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University
Micnrifilnris
International
300 N. Z eeb Road
Ann Arbor, Mi 48106

8303804

Howser, Earl Le Roy

SELECTED FACTORS INFLUENCING IMPLEMENTATION OF TITLE IX IN
MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES

Michigan State University

University
Microfilms
International

Ph.D.

300 N. Zceb Road. A nn A rbor. MI 48106

1982

SELECTED FACTORS INFLUENCING IMPLEMENTATION OF
TITLE IX IN MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES
By
E. Lee Howser

A DISSERTATION
Submitted t o
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e requirem ents
f o r the degree o f
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department o f A d m in is tr a tio n and Curriculum

ABSTRACT
SELECTED FACTORS INFLUENCING IMPLEMENTATION OF
TITLE IX IN MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES
By
E. Lee Howser

The problem addres sed in t h i s study was th e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between th e p er ceiv ed importance o f s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g
implementation o f T i t l e IX and th e lev el o f compliance with t h e p r o ­
v i s i o n s o f the r e g u l a t i o n by Michigan community c o l l e g e s .

Also exam­

ined was th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between compliance l e v e l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e n r o l l m e n t , geographic l o c a t i o n , and general o p e r ­
a t i n g b udget, as well as changes in a d m i s s i o n / t r e a t m e n t p r a c t i c e s f o r
s t u d e n t s and employment/treatment p r a c t i c e s f o r employees.
An o r i g i n a l survey in s t r u m e n t was mailed t o t h e c h i e f per so nn el
o f f i c e r in each o f M ic higan's 29 p u b lic community c o l l e g e s , w ith a
r e t u r n r a t e o f 79 p e r c e n t .

The respondents r e p o r t e d implem en tation

e f f o r t s on e i g h t mandatory a c t i o n s and 12 v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s and t h e i r
p e r c e p t i o n o f th e i n f l u e n c e o f e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i d e n t i f i e d as
i n f l u e n c i n g implementation o f th e r e g u l a t i o n .
Three rank o r d e r i n g s o f c o l l e g e s by compliance l e v e l were
c o n s t r u c t e d , based on com pletion o f combined mandatory and v o l u n t a r y
a c t i o n s , mandatory a c t i o n s o n l y , and v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s o n l y .

A n a ly s is

o f th e d ata by t h e F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y T e s t compared th e h i g h - and

E. Lee Howser
low-compliance respons es on each o f t h e e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s , i n s t i ­
t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and changes in s t u d e n t and employee p r a c t i c e s .
T e s tin g was a t th e .05 l e v e l .
A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was noted i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f general knowledge o f T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s .

General knowl­

edge o f th e r e g u l a t i o n by members o f t h e governing b o ard, a d m i n i s t r a ­
t o r s , and s t a f f was p er ceiv ed t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t when
high and low q u a r t i l e s were t e s t e d in th e m an d a to r y -a c ti o n r a n k i n g .
No o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was observed.
Recommendations f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h i n c l u d e ( ! ) an examin ation
of in s t i t u t i o n a l practices re la te d to admissions/treatment o f students
t o determine t h e e x t e n t o f change s i n c e 1975, when T i t l e IX was im p l e ­
mented; (2) an examination o f employment/treatment p r a c t i c e s o f
employees to determine t h e e x t e n t o f change s i n c e 1975; (3) f u r t h e r
s tudy o f s p e c i f i c change s t r a t e g i e s used in c o l l e g e s t o determ ine i f
a s i n g u l a r theory has proven more e f f e c t i v e than o t h e r s i n m o n ito rin g
compliance; and (4) expansion o f com plia nce-level s t u d i e s t o t h e
n a t i o n a l scene t o examine t h e q u e s ti o n o f l o c a l ver su s c e n t r a l c o n t r o l
and lev el of compliance w it h p r o v i s i o n s o f T i t l e IX.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I t i s both a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and a p l e a s u r e t o acknowledge
th ose i n d i v i d u a l s and groups t h a t have provided me ac ce ss and s u p p o rt
during my d o c to r a l program.
The Jackson Community College Board o f T r u s t e e s , under th e
l e a d e r s h i p of Chairman George E. P o t t e r , has been most s u p p o r t i v e .
P r e s i d e n t Emeritus Harold V. S h e f f e r and Dr. Clyde E. L e T a r te , c u r r e n t
P r e s i d e n t , have c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y as f r i e n d s and mentors.
Recognition must a l s o go to Mrs. Sharon B. N ich ol, Mrs. Norma
Weldy, and Mrs. J e a n e t t e H a t t , a most competent and u n d e r s ta n d i n g t r i o
o f s e c r e t a r i e s , as well as t o Mrs. Sue Cooley, e d i t o r of t h e f i r s t o r d e r .
My p r o f e s s i o n a l and personal g r a t i t u d e goes t o Dr. James H.
Nelson f o r h i s d i r e c t i o n , a s s i s t a n c e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and encouragement
in th e completion o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

I t has been a d i s t i n c t p l e a s u r e

t o have as committee members Dr. Robert Cahow, Executive D i r e c t o r o f
the Michigan Community College A s s o c i a t i o n ; Dr. T. Harry McKinney,
P r o f e s s o r o f Higher Education; and P r o f e s s o r o f I n d u s t r i a l R e la t io n s
Robert Repas.
F i n a l l y and f o re m o s t, I owe t h e g r e a t e s t de b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o
Norma, my w i f e , and to our c h i l d r e n , C h r i s , S t e v e , and J u l i e , f o r
t h e i r encouragement, u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and b e l i e f in me.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................

vi

LIST OF F I G U R E S .....................................................................................................

vii

Chapter
I.

II.

III.

INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................

1

F a c to r s I n f l u e n c i n g Implementation o f T i t l e IX i n
Michigan Community Colleges .................................................
The P r o b l e m ........................................................................................
Need f o r the S t u d y ...........................................................................
Purpose o f t h e S t u d y .......................................................................
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms .......................................................................
Research Questions ...........................................................................
T h e o r e t i c a l Basis o f t h e Study .................................................
O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e S t u d y .........................................................

1
2
2
3
4
6
7
11

REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE

.....................................................

12

I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................................................................
E m p ir ic a l-R a t io n a l Change .........................................................
Normative-Reeducative Change .....................................................
Power-Coercive Theory ..................................................................
Nonviolent S t r a t e g i e s
..............................................................
Federal P o l i t i c a l Action .........................................................
M a n i p u l a t i v e / S p e c i a l - I n t e r e s t Groups ...............................
Pro gress Report ................................................................................
S u m m a r y .................................................................................................
E m p i r i c a l -R a tio n a l Theory .....................................................
Normative-Reeducative Theory ................................................
Power-Coercive Theory ..............................................................
Progress Report ...........................................................................

12
12
19
28
29
30
35
40
41
41
42
42
43

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY......................................................................

44

S a m p l e .....................................................................................................
The Survey Inst rument ..................................................................
Implementation Actions ..............................................................
I n flu e n c e of S e l e c t e d F a c t o r s ............................................
Demographic Data— I n s t i t u t i o n a l O p e r a t i o n s ..................
F ie ld T e s t i n g ...............................................................................

44
44
45
45
45
46

iii

Page

IV.

Data C o l l e c t i o n ...........................................................................
R e l i a b i l i t y Es ti m at es ..............................................................
Supplemental Inform ation .........................................................
I n s t i t u t i o n a l O per atin g Budget ........................................
S t u d e n t Enrollment ..................................................................
Geographical Location .........................................................
D e s i g n .................................................................................................
Rank Order o f I n s t i t u t i o n s .................................................
S e l e c t e d F a c t o r s .......................................................................
I n s t i t u t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ........................................
Change-Theory Responses .....................................................
Admissions/Treatment/Employment P r a c t i c e s . . . .
Research Qu es tio ns ......................................................................
A n a l y s is o f D a t a ...........................................................................
A s s u m p t i o n s ....................................................................................
L i m i t a t i o n s ....................................................................................
S u m m a r y .............................................................................................

46
47
47
48
48
48
48
48
50
50
51
52
53
56
57
58
58

PRESENTATION OF DATA......................................................................

60

I n t r o d u c t i o n .............................................................
Rank Order o f Colleg es by Level of Compliance . . .
D i s c u s s i o n ....................................................................................
Rank Order o f Colleg es by In fl u e n c e o f F a c t o r s . . .
Change Agent ...............................................................................
A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Personnel .................................................
A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Funds .........................................................
General Knowledge ..................................................................
C o o r d in a to r I n f l u e n c e .........................................................
I n - S e r v i c e T r a i n i n g ..............................................................
C o o r d i n a t o r A u t h o r it y .........................................................
P r e s s u r e Groups .......................................................................
Rank Order o f Colleges by I n s t i t u t i o n a l
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .......................................................................
Full-Time S tu d e n t Enrollment ............................................
Geographical Location .........................................................
General O p erating Budget .....................................................
Rank Order o f Colleg es by Change-Theory Responses .
E m p i r i c a l - R a t i o n a l ..................................................................
Nor mative-Reeducative .........................................................
Power-Coercive ...........................................................................
Rank Order o f Colleges by I n s t i t u t i o n a l P r a c t i c e s .
Admiss ions/Treatment o f S tude nts
. . .
Employment/Treatment o f Employees ...............................
Responses t o I n s t i t u t i o n - S p e c i f i c Factors ..................
Demographic Data— I n s t i t u t i o n a l O p e r a t i o n s ..................
Demographic D a t a ......................................................................
Action on HEW Form 6 3 9 / 6 3 9 A ............................................
Grievance Procedures ..............................................................
S u m m a r y .............................................................................................
iv

60
60
61
65
65
69
70
71
73
73
73
74
75
75
75
79
80
85
85
86
86
86
90
91
92
92
93
93
94

Page

............................

96

Summary o f S t u d y ................................................................................
C o n c l u s i o n s .........................................................................................
Recommendations f o r Future Research ....................................

96
98
99

APPENDICES....................................................................................................................

101

V.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A.

TITLE IX QUESTIONNAIRE........................................................................

102

B.

PRELIMINARY LIST OF FACTORS INFLUENCING IMPLEMENTATION
OF TITLE IX IN MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES .......................

109

LETTER TO COMMUNITY COLLEGE PRESIDENTS ABOUT THE
RESEARCH PROJECT ................................................................................

112

D.

COVER LETTER TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE..............................................

114

E.

THE FISHER EXACT PROBABILITY T E S T ..............................................

116

F.

RESPONDENT COLLEGES BY LOCATION

..................................................

133

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...............................................................................................................

135

C.

v

LIST OF TABLES

Table
1.

Page
Rank Order o f Colleges by Response t o Combined
Mandatory and Voluntary Actio ns ......... ..................................................

62

2.

Rank Order o f Colleges by Response t o Mandatory Actions

.

63

3.

Rank Order o f Colleges by Response t o Vo lu ntar y Ac tions

.

64

4.

Rank Order o f Colleges by I n f l u e n c e o f F a c to r s f o r
Combined Mandatory and Voluntar y Actions ......................................

66

Rank Order o f Colleges by I n f l u e n c e o f F a c t o r s f o r
Mandatory Actions .....................................................................................

67

Rank Order o f Co lleg es by I n f l u e n c e o f Factors f o r
Voluntary Actions .....................................................................................

68

Rank Order of Colleges by I n s t i t u t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
f o r Combined Mandatory and Voluntar y Actions .............................

76

Rank Order o f Colleges by I n s t i t u t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
f o r Mandatory Actions ............................................................................

77

Rank Order of Colleges by I n s t i t u t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
f o r Voluntary Actions ............................................................................

78

Rank Order o f Colleges by Change-Theory Response f o r
Combined Mandatory and Voluntary Ac tions ......................................

82

Rank Order o f Co lleg es by Change-Theory Response f o r
Mandatory Actions..........................................................................................

83

Rank Order o f Co lleg es by Change-Theory Response f o r
Voluntary Actions..........................................................................................

84

Rank Order o f Co lleg es by I n s t i t u t i o n a l P r a c t i c e s f o r
Combined Mandatory and Voluntary A ctions .....................................

87

Rank Order o f Co lleg es by I n s t i t u t i o n a l P r a c t i c e s f o r
Mandatory Actions
............................................................................

88

Rank Order o f Co lleg es by I n s t i t u t i o n a l P r a c t i c e s f o r
Voluntary Actions.............. ............................................................................

89

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Page

1.

I n t e r n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Change Model ..............................................

23

2.

P o li c y Formulation in t h e U n i v e r s i t y : A Simple P o l i t i c a l
Model ...........................................................................................................

37

3.

Graphic D epicti o n o f th e Study Design

.........................................

49

4.

Sample Contingency Table ........................................................................

56

v ii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
F acto rs I n f l u e n c i n g Implementation o f T i t l e IX
in Michigan Community Colleges
In June 1975, r e g u l a t i o n s promulgated by th e Department
o f H e a lt h , Ed ucat io n, and Welfare to e n f o rc e p r o v i s i o n s o f T i t l e IX
o f t h e Education Amendments o f 1972 were i s s u e d .
were d e c l a r e d t o be e f f e c t i v e on J u ly 21, 1975.

The r e g u l a t i o n s
T i t l e IX o f th e

Amendments s t a t e s t h a t
Mo person in th e United S t a t e s s h a l l , on the b a s i s o f s e x ,
be excluded from p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n , be denied th e b e n e f i t s
o f , o r be s u b j e c t e d t o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n under any e d u c a ti o n
programs o r a c t i v i t y r e c e i v i n g f e d e r a l f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e .
At var ying time i n t e r v a l s ,

but not l a t e r

than J u l y 21, 1976,

e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s s u b j e c t t o the r e g u l a t i o n s were t o complete
eight specific tasks.
1.

These t a s k s were:

Submit Assurance o f Compliance with T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s

on Form 639 o r 639A t o t h e Department of H e a lth , Ed uc ation, and
Welfare by June 3, 1977.
2.

I ncl ude a s ta t e m e n t o f the n o n d is c r im in a t io n p o l i c y in

each announcement, b u l l e t i n , c a t a l o g , o r a p p l i c a t i o n form used in
r e c r u i t i n g s t u d e n t s and employees.
3.

I f a p p l i c a b l e , d i s c o n t i n u e using or d i s t r i b u t i n g p u b l i ­

c a t i o n s t h a t s u g g e s t by t e x t o r i l l u s t r a t i o n t h a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n

1

2

t r e a t s a p p l i c a n t s , s t u d e n t s , o r employees d i f f e r e n t l y on t h e b a s i s
o f s e x , ex c e p t as p e r m itt e d by p r o v is i o n s o f T i t l e IX.
4.

Notify s t u d e n t s and var io u s p u b l i c s t h a t th e i n s t i t u t i o n

has a p o l i c y o f n o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f s e x , in compliance
wi th p r o v i s i o n s o f the r e g u l a t i o n s —r e q u i r e d by October 19, 1975.
5.

D es ig na te employee(s) r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o o r d i n a t i n g and

m onitor ing i n s t i t u t i o n a l - c o m p l i a n c e e f f o r t s .
6.

Develop, implement, o r d e s i g n a te grie van ce p r o c e d u r e ( s )

f o r p r o c e s s i n g s t u d e n t and employee complaints a l l e g i n g v i o l a t i o n s o f
th e r e g u l a t i o n s .
7.

Complete an i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n t o a s s e s s

p o l i c i e s , r u l e s , and p r a c t i c e s f o r compliance with r e g u l a t i o n r e q u i r e ­
ments and to provide f o r m o d i f i c a t i o n , where n e c e s s a r y , to a s s u r e
compliance with p r o v is i o n s o f t h e r e g u l a t i o n s by J u ly 21, 1976.
8.

Plan remedial s t e p s t o e l i m i n a t e th e e f f e c t s o f any p a s t

p o l i c i e s or p r a c t i c e s r e s u l t i n g in sex d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
The r e g u l a t i o n a l s o c o n ta i n e d s u g g e stio n s f o r implementing
th e l e t t e r and th e s p i r i t o f th e law.
T i t l e IX a p p l i e d to r e c i p i e n t s o f f e d e r a l funds and t o educa­
t i o n a l programs or a c t i v i t i e s o p e r a t e d by r e c i p i e n t s o f funds o r
b e n e f i t i n g from f e d e r a l f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e .

Some e x c e p t io n s were

made f o r r e l i g i o u s , m i l i t a r y , and merchant-marine e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i ­
t u t i o n s as well as posts ec ondar y s o r o r i t i e s and f r a t e r n i t i e s and
v o l u n t a r y youth o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

Thus, Michigan comnunity c o l l e g e s

t h a t r e c e iv e d any type o f f e d e r a l f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e were s u b j e c t
to the re g u la tio n .

As a r e s u l t , c o l l e g e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s were f ac ed

3

with th e t a s k o f implementing p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e r e g u l a t i o n and a c h i e v ­
ing a s t a t e o f compliance as mandated by an e x t e r n a l s o u r c e .
The Problem
Following t h e ad o p t io n o f T i t l e IX, governing b o a r d s , adm inis­
t r a t o r s , and s t a f f s o f Michigan community c o l l e g e s were f a c e d with th e
problem o f implementing a f e d e r a l l y mandated r e g u l a t i o n r e q u i r i n g them
to change methods o f o p e r a t i o n and p o l i c i e s th ro u g h o u t t h e i n s t i t u ­
tion.

Rec ruitm en t and t r e a t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s and employees and lo n g ­

s t a n d i n g a t t i t u d e s o f s t a f f members would need to be a l t e r e d .

Those

i n d i v i d u a l s and groups charged with implementing p r o v i s i o n s o f T i t l e IX
sought a means o f complying with t h e r e g u l a t i o n and o f d e a l i n g with
f a c t o r s t h a t enhanced o r i n h i b i t e d t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h i s g o a l .
Need f o r th e Study
In th e f i r s t y e a r f o ll o w in g passage o f T i t l e IX, Michigan
community c o l l e g e governing b o a r d s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and s t a f f members
ex p r e ss e d a lack o f knowledge ab out how i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s
would i n f l u e n c e e f f o r t s d i r e c t e d a t change w i t h i n t h e c o l l e g e s .
College p r e s i d e n t s expres sed t h e s e concerns t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e
Michigan Community College A s s o c i a t i o n s che du led a s p e c i a l workshop
on th e t o p i c f o r i t s member p r e s i d e n t s .
Purpose o f t h e Study
The major purpose o f t h i s study was to examine t h e r e l a t i o n ­
s h ip between the Michigan community c o l l e g e c h i e f p er so n n el o f f i c e r s '
pe r c e iv e d importance o f s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g im plem en tat ion

4

o f p r o v i s i o n s o f T i t l e IX o f th e Educational Amendments o f 1972 and
i n s t i t u t i o n s ' le v e l o f compliance with p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e law.

A

secondary purpose was to examine t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p e r ­
ceived importance o f th e s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s and s t r a t e g i e s o f
organizational-change theory.

In a d d i t i o n , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r examined

the l e v e l o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l compliance in r e l a t i o n t o th e common
i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s i z e , o p e r a t i n g b u d g e t, and geo­
g r a p h ic a l l o c a t i o n , as well as i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s r e l a t e d to
a d m i s s i o n / t r e a t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s and employment/treatm ent o f employees.
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
The f ollow ing terms a r e d e f in e d as they a r e used i n t h i s
s tu d y :
Actions o f T i t l e IX—P r o v is i o n s of th e r e g u l a t i o n r e q u i r i n g
a s s u r a n c e o f n o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f se x.
A d m is s io n /t re a tm e n t o f s t u d e n t s - - P o 1 i c i e s , r u l e s , r e g u l a t i o n s ,
and proc ed ure s t h a t govern o r d i r e c t th e admission and con tinue d
t r e a t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s a t th e c o l l e g e .
Employment/treatment o f employees -- P o 1 i c i e s , r u l e s , r e g u l a ­
t i o n s , and procedures t h a t govern th e r e c r u i t m e n t , employment, and
conti n ued t r e a t m e n t o f c o l l e g e employees.
F u l l - t i m e equated s t u d e n t s (FTE)--The number o f a u d i t e d f u l l ­
time equated s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n an i n s t i t u t i o n du rin g c a l e n d a r y e a r
1976.
General fund budget—The t o t a l e x p e n d i t u r e o f an i n s t i t u t i o n
f o r general o p e r a t i n g purposes durin g th e 1975-76 f i s c a l y e a r , e x c l u d ­
ing e x p e n d itu r e s from t h e c a p i t a l o u t l a y and deb t s e r v i c e fun ds .

5

General knowledge o f T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s - -Awareness by members
o f t h e governing b o a r d , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and s t a f f members t h a t T i t l e IX
r e q u i r e s a p o l i c y o f n o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , appointment o f a c o o r d i n a t o r ,
and co mpletion o f an i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e l f - s t u d y .
Geographical l o c a t i o n - - C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of i n s t i t u t i o n s as
"urban" and " o t h e r , " based on geograph ical l o c a t i o n .
High compliance—A p o s i t i o n o f ranked i n s t i t u t i o n a l compliance
i n th e top q u a r t i l e o f the sample.
I n s t i t u t i o n a l change a g e n t ( s ) —One o r more i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n
an i n s t i t u t i o n a s s i g n e d o r committed t o i n i t i a t e and conduct o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n a l change.
I n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s - - R u l e s , r e g u l a t i o n s , p o l i c i e s , and
p r a c t i c e s r e l a t e d t o r e c r u i t m e n t , ad m ission, and t r e a t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s
as well as t h e r e c r u i t m e n t , employment, and t r e a t m e n t o f c o l l e g e
employees.
Low compliance—A p o s i t i o n o f ranked i n s t i t u t i o n a l compliance
in t h e lo w es t q u a r t i l e o f t h e sample.
Mandatory a c t i o n s - - E i g h t s p e c i f i c a c t i o n s r e q u i r e d o f i n s t i ­
t u t i o n s t o be in compliance with th e p r o v i s i o n s o f T i t l e IX.
P r e s s u r e s bro ught by employee gr oups—E f f o r t s by rec ognize d
union r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o e f f e c t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change w i t h i n th e
i n s t i t u t i o n through t h e use o f g r ie v an ce procedures and i n c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g n e g o t i a t i o n s toward r a t i f y i n g a m aster agreement.
Ranked i n s t i t u t i o n a l compliance—The p o s i t i o n o f an i n s t i t u ­
t i o n i n a rank o r d e r o f compliance with the p r o v is i o n s o f T i t l e IX,

6

deter mined by a p o i n t formula r e c o g n iz in g th e i n s t i t u t i o n ' s comple­
t i o n o f mandatory and v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s .
R e f r e e z i n g —The a c t o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g a change e f f o r t in
an o r g a n i z a t i o n to achiev e a d i f f e r e n t mode o f o p e r a t i o n .
Llnfreezing--The a c t o f i n t e r r u p t i n g normal o p e r a t i o n s in an
o r g a n i z a t i o n t o a tt e m p t a change e f f o r t .
Voluntary a c t i o n s - -Twelve a c t i o n s recommended by t h e D e p a r t­
ment of H e a l t h , Edu cation, and Welfare in T i t l e IX t o h e lp i n s t i t u ­
t i o n s enhance n o n d i s c r i m in a to r y a c t i v i t i e s .
Research Questions
The f o ll o w in g r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s were examined in t h i s
s tu d y :
1.

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e p e r c e i v e d l e v e l o f

i n f l u e n c e o f s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g implementation o f T i t l e IX
and th e l e v e l o f compliance by c o l l e g e s in th e h i g h - and lowcompliance groups?
2.

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l e c t e d i n s t i t u t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e l e v e l o f compliance by c o l l e g e s in t h e h i g h and low-compliance groups?
3.

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e le v e l o f compliance

by c o l l e g e s in th e hig h- and low-compliance groups and t h e p e r c e i v e d
importance o f s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g implem entation o f T i t l e IX
when those f a c t o r s a r e c l a s s i f i e d by s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g i e s o f o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n a l -change theory ?

7

4.

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e le v e l o f compliance

by c o l l e g e s in t h e high- and low-compliance groups and t h e r e p o r t e d
change in adm ission/treatmen t/em ploym en t p r a c t i c e s ?
T h e o r e t i c a l Basis o f t h e Study
The i n v e s t i g a t o r examined t h e f i r s t - y e a r e f f o r t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s
and groups in Michigan community c o l l e g e s t o implement p r o v i s i o n s o f
T i t l e IX a s mandated by t h e f e d e r a l government.

Implementation o f such

mandates s i g n i f i e s a type o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change.

Although th e

e x t e n t o f change v a r i e d among i n s t i t u t i o n s , each c o l l e g e was r e q u i r e d
to use some s t r a t e g y to meet require m en ts f o r complying w it h th e r e g u ­
lation.
Selected organizational-change l i t e r a t u r e revealed in sig h ts
i n t o a v a r i e t y o f change s t r a t e g i e s .

Commenting on o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

change, Margulies and Wallace (1973) s t a t e d :
Change i s i n e v i t a b l e ; i t i s a n a t u r a l proce ss and can be seen
in th e i n c e s s a n t f l u x o f aging and e v o l u t i o n in a l l l i v i n g
s ystem s. I t need n o t , however, be seen as so tr o u b le s o m e ,
s t r e s s f u l , and, inde ed , c a t a s t r o p h i c as some r e gard i t . Change
must r i g h t f u l l y be regarded as t h e v i t a l , c r e a t i v e , e x c i t i n g ,
and e n e r g i z i n g f o r c e t h a t i t r e a l l y i s . Planned o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
change i s one way t h a t t h i s m a g n i f i c e n t energy can be ha r n e ss e d
f o r t h e good o f persons everywhere, ( p . 157)
In General S t r a t e g i e s f o r E f f e c t i n g Changes i n Human S ys tems,
Chin and Benne (1976) i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e d i s t i n c t c h a n g e - s t r a t e g y
t h e o r i e s t h a t des erv e c o n s i d e r a t i o n :

t h e e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l , norm a ti ve-

r e e d u c a t i v e , and po wer-coercive s t r a t e g i e s .
The e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y , prob ab ly t h e most f r e q u e n t l y
employed by knowledgeable i n d i v i d u a l s i n America and Western Europe,
i s based on th e assumption t h a t man i s r a t i o n a l .

A second assumption

8

i s t h a t people w i l l fo ll ow t h e i r r a t i o n a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t once t h i s i s
r e v e a l e d t o them.

I t is f u r t h e r assumed t h a t th e proposed change

w i l l be adopted i f i t can be r a t i o n a l l y j u s t i f i e d and i f th e p r o p o s e r
can show t h a t th e a d o pti n g i n d i v i d u a l o r group w i l l gain from th e
change.
Chin and Benne's e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y i s s i m i l a r to
the r a t i o n a l - o r - r e a s o n s t r a t e g y p r e s e n te d by Zaltman, F l o r i o , and
S ik ors ki (1977).

This s t r a t e g y i s based on t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e p r o ­

posed change i s in t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f t h e u s e r s .

A ju stificatio n

f o r t h e proposed change i s p r e s e n t e d , and, i f communication i s ad e­
q u a t e , p r a c t i t i o n e r s w i l l i n i t i a t e th e d e s i r e d change.
The second c h a n g e - s t r a t e g y th e o r y advanced by Chin and Benne
is th e n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e appro ach .

Proponents o f t h i s th e o r y

contend t h a t man i s an a c t i v e c r e a t u r e and r e c e i v e s environmental
s t i m u l i t h a t enhance o r th w a r t t h e goa ls o f h i s ongoing a c t i o n .

Indi­

v id u a ls a r e guided in t h e i r a c t i o n s by s o c i a l l y funded and communi­
c a t e d meanings, norms, and i n s t i t u t i o n s — in b r i e f , by a normative
culture.

F u r t h e r , people must p a r t i c i p a t e i n e d u c a ti o n t o become

r e e d u c a te d .
Zaltman e t a l . termed t h e n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e changes t r a t e g y th e o r y t h e " m an ip u la tiv e s t r a t e g y . "

According t o t h e s e

a u t h o r s , the m a n i p u l a t i v e s t r a t e g y s t r e s s e s t h a t change w i l l occur
when some f a c t o r in th e environment i s a l t e r e d so t h a t t h e t a r g e t
see s th e change as d e s i r a b l e .

A prime example o f m a n i p u l a t i v e change

i s pro viding a d d i t i o n a l funding f o r a s p e c i f i c a c t i o n t h a t t h e person
proposing change f e e l s i s d e s i r a b l e .

9

The t h i r d c h a n g e - s t r a t e g y t h e o r y p r e s e n t e d by Chin and Benne
i s th e po w er -c oerc iv e s t r a t e g y .

An assumption o f t h i s th e o r y i s t h a t

power t o b r i n g a b o u t change i s a p p l i e d through p o l i t i c a l , economic, o r
moral s a n c t i o n s .

P o l i t i c a l power c a r r i e s an element o f l e g i t i m a c y to

e n f o rc e t h e law, as well as accompanying s a n c t i o n s such as le v y in g
f i n e s o r w it h h o ld in g funds a p p r o p r i a t e d by th e p o l i t i c a l u n i t .

L ik e ­

w i s e , economic power may co erce by w ith h o ld i n g money o r o t h e r rew ar ds.
Moral power plays on th e s e n tim e n t s o f g u i l t and shame.
Zaltman e t a l . a l s o used th e term "power" t o d e s c r i b e t h i s
type o f c h a n g e - s t r a t e g y t h e o r y .

They contended t h a t a power change

s t r a t e g y e x i s t s when t h e r e i s c o n t r o l o f rewards and punishmen ts,
d e p r i v a t i o n s , and r e s t r i c t i o n s .

Here th e reason f o r compliance o r

m o t iv a ti o n i s n ot c o n s id e re d in th e change i t s e l f , b u t only in r e l a ­
t i o n t o t h e o b j e c t i v e o f th e change and th e proc es s used t o o b t a i n
the r e s u l t .
The power -c oerc iv e change s t r a t e g y b e s t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e
approach used by t h e f e d e r a l government in approving t h e l e g i s l a t i o n
and promulgating t h e r e g u l a t i o n to e n f o r c e T i t l e IX.

The Department

o f H e a l th , E duc ation, and Welfare s a n c t i o n s in c lu d e d w it h h o ld i n g o f
f e d e r a l f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e from any agency t h a t did n o t comply w i th
t h e mandated a c t i o n s o f T i t l e IX.
These t h r e e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e t h e o r i e s provided t h e
f o u n d a tio n f o r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y .

Each s t r a t e g y i s a p p l i c a b l e n o t

only a t t h e n a t i o n a l and s t a t e l e v e l s , b u t w i t h i n each i n s t i t u t i o n
as w e l l .

Any ty p e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change can be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o

10

one o f t h e t h r e e broad change c a t e g o r i e s :

em pirical-rational,

n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e , o r pow er-c oe rc ive.
A t h e o r e t i c a l model t h a t i s h e l p f u l in examining e f f o r t s to
implement the p r o v i s i o n s o f T i t l e IX i s t h e Levin P o l i t y Model ( Lev in,
1974).

The b a s i c premise o f t h i s model i s t h a t e d u c a tio n a l change

r e f l e c t s changes in th e organ ize d s o c i e t y ( p o l i t y ) .

P r e s s u r e s from

e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a r e r e f l e c t e d i n changes in go als and budgets o f edu­
c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , a l t e r i n g a l l o c a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s and p r o c e s s e s
as well as e d u c a t i o n a l outcomes.

S o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and economic

outcomes a r e a f f e c t e d by th e new e d u c a t io n a l outcomes, thus r e c y c l i n g
to t h e p o l i t y t o form new o r a l t e r e d i n f l u e n c e s .
I n t e r n a l f o r c e s and c o n d i t i o n s e x e r t an i n f l u e n c e on o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n a l change t h a t i s equal t o , i f not g r e a t e r t h a n , t h a t o f e x t e r ­
nal f o r c e s :

the p o lity .

Bal dridge (1975) s t a t e d t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

r o l e and p o s i t i o n a r e h ig h ly i n f l u e n t i a l i n p r e d i c t i n g who w i l l be
change l e a d e r s .

I n d iv id u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , coupled with adminis­

t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n with a u t h o r i t y and r e s o u r c e c o n t r o l , become v i t a l to
change.

G r i f f i t h s (1964) proposed c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s t h a t i n h i b i t

change.

He s t a t e d t h a t t h e more f u n c t io n a l t h e dynamic i n t e r p l a y o f

subsystems w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e l e s s change in t h e o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n ; he a l s o a s s e r t e d t h a t change tends to slow as e f f o r t s a r e moved
to lower systems in th e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
Abbott (1975) sugges ted t h a t "se arc h b e h a v i o r g e n e r a te d
by s t r e s s imposed from e x t e r n a l sources w i l l tend t o be s u p e r f i c i a l
and w i l l emphasize types o f i n n o v a t io n s t h a t have high p u b l i c - r e l a t i o n s

11

and image-enhancement v a l u e , b u t t h a t d i s t u r b minimally r o u t i n e o p e r a ­
t i o n s in th e s c h o o ls " (p. 176).
Each o f t h e s e a u th o r s p r e se n te d a p o s i t i o n t h a t p e r t a i n s to
t h e q u e s t i o n s posed in th e s tu d y .

The t h r e e s t r a t e g y t h e o r i e s advanced

by Chin and Benne and sup ported by Zaltman r e l a t e d i r e c t l y t o t h e f a c ­
t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g and t h e methods used to implement T i t l e IX, whereas
Le vin, B a l d r i d g e , G r i f f i t h s , and Abbott addres sed t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l
en vironm ent, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t i n f l u e n c e cha ng e, and t h e e f f e c t o f
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change e f f o r t s .
T r a n s l a t i o n from th e o r y o r opinion t o documentation o r
d e s c rip tio n is the r e s p o n s i b il i t y of the re se a rc h e r.

That t r a n s l a t i o n

c o n s t i t u t e d one a s p e c t o f t h i s s tu d y .
O r g a n iz a ti o n o f the Study
The f i r s t c h a p t e r c o n ta in e d an i n t r o d u c t i o n to and e x p l a n a ­
t i o n o f th e p r o v is i o n s o f T i t l e IX o f th e Ed ucatio na l Amendments o f
1972.

I t a l s o incl uded a s ta t e m e n t o f p urpose, t h e r e s e a r c h q u e s ­

t i o n s , and a d i s c u s s i o n of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e t h e o r y t h a t s erv ed
as a fo u n d a tio n f o r t h e s tu d y .

A review o f s e l e c t e d l i t e r a t u r e r e l e ­

vant t o the study i s found in Chapter I I .
s e t f o r t h in Chapter I I I .

The d es ig n o f t h e study i s

P r e s e n t a t i o n and a n a l y s e s o f d a t a o b t a i n e d

i n re s p o n s e to t h e survey in s t r u m e n t ar e d i s p l a y e d in C hapter IV.
The summary, c o n c l u s io n s , and recommendations f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h
c o n s t i t u t e Chapter V.

CHAPTER I I

REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE
Introduction
In t h i s c h a p t e r , s e l e c t e d l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change t h e o r y , r e l e v a n t r e s e a r c h , and th e f e d e r a l go ver nm en t's i n v o l v e ­
ment in e d u cati o n i s reviewed.

The d i s c u s s io n i s p r e s e n t e d in terms

o f t h e t h r e e broad concepts o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e - t h e o r y s t r a t e g i e s
f or mulated by Chin and Benne (1976):
r e e d u c a t i v e , and pow er -c o erc ive.

e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l , n o rm a ti ve-

A f o u r t h s e c t i o n c o n t a i n s comments

about a progre ss r e p o r t on a f f i r m a t i v e - a c t i o n programs a t i n s t i t u t i o n s
o f h i g h e r e d u catio n in Michigan.
E m p ir ic a l- R a tio n a l Change
The e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l concept o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change i s
based on t h e fundamental assumption t h a t people a r e r a t i o n a l and w i l l
fo llo w t h e i r s e l f - i n t e r e s t once t h i s i s r e v e a le d t o them {Chin & Benne,
1976).

The United S t a t e s has a h i s t o r y o f l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i o n approved

on th e assumption t h a t th e c i t i z e n r y w i l l b e n e f i t from u n i v e r s a l edu­
c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y and from a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h with a s s o c i a t e d l i n k a g e
systems f o r d i f f u s i o n .

The Northwest Ordinance o f 1785 and 1787 p r o ­

vided g r a n ts o f land to t h e s t a t e s t o f in a n c e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f
s e m i n a r ie s f o r l e a r n i n g (Knezevich, 1962).

The M o r r i l l Act o f 1862

gr a n te d each s t a t e land t o c r e a t e an endowment f o r t h e s u p p o r t o f a
c o l l e g e t h a t , in a d d i t i o n to c l a s s i c a l - e d u c a t i o n and m i l i t a r y - s c i e n c e
12

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programs, would pro vid e te a c h i n g r e l a t e d t o a g r i c u l t u r a l and mechani­
cal a r t s (Knezevich, 1962).
During th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e Smith-Hughes Act merged
funds f orm erly a l l o c a t e d to a g r i c u l t u r a l and home economics t o begin
general funding f o r v o c a t io n a l e d u c a t io n {Knezevich, 1962).

Other

examples o f f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n designed t o promote ed u c a tio n a l o p por­
t u n i t y and d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f in form ation in c l u d e t h e National Defense
Education Act o f 1958, t h e Vocational Education Act o f 1963, and t h e
Higher Education Act o f 1965 (K ap lin , 1978, 1980; Knezevich, 1962).
A r e c e n t r e p o r t o f t h e Carnegie Council on P o lic y S tu d ie s
i n Higher Education r ec og nized f e d e r a l involvement i n po s ts econdary
e d u catio n ( Federal Role in Po stsec on da ry E d u c a t io n , 1975).

The r e p o r t

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e a t t a i n e d l e v e l o f f e d e ra l - g o v e r n m e n t s u p p o rt con­
s t i t u t e d 45 p e r c e n t o f t h e p u b l i c f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t provided to h ig h e r
education.

In t u r n , t h e government has come to assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

in t h r e e primary a r e a s :

encouragement o f e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y

through h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ; s u p p o r t o f t h e c r e a t i v e r e s e a r c h c a p a c i t y
o f h i g h e r educati on and development o f a pool o f t a l e n t t h a t p e r ­
p e t u a t e s t h i s c r e a t i v e c a p a c i t y whether in i n d u s t r y , government, o r
u n i v e r s i t i e s ; and d i s t r i b u t i o n among t h e 50 s t a t e s o f both o p p o r tu n i t y
and c r e a t i v e r e s e a r c h c a p a c i t y .
The Carnegie r e p o r t l i s t e d a f o u r t h major r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h a t
i s sh are d with th e s t a t e s :

th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a s s u r i n g , t o a

r e a s o n a b l e de g r e e , o v e r a l l i n s t i t u t i o n a l h e a l t h .

Without v i t a l i n s t i ­

t u t i o n s , th e r e p o r t s u g g e s t e d , h i g h e r e d u c a t io n ca nno t c o n t r i b u t e
f u l l y to t h e n a t i o n a l w e l f a r e .

14

Beyond t h e f e d e r a l gover nm ent's r o l e i n a s s i s t i n g s o c i e t a l
change through e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l methods, i n d i v i d u a l r e s e a r c h e r s
have c o n t r i b u t e d v i t a l in fo r m a ti o n on t h i s change s t r a t e g y .

Studies

o f t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e environment have
r e v e a l e d th e importance o f a system being open o r close d to i t s con­
s t i t u e n c y in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g l i v i n g from ina nimate sy stem s. Von
B e r t a l a n f f y ' s (1956) g e n e r a l - s y s t e m th e o r y d e a l t with an exchange
p roc es s between two e n t i t i e s b u t d i d not c o n s i d e r exchanges w i t h i n
t h e system.

The theory s uggeste d t h a t open systems a s s i m i l a t e i n p u t

from t h e environment, r e s u l t i n g in change, alth ou gh t h e s p e c i f i c p r o ­
ces s o f change was not i d e n t i f i e d .
Expansion on th e f in d i n g s o f g e n e r a l - s y s t e m theory in c l u d e s
i n t e r n a l exchanges as a f a c t o r in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change.

Among th e

f o u r " id eal environments o f change" c a t e g o r i z e d by Emery and T r i s t
(1965) i s t h e D is tu r b e d - R e a c ti v e F i e l d , a complex c o n d i t i o n wit h e n v i ­
ronments r e a c t i n g a g a i n s t each o t h e r .

This e a r l y r e s e a r c h was f o l ­

lowed by a n o t h e r study by T e r r e b e r r y (196 8), which r e p r e s e n t e d t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n in a s k e l e t a l f a s h i o n .

The system has p r e s c r i b e d

boundaries through which i n p u t from t h e environment i s r e c e i v e d , is
tra ns form ed i n t e r n a l l y , and e x i t s a s o u t p u t .
These e a r l y r e s e a r c h e r s did not s p e c i f i c a l l y a d d r e ss a p a r ­
t i c u l a r th e o r y o f change, y e t a l l seemed t o i n d i c a t e t h a t o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n a l change i s a n a t u r a l ev en t in i n s t i t u t i o n s .

One might conclude

t h a t t h i s n a t u r a l change i s acc e p t e d o r r e j e c t e d w ith in t h e o r g a n i z a t i on.

15

A major f a c t o r t h a t was n o t co n s id e red by th e e a r l y i n v e s t i ­
g a t o r s i s t h e f i l t e r i n g o f i n p u t s i n t o th e o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r p r o c e s s i n g .
Rogers (1976) d e s c r i b e d th e f i l t e r i n g r o l e as t h a t o f a " g atek eep er "
l o c a t e d in t h e communicative s t r u c t u r e to c o n t r o l th e messages f lo w ­
ing through a channel and to p r e v e n t in fo r m a tio n o v erload by s c r e e n ­
ing and f i l t e r i n g messages.

One might conclude t h a t t h e g a t e k e e p e r

begins to c o n t r o l i n fo r m a tio n and messages in a manner t h a t o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n a l per so nn el f i n d a c c e p t a b l e o r even d e s i r a b l e .

D o t t i n (1976)

examined t h a t p r e c i s e c o n d i t i o n and concluded t h a t none o f t h e demands
made by environmental f o r c e s showed a l i n e a r , value-maximizing r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p o f g ate keeping in t h e c l a s s i c a l , r a t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
a d i r e c t c o n necti on between i n p u ts and o u t p u t s .

He concluded t h a t

demands on p o l i c y systems can be f i l t e r e d in th e i n i t i a l a d a p t i o n .
One o f t h e c o n s t r u c t s o f th e e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l t h e o r y o f
change i s t h a t personnel s e l e c t i o n and replac em en t a r e i m p o rt a n t in
g e t t i n g knowledge e f f e c t i v e l y i n t o p r a c t i c e (Chin & Benne, 1976).
B a l d r i d g e ' s (1975) study on " O r g an izatio n al I n n o v a tio n : I n d i v i d u a l ,
S t r u c t u r a l , and Environmental Impacts" su pport ed t h i s p o s i t i o n .
Study f i n d i n g s c o n t r a d i c t e d y e a r s o f r e s e a r c h on i n n o v a t i v e d i f f u ­
s i o n ; i n d i v i d u a l demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a t t i t u d e s were found
t o be poor p r e d i c t o r s o f in n o v a t iv e b e h a v i o r .

Two major f i n d i n g s

were:
1.

P a r t i c i p a n t s in th e change proc es s nominated department

c h a i r p e r s o n s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s as c r i t i c a l i n i t i a t o r s o f change,
d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o t h e i r number in the o r g a n i z a t i o n .

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2.

A d m i n i s t r a t o r s were extremely im p o rta n t as boundary r o l e

p e o p l e —a l i n k between demands and id e a s from th e o u t s i d e and innova­
tio n s occurring inside.
Although o t h e r c o n c l u s io n s o f t h e B a ld r i d g e s tudy tended to
s u p p o r t th e n o r m a ti v e - r e e d u c a t i v e t heory o f change, t h e p r eced in g
s ta t e m e n t s c l e a r l y r ec og nized i n d i v i d u a l s ' placement i n th e o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n as an im p o rtan t f a c t o r i n g e t t i n g knowledge e f f e c t i v e l y i n t o
practice.
Rogers (1971) e x plored a n o t h e r f a c e t o f personnel i m p l i c a t i o n s
in change e f f o r t s .

His c a t e g o r i e s of a d o p te r s ranged from r e s p e c t a b l e

e a r l y a d o p t e r s , who a r e viewed as having t h e g r e a t e s t degree o f o p i n i o n
l e a d e r s h i p in most s o c i a l sy stem s, to th e t r a d i t i o n a l l a g g a r d s , who
posse ss almost no o p inion l e a d e r s h i p but use the p a s t as a p o i n t o f
r e f e r e n c e in making d e c i s i o n s .
T r a n s i t i o n from change t heory t o p r a c t i c e was th e s u b j e c t o f
a study by Clark and Guba (1967), who examined p o t e n t i a l change r o l e s
in e d u c a t i o n .

They s e t f o r t h f o u r s e q u e n t i a l phases n e c e s s a r y f o r

change:
1.

R e s e a r c h - - s e c u r i n g of q u a l i t y and v a l i d knowledge, n o t

n e c e s s a r i l y f o r immediate a p p l i c a b i l i t y .
2.

Development—c o n s i s t i n g o f i n v e n t i o n t o g e n e r a t e s o l u t i o n s

to problems and design t o r e f i n e s o l u t i o n s .
3.

D i f f u s i o n —d i s s e m i n a t i o n and dem o n str ati o n o f t h e

solution.
4.

Adoption—d e t e r m in a t i o n o f u t i l i t y in a c t u a l s e t t i n g ,

i n s t a l l a t i o n , and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s o l u t i o n .

17

The s e q u e n t i a l - p h a s i n g p roc es s per mits th e person r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
change to o b t a i n knowledge, t o c o n s i d e r a l t e r n a t i v e s , and to s e l e c t
th e b e s t s o l u t i o n from t h o s e a l t e r n a t i v e s in a l o g i c a l , r a t i o n a l
manner.
Although r e s e a r c h e r s have emphasized d i f f e r e n t phases o f th e
change proce ss depending on t h e i r school o f t h o u g h t , most have r e c o g ­
n ized t h e importance o f Clark and Cuba's d i f f u s i o n phase.

Rogers

(1971) contended t h a t a l l e x p l a n a t i o n s o f human b e h a v io r stem d i r e c t l y
from an examination o f how i n d i v i d u a l s a c q u i r e and modify idea s
through communication with o t h e r s .

The l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , t h e d i f f u ­

s io n p r o c e s s , t h e change p r o c e s s , and o t h e r s a l l b a s i c a l l y in v o lv e the
communication o f new i d e a s .

Assuming t h i s th e o r y to be c o r r e c t

l e a d s thos e adv oca ting change w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n to c o n c e n t r a t e
on the message they wish t o s t r e s s and t h e methodology by which th e
message w ill be d e l i v e r e d , r a t h e r than using power o r se ek in g to
in v o l v e o t h e r s in t h e change p r o c e s s .
The c l a s s i c a l model o f e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l t h e o r y i s F. T a y l o r ' s
Scientific-Ma nagement School o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r , which gained
p o p u l a r i t y in th e e a r l y 1900s.

Working from th e premise t h a t manage­

ment i s a s c i e n c e , n o t a r u l e o f thumb, Ta y lo r s t r e s s e d c o o p e r a t io n
among workers r a t h e r than i n d i v i d u a l i s m (Rogers, 1976, pp. 2 7 - 5 8 ).
Communication i s t a s k o r i e n t e d and designed to emphasize t h e develop­
ment o f each worker t o th e g r e a t e s t e f f i c i e n c y and p r o s p e r i t y .
a s s u r e d , th e worker can c o n c e n t r a t e on maximum o u t p u t .

Thus

Detractors

from the Scientific-Management School have p e r c e iv e d t h e t a s k - o r i e n t e d
messages as command-and-control mechanisms o r as t h r e a t s , o b s erv in g

18

t h a t " s o c i a l syst em s, l i k e b i o l o g i c a l s ystem s, have ways o f p r o t e c t ­
ing themselves from t h r e a t s . "

One means o f p r o t e c t i o n , ac c o r d in g to

Bennis (1972), i s t o disobey o r o th e r w is e evade t h r e a t e n i n g r u l e s o r
systems.
Views on modern techn ology r e l a t e d to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change
vary in t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

Huse (1975) conceded t h a t "the a b i l i t y o f

most o r g a n i z a t i o n s to accommodate, modify, and a d a p t t o s o c i a l and
c u l t u r a l change has lagged behind t h e i r a b i l i t y t o i n t e g r a t e t e c h n o ­
l o g i c a l change" (p. 7 ) .

Crowfoot and C h e s l e r (1974) contended t h a t

s o c i e t y is b a s i c a l l y sound but needs t o cope b e t t e r with t h e ongoing,
i n e v i t a b l e change t o r a p i d l y developing technology and an e v e r - l a r g e r
s c a l e o f pr o d u ctio n as well as with th e i n c r e a s i n g l y complex and
dynamic problems o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

The l a t t e r o b s e r v a t i o n expanded

on Chin and Benne's e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l t h e o r y , c a l l i n g f o r more e m p i r i ­
cal s t u d i e s r e l a t e d to o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change, which may s e r v e as a
b a s i s f o r a p r o f e s s i o n a l - t e c h n i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e on planned change.
L e g i s l a t i v e e f f o r t s by th e f e d e r a l government have, i n p a r t ,
been based on th e e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l theory o f change ( e . g . , t h e
M o rr i ll and Smith-Hughes A c t s ) .

Federal funds have been devoted t o a

v a r i e t y o f r e s e a r c h , d e m o n s t r a t i o n , and d i f f u s i o n o f in f o r m a ti o n s y s ­
tems.

In a d d i t i o n , in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e l i t e r a t u r e , a u t h o r s have

t h e o r i z e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e c a p a b le o f
re c o g n iz in g th o s e change e f f o r t s t h a t a r e b e n e f i c i a l and w i l l a c c e p t
o r r e j e c t such e f f o r t s a c c o r d i n g l y , based on th e ty pe o f message and
th e method by which they r e c e i v e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n .

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Norm ative-Reeducative Change
The n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e change th e o r y i s based on th e
assumption t h a t man i s i n h e r e n t l y a c t i v e , i n q u e s t o f impulse and
need s a t i s f a c t i o n .

He se es s t i m u l i as f u r t h e r i n g o r t h w a r t i n g t h e

goals o f h i s ongoing a c t i o n .

I n t e l l i g e n c e a r i s e s in t h e p r o c e s s o f

shaping organism-environmental r e l a t i o n s toward a more ad eq u ate f i t ­
t i n g and j o i n i n g o f organ ism ic demands and environmental r e s o u r c e s
(Chin & Benne, 1976).

Dewey (1967) s a i d t h a t man, th e o r g an ism , does

not p a s s i v e l y aw ai t given s t i m u l i from h i s environment in o r d e r to
respond.
This framework f o r t h e n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e th e o r y o f o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n a l change assumes t h a t man must be a c t i v e and m otivated in o r d e r
to l e a r n .

This th e o r y may be p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e in e d u c a t i o n , where

the school i s expected t o m ain t a in t r a d i t i o n a l value s w h il e p r e p a r i n g
young members o f s o c i e t y to deal with a changing world.

Zaltman

(1977) s t a t e d t h a t t h e m o t i v a t i n g f o r c e s f o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l change in
e d u catio n can u s u a l l y be t r a c e d to one o f two s o u r c e s :

a demand f o r

t h e s ch ools t o respond t o th e s o c i a l i z a t i o n needs o f s o c i e t y o r use o f
t h e s c h o o ls t o s o l v e s o c i a l problems.
Several r e s e a r c h e r s have focused on t h e process o f r e e d u c a t i o n
t o accomplish i n s t i t u t i o n a l change (Lewin, c i t e d in Ben nis, 1969;
L i p p i t , 1969).

According t o Lewin, r e e d u c a t i o n a f f e c t s t h e i n d i v i d u a l

by a l t e r i n g e s t a b l i s h e d s t r u c t u r e s a t t h r e e l e v e l s :
ences and v a l u e s , and motor s k i l l s .

cognitive, v al­

An expansion on t h e ge neral

s ta t e m e n t in c lu d e s t h e f o ll o w in g p r i n c i p l e s :

20

1.

The p r o c e ss e s governing t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e normal

and abnormal a r e fu ndam en tal ly a l i k e .
2.

The r e e d u c a t i v e proce ss has to f u l f i l l a t a s k t h a t i s

e s s e n t i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o a change i n c u l t u r e .
3.

Even e x t e n s i v e f i r s t - h a n d e x p er ie n ce does not a u t o m a t i c ­

a l l y c r e a t e c o r r e c t conce pts o r knowledge.
Lewin's co ncept o f r e s t r u c t u r i n g was supp orted by Gordon
L i p p i t ( 1 969), who c i t e d t h r e e ps ycholo gica l l e v e l s t h a t must be
in volved i f performance i s t o be m ai nt ai ne d a f t e r change i s e f f e c t e d .
Level one i s knowledge o r t h e a b i l i t y to understand and a p p r e c i a t e th e
e f f e c t e d o r planned change.

Level two in volv es s k i l l , t h e motiva­

t i o n a l o r b e h a v io r a l r espons e t h a t goes w i th knowledge o f change.

The

t h i r d l e v e l i s a t t i t u d e , i n c l u d i n g p e r c e p t i o n s , f e e l i n g s , and v a l u e s .
L i p p i t f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t people do not r e s i s t change i t s e l f ; r a t h e r ,
they balk a t th e methods o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e a d e r s use t o put changes
into e ffe c t.
A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s in a school s e t t i n g p r e s e n t s
a v a r i e t y o f i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e change a g e n t .

Resea rch er s who con­

duc ted a s tu d y a t th e Far West Laboratory (1974) concluded t h a t change
in e d u c a tio n ca nn ot be d i c t a t e d b u t can emerge only through s e l f deter mined change in p r a c t i t i o n e r s ' b e h a v io r .

F u r t h e r , p a r t o f the

knowledge and s k i l l s needed t o pl an and implement change i s uniquely
posse sse d by p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n t h e f i e l d .

Change must come from w i t h i n ;

th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f change depends on th e i n t e r n a l p l a n n e r ' s knowledge
and s k i l l s r e l e v a n t t o management and s t r a t e g y development.

The

r e e d u c a t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e n , in v o lv es a l t e r i n g e s t a b l i s h e d b e havio ral

21

s t r u c t u r e s a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s , even t o th e e x t e n t o f changing o n e ' s
c u l t u r e , and t h e change must be s e l f - d e t e r m i n e d .
One method Gordon L i p p i t (1969) used i n th e r e e d u c a t i o n p r o ­
c e s s was t h e b a s i c l e a r n i n g c y c l e with groups o r i n d i v i d u a l s .

Phase

one o f t h e b a s i c l e a r n i n g c y c l e occur s when an i n d i v i d u a l o r a group
fa c e s a dilemma o r d i s c o n c e r t i n g in f o r m a t io n t h a t needs to be r e s o l v e d .
The r e s o l u t i o n r e q u i r e s an a t t i t u d i n a l change through u n f r e e z i n g ,
changing, and r e f r e e z i n g in a new a t t i t u d i n a l p o s i t i o n .

This new p o s i ­

t i o n r e s u l t s in new and d i f f e r e n t b e havior and t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f new
i n f o r m a t i o n , followed by a n o t h e r a t t i t u d i n a l change.

The c y c l e con­

t i n u e s u n t i l new in fo r m a tio n o r an o u t s i d e e v en t t e r m i n a t e s t h e p r o ­
cess .
P r a c t i t i o n e r s o f th e n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e t h e o r y a l s o advo ca te
a p r o ble m - s o lv ing model o f change.

In an e a r l i e r ap proach, Ronald

L i p p i t (1958) c l e a r l y r ec ogn ized i n t e r v e n t i o n by a change a g e n t ; t h i s
approach involved seven s t e p s :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Development o f a need f o r change
E s tablishm ent o f a change r e l a t i o n s h i p with communication
and t r u s t
C l a r i f i c a t i o n o r d i a g n o s i s of t h e c l i e n t s y s t e m 's problem
i n c l u d i n g d ata g a t h e r i n g and a n a l y s i s
Examination o f a l t e r n a t i v e r o u t e s and go als
followed by
goal s e t t i n g and i n t e n t i o n s o f a c t i o n
Trans formation o f i n t e n t i o n s i n t o a c t u a l change e f f o r t s
G e n e r a l i z a t i o n and s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f change
Termination o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith t h e change agent
V a r i a t i o n s o f t h e pr ob le m-solv ing model o f change a p p ear in

the l i t e r a t u r e .

For example, Zaltman (1977) examined th e o r g a n i z a ­

t i o n a l missio n and goa ls b e f o r e lo oking a t t h e need f o r change and
f o r m a l iz e d t h e e v a l u a t i o n proc es s f o ll o w in g t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e r e l a ­
tionship.

22

Another f a c e t o f t h e n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e th e o r y i s the
r e la tiv e ly recent practice of laboratory tra in in g .

According to

Bennis (1969), l a b o r a t o r y t r a i n i n g in volves f i t t i n g people t o r o l e s .
In a s e n s e , th e proce ss c a l l s f o r a fundamental change, an a l t e r a ­
t i o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s v a l u e s , norms, and p a t t e r n s o f e x p e c t a t i o n s .
Bennis c a u t i o n e d , however, t h a t i n u n d er taking any planned s o c ia l
change using l a b o r a t o r y t r a i n i n g , t h e co r e o f the t a r g e t - s y s t e m values
must not be too d i f f e r e n t from th e l a b o r a t o r y - t r a i n i n g r u l e s .
C r i t i c s o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y - t r a i n i n g approach b e l i e v e t h a t , in
most i n s t a n c e s , t h e v alu e system o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and t h a t o f
l a b o r a t o r y - t r a i n i n g personnel d i f f e r ( S ch ein , 1967).
whether u n f r e e z i n g e v e r occur s w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n .

At i s s u e i s
Although an

i n d i v i d u a l may u n f re e z e h i s / h e r i n i t i a l a t t i t u d e s on a personal l e v e l ,
c r i t i c s q u e s ti o n whether t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l be w i l l i n g to a tte m p t t o
change a whole network o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n , which
may p r e f e r t o use i n e f f e c t i v e but s t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s r a t h e r than
going through th e p a in f u l proc es s o f b u i l d i n g new r e l a t i o n s h i p s while
" t r y i n g to g e t th e j o b done."
A d i f f e r e n t model o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change dem onstrating th e
n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e t h e o r y was p r e s e n t e d in "Survey Feedback-Problem
S o l v i n g - C o l l e c t i v e Decision I n t e r v e n t i o n in Schools" by Coughlin,
Cooke, and S a f e r (197 2).

This model focused on group p r o c e s s e s and

problems r a t h e r th an on t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
o f the model.

Figure 1 d e p i c t s t h e s ta g e s

The a u t h o r s emphasized s o l i c i t a t i o n o f i n p u t from o t h e r

f a c u l t y durin g th e i n t e r n a l - d i f f u s i o n s t a g e o f t h i s model.

I t i s in

23

t h i s s t a g e t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s can t r y o u t s o l u t i o n s t o l e g i t i m i z e th e
proble m -s olv ing e f f o r t .

L egitim ation

D ecision U nit
A d m in istrato rs
C ollective
E v a lu atio n

Stim ulation

In te rn a l
D iffusion

ft

A doption

ft

Im p lem en tatio n

ft

R outinization

D ecision A d o p te rs
Faculty

Fig ure 1 . - - I n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change model. (From Robert J .
Coughlin, Robert A. Cooke, and L. Arthu r S a f e r , "An
Assessment o f a Survey Feedback-Problem S o l v i n g - C o l l e c t i v e
Decision I n t e r v e n t i o n in S c h o o l s , " Department o f H e a l t h ,
Education and Welfare Final Re po rt, P r o j e c t No. 0-E- 105,
December 1972.)

A number o f w r i t e r s have p r e se n te d t a c t i c s to a s s i s t in
implementing change models.

The Program Management Ev alu ati on System

advocated by Spencer (1979) was designed t o t r a i n people in using s t a t e o f - t h e - a r t products in a plan ning process t h a t lea ds toward i n s t i t u ­
t i o n a l renewal.

The use o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l hardware and s o f t w a r e s u p ­

p o r t s planning models to ac hieve ed u c a tio n a l o b j e c t i v e s c r e a t i v e l y and
economically.

Zaltman (1977) i d e n t i f i e d two o t h e r t a c t i c s r e l a t e d to

th e n o r m a ti v e - r e e d u c a t i v e th e o r y o f change:

u s e r involvement, when

the p o t e n t i a l u s e r commits h i m / h e r s e l f to change through b e h a v io r and
involvement in th e development o f a p r o d u c t; and t r a i n i n g / i n s t a l l a t i o n ,
when th e p o t e n t i a l u s e r provides t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e and s k i l l s n e c e s ­
s ary to f a c i l i t a t e change.

24

A c e n t r a l theme o f t h e n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e t h e o r y i s t h a t
man t r a n s a c t s w ith h i s envir onment.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e human elements

of an o r g a n i z a t i o n must l e a r n t o f u n c t io n in c o n c e r t durin g t h e p r o ­
ce s s o f i d e n t i f y i n g and s o lv i n g problems.

I t i s incumbent upon t h e

o r g a n i z a t i o n t o develop s u p p o r t mechanisms t o m a in ta in and improve
th e p r o c e s s .

Lewin s uggested t h i s c o l l a b o r a t i v e app roa ch , and Corey

(1953) developed i t i n t o a C oo per at ive Action-Research Model.

The

goal o f t h e c o n ti n u in g e n t e r p r i s e , t h e n , i s t o b u i l d f l e x i b l e o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n s t h a t a r e r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e environment—o r g a n i z a t i o n s with
r e s e r v e s o f e x p e r t i s e and r e s o u r c e s to s u s t a i n l o n g -r a n g e p l a n n in g .
B a ld r id g e (1977) contended t h a t most change management i s an
in tu itiv e , seat-of-the-pants strategy.

He saw no v a l i d , t e s t e d ,

s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s o f change and c a l l e d f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
knowledge based on s o c i a l - s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h and th e e x p e r i e n c e o f p r a c ­
t i c i n g change a g e n t s .
The l i t e r a t u r e s e a rc h r e v e a l e d s t u d i e s based on r e s e a r c h
with d e r iv e d p r i n c i p l e s o f change.

In h i s work on f a c t o r s i n c r e a s i n g

r e s i s t a n c e to change, Mann (1957) i d e n t i f i e d f o u r ge neral p r i n c i p l e s :
1.

To t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o lv e d , change, as s u c h , i s n o t

t h r e a t e n i n g i f they p e r c e i v e i t as h e l p f u l .
2.

Any change w i l l be opposed by t h e s u p e r v i s o r as a t h r e a t

t o h i s p r e s t i g e and a u t h o r i t y u n l e s s he has s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u e s t e d th e
change.
3.

Any change w i l l u s u a l l y be opposed by t h e a f f e c t e d employee

(group) u n l e s s t h e change has been s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u e s t e d .

25

4.

The magnitude o f th e o p p o s i t i o n to change w i l l be a d i r e c t

r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e magnitude o f th e change.
S t a t e d in d i f f e r e n t terms by Powell and Pozner ( 1978), r e s i s t ­
ance to change r e s u l t s from f e a r o f t h e unknown, t h r e a t o f change in
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , t h r e a t o f change o f s t a t u s , and t h r e a t o f change t o
p r i d e in p r o f i c i e n c y a t t h e e x i s t i n g j o b .
Mann (1957) a l s o i d e n t i f i e d f a c t o r s t h a t d e c r e a s e r e s i s t a n c e
to change.

Two o f t h e s e f a c t o r s appeared t o be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o

th e n o r m a ti v e - r e e d u c a t i v e change t h e o r y .

F i r s t , s tr o n g p r e s s u r e s f o r

change can be e s t a b l i s h e d by c r e a t i n g in group members a s h a re d p e r ­
c e p t i o n of th e need f o r change, th us making t h e p r e s s u r e come from
w i t h i n th e u n i t .

Second, in fo r m a tio n r e l a t i n g to th e need f o r change,

plans f o r change, and consequences o f change must be sh ared by a l l
r e l e v a n t people in th e group.

The n e c e s s i t y o f s h a r in g i n f o r m a t i o n

in change e f f o r t s was s t r e s s e d in the l i t e r a t u r e on n orm a ti ver e e d u c a t i v e methods.
Thompson and McEwen (1958) concluded t h a t s h a r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
i s i m p l i c i t in goal s e t t i n g .

They contended t h a t s e t t i n g g o a ls i s

e s s e n t i a l l y a problem o f d e f i n i n g d e s i r e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n and i t s envir onment, r e q u i r i n g review and perhaps r e a p ­
p r a i s a l o f th e g o a l s .

Goal r e a p p r a i s a l i s a "more c o n s t a n t problem

in an u n s t a b l e environment than in a s t a b l e one" and i s a l s o "more
d i f f i c u l t as t h e p r oduct o f t h e e n t e r p r i s e becomes l e s s t a n g i b l e "
(p. 24).
Researchers a t th e S t a n fo r d Cen ter f o r Research and Develop­
ment examined environmental s t a b i l i t y and product ( B a l d r i d g e , 1975).

26

One co n clu s io n o f t h e i r s tu d y was t h a t t h e r e a r e major d i f f e r e n c e s
between academic i n s t i t u t i o n s and o t h e r kinds o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

The

goa ls o f academic i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e more ambiguous and d i v e r s e , c l i e n t s
a r e se rved r a t h e r than m a t e r i a l p r o c e s s e d , and key employees a r e
highly p r o f e s s i o n a l , with an u n c l e a r technology r a t h e r than s t a n d a r d
operating procedures.

F u r t h e r , p a r t i c i p a t i o n is f l u i d ; amateur d e c i ­

s io n makers wander i n t o and o u t o f th e d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s .

This o b s e r ­

v a t i o n o f environmental ambiguity and i n t a n g i b i l i t y o f e d u c a t io n i s
common in the l i t e r a t u r e , y e t t h e bu s in e s s o f e d u c a ti o n c o n t i n u e s ,
goals a r e s e t , and s t u d e n t s do complete e d u c a ti o n a l e f f o r t s .
A number o f a u t h o r s have a ddress ed im port ant f a c t o r s in s e t ­
t i n g go als and m a in ta i n i n g r o l e p e r c e p t i o n s .

Miles (1969) s t a t e d ,

The i n h a b i t a n t s o f an e d u c a ti o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n must have r e a s o n ­
ably c l e a r p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e goal o r go als to which the system
is devoted; t h e s e , in t u r n , a f f e c t r o l e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and p e r ­
formance o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . Systems o f reward and p e n a lty r e g u ­
l a t e r o l e performance as do th e norms governing t h e s t y l e o f
i n t e r p e r s o n a l t r a n s a c t i o n in th e system, (p. 1 4).
The i n t e r n a l n a tu r e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s i s a l s o r e f e r r e d to as c l i m a t e —
the s t a t e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n as p erceived by i t s members.

The o r g a n i ­

z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e , s t a t e d Rogers (1976), e x e r t s i t s i n f l u e n c e on members'
beh av iors through i n t e r p e r s o n a l communication p r o c e s s e s .
The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l i m a t e t h a t Bal dridge (1975) c l a s s i f i e d as
open perm it s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a wide number o f change a l t e r n a t i v e s and
focu se s on improved p r a c t i c e s and ar ra n g e m e n ts , w it h l e s s concern f o r
relationships.

The o p p o s i t e , o r c l o s e d , c l i m a t e tends t o r e s t r i c t

change a c t i v i t i e s and t o r e j e c t p r o p o sa ls t h a t diminish d i s c i p l i n a r y
control.

Thus, th e more c l e a r l y t h e goal is communicated, t h e more

27

l i k e l y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l members w i l l be t o d i r e c t t h e i r b e h a v i o r toward
those goals.
In a d d i t i o n t o c l e a r g o a l s , co n c is e communication, and an
a c c e p t a b l e r e w a r d / p e n a l t y system, Baldr idge (1975) a s s o c i a t e d two o t h e r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with an o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s in n o v a tiv e c a p a c i t y :
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e com plex ity.

s i z e and

The more o r g a n i z a t i o n s develop h i e r a r c h i ­

cal d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , t h e e a s i e r i t i s t o b r in g about change becaus e o f
th e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c r e a t e wider r o l e s p e c i f i c a t i o n and s p e c i a l i s t s t o
s u p p o r t change.

The h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e i s a byproduct o f s i z e ,

which a l s o pr o v id e s a c a r e e r l a d d e r f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l as an i n c e n t i v e .
Supporting t h e n o r m a ti v e - r e e d u c a t i v e t h e o r y o f change, c o n c l u ­
s i o n s o f a s tu d y conducted i n Alabama r e l a t e d t o T i t l e IX recommended
i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g programs f o r p r i n c i p a l s t o o b t a i n knowledge ab out
th e r e g u l a t i o n t o f a c i l i t a t e implementation in t h e se co nd ary s c h o o ls
o f t h a t s t a t e (McDaniel, 1976).

In a n o t h e r Alabama s t u d y , Norton

(1977) concluded t h a t " th e s uc ce ss o f f e d e r a l p o l i c y i s de pendent on
t h e l o c a l school d i s t r i c t .

. . . School systems a r e i n f l u e n c e d by t h e

community norms and s en se o f urgency o f t h e p o l i c y as th e d e te r m in i n g
f a c t o r s in implementing a f e d e r a l p o l i c y " ( a b s t r a c t ) .
s t u d i e s focused on K-12 system s.

Both o f t h e s e

A thorough d i s s e r t a t i o n s e a r c h

r e v e a l e d no s i m i l a r s t u d i e s in postsec on dar y e d u c a t i o n .
In summary, a s u b s t a n t i a l body o f l i t e r a t u r e s u p p o r t s t h e
n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e t h e o r y o f change.

Research and w r i t i n g s o f

advocates o f t h i s t h e o r y ap pea r to form a sound b a s i s f o r s t a t i n g t h a t
man i s i n q u i s i t i v e , l e a r n s by being involved in s earc h a c t i v i t i e s and

28

th e d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s , and is guided in his a c t i o n s by communicated
meanings, norms, and i n s t i t u t i o n s .
Powe''•-Coercive Theory
The pow er -coercive t h e o r y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change a s s e r t s
t h a t power i s an i n g r e d i e n t o f a l l human a c t i o n .

However, t h e t h e o ­

r e t i c a l emphasis i s placed on p o l i t i c a l and economic s a n c t i o n s in t h e
e x e r c i s e o f power, ac co rding to Chin and Benne (1976).
P o l i t i c a l power c a r r i e s with i t a le g i t i m a c y and t h e s a n c t i o n s
t h a t ac crue to t h o s e who break th e law.

Economic power e x e r t s c o e r c i v e

i n f l u e n c e over th e d e c i s i o n s o f th ose t o whom i t i s a p p l i e d (Chin &
Benne, 1976).
cion:

Lusch (1976) d i f f e r e n t i a t e d l e g i t i m a t e power from c o e r ­

th e l a t t e r in volves p o t e n t i a l punishment, and t h e r e f o r e th e

i n d i v i d u a l begr udgingly y i e l d s power to a n o t h e r .
Bennis (1969) expr es sed th e op inio n t h a t power is n o t a bad
t h i n g , although many b e h a v i o r a l - s c i e n c e w r i t e r s have t r e a t e d i t as
s uch, e i t h e r through i n d i f f e r e n c e o r i g n ora n ce.

S ocia l a c t i o n depends

on power, j u s t as p hys ic a l movement depends on e nergy.

Nothing changes

in human a f f a i r s u n t i l new power i s g en er ated o r u n t i l old power i s
redistributed.

Bennis a l s o claimed t h a t b u r e a u c r a t i c s o l u t i o n s i n c l u d e

an e x p l i c i t r e l i a n c e on l e g a l - r a t i o n a l power but an i m p l i c i t use o f
c o e r c i v e power.

In any c a s e , a c o nfu sed, ambiguous, s h i f t i n g complex

o f competence, c o e r c i o n , and l e g a l code e x i s t s .
There a r e many opinions about the use o f power t o b r i n g ab out
change in s o c i e t y and i t s a c t i v i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a ­
tions.

The remainder o f t h i s s e c t i o n on th e p o w er-c oe rc iv e t h e o r y i s

29

d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s t r a t e g i e s found in th e l i t e r a t u r e :

nonviolence,

f e d e r a l p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n , and m a n i p u l a t i v e / s p e c i a l - i n t e r e s t gro ups.
Nonviolent S t r a t e g i e s
I v e r (1973) s t a t e d t h a t whereas r e l i g i o u s pr op he ts have
preached nonviolenc e as a c a r d i n a l moral v i r t u e , p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s
have g e n e r a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d on j u s t i f y i n g f o r c e and t h e e x e r c i s e o f
power.

I v e r i d e n t i f i e d Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King, J r . ,

as two o f t h e fo rem os t p h i l o s o p h i c a l l e a d e r s and p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f
nonviolence.
Gandhi's b e l i e f s c e n t e r e d on two Indian words:
and ahimsa ( n o nin jury o r n o n k i l l i n g ) .

satya ( tr u th )

Satya and ahimsa became h i s

sword o f t r u t h and nonviolence to be used in combat w it h ever y form
o f s o c i a l or p o l i t i c a l i n j u s t i c e .

He claimed t h a t h i s b e l i e f i n non­

v i o l e n c e was independent o f t h e s a n c t i o n o f th e s c r i p t u r e s as p r a c ­
t i c e d in I n d ia .

E v e n tu a ll y , Gandhi evolved a s u b t l e and co mplicated

d o c t r i n e t h a t was n ot e a s i l y grasped o r l i g h t l y d i s m i s s e d , and t h e word
"no nv iolence " passed i n t o t h e vocabulary o f p o l i t i c s .
Walton (1971) b e l i e v e d t h a t Martin Luthe r King, J r . , formed a
p o s i t i v e s o c i a l philoso phy, merging t h e n o n v i o l e n t b e l i e f s o f Gandhi
with t h e p h i l o s o p h ie s o f Je su s and Thoreau and th e t e a c h i n g s o f
Niebuhr and Hegel.

One o f t h e main t e n e t s o f t h a t p h ilosophy was

t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t n o n v io le n t r e s i s t a n c e i s one o f t h e most p o t e n t
weapons a v a i l a b l e to oppressed people in t h e i r q u e s t f o r s o c i a l j u s ­
tice.

30

Nonviolent p o l i t i c a l t a c t i c s became a way o f l i f e f o r King,
who f e l t t h a t nonviolenc e was m orally r i g h t and o b l i g a t o r y , a means
f o r keeping th e government s t i r r e d t o l i f e .

King's n o nviolence sought

s im u lta n e o u s ly to r e s i s t and d e f e a t an u n j u s t system , t o a t t a c k e v i l
but n o t th e e v i l - d o e r , t o make s u f f e r i n g a v i r t u e , t o love r a t h e r than
h a t e , and t o c r e a t e f a i t h in God and t h e f u t u r e .

For him, t h e t e c h ­

niques o f nonviolenc e o f f e r e d every p o s s i b l e moral and e t h i c a l way,
both i n t e r n a l l y and e x t e r n a l l y , to ac hieve t h e s e ends (Walton, 1971).
Federal P o l i t i c a l Action
According t o Etz^oni (1964), th e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s
in any s o c i e t y a r e never r e g u l a t e d in an i d e n t i c a l p a t t e r n .

The

e x t e n t o f r e g u l a t i o n ranges from l a i s s e z - f a i r e t o a high d eg r ee o f
control.

Some s e c t o r s o f a l l s o c i e t i e s , in p a r t i c u l a r t h e p u b l i c

s e c t o r 1, a r e h ighly r e g u l a t e d .

There i s a ge neral tendency f o r th e

p u b l i c o r g a n i z a t i o n to grow; hence, th e scope o f d i r e c t government
c o n tr o l i n c r e a s e s .
Federal-government involvement in e d u c a t io n i s a m a t t e r o f
h i s t o r i c a l record.

The Northwest Ordinance o f 1787, t h e M o r r i l l Act

o f 1862, and t h e Smith-Hughes Act o f 1917 have a l r e a d y been mentioned.
These a c t s were e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l i n n a t u r e , d i r e c t e d a t p r o v id i n g
an o p p o r tu n i t y f o r th e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n .
The f e d e r a l government used c o n t r o l mechanisms t o e x e r c i s e
i t s power in ed u ca tion as e a r l y as 1905, when powerful p o l i t i c a l
f i g u r e s d i r e c t e d t h e i r i n t e r e s t s to i n t e r c o l l e g i a t e a t h l e t i c s .

Per­

c e iv in g abuses in t h e s p o r t , P r e s i d e n t Theodore R o os evelt convened

31

a White House Conference on Football with the i n t e n t i o n o f reforming
th e s p o r t ( G erb er, 1979).
A p r e d e c e s s o r o f t h e c u r r e n t f e d e r a l government's employmentr e g u l a t i o n p r a c t i c e s was is s u e d as the Federal F a i r Employment P r a c ­
t i c e s R e g u l a t i o n , Executive Order 8802, on June 25, 1941.

Sovern

(1966) r e p o r t e d t h a t th e r e g u l a t i o n was h a i l e d as much as a war e f f o r t
as one o f economic j u s t i c e .

It

was a l s o perceived as

a use o f power-

c o e r c i v e p o l i t i c s , which f o rc ed

P r e s i d e n t F r a n k lin Roosevelt to s ig n

the e x e c u t i v e o r d e r r a t h e r than

f a c e 300,000 m i n o r i t y marchers on

Washington in l e s s than a week.
Vocational e d u catio n r e c e i v e d a d d i t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n and s u p p o r t
with Congressional approval o f th e Vocational Education Act of 1963 as
funding became a v a i l a b l e f o r j o b - p r e p a r a t i o n programs, along with j u r i s ­
d i c t i o n o f the Congressional committees o v e r s e e in g th e programs.
The F a i r Labor Standards Act o f 1938 was amended by th e Equal
Pay Act o f 1963, which p r o h i b i t e d employers from d i s c r i m i n a t i n g on th e
b a s is o f sex in payment o f wages f o r equal work ( K a p li n , 1978).

The

Equal Pay Act i s one o f e i g h t major em pl oym en t-d iscr im ina ti on s t a t u t e s
and one major e x e c u t i v e o r d e r a p p l i c a b l e to po stsec ond ar y e d u c a t i o n ,
each with i t s own s e t o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r u l e s and g u i d e l i n e s .

O thers,

c i t e d by Kaplin, i n c l u d e :
1.

T i t l e VI and T i t l e VII of the Ci vil Rights Act o f 1964 pro h i b i t i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on th e grounds o f r a c e , c o l o r , n a t i o n a l
o r i g i n , s e x , and r e l i g i o n .

2.

Executive Order 11246 of 1965, as amended, empowering th e
S e c r e t a r y o f Labor t o a s s u r e equal employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s
on government c o n t r a c t s and f e d e r a l l y funded c o n s t r u c t i o n
c o n t r a c t s f o r a l l persons w it h o u t r e g a rd to r a c e , c r e e d ,
c o lo r, sex, or national o rig in .

32

3.

Age D i s c r i m i n a t i o n Act o f 1967 p r o h i b i t i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on
th e b a s i s o f age o f th e worker.

4.

T i t l e IX o f t h e Educational Amendments o f 1972 p r o h i b i t i n g
sex d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

5.

Equal Employment Opportun ity Act o f 1972 p r o h i b i t i n g d i s ­
c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t f e d e r a l employees and a p p l i c a n t s f o r
f e d e r a l jo b s on th e b a s i s o f r a c e , c o l o r , r e l i g i o n , s e x , or
national o rig in .

6.

R e h a b i l i t a t i o n Act o f 1973 p rovid ing p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t d i s ­
c r i m i n a t i o n f o r handicapped i n d i v i d u a l s .

7.

38 U . S . C . , Sec. 2012 p r o h i b i t i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t
m i l i t a r y v e t e r a n s — 1974.
Kaplin a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t th e law has become an i n d i s p e n s a b l e

c o n s i d e r a t i o n in th e d a i l y l i v e s o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a t a l l l e v e l s .
Competition f o r money, s t u d e n t s , o u t s t a n d i n g f a c u l t y members, and
in c r e a s e d s c h o l a r s h i p funds has broken the t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f i s o ­
l a t i o n in h i g h e r e d u c a t io n and has brought s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l move­
ments, in c l u d i n g c i v i l - r i g h t s i s s u e s , to campus.

Sources o f p o s t s e c ­

ondary law a t th e f e d e r a l l e v e l a r e the F i r s t (Freedom o f Spee ch ),
Fourth ( S e c u r i t y ) , and F ou rteenth (Due Pr oc es s) Amendments to th e
United S t a t e s C o n s t i t u t i o n , a l l o f which p r o t e c t i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t i e s .
According to Kadzielski (1978), r e c e n t c o u r t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
o f f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n have i n d i c a t e d a change i n t h i n k i n g r e l a t e d to
th e t w o - t i e r e d F ourte e nth Amendment e q u a l - p r o t e c t i o n a n a l y s i s .

The

c o u r t s ap pe ar t o be moving from th e more l e n i e n t r a t i o n a l - r e l a t i o n
a n a l y s i s o f cases to th e s t r i c t - s c r u t i n y a n a l y s i s , which r e q u i r e s th e
government t o b e a r th e burden of proving t h a t t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n in
q u e s t i o n f u r t h e r s a compelling s t a t e i n t e r e s t and t h a t no o t h e r l e s s re s tric tiv e alternative exists.

Case law f u r t h e r a f f e c t s o r g a n i z a ­

t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n s by c l a r i f y i n g how d i s p u t e s a r e p r e s e n t e d .

33

Other f e d e r a l a c t s and s t a t u t e s r e g u l a t i n g p o s ts e c o n d a r y
e d u c a t i o n , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g , as compiled
by Kaplin (1978):
National Labor R e l a t i o n s Act of 1935
G , I . B i l l o f 1944
National Defense Education Act o f 1958
Higher Education F a c i l i t i e s Act of 1963
Higher Education Act o f 1965
Occupational S a f e ty and Health Act o f 1970
Educational Amendments o f 1972 c r e a t i n g comprehensive
plann in g commissions
Comprehensive Employment T r a i n i n g Act o f 1973
Federal Priv ac y Act o f 1974
Buckley Amendment o f 1974 r e g u l a t i n g d i s c l o s u r e o f s t u d e n t
r eco rd s
Employee Retirement Income S e c u r i t y Act o f 1974
Copyright Act o f 1976
Tax laws r e q u i r i n g conformity to r e g u l a t i o n s o f t h e I n t e r n a l
Revenue S e r v ic e to m a in ta in tax-exempt s t a t u s
I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t f e d e r a l s u p p o rt o f and i n t e r e s t and
involvement in pos tsec onda ry e d u c a t i o n have in c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
s i n c e passage of th e Northwest Ordinance i n 1787, even though th e
United S t a t e s C o n s t i t u t i o n l e a v e s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e d u c a t i o n
t o th e s t a t e s ( Z o a g l in , 1976) t o r y to a l l p a r t i e s .

This i n t e r e s t has not been s a t i s f a c ­

R e c e n tly , s p e c i f i c c h a l l e n g e s have been r a i s e d

in r e l a t i o n t o th e t r e a t m e n t o f a p p l i c a n t s and employees i n e d u c a t i o n .
In 1970, t h e opening round was f i r e d by a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l ,
unknown women's c i v i l - r i g h t s group known as th e Women's Equit y Action
League (WEAL) ( S a n d le r , 1973).

WEAL f i l e d a f e d e r a l c o m p la i n t a g a i n s t

th e e n t i r e h i g h e r - e d u c a t i o n community, ch a r g i n g an in d u s t r y w i d e p a t ­
t e r n o f sex d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

The r e s u l t was passage o f T i t l e IX o f

th e Educational Amendments o f 1972, p r o h i b i t i n g sex d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in
ed u c a ti o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s r e c e i v i n g f e d e r a l f unds.

34

An immediate o u t c r y a r o s e from o t h e r r a n k s.

Charges o f

i n t e r f e r e n c e with academic freedom {Roche, 1973) and t h r e a t s t o i n s t i ­
t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y ( C h ronicle o f Higher E d u c a tio n , 1975) were i s s u e d .
One community-college board member observed t h a t t h e O f f i c e o f Edu­
c a t i o n , in c e l e b r a t i n g i t s 100th a n n i v e r s a r y in 1967, announced t h a t
Congress had passed more p i e c e s o f l e g i s l a t i o n on e d u catio n du rin g
t h e preceding t h r e e y e a r s than i t had in th e f i r s t 97 y e a r s o f t h e
O ffice's existence.

The board member a t t r i b u t e d f e d e r a l funding to

s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s o f l e g i s l a t o r s who hold t i g h t r e g u l a t o r y r e i n s on
t h e programs ( Z o a g l in , 1976).
Joseph Cosand (1977 ), a rec og nized a u t h o r i t y on postsec ond ar y
e d u c a tio n who i s f a m i l i a r with th e workings o f th e Department o f
H e a l th , E du cation , and W elfare , s a i d t h e f e d e r a l government i s g r a d u ­
a l l y moving away from a very minor r o l e t o t h a t o f a j u n i o r p a r t n e r
i n r e g u l a t i n g / c o n t r o l l i n g h i g h e r e d u c a tio n and, as a consequence,
i n c r e a s i n g l y i s being viewed as an i n t r u d i n g enemy r a t h e r than a sup­
porting p artn er.

More r e c e n t l y , a c o l l e g e p r e s i d e n t a s s e r t e d t h a t

" t h e f e d e r a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t a l r e a d y i s moving t o t e l l u n i v e r s i t i e s
what, when, and how to te ac h and work; now they w i l l t e l l us how to
play" (Davison, 1979, p. 35 ).
Knezevich (1962) wrote t h a t , although t h e n a t u r e o f f e d e r a l ­
ism pr ecludes t h e n a t i o n a l government's d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e
o p e r a t i o n o f p u b lic e d u c a t i o n , t h e i n t e r e s t o f th e n a t i o n a l govern­
ment in th e cour se and w e l f a r e o f p u b l i c e d u c a tio n can be t r a c e d t o
t h e very beginnings o f organ iz ed government in th e c o u n t r y .

The r o l e

o f th e f e d e r a l government in p u b li c e d u c a tio n remains a c o n t r o v e r s i a l

35

one.

Federal c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e development o f p u b l i c e d u c a t io n

in th e United S t a t e s , however, have been very im port ant and a r e
expected t o be even more s i g n i f i c a n t in th e f u t u r e .
M a n i p u l a t i v e / S p e c i a l - I n t e r e s t Groups
A r e c e n t r e p o r t o f th e Carnegie C o uncil, p r o j e c t i n g th e ne xt
20 y e a r s f o r h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , a r t i c u l a t e d a number o f f e a r s f o r t h e
f u t u r e o f h i g h e r e d u c a t io n e x p r ess ed by p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n t h e f i e l d .
One such f e a r was t h a t a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n w i l l become
l e s s dynamic in t h e i r development; more t o r n by i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s and
s t r a i n s in a Hobbesean world o f "every man a g a i n s t ever y man"; and
more c r e a t u r e s o f th e p u b l i c w i l l ex pres sed through b u r e a u c r a t i c con­
t r o l s r a t h e r than f r e e - s t a n d i n g , s e l f - g o v e r n i n g e n t i t i e s (Three
Thousand F u t u r e s , 1980).
These f e a r s weem t o be w e ll-fo u nded i f t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f a
dean o f New York U n i v e r s i t y a r e t o be b e l i e v e d :
I t ' s a t a s k o f b a la n c in g th e demands o f va rious groups a g a i n s t
each o t h e r and a g a i n s t t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s r e s o u r c e s . S u r e , t h e r e
ar e indeed some lower l e v e l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s who a r e pa p e r push­
e r s and b u r e a u c r a t s i n t h e old sense o f th e word, b u t t h e men
in th e c r i t i c a l r o l e s a r e not b u r e a u c r a t s , th e y a r e p o l i t i c i a n s
s t r u g g l i n g t o make dreams come t r u e and f i g h t i n g t o b alan ce
i n t e r e s t groups o f f a g a i n s t each o t h e r . This p l a c e i s more l i k e
a p o l i t i c a l j u n g l e , a l i v e and s cre am ing, than a r i g i d , q u i e t
b ur e a u c ra c y . ( B a l d r i d g e , 1971, p. 9)
From th e o b s e r v a t i o n s , one sen se s t h a t change i s o c c u r r i n g
and w i l l c o n tin u e t o occu r w i t h i n i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ,
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e d e s i r e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s in v o lv ed .

There i s a l s o

a f e e l i n g t h a t t h e p r e s e n t - d a y environment may compare t o t h e t u r b u ­
l e n t f i e l d Emery and T r i s t (1965) i d e n t i f i e d in t h e i r work on th e

36

" c a u s a l " t e x t u r e o f th e environment.

Dynamic process es a r i s e from th e

f i e l d i t s e l f - - b e t w e e n components, o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f components, and
li n k e d s e t s o f components—with an a c c e l e r a t i n g r a t e and co mplexity
o f i n t e r a c t i v e e f f e c t s t h a t exceeds t h e component s y s te m s ' c a p a c i t i e s
f o r p r e d i c t i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g t h e compounding consequences o f t h e i r
actions.

Change e f f o r t s w i t h i n t h i s environment a r e d i f f i c u l t and

complex, t o say t h e l e a s t .
One model f o r e f f e c t i n g change under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i s
S t y l e s and Robins on's (1973) P o l i t i c a l Process Model o f Change R e le ­
va n t to E ducation.
1.

The f i v e s t e p s o f the model a r e :

Development. P r o v is io n o f an o p p o r tu n i t y f o r a r t i c u l a t i o n
o f c o m p lain ts and p r o p o sa ls by a l l i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s .

2* D i f f u s i o n . Dis se min ation of complaints and remedial p r o ­
posal's f o r comment by a l l i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s . R e vis ion o f
remedial p r o p o s a ls as a p p r o p r i a t e .
3.

L e g i t i m i z a t i o n . Development o f a r e c o g n i t i o n among p o l i c y
and r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t o r s o f t h e need t o change.

4.

Adoption. Development o f an acceptance by p r o f e s s i o n a l edu­
c a t o r s of t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to c a r r y out change.

5.

A d aption. Actual implementation o f change with o r w i t h o u t
fu rth e r m odification.

This model c o n t a i n s elements o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n and a u t h o r i t a r i a n a c a ­
demic governance t h a t , when combined, should enhance th e p o s s i b i l i t y
o f a s u c c e s s f u l change e f f o r t .
O r g a n iz a ti o n a l change a f f e c t i n g p o l i c y w i t h i n i n s t i t u t i o n s
also c a lls for p o litic a l action.

Figure 2 d e p i c t s a sim ple p o l i t i c a l

model developed by Bal drid ge (1971 ), which t r a c e s t h e s t e p s from i d e n ­
t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l f a c t o r s c a l l i n g f o r change t o f i n a l p o l i c y
ex e c u t io n w i t h i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n .

F actors

W hat are

th e

H o w Co I h e

social

m o t e I h e f o r m a t i o n of

T ra n sfo rm a tio n

|k

pressures
|i

to b e a r

in l o o lli c ia l policy

1
1

|1

/

interest gro u p s

1
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1

/

O lf ic ia l

of P o lic y

\

Policy
Execution

/ c o m m itm e n t to \

tra n slated

f

divergent values and

1

Policy

How a r e Ihe m ulliple

interest

g ro u p s bring p re s s u re

conditions w hich p ro ­

E xecution

L egislative

interest
A rticulation

Social C o n te x t

/
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certain goals
an d values

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\

1

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i
i

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i
i

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Feedback Process—

1-----

T h e g e n e r a t i o n of n e w political conflicts

Figure 2 . —Policy formulation in the u n i v e r s i t y : a simple p o l i t i c a l model. (From
J . Victor Ba ldridg e, e d . , Academic Governance: Research on I n s t i t u t i o n a l
P o l i t i c s and Decision Making, Berkeley, C a l i f . : McCutchan Publishing
Corp., 1971, p. 9 . )

1
1

38

The p r e v i o u s l y mentioned p o l i t i c a l models in v o lv e d e c i s i o n
making a t a number o f i n t e r v a l s .

Baldrid ge (1977) a l s o p r e s e n t e d a

model t h a t i s h e l p f u l i n un d e r sta n d in g th e p o l i t i c a l d ecis io n -m akin g
proce ss in which cues a r e r a i s e d by powerful p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s t o which
th e p o l i t i c a l community must respond.

An i n i t i a l s t e p i s to l o c a t e

th e d e c i s i o n and t h e person o r group with a u t h o r i t y t o make t h e d e c i ­
sion.

However, Bal dridge contended t h a t d e c i s i o n s a r e u s u a l l y " p e r ­

formed" to a g r e a t e x t e n t by t h e time a person o r group i s given
l e g i t i m a c y t o make t h e d e c i s i o n .

For t h i s r e a s o n , p o l i t i c a l d e c i ­

s io n s ar e made on " c r i t i c a l i s s u e s " r a t h e r than on r o u t i n e o n e s , and
c o n tr o v e rs y i s not l i k e l y t o end e a s i l y , making i t d i f f i c u l t t o know
when a d e c i s io n has been made.

Such u n c e r t a i n t y prompted Perrow (1970)

t o a s s e r t t h a t , in th e p u b l i c s e c t o r , v e s te d i n t e r e s t s and p o l i t i c a l
power o f t e n combine t o f a v o r s h o r t - r u n e f f i c i e n c y o f r o u t i n e l y p r o ­
duced goods and s e r v i c e s , a t t h e expense o f q u a l i t y and, p e r h a p s ,
lon g-ra nge s a v in g s .
From a p o l i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , Crowfoot and C h e s le r (1974)
s t a t e d t h a t , to t h e e x t e n t t h a t r e s o u r c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e and small
groups compete f o r them, th e key t o r e s o l u t i o n i s t h e s t a t u s o r r e l a ­
t i v e power o f th e groups.

In Ke eton's (1971) o p i n i o n , s h a re d a u t h o r i t y

i s f orc ed by c o n s t i t u e n c y claims to c o n t r o l .

Those whose s p o n s o r s h i p

and r esources c r e a t e d and s u s t a i n th e i n s t i t u t i o n f e e l th ey a r e e n t i t l e d
t o p r o t e c t and f u r t h e r t h e i r purposes and i n t e r e s t s .
A number o f s p e c i a l - i n t e r e s t c o n s t i t u e n c i e s were mentioned in
th e l i t e r a t u r e .

B a ldrid ge (1978) s a i d t h a t c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g i s

r e a l i g n i n g many major power blocks in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l academic s e t t i n g ,

39

whereas Fisch el (1976) observed t h a t groups r e p r e s e n t i n g women,
t e a c h e r s , s t u d e n t s , and n a t i o n a l c i v i l - r i g h t s commissions have a
s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t view from p u b lic - s c h o o l and h ig h e r - e d u c a t i o n
adm inistrators.

Howe (1977) s t a t e d t h a t th e e f f o r t t o e f f e c t change

through t h e p o l i t i c a l p roc es s i s never f a s h i o n a b l e , but i t i s v i t a l
and b a s i c .

This f e e l i n g has n o t d e t e r r e d blocks o f s p e c i a l - i n t e r e s t

groups from f o c u s i n g on t h e p o l i t i c a l process ("Report o f Committee W,"
1979), n o r has i t dim inished t h e c a l l f o r e l e c t i o n o f p o l i t i c i a n s who
a r e s e n s i t i v e to t h e e f f e c t o f f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n on h i g h e r ed uca tion
(Kane, 1978).

In th e cas e o f implementation o f T i t l e IX, t h e s e voices

a r e r a i s e d with some perceived s e l f - j u s t i f i c a t i o n .

One study con­

ducted in Kansas r e v e a le d t h a t s ch oo ls were n o t f u l l y complying with
T i t l e IX requir em en ts concerning ge ner al compliance, t r e a t m e n t o f s t u ­
d e n t s , and t r e a t m e n t o f employees and t h a t no meaningful o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
change had taken p l a c e (Tompkins, 1977).
According t o Clark (1960 ), c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e p o l i t i c a l
c l i m a t e and environment o f th e community i s extremely im p o rtan t to
community c o l l e g e s , even more so than t o f o u r - y e a r c o l l e g e s and u n i ­
versities.

One reas on f o r t h i s i s t h a t th e t r u s t e e s o f t h e community

c o l l e g e a r e g e n e r a l l y e l e c t e d by th e c o n s t i t u e n t s and have c l o s e t i e s
t o t h e community.

Also, t h e goals o f th e c o l l e g e , in c l u d i n g admis­

s i o n s p o l i c i e s , a r e s e t l a r g e l y by t h e mar ketplace through s tu d e n t
s e l e c t i o n o f cou rse s r a t h e r than f a c u l t y judgment about c u r ri culum .
These c o n d i t i o n s p r e s e n t major i m p l i c a t i o n s i n c o n s id e r i n g o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n a l change, perhaps b e s t d e s c r i b e d by Bennis (1976).

He s t a t e d

t h a t change agen ts o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e c a p a b i l i t y o f p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n to

40

e f f e c t changes in p r a c t i c e .

When a law i s p a s s e d , some change a g e n t s

c o n s i d e r th e jo b done, when a l l t h a t has been accomplished i s t o
l e g i t i m i z e e n v i s io n e d change.

The r e e d u c a t io n o f change s t i l l

re m ains.

P rogr es s Report
In 1977, th e r e s u l t s o f a study conducted by t h e Committee on
A f f i r m a t i v e Action o f the Michigan Chapter o f th e Women's Equity
Action League were p u b li sh ed (Grossman, 1977).

Survey i n s t r u m e n t s

were mailed to 93 s e p a r a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s or branches o f p a r e n t i n s t i ­
t u t i o n s , with a 70 p e r c e n t r e t u r n r a t e (65 of 9 3 ) .

The f o ll o w i n g f i n d ­

ings were in cl uded in the r e p o r t :
1.

Of th e d e s i g n a t e d equal employment o f f i c e r s , 33 p e r c e n t

were below th e rank o f v i c e - p r e s i d e n t , 18 p e r c e n t he ld t h e rank o f
v i c e - p r e s i d e n t , and 16 p e r c e n t had a t i t l e i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a l l , o r
s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l l , o f t h e i r time was devoted t o t h e equal o p p o r t u n i t y /
a ffirm a tiv e action function.
2.

About o n e - t h i r d o f the equal employment o f f i c e r s r e p o r t e d

d i r e c t l y t o the p r e s i d e n t .
3.

Of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s with enrollm ents o f more th a n 1,000

s t u d e n t s , 21 p e r c e n t s ub mitted a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n plans t o t h e D e p a r t­
ment o f H e a lth , E duc ation, and Welfare whereas a n o t h e r 11 p e r c e n t
developed plan s b u t d id n o t submit them f o r a p p r o v a l ; 29 p e r c e n t
r e p o r t e d plans were under development, and 39 p e r c e n t d id not have
plans o r f a i l e d to respond t o th e q u e s t i o n .
4.

Most o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s covered by f e d e r a l a n t i -

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n were aware o f th e laws and had, a t l e a s t
s u p e r f i c i a l l y , begun t o comply with them.

41

5.

S i g n i f i c a n t numbers of c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s in M ichi­

gan had n o t f u l l y obeyed th e l e g i s l a t i o n .
6.

The Department of H e a lt h , Edu cation , and Welfare had n o t

e n f o rc e d th e laws designed to e l i m i n a t e employment d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in
academ ia.
Although data in t h i s survey includ ed resp o n s es from p o s t ­
secondary i n s t i t u t i o n s o t h e r than community c o l l e g e s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r
f e l t t h e r e s u l t s were s u f f i c i e n t l y im po rt an t to be in c l u d e d in the
l i t e r a t u r e review.
Summary
The l i t e r a t u r e reviewed in Chapter II was s e l e c t e d s p e c i f i c ­
a l l y f o r i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o t h i s study and was p r e s e n t e d in terms
o f the t h r e e broad concepts o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e - t h e o r y s t r a t e g i e s :
e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l , n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e , and p o w e r -c o e rc i v e .

In

the f o u r t h s e c t i o n , a pro gre ss r e p o r t from a 1977 stu d y o f a l l p o s t ­
secondary i n s t i t u t i o n s in Michigan was d i s c u s s e d .
E m p ir ic a l-R a ti o n a l Theory
The e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l co ncept o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change i s
based on t h e assumption t h a t people a r e r a t i o n a l and wi l l f o llo w
t h e i r s e l f - i n t e r e s t once t h i s i s r e v e a le d t o them.
t i o n has been s u p p o r t i v e o f th e conce pt.

Federal l e g i s l a ­

Funds have been pr ovid e d

f o r r e s e a r c h , d e m o n s tr a tio n , and d i f f u s i o n o f in f o r m a t i o n systems o r
f o r s u p p o r t o f e d u c a ti o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s to a s s u r e equal o p p o r t u n i t y
thro ugh out t h e 50 s t a t e s .

42

Authors such as Rogers, B a l d r i d g e , and Clark and Guba p r e s e n t e d
r e s e a r c h data s u b s t a n t i a t i n g th e n o t io n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n an
o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e cap ab le o f r e c o g n iz in g change e f f o r t s t h a t a r e bene­
f i c i a l and t h a t they p o s ses s th e a b i l i t y t o a c c e p t o r r e j e c t change
e f f o r t s based on th e ty pe o f message and method o f d e l i v e r y .
Nor mative-Reeducative Theory
The n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e th e o r y assumes t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e
i n h e r e n t l y a c t i v e , in q u e s t o f impulse and need s a t i s f a c t i o n .

The

person p e r c e i v e s s t i m u l i as f u r t h e r i n g o r t h w a r t i n g t h e g o a ls o f
ongoing a c t i o n and does not p a s s i v e l y aw ai t s t i m u l i from t h e e n v i r o n ­
ment in o r d e r t o respond.
C o n s id era b le r e s e a r c h and th e o r y have been focused on
n o r m a ti v e - r e e d u c a t i v e p r o j e c t s .

Lewis and Levin approached t h e t o p i c

from th e s t a n d p o i n t o f change i n i n d i v i d u a l s ’ b a s i c p h y s ic a l and
p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t r u c t u r e s , which r e s u l t s in change w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i ­
zation.

L i p p i t ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n on h e l p f u l i n t e r v e n t i o n i n an o r g a n i ­

z a t i o n by a change a g e n t f u r t h e r e d t h e n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e t h e o r y ,
as d i d Mann's work on f a c t o r s i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c r e a s i n g r e s i s t a n c e t o
change.

Advocates o f t h i s th e o r y have e s t a b l i s h e d a framework o f

r e s e a r c h showing t h a t man i s i n q u i s i t i v e and l e a r n s by being invo lv ed
in s earc h a c t i v i t i e s and i n t h e d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s .
Power-Coercive Theory
The assumption u n d e r l y in g t h e pow er -c oerc ive t h e o r y i s t h a t
power f o r change i s g e n e r a t e d and a p p l i e d through p o l i t i c a l o r
economic p r e s s u r e .

P o l i t i c a l power g e n e r a l l y c a r r i e s a s t a t e o f

43

l e g i t i m a c y , whereas c o e r c i o n r e l i e s on some form o f p u n i t i v e
action.
Much o f th e l i t e r a t u r e reviewed in t h i s s e c t i o n d e a l t
with l e g i s l a t i o n by th e U.S. Congr ess, as compiled by Kaplin.

Increas­

i n g l y , f e d e r a l laws have been enac ted r e g u l a t i n g t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l ,
employment, and c o n s t r u c t i o n programs and a c t i v i t i e s o f p u b l i c edu­
cational i n s t it u t io n s .

Benne's examination o f b u r e a u c r a t i c o r g a n i z a ­

t i o n s pro vided an u n d e r sta n d i n g o f i n t e r n a l power s t r u c t u r e , whereas
B ald r id g e ex p lo r e d both i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t
organizational decisions.
Pro gress Report
A 1977 r e p o r t by t h e Committee on A f f i r m a t i v e Action o f t h e
Michigan Chapter of th e Women's Equity Action League was c r i t i c a l o f
p r ogre s s made by posts ec ondar y i n s t i t u t i o n s in Michigan t o reduce o r
e l i m i n a t e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f s ex.

The r e p o r t s t a t e d t h a t

most i n s t i t u t i o n a l personnel a r e aware o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e l e g i s ­
l a t i o n but have only begun to comply s u p e r f i c i a l l y w ith th e law.
Courts have been u n w illi n g to s u b s t i t u t e t h e i r judgment f o r t h a t o f
school o f f i c i a l s , and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e enf orcement has n o t been s u f f i ­
ciently stringent.
The review o f l i t e r a t u r e showed t h a t a wide v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s
i n f l u e n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change, whether such change i s a tt e m p te d on
an i n d i v i d u a l o r an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e v e l .

In Chapter I I I , t h e

r e s e a r c h e r p r e s e n t s t h e de sig n o f t h e s t u d y , i n c l u d i n g s e l e c t i o n o f
t h e sample, r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s , and d a t a - a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s .

CHAPTER I I I

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The d es ig n and methodology of the stu d y a r e p r e s e n t e d in
th is chapter.
Sample
The sample f o r th e study was th e e n t i r e p o p u l a ti o n o f 29
Michigan community c o l l e g e s recognized by t h e s t a t e o f Michigan.
The c h i e f personnel o f f i c e r o f each community c o l l e g e was asked to
respond to th e survey i n s t r u m e n t .

Twenty-three o f t h e 29 personnel

o f f i c e r s responded, f o r a r e t u r n r a t e o f 79.3 p e r c e n t .
The Survey Instr ument
A p r i n t e d survey in s tr u m e n t developed by th e r e s e a r c h e r was
used t o e l i c i t re spons es from th e study sample.
i n s t r u m e n t i s found in Appendix A.)

(A copy o f t h e f i n a l

The in s t r u m e n t was d i v i d e d i n t o

t h r e e s e c t i o n s , which sought responses concerning a c t i o n s t a k e n to
implement T i t l e IX a t th e r e s p o n d e n ts ' i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e d eg r ee to
which e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i n fl u e n c e d implementation o f T i t l e IX,
and demographic data about th e T i t l e IX o f f i c e r and i n s t i t u t i o n a l
operations.

44

45

Implementation Actions
In S e c tio n One o f th e survey i n s t r u m e n t , r e sp o n d e n ts were
asked to i n d i c a t e whether o r not t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s had completed
e i g h t s p e c i f i c a c t i o n s r e q u i r e d by T i t l e IX and whether 12 a c t i o n s
recommended by the r e g u l a t i o n had o r had n o t been co mpleted.

Wording

f o r S e c ti o n One o f th e in str u m e n t was de r iv e d from t h e language o f
the r e g u l a t i o n .
I n f l u e n c e o f S e l e c t e d Factors
S e c tio n Two of t h e in s t r u m e n t was designed t o measure th e
p e r c e iv e d degree t o which e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e d implemen­
t a t i o n o f T i t l e IX.

The s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s were developed from t h e

r e s e a r c h e r ' s work e x p er ien ce and review o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

The

i n v e s t i g a t o r prep ared a p r e l im i n a r y l i s t o f 18 f a c t o r s ; t h i s l i s t
was reviewed f o r a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s by a panel o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
th e Michigan Community College Personnel A d m i n i s t r a t o r s A s s o c i a t i o n .
As a r e s u l t o f t h i s review, t h e number o f s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s was reduced
to e ig h t.
B.)

(A l i s t o f the p r e l im i n a r y f a c t o r s i s i n c lu d e d i n Appendix

One a d d i t i o n a l q u e s t i o n was s ubse q uently added to p e r m i t resp ond­

en ts to i n c l u d e a f a c t o r s p e c i f i c t o t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n .
Demographic D a t a - - I n s t i t u t i o n a l
Oper ations
The t h i r d s e c t i o n o f th e in str u m e n t r e q u e s t e d r e s p o n s e s t o
te n g e n e r a l - i n f o r m a t i o n q u e s ti o n s abou t th e T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r and
m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n s as a r e s u l t o f implementa­
t i o n o f T i t l e IX.

46

F i e l d T e sting
The in str u m e n t was f i e l d t e s t e d a t ten community c o l l e g e s in
M i s s o u r i , I l l i n o i s , Minnesota, F l o r i d a , Ar kansas, Washington, A r i z o n a ,
Maine, and I n d ia n a .

The r e t u r n r a t e was 50 p e r c e n t .

The r e sp o n d e n ts

noted no unusual problems in pr o v id in g re sp onses o r in u n d e r sta n d in g
the survey q u e s t i o n s .
Data C o l l e c t i o n
The c h i e f personnel o f f i c e r o f each c o l l e g e was s e l e c t e d as
th e resp ond en t because th e i n v e s t i g a t o r assumed t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r in
t h a t p o s i t i o n would be knowledgeable o r would have ac ce ss t o a knowl­
edgeable person who could a c c u r a t e l y complete th e survey i n s t r u m e n t .
C on tacting the c h i e f personnel o f f i c e r f u r t h e r enhanced th e i n s t r u m e n t
r e t u r n r a t e because th e r e s e a r c h e r had j u s t completed a o n e - y e a r term
as p r e s i d e n t of t h e Michigan Community College Personnel A d m i n i s t r a ­
t o r s A s s o c i a t i o n and was p e r s o n a l l y a cq u ain ted with each c h i e f p e r ­
sonnel o f f i c e r .
I n i t i a l d a t a - c o l l e c t i o n e f f o r t s began with a l e t t e r t o each o f
th e 29 community c o l l e g e p r e s i d e n t s , s ig n ed by t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n
a d v i s o r and th e Executive D i r e c t o r o f th e Michigan Community College
Association.

The l e t t e r b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d t h e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t and

r e q u e s te d co o p e r a tio n in responding t o t h e survey i n s t r u m e n t .
o f t h e l e t t e r may be found i n Appendix C.)

(A copy

Three days l a t e r , a copy

o f th e survey in st ru m ent was s e n t t o t h e c h i e f personnel o f f i c e r a t
each c o l l e g e , along with a personal l e t t e r r e q u e s t i n g h im /h e r t o
complete the in st rum ent w i t h i n two weeks.

(Appendix D c o n t a i n s a

47

copy o f t h e cover l e t t e r . )

Responses were r e c e i v e d from 19 person nel

o f f i c e r s as a r e s u l t o f th e i n i t i a l m a i l i n g .
Beginning in e a r l y September, fo llow -up t e l e p h o n e c a l l s were
made t o th e te n non respondents .

As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e te l e p h o n e

c a l l s , t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l i n str u m e n t s were r e t u r n e d .

In l a t e September,

a second te le p h o n e c a l l t o t h e remaining seven nonrespondents y i e l d e d
one a d d i t i o n a l r e s p o n s e .

Four nonrespondents were new in t h e p o s i t i o n

and did not have knowledge o f t h e T i t l e IX im ple m e n t a t io n ; t h e remain­
ing two s a i d t h a t such i n fo r m a t io n was c o n f i d e n t i a l —not to be
released.
R e l i a b i l i t y Estim ates
R e l i a b i l i t y e s t i m a t e s f o r the e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c ­
ing implementation o f T i t l e IX were c a l c u l a t e d using t h e S t a t i s t i c a l
Package f o r th e Social S c i e n c e s , a c o e f f i c i e n t - a l p h a - t y p e t e s t .

The

alpha r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t f o r th e e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s was
.65562, and th e s t a n d a r d item alph a was .62185.
e s t i m a t e s were c a l c u l a t e d because o f th e small

No o t h e r r e l i a b i l i t y
number o f responses

and t h e use of n o n p a r a l l e l measurements.
Supplemental Inform atio n
Three a d d i t i o n a l types o f i n fo r m a tio n were o b t a i n e d from
independent sourc es t o de ter m ine i f any r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d between
the s i z e o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l o p e r a t i n g b u dget, s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t , and
geo gr ap hica l l o c a t i o n and th e l e v e l o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l compliance with
T i t l e IX.

48

I n s t i t u t i o n a l O p erati ng Budget
The r e s e a r c h e r o b t a i n e d t h e a c tu a l 1975-76 o p e r a t i n g budgets
o f each c o l l e g e from t h e Community College F in a n c ia l Summary—C u r r e n t
Oper ation Revenues— FY 74-75, 75-76, and 76-77, Michigan Department o f
Management and Budget, Form CC1.
S tu d e n t Enrollment
The i n v e s t i g a t o r o b t a i n e d th e 1976 c a l e n d a r - y e a r e n r o l lm e n t
t o t a l s o b t a i n e d from t h e Michigan Community College A s s o c i a t i o n ,
based on th e 1976 CYES a u d ite d e n r o llm e n t o f each i n s t i t u t i o n .
Geographical Location
The 23 i n s t i t u t i o n s whose personnel o f f i c e r s responded to t h e
survey i n s t r u m e n t were c a t e g o r i z e d acco rding to urban o r o t h e r geo­
g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n , based on t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s personal knowledge o f
th e c o l l e g e s .

Co lleg es a r e l i s t e d in Appendix F.
Design

The de sig n o f th e study was d e s c r i p t i v e in n a t u r e .
Figure 3 f o r a g raphic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e s tu dy d e s i g n . )

(See
The major

focus o f t h e study was to determine t h e i n f l u e n c e of s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s
in th e p r o c e ss o f implementing T i t l e IX in Michigan community c o l l e g e s .
Rank Order o f I n s t i t u t i o n s
A rank o r d e r o f c o l l e g e s by l e v e l o f compliance with combined
mandatory and v o l u n ta r y a c t i o n s was c o n s t r u c t e d by a s s i g n i n g p o i n t s
t o each c o l l e g e on th e f o llo w in g b a s i s :

49

SELECTED FACTORS
Change Agent
{ A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Personnel
i A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Funds
/
General Knowledge
/
C o o r d in ato r I n f l u e n c e
/
I n - s e r v i c e T r a i n i n g Programs
/
Co ordinat or A u t h o r i t y
/
Employee-Group P r e s s u r e

HIGH-COMPLIANCE
INSTITUTIONS
High Q u a r t i l e

\\

/

A
\

\

INSTITUTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

\

/
\

Compared

V

t

t

/s

/
/

/

/

/
/

/

/

LOW-COHPLIANCE
INSTITUTIONS

/

/
'

/

t

\

\

O per atin g Budget
Geographical Loc atio n
S tud ent Enrollment

/

>

V

/ V\

A

/

/

f

<
\ > ^

by
Q uartile

^
f

\
\

\
\

r? THEORY RESPONSES
/

Empi r i c a l - R a t i o n a l
Normati ve -Reeducati ve
Power-Coercive

'/

INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICES
Low Q u a r t i l e

Admi s s i o n /T r e a tm e n t—S tu d en ts
Empl oyment/Treatment—
Employees

Fig ure 3 . —Graphic d e p i c t i o n o f th e study d e s ig n . (NOTE: Responses
o f t h e h i g h - q u a r t i l e i n s t i t u t i o n s were compared t o th e
resp o n s es o f th e l o w - q u a r t i l e i n s t i t u t i o n s in t h e f o u r
c a t e g o r i e s d i s p l a y e d above. The F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y
T e s t was used to determine i f t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­
f e r e n c e in the responses t o each ca te g o r y by t h e h i g h - and
low-compliance grou p s.)

50

Mandatory a c t i o n s :

Two p o i n t s f o r each yes answer

Voluntar y a c t i o n s :

Two p o i n t s f o r a yes answer

P o i n t t o t a l s were c a l c u l a t e d f o r each i n s t i t u t i o n ; t h e c o l l e g e
a t t a i n i n g t h e h i g h e s t number o f p o i n t s was a s s ig n e d p o s i t i o n number
one, th e one with th e s e c o n d - h i g h e s t p o i n t t o t a l was placed i n p o s i ­
t i o n two, and
points

so on u n t i l t h e c o l l e g e r e c e i v i n g t h e lo w es t number

wasd e s ig n a t e d number 23.

quartiles.

of

The rank o r d e r i n g wasd i v i d e d i n t o

Although a l l resp o n s es a r e d i s p la y e d f o r each i n s t i t u t i o n , t h e

r e s e a r c h e r was only concerned with the h i g h e s t and lowest q u a r t i l e s .
A second rank o r d e r o f c o l l e g e s was e s t a b l i s h e d us in g only
th e mandatory a c t i o n s and a s s i g n i n g p o i n t t o t a l s as p r e v i o u s l y
described.

A t h i r d rank o r d e r o f c o l l e g e s , based on t h e same p o i n t

as sig n m en t, was c o n s t r u c t e d f o r v o l u n t a ry a c t i o n s o n ly .
S e l e c t e d F acto r s
Personnel o f f i c e r s ' responses t o th e q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i n im plementation o f T i t l e IX
were re c o rd e d f o r each c o l l e g e .

The responses were coded as f o ll o w s :

Major a s s e t o r a s s e t
Major l i a b i l i t y o r l i a b i l i t y
No i n f l u e n c e

2
1
0

For a n a l y s i s p u r p o s e s , t h i s code enabled t h e r e s e a r c h e r , in e f f e c t ,
to e s t a b l i s h a yes o r no re sp ons e t o the q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e d t o th e
eight selected facto rs.
In stitu tio n al C haracteristics
A s i m i l a r coding system was used in a n a l y z i n g t h e d a t a on annual
o p e r a t i n g b u dget, geog rap hica l l o c a t i o n , and s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t .

51

Op erating b u d g e t . ~ T h e 12 c o l l e g e s with th e l a r g e s t annual
o p e r a t i n g budgets were coded as 2 , and t h e o t h e r s r e c e iv e d a code
o f 1Geographical l o c a t i o n . —The c o l l e g e s i d e n t i f i e d as urban were
coded as 2 \ a l l o t h e r c o l l e g e s re ceiv ed a code o f 1_.
Stu den t e n r o l l m e n t . —The t o t a l 1976 c a l e n d a r - y e a r e n r o l lm e n t
f i g u r e s were re cord ed f o r t h e c o l l e g e s .

The 12 c o l l e g e s with th e

h i g h e s t e n r o llm e n t t o t a l s were coded as 2_, whereas th e remaining 11
c o l l e g e s were coded as 1_.
Change-Theory Responses
This p a r t o f the study was designed t o examine t h e r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p between th e rank o r d e r o f th e c o l l e g e s by compliance l e v e l and
th e responses to c o u p l e t s o f s i x of th e e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i n f l u ­
encing implementation o f T i t l e IX, which were c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h e
e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l , n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e , and pow er -c oerc ive change
theories.
E m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l . - - Q u e s t i o n s 1 and 4 o f S e c ti o n Two o f th e
survey in s tr u m e n t e l i c i t e d respons es r e g a rd i n g t h e pr ese nce o f i n s t i ­
t u t i o n a l change agents and general knowledge o f T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s by
members o f t h e governing board, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , o r s t a f f members.
These s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s were determined t o i l l u s t r a t e an e m p i r i c a l r a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y toward o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change.
Normati v e - r e e d u c a t i v e . —Questi ons 5 and 6 o f S e c t io n Two
sought responses concerning t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r
to i n f l u e n c e th e c h i e f e x e c u t iv e o f f i c e r and th e use o f i n - s e r v i c e

52

t r a i n i n g programs d e a l i n g with a t t i t u d e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s .

These two

f a c t o r s were reg ard ed as i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e
approach t o change.
P o w e r - c o e r c i v e . —Questions 7 and 8 o f S e c tio n Two, r e g a r d i n g
the a u t h o r i t y o f th e T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r and p r e s s u r e s bro ug ht by
employee gr ou ps, dem onstrated th e use o f pow er -coe rcive s t r a t e g i e s to
b r in g about change.
The resp o n s es to the above c o u p l e t s o f q u e s ti o n s were coded
as fo llo w s :
Major a s s e t o r a s s e t
Major l i a b i l i t y o r l i a b i l i t y
No res ponse

2
1
0

Again, th e use o f t h i s coding system p e r m i t t e d th e r e s e a r c h e r
t o e s t a b l i s h , in e f f e c t , a yes answer (2) o r a no answer (1) t o each
question.

The n o-re sponse s (0) did not i n f l u e n c e t h e s t a t i s t i c a l

analysis.
Ad miss ions/T reatmen t/
Employment P r a c t i c e s
This p a r t o f th e study was designed to examine t h e e f f e c t o f
e f f o r t s to implement T i t l e IX a f t e r

th e f i r s t y e a r .

Questio ns 9 and

10 o f S e c tio n Three o f t h e survey in s tr u m e n t gave resp o n d e n t s an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n d i c a t e i f changes had o c c u r re d in th e a d m i s s i o n s /
t r e a t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s o r in t h e employment p r a c t i c e s o f t h e c o l l e g e .
Responses to Questions 9 and 10 were coded with a £ f o r r e p o r t e d
changes o f a major o r minor n a t u r e , whereas r es po ns es i n d i c a t i n g t h a t
no change had o c c u r re d were coded with a 1_.

53

The d es ig n o f t h e stu d y and t h e method o f coding t h e d a t a
e na bled t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o t e s t whether th e high-compliance and lowcompliance i n s t i t u t i o n s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y in t h e i r r e s p o n s e s .
Research Questions
The f o llo w in g r e s e a r c h q u e s ti o n s and su bquest ions were
examined in t h i s study:
1.

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e per ce ived l e v e l o f

i n f l u e n c e o f s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g implementation o f T i t l e IX
and t h e l e v e l o f compliance by c o l l e g e s in t h e h i g h - and low-compliance
groups?
a.

Will th e perceived l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e pr esen ce

o f a change a g en t d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in th e h ig h - and lowcompl i a n c e groups?
b.

Will t h e p er ceiv ed lev el o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a v a i l a ­

b i l i t y o f personnel t o c o o r d i n a t e and mo nitor t h e implementation
d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s i n th e h igh- and low-compliance groups?
c.

Will t h e p e r c e iv e d l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a v a i l a ­

b i l i t y o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l funds t o meet budget re quire m en ts d i f f e r
between c o l l e g e s in t h e h ig h - and low-compliance groups?
d.

Will t h e p er ceiv ed l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f ge neral

knowledge o f T i t l e IX p r o v is i o n s by members o f th e gover ning
b o ard, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , o r s t a f f members d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s
i n t h e h ig h- and low-compliance groups?
e.

Will t h e p er ceiv ed le v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a b i l i t y

o f th e T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r t o i n f l u e n c e th e c h i e f e x e c u t i v e d i f f e r
between c o l l e g e s in t h e h i g h - and low-compliance groups?

54

f.

Will t h e p er ceiv ed level o f i n f l u e n c e o f i n - s e r v i c e

t r a i n i n g programs d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in th e h i g h - and lowcompl i a n c e groups?
g.

Will th e p er ceiv ed l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a u t h o r i t y

o f th e T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r to r e q u i r e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f p o l i c i e s ,
p r a c t i c e s , and pr oce dure s d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s i n t h e h i g h - and
low-compliance groups?
h.

Will t h e p e r c e iv e d l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f p r e s s u r e

b r o ught by employee groups r e p r e s e n t e d by c o l l e c t i v e - b a r g a i n i n g
agents d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in th e hig h- and low-compliance
groups?
2.

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l e c t e d i n s t i t u t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e l e v e l o f compliance by c o l l e g e s in t h e h ig h and low-compliance groups?
a.

Will the 1975-76 s t u d e n t f u l l - t i m e equated e n r o l lm e n t

b.

Will t h e geogr aphical l o c a t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n s c l a s ­

differ?

s i f i e d as urban and o t h e r d i f f e r ?
c.

Will t h e rank of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l 1975-76 g e n e r a l -

o p e r a t i n g - f u n d budget d i f f e r ?
3.

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e lev el o f compliance

by c o l l e g e s in th e h ig h - and low-compliance groups and t h e p e r c e iv e d
l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g im plementation o f

55

T i t l e IX when those f a c t o r s a r e c l a s s i f i e d by s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g i e s o f
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change theo ry?
a.

Will th e perceived use o f th e e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l

s t r a t e g y o f change, as i l l u s t r a t e d by th e pre se nce o f an i n s t i t u ­
t i o n a l change agen t and general knowledge o f T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s
by c o l l e g e boards and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s i n
th e h igh- and low-compliance groups?
b.

Will th e perceived use o f t h e n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e

s t r a t e g y of change, as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e T i t l e IX
c o o r d i n a t o r t o i n f l u e n c e th e c h i e f e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r and t h e use
o f i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g programs, d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in th e
h ig h - and low-compliance groups?
c.

Will the per ce ived use o f t h e p o w er-c oe rc ive s t r a t e g y

o f change, as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e a u t h o r i t y o f th e T i t l e IX c o o r ­
d in a to r to require modification of p o l i c i e s , p r a c t i c e s , proce­
d u r e s , and p r e s s u r e s brought by employee groups r e p r e s e n t e d by
c o l l e c t i v e - b a r g a i n i n g a g e n t s , d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s i n t h e h ig h and low-compliance groups?
4.

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e l e v e l o f compliance

by c o l l e g e s in the h ig h - and low-compliance groups and t h e r e p o r t e d
change i n adm ission/treatmen t/em ploym en t p r a c t i c e s ?
a.

Will r e p o r t e d changes in a d m i s s i o n s / t r e a t m e n t o f

s t u d e n t s d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in t h e h ig h - and low-compliance
groups?

56

b.

Will r e p o r t e d changes in employment/treatm ent o f

employees d i f f e r with t h e l e v e l o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l compliance by
c o l l e g e s in th e h igh- and low-compliance groups?
A naly s is of Data
The d a t a f o r each rank o r d e r o f c o l l e g e s were ana lyze d using
t h e F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y T e s t , a nonpa ra metric t e c h n i q u e f o r
examining d i s c r e t e d a t a , e i t h e r

nominal o r o r d i n a l , whent h e s i z e s

t h e two ind ep en den t samples a r e

s m a ll. This t e s t may be used when

t h e score s from two independent

samples a l l f a l l i n t o one o r the

o t h e r o f two m utually e x c l u s iv e

classes.

of

The s c o re s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d

by f r e q u e n c i e s i n a 2 x 2 contingency t a b l e , as de mon strated in
Figure 4.
yes

no

Total

Group 1

A

B

A+ B

Group 2

C

D

C+ D

A+ C

B+ D

N

Total

Figure 4 . —Sample conting ency t a b l e ,

Groups 1 and 2 r e p r e s e n t t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e r a n k - o r d e r e d
i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t o a high-compliance group (1) and a low-compliance
group ( 2 ) .

The column headings r e p r e s e n t th e yes o r no r esp onses o r

t h e e f f e c t i v e yes and no r e s p o n s e s , as d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p recedin g

57

s e c t i o n s on s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s , i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and
theory r e s p o n s e s .
The F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y T e st was used t o determ in e
whether th e two groups d i f f e r e d in t h e p r o p o r t i o n w it h which they
f e l l i n t o th e two c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .

For t h e d a ta in Figure 4 (where

A, B, C, and D s t a n d f o r f r e q u e n c i e s ) , t h e t e s t was used t o d e t e r ­
mine whether Group 1 and Group 2 d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n th e p r o ­
p o r t i o n o f p lu s e s and minuses a t t r i b u t e d t o them.

This t e s t i s

a p p l i c a b l e to data when N is 30 or s m a l l e r , as in t h i s s tu d y .
S i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l s o f t h e F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y T e st
a r e approximate and, i f e r r o r i s p r e s e n t , e r r o r is on t h e c o n s e r v a ­
tiv e side.

The d ata were analyzed f o r a s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l o f .05.

A n alys is t a b l e s o f t h e F is h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y T e st a r e in clu d ed
in Appendix E.
Assumpti ons
D a t a - c o l l e c t i o n procedures and a n a l y s e s were based on th e
fo llowing as sumption s:
1.

Each survey in str u m e n t was completed by an i n s t i t u t i o n a l

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e who was knowledgeable ab out e f f o r t s t o implement p r o v i ­
s io ns o f T i t l e IX and who responded with i n fo r m a tio n o f s u f f i c i e n t
v a l i d i t y t o be u s e fu l t o t h e s tu d y .
2.

The s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s p u r p o rte d t o i n f l u e n c e implementa­

t i o n o f th e r e g u l a t i o n were common to each i n s t i t u t i o n .

58

Limitations
The r e s e a r c h e r acknowledges c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y .
These l i m i t a t i o n s a r e as f o llo w s :
1.

The o r i g i n a l survey in str u m e n t might have l i m i t a t i o n s

t h a t were not d isc o v e re d in the development and t e s t i n g p r o c e s s e s .
2.

Respondents r e p o r t e d t h e i r p e r c e p ti o n s about t h e r e l a t i v e

i n f l u e n c e o f the s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s in implementing the r e g u l a t i o n .
3.

Responses t o t h e survey in s tr u m e n t were ac ce pted as

accurate reports.
4.

The r e s e a r c h e r provided f o r only one i n s t i t u t i o n - s p e c i f i c

f a c t o r t o be added to the e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s c o n ta in ed i n th e
survey in s tr u m e n t.
Summary
A d e t a i l e d design of the stu d y was p r e s e n te d in Ch apter I I I .
The sample f o r the study was i d e n t i f i e d as t h e 29 Michigan p u b l i c
community c o l l e g e s recog nized by t h e s t a t e o f Michigan.

These c o l ­

leg es were surveyed through the use o f an o r i g i n a l survey i n s t r u m e n t .
The des ig n o f th e study r e q u i r e d t h a t a rank o r d e r i n g o f
th e c o l l e g e s , by l e v e l o f compliance with mandated and v o l u n t a r y
a c t i o n s o f T i t l e IX, be e s t a b l i s h e d .

As a r e s u l t , t h e c o l l e g e s were

div id e d i n t o high-compliance and low-compliance q u a r t i l e s .
Use o f t h e F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y Test p e r m i t t e d the
r e s e a r c h e r t o determine i f th e two groups d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n
t h e i r r es pon ses to th e r e l a t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s
i d e n t i f i e d as a f f e c t i n g implementation o f th e r e g u l a t i o n .

59

Two o t h e r s e t s o f data were incl ude d in th e design o f th e
s tu d y .

Responses t o c o u p l e t s o f s i x o f th e e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s

i n f l u e n c i n g implementation of T i t l e IX were c l a s s i f i e d i n t o th e
e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l , n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e , and power-coercive t h e o r i e s
o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change.

The F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y T e s t p e r m i t t e d

a comparison o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l r es po nses by compliance le v e l and was
a l s o used to examine responses conce rning changes w i t h i n th e highl­
and 1ow-compliance i n s t i t u t i o n s in admiss ion/tre at m en t/em ploym en t
p ra c tic e s a f t e r the f i r s t year.

F i n a l l y , the assumptions upon which

th e study was based and the l i m i t a t i o n s o f da ta c o l l e c t i o n were l i s t e d .
An a n a l y s i s o f th e r e s u l t s of th e study i s p r e se n t e d in Chapter IV.

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION OF DATA
Introduction
Six s e c t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e Chapter IV o f t h i s s t u d y .

In th e

f i r s t s e c t i o n , t h r e e t a b l e s a r e p r e s e n te d d i s p l a y i n g t h e rank o r d e r o f
c o l l e g e s by combined mandatory and v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n , by mandatory
a c t i o n o n l y , and by v o lu n ta r y a c t i o n o nly.

S e c ti o n Two c o n t a i n s data

r e c e i v e d on the p er ceiv ed importance o f s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g
implementation of T i t l e IX.

The t h i r d s e c t i o n c o n t a i n s i n s t i t u t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and th e f o u r t h d i s p l a y s data r e l a t e d t o t h e e i g h t
s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s , c l a s s i f i e d by th e o r y r e s p o n s e .

S ection Five c o n ta i n s

data on changes in a d m i s s i o n s / t r e a t m e n t and in employment/treatment
p r a c t i c e s following implementation of T i t l e IX.

S e c tio n s Two through

Five c o n t a i n a r e s t a t e m e n t of th e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s , n u ll h y p o th e s e s ,
r e s u l t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e t e s t s , and b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e f i n d i n g s ,
as a p p r o p r i a t e .

The s i x t h s e c t i o n i s a n a r r a t i v e r e p o r t i n g of

r es po nses t o demographic q u e s t i o n s ; a c t i o n by th e Department o f H e a l th ,
E duc ation, and Welfare; and changes i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l g r ie v a n c e p r o c e ­
dures as

a r e s u l t o f implementation o f T i t l e IX.
Rank Order o f Co lleg es by Level o f Compliance
Colleges were rank ord ered a cco r d in g

totaling

t o compliance l e v e l by

th e p o in ts as s i g n e d to each c o l l e g e f o r r e p o r t i n g completion

60

61

o f each o f th e e i g h t mandatory a c t i o n s and 12 v o lu n t a ry a c t i o n s r e l a t e d
t o p r o v i s i o n s o f T i t l e IX.
d e t a i l e d in Chapter I I I .

The method f o r a s s i g n i n g p o i n t s was
The rank o r d e r o f c o l l e g e s by l e v e l o f com­

p l i a n c e with combined mandatory and v o l u n ta ry a c t i o n s i s shown in
Table 1.

The rank o r d e r o f c o l l e g e s by mandatory a c t i o n i s d i s p l a y e d

in Table 2, whereas Table 3 shows th e rank o r d e r o f c o l l e g e s by volun­
tary action.
The number o f c o l l e g e s in each q u a r t i l e was th e same in t h e
t a b l e s showing response to combined mandatory and v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n
and mandatory a c t i o n a lo n e .

The t a b l e showing a s e p a r a t e ranking f o r

v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n changed because c o l l e g e s with equal numbers o f p o i n t s
were incl ude d in th e same q u a r t i l e .
Discussion
The rank o r d e r i n g of c o l l e g e s r e v e a l e d t h a t most of t h e i n s t i ­
t u t i o n s r e p o r t e d implementing t h e mandatory a c t i o n s a f t e r t h e r e g u l a ­
t i o n was pas sed.

This c o n t r a s t s with th e f i n d i n g s o f Tompkins (1977),

who s t u d i e d the K-12 s ch ools in Kansas and found they were not f u l l y
complying with the r e g u l a t i o n .

One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e d isc r e p a n c y

in f i n d i n g s may be t h e d i f f e r e n c e between c o l l e g e s and K-12 d i s t r i c t s
in t h e i r p e r c e p ti o n o f change.

Mann (1957) s t a t e d t h a t th e magnitude

o f o p p o s it i o n to change i s a d i r e c t r e f l e c t i o n o f th e magnitude o f th e
change.

I t i s c o n ceiv ab le t h a t th e K-12 d i s t r i c t s g e n e r a te d g r e a t e r

o p p o s i t i o n to T i t l e IX changes because t h e r e q u i r e d a c t i o n s mandated
g r e a t e r changes in t h e i r o p e r a t i o n than a t t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l .
B aldridge (1978) d isco v e red t h e r e was l e s s bureaucra cy and r e g u l a t i o n

62

Table 1 . — Rank orde r o f co ll ege s by response to combined mandatory
and v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s .

O)
•r—
S_
ro
cr

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

KEY:

Voluntary
Actions

Mandatory
Actions

CL)
CT)
<u
o
o
1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

4

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

5

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

6

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

7

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

2

8

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

9

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

10

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

2

2

11

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

12

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

2

13

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

14

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

15

1

1

1

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

16

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

1

17

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

1

18

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

1

2

2

19

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

1

20

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

1

1

2

2

1

2

2

1

1

21

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

1

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

22

1

1

1

2

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

2

2

1

1

1

1
1

1

23

1
1

1

2 = Yes response
1 = No o r no response

Where po in t t o t a l s are equ al , l i s t i n g
t i l e s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approximate.

is a l p h a b e t i c a l .

Quar­

1

63

Table 2 . — Rank orde r o f co ll ege s by response to mandatory a c t i o n s .

Q uartile

Ql

Q2

Q3

Q4

KEY:

Combined
College
Rank

MandatoryOnly
Rank

EiSh t Mandatory Actions

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

4

4

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

7

5

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

10

6

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

5

7

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

6

8

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

11

9

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

12

10

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

16

11

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

21

12

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

8

13

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

20

14

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

9

15

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

13

16

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

17

17

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

14

18

1

1

2

2

1

2

2

18

19

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

2

19

20

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

2

15

21

1

1

1

2

2

2

1

1

22

22

1

1

1

2

1

1

2

2

23

23

2

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

2 = Yes response
1 = No o r no response

Where p o i n t t o t a l s a r e e q u a l , l i s t i n g i s a l p h a b e t i c a l .
t i l e s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approximate.

Quar-

64

Table 3 . --Rank or de r o f co ll ege s by response to v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s .

Q uartile

Q1

Q2

03

04

KEY:

Combined
College
Rank

MandatoryOnly
Rank

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

9

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

4

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

5

5

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

6

6

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

8

7

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

15

8

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

4

9

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

14

10

1

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

7

11

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

2

11

12

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

12

13

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

2

13

14

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

18

15

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

1

2

2

10

16

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

2

2

17

17

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

1

19

18

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

1

16

19

2

2

1

1

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

1

20

20

1

2

2

1

1

2

2

1

2

2

1

1

22

21

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

21

22

2

2

1

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

23

23

1

2

1

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Twelve Voluntary Actions

2 = Yes respons e
1 = No o r no respons e

Where p o in t t o t a l s a r e e q u a l , l i s t i n g i s a l p h a b e t i c a l .
t i l e s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approximate.

Quar-

65

in l a r g e r , more p r e s t i g i o u s s c h o o ls than in s m a l l e r , l e s s p r e s t i g i o u s
ones.

Co lleg es a r e g e n e r a l l y regarded as l a r g e r and more p r e s t i g i o u s

than the s e p a r a t e u n i t s o f a K-12 d i s t r i c t ; thus th e lower amount o f
bureaucracy and r e g u l a t i o n in c o l l e g e s may have p e r m itt e d more e f f e c ­
t i v e change e f f o r t s .
Another reason f o r the d i f f e r e n c e in f i n d i n g s between th e
p r e s e n t s tu d y and the Tompkins r e s e a r c h might have been th e d i f f e r ­
ences in res p o n d e n ts .

P r i n c i p a l s were t h e resp on dents i n th e

Tompkins s u rv e y , whereas c h i e f personnel o f f i c e r s completed th e
survey in t h i s s tu d y .

Both groups r e p o r t e d p e r c e p t i o n s .

M u ltip ly in g th e e i g h t mandatory a c t i o n s by t h e 23 c o l l e g e s
y i e l d e d 184 r e s p o n s e s .

The c o l l e g e s had complied with 75 p e r c e n t o f

the r e q u i r e d a c t i o n s on time.
Rank Order o f Co lleg es by I n flu e n c e o f F acto r s
This s e c t i o n is devoted t o the primary r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n o f
t h i s study:

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between the p e r c e i v e d l e v e l o f

i n f l u e n c e o f s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g implementation o f T i t l e IX
and the l e v e l o f compliance by c o l l e g e s in th e h i g h - and low-compliance
groups?

Perceived importance o f th e e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s co n s id e red

in t h i s s e c t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d in Tables 4 , 5 , and 6.

S i g n i f i c a n c e was

t e s t e d a t the .05 l e v e l .
1 . a . Change Agent
S u b q u e s ti o n : Will t h e p e r c e i v e d l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f th e
presence o f a change a g e n t d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in t h e
high- and low-compliance groups?

66

KEY:

Coordinator
Influen ce

In-Service
Training

Coordinator
Authori ty

Pressure
Groups

Q4

General
Knowledge

Q2

A vailability
of Funds

011
H

A vailability
of Personnel

Q uartile

Change Agent

Tab le 4 . — Rank or de r o f co ll ege s by i n f l u e n c e o f f a c t o r s f o r combined
mandatory and v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s .

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

1

3

1

2

1

1

2

1

2

2

4

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

5

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

6

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

7

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

8

2

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

9

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

10

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

11

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

12

1

2

1

2

1

1

2

1

13

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

14

2

2

1

2

2

1

2

1

15

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

16

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

17

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

18

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

19

2

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

20

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

21

2

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

22

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

23

1

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

College

2 = Asset or major a s s e t
1 = L i a b i l i t y , major l i a b i l i t y , o r no i n f l u e n c e

Where p o i n t t o t a l s are e q u a l, l i s t i n g is a l p h a b e t i c a l .
t i l e s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approximate.

Quar-

67

KEY:

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

1

3

1

2

1

1

2

1

2

4

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

5

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

6

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

7

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

8

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

9

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

10

1

2

1

2

1

1

2

1

11

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

12

2

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

13

2

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

14

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

15

2

2

1

2

2

2

1

16

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

17

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

18

2

2

1

2

2

1

2

1

19

2

2

1

1

1

2

1

1

20

2

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

21

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

22

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

23

1

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

MandatoryRank
Only

1

Coordinator
Authority
1
Pressure
Groups

In-S er vic e
Training

Q4

Coordinator
Influence

Q3

General
Knowledge

Q2

A vailability
of Funds

Q1

A vailability
of Personnel

Q uartile

Change Agent

Table 5 . — Rank o r d e r o f colleges by i n f l u e n c e o f f a c t o r s f o r mandatory
actions.

2 = Asse t o r major a s s e t
1 = L i a b i l i t y , major l i a b i l i t y , o r no response

Where p o i n t t o t a l s are e q u a l, l i s t i n g i s a l p h a b e t i c a l .
t i l e s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approximate.

Quar-

68

KEY:

In -S er vice
Training

Coordinator
A uthority

P ress ure
Groups

Q4

Coordinator
Influe nc e

Q3

General
Knowledge

Q2

Availability
of Funds

Q1

A vailability
of Personnel

Q uartile

Change Agent

Table 6 . — Rank orde r o f co ll ege s by i n f l u e n c e o f f a c t o r s f o r v o l u n t a r y
actions.

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

1

3

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

4

1

2

1

1

2

1

2

2

5

1

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

6

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

7

2

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

8

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

9

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

10

2

2

1

2

2

1

2

1

11

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

12

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

13

1

2

1

2

1

1

2

1

14

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

15

2

2

1

1

1

2

1

1

16

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

17

1

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

18

2

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

19

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

20

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

21

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

22

2

1

1

2

2

1

2

1

23

1

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

Voluntar yRank
Only

2 = Asset or major a s s e t
1 = L i a b i l i t y or major l i a b i l i t y

Where p o i n t t o t a l s are e q u a l, l i s t i n g is a l p h a b e t i c a l .
t i l e s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approximate.

Quar-

69

Hull H y p o th e s is : I n s t i t u t i o n s ranked as high and low in compli­
ance with T i t l e IX p r o v is i o n s w ill not d i f f e r in t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s
o f th e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e presence o f a change a g e n t.
S i g n i f i c a n c e . -- T he null h y p o th e sis was ac ce pted f o r a l l t h r e e
r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a ta by th e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y T e s t.
Discuss i o n .--A cc ordin g to Rogers' (1971) e a r l y - a d o p t e r s t h e o r y ,
i t would be r e a s o n a b le to assume t h a t th e presence o f a change a g e n t ,
a s sig n e d or committed t o f o s t e r change, i s im p o r t a n t .

Rogers s t a t e d

t h a t t h e e a r l y a d o p t e r i s c l a s s i f i e d as r e s p e c t a b l e and has t h e
g r e a t e s t degree o f o p in io n l e a d e r s h i p in most s o c i a l syst em s.

The

change a g e n t ' s p o s i t i o n i n th e e d u c a ti o n a l s t r u c t u r e i s o f g r e a t
im po rtan ce , t o o , ac co rding to Baldrid ge (1975).

He noted t h a t d e p a r t ­

ment c h a ir p e r s o n s a r e seen as im p o rtan t communication l i n k s between
t e a c h e r s c a r r y i n g o u t changes and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s s u p p o r t i n g changes
with r e s o u r c e s .
I t might be e x p ecte d , t h e n , t h a t c o l l e g e s with department
c h a i r p e r s o n s in th e r o l e o f change ag en t would be more s u c c e s s f u l in
implementing T i t l e IX than c o l l e g e s with o t h e r personnel a c t i n g as
change a g e n ts .

This p a r t i c u l a r combination o f r o l e s was n o t examined,

however.
l.b .

A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Personnel
S u b ques ti on: Will th e p er ceiv ed l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f th e
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f personnel t o c o o r d i n a t e and mo nitor th e imple­
mentation d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s i n th e h ig h - and low-compliance
groups?

70

Null H y p o t h e s is : I n s t i t u t i o n s ranked as high and low i n compliance
with T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s w i l l n o t d i f f e r in t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f
th e i n f l u e n c e o f a v a i l a b i l i t y o f personnel w i t h i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n
to assume c o o r d i n a t i o n and m on itori ng f u n c t i o n s r e q u i r e d by t h e
regulation.
S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The null h y p o th e sis was
r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s of th e da ta by t h e

accep ted f o r a l l t h r e e
F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y

T e s t.
D i s c u s s i o n . - - T h i s f in d i n g c o n t r a s t e d with B a l d r i d g e ' s (1975)
f in d i n g t h a t s i z e and complexity a f f e c t an o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s i n n o v a t i v e
capacity.

He found t h a t l a r g e r , more complex o r g a n i z a t i o n s can p r o ­

vide a mid-l ev el management s t r u c t u r e to a s s u r e back-up s u p p o r t ,
s t a f f h e l p , and s p e c i a l i z e d r e s o u r c e s t h a t enhance change e f f o r t s and
innovation.

One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s di sc r e p a n c y in f i n d i n g s may

be t h a t B a l d r i d g e ' s S tan fo r d S tu d ie s were based on a c t u a l o b s e r v a ­
tions

o f change, whereas t h e p r e s e n t study was based on th e p e r c e p ­

t i o n s o f th e c h i e f personnel o f f i c e r o f each c o l l e g e .
I.e.

A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Funds
S u b q u e s tio n : Will t h e p e r c e iv e d le v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a v a i l a ­
b i l i t y o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l funds to meet budget re quire m en ts d i f f e r
between c o l l e g e s i n t h e high- and low-compliance groups?
Null H y p o t h e s is : I n s t i t u t i o n s ranked as high and low i n com pliance with T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s w i l l not d i f f e r in t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s
o f th e v alu e o f t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l funds t o meet
budget re qu ir em ents t h a t comply with p r o v is i o n s o f t h e r e g u l a ­
tion.
S i g n i f i c a n c e .--The nu ll h y p o th e si s was ac ce pted f o r a l l t h r e e

r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f th e d ata by th e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y Test.

71

D i s c u s s i o n , —The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f funds to meet budget r e q u i r e ­
ments may be i n t e r p r e t e d in two ways:

t o t a l budget amounts and a l l o ­

c a t i o n o f the t o t a l budget to s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n s .

The t o t a l c o l l e g e

budget i s c o n s id e re d as a s i n g l e q u e s ti o n l a t e r in t h i s s t u d y .

T h e re ­

f o r e , a l l o c a t i o n o f the budget i s the focal p o i n t o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n .
In t h e i r P o l i t i c a l Process Model, S t y l e s and Robinson (1973)
emphasized t h a t l e g i t i m i z a t i o n o f a change e f f o r t r e q u i r e s r e c o g n i t i o n
o f th e need f o r change among r e so u r c e a l l o c a t o r s .

Based on t h i s

pre mise, r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t study i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n s
ranked high and low in compliance e f f o r t s were e q u a l l y s u c c e s s f u l o r
u n s u ccess fu l in r e c o g n iz in g the need f o r change r e q u i r e d by T i t l e IX.
l.d .

General Knowledge
S u b q u e s ti o n : Will t h e p er ceiv ed level o f i n f l u e n c e o f general
knowledge o f T i t l e IX p r o v is i o n s by members o f th e go ver ning
b o ard, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , o r s t a f f members d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s
i n t h e high- and low-compliance groups?
Null H y p o th e s is : I n s t i t u t i o n s ranked as high and low i n com pli­
ance with T i t l e IX p r o v is i o n s w i l l n o t d i f f e r in t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s
o f t h e lev el o f i n f l u e n c e of gen er al knowledge o f t h e r e g u l a t i o n
by governing b o a r d s, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and s t a f f members.
S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The null h yp o th esis was acc ep ted f o r t h e com­

bined mandatory and v o l u n ta ry ranking as well as f o r t h e v o l u n t a r y
ran k in g .

The n u l l h y p o th e s i s was r e j e c t e d f o r t h e mandatory r a n k i n g .
D i s c u s s i o n . —R e l a t i v e to th e rank o r d e r in g o f c o l l e g e s by

combined mandatory and v o lu n t a ry a c t i o n s , mandatory a c t i o n , and
v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n , i t was noted t h a t Michigan community c o l l e g e s had
completed 75 p e r c e n t of th e mandatory a c t i o n s in a t im e ly f a s h i o n .
R e j e c ti o n o f t h e n u l l hypothesi s confirmed t h a t t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t

72

d i f f e r e n c e in th e p e r c e p t i o n s o f resp ond ents from h ig h - and lowcompliance c o l l e g e s r e g a rd in g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f ge ne ral knowledge o f
th e T i t l e IX 'p r o v i s i o n s .

The rank o r d e r o f c o l l e g e s by re sp o n s e t o

mandatory a c t i o n s (Table 2) c l e a r l y r e v e a le d t h a t c o l l e g e s in th e low­
e s t q u a r t i l e had completed fewer mandatory a c t i o n s than had those in
th e to p q u a r t i l e .
Other r e s e a r c h e r s have concluded t h a t lack o f knowledge
impedes implementation o f T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s .

In 1976, McDaniel

s t u d i e d the secondary s ch oo ls in Alabama and found t h a t T i t l e IX
had not been f u l l y implemented because o f a la ck o f knowledge o f th e
r e q u i r e m e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y among secondary-school p r i n c i p a l s .
Rogers (1971) has s a i d t h a t a l l a n a ly s e s o f s o c i a l change
c e n t e r primary a t t e n t i o n on th e communication p r o c e s s .

This l o g i c

concludes t h a t board members, a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and s t a f f should s h a re
gener al knowledge about T i t l e IX in performing t h e i r d u t i e s .

The i n t e r ­

change o f mutual id e a s and common u nderstandings could ac count f o r th e
d i f f e r e n c e s in p e r c e p t i o n s between high and low q u a r t i l e s .
The l e v e l o f general knowledge about T i t l e IX by a l a r g e
number o f people would a l s o tend t o c r e a t e an open c l i m a t e w i t h i n t h e
college.

B a ldridge (1975) b e l i e v e d t h a t th e type o f i n n o v a t i o n con­

s i d e r e d i s deter mined, in l a r g e p a r t , by the c li m a t e t h a t e x i s t s in
th e o r g a n i z a t i o n .

He sug ges ted t h a t th e open c l i m a t e p e r m its f o c u s ­

ing on improved p r a c t i c e s and ar ra nge men ts , with l e s s concern f o r
relatio n sh ip s.

73

I.e.

C o o r d i n a t o r In flu e n c e
S u b q u e s tio n : Will th e per ce ived l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a b i l i t y
o f t h e T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r t o i n f l u e n c e t h e c h i e f e x e c u t i v e
o f f i c e r d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in th e h ig h - and low-compliance
groups?
Hull H y p o th e s is : I n s t i t u t i o n s ranked as high and low i n co m pl i­
ance with T i t l e IX p r o v is i o n s w i l l not d i f f e r in t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s
o f th e valu e o f th e a b i l i t y o f t h e T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r t o i n f l u ­
ence the c h i e f e x e c u t iv e o f f i c e r o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n .
S i g n i f i c a n c e .-- Th e null h y p o th e s i s was ac ce pted f o r a l l t h r e e

r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a ta by th e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y Te st .
I.f.

I n - S e r v i c e T r ain in g
S u b q u e s tio n : Will th e perceived l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f i n - s e r v i c e
t r a i n i n g programs d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in th e h i g h - and lowcompliance groups?
Hull H y p o th e s is : I n s t i t u t i o n s ranked as high and low i n com pli­
ance with- T i t l e IX p r o v is i o n s w i l l not d i f f e r i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s
o f th e value o f i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g programs d e a l i n g w i th a t t i t u d e s
of i n d i v i d u a l s and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l b i a s .
S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The nu ll h y p o th e sis was ac ce pted f o r a l l t h r e e

r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f th e d a ta by th e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y T e st.
l.g .

Co ordinat or A u t h o r ity
S u b q u e s tio n : Will th e p er ceiv ed l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f the^
a u t h o r i t y o f t h e T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r t o r e q u i r e m o d i f i c a t i o n
o f p o l i c i e s , p r a c t i c e s , and procedures d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s
i n t h e h igh- and low-compliance groups?
Hull H y p o th e s is : I n s t i t u t i o n s ranked as high and low i n com pliance with T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s w i l l n o t d i f f e r i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s
o f t h e value o f th e a u t h o r i t y o f th e T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r t o
r e q u i r e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f p o l i c i e s , p r a c t i c e s , and p r o c e d u r e s .

74

S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The null h y p o th e sis was ac ce pted f o r a l l t h r e e
r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f th e d a t a by th e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y T e st.
l.h .

P r e s s u r e Groups
S u b q u e s ti o n : Will t h e per ce ived l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f p r e s s u r e
brought by employee groups r e p r e s e n t e d by c o l l e c t i v e - b a r g a i n i n g
a g e n ts d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s i n th e h i g h - and low-compliance
groups?
Null H y p o t h e s is : I n s t i t u t i o n s ranked as high and low i n compliance with T i t l e IX p r o v is i o n s w i l l not d i f f e r i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s
o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p r e s s u r e s brought by employee groups r e p r e ­
s e n te d by c o l l e c t i v e - b a r g a i n i n g agen ts to implement p r o v i s i o n s o f
the regulation.
S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The nu ll h y p o th e s is was accep te d f o r a l l t h r e e

r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f th e d a ta by th e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y Test.
D i s c u s s i o n .--One p r i n c i p l e o f c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g i n t h e
p u b l i c s e c t o r s e t f o r t h by Chamberlain (1972) i s t h a t government i s
i d e n t i f i e d as th e s o l e p o s s e s s o r o f f i n a l power because i t i s res p on­
sive to a ll of i t s co n stitu e n ts .

To concede t o any s p e c i a l - i n t e r e s t

group a r i g h t t o b a r g a i n f o r terms t h e s o v e r e i g n t y b e l i e v e s c o n t r a ­
vene t h e p u b l ic i n t e r e s t i s t o deny t h e government's s i n g l e r e s p o n s i ­
bility.
I t would ap pe ar t h a t both t h e b a r g a i n i n g - u n i t a g e n ts and the
governing boards agr eed t h a t T i t l e IX was in th e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t in
th is case.

The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f resp onden ts r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e agents

did n o t e x e r t p r e s s u r e , and t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between respondents from h i g h - and low-compliance c o l l e g e s r e g a r d in g

75

t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p r e s s u r e brought by employee
groups.
Rank Order o f Colleges by I n s t i t u t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
This s e c t i o n o f t h e s tu dy was designed t o answer Research
Question 2:

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l e c t e d i n s t i t u t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and th e l evel o f compliance by c o l l e g e s in t h e h ig h and low-compliance groups?

The s e l e c t e d i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s ­

t i c s were f u l l - t i m e s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t , geographical l o c a t i o n , and
general o p e r a t i n g budg et.

Data con ce rn ing t h i s q u e s t i o n a r e d i s p l a y e d

in Tables 7, 8 , and 9 (rank o r d e r o f c o l l e g e s by i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r ­
a c t e r i s t i c s f o r combined mandatory and v o l u n ta ry a c t i o n s , f o r manda­
t o r y a c t i o n s , and f o r v o l u n ta r y a c t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .
2 . a.

Full-Time Stu den t Enrollment
S u b q u e s ti o n : Will th e 1975-76 s t u d e n t f u l l - t i m e equ ated e n r o l l ­
ment d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in th e h ig h - and low-compliance
groups?
Null H y p o t h e s is : Stu den t e n r o l l m e n t , measured by c a l e n d a r - y e a r
equated s t u d e n t s , w i l l n o t d i f f e r among c o l l e g e s in t h e h i g h - and
low-compliance groups.
S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The nul l h y p o th e s i s was ac ce pted f o r t h e t h r e e

r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a by t h e F i s h e r Exact P roba­
b i l i t y Test.
2.b.

Geographical Location
S u b q u e s t i o n : Will t h e g e o graphical l o c a t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n s
c l a s s i f i e d as urban and o t h e r d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s i n t h e
h ig h - and low-compliance groups?

76

T a b le 7 .-- R a n k o rd e r o f c o lle g e s by i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r
combined mandatory and v o lu n ta r y a c t io n s .

Q uartile

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

KEY:

Rank Order
by College

Budget
Code

Location
Code

En ro llm en t
Code

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

1

3

1

1

2

4

1

1

2

5

2

2

2

6

2

2

2

7

2

2

1

8

2

2

2

9

1

1

1

10

2

2

2

11

2

2

2

12

1

1

1

13

2

2

2

14

1

1

1

15

2

2

2

16

2

2

2

17

1

1

1

18

1

1

1

19

1

1

1

20

2

2

2

21

2

2

1

22

1

1

1

23

1

1

1

2 = Top 50% o f d a t a o r urban l o c a t i o n
1 = Low 50% o f d a t a o r o t h e r l o c a t i o n

Where p o in t t o t a l s a re e q u a l, l i s t i n g is a l p h a b e t i c a l .
t i l e s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approxim ate.

Quar-

77

Tab le 8 . — Rank o rd e r o f c o lle g e s by i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
f o r mandatory a c t io n s .

Q uartile

01

02

Q3

Q4

KEY:

tile s

Rank Order
by College

Budget
Code

Location
Code

EnrolIment
Code

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

1

3

1

2

4

1
_
1

1

2

5

2

2

2

6

2

2

2

7

2

2

2

8

2

2

2

9

2

2

2

10

1

1

1

11

2

2

2

12

2

2

1

13

2

2

2

14

2

2

2

15

1

1

1

16

2

2

2

17

1

1

1

18

1

1

1

19

1

1

1

20

1

1

1

21

2

2

2

22

1

1

1

23

1

1

1

2 - Top 50% o f d a t a o r urban l o c a t i o n
1 = Low 50% o f d a t a o r o t h e r l o c a t i o n
Where p o in t t o t a l s a re e q u a l, l i s t i n g
a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approxim ate.

is a l p h a b e t i c a l .

Quar-

78

Table 9 . --R ank o r d e r o f c o lle g e s by i n s t i t u t i o n a l
f o r v o lu n t a r y a c t io n s .

Q uartile

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

KEY:

c h a ra c te ris tic s

Rank Order
by College

Budget
Code

Location
Code

1

1

1

1

2

2

2

1

3

1

1

1

4

1

1

2

5

2

2

2

6

2

2

2

7

2

2

2

8

2

2

2

9

1

1

2

10

1

1

1

11

2

2

1

12

2

2

2

13

1

1

1

14

2

2

2

15

1

1

1

16

2

2

2

17

1

1

1

18

1

1

1

19

2

2

2

20

2

2

2

21

1

1

1

22

2

2

1

23

1

1

1

Enrollment
Code

2 = Top 50% o f d a ta or urban l o c a t i o n
1 = Low 50% o f d a ta o r o t h e r l o c a t i o n

Where p o in t t o t a l s are e q u a l, l i s t i n g
t i l e s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approxim ate.

is a l p h a b e t i c a l .

Quar-

79

Mull H y p o th e s is : I n s t i t u t i o n s ranked as high and low i n com pliance with T i t l e IX p r o v is i o n s w ill show an equal d i s t r i b u t i o n
between urban and o t h e r geographical l o c a t i o n s .
S i g n i f i c a n c e .--The null hypoth esi s was accep te d f o r a l l t h r e e
r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f the d a t a by th e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y T e st.
2.c.

General Oper ating Budget
S u b q u e s tio n : Will t h e rank o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l 1975-76 general o p e r a t i n g - f u n d budget d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s i n th e h i g h - and
low-compliance groups?
Null Hypothesis: G e n e r a l - o p e r a t i n g - f u n d budgets f o r t h e 1975-76
f i s c a l y e a r w i l 1 show an equal d i s t r i b u t i o n among c o l l e g e s ranked
as high and low in compliance with T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s .
S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The null h y pothesis was accep ted f o r a l l t h r e e

r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f th e d ata by t h e F i s h e r Exact P roba­
b i l i t y Test.
D is c u s s i o n .--One might s u s p e c t t h a t urban c o l l e g e s w i th a
l a r g e budget and a l a r g e s t u d e n t body would have a h i g h e r compliance
ranking than s m a l l e r c o l l e g e s l o c a t e d i n nonurban a r e a s w it h fewer
s t u d e n t s and l e s s money.

There a r e major o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s

and much d i v e r s i t y among c o l l e g e s , ac co rding t o B ald r id g e ( 197 8).
c i t e d t h r e e major a r e a s o f d i f f e r e n c e s :

He

environmental r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,

p r o f e s s i o n a l t a s k , and s i z e and com plexity o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n .
Commenting on s i z e , complexity, environment, and change,
Knezevich (1969) s t a t e d t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r i s a c r e a t u r e o f h i s /
her environment.

The simple p io n e e r c u l t u r e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h cen ­

t u r y gen er at ed a s e t o f demands t h a t , i n p a r t , d e f in e d s t a n d a r d s f o r
measuring a d m i n i s t r a t i v e performance.

Today's a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r o l e i s

80

dram atically d i f f e r e n t .

At one time t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r was judged to

be e f f e c t i v e i f h e /s h e was a b l e t o o p e r a t e s c h o o ls e f f i c i e n t l y a t
fa irly s ta tic levels.

The r e v e r s e i s t r u e t o d a y , acco rding to

Knezevich, f o r t h e r e i s a v e r i t a b l e l u s t f o r i n n o v a t i o n , and adm inis­
t r a t o r s a r e c r i t i c i z e d f o r not changing f a s t enough.
Large s i z e , complexity o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , and l a r g e budgets
a r e o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d with b u r e a u c r a t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s , which a r e slow
to change.

In d e f i n i n g a b u r e a u c r a c y , Perrow (1970) s t a t e d t h a t th e

model r e f e r s t o an o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t a tte m p ts to c o n t r o l e x t r a o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e s (stemming from th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
personnel and changes in th e environment) through th e c r e a t i o n o f
s p e c i a l i z e d ( s t a f f ) p o s i t i o n s and through such r u l e s and dev ice s as
r e g u l a t i o n s and c a t e g o r i z a t i o n .

In t h e proc es s o f a t t e m p t i n g t o con­

t r o l o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s , th e b u r e a u c r a t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n seeks to
s t a b i l i z e and r o u t i n i z e i t s own p r o c e ss e s in t h e i n t e r e s t s o f i n t e r n a l
efficiency.
The b e l i e f t h a t b ig g e r i s b e t t e r was n o t su pport ed by t h i s
s t u d y , as no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were found between th e h ig h - and
low-compliance groups when s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t , geog rap hica l l o c a t i o n ,
and s i z e o f g en er al o p e r a t i n g budget were c o n s id e r e d as s e p a r a t e
factors.
Rank Order o f Colleges by Change-Theory Responses
Research Question 3 i s t h e f o cal p o i n t o f t h i s s e c t i o n .
q u e s ti o n a s k s :

That

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e l e v e l o f compli­

ance by c o l l e g e s i n t h e h igh- and low-compliance groups and th e

81

p e r c e iv e d importance o f th e s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g im p le m entati on
o f T i t l e IX when th o s e f a c t o r s ar e c l a s s i f i e d by s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g i e s
o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e th e o r y ?

The s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g i e s o f

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e t h e o r y a r e t h e t h r e e s t r a t e g i e s s e t f o r t h by
Chin and Benne (1976), as d e f i n e d in Chapter I :

em pirical-rational,

n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e , and pow er -c oerc ive.
Table 10 d i s p l a y s th e d a ta t a b u l a t e d f o r th e c o l l e g e s ranked
by combined mandatory and v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s .

Table 11 p r e s e n t s th e

d a ta f o r t h o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s ranked by mandatory a c t i o n s , and Ta ble 12
c o n t a i n s t h e ranking o f c o l l e g e s by v o l u n t a ry a c t i o n .
Ques tions 1 and 4 , concerning pr esence o f a change a g e n t and
gen er al knowledge o f t h e r e g u l a t i o n , were c l a s s i f i e d as e m p i r i c a l r a t i o n a l f a c t o r s , based on t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h a t t h e o r y , which assumes
t h a t people a r e r a t i o n a l and w i l l fo llo w t h e i r s e l f - i n t e r e s t once t h i s
i s r e v e a l e d to them.

The th e o r y a l s o assumes t h a t a proposed change

w i l l be adopted i f i t can be r a t i o n a l l y j u s t i f i e d and i f t h e p r o p o s e r
can show t h a t t h e adopting i n d i v i d u a l / g r o u p w i l l gain by t h e change.
Qu es tio ns 5 and 6 , r e l a t e d t o c o o r d i n a t o r i n f l u e n c e and
i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g programs, were c l a s s i f i e d as n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e
because t h e f oundation f o r t h a t t h e o r y i s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e guided
in t h e i r a c t i o n s by s o c i a l l y funded and communicated meanings, norms,
and i n s t i t u t i o n s .

F u r t h e r , th e i n d i v i d u a l must p a r t i c i p a t e in edu­

c a t i o n t o become r e e d u c a t e d .
Questions 7 and 8 , r e l a t e d t o a u t h o r i t y o f t h e c o o r d i n a t o r
and p r e s s u r e by employee g roups, were c l a s s i f i e d as p o w e r - c o e r c i v e ,

82

T a b le 1 0 . — Rank o r d e r o f c o lle g e s by change-theory response f o r
combined mandatory and v o lu n ta ry a c t io n s .

Q uartile

Q1

Q2

Rank Order
by Coll ege

Empiri cal Rational
Quest.
1

Quest.
4

Quest.
5

1

2

2

2

2

2

2
2

4

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

7

2

2

2

O
t-

8

2

2

9

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

14

2

2

2

15

2

16

2

1

2

2

2

19

2

20

2

21

2

1

2

2

2

1

2

2

13

18

2
2

2

17

2
2
2

2
2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

22
23

KEY:

2

6

2

Quest.
8

1

1

10

Ques t.
7
2

5

12

Q4

Quest.
6

PowerCoercive

2

3

11

Q3

Normati veReeducative

2 = A s set o r major a s s e t
1 = L i a b i l i t y o r major l i a b i l i t y
N o - in flu e n c e re sp onses were not recorded f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s .

tile s

Where p o in t t o t a l s are e q u a l, l i s t i n g i s a l p h a b e t i c a l .
a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approxim ate.

Quar-

83

Table 1 1 , --R an k o rd e r o f c o lle g e s by change-theory response f o r
mandatory a c t io n s .

Q uartile

Q1

Rank Order
by College

Empirical Rational
Quest.
1

Quest.
4

Quest.
5

1

2

2

2

2

2

2
2

4

2
2

6

Q3

2

2

2

1

8

2

2

2

9

2

2

1

Q u es t.
7

1

2

2

2
2

2

1

1

2
2
2

2

11

2

1

2

12

2

2

2

2

13

2

2

2

14

2

2

2

15

2

16

2

18

2

19

2

20

2

21

2

2

2
2

2

Quest.
8

2

2

17

Q4

2

7

10

Quest.
6

PowerC oe rci ve

2

3
5

Q2

NormativeReeducative

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2
2

1

1

2

2

2

2

22
23
KEY:

2 = As se t or major a s s e t
1 = L i a b i l i t y o r major l i a b i l i t y
N o-i nfl uence responses were n o t recorded f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s .

Where p o in t t o t a l s are e q u a l, l i s t i n g
t i l e s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approxim ate.

is a lp h a b e tic a l.

Q uar-

84

Table 1 2 . — Rank o r d e r o f c o lle g e s by change-theory response f o r
v o lu n t a r y a c t io n s .

Q uartile

Rank Order
by College

E m p ir ic a lRational
Quest.
1

Quest.
4

Quest.
5

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

2

4

Q1

5

1

6

2

7

2

8

2

2

Q4

Quest.
8

2
2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

10

2

2

2

11

2

2

2

12

2

2

1

2

2
2

2
1

1

2

14

2

15

2

2

2

2
2

1

16

2

2

2

17

2

2

2

2

2

18

2

19

2

1

2

20

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

21
22
23

KEY:

Quest.
7

2

13
Q3

Quest.
6

PowerCoercive

2

9
Q2

NormativeReeducative

2 = Asset o r major a s s e t
1 = L i a b i l i t y or major l i a b i l i t y
No -influ en ce respons es were not recorded f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s .

tile s

Where p o in t t o t a l s are e q u a l, l i s t i n g is a l p h a b e t i c a l .
a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approximate.

Quar-

85

based on th e d e f i n i t i o n t h a t power t o r e q u i r e change i s g e n e r a t e d
and a p p l i e d through p o l i t i c a l , economic, o r moral s a n c t i o n s .
The t h r e e s t r a t e g i e s o f change a r e c o n s id e re d s e p a r a t e l y
in t h e f o ll o w in g s e c t i o n s .
3 . a.

E m p ir ic a l-R a ti o n a l
S u b q u e s t i o n : Will th e p er ceiv ed use o f th e e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l
s t r a t e g y o f change, as i l l u s t r a t e d by th e pre se nce o f an i n s t i ­
t u t i o n a l change a g e n t and general knowledge o f T i t l e IX p r o v i ­
s i o n s by c o l l e g e boards and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , d i f f e r between
c o l l e g e s in t h e h ig h - and low-compliance groups?
Null H y p o t h e s is : The value o f t h e p e r c e iv e d use o f th e
e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y o f change w i l l not d i f f e r between
c o l l e g e s ranked as high and low in compliance with p r o v i s i o n s
o f T i t l e IX.
S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The n u ll h y p o t h e s i s was a ccepted f o r a l l t h r e e

r a n k in g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f th e d a t a by th e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y T e st .
3.b.

Normative-Reeducative
S u b q u e s ti o n : Will t h e p e r c e iv e d use o f t h e n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e
s t r a t e g y o f change, as i l l u s t r a t e d by th e a b i l i t y o f t h e T i t l e IX
c o o r d i n a t o r t o i n f l u e n c e th e c h i e f e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r and th e use
o f i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g programs, d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in th e
h ig h - and low-compliance groups?
Null H y p o th e s is : The val ue o f th e p er ceiv ed use o f th e
n o r m a ti v e - r e e d u c a t i v e s t r a t e g y o f change w i l l n o t d i f f e r between
c o l l e g e s ranked as high and low i n compliance with p r o v i s i o n s o f
T i t l e IX.
S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The n u ll h y p o th e s i s was a ccepted f o r a l l t h r e e

r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a ta by t h e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y T e st .

86

3.c.

Power-Coercive
S u b q u e s ti o n : Will t h e perceived use o f the power -c oe rc ive s t r a t e g y
o f change, as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e a u t h o r i t y o f th e T i t l e IX c o o r d i ­
nator to require modification of p o l i c i e s , p r a c tic e s , procedures,
and p r e s s u r e s bro ugh t by employee groups r e p r e s e n t e d by c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g a g e n t s , d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in the h i g h - and lowcompliance groups?
Null H y p o th e s is : The value o f th e per ce ived use o f t h e powerc o e r c i v e s t r a t e g y o f change w i l l not d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s ranked
as high and low i n compliance with p r o v is i o n s o f T i t l e IX.
S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The null h y p o th e sis was ac ce pted f o r a l l t h r e e

r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a ta by th e F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y
T e s t.
Rank Order o f Colleges by I n s t i t u t i o n a l P r a c t i c e s
The f i n a l r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n (Number 4) i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s
section.

All o f th e mandated and v o l u n ta r y a c t i o n s of T i t l e IX were

i n ten d ed t o produce change.

This s e c t i o n examines r e p o r t e d changes in

i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s r e l a t e d to a d m i s s i o n s / t r e a t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s
and employment/treatment o f employes.

The b a s i c q u e s t i o n asked:

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e l e v e l o f compliance by c o l l e g e s in
t h e high- and low-compliance groups and th e r e p o r t e d change in
adm iss ion/trea tm en t/em ploy m en t p r a c t i c e s ?

Findings on s t u d e n t s and

employees a r e t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y in t h e f o llo w in g s u b s e c t i o n s .

Tables

13, 14, and 15 p r e s e n t t h e d a ta f o r t h i s s e c t i o n .
4.a.

Admissions/Treatment o f Studen ts
S u b q u e s tio n : Will r e p o r t e d changes in a d m i s s i o n s / t r e a t m e n t o f
s t u d e n t s d i f f e r between c o l l e g e s in th e high- and low-compliance
groups?

87

T a b le 1 3 . --R a n k o r d e r o f c o lle g e s by i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t ic e s f o r
combined mandatory and v o lu n t a r y a c t io n s .

Q uartile

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

KEY:

tile s

Rank Order
by College

Admission/Treatment
o f Students

Employment/Treatment
o f Employees

1

1

2

2

1

1

3

1

1

4

1

1

5

2

2

6

2

1

7

1

2

8

2

2

9

1

1

10

2

2

11

1

2

12

2

2

13

1

2

14

1

1

15

2

2

16

2

1

17

1

2

18

1

1

19

1

1

20

2

2

21

1

1

22

2

1

23

1

1

2 = Minor or major changes
1 = No changes
Where p o i n t t o t a l s a re e q u a l, l i s t i n g is a l p h a b e t i c a l .
a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approxim ate.

Quar-

88
Table 1 4 . --R ank o rd e r o f c o lle g e s by i n s t i t u t i o n a l
mandatory a c t io n s .

Q uartile

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

KEY:

tile s

p ra c tic e s f o r

Rank Order
by College

Admi s s i on/Treatment
o f Stud ents

Employment/Treatment
o f Employees

1

1

2

2

1

1

3

1

1

4

1

1

5

1

2

6

2

2

7

2

2

8

2

1

9

1

2

10

2

2

11

2

1

12

1

1

13

2

2

14

2

2

15

1

1

16

1

2

17

1

2

18

1

1

19

1

1

20

1

1

21

2

2

22

2

1

23

1

1

2 = Minor o r major changes
1 = No changes
Where p o in t t o t a l s are e q u a l, l i s t i n g
a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approxim ate.

is a l p h a b e t i c a l .

Q uar-

89

Table 1 5 . --Rank o rd e r o f c o lle g e s by i n s t i t u t i o n a l
v o lu n ta r y a c t io n s .

Q uartile

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

KEY:

p r a c t ic e s f o r

Rank Order
by College

Admission/Treatment
o f Students

Empl oyment/Treatment
o f Employees

1

1

2

2

1

1

3

1

1

4

1

1

5

2

2

6

2

1

7

2

2

8

2

2

9

1

1

10

1

1

11

1

2

12

1

2

13

2

2

14

1

2

15

1

1

16

2

2

17

1

2

18

1

1

19

2

1

20

2

2

21

2

1

22

1

1

23

1

1

2 - Minor o r major changes
1 = No changes

Where p o in t t o t a l s are e q u a l, l i s t i n g is a l p h a b e t i c a l .
t i l e s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , approxim ate.

Quar-

90

Null H y p o th e s is : Reported changes in a d m i s s i o n / t r e a t m e n t
of s t u d e n t s by c o l l e g e s ranked as high and low i n compliance
w ith p r o v is i o n s o f T i t l e IX w i l l n o t d i f f e r .
S i g n i f i c a n c e . —The n u ll h y p o th e sis was ac ce pte d f o r a l l t h r e e
r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f th e d a ta by th e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y Test.
4 . b . Employment/Treatment
o f Employees
S u b q u e s tio n : Will r e p o r t e d changes i n employment/treatment o f
employees d i f f e r with th e l e v e l o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l compliance by
c o l l e g e s in t h e high- and low-compliance groups?
Null H y p o th e s is : Reported changes in employment/treatment o f
employees by c o l l e g e s ranked as high and low in compliance w ith
p r o v is i o n s o f T i t l e IX w i l l not d i f f e r .
S i g n i f i c a n c e .- - T h e null h y p o th e sis was accep ted f o r a l l t h r e e
r a n k i n g s , based on a n a l y s i s o f th e d ata by th e F i s h e r Exact Proba­
b i l i t y Test.
D i s c u s s i o n . - - T h e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between
t h e high- and low-compliance groups i n e i t h e r a d m i s s i o n s / t r e a t m e n t
o f s t u d e n t s o r employment/treatment o f employees.

The r e s e a r c h e r

was n o t s u r p r i s e d a t t h i s f i n d i n g a f t e r review in g th e l i t e r a t u r e
r e l a t e d t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change.
Researchers a t t h e Far West La boratory (1974) concluded t h a t
change in e d u c a ti o n cannot be d i c t a t e d b u t can emerge only through
s e l f - d e t e r m i n e d change i n p r a c t i t i o n e r b e h a v i o r .

This c o n d i t i o n i s

a r e s u l t of th e p r o f e s s i o n a l n a t u r e o f t h e employees.
One reas on f o r t h e f in d i n g o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e may
have been the ti m ing o f th e s tu d y .

Clark and Guba (1967) s t r e s s e d

in t h e i r change model t h a t r e s e a r c h , development, and d i f f u s i o n

91

precede a d o p t i o n , which i n v o lv e s t r i a l , i n s t a l l a t i o n , and, f i n a l l y ,
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e change.
The f a c t t h a t a number o f Michigan community c o l l e g e s r e p o r t e d
no changes in a d m i s s i o n s / t r e a t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s or i n employment/
t r e a t m e n t o f employees may be a t t r i b u t e d t o a n o n d i s c r i m i n a t o r y system
being p r a c t i c e d b e f o r e passage o f T i t l e IX.

Another c o n c l u s io n might

c o i n c i d e w ith A b b o t t ' s (1975) conclu s io n t h a t s ea rc h b e h a v i o r gen­
e r a t e d by s t r e s s imposed from e x t e r n a l s ou rc es tends t o be s u p e r f i c i a l
and emphasizes type s o f i n n o v a tio n s or changes t h a t have high p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s and image-enhancement v a l u e , but t h a t minimally d i s t u r b
r o u t i n e o p e r a t i o n s in th e s c h o o ls .
Responses to I n s t i t u t i o n - S p e c i f i c Fac tors
The f i r s t f i v e s e c t i o n s o f t h i s c h a p t e r were dev oted to
p r e s e n t i n g and a n a l y z in g th e d ata and d i s c u s s in g them, where approp ­
riate.

The survey in s tr u m e n t a l s o provided resp onden ts an o p p o r t u n i t y

t o e n t e r i n s t i t u t i o n - s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s t h a t in f lu e n c e d im plem enta tion
o f T i t l e IX a t t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r c o l l e g e s .
were r e c e i v e d .

The f o ll o w in g r e s p o n s e s

Because t h e r e was no gen er al consensus by compliance

c a t e g o r y , r es pon ses a r e p r e s e n t e d in n a r r a t i v e form.
1.

I t g e n e r a l l y has c r e a t e d a more p o s i t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n a l

attitude.
2.

Rural atmosphere—no g r ie v a n c e s .

3.

Ultimatum t o f i n d q u a l i f i e d m in o r i t y o r women o r p o s i t i o n

not f i l l e d .
4.

T i t l e IX i s meaningless u n le s s i n s t i t u t i o n p r o v i d e s f o r

its activities.

92

Demographic D a t a - - I n s t i t u t i o n a l Ope rations
The t h i r d s e c t i o n o f the survey in s tr u m e n t was des igned to
e l i c i t ge neral in f o r m a ti o n about t h e T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r , governmen­
t a l a c t i o n on a s s u r a n c e forms r e q u i r e d by t h e r e g u l a t i o n , and ad op tion
o f g r ie v a n c e procedures f o r s tu d e n t s and employees.

Following i s a

summary o f th e r es po nses t o th e r e q u e s t f o r ge neral i n f o r m a t i o n .
Demographic Data
1.

The av erage age o f t h e employee d e s ig n a te d as t h e T i t l e IX

c o o r d i n a t o r was 43, with a range from 32 t o 62 y e a r s o f age.
2.

The c o o r d i n a t o r s pent an average o f 8 . 9 p e r c e n t o f sched­

uled time on T i t l e IX r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , with a range from 1 t o 55 p e r ­
cent reported.
3.

The T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r r e p o r t e d t o th e p r e s i d e n t in

78 .3 p e r c e n t (18) o f the c o l l e g e s and to a v i c e - p r e s i d e n t i n 8 . 7 p e r ­
c e n t (2) o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s .

The remaining t h r e e c o o r d i n a t o r s

r e p o r t e d t o t h e a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n coirmittee, t h e d i r e c t o r o f employee
r e l a t i o n s , and th e dean o f bu s in es s a f f a i r s .
4.

The employee d es ig n a te d as T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r had been

employed a t t h e c o l l e g e an average o f 10.2 y e a r s , with a rang e from
1 t o 28 y e a r s o f employment.
5.

The average len gth o f th e c o o r d i n a t o r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

f o r T i t l e IX f u n c t i o n s was 3. 3 y e a r s , with a range from one t o f i v e
years.

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t f o u r T i t l e IX c o o r d i n a t o r s had been

employed t h e same l e n g th o f time as th e y r e p o r t e d having had t h e T i t l e
IX r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , y e t those f o u r c o o r d i n a t o r s r e p o r t e d t h a t an

93

average of only 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r time was devoted t o T i t l e IX
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , with a range from 1 t o 20 p e r c e n t .
6.

Des ignat io n o f th e employee t o s e r v e as T i t l e IX c o o r d i ­

n a t o r was e q u a l l y d iv id e d between women (11) and men ( 1 1 ) , a t 50 p e r ­
c e n t ea ch ; one re sp onden t did n o t answer t h i s q u e s t i o n .
Action on HEW Form 639/639A
In resp ons e to a q u e s t i o n r e g a r d in g a c t i o n o f t h e Department
o f H e a l t h , E duc ation , and Welfare on f i l i n g Form 639 o r 639A, t h e 22
respon dents r e p o r t e d as fo ll o w s :
The form was accep te d as s e n t
The form was s e n t , but no res ponse wasr e c e i v e d
C orrec ted form was accep ted
C o rrected form was s e n t , b u t nores ponse was
received

31.8%
54.5%
9.0%
4.5%

Grievance Procedures
1.

In resp ons e t o a q u e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g g r ie v a n c e p rocedure s

f o r s t u d e n t s , t h e surveyed i n d i v i d u a l s r e p o r t e d th e f o ll o w i n g i n f o r ­
mation:
New procedures e s t a b l i s h e d
E s t a b l i s h e d procedures used with no change
E s t a b l i s h e d procedures modified
No new grie vance procedures adopted
2.

30.4%
30.4%
34.8%
4.3%

In resp onse t o a q u e s t i o n r e g a rd in g g r ie v a n c e p r ocedure s

f o r employees, t h e survey p a r t i c i p a n t s r e p o r t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r mati o n :
New g r ie v an ce procedures developed
E s t a b l i s h e d g r ie v a n c e pr oce dur es mod ified
No g r ie v an ce procedures adopted
No new g r ie v an ce procedures developed

28.6%
47.5%
9.5%
14.3%

94

Summary
Ch apter IV c o n ta i n e d a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d in
t h i s s tu d y .

Tables 1, 2, and 3 d i s p l a y e d th e rank o r d e r o f c o l l e g e s

by t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s :

mandatory and v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s , mandatory

a c t i o n s , and v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s .
The second s e c t i o n o f t h e c h a p t e r was devoted t o examining
th e primary r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n o f t h e s tu d y :

Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p

between t h e p erceived l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s a f f e c t ­
ing implementation o f T i t l e IX and t h e le v e l o f compliance by c o l l e g e s
in t h e hig h- and low-compliance groups?

Tables 4 , 5, and 6 p r e s e n t e d

c h i e f personnel o f f i c e r s ' re spon se s on t h e p e r c e iv e d l e v e l o f i n f l u ­
ence o f each o f th e e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s .

These r es po nses were

ranked in each o f th e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f mandatory and v o l u n t a r y
a c t i o n s , mandatory a c t i o n s , and v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s .

An a n a l y s i s o f t h e

d a ta using th e F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y T e s t r e v e a l e d one s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e ( a t t h e .05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e ) i n t h e p e r c e i v e d le v e l
of influence o f a s ele cted f a c t o r .

That f a c t o r was " th e general

knowledge o f T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s by members o f t h e governing boar d,
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and s t a f f members" when t h e rank o r d e r i n g o f th e
c o l l e g e s was by compliance with mandatory a c t i o n s o n l y .

No o t h e r

f a c t o r s were found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were found in a n a ly s e s o f th e
i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t , b u d g e t , and
geo gr aphical l o c a t i o n .

Nor was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e found in

a n aly zin g responses t o t h r e e s e p a r a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e t h e o r i e s :
e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l , n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e , and p o w e r -c o e rc i v e .

95

E f f e c t s o f implementation o f T i t l e IX on i n s t i t u t i o n a l
p r a c t i c e s r e l a t e d t o a d m i s s i o n s / t r e a t m e n t of s tu d e n t s as well as
t o employment/treatm ent o f employees were a n aly zed .

No s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e was found between i n s t i t u t i o n s i n th e h ig h- and lowcompliance groups.

A summary o f demographic d a t a ; a c t i o n r e p o r t e d on

a Department o f H e a l t h , E duc atio n, and Welfare form; and changes in
i n s t i t u t i o n a l g r ie v a n c e pro ce du res were r e p o r t e d in n a r r a t i v e form.
A summary o f t h e s t u d y , c o n c l u s i o n s , and recommendations f o r
f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a r e p r e s e n t e d in Chapter V.

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, COHCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary o f Study
In t h i s s t u d y , the perceiv ed i n f l u e n c e o f e i g h t s e l e c t e d
f a c t o r s on implementation o f T i t l e IX in Michigan community c o l l e g e s
was examined.
Chapter I.

A conceptual b a s i s f o r th e study was p r e s e n t e d in

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f Michigan community c o l l e g e s were f ac ed

w ith the problem o f implementing a f e d e r a l l y mandated r e g u l a t i o n t h a t
proposed t o change methods o f o p e r a t i o n and p o l i c i e s t h ro u g h o u t t h e i r
institutions.

Those r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s sought a method t o a c h i e v e co m pl i­

ance with t h e r e g u l a t i o n s and a means to deal with f a c t o r s t h a t
enhanced o r i n h i b i t e d t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h a t g o a l .
The major purpose o f t h i s study was t o examine th e r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p between th e p er ceiv ed importance o f s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g
implementation of p r o v is i o n s of T i t l e IX o f t h e Educatio na l Amendments
o f 1972 and t h e le v e l o f compliance with t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e law by
Michigan community c o l l e g e s .

Also examined was th e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between compliance le v e l and t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t , geographic l o c a t i o n , and s i z e o f ge neral o p e r a t i n g
budge t, as well as changes in i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s in a d m i s s i o n /
t r e a t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s and employment/treatment o f employees.
In a d d i t i o n , t h e l e v e l o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l compliance w ith T i t l e
IX and t h e p e r c e iv e d importance o f s i x o f th e e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s
96

97

c a t e g o r i z e d i n t o t h r e e s p e c i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e t h e o r i e s was
examined.

The s p e c i f i c change t h e o r i e s were e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l ,

n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e , and p o w e r-c oe rc ive, as i d e n t i f i e d by Chin
and Benne.
S e l e c t e d l i t e r a t u r e was reviewed r e l a t i v e t o Chin and Benne1s
change t h e o r i e s as well as o t h e r a u t h o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change l i t e r a t u r e .

The f e d e r a l government's use o f each t a c t i c t o

b r in g about o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and s o c i e t a l change was t r a c e d , beginn in g
with t h e Northwest Ordinance o f 1787.

The f i n a l s e c t i o n o f t h e chap ­

t e r was a d i s c u s s i o n o f a r e p o r t conducted in 1977 by t h e Committee
on A f f i r m a t i v e Action o f the Michigan Chapter o f t h e Women's Equity
Action League.

That r e p o r t concluded t h a t , alt hough most i n s t i t u ­

t i o n a l personnel a r e aware o f t h e p r o v is i o n s o f T i t l e IX, t h e r e has
been only s u p e r f i c i a l compliance with t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s .

The

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l e d t h a t a wide v a r i e t y o f
f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e any change e f f o r t , whether t h e a t t e m p t a t change i s
on an i n d i v i d u a l o r an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e v e l .
The s tu d y sample comprised th e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n o f 29 Michi­
gan community c o l l e g e s r ec og nized by th e s t a t e o f Michigan.

The c h i e f

personnel o f f i c e r o f each c o l l e g e was asked t o respond t o a survey
in s t r u m e n t designed s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h i s s tu d y .

T w enty-t hree i n d i ­

v i d u a l s r e t u r n e d completed i n s t r u m e n t s .
Responses t o e i g h t mandatory a c t i o n s and 12 v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n s
p e r m itte d a rank o r d e r i n g o f th e c o l l e g e s by compliance l e v e l .
c a t e g o r i e s o f rankings were used:

Three

combined mandatory and v o l u n t a r y

a c t i o n , mandatory a c t i o n , and v o l u n ta r y a c t i o n .

An a n a l y s i s comparing

98

th e t o p - q u a r t i l e and l o w e s t - q u a r t i l e r esp onses in each r a n k i n g was
conducted using th e F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y T e s t .

This a n a l y s i s

was performed t o determine i f a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d between
th e h i g h - and low-compliance groups in t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e r e l a ­
t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g im plemen tation
o f T i t l e IX.
S t u d e n t - e n r o l l m e n t d a t a , ge ographical l o c a t i o n , g e n e r a l o p e r a t i n g - b u d g e t s i z e , and i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s r e l a t e d t o admis­
s i o n s , employment, and t r e a t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s and employees were
analyzed in t h e same manner.

F i n a l l y , r es po nses t o c o u p l e t s o f s i x

of th e e i g h t s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s were c l a s s i f i e d i n t o e m p i r i c a l - r a t i o n a l ,
n o r m a t i v e - r e e d u c a t i v e , and pow er -c oerc ive change t h e o r i e s .

An a n a l y ­

s i s o f t h e s e d a ta was conducted us in g t h e F i s h e r Exact P r o b a b i l i t y
T e s t.

The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e a n a l y s e s were p r e s e n t e d in C hap ter IV.
Conclusions
The f o llo w in g c o n c lu s io n s in r e g a r d t o t h e f o u r m ajor r e s e a r c h

q u e s t i o n s posed in the s tudy were judged as t e n a b l e as a r e s u l t o f
th e a n a ly s e s performed in t h i s r e s e a r c h :
1.

A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was noted in t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f

resp on dents from h i g h - and low-compliance c o l l e g e s c o n c e r n i n g th e
i n f l u e n c e o f gen er al knowledge o f T i t l e IX p r o v i s i o n s .

This d i f f e r ­

ence was observed when t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s e l e c t e d
f a c t o r s were compared in the m a n d a to r y -a c tio n ranking o f t h e
colleges.
2.

There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between h i g h - and

low-compliance c o l l e g e groups when the i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

99

o f s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t , geo gr ap hical l o c a t i o n , and s i z e o f annual
o p e r a t i n g budget were t e s t e d .
3.

There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between h ig h - and

low-compliance c o l l e g e groups on t h e p e r c e i v e d l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e o f
the s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s when th o s e f a c t o r s were c l a s s i f i e d ac c o r d in g t o
s p e c ific s tr a t e g i e s of organizational-change theory.
4.

There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between h i g h - and

low-compliance c o l l e g e groups on th e r e p o r t e d change in a d m i s s i o n s /
treatment/employment p r a c t i c e s .
Recommendations f o r Future Research
Several recommendations and e x t e n s io n s o f t h i s s tu d y a r e
possible.

However, much o f th e study d e a l t with f i r s t - y e a r implemen­

t a t i o n e f f o r t s and may n o t be o f importance or i n t e r e s t f o r f u r t h e r
research.
t o be:

One major q u e s ti o n to be ad d r e ss e d in th e f u t u r e appears

Have passage and implementation o f T i t l e IX r e s u l t e d i n change

within the i n s t i t u t i o n ?

A c o r o l l a r y q u e s ti o n may a l s o be posed:

Was t h e Michigan e x p e r i e n c e a t t h e community c o l l e g e l e v e l unique
in a t t e m p t i n g t o implement p r o v is i o n s o f T i t l e IX?
Based on t h e s e two q u e s t i o n s , th e r e s e a r c h e r f o rm u la t e d f o u r
recommendations f o r f u r t h e r s tu d y .
1.

Those a r e as f o ll o w s :

An e x p l o r a t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s r e l a t e d to

r e c r u i t m e n t and t r e a t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s seven y e a r s a f t e r t h e pa ssage
o f T i t l e IX would be o f i n t e r e s t .

The r e g u l a t i o n was judged t o a l t e r

e x i s t i n g r e c r u i t m e n t and t r e a t m e n t p r a c t i c e s .

A q u e s t i o n remains

as t o t h e e x t e n t t o which i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s have changed.

100

2.

An e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e employment and t r e a t m e n t o f employees

f o ll o w i n g t h e i r employment would be h e l p f u l in determ ining any change
i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d to g r e a t e r compliance with
T i t l e IX.

With t h e reduced number o f p o s i t i o n s in h ig h e r e d u c a ti o n

d ur in g t h e s e eco nom ic al ly hard t i m e s , an examination o f avenues o f
upward m o b i l i t y and placement o f females in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e s could
a s s i s t d e c i s i o n makers in c o l l e g e s w it h r e s t r i c t e d budgets.
3.

Although no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was r e v e a l e d i n t h i s

s tu d y r e l a t i v e t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - c h a n g e s t r a t e g y used i n e f f e c t i n g
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change, an e f f o r t t o determine i f a s p e c i f i c change
th e o r y was e f f e c t i v e in monitori ng compliance e f f o r t s would a s s i s t
c o l l e g e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s in f u t u r e endeavors.
4.

An expansion o f th e study o f compliance l e v e l s t o t h e

n a t i o n a l l e v e l might y i e l d u s e fu l i n f o r m a ti o n .

The Michigan e x p e r i ­

ence may have been unique because o f th e l o c a l - c o n t r o l f a c t o r .

Studies

o f o t h e r s t a t e s w ith more c e n t r a l co n tr o l over a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a t t e r s
o r a c o o r d i n a t i n g agency may y i e l d d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s .

APPENDICES

101

APPENDIX A
TITLE IX QUESTIONNAIRE

102

103

SE C T IO N

ONE

Following is a list of actions contained in the Title IX
Regulation.
Please indicate by checking YES or NO if these
actions have been completed.
Dates included in the Regula­
tion are incorporated in some of the answers.
1.

Provide notification of the institution's policy of non­
discrimination on the basis of sex and compliance with
Title IX by implementing specific and continuing steps
to inform students, prospective students, employees and
employee applicants, unions and professional organiza­
tions of the policy.
YES,

2.

____ NO, but notification
was made on this date
.

by October 19,

19 75

____ NO, but this action
was directed by this
date ____ .

Discontinue use or distribution of publications that
suggest by text or illustrations, that the institution
treats applicants, students or employees differently on
the basis of sex, except as permitted by provisions of
Title IX.
YES,

4.

1975

Include a statement of the nondiscrimination policy in
each announcement, bulletin, catalog or application form
used in connection with recruitment of students and
employees.
YES,

3.

by October 19,

by October 19,

1975

____ NO, but this action
was directed by this
date . ..

Designate an employee(s) to coordinate institutional
efforts to comply with and carry out efforts under
Title IX including investigation of complaints or alle­
gations prohibited by the. Regulation; and notify stu­
dents and employees of the name, office address and
telephone number of the designated employee(s).
YES

NO

104

Adopt and publish or designate grievance procedures pro­
viding for prompt and equitable resolution of student
and employee complaints alleging any action which would
be prohibited by the Regulation.
YES
6.

Conduct an institutional Self-Study evaluating current
policies and practices and the effects thereof concern­
ing admissions of students, treatment of students, and
employment of both academic and nonacademic personnel;
modifying any policies and practices which do not or
will not meet requirements of the Regulation.
Y E S , by July

7.

NO

NO

Provide a notice of a nondiscrimination policy to vendors
and organizations conducting business transactions with
the institution.
YES

12.

NO

Include a nondiscrimination policy statement in an insti­
tutional publication.
YES

11.

NO

Publish a nondiscrimination policy statement in a local
newspaper.
YES

10.

_NO, but Self-Study
was completed by this
date ____ .

File Assurance Form 639 with the Department of Health,
Education and Welfare by July 21, 1976 or Form 639A by
June 3, 1977.
YES

9.

21, 1976

Plan remedial steps to eliminate the effects of any past
policies or practices resulting in sex discrimination.
YES

8.

NO

NO

Issue a policy directive and procedures to insure that
all institutional publications avoid textural or illus­
trative references to differential treatment on the
basis of sex, except as permitted by the Regulation.
YES

NO

105

13.

Issue a policy directive and procedures specified
to insure that institutional representatives have
been informed of the policy of nondiscrimination on
the basis of sex and are implementing it in conducting
assigned responsibilities.
YES

14.

Appoint an institutional representative to coordinate
and monitor compliance with the regulation in admis­
sion and treatment and another representative to coor­
dinate and monitor compliance with the Regulation in
employment practices.
YES

15.

NO

Prepare a three (3) year plan designed to eliminate
the effects of any discrimination which may have re­
sulted from discriminatory policies or practices.
YES

20.

NO

Provide a means for students to participate in the In­
stitutional Self-Study.
YES

19.

NO

Provide a means for the Institutional Self-Study Com­
mittee to be representative of all employees.
YES

18.

NO

Establish a mechanism specified to insure correction
and/or remediation of discrimination identified through
grievance procedures.
YES

17.

NO

Provide for a neutral third party to resolve grievances,
YES

16.

NO

NO

Establish an institutional committee to serve in an
advisory capacity to the designee(s) responsible for
coordinating and monitoring compliance with provisions
of the Regulation.
YES

NO

106
SECTION TWO

The following section contains factors that are assumed to
have influenced the institution's ability to respond to pro­
visions of the Title IX Regulation.
Please indicate by
checking the degree to which each variable is perceived as
an asset or liability at your institution.
1.

Presence of an institutional change agent(s).
(one or
a small group of people assigned or committed to foster
change efforts within the institution)
Major
Liability

2.

Major
Asset

Liability

No Influence

Asset

Major
Asset

Liability

No Influence

Asset

Major
Asset

General knowledge of Title IX Provisions by members of
the governing board, administrators or staff members.
(Individuals were aware that the Regulation required a
policy of nondiscrimination, appointment of a Title IX
Coordinator and completion of an institutional SelfStudy.)
Major
Liability

5.

Asset

Availability of institutional funds to meet budget re­
quirements to comply with provisions of the Regulation.
Major
Liability

4.

No Influence

Availability of personnel within the institution to as­
sume the coordination and monitoring functions required
by the Regulation.
Major
Liability

3.

Liability

Liability

No Influence

Asset

Major
Asset

Ability of the Title IX Coordinator to influence the
chief executive of the institution.
Mauor
Liability

Liability

No Influence

Asset

Major
Asset

6.

In-service training programs dealing with attitudes of
individuals and identification of individual bias.
Major
Liability

7.

Asset

Major
Asset

Liability

No Influence

Asset

Major
Asset

Pressures brought by employee groups represented by rec­
ognized collective bargaining agents to implement pro­
visions of Title IX, as interpreted at that time.
Major
Liability

9.

No Influence

Authority of the Title IX Coordinator to require modi­
fication of policies, practices and procedures.
Major
Liability

8.

Liability

Liability

No Influence

Institutional specific influences
to thirty (30) spaces or less).

Major
Liability

Liability

Asset

Major
Asset

(please limit response

No Influence

Asset

Major
Asset

SECTION THREE
Following is a list of general information questions re­
lated to provisions of Title IX legislation.
Please fill
in or check the information blanks as appropriate or re­
spond with N/A for non-appropriate questions.
1.

The employee designated as Title IX Coordinator at our
institution is ________ years of age.

2.

The Title IX Coordinator spends approximately
per
cent of scheduled time with Title IX responsibilites.

3.

The Title IX Coordinator reports to _______ ____________

4.

The Title IX Coordinator has been employed by this in­
stitution for _______ years.

5.

The Title IX Coordinator has had responsibility for
this function for ______ years.
(round to nearest
one-half year)

108

6.

The Title IX Coordinator is a

female/

male.

7.

Did your institution receive a response when Assurance
Form 639 or 639A was filed with the Department of
Health, Education and Welfare.
Yes, the form was accepted as sent.
No, no response was received.
Yes, form was not completed correctly.
Yes, corrected form was accepted.
No, corrected form sent, but no response.

8.

The grievance procedures utilized to resolve Title IX
complaints are best described as follows:
Students
New procedures
Established procedures with no change
Established procedures with modification
No grievance procedures adopted
Employees
New procedures
Established procedures with modification
No grievance procedures adopted

9.

Title IX has changed our admissions/treatment policies
related to students:
In a major fashion
In a minor fashion
Not at all

10.

Title IX has changed our employment practices:
In a major fashion
In a minor fashion
Not at all

APPENDIX B
PRELIMINARY LIST OF FACTORS INFLUENCING IMPLEMENTATION
OF TITLE IX IN MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES

109

110

P r e li m i n a r y L i s t o f Factors I n f l u e n c i n g Implementation
o f T i t l e IX in Michigan Community Colleges

1.

P r e s s u r e from women's o r g a n i z a t i o n s such as t h e National
O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r Women

2.

P r e s s u r e from employee b a r g a i n i n g u n i t s

3.

Pres en ce o f a s e l f - a p p o i n t e d change a g en t on t h e c o l l e g e

4.

I n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g programs f o r a l l s t a f f

5.

Placement o f t h e T i t l e IX o f f i c e r on th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t

6.

A b i l i t y o f th e T i t l e IX o f f i c e r t o i n f l u e n c e t h e c h i e f e x e c u t i v e
o f f i c e r of the college

7.

A u t h o r it y o f t h e T i t l e IX o f f i c e r t o demand t h a t r u l e s , r e g u l a ­
t i o n s , p o l i c i e s , and procedures be changed

8.
9.
10.

staff

P r e s s u r e from s t u d e n t groups which a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e admiss ions
and equal t r e a t m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s o f th e c o l l e g e
S u f f i c i e n t per sonnel t o a s s i s t th e T i t l e IX o f f i c e r in e s t a b l i s h i n g
and monitori ng t h e T i t l e IX plan
Ample funds t o implement p hys ic a l p l a n t change such as a d d i t i o n a l
l o c k e r room space in t h e p h ys ic a l e d u c a t io n f a c i l i t y

11.

An o r d e r from t h e board o f t r u s t e e s t o conduct

the s e lf - s tu d y

12.

Grievances f i l e d by employees o r s t u d e n t s claimin g sex d i s c r i m i ­
nation

13.

Enrollment s t a t i s t i c s i n d i c a t i n g s i n g l e - s e x e n r o llm e n t p a t t e r n s
in some e d u c a t i o n a l programs

14.

General knowledge and un d e r sta n d in g o f T i t l e IX by members o f t h e
college s t a f f

15.

General knowledge o f T i t l e IX by t h e governing board o f th e
institution

16.

P r e s s u r e br ought by a s t a t e o r f e d e r a l u n i t o f government

17.

A s s i s t a n c e pro vided by a s t a t e o r f e d e r a l u n i t o f government

Ill

18.

A s s i s t a n c e pro vide d by a p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a t t h e s t a t e
o r n a t i o n a l l e v e l such as t h e National College and U n i v e r s i t y
Business O f f i c e r s , Michigan Community College A s s o c i a t i o n , o r
S o u th e a s t Michigan College A s s o c i a t i o n .

APPENDIX C
LETTER TO COMMUNITY COLLEGE PRESIDENTS ABOUT
THE RESEARCH PROJECT

112

113

August 11, 1980

This l e t t e r i s t o a d v is e you o f a d o c t o r a l stud y being conducted by
Lee Howser, A s s i s t a n t t o t h e P r e s i d e n t , Jackson Community C o l l e g e ,
which would be h e l p f u l t o you. L e e 's study w i l l i d e n t i f y f a c t o r s
which have i n f l u e n c e d implementation o f T i t l e IX o f t h e Education
Amendments o f 1972. I t i s ex pected to re veal s t r a t e g i e s , plan ning
s t e p s , and a c t i o n s d e s i r a b l e in o r d e r t o b r in g about o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
change as a r e s u l t o f a mandate from e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s .
Lee has had c o n s i d e r a b l e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e w h il e a t J a c k so n .
He i s very much aware o f s e n s i t i v e personnel i s s u e s and a s s o c i a t e d
problems. He has provided c o n s i d e r a b l e l e a d e r s h i p t o t h e Michigan
Community College Personnel A d m i n i s t r a t o r s A s s o c i a t i o n s i n c e i t s
inception.
Lee proposes t o conduct h i s study w it h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f c h i e f p e r ­
sonnel o f f i c e r s a t Michigan community c o l l e g e s . We s u p p o r t h i s approach
and r e s p e c t f u l l y r e q u e s t y our a s s i s t a n c e by s u p p o r t i n g t h e s t u d y , a d v i s ­
ing y our personnel o f f i c e r o f y o u r i n t e r e s t , and r e q u e s t i n g him o r h e r
to complete t h e survey in s tr u m e n t and r e t u r n i t t o Lee by September 1.
I f you have any q u e s t i o n s , e i t h e r o f us w i l l t r y t o answer from our
vantage p o i n t o f s e r v in g on L e e 's d o c t o r a l committee, o r Lee h i m s e l f
would be more than glad t o respond. His te l e p h o n e number i s (517)
787-0800, Ext. 101.
Sincerely

Dr. Robert D. Cahow
Executive D i r e c t o r
Michigan Community College
A s s o c ia t io n

Dr. James H. Nelson
Professor
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

APPENDIX D
COVER LETTER TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE

114

Jackson Community College
2 1 11 E m m o n s Road • Jackson, M ichigan 49201
(517) 787-0800

A ugust 1 4, 1980

Hope y ou h a v e h a d a n i c e summer s o f a r .
Most o f my ti m e h a s
b e e n s p e n t i n t h e MSU L i b r a r y and a t t h e t y p e w r i t e r w o rk in g on t h e
f i n a l s t a g e s o f my d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
In f a c t , t h a t f s t h e m ain p u r p o s e
of th is le tte r.
The s t u d y i s e n t i t l e d , " F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g I n p l e m e n t a t i o n o f
T i t l e IX i n M ic h ig a n Community C o l l e g e s . " The s t u d y i s b a s e d on
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l ch an g e t h o e r y a n d , h o p e f u l l y , w i l l i d e n t i f y f a c t o r s
i m p o r t a n t t o im p le m e n tin g c h a n g e when m a n d ated by an e x t e r n a l s o u r c e ,
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s u c h f a c t o r s s h o u ld h e l p u s a l l p l a n and c o n d u c t
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l change e f f o r t s in b e t t e r f a s h io n .
E n c l o s e d i s a copy o f t h e s u r v e y i n s t r u m e n t . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l
p a g e s , b u t I t h i n k y o u w i l l f i n d t h e q u e s t i o n s r e q u i r e a minimum o f
r e s e a r c h t o c o m p l e t e . H av in g c o m p le te d a num ber o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n ­
n a i r e s , I am s y m p a t h e t i c to w a r d y o u r t i m e c o n s t r a i n t s .
Your P r e s i d e n t r e c e i v e d a l e t t e r a c o u p l e o f d a y s ago a d v i s i n g
him o f t h e s t u d y a n d r e q u e s t i n g h i s s u p p o r t .
I know how s e n s i t i v e
some o f t h i s m a t e r i a l i s and a s s u r e y o u t h a t no on e e l s e w i l l s e e
t h e raw d a t a o r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n l i s t .
I f a t a l l p o s s i b l e , I w ould l i k e t o h a v e y o u r r e s p o n s e by
S e p te m b e r 1, 1 9 8 0 . A r e t u r n e n v e l o p e i s e n c l o s e d .
T hanks a m i l l i o n
f o r y o u r t i m e an d y o u r h e l p .
I f yo u h a v e q u e s t i o n s , o r r e q u i r e
a d d i t i o n a l c l a r i f i c a t i o n , p l e a s e c o n t a c t me a t (5 1 7 ) 7 8 7 - 0 8 0 0 ,
e x t . 101.
S in c e re ly ,

Lee Howser
A s s is ta n t to th e P re s id e n t
LH/sn
HOARD OP TRUSTEES
George E. Poltcr

M ichael J . Baughman

Qtiinuuft

Vice-Chairman

E. Dean Ed*ard*
T n u lM

LoiiM , Franklin
Trualee

Belly W * Do Ij d
Secretary
John D. Selby
Im a t* *

Victor 5. CuUa
T n u n tf
Dr. Clyde E. LcTme
CoUep PnrtldMl

APPENDIX E
THE FISHER EXACT PROBABILITY TEST

116

PLEASE NOTE:
Copyr ighted m a t e r i a l s i n t h i s document
have n o t been f il m e d a t t h e r e q u e s t o f
t h e a u t h o r . They a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r
c o n s u l t a t i o n , however, i n th e a u t h o r ' s
university lib rary .
These c o n s i s t o f p ag es :
11 7-132________________

University
Microfilms
International
3 0 0 N. ZEEG RD„ ANN A R B O R , Ml 4 8 1 0 6 ( 3 1 3 1 7 6 1 -4 7 0 0

APPENDIX F
RESPONDENT COLLEGES BY GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

133

134

Respondent Colleges by Geographical Location
College Name

Locatio n D es ig n atio n

Bay de Noc

Other

Charles S tew art Mott Community College

Urban

Delta College

Other

Gogebic Community College

Other

Henry Ford Community College

Urban

Highland Park Community College

Urban

Jackson Community College

Other

Kalamazoo County Community College

Other

Lake Michigan College

Other

Lansing Community College

Urban

Macomb County Community College

Urban

Mid-Michigan Community College

O ther

Monroe County Community College

Other

Montcalm Community College

Other

Muskegon County Community College

Urban

North Central Community College

O ther

Northwestern Community College

Other

Oakland Community College

Urban

S t . C l a i r County Community College

Urban

S c h o o l c r a f t Community College

Urban

Southwestern Michigan College

Other

Washtenaw Community College

Urban

Wayne County Community College

Urban

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135

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