d i s c r e t i o n he o r she has. Teachers can behave p r e t t y much
as th ey wish pr o v id in g t h a t . . . th ey do n o t n o t i c a b l y v i o l a t e
ac cepted p r e c e p t s o f normative o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o r d e r
.

1

1

.

" 1 0 1

This l a b o r i n t e n s i v e n a t u r e o f e ducation combined with such
s t a b i l i t y o f t e a c h e r s pr ovides problems f o r s u p e r v i s o r s says th e a u t h o r .
"In t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s i t i s what th e t e a c h e r decides t o do
day by day wit h s tu d e n t s i n t h e classroom t h a t r e a l l y m a t t e r s and
t h i s d a i l y e n c o u n t e r needs t o be th e focus o f change. I f we f a i l
t o r ea ch t h i s d a i l y e n c o u n t e r , we have d e a l t only with s t r u c t u r a l
change but not i n t e r n a l i z e d change. While t h e s t r u c t u r a l changes
seem to be very wid espread and even i f i t seems t h a t a school has
changed d r a m a t i c a l l y , t h e t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s in those
s ch ools may n o t have changed much a t a l l . They s t i l l see s t u d e n t s
t h e same way; t h e y may s t i l l be working under th e same assu mptions;
and f o r a l l i n t e r e s t s and purposes t h e i r b e havior and t h e i r e f f e c t
on s t u d e n t s may vary l i t t l e from previous modes. We have been
f a i r l y s u c c e s s f u l in implementing s t r u c t u r a l changes; as a consequence
we have gaine d l i t t l e in t h e p r o c e s s . I n t e r n a l i z e d changes, on
th e o t h e r hand, have th e c a p a c i t y t o reach t h e school where i t
coun ts - - in what t e a c h e r s b e l i e v e and how th ey behav e
.

1 0 1

"

' 0

2

S e r g io v a n n i, Thomas J . , P r o f e s s i o n a l Supervis ion f o r P r o f e s s i o n a l
T e a c h e r s * (Washington, D.C., A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Supervis ion and Curriculum
Envelopment, 1975) p . 5.
1

0

2

,
...
l o c . c i t . , p.

6

.

81

"The eviden ce i s mounting t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t changes in school
e f f e c t i v e n e s s w i l l n o t come about as a r e s u l t of i n c r e a s i n g
s a l a r i e s o f t e a c h e r s , red ucing t h e work l o a d , i n t r o d u c i n g c l e r i c a l
a s s i s t a n t s , using performance c o n t r a c t s , and the l i k e . These a l l
c o n t r i b u t e a c e r t a i n amount o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s but t h e i r potency
can not compare with powerful s o c i o - p s y c h o l o g ic a l f a c t o r s , such as
i n t e r n a l committment and m o t iv a t io n t o work. The h i g h l y motivated
t e a c h e r must become a high p r i o r i t y concern o f s u p e r v i s o r s ,
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and t e a c h e r s who a r e i n t e r n a l l y committed and
m o tivate d t o w o r k . " 1 0 3
In an im p o rtan t and e x t e n s i v e look a t the importance o f s u p e r v i s i o n
as a tool f o r t h e improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n ; Parsons r e v e a l s t h a t
p r o f e s s i o n a l s need s u p e r v i s o r y help f o r two r e a s o n s :
1.

To a s s u r e t h a t th e g o a l s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( school) a r e
being met; i t has been shown t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l s working in
a s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e helped by s u p e r v i s o r y p r a c t i c e s
which i d e n t i f y and c l a r i f y t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s g o a l s .

2.

To help t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s e rv e t h e i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y ;
s u p e r v i s i o n which h elps p r o f e s s i o n a l s work more e f f e c t ! v e l y , Q.
a l s o enhances th e q u a l i t y o f s e r v i c e o f f e r e d to th e p u b l i c .

Parsons c i t e s s e v e ra l roadblocks t o e f f e c t i v e s u p e r v i s i o n and
evaluation:
1.

P r o f e s s i o n a l s may i n t e r p r e t a tt e m p ts a t i n f l u e n c e as an
i n v a s io n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e r o g a t i v e s ;

103,
l o c . c i t . , p . 7.
^ P a r s o n s , L lew elly n, E v a lu a ti o n o f Teacher P er form an ce , 21 p
paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress on Education (2nd
Vancouver, B r i t i s h Columbia, June 17-20, 1979) p . 12.

82

2.

Heavy a d m i n i s t r a t i v e demands on th e time o f t e a c h e r s may
p r e v e n t e f f e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f performance;

3.

The s u p e r v i s o r s l a c k o f power i n f l u e n c e and a u t h o r i t y to
meet new demands o f t e a c h e r s make him i n e f f e c t i v e ;

4.

An overemphasis on e v a l u a t i o n as a b u r e a u c r a t i c dimension
may m i t i g a t e a g a i n s t t h e p r i n c i p a l , and;

5.

S t y l e s and beh av io r s o f s u p e r v i s o r s which a r e inco ngru en t
w ith t e a c h e r e x p e c t a t i o n s may cause r i f t s between t h e p r i n c i p a l
and t e a c h e r s . 105

Removing t h e s e roadblocks t o th e e f f e c t i v e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t e a c h e r s
r e q u i r e s t h a t th e e f f e c t i v e p r i n c i p a l must a s c e r t a i n t h a t :
1.

Help i s given t o t e a c h e r s by s u g g e s t i o n , a d v i c e , and
consultation;

2.

The method and c o n t e n t o f help r e l a t e s t o t h e t e a c h e r ' s own
qualifications;

3.

The s t y l e s and b e h a v i o r s o f e v a l u a t i o n o f performance a r e
con gr uen t with what t e a c h e r s e x p e c t ;

4.

The power o f t h e p r i n c i p a l i s based on i n f l u e n c e from personal
competency r a t h e r than from a s t r u c t u r a l l i n e r e l a t i o n s h i p ;
and

5.

The n e c e s s a r y e v a l u a t i o n i s aimed a t improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n - i t avoids c h e c k l i s t s and r a t i n g s c a l e s and i t i s in fu s e d with
hu m an ist ic p r a c t i c e s . ' * ^

The s t y l e o f s u p e r v i s i o n s t r e s s e d by P a r s o n s , which he c a l l s "the
personal and i n s t i t u t i o n a l growth s t y l e " , m a in ta i n s t h a t a f t e r th e jo b
c o n t e n t and o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e school have been e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e most
im p o rta n t a c t i v i t i e s o f th e p r i n c i p a l i n c l u d e :
1.

Helping th e t e a c h e r make t h e w i d e s t use o f h i s t a l e n t s and
ideas;

^05l o c . c i t . ; p . ! 4

83

2.

P e r m i t t i n g and encouraging the q u e s ti o n i n g o f accep te d
p r a c t i c e s and r o u t i n e s by t e a c h e r s ;

3.

Helping t e a c h e r s i d e n t i f y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g oals and s t u d e n t
needs;

4.

Helping t e a c h e r s u n d e r s ta n d th e s t u d e n t ' s environment; and

5.

C l a r i f y i n g and s harp ening t h e t e a c h e r ' s t h i n k i n g about
problems which c o n f r o n t th em .l °7

In an i n t e r e s t i n g study done in New York which involved 336
TAO
randomly s e l e c t e d elemen tary s c h o o l s , Hain and Smith
found some
d i s t u r b i n g f a c t s which may be i m p o rt a n t f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g to poor
school performance.
The s i z e o f t h e s ch oo ls in t h i s s tu d y were l a r g e r than
normal; o nly t h r e e p e r c e n t had an e n r o llm e n t between
200 and 400 p u p i l s ; 28 p e r c e n t were between 400 and 600;
36 p e r c e n t had 600 to 800 and 33 p e r c e n t had e n r o llm e n t s
o f over 800. " I t would seem t h a t t h e elem en tary schools
a r e l a r g e r than t h e g e n e r a l l y recommended s i z e . The s h e e r
s i z e o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s s u p e r v i s o r y r o l e appe ar s t o be
unwieldy. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , th e burdens of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
a r e n o t being sh ared in t h a t 76 p e r c e n t o f th e responding
p r i n c i p a l s do n o t have any a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h e l p . More than
h a l f o f th e p r i n c i p a l s r e p o r t e d t h a t th e y a lo n e a r e
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e e v a l u a t i o n o f 30 - 50 t e a c h e r s and 13
p e r c e n t f o r more than 50 t e a c h e r s . These r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
f o r e v a l u a t i o n and s u p e r v i s io n o f th e i n c r e a s i n g numbers o f
i qq
t e a c h e r s can only lead t o s u p e r f i c i a l help from t h e p r i n c i p a l . "
The r a t i o o f t e a c h e r s t o p r i n c i p a l
in 30 p e r c e n t of t h e s c h o o l s , 1-30
s c h o o l s , 1-40 in 19 p e r c e n t o f t h e
o f t h e s c h o o l s , and more th a n 1-50

^

0

7

were r e p o r t e d t o be 1-20
i n 30 p e r c e n t o f th e
s c h o o l s , 1-50 in 15 p e r c e n t
in s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e s c h o o l s .

l o c . c i t . , p . 18.

^ Hain, John H. and George J . Smith, E va lu a tion o f T e a c h e r s : The
P r i n c i p a l 1s Dilemma,
p. paper p r e s e n t e d to t h e U.S.Department o f
Hea lth Education and W elf are, O f f i c e o f Ed ucat io n, 1969 ED013490.
8

8

109,
l o c . c i t . , p.

0

1

- .
2

84

Two t h i r d s o f th e d i s t r i c t s pro vide p r i n c i p a l s with w r i t t e n
pr oc ed ur es and s ta n d a r d s t o use in t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n s . The
t o o l s o f e v a l u a t i o n c o n s i s t b a s i c a l l y o f 'R atin g Forms"
where t h e e v a l u a t o r checks o r w r i t e s comments about v a r i o u s
aspects of teaching
.

1 1 0

Less than h a l f o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s in th e study {41 p e r c e n t ) gave
t e a c h e r s p r i o r n o t i c e o f an impending s u p e r v i s o r y v i s i t .
"Many
p r i n c i p a l s f e e l t h a t n o t i c e w i ll produce a 'c an ned ' le ss o n
and does n o t r e f l e c t t h e day to day a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e normal
classroom ."
P r i n c i p a l s te n d t o v i s i t p r o b a t i o n a r y t e a c h e r s more o f t e n
then te n u r e d t e a c h e r s .
The time s p e n t in t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n v a r i e s from under te n
minutes t o a l l morning o r a l l a f t e r n o o n ; 60 p e r c e n t o f th e
p r i n c i p a l s r e p o r t e d th e y observed t e a c h e r s f o r twenty t o
f o r t y minutes a t each o c c a s i o n ;
p e r c e n t from ten to
twenty; and 12 p e r c e n t from 45 t o 90 m in ute s.
1 2

Formal o b s e r v a t i o n i s normally followed up with a c o n f eren c e
between th e p r i n c i p a l and th e t e a c h e r s .
Only a few t e a c h e r s i n v i t e p r i n c i p a l s to v i s i t t h e i r clas sr oom .
P r i n c i p a l s g e n e r a l l y f e l t t h a t th e y were doing an e f f e c t i v e
j o b in e v a l u a t i n g t e a c h e r s ; only nine p e r c e n t s a i d th e y were
n o t ple a s e d w it h t h e i r e f f o r t s
.

'

1 1

G i l b e r t Austin d e s c r i b e d t h r e e ro ad block s t o e f f e c t i v e s u p e r v i s io n
by p r i n c i p a l s ; he s a i d t h a t in a stu d y o f 619 p r i n c i p a l s nati onw ide,
t h e r e spondents c i t e d lack o f time due t o o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
as t h e primary reas on f o r lac k o f s u p e r v i s i o n .

Another roadblock was

t h e l a c k o f p r e p a r a t i o n in s u p e r v i s o r y s t r a t e g i e s and s k i l l s which t h e
p r i n c i p a l r e c e i v e s in t r a i n i n g f o r h i s o r her p o s i t i o n .

1 1 2

, 1 0 ibed.
^ l o c . c i t . , p . 5.
1

1

?

A u s t i n , G i l b e r t , "Exemplary Elementary Schools and T h e ir
P r i n c i p a l s ; P r i n c i p a l {Michigan Elementary and Middle School P r i n c i p a l ' s
A s s o c i a t i o n ) LVI {February, 1980) p. 19-21.

85

Haskins s u p p o rts t h e views o f Aus tin in r e g a rd s t o th e p r e - s e r v i c e
t r a i n i n g o f e lem enta ry school p r i n c i p a l s .

He s t a t e s t h a t elem en tary

p r i n c i p a l s a r e placed in c l a s s e s w i th a l l o t h e r e d u c a ti o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
h o p ef u ls and t h a t th o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n becoming a p r i n c i p a l "were not
c o n s id e re d as worthy o f a t t e n t i o n as th o s e who were seek ing t o be a
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , a commissioner o f e d u c a t i o n , o r a management c o n s u l t a n t . "
In reviewing t h e co urse c o n t e n t o f t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s p r e p a rin g
p r i n c i p a l s f o r t h e i r j o b s , Haskins found t h a t a l l o f them o f f e r t h e o r y
co u r se s but few co u r se s a v a i l a b l e t o p r i n c i p a l s were o f a p r a c t i c a l
nature.

The only p r e - r e q u i s i t e f o r e n t r y i n t o a co u r s e was t h e

c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as a p o s s i b l e o b j e c t i v e .
Haskins d e c r i e d th e f a c t t h a t t h e completion o f a co u r se o f study in
e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n becomes tantamount t o c e r t i f i c a t i o n t h a t
t h e g r a d u a t e i s pr epare d t o p r a c t i c e in a c e r t a i n p r o f e s s i o n .

114

Park er Damon a g r e e s t h a t "people with deg ree s in e d u c a tio n a l
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e no b e t t e r q u a l i f i e d f o r th e p r i n c i p a l s hip than
th e y would be t h e y had r e c e i v e d a degree in a n o t h e r f i e l d or none
at a ll

.

"

^

5

Par k er i n s i s t s t h a t p r e s e r v i c e e d u c a t io n i s not th e answer

t o p r o v id in g b e t t e r s u p e r v i s i n g p r i n c i p a l s .

"The demands o f p a r t i c u l a r

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n s a r e too s p e c i f i c f o r e x i s t i n g ed u c a t io n a l

^ ^ H a s k i n s , Kenneth W., The
Programs: The Nationa l Elementary P r i n c i p a l 57:3 (March, 1978) p . 45.
114

lo c.cit.p .4 0 .

1 1 C

Damon,Parker, " I n s e r v i c e Bluew" The National Elementary
P r i n c i p a l 57:3 (March, 1978) p . 45.

113

86

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e programs to a d d r e s s , and th e p o s i t i o n s themselves ar e
changing too r a p i d l y f o r any program to do more w it h than s p e c u l a t e on
t h e i r nature.

1 1 fi

In plea din g the c as e f o r b e t t e r i n s e r v i c e programs

f o r p r i n c i p a l s , he s t a t e s ;
"A p r i n c i p a l who ta k e s g r a d u a t e cou rse s a t n i g h t o r durin g
t h e summer, a t t e n d s co nfere nc es and c o n v e n t i o n s , o r p a r t i c i p a t e s
in o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l ' e x t r a p r i n c i p a l s h i p * a c t i v i t i e s i s th ou gh t
n ot t o need a d d i t i o n a l i n s e r v i c e s u p p o r t. But t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s
a r e o f t e n s t r u c t u r e d in keeping w it h what someone e l s e - - a
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o r school board - - t h i n k s w i l l be b e n e f i c i a l .
Only a f o r t u n a t e few a r e accorded th e p r o f e s s i o n a l freedom and
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o determ ine and plan what b e s t meets t h e i r own
needs as a p r i n c i p a l , - - Or, once a p r i n c i p a l has been given one
chance f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l development, t h e d i s t r i c t se es no need
f o r follow-up s u p p o r t . In s h o r t , i n s e r v i c e o f t e n amounts t o no
more than t h e s p o r a d i c e f f o r t s a d i s t r i c t makes when i t t h i n k s
i t can a f f o r d t o do s o . " l i 7
"The most s i g n i f i c a n t reason f o r n o t improving i n s e r v i c e programs
f o r p r i n c i p a l s says Damon, " i s , simply t h a t t h e r e i s nothin g to
improve."

118

The m a j o r i t y o f d i s t r i c t s a r e n o t p r o v id in g p r i n c i p a l s

with a nything resembling an ad equate i n s e r v i c e program acco rding to
t h e a u t h o r and y e t , he says t h a t , . " I n s e r v i c e f o r p r i c i p a l s , along with
i n s e r v i c e f o r t e a c h e r s , w i l l improve th e q u a l i t y o f c h i l d r e n ' s e d u cati o n
f a r more than any new p r e s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g , managerial te c h n iq u e s o r
c u r ric u lu m package ev er c o u l d . "

^ lo c .c it.

p . 47.

^ l o c . c i t . p. 48.
^

8

119

l o c . c i t . p. 49.
l o c . c i t . p. 50.

119

87

In a study from The Best o f t h e Best o f ERIC,

i t was r e p o r t e d

t h a t one group o f r e s e a r c h e r s found t h a t , " P r i n c i p a l s may be a b l e to
improve both t e a c h i n g and t e a c h e r s a t i s f a c t i o n simply by i n c r e a s i n g
th e frequency o f e v a l u a tio n ."

1 2 0

The a u t h o r s o f t h i s s tudy r e p o r t e d

t h a t t h e r e was l i t t l e agreement between p r i n c i p a l s and t e a c h e r s
r e g a r d in g th e e x t e n t t o which t e a c h e r s knew what i n fo r m a ti o n and
c r i t e r i a were used in e v a l u a t i o n .

Teachers were b e l i e v e d by p r i n c i p a l s

to know more abou t th e e v a l u a t i o n proce ss than th e y r e a l l y did.
Although t h e p r i n c i p a l s in t h i s study f e l t t h a t t e a c h e r s would not
l i k e f r e q u e n t e v a l u a t i o n s and would tend t o r e s i s t them being done
more f r e q u e n t l y , they d is c o v e r e d t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s responded f a v o r a b l y
to t h e in c r e a s e d number o f e v a l u a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s
o f improved t e a c h i n g r e s u l t i n g from t h i s p r a c t i c e .
Zechman r e p o r t e d t h a t t e a c h e r s , p r i n c i p a l s and s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
t o o , a l l b e l i e v e d t h a t p r i n c i p a l s should spend more time on i n s t r u c t i o n a l
l e a d e r s h i p a c t i v i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y on s t a f f s u p e r v i s i o n .
Rothberg, e t . a l . con cu rre d and s t a t e d :

1 2 1

" I f a d m in istra to rs intend

t h e i r as se ssm en ts o f t e a c h e r s to improve clas sro om p r a c t i c e , o b s e r v a t i o n s
and fo llo w up c o nf ere nc es should be more f r e q u e n t and l e n g t h y , b u t l e s s
threatening."

In t h i s s tu d y , 205 elem enta ry and secondary e d u c a t o r s

1 90

The Best o f t h e Best o f ERIC, Thompson, June E ., Dornbusch,
Sanford M. a n d "S co tt W. R ic h a r d , " F a i l u r e s o f Communication in th e
Eva luatio n o f Teachers by P r i n c i p a l s , Technical Report No. 43" {Eugene,
Oregon: ERIC Cle aringhouse on Educational Management, 1979, page 413)
^ Z e c h m a n , Harry T. "Are P r i n c i p a l s Competent in t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l
L ead er shi p D o m a in ? " , NASSP B u l l e t i n , 61 (December, 1977) p. 414.

88

formed t h a t c o n c l u s i o n , 90 p e r c e n t o f whom were clas sroo m t e a c h e r s with
an av erage o f 5.9 y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e .

E i g h t y - f o u r p e r c e n t o f th e

t e a c h e r s involved i n d i c a t e d t h a t th ey were observed t h r e e or fewer
times p e r y e a r .

1 2 2

In t h i s s tu d y , n e a r l y h a l f t h e group saw t h e p o s t - o b s e r v a t i o n
confere nc e as t h e v e h i c l e most l i k e l y to b ring about change in t h e
classroom performance and r e s u l t in i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement.

But,

only h a l f o f th e res p o n d en ts i n d i c a t e d th ey were e v e r helped by p o s t ­
c onfere nc e s u g g e s t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y due t o th e l a c k o f s p e c i f i c i t y o f
th e conf e re n c e remarks.

F o r ty two p e r c e n t o f t h e t e a c h e r s o f t h i s

stu d y c a l l e d f o r clas sro om o b s e r v a t i o n s which a r e more f r e q u e n t , l o n g e r ,
more informed and l e s s t h r e a t e n i n g .

The t e a c h e r s and p r i n c i p a l s o f

t h i s s tu d y conc urre d i n t h e i r f e e l i n g s abou t t h e val ue o f i n - s e r v i c e
programs which s t r e s s s e l f - e v a l u a t i v e components;,

123

In looking a t some te c h n iq u e s which a p r i n c i p a l might use to improve
th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f h i s o r her s u p e r v i s o r y p r a c t i c e s , Woolman s t r o n g l y
s u g g e s ts t h a t video t a p e r e p r o d u c t i o n s used as an i n - s e r v i c e a g en t and
as a d a t a - g a t h e r i n g d e v i s e to c a p t u r e a c t u a l clas sroo m t e a c h i n g methods
can be most e f f e c t i v e .

In her s t u d y , Woolman found t h a t young t e a c h e r s

were more a p t to l e a r n f a s t e r from t h i s app ro ac h, but more exper ien ce d

1 77

Rothberg, Robert A. and L i l a L. Buchenan. "Teacher P e r c e p t i o n s
o f Teacher As sessment", Phi Delta Kappan 62:7 (March, 1981) p. 527.

89

t e a c h e r s adapted t h e l e a r n i n g more e f f e c t i v e l y t o th e classroom s i t u a t i o n .
Do p r i n c i p a l s o r headmasters from p r i v a t e schools o p e r a t e any
d i f f e r e n t l y than t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s in t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r ?
s e l e c t e d r e s e a r c h im p lies not r e a l l y .

The review o f

Nostrand r e p o r t s t h a t alth ou gh

headmasters f e e l t h a t th e improvement oft i n s t r u c t i o n i s an extremely
im po rt an t primary f u n c t i o n , th e y do n o t work a t t h i s a c t i v i t y as much
as th ey would l i k e .

I t appears from t h i s r e p o r t t h a t headmasters do not

v i s i t clas sro oms any more f r e q u e n t l y than do p u b l i c elem entary p r i n c i p a l s
and l i k e w i s e t h e y do not perform o t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p f u n c t i o n s
up to t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s .

125

In h i s book, S e l e c t i o n and E v a lu a ti o n o f T e a c h e r s , Bolton d e s c r i b e s
in d e t a i l s i x f a c t o r s which h i n d e r t h e e v a l u a t i v e pr o c e ss in e d u c a t io n :
1.

A general lack o f c e r t a i n t y r e g a rd in g t h e c r i t e r i a , th e
measurement p r o c e s s , and t h e pro ce dures f o r a n a l y s i s and
in te rp re ta tio n of data;

2.

The e v a l u a t o r ' s d i s l i k e o f being in a p o s i t i o n to man ipulate
o r adversely a f f e c t o th er people's l i v e s ;

3

.

A f e a V o f p r e c i p i t a t i n g an u n p l e a s a n t r e a c t i o n on th e p a r t
o f t h e person being e v a l u a t e d . This r e a c t i o n then p r e v e n ts a
r e l a t i o n s h i p conducive t o h e lp in g t h e i n d i v i d u a l improve;

Woolman, L o r r a i n e , The E f f e c t o f Video-Taped S i n g l e Concept
Demonstrations in an I n - S e r v i c e Program f o r Improving I n s t r u c t i o n ,
(Houston, Texas: Bureau o f Educational Research and Development
U n i v e r s i t y o f Houston, 1969
pp .} .
6

8

^ N o s t r a n d , P e t i e F. Headmasters: In Theory and P r a c t i c e ,
73 page r e p o r t , 1973 ED077140.

124

90

4.

A lack o f a b i l i t y t o cope with th e weaknesses o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
in terms o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l needs and h i s a b i l i t y t o improve.
This is sometimes l i n k e d with a f a i l u r e to communicate to
th e i n d i v i d u a l th e n e c e s s i t y o f d e a l i n g with both i n d i v i d u a l
and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l problems;

5.

A f a i l u r e t o see t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f e v a l u a t i o n o f o t h e r s t o
th e purposes o f th e e v a l u a t i o n ; and

6

.

An i n a b i l i t y , t o o r g a n i z e time so t h a t adeq ua te o b s e r v a t i o n s
can be made.

Bolton s u p p o r ts t h e c o n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s t h a t " E f f e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n
o f t e a c h e r s i s dependent on both an adeq uate q u a l i t y and an adequate
q u a n t i t y of communications between t e a c h e r s and p r i n c i p a l s . "

127

The a b i l i t y o f a p r i n c i p a l t o o b t a i n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s in changing
t h e te a c h i n g h a b i t s o f t e a c h e r s i s dependent upon th e s p e c i f i c i t y o f
th e g o a l s , agreement on th e g o a ls and p er ceiv ed adequacy o f t h e
i oft
evidence p r o v id e d ,"
Bolton r e i t e r a t e s t h e f i n d i n g s o f o t h e r s r e p o r t e d in t h i s review
by saying t h a t a c c o u n t a b i l i t y (summative e v a l u a t i o n s ) and a s s i s t a n c e
( f o r m a tiv e e v a l u a t i o n s ) should n o t oc cur a t th e same tim e.

Too, he

s a y s , t h e r a t i n g s c a l e ty pe o f e v a l u a t i o n should not be used and he
a l s o e m p h a t i c a l l y s t a t e s t h a t a " t e a c h e r w i th an un f a v o ra b l e a t t i t u d e
b e n e f i t s l e s s than one who views e v a l u a t i o n p o s i t i v e l y . "

129

^ ^ B o l t o n , Dale L. S e l e c t i o n and E v a lu a ti o n o f Teachers (Berkely
C a l i f o r n i a : McCutchon P u b lis h i n g C o r p o r a t i o n , 197TJ* p. 96.
^ lo c .c it.

p. 97.

^ lo c .c it.

p. 98.

^ lo c.cit.

p. 102.

91

Madeline Hunter b e l i e v e s t h a t t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r , n o t t e a c h e r s must
be e v a l u a t e d .

She s t a t e s t h a t , "Teaching i s b e h a v i o r and can b e s t be

improved through a n a l y s i s o f t h a t b e h a v i o r . " h u n t e r propose s t h a t
t e a c h i n g b e h a v i o r shou ld be i n t e r p r e t e d and c a t e g o r i z e d in t h r e e ways:
1.

Those b e h a v io r s t h a t promoted l e a r n i n g ;

2.

Those b e h a v i o r s t h a t used p r e c i o u s time and en ergy y e t
c o n t r i b u t e d n o t h in g t o l e a r n i n g what was d e s i r e d ; and

3.

Those b e h a v io r s t h a t , u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , a c t u a l l y i n t e r f e r r e d
w i th l e a r n i n g .

In an a r t i c l e s u p p o r t i v e o f t h e c o n c e p t o f m i c r o - s u p e r v i s i o n ,
Bradley s t a t e d :
" E v a l u a t i o n , r e g a r d l e s s o f by whom i t i s c o n d u c te d , i s only
as t h r e a t e n i n g as i t s purpo se . I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e f o r t h e
s u p e r v i s o r t o dev elop t h e s a f e en vironment i n which e v a l u a t i o n i s
welcomed as h e l p .
I t i s i m p e r a t i v e , however, t h a t e v a l u a t i o n be
co m p le te l y removed from a l l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e purp oses f o r such a
environment t o e x i s t . "'31
Bradley advo ca ted t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l sho uld work on one s k i l l o r
c o n c e p t a t a t i m e , us in g video t a p e s p r e f e r a b l y , t o guide
t o look

the teach er

f o r ways and p l a c e s i n which t h e p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l being sought

co uld have been used.

Within t h i s p r o c e s s , t h e s u p e r v i s o r should ne v e r

t e l l t h e t e a c h e r what he o r she d i d wrong.

"There i s l i t t l e room f o r
132
t h e c o n n o t a t i o n o f ’r i g h t * o r 'wrong* in t h e h e l p in g p r o c e s s . "

130

H u n ter , Madeling, Six Types o f S u p e r v is o r y C o n f e r e n c e s ,
Educ atio na l L e a d e r s h i p , F e b r u a r y , 1980, p. 409.
^ B r a d l e y , C u r t i n H. "The Helping Conference in Micro S u p e r v i s i o n , "
J o u r n a l o f I n d u s t r i a l T eac her E d u c a t i o n , 12 ( F a l l , 1974) p . .
6

13^ l o c . c i t .

p . 7.

92

E f f e c t i v e q u e s ti o n i n g tec h n iq u e s and p r oper d a ta en a b le th e
s u p e r v i s o r t o focus th e t e a c h e r ' s a t t e n t i o n t o te a c h in g beh av io r
t h a t warrants co n sid e ra tio n .
Micro c o u n s e l in g te c h n iq u e s were sup por ted by Ivey

133

and

134
Allen and Ryon.
The i m p o rt a n t focus i s on t h e a t te m p ts t o improve
only one b ut not more than two a s p e c t s o f t e a c h i n g a t one ti m e.
In one o f t h e most quoted books on p r i n c i p a l s , Becker, e t . a l . ,
i d e n t i f i e d e i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p r i n c i p a l s who were "Beacons o f
B r i l l i a n c e " among "P otho les o f P e s t i l e n c e . "

These were:

1.

Most d i d n o t i n te n d to become p r i n c i p a l s ; they would have
co ntinued t e a c h i n g but were persuaded t o become p r i n c i p a l s ;

2.

Most ex p r e s s e d a s i n c e r e f a i t h in c h i l d r e n ;

3.

They had an a b i l i t y to work e f f e c t i v e l y with
s e c u re t h e i r c o o p e r a ti o n

4.

They were a g g r e s s i v e in o b t a i n i n g s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e needs
o f t h e i r s c h o o ls ;

5.

They were e n t h u s i a s t i c about t h e i r j o b s ;

6

.

people and to

They were committed t o e d u catio n and could d i s t i n g u i s h
between s h o r t and long term g o a l s ;

7.

They were a d a p t a b l e ; i f th ey d isc o v e re d something w a s n ' t
working th ey could change; th ey were a l s o n on-confo rm ist
who did n o t always use t h e pr oper chan ne ls t o accomplish
tasks;

1

Ivey, A.E. Microco un se ling: In novat io n in In te rv ie w in g T r a in in g
( S p r i n g f i e l d , I l l i n o i s : Ch ar les C. Thomas, 197lT~p. 130.
^ A l l e n , D.W. and K. Ryon, Micro t e a c h i n g (Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley P u b li sh in g Co. , I n c . , 1969) p. 163.
4

93

.

8

They were a b l e s t r a t e g i s t s who were a b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e i r
o b j e c t i v e s and plan t h e means t o ach iev e them
.

”

5

Summary o f t h e E v a lu a ti v e Role
of Principals
in t h e Improvement o f I n s t r u c t i o n
This s e c t i o n o f t h e review o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w ith the
i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p o f th e e lem entary p r i n c i p a l has focused on
t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l , th e r e a l , and t h e i d e a l r o l e s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l in
h i s o r her a t t e m p t s to improve i n s t r u c t i o n .

In g e n e r a l , t h e l i t e r a t u r e

s u p p o rts t h e f oll ow ing gen er al c o n c l u s io n s :
1.

P r i n c i p a l s should be d i r e c t l y involved in th e e v a l u a t i o n o f
teachers;

2.

P r i n c i p a l s must s t r i v e t o s e p a r a t e th e e v a l u a t i v e from t h e
improvement seek ing a s p e c t s o f e v a l u a t i o n — i . e . summative
v ersu s f o r m a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s ;

3.

P r i n c i p a l s must s t r i v e t o promote a r e c e p t i v e a t t i t u d e
on th e p a r t o f t e a c h e r s f o r e v a l u a t i o n ;

4.

P r i n c i p a l s must d e l e g a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o t h e r
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f u n c t i o n s t o t e a c h e r s , s e c r e t a r i e s , and
o t h e r co- workers to en ab le themselves to have t h e n eces sar y
time to s u p e r v i s e i n s t r u c t i o n ;

5.

P r i n c i p a l s must develop and communicate c o n c r e t e goals
to th e o t h e r s involved in h i s o r her s c h o o l;

6

.

7.

P r i n c i p a l s need t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r e f f o r t s can make a
d i f f e r e n c e in what c h i l d r e n l e a r n :
P r i n c i p a l s need to focus t h e i r s u p e r v i s i o n on te a c h in g
b eh av io r s r a t h e r than t e a c h e r s and p r e f e r a b l y on one
be hav ior a t a time;

Becker, Ger al d, e t . a l . , Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s and
T h e ir S c h o o l s : Beacons o f B r i l l i a n c e a n d P o t f i o l e s o f P e s t i l e n c e (Eugene,
Oregon: U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1971) p. 2-3 .

94

.

8

9.

P r i n c i p a l s should u t i l i z e a c l i n i c a l approach to s u p e r v i s i o n ;
P r i n c i p a l s should e v a l u a t e t e a c h i n g more o f t e n , p r e f e r a b l y
monthly o r even more o f t e n than t h a t ;

10.

P r i n c i p a l s should not look t o g r a d u a t e programs o r u n i v e r s i t y
cou rse s o r co n f eren c es t o improve t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s ;

11.

P r i n c i p a l s should r e a l i z e t h a t t e a c h e r s r e a l l y want t o
be helped to improve t h e i r t e a c h i n g .
S e c tio n C
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n

The term " C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n " was c r e a t e d by Dr. Morris Cogan
to d e s c r i b e a p a r t i c u l a r method o f s u p e r v i s i n g i n s t r u c t i o n in a c l a s s ­
room.

The work " c l i n i c a l " has caused much c o n t r o v e r s y in t h e l i t e r a t u r e ,

but Cogan chose i t because i t was t h e most a c c u r a t e way he d isc o v e re d t o
d i f f e r e n t i a t e between o t h e r methods o f s u p e r v i s i o n and h i s s p e c i f i c
method, and because t h e r e i s no o t h e r word t h a t comes c l o s e t o d e s c r i b i n g
t h e method as a c c u r a t e l y .
C l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n has t o do with f a c e - t o - f a c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between p r i n c i p a l or s u p e r v i s o r and t e a c h e r ; i t has nothing whatsoever
t o do with medical t r e a t m e n t o r pathology.

C l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n i s an

a n a l y s i s o f t e a c h i n g by both p a r t i e s a f t e r o b s e r v a t i o n , with t h e a n a l y s i s
c o n c e n t r a t i n g on beh av io r s th e t e a c h e r c o n s id e r s a p p r o p r i a t e .
1 QC

According t o Cogan

107

and Goldhammer

t h e f o ll o w i n g a r e values

and r a t i o n a l e s f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n :

^ Coqan, M o r r i s , C l i n i c a l S u p e r v i s i o n , (Boston, Mass.: Houghton
M i f f l i n , 1973).
3

6

^ G o l d h a i t m e r , R o bert, C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n (New York: H o l t ,
R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1969).

95

1.

Respect f o r th e t e a c h e r as a human being i s t h e f i r s t
p rin c ip le of c lin ic a l supervision;

2.

The s u p e r v i s o r ' s r o l e i s
t o s e c u r e th e committment o f t h e
t e a c h e r — n o t to co er ce o r t h r e a t e n . De cisions to u t i l i z e
new id e a s o r te c h n i q u e s a r e t h e t e a c h e r s ;

3.

The s u p e r v i s o r ' s r o l e i s
t o help i n c r e a s e t h e t e a c h e r ' s
freedom to a c t s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t l y in th e cla ssroom ;

4.

C l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n i s p r i m a r i l y concerned with th e t e a c h i n g
a c t , with t h e improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n as i t s u l t i m a t e
objective;

5.

The s u p e r v i s o r bases his o r her p r a c t i c e f i r s t o f a l l upon
o b j e c t i v e d a t a about classroom te a c h i n g and i n t e r a c t i o n ,
drawing i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , assumptions and hypotheses from
t h i s d a t a ; and

6

.

All i n d i v i d u a l s a r e i d i o s y n c r a t i c in terms o f i n d i v i d u a l
l i k e s and d i s l i k e s and t h e s u p e r v i s o r , above a l l , i s no
e x c e p t i o n ; t h e r e f o r e he o r she must p r e s e n t f a c t u a l l y
what he o r she se es and hea rs t o th e t e a c h e r and th e
t e a c h e r makes th e d e c i s io n about changes in classroom t e a c h i n g ea r n in g p r o c e d u r e s , not t h e s u p e r v i s o r .
1

Richard Weller in h i s book ab out s u p e r v i s i o n produced a l i s t o f
even more s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n ; he c a l l e d them
E s s e n t i a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Assumptions o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v i s i o n :
1.

The improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t t e a c h e r s
know s p e c i f i c i n t e l l e c t u a l and b ehavio r s k i l l s ;

2.

The primary f u n c t i o n o f th e s u p e r v i s o r i s t o teach t h e s e
s k i l l s to the teacher;
a.

S k i l l s o f complex a n a l y t i c p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e
in s tr u c tio n a l process;

b.

S k i l l s o f r a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l pro cess
based on e x p l i c i t o b s e r v a t i o n a l ev id en ce;

c.

S k i l l s o f cu r ric u lu m i n n o v a t i o n , im plem en tation , and
e x p e r i m e n t a t io n ;

d.

S k i l l s o f t e a c h i n g performance.

96

3.

The s u p e r v i s o r y focus i s on what and how t e a c h e r s t e a c h ; i t s
main o b j e c t i v e i s to improve i n s t r u c t i o n , not to change
the te a c h e r's personality;

4.

The s u p e r v i s o r y focus in planning and a n a l y s i s i s b e s t anchored
in th e making and t e s t i n g o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l hypotheses based on
o b s e r v a t i o n a l ev id en ce;

5.

The s u p e r v i s o r y focus i s on i n s t r u c t i o n a l i s s u e s t h a t a r e
small in number e d u c a t i o n a l l y v i t a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y a c c e s s i b l e
t o th e t e a c h e r , and amenable t o change;

6.

The s u p e r v i s o r y focus i s on a c o n s t r u c t i v e a n a l y s i s and the
r e in f o r c e m e n t o f s u c c e s s f u l p a t t e r n s r a t h e r than on th e
condemnation o f unsuccess fu l p a t t e r n s ;

7.

The s u p e r v i s o r y focus i s based on o b s e r v a t i o n a l e v id e n c e ,
n o t on u n s u b s t a n t i a t e d valu e judgements;

8.

The c y c l e o f p l a n n in g , t e a c h i n g , and a n a l y s i s i s a co n t in u i n g
one t h a t b u i l d s upon p a s t e x p e r i e n c e ;

9.

Sup er v is io n i s a dynamic proce ss of g i v e and tak e in which
s u p e r v i s o r s and t e a c h e r s a r e c o l l e a g u e s in s e a rc h o f mutual
e d u c a ti o n a l u n d e r s ta n d in g ;

10.

The s u p e r v i s o r y process i s p r i m a r i l y one o f verbal i n t e r a c t i o n
c e n t e r e d on t h e a n a l y s i s o f i n s t r u c t i o n ;

11.

The i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r has both t h e freedom and the
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to i n i t i a t e i s s u e s , anal yze and improve h i s own
t e a c h i n g and develop a personal te a c h i n g s t y l e ;

12.

S u p e r v is io n is i t s e l f p a t t e r n e d and amenable t o comparable
p r o c e ss e s o f complex p e r c e p t i o n s , r a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , and
improvement;

13.

The s u p e r v i s o r has both t h e freedom and t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
t o analyz e and e v a l u a t e his own s u p e r v i s i o n in a manner
s i m i l a r t o 4 t e a c h e r ' s a n a l y s i s and e v a l u a t i o n o f
i n s t r u c t i o n J 38

1

W elle r, Richard H. Verbal Communications in I n s t r u c t i o n a l
S upervis io n (New York: Teachers College P r e s s , 1971) pp. 19-20.

97

C l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n i s a complete process o f s u p e r v i s io n
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h ig h l y r e c o g n i z a b l e a c t i o n s :
1.

In t h e f i r s t p has e, t h e t e a c h e r meets with th e s u p e r v i s o r o r
s u p e r v i s o r s to d i s c u s s th e i n t e n t o f a s p e c i f i c le ss o n and
a l s o t h e te a c h i n g s t r a t e g i e s t h a t w i l l be used in t h e l e s s o n .
One o f th e main o b j e c t i v e s o f th e p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n c o n f e r e n c e ,
a s i d e from encouraging an i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r to c l e a r l y
an alyze h i s o r her te a c h i n g o b j e c t i v e s and s t r a t e g i e s , i s to
per m it th e s u p e r v i s o r t o become f a m i l i a r with th e i n t e n t s o f
t h e t e a c h e r so t h a t he o r she w i l l be more knowledgable
when th e l e s s o n i s viewed.

2.

The second phase o f t h e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n proc es s i s th e
a c tu a l classroom o b s e r v a t i o n . The s u p e r v i s o r a r r i v e s in th e
classroom with r e c o r d i n g in st r u m e n t s ra nging from v ideotape
t o paper and p e n c i l . G e n e r a lly th e s u p e r v i s o r c o l l e c t s d ata
f o r th e e n t i r e l e s s o n . The r e c o rd in g i n str u m e n ts a r e used to
r e g i s t e r d i r e c t l y o b s e r v a b le a c t i o n s and i n t e r a c t i o n s o f
p u p i l s and t e a c h e r ; when pencil and paper a r e u t i l i z e d , the
verb atim words o f p u p ils and t e a c h e r u s u a l l y make up t h e bulk
o f t h e s u p e r v i s o r ' s r e cord o f t h e e v e n t s .

3.

In t h e p o s t - o b s e r v a t i o n a n a l y s i s ph ase, t h e s u p e r v i s o r puts
th e fragmented d ata i n t o p a t t e r n s f o r o b s e r v a t i o n . The
importance given t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p a t t e r n s i s based upon
t h e b e l i e f t h a t p a t t e r n s o f r e p e a t e d te a c h i n g behaviors have a
much g r e a t e r impact on p u p i l ' s l e a r n i n g than o c c a s s i o n a l ,
iso lated teacher inputs.

4.

The a n a l y s i s o f i n s t r u c t i o n which t a k e s p lace between th e
t e a c h e r and th e s u p e r v i s o r i s th e next phase o f c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s i o n . In t h i s phase th e t e a c h e r a n d . s u p e r v i s o r an aly ze
th e l e s s o n . Although t h e r e i s no s i n g l e ^ c c p e t a b l e means to
conduct t h i s a n a l y s i s , g e n e r a l l y t h e t e a c h e r and s u p e r v i s o r lay
o ut p a t t e r n s which th e y observed and th e d i s c u s s i o n proceeds
from t h i s b a s i s . S t r e n g t h s and weaknesses o f t e a c h i n g ar e
thu s e x p lo r e d . The s e s s i o n i s inten ded t o be h e lp f u l and
g e n e r a l l y p o s i t i v e . The a n a l y s i s g e n e r a l l y t a k e s p la c e as
soon a f t e r t h e l e s s o n as p o s s i b l e so t h a t th e impact and
p roc ee dings o f t h e le s s o n a r e f r e s h in t h e minds o f th e
p a r t i c i p a n t s . The s u p e r v i s o r never makes c r i t i c i s m s !
It is
hoped t h a t t h e t e a c h e r ' s i n s t r u c t i o n a l needs w i l l be met as
th e t e a c h e r se es them. The goal o f t h i s a n a l y s i s s e s s i o n i s t o
have th e t e a c h e r a r r i v e a t ways in which he or she could improve
h i s or her t e a c h i n g , with a s s i s t a n c e from th e s u p e r v i s o r i f
d e s i r e d by t h e t e a c h e r . The end o f th e a n a l y s i s s e s s i o n thus

98

becomes a p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n a l c onfere nc e t o e s t a b l i s h what w i l l
be next observed by t h e s u p e r v i s o r and h o p e f u l ly accomplished
by t h e t e a c h e r .
5.

The im p o rtan t l a s t phase o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n can be c a l l e d
th e p o s t- c o n f e r e n c e a n a l y s i s . The s u p e r v i s o r may have video
taped t h e p o s t - o b s e r v a t i o n a l co nf er en ce he or she had with the
t e a c h e r , audio tap ed t h e c o n f e r e n c e , o r kept n o t e s . The
s u p e r v i s o r t h e n , e i t h e r a l o n e o r p r e f e r a b l y with h i s o r he r
s u p e r v i s o r o r perhaps even t h e t e a c h e r reviews t h e methods
employed by th e s u p e r v i s o r in th e c o n f e r e n c e . The s u p e r v i s o r
grows through d i s c o v e r i n g th e o p p o r t u n i t i e s he o r she missed to
make an i m p o rta n t p o i n t t o a t e a c h e r and a l s o from s e e in g how
h i s o r h e r guidance a g i s t e d t h e t e a c h e r to o b t a i n i n s i g h t s i n t o
th e te a c h i n g p r o c e s s .

Ultim ately, i t is the in te n tio n of c l i n i c a l supervision to strengthen
t h e te a c h i n g a b i l i t i e s o f t e a c h e r s which should in t u r n r e s u l t in
improved l e a r n i n g f o r s t u d e n t s .

J u s t how s u c c e s s f u l has t h e c l i n i c a l

s u p e r v i s io n proce ss been in accomplishing t h i s goal?
According t o Denham, t h e r e i s ample ev idence o f t h e n e g l e c t of i n c l a s s s u p e r v i s i o n , b u t she s a y s , "althou gh t h e knowledge/data base f o r
i n s t r u c t i o n a l s u p e r v i s i o n i s v i r t u a l l y non e x i s t e n t , a methology f o r i n c l a s s s u p e r v i s i o n has evolved t h a t seems to have p o t e n t i a l f o r g e n u in e ly
improving i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c t i c e , improving s u p e r v i s o r y p r a c t i c e and

^39Moors, James J . and Anthony P. Mattahana, C l i n i c a l S u p e r v i s i o n :
A Shor t D e s c r i p t i o n ( H a r t f o r d , Conn.: West H a r t o fr d P u bli c Sch ools,
19707pp.3-9.
^ ° H u l l , Ray and John Hansen, Classroom S u p e r v is io n and Informal
Anal ysis o f B e h a v io r : A Manual f o r S u p e r v is io n (Eugene, Oregon, U n i v e r s i t y
o f Oregon, 1974) pp. 4-10.

99

p rovid in g a needed d a t a base f o r r e s e a r c h in s u p e r v i s i o n . "

She r e f e r s

t o t h i s proce ss as t h e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n c y c le "with i t s p r o v i s i o n s
f o r c o n t i n u i t i e s and in p u t s s u b s t a n t i a l enough t o make a l a s t i n g
d i f f e r e n c e in th e t e a c h e r ' s b e h a v i o r . "

141

McKay i n d i c a t e s t h a t p r i n c i p a l s should be t h e s u p e r v i s o r s used in
t h e c y c l e o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n but c a u t i o n s p r i n c i p a l s who a r e not
a d e q u a t e ly t r a i n e d .
"Not a l l school a d m i n i s t r a t o r s posse ss t h e s k i l l s o r
a t t i t u d e s which make good c l i n i c i a n s . Some o f them a r e
u n l i k e l y t o be s e n s i t i v e enough t o i n d i v i d u a l , as opposed to
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l needs to be s u c c e s s f u l c o u n s e l o r s . Moreover,
t h e i r s k i l l s in o b s erv ing classroom t e a c h i n g may be s e v e r e l y
l i m i t e d - - - . P r i n c i p a l s who l a c k s k i l l s should a t t e m p t to
a c q u i r e them; but having f a i l e d t o a c q u i r e them would be
well a dvise d t o s t a y away from c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n . . ."
In r e p o r t i n g an e x t e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e v a r io u s forms o f
s u p e r v i s i n g and improving i n s t r u c t i o n , Reavis concluded:
"While a l l o f t h e a r t i c l e s c i t e d have t h e above f a c t o r s as
t h e i r main t e n e n t s , th e y a l l f a l l s h o r t because o f a shallow
l e v e l o f c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n . Each w r i t e r has h i s own p a t t e r n o r
v a r i a n t , b u t only c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n has been developed f o r more
than a decade and i s su pport ed by a s u b s t a n t i a l body o f l i t e r a t u r e
and r e s e a r c h . Only c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n has been developed by an
e l i t e corps o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s . C l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n meets o r
exceeds e x p e c t a t i o n s in th e e v a l u a t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n . C l i n i c a l

^ D e n h a m , A l i c e , " C l i n i c a l S u p e r v i s i o n : What We Need t o Know
About t h e P o t e n t i a l f o r Improving I n s t r u c t i o n , " Contemporary Education
49 ( F a l l , 1977) pp. 33-37
^ M c K a y , D.A. " C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n : The P r i n c i p a l s Role" in
J . J . Ber gi n; ed. School Program A c c o u n t a b i l i t y . The 1971 Le ad ersh ip
Course f o r School P r i n c i p a l s L e c tu re S e r ie s ( A l b e r t a , Canand: A l b e r ta
U n i v e r s i t y / " ! 971) p. 31.

100

s u p e r v i s i o n , p r o v id in g c l a r i t y and s p e c i f i c i t y in i n - c l a s s
s u p e r v i s i o n , has th e p o t e n t i a l t o accomplish what a l l e v a l u a t i o n
a t t e m p t s , t o improve th e q u a l i t y o f i n s t r u c t i o n pr ovided t o c h i l d r e n .
In o t h e r r e l a t e d s t u d i e s o f t h e e f f e c t s o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n ,
Seager concluded t h a t from th e use o f video t a p e s o f s u p e r v i s o r y
c l i n i c a l c o n f e r e n c e s , t h a t p r i n c i p a l s who had e x p e r i e n c e in c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s io n "demonstrated a degree o f s u b t l e t y and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n
t h a t was l a c k in g e n t i r e l y in those who were u n f a m i l i a r with c l i n i c a l
supervision."

144

Harty and R itz

145

d e s c r i b e d v a r io u s s t u d i e s s u p p o rtin g

many a s p e c t s o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

S i r o i s found t h a t " s u p e r v i s o r y

n o n - d i r e c t i v e b e havior in c o n j u n c t i o n with t h e c l i n i c a l model o f
s u p e r v i s i o n was most c o n s i s t e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d with s i g n i f i c a n t changes
in s t u d e n t and t e a c h e r b e h a v i o r s . B l u m b e r g and Amidon r e p o r t e d t h a t ,
" s u p e r v i s o r s who emphasized i n d i r e c t behav io rs tended t o r e c e i v e high
r a t i n g s from t e a c h e r s on p r o d u c t i v i t y .

Te achers f e l t th e y l e a r n e d most

^ 3Rea vis , Ch ar les A, " C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n : A Timely A pproa ch ,”
Educational L e a d e r s h ip , F ebruary , 1976, p. 363.
^ 4Seag er , G. B radle y, J r . , A F e a s i b i l i t y Study f o r D iag n o s tic
A n a ly s is o f Taped S u p e r v is o r y C o n f e r e n c e s , 7 p. pape r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e
New England Educational Research O r a a n i z a t i o n Meeting {Provincetown,
Mass., May 2 , 1975} ED108376 p. 5.
^ 5H arty, Harold and William C. R i t z , "A Non-Evaluative Helping
R e l a t i o n s h i p : An Approach t o Classroom -O riented S u p e r v i s i o n , " Educational
P r o s p e c t i v e ^ 15 (May, 1976) pp. 15-21
^ ^ S i r o i s , Herman A . , The E f f e c t s o f _a C l i n i c a l Model o f S u p e r v is i o n
Teacher Type s, S u p e r v is o r Types and St.yTis on Chanq¥s i n Teacher and
Stu den t 'A tt itu d e s and B e h a v io r , (Unpublished Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f M is s o u r i , 1975) p. 187.

101

a b o u t themselves as t e a c h e r s and as i n d i v i d u a l s from c l i n i c a l
147
c o n f e r e n c e s . 11
Martin

148

surveyed a group o f t e a c h e r s and s u p e r v i s o r s t r a i n e d in

t h e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n pr o c e ss and used as a comparison group a
s i m i l i a r number o f n o n - t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s .

Martin found t h a t t r a i n e d

t e a c h e r s b e l i e v e d t h e i r normal e v a l u a t i o n was more h e l p f u l to them than
did t h e u n t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s .

Also, t h e t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s were more l i k e l y

t o a c c e p t e v a l u a t i o n as a b a s i s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement as well as
f o r t e n u r e and promotional d e c i s i o n s than were th e u n t r a in e d t e a c h e r s .
In a n o t h e r s tu d y o f t h e e f f e c t s o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n , Boyon and
Copeland

149

found t h a t s u p e r v i s o r s t r a i n e d in t h e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n

model were a b l e t o help t e a c h e r s make s i g n i f i c a n t improvements i n a
v a r i e t y o f te a c h i n g b e h a v i o r s .
In an a n a l y s i s o f p r i n c i p a l s ' use o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y p r a c t i c e s
Dangel, e t . a l . found t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s r e c e i v i n g such guidance found
s u p e r v i s o r y v i s i t s and con f e re n c e s to be very h e lp f u l and m o t i v a t i n g .

^47Blumberg, Arthu r and Edmund Ami don, "Teacher P e r c e p tio n s o f
S u p e r v is o r -T e a c h e r I n t e r a c t i o n , " A d m i n i s t r a t o r ' s Notebook 14 (1965)
pp. 1-8.
148

M art in, Gary S. Teacher and A d m i n i s t r a t o r A t t i t u d e s Toward
E v a lu a tio n and System atic Classroom O bs er va ti on (Unpublished Ph.D.
D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1975) p. 194.
149

Boyon, Norman and W i l l i s Copeland "A T r a i n i n g Program f o r
S u p e r v is o r s : Anatomy o f an Ed uc atio nal Development", Jour na l o f
Educational Research 68 (1974) p p . 100-116.

102

The a u th o r s concluded t h a t :
" I f o b s e r v a t i o n s and feedback t o t e a c h e r s a r e based on
o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a , i f th ey a r e coupled with he lp f u l
s u g g e s tio n s and i f p o s i t i v e feedback i s used t o focus on the
s k i l l f u l a s p e c t s o f a t e a c h e r ' s performance, then th ey can be150
s u c c e s s f u l l y and f a v o r a b l y executed by t h e school p r i n c i p a l . "
In s t i l l a n o t h e r s tudy Nasea found t h a t :
" D i r e c t i n p u t i n t o classroom i n s t r u c t i o n a l proce ss c o n s t i t u t e s
th e most f r e q u e n t l y occ uring s e t o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s by s u p e r v i s o r s
and i s a l s o p e r c e iv e d by t e a c h e r s as t h e most v a l u a b l e so urce o f
a s s i s t a n c e from s u p e r v i s o r s . "
The a u t h o r concludes by s t a t i n g ,
" I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e e d u c a ti o n a l change proc es s a r e obvious.
Classroom t e a c h e r s view d i r e c t a s s i s t a n c e in th e form o f d e m onstrations
in t h e i r own s e t t i n g and p r e s c r i p t i o n s around t h e i r own i n s t r u c t i o n a l
problems as t h e most valued s our ce s o f a s s i s t a n c e from elemen tary
s u p e r v i s o r s . General a s s i s t a n c e in t h e form o f cu r ricu lu m w r i t i n g
and plann ing i s viewed as l e s s h e l p f u l th an a s s i s t a n c e around s p e c i f i c
problems en counter ed by t e a c h e r s ."151

150 Danger, Richard F . , Conrad, Rodney J . and B. L. Hopkins, "Follow-Up
on I n - S e r v i c e Teacher T r a i n in g Programs: Can t h e P r i n c i p a l Do I t ? " The
J ourn al o f Educational Research 72
(November-December, 1978) p. 72.
■j C l

Nasea, Don "How Do Teachers and S u p e r v is o r s Value t h e Role o f
Elementary S u p er v is io n ?" Educational L ead er ship 33 ( A p r i l , 1976)
pp. 513-18,

103

The f i n d i n g s o f th e a u t h o r s j u s t c i t e d were su pport ed by M a rtin ,
e r . a l . , ^ 52 H a r r i s , 15^ MacDonald,15^ K n o p , ^ 5 Diamond,^56 and M c N e r g n e y J ^
P erhaps, however, no o t h e r

e d u c a ti o n a l l e a d e r has done

promote c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n as
t e a c h i n g than has Madeline Hunter,

more to

a s c i e n t i f i c means t o promote s u p e r i o r
Hunter has m e th o d ic a l ly re se a r c h e d

o r promoted r e s e a r c h on te a c h in g and s u p e r v i s i o n and has done more to
advance t h i s process than perhaps any o t h e r s i n g l e
b a s i s f o r s u p e r v i s o r y a c t s must

p e r so n . I f the

r e s t upon r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e

effectsof

t e a c h i n g beh av iors then Hunter has provided e d u c a tio n with an e x c e l l e n t

152

M a rti n , Yvonne M., Usherwood, Geoffrey B . , and S o c r a t i c
Rapagna, "S uperv is ory E f f e c t i v e n e s s " Educational A d m in is tr a tio n Q u a r t e r l y
14 ( F a l l , 1978) pp. 77-88.
i S3
H a r r i s , B.M. and W.R. H a r tg r a v e s , " S uperv is or E f f e c t i v e n e s s ? A
Research Resume," Educational Le ad ership 30 (1972) pp. 73-79.
^ M a c D o n a l d , J .B . "Knowledge About S u p e r v is io n : R a t i o n a l i z a t i o n or
R a t i o n a l e ? " Educational Le ad ership 23
(1965) pp. 161-163
165

. ! ■
Knop, C . K . , "Developing a Model f o r Stu den t Teacher S u p e r v is i o n ,
Foreign Language Annals 6
(December, 1977) pp. 623-38.

^ D i a m o n d , S t a n l e y , "Micr o-Supervisory Ex pe ri ence, Humanistic
and C l i n i c a l Format," NASSP B u l l e t i n (March, 1980) pp. 25-29.
^ M c N e r g n e y , R.F. " P e r s o n a l i z i n g Teacher Development: An
Adaptive S u p e r v is o r y P r o c e s s , " Paper p r e s e n te d t o t h e Mid-West
Educational Research A s s o c i a t i o n , (Chicago, I l l i n o i s , 1978).

104

framework around which t h e a c t i n g p r i n c i p a l can become an i n s t r u c t i o n a l
l e a d e r 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166
In an e x c e p ti o n a l t e x t b o o k , Sergiovanni and S t a r r a t t d e s c r i b e
t h e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n proce ss and s upport i t s p r a c t i c e s through
t h e o r e t i c a l as well as p r a c t i c a l means.

1fifi

158

Hunter, Madeline, "Research — The Fountainhead o f School
Improvement," C a l i f o r n i a J ou rn al o f Educational R es e a r c h , J a n u a r y , 1975.
159

Hunter, Madeline, M oti vation Theory f o r Teachers (El
C a l i f o r n i a : TIP P u b l i c a t i o n , 1969.
i fin
Hunter, Madeline, Teach More — F a s t e r , (El Segundo,
TIP P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1969).
fil
Hunter, Madeline, Reinforcement Theory f o r T e a c h e r s ,
C a l i f o r n i a : TIP P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1967).
fi?
Hunter, Madeline, R ete n ti o n Theory f o r T e a c h e r s , (El
C a l i f o r n i a : TIP P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1967).
1

1

Segundo,
C alifornia:
(ElSegundo,
Segunda

Hunter, Madeline, Teach f o r T r a n s f e r (El Segundo, C a l i f o r n i a :
TIP P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1971).
^84Hunter, Madeline, "The Science o f t h e AFt o f : T e a c h i n g : , from
Controv ersy in Ed ucat io n, ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , Pennsy lvania: W.B.
P u b l i s h e r s , 1974).
-f

Hunter , Madeline, P r e s c r i p t i o n f o r Improved I n s t r u c t i o n (El
Segundo, C a l i f o r n i a : TIP P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1976).
fifi
Hunter, Madeline, "Appraising th e I n s t r u c t i o n a l P r o c e s s 11, Resources
in Education (Washington, D.C.: ERIC C l ea rin gho use on Teacher Ed ucat io n, 1977).
1

1S7

Hunter, Madeline, "Appraising Teacher Performance: One Approach",
National Elementary P r i n c i p a l 52 (February 1973) pp. 60-62
^68S e r g i o v a n n i » Thomas and Robert S t a r r a t t , Human Resources
S u p e r v is io n and O r g a n iz a tio n a l Le aders hip (New York: McGraw H ill
Book Co., 1979]".

In the pr o c e ss o f answering t h e q u e s t i o n , "Should we a b o l i s h
o r r e t a i n the p r i n c i p a l s h i p ? " . Gallo s t a t e s t h a t "In my e s t i m a t i o n ,
t h e r e e x i s t s in t o d a y ' s school o r g a n i z a t i o n a f r i g h t e n i n g inadequacy
o f s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g and an abundance o f n a t u r a l t a l e n t on t h e p a r t
o f the elem entary p r i n c i p a l . "

169

Although the p r i n c i p a l o f today

has become more and more a manager r a t h e r than an i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r ,
t h i s i s due t o two f a c t o r s : (1) h i s formal t r a i n i n g and (2) h i s on t h e
job experiences.

According t o G a l l o , most p r i n c i p a l s have r e c e i v e d

t h e i r formal t r a i n i n g p r i o r t o t h e time t h a t c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n
came i n t o b e i n g , and even when th ey d id r e c e i v e t r a i n i n g in c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s io n th ey were u s u a l l y d is couraged from p r a c t i c i n g i t by th e
managers of e ducation a l r e a d y in p l a c e .

Gallo advocates an i n - s e r v i c e

program o f huge magnitude t o remedy t h e s i t u a t i o n .

He admonishes t h e

elem entary p r i n c i p a l t o spend n o t more than "one f o u r t h o f t h e i r
p r e c io u s time a l l o c a t i o n " on managerial f u n c t i o n s , and i n s i s t s t h a t
" P o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s d i c t a t e t h a t we must work th ro u g h , r a t h e r than
cir cu m vent, th e p r i n c i p a l s h i p . " ^ 70
In looking a t how much time p r i n c i p a l s should dev ote t o c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s io n Acheson s t a t e d ,
•‘We have asked hundred o f school a d m i n i s t r a t o r s how much o f
t h e i r time t h e y ought to spend working with t e a c h e r s and how much
time they do spend. The answers v a r y , but ' o u g h t ' a verages more
th an 50 p e r c e n t whereas ' d o ' av erages l e s s th an 20 p e r c e n t (and
t h a t , we s u s p e c t i s g e n e r o u s . )

G a l lo , Vincent A. Should We Abolish o r Ret ai n t h e P r i n c i p a l s h i p
14 p. paper p r e s e n t e d t o th e Oregon School Study C o u n c i l , Eugene,
Oregon, A p r i l , 197f). p . l .

170l o c . c i t . p . 10.

106

I f a l l s u p e r v i s o r s s p e n t 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r time on t h e
a c t i v i t i e s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s book, we b e l i e v e th e q u a l i t y o f
t e a c h i n g would r i s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y , "171
Anderson a l s o d e c r i e d t h e f a c t t h a t c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n took a
back s e a t t o o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r o l e s .

He emphasized t h a t t h i s type

o f s u p e r v i s i o n should become " th e major focus o f each p r i n c i p a l ' s
endeavors"

172

He a l s o bemoaned th e f a c t t h a t c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s

o f f e r co u r se s in s u p e r v i s io n but t h a t th e q u a l i t y o f such co u r s e work
i s u s u a l l y poor.

He, too, encouraged lo c a l i n - s e r v i c e programs and

even p r e s e n t e d an o u t l i n e f o r a "modest" proposal by which p r i n c i p a l s
could t r a i n them se lves .
Summary o f t h e Review o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e Focusing on C l i n i c a l S up er v is io n
From t h i s r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e look a t th e l i t e r a t u r e d i s c u s s i n g
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n c e r t a i n f a c t o r s s ta n d o u t :
1.

C l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n i s s t i l l a r e l a t i v e l y new concept
( o r i g i n a t i n g about 1969} and s in c e i t u s u a l l y t a k e s a
c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r i o d o f time f o r e d u c a tio n a l in n o v a ti o n s to
become widely ac c e p te d i t i s s t i l l in t h e a c t o f becoming a
reality .

2.

C l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n i s a well co nc eived, t h e o r e t i c a l l y
based program o f t e a c h e r s u p e r v i s i o n .

3.

Research ev idence seems to s u p p o r t th e f a c t t h a t c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y te c h n i q u e s i f p r o p e r l y used, can s i g n i f i c a n t l y
a f f e c t te a c h i n g behaviors and even a t t i t u d e s .

Acheson, Keith A. and Meredith G a l l , Techniques in t h e C l i n i c a l
S up er v is io n o f T e a c h e r s : P r e s e r v i c e and I n s e r v i c e A p p l i c a t i o n
(New York:Longman, I n c . , 1980) p7 188.
172Anderson, Robert H. "Improving Your S u p e r v is io n S k i l l s " , The
National Elementary P r i n c i p a l 56 ( Ju n e , 1979) 4 2 - 4 5 . , p. 43.

107

4.

C l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n i s a very im p o rta n t means wherby t h e
e lem en tary p r i n c i p a l can begin r e - e n t r y i n t o th e
i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p domain.
S e c t io n D
Other M ate ri al R el at ed To Tnis Study

William P h a r is and S a l l y Za kariya produced a survey a n a l y s i s
cal Ied The Elementar.y School P r i n c i p a l s h i p in 1978: A Research S tu d y .

173

From t h i s study we can g e t a good look a t th e composite ele men tary
school p r i n c i p a l .

According to t h e a u t h o r , t h e t y p i c a l elem entary

school p r i n c i p a l o f 1978 i s d e s c r i b e d t h u s l y :
“He i s a wh ite male, 46 y e a r s old and m a r r ie d . He has a m asters
d e g r e e , and h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l morale i s high. He f e e l s s e c u re in his
job and se es t h e ele men tary school p r i n c i p a l s h i p as h i s f i n a l
o ccupational g o a l . "
"The t y p i c a l elem en tary school p r i n c i p a l has been a p r i n c i p a l
f o r te n y e a r s , f i v e o f which he has s p e n t in h is p r e s e n t assignment.
All o f h i s e x p e r ie n c e as a p r i n c i p a l , in f a c t , has been in t h e school
d i s t r i c t where he now works.
Before he became a p r i n c i p a l a t t h e age o f 33, he had seven
y e a r s o f ex p e r ie n c e as an ele men tary school classr oom t e a c h e r .
The t y p i c a l p r i n c i p a l r e l i e s on o t h e r p r i n c i p a l s and on t e a c h e r s
as h i s main source o f i d e a s . He f e e l s t h a t classroom te a c h i n g and
h i s o n - t h e - j o b exp e r ie n c e s as a p r i n c i p a l have been t h e most v a l u a b l e
c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o h i s a b i l i t y to succeed in h i s p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n . "

173

P h a r i s , William L. and S a l l y Z a k a r iy a , The Elementary School
P r i n c i p a l s h i p in 1978: A Research Study ( A r l i n g t o n , V i r g i n i a :
National A s s o c i a t i o n o f Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s , 1979)
^ l o c . c i t . p. 1.
^^loc.cit.

p. 19.

1U8

"In 1978, t h e t y p i c a l p r i n c i p a l earned $21,500 f o r an eleven
month work y e a r . He had a w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t , which s p e c i f i e d his
s a l a r y , b e n e f i t s and working c o n d i t i o n s . He has never had a
sab atic al leave.
His s a l a r y and f r i n g e b e n e f i t s a r e probably deter mined s o l e l y
by t h e school board a n d / o r th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , but he would p r e f e r
t h a t the y were determined by formal c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n in g o r by an
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t e a m ." 1?®
"The t y p i c a l p r i n c i p a l a d m i n i s t e r s one s c h o o l, which i n c l u d e s
k i n d e r g a r t e n through grad e s i x . The school i s more l i k e l y t o be
s i t u a t e d in a r u r a l o r suburban community than an urban a r e a .
It
e n r o l l s 430 p u p i l s and employs 18 f u l l time t e a c h e r s , o f whom more
than 90 p e r c e n t a r e women. There i s no a s s i s t a n t p r i n c i p a l , but
t h e r e i s a l i b r a r i a n and s e v e r a l o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s who a r e e i t h e r
f u l l time o r p a r t time employees. Happily f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l , t h e r e
i s a f u l l time s e c r e t a r y .
The t y p i c a l p r i n c i p a l b e l i e v e s he has a good r e l a t i o n s h i p
with t e a c h e r s in h i s school and a good r e l a t i o n s h i p with both th e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and th e school board. He a l s o b e l i e v e s t h a t his
school o f f e r s an o u t s t a n d i n g program o f s p e c i a l education f o r
handicapped s t u d e n t s .
The t y p i c a l p r i n c i p a l spends 45 hours a week a t school and a n o t h e r
f i v e hours in s c h o o l - r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s . He has primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r s u p e r v i s io n and i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement and play s a s i g n i f i c a n t
r o l e in the s e l e c t i o n o f th e f a c u l t y in h is s ch o o l. He probably
r a t e s beginning t e a c h e r s every y e a r and exper ie nce d t e a c h e r s somewhat
l e s s f r e q u e n t l y . ??
"The t y p i c a l p r i n c i p a l works in a school d i s t r i c t with a t o t a l
e n r o l lm e n t o f 5,000 s t u d e n t s . He f e e l s t h a t he has been given enough
a u t h o r i t y t o deal with t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s plac ed on him and t h a t
he has 'some1 i n f l u e n c e on d e c i s i o n s about el em en tar y e d u c a t io n in
th e d i s t r i c t . " 1?®
"D es pite rumblings o f p u b l i c d i s c o n t e n t with th e s c h o o l s , t h e
t y p i c a l p r i n c i p a l f e e l s p r e t t y good ab out t h e ed uca tion t o d a y ' s school
c h i l d r e n a r e g e t t i n g . He b e l i e v e s t h a t s t u d e n t s a r e l e a r n i n g more in
school than th ey did t e n y e a r s ago and doing a t l e a s t as well on

^ lo c .c it.

p. 35.

177l o c . c i t . p. 49
l7® l o c . c i t . p. 71

109

b a s i c s k i l l s . What i s more, h i s school i s not having t r o u b l e w ith
d e c l i n g s c o re s on s t a n d a r d i z e d achievement t e s t s , and he r e p o r t s
l i t t l e o r no problem with d r u g s, s e x , v i o l e n c e , c e n s o r s h i p , o r c r i s i s
management a t h i s s c h o o l.
But t h a t i s n o t t o say t h e t y p i c a l ele men tary school p r i n c i p a l
has no w o r r i e s .
Indeed, he has s e r i o u s t r o u b l e d is m is s in g t e a c h e r s
who cannot or w i l l n o t , do t h e i r j o b s . And he a l s o f in d s managing
s t u d e n t b e h avior a s e r i o u s problem. In f a c t , he b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e
g en er al be h a v io r o f p u p i l s in h is school i s worse than i t was t e n year s
ago.
The t y p i c a l p r i n c i p a l i s a l s o r a t h e r p e s s i m i s t i c ab out f e d e r a l
funds f o r e d u c a t i o n . In comparison t o s t a t e and lo cal edu cati o n
d o l l a r s , he f e e l s t h e f e d e r a l government is g iv in g him l e s s f o r h i s
money and wanting m o r e . "1/9
This giv es one a very c a p s u l a t e d look a t th e t y p i c a l n a t i o n a l
el em en tar y p r i n c i p a l in 1978, but does h i s c o u n t e r p a r t in Michigan
vary widely from t h i s n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e .

According to s t u d i e s

done in Michigan, t h e r e i s s tr o n g c o r r e l a t i o n with th e n a t io n a l
f i g u r e s , but i f a n y t h i n g , t h e school e n r o l lm e n ts o f Michigan schools
a r e less than t n a t o f t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l s .

1 0 0

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t n a t th e median s i z e d school in th e
n a t i o n a l study was 300 - 399 and more than 40% o f a l l s ch ools sampled
lOl
were between 300 and 499.
I t i s a l s o an i n t e r e s t i n g n o te t h a t 17 p e r c e n t o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s
o f th e 1978 stu d y o f th e p r i n c i p a l s h i p by P h a r is r e p o r t e d t h a t they

^ lo c .c it.

p. 95.

180'j e n n i n g s , James M., The Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s h i p in
Lansing,
Michigan: Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n of Elementary
Michigan^ (E
[E ast Lansin
g, Michig
School P r i n c i p a l s , 1972) p. 13.

^ o p . e f t . p . 52.

no

had a t l e a s t one t e a c h e r on t h e i r s t a f f who had p r e v i o u s l y f a i l e d
in a n o t h e r as signment and was t r a n s f e r r e d t o h i s school f o r an o th e r
chance; 35 p e r c e n t o f t h e group o f p r i n c i p a l s p o l l e d have two o r more
such t e a c h e r s .

The p r i n c i p a l s f e l t t h a t 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e s e t e a c h e r s

would f a i l . " ^ 82
In t h e Je nnin gs s tu d y i t was found t h a t Michigan p r i n c i p a l s
d e s i r e d t o work more with t h e i r t e a c h i n g s t a f f s and to spend
more time on program development and c u r ric u lu m .

Most o f t h e

p r i n c i p a l ' s time in Michigan was l i k e w i s e s p e n t on o r g a n i z a t i o n
and management d e t a i l s ,

183

Je nn ings a l s o found t h a t p r i n c i p a l s in Michigan viewed
themselves as "heads o f t h e i r scho ols with c o n s i d e r a b l e a u t h o r i t y . "

184

This was e s p e c i a l l y t r u e in r e g a rd s to th e s e l e c t i o n o f t e a c h e r s
for their sta ffs.
The n a t i o n a l s tu dy by P h a r i s and t h e Michigan s tu d y by Jennings
both found an i n c r e a s i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on th e p a r t o f t h e elementar y
principal fo r teacher supervision.

185

^82l o c . c i t . p. 60.
OO
J e n n in g s , o p . c i t . p. 33.
1

184i b i d .
1

RR
Pharis, e t . a l . , o p . c i t . p. 63.

m

in a study byBarder san, th e a u t h o r r e p o r t e d i n h i s survey o f 426
t e a c h e r s in 41 s c h o o l s , t h a t t h e reas on t e a c h e r s acqui'esced to p r i n c i p a l
demands was t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p a l ' s e x p e r t i s e r a t h e r tha n
any rewards o r punishments.

This f i n d i n g has a c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n ;

p r i n c i p a l s can no l o n g e r c o n tr o l o t h e r s through t h e use o f pure power.

186

In a n o t h e r study o f a u t h o r i t y , Peabody examined and compared
p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e b a s i s f o r a u t h o r i t y in t h r e e p u b l i c s e r v i c e
o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a p o l i c e departm ent, a w e l f a r e o f f i c e and an
e lem entary s c h o o l.

He concluded t h a t " t e a c h e r s seem t o valu e a u t h o r i t y

o f competence over a u t h o r i t y o f p e r s o n , p o s i t i o n o r l e g i t i m a c y . "

187

The pr oper a u t h o r i t y base upon which i n s t r u c t i o n a l s u p e r v i s o r s
should pro vide s u p p o rt s e r v i c e was t h e focus o f a d i s s e r t a t i o n by
Proud.

188

This 1975 study o f Tennessee t e a c h e r s r e v e a l e d c o n c l u s i v e l y

t h a t t e a c h e r s d i d n o t r e c e i v e t h e s u p p o r t s e r v i c e they needed or
d e s i r e d in i n s t r u c t i o n .
A s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was found t o e x i s t between t h e
p e r c e iv e d b a s i s o f a u t h o r i t y and t h e p r o v i s i o n o f s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s

,86Balderson» James H. " P r i n c i p a l Power Bases: Some O b s e r v a t i o n s " ,
Canadian A d m i n i s t r a t o r 14 ( A p r i l , 1975; pp. 1- 5.
^ P e a b o d y , Robert L. " P e r c e p tio n s o f O r g a n iz a t io n a l A u t h o r i t y :
A Comparative A n a l y s i s , " A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Science Q u a r t e r l y 6 (March, 1962)
p. 467.
^ BProud, James R. A Study o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l S up er v is o r y Support
S e r v ic e s and Basis o f A u t h o r i t y as P erceived by Teachers in Tennessee
(Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee, 1978)
194 pp.

112

to teachers.

Also a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was d i s c o v e re d between

th e perceived a u t h o r i t y base and t h e y e a r s o f te a c h i n g e x p e r ie n c e
of the te ach ers.

A much l a r g e r p e r c e n ta g e o f t e a c h e r s who i n d i c a t e d

t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r ' s b a s i s o f a u t h o r i t y was person based a n d / o r
competency based r a t e d t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r s high in both q u a l i t y and
q u a n t i t y o f s e r v i c e s prov ided.
The c o n c l u s io n s o f t h i s s tu d y s t r e s s e d t h a t school systems
should employ i n s t r u c t i o n a l s u p e r v i s o r s and p r i n c i p a l s with e x p e r t i s e
in d e a l i n g with classr oom i n s t r u c t i o n and school systems should
examine t h e i r ranks f o r s u p e r v i s o r s w ith human r e l a t i o n s problems
and provid e remedies f o r t h e s e people i f d i s c o v e r e d .
I t appear s from t h i s r e s e a r c h t h a t p r i n c i p a l s even pl ay a
r o l e in t h e amount o f re a d in g done by t e a c h e r s .
Tennessee t e a c h e r s , George

189

In a survey o f 741

found t h a t 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e resp ondents

read p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l s f a r l e s s than 30 minutes a week and f i v e
p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d t h a t th ey d i/d n 't read them a t a l l .
e d u cati o n a t e a c h e r had, t h e more th e y r e a d .

The more

However, time s p e n t a t

r e a d in g e d u c a tio n j o u r n a l s was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to y e a r s in te a c h in g
and encouragement t o read by t h e school p r i n c i p a l and d i s c u s s i o n o f
j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s a t s t a f f m ee tings.
P r i n c i p a l s should not w a i t f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s to see th e need
f o r t h e i r ( t h e p r i n c i p a l s ) i n - s e r v i c e o r development.

Another

r e s e a r c h e r found t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , as a gro up, have n o t i n i t i a t e d

189

George, Thomas W. "Teachers Tend to Ignore P r o f e s s i o n a l
J o u r n a l s , " Phi Delta Kappan 6 (September, 1979).

11 3

a process f o r t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l development o f t h e i r p r i n c i p a l s .
F u r t h e r , t h i s s tu d y showed an i n a b i l i t y on th e p a r t o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
t o even r e l a t e t h e n e c e s s a r y s k i l l s p r i n c i p a l s should p o s s e s s , l e t
al one any knowledge o f what would b e s t p r o v id e f o r th e needs o f
p r i n c i p a l s , and th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s co uld n ot e v a l u a t e to what degree
p r i n c i p a l s pos sessed t h e s e s k i l l s .

I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , u n l i k e l y t h a t s u p e r-

i n t e n d e n t s w ill a c t to pro v id e th e i n - s e r v i c e needs o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s .

190

In a look a t what p r i n c i p a l s saw as th e g r e a t e s t ar ea o f need
f o r i n - s e r v i c e , Gallegos found t h a t p r i n c i p a l s most o f t e n c i t e d
personnel management, s t a f f personnel s e r v i c e , c u r ric u l u m and
i n s t r u c t i o n , and school-community r e l a t i o n s as being o f g r e a t e s t need.
P r i n c i p a l s valued o f f campus courses f o r c r e d i t , i n s t i t u t e s , seminars
and workshops.

P r i n c i p a l s saw l i t t l e v alu e in n o n - c r e d i t course s and

in l a r g e group s i t u a t i o n s .

1 gi

In her d i s s e r t a t i o n , Clayback i n v e s t i g a t e d th e i d e n t i t y and
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f beh av io r s o f elem en tary school p r i n c i p a l s in th e
r o l e of i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r in h e lp in g t e a c h e r s t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l
r e s o l u t i o n o f an i n s t r u c t i o n a l problem.

19(1

Clayback concluded t h a t the

P a z i o t o p o u l o s , James A. The Role o f S e l e c t e d Suburban Cook
County S u p e r in t e n d e n ts in P roviding Ways f o r Improving t h e P r o f e s s i o n a l
S k i l l s o f P r i n c i p a l s (Unpublished Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f
I I l i n o i s , 1979), 194 pp.
191
G a ll e g o s , J . Gene, Renewal Education f o r Elementary School
P r i n c i p a l s in t h e Denver P ub lic Schools (Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Colorado S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1980).

114

s u c c e s s f u l p r i n c i p a l p a r t i c i p a t e s in v i r t u a l l y ev er y a s p e c t o f the
i n s t r u c t i o n a l pr oc es s with t e a c h e r s c o o p e r a t i v e l y .

192

In a s corc hing r e p o r t on th e e x t e n t t o which p r i n c i p a l s a r e
involved in i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s in s c h o o l s , Packard found t h a t :
"The enduring urge t o b r in g t o b e a r r e g u l a r l y e x p e r t and
reasoned i n f l u e n c e on te a c h in g i s not an i d l e d e s i g n . Yet, f o r
a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s , t e a c h e r s seem e s p e c i a l l y u n s u ite d as o b j e c t s
o f r o u t i n e b u r e a u c r a t i c or p ro fe s s i o n a l' review. They l a c k a s e t
o f a c c e p t a b l e p r a c t i c e s which might s e rv e when d i s p l a y e d as evidence
o f a c c e p t a b l e i n s t r u m e n ta l co nd uc t. In t h e ecology of t h e i r s e t t i n g
f a c u l t y members as well as from t h e i r h i e r a r c h i c a l s u p e r i o r s . The
inte rd e p e n d e n c e o f t h e i r t a s k s i s so s l i g h t as t o minimize th e need
f o r work r e l a t e d c o n t a c t s and c l e v e r mechanisms t h a t c o o r d i n a t e th e
t i m i n g , pacing and s u b s ta n c e o f t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s . So b u f f e r e d
from t h e v a g a r i e s o f u n c e r t a i n i n f l u e n c e s , t e a c h e r s a r e r e l a t i v e l y
f r e e to e s t a b l i s h i d i o s y n c r a t i c classroom r o u t i n e s . This can be a
so urce of concern.
" S uperv is ion o f i n s t r u c t i o n t o r t e a c h i n g ) i s g e n e r a l l y recognized
as one o f ed u c a t io n s most prominent n o n - e v e n t."

194

N o n e th e le s s , t h e absence of s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t y in s c h o o ls i s
well documented and while p u b l i c a l l y lam ented, i t may be p r i v a t e l y
wel corned.1,1

19^

Clayback, Jean B. I n s t r u c t i o n a l Le aders hip Behavior o f
S e l e c t e d Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s ' (Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f New York a t B u f f a l o , 1977). 113 pp.
1 QO
Packard, John S. S u p e r v is i o n as A d m i n i s t r a t i o n : The Central
S t r u c t u r e o f t h e S c h o o l, (Eugene, Oregon Center f o r Educational
P olicy and Management, A p r i l , 1976).
1

9

4

itic.

195ibSd.

Tnis s tu dy by Packard c o n c e n t r a t e d on who r e a l l y makes th e
d e c i s i o n s co ncer ning:
1.

th e c o n t e n t o f d a i l y l e s s o n s ,

2.

when and how long s u b j e c t s a r e t a u g h t ,

3.

te a c h in g m a t e r i a l s t o be used, and

4.

methods o f i n s t r u c t i o n to be used.

Pre dominately, t h e d e c i s i o n type p e r t a i n i n g to i n s t r u c t i o n in
roughly 55 p e r c e n t o f a l l ca s e s was t e a c h e r d i s c r e t i o n .

No r e a l

d i f f e r e n c e s were found in open v e r su s t r a d i t i o n a l s chools in t h i s
regard.
In lo okin g a t bounded d i s c r e t i o n , Packard con clud ed , "The
e x t e n t t o which t h e p r i n c i p a l c o l l a b o r a t e s with i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s
about i n s t r u c t i o n a l a f f a i r s i s t r i v i a l — t h e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n
o f d e c i s i o n s o f t h i s ty p e never exceeds two p e r c e n t . " ^ 96
In r e g a r d s t o th e amount of d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e p r i n c i p a l s e x e r t
on i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s , th e y seem t o have made about e i g h t
p e r c e n t of th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s in con ven tiona l s ch ools and
a l i t t l e l e s s than t h i s in team s c h o o ls .

" C l e a r l y , p r i n c i p a l s do
197
not p la y a major r o l e in t h e governance o f i n s t r u c t i o n —
I t i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t Packard could not measure and d id not

a tte m p t t o measure th e degr ee t o which p r i n c i p a l s had a l r e a d y
in f l u e n c e d th e d e c i s i o n s t e a c h e r s made i n i n s t r u c t i o n by and through

116

th e i n d i v i d u a l and group " te a c h in g o f t e a c h e r s " t h a t occu rs
between p r i n c i p a l and t e a c h e r .

Although a l l may make t h e d e c i s i o n s

one choses a t any moment, t h e b a s i s f o r th o s e d e c i s i o n s may r e s t
with pr ev io us l e a r n i n g s f o r which a n o t h e r may be p r i v a t e l y r e s p o n s i b l e
and y e t t h a t person might n o t be given c r e d i t f o r t h i s i n f l u e n c e .
A study o f dec ision- mak ing by p r i n c i p a l s r a t h e r than t e a c h e r s
was undertaken by Cross who s t a t e d t h a t "A r e a s o n a b l e h y poth esis
stemming from t h e s e d a t a would be t h a t t h e norms to which t h e s e
p r i n c i p a l s a t t e n d a r e t h o s e t h a t a r e g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n t h e i r own
b u i l d i n g r a t h e r than th o s e g e n e r a te d by t h e h i e r a r c h y . "
"A second f e a t u r e o f t h e d a ta worthy o f n o t i c e i s th e r a t h e r
r a p id pace o f d e c i s i o n making by t h e p r i n c i p a l s with concluding
d e c i s i o n s coming soon a f t e r th e problem s t i m u l i .
I t seems l i k e l y
t h a t t h i s r a p i d pace d e r i v e s from a la r g e problem volume which
p r i n c i p a l s t y p i c a l l y hand le. A p r ev io u s s tu d y has p r e v i o u s l y
i n d i c a t e d t h a t p r i n c i p a l s handle an av erage o f a p proxim a te ly 100
problems p e r day. Under such c o n d i t i o n s i t can h a r d l y be expected
t h a t p r i n c i p a l s reach d e c i s i o n s through t h e ( jl e j i b e r a t i v e , s e l f cons ciou s c l a s s i c s t e p s in d e c i s i o n making."
Thus i t would appear t h a t p r i n c i p a l s make t h e m a j o r i t y o f
t h e i r d e c i s i o n s through p r i o r e x p e r i e n c e d i c t a t e s o r i n t u i t i o n .
In a l a r g e stu dy conducted in Texas, 400 t e a c h e r s were asked
s i x major q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v in g t h e i r e lem entary p r i n c i p a l o r f e e l i n g s
about th e p r i n c i p a l s h i p .

The f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s tu d y were s u r p r i s i n g ,

even t o t h e a u t h o r , in t h a t t h e r e appeared to be a l a r g e amount o f

198

C r o s s , Ray, A D e s c r i p t i o n o f Decision Making P a t t e r n s o f
School P r i n c i p a l s , 15 p. paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e American Educational
Research A s s o c i a t i o n Annual Meeting, ( 5 5 t h , New York N. Y., February
4-7, 197/).

117

n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s towards p r i n c i p a l s , much more so than e v e r could
be ex pec ted .

In answer t o th e q u e s t i o n , "How do elementary p r i n c i p a l s

spend t h e i r time?" t h e s e 400 t e a c h e r s saw th e p r i n c i p a l l a r g e l y
doing c l e r i c a l work, h andlin g s e v e r e d i s c i p l i n e c a s e s , c e n t e r i n g
w it h p a r e n t s and o b s erv in g some c la s sr o o m s.

When asked what kinds

o f p r i n c i p a l s a c t i v i t i e s have been most h e lp f u l t o them, th e t e a c h e r s
responded p r i m a r i l y by sa ying (a) being a v a i l a b l e t o c o n f e r w i t h ,
(b) working with s e v e r e d i s c i p l i n e problems, (c) o b t a i n i n g needed
m a t e r i a l s and s u p p l i e s , and (d) c o n f e r r i n g with p a r e n t s and s t u d e n t s .
The n ex t q u e s ti o n was "How should t h e id eal p r i n c i p a l spend his
time?" and th e re spons es were almost i d e n t i c a l t o th e answers to
th e previous q u e s t i o n : Be around when needed ( f i r e m a n ) , m aintain
d i s c i p l i n e , s u p e r v i s e t h e school ( f o r d i s c i p l i n e ) , and do c l e r i c a l
work!

borne f u n c t i o n s o c c a s i o n a l l y mentioned f o r th e i d e a l p r i n c i p a l

were c u r ri c u lu m p l a n n i n g , l e a d i n g in new id e a s and i n f o r m a t i o n ,
e v a l u a t i n g and c o n f e r r i n g with groups and i n d i v i d u a l s .

I t seems

t h a t t h e s e sometim es-mentioned-ideas a r e th o s e s uggested by most
t h e o r i s t s t o be id e a l r o l e
When t h e 400 t e a c h e r s

functionsof a p r in c ip a l.
were asked "What could p r i n c i p a l s do to

be of most he lp to you, th e y answered (a) be a v a i l a b l e f o r em er gen cies ,
(b) be a rock, (c) be a d i s c i p l i n e l e a d e r , (d) whil e h a l f th e
resp ondents wanted more classr oom v i s i t s , h a l f wanted l e s s o r none,
(e) have in c r e a s e d converences w i th t h e t e a c h e r .

The q u e s t i o n "what

p r i n c i p a l a c t i v i t i e s a c t u a l l y im p air you r te a c h i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s ? " ,
was l i k e w i s e i n t e r e s t i n g .

The major items l i s t e d by t h e t e a c h e r s

were: (a) too many f a c u l t y m e e tin g s , (b) too much paperwork, and

118

^c) unannounced classroom v i s i t s .

The l a s t q u e s ti o n asked tn e

t e a c h e r s t o d e s c r i b e tn e id ea l elem entary p r i n c i p a l , and a c t u a l l y
th e y d e s c r ib e d to some e x t e n t t h e p r i n c i p a l o u t l i n e d by P h a r is
and Zakariya as " t y p i c a l , " ex ce pt i t was i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t
among th e personal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s given f o r th e elem en tary p r i n c i p a l ,
n o t e a b l e by t h e i r absence were i n t e l l i g e n c e , a g r e s s i v e l e a d e r s h i p
a b i l i t y and c r e a t i v i t y .

199

In an ad d r e ss t o NAESP National Convention, Robert Krajewski
p r e s e n te d evidence o f a s tu d y conducted t h a t showed p r i n c i p a l s and
t e a c h e r s were l a r g e l y in complete agreement with r e s p e c t t o both
th e r e a l and id eal r o l e s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l .

However, t h e rea l

s c a l e and t h e id e a l s c a l e f o r both t e a c h e r s and p r i n c i p a l s have
almost n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n which means t h a t p r i n c i p a l s a r e doing
one t h i n g but wanting to do a n o t h e r . ^ 00
A poll tak en by t h e National Elementary P r i n c i p a l showed t h a t
t h e resp onden ts fav ored th e i n t e r n s h i p as t h e b e s t t r a i n i n g means
f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l s h i p and most f e l t t h a t te a c h i n g was an a b s o l u t e
pre-requisite.

When asked what a s p e c t s o f th e p r i n c i p a l ' s r o l e

des er ve d a t t e n t i o n through i n - s e r v i c e workshops, heading t h e l i s t
was t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n , follo we d by cu rri culu m development and

199

S t o k i e , W.M. Fred, Four Hundred Elementary School Teachers
Look a t th e Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s h i p , 11 p. paper (Canyon,
Texas: West Texas S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1978).
^ K r a j e w s k i , Robert J . Role Imp! i c a t ions o f a^ Rank Ordering
Process by Elementary P r i n c i p a l s , 16 p. paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e
Annual Meeting o f t h e National A s s o c i a t i o n o f Elementary School
P r i n c i p a l s (Las Vegas, Nevada, April 18-22, 1977).

11 9

l e a d e r s h i p development.

201

Looking a t the q u e s ti o n o f the n e c e s s i t y o f classroom te a c h i n g
e x p e r i e n c e f o r elem en tary p r i n c i p a l s , Krauser found t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
f e l t classroom te a c h in g e x p e r ie n c e was v a l u a b l e p r i m a r i l y when
s u p e r v i s in g c h i l d r e n , doing dem onst rat ion te a c h in g or s e l e c t i n g
a u d i o - v is u a l m a t e r i a l s .

This stu d y showed t h a t p r i n c i p a l s saw on-

t h e - j o b e x p e r i e n c e , d i s t r i c t i n - s e r v i c e programs and even g r a d u a t e
cou rse s in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as more i m p o rta n t than classroom te a c h in g
e x p e r ie n c e .

202

S tu d ie s by E d e r , 2^

B l a n c h a r d , 20^ T y r o n ,2*^ and DeSautel206

201

" P r e - S e r v i c e and I n s e r v i c e Poll R e s u l t s " The National
Elementary P r i n c i p a l : 56 (June 1978) p. 3.
202

Krauser, David J . The V a l i d i t y o f Classroom Teaching Experience
as a^ P r e - R e q u i s i t e f o r t h e Elementary P r i n c i p a l s h i p , (Unpublished Ed.D.
D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of Northern Colorado, 1978).
203

Eder, Dolores M., An A n a ly s is o f t h e Sup er v is o r y A c t i v i t i e s
o f Elementary P r i n c i p a l s in S e l e c t e d D i s t r i c t s o f DuPage County in
TTl i n o i s , (Unpublished Ed. D, D i s s e r t a t i o n , Loyola U n i v e r s i t y o f
Chicago, 1979) 305 pp.
20^ Blanc ha rd, Linda L. The Le ad ersh ip E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
Wisconsin Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s (Unpublished Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n
U n i v e r s i t y o f Wisconsin a t Madison, 1978), 187 pp.
205

Tyron, Gaylord F. Role P e r c e p ti o n s o f th e Elementary School
P r in c i p a l as Perceived by S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , Board P r e s i d e n t s ,
Secondary P r i n c i p a l s , Elementary T e a c h e r s , and Elementary P r i n c i p a l s
(Unpublished Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Iowa S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1978) 122pp.
J)OC
D eS autel, Rodney A. A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Role P e r c e p tio n s of
North Dakota Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s as R e l a te d to Five
S e l e c t e d Dimensions o f A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Function (UnpubTTshed Ed.D.
D i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y o f North Dakota, 1970 97 pp.

120

a l l found t h a t t h e ideal r o l e f o r th e elem en ta ry p r i n c i p a l was t h a t
o f an i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r and t h a t wh ile some p r i n c i p a l s saw
themselves f u n c t i o n i n g i d e a l l y in t h i s r o l e , most f e l t t h a t t h e
id e a l was s t i l l out o f reach f o r th e time being.

These p r i n c i p a l s

were s u r p r i s e d t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s saw them in much th e same l i g h t
as th ey saw them se lves .

These s t u d i e s a l s o i n d i c a t e d a need f o r i n -

s e r v i c e f o r p r i n c i p a l s , e s p e c i a l l y in how t o perform s u p e r v i s o r y
functions.
While t e n u r e t e a c h e r s a r e only e v a lu a te d by p r i n c i p a l s u s u a l l y
once a n n u a lly o r one time every o t h e r y e a r most o f t e n , and nonte n u r e d t e a c h e r s see t h e p r i n c i p a l two o r t h r e e times a y e a r ,

207

a

Phi Delta Kappan a r t i c l e by Deal, e t . a l . , found t h a t p r i n c i p a l s
too a r e d i s s a t i s f i e d with th e f req uen cy and q u a l i t y o f t h e i r
evaluations.

The p r i n c i p a l s c r i t i c i z e d t h e means by which e v a l u a t i o n s

o f t h e i r performance was conducted and t h e la c k o f agreed upon
c r i t e r i a used in t h e p r o c e s s .

When asked how t h e y , t h e p r i n c i p a l s ,

would improve t h e pro cess o f t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n s , th ey s t r e s s e d th e
f o ll o w in g :
1.

There should be more f r e q u e n t on s i t e v i s i t s ;

2.

S p e c i f i c e v a l u a t i o n c r i t e r i a should be m u tually developed
which should r e f l e c t a ba lance between performance and
outcome mea su res;

3.

Procedures f o r o b t a i n i n g i n fo r m a t io n should be improved; and

4.

P r i n c i p a l s should e v a l u a t e one a n o t h e r .

P07

208

E v a lu a tin g Teacher Performance op. c i t . p. 3.

208Deal, T e rr a n c e , e t . a l . " V i l l i a n s as Victims: E va lu a ti ng
P r i n c i p a l s , ” Phi Delta Kappan 59 (December, 1977} pp. 273-74.

i?i

While i t i s c l e a r from t h i s r e s e a r c h t h a t l i t t l e emphasis i s
a c t u a l l y c e n t e r e d on t h e p r i n c i p a l s r o l e in i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement,
and too much emphasis i s placed on summative e v a l u a t i o n o f s t a f f s ,
p r i n c i p a l s would do well to look a t t e a c h e r co mplaints in r eg ard s
to t h e i r p r a c t i c e s o f e v a l u a t i n g s t a f f .
Brown, in an i n t e r e s t i n g d i s s e r t a t i o n , found t h a t elem en tary
school p r i n c i p a l s most o f t e n d e l e g a t e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to o t h e r s in
t h e a r e a o f i n s t r u c t i o n and c u r ric u l u m development, whenever t h i s
was p o s s i b l e .

This was t r u e even though t h e p r i n c i p a l s involved

a l l s t a t e d a p r e f e r e n c e f o r i n s t r u c t i o n and cu r ricu lu m development.
The a u t h o r did not p o s i t any reaso n f o r t h i s d e l e g a t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
In a n o t h e r stu d y in v o l v in g t h e amount o f time p r i n c i p a l s
a c t u a l l y s pent on s u p e r v i s i o n as opposed t o t h e time th ey would
p r e f e r to spend on t h i s a c t i v i t y , Altman found, as o t h e r have, t h a t
t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e a c t u a l and idea l
roles of p rin c ip a ls .

In an i n t e r e s t i n g sub f i n d i n g , however, he

a l s o d isc o v e re d t h a t p r i n c i p a l s of s ch ools with l e s s than 600 s t u d e n t s
s pent s i g n i f i c a n t l y more time in classrooms than did p r i n c i p a l s o f
l a r g e s c h o o l s . 2^

209

Brown, L a rr y . H. A Study o f t h e D e leg atio n o f A d m i n i s t r a t i v e
Tasks by an Elementary School P r i n c i p a l in
S e l e c t e d F l o r i d a Publ i c
School (Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 1978)
176 pp.
2^ A l t m a n , Robert T. Elementary P r i n c i p a l s Time Usage in t he San
Diego C ity Schools (Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Northern
Arizona U n i v e r s i t y , 1978) 123 pp.

209

122

The q u e s ti o n o f t h e degree t o which t e a c h e r s a r e in vo lved in
th e d e t e r m in a ti o n o f t h e s u p e r v i s o r y focu s was addres sed by Blumberg,
and Cusick in 1970, and the a u t h o r s found t h a t s u p e r v i s o r s gi ve
t h e i r own op in io n s and id e a s f o u r times as o f t e n as th e y ask f o r
t e a c h e r views and t h e y tended t o dodge l e g i t i m a t e t e a c h e r com plaints
and c o n c e r n s .

The a u th o r s found t h a t t e a c h e r s a r e u s u a l l y p a s s iv e

p a r t i c i p a n t s in the e v a l u a t i o n process and t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f
e v a l u a t i v e co n f e re n c e s c o n c e n t r a t e d on i s s u e s o t h e r than i n s t r u c t i o n a l
c o n cer n s.

"Game play in g " seemed t o be th e o v e r a l l c o n c lu s io n o f

what happened between p r i n c i p a l s and t e a c h e r s du rin g e v a l u a t i o n
conferences.

2 1 )1

Following up t h i s s t u d y , B1 umbercf s book on s u p e r v i s i o n i n d i c a t e d
t h a t s u p e r v i s o r s seem to be o u t o f touch with cla s sr o o m s.

" S uperv is ors

play a democ ratic game," says Blumberg, "bu t th ey r e a l l y d o n ' t
mean i t . " 2®2
In an i n t e r e s t i n g d i s s e r t a t i o n , P a t t e r s o n found t h a t th e
p r i n c i p a l s o f l a r g e r d i s t r i c t s ap pe ar to be b e t t e r i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s than
t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s in s m a l l e r d i s t r i c t s .

What can be im plied from

this?
on t

Blumberg, Arthur and P h i l l i p Cusick, " S u p e rv is o r- T e a c h e r
I n t e r a c t i o n : An A n a ly s is o f Verbal Beh avio r," Education 91 (November/
December, 1970) pp. 129-31.
2^2Blumberg, A r t h u r , S u p e r v i s o r s and T e a c h e r s : A P r i v a t e Cold
War (Berk ey, C a l i f o r n i a : McCulehan PuHTishing C o r p o r a t io n , 19740 p. 15-16.

123

"Perhaps t h e p r i n c i p a l in a l a r g e r system i s more ' s y s t e m a t i z e d . '
The p r o c e s s e s have been i n g r a in e d s i n c e h i s / h e r te a c h i n g days. I t
i s not n e c e s s a r y t o manuf acture a system t h a t works when one i s a l r e a d y
f u n c t i o n i n g n i c e l y . "213
In a study which compared th e p r a c t i c e s o f o u t s t a n d i n g p r i n c i p a l s ,
as named by t h e i r s u p e r i o r s and o t h e r p r i n c i p a l s , B l a i r found
se v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t e x i s t e d .

"Outstanding" p r i n c i p a l s

were s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r p r i n c i p a l s in t h e i r :
1.

p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e aims o f e v a l u a t i o n - - as being s u p p o r t i v e
o f improved t e a c h e r performance;

2.

choice o f c r i t e r i a f o r e v a l u a t i o n - - th e y more o f t e n looked
f o r t e a c h e r c r e a t i v i t y and t e a c h in g t e c h n iq u e s whereas
o t h e r p r i n c i p a l s focused on d i s c i p l i n e and appearance o f
cla ssr oom s;

3.

p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e need f o r f r e q u e n t and ' d i r e c t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
involvement with th e t e a c h e r ; and

4.

p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e need f o r e v a l u a t i o n on a continuo us
g ia
and r e g u l a r b a s i s thro ughout t h e d u r a t i o n of a t e a c h e r t e n u r e .

Hetzel found t h a t t h e p o s t c o n f eren c e was viewed by t e a c h e r s to
be t h e most h e lp f u l e v a l u a t i o n s u p e r v i s o r y t e c h n iq u e .

215

However, th e

?13

P a t t e r s o n , John P. A D e s c r i p t i v e A nalys is o f t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Le ad ership A c t i v i t i e s o f Elementary P r i n c i p a l s (Unpublished Ph. D.
D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1977). pp. 112-113.
p i 4

B l a i r , A l ic e E. An Anal ysis o f Teacher E v a lu a ti o n P r a c t i c e s
in t h e Chicago P u b l ic Schools (Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Loyola
U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago, 1978) 228 pp.
^ 5H e t z e l , S . S . J . S i s t e r Marie A l b e r t . Role P e r c e p t io n s and A t t i t u d e s
o f S u p e r v i s o r s , P r i n c i p a l s and Teachers Toward S u p e r v is i o n in t h e Elementary
Schools of t h e Archdiocese o f P h i l a d e l p h i a (Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n
Temple U n i v e r s i t y , 1978) 327 pp.

124

t e a c h e r involved had not exper ien ce d a p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n co nfer en ce
and Knorr found t h a t :
1.

P r e - o b s e r v a t i o n a l con f e re n c e s have t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r
producing g r e a t e r r a t i n g r e l i a b i l i t y ;

2.

Teaching can be s i g n i f i c a n t l y changed through t h e use
o f p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e s . 246

In a comprehensive look a t t h e formal and informal t e a c h e r
e v a l u a t i o n p r a c t i c e s used by elem en tary p r i n c i p a l s , Hodel a r r i v e d a t
s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g c o n c l u s io n s having a d i r e c t b earing on t h i s
stu d y :
1.

Teacher e v a l u a t i o n s f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e purposes ( t e n u r e ,
d i s m i s s a l , promotion - - summative e v a l u a t i o n s ) and t e a c h e r
e v a l u a t i o n s f o r th e purpose o f improving i n s t r u c t i o n {fo rmativ e
e v a l u a t i o n s ) a r e n o t compatible.

2.

The r o l e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l as an e v a l u a t o r and t h e r o l e o f
th e p r i n c i p a l as a s u p e r v i s o r a r e in c o n f l i c t with one a n o t h e r - in t h e former r o l e p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e i v e o f themselves as
n e g a t i v e and p u n i t i v e and in t h e l a t t e r r o l e as being p o s i t i v e
and h e l p f u l .

3.

There i s an i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n
o f t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n p r a c t i c e s and th e p e r c e i v e d a b i l i t y
o f p r i n c i p a l s t o improve i n s t r u c t i o n ;

4.

P r i n c i p a l s do not pos se ss ad equate s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s and
th i s deficiency c o n trib u te s s i g n i f i c a n t l y to t h e i r
p e r c e iv e d i n a b i l i t y t o s u c c e s s f u l l y improve i n s t r u c t i o n .
nl ‘
P r i n c i p a l s need t o have i n - s e r v i c e in s u p e r v i s i o n . '
7

5.

^Knorr, Russell H. Improving Agreement Among E v a lu a to rs
R atings o f Teacher Performance (Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Lehigh U n i v e r s i t y , 1979) 158 pp.
7

Model, Gerald J . A Study o f Formal and Informal Teacher E va lu a tion
P r a c t i c e s o f S e l e c t e d Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s (Unpublished Ph.D.
D i s s e r t a t i o n , Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y , 1979) 162 pp.

125

While t h e r e i s some c o n f l i c t i n g e v id e n c e , most s t u d i e s which
compare t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t s o f male ve rsu s female p r i n c i p a l s show
t h a t female p r i n c i p a l s a r e more a p t t o be s u p e r i o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l
l e a d e r s in r eg ard s to s u p e r v i s io n s k i l l s a t l e a s t .

218

Redwine

and Dubick, while det erm in ing a l s o t h a t female p r i n c i p a l s were more
l i k e l y t o be f e l t by t e a c h e r s as being more capa ble o f improving t h e i r
t e a c h i n g , a l s o found t h a t female p r i n c i p a l s seemed t o emphasize
i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p more o f t e n and t h a t elemen tary p r i n c i p a l s ,
both male and female, were

much s t r o n g e r i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s than

p rin c ip a ls a t other le v e ls .
When Redwine and Dubick asked t e a c h e r s what help t h e i r p r i n c i p a l
could use to become a s t r o n g e r i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r , 40 p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d
b e t t e r human r e l a t i o n s s k i l l s , 30 p e r c e n t s a i d more knowledge o f e v a l u a t i v e
s k i l l s , and 29 p e r c e n t s a id more knowledge about t e a c h i n g .

In t h i s s tu d y ,

94 p e r c e n t o f t h e t e a c h e r s responded t h a t th ey would l i k e t o see p r i n c i p a l s
spend more time on i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p a c t i v i t i e s .

219

Sanders and Schwab lament t h e p l i g h t o f t h e classroom t e a c h e r who
f u n c t i o n s in a " l o o s e l y coupled" o r g a n i z a t i o n a l atmosphere.
"In most s c h o o ls th e impetus f o r improving t e a c h i n g performance
seems t o d e r i v e p r i m a r i l y from t e a c h e r ' s perso nal need f o r m a s te r y . "
"Many t e a c h e r s do ' r e t r e a t i n t o i n d i f f e r e n c e and d e tach m en t1
but th e reas on can be l i s t e d as much t o th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s chooli ng

218

Rogers, Mae, A D e s c r i p t i v e Study o f Leadership E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
Male and Female Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s Based on S e l f - P e r c e p t i o n
and t h e P e r c e p tio n o f T h e ir T e a c h e r s . (Unpublished "PFT.D.Dissertation
U. S. I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y , 1977). 96 pp.
219

Redwine, J u d i t h and Robert A. Dublick, Teachers P e r c e p t io n s o f
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Leadership and Teacher E v a lu a tio n P r o c e s s e s , I n d i a n a ,
U n i v e r s i t y , 1979. ERIC 157892,

126

as t o any perso nal in a d e q u a c ie s o f t e a c h e r s . Many o f them f eel a c u t e l y
th e des crepancy between t h e i r need and d e s i r e f o r personal growth and
th e l i m i t a t i o n s of th e classroom te a c h i n g th e y e x p e r i e n c e . Few a r e
a c t i v e l y suppo rted in t h e i r e f f o r t s to engage in s e l f - d i r e c t e d growth
through p r o f e s s i o n a l problem- solv in g ex cep t through th e r i t u a l
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f i n - s e r v i c e c r e d i t f o r g r a d u a t e cour se work. Most
f eel p r e s s u r e d t o s a t i s f y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e
l i t t l e , e i t h e r t o t e a c h e r growth or t o s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g . "220
I t i s im port ant t h a t a view be given to t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r a t i o s
o f school systems as compared t o s u p e r v i s o r y r a t i o s o f o t h e r p r i v a t e and
governmental a g e n c i e s .

Marlowe

221

has given p u b l i c e d u c a ti o n some

v a l u a b l e in fo r m atio n which could be e f f e c t i v e l y used by s c h o o ls .

The

a u t h o r i n d i c a t e d t h a t h i s r e s e a r c h showed t h a t t h e r e was n atio n w id e , an
average r a t i o o f 7.1 a d m i n i s t r a t o r s f o r ev ery 92.9 t e a c h e r s .

"Sources

a t th e American Hospital A s s o c i a t i o n O f f i c e in Washington, D.C. e s t i m a t e
t h e i r management pe r c e n ta g e a t somewhere around 10 p e r c e n t . "

222

From th e 1979 S t a t i s t i c a l A b s t r a c t of th e U.S. th e a u t h o r found t h a t
13 p e r c e n t of t h e m i l i t a r y personnel were i d e n t i f i e d as o f f i c e r s , which is
twice t h e s u p e r v i s o r y r a t i o o f s c h o o ls .

According to Department o f Commerce

s t a t i s t i c s , as quoted by Marlowe, one in ten workers a t t h e p o s t o f f i c e
i s a t th e management l e v e l .
Annual Report

And accor ding to the U.S. Bureau o f Labor

producing motor v e h i c l e s r e q u i r e s f o u r p e r c e n t management,

990

S anders, Donald P. and Marion Schwab, "A School Context f o r
Teacher Development," Theory Into P r a c t i c e 19 (Autumn, 1980) pp. 271-77
221 Marlowe, John "Use These Facts and Figure s t o Topple t h e Myth
o f Top Heavy School Management," Success By Design, Executive
Education P u b l i s h e r s , Washington, D.C., 1979.

127

p roduction o f paper goods, s i x p e r c e n t - - t h e t r u c k i n g i n d u s t r y r e q u i r e s
s i x p e r c e n t management, food and kindred pr o d u cts have a seven p e r c e n t
management f i g u r e and th e tobacco i n d u s t r y has e i g h t p e r c e n t .

Companies

t h a t s e l l v e h i c l e s have more than o n e - f i f t h o f t h e i r people in management.
Companies t h a t s e l l hardware have twenty p e r c e n t management, whereas
twelve p e r c e n t o f i n s u r a n c e i n d u s t r y employees a r e managers.
shoe s t o r e has twenty n in e p e r c e n t in management.

The average

In r e a l e s t a t e and

law fir m s n i n e t e e n p e r c e n t o f th e personnel a r e in management.

Police

a r e about twelve p e r c e n t i n t o management and pool h a l l s and bowling
a l l e y s have twenty one p e r c e n t management.
"The r a t i o o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t o t e a c h e r s make i t im poss ible f o r
them t o provide e f f e c t i v e s u p e r v i s i o n . P r i n c i p a l s ca nno t improve
i n s t r u c t i o n when t h e y ca nno t work i n t e n s i v e l y with th e t e a c h e r s they
s e r v e . This means t h a t many s t a f f workers go unsuperv is ed or r e c e i v e
only s u p e r f i c i a l o r emergency a t t e n t i o n . " 22
In a speech a t a National NAESP S t a t e Le aders hip Conference,
Education S e c r e t a r y , T e r r e l Bell o u t l i n e d what he s a i d t h a t r e s e a r c h
says about s u c c e s s f u l s c h o o ls .

The f i r s t f a c t o r mentioned was th e

l e a d e r s h i p o f th e p r i n c i p a l , which was extr em ely i m p o rt a n t because i t
" l i t e r a l l y dete rm in e s t h e s u c c e ss o f th e o t h e r f o u r f a c t o r s . "

The o t h e r

f a c t o r s were a s a f e and o r d e r l y s ch o o l, emphasis on b a s i c s k i l l s

128

i n s t r u c t i o n with co rres p o n d in g agreement among t h e s t a f f t h a t t h i s
i n s t r u c t i o n i s t h e primary goal o f th e s c h o o l , sense o f e f f i c a c y o r
t h e b e l i e f t h a t a l l s t u d e n t s can l e a r n , and l a s t l y , a system f o r
m o n itori ng and a s s e s s i n g s t u d e n t performance t h a t i s sh a re d ,
" P r i n c i p a l s a r e ab out t h e most i m p o rt a n t people around when i t
comes t o g e n e r a t i n g th e changes needed in elem enta ry e d u c a t i o n : y our
d e c i s i o n s about how your school i s run and what i t o f f e r s in th e name
o f e d u c a t io n can permanently a l t e r , f o r b e t t e r o r f o r worse, th e
'224
a t t i t u d e o f t e a c h e r s toward t e a c h i n g and t h a t o f s t u d e n t s toward l e a r n i n g
Summary
This s e c t i o n o f t h e review o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e has at tem pted to
look a t s e l e c t e d i s o l a t e d s t u d i e s , a r t i c l e s , and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s
which have a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h i s s tu d y .
In g e n e r a l , i t can be s a f e l y concluded from t h i s review t h a t the
ele m entary p r i n c i p a l should pro bab ly be th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r and
s u p e r v i s o r o f h i s or h e r school but u s u a l l y i s n o t s k i l l e d enough o r
e f f e c t i v e enough a t t h i s r o l e , and d o e s n ' t perform th e s u p e r v i s o r y
f u n c t i o n o f t e n enough; female p r i n c i p a l s o f t e n being more s u c c e s s f u l
than males.

D i s t r i c t and b u i l d i n g s i z e may have t h e same e f f e c t on

s u p e r v i s io n p r a c t i c e s and s u p e r v i s o r y r a t i o s a l s o may e f f e c t t h e p r o c e s s .

^ — "Ter rel B e l l : P r i n c i p a l s and E f f e c t i v e S c h o o ls , " NAESP
Communicator IV, (August 30, 1981) pp. 1 and 8.

CHAPTER I I I
RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
I n tr o d u c t i o n
The r e s e a r c h e r ' s purpose in t h i s study was t o determ ine i f
s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t between c e r t a i n b i o l o g i c a l , e d u c a t i o n a l ,
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and o r i e n t a t i o n a l f a c t o r s o f elem entary p r i n c i p a l s
and c e r t a i n p erceiv ed p r a c t i c e s and a t t i t u d e s r e g a r d i n g s u p e r v i s i o n
t h a t a r e held by elementary p r i n c i p a l s and with t h e p e r c e iv e d a b i l i t y
o f elementary p r i n c i p a l s t o perform t h e s e s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s .
The p r e s e n t c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e sample, r e s e a r c h
hy p o th e s e s , i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , d a ta c o l l e c t i o n , pr oc ed ur es f o r d ata
a n a l y s i s and summary.
Sample Popu la tion
A sample o f 200 elem en tary school p r i n c i p a l s was randomly s e l e c t e d
from the 1981-82 membership o f t h e Michigan Elementary and Middle School
P r i n c i p a l s A s s o c i a t i o n (MEMSPA).

MEMSPA i s a v o l u n t a r y p r o f e s s i o n a l

group t h a t c o n t a i n s in membership a m a j o r i t y o f t h e e s ti m a t e d 1600
Michigan e lem entary p r i n c i p a l s h i p s .
One hundred t h r e e o f t h e 200 p r i n c i p a l s t o whom t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Le ad ership Q u e s t i o n a i r e (ILQ) was mailed responded by th e d e a d l i n e o f
November 30, 1981.

This r e t u r n was determined t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y

l a r g e enough f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e pur p o ses .
The l a r g e re sp o n s e t o th e ILQ was due l a r g e l y , no d o ubt, t o
t h e f a c t t h a t th e p r o j e c t was sponsored by MEMSPA. {See appendix f o r
l e t t e r of sponsorship).

129

—

130

Research Hypotheses
Based on an e x t e n s i v e review of t h e l i t e r a t u r e and t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s
e x p e r i e n c e , i t seemed r e a s o n a b l e to t e s t t h e f o ll o w in g hy pothese s:
H,

Perceived a c t u a l e x p e r t i s e w il l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower than
p er ceiv ed id eal e x p e r t i s e s c o re s in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n
a c t i v i t i e s , s i n g l y and c o l l e c t i v e l y .

Hp

Female p r i n c i p a l s w i l l s c o re s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r than male
p r i n c i p a l s on perceived c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .

H3

Female p r i n c i p a l s w i l l s c o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r than male
p r i n c i p a l s on perceived c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
assumed.

H.

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between age and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e ,

Hg There w il l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between age and pe rce iv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
assumed.
Hg

There w ill be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t h e number o f s c h o o ls s u p e r v i s e d and p er ceiv ed
c lin ic a l supervisory e x p e rtise .

H7

There w il l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between th e number o f s ch oo ls s u p e r v i s e d and perceived
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

H„

There w ill be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between school en r o l lm e n t in s ch oo ls s u p e r v i s e d and perceived
c lin ic a l supervisory e x p e rtis e .

Hg

There w il l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t h e en r o llm e n t in s ch oo ls s u p e r v is e d and per ce ived
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

H,n Teaching e x p e r i e n c e o f p r i n c i p a l s w i l l have no s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .
H-,, Teaching e x p e r ie n c e o f p r i n c i p a l s w i l l have no s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H,? There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between number o f classroom t e a c h e r s s u p e r v i s e d and
perceived c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .

131

H,3 There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between number o f classr oo m t e a c h e r s s u p e r v i s e d and p e r c e i v e d
c l i n i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H,. There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
t h e t o t a l number o f t e a c h e r s s u p e r v i s e d and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l
supervisory e x p e rtise .
H,r

There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t h e t o t a l number o f t e a c h e r s s u p e r v i s e d and p e r c e i v e d
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

H,g There w il l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between d i s t r i c t s i z e and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
expertise.
H,? There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between d i s t r i c t s i z e and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H.g There w il l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between l o n g e v i t y as a p r i n c i p a l and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l
supervisory ex p ertise.
H.g There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between l o n g e v i t y a s a p r i n c i p a l and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between e x t r a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p r i n c i p a l s and p e r c e i v e d
c lin ic a l supervisory e x p e rtise .
H„. There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between e x t r a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p r i n c i p a l s and p e r c e i v e d
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H

„ 2

The number o f formal t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n s r e q u i r e d w i l l equal
t h e number o f f o r m a t i v e t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n s performed.

H?3 The amount o f formal e d u c a t i o n in s u p e r v i s i o n w i l l have no
s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
expertise.
The amount o f formal e d u c a t i o n in s u p e r v i s i o n w i l l have no
s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H?5 There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p
between s t a f f development in s u p e r v i s i o n and p e r c e i v e d
c l in ic a l supervisory ex p e rtise .

132

H26 There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p
between s t a f f development in s u p e r v i s i o n and p er ceiv ed
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H27 There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p er ceiv ed s en se o f a u t h o r i t y and p erceiv ed c l i n i c a l
supervisory e x p e rtise .
H2pThere w il l be a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p e r c e iv e d sense o f a u t h o r i t y and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H2g There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p e r c e iv e d s en se o f e f f i c a c y and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l
supervisory e x p e rtise .
H3q There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p e r c e iv e d sense o f e f f i c a c y and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H3. There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p e r c e iv e d r o l e as a c l i n i c i a n and p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l
supervisory e x p e rtis e .
H32 There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p er ceiv ed r o l e as a c l i n i c i a n and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H33There w il l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p e r c e iv e d use o f t h e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n model and
p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n e x p e r t i s e .
H34 There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p er ceiv ed use o f th e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n model and
p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
H35 There w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e and p erceived
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
I n s t r u m e n ta t i o n
A q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t i n g o f e i g h t y - o n e items was d r a f t e d to
g a t h e r th e d e s i r e d in fo r m a tio n in te n d e d to address t h e q u e s t i o n s posed
under t h e s ta t e m e n t o f t h e problem.

133

I n d iv i d u a l q u e s ti o n s were developed a f t e r reviewing numerous
survey forms d e a l i n g with i n s t r u c t i o n a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

The in s t r u m e n t

i n clu d ed f o u r b a s i c ty pe s o f q u e s t i o n s ; q u e s t i o n s o f (1) f a c t ,
(2) in f o r m a t i o n , (3) o p i n i o n , and (4) s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n .
Concerns about th e c l a r i t y and v a l i d i t y o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e were
ad dr es sed and d e a l t with thro ughout t h e f o rm u la ti o n s t a g e s o f d e v e l ­
opment.

Counsel and a review o f t h e t o t a l i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n p rocedure ,

i n c l u d i n g each d r a f t o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e were sought from t h e O f f i c e
o f Research C o n s u l t a t i o n o f Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

In a d d i t i o n ,

a n a t i o n a l l y recognized a u t h o r i t y in th e f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h ,
Dr. H er ber t Rudman, e v a l u a t e d t h e c l a r i t y , o r g a n i z a t i o n , and c o n t e n t
o f th e procedural plan and survey form.

Mr. C l i f f Nelson and Mrs.

Carol Cummings, n a t i o n a l l y known e x p e r t s on t e a c h i n g and c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s io n w ereconsulted t o determine f a c e v a l i d i t y o f t h e ILQ.
P i l o t Study
The I n s t r u c t i o n a l L ead er ship Q u e s t io n n a i r e (ILQ) was f i e l d t e s t e d
us ing f i f t e e n elem en tary p r i n c i p a l s from t h e mid-Michigan a r e a .

Fifteen

ILQ1s were d i s t r i b u t e d dur in g th e week o f October 1, 1981, and t h e
same f i f t e e n p r i n c i p a l s were asked t o r e t a k e t h e ILQ dur in g th e t h i r d
week o f Oct ober, 1981.

Ten p r i n c i p a l s complied with a l l t i m e l i n e s and

guidelines.
The p i l o t stu d y r e v e a le d t h a t th e s u b j e c t s were g e n e r a l l y a b l e to
complete t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i t h i n a twenty minute p e r i o d and t h a t r e ­
sponding t o th e in s tr u m e n t did n o t ap pe ar t o be t h r e a t e n i n g .
t h e resp ond en ts incl ude d comments.

Many o f

134
R eliability
Data *rom t e n matched t e s t - r e t e s t forms o f t h e ILQ from t h e f i e l d
t e s t i n g were used t o compute a r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t f o r th e ILQ
in s t r u m e n t .

Per ce ived r e s p o n s i b i l i t y s c o r e s on t h e i n i t i a l t e s t

were compared with matched p e r c e iv e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y s c o r e s on th e
retest.

Per ce ived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e s c o re s on th e i n i t i a l t e s t were

compared with Per ce ived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e s c o r e s on t h e r e t e s t ; and
Per ce iv ed Ideal E x p e r t i s e s c o re s on th e i n i t i a l t e s t were matched
with t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s on t h e r e t e s t .
The ILQ was d isc o v e re d t o po sse ss a very high r e l i a b i l i t y f a c t o r .
The Pearson Product Moment C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t y i e l d e d a r e l i a b i l i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t o f .92 with s i g n i f i c a n c e a t th e .001 l e v e l f o r th e p er ceiv ed
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y p o r t i o n o f t h e ILQ.

(See Ta ble 3 .1 )

The Per ce iv ed

P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e s e c t i o n o f t h e ILQ r e v e a l e d a .96 c o r r e l a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t , y i e l d i n g a .001 l ev el o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .

(See Table 3 .2) The

Perceived Ideal E x p e r t i s e s core o f th e ILQ was c o r r e l a t e d a t only .21.
(See Ta ble 3 . 3 )

The f i n d i n g s o f such a low c o r r e l a t i o n on t h e

Per ce iv ed Ideal E x p e r t i s e s core was n o t deemed t o be o f overwhelming
importance s i n c e t h e r e t e s t s c o re s were c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r than the
in itial

s c o re s and e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e no s t a t i s t i c s o t h e r than a r e l a t i o n s h i p

to Per ce iv ed P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e s c o r e s was contemplated in t h i s s tudy.
Proedures f o r Data A nalys is
The survey r es pons es from th e 103 resp onden ts t o t h e ILQ were
t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e in s t r u m e n t to s c o r in g s h e e t s and s u b sequently
punched on computor c a r d s and v e r i f i e d by machine a t t h e Michigan

13C

TABLE 3.1
P er ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l i a b i l i t y R e s u lts
o f t h e ILQ T e s t - R e t e s t
N=10
Standard
Correlation
V a r ia b le
Mean
D ev iation
Coefficient
I n i t i a l Test
ReTest

31.7
33. 2

4.49
5.06

.92

Probability
.001**

** S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .001 l ev el

TABLE 3.2
P er ce ived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e R e l i a b i l i t y R e s u lt s
o f th e ILQ T e s t - R e t e s t
N=10
C orrelation
Standard
Probability
V a r i a b le
Mean
D ev iation
_______
Coefficient
I n i t i a l Test
ReTest

84.1
85.6

13.77
16.17

.96

. 001 * *

** S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .001 le v e l

TABLE 3 . 3
P er ce ived Ideal E x p e r t i s e R e l i a b i l i t y R e s u lt s
o f t h e ILQ T e st - R e t e s t
N= 10
Stan dard
Correlation
Variable
Mean
D eviati on
Coefficient
Probability
I n it i a l Test
ReTest

105.8
111.8

13.20
9.64

.21

13S

S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Scoring O f f i c e .
Programs f o r th e a n a l y s i s o f d a t a were w r i t t e n f o r th e S t a t i s t i c a l
Package f o r the Social Sciences Program with th e a s s i s t a n c e o f c o n s u l t a n t s
from th e O f f i c e o f Research C o n s u lta t io n a t Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
The d a ta w e r e v e r i f i e d and p roce ss ed through the computor a t th e
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Computor C en ter .
S t a t i s t i c a l Procedures
Chi Square was s e l e c t e d as t h e s t a t i s t i c a l b a s i s of t h i s stud y
because o f t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s d e s i r e t o o b t a i n m a t e r i a l t h a t would be
d e s c r i p t i v e as well as s t a t i s t i c a l l y sound.

The use o f Cramer's V

was u t i l i z e d to determ ine th e e x t e n t t o which t h e v a r i a b l e s in f lu e n c e d
th e r e s u l t s where s i g n i f i c a n c e was d i s c o v e r e d .
S i g n i f i c a n c e was t e s t e d a t t h e .05 l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y .
Summary
In Chapter I I I th e r e s e a r c h design and procedures used t o accomplish
t h e p r e s e n t study have been p r e s e n t e d .

A random sample o f 200 elementary

p r i n c i p a l s was asked t o respond t o a survey o f p r i n c i p a l ' s p r a c t i c e s ,
a t t i t u d e s , and p e r c e p t i o n s ; 103 p r i n c i p a l s responded to t h e survey
w i t h i n th e time l i m i t s allow ed .

These p r a c t i c e s , a t t i t u d e s and p e r c e p t i o n s

were measured on the I n s t r u c t i o n a l L ead er ship Q u e s t i o n a ir e developed
f o r th e p r e s e n t stu dy.
D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s using t h e SPSS Package were g en er ated
with Chi Square and Cramer V through th e use o f t h e computor f a c i l i t i e s
a t Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
Introduction
The p r e s e n t study was designed t o determine whether s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t between c e r t a i n independent v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d
t o t h e elem entary p r i n c i p a l s h ip and p e r c e iv e d p r a c t i c e s and
a t t i t u d e s o f p r i n c i p a l s r e g a r d i n g th e s u p e r v i s io n o f t e a c h i n g .
Survey d a ta were g a t h e r e d w it h t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l Le aders hip Q u e s t io n a ir e
(ILQ) from 103 el em en tar y school p r i n c i p a l s from t h e S t a t e o f Michigan.
The r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d from the
survey a r e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s c h a p t e r .

A d e sc rip tiv e an aly sis of

th e ind ependent v a r i a b l e s in c l u d i n g t a b l e s i s pro vided in t h e f i r s t
s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r , followed by t h e s y s t e m a t i c t e s t i n g o f t h e
h y p o th e sis o f t h i s s tu d y .

An a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a and a summary

o f f i n d i n g s conclude th e c h a p t e r .
P r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e Data
The d a t a re veal t h a t t h e sample bears a s t r i k i n g resemblance
t o t h e elem en tary p r i n c i p a l s d e s c r i b e d in t h e 1978 s tu d y o f t h e
p r i n c i p a l s hip conducted by Pharis and Zakariya

225

Males outnumber

P h a r i s , William L. and S a l l y Z a k a r iy a , The Elementary School
P r i n c i p a l s h i p in 1978: A Research Study ( A r l i n g t o n , V i r g i n i a :
National A s s o c i a t i o n o f Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s , 1979).

137

138

females in t h e sample f o u r t o one (See Table 4.1 )

and t h e t r e n d

toward fewer women p r i n c i p a l s a ppears t o be c o n t i n u i n g .

The

p e r c e n ta g e o f women p r i n c i p a l s g e t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s in th e
younger age b r a c k e t s .

(See Table 4-2}

The average age o f t h e resp ondents was 45, ag ain approximating
t h e av er ag e age o f o t h e r more complete s t u d i e s .

(See Table 4-3)

The average p r i n c i p a l in t h i s study a d m i n i s t e r s one s c h o o l, but
more than 15 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e sp o n d e n ts were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r two
o r more s c h o o ls .
420 s t u d e n t s .

(Table 4-4)

The av erage s t u d e n t en r o llm e n t was

(Table 4-5 ) and t h e av erag e p r i n c i p a l was r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r 16.8 classr oom t e a c h e r s (Table 4-9 ) and 23.1 t o t a l c e r t i f i e d
p e r s o n n e l . (Table 4-9)
was 5,960 s t u d e n t s .

The d i s t r i c t s i z e f o r t h e av er ag e p r i n c i p a l

(See Ta ble 4-8)

The usual p r i n c i p a l in t h i s s tu d y had 9.7 y e a r s o f t e a c h i n g
e x p e r i e n c e (Table 4-6) and 10.6 y e a r s o f t e n u r e as a p r i n c i p a l .
(Table 4 .7)
The average p r i n c i p a l re sp ondent in t h i s study was r e q u i r e d to
e v a l u a t e t e n u r e d t e a c h e r s about once every 2. 4 y e a r s (Table 4-11)
and i n d i c a t e d t h a t he o r she conducted f o r m a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s about
once every 1.15 y e a r s .

(Table 4-15}

F i f t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e res p o n d en ts had o t h e r systemwide
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o t h e r than t h e p r i n c i p a l s h ip (Table 4 - 1 3 ) .

Twenty-

t h r e e p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d they had had an extenfedve p r o f e s s i o n a l
developmental program in t e a c h e r s u p e r v i s i o n o r t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n

1 39

TABLE 4-1
Sex D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Sample
Ab solute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

Male

82

79.6

Female

21

20.4

103

100.0

Total

TABLE 4-3
Age D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Sample
Abso lute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

40 and Under

31

30.4

41 t o 50

44

43.1

_27_

26.5

Over 50

102

Mean
Mode
Median

45. 0
46.0
45 .5

100.0

140

TABLE 4-2
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Age to Sex
o f Elementary P r i n c i p a l s
N=103
Age

Male

Female

Row Total

Under 40

28
Count
87.5
Row P er ce ntag e
Column Perce ntag e 34.1

4
12.5
19.0

32
31.1

41 - 50

37
Count
84.1
Row Per centage
Column P er ce ntag e 45.1

7
15.9
33.3

44
42.7

Over 50

17
Count
Row Per centage
63.0
Column P er ce nta ge 20.7

10
3 7.0
47.6

27
26.2

82
79.6

21
20.4

103
100.0

Column
Total

Raw Chi Square = 6. 38 with 2 degr ees o f freedom s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0411
Cramers V = .25

141

TABLE 4-4
Schools Res ponsible For
Absolute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

One School

87

84.5

Two Schools

11

10.7

4

3.9

Three Schools

Four Schools______________ __ 1_

1.0

103

100.0

TABLE 4-5
S t u d e n t Enrollment in S ch oo l(s)
A bsol ute
Frequency
250 and Under

Relative
Frequency

8

7.8

to 350

27

26.2

351 to 450

30

29.1

451

21

20.4

251

to 550

Over 550

Mean
Mode
Median

420
300
390

J7.

16.5

103

100.0

142

TABLE 4-6
Years o f Teaching Experience
Absolute
Frequency
5 Years or Under
6 to 10 Years
11 t o 15 Years
16 or More Years

Mean
Mode
Median

Relative
Frequency

35
35
16
17

34.0
34.0
15.5
16.5

103

100.0

9, 7
5
7.4

TABLE 4-7
Elementary P r i n c i p a l s h ip Experience
Absolute
Frequency
5 Years o r Under
6 t o 10 Years
11 t o 15 Years
16 o r More Years

Mean
Mode
Median

10 .6
12.0
10 .9

Relative
Frequency

27
22
32
22

26.2
21.4
31.0
21.4

103

100.0

143

TABLE 4-8
D i s t r i c t Enrollment
Absolute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

2500 and Under

34

34.7

2501 t o 5000

31

31.6

5001 and Over

33

33.7

98
Mean
Mode
Median

100.0

5,960
2,500
3,453

TABLE 4-9
Classroom Teachers Super vised
A bsolute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

13 and Under

33

32.0

14 t o 20

47

45. 6

21 and Over

23

22.4

103

100.0

Mean
Mode
Median

16 .8
15
15.1

144

TABLE 4-10
Total Teachers Supervised
Absolute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

19 and Under

38

36.9

20 t o 29

43

41.7

30 and Over

22

21.4

103
Mean
Mode
Median

100.0

23.7
20.0
21.0

TABLE 4-11
Frequency o f
Required E v a lu a ti o n s o f
Tenured Teachers
Ab solute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

Every 3 Years o r Less

29

28.7

Every 2 Years

28

27.7

Every Year

38

37.6

Twice a Year

4

4.0

3 Times a Year o r
More

2

2 .0

101

100.0

Mean
Mode
Median

Once Every 2 . 4 Years
Yearly
Every two Years

145

TABLE 4-12

Formal Education in S u p e r v is i o n o f Teaching
(Semester Hours)
Ab so lu te
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

Zero Hours

28

28.6

1 t o 6 Hours

39

39 .8

7 t o 18 Hours

19

19.4

Over 18 Hours

12

12.2

98

100.0

Mean
Mode
Median

7.5
0
4.125

TABLE 4-13
Extra Systemwide R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
Abso lute
Frequency
Yes
No

Relative
Frequency

53

52.0

_49

48.0

102

100.0

146

TABLE 4-1 4

P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Program
on S u p e r v is io n o f I n s t r u c t i o n

Yes
No

Abso lute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

23

22.3

_80

77.7

103

100.0

TABLE 4-15
E v a lu a ti o n s f o r S t r i c t l y Formative Reasons
Absolute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency ,

Cumulative
Frequency

Weekly

3

4.0

4. 0

Six Times a Year

2

2.7

6. 7

Five Times a Year

1

1 .4

8.1

Four Times a Year

3

4,0

12.1

Three Times a Year

4

5.4

17.5

Two Times a Year

13

17.6

35.1

Annually

28

37.8

72.9

Every Two Years

15

20.3

93.2

Every Three Years o r Less 5
74

6 .8
100.0

100.0

Mean
Mode
Median

Every 1 .15 Years
Every Year
Every Year

147

(Table 4-14) b u t the av er ag e p r i n c i p a l had ac q u ir e d l e s s than
e i g h t s em e ster hours o f formal i n s t r u c t i o n in t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f
i n s t r u c t i o n ; in f a c t , more than 28 p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d they had no
such t r a i n i n g a t a l l . (Table 4-12)
Although a wide number o f cho ices was o f f e r e d r e g a r d in g th e
e v a l u a t i v e r o l e t h a t a p r i n c i p a l might e l e c t to perform, only
two c h o ic e s r e c e iv e d more than one s e l e c t i o n , t h a t o f a c l i n i c i a n ,
and t h a t o f an e v a l u a t o r ; t h e s e two ch o i c e s were q u i t e evenly
s e l e c t e d (Table 4 - 1 6 ).
In g e n e r a l , t h e d ata o f t h i s study showed t h a t t h e res po nd en ts
p e r c e i v e d themselves as having a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f a u t h o r i t y
t o make i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s (Table 4 - 1 7 ) , and th ey seem t o
p o s ses s a very s tr o n g sense o f e f f i c a c y .

That i s , th e y s t r o n g l y

b e l i e v e they p e r s o n a l l y can have q u i t e an impact on s t u d e n t
l e a r n i n g and th e y have s t r o n g f a i t h in th e a b i l i t y o f t e a c h e r s t o
make a d i f f e r e n c e in t h e e d u c a t io n o f c h i l d r e n (See Tables 4-18 ,
4 - 19, and 4 - 2 0 ) .
When asked how f r e q u e n t l y th ey used a system o f c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s i o n th e r esp onses o f t h e elem en tary p r i n c i p a l s o f t h i s
stu d y almos t approximated t h a t o f a normal b e l l - s h a p e d cur ve .
(Table 4-21)

148

TABLE 4-16
Perceived E v a lu a ti v e Role o f P r i n c i p a l s
Ab so lu te
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

Clinician

45

4 4.6

O rga nizer

1

1.0

F acilitator

0

0.0

Trainer

1

1.0

E v a lu a to r

54

53.5

D elegator

0

1. 0

101

100.0

TABLE 4-17
Perce ived A u t h o r it y o f P r i n c i p a l s
t o Make I n s t r u c t i o n a l Program Dec is ions
Cumulative
Frequency

Abs olute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

Complete A u t h o r i t y 6

10

9.7

9. 7

5

33

32.0

41.7

4

39

37.9

79.6

3

16

15.5

95.1

2

4

3.9

99;0

1

1

1 .0

100.0

103

100.0

No A u t h o r it y

Mean
Mode
Median

4. 3
4
4.3

149

TABLE 4- 1 8

Perceptions o f P rin cip als
Regarding T h e i r P o t e n t i a l E f f e c t
on S tudent Learning Outcomes

Gr ea t E f f e c t

No E f f e c t

Mean
Mode
Median

Abs olute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

Cumulative
Frequency

6

28

27.2

27.2

5

50

48.5

75.7

4

17

16.5

92.2

3

8

7.8

100.0

2

0

0 .0

100.0

1

0

0 .0

100.0

103

100.0

4.95
5.0
5.03
TABLE 4-19
Perceptions of P rincipals
Regarding t h e E f f e c t s
o f Teachers on Learning
Absolute
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

Cumulative
Frequency

6

45

43.7

43.7

5

49

47.6

91.3

4

8

7. 8

99.0

3

1

1 .0

100.0

2

0

0 .0

100.0

None

1

0

0 .0

100.0

Mean
Mode
Median

5.34
5.0
5.367

Very Great

150

TABLE 4-2 0

Perceptions of P rincipals
Regarding t h e A b i l i t y o f Teachers
to Exert an E f f e c t Upon The Unmotivated Child

Very Much

None
Mean
Mode
Median

Ab so lu te
Frequency

Relative
Frequency

Cumulative
Frequency

6

33

32.0

32.0

5

40

38. 8

70.8

4

19

18.4

89.2

3

6

5.8

95.0

2

4

3.9

99.0

1

1

1 .0

100.0

103

100.0

4.9
5.0
5.0
TABLE 4-21
P r i n c i p a l Use o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n Method
Ab so lu te
Frequency

Always

Relative
Frequency

Cumulative
Frequency

6

7

6.8

6.8

5

25

24. 3

31.1

4

22

21.4

52.5

3

17

16.5

69.0

2

23

22. 3

91.3

9
103

8.7
100.0

100.0

Never

1

Mean
Mode
Median

3.5
5
3.6

151

The Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed
by Elementary P r i n c i p a l s
f o r C l i n i c a l S up er v is o r y A c t i v i t i e s
Twenty p r i n c i p a l a c t i v i t i e s i n v o lv in g c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n
were o u t l i n e d in th e ILQ and p r i n c i p a l s were asked t o respond in
r e g a r d s to th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h e y assumed f o r each item.
Respondents were given t h r e e c h o i c e s : th e y could have checked
t h a t th e a c t i v i t y was t h e i r primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h a t i t had
p r i o r i t y cla im o f t h e i r time and a t t e n t i o n ; th ey could have
checked t h a t t h e item was a secondary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o r t h a t i t
would r e c e i v e t h e i r a t t e n t i o n a f t e r o t h e r primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
had been d i s c h a r g e d ; o r th ey could have i n d i c a t e d t h a t th ey f e l t
no r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h i s a c t i v i t y .
The twenty c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n a c t i v i t i e s were s e l e c t e d to
be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e broad continuum o f t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s
normally a s s o c i a t e d with c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

I t should be

noted t h a t in most i n s t a n c e s , i f an e lem entary p r i n c i p a l does
no t perform t h e s e f u n c t i o n s , th ey go undone; g e n e r a l l y t h e r e i s
no o t h e r person in an el em en tar y school who has th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
t o perform t h e s e d u t i e s .

I d e a l l y th e n , one could b u i l d a s t r o n g

c as e f o r t h e f a c t t h a t a l l o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s should be ac c e p te d
as t h e primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of a p r i n c i p a l .
In g e n e r a l , t h e elem en tary p r i n c i p a l s in t h i s s tu d y accep ted
t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s as t h e i r primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , but a s u r p r i s i n g l y

152

l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f th e r e sp o n d e n ts saw many o f th e a c t i v i t i e s
as being o f secondary o r o f no importance t o them. (See Graph 4-1}
Of s p e c ia l n o t e i s th e f a c t t h a t f o r perhaps t h e most
im p o rtan t i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n program,
t h e p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n c o n f e r e n c e , only t h i r t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e
responding p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e iv e d t h i s a c t i v i t y t o be t h e i r primary
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and n e a r l y twenty p e r c e n t expres sed t h e opinion
t h a t i t was not t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a t a l l .
In c o n t r a s t t o t h i s f a c t , t h e p r i n c i p a l s o f t h i s study
s t r o n g l y ac ce pted t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o h elp t e a c h e r s a c q u i r e
e f f e c t i v e classroom management s k i l l s , d i s c i p l i n e s k i l l s and th ey
s t r o n g l y acknowledged t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o pr ovid e f o r a p o s i t i v e
climate fo r supervision.
P e r ceiv ed E x p e r t i s e to Perform
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n Functions
The same twenty q u e s t i o n s used to a s s e s s p r i n c i p a l s p erceived
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was a l s o used as a means t o al low them to a s s e s s
t h e i r a b i l i t y t o perform t h e s e f u n c t i o n s .

P r i n c i p a l s were asked

to r a t e t h e i r p r e s e n t and i d e a l e x p e r t i s e on a continuum from
one t o s i x .
The p r i n c i p a l s in t h i s s tu d y p e r c e iv e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f
a p o s i t i v e environment f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n s u l t a t i o n as t h e i r
s t r o n g e s t i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p e x p e r t i s e , and th ey f e l t
weakest in t h e i r a b i l i t y to see t e a c h e r s a t l e a s t monthly f o r

GRAPH 4-1

P r in c ip a l Responses to R e s p o n s ib i l i t y Assumed f o r C li n ic a l Supervisory A c t i v i t i e s
(In Percent o f Responses)

***»• * •* (» , 1

: :3£o/.v

as.**--■

• S ib - -

■ *• *. *, »*/' ,

3 3 .0

ite-5

1. H e l p 2 ^ T p 5 r 5 t * ^ 3 ^ N U ? t
4 . Obaerve 5. Schedule e . Principal 7. Kaap
8.
taachara
evaluate
with
taachara
meetings
analyzes
achadalad
undaratand for
taachara at agraad
with
data
appointment
for preupon times taachara
Prior to
to preaant
learning
formattva
procaaa
reaaona
obaarvatlaa lorto analyze taachar
data and
confaranca formative
data
confaranca ancaoraga
evehiatlono

La ad
p. Suggeat 10, Ha*
taachar
mathoda
taachara
match
through
to Improve
analysis
Instruction
Instroctioaal
of taachtag
matartal ta
ekM andor
tastructioeai
mvaatlgatlaa
goala

...............
*■*•*
•* j•. -■
••*•!***«♦•*
,**• • . * ♦** *** ' *.■
r-V-isli.*'".-:
*'\5L)»‘
.
:
V
* • .<•**<
,
• * • * >4 *,***••♦ • * ♦ *f
•♦
*
*
*
.
....■.*.
*.
.*
■
■ * • ■*/•**•*«•*
•**»♦
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' - / -•*/ : • • <(* • ■ * *
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v - V - -v.-.-'. »*.•*,« »* **
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■
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It).5

H35
37.3

taachara
inaura an
appropriate
amocnt of
tlma on
task

taachara
taachara
provide
provide for
opportunttiaa active
for atudanta participation
to loam
by an
higher level atudanta
thinking
aklOa

taachara
acquire
proven
teaching
akllle

taachara
acquire
effective
discipline
mathoda

*Q-t.

taachara
taachara
taachara
acquire
become
monthly
for
e |« e room aetf
management avaluatora formatlva
akMa
raaaona

Kay
Primary
Secondary
Ho
reeponslbHtty reaponethKty responsibility

■«■** * * * * ♦» .* • *■«‘i -", • *- y
,.* * •3 0 a-.;.*:*
•• *• *• *»**• , V•, ** * ♦*♦ , . . *•**♦•
••**•** * * * ..
k# * • * * . . * » .* • I ** ♦
•* **. *»; •
,*/...............
. • * *1»■ ■»#*
•
•• * * *
±L

a procaaa
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Improvement
of
auparvlaory
actlvHlaa

.

a poaKhra
anvlronmant
for
Inatnictlonal
conaultatlon

154

e v a l u a t i v e re a so n s and f o r t h e i r a b i l i t y t o use p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n
conferences,

(See 'Giia^h 4-2!)!
T e s t i n g o f t h e Hypotheses

H-j

P er ce ived a c t u a l e x p e r t i s e w ill be s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower

than per ce ived id e a l e x p e r t i s e in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n a c t i v i t i e s ,
s i n g l y and i n d i v i d u a l l y .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p of p e r c e i v e d a c t u a l e x p e r t i s e t o pe rce iv ed
id eal e x p e r t i s e i s r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y in th e f o llo w in g manner:
Factor
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Description

Teach Terminology
.0191*
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
.0000*
P re -O b s e rv a tio n Conference
.0000*
Observe Te achers on Schedule
.0000*
Schedule Meeting f o r A n a ly s is
.0000*
Analyze Data
.0000*
Keep Appointment
.0000*
Lead Teaching in S k i l l Anal ysis
.0000*
Sugges t I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
,0000*
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
,0000*
Help w ith Time on Task
.0000*
Help w ith High Level Thinking S k i l l s
.0122*
Help w ith A c ti v e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
.0000*
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
.0041*
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods.0000*
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom
.0000*
Management
Help Teacher S e l f - E v a l u a t e
.0000*
S uper vis e Monthly
.0000*
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
.0000*
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
.0000*

Total R e l a t i o n s h i p
*

Significance of Relationship

=

.0002*

S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 level

There i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between how p r i n c i p a l s
p e r c e i v e t h e i r p r e s e n t s k i l l s o f s u p e r v i s i o n and how th e y would
i d e a l l y wish t o be with ev e r y s k i l l and t o t a l l y . There e x i s t s
as hypothes ize d a s tr o n g sense o f d iss o n an ce between t h e s e two
factors.
The h y p o t h e s is i s a c c e p t e d .

GRAPH 4-2

5-1

Meari Perceived P rese nt and Ideal C lin ical Supervision Ex pe rt ise o f Sampled Michigan Elementary School
P r i n c i p a l s on a Continuum from One (Very
Weak) to Six (Very
Strong)

Help teachers
understand
[earning
process.

5.1

Separei
evaluate for
formative
reasons

Meet with,
teachers for.
pre-observa­
tion confer­
ence

Observe
teachers at
agreed upon
times for
formative .
evaluations

Schedule
m eetings with
teachers to'
analyze data

Principal
analyzes data
prior to
teacher
conference

s .l

Keeps
scheduled,
appointment
to present
data and
encourage

Lead teacher
through an
analysis of
the teaching
skill under
Investigation

tuggest
methods to
Improve
Instruction

<J1
07

lelp teachers’
match in­
structional
goals with
Instructional
materials

ters Help teac!
Help teacners Help teach ers Ha|p tt<
Help
teachers
acquire proven acquire
to Insure an provide oppor- provide for
approprlate
tunttles for
active partlch teaching skills effective
amount of time students to
patlon by all
discipline
on task
learn higher
students
methods
level thinking
5-7
Skills

5.

Key

□
Establish a
process to
acquire Improvement of
supervlsory
actlvltlee

Create a
positive
environment
for Instructlonal consultatlon

Perceived present
skill or ability
Perceived Ideal
skill or ability

Help teachers Help teaci
acquire c la ss - become self
room manage- evaluators
ment skills

Supervise
teachers
monthly for
formative
reasons

156

Hg

Female p r i n c i p a l s w i l l s c o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r than

male p r i n c i p a l s on p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .
The sex o f elem en tary p r i n c i p a l to v a r i a b l e s o f perceived
e x p e r t i s e in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n was r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y in

n
c+
O

t h e f o llo w in g manner.

1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

.1278
Teach Terminology
Fo rmulative E v a lu a tions
.3634
.
*
P re-O bserv a tion Conference
.4763
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A n a ly s is
.9909
.4250
Analyze Data
.0303*
Keep Appointment
.3819
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A naly s is
.0030*
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
.0630
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
.1762
Help with Time on Task
.0390*
Help with High Level Thinking S k i l l s
.0888
Help w ith A c t i v e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
.2323
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods .0777
Help Te achers Acquire Classroom Management.1185
.3825
Help Teacher S e l f - E v a l u a t e
.1687
Super vis e Monthly
.4117
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S upervis ion
.8309
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
0

0

1

1

Total E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p = .1991
*
S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l
4-26 and 4-27

-

See Tables 4 - 24 , 4-25,

The h y p o th e s i s i s acc e p te d f o r f o u r v a r i a b l e s .

157

TABLE 4 - 2 4
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Sex o f Elementary P r i n c i p a l s t o P er ceived
E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s to Suggest Methods t o Improve I n s t r u c t i o n
Sex

Perceived E x p e r t i s e
Very
Weak

Male

Female

Count
Row
Percentage

Weak

Moderately
Weak

Moderately
Stronq
Strong

Very
Row
Strong T o t a l s

2

2

1 0

18

33

15

80

2.5

2.5

12.5

22.5

41.3

18.8

80.0

1 2

2 0

60.0

2

Count
Row
Percentage

0

1

0

0

5.0

0

Column
Totals

2

3
3.0

2
. 0

5
2

0

. 0

23
23.0

1 0
1

0

2

. 0

1

0

. 0

35
35.0

27
2

0

. 0

1 0 0
1

. 0

0

0

. 0

Raw Chi Square = .1792 — 5 degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0030
Cra mer 's V = .42
TABLE 4-25
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Sex o f Elementary P r i n c i p a l s to Per ce ived
E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Help Teachers Teach Higher Level Thinking
S kills
Perceived Experti se

Sex
Very
Weak
Male

Female

Count
Row
Perce ntag e
Count
Row
Per centage
Column
Totals

Moderately
Weak
Weak

6

7

7.4

8

0

2

0

0

. 0

5.9
5

Very
Strong

Row
Totals

27

25

1 2

4

81

33.3

30.9

14.8

4.9

80.2

1

2 0

5.0

19.8

1

9
8.9

6

Raw Chi Square = 11 .71 - Cramer' s V = .34

1

. 6

Moderately
Stronq
Strong

8

5.0

40.0

28
27.7

33
32.7

8

40.0
2 0

19.8

5
5.0

degre es o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0390

1 0 1
1

0

0

. 0

158
TABLE 4-26
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Sex o f Elementary P r i n c i p a l s to Per ceived
E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Conduct P r e -O bs erv a ti on Conferences
Sex

Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e
Very
Weak

Maie

Count
Row
Percentage

2 0

Column
T o ta ls

Moderately
Weak

Moderately
Strong

18

15

13

7

18.5

16.0

8

24. 7 22.2

Count
Female Row
Percentage

0

0

2 0

Very
Row
Strong Strong T o t a l s

Weak

4

2

1

0

. 0

2 0

19.8 19.8

2

0

2

. 0

19
18.8

1

0

. 0

15
14.9

8

81

9.9

80.2

9

3

2 0

45. 0

15.0

16
15.8

1 1

1 0 1

10.9

1

. 6

Raw Chi Square = i20.33 — 5 degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e =

19.8
0

0

. 0

. 0 0 1 1

Cramer's V = .45
TABLE 4-27
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Sex o f an Elementary P r i n c i p a l t o P erceived
E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Conduct a Post -Obse rvation Conference
Sex

Per ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e
Very
Weak

Male

Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

Count
Female Row
P er ce ntag e
Column
Totals

Weak

Moderately
Weak

Moderately
Stronq

Strong

Very
Row
Strong T o t a l s

0

6

13

37

23

80

0

7.5

16.2

46.2

28.8

80.0

0

1

0

1 2

2 0

0

5.0

0

25.0

60.0

2

1

6

42
42.0

35
35.0

1

1

. 2

1
1

. 0

1

. 0

6

5

2

1

. 0

0

. 0

15
15.0

Raw Chi Square = 12.35 — 5 d egrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0303
Cramer'sV = .35

0

. 0

1 0 0
1

0

0

. 0

159

Hg

Female p r i n c i p a l s will score s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher than male

p r i n c i p a l s on perceived c l i n i c a l supervising r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
The sex o f p r i n c i p a l s was s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o v a r i a b l e s o f
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
F a c to r
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tions
P re-O bserv a tion Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r Anal ysis
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A naly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help with A ctiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S upervis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m of S u per vis ion
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.2045
.5858
.0162*
.0946
.6732
.4764
.6222
.9715
.1702
.3017
.6787
.3180
.8560
.1953
.8004
.7347
.6075
.1924
.2696
.2037

Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .3058
S i g n i f i c a n t t o th e .05 l e v e l - 2 degr ee s o f freedom - See Table 4-28
The h y p o th e s is i s ac c e p t e d f o r one v a r i a b l e .

160

TABLE 4 -2 8

The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Sex t o t h e Perceived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r a P r e -O bs erv a tion Conference with Teachers
Sex

Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed
No
R esponsibility

M,
Male

£ount
Row
P ercentage

Count
Female Row
Percen tage
Co'9
Totals

17
21.0
2
9. 5
19
18.6

Secondary
Responsibility
41

Primary
R esponsibility

Row
Totals

23

50.6
6

28.6
47
46.1

28.4

79.4

13

21

61.9

20.6

36
35.3

Raw Chi Square = 8.2 4 — 2 deg ree s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0162
Cramer's V = .28

81,

102
100.0

161

H4

There will be a_ s i g n i f i c a n t d ir ec t inverse relationsh ip

between age and perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory e x p e r t i s e .
Age was r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o v a r i a b l e s o f per ce ived
e x p e r t i s e to perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in t h e f o ll o w in g
manner:
Factor
1

2
3
4
5
6

7
8
9
1 0
1 1

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Description

S ignificance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
P r e-O b s erv a ti o n Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A naly s is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a ly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help w i th Time on Task
Help with High Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help with Active P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Hel p Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teacher S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S u p er v is e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S up er v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.4690
.1920
.4885
,5637
.3800
.6152
.6232
.0599
.5503
.5274
.6670
.8627
.8671
.6080
.7806
.7464
.8213
.2736
.6479
.2169

Total Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p = .7041

There a r e no e x p e r t i s e v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d to age in t h i s
s tu d y ; t h e h y p o th e s is i s r e j e c t e d .

162

Hg

There w i l l be a_ s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between age and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
assumed.
Age was r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o v a r i a b l e s o f perceived
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n in th e f oll ow ing
manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

S ignificance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
.5330
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
.3725
P r e-O b s erv a ti o n Conference
.6118
Observe Teachers on Schedule
.3922
Schedule Meeting f o r A nalys is
.3313
Analyze Data
.1842
Keep Appointment
.6784
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a ly s is
.0229*
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
.4734
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
.4264
Help with Time on Task
.8676
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
.5492
Help with A c t i v e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
.9098
Help Te ac hers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
.2486
Help Te achers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods .8807
Help Teachers Acquire ClassroomManagement6889
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a ! u a t e
.2800
.2603
S u p e r v is e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m of S u p e r v is io n
.3454
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
.0197**
Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p - .4098

*

S i g n i f i c a n t a t the .05 l e v e l - See Table 4-29

**

S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l but wrong d i r e c t i o n - See Table 4-30
The h y p o th e s is i s acc e p t e d f o r one v a r i a b l e .

163

Age was r e l a t e d t o two v a r i a b l e s o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b u t one o f them in th e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n o f the
h y p o t h e s i s , and th e o t h e r i s not d i r e c t .

Age was r e l a t e d t o per ce ived

fre qu en cy o f use o f t h e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n model however in a
h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t manner; younger p r i n c i p a l s p e r c e iv e d themselves
as using a system o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n f a r more o f t e n than t h e i r
o l d e r c o u n t e r p a r t s . (See Table 4 - 3 1 ) .
The h y p o th e sis i s r e j e c t e d .
TABLE 4-29
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Age t o t h e Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
P r i n c i p a l s t o Lead Teachers in an Anal ysis o f Teaching S k i l l s
Age

R esponsibility
No
R esponsibility

Under 40

41-50

Over 50

Count
Row
P er ce ntag e
Count
Row
Per ce ntage
Count
Row
Per centage

Column
Totals

Secondary
R esponsibility

Primary
Row
R esponsibility Totals

3

13

16

32

9.4

40.6

50.0

31.4

6

14

23

43

32.6

53.5

42.2

14.0
0

19

0

70.4

29.6

46
45.1

47
46.1

9
8

. 8

27

8

26.5
1

0 2

1

0

Raw Chi Square = 11. 35, 4 degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0229
Cramer's V = .24

0

. 0

164
TABLE 4-30
The R e l a t i o n s h i p of Age to t h e Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
P r i n c i p a l s t o Provide a Climate Conducive f o r Teacher C o n s u l t a t i o n
Age

R esponsibility
No
R esponsibility
Count
Row
Percentage

Under
40

Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

41-50

Count
Row
Percen tage

Over
50

Column
Totals

Secondary
Responsibility

Primary
Responsibility

7

0

21.9

0

Row
Totals

25

32

78.1

31 .1

0

2

42

44

0

4.5

95.5

42.7

0

1

26

27

0

3.7

96.3

26.2

0

93
90.3

1 0

9.7

0

Raw Chii Square = 7 .85 —

103
1

0

0

. 0

degre es o f freedorri, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0197

2

Cramer 's V = .28
1

TABLE 4-31
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Age t o Per ce iv ed Frequency
S u p e r v is io n Model
A^e

Under
40
41-50

Over
50

o f Use o f a Clii

Frequency o f Use
Count
Row
Percen tage
Count
Row
Perce ntag e
Count
Row
Perce ntag e
Column
Totals

Never
4
12.5

Often
15
46.9

Always
18.8

Row T o t a l s
32
31.1

6

2 0

2 0

1

44

45.5

45.5

2. 3

42.7

2

13

1 2

0

27

7.4

48.1

44.4

0

26.2

9
8.7

40
38.8

47
45.6

3
6

. 8

Raw Chi Square = 14.14 —■
Cramer''s V = .26

Seldomi
7
21.9

6

7
6

103
. 8

1

0

0

. 0

d eg ree s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0282

165

Hg

There w ill be a. s i g n i f i c a n t and d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between th e number o f s c h o o ls s u p e r v i s e d and p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l
supervisory e x p e r tis e .
The number o f s c h o o ls a p r i n c i p a l was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
a d m i n i s t e r i n g was s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l a t e d to v a r i a b l e s o f p er ceiv ed
e x p e r t i s e t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in th e
fo llow ing manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
P r e -O bs erv a tion Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A n a ly s is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A naly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with High Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help with A c tiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S upervis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f Supervis ion
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.4207
.6872
.7597
.7703
.3992
.9051
.3028
.9880
.7619
.3352
.7300
.9131
.9196
.2615
.2675
.1229
.1939
.2306
.1287
.7608

Total Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p = .0214**
**
S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 le v e l with skewed d i r e c t i o n a l i t y - See
Table 4-32.
The h y p o th e sis i s r e j e c t e d .

166

TABLE 4-32
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Number o f Schools a P r i n c i p a l i s R espon sible f o r
A dm inistering and t h e P erceived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s to Perform
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is o r y F u n c tio n s
Perce ived E x p e r t i s e

No. o f Schools

One

Count
Row
Percen tage

Count
Two o r Row
More
Per ce ntage
Column
Totals

Low
Skilled
13

Medium
Skilled
59

Highly
Skilled
15

14.9

67.8

17.2

5

5

31.3

31.3

18
17.5

64
62.1

Row
Totals
87
84.5
16

6

37.5

18.5

2 1

103

20.4

1

0

0

. 0

Raw Chi Square = 7.69 - - 2 d eg ree s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0214
Cramer's V = .27

167
^7

There w ill be a^ s i g n i f i c a n t and d ir ec t inverse relationship

between the number of schools supervised and perceived c l i n i c a l
supervisory r e s p o n s ib i li t y assumed.
The number o f s ch oo ls a p r i n c i p a l was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a d m i n i s t e r i n g
was r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o v a r i a b l e s o f p e r c e iv e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
in t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance o f Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti o n s
P r e -O b s e rv a ti o n Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A nalys is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A naly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help with A c tiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S u p er v is e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.5676
.8362
.6077
.3470
.2907
.7484
.6788
.7419
.8082
.1371
.0854
.
*
.0337*
.3011
.2928
.0762
.7463
.1404
.2538
.3845
0

2

0

1

Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .1678
*

S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l - See Tables 4-33 and 4-33A
The h y p o th e s is i s acc e p te d f o r two v a r i a b l e s .

168
TABLE 4-33
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Number o f Schools a P r i n c i p a l Must
A dm inist er t o t h e Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed by th e P r i n c i p a l
t o Help Teachers Teach S tu d en ts Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
No. o f Schools
P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
No
Respo nsibil i t y
One

Count
Row
Perc entage

Count
Two o r Row
More
Per centage
Column
Totals

4
4. 7
4
25.0
8

7.8

Secondary
Re spo nsibil it.y

Primary
R esponsibility

45

37

52.3

43.0

6

6

37.5

37.5

51
50.0

Row
Totals
8 6

84.3
16
15.7

43
42.2

102
100.0

Raw Chi Square = 7.81 - - 2 deg ree s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0201
Cramer's V = .28
TABLE 4-33A
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Number o f Schools a P r i n c i p a l Must
Ad min ister t o t h e Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed by t h e P r i n c i p a l
to Help Teachers Acquire Active P a r t i c i p a t i o n o f S tu dents
Perce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y

No. of Schools

No
Responsibility
One

Count
Row
Per ce ntage

Count
Two o r Row
More
Percentage
Column
Totals

Secondary
Responsibility

Primary
R esponsibility

Row
Totals

32

53

8 6

37.2

61.6

84.3

7

7

12.5

43.8

43.8

3
2.9

39
38. 2

60
58.8

1

1

. 2

2

Raw Chi Square = 6 . 7 8 — 2 deg ree s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0337
Cramer's V = .26

16
15.7
1 0 2
1

0

0

. 0

169
Hg

There will be a. s i g n if i c a n t direct inverse relationship

between school enrollment in schools supervised and perceived
c l i n i c a l supervisory e x p e r t i s e .
S tu dent e n r o llm e n t o f s ch oo ls a d m i n i s t e r e d by a p r i n c i p a l
was s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s e l f perceived e x p e r t i s e o f p r i n c i p a l s
to perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n in th e f o ll o w in g manner:
F a c to r
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2

0

Description

Significance o f Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tions
P re-O bserv a ti on Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A n a ly s is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l Anal ysis
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help with Active P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
Super vis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
Total Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p = .7119
The h y p o th e s i s i s r e j e c t e d .

.1529
.0540
.3973
.1256
.8518
.4639
.9601
.7278
.6849
.7120
.2640
.2592
.1380
.5618
.7822
.4866
.2411
.4896
.4260
.9107

170

Hg

There w i l l be a^ s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between t h e enrollm ent in s chools s u p e r v i s e d and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
S tuden t e n r o l lm e n t o f t h e s ch oo ls a d m i n i s t e r e d by a p r i n c i p a l
was r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to v a r i a b l e s o f p e r c e iv e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
in t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tions
P re- Obs er va tion Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r An alysis
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l Anal y sis
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help with A ctiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S upervis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S upervis ion
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.6845
.5161
.5292
. 1 1 2 1

.4873
.0081**
.0918
.0279**
.3547
.5394
.5195
.7692
.2608
.1699
.5044
.6246
.3618
.1995
.0902
.7242

Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .0399*
*

S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l - See Tables 4 - 34, 4 - 35, and 4-36

**

S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 l e v e l but no d i r e c t i o n a l i t y
Cramer's V - ,28
The h y p o th e sis i s r e j e c t e d .

171
TABLE 4-34
Relationship o f Student Enrollment o f a P rincipal's School(s)
to Perceived Responsib ility Assumed for the Analysis of Data Obtained
from a Classroom Observation Prior to a Conference with a Teacher
Perceived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed

School Enrollment

No
R esponsibility
Under
251

Count
Row
Perce ntag e

251 to
350

Count
Row
Perce ntag e

351 to
450

Count
Row
Percen tage

451 to
550

Count
Row
Per centage

Over
550

Count
Row
Percen tage
Column
Totals

Raw Chi Square = 20.65 —
Cramer's V = .32

Secondary
Responsibility

0

0

0

0

0

9

Primary
Responsibility

Row
Total:
8

8

1

0

0

7.8

. 0

18

27

0

33.3

66.7

26.2

1

17

1 2

30

3.3

56.7

40 .0

29.1

14

2 1

66.7

20.4

6

1

4.8

28.6

0

1

16

17

0

5.9

94.1

16.5

2

1.9
8

33
32.0

103

6 8
6

6

. 0

1

degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0081

0

0

. 0

172

TABLE 4-35
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f S tudent Enrollment o f a P r i n c i p a l ' s S c hool(s )
t o Per ceived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r L ead er ship o f an A n a l y s is o f a
Teaching S k i l l w i th a Teacher
Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed
School S ize
No
Responsibility
Under
251

Count
Row
P er c e n ta g e

251 to
350

Count
Row
Per centa ge

351 t o
450

Count
Row
Perc en tage

451 to
550

Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

Over
550

Count
Row
Percentage
Column
Totals

Primary
Row
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Total:
8

6

0

25.0

75.0

1

1 2

14

27

3.7

44.4

51.9

26.5

2

2 0

6.7

66.7

26.7

9

9

45.0

45 .0

19.6

1 0

17
16.7

2

0

. 0

3

23.5

17.6

58.8

9

46
45.1

47
46.1

8

.

8

8

7.8

30

8

4

Raw Chi Square = 17.22 —
Cramer's V = .29

2

0

1

Secondary
Re sponsibil i t y

29.4
2 0

1

0

2

1

0

0

d egrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0279

. 0

173
TABLE 4-36
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f S t u d e n t Enrollment o f a P r i n c i p a l ' s S ch oo l(s)
t o Scores o f Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed f o r C l i n i c a l
Sup er v is o r y A c t i v i t i e s
School Size

P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed
Weak
R esponsibility

Under
251

Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

251 to
350

Count
Row
Perce ntag e

351 to
450

Count
Row
Percentage

451 to
550

Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

Over
550

Count
Row
Percentage
Column
Totals

4

0

50.0

50.0

2

15

1 0

27

7.4

55.6

37.0

26.2

9

19

2

30

63.3

6.7

29.1

14

4

2 1

30.0
3
14.3

1

66.7
1 2

2

. 8

16
15.5

Raw Chi Square = 16.18 —
Cramer' s V = .28

Strong
Row
R esponsibility Totals

4

0

1

Moderate
R esponsibility

8

8

7.8

19.0

20.4

3

70.6

17.6

64
62.1

23
22.3

17
16.5
103
1

0

degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0399

0

. 0

174
H^q Teaching experience of principals will have no s i g n if i c a n t
relat ionsh ip to perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory e x p e r t i s e .
The number o f y e a r s o f t e a c h i n g ex p e r i e n c e o f a p r i n c i p a l was
r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e
in t h e f o llo w i n g manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

S ignificance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
P re-O bserv a tion Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A nalys is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A naly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help with A ct ive P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S u p er v is e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
Total P er ceived E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p = .7398
The h y p o th e s is i s a c c e p t e d .

.8106
.5887
.3390
.7047
.3665
.6175
.3465
.2451
.2209
.5554
.2549
.7074
.3970
.5380
.3155
.8273
.6716
.7859
.3052
.7085

175

H.ji

Teaching experience of principals will have no s i g n if i c a n t

relatio nsh ip to perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory r e s p o n s ib i li t y assumed.
The number o f y e a r s o f t e a c h i n g e x p e r ie n c e o f a p r i n c i p a l was
r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to v a r i a b l e s o f p e r c e iv e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n in t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
F a c to r
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance o f Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
P r e-O b s erv a ti o n Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r An alysis
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a l y s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help with A c tiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S upervis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .8113
S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 Level - See Table 4-37
The h y p o t h e s is i s a c c e p t e d .

.3766
.4219
.3048
.2805
.6086
.5582
.2118
.0903
.6656
.6349
.6513
.9332
.9369
.9712
.3698
.3670
.2482
.0846
.4258
.0480*

176

TABLE 4-37
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e Number o f Years o f Teaching Experience o f
a P r i n c i p a l and t h e P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed by P r i n c i p a l s
to E s t a b l i s h a Climate Encouraging S t a f f C o n s u l t a t i o n o f t h e
P r in c i p a l
Years o f
Teaching Experience

Under
6

6-10

Count
Row
Percen tage
Count
Row
Percentage

Count
11 - 15 Row
Per centage
Over
15

Count
Row
Per centage
Column
Totals

Per ceived R e s p o n s ib i lit .y
No
Secondary
R esponsibility R esponsibility

Primary
R esponsibility

7

0

28

35

0

2 0

80

34.0

0

1

34

35

0

2.9

97.1

34.0

0

0

16

16

0

0

0

2

0

1

0

1 0

0

1

1

0

0

15.5

. 0

17

15
. 8

9.7

8

8

16.5

. 2

93
90.3

Raw Chi Square = 7.91 - 3 degre es o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0480
Cramer's V = .28

Row
T o ta ls

103
1

0

0

. 0

177

H-j2

There will be

s i g n i f i c a n t direct inverse relationship

between number o f classroom teachers supervised and perceived
c l i n i c a l supervisory e x p e r t i s e .
The number o f classroom t e a c h e r s s u p e rv is e d by a p r i n c i p a l
was r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to t h e p e r c e iv e d e x p e r t i s e o f p r i n c i p a l s
t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n f u n c t i o n s in t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
F a c to r
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti ons
P re-O bserv a tion Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r Anal ysis
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a ly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help with Active P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S upervis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S up er v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.0570
.1105
.6328
.0226**
.7026
.3508
.7625
.7452
.7750
.7183
.2910
.7807
.5091
.2891
.6515
.2751
.2242
.6834
.1310
.9788

Total Per ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p = .4713
**

D i s n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 Level but with no d i r e c t i o n a l i t y See Table 4-38
The h y p o th e s is i s r e j e c t e d .

178

TABLE 4-38
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e Number o f Classroom Teachers Super vised
by a P r i n c i p a l and t h e P r a c t i c e o f P r i n c i p a l s to Keep Appointments
a t Agreed-Upon Times f o r O bser vat ion o f Teachers
Classroom Teachers

Perceived E x p e r t i s e
Very
Weak

Under
14
14-20

Over
2 0

Weak

5

Count
Row
Percentage

25.0

3

Count
Row
Percentage

4

1 0

18

6.4

8.5

21.3

38.3

2

3

9.9

1

21.9
6

1

2

. 6

1

1

32

3.1

31.7

6

47

2

9

4

40.9

18.2

4.5

13.6

15
14.9

16
15.8

27
26.7

2 2
2

1

. 8

46.5

. 8

3

13.6

Row
Totals

Very
Strong

7

16.8

1 0

Strong

6

15.6

9,1

Column
Totals

5

8

15.6

Count
Row
Percentage

Medium Medium
Weak Strong

2 2

2

1

1 1

1 0 1

10.9

1

0

0

. 8

. 0

Raw Chi Square = 20.80 — dO degr ee s of freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0226
Cramer's V = .32
TABLE 4-39
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f D i s t r i c t Enrollment t o t h e Perceived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e Scheduling o f Appointments with Teachers by
P r i n c i p a l s f o r C l i n i c a l Sup er v is o r y I n t e r a c t i o n
D i s t r i c t Enrollment

P er ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed
No
R esponsibility

Small
Count
2500 & Row
Less
Percentage

33

38

8

6

36.9

. 8

27

31

3.7

9.7

87.1

30.1

1 2

2 1

34

2.9

35.3

61.8

33.0

3
2.9

19
18.4

81
78.6

Large
5001 +

Count
Row
Percen tage

1

Column
Totals
Cramer' s V = .22

10.5

Row
Totals

3

Count
Row
Perc entage

. 6 8

. 6

Primary
Responsibility

1

Medium
2501 —
5000

Raw Chi Square = 9.

4

1

2

Secondary
R esponsibility

— 4 degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0463

103
1

0

0

. 0

179

H-j

3

There w il l be a^ s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between number o f clas sro om t e a c h e r s s u p e r v i s e d and p er ceiv ed
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t . y assumed.
The number o f classroom t e a c h e r s s u p e r v i s e d by a p r i n c i p a l
was r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o v a r i a b l e s o f p e r c e iv e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n i n t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
F a c to r
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti o n s
P r e-O b s erv a tio n Conference
Observe Te achers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r Anal ysis
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a l y s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help w ith Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help with Active P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Te achers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
Sup er vise Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .3384
The h y p o th e s is i s r e j e c t e d .

.7282
.6822
.4609
.9835
.9497
.2072
.3836
.0554
.7239
.5709
.0915
.3372
.1812
.0874
.3207
.6390
.5046
.0977
.3616
.5978

180

H- | 4

There w ill be a s i g n i f i c a n t direct inverse relationship

between the to tal number o f teachers supervised and perceived
c l i n i c a l supervisor.y e x p e r t i s e .
The t o t a l number o f t e a c h e r s s u p e r v is e d by a p r i n c i p a l i s
r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to t h e p er ceiv ed e x p e r t i s e o f p r i n c i p a l s
to perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n f u n c t i o n s in t h e f o llo w i n g manner:
Factor
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Description

S ignificance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti o n s
P r e -O b s e rv a ti o n Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A nalys is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a l y s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help wi th Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l s
Help w ith A ctiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S u p er v is e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
Total E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p - .7773
Cramer's V = .09278

The hypothesis i s r e j e c t e d .

.2363
.5574
.0891
.5883
.1402
.0791
.8853
.9803
.2648
.3086
.6010
.1934
.5482
.2399
.3839
.1114
.4542
.6959
.5452
.4963

181
H- | 5

There will be a s i g n i f i c a n t d ir ec t inverse relationship

between the to tal number o f teachers supervised and perceived
c l i n i c a l supervisory r e sp o n s ib ilit y assumed.
The t o t a l number o f t e a c h e r s s u p e r v is e d by a p r i n c i p a l i s
s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e perceived r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p r i n c i p a l s
t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n f u n c t i o n s in t h e f oll ow ing manner:
F a c to r
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti ons
P r e -O bs erv a tion Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A n a ly s is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching i n S k i l l Anal ysis
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help w ith Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help w it h Active P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l a u t e
S uper vis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f Supervis ion
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .8088
Cramer's V = .08813

The hypothesis i s rejected.

.8400
.4034
.4323
.9442
.3310
.7196
.3543
.3954
.2558
.6170
.5644
.3277
.5677
.4820
.2400
.4736
.8523
.8952
.8030
.3400

18 2

Hig

There w ill be a s i g n i f i c a n t d ir ec t and p o s itiv e relationship

between d i s t r i c t s i z e and perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory e x p e r t i s e .
The e n r o llm e n t o f t h e d i s t r i c t in which a p r i n c i p a l works i s
r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e
in t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
Factor
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti o n s
P r e -O bs erv a ti on Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A n a ly s is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a ly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with A c tiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
Super vis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S up er v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
Total P erceived E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p = .7755
The h y p o th e si s i s r e j e c t e d .

.7244
.4336
.2203
.0551
.8088
.1455
.3176
.3751
.2464
.2325
.7805
.0864
.3695
.8245
.2345
.1415
.4277
.4207
.3319
.3772

183

^17

There will be a s i g n i f i c a n t direct and p o s i ti v e relationship

between d i s t r i c t s i z e and perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory r es p o n s ib i li t y
assumed.
The e n r o llm en t o f t h e d i s t r i c t in which a p r i n c i p a l works i s
r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o t h e p er ceiv ed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed by a
p r i n c i p a l f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s in th e f o ll o w in g manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
P r e-O b s erv a ti o n Conference
Observe Te achers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A n a ly s is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A nalys is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with A c ti v e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Te achers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Te achers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Te achers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S u p er v is e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f Supe rvis ion
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.4313
.0754
.6508
.3972
.0463**
.2902
.2422
.0500**
.7951
.4439
.0882
.7725
.5473
.0134
.3748
.2709
.9524
.3136
.9544
.5817

Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .7706
**

S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l but with no d i r e c t i o n a l i t y See Tables 4-39 and 4-40

The hypothesis i s r e j e c t e d .

184
TABLE 4-40
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f D i s t r i c t Enrollment to t h e Per ce ived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e Le aders hip o f th e Anal ysis o f Teaching
S k i l l s by th e P r in c i p a l
Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed

D i s t r i c t Enrollment

No
R esponsibility
Smal 1
Count
2500 o r Row
Per centa ge
Less
Medium Count
2500 — Row
Perc en tage
5000
Large
5001 +

Secondary
R esponsibility

Primary
R esponsibility

Row
T o ta ls

1 0

2 1

37

27.0

56.8

36.3

2

17

1 2

31

6. 5

54.8

38.7

30.4

6

16.2

Count
Row
Per centa ge

1

19

14

34

2.9

55.9

41.2

33.0

Column
Totals

9
8

46
45.1

47
46.1

Raw Chi Square = 9.4 9
Cramer's V = .22

.

8

1 0 2
1

— 4 degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0500

0

0

. 0

185

1g
H

There will be a s i g n i f i c a n t d ir ec t inverse relationsh ip

between longevity as

principal and perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory

expertise.
The t e n u r e o f p r i n c i p a l s in p o s i t i o n i s r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o
p erceived e x p e r t i s e o f p r i n c i p a l s t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
a c t i v i t i e s in t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
F a c to r
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti o n s
P re -O b s e rv a ti o n Conference
Observe Te achers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A nalys is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a ly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help w ith Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with A c tiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Ac quire Proven S k i l l s
Help Te achers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Te achers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
Super vis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f Sup er v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

Total Perceived Expertise Relationship = .8877
The hypothesis i s r e j e c t e d .

.2319
.6000
.3247
.2619
.7154
.8253
.7052
.2773
.3492
.4107
.6460
.9306
.8865
.6926
.5736
.9126
.8879
.9204
.7800
.3122

186

H-jg There will be a s i g n i f i c a n t d ir ec t inverse relationship
between longevity as a_ principal and perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory
r e s p o n s ib i li t y assumed.
The t e n u r e

of

p r i n c i p a l s i n th e p r i n c i p a l s h i p i s r e l a t e d

s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o t h e i r p er ceiv ed a c c e p ta n c e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s in t h e f o llo w i n g manner:
F actor
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
P r e -O bs erv a ti on Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A nalys is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a ly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help w ith Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with Active P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S upervis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.8356
.0984
.5821
.6834
.9334
.0426*
.2664
.5262
.1256
.4906
.3144
.9358
.5772
.1711
.4245
.7134
.6041
.6039
.4808
.5133

Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .6014
S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 l e v e l but w ith no d i r e c t i o n a l i t y - See Table 4-41.
The h y p o th e s is i s r e j e c t e d .

187
TABLE 4-41
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Tenure o f P r i n c i p a l s in the P r i n c i p a l s h i p
to t h e i r Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed f o r t h e Anal ysis o f Data
Obtained from the O bs er va tion o f Teaching
P r i n c i p a l Tenure

P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Assumed
No
R esponsibility

Under

6-10

11-15

Over
15

6

Count
Row
Perc en tage
Count
Row
Perc en tage
Count
Row
Percentage
Count
Row
Percentage
Column
Totals

Raw Chi Square = 13 .03 - Cramer's V = .25

Secondary
R esponsibility
5

0

18.5

0

5

2

Primary
Responsibility

Row
Totals

2 2

27

81 .5

26.2

15

2 2

9.1

22.7

6

0

14

18

32

0

43.8

56.3

31.1

13

2 2

59.1

21.4

9

0

40.9

0

2

1.9
6

33
32.0

8

103

6 8
6

6

21.4

. 2

. 0

degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0426

1

0

0

. 0

188

^2 0

^ e r e w ill be a^ s i g n i f i c a n t d ir ec t inverse relationship

between extra r e s p o n s ib i li t y for principals and perceived c l i n i c a l
supervisory e x p e r t i s e .
The f a c t o r of e x t r a systemwide r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s being r e q u i r e d
f o r p r i n c i p a l s was r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to t h e p er ceiv ed e x p e r t i s e
o f p r i n c i p a l s t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in th e
f o ll o w in g manner:
F a c to r
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti o n s
P r e-O b s erv a tio n Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A naly s is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a ly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with A c ti v e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
Super vis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

Total Perceived Expertise Relationship - .5290
The hypothesis i s r e j e c t e d .

.8865
.5393
.3612
.1640
.4286
.8237
.5757
.3783
.6205
.4604
.8804
.3457
.1429
.4251
.3247
.4610
.0811
.0520
.6882
.5983

189

There will be a_ s i g n i f i c a n t direct inverse relationship
between extra r e s p o n s ib i li t y for principals and perceived c l i n i c a l
supervisory r e s p o n s ib i li t y assumed.
The f a c t o r o f e x t r a systemwide r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r p r i n c i p a l s
was r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o t h e i r p er ceiv ed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
Factor
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
.4354
Formative E v a lu a ti o n s
.6235
P re-O bserv a tion Conference
.6862
Observe Teachers on Schedule
.7638
Schedule Meeting f o r A n a l y s is
.6303
Analyze Data
.4387
Keep Appointment
.1816
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a ly s is
.0628
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
.8248
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
.6250
Help with Time on Task
.5970
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
.9872
Help with Active P a r t i c i p a t i o n
.7818
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
.6213
Help Te achers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
1.0000
Help Te achers Acquire Classroom Management
.9053
Help Te achers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
.9185
S u p e r v is e Monthly
.1517
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is i o n
.5808
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
1,0000

Total Responsibility Relationship - .1952
The hypothesis i s r e j e c t e d .

190
H22

The number o f formal t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n s r e q u i r e d w ill

equal th e number o f f o rm a ti v e t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n s p e rfo rm ed.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f summative e v a l u a t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r te n u r e d
t e a c h e r s and f o r m a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s performed by p r i n c i p a l s :
Summative E v a lu a ti o n s

Formative E v a lu a tio n s
Less than
Twice
Annually

Less than
Twice Annually

Count
Row Per centage

74
77.1

Twice
Annually

Count
Row P er ce ntag e

3
75.0

More than
Twice Annually

Count
Row P er ce ntag e

Raw Chi Square = 14.28

0

6

More than
Twice
Annually

1 0

1 2

10.4

12.5

50.0
1 2
1

96
94.0
4

0

1

1

1

Row
Total

0

1

25.0

0

77
75.5

Column T o t a l s

Twice
Annually

. 8

2

50.0
13
12.7

2 0

1 0 2
1

0

0

deg ree s o f freedom s i g n i f i c a n c e .0267

The h y p o th e s i s i s a c c e p t e d .

. 0

191

^23

amount o f formal education in supervision will have

no s i g n i f i c a n t p o s itiv e e f f e c t on perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory
expertise.
The formal e d u c a tio n o f p r i n c i p a l s in s u p e r v i s i o n i s r e l a t e d
s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o p e r c e iv e d e x p e r t i s e o f p r i n c i p a l s in c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in t h e f o llo w in g manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
P re-O bserv a tion Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A n a l y s is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n alys is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with A ctiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S u p er v is e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
Total Per ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p = .6954
S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l
The h y p o th e s i s i s a c c e p t e d .

-

See Table 4-42

.8585
.4039
.2972
.3911
.3479
.3233
.3152
.3385
.5281
.4205
.0466*
.6543
.7708
.1682
.4059
.9207
.5530
.4766
.2785
.0703

192
TABLE 4-42
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Formal Education in S u p e r v is i o n t o th e
Perceived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s to Help Teachers t o Cause S tudents
t o Spend Time on Task
Formal Education

Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e
Very
Weak

Zero

Count
Row
Percentage

1-6
Count
Semester Row
Hours
Percentage
7-18
Count
Semester Row
Hours
Perce ntage
Over
Count
18
Row
Semester Percen tage
Hours
Column
T o ta ls

Weak

Moderately Moderately
Strong
Strong
Weak
5

2

3

6.3

9.4

1

0

1

0

2

5

2

2

. 6

1

5.3

26.3
0

0

8.3

0

0

8

8

5
5.0

7.9

. 6

10.5

1

7

4

34.4

21.9

12.5

16

16

42.1

42.1

1 1

15.6

7.9

Very
Strong

2

10.5
6

7
36.8
3

50.0

25.0

35
34.7

33
32.7

Row
Totals
32
31.7
38

4

37.6

10.5

19

2

10.5

18.8
1 2

2

11 .9

16.7
1 2

1 0 1

11.9

1

0

Raw Chi Square = 25.26 - - 15 degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0466
Cramer's V = .29

0

. 0

193
^24

T^e am°unt of formal education in supervision w ill have

no s i g n if i c a n t p o s itiv e e f f e c t of perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory
r e sp o n s ib ilit y assumed.
The formal e d u c a t io n o b t a i n e d by a p r i n c i p a l in s u p e r v i s io n
i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l a t e d to th e v a r i a b l e s o f p er ceiv ed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in t h e fo llowing manner:
F a c to r
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Description

S i g n i f i c a n c e of R e l a t i o n s h i p

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti o n s
P r e-O bs erv a ti on Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A n a l y s is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a l y s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with Activ e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S uper vis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .3119

*

S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l - See Table 4-43
The h y p o th e sis i s a c c e p t e d .

.6631
.1836
.8574
.0306*
.7263
,6353
.5475
.4588
.3662
.1623
.4257
.4582
.9212
.0834
.9300
.5256
.6805
.1711
.1922
.1753

194

TABLE 4-43
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Formal Education in S u p e r v is i o n and
E v a lu a ti o n t o t h e P erceiv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y by P r i n c i p a l s to
Observe Teaching a t Agreed-Upon Times
Formal Education

P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
No
Responsibility

Zero

1 - 6

7-18

Over
18

Count
Row
P er ce ntag e
Count
Row
Percen tage
Count
Row
Perc en tage

Row
Totals

2 2

33

15.2

66.7

32.0

17

2 1

39

43.6

53.8

37.9

1 0

19

26.3

52.6

18.4

5

6

18.2
1

2

Primary
Responsibility

Secondary
Responsibility

. 6

5

4
2 1 . 1

Count
Row
Percen tage

4

3

5

33.3

25.0

41.7

Column
Totals

15
14.6

30
29.1

58
56.3

Raw Chi Square = 13.91 —
Cramer' s V = .26

6

degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0206

1 2

11.7
103
1

0

0

. 0

195

Hjs

There will be a^ s i g n i f i c a n t p o s itiv e and d irect relat ionsh ip

between s t a f f development in supervision and perceived c l i n i c a l
supervisory e x p e r t i s e .
The f a c t o r o f whether o r not a p r i n c i p a l has had a p r o f e s s i o n a l
development program in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n o r t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n i s
r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to v a ria b le s of perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory
e x p e r t i s e in t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

S ignificance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti o n s
P r e -O b s e rv a tio n Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r Ana lysis
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A nalys is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help w ith Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with A ctiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Te achers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Te achers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S u p er v is e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u per vis ion
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.1519
.0293*
.0346*
.0454*
.3650
.4668
.8285
.1180
.5252
.7992
.3852
.3729
.7018
.0142*
.5697
.4395
,6613
.6421
.8049
.7551

Total Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p = .2491
S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 le v e l - See Tables 4 - 4 4 , 4- 4 5 , 4 - 46, and 4-47.
The h y p o th e s i s i s acc e p te d f o r f o u r v a r i a b l e s but r e j e c t e d o v e r a l l .

196
TABLE 4-44
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programs in
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n o r Teacher Ev alu ation t o t h e Per ceived
E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Conduct Formative E v a lu a tio n s
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development
Program
Very
Weak
Yes

No

Count
Row
Per centa ge

Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
Moderately
Weak
Weak

Moderately
Strong
Strong

3

50.0

22.7

13.6

2 2

24

2 2

1

79

27.8

30.4

27.8

1.3

78.2

24
23.8

35
34.7

27
26.7

4
4.0

1

2

1 1

0

4.5

9.1

2

8

2.5

Column
Totals

2

2
. 0

1 0 . 1

9
8.9

Row
Totals

5

0

Count
Row
Per centa ge

Very
Strong

2 2

2

1

. 8

1 0 1
1

0

0

. 0

Raw Chi Square = 12.44 — 5 degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0293
Cramer's V = ,35
TABLE 4-45
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programs in
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n o r Teacher E v a lu a ti o n t o t h e Per ce iv ed
E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Conduct a P r e-O b s erv a tio n Conference
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development
Program
P erceived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
Very
Weak
Yes

No

Count
Row
Per ce ntage
Count
Row
Per centa ge
Column
Totals

Weak

Moderately
Weak

Moderately
Strong
Strong

Very
Strong

3

4

5

7

3

13.6

18.2

22.7

31.8

13.6

2 0

17

15

1 0

25.3

21.5

19.0

12.7

11.4

20
19.8

19
18.8

15
14.9

16
15.8

0

0

2 0

19.8

9

2 2

2

1

. 8

79

8

78.2

1 0 . 1

1 1

1 0 1

10.9

1

Raw Chi Square = 12.02 ~-- 5 degr ees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0346
Cramer' s V = .34

Row
Totals

0

0

. 0

197
TABLE 4-46
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programs in C l i n i c a l
S u p e r v is io n o r Teacher E v a lu a ti o n t o th e P er ce ived E x p e r t i s e o f
P r i n c i p a l s t o Observe Teacher a t Agreed-Upon Times
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development
Programs
Very
Weak
Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

Yes

Count
Row
Percentage

No

Column
Totals

Per ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e
Moderately
Weak Weak

0

0

0

0

Moderately
Strong
Strong

3

1 0

3

6

13.6

45.5

27.3

1 0

15

13

17

16

12.7

19.0

16.5

21.5

20.3

15
14.9

16
15.8

27
26.7

1 0

9.9

1

2 2

13.6

2

. 8

1

. 8

79

8

2 2
2

Row
Very
Strong T o t a l s

78.2

1 0 . 1

1 1

1 0 1

10.9

1

0

0

. 0

Raw Chi Square = 11.32 — 5 degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0434
Cramer's V = .33
TABLE 4-47
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programs in C l i n i c a l
S u p e r v is io n or Teacher E v a lu a tio n to th e Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e o f
P r i n c i p a l s to Help Teachers Acquire Teaching S k i l l s Proven by Research
t o be E f f e c t i v e
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development
Programs
Very
Weak
Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

Yes

Count
Row
Percentage

No

Per ceived E x p e r t i s e
Moderately
Weak Weak

Moderately
Strong

Strong

Very
Row
Strong T o t a l s

5

4

7

5

4.5

22.7

18.2

31.8

22.7

4

5

18

32

19

2

80

5.0

6.3

22.5

40. 0

23.8

2.5

78.4

0

1

0

26
7
36
23
6.9
25.5
35.3
5. 9 22.5
Raw Chi Square = 14.24 —- 5 degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0142
Column
Totals

Cramer s V = .37
1

4
3.9

6

2 2

2

1

. 6

1 0 2
1

0

0

. 0

198

H2g

There w ill be a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s itiv e and d irect relationship

between s t a f f development in supervision and perceived c l i n i c a l
supervisory r e s p o n s ib i li t y assumed.
The f a c t o r of whether o r not a p r i n c i p a l has had a comprehensive
p r o f e s s i o n a l devleopment program in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n o r t e a c h e r
e v a l u a t i o n i s r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o t h e p e r c e iv e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
o f p r i n c i p a l s to perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in th e
fo llow ing manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

S i g n i f i c a n c e of R e l a t i o n s h i p

.0172*
Teach Terminology
.4895
Formative E v a lu a ti ons
.
*
P r e -O bs erv a tion Conference
.0489*
Observe Teachers on Schedule
.2239
Schedule Meeting f o r A nalys is
.1501
Analyze Data
.2753
Keep Appointment
.1882
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A naly s is
.5764
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
.9416
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
.3438
Help with Time on Task
.2161
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
.2050
Help with A c tiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
.0974
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
1.0000
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management .6389
.4784
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
.0465*
S u p e r v is e Monthly
.4643
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S up er v is io n
.1661
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
0

0

2

1

Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .0433*
*
S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 le v e l - See Tables 4- 4 8 , 4 - 4 9, 4-50 ,
4-51 and 4-52.
The h y p o th e si s i s a c c e p t e d .

199
TABLE 4-48
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programs in
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n o r Teacher E v a l u a ti o n t o t h e P e r c e iv e d
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s to Help T eac he rs Understand t h e
Learning Process
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development
Program
P e r c e iv e d R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
No
R esponsibility
Yes

No

Count
Row
P e r c e n ta g e

7

0

Count
Row
P e r c e n ta g e

16

23

30.4

69.6

22.3

7

43

30

80
77.7

.

8

53.7

37.5

.

8

50
4 8.5

46
44.7

7
6

Square = 8 . 1 3 - -

Primary
Row
R e s p o n s ib ility Totals

0

8

Column
Totals

Secondary
R esponsibility

103
1

0

0

. 0

d e g r e e s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0172

2

Cram er 's V = .28
TABLE 4-49
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programs in
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n o r T eac her E v a l u a ti o n t o t h e P er ce ived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Conduct P r e - O b s e r v a ti o n Confer ences
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development
Program
P e r c e i ved R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
No
R esponsibility
Yes

No

Count
Row
P e r c e n ta g e

Secondary
R esponsibility

15

23

30. 4

65.2

22.5

7

1

4.3

Primary
Row
R esponsibility Totals

Count
Row
Percentage

18

40

2 1

79

22.4

50.6

26.6

77.5

Column
Totals

19
18.6

47
46.1

36
35.3

Square = 12.36 —
V = .35

2

d e g r e e s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e =

1 0 2
1

. 0 0 2 1

0

0

. 0

200

TABLE 4-50
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programs in
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n o r Teacher E va lu a tion t o t h e P er ceived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y of P r i n c i p a l s to Observe Teachers a t AgreedUpon Times
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development
Program
P er ceived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
No
R esponsibility
Yes

No

Count
Row
Per centa ge

Secondary
R esponsibility

Primary
R esponsibility

Row
Totals

17

23

26.1

73.9

22.3

6

0

0

Count
Row
Percen tage

15

24

41

80

18.8

30.0

51.3

77.7

Column
Totals

15
14.6

30
29.1

58
56.3

Raw Chi Square = 6.04 —

103
1

0

0

. 0

degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0489

2

Cramer's V = .24
TABLE 4-51
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programs in
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n o r Teacher Ev alu ati on t o t h e Per ce ived
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s to Conduct Monthly Formative S t a f f
E v a lu a tio n s
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development
Program
Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
No
R esponsibility
Count
Row
Percentage

Secondary
R esponsibility

Primary
R esponsibility

Row
Totals
23

7

2

14

8. 7

60.9

30.4

22.5

Count
Row
P ercentage

28

34

17

79

38.4

43.0

21.5

77.5

Column
Totals

30
29.4

48
47.1

24
23.5

Raw Chi Square = 6.14 — 2 degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0465
Cramer's V = .25

1 0 2
1

0

0

. 0

201

Hgy

There w i l l be a^ s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p

between p e r c e iv e d s en se o f a u t h o r i t y and perceived c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
expertise.
^28

There w i l l be a^ s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p

between p er ceiv ed s en se o f a u t h o r i t y and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
Due to t h e poor s c a t t e r i n g o f s c o r e s on a u t h o r i t y ( t h e s c o re s
were very high

— see t a b l e 4-53} no a n a l y s i s was p o s s i b l e .

The h y p o t h e s is was n o t t e s t a b l e with t h e p r e s e n t d a t a .

202

TABLE 4-52
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programs
in C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n o r Teacher E v a lu a ti o n t o t h e
Perce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Perform C l i n i c a l
S u p e r v is o r y Functions
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development
Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
Program
Average

Weak

Strong

Row
Totals

Yes

Count
Row P er ce ntag e

4. 3

13
56.5

9
39.1

23
22.3

No

Count
Row Perce ntage

15
18.8

51
63.8

14
17.5

80
77.7

16
15.5

64
62.1

23
22.3

1

Column
Totals
Raw Chi Square = 6.28 —

2

103
1

0

0

. 0

degre es o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = J

Cramer's V = .25
TABLE 4-53
The P e r c e p tio n o f A u t h o r i t y Over th e I n s t r u c t i o n a l Program
Held by Elementary P r i n c i p a l s
N = 103
Absolute
Frequency
No A u t h o r it y

Complete A u t h o r i t y
MEAN = 4. 25
MODE

= 4.0

MEDIAN

4.28

Relative
Frequency

Cumulative
Frequency

1

1

1

2

4

3.9

4.9

3

16

15.5

20.4

4

39

37.9

58.3

5

33

32.0

90.3

6

1 0

1

. 0

9. 7

S ta ndar d Dev ia tio n = 1 . 0 2

1

0

0

. 0

. 0

203

^

2

9

There w i l l be a^ s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between p e r c e i v e d s e n s e o f e f f i c a c y and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
expertise.
H

3 0

There w i l l be a^ s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between p e r c e i v e d s e n s e o f e f f i c a c y and p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.
Due t o t h e poor s c a t t e r i n g o f s c o r e s on s en se o f e f f i c a c y ( t h e
s c o r e s were very high — s e e t a b l e s 4 - 5 4 , 4 - 5 5 , 4 - 5 6 ) , no a n a l y s i s
was p o s s i b l e .
The h y p o t h e s i s was n o t t e s t a b l e w i th t h e p r e s e n t d a t a .

204

TABLE 4-54
The P e r c e iv e d E f f e c t s o f P r i n c i p a l s on S t u d e n t L ear ni ng as
R e f l e c t e d by T e s t Scor es
A b s o lu te
R elative
Cummulative
Cat eg ory Label
Frequency
Frequency
Frequency
No E f f e c t

1

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

3
4
5
Great E f f e c t
MEAN

= 4 .9 5

MODE

= 5.0

MEDIAN

= 5.03

6

7. 8
24.3
72.8

7.8
16.5
4 8.5
27.2

8

17
50
28

S ta n d a r d D e v i a t i o n

1

0

=

0

. 0

.87

TABLE 4-55
P r i n c i p a l P e r c e p t i o n o f t h e D i f f e r e n c e T eac her s Make in S tu d e n t
L e arn in g
Cummulative
R elative
A b s o lu te
Frequency
Frequency
Frequency
Ca tego ry Label
Not a t All

1

0

0

2

0

0

1

1

3
4
5
Very Much

6

MEAN

= 5.34

MODE

= 5.0

MEDIAN

= 5.03

8

49
45

0
0
1

. 0

7.8
47.6
43.7
S ta n d a r d D e v i a t i o n

. 0

8.7
56.3
1

=

0

0

. 0

. 6

6

205

TABLE 4-56
P r i n c i p a l P e r c e p t i o n s o f T e a c h e r ' s A b i l i t y to "Get Through
to" t h e Host Unmotivated Child
A bsolute
Frequency

Category Label
Not a t All

1

1

2

4

3
4
5
Very Much
MEAN

19
40
33

=

5.0

MEDIAN

=

5.04

1

. 0

. 0

4.9
10.7
29.1
1

Standard Deviation

4.86

MODE

1

Cumulative
Frequency

3.9
5.8
18,4
38.8
32.0

6

6

=

Relative
Frequency

=

6

8

. 0

0

0

. 0

1 . 1 1

TABLE 4-57
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Role P e r c e p tio n t o t h e Per ceived E x p e r t i s e
of P r i n c i p a l s t o Conduct P re-O bserv a ti on Conferences
Role

P er ce ived E x p e r t i s e

Count
C l i n i c i a n Row
P er ce ntag e

Very
Weak

Weak

Moderately
Weak

4

9

9

8.9

Count
14
E v a lu a to r Row
P er ce nta ge 26.9
Column
Totals

18
18.8

2

0

. 0

1

. 2

2 0
2

0

0

. 0

8

1 1

2

2

. 6

Moderately
Strong
Strong

Very
Strong

45

4

1 2

8.9

26.7

15.6

4

4

52

7.7

7.7

53.6

1 1

15.4

2

17
17.5

15
15.5

1

. 2

16
16.5

7

46.4

97

1 1

11.3

Raw Chi Square = 13.46 — 5 d eg rees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0194
Cramer's V = .37

Row
Totals

1

0

0

. 0

206

H3 1

There will be £ s i g n i f i c a n t d ir ec t and p o s itiv e relationship

between perceived role as a c l i n i c i a n and perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory
expertise.
The p er ceiv ed r o l e o f a p r i n c i p a l i s r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to
v a r i a b l e s o f perceived c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e in the f ollow ing
manner:
Factor
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
P re-O bserv a ti on Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r Anal ysis
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a ly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s to Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with A ctiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a ! u a t e
Super vise Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u p e r v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.2121
.0980
.0194*
.3480
.4675
.1832
.5232
.0291*
.2828
.0446*
.2677
.2175
.1593
.3231
.7243
.3931
.3869
.3705
.8946
.7270

Total P erceived E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p - .1772
*

S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l - See Tables 4- 5 7 , 4 - 5 8 , and 4-59.

The hypothesis i s accepted for three v a r ia b le s .

207

TABLE 4-58
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e Per ce ived Role Assumed by P r i n c i p a l s
and t h e Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Lead Teachers in
an A n a ly s is o f a Teaching S k i l l
Role

P er ce ived E x p e r t i s e
Very
Weak

Clinician

E v a lu a to r

Count
Row
Percentage
Count
Row
Percentage
Column
Totals

Weak

Moderately Moderately
Weak
Strong
Strong

0

1

1 1

19

0

2.3

25.0

43.2

7

7

1 1

1 2

13.5

13.5

7
7.3

2

1

. 2

8

2 2

8.3

22.9

9
20.5
9

23.1

17.3

31
32.3

18
18.8

Very
Strong

Row
Totals

4

44

9.1

45.8

6

52

11.5

54.2

1 0

96

10.4

1

0

0

. 0

Raw Chi Square = 1 2 . ,90 — 5 de g r e e s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0243
Cram er's V = .37

TABLE 4-59
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e P er ce ived Role Assumed by P r i n c i p a l s and
t h e Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Help Teachers Hatch I n s t r u c t i o n a l
M a t e r i a l s t o I n s t r u c t i o n a l Goals
P er ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e

Role
Very
Weak
Clinician

E v a lu a to r

Count
Row
Per ce ntage
Count
Row
Per ce ntage
Column
Totals

Weak

Moderately Moderately
Weak
Strong
S tro ng

0

0

4

16

15

0

0

9.1

36.4

34.1

2

7

4

3. 8
2
2 . 1

13.5
7
7.3

7.7
8

8.3

9

2 2

Very
Strong
9

44
45.8

20.5

52

8

17.3

42.3

15.4

25
26.0

37
38.5

17
17.7

Raw Chi Square = 11.76 — 5 d eg ree s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0383
Cramer's V = .35

Row
Totals

54.2
96
1

0

0

. 0

208

H3 2

There will be a s i g n i f i c a n t direct and p o s itiv e relationship

between perceived role as a^ c l i n i c i a n and perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory
r e sp o n s ib ilit y assumed.
The perceived r o l e o f a p r i n c i p a l i s r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to
t h e p er ceiv ed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p r i n c i p a l s t o perform c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in the f o llo w i n g manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tions
P re-O bserv a tion Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A naly s is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l Analysis
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with A c tiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Te achers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Te achers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S u p er v is e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S up er v is io n
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .2685
S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l - See Table 4-60.
The h y p o th e s is i s ac ce pted f o r one v a r i a b l e .

.1633
.0816
.2263
.4857
.9878
.4880
.5851
.0774
.3147
.3457
.1775
.1401
.4224
.0663
.8069
.4594
.0198*
.1143
.4419
.9757

209
TABLE 4-60
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Role P e r c e p ti o n t o t h e Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e and S elf- Im pro ve T h e ir
Teaching
Role

C linician

Ev alu ato r

Per ceived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
No
Secondary
R esponsibility R esponsibility
Count
Row
Percen tage
Count
Row
Perc en tage
Column
Totals

Primary
Row
R esponsibility Totals
25

45

44.4

55.6

45.5

27

2 0

54

13.0

50.0

37.0

54.5

7
7.1

47
47.5

45
45.5

0

2

0

7

0

99
1

0

0

. 0

Raw Chi Square = 7. 84 — 2 degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0198
Cramer's V = .28

TABLE 4-61
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e Per ce ived Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l
S u p e r v is io n t o th e Per ceived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s t o Conduct PreO bser vat ion Conferences.
P er ce iv ed Use o f
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n

Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e
Very
Weak

Never

Seldom

Often

Always

Count
Row
Percen tage
Count
Row
Per ce ntage
Count
Row
Perc en tage
Count
Row
Percen tage
Column
Totals

7
77,8
7
17.9
5
10.9
1

14.3

Weak
1

Moderately Moderately
Strong
Weak
Strong
0

0

1 1 . 1

0

0

1 1

9

8

28.2
8

17.4

23.1
1 0

21.7

0

0

0

0

2 0

2 0

19.8

19.8

19
18.8

20.5
6

13.0
1

Very
Row
Strong T o t a l s
0

9

1 1 . 1

0

8.9

3

1

7.7

2

1

1 0

21.7
2

14.3

28.6

15
14.9

16
15.8

39
38.6

. 6

46

7
15.2

45.5

3

7
6. 9

42.9
1 1

1 0 1

10.9

1

Raw Chi Square = 40.75 - - 15 degr ees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0004
Cramer's V = .37

0

0

. 0

210

H

3 3

There w i l 1 be a_ s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between p er ceiv ed frequen cy o f use o f a^ c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y model
and p er ceiv ed c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .
The f a c t o r o f how o f t e n a p r i n c i p a l p e r c e i v e s using a system
o f c l i n ic a l supervision is r e la te d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to v ariab les of
p er ceiv ed e x p e r t i s e t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in th e
f o ll o w in g manner:
Factor
1
2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
1 0
1 1
1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 0

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tion s
P r e-O bs erv a ti on Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r An alysis
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l Analys is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with Activ e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
Super vis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u per vis ion
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.1909
.1408
.0004*
.0009*
.1307
. 2

0

1

2

.2392
.0682
.
*
.0059*
.1091
.0581
.0946
.1790
.0947
.0871
.
*
.0151*
.2188
.1225
0

0

1

2

0

0

0

1

Total Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e R e l a t i o n s h i p = .1263
*
S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 le v e l - See Tables 4 - 61, 4 - 6 2 , 4-63 ,
4 - 6 4 , 4-65 and 4-66.

The hypothesis i s accepted for six v a r ia b le s.

211

TABLE 4-62
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f the P er ce iv ed Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l
S u p e r v is io n t o t h e P er ceived E x p e r t i s e o f P r i n c i p a l s to Observe
Teaching a t Agreed-Upon Times
Per ce iv ed Use o f
C l i n i c a l S u per vis io n

Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e
Very
Weak

Never

Seldom

Often

Always

Count
Row
Percentage
Count
Row
Per centage
Count
Row
Percentage
Count
Row
Perce ntag e
Column
Totals

5

1

55.6
1

2

Weak

. 6

4
8.7

Moderately Moderately
Very
Row
Weak
Strong Strong Strong T o t a l s
1

1 1 . 1

1 1 . 1

7

9

17.9

23.1

7
15.2

6

13.0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1 0

8.9

15
14.9

16
15.8

0

0

0

0

1 0

1 1

1

25.6

28.2

2

30.4

2

9

14

8. 9

. 2

39
38.6

. 6

46
45.5

13.0

7

2

2

42.9

28.6

27
26.7

2

2 2
1

2

6

19.6

3

9

2

. 8

6.9

28.6
1 1

1 0 1

10.9

1

0

Raw Chi Square = 38.00 - - 15 degr ees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0009
Cramer's V = .35

0

. 0

212

TABLE 4-63
The Relationship of Perceived Frequency o f Usage o f Clinical
Supervision by Principals and the Perceived Expertise o f Principals
to Suggest Instructional Methods to Teachers
Per ce iv ed Frequency o f
Use o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n
P er ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e
Very
Row
Moderately Moderately
Very
Strong Strong Total:
Strong
Weak Weak Weak
Never

Seldom

Often

Always

Count
Row
Perc en tage
Count
Row
Perc en tage
Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

2

0

3

0

2

2

22.0

0

33.3

0

22.2

22.2

0

3

3

10

15

0

7.7

7.7

25.6

38.5

20.5

39.0

0

0

4

12

16

13

45

0

0

8.9

26.7

35.6

28.9

45.0
7

8

9
9.0
39

Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

0

0

0

1

2

4

0

0

0

14.3

28.6

57.1

Column
Totals

2
2.0

3
3.0

10
10.0

23
23.0

35
35.0

100
27
27.0 100.0

Raw Chi Square = 37. 20 — 15 degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0012
Cramer' s V = .35

7. 0

213

TABLE 4-64
The R e l a t i o n s h i p of Per ce ived Frequency o f Usage o f
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n by P r i n c i p a l s and t h e Per ce ived E x p e r t i s e
of P r i n c i p a l s t o Help Teachers Match I n s t r u c t i o n a l M a t e r i a l s t o
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Goals
Perce ived Frequency o f
Usage o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n
P er ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e
Very
Moderately Moderately
Very
Strong Strong Strong
Weak Weak Weak
Never

Seldom

Often

Always

2

1

2

2

1

1

22.2

11.1

22.2

22.2

11.1

11.1

0

6

3

8

0

15.4

Count
Row
Per centa ge

0

Count
Row
P er ce nta ge

Count
Row
Per ce ntage
Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

Column
■Totals

16

Row
Totals
9
9.0

6

39
39.0

7. 7

20.5

41 .0

1

4

13

18

0

2.2

8. 9

28.9

40.0

20.0

45.0

0

0

0

3

2

2

7

0

0

0

42.9

28.6

28.6

7.0

2
2.0

8
8. 0

9
9.0

26
26.0

37
37.0

18
18.0

100
100.0

15.4

45

9

Raw Chi Square = 32.26 — 15 deg ree s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0059
Cramer’ s V = .33

214

TABLE 4-65
The Relationship o f Perceived Frequency o f Usage o f Clinical
Supervision by Principals and the Perceived Expertise of Principals
to Help Teachers Self-Evaluate and Self-Improve
P er ceived Frequency o f
Usage o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n
Very
Weak
Never

Seldom

Often

Always

Weak

P er ce ived E x p e r t i s e
Moderately Moderately
Weak
Strong Strong

Very
Strong

Row
Totals
9

3

1

2

2

0

1

33.3

11.1

22.2

22.2

0

0

9

6

15

7

11.1
2

0

23.1

15.4

38.5

17.9

5.1

38.6

Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

0

3

8

16

16

3

46

0

6.5

17.4

34.8

34. 8

6.5

45.5

Count
Row
Perc en tage

0

0

2

4

1

0

7

0

0

28.6

57.1

14.3

0

6.9

Column
Totals

3
3.0

13
12.9

18
17.8

37
36.6

24
23.8

6
5.9

Count
Row
Percentage
Count
Row
Percentage

8. 9
39

101
100.0

Raw Chi Square = 44.46 — 15 degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0001
Cramer's V = .38

215

TABLE 4-66
The Relationship o f Perceived Frequency o f Usage o f Clinical
Supervision by Principals and the Perceived Expertise o f Principals
to Supervise Teaching for Formative Reasons at Least Monthly
Perceived Frequency o f
Usage o f C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n
Very
Weak
Never

Seldom

Often

Always

Count
Row
Per ce ntage
Count
Row
Percentage
Count
Row
Per ce ntage
Count
Row
Percen tage

P er ceived E x p e r t i s e

Moderately Moderately
Weak Weak
Strong Strong

Very
Row
Strong T o t a l s
9

7

1

0

0

0

1

77.8

11.1

0

0

0

11.1

14

13

8

3

0

1

39

35.9

33.3

20.5

7.7

0

2.6

39.0

7

8

5

2

45

24.4

15.6

17.8

26.7

11.1

4.4

45.0

0

3

1

2

1

0

7

0

42.9

14.3

28.6

14.3

0

7.0

11

12

9.0

Raw Chi Square = 29. 22 - - 15 degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0151
Cramer' s V = .31

216

^34

There will be £ s i g n i f i c a n t d ir ec t and p o s itiv e relationship

between perceived frequency o f use o f a^ c l i n i c a l supervisory model
and perceived c l i n i c a l supervisory r e s p o n s ib i li t y assumed.
The f a c t o r s o f how o f t e n a p r i n c i p a l p er ceiv ed h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f
using a system o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n i s r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to
th e p erceived r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p r i n c i p a l s t o perform c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in t h e f o llo w in g manner:
F a c to r
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10.
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a tio n s
P r e -O bs erv a ti on Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A nalys is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l A n a ly s is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help w it h Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help w it h A ctiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help Teachers Acquire Classroom Management
Help Teachers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S uper vis e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S upervis ion
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate

.1772
.0132*
.0157*
.0483*
.2472
.3175
.3933
.7241
.0746
.2988
.6627
.3083
.4213
.0951
.2119
.3438
.1298
.0876
.0983
.5571

Total R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e l a t i o n s h i p = .1125
S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 Level — See Tables 4 - 67, 4- 6 8 , and 4-69
The h y p o th e sis i s ac ce pte d f o r t h r e e v a r i a b l e s .

217

TABLE 4-67
The Relationship o f the Perceived Frequency o f Use o f Clinical
Supervision to the Perceived Responsibility o f Principals to
Separately Evaluate Teachers for Formative Reasons
P er ceived Use o f
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o r i

Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y

No
R esponsibility

9
8.7

1

23

16

40

2. 5

57.5

40.0

38.8

1

14

32

47

2.1

29. 8

68.1

45.6
7

2
22.2

Seldom

Count
Row
P er ce ntag e

Always

Row
Totals

4
44.4

Count
Row
Perc en tage

Often

Primary
R esponsibility

3
33.3

Never

Count
Row
Per centa ge

Secondary
Responsibility

Count
Row
Percen tage

0

3

4

0

42.9

57.1

6.8

Column
Totals

4
3. 9

43
41 .7

56
54.4

103
100.0

Raw Chi Square = 16.10 - - 6 degrees o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0132
Cramer's V = .28

218

TABLE 4-68
The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e P er ceived Frequency o f Use o f C l i n i c a l
S u p e r v is io n t o t h e P er ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f P r i n c i p a l s to Conduct
P r e-O b s erv a ti o n Conferences
Per ce iv ed Use o f
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n

Per ce ived R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
No
R e s p o n s ib ili t. y

Secondary
R esponsibility

Primary
R esponsibility

Row
Totals
9
8.8

Never

Count
Row
Percen tage

3
33.3

6
66.7

0
0

Count
Row
P er ce nta ge

10

20

9

Seldom

25.6

51.3

23.1

38.2

20

22

47

10.6

42.6

46.8

46.1
7

Often

Always

Count
Row
Perce ntag e

5

39

Count
Row
Perc en tage

1

1

5

14.3

14.3

71.4

6. 9

Column
Totals

19
18.6

47
46.1

36
35.3

102
100.0

Raw Chi Square = 15.66 — 6 degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0157
Cramer1s V = .28

219

TABLE 4-69
The Relationship o f the Perceived Frequency o f Use of Clinical
Supervision to the Perceived Responsibility of Principals to Observe
Teaching at Agreed-Upon Times
Per ce iv ed Use o f
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is io n

P er ceived R es po ns ibil it.y
No
Re spon sibil it.y

Never

Seldom

Often

Always

Count
Row
Per ce ntage
Count
Row
Percentage
Count
Row
Per ce ntage

Secondary
R es po nsibil i t y

Primary
Row
Re spon sibil i t y T o t a l s
9

1

2

6

11.1

22.2

66.7

19

16

40

12.3

47.5

40.0

38.8

7

9

31

47

14.9

19.1

66.0

45.6
7

5

8.7

Count
Row
Percen tage

2

0

5

28.6

0

71.4

6.8

Column
Totals

15
14.6

30
29.1

58
56.3

103
100.0

Raw Chi Square = 12.69 - - 6 degr ee s o f freedom, s i g n i f i c a n c e = .0483
Cramer1s V = .25

220

H 3 5

V a r i a b l e s o f p e r c e i v e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed by p r i n c i p a l s

f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n w i l l be d i r e c t l y and p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to
v a r i a b l e s o f p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e s i n g l y and
collectively.
V a r ia b le s o f perceived r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y
r e l a t e d to v a r i a b l e s o f p e r c e i v e d e x p e r t i s e in t h e f o ll o w in g manner:
Factor
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
*

Description

Significance of Relationship

Teach Terminology
Formative E v a lu a ti o n s
P re-O bserv a ti on Conference
Observe Teachers on Schedule
Schedule Meeting f o r A nalys is
Analyze Data
Keep Appointment
Lead Teaching in S k i l l An alys is
Suggest I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
Help Match M a t e r i a l s t o Goals
Help with Time on Task
Help with Higher Level Thinking S k i l l
Help with A c ti v e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
Help Teachers Acquire Proven S k i l l s
Help Teachers Acquire D i s c i p l i n e Methods
Help T e a c h e rs 'A c q u ir e Classroom Management
Help Te achers S e l f - E v a l u a t e
S u p er v is e Monthly
Obtain C r i t i c i s m o f S u per vis ion
E s t a b l i s h P o s i t i v e Climate
T otal R e l a t i o n s h i p = .0477*

.0667
.0075*
.0000*
.0001*
.0000*
.0114*
.0784
.0000*
.0009*
.0000*
.0000*
.0002*
.0001*
.0001*
.0001*
.0614
.0273*
.0000*
.0009*
.0002*

S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l
Cramer's V - .22

The hypothesis i s accepted for 17 individual variables,, and
overall

221

D is cuss ion o f th e A n a ly s is
Sex D i f f e r e n c e s in Regards t o C l i n i c a l Sup er v is o r y P r a c t i c e s
Although only f i v e v a r i a b l e s o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between sex
and th e v a r io u s c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s , p r a c t i c e s , and a t t i t u d e s
were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l , t h e r e ap pe ar t o be some im portant
findings.
In gen er al female p r i n c i p a l s appear more a p t than t h e i r male
c o u n t e r p a r t s to i n c o r p o r a t e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s in
the principal ship.
P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y more female p r i n c i p a l s have taken advantage of
p r o f e s s i o n a l development programs (33.3% t o 19.5%).

More women than

men p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y see themselves as c l i n i c i a n s (61.9% to 41%).

Women

a r e more i n c l i n e d to p e r c e i v e themselves r e s p o n s i b l e f o r one of the
most v i t a l i n d i c a t o r s o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n , th e p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n
c o n f e r e n c e , and her e th e d i f f e r e n c e i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0162 l e v e l .
Ninety p e r c e n t o f t h e women p e r c e i v e as primary t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to
s u g g e s t methods o f improvement f o r t e a c h e r s when needed while o n ly 79%
o f t h e male p r i n c i p a l s a r e so i n c l i n e d .

Whereas 33% o f t h e male re sp on de nts

assumed no r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r monthly f o rm ativ e e v a l u a t i o n s , only 14.3%
o f th e women den ied t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
One t h i r d o f th e female p r i n c i p a l s s co red high on per ce ived
a c t u a l e x p e r t i s e ; t h e i r male c o u n t e r p a r t s could muster only 17.1%.

222

Age D if f e r e n c e s

While age did not r e la t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y to c l i n i c a l supervisory
p e r c e p t i o n s o f p r i n c i p a l s , some i m p o rta n t f i n d i n g s a r e worthy o f
mention.

P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y , 55% o f th e male p r i n c i p a l s were 45 y e a r s

o f age o r younger but only 33.3% o f t h e females were under 45.
This s t a t i s t i c seems t o s u p p o rt some o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e which r e p o r t s
t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l s hip i s becoming an even s t r o n g e r male b a s t i o n .

226

A f u l l 20% o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s under t h e age o f 36 p e r c e i v e d themselves
as having complete a u t h o r i t y over th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l program; o n ly ten
p r i n c i p a l s o f a l l ages from t h e e n t i r e survey p e r c e iv e d themselves
having t h i s a u t h o r i t y w i th the younger p r i n c i p a l s c o n t r i b u t i n g t h r e e
o f t h i s number.
P r i n c i p a l s in t h e mid-age r a n g e , from 44 t o 50, accounted f o r
52.8% of th o s e who p er ceiv ed themselves r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n
c o n f e re n c e ; th e younger and o l d e r c a t e g o r i e s accounted f o r an almost
i d e n t i c a l d i v i s i o n o f th e remaining number.
In an a n l y s i s o f t o t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed f o r c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s , 56% o f th o s e r a t e d as s tr o n g were in th e
40 to 50 age c a te g o r y .
Younger p r i n c i p a l s were f a r more a p t t o p e r c e i v e themselves
usin g a c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n model o f t e n . (.0282 l e v e l )

223

R e s p o n s i b i l i t y F a c t o r ( P r i n c i p a l s Having Two o r More Schools)
The NAESP has r e p o r t e d a t r e n d toward making p r i n c i p a l s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r more than one school

227

Does t h i s p r a c t i c e

have an a d v e r s e e f f e c t on a p r i n c i p a l ' s performance in c l i n i c a l
supervisory a c t i v i t i e s ?

More than one school p r i n c i p a l s h i p s

o c c u r re d in about 15 p e r c e n t o f t h i s sample.
P r i n c i p a l s having r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r two o r more s ch ools a l s o
r e p o r t e d t h a t th e y were twice as l i k e l y as t h o s e p r i n c i p a l s with
only one school t o be as s ig n e d e x t r a systemwide r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
in a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r d u t i e s as a p r i n c i p a l .

Those with one school

r e p o r t e d an almost equal d i v i s i o n on t h i s q u e s t i o n (48.8 p e r c e n t had
e x t r a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and 51.2 p e r c e n t did n o t ) .

For t h o s e w ith two or

more s c h o o l s , th e p e r c e n ta g e s were 68 .8 p e r c e n t having t h i s e x t r a
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and 31.3 p e r c e n t l e f t t o c o n c e n t r a t e more f u l l y on t h e
principalship.
The number o f schools s u p e r v i s e d a l s o has a marked e f f e c t on
whether or n o t a p r i n c i p a l would r e p o r t having had a p r o f e s s i o n a l
development program in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

Only one o f t h e s i x t e e n

p r i n c i p a l s from a m u l t i - s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l s h i p had enjoyed such a
program, whereas 22 o f th e 87 p r i n c i p a l s having one school t o s u p e r v i s e
r e p o r t e d th ey had engaged in such an u n d e r ta k in g .

This could be an

im port ant p o i n t in t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l development was found by t h i s

224

r e s e a r c h t o be c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n a t t i t u d e s
and p r a c t i c e s .
In a n aly zin g th e o v e r a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed by p r i n c i p a l s
f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s , only 12.6% o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s
with one school were c a t e g o r i z e d as being weak in t h i s dimension,
b u t almost one t h i r d , 31.3% o f t h o s e p r i n c i p a l s having two o r more
s ch oo ls were pla ced in t h i s c a t e g o r y .
While t h e same e s s e n t i a l s t a t i s t i c s a r e t r u e f o r t h e a n a l y s i s
o f p er ceiv ed e x p e r t i s e to perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n in r e g a r d s
t o t h e low s k i l l e d p r i n c i p a l s , 14.9% o f t h e one school p r i n c i p a l s
were ranked as weak as opposed t o 31.3% o f t h e two o r more school
p r i n c i p a l s , 37.5% o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s with more school r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
were l a b e l e d as p e r c e i v i n g themselves as high in t h e s e s k i l l s
whereas only 17.2% o f th o s e p r i n c i p a l s w i th one school r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
were so l a b e l e d .

This f a c t was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0214 l e v e l .

School Size ( S tu d e n t Po p u la tio n o f School or Schools)
I t was hy poth es ize d t h a t school s i z e would be d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n in an i n v e r s e l y p o s i t i v e manner,
but l i t t l e ev idence was found t o s u p p o rt t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .
P r i n c i p a l s with s ch ools in t h e mid-range o f s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n ,
351-450, were f a r l e s s l i k e l y t o have p a r t i c i p a t e d in a p r o f e s s i o n a l
development program in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n , on ly 6.7% had done s o ,
s i g n i f i c a n t tut a .0384 l e v e l .
ThereWfljseno s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s found in th e s u p e r v i s o r y

225

p r a c t i c e s o f p r i n c i p a l s w it h v a r i o u s s i z e d schools and a l s o no
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in whether o r n o t th ey p e r c e iv e d o f
themselves as a c l i n i c i a n s . There was a l s o no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between p r i n c i p a l s o f varying school s i z e s in t h e use o f a c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s i o n model.
However, p r i n c i p a l s with small s c h o o l s , 250 o r l e s s , were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y (.0081) more a p t to view as t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
th e a n a l y s i s o f t h e d ata th ey o b ta in e d from clas sro om v i s i t a t i o n s .
They were a l s o more a p t t o view t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r l e a d e r s h i p
in t h e a n a l y s i s o f a te a c h i n g s k i l l t o be t h e i r primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
( .0 2 7 9 ) .
P r i n c i p a l s with s m a l l e r s c h o o l s , 350 o r l e s s , were a l s o more
li k e l y to accept overall r e s p o n s i b il i t y fo r c l i n i c a l supervision
a c t i v i t i e s (.0399 l e v e l ) .
P r o p o r t i o n a t e l y , more p r i n c i p a l s with very small s chools
viewed themselves as very s t r o n g a t con du cting s e p a r a t e e v a l u a t i o n s
f o r f o rm a t iv e r ea so ns a l o n e . (.0540 l e v e l )
Experience F a c to r s (Years o f Teaching Experience)
The y e a r s s p e n t as a classroom t e a c h e r were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y
r e l a t e d t o any f a c t o r o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n in a s i g n i f i c a n t
manner.
Tenure as a P r i n c i p a l
Tenure as a p r i n c i p a l ap pea rs t o have no r e l a t i o n s h i p to

226

c lin ic a l supervisory a c t i v i t i e s .

There were no items which were

even r em ote ly r e l a t e d t o te n u r e as a p r i n c i p a l d is c o v e re d in t h i s s tu d y .
D i s t r i c t Enrollment
P r i n c i p a l s in l a r g e r d i s t r i c t s a r e f a r l e s s l i k e l y to have
e x t r a systemwide r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s {.0003 l e v e l ) and th ey a r e f a r
more l i k e l y t o have had an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a p r o f e s s i o n a l
development program in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n (.0418 l e v e l ) .
P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Program I n f lu e n c e s
P r i n c i p a l s who r e p o r t e d t h a t th e y had p a r t i c i p a t e d in a
p r o f e s s i o n a l development program in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n o r
t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n were more l i k e l y to a c c e p t th e o v e r a l l
r e s p o n s ib ility fo r c l i n i c a l supervision a c t i v i t i e s .

Four v a r i a b l e s

o f p e r c e i v e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y
a c t i v i t i e s were s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .
In a d d i t i o n , f our v a r i a b l e s o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e
were l i k e w i s e r e l a t e d to t h i s f a c t o r o f p r o f e s s i o n a l development.
P r o f e s s i o n a l development programs in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n
f o r p r i n c i p a l s a p p e a r t o have a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on th e p er ceiv ed
a t t i t u d e s and p r a c t i c e s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s p o l l e d in t h i s s tu d y .
Role P e r c e p tio n I n f l u e n c e s
P r i n c i p a l s who view themselves as c l i n i c i a n s as opposed t o
e v a l u a t o r s were f a r more l i k e l y t o a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s and d e f i n i t e l y view themselves as

227

p o s s e s s i n g more a b i l i t y to perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s .
P e r c e iv e d c l i n i c i a n s were more l i k e l y t o e v a l u a t e f o r s t r i c t l y
f o r m a t i v e r e a s o n s (.0076 l e v e l ) ; th e y were more l i k e l y t o f e e l
s t r o n g in t h e i r a b i l i t y t o perform a p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n c o n f e r e n c e
( .0 1 9 4 ) l e v e l ; in t h e p o s t - o b s e r v a t i o n a n a l y s i s (.0291 l e v e l ; and
in t h e p e r c e i v e d a b i l i t y t o h elp t e a c h e r s match m a t e r i a l s to
g o a l s (.0446 l e v e l ) .

P r i n c i p a l s who p e r c e i v e th em selv es as being

c l i n i c i a n s were f a r more a p t t o use a model o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n
more f r e q u e n t l y th a n o t h e r s (.000 2 l e v e l ) .
Frequency o f Use o f a C l i n i c a l S u p e r v i s i o n Process
P r i n c i p a l s who p e r c e i v e d th em se lves as f r e q u e n t l y u s in g a system
o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n were more l i k e l y t o a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s and a l s o were more l i k e l y to
p e r c e i v e them se lves a s p o s s e s s i n g e x p e r t i s e t o perform c l i n i c a l
supervisory functions.
The f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o th e
p e r c e p t i o n s o f p r i n c i p a l s r e g a r d i n g f re q u e n c y o f use o f a c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s i o n model:
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n
1.

E v a lu a te f o r f o r m a t i v e r e a s o n s a l o n e — .0132 le v e l

2.

Conduct a p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n c o n f e r e n c e — .0157 l e v e l

3.

Observe t e a c h i n g a t a g r e e d - u p o n - t i m e s — .0483 l e v e l

228

Expertise in Clinical Supervision
1.

Conduct a p r e - o b s e r v a t i o n c o n f eren c e - - .0004 l e v e l

2.

Observe te a c h i n g a t a g r e ed-u po n-tim es - - .0009 le v e l

3.

Suggest methods f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement - - .0012

4.

Help t e a c h e r s match i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s t o g o a l s - - .0059 l e v e l

5.

A s s i s t t e a c h e r s develop a pr o c e ss f o r s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n - - .0001 l e v e l

6.

Super vis e t e a c h e r s monthly f o r f o r m a t i v e re a so n s - - .0156 le v e l

Formative Versus Summative E v a lu a ti o n s
As h y p o th e s iz e d , th e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f p r i n c i p a l s in t h i s study
do not appear t o s e p a r a t e f o r m a t iv e from summative e v a l u a t i o n s ;
th e number o f f o r m a t iv e e v a l u a t i o n s was almost i d e n t i c a l t o th e
number o f summative e v a l u a t i o n s .

This f i n d i n g was confirmed a t the

.0267 l e v e l .
Extra Teaching R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
Only t h r e e p r i n c i p a l s {2,9%) o f th e sample were r e q u i r e d to
te a c h in a d d i t i o n to assuming t h e i r r o l e as a p r i n c i p a l .

Due t o

t h e small number o f such c a s e s , no a t t e m p t was made to determ ine
any r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s .
Actual Versus Ideal Per ce iv ed E x p e r t i s e t o Perform C l i n i c a l
S u p e r v is o r y Functions
As e x p e c t e d , p r i n c i p a l s ex p r e s s e d f e e l i n g a need f o r improving
t h e i r e x p e r t i s e in t h e a b i l i t y t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y

229
functions.

Dissonance was d isco v e red t o e x i s t f o r every i n d i v i d u a l

v a r i a b l e o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n between t h e p r e s e n t a b i l i t y o f
p r i n c i p a l s and t h e i r ideal a b i l i t y .
Per ce iv ed R e s p o n s i b i l i t y as R elate d t o P er ce ived E x p e r t i s e
I t was hy pothesi ze d t h a t p r i n c i p a l s who p er ceiv ed themselves
as being r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s would a l s o
p e r c e i v e themselves as p o s s e s s in g more a b i l i t y t o perform c l i n i c a l
supervisory a c t i v i t i e s .

This r e l a t i o n s h i p was found t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y

e x i s t in sev en te en o f t h e twenty v a r i a b l e s o f t h i s s tu d y .
5ummary
This c h a p t e r has p r e s e n te d t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s tu d y ; a d e s c r i p ­
t i o n o f t h e sample was f i r s t p r e s e n t e d comparing i t with n a t i o n a l
and s t a t e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f th e p r i n c i p a l s h i p and a general d e s c r i p t i o n
was made o f th e r es po nses given by t h e sample group

which c o n s t i t u t e d

t h e independent v a r i a b l e s o f th e s tu d y .
This was follo we d by a s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s o f each h y p o t h e s is with
s u p p o r t i v e ev idence p r e s e n t e d where i t was deemed t o be a p p r o p r i a t e .
A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e a n a l y s i s was provided t o syno psi ze th e major f i n d ­
ings by c a t e g o r y .

PLEASE NOTE:
Pages 230 and 231 a r e m issing in
number only. Text f o l l o w s .
UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS INTERNATIONAL.

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS
AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Introduction
The purpose o f t h i s r e s e a r c h was to d i s c o v e r i f c e r t a i n v a r i a b l e s
e x i s t i n g in th e r o l e o f th e p r i n c i p a l s h ip were p er ceiv ed by p r i n c i p a l s
t o r e l a t e to i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p .

B a s i c a l l y , t h i s r e s e a r c h intended

t o d i s c o v e r what f a c t o r s might i n f l u e n c e a p r i n c i p a l to p e r c e i v e h im s e lf
or h e r s e l f as a c l i n i c a l s u p e r v is i. o r .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n

c e n t e r e d on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p which e x i s t s between giv en c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s h i p and t h e p e r c e i v e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f e l t t o e x i s t by
p r i n c i p a l s to perform f u n c t i o n s involved in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .
Another major emphasis o f th e s tu d y was t o d eter m in e what
principal c h a r a c t e r is t i c s re la te d to the s e lf-p e rc e iv e d e x p e r tis e of
p rin c ip a ls'su p e rv iso ry s k i l l s .

L a s t l y , t h i s r e s e a r c h was des igne d t o

d etermine th e amount o f d is s o n a n c e p r i n c i p a l s f e e l about th e d i f f e r e n c e in
t h e i r p r e s e n t s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s and t h e i r id e a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e .
A review o f t h e r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e was p r e s e n t e d in Chapter I I .
The major theme in t h e l i t e r a t u r e was th e idea t h a t t h e improvement
o f i n s t r u c t i o n and t h e l e a d e r s h i p r e q u i r e d t o accomplish t h i s f e a t i s
t h e h i g h e s t form o f achievement f o r p r i n c i p a l s .

Included in t h e c h a p t e r

was a gen er al look a t th e school e f f e c t s r e s e a r c h , a more c o n c e n t r a t e d
view o f th e e f f e c t s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l on school outcomes, f ollowed by a
c o n c e n t r a t e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e s e a r c h done on th e s u b j e c t o f c l i n i c a l
supervision.

232

233

A t o t a l o f 103 p r i n c i p a l s responded t o th e ILQ from a t o t a l
s e l e c t e d sample o f 200 elem entary p r i n c i p a l s from th e Michigan
population.

The sample appeared well s u i t e d to accomplish t h e

purposes o f th e r e s e a r c h .
The Chi Square a n a l y s i s was used to t e s t t h e t h i r t y f i v e hypotheses
o f th e stu d y using t h e SPSS Program f o r s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t i n g a t t h e
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Computor C ente r.
Findings
T h i r t y f i v e hypotheses were o f f e r e d f o r t e s t i n g ; f o u r o f th e
t h i r t y f i v e were not t e s t a b l e with t h e d ata c o l l e c t e d .

In g e n e r a l ,

t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e hypotheses t e s t i n g r e v e a l e d t h e f o ll ow ing:
1.

P r i n c i p a l s wish to become more s k i l l e d a t c l i n i c a l
supervisory functions.

2.

Sex was found to have a s i g n i f i c a n t impact on t h e p e r c e p t i o n
o f p r i n c i p a l s r e g a r d in g t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e and t h e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed by them f o r s u p e r v i s i o n ; females
p e r c e i v e themselves as more s k i l l e d than males p erceived
themselves and as having more r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s u p e r v i s i o n .

3.

Age did not c o r r e l a t e with e i t h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y or
e x p e r t i s e f u n c t i o n s o f p r i n c i p a l s to perform c l i n i c a l
supervision.

4.

The number o f s ch ools a p r i n c i p a l a d m i n i s t o r s was u n r e l a t e d
t o p e r c e p t i o n s o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e and t o only
two v a r i a b l e s o f p e r c e i v e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
assumed.

5.

There was no r e l a t i o n s h i p found t o e x i s t between school
e n r o l lm e n t and c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n e x p e r t i s e or f e l t
responsibility.

234

6.

Teaching e x p er ie n ce d id n o t r e l a t e in any manner to
c lin ic a l supervision e x p e rtise or f e l t r e s p o n s ib ility .

7.

There was no r e l a t i o n s h i p found to e x i s t between t h e
number o f classroom t e a c h e r s s u p e rv is e d and p e r c e iv e d
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s o r p e r c e iv e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
assumed f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

8.

There was no r e l a t i o n s h i p found to e x i s t between t h e
t o t a l number o f t e a c h e r s s u p e r v i s e d and p erceived
c l i n i c a l supervisory s k i l l s or perceived r e s p o n s i b il i t y
f o r c lin ic a l supervision.

9.

There was no r e l a t i o n s h i p found t o e x i s t between d i s t r i c t
s i z e and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s o r
p er ceiv ed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

10.

There was no r e l a t i o n s h i p found t o e x i s t between p r i n c i p a l
te n u r e and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e o r
p e r c e iv e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

11.

There was no r e l a t i o n s h i p found t o e x i s t between e x t r a
d i s t r i c t wide r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a s s i g n e d t o p r i n c i p a l s
and p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y e x p e r t i s e o r p e r c e i v e d
r e s p o n s i b ility f o r c l i n i c a l supervision.

12.

The amount o f summative e v a l u a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t o be
performed by a p r i n c i p a l were found t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y
equal t o th e number o f form ati ve e v a l u a t i o n s performed
by p r i n c i p a l s — p r i n c i p a l s perform f o r m a t iv e and summative
evaluations together.

13.

The amount o f formal e d u c a tio n
r e c e i v e d in t h e s u p e r v i s io n o f
u n r e l a t e d to p e r c e iv e d c l i n i c a l
perceived c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y

14.

P r i n c i p a l s who had r e c e i v e d a p r o f e s s i o n a l development program
in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n p e r c e iv e d themselves as being more
e x p e r t in f o u r o f twenty f a c t o r s and a l s o in f o u r o f twenty
f a c t o r s f o r t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

p r i n c i p a l s have
t e a c h i n g was found t o be
s u p e r v i s i o n e x p e r t i s e and
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed.

235

15.

P r i n c i p a l s who p er ceiv ed o f themselves as a c l i n i c i a n
( c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r ) sc ored s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r than o t h e r s
in t h r e e o f twenty v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o p e r c e iv e d e x p e r t i s e
t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n and f o r one v a r i a b l e o f
p e r c e iv e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

16.

P r i n c i p a l s who used a system o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n p er ceiv ed
themselves as more e x p e r t i n s i x v a r i a b l e s o f c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s i o n and in t h r e e v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
assumed t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

17.

There was found t o e x i s t in sev en teen o f twenty v a r i a b l e s a
s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f e l t by
p r i n c i p a l s t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t io n s and th e
p e r c e iv e d a b i l i t y o f th o s e p r i n c i p a l s t o perform c l i n i c a l
supervisory functions.
Conclusions

On t h e b a s i s o f th e in f o r m a t io n c o l l e c t e d from t h i s sample o f
el em en tary school p r i n c i p a l s from th e S t a t e o f Michigan, t h i s r e s e a r c h e r
concludes t h a t (1) many p r i n c i p a l s do not ap pea r t o be a c t i v e l y involved
in the improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n in a s y s t e m a t i c f a s h i o n ; (2) many
p r i n c i p a l s do not ap pear t o be knowledgeable about t h e t e a c h i n g / l e a r n i n g
p r o c e s s ; (3) many p r i n c i p a l s do not appear t o po sse ss e f f e c t i v e
s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s des ign ed t o improve t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l s k i l l s o f
t e a c h e r s ; (4) most p r i n c i p a l s d e s i r e t o improve t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n a l
l e a d e r s h i p s k i l l s ; and (5) females may be more i n c l i n e d to become
c lin ic a l supervisors.
I t was concluded from th e survey d a t a g ath er ed and t h e a n a l y s i s
performed t h a t elem en tary p r i n c i p a l s d e s i r e t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y improve
t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p s k i l l s from t h e i r p r e s e n t le v e l o f
accomplishment.

This c o n c lu s io n s u p p o rts th o s e found by o t h e r

236

r e s e a r c h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y Marmion.

228

P r i n c i p a l s a r e d i s s a t i s f i e d with

t h e i r a b i l i t y t o perform in t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p r o l e .
R e l a t i v e l y few a s p e c t s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s h i p ap pea r t o have a
d i r e c t c o r r e l a t i o n to a p r i n c i p a l ' s ac ce ptance o f th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
to g e t involved in t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l process o r in t h e p er ceiv ed
development o f t h a t p r i n c i p a l ' s e x p e r t i s e t o perform th o s e f u n c t i o n s .
Age, t e n u r e as a t e a c h e r o r p r i n c i p a l , t h e amount o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
d e l e g a t e d t o a p r i n c i p a l , th e s i z e o f t h e school o r school system,
and formal e d u c a tio n in s u p e r v i s i o n ap pea r t o be r e l a t i v e l y unimportant
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s in r e g a rd s t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g a t t i t u d e s and p r a c t i c e s
o f p r i n c i p a l s in r e g a r d s t o c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .
Female p r i n c i p a l s do appear to be more i n c l i n e d t o a c c e p t th e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n and a l s o t o p e r c e i v e themselves
as p o s s e s s i n g more o f t h e s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y t o f u n c t i o n in t h i s c a p a c i t y .
Although many o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s were n o t found to e x i s t a t t h e .05
l e v e l , t h i s f a c t may be due more t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y small number of
female p r i n c i p a l s in c lu d e d in th e stu d y than any o t h e r f a c t o r .
The p e r c e i v e d r o l e o f t h e e lem entary p r i n c i p a l was d is c o v e r e d to
be c o r r e l a t e d t o h i s o r h e r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a ccepted
f o r and t h e a b i l i t y o t perform f u n c t i o n s o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n ;
p r i n c i p a l s who p e r c e iv e d o f themselves as c l i n i c i a n s tended t o be more

228

Marmion, Roland D. A Comparison o f Actual and Ideal
I n s t r u c t i o n a l L ead er ship Roles f o r Urban Frin ge Elementary Pub!ic
School P r i n c i p a l s i n M ichigan. Unpublished Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , East Lansing, Michigan, 1977.

237

in c lin e d to accept the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of c l i n i c a l supervision
and to p e r c e i v e themselves as being more a b l e t o perform th e
f u n c t i o n s involved in t h i s s u p e r v i s o r y p r o c e s s .
The p r i n c i p a l who p er ceiv ed h im s e lf o r h e r s e l f as a c l i n i c i a n was
a l s o f a r more l i k e l y t o e v a l u a t e t e a c h e r s f o r s t r i c t l y f o rm a tiv e r e a s o n s .
This c o n c lu s io n was s u pport ed a t a ver y high l e v e l .
Likew ise, p r i n c i p a l s who p e r c e i v e o f themselves as usin g a
system o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n o f t e n were more a p t t o a c c e p t
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r and p e r c e i v e o f themselves as p o s s e s s in g g r e a t e r
e x p e r t i s e t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s .

Thus, p r i n c i p a l

r o l e assumption and r o l e performance ar e congruen t in t h i s s tu d y .
This f i n d i n g was h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
A main conclu s io n o f t h i s s tudy i s t h a t a p r o f e s s i o n a l
development program i s p o t e n t i a l l y an extr em ely v a l u a b l e pro cess
in b r in g in g about a change in t h e a t t i t u d e s and p e r c e i v e d involvement
in s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o t h e improvement o f i n s t r u c t i o n .
This f a c t o r was s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o f o u r i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b l e s o f
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and t o t h e o v e r a l l a c c e p t a n c e by p r i n c i p a l s o f r e s p o n s i ­
b i l i t y t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n .

P r i n c i p a l s in t h i s study having

had such a program o f p r o f e s s i o n a l development were e i g h t times l e s s
l i k e l y to rank low in p e r c e i v e d s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s and almost twice
as l i k e l y t o p e r c e i v e o f t h e i r e x p e r t i s e t o be s t r o n g .

238

The s t r e n g t h o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e informal t r a i n i n g
o f p r i n c i p a l s in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n and p er ceiv ed e x p e r t i s e would
perhaps have been even more enhanced s t a t i s t i c a l l y should t h e r e
have been a g r e a t e r number o f them with which t o compare th e o t h e r s .
(Only twenty t h r e e o f t h e 103 p r i n c i p a l s in t h i s s tudy r e p o r t e d
having had such a p r o f e s s i o n a l development program.)
I t should be n o te d , however, t h a t th e mere involvement in a
p r o f e s s i o n a l development program could h a r d l y be expected t o do more
than ar ouse a sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on t h e p a r t o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s
t o perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n in h is o r h er school.

Only s u c c e s s f u l

p r a c t i c e of th e knowledge gained through t h i s informal ed ucati on
p roc es s in th e a c t u a l i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e t t i n g i s l i k e l y t o produce a
f e e l i n g of e x p e r t i s e on th e p a r t of t h e p r i n c i p a l , l e t alo n e a
demonstrated p r o f i c i e n c y t o perform t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p
function.

In view o f t h i s , i t was s u r p r i s i n g t o t h i s r e s e a r c h e r t h a t

such a s tr o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p was found t o e x i s t between a p r o f e s s i o n a l
development program in c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n and t h e perceived
e x p e r t i s e o f p r i n c i p a l s to perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s ;
th e p r o f e s s i o n a l development programs in which t h e y were in volved
must have been f a r more than in f o r m a tio n a l s e s s i o n s , i n v o lv in g some
s k i l l development perhaps.

The only known programs o f c l i n i c a l

s u p e r v i s io n o f which t h i s r e s e a r c h e r has knowledge t o have oc curre d
w i t h i n t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s in t h e S t a t e o f Michigan has been t h e
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Theory In to P r a c t i c e ( I . T . I . P . ) summer workshops

239

sponsored by MEMSPA and t hose in two independent school d i s t r i c t s ,
Saginaw and Berkley.
Implications for Practice
As i n d i c a t e d in t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r , t h i s study was inten ded
to s e r v e a us efu l purpose f o r ed u c a ti o n a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s , e s p e c i a l l y
those in a p o s i t i o n t o e f f e c t changes in t h e p r o f e s s i o n .

I t is for

t h i s purpose t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n i s in te n d e d .
This r e s e a r c h has c l e a r l y dem onstrated t h a t :
1.

Many p r i n c i p a l s l a c k an und erst anding o f t h e t e a c h i n g / l e a r n i n g
process;

2.

Most p r i n c i p a l s lack c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l s ;

3.

P r i n c i p a l s d e s i r e to improve t h e s e s k i l l s ;

4.

P r o f e s s i o n a l development programs appear to be
v i a b l e means t o accomplish t h i s f e a t ; and

5.

Women ap pe ar somewhat b e t t e r s u i t e d than men t o e f f e c t i v e l y
perform c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y a c t i v i t i e s .

th e only

A prudent p r a c t i t i o n e r , i n t e r e s t e d in improving th e on-going
i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t occur s in h i s o r h e r school system should reasonably
be a b l e to put t h e in form ation glea ne d from t h i s s tu d y t o good use .
C l e a r l y , th e focus o f t h e change should be to improve each s c h o o l,
individually.

This focus should be c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e key f a c t o r f o r

success o r f a i l u r e in a s c h o o l, t h e school p r i n c i p a l .

The b l u e p r i n t

f o r a c t i o n could p o s s i b l y fo ll o w t h i s format:
1.

Boards o f e d u catio n s h o u ld , through p o l i c y , s t r e s s th e
importance o f t h e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n o f s t a f f , s e p a r a t e
from t h e r e q u i r e d summative e v a l u a t i o n ;

2.

I t should not be expected t h a t p r i n c i p a l s would have
received tra in in g in c l i n i c a l supervision;

240

3.

An e x t e n s i v e , on-going program o f p r o f e s s i o n a l development
should be unde rtak en t o pr ovid e p r i n c i p a l s with th e o p p o r t u n i t y
t o l e a r n about t h e t e a c h i n g / l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , c l i n i c a l
s u p e r v i s i o n , and time management;

4.

O n - th e-jo b f o ll ow -up should be under taken with p r i n c i p a l s
by th e p r o f e s s i o n a l development i n s t r u c t o r s t o a s s i s t in
th e development o f p r o f i c i e n c y in t h e newly a cq u ir ed s k i l l s ;

5.

P r i n c i p a l s should r e c e i v e th e same t y p e o f c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s io n
as advocated f o r th e te a c h in g s t a f f ;

6.

Those in a p o s i t i o n to h i r e p r i n c i p a l s would do well to
c o n s id e r h i r i n g more women.
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u r th e r Research: Recommendations

The f i n d i n g s in t h i s s tu d y s u p p o rt t h e ide a t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l
l e a d e r s h i p i s a d e s i r e d r o l e f o r elem entary school p r i n c i p a l s .

The

s tu dy has demonstrated t h a t p r i n c i p a l s can g r e a t l y b e n e f i t from a
p r o f e s s i o n a l development program t h a t l e a d s t o a p e r c e p t i o n on th e
p a r t o f p r i n c i p a l s t h a t th ey a r e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r s and t h a t th ey
more o f t e n perform t h e s u p e r v i s o r y f u n c t i o n s in a c l i n i c a l manner.
However, because t h i s stu d y was n e c e s s a r i l y l i m i t e d in scope,
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s should be l i m i t e d to th e d e s c r i b e d o r s i m i l a r
population.

In t h i s l i g h t , th e f ollow ing recommendations a r e made:

1.

Additional r e s e a r c h should be under taken t o v e r i f y , r e f u t e ,
a n d / o r complement t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s tu d y ;

2.

I n str u m e n ts should be developed t h a t w i l l measure i n s t r u c t i o n a l
l e a d e r s h i p in t h e s u p e r v i s io n o f i n s t r u c t i o n w ith o u t r e l y i n g
e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f p r i n c i p a l s ;

3.

S t u d i e s should be under taken t o e x p l o r e th e congruence o f
t h e p r i n c i p a l s ' and t e a c h e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e e f f e c t s o f
c lin ic a l supervision;

4.

A study should be undertaken', t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e need f o r a
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y s k i l l competency p r e p a r a t i o n program
f o r c a r e e r p r i n c i p a l s and corre spond ing s t a t e c e r t i f i c a t i o n s

241

5.

V a r ia b le s and c o n d i t i o n s such as l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e and s t a f f
morale should be i n v e s t i g a t e d in b u i l d i n g s where th e
p r i n c i p a l s e rv e s as an e f f e c t i v e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r ;

6.

In view o f t h e evidence which i n d i c a t e s a d e c r e a s i n g t r e n d
o f employing women in t h e p o s i t i o n o f el em en ta ry school
p r i n c i p a l , and in view o f t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s tu d y which
ap p ear t o i n d i c a t e a s u p e r i o r a b i l i t y and w i l l i n g n e s s on
t h e p a r t o f female p r i n c i p a l s t o become c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r s ,
o t h e r s t u d i e s should be unde rtak en which use g r e a t e r numbers
o f female p r i n c i p a l s to d eterm ine i f t h i s f in d i n g i s
a c c u r a t e , and i f so why t h i s i s t r u e . What a r e th e reason s
f o r t h i s f a c t ? In a d d i t i o n , s t u d i e s should a l s o be made
on how t o en able a more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e number o f female
p r i n c i p a l s to e n t e r th e p r i n c i p a l s h i p ;

7.

Due t o th e r a t h e r i n e f f e c t i v e manner in which t h i s study
was a b l e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e
a u t h o r i t y o f a p r i n c i p a l to make i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s
in h i s o r he r school and t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p o f
t h e p r i n c i p a l , f u r t h e r s t u d i e s need to be persued which
w i ll e x p lo r e t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p ;

8.

More r e f i n e d r e s e a r c h must be conducted t o determine th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e s en se o f e f f i c a c y o f t h e p r i n c i p a l
and v a r i a b l e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p ;

9.

Some gaps in our knowledge o f s u p e r v i s i o n and s u p e r v i s o r y
e f f e c t s can be f i l l e d by s t u d y in g each phase o f th e
c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y c y c l e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , we must l e a r n more
about how p r i n c i p a l s can c o n c e p t u a l i z e and conduct t h e p r e ­
o b s e r v a t i o n c o n f e r e n c e . How can r a p p o r t be more e a s i l y
e s t a b l i s h e d between t e a c h e r s and p r i n c i p a l s ? Are p r i n c i p a l s ,
w i th t h e i r power to recommend d is m i s s a l o f t e a c h e r s , in a
p o s i t i o n t o e f f e c t i v e l y s e p a r a t e t h e summative from th e
f o rm a tiv e e v a l u a t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s ? What s o r t o f c o n t r a c t o r
agreement between t e a c h e r and p r i n c i p a l i s n e c e s s a r y o r
d e s ira b le to e f f e c t t h i s separation of evaluative functions?
I f s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h i s n a t u r e produces a n x i e t y over t h a t
which i s normal o r o p t i m a l , how can such a n x i e t y be
a l l e v i a t e d ? Can p r i n c i p a l s change t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r y p r a c t i c e s ?
Of g r e a t e s t im po rtan ce , however, i s t h e on-going q u e s ti o n
o f whether o r not t h e c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s o r y pr o c e ss can r e a l l y
h e lp improve te a c h i n g be h a v io r and s t u d e n t outcomes.

242

Concluding Statemen t
The e v o l u t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s h ip has app ea re d to have taken
i t s t o l l o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p e x e r t e d by t h e p r i n c i p a l .
I t would ap pea r from th e d a t a o f t h i s s tu d y t h a t r e l a t i v e l y few
t e a c h e r s a r e r e c e i v i n g a s s i s t a n c e from t h e p r i n c i p a l s on how to improve
t h e i r te a c h in g s k i l l s .

This u n f o r t u n a t e co n c lu s io n i s o f f e r e d with

t h e s i n c e r e hope t h a t t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n can be r e v e r s e d , f o r i f i t
i s n o t , than o t h e r means must be unde rtak en t o i n s u r e t h a t t e a c h e r s
r e c e i v e t h e a s s i s t a n c e th ey o b v io u sly need to c o n t i n u a l l y sharpen and
r esh ar p en t h e i r t e a c h i n g e x p e r t i s e so as t o b e t t e r h e lp c h i l d r e n
learn.

A change o f t h i s magnitude would be c o s t l y f o r e d u c a t io n and

would f o r e v e r change t h e f o u n d a tio n s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s h i p .
The poor, over weight and overburdened p r i n c i p a l i s , i n d e e d , in
a " g r e a t t i g h t n e s s " as Pooh might say; u n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s r e s e a r c h i s
not t h e " s u s t a i n i n g book", such as w i l l a l l e v i a t e th e problem.
Perhaps, however, t h i s s tu d y may cause some a d d i t i o n a l un eas in ess
which w ill r e s u l t in an u l t i m a t e improvement.

243

APPENDIX A
LETTERS

244

M IC H IG A N ELEMENTARY a n d MIDDLE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ASSO C IATIO N
Affiliated With T h e N ational A sso ciatio n of E le m e n ta ry S c h o o l Principals
ROOM 9, MANLY MILES BLDG. * 1405 S. H ARRISON RD
EAST LANSING, MICHIGAN 40B23 * P H O N E 517 353-8770

A STUDY OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP OF MICHIGAN’S ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL PRINCIPALS

Dear Principal:
Your cooperation is needed to carry out this MEMSPA sponsored research
study to determine the present status, viewpoints, practices, and attitudes
of elementary principals with regard to instructional leadership.
The survey data being collected are expected to have direct benefits for
you and your profession.
When the results are published, they should serve to
assist us in enchancing the status of our profession.
The deadline for insuring that your response will be included in the
study data is November 30, 1981. Although you will find the questionaire
quite comprehensive, most questions can be answered with a single check mark.
Please note that you are not to sign your name and that the survey is not
coded In any way which will permit Identification.
This fact will, we hope,
encourage forthright answers.
Every individual response is really important
to assure the necessary accuracy and validity of the results.
A self-addressed stamped envelop is enclosed for your convenience in
returning this survey.
Please set aside a 15-20 minute period of time in
your busy schedule to complete and return the questionaire.
Thank you for your cooperation!

Eugene Golanda
Study Researcher

L e t t e r s e n t with th e I.L.Q.

William Mays, Jr.
Executive Secretary
MEMSPA

,

| < i i h n I

K .

1 • >

t

.

Ah Mi'l;illL .Sljj L l til t> II :
I n t i r u i n .o-i' V i * .

EDMONDS SCHOOL DISTRICT IS
EDUCATIONAL SERVICES CENTER
3000 196th S.W., LYNNWOOD, WASHINGTON 9B036

. ' h

i J ' A ; I.I I Ilk I t l N I I I

(206)771-0614

U lfl

Nelli!!,

O o m l h y

W n u h l

I Mci iltl k

November 10, 1981

E, L. Golanda
Neff Elementary School
Grand Ledge Public Schools
950 Jenne Street
Grand Ledge, Michigan 48837
Dear Gene:
I enjoyed the opportunity to read over your survey form and it does reflect
the Clinical Supervision Process. X jotted a few comments in the margin bur
mainly as questions to consider. You seem to list some of the elements by
name - active participation, Bloom's Levels - is there a reason for not
naming the other elements? Also, I didn't catch anything about meeting
individual differences, learning styles, or needs.
In the part on perceived present expertise do you want to have anything on
the principals perceived level of understanding of the elements of effective
instruction? Also, one area^ that is important is knowing the teacher and
being able to determine the type of conference to conduct whether it would
be a direct, collaborative, or nondirect approach.
Your information will be interesting.
Regards,

Cliff Nelson
Staff Development Specialist
CN:gvd

245

I'm looking forward to the results.

246

APPENDIX B
INSTRUMENT

247
INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP QUESTIONAIRE
General Inform atio n
1.

Sex:
Male

____ _

Female ____
2.

A g e _____

3.

For how many s ch ools a r e you

4.

How many s t u d e n t s a r e e n r o l l e d in you r s c h o o l ( s ) ? _______

5.

How many y e a r s o f t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e have you had?

6.

How long have you been an elem entary p r i n c i p a l ? _________

7.

What i s t h e s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t in your d i s t r i c t ? ________

8.

How many classroom t e a c h e r s do you s u p e r v i s e ? _________

9.

How many o t h e r c e r t i f i e d t e a c h e r s do you s u p e r v i s e ?
( e . g . music, s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n , ph ysic a l e d u c a t i o n , e t c . }

10.

How o f t e n a r e you r e q u i r e d by your s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , o r the
c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g agre em en t, t o e v a l u a t e your te n u r e d
teachers?

11.

How much formal e d u c a t i o n have you a c q u i r e d in th e s u p e r v i s i o n
o f i n s t r u c t i o n o r t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n pro cedure s? P le a s e s t a t e
whether term o r s em e ster hours.

12.

Do you have e x t r a systemwide r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ?
(e .g . T i t l e I,
(Compensatory e d u c a t i o n ) , s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n , c a r e e r e d u c a t i o n , e t c . )
Yes
No

r e s p o n s i b l e ? ________

248
13.

Are you r e q u i r e d t o te ac h f o r one hour o r more d a i l y ?
Y e s _____
No

14.

____

Within t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s have you been involved in a
comprehe n s iv e s t a f f development program on t h e s u b j e c t o f
cl i n i c a ’T s u p e r v i s i o n or t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n ? (Comprehensive
here means a program i n v o l v i n g t e n o r more hours o f i n s t r u c t i o n . )
Y e s _____
No

_____

15.

The term "summative e v a l u a t i o n " i s used to d e s c r i b e an
e v a l u a t i o n process used f o r c o n t i n u i n g t h e employment of a
t e a c h e r , as a b a s i s f o r recommending t e n u r e , as a b a s i s f o r
m e r i t pay o r commendation, o r f o r d e t e c t i n g an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
t e a c h e r ; th e term " f o r m a tiv e e v a l u a t i o n " r e f e r s t o th o s e
d i r e c t a t t e m p t s by a p r i n c i p a l to improve t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l
s k i l l s o f t e a c h e r s as i n s t r u c t i o n proceeds. How o f t e n on th e
ave rage do you e v a l u a t e your te n u r e d clas sro om t e a c h e r s f o r
s t r i c t l y f o r m a tiv e r easo n s ?

16.

As a p r i n c i p a l do you p r i m a r i l y : (choose one)

a.

a c t as a c l i n i c i a n ; i . e . , v i s i t t h e clas sro om c o n f e r with
and counsel t e a c h e r s , and in ge neral a s s i s t t e a c h e r s improve
t h e i r teaching.

b.

a c t as an o r g a n i z e r t o e s t a b l i s h a system or proce dure s which
uses r e s o u r c e s from w i t h i n t h e school f o r e v a l u a t i v e pu r p o ses ,
i . e . c o lle g ia l evaluation and/or student evaluation.

c.

a c t as a f a c i l i t a t o r t o e s t a b l i s h th e use o f e v a l u a t o r s
from o u t s i d e th e s c h o o l; i . e . , a r r a n g e f o r c o n s u l t a t i v e and
o t h e r ty p e s o f a s s i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t r a l o f f i c e , o t h e r s c h o o ls ,
a college or u n iv e r s ity , the teach ers, a s so c ia tio n , etc.

d.

a c t as a " t r a i n e r " o r o r g a n i z e r o f t r a i n i n g in e v a l u a t i v e
s k i l l s so t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s them se lv es can c a r r y o u t t h e
evaluative function.

e.

e v a l u a t e t e a c h e r s m y s e l f , but u s u a l l y o n l y to th e e x t e n t
c a l l e d f o r in the m a s te r agreement usin g th e format c a l l e d
f o r in t h a t agreement; i . e . summative e v a l u a t i o n s done
annually or every o th e r year.

f.

a s s i g n t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e v a l u a t i o n t o an a s s i s t a n t .

249

For the f o llo w in g q u e s t i o n s , p l e a s e c i r c l e th e number o f your choice
on th e continent from one extreme to th e o t h e r as i n d i c a t e d .
( P le a s e do
not make a c i r c l e between any numbers.)
17.

How much a u t h o r i t y do you f eel you a c t u a l l y have in making d e c i s i o n s
in v o lv i n g th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l program in your school?
No
Complete
A u t h o r i t y ___________________________________
1

18.

2

3

4

5

6

Do you b e l i e v e t h a t your involvement as a p r i n c i p a l can have a
p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on s tu d e n t l e a r n i n g as r e f l e c t e d by s t a n d a r d i z e d
t e s t s co res ?

No
Effect

Great
Effect
1

19.

Not
at

2

Not
at
All

21

4

5

6

When i t comes r i g h t down to i t , do you b e l i e v e t h a t t e a c h e r s can
make much d i f f e r e n c e in what and how much c h i l d r e n l e a r n ,
c o n s id e r i n g t h a t most o f a c h i l d ' s m o t i v a t i o n to l e a r n and perform
seem to depend p r i m a r i l y on th e home environment?
Very
Much
1

20.

3

2

3

4

5

6

Do you b e l i e v e t h a t i f your t e a c h e r s r e a l l y t r y hard th ey could
a c t u a l l y g e t throunh t o even th e most d i f f i c u l t o r unmotivated
child?
Very
Much
1
The term " c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n " was chosen by Dr. Morris Cogan
to d e s c r i b e a p a r t i c u l a r method o f s u p e r v i s i o n o f t e a c h i n g ; i t
has t o do w i th f a c e - t o - f a c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t e a c h e r and p r i n c i p a l
up c l o s e ; i t i s s u p e r v i s i o n o f a c t u a l te a c h i n g a c t i v i t y - p r a c t i t i o n a l b e h a v i o r ; i t i s u s u a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by th e
f o llo w in g ongoing and continuous s u p e r v i s o r y p r a c t i c e s ; a p r e ­
o b s e r v a t i o n c o n f e r e n c e , clas sroo m o b s e r v a t i o n , p o s t - o b s e r v a t i o n
a n a l y s i s and p la n n i n g , p o s t - o b s e r v a t i o n c o n f eren c e and a p o s t ­
c o n f e re n c e and a n a l y s i s .
Do you u t i l i z e a system of c l i n i c a l s u p e r v i s i o n with y our s t a f f ?

Never __
1

_

,_____
2

3

_____
4

5

6

Always

250
P a r t II

Analysis o f R e sp o n sib ility o f Supervisory A c t i v i t i e s

For t h e purpose o f t h i s survey th e resp o n s es w ill be de f i n e d as follows :
Primary R e s p o n s i b i l i t y

- In my p o s i t i o n t h i s a c t i v i t y is my r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
and has p r i o r i t y cla im on my time and a t t e n t i o n .

Secondary R e s p o n s i b i l i t y

- In my p o s i t i o n t h i s a c t i v i t y w i ll r e c e i v e my
a t t e n t i o n a f t e r primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s have
been d i s c h a r g e d .

No R e s p o n s i b i l i t y

- In my p o s i t i o n I have no r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
this activ ity .

Directions:
P l e a s e i n d i c a t e in th e spaces provided in the l e f t margin
your asse ssm en t o f your p r e s e n t deg re e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r each o f
t h e f o llo w i n g a c t i v i t i e s .
P er ce iv ed R e s p o n s ib i 1i t v
Primary
Secondary
No
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y R e s p o n s ib i1i t y R e s p o n s ib i 1i ty
1.

________

________

_________

As a p r i n c i p a l , I help t e a c h e r s
un d er stan d th e l e a r n i n g process
usin g commonly d e f i n e d termino’l o g y .

2.

__________________________ _________________ As

3.

________

_____ _____________________

As a p r i n c i p a l , I r e g u l a r l y meet with
t e a c h e r s in advance o f classr oom
o b s e r v a t i o n s t o m u tu a ll y determine what
t e a c h i n g a c t i o n s w i ll be s p e c i f i c a l l y
o b s e r v e d , what th e t e a c h e r expects
s t u d e n t s to l e a r n , and how th e se
a c t i o n s and e f f e c t s w i l l be rec orded
for analysis.

4.

_________

_________

_________

5.__ _______ _

_________

_________

As a p r i n c i p a l , I obs er ve classroom
t e a c h i n g a t agreed upon times f o r
f o rm a t iv e ( i . e . improvement) purposes
o n ly usin g ag reed upon means o f d a ta
cbllection.
As a p r i n c i p a l , I sch ed ule appointments
wi th t h e t e a c h e r t o m u tu a lly an aly ze
t h e t e a c h i n g t h a t o c c u r re d du r in g the
clas sro om v i s i t a t i o n 1as soon a f t e r th e
o b s e r v a t i o n as p o s s i b l e .

6.

_________

________

_________

As a p r i n c i p a l , I c a r e f u l l y an aly ze
th e d ata c o l l e c t e d from th e classroom
o b s e r v a t i o n and c a t e g o r i z e the d a t a
f o r mutual a n a l y s i s .

7.__ _________

_________

_________

As a p r i n c i p a l , I meet with t h e t e a c h e r a t
th e scheduled appointment time and p r e s e n t
the d ata and o f f e r p r a i s e when a p p r o p r i a t e ,
f o r s p e c i f i c te a c h i n g s k i l l s observed.

a p r in c ip a l, I separately evaluate
' t e a c h i n g f o r form ative ( i . e . improvement)
purposes a lo p e .

251
Primary
ResjjojisJM,t

9.

y

_____ _

Secondary

No

Re s p ons ibi 1 i ty

Respcinsjbi ]J ty
flc a p r i n c i p a l , I lead the t e a c h e r
As
through an a n a l y s i s o f the teaching
s k i l l under c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

________

________

10.

As a p r i n c i p a l , I help t e a c h e r s , when
a p p r o p r i a t e , to match i n s t r u c t i o n a l
m a t e r i a l s with i n s t r u c t i o n a l g o als.

1 1 - ________

12.

As a p r i n c i p a l , I s ugg es t i n s t r u c t i o n a l
methods, when a p p r o p r i a t e , which would
help to make a teach in g le ss o n more
effective.

_

_ _______________ ________ ______________ As

13 .

As a p r i n c i p a l , I help t e a c h e r s to in su r e
t h a t s tu d e n t s spend an a p p r o p r i a t e
amount o f time on ta s k .
a p r i n c i p a l , I help t e a c h e r s to provide
a l l s tu d e n t s with o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l ear n
h igher level th in k in g s k i l l s , ( i . e .
a p p l i c a t i o n , a n a l y s i s , s y n t h e s i s , and
evaluation).
As a p r i n c i p a l , I a s s i s t t e a c h e r s to
provide a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n by a l l
students.

14 .

________

15 .

_________________

As a p r i n c i p a l , I a s s i s t t e a c h e r s to
acquire e f f e c tiv e student d is c ip lin e
methods.

16 .

_________________

As a p r i n c i p a l , I a s s i s t t e a c h e r s to
a c q u i r e e f f e c t i v e classroom management
skills.

________

________

As a p r i n c i p a l , I a s s i s t t e a c h e r s to
a c q u i r e teac hing s k i l l s and p r a c t i c e s
proven by r e s e a r c h to make a d i f f e r e n c e
in what and how much c h i l d r e n l e a r n .

17 .

As a p r i n c i p a l , I a s s i s t te a c h e r s to
develop the a b i l i t y to s e l f - e v a l u a t e
and s e lf - im p r o v e i n s t r u c t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s . '

18.

As a p r i n c i p a l , I s u p e r v i s e each t e a c h e r ' s
t e a c h in g f o r form ative reasons ( i . e .
improvement) a t l e a s t once monthly.

19 .

20.

_____

As a p r i n c i p a l , I e s t a b l i s h a process to
a c q u i r e c o n s t r u c t i v e c r i t i c i s m and
encouragement o f s u p e rv i s o ry a c t i v i t i e s .
As a p r i n c i p a l , I c r e a t e an environment in
which the s t a f f f e e l s f r e e to c o n s u l t with
me r eg ar di ng i n s t r u c t i o n a l weaknesses
o r needs.
'

252
Part III

Perceived Ex pertise

in C l i n i c a l

Supervision A c t iv i t ie s

For the purposes of t h i s survey , on the continuum beneath each
q u e s ti o n l a b e l e d P er ceived Pre s e n t Ex£ejr tise, p l e a s e e v a l u a t e your
pr e s e n t a b i l i t y to perform t h i s f u n c t io n by c i r c l i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e
number from one to s i x , one r e p r e s e n t i n g very weak to six r e p r e s e n t i n g
very s tr o n g . On the o t h e r continuum, beneath the q u e s t i o n , la b e le d
Perceived Ideal E x p e r t i s e , p l e a s e c i r c l e the number r e p r e s e n t i n g the
degree to which you would i d e a l l y l i k e to po sse ss t h i s a b i l i t y .
(Note:
P lease do not c i r c l e between numbers on th e continuum.)

1.

As a p r i n c i p a l , I he lp t e a c h e r s und er sta nd th e l e a r n i n g process
using commonly defined terminology.

Perce ived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e
Very
Weak

Perceij/ed Ideal Expert i se

Very
— -—-------------------------------------— Strong

,

1

2

2.

3

4

5

6

Very
Very
Weak-----------------------------—--------------------- Strong

,

1

4

5

6

P er ceived Ideal Experti se

Very
Very
W e a k ------------------------------------------------- Strong
1
2
3
4
5
6

3.

Very
Very
Weak----------------------------------------------------Strong
1
2
3
4
5
6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I r e g u l a r l y meet with t e a c h e r s in advance of classroom
o b s e r v a t i o n s to m u tuall y determine what te a c h in g a c t i o n s w i l l be
s p e c i f i c a l l y o bs erv ed, what th e t e a c h e r expects s t u d e n t s to l e a r n and
how t h e s e a c t i o n s and e f f e c t s w i l l be recorded f o r a n a l y s i s .
P er ceived P r e s e n t Experti se

Percei ved Ideal Expe rti se

Very
Weak

Very
Strong
2

3

4.

4

-

5

Very
Weak-------------------

6

1

2

Very
Strong

3

4

5

6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I ob s erv e classroom t each in g a t agreed upon times f o r
f o rm ati v e ( i . e . improvement) purposes only using agreed upon means o f
data c o l l e c t i o n .
P er ceived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e

Very
Weak

Perceived Id e a l E x p e r t i s e
Very
-Strong

1

3

As a p r i n c i p a l , I s e p a r a t e l y e v a l u a t e te a c h in g f o r form ative ( i . e .
improvement) purposes a l o n e .
Perceived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e

1

2

2

3

4

5

6

Very
Strong

Very
Weak
1

2

3

4

5

6

*j .

Very
Weak
1

A-. a pr i tii. i |M! , I Mlu'ilulr uppu i ntllirn I s wi l h t h e L t M i . t i i j r to mil t.Ud I I y
analyze the Leaching t lui L u c L u r i T u d during the r Iussruom vis i tat ion
as soon af ter the observation as possible.
P er ceived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e
Perceived Ideu.l Lxper t i s e
Very
Strong

— ----------------- *•• • - 2
3
4
5

6.

6

Very
Weak - - • ----1
2

Very
Weak----------------1
2
3

7.

Very
— -----------4
5
6

Very
Very
Strong Weak-----------------------------------------------Strong
1
2
3
4
5
6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I meet with the t e a c h e r a t the scheduled appointment time
and p r e s e n t the data and o f f e r p r a i s e , when a p p r o p r i a t e , f o r s p e c i f i c
te a c h in g s k i l l s observed.
Per c e i ved Ideal E x p e r t i s e

Very
Very
Weak---------------------------------------------------Strong
2

8.

3

4

5

6

Very
Weak

--------------------------------------------1

Very
Weak ----------- —------ — ~
2

9.

3

4

5

6

3

4

Percei ved Ideal Ex p e r t i se
Very

-------------5

Very
Very
Strong Weak------------------------------------------------ Strong

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I s uggest i n s t r u c t i o n a l methods, when a p p r o p r i a t e , which
would he lp t o make a t e a c h i n g le ss o n more e f f e c t i v e .
P er ceived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e

Very
Weak-------------------------------—..........

10.

2

Very
Strong

As a p r i n c i p a l , I le ad the t e a c h e r through an a n a l y s i s o f the t e a c h in g
s k i l l under c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
P er ceived P r e s e n t Experti se

1

5

P e r c e i ved IdeaJ Experti se

Per ce iv ed Pr e s e n t Experti se

1

4

Very
Strong

-

As a p r i n c i p a l , 1 c a r e f u l l y an alyze the data c o l l e c t e d from the
classroom o b s e r v a t i o n and c a t e g o r i z e the data f o r mutual a n a l y s i s .
Perce ived P r esen t E x p e r t is e

1

3

6

2

3

4

5

P er ceived Ideal E x p e r t i s e
Very
Strong

6

Very
Very
Weak------------------------------------------------------ Strong
1

2

3

4

5

6

As a p r i n c i p a l , 1 he lp t e a c h e r s , when a p p r o p r i a t e , to match i n s t r u c t i o n a l
m a t e r i a l s with i n s t r u c t i o n a l g o a l s .
Perce ived P r e s e n t Ex p e r t i se
Perceived j de a l Exp er t i s e

Very
Very
Weak-------------—— —----------------— Strong
1
2
3
4
5
6
253

Very
Weak----- ------------ •-------------------1
2
3
4
5

'
6

Very
Strong

ll p r i m ( p a l , I h e l p
11* iiiMJrt'
a p p r o p r i a t e ariiDiiiiL ot l i m e on U i ‘. .k.
P e r t e i v e d P r e s e n t Lxjjlm-I. i m *

Vt-’ry
Weak

— .................... — ..........................
1

12.

2

3

4

5

Perceived

6

1

2

3

4

Very
Strong

-5

6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I help t e a c h e r s to provide a l l s tu d e n t s with
o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l e a r n h ig h e r l e v e l t h i n k in g s k i l l s , ( i . e . a p p l i c a t i o n ,
a n a l y s i s , s y n t h e s i s , and e v a l u a t i o n } .
Perceived Ideal Ex p e r t i s e

Very
Very
Weak---------------------------------------------------- Strong
1
2
3
4
5
6

Very
Very
Weak-------------------- --------------------------- Strong
1
2
3
4
5
6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I a s s i s t t e a c h e r s to pro vide a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n by
a ll students.

Perceived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e

Per ce ived Ideal E x p e r t i s e

Very
Very
Weak------------------------------------------------- Strong
1
2
3
4
5
6

14.

I tied 1 E x p e r t i s e

Very
Very
Strong Weak---------- -----------------

Pe r c e i v e d P r e s e n t Expert i s e

13.

LlitiL l. Lu'Iimi L'j ■.prinl <hi

Very
Weak
1

Very
--------------------------------------------Strong
2
3
4
5
6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I a s s i s t t e a c h e r s to a c q u i r e teach in g s k i l l s and
p r a c t i c e s proven by r e s e a r c h to make a d i f f e r e n c e in what and how much
children learn.

Perceived P r e s e n t Experti se
Very
Weak-------------------------------------— - —
1
2
3
4
5
6

Per ce ived Ideal E x p e r t i s e
Very
Strong

Very
Weak------------- ------------------------------------- Strong
1
2
3
4
5
6

15.

As a p r i n c i p a l , I a s s i s t t e a c h e r s t o a c q u i r e e f f e c t i v e s tu d e n t d i s c i p l i n e
methods.
, Per ce iv ed P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e
Per ce ived Ideal E x p e r t i s e

Very
Very
Weak --------------------------------:--------------- Strong
1
2
3
4
5
6

16.

Very
Very
Weak------------------------------------------------------ Strong
1
2
3
4
5
6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I a s s i s t t e a c h e r s to a c q u i r e e f f e c t i v e classroom
management s k i l l s .

Per ce iv ed P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e

P er ce ived Ideal Exp e r t i s e

Very
Very
Weak-------------------------------------------------s
trI V
o nr gL a Weak-------------------------1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3

254

Very
Strong
4

5

6

255

17.

As a p r i n c i p a l , I a s s i s t t e a c h e r s to develop the a b i l i t y to s e l f e v a l u a t e and self-iitiprove i n s t r u c t i o n a l tech n iq u es .

Perceived Present E x p e rti s e
Very
Very
W e a k _______________ ___________ Strong
1

2

18.

3

4

5

6

P e r c e i ved Ideal E x p e r t i s e
Very
Very
Weak______________________________ Strong
1

2

3

4

5

6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I s u p e r v is e each t e a c h e r ' s teac hing f o r form ative
reasons ( i . e . improvement) a t l e a s t once monthly.

Perceived P r esen t E x p e rtis e

Perceived Id e a l

E x p e rtise

Very
Very
Very
Very
Weak___________________________ _ Strong Weak_______________________________Strong
1

2

19.

3

4

5

6

2

3

4

5

6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I e s t a b l i s h a process to a c q u i r e c o n s t r u c t i v e
c r i t i c i s m and encouragement o f s u p e rv i s o ry a c t i v i t i e s .

Perceived P r e s e n t E x p e r t i s e
Very
Very
W e a k _____________ _______________ Strong
1

1

2

20.

3

4

5

6

Perc eived Ideal

E x p e r t is e

Very
Weak_____________________
1

2

3

4

5

Very
Strong
6

As a p r i n c i p a l , I c r e a t e an environment in which the s t a f f f e e l s f r e e
to c o n s u l t with me reg ard in g i n s t r u c t i o n a l weaknesses o r needs.

Per ceived P resent E x p e rti s e
Very
Weak

Perceived Ideal

Expe rt i s e

Very
Very
Very
___________ Strong Weak_____________________________ Strong
1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

Thank you f o r your co o p e r a tio n ! Plea se r e t u r n t h i s q u e s t i o n a i r e , unsigned,
in th e s e l f - a d d r e s s e d envelope provided f o r t h i s use which was included
with th e m a t e r i a l s .
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s survey w i l l be a d v e r t i s e d in th e MEMSPA J o u r n a l .

256

BIBLIOGRAPHY

257

Books
1.

Acheson, Keith A. and M eredith G a l l , Te chniques in t h e
C l i n i c a l S u p e r v is i o n o f T e a c h e r s : P r e - s e r v i c e and I n - s e r v i c e
A p p l i c a t i o n (New York: Longman, I n c . , 1980).

2.

A l l e n , D. W. and K. Ryon, M ic r o te a c h in g (Read ing, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley Pub. C o . , I n c . , 1969).

3.

B ee her , G e r a ld , e t . a l . , Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s and
T h e i r S c h o o l s : Beacons o f B r i l l i a n c e and P o t h o l e s o f P e s t i l e n c e
(Eugene, Oregon: The C en ter f o r t h e Advanced Study o f Educ ationa l
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1971).

4.

Bloom, Benjamin S . , Toxonom.y o f Educ ationa l O b j e c t i v e s , (New York:
Longman, 1956).

5.

Bloom, Benjamin S . , Human C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and School L e a rn in q .
(New York: McGraw H ill Book C o . , 1 9 7 6 ) .

6.

Bloom, Benjamin S . , J . Thomas H a s t i n g s . a n d George F. Madaus, Handbook
on For mative and Summative E v a lu a ti o n o f S t u d e n t L e a r n i n q , (New
York: McGraw H i l l , I n c . , 1971).

7.

B o l t o n , Dale L . , S e l e c t i o n and E v a lu a t i o n o f T eac he rs ( B e r k e l y , CA:
McCutchon P u b l i s h i n g C o r p . , 1973).

8.

Blumberg, A r t h u r , S u p e r v i s o r s and T e a c h e r s : A P r i v a t e Cold War,
( B e r k e l y , CA: McCutchon P u b l i s h i n g C o r p . , 1974")"^

9.

C a r l s o n , R icha rd L . , " B a r r i e r s t o Change in P u b l i c S ch oo ls" in
Change P r o c e s s e s in t h e P u b l ic S c h o o l s , (Euegne, Oregon: The C en te r
f o r t h e Advanced Study of' Educ atio na l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f
Oregon, 1965).

10.

Cogan, M o r r i s , C l i n i c a l S u p e r v i s i o n , ( B os to n, Mass.: Houghton
M i f f l i n , 1973).

11.

Coleman, James S . , e t . a l . , E q u a l i t y o f Educ atio na l O p p o r t u n it y
(Washington, D.C.: U. S. O f f i c e o f E d u c a t io n , 1966).

12.

Combs, A r t h u r , E d u c a tio n a l A c c o u n t a b i l i t y : Beyond Beha vior O b j e c t i v e s
(Washington, D.C.: A s s o c i a t i o n f o r S u p e r v is i o n and Curriculum
Development, 1972).

258

13.

Combs, A r t h u r , e t . a l . , P e r c e p tu a l Psychology
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15.

Knorr, Rus se ll H.» Improving Agreement Among E v a l u a t o r s 1 Ratings
o f Teacher Perform ance, Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Lehigh
U n i v e r s i t y , 1979.

16.

Krauser, David J . , The V a l i d i t y o f Classroom Teaching Experience
as a P r e - R e q u i s i t e f o r th e Elementary P r i n c i p a l s h i p , Unpublished
E3".D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Northern Colorado, 1978.

17.

M a rtin , Gary S . , Teacher and A d m i n i s t r a t o r A t t i t u d e s Toward
Ev alu ation and S y stem ati c Classroom O b s e r v a t io n , Unpublished Ph.D.
D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1975.

18.

Nordstrum, P a t r i c i a A ., The Elementary School P r i n c i p a l as an
I n s t r u c t i o n a l L e a d e r , Unpublished Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y
o f Michigan, 1978.

19.

P a t t e r s o n , John P . , A D e s c r i p t i v e Anal ysis o f t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Lead er ship A c t i v i t i e s of Elementary P r i n c i p a l s , Unpublished
Ph.D".'' D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1977.

20.

P a z i o t o p o u l o s , James A . , The Role o f S e l e c t e d Suburban Cook
County S u p e r in t e n d e n ts in Providing~Wa,ys f o r Improving th e
P r o f e s s i o n a l S k i l l s of P r i n c i p a l s , Unpublished Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s ; 1979.

21.

Proud, James R . , A Study o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l S up er v is o r y Support
S e r v ic e s and Basis o f A u t h o r i t y as Per ceived by Teachers in
Te nnessee, Unpublished Ed.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee,
1978.

268

22.

Rogers, Mae A ., A D e s c r i p t i v e Study o f Leadership E f f e c t i v e n e s s
o f Male and Female Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s Based on S e l f - ^
P e r c e p tio n and th e P er c e p t io n o f T h e ir T e a c h e r s , Unpublished
Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , U. S. I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y , 1977.

23.

S i r o i s , Herman A . , The E f f e c t s o f a C l i n i c a l Model o f
S u p e r v i s i o n : Teacher Type s, S u p e r v is o r Types and S t y l e s on
Changes in~tea'cHer and Stu den t A t t i t u d e s and B e h a v io r ,
Unpublished Ph.D. D i s s e r t a i t o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M is s o u r i , 1975.

24.

Tyron, Gaylord F . , Role P e r c e p ti o n s o f th e Elementary School
P r i n c i p a l as Per ce ived by S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , Board P r i s i d e n t s ,
Secondary P r i n c i p a l s , Elementary Teachers and Elementary P r i n c i p a l s ,
Unpublished Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , Iowa S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1978.

269

Yearbooks, N e w s l e t t e r s , Reports and Pamphlets
1.

B a r r i l l e a u x , Louis E . , e t . a l . , The Research Action C o n t e n t:
An I n t e r v e n t i o n S t r a t e g y in Educational Management Development,
34 p. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Annual Meeting o f t h e American
Educational Research A s s o c i a t i o n , 6 0 t h , Washington, D.C.,
March 31 - April 4 , 1975.

2.

Blood, Ronald E ., and James P. M i l l e r , J r . , The New Mexico
P r i n c i p a l s h i p S t u d y , P a r t X*» F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g th e P r i n c i p a l s h i p
Yes terday and Today, 31 p. Paper p r e s e n te d a t t h e annual
meeting o f t h e American Educ ational Research A s s o c i a t i o n
(San F r a n c i s c o , CA, April 8 - 1 2 , 1979).

3.

Brophy, J e r e E. and Carolyn Ev e rts o n , P r o c e s s - P r o d u c t C o r r e l a t i o n
in t h e Texas Teacher E f f e c t i v e n e s s S tu d y : Final R e p o r t , A u s tin ,
Texas: U n i v e r s i t y of Texas, 1974.

4.

C a w e lti, Gordon, " E f f e c t i v e I n s t r u c t i o n a l Le aders hip Produces
G r e a t e r L e a rn in g " ; one page paper p r e s e n te d a t t h e I . T . I . P .
Summer MEMSPA Workshop, 1981.

5.

C a w e l ti , Gordon, Focusing I n s t r u c t i o n a l Le aders h ip on
Improved Stu de nt Achievement, 11 p. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t th e
Annual Meeting o f t h e American A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,
Anaheim, CA, February 15-18, 1980.

6.

C ros s, Ray A . , D i s c r i p t i o n o f Decis ion Making P a t t e r n s o f School
P r i n c i p a l s , 15 p. Paper presented" a t t h e American tducaTTonal
Research A s s o c i a t i o n Annual Meeting, 5 5 th , New York, February
4 - 7 , 1977.

7.

Dols, Richard A . , P r i n c i p a l : Teacher o f T e a c h e r s , 7 p. Paper
p r e s e n t e d a t t h e NASSP Convention, A t l a n t i c C i t y , N . J . , March
1 - 6 , 1974.

8.

G a l l o , Vincent A . , Should We Abolish o r Retain th e P r i n c i p a l s h i p ?
14 p. Paper p r e s e n t e d t o th e Oregon School Study CouncTT,
Eugene, Oregon, 1970.

9.

Gordon, Dick, The Importance o f A d m i n i s t r a t i v e E x p e r t i s e in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p , 23 p. Paper p r e s e n te d a t th e American
Educational Research A s s o c i a t i o n Annual Meeting, 5 5 th , New York,
February 4 - 7 , 1971.

270

10.

Hain, John H. and George Smith, E v a lu a ti o n o f T e a c h e r s : The
P r i n c i p a l ' s Dilemma, 8 p. Paper p r e s e n t e d t o t h e U. S.
Department o f H e a lt h , Education and W elfare , O f f i c e o f
Ed ucat io n, 1969.

11.

H u ll, Ray and John Hansen, Classroom S u p e r v is io n and
Informal A n a ly s is o f B eha vio r: A Manual f o r S up er v is io n
(Eugene, Oregon, U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1979).

12.

J e n n in g s , James M., The Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s h i p in
Michigan ( E a s t Lansin g, Michigan: MAESP, 1972).

13.

Krajewski, Robert J . , Role I m p l i c a t i o n s o f a Rank Ordering
Process by Elementary P r i n c i p a l s , 16 ITT Paper p r e s e n t e d a t
The Annual Meeting o f th e NAESP, Las Vegas, A pril 18-22, 1977.

14.

M a z z a r e ll a , JoAnn, "The P r in c ip a l's Role in I n s t r u c t i o n a l
P la n n i n g " , School L e aders hip D i g e s t . No. 8, NAESP, (Washington,
D.C. 1976).

15.

McNergney, R . F . , P e r s o n a l i z i n g Teacher Development: An Adaptive
S up er v is o r y P r o c e s s , Paper p r e s e n t e d t o th e Mid-West Educationa l
Research A s s o c i a t i o n , Chicago, I l l i n o i s , 1978.

16.

Moore, James J . and Anthony P. Mattahana, C l i n i c a l S u p e r v i s i o n :
A Shor t D e s c r i p t i o n , ( H a r t f o r d , Conn.: West H a r t f o r d P ublic
School s , 1979).

17.

N ic h o ls, Robert G . , School E f f e c t s on Achievement (Paper
p r e s e n te d as p a r t o f a symposium, Searching f o r School E f f e c t s
Through Conventional M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s is and Through t h e Study
o f School O u t l i e r s : American Educ ationa l Research A s s o c i a t i o n
Annual Meeting, San F r a n c i s c o , CA., A pr il 22, 1976.

18.

No stran d, P e t e r F . , Headmaster: In Theory and P r a c t i c e , 1973
ED077140.

19.

P arso ns, L le w e lly n , E v a lu a ti o n of Teacher Per formance, 21 p.
Paper p r e s e n te d a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress on E ducation,
2nd Vancouver, B r i t i s h Columbia, June 17-20, 1979.

20.

P h a r i s , William and S a l l y Z a k a r i y a , The Elementary School
P r i n c i p a l s h i p in 1978: A Research S tu d y , National A s s o c i a t i o n
o f Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s , ( A r li n g to n V i r g i n i a , 1979).

21.

Redwine, J u d i t h and Robert A. Dubick, Teachers P e r c e p t i o n s o f
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Le ad ership and Teacher E va lu a tion P r o c e s s e s ,
( I n d i a n d , U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 7 9 ) ERIC 157892.

271
22.

Reynolds, James A. and Larry J . Reynolds, I nnovation Related
t o t h e Tenure Su cc es sio n P a t t e r n and Reference Group O r i e n t a t i o n
o f t h e P r i n c i p a l : Final R e p o r t , Washington, D.C.: C en tr al
Midwestern Regional Educational L a b o ra t o r y , O f f i c e o f Education
(DHEW) 1967.

23.

Seag er , G. Bra dley , J r . , A F e a s a b i l i t y Study f o r D iag n o s tic
A n a ly s is o f Taped S u p e r v is o r y C o n f e r e n c e s , 7 p. Paper p r e s e n t e d
a t th e New England Educational Research O r g a n i z a ti o n a l Meeting,
Provincetown, M as s., May 2 , 1975.

24.

S t o k i e , W.M. Fred, Four Hundred Elementary School Teachers Look
a t th e Elementary School P r i n c i p a l s h i p , 11 p. Paper {Canyon
Texas: West Texas S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1978).

25.

Thompson, June E . , e t . a l . , " F a i l u r e s o f Communication in t h e
E v a lu a tio n o f Teachers by P r i n c i p a l s " , The Best o f t h e Best o f
E r i c , (Eugene, Oregon: ERIC C learinghouse on Educational
Management, 1979).

26.

Wayson, William W., Schools f o r Educating Responsib le C i t i z e n s
f o r 2000 A.D. ED130421 March, 1977.

27.

Woolman, L o r r a i n e , The E f f e c t o f Video Taped S i n g l e Concept
Demonstrations in an I n - S e r v i c e Program f o r Improving I n s t r u c t i o n ,
(Houston, Texas: Bureau o f Educational Research and Development,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Houston, 1969).

28.

Young, David B. E f f e c t i v e S u p e r v is in g C o n f e r e n c e s : S t r a t e g i e s
f o r Modifying Teacher B e h a v io r , 23 p. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e
Annual Conference o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n f o r S u p e r v is i o n and
Curriculum Development, Chicago, 111., 1969.

29.

E va lu a ti ng Teachers f o r P r o f e s s i o n a l Growth: Cur re nt
T r e n d s T n School P o l i c i e s and Programs ( A r l i n g t o n , VA.: National
School P ublic R e l a t i o n s A s s o c i a t i o n , 1974).

30.

E v a lu a ti n g Teacher P er form an ce , ( A r l i n g t o n , VA Educational
Research S e r v i c e , I n c . , 1978).

31.

NAESP Communicator. Vol. i i i , No. 6, November 13, 1979.

32.

NAESP Communicator. Vol IV, No. 15, April 15, 1981.

33.

— ----- " T errel B e ll : P r i n c i p a l s and E f f e c t i v e S c h o o l s " , NAESP
Communicator. IV, August 30, 1981.