INFORMATION TO USERS This reproduction was made from a copy o f a document sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce this document, the quality of the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the quality o f the material submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or “target” for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is “Missing Page(s)” . If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an indication of either blurred copy because o f movement during exposure, duplicate copy, or copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed. For blurred pages, a good image of the page can be found in the adjacent frame. If copyrighted materials were deleted, a target note will appear listing the pages in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part of the material being photographed, a definite method o f “sectioning” the material has been followed. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand comer o f a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again-beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. For illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic means, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and inserted into your xerographic copy. These prints are available upon request from the Dissertations Customer Services Department. 5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases the best available copy has been filmed. University M iaailm s International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 8315474 Laubach, Wilburt Kelly APPLICATION OF AMERICAN CORRECTIONS STANDARDS ON ACADEMIC EDUCATION TO THE MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTIONS EDUCATION SYSTEM, 1975*1981: A PILOT STUDY Michigan Stale University University Microfilms International PH.D. 1983 300 N. Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 APPLICATION OF AMERICAN CORRECTIONS STANDARDS ON ACADEMIC EDUCATION TO THE MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTIONS EDUCATION SYSTEM, 1975-1981: A PILOT STUDY By Wilburt K. Laubach A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan S tate U niversity in p a r tia l f u lf illm e n t o f the requirements fo r the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum 1983 ABSTRACT APPLICATION OF AMERICAN CORRECTIONS STANDARDS ON ACADEMIC EDUCATION TO THE MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTIONS By Wilburt Kelly Laubach The purpose o f t h i s study was to consider the American Correc­ tio n al A sso ciatio n 's standards as they r e l a t e to four qu estio ns: 1. How adequate are the American Correctional Association education standards as evaluativ e c r i t e r i a fo r a c o rrectio n s educa­ tio n program? 2. To what e x te n t a re the Michigan Department o f C orrections' education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the American Cor­ rectio n al Association education standards? 3. Are the four ad ditio nal ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a reasonable/ workable to augment the American Correctional Association c r i t e r i a ? 4. To what ex ten t are the Michigan Department of C orrectio ns' education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the four additional evaluative c r i t e r i a ? Data sources included both m aterial and human resources. Corrections school p rin c ip a ls and o th er Corrections Department admin­ i s t r a t o r s rated the American Correctional Association standards r e l a ­ tiv e to the value o f the standards as c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate Wilburt Kelly Laubach a prison education program. The ad m in istrators also evaluated the correction s schools r e l a t i v e to compliance with the Correctional Asso­ c ia tio n standards and the c r i t e r i a developed from the l i t e r a t u r e . Michigan Department o f Corrections policy d i r e c t iv e s , procedures, D ire c to r's Office memos, and a d m in istrativ e meeting minutes were reviewed to determine i f a u th o rity has been provided fo r i n s t i t u t i o n schools to comply with the standards. As a r e s u l t of the data a n a ly s is , i t was concluded t h a t the majority o f American Correctional Association standards are considered adequate c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate the Michigan Department of Corrections education programs. A small percentage of the standards are believed to be inadequate c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate a co r­ rectio n s education program in Michigan p riso n s. They include c r i t e r i a dealing with educational programs a t a time when the m ajority of inmates can attend school, the comparison o f co rrectio n s school personnel p o l i ­ cies to local public schools, and the use o f community resources to develop educational programs f o r s e le c te d s tu d e n ts. Although the data in d ic a te t h a t the Department o f Corrections can meet the m ajority o f the stan d ard s, the combination o f those s ta n ­ dards judged as not being adequate c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate a corrections education program and those fo r which the data were not conclusive presents a r a th e r high percentage of standards with which compliance is c u rre n tly doubtful. This work is dedicated to my w ife, Beth, and daughters, Kathy, Connie, and Cindie, who shared my goal and many times went without in order fo r us to obtain i t . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A doctoral committee th a t is a source o f i n s p ir a t io n , i n f o r ­ mation, and continual support is indeed a pleasure with which to work. FarDr. Peggy R ieth m iller, the chairperson o f my committee, who guided me to the r e a liz a tio n o f a life tim e dream, I have the g r e a te s t admiration and respect but do not possess and vocabulary to express my g ra titu d e s u f f i c i e n t ly . To Drs. Bader, Blackman, Buschman, and Suehr, my deep appre­ c ia tio n is expressed. Their ro le as teachers and advisors w ill always be remembered. The most p raise and g r a titu d e must go to my w ife, Beth, whose never-ending support, encouragement, and confidence kept me going when I f e l t t h a t I could not w rite another page. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. vi INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY .............................................................. 1 Background o f the Problem .......................................................... Purpose of the Study .................................................................. Importance of the Study .............................................................. Design of the Study ...................................................................... Limitations of the Study ......................................................... Organization of the Study .......................................................... 1 8 9 10 14 14 Chapter I. II. III. IV. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ..................................................... 16 Corrections Education in Michigan—AB rief History . . Changes That Have Taken Place in Prison Education in Recent Y e a r s .......................................................................... C e rtifie d School S t a f f .......................................................... Federal Funding fo r the Education o f Adult Offenders . Academic Education and Educational Technology . . . . Summary.......................................................................................... The Components of Evaluative C r ite r ia fo r Education Programs in General . .......................................................... Summary.......................................................................................... Chapter Summary .............................................................................. 16 28 33 38 41 47 49 56 57 PROCEDURES.......................................................................................... 59 Sources of Data .............................................................................. Procedures fo r Data Collection ............................................. Data From Human Resources: Michigan Department of Corrections Administrators ............................................. Data From Material Resources ............................................. Procedures fo r Analysis o f Data ............................................. Chapter Summary .............................................................................. 59 59 60 62 63 65 PRESENTATION OF DATA ...................................................................... 67 Review of Corrections Education in Michigan, 1975-1981. F i r s t P r io r ity : Basic Education ......................................... Second P r io r ity : Vocational Training ............................. 67 68 68 iv Page Third P r io r ity : Pre-GED Preparation ................................. 69 Fourth P r io r i ty : GED Program ......................................... 69 F ifth P r io r ity : Life-Role Competency S k ills ................. 69 Presentation o f Data Related to the Research Questions . 71 Research Question 1 ................................................................ 72 Research Question 2 ................................................................ 79 Research Question 3 ................................................................ 97 Research Question 4 ................................................................ 103 Summary.................................................................................................. 106 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY............................................................................. Summary o f the Study ..................................................................... C o n c lu s io n s ......................................................................................... Recommendations ................................................................................. Suggestions for Further Study ..................................................... R e f l e c t i o n s ......................................................................................... Concluding Statement ..................................................................... BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... v Ill Ill 114 116 118 118 121 122 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Page Comparison o f Educational Levels o f the General Population and Prisoners .............................................................. 4 Enrollment in Education by Class o r Program D is trib u ­ tio n : January 1931 .......................................................................... 25 Corrections Schools P r in c ip a ls ' Ratings o f American Correctional Association Standards on E d u c a tio n ................. 73 P r in c ip a ls ' Ratings o f American Correctional Association Standards on Education According to Low, N eu tral, or High V a l u e ........................................................................................... 75 5. American Correctional Association Standards Most Frequently Chosen by P rin cip als as Having the Highest Value as Evaluative C r i t e r i a ...................................................... 76 6. American Correctional Association Standards Most Frequently Chosen by P rin cip als as Having the Least Value as Evaluative C r ite r ia ...................................................... 77 2. 3. 4. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Department o f Corrections Education C onsultants' Ratings o f How Well They Believe the Michigan Department of Corrections Schools Are in Compliance With the American Correctional Association Standards on Education . . . . 81 American Correctional A ssociation Standards Rated by Corrections Department Education Consultants as Having Low Compliance by Corrections Schools ................................. 82 American Correctional A ssociation Standards Receiving Neutral o r Undecided Ratings by Corrections Department Education Consultants in Terms o f Compliance by Corrections Schools ...................................................................... 83 American Correctional Association Standards Rated by Corrections Department Education Consultants as Having High Compliance by Corrections Schools ................. 84 Corrections Department Education C onsultants' Ratings o f the Value o f C r ite r ia fo r Evaluating a Corrections Education Program .............................................................................. Vi 102 Page 12. 13. Comparison o f Corrections School P r in c ip a ls ' Ratings o f the Value of the American Correctional Association Standards as C r i t e r i a With Which to Evaluate a Prison Education Program With Central Office Education Consultants' Ratings o f How Well the Corrections Schools Are Meeting the Standards ......................................... 108 Summary of Data Indicating Adequacy o f Compliance With American Correctional Association Standards and Additional C r i t e r i a ...................................................................... 115 vi i CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY I d o n 't think you have to prove t h a t education is good. I t has i n t r i n s i c value. I am persuaded th a t education changes people. . . . Every inmate should . . . get as much education as his m entality can a b s o rb J Background o f the Problem The ro le o f prisons in American so cie ty has been the focus of controversy fo r many y e a rs. Some individuals a s s e r t t h a t prisons are fo r punishment and t h a t a l l convicted felons should be locked up and confined to s o li t a r y conditions and hard labo r. Others emphasize treatment and r e h a b i l it a ti o n o f those people who are sen t to federal and s t a t e p rison s. Conrad s ta te d : "The c o n f l ic t begins with the gap between the philosophy o f rep ressiv e control t h a t too often c h a ra c te r­ izes the custodial personnel, and the b e l i e f in the importance of r e s to r a tiv e programs." 2 The c o n f lic tin g philosophies or b e lie f s concerning treatm ent versus custody are not easy issues fo r the public or prison o f f i c i a l s to reso lv e, as Conrad emphasized: ^John P. Conrad, Adult Offender Education Programs, Monograph prepared fo r the National I n s t i t u t e o f J u s tic e (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department o f J u s t i c e , March 1981), p. 33; quoting George Beto, The Houston P o st, December 29, 1979, p. 27C. 2 Conrad, Adult Offender Education Programs, p. 7. 1 2 No m atter how concerned the warden o r superintendent may be about the q u a lity o f the educational program to be provided, his f i r s t r e s p o n s ib ility is the secure custody o f the i n s t i ­ t u tio n . This inescapable p r i o r i t y ap p lies to everyone working on the reserv atio n (including te a c h e r s ) , and a ll oth er a c t i v i ­ t i e s within the prison are subordinate in importance. In the best of circum stances, the prison is not an educational i n s t i ­ tu tio n ; i t is an i n s t i t u t i o n to which offenders are sen t as punishment. Recognition of t h i s p r i o r i t y should not needlessly o b stru c t the many secondary programs a prison must adm inister. I t is one thing to declare t h a t the s e c u rity o f the i n s t i t u t i o n has the f i r s t claim on the a t te n tio n of a l l employees; i t is q u ite another to a c t as though nothing e lse m atters.! The c o n f lic tin g c o rrectio n s philosophies are most o fte n e v i­ denced in times of prison u p ris in g s. All too fre q u e n tly , i n s t i t u t i o n heads who defend the notion t h a t a l l programs must be stopped in d e f i­ n it e ly fo r s e c u rity reasons voice t h e i r opinion t h a t educational pro­ grams r e a lly do not m atter. These c o n f lic tin g philosophies and the many other problems confronting the co rrectio n al educator make co rrectio n s education a d i f f i c u l t arena in which to work. The educator must face c e r ta in r e a l i t i e s , however, no m atter how i d e a l i s t i c he/she may be. Reagan and Stoughton s ta te d : The penal f a c i l i t y and i t s custo dial s t a f f , no m atter how mod­ ern and p ro g ressiv e, tend in too many instances to present a physical and psycho-social s e tti n g which i s , by i t s e l f , not conducive to the educational process. The educator must s t r i v e to counteract t h i s while developing a fe e lin g of t r u s t from the co rrectio ns world, both s t a f f and inmates. At the same tim e, he must bear in mind t h a t confinement, as unproductive as i t i s , i s a r e a l i t y and cannot be abandoned u n til a b e t t e r a l t e r n a t iv e i s developed.2 1 Ibid. Michael V. Reagen and Donald M. Stoughton, e d s ., School Behind Bars (Metuchen, N .J.: The Scarecrow Press, I n c ., 1976), p. 18. 3 Even in environments in which co rrectio n s b e lie f s and p ractices are compatible, the co rrection al educator s t i l l frequ ently encounters o th er major roadblocks to success. In t h e i r evaluation o f correctio nal education programs fo r inmates, Bell and his asso c ia te s a s se rte d th a t "the most crucial obstacles to achieving a successful educational pro­ gram are adm inistrative sh o rtsig h ted n ess, in d ifferen ce and neglect."^ H is to r ic a lly , co rrectio n s education as a major p a r t of the r e h a b i l it a t i v e e f f o r t has been a d i f f i c u l t area o f endeavor. I t has not been uncommon fo r untrained individu als to attempt to provide edu­ cational leadership in correctio ns schools. In the ea rly h is to ry of education in p ris o n s , the r e s p o n s ib ility for educational programs was delegated to the chaplain or an in te re s te d guard. All too fre q u e n tly , the task of in s tru c tin g the i l l i t e r a t e prisoners was delegated to o ther p rison ers. The goals of the education programs in the e arly h isto ry o f education in co rrection s were to teach i l l i t e r a t e prisoners to read the Bible and to work simple arith m etic problems. In recen t y e a rs , many improvements have been made in c o rrec­ tio n al education n a tio n a lly , but many prisoners are s t i l l leaving prison no b e t t e r equipped to take t h e i r place in so ciety than they were a t the time o f in c a rc e ra tio n . education. Prisoners s t i l l need much more The 1967 Task Force on Crime reported t h a t education is a Raymond Bell e t a l . , National I n s t i t u t e of Law Enforcement and Criminal J u s t i c e , U.S. Department o f J u s t i c e , Correctional Edu­ cation Programs f o r Inmates, National Evaluation Programs, Phase I (Washington, D.C.: Government P rin tin g O ffice, June good barometer o f the likelih oo d o f success in modern America ? That i s , the more formal education prisoners re c e iv e , the g re a te r t h e i r chances o f being su ccessfu l, law-abiding people a f t e r serving t h e i r terms. According to the Task Force, 1960 Census data revealed th a t more than h a lf o f ad u lt felony inmates aged 25 to 64 had had no high school education. Table 1 shows a comparison o f the educational lev els of prisoners and the general population. Table 1 . —Comparison of educational lev els of the general population and p rison ers. Years of School Completed9 College: 4 years or more 1 to 3 years General Population (Percent) Inmate Population (Percent) 8.4 9.4 1.1 4.2 High school: 4 years 1 to 3 years 27.5 20.7 12.4 27.6 Elementary: 28.0 6.0 40.3 14.4 Source: 5 to 8 years 4 years to none The P re s id e n t's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administra tio n of J u s t ic e , Task Force Report: Corrections (Washington, D. C.: Government P rin tin g O ffice, 1967), p. 2. aBy persons aged 25-64. Ryan provided f u rth e r argument fo r the need to educate p rison ers: H he P re sid e n t's Commission on Law Enforcement and Adminis­ t r a tio n o f J u s t i c e , Task Force Report: Corrections (Washington, D.C.: Government P rin tin g O ffice, 1967), p. 2. 5 Every ten years the census l i s t s c h a r a c te r is t i c s o f persons in custodial i n s t i t u t i o n s including federal and s t a t e p riso n s, j a i l s , and work houses. The l a t e s t ta b u la tio n shows the median years o f school completed by s t a t e and federal prisoners to be 8.6 y ears. J u s tic e Burger comments th a t "we are paying a t e r r i b l e p rice in crime, in p a rt because we have tended . . . to regard a ll crim inals as human rubbish. I t would make more sense, from a coldly log ical viewpoint, to put a ll t h i s 'ru b b ish ' in to a vast in c in e r a to r than simply to warehouse i t fo r a tim e, only to have most o f the su b jec ts come out and retu rn to t h e i r old ways." What to o ls might be used to combat t h i s tr a g ic waste o f human resources? Chief J u s tic e Burger believes the b est hope l i e s in sw ift determ ination of g u i l t , comprehensive study of each human being involved, in ten siv e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , and e s p e c ia lly , educa­ tio n and vocational t r a i n i n g ! [ I t a l i c s m ine.jl The t r u l y professional co rrectio n s educator who is committed to the same id eals expressed by J u s tic e Burger fin ds him self in a f r u s ­ t r a tin g world of c o n tra d ic tio n . The professional hears and reads c ritic is m s o f correctio ns education and knows what needs to be done, but because o f various i n s t i tu t i o n a l c o n s tr a in ts , including co lleag u es, he is unable to achieve a designated q u a lity o f program. N atio nally , co rrectio ns education has been plagued with poor educational manage­ ment, un qualified te a c h e rs , in app rop riate curriculum , and inadequate funding. MacCormick and Marsh and Adams concluded t h a t one o f the major problems with c o rrectio n s education has been t h a t co rrectio n s has not 2 developed a philosophy of education or a s e t o f goals and purposes. 1T. A. Ryan, Goals o f Adult Basic Education fo r Corrections (Honolulu: U niversity of Hawaii, 19^6), p. 5. p Austin H. MacCormick, The Education of Adult Offenders (New York: National Society of Penal Reformation, 1931), p. iV; JoRn Marsh and S tu a rt N. Adams, "Prison Education Tomorrow," in School Behind B ars, ed. Michael V. Reagen and Donald M. Stoughton (Metuchen, N .J .: Tfii Scarecrow P ress, I n c ., 1976), p. 14. 6 Marsh and Adams wrote: The goals and purpose o f c o rrectio n al education are a t present vague, inadequate, and somewhat defensive. Correctional educa­ tio n speaks not with a s in g le voice. In f a c t , the most vocal elements are persons not working in education in penal systems but in o th er agencies.! They observed th a t "the Correctional Education A ssociation has y e t to s t a t e a goal, a purpose, or a philosophy f o r c o rrectio n al education." 2 Marsh and Adams believed t h a t : Philosophically the ro le o f c o rre c tio n a l education i s to : a. b. c. Function as an agent o f change f o r both the inmate and the system. Maintain i t s i n te g r i ty in terms o f i t s basic commitment to freedom of in q u iry , and Study, evaluate and respond to a l l v a riab les in the i n d i­ v idu al, the system and s o c ie ty th a t are to be b en efited by the educational concerns with process, product and social reform s.3 Reagen and Stoughton expressed concern about the lack o f evaluation of co rrectio n al education programs: Whatever the reason, i t is c l e a r t h a t th ere is a dearth o f evalu­ a tiv e research on th e c o rre c tio n a l educational process. In a f i e l d where th e re are l i t e r a l l y hundreds o f s tu d ie s o f th e e f f e c ­ tiveness o f individual and group counseling, o f the e f f e c ts of psychotherapy or o th er treatm ent procedures, o f the e f f e c ts of d if f e r e n t sized parole or probation caselo ad s, o f the e f f e c ts of d i f f e r e n t kinds of treatm ent environments or s e t t i n g s , i t seems remarkable th a t th ere are so few stu d ie s o f the e f f e c t s o f co r­ re c tio n a l ed u catio n .4 Conrad's concern with th e evaluation of prison education pro­ grams r e la te d to the d i f f e r in g emphases among re search ers: Researchers are a t odds about the use o f recidivism ra te s fo r measuring the e ffe c tiv e n e ss o f education programs. One school o f research argues t h a t the only real evaluation o f 1I b i d . , p. 27. 4 2Ibid. 3I b i d . , p. 15. Reagen and Stoughton, School Behind B ars, p. 93. 7 success is impact on recidivism r a t e , while the o th er maintains t h a t any attempt to connect educational success to recidivism is u n r e a l i s t i c . For many co rrectio n al a d m in istra to rs , evaluation has been a process by which score is kept, thereby j u s t i f y i n g programs in terms o f released offenders who do not commit crimes when returned to the community. While th is naive approach to evaluatio n is understandable, the tru e usefulness o f evaluation i s in the plan­ ning process as a whole. When an ad m in istra to r knows how many functional i l l i t e r a t e s completed Adult Basic Education out of a to ta l number o f such prisoners in his charge, he has a basis fo r planning improvements in the program. That is a much more valu­ able piece o f information than a count o f the r e c i d i v is t s produced by the educational program two or th ree years a f t e r th e end of t h e i r exposure to learn ing . L i t t l e or nothing can be accomplished with the l a t t e r d ata, in s p i t e of attem pts by s im p lis tic s t a t i s ­ t i c i a n s to prove th a t unless recidivism i s reduced s ig n i f ic a n t l y each y e a r, the program under study should be term inated. Any programmed e f f o r t must be sustain ed by p o s itiv e r e s u l t s . An educational program t h a t does not educate i s r e a d ily seen fo r what i t i s and should be replaced. Success in c o rre c tio n a l edu­ cation w ill seldom be manifest in dramatic r e s u l t s ; the human m aterial is too often damaged, the d e fic ie n c ie s are too g reat to be remedied in a few years in the discouraging environment o f a s t a t e p rison. Objectives should be modestly and r e a l i s t i c ­ a l ly s ta te d . Their achievement must be in terms o f immediate re su ltsJ The lack o f evaluation o f co rrectio n s education i s , according to Bell and his a s s o c ia te s , "the s in g le most important issu e to be considered in bringing c o rrectio n al education to i t s p o te n tia l value to p ris o n e rs." 2 They continued, "The lack of any rigorous and s y s te ­ matic evaluation is probably due to many reasons. Four o f the 11 reasons they c ite d t h a t are most re le v a n t to the present study are as follows: C o n rad , Adult Offender Education Programs, p. 11. ^Bell e t a l . , as quoted in Conrad, Adult Offender Education Programs, p. 10. 8 1. The lack o f measurable o b je c tiv e s. 2. The lack o f any mandate to conduct such evaluations by funding agencies. 3. The lack o f research and measurement e x p e rtise in the 4. The lack o f i n t e r e s t by many researchers or in v e stig a to rs system. because o f the lack o f funds and the low p r i o r i t y o f co rrectio n al edu­ cation in the to t a l research spectrum.^ In recent y e a rs , s t a t e co rrection s departments appear to have been placing emphasis on seeking a c c re d ita tio n from the American Cor­ rectional A ssociation. This national a sso ciatio n has recently developed a s e t of standards r e la tin g to almost every aspect of co r­ r e c tio n s , including the care and handling o f p riso n ers. This inves­ t i g a t o r was concerned with examining the American Correctional Association standards on co rrectio nal education to determine whether the Correctional A sso ciatio n 's standards are adequate c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate a co rrection s education program. Purpose o f the Study Since 1974, many changes have taken place in the Michigan Department of C orrections' education programs. However, th ere has been no system atic e f f o r t to evaluate the changes th a t have taken place during the past several years o r to provide d ire c tio n fo r the fu tu re of co rrectio n s education in Michigan. ^ b i d . , pp. 10-11. 9 I t is now the goal of the Michigan Department o f Corrections to become accred ited by the American Correctional Association by coming in to compliance with the Correctional A ssociation standards. The purpose o f t h i s w r ite r was to consider the American Correctional Association education standards in terms of the following four research questions: 1. How adequate are the American Correctional Association education standards as evaluativ e c r i t e r i a fo r a co rrectio ns educa­ tio n program? 2. To what extent are th e Michigan Department of C orrections' education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the American Cor­ rectio n al Association education standards? 3. Are the four ad dition al evaluative c r i t e r i a reasonable/ workable to augment the American Correctional Association c r i t e r i a ? 4. To what ex ten t are the Michigan Department of C orrections' education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the four additional evaluative c r i t e r i a ? Importance o f the Study Assessment and evaluation o f movement toward an acceptable s e t o f standards is a process by which an educational i n s t i t u t i o n continues to grow toward providing maximal e f f e c tiv e service to i t s students and s o c ie ty . I t would seem, th e r e fo r e , t h a t the importance of t h i s study is r e la te d to the following p o in ts: 1. This study i s a p i l o t study in the ap p licatio n of the recently revised American Correctional Association standards fo r 10 correctio ns education. The w r ite r attem pts to answer the questions about the comprehensiveness and u s a b ili t y o f the c r i t e r i a . Recommen­ dations are made fo r the m odification o f these standards so t h a t they can be a more valid measurement o f the q u a lity of a s t a t e ' s co rrec­ tions education system. 2. There is a need to provide s p e c ific information to the resp ectiv e policy makers o f the Michigan Department of Corrections concerning the compliance of th a t departm ent's educational program with n a tio n a lly accepted standards of c o rrectio n s education. 3. Such information w ill help the c e n tra l o f f ic e education s t a f f of the Corrections Department by providing them with guidelines th a t are useful in assessing co rrectio n s education programs during s ta te - r e q u ire d bi-annual assessments o f a ll of the Michigan Depart­ ment of C orrections' educational programs. 4. This study provides guidelines to c o r r e c t i o n s - i n s t i tu t io n school ad m inistrators by giving d ire c tio n fo r program growth toward the Department o f C orrections' educational go als. In a d d itio n , i t provides an in d ic a to r fo r school ad m in istrato rs concerning the com­ pliance o f t h e i r programs with s t a t e and national goals and standards. Design of the Study In January 1981, the American Correctional A ssociatio n, in cooperation with the Commission on A ccreditation fo r C orrections, through a grant from the Law Enforcement A ssistance Administration of the United S tates Department of J u s t i c e , issued the second e d itio n of a s e t o f standards fo r a d u lt c o rre c tio n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s J Some of these c r i t e r i a were earmarked fo r academic and vocational education. These standards are accepted by American co rrectio n al o f f i c i a l s as the guiding c r i t e r i a fo r the development and evaluation o f i n s t i t u ­ tio n a l academic and vocational programs. A ccreditation by the American Correctional Association is based on these standards. The in v e s tig a to r focused on the American Correctional Asso­ c ia tio n standards as they r e l a t e to academic education in co rrectio ns and on any add itio nal evalu ativ e c r i t e r i a in the education l i t e r a t u r e t h a t would be useful in evaluating a co rrectio n s education program. The American Correctional Association has developed 20 s ta n ­ dards with which to evaluate prison educational programs. stan dard s, 18 were considered in t h is study. Of the 20 These stan d a rd s, along with the additional supporting evalu ativ e c r i t e r i a , were used to evaluate the educational programs of the Michigan Department of 2 Corrections. The 18 American Correctional Association standards considered in t h i s study are l i s t e d below: 2-4422 - There is a comprehensive education program a v a ila b le to a ll e l i g i b l e inmates t h a t extends from l i t e r a c y tra in in g through high school and includes communication s k i l l s , mathematics, and so cial science. American Correctional A ssociation, Standards f o r Adult Cor­ re c tio n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s , 2nd ed. (College Park, Md.: American Correc­ tio n al A ssociation, January 1981), pp. 109-12. 2 See the lim ita tio n s o f the study r e la tin g to vocational and postsecondary education. 12 2-4423 - The academic education programs are accred ited by the s t a t e department of education or a recognized a c c re d i­ ta tio n a s so c ia tio n . Programs up to the completion of high school and/or GED are a v a ila b le a t no c o st to inmates. 2-4424 - There is a standardized competency-based curriculum supported by app rop riate m ateria ls and classroom resources. 2-4425 - There is a system fo r ensuring t h a t the academic educa­ tio n programs continue to meet the needs o f the inmate population. 2-4426 - Some educational programs are provided a t a time when the m ajority of inmates can take advantage of the opportunity. 2-4427 - There is a system atic approach to determine the personnel requirements f o r the academic programs to ensure a ll inmates access to s t a f f and s e rv ic e s . 2-4428 - All academic education personnel are c e r t i f i e d by a s t a t e department of education or o th er comparable a u th o rity . 2-4429 - Academic personnel p o lic ie s and p ractices are comparable to local j u r is d i c t i o n s or other appropriate j u r i s d i c t i o n s . 2-4430 - Salary and b e n e fits fo r academic personnel are a t l e a s t the same as s t a t e minimums fo r teachers performing com­ parable work. 2-4431 - The educational program i s supported by s p ecializ ed equipment, in clu d ing , a t a minimum, classrooms, teaching c a r r e l s , audiovisual m aterials and f a c i l i t i e s , chalkboards, and ad m in istrativ e space. 2-4432 - The i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a f f and/or parent agency conducts an annual evaluation to assess the effe c tiv e n e s s of the academic education program ag ain st s ta te d performance o b je c tiv e s. 2-4433 - There is a system whereby the academic programs are assessed a g a in st s ta te d o b jectiv es by q u a lifie d in d i­ v id u a ls, professional groups, and tra d e a s s o c ia tio n s ; t h i s assessment is done a t l e a s t every th ree years. 2-4434 - Academic counseling is provided so t h a t inmates are placed in t h a t phase o f the educational program s u ite d to t h e i r needs and a b i l i t i e s . 13 2-4435 - The educational program allows fo r f le x ib le scheduling th a t permits inmates to e n te r a t any time and to proceed a t t h e i r own learning pace. 2-4437 - The i n s t i t u t i o n uses community resources in developing academic programs fo r sele cted inmates. 2-4438 - The educational program in coordination with o th er i n s t i ­ tu tio n a l serv ices provides in s tr u c tio n in functional social s k i l l s . 2-4440 - Written policy and procedures govern the maintenance and handling of educational records. 2-4441 - Provision is made fo r formal recognition o f s p e c ific educational accomplishments.' The major sources o f data t h a t were studied and analyzed with regard to the research questions were the following: 1. Library-housed m a te r ia ls , including Educational Resource Information Center (ERIC) holdings and documents published by the various co rrectio n al a s so c ia tio n s. 2. Reports and p u b licatio n s of the United S tates government and the United S tates Bureau o f Prisons and stu d ies completed by the co rrectio n s agencies of o th er s t a t e s . 3. L ite r a tu r e p ertain in g to the evaluation o f education pro­ grams t h a t are s im ila r to co rrectio n al education programs. 4. Data from human resources in the c o rrectio n s f i e l d . 5. The Michigan Department o f C o rrectio ns' policy d i r e c t iv e s , procedures, and D ir e c to r's O ffice memos p ertain in g to the department's educational programs. ^American Correctional A ssociation, Standards fo r Adult Cor rectio n al I n s t i t u t i o n s , pp. 109-12. 14 Lim itations of the Study The evalu ativ e c r i t e r i a were used only fo r the study of the correction s school academic programs. The vocational program o f the Michigan Department o f Corrections was excluded from the study. The environment o f co rrectio n al i n s t i t u t i o n s is unstable. The movement o f p riso n er/stu d en ts and educational personnel and such phenomena as r i o t s are ev er-p resen t r e a l i t i e s and p o t e n t i a l i t i e s a f fe c tin g co rrectio n s education. Aspects of the educational programs studied may have been a ffected by these and o th er con ditions. Community college programs, which are a v a ila b le in a l l Michi­ gan co rrection al i n s t i t u t i o n s , were not d e a lt with in t h i s study. Also, other outside s t a t e and federal program influences li k e special education, a d u lt basic education, and T it l e I ESEA were not i d e n tif ie d sep arately . Organization o f the Study Chapter I comprised the background o f the study, which included a b r ie f review o f co rrectio n s in gen eral; the purpose, impor­ tance, and basic design o f the study; and the lim ita tio n s of the study. Chapter II includes a b r i e f h is to r y o f c o rrectio n s education in Michigan to 1975, a review o f the l i t e r a t u r e concerning changes th a t have recen tly taken place in co rrectio ns education, and a review o f th e important c r i t e r i a t h a t are being used to evaluate educational programs in general. sented in Chapter I I I . The procedures employed in the study are p re­ Included are the sources o f data and the procedures fo r data c o lle c tio n and data a n a ly s is . Chapter IV contains 15 a b r i e f overview of co rrection s education in Michigan from 1975 to 1981, a p resen tatio n of data re la te d to the four research q u estio n s, and an o v erall review o f the data co lle c te d on the research qu estion s. The summary o f the study, conclusions, recommendations, and sugges­ tio n s fo r f u rth e r study are contained in Chapter V. CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The process o f change w ithin the f ie ld o f co rrectio n s educa­ tio n and in education in general is the focus o f t h i s ch ap ter. Emphasis is placed on the following th ree a re a s , which are o f major importance to t h i s study: 1. The h isto ry o f c o rrectio n s education in Michigan to 1975, 2. The changes t h a t have re c e n tly taken place in prison education, and 3. The components o f evaluativ e c r i t e r i a fo r education pro­ grams in general. Corrections Education in Michigan—A B rief History Roberts wrote: The decade o f the 1870's marks the culmination of the gradual t r a n s i t i o n in co rrectio n education from basic reading and w ritin g to an organized system of formal academic vocational and so cial education with s o lid underlying p r in c ip le s . Brockway, the f i r s t warden in th e Elmira [New York S tate Prison System] Reformatory, developed an in d u s tr ia l program a t the D etro it House o f Corrections in 1861. Though some tw o-thirds o f the inmates were involved in the school program, t h i s was undoubtedly an exception to a national p attern in 1870, in which only 8,000 of some 20,000 i l l i t e r a t e prisoners were receiving some form of in s t r u c t io n .! ^Albert R. Roberts, Sourcebook on Prison Education (Spring­ f i e l d , 111.: Charles C. Thomas, 1971), p. 6. 17 Reagen and Stoughton observed t h a t a d e s c rip tiv e overview of co rrectio n al education in the United S tates does not e x i s t J observation is e s p e c ia lly tru e in Michigan. Their Authority fo r the h i s ­ to r i c a l documentation in t h i s d is s e r ta ti o n was derived prim arily from Michigan annual and biennial rep o rts and from occasional unpublished papers. The w rite r drew heavily on an unpublished paper w ritte n by Michael Auer in 1966 The impetus fo r introducing an educational program a t the S tate Prison of Southern Michigan in Jackson, Michigan, was the same as th a t which led to the establishm ent of schools in e a rly New England. In 1846, the Michigan l e g is la t u r e enacted a b i l l t h a t decreed: The agent sh all fu rn ish a t the expense of the S t a t e , a Bible to each o f the convicts who can read, and such convicts as cannot read, he sh all cause to be in s tru c te d in the p rin c ip le s o f read­ ing, w r itin g , and a r ith m e t i c .3 In 1858, Chaplain Crawford reported t h a t "we have two Bible c l a s s e s , and o f the students the balance are engaged in reading and s p e ll i n g , 4 with one c la s s in a r ith m e tic ." Classes were held fo r one hour on Sunday mornings. Eventually, inamte i n s tr u c to r s replaced freemen who had volunteered to teach but who were deemed undependable. ^Michael V. Reagen and Donald M. Stoughton, e d s ., School Behind Bars (Metuchen, N .J.: The Scarecrow P ress, I n c . , 1976), p. x i i . 2 Michael Auer, "Inmate Education a t the S ta te Prison of Southern Michigan: The L i t t l e Brick School House, 1949-1966" (unpublished term paper, July 1966). ^Michigan Revised S ta tu te s o f 1846, Chapter 172, Section 50, p. 47. 4 M ich ig an , Annual Report o f th e In sp ecto rs o f th e S ta te P ris o n , 1858, p. 78. 18 According to Auer, a committee of the Board of Commissioners of C h aritab le, Penal, Pauper, and Reformatory I n s t i t u t i o n s declared in 1874 t h a t a Sabbath school meeting one hour each Sunday was con­ sidered inadequate to guarantee t h a t the released inmates would be reformed.^ The committee re p o rt s ta te d : I f our prison system is in any sense a f a i l u r e , i t is not because i t f a i l s to punish crim in a ls, b ut because i t f a i l s to reform them. I f reformation i s to be accomplished, i t must be done larg ely through the in stru m e n ta lity o f th a t education th a t forms the common mind and f i t s i t fo r the duties of l i f e . I t is use­ le s s , th e r e fo r e , to hope f o r the most successful r e s u l t s from prison d i s c i p l i n e , so long as t h i s important agency is so much n e g le c te d .2 In an attempt to remedy the s i t u a t i o n , the Committee suggested h irin g a f u ll- tim e teach er. No reforms were i n i t i a t e d , however. Chaplain Hickox s ta te d in his re p o rt to the warden t h a t improvements were necessary. The enrollment o f scholars who met f o r one hour each Sunday morning continued to d eclin e. In 1879, Chaplain Hickox requested t h a t an evening school be e s ta b lis h e d , "leaving ex clu siv e ly the school of Lord's day morning to the undivided a tte n tio n of the Lord." I t appears th a t school attendance was compulsory, but only a t n i g h t - - a f t e r a hard day's work. In the ea rly 1870s, the school was under the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the prison chaplain, George Hickox. The repo rts o f John Purves, the ^Auer, "Inmate Education a t the S tate Prison o f Southern Michigan," p. 3. 2 Michigan, Biennial Report o f the Board o f the S tate Commis­ sio n ers of C h aritab le, Penal, Pauper, and Reformatory I n s t it u t io n s fo r the Two Years Ending June 30, 1874. 3 Michigan, Annual Report of the Inspectors of the S ta te P riso n , 1879, p. 116. 19 nightkeeper, to the ch ap lain, and i t is apparent t h a t these two were not the b est of frie n d s . The following two quotations from Captain Purves in d ic a te how serio us the prison adm in istration was about i l l i t e r a t e s attend ing school. June 29--I re p o rt No. 255, Fitch fo r refusing to atten d school. He i s determined not to go, but I believ e a touch o f the "bat"! might change his mind in t h i s regard. For a man who can n e ith e r read nor w rite he i s sin g u la rly o b s tin a te . James C u r tis , Cass County, was brought in a t 11 p.m. Crime o f murder in the second degree, sentence 15 y e a rs. He was here before and had threatened to k i l l the very man whom he has now done away with. The S h e riff said he could not understand how Curtis was able to get l i g h t e r time than natural l i f e f o r a cold-blooded, premeditated murder.2 In a s im ila r in cid en t o f a c o n v ic t's refusal to attend school, another type of punishment was adm inistered: September 30—Mascivell is s t i l l his old d e fia n t s e l f d esp ite a b i t of "treatm en t." When I took him down from hanging by his handcuffed w rists l a s t evening he growled, " I ' l l hang here t i l l hell freezes over and my arms are ten f e e t long before I ' l l agree to atten d your screwy scho ol." This convict is determined to remain uneducated, and is the most stubborn and re b e llio u s man I have encountered in a long time. He wants no p a rt o f our attempts to bring him i n t e l l e c t u a l a id . I t is apparent t h a t the r e c a l c i t r a n t rebel does not hunger fo r the other things of l i f e . In c id e n ta lly , Carey was q u ie t a ll n ig h t. He's been whooping i t up so much l a t e l y t h a t he grew s te a d ily more hoarse, and he must be r e s tin g up his pipes f o r a new o u tb u rst in th e very immediate fu tu re .3 S tate h is t o r i c a l records reveal t h a t in 1880 the school was taken out o f the c h a p la in 's o f f i c e , where i t had been fo r 35 y e a r s , 4 and was placed under the lead ership o f a c e r t i f i e d teach er. H he "bat" was a le a th e r s tr a p t h a t was applied to the bare back. 2 John H. Purves, The N ightkeeper's Report (Jackson: The S tate Prison o f Southern Michigan, 1977), p. 16. 3I b i d . , p. 46. 4 M ichigan Department o f C o rre c tio n s , The M ichigan S ta te P ris o n , 1837-1928, p. 7. 20 According to the r e p o r t, with the add ition of the te a c h e r, a s s is te d by prison guards, the number of courses was increased over the number th a t had been a v a ila b le in previous y ears. According to Auer, the course of in s tr u c tio n covered th ree years o f six terms each as follows: F i r s t Year: Reading, s p e lli n g , geography, w r itin g , arithm etic through fu nctio ns. Second Year: United S tates h is to r y , s p e ll i n g , grammar, geography, bookkeeping, c i v i l government, natural philosophy. Third Year: Philosophy, hygiene, c iv il government, natural philosophy,.bookkeeping, geography, mental or moral p hilo so ph y .1 Classes met fo r th re e hours each evening; however, the warden noted in 1881 t h a t the upper-level c la sse s met but once every two 2 weeks. The reason, according to the warden, was lack o f space. During the years t h a t followed, the school curriculum seemed to be more concerned with d is c ip lin e and making good prisoners than 3 i t was with making good c i t i z e n s . The rep orts o f the Michigan S tate Conference o f the C h arities and Corrections for 1883 through 1887 contain only an occasional reference to education. J . J . Wheeler, a speaker a t the 1883 Conference, proposed: The tru e reformation o f a criminal i s la rg e ly dependent upon a d is c ip lin e t h a t w ill make him s e lf - c o n t r o l li n g and s e l f - r e l i a n t . ^Auer, "Inmate Education a t the S tate Prison o f Southern Michigan," p. 4. 2 Michigan, Annual Report of the Inspection o f the S tate Prison, 1881, p. 12. 3Ibid. 21 Hard work, kind treatm en t, and s t r i c t d is c ip lin e w ill do more to reform than any o th er method now in vogueJ Education seems to have occupied a minor ro le in the prison in the l a t e 1800s. Auer wrote: In 1885, H. F. Hutch was made warden o f the Jackson Prison and began a policy o f reform penology. Urging the n e c e ssity of education, he advocated a system o f education "of a ch a ra c te r to teach the criminal how to liv e and perform the d u ties of a c itiz e n ." 2 In the introduction of The Nightkeeper's Report, Purves s ta te d th a t Warden Hutch "was generally looked upon as the man who fathered modern penology in Michigan, and has been often re fe rre d to as the 'Reform Warden."' 3 Purves wrote: December 13—1 talked with the new schoolmaster l a s t nig ht and he t e l l s me t h a t your education plans are q u ite a su ccess, and t h a t the ignorant and poorly educated are eager to grasp t h i s opportunity to gain knowledge. There are a good many here, who, i f they had had proper schooling, would never have turned to crime. Hannibal "the Bear" is a good example o f what I mean. He is j u s t a b ig , dumb ape who acts l i k e normal ch ild ren do; the only thing he knows is his s tr e n g th , and I d o n 't think he r e a liz e s the f u ll ex tent o f t h a t . He has a s o r t o f animal lo y alty to almost anyone who i s kind and frie n d ly to him. Schooling can be a big help to t h i s type of c o n v ic t.4 Auer observed t h a t , in the l a t e 1890s, i n t e r e s t in school 5 began to d is in te g r a te . The su bject m a tte r, l i s t e d e a r l i e r , did not appear to meet the needs o f the c o n v ic ts/s tu d e n ts. P risoner ^Michigan, Michigan S tate Conference of the C h arities and C orrections, 1883, p. 62. 2 Auer, "Inmate Education a t the S ta te Prison o f Southern Michigan," p. 8. 3 4 Purves, The Nightkeeper's Report, p. 6. I b i d . , p. 96. 5 A uer, "Inm ate Education a t th e S ta te Prison o f Southern M ic h ig an ," p. 9. 22 in s tr u c to rs were once again introduced in to school programs to a s s i s t the guards; furtherm ore, n e ith e r p risoner in s tr u c to rs nor the guards whom they were a s s i s tin g were lik e ly to have received tra in in g in the a r t o f pedagogy. Auer wrote, "The school, th en , seems to have been hamstrung by a tr a d itio n a l curriculum presented during an abbre­ viated school year by teachers o f dubious confidence."* The s a la r i e s reported by the schoolmaster fo r the 1897 were: Warden Chamberlain, $2,000; Chaplain Hickox, $1,000; and H. N. Thompson, Superintendent of Schools, $800. ? guards and keepers. The same wages were paid to the The years following 1900 were probably the dark ages fo r edu­ cation a t Jackson Prison. The rep o rts of the Board o f Control and O fficers fo r 1904 through 1908 contain no reference to course o f f e r 3 ings; since references were made in e a r l i e r and in l a t e r repo rts of t h i s board, i t is p ossible t h a t education was given an even lower p r i o r i t y than i t had been in e a r l i e r y ears. At any r a t e , according to Auer, the school had made very l i t t l e progress sin ce 1897. During 1909 and 1910, th e school met fo r 128 sessions during ten and on e-h alf of the twenty-four months. This is equivalent to twenty-one six-hour days per year. In 1897, the school had met fo r the equivalent of tw enty-five days.4 1 Ibid. 2I b id ., p. 10. 3 Michigan, Biennial Report of the Board o f Control and O fficers o f the Michigan S tate P rison, June 30, 1904-1908^ 4 A uer, "Inm ate Education a t th e S ta te Prison o f Southern M ic h ig an ," p. 11. 23 The rep o rt of the Board o f Control and O fficers fo r 1915-16 was o p tim istic about the academic school, fo r the school had been reorganized under the supervision of the Michigan Department o f Edu­ cation .^ A graduate o f the prison school was able to earn "a diploma e n t i t l i n g him to the same co nsideratio n as c r e d its granted by any 2 o th er scho ol." In 1913-14, a new attendance ru lin g was i n i t i a t e d , which required a l l men to attend school except those who had completed a common-school education, who had passed t h e i r f i f t i e t h b irth d ay , or 3 who were excused by the physician or by th e superintendent. The new ru lin g elevated the educational-attainm ent level to the comple­ tio n o f a high-school diploma. In addition to the new attendance requirement, the school sessions were increased to two hours n ig h tly fo r s ix nights per week fo r 40 weeks. This was a s ig n i f i c a n t increase over the hours per week and the number o f weeks per year th a t were c ite d e a r l i e r . The s t a t i s t i c s on the number o f years o f schooling completed by the prisoners before in c a rc e ra tio n revealed t h a t only 210 men out o f a prison population of 3,500 were capable of working a t the highschool l e v e l. Seventy percent o f the prisoners were a t or below the th ird -g ra d e le v e l. ^Michigan, Biennial Report o f the Board of Control and O fficers o f the Michigan S tate Prison, 1915-16, p. 26. 2 Auer, "Inmate Education a t the S tate Prison of Southern Michigan," p. 12. 3 Michigan, Biennial Report o f the Board o f Control and O fficers of the Michigan S tate Prison, l 915-16, p. 26^ 24 There is no evidence o f educational programs in the annual rep orts fo r the years 1916 to 1930. I t is doubtful t h a t educational programs did not e x i s t , but the a u t h o r i t i e s ' lack o f i n t e r e s t in such programs is apparent. In 1930, MacCormick observed, "No educa­ tio n programs presen tly e x i s t in the Marquette Branch Prison and the Michigan Reformatory in Io n ia , Michigan. The only education program fo r prisoners in Michigan i s a t the S ta te Prison o f Southern Michi­ g an."1 The enrollment by c la s s or program d i s t r ib u ti o n in January 1931 is shown in Table 2. be observed. From t h i s t a b l e , two noteworthy points can F i r s t , 1,061 men or 83 percent o f those en ro lled in school were a t or below the six th -g ra d e l e v e l. Second, although some men were enrolled in U niversity o f Michigan correspondence courses, the high-school program had apparently disappeared. In the l a t e 1920s and ea rly 1930s, a major change in the S tate Prison o f Southern Michigan in Jackson was taking place. The cu rren t S tate Prison in Jackson was constructed in stages between 1928 and 1952. In comparison to the old p riso n , the new i n s t i t u t i o n provides ample space fo r th e educational programs. In 1940, MacCormick commented t h a t the Jackson Prison should undoubtedly be ranked among the best in the country on several p o in ts. Commenting on the school program, he wrote: 1Austin National 2 A ustin (New York: The York: H. MacCormick, The Education of Adult Offenders (New Society o f Penal Reformation, 1931), p. 96. H. MacCormick, Survey o f Michigan Penal In s tit u tio n s Osborne A s s o c ia tio n , I n c . , 1 9 4 0 ), p. 7. 2 25 The educational program i s extensive and varied with ex c e lle n t classrooms, a s t a f f o f well tra in e d d ir e c to r s and a v a rie ty o f courses in which over 800 men are en ro lled on a f u ll- tim e basis with several hundred others taking extension courses.* MacCormick observed t h a t the Michigan Branch Prison in Marquette and the Michigan Reformatory, "the only o th er prisons in the s t a t e , have 2 mediocre education programs." Table 2 . —Enrollment in education program by c la s s o r program d i s t r i b u t i o n : January 1931. Size Class Primer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Arts Commercial U niversity o f Michigan English U niversity o f Michigan mathematics® Other correspondence® Total Source: 70 40 98 201 200 302 150 41 27 14 10 30 42 18 35 1,278 Michigan S tate P rison, S t a t i s t i c a l Reports, 1931. aU niversity courses are through correspondence. The a v a ila b le l i t e r a t u r e did not reveal any s ig n i f i c a n t changes in Michigan prisons or prison education u n til the mid-1950s, when a new medium-security i n s t i t u t i o n fo r youthful offenders was ^ I b id ., pp. 4-5. ^ I b i d . , p. 8. 26 opened. This i n s t i t u t i o n , the Michigan Training U nit, was to be Michigan's showpiece. I t was designed to be a prison high school and was the f i r s t school in the Michigan Department o f Corrections to employ a principal and c e r t i f i e d teachers to teach in a l l classrooms. The to t a l school s t a f f , including the principal and a school s e c re ta r y , numbered 32. When the Michigan Training Unit was opened, the combined edu­ cational s t a f f o f Michigan's fiv e o th er i n s t i t u t i o n s numbered approxi­ mately 23 teachers and school sup erv iso rs. The ro le o f the m ajority of t h i s s t a f f was to t r a i n inmates to in s tr u c t less-educated inmates. In 1956, the to ta l educational c e r t i f i e d s t a f f in the school a t the S tate Prison of Southern Michigan comprised the school su p erv iso r, one elementary-school te a c h e r, and a high-school teach er. Prisoners were tra in e d to teach classes th a t ranged from reading fo r i l l i t e r a t e s through high-school completion. Roberts expressed th e opinion th a t the decade from 1961 to 1971 re fle c te d the beginning of more e f f e c tiv e and innovative educa­ tio n al programs in co rrectio ns i n s t i t u t i o n s . ^ fo r c o rrectio n s education in Michigan. This was c e r ta in ly tru e The decade from 1961 to 1971 saw some impressive and s ig n if i c a n t changes in prison education in Michigan. The Michigan l e g i s l a t u r e removed the upper age lim it of 21 years f o r students who were e l i g i b l e to be counted fo r s ta t e a id . This decision was a boon to ad u lt education in Michigan and, more ^R oberts, Sourcebook on P rison E du cation, p. 23. 27 s p e c i f i c a l l y , to co rrectio n s education. P riso n ers/stu d en ts who were being taught by c e r t i f i e d teachers could be counted fo r s t a t e aid in the same way t h a t students in th e public schools were counted fo r th is purpose. The funds generated were used to employ add itio nal school s t a f f and to purchase more a d u lt-o rie n te d teaching m aterials and sup plies. The funds generated from s t a t e aid were passed through the public schools t h a t were close to the p riso n s; consequently, the teachers who were employed to work in the prisons were contracted by cooperating public schools. In the l a t e 1960s, the Michigan l e g i s la t u r e ruled t h a t the s t a t e aid funds would be paid d ir e c tly to Corrections. the Michigan Department of Thus, fo r the f i r s t time in the h isto ry o f penal educa­ tion in Michigan p riso n s, schools enjoyed adequate funds, had t h e i r own budgets, and were f u lly s ta f f e d with c e r t i f i e d teach ers. During the 1960s and ea rly 1970s, s ix correction al i n s t i t u ­ tio n s were operating in Michigan. As s ta te d e a r l i e r , each of the prisons provided educational programs fo r the p ris o n e rs; however, the schools were autonomous, and consequently the curriculum and the teaching methods and m ateria ls were l e f t prim arily to the d isc re tio n of the individual teachers and the school p r in c ip a ls . As the number o f prisoners and i n s t i t u t i o n s increased, i t was apparent to the admin­ i s t r a t i v e leaders o f the Michigan Department of Corrections t h a t i f the Department was to improve the q u a lity o f education fo r prisoners and to provide co n tin u ity in programming fo r those prisoners who were tra n s fe rre d between i n s t i t u t i o n s , i t would be necessary to coordinate the e f f o r t s of the Department's schools. 28 To help accomplish t h i s g oal, a D irector of Education was appointed in 1974. I t became his r e s p o n s ib ility to work with prison school adm inistrators to develop a coordinated prison school c u r ric u ­ lum t h a t would be indiv idu alized and could provide fo r an open e n try / open e x i t delivery system. This major change in the educational philosophy of the Michigan Department of Corrections created a s h i f t from the lock s te p , high-school-diploma-oriented classes to a com­ p le te ly in d iv id u alized , self-paced high-school-equivalency program. Changes That Have Taken Place in Prison Education in Recent Years A review o f the l i t e r a t u r e revealed th a t very l i t t l e research and evaluation on correctio ns education has been done. An analysis of the l i t e r a t u r e by the Syracuse University Research Corporation s t a f f in 1973 suggested t h a t "a siz a b le v a rie ty o f programs, p ro jects and courses are underway in a number o f penal i n s t i t u t i o n s , which have not been publicized."^ Reagen and Stoughton added t h a t a d e s c rip tiv e overview o f co rrectio n al education in the United S tates did not e x i s t . They found, fo r example, t h a t between 1940 and 1968 only s ix doctoral d is 2 s e rta tio n s focused on the su b ject o f correctio n al education. In 1927, MacCormick was commissioned to w rite an overview of co rrectio n s education, but a f t e r v i s i t i n g several p riso n s, he decided to develop a model f o r co rrectio ns education. He explained: ^Reagen and Stoughton, School Behind Bars, p. x i i . 2Ibid. 29 I t would be p o s sib le , w ithin the compass o f a b r i e f volume, to record what i s now being done in penal i n s t i t u t i o n s , how e x i s t ­ ing educational work can be made more e f f e c tiv e without any s u b sta n tia l increase in ap p ro p riatio n s, and how the present low aim can be achieved a l i t t l e more s u c c e ssfu lly . The w r ite r does not believe th is to be worth doing. He has consciously and d e lib e r a te ly s e t an aim higher than any penal i n s t i t u t i o n can achieve with present appropriations and present personnel. The attempt has been made to formulate a complete and well-rounded program of education such as no penal i n s t i t u t i o n can put in e f f e c t u n til i t receives more s u b sta n tia l support from l e g i s ­ la to r s and ad m in istrativ e o f f i c i a l s . Without tra in e d personnel t h i s program can never be put in e f f e c t J MacCormick concluded th a t prison education has f a ile d fo r 2 many reasons, but the c h ie f reason fo r f a i l u r e is lack o f funds. In s p it e o f MacCormick's observation and possible lack o f despair concerning the poor performance o f co rrectio n s education, Roberts s ta te d t h a t the y ear 1929 has been considered the beginning o f the modern trend in prison education. He wrote: The year 1929 has been sele cted by some crim in olo gists as the date o f the beginning of the modern trend in co rrectio n al edu­ c a tio n , and e f f o r t s made p r io r to t h i s time are viewed as scarcely worth mentioning, except possibly f o r the reformatory developments. This period in h isto ry has been appraised by many crim in olog ists as the point a t which education began to be recog­ nized and developed as an e s s e n tia l element in a program of c o r­ re c tio n a l tre a tm e n t.3 However, according to Roberts, the decade from 1961 to 1971 marked the beginning of more e f f e c tiv e and innovative programs in co rrectio n s ed ucation .4 ^MacCormick, The Education of Adult Offenders, p. x i. ^ I b i d . , p. 10. 3 Roberts, Sourcebook on Prison Education, p. 6. 4 Ibid. 30 More recent authors have agreed with MacCormick th a t a lack of funding is the s in g le g r e a te s t d e te rre n t to the success o f co rrectio n s education programs. Ryan wrote t h a t a major in cen tiv e to co rrectio n s education was the 1966 l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t provided funds fo r Adult Basic Education programs, including those in co rrectio n s (Public Law 89-750, 1966)J Ryan s ta t e d , Never before in the h isto ry of co rrectio n s has th ere been such an opportunity fo r p o s itiv e change, and a change f o r continuing improvement. The clim ate today, in sid e and o utside the criminal j u s t i c e system, supports the idea of c h a n g e . 2 Ryan's o p tim istic a t t i t u d e , which id e n ti f i e d th e 1970s as a time fo r p o s itiv e change in co rrectio n s education, p a r a lle le d McPherson's statem ent about the challenges o f the 70s. He wrote: Educators o f the 70's have o p p o rtu n ities and challenges t h a t are unprecedented in h is to ry . The clim ate fo r educational research and curriculum experimentation is highly favorable. A fter a decade in which "innovation" has been the password in education c i r c l e s , individual c itiz e n s as well as public and p riv a te i n s t i ­ tu tio n s have developed a keen i n t e r e s t in education and the e f f e c ts o f change in ed u catio n .3 The public a t t i t u d e toward change, and in p a r tic u la r the changes t h a t were taking place in public education, undoubtedly had a p o s itiv e e f f e c t on c o rre c tio n s . According to Ryan, a wide v a rie ty o f educa­ tio n al programs was functioning in numerous co rrectio n al s e ttin g s in the United S ta te s . She wrote: ^T. A. Ryan, Model o f Adult Basic Education in Corrections (Honolulu: Education Research and Development Center, U niversity of Hawaii, 1970), p. 1. 2 T. A. Ryan, paper presented a t a Workshop fo r Michigan Cor­ rectio n s Teachers, 1974. Q Alfred Angus Murray McPherson, "An Analysis o f Selected Per­ ceptions o f Curriculum Development as Expressed by Pupils and In stru c tio n al Personnel in Manitoba" (Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Michigan S tate U n iversity , 1976), p. 18. 31 Many of those programs, lik e t h e i r i n s t i t u t io n a l co u n terp arts, provide a wide d iv e r s ity o f in s tru c tio n a l serv ices. Many have philosophies, complete with goals and o b je c tiv e s, t h a t provide a worthwhile gain to t h e i r l e a r n e r s J Ryan continued t h a t , by the same token, "many i n s t i t u t i o n s provide inadequate services with u n r e a lis tic goals, and no meaning­ ful evalu atio n; and some s ta t e in s t i tu t i o n s have no education programs 2 av a ila b le fo r t h e i r s tu d e n ts." Supporting Ryan's claim of the lack of educational programs in some correction al f a c i l i t i e s are s t a t i s t i c s provided by Reagen and Stoughton. 3 Their research revealed th a t educational programs were provided in a l l o f the federal p riso n s, whereas only 81 percent o f the s ta t e prisons provided academic education fo r t h e i r p riso n ers. These w rite rs reported th a t In some prisons or systems, prisoners p a r tic ip a te in a t l e a s t one, and often more than one, of the several formalized i n s t i ­ tu tio n a liz e d school programs which include Adult Basic Educa­ ti o n , High School Equivalency p reparation , and miscellaneous o p po rtu nities fo r personal enrichment and s e l f improvement.^ Conrad believed th a t the increased s ta tu s of education was evident throughout the country, although the increase in enrollments and the augmentation of services hardly kept pace with the r h e to ric . g Reagen and Stoughton contended th a t there has been an ascendence of ^Ryan, Model o f Adult Basic Education in C o rrection s, p. 5. 2Ibid. 3 4 D .C .: Reagen and Stoughton, School Behind Bars, p. 61. I b id ., pp. 60-61. C John P. Conrad, A d u lt O ffend er Education Programs (W ashington, U .S . Department o f J u s tic e , 1 9 8 1 ), p. 34. 32 education, p a r t ic u la r ly academic education, in the co rrectio n s process: "Prisons emerged two hundred years ago as in d u s tr ia l cen­ t e r s , with opportunity fo r penitence. They are gradually transforming themselves into educational i n s ti t u ti o n s ." ^ Several forces were a t work during the mid-1960s and 1970s th a t motivated the evolution from penitence-oriented prisons to educational i n s t i t u t i o n s . According to McCollum, While education and tr a in in g programs in the federal prison system are admittedly in a dynamic s t a t e of f lu x , educators and o th er s t a f f are try in g to work as a team to c re a te an i n s t i t u t i o n a l tone t h a t communicates to the inmate population t h a t the purpose of the federal co rrection al system is not punishment but h e lp .2 Although McCollum was discussing the a t t i t u d e in the federal system, the r e h a b i l ita ti o n model appeared to be gaining acceptance in many s t a t e prison systems as w ell. P resident Johnson's Task Force on Corrections reported th a t : In several sen ses, c o rrectio n s today may stand a t the threshold of a new e r a , promising re so lu tio n of a s ig n i f i c a n t number of the problems t h a t have vexed i t throughout i t s development. At the very l e a s t , i t i s developing the theory and p ra c tic a l groundwork fo r a new approach to r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . 3 According to the Task Force, the increasing focus on r e h a b i l it a ti o n found widespread acceptance among members o f the general public. ^Reagen and Stoughton, School Behind B ars, p. 95. 0Sylvia G. McCollum, "Say, Have You Got Anything Around Here fo r a Dummy?" Federal Probation 35,3 (1971): 37-42. 3 The P re s id e n t's Commission on Law Enforcement and Adminis­ t r a t i o n of J u s t i c e , Task Force Report: Corrections (Washington, D.C.: Government P rin tin g O ffice, 1967), p. 2. 33 The a t t i t u d e of the public toward r e h a b i lit a t i o n and educa­ tio n fo r inmates and increased funding brought about several impor­ t a n t changes in school programs and programming. The more s ig n i f i c a n t changes were employment o f education s t a f f (including teachers and ad m in istrato rs) to replace inmate i n s t r u c t o r s ; innovations in co rre c ­ tio n s school s tr u c tu r e ; and the use o f technology in the classroom or learning cen ter. C e rtifie d School S ta ff One o f the major changes th a t has taken place in co rrection s education in recent years is the gradual replacement o f the inmate in s tru c to rs with c e r t i f i e d teach ers. Concerning the fu tu re needs of c o rre c tio n s , MacCormick wrote in 1930 th a t "the hope for the futu re r e s t s on expert s t a f f , adequate appropriations and complete recogni­ tio n of the v a lid ity o f the claim of education to a place in the penal system."^ The P re s id e n t's Task Force on Corrections reported t h a t , in 1967, the following conditions e x iste d : In i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r ad u lt offenders in a l l but a few s t a t e s , most notably C alifo rn ia and New York, academic education is provided mainly by inmate i n s tr u c t o r s . . . . When c i v i l ia n s are employed as teachers a t co rrectio n al i n s t i t u t i o n s , those hired are sometimes the c a s to ffs o f the public school s y s t e m / The Task Force noted, however, t h a t many good teachers are also involved in the to ta l i n s t i t u t i o n a l program. ^MacCormick, The Education of Adult O ffenders, p. 49. 2 Task Force Report: C o rrectio n s, p. 54. 3Ibid. 34 C e rtifie d teachers are now employed in the m ajority of co r­ rectio n s schools. As a r e s u l t o f increased funding and public a t t i ­ tude toward prison education, the s t a t e o f Michigan has employed c e r t i f i e d teachers and has completely elim inated the use o f inmates as in s tr u c to r s . Roberts noted t h a t , in F lo rid a, The Florida Division of Corrections was authorized by the Florida S tate L eig slatu re to e s ta b lis h 133 permanent, f u l l ­ time po sition s fo r various types of educators, each requ iring a college degree and teacher c e r t i f i c a t i o n J Teaching in a co rrectio n s school is not an easy ta s k , however. Reagen and Stoughton pointed out t h a t When "push comes to shove," the i n s t r u c t o r —"the man"--must prove himself before prisoners w ill even l i s t e n to him, much le ss learn from him. Intim idation is always p o ssib le. Convicts cope by turning everything to t h e i r own advantage, be i t "black power" o r t h e i r own form of group therapy. T yp ically , teachers who survive do so on the stren gth o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s , not because o f t h e i r tra in in g or e x p e rtis e . Successful prison courses are a function o f the p e r s o n a litie s o f the in s tr u c to rs who can motivate r e lu c ta n t learn ers in f a r from pleasan t le a r n ­ ing c o n d itio n s.2 Because the m ajority of teachers employed in co rrectio n s are tra in e d to be public-school te a c h e rs, the task o f correction s adminis­ t r a tio n is to provide considerable in se rv ic e tra in in g to help teachers learn how to do t h e i r job . Reagen and Stoughton's findings were: P ersistence o f tr a d it i o n a l forms in the prison educational process: At f i r s t glance, the education department in the modern prison looks lik e the school system in a backward neigh­ borhood. S ta f f is marginal, f a c i l i t i e s are poor and crowded, books in the lib ra r y are o ld , procedures are often arch aic. Some o f th is backwardness i s r e la te d to lack o f resources; ^Roberts, Sourcebook on Prison Education, p. 54. 2 Reagen and Stoughton, School Behind B ars, p. 81. 35 some to the f a c t t h a t the education department taks i t s cues from the nearby school d i s t r i c t . ! In add ition to employing c e r t i f i e d te a c h e rs, the m ajority o f s ta t e s employ school p rin c ip a ls fo r t h e i r correction s i n s t i t u t i o n s . Reagen and Stoughton made the following observations about school p rin c ip a ls or education d ire c to rs in s t a t e prisons: The educational d ire c to rs o r coordinators a t the s t a t e prisons v is ite d by our s t a f f were generally young. Most had been gradu­ ated about two years p r io r to assuming t h e i r du ties a t the prison. The m ajority have taught a f t e r college graduation a t e i t h e r public schools o r a t ju n io r co lleg es. Their college tra in in g was ty p ic a lly in lib e ra l a r t s , social scie n ce, voca­ tio n al education or physical education. Few had any p r io r experience or tra in in g in c o rrectio n s. Our s t a f f observed t h a t they looked, a c te d , and were perceived by o th er prison personnel as "school teacher ty p es," i . e . , they behaved and dressed d i f f e r ­ en tly from the m ajority o f the prison s t a f f . While a l l were responsible to the warden fo r the priso ner education programs in t h e i r p riso n s, many are c le a r ly is o a lte d from the mainstream of prison l i f e . Their s t a f f s are small and appear to be weakly organized. Most were perceived as having low s ta tu s in the prison hierarchy by the wardens, guards, and prisoners we i n t e r ­ viewed. Many expressed f r u s t r a t io n a t having a "treatm ent and r e h a b ilita tio n " philosophy in c o n f lic t with the predominant "custody and co ntro l" philosophy and policy of the prison s t a f f . 2 The fe e lin g of low s ta tu s in the prison hierarchy and d ifferen ces in philosophy between education and other correctio ns s t a f f have created many problems in the past fo r educational programs in which the abovementioned d ifferences e x iste d . Many s t a t e co rrectio n s departments have added another level in the education hierarchy. This i s the po sitio n of the school d ir e c to r or co n sultant-coo rdin ato r in the central o f f i c e . Reagen and Stoughton found t h a t several s ta t e s had educational d ire c to rs a t the s t a t e le v e l. According to these research ers: 11bid. , pp. 92-93. 2I b i d . , p. 53. 36 The educational d ire c to rs a t the s t a t e cen tral o f f ic e are almost a ll q u a lifie d people with educational backgrounds who said th a t they are more in te re s te d in "treatm ent and r e h a b il ita t io n " than in "custody and c o n tr o l." Their average age is 35. Only a few hold c i v i l serv ice or m e rit-ra te d p o s itio n s . All are e n th u sias­ t i c about t h e i r programs and mission. Their tenure in o f f ic e is an average o f two y e a rs . Most have no background in c o rrec­ tio n s and evidenced l i t t l e appreciation or understanding of prison management and prison l i f e problems.1 Reagen and Stoughton found t h a t the s ta te - le v e l d ire c to rs had small s t a f f s and ty p ic a lly said they had l i t t l e s ta tu s in t h e i r departments. They also f e l t t h a t p riso n er education ranked low among the d ep art2 ment's p r i o r i t i e s . The addition of c e r t i f i e d te a c h e rs, school p r in c ip a ls , and d ire c to rs o f education in the c o rrectio n s cen tral o f fic e has been a major and expensive reformation in c o rrectio n s education. In the several s ta t e s in which t h i s p a tte rn of school adm inistration and teaching e x i s t s , the school s t a f f is under the control o f the i n s t i ­ tu tio n head. In c o n tr a s t, several s t a t e le g i s l a t u r e s have designated t h e i r prison educational systems as school d i s t r i c t s . According to Conrad, Seven s t a t e s , notably Connecticut, Ohio, and Texas, have formed cen tral school d i s t r i c t s f o r the e n t i r e c o rre c tio n a l system. Where t h i s is done, a school board i s c re a te d , and the su perin­ tendent o f schools rep o rts d i r e c t ly to 1 t. Support o f the school d i s t r i c t comes from funds a llo c a te d by the S tate department of education in the c o rrectio n al budget.3 One o f the more notable co rrectio n s school d i s t r i c t s is the Windham School D i s t r i c t of the Texas Department o f C orrections. h b i d . , pp. 52-53. ^ I b i d . , p. 53. 3 Conrad, A d u lt O ffend er Education Programs, p. 55. 37 According to Reagen and Stoughton, "In such an instance as Windham School D i s t r i c t , fo r example, an individual i n s t i t u t i o n may be v i r ­ t u a l l y autonomous and independent o f the local prison d ir e c to r and subordinate to the cen tral o f f i c e s t a f f . T h e Windham School D i s t r i c t , with "schools," " p r in c ip a ls ," and students in the individual ad u lt co rrectio n al f a c i l i t i e s , is s ta t e - a c c r e d ite d . The Board o f Corrections is on the same footing as a ll the local school d i s t r i c t s in Texas in terms o f e l i g i b i l i t y fo r support from the Texas Foundation School Program Fund, from which a l l s t a t e aid to elementary and secondary schools is disbursed. In ad dition to foundation funds, the school d i s t r i c t receives funds from federal g ran ts. In 1980, 237 c e r t i f i e d classroom teachers were d is tr ib u te d 2 among the 15 u n its in the Texas Corrections System. An ad m in istrativ e sectio n of 47 persons provides managerial, sup ervisory , and technical support fu n ctio ns. Texas p riso ners are allowed one f u ll day per week in school; the remainder o f the week is spent on f u ll- tim e work assig n ­ ments.^ In add ition to the Corrections-Department-administered school system and the Corrections Department's s c h o o l - d i s t r i c t concept, Conrad noted t h a t , in many s t a t e s , school law allows and even encour­ ages school d i s t r i c t s ad jacent to a prison to co n tract with prison ^Reagen and Stoughton, School Behind B ars, p. 19. 2 Murray Lane, "The School D is t r ic t C oncept," A d u lt Leadership (June 1 9 7 5 ): 35 8 -6 0 . 3 Conrad, A d u lt O ffend er Education Programs, pp. 5 8 -5 9 . 38 a u t h o r itie s to provide educational serv ices.^ Reagen and Stoughton ind icated in t h e i r 1973 survey t h a t 33 percent of the federal i n s t i ­ tu tio n s and 18 percent o f the s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s contracted with 2 local school d i s t r i c t s . According to Conrad, In C a lifo rn ia , where local school d i s t r i c t s provide most of the educational s e rv ic e s , th ere is considerable v a ria tio n from i n s t i t u t i o n to i n s t i t u t i o n . Some prisons c o n tra c t with the school d i s t r i c t fo r a l l a d u lt basic education and secondary school in s tr u c tio n . . . . Teachers are working in a s tr u c tu r e with which they a re fa m ilia r; they rep o rt ultim ately to a school superintendent ra th e r than to adm inistrato rs with no professional id e n t i f ic a t i o n with them.3 In ad dition to the s t a t e funds made a v a ila b le fo r co rrection s education, the federal government has made funds a v a ila b le through many d i f f e r e n t t i t l e s and g ran ts. The three main sources o f funds fo r academic education are the Adult Education Act, Public Law 91-230; T i t le I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act; and the Special Education Act, Public Law 94-142. The purpose and in te n tio n of these acts are described in the following se c tio n . Federal Funding fo r the Education of Adult Offenders Adult Education Act. —The statement o f purpose of the Adult Education Act, Public Law 91-230, is found in Section 302, as follow s: I t is the purpose of t h i s t i t l e to expand educational opportuni­ t i e s fo r adu lts and to encourage the establishm ent of programs o f a d u lt education t h a t w i l l : (1) Enable a ll ad u lts to acquire basic s k i l l s necessary to func­ tio n in s o c ie ty , 1 I b i d . , p. 55. 2 Reagen and Stoughton, School Behind Bars. 3 Conrad, A d u lt O ffen d er Education Programs, p. 55. 39 (2) Enable ad u lts who so d e s ire to continue t h e i r education to a t l e a s t the level o f completion o f secondary school, and (3) Make a v a ila b le to ad u lts the means to secure tra in in g th a t w ill enable them to become more employable, productive, and responsible c i t i z e n s . ! Under the terms o f th is a c t , "adult basic education" is defined in Section 303(c) as follows: (c) The term "adult basic education" means ad u lt education fo r ad u lts whose i n a b i l i t y to speak, read, or w rite the English language c o n s titu te s a s u b sta n tia l impairment of t h e i r a b i l i t y to get o r r e ta in employment commensurate with t h e i r real a b i l i t y , which is designed to help elim inate such i n a b i l i t y and r a i s e the level of education o f such in d iv id ­ uals with a view to making them le ss lik e ly to become depend­ ent on o th e r s , to improving t h e i r a b i l i t y to b e n e f it from occupational tr a in in g and otherwise increasing t h e i r oppor­ tu n itie s.2 T i tl e I Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Public Law 95-561.--The purpose o f T i t le I i s : Purpose: Under T it l e I o f the Elementary and Secondary School Act of 1965, as amended, the s e c re ta ry provides fin a n c ia l a s sis ta n c e to local educational agencies fo r p ro je c ts designed to meet the special needs o f children in i n s t i t u t i o n s fo r neglected or delinquent c h ild re n . The term also includes an a d u lt c o r r e c t i o n a l.3 Individuals who q u alify fo r in s tr u c tio n in T i t l e I p ro je c ts are those who are 21 years o f age or le ss and whose needs-assessment r e s u lts in d ic a te th a t they are in need o f basic-education s k i l l s development. 1 Michigan Department of Education, "The Adult Education Act," Public Law 91-230 Amended Through November 1, 1978, Compilation by the Michigan Department of Education, p. 1. 2Ibid. o "Purpose o f T i t l e I Grants fo r Local Education A g en cies," Federal R e g is te r 4 6 , no. 1 2 , 19 January 1982, S162. 40 T i t l e I is a supplemental program. Section 200.92 s t a t e s : An agency t h a t receives T i t l e I a s sis ta n c e sh all use T i t l e I funds to supplement, and to the ex ten t p r a c t i c a l , increase the level of funds th a t would, in the absence o f T i t le I funds, be made a v a ila b le fo r the education o f children p a r tic ip a tin g in T i tl e I p ro je c ts from non-Federal s o u r c e s J According to Conrad, the m ajority o f s ta t e s have T i t l e I p ro je cts 2 in operation in t h e i r ad u lt p risons. Special Education, Public Law 94-142. —The purpose of Public Law 94-142 i s s ta te d as follows: Purpose: (a) The purpose o f t h i s law i s to insure t h a t a ll handicapped child ren have a v a ila b le to them a fre e appropriate public education which includes special education and r e la te d serv ices to meet t h e i r unique needs, (b) To insure t h a t the rig h ts o f handicapped children and t h e i r parents are p ro te cted , (c) To a s s i s t s ta t e s and l o c a l i t i e s to provide fo r the education o f a l l handicapped c h ild re n , and (d) To assess and insure the effectiv en ess of e f f o r t s to educate those c h ild r e n .3 Public Law 94-142 requires the education of a l l handicapped children from 3 through 21 years of age. Paragraph 121(a)2 s t a t e s in p a rt: The provisions of t h i s p a rt apply to a l l p o l i t i c a l subdivisions of the S ta te t h a t are involved in the education of handicapped ch ild re n . These would include: . . . (3) Other S tate agencies and schools (such as Departments o f Mental Health and Welfare and S tate schools fo r the deaf or b lin d ) , and (4) S ta te c o r­ rectio n al f a c i l i t i e s . 4 1Ibid. OConrad, Adult Offender Education Programs, p. 32. ^"Education o f Handicapped C hildren," Federal R egister 23 August 1977, P art I I , pp. 42477-42478. 4I b i d . , p. 42478. 41 Many s t a t e co rrectio nal f a c i l i t i e s have j u s t recen tly s ta r te d to develop sp ecial-ed ucatio n p r o je c ts . Wisconsin and I l l i n o i s have the most notable special-education programs fo r prisoners.^ S pecial- education programs req u ire co rrection s education departments to employ special education teachers and, in many in sta n c e s, school psycholo­ g ists. Total funding fo r special education i s much lower than the funding fo r e i t h e r Adult Basic Education or T i tl e I p r o je c ts . Special education, because o f the additional expense fo r special-education teachers and school psych o log ists, a c tu a lly places a fin a n c ia l burden on correctio ns departments. Academic Education and Educational Technology With the increase in both s ta t e and federal funds beginning in the mid-1960s and increasing in the e arly 1970s, the organiza­ tio n al su p erstru ctu re changed, and c e r t i f i e d teachers replaced inmate in s tr u c to rs in the m ajority o f s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s . These changes, in tu rn , engendered add itio nal program rev isio n in many s t a t e s . One o f the major changes in many s t a t e and federal prisons was the intro du ction o f the high-school-equivalency examination, the General Education Development (GED) examination. The GED is widely used in most of the co rrectio ns education programs in the United S ta te s. Conrad reported th a t : Nearly every prison system in the country with a program of secondary education uses the GED as the main ta r g e t fo r i t s ^Mark Brown, "Preparing Correction Educators to Teach Delin­ quents With Learning and Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s , " Journal o f Correc­ tio n al Education 33 (March 1981): 15. 42 high school curriculum. The diploma a t the end is a tan g ib le sign o f achievement. . . . Preparation fo r the GED examination . c o n s titu te s a larg e share o f the co rrectio n al education e f f o r t . Conrad's observation implies th a t the successful completion o f the GED examination i s the terminal o b jectiv e o f many prison secondary education programs. The widespread use of the GED examination is in c o n tr a s t to Reagen and Stoughton's observation of prison secondary education in 1976. They wrote: Formal, accred ited high school programs are in the m inority. Generally they w ill follow the tr a d it i o n a l high school cu r­ riculum except fo r c e r ta in classes such as laboratory s c ie n c e s, physical education, foreign languages, e t c . 2 In C alifo rn ia and Minnesota, i t has been reported t h a t s t u ­ dents who su ccessfu lly complete the GED examination are granted high 3 school c r e d i t according to t h e i r scores on the exam. The students are then required to complete tr a d it i o n a l high school courses to receive a high school diploma. According to Conrad, although many co rrectio n s teachers place high value on the GED examination in lie u o f the t r a d iti o n a l diploma, not everyone agrees t h a t "the b e n e fits o f the GED are unmixed with disadvantages. Skeptics p o in t to I t s s im i l a r it y to a cram co urse." 4 ^Conrad, Adult Offender Education Programs, p. 35. 2 Reagen and Stoughton, School Behind Bars, p. 23. 3 Interview with Ann Taylor, A s sis ta n t D irector of C alifo rn ia Department of C orrectio ns, December 1981; interview with A1 Maresh, Education Coordinator, Minnesota Corrections Department, December 1981. 4 Conrad, A d u lt O ffen d er Education Programs, p. 36. 43 New technology: programmed i n s t r u c t i o n .--R oberts wrote t h a t the decade between 1961 and 1971 was the beginning o f more e f f e c tiv e and innovative programs in co rrectio n al i n s t i t u t i o n s . He c ite d the in trod uction of programmed in s tr u c tio n and o th er s e lf - i n s t r u c tio n a l methods th a t were i n i t i a t e d in th e Draper Correctional P ro ject a t Elmore, Alabama; the Robert F. Kennedy Federal Youth Correctional Center in Morgantown, West V irg in ia; and the Hawaii Youth Correctional F a c ility as examples o f i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t were experimenting with the programmed method o f i n s tr u c tio n . Roberts reported t h a t a survey of i n s t i t u t i o n s using programmed in s tr u c tio n revealed the following: Three hundred n in e ty -fiv e out of 488 or 81 percent of a l l the superintendents of co rrectio n al i n s t i t u t i o n s in the United S tates responded. Of the 395 respondents, 169 or 43 percent indicated t h a t they d e f i n ite l y did use programmed in s tr u c tio n and 226 or 57 percent indicated th a t they d e f in it e ly did n o t J He also found th a t : Of the 169 i n s t i t u t i o n s rep o rtin g the use of programmed in s t r u c ­ ti o n , a m ajority devoted over one hour per day, fiv e days per week, and between t h i r t y - t h r e e to fifty -tw o weeks per year on a l l grade lev els to s e lf - i n s t r u c t io n a l techniques. In almost oneh a lf of the i n s t i t u t i o n s using programmed i n s t r u c t i o n , from 0 to 25 percent o f t h e i r e n t i r e educational program t h a t could be taught by programmed in s tr u c tio n a c tu a lly was taught by programmed in s tr u c tio n ; 23 percent o f the i n s t i t u t i o n s used programmed in s tr u c tio n in 26 to 50 percent o f t h e i r e n t i r e program; and only 17 percent used programmed in s tr u c tio n in from 76 to 100 percent of t h e i r e n t i r e program.2 Reagen and Stoughton mentioned the Draper Correctional Center in Alabama, the national tr a in in g school fo r boys; the Robert F. Kennedy Federal Youth Center; and the Hawaii Youth Correctional ^Roberts, Sourcebook on Prison Education, p. 23. 2I b i d . , p. 92. 44 F a c ility as th re e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t were experimenting with programmed in s tr u c tio n in the mid-1960s and e arly 1970s. However, Roberts' s t a ­ t i s t i c s indicated t h a t programmed in s tr u c tio n did not have universal appeal. Reagen and Stoughton wrote: I t would be reasonable to assume th a t programmed in s tr u c tio n would have universal appeal, th a t i t s success a t Draper and o th er i n s t i t u t i o n s would prompt o th er prison o f f i c i a l s to use i t . But th a t is not the c a s e J New technology: t e l e v i s i o n . —A few c o rrectio n s education programs t r i e d educational te l e v is i o n , or in s tru c tio n a l te l e v i s i o n , in the l a t e 1960s. Bates reported: The S tate Prison of Southern Michigan s ta r te d using i t s own closed c i r c u i t educational network in 1967. This is believed to be the f i r s t prison to do so in the n atio n. The network o ffe rs programs ranging from how to address a l e t t e r to college level mathematics. . . . Television to prison o f f i c i a l s in Michigan provides a wide range o f b e n e fits fo r inm ates.2 According to Roberts and Coffey: Some thought has been given to the cre a tio n o f a national co r­ rectio n al education program administered by the American Cor­ rectio n al A ssociation, or some o th er cen tral co o rd in ato r, which would have the c a p a b ility o f bringing a v a rie ty o f programs designed sp e c ia lly fo r inmates of prisons and youth tr a in in g schools. Suggested plans fo r the a p p lic a tio n o f t h is tech no l­ ogy to prison education have been outlin ed in d e t a i l , but no actual implementation has y e t been undertaken.3 C urrently, without the national c o rrectio n s education network envisioned by Roberts and Coffey, th ere are problems in the use of ^Reagen and Stoughton, School Behind Bars, p. 78. ? Gerald K. Bates, "Prison TV fo r Education," American Journal of Corrections 29,1 (1967): 20-22. 3 A lb e rt Roberts and Osa C o ffe y , A S ta te o f th e A rt Survey fo r a C o rre c tio n a l Education Network (C o lle g e P a rk , M d.: American C o rre ctio n a l A s s o c ia tio n , 1 9 7 6 ), pp. 11 4 -3 8 . 45 in s tr u c tio n a l te le v is io n . Conrad's assessment was t h a t most in s t r u c ­ tio n a l te le v is io n m ateria ls are developed fo r the public schools; the Sesame S tr e e t approach to elementary education does not e n th ra ll the a d u lt le a rn e r as i t does the c h ild in the primary grades.^ One s e r ie s of in s tru c tio n a l te le v is io n to p i c s , designed to help students pass the GED examination i s "The Kentucky GED Studies S eries. New technology: computer-assisted i n s t r u c t i o n . —Conrad w rote: New in the mid-seventies was the advent o f the computer to the educational process. Some of the app licatio ns o f the computer to education were mechanical and merely eased some o f the drudgery of scoring t e s t s and maintaining school records. Some services provide te s tin g programs of considerable s o p h is tic a ­ t i o n , combined with conventional m aterials to which the te s tin g is keyed. Much o f the computerized educational programs used in prisons now are of th is v a r ie ty , and th ere are a considerable number o f them on the market. These systems have a number of advantages over t r a d itio n a l examining methods. Not only do they inform the student t h a t he has the r ig h t answer—i f he has—but they keep score on his progress. Computer Assisted In stru c tio n (CAI) promises and already d e liv e rs a transform ation o f the educational process. This product o f the computer rev o lutio n i s s t i l l in i t s infancy. I t would not have been conceivable without the accumulating experience of the computer industry in organizing and communi­ cating huge amounts o f knowledge with astonishing speed and v e rsa tility .3 He continued: The most advanced and v e r s a t i l e CAI system now in use is PLATO VII, a computerized in s tr u c tio n a l program t h a t takes the le a rn e r from an assessment of his needs through programmed in s t r u c t i o n , ^Conrad, Adult Offender Education Programs, p. 43. 2 Michigan Corrections Education GED Completion Resource L i s t , 1979. 3 Conrad, A d u lt O ffend er Education Programs, p. 4 3 . 46 d r i l l and p r a c tic e , and examination. I t was developed 1n a co llab o ratio n between the U niversity of I l l i n o i s a t Urbana and the Control Data Corporation, and uses the equipment manufac­ tured by the l a t t e r . I t 1s capable of providing in s tru c tio n from the l a t t e r phases o f primary education through graduate school and professional re fre s h e r courses. PLATO (Programmed Logic fo r Automatic Teaching Operations) contains about 100,000 hours o f in s tr u c tio n a l m aterial and continues to expand with the varied demands of the educational p u b lic .' Eleven s ta t e s are using the PLATO system in t h e i r co rrectio nal education programs. ranges from 1 to 41. The number o f terminals a v a ila b le in each s ta t e 2 Competency-based i n s t r u c t i o n . —Another recent innovation in co rrectio n s education is the competency-based model. Programmed in s tr u c tio n and competency-based in s tru c tio n have much in common. Material to be learned is developed through a s tru ctu red s e t of o b je c tiv e s, taking the student through e a s ily understood s te p s . 3 The influence of both deliv ery systems can be seen in the computera s s is te d format. Conrad wrote: "Because competency is the base of and the o b jectiv e of so much a d u lt education today, many educators have devoted special a tte n tio n to the development o f model cu rric u la 4 to achieve i t . " Cram described the competency-based approach as follows: In p a r t , the competency based approach may be understood by co n trastin g i t with the tr a d it io n a l (teacher co n tro lled ) approach. In t r a d itio n a l education programs, in s tr u c tio n is h b i d . , p. 44. 2 Information supplied by James Rocco, Central Data Corpora­ ti o n , S o u th field , Michigan, March 1982. 3 Conrad, A d u lt O ffend er Education Programs, p. 19. 4 Ib id . 47 c a rrie d out fo r a fixed period of time; with competency based in s tr u c tio n , on the o th er hand, in s tr u c tio n continues u n til the student can perform as d e sire d , or b e t t e r J ■ Perhaps the most important d ifferen ce between tr a d iti o n a l and competency-based education programs, according to Cram, is in the outlook toward success. He suggested t h a t "in competency based pro2 grams, achievement is the g o al." Competency-based in s tr u c tio n is well su ited to the in d iv id u a liz e d -in s tru c tio n models described by Roberts and by Reagen and Stoughton. 3 Summary The most important change in co rrectio n s education has been the increase in funds from a number o f sources, both s t a t e and fed­ e ral. With t h i s increase in funds, co rrection s departments were able to add c e r t i f i e d teachers to school s t a f f s , thereby replacing inmate in s tr u c to rs . Along with the increase in the numbers o f c e r t i f i e d te a c h e rs, four major s tr a t e g ie s have evolved fo r adm inistering prison education programs. 1. They are: L e g islativ e action t h a t declared the s t a t e corrections departments to be school d i s t r i c t s . David D. Cram, "Preparation and Use of In stru c tio n a l Modules in Driver and Safety Education" (Highway Users Federation fo r Safety and M obility, n . d . ) , p. 2. 2I b i d . , p. 2. 3 Roberts, Sourcebook on Prison Education, p. 92; Reagen and Stoughton, School Behind Bars, p. 93. 48 2. L egislation allowing public schools to c o n tra c t with nearby prisons to provide educational programs. 3. An organizational s tr u c tu r e w ithin the department, includ­ ing a central o ffic e education s t a f f and p rin c ip a ls in charge of t h e i r resp ectiv e programs. 4. Autonomous education programs in each i n s t i t u t i o n with a school p r in c ip a l, but l i t t l e or no coordination between f a c i l i t i e s . The major portion of funding is provided by the s t a t e , but th ree major sources o f continuing federal support are T i t l e I o f the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the Adult Education Act, and a more recent development but c e r ta in ly not a f in a n c ia lly p r o fita b le one--special education, which is required by Public Law 94-142. These sources of federal funds, along with s t a t e funding, have made i t p ossible to introduce new technology in to the learning labo ratory in c o rrectio n s i n s t i t u t i o n s . Most noteworthy are in s tr u c tio n a l t e l e ­ vision and com puter-assisted in s tr u c tio n . Programmed in s tr u c tio n and competency-based in s tr u c tio n are two d eliv ery systems t h a t are having a major influence on co rrection s education and have f a c i l i t a t e d the in d iv id u a liz a tio n o f co rrectio n s school c u r ric u la . High school equivalency instead of the tr a d itio n a l high school diploma program, made p ossible by the General Education Development examination, has been a major change in the m ajority of s t a t e co rrection s i n s t i t u t i o n educational programs. 49 The Components o f Evaluative C r i t e r i a fo r Education Programs in GeneraT A review o f some o f the w ritte n and recorded m aterial on the components of ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a in public education, along with an an aly sis o f these m a te r ia ls , is presented in t h i s s e c tio n . Emphasis is placed on the b e lie f s o f a u t h o r itie s in the f i e l d as well as the p o lic ie s and standards o f the North Central Association o f Colleges and Schools. Black wrote: In order fo r correctio n al education to maintain i n t e g r i t y , the education system must become innovative—innovative in a sense th a t requires educators to fo rg e t th e t r a d it i o n a l system. The students co rrectio n al educators deal with have had a t a s t e of the tr a d itio n a l school system and re je c te d i t J McPherson concurred: "Educators o f the 1970's have o p p o rtu n itie s and challenges th a t are unprecedented in h is to r y . The clim ate fo r educa2 tio n al research and curriculum experimentation is highly favorable. Whatever the reason fo r changing the curriculum , the change must be made according to the needs divulged through an evaluation of t h a t curriculum. Caswell and Campbell wrote t h a t "provision should be made fo r the r e s u l t s o f evaluation to be u t i l i z e d in continuous 3 rev isio n o f the curriculum ." They added: "Provision should also be made f o r the teacher to re p o rt c o n s is te n tly upon the success of the 4 in s tr u c tio n a l program and to suggest ways of improving i t . " ^Hartzel Black, "Innovation: Key to Success," Region I I I News­ l e t t e r (Vienna, 111., Correctional Assoc.) 6 (Winter 1982): 5-6. 2 McPherson, "Analysis o f Selected P ercep tio n s," p. 18. 3 H ollis L. Caswell and Doak S. Campbell, Curriculum Development (New York: American Book Company, 1935), p. 374. 4 Ib id . 50 Hass believed t h a t , before curriculum can be ev alu ated , s ta n ­ dards must be developed. He defined " c r ite r io n " as "a standard on which a decision can be based; i t is a b asis fo r d iscrim in atio n . Curriculum c r i t e r i a are guidelines or standards on which curriculum and in s tr u c tio n a l decisions can be made."^ In a discussion o f the "evaluative c r i t e r i a " developed by the 1940 Cooperative Study o f Secondary Education, Gwynn c ite d the f o l ­ lowing ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a t h a t are o f special importance to the curriculum; 1. 2. 3. Section B on "Philosophy and O bjectives," Section D on "Curriculum and Course o f Study," and p Section I on "The Outcomes o f the Educational Program." He added, "All a c t i v i t i e s and work of a p a r tic u la r secondary school are supposed to be evaluated according to the philosophy and o bjec­ tiv e s of th a t school as they have been determined cooperatively by 3 the fa c u lty and a d m in istra tio n ." Caswell and Campbell emphasized t h a t "curriculum study includes in i t s major c l a s s i f i c a t i o n the following to p ic s: 4 a c t i v i t i e s . . . and providing fo r mastery." o b je c tiv e s , learning Hass, on the o th e r hand, believed th a t the four bases o f the curriculum—social fo rc e s , human development, the nature o f le a rn in g , ^Glen Hass, Curriculum Planning: A New Approach, 3rd ed. Allyn and Bacon, I n c ., 1980), p. 6. o Minor J . Gwynn, Curriculum P rin cip les and Social Trends (New The Macmillan Co., 1943), pp. 310-11. (Boston: York: 3I b i d . , p. 311. 4 Caswell and Campbell, Curriculum Development, p. 67. 51 and the nature o f knowledge and co gn itio n—provide a major source of guidance fo r decision making in curriculum planning. He wrote: The planned o b jectiv es are among the most s ig n i f i c a n t c r i t e r i a fo r developing and evaluating any curriculum plan. This is tru e regard less o f what the o bjectives are o r how they a re s ta te d . The four bases of the curriculum should also be used as curriculum c r i t e r i a in curriculum planning.! Hass continued: The purposes of a curriculum . . . are the most important cu r­ riculum c r i t e r i a . They should provide the f i r s t guidelines fo r determining the learning experiences to be included in the c u r­ riculum. U nfortunately, schools commonly lack a comprehensive and reasonably c o n s is te n t s e t o f ob jectiv es on which to base curriculum d e c is io n s , and teachers often f a i l to use a s e t of ob jectiv es to guide t h e i r planning fo r te a c h in g .2 Broad, general go als, according to Hass, are needed in planning the objectives o f an educational program and teaching i t . general goals f a l l in four areas: These broad, education fo r " c itiz e n s h ip ," "vocation," s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n , and c r i t i c a l think ing . 3 Hass noted t h a t "thoughtful le a d e r s ," however, " d if f e r on the goals t h a t they think 4 should be emphasized." Broudy discussed what he labeled the "uses of cognitive forms" or uses of schooling, which he id e n tif ie d as "vocational l i f e , " c it i z e n s h i p , s e lf-c o n c e p t, and " in te rp r e tiv e and a s s o c ia tiv e uses of 5 schooling." Although Broudy did not s t a t e his "uses of schooling" as goals or aims o f curriculum, a l i t e r a l in t e r p r e t a t i o n could denote ^Hass, Curriculum Planning, pp. 6-7. 2I b i d . , p. 7. 3I b i d . , p. 8. 4 Ibid. 5Harry S. Broudy, "Uses o f Cognitive Form," in Curriculum Development: Issues and I n s i g h ts , ed. Donald E. Orlosky and Othanel B. Smith (Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Co., 1978). 52 a s im ila r ity between Hass's goals o f curriculum and Broudy's uses of schooling. Stratemeyer believed th a t: The not and his curriculum must help each individual to become competent only in school but also when he leaves school, in his home family r e l a t i o n s , his work, and le isu re -tim e a c t i v i t i e s , s p i r i t u a l and c iv ic -s o c ia l l i f e J As previously s ta t e d , Hass believed th a t "curriculum c r i t e r i a are guidelines or standards fo r curriculum decision making, and the 2 ob jectiv es o f a curriculum ." He developed six c r i te r i o n questions on the o b jectiv es o f a curriculum or teaching plan. They are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Have the goals of the curriculum or teaching plan been c le a r ly s ta t e d , and are they used by the teachers and students in choosing co nten t, m a te r ia ls , and a c t i v i t i e s fo r learning? Have the teachers and students engaged in stu d en t-teach er planning in defining the goals and in determining how they w ill be implemented? Do some o f the planned goals r e l a t e to the so cie ty of the community in which the curriculum w ill be implemented or the teaching w ill be done? Do some o f the planned goals r e l a t e to the individual le a rn e r and his o r her needs, purposes, i n t e r e s t s , and a b i l i t i e s ? Are the planned goals used as c r i t e r i a in se le c tin g and developing learning a c t i v i t i e s and m aterials o f in stru c tio n ? Are the planned goals used as c r i t e r i a in evaluating learning achievement and in the f u r th e r planning o f learning subgoals and a c t i v i t i e s ? ^ Hass f e l t t h a t i f most of the preceding questions cannot be answered a f fir m a tiv e ly , the curriculum planning has probably been Florence B. Stratemeyer, Hamden L. Forkner, and Margaret G. McKim, Developing a Curriculum f o r Modern Living (New York: Columbia U niversity, 1947;, p. 545. 2 Hass, Curriculum Planning, p. 7. ^ I b id . , p. 9. 53 inadequate, and steps should be taken to c o rre c t the id e n t i f ie d d e f i ­ cien cies.^ Writing about the s i x c r i t e r i o n q u estio n s, Hass s t a t e d , "The c r i t e r i o n questions bring in to c le a r focus the f a c t t h a t teach ­ ers are important partners in curriculum planning and t h a t the planning o f a curriculum cannot be completed u n til th ere are engagements with 2 le a r n e rs ." Standard I I I o f the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools supports the m ajority of the c r i t e r i o n q u estio ns. This s ta n ­ dard on the educational programs is quoted in i t s e n t i r e ty as follows: Educational Program: The educational program i s developed from the sch o o l's s ta te d goals and objectives and from a knowl­ edge of the unique needs of i t s s tu d e n ts . The program is designed to carry out the educational purpose o f the school. The sch o o l's program is designed to develop fe e lin g s o f s e l f ­ acceptance and self-w o rth ; to develop th e ta l e n t s and competen­ cies o f each in d iv id u al; and to develop the basic s k i l l s . The program a s s i s t s the students in coping with changing environments; i t encourages the student to take an a c tiv e ro le in the determ i­ nation of s o c ie ty 's a l t e r n a t iv e f u tu r e s ; and i t enables the s t u ­ dent to make more responsible decisions concerning h is /h e r fu tu r e . The scope o f the sch o o l's program o f s tu d ie s is such as to meet adequately within the context o f i t s s ta te d purposes the educational and developmental ( a f f e c t i v e , c o g n itiv e , psychomotor) needs o f the students i t admits. An in serv ice program is provided to stim u late ongoing appraisal and improvement o f the educational p r o g r a m . 3 North Central A sso ciatio n 's Standard I I , "Organization, Admin­ i s t r a t i o n , Control and Decision-Making," l i s t s the following enabling c r i t e r i a to be met: 1. The re la tio n s h ip s between the school and i t s governing body are e f f e c tiv e in helping the school carry out i t s major purpose. 1 I b i d . , p. 9. 2Ib id. North Central Association o f Colleges and Schools, "P olicies and Standards fo r the Approval o f Optional Schools and Special Func­ tio n Schools," pp. 10-11. 54 2. 3. 4. The school is organized to assure the maximum achievement of i t s s ta te d purpose. The school functions in a fashion t h a t assures the involve­ ment of s tu d e n ts , s t a f f , parents and community in the major facets o f decision making. The school maintains adequate records and rep o rts regarding s t a f f and program.* Writing on the adm inistration and school o rg a n iz a tio n , S t r a t e ­ meyer e t a l . asserted th a t both must co n trib u te to the maximum growth o f the s tu d e n ts , te a c h e rs, and school program. They believed t h a t mutual respect o f school board members, school a d m in is tra to rs , and 2 teachers is necessary to help meet the goal of maximum growth. An appropriate provision to help meet the goal o f maximum growth of the s tu d e n ts, te a c h e rs, and school was s ta te d by the North Central Association as an enabling c r i t e r i o n : A professional s t a f f member with appropriate preparation has been designated to coordinate the t o t a l learning resource program. The coordinator is d i r e c t ly involved in a ll major curriculum and in s tr u c tio n a l planning in the school. The coordinator has access to s u f f i c i e n t c l e r i c a l a s s is ta n c e . S u f fic ie n t fin a n cial pro­ visions are made fo r the development and the operation o f the learning resource program.3 Regarding tra in e d le a d e rsh ip , Short and Marconnit s ta te d : 1. 2. Trained leadership is provided fo r curriculum work. Those responsible fo r the organization and conduct o f the improve­ ment program are provided with s p e c ific preparation in the p rin c ip le s and techniques o f curriculum improvement and in the s k i l l s and understandings necessary to successful group leadership. General r e s p o n s ib ility fo r a l l services r e la te d to curriculum and teaching i s assigned to a s in g le ad m in istrativ e o f f i c e r or department. Unless r e s p o n s ib ility fo r the teaching and learning program i s c le a r ly designated, problems o f overlapping ^North Central A ssociation, "P o licies and Standards," pp. 9-10. 2 Stratemeyer e t a l . , Developing a Curriculum fo r Modern L iving, pp. 546-47. 3 North C en tral A s s o c ia tio n , " P o lic ie s and S tan d ard s," p. 14. 55 r e s p o n s ib ility and d u p lic a tio n , with r e s u lta n t damaging con­ f l i c t , are almost c e r ta in to a r i s e . One cen tral o f f ic e •. should be responsible f o r overall d ire c tio n and coordination. Short and Marconnit agreed t h a t s u f f i c i e n t funds must be made av a ila b le to conduct a curriculum-improvement program. They s ta te d th a t a good curriculum makes maximum provision fo r the development o f each le a rn e r. This can be accomplished, they b eliev ed, by providing a wide range of o p p o rtu n ities fo r individuals of varying a b i l i t i e s , needs, and i n t e r e s t s . The curriculum should also provide an opportu2 n ity fo r s e lf - d ir e c t e d independent study. These b e lie f s support the North Central Association Standard on "Learning Resources Program," which is as follows: A coordinated learning resource program makes a v a ila b le a wide array of human and m aterial resources fo r students and teach ers. The program supports learning through the adequate provision of app rop riate and o ther p e rtin e n t i n s t r u c t i o n a l / learning resources. The resources are o f such d iv e r s ity and v ariety as to f o s te r the in d iv id u a liz a tio n o f learn in g . The learning resource program derives from the philosophy and objectives o f the educational program. S ta f f and students p a r t ic ip a te in the s e le c tio n of learning re s o u rc e s .3 North Central A ssociation standards ca ll for continual and system atic evaluation through c o lle c tio n and analy sis o f the sch o o l's 4 progress toward i t s goals. Edmund C. Short and George D. Marconnit, Contemporary Thought on Public School Curriculum: Readings (Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown and Company, P u b lish ers, 1968), p. l 79. 2I b i d . , p. 180. 3 North Central A ssociation, "P olicies and S tandards," p. 14. 4 I b i d . , p. 15. 56 Saylor and Alexander's c h e c k lis t fo r appraising a sch o o l's program included the following: I. II. A good curriculum i s sy stem atically planned and evaluated A. A d e f i n it e organization i s responsible fo r coordinating planning and evalu atio n . B. Steps in planning and evaluation are lo g ic a lly defined and taken. C. Ways o f working u t i l i z e the co n trib u tio n s o f a l l con­ cerned. A good curriculum r e f l e c t s adequately the alms of the school. A. The fa c u lty has defined comprehensive educational aims. B. The scope o f the curriculum includes areas r e la te d to a l l s ta te d aims. C. Each curriculum opportunity i s planned with reference to one or more aims. D. In planning curriculum o p p o rtu n ities from year to y ear and in each area, teachers consider the to t a l scope o f a im s J Summary The l i t e r a t u r e ind icated t h a t th ere should be a continuous evaluation o f a school system 's education plan and methods of c u r ric u ­ lum change and development. Evaluative c r i t e r i a t h a t are o f special importance are a s c h o o l's philosophy, g o a ls, and o b je c tiv e s , and the needs and i n t e r e s t s o f le a rn e rs . Other ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a t h a t should be considered are: 1. A plan f o r continuing curriculum improvement, which includes: 2. A plan fo r s t a f f development, 3. The provision fo r adequate in s tr u c tio n a l reso u rces, which make Galen J . Saylor and William M. Alexander, "The Marks o f a GOOD Curriculum," as re p rin te d in Edmund C. Short and George D. Marconnit, Contemporary Thought on Public School Curriculum: Readings (Dubuque, Iowa: w. C. Brown and Company, P u b lish ers, 1968J, p. 17*. 57 4. Provision fo r indiv idu alized in s tr u c tio n and independent study, and 5. A plan fo r on-going evaluatio n. To accomplish these go als, i t is necessary to provide professional leadership with adequate funding to conduct a curriculum-improvement program. Chapter Summary Chapter II was presented in th re e parts as follows: (1) the h isto ry of Michigan c o rrectio n s education to 1975, (2) changes th a t have taken place in prison education programs in recent y e a r s , and (3) the components o f evaluative c r i t e r i a fo r public education pro­ grams . Michigan h i s to r i c a l records r e f e r to a b i l l enacted by the s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e in 1816 req u irin g th a t a ll convicts who could read be given a B ible, and th a t those who could not read should be given in s tr u c tio n in reading, w r itin g , and a rith m e tic . The chaplain, with the aid of prisoners who could read , taught classes fo r one hour each Sunday. In 1880, a c e r t i f i e d teach er replaced the chaplain as the head o f th e school. Inmate in s tr u c to r s did the teaching u n til 1964. They were gradually replaced by c e r t i f i e d teach ers. The s ix prison schools in Michigan were autonomous, and there was l i t t l e or no attempt to coordinate curriculum or teaching resources. In 1974, a d ire c to r of education for correctio ns was appointed. The f i r s t p r io r i t y o f t h i s p o sitio n was to coordinate a l l Michigan prison education programs. 58 The h isto ry o f penal education in Michigan is but a micro­ cosm o f penal education in the nation as a whole. The m ajority of s ta t e s now have c e r t i f i e d te a c h e rs, p r in c ip a ls , and a d ire c to r of education, with a central o ffic e s t a f f of educational co n su ltan ts. The curriculum is in d iv id u alized , and programmed in s tr u c tio n or competency-based in s tr u c tio n is used as the delivery system. Modern technological aids such as film s , f ilm s tr ip s and sound f i l m s t r i p s , te l e v i s i o n , and, more re c e n tly , com puter-assisted in s tr u c ­ tio n are being used as educational resources in many s t a t e s . Yet a survey o f the l i t e r a t u r e revealed th a t the m ajority o f the s ta t e s do not have a co rrection s education philosophy, and they have not developed w ritten goals and objectiv es fo r t h e i r programs. In the l i t e r a t u r e surveyed, a c o n tin u a l, on-going process o f evaluation was advocated. Evaluative c r i t e r i a th a t are o f special s ig n ifican ce are a scho ol's philosophy, g o als, and o b je c tiv e s. Other evaluative c r i t e r i a of importance are : 1. Consideration of student needs and i n t e r e s t s . 2. Plans fo r continuing curriculum improvement. 3. On-going s t a f f development. 4. Provision fo r adequate resources. 5. Provision fo r individualized in s tr u c tio n and independent study. 6. A plan fo r on-going evalu ation . CHAPTER I I I PROCEDURES This chapter includes an in v e stig a tio n and a l i s t i n g of the data sources, a d escrip tio n o f the procedures used in c o lle c tin g the d a ta , and an explanation of the method used to analyze the data. Sources o f Data The data used in t h i s study came from a number o f sources. The sources may be c l a s s i f ie d in to two major d iv is io n s : m a te ria l. human and The people who acted as resources included most o f those who have been clo se ly a f f i l i a t e d with the development o f the Michigan prison schools over the past seven y ears. Material resources included Michigan Department o f Correc­ tio n s policy d i r e c tiv e s ; procedures, D ir e c to r's Office memos, adminis­ t r a t i v e guides, miscellaneous papers and documents, and "central o f fic e " promulgated d i r e c t iv e s ; and the c e n tra l o f fic e education d iv i s i o n 's tw ice-yearly school-assessment re p o rts . These m aterials are on f i l e in the cen tral o f f ic e education f i l e s . Procedures fo r Data Collection Data fo r t h i s study were co lle c te d in several ways. These included interviews with sele cted Michigan Department o f Corrections a d m in istra to rs , ra tin g scales completed by the co rrectio n s school 59 60 adm inistrato rs and Michigan Department o f Corrections education c o n s u lta n ts , and a search for m aterial resources generated from 1975 to 1981. Data From Human Resources: Michigan Department o f Corrections Administrators interview s..--Interview s were held with Perry Johnson, D irector o f the Michigan Department o f Corrections; Robert Brown, Deputy D irector o f th e Bureau o f Correctional F a c i l i t i e s ; H. Gary Wells, Superintendent of the Muskegon Correctional F a c i l i ty ; and Joe Abramjyets, Deputy Superintendent of the Muskegon Correctional F a c ility and former correctio ns school principal a t the Muskegon Correctional F a c i li t y . 1. The interviewees responded to the following th ree qu estio ns: Drawing upon your experience with the American Correctional A sso ciatio n 's standards on education, do you believe th a t the standards provide s u f f i c i e n t c r i t e r i a to adequately evaluate a c o rrectio n s school program? 2. What are some additional c r i t e r i a t h a t you would recommend to be used in conjunction with the American Correctional Association standards to evaluate a co rrectio n s school program? 3. Which o f the following add itio nal evaluative c r i t e r i a do you think are important considerations fo r evaluating a co rrectio n s school program? a. There is a plan fo r including te a c h e rs' and stu d e n ts ' needs in the curriculum change process. b. There is a plan fo r continuing curriculum improvement. c. There is a plan fo r on-going education s t a f f development. 61 d. The education program i s assessed through re g u la rly scheduled evaluations o f the prison education program by the p r in c ip a l. The evaluation should include: (1) assessment of teacher classroom performance, such as student o r ie n ta tio n to the program, use of competencybased in s tr u c tio n modules, and recommended resources including a u d io -v isu al; (2) record keeping; (3) general classroom appearance; and (4) s c h o o l- f a c i l ity c le a n lin e ss and maintenance. School p r in c ip a ls ' r a t i n g s . —The Michigan Department o f Cor­ rectio n s school p rin c ip a ls discussed the American Correctional A sso ciatio n 's standards on co rrection al education a t t h e i r q u a rte rly p r in c ip a ls ' meeting in February 1982. They were in s tr u c te d to con­ s id e r t h e i r programs' compliance with the American Correctional A ssociation 's c r i t e r i a . Immediately following t h i s d isc u s s io n , the p rin c ip a ls were asked to r a t e each o f the c r i t e r i a . The following in s tru c tio n s were on the form: Please r a te each American Correctional Association standard on academic education, on a s c a le o f one to f iv e , as to i t s value as a c r i t e r i o n with which to evaluate a co rrectio n s school academic program. The r e s u l t s were c o lle c te d immediately upon completion of the r a tin g . Central o f f ic e education c o n s u lta n ts ' r a t i n g s . —The Michigan Department o f C o rrectio ns' education co n su ltants and the d ir e c to r o f education assess each school program b i-a n n u ally . In a d d itio n , the consultants v i s i t the schools several times each year. 62 In May 1982, the education con sultants were asked to r a t e the co rrectio n s sch oo ls' compliance with each of the American Correctional A sso ciatio n 's standards on co rrectio n al education. The following d ire c tio n s were given: Please r a te each o f the following American Correctional Association standards on academic education, on a scale of one to f i v e , as to how well you believe the co rrectio n s schools as a whole are in compliance with each standard. Data From Material Resources Data were co lle c te d from the following w ritte n documents: Policy D irective PD-BCF-41.03, June 12, 1980, "Educational Programs fo r Prisoners" Policy D irective PD-BCF-40.01, February 1, 1979, " I n s titu tio n a l Program C la s s if ic a tio n o f Residents" Policy D irective PD-BCF-40.02, October 15, 1979, "Diagnostic Assessment o f Correctional Residents" Policy D irective PD-DWA-40.01, April 1, 1975, "Program fo r R e h a b ilitatio n " Procedure 0P-BCF-23.02, December 1, 1980, "Transfer o f Educational Records" Corrections Department C la s s if ic a tio n Manual, 1980 L etters to i n s t i t u t i o n head announcing assessment v i s i t s , l i s t i n g assessment ob jectiv es f o r the cu rre n t year Various D ire c to r's Office memos on educational m atters between 1975 and 1981 Minutes o f wardens' and s u p e rite n d e n ts ' meetings from 1975 to 1981 Minutes o f p r in c ip a ls ' meetings from 1975 to 1981 Other miscellaneous documents w ritte n between 1975 and 1981 63 Procedures f o r Analysis of Data The m aterial was in v estig ated f o r evidence r e la te d to each o f the American Correctional A sso ciatio n 's education standards. From the o rig in a l group o f 20 stan d ard s, only 18 are app licab le to academic co rrectio ns programs. These 18 standards minus the c r i t e r i a r e la te d to post-secondary education^ were used to evaluate the educational programs o f the Michigan Department o f C orrections. The standards are l i s t e d below: 2-4422 - There i s a comprehensive education program a v a ila b le to a ll e l i g i b l e inmates t h a t extends from l i t e r a c y tra in in g through high school and includes communication s k i l l s , mathematics, and so cial science. 2-4423 - The academic education programs are accred ited by the s t a t e department o f education o r a recognized a c c r e d ita ­ tio n a s so c ia tio n . Programs up to the completion of high school and/or GED are a v a ila b le a t no c o st to inmates. 2-4424 - There i s a standardized competency-based curriculum sup­ ported by appropriate m aterials and classroom resources. 2-4425 - There i s a system fo r ensuring t h a t the academic education programs continue to meet the needs o f the inmate popula­ tio n . 2-4426 - Some educational programs are provided a t a time when the m ajority of inmates can take advantage o f the opportunity. 2-4427 - There i s a systematic approach to determine the personnel requirements fo r the academic programs to ensure a ll inmates access to s t a f f and s e rv ic e s . 2-4428 - All academic education personnel are c e r t i f i e d by a s t a t e department o f education o r o th er comparable a u th o rity . 2-4429 - Academic personnel p o lic ie s and p ra c tic e s are comparable to local j u r i s d i c t i o n s o r o th er ap p ro p riate j u r i s d i c t i o n s . ^See lim ita tio n s of t h i s study r e la tin g to vocational and postsecondary education. 64 2-4430 - Salary and b en efits fo r academic personnel are a t l e a s t the same as s t a t e minimums fo r teachers performing com­ parable work. 2-4431 - The educational program is supported by sp ecialized equipment, includ ing , a t a minimum, classrooms, teaching c a r r e l s , audiovisual m aterials and f a c i l i t i e s , chalk­ boards, and ad m in istrativ e space. 2-4432 - The i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a f f and/or parent agency conducts an annual evaluation to assess the e ffectiv en ess o f the academic education program ag ain st s ta te d performance o b jectiv es. 2-4433 - There is a system whereby the academic programs are assessed ag ain st s ta te d objectives by q u a lifie d in d i­ v id u als, professional groups, and trad e a s s o c ia tio n s ; t h i s assessment 1s done a t l e a s t every th ree y ears. 2-4434 - Academic counseling is provided so t h a t inmates are placed in t h a t phase of the educational program suited to t h e i r needs and a b i l i t i e s . 2-4435 - The educational program allows f o r f le x ib l e scheduling t h a t permits inmates to e n te r a t any time and to pro­ ceed a t t h e i r own learning pace. 2-4437 - The i n s t i t u t i o n uses community resources in developing academic programs fo r sele cted inmates. 2-4438 - The educational program in coordination with other i n s ti t u t i o n a l services provides in s tr u c tio n in functional social s k i l l s . 2-4440 - Written policy and procedures govern the maintenance and handling of educational records. 2-4441 - Provision is made f o r formal recognition of s p e c ific educational accomplishments.' In add ition to the American Correctional Association standards, the following four c r i t e r i a were taken from the l i t e r a t u r e : American C o rre c tio n a l A sso catio n , Standards f o r A d u lt C orrec­ tio n a l In s t it u t io n s , 2nd ed. (C o lleg e P ark, M d .: American C o rre c tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n , January 1 9 8 1 ), pp. 10 9 -1 2 . 65 1. There i s provision fo r the continuous evaluation of the school system's education plan. 2. The system 's education plan includes consideration of te a c h e rs' and stu d e n ts ' needs in the curriculum-change process. 3. There is provision fo r on-going evaluation o f the local school by the school p rin c ip a l. 4. There i s a plan f o r continuing s t a f f development. The m aterial sources were in v estig ated f o r evidence p ertain ing to each o f these c r i t e r i a . Notes and d ir e c t quotations r e la tin g to each of the c r i t e r i a of the screening device were taken from every source. Each of the c r i t e r i a was focused on s e p a ra te ly , not as p art o f a group. The r e s u l t s o f the interviews as well as principal and consultant ra tin g s were a lso considered. Chapter Summary This chapter included a d escrip tio n o f the stu d y 's human and material data sources and the procedures fo r data c o lle c tio n . Data from human resources included interviews with four Michigan Depart­ ment o f Corrections ad m in istrato rs and ra tin g scales completed by Michigan Department o f Corrections school p rin c ip a ls and educational co n su ltan ts. The m ateria l-reso u rce data were derived from the Michigan Department o f Corrections policy d i r e c t iv e s , procedures, D ire c to r's Office memos, a d m in istrativ e guides, and miscellaneous papers and documents. Eighteen o f the 20 American Correctional A sso ciatio n 's education stan dards, which were applicable to t h is study, were also presented. 66 Chapter IV presents a review o f co rrectio n s education in Michigan from 1975 through 1981 and the 18 American Correctional Association education stand ard s, with the evidence gathered to in d i­ cate the degree or extent of compliance with each c r i t e r i o n . CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF DATA This chapter includes a review o f correctio ns education in Michigan from 1975 to 1981 and a p resentatio n of the data re la te d to the research questions. Review o f Corrections Education in Michigan, 1975-19 8 f C urrently, Michigan's co rrectio n al i n s t i t u t i o n s house approxi mately 13,500 male and female felo n s. Of t h i s number, 500 are women. They are housed in the s t a t e ' s only women's prison and the s t a t e ' s only women's co rrectio n s camp. The need fo r educational programs a t a l l le v e ls is g r e a t, and the demand is o f unbelievable proportions. A s t a t i s t i c a l l y sum­ mary of the e n try -le v e l t e s t scores released in 1976 revealed the following d a ta : 1 0-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 grade grade grade grade reading reading reading reading level level level level 33% 28% 23% 15% These fin d in g s, coupled with the f a c t t h a t more students were re c e iv ­ ing high school equivalency c e r t i f i c a t e s than were receiving high school diplomas (710 GED c e r t i f i c a t e s compared to 136 high school Michigan Department o f C orrections, "Entry Level Test Scores o f Male Felons, fo r Year 1975" (computer p r in t o u t ) , October 1976. 67 68 diplomas during 1976), prompted co rrectio n s educators to reevaluate the in te n tio n and e ffic a c y of the e x is tin g courses o f study. In an e f f o r t to enlarge the scope o f co rrectio n s education, the Michigan Department o f Corrections embarked on an educational model t h a t in c o r­ porated the r e a l i t i e s o f the aforementioned trends in to a viable sys­ tem o f providing p riso n e r/stu d e n ts with the necessary to o ls to succeed in our increasing ly complex so c ie ty . The Department's educational model is addressed to the follow ­ ing m a jo r-p rio rity components: basic reading i n s t r u c t io n , pre-GED p re p a ra tio n , GED completion, vocational t r a i n i n g , and l i f e - r o l e com­ petencies. F i r s t P r io r i ty : Basic Education Reading in s tr u c tio n to enable a l l fu n c tio n a lly i l l i t e r a t e prisoners to become l i t e r a t e is the Department's highest educational p r io r i t y . The Department's reading-curriculum committee chose the Educational Development Laboratories "Learning 100"^ program as the d eliv ery system to accomplish th is goal. Second P r io r it y : Vocational Training Entry-level vocational tra in in g fo r those priso ners who need i t i s the second p r i o r i t y in the educational plan. Every person must know how to earn an honest l iv in g , fo r without t h i s know-how, he/she is more l ik e ly to find le ss s o c ia lly acceptable ways o f l i v i n g , thereby increasing the chance o f in c a rc e ra tio n . Nearly a ll vocational-education 1McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York, New York. 69 programs req u ire academic competence a t l e a s t a t the sixth-grade le v e l. Literacy tr a in in g is needed before vocational tr a in in g can begin. P risoners may enro ll in c e r ta in vocational programs while enro lled in th e 4-6 level reading program. Prevocational tr a in in g is o ffered to a l l lev els o f stu d en ts. Third P r io r i t y : Pre-GED Preparation The pre-GED preparation program comprises three a re a s: English, and reading. math, Students may enro ll in pre-GED preparation courses when t h e i r reading competency is a t the fourth-grade le v e l. I f a stud en t demonstrates competency on the course p r e t e s t , in math fo r example, he/she may be en rolled in the corresponding GED program. The primary concern is th a t the stud ent can read and comprehend the course resource m a te ria ls. Fourth P r io r i ty : GED Program Students are en ro lled in the GED program a f t e r showing compe­ tency a t the pre-GED preparation l e v e l. The GED program is designed to develop competency in s tu d e n ts , enabling them to complete the GED t e s t s u c c e ss fu lly —the terminal o b je c tiv e o f the academic program. S a tis fa c to ry completion of the GED t e s t provides the basic educational component o f the l i f e - r o l e competency model. F ifth P r io r i ty : Life-Role Competency S k ills The l i f e - r o l e competencies, as a s p e c ific a re a , have j u s t recen tly come in to the vocabulary of the education p rofession . L ife -ro le competencies can be defined as those s k i l l s th a t allow an 70 individual to function e f f e c tiv e ly in everyday l i f e by applying those academic and vocational s k i l l s he/she has already learned. These s k i l l s p e rta in to the areas of family l i v i n g , family planning, budgeting, use o f c r e d i t , and job holding and job seeking, to name a few. As p a rt of implementing these fiv e p r i o r i t i e s , the Michigan Department of Corrections has designed a l l education programs along the lin e s of competency-based in s tr u c tio n . This system provides p riso n er/stu d en ts with a self-paced in s tr u c tio n a l format t h a t includes d is c r e te learning o b je c tiv e s , c r i t e r i o n t e s t s , course maps, and o th er control documents th a t allow students and teachers c o n s is te n tly to monitor progress in learning la b o ra to rie s instead of t r a d itio n a l classrooms. Students are encouraged to progress as rap id ly as t h e i r c a p a b i li t i e s allow. The most recent major educational a c t i v i t y o f the Michigan Department o f Corrections occurred in the summer of 1979, when a task force was appointed whose goal was to rev ise and rew rite the 1975 Policy D irective on Education. The task was accomplished and the d ir e c tiv e became e f f e c tiv e on June 12, 1980. One o f the provisions of the policy d ir e c tiv e on education provides fo r s t a f f curriculum committees. The GED preparation cou rses, English and mathematics, have been developed by teach er-p rin cip al curriculum committees. The policy d ir e c tiv e on education provides fo r the continuation o f these committees. The curriculum committees meet when problems a r i s e or when feedback from teachers in d icates th a t 71 curriculum committees need to consider c e r ta in rev isio ns in modules or c r i te r i o n t e s t s or changes in resources. The Michigan Department of Education is helping with many of the prisoner-education p ro je cts or problems. In a d d itio n , individual Michigan Department of Education consultants are working f re e ly with co rrectio ns education in numerous areas. Now t h a t the Department of Corrections education program has undergone several major changes in the deliv ery system t h a t have in turn changed the ro le s o f teachers and s tu d e n ts , the Department is having i t s programs evaluated by outside sources. The m ajority of the co rrection s schools in Michigan are seeking a c c re d ita tio n from the North Central Association or from the American Correctional Asso­ c ia tio n . The ultim ate goal is to have a l l o f Michigan's co rrectio ns schools accredited by both a ccred itin g agencies. The following sec­ tion provides some in s ig h t in to the r e a l i t i e s o f t h i s goal. P resentation of Data Related to the Research Questions' The data fo r t h i s study r e l a t e to the four research q u estio n s, which are as follows: 1. How adequate are the American Correctional Association education standards as ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a fo r a c o rrectio n s educa­ tio n program? 2. To what extent are the Michigan Department o f C orrections' education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the American Cor­ rectio n al Association education standards? 72 3. Are the four additional evaluative c r i t e r i a reasonable/ workable to augment the American Correctional Association c r i t e r i a ? 4. To what ex ten t are the Michigan Department o f C orrections/ education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the four add ition al evaluative c r i t e r i a ? Human resources supplied some o f the data fo r t h i s study. These data include p r in c ip a ls ' ra tin g s o f the stan d ard s, adm in istrato r interview ees' opinions o f the standards as ev alu ative c r i t e r i a , and the Corrections Central Office education c o n s u lta n ts ' r a tin g s o f how well they thought Department o f Corrections schools, as a whole, were meeting the American Correctional Association standards. Some o f the data were derived from m aterial resources, including o f f ic e records. Research Question 1 How adequate are the American Correctional Association education standards as ev aluative c r i t e r i a fo r a c o rrec­ tio n s education program? P r in c ip a ls ' ra tin g s o f the sta n d a rd s. —At a p r in c ip a ls ' meeting in February 1982, school p rin c ip a ls were asked to r a te the American Corrections Association standards fo r co rrectio ns education. The p rin c ip a ls responded to the following statem ent: Please r a t e each ACA standard on academic and vocational education, on a s cale o f one to f iv e , as to i t s value as a c r i t e r i o n with which to evaluate a co rrection s school academic program. A ra tin g of one in d ic a te s l i t t l e or no value. o f fiv e in d icates highly valuable. A ratin g The r e s u l ts of the p r in c ip a ls ' r a tin g s are shown in Table 3. The number in the u p p e r-le ft diagonal in d icates the number of responses 73 Table 3 . --C orrections schools p r in c ip a ls ' ra tin g s of American Correctional A ssociation standards on education (N = 16). Standard Number Rating Scale5 Averages 2-4422 2-4423 2-4424 2-4425 2-4426 2-4427 2-4428 2-4429 2-4430 2-4431 2-4432 2-4433 2-4434 2-4435 2-4437 2-4438 3.2 2-4440 2-4441 A ra tin g o f 1 in d ic a te s l i t t l e or no value; a ra tin g o f 5 i n d i ­ ca te s. The number in the u p p e r -le f t diagonal in each c e ll in d ic a te s the number of responses in a given c e l l . The number in the lowerr ig h t diagonal rep resents the weighted value fo r the resp e c tiv e c e l l . This value was determined by m ultiplying the responses in a c e ll by the c e ll value. 74 in a given c e l l . The number in the low er-rig ht diagonal is the weighted value o f the responses. Table 4 in d ic a te s the percentage value of the p r in c ip a ls ' responses when grouped according to low v alue, n e u t r a l , or high value r e l a t i v e to the p r in c ip a ls ' opinions o f the value o f the American Correctional Association standards as c r i t e r i a fo r evaluating c o r­ re c tio n s school academic programs. Table 5 shows the s ix standards chosen by the p r in c ip a ls as having the highest value as ev alu ative c r i t e r i a . Summary o f p r in c ip a ls ' r a t i n g s : In t h e i r r a tin g s o f the s ta n ­ dards, the p rin c ip a ls indicated a decidedly higher value fo r e ig h t of the standards as ev alu ative c r i t e r i a fo r a c o rrectio n s academic pro­ gram. These e ig h t standards are as follows: 2-4422 - There i s a comprehensive education program a v a ila b le to a ll e l i g i b l e inmates t h a t extends from l i t e r a c y tra in in g through high school and includes communication s k i l l s , mathematics, and social sciences. 2-4424 - There is a standardized competency-based curriculum sup­ ported by ap propriate m ateria ls and classroom resources. 2-4425 - There is a system fo r ensuring t h a t the academic education program continues to meet the needs o f the inmate popula­ tio n . 2-4428 - All academic education personnel are c e r t i f i e d by a s t a t e department o f education o r o th er comparable a u th o r ity . 2-4431 - The educational program i s supported by s p e c ia liz e d equipment, in cluding, a t a minimum, classroom s, teaching c a r r e l s , audiovisual m aterials and f a c i l i t i e s , chalk­ boards, and a d m in istrativ e space. 2-4434 - Academic counseling i s provided so t h a t inmates are placed in th a t phase of the educational program s u ite d to t h e i r needs and a b i l i t i e s . 75 Table 4 . —P r in c ip a ls ' ra tin g s o f American Correctional Association standards on education according to low, n e u t r a l , or high value (in percentage) (N = 16). Standard Number Low Value Neutral High Value 2-4422 6.25 12.50 81.25 2-4423 31.25 25.00 43.75 2-4424 • • • 12.50 87.50 2-4425 12.50 18.75 68.75 2-4426 56.25 6.25 37.50 2-4427 6.25 37.50 56.25 18.75 81.25 2-4428 • • • 2-4429 62.50 6.25 31.25 2-4430 25.00 18.75 56.25 2-4431 6.25 18.75 75.00 2-4432 12.50 31.25 56.25 2-4433 18.75 31.25 50.00 2-4434 12.50 18.75 68.75 12.50 87.50 2-4435 • • • 2-4437 68.75 25.00 6.25 2-4438 25.00 37.50 37.50 2-4440 6.25 18.75 75.00 2-4441 6.25 37.50 56.25 Note: The low, n e u t r a l , and high percentages were determined by com­ bining the high-value responses o r the low-value responses in Table 3 and then dividing by N. The neutral percentages were determined by dividing the number o f responses in Cell 3 by N. 76 2-4435 - The educational program allows f o r f le x ib le scheduling t h a t permits inmates to e n te r a t any time and to pro­ ceed a t t h e i r own learning pace. 2-4440 - Written policy and procedures govern the maintenance and handling of educational records. Table 5 . —American Correctional A ssociation standards most frequently chosen by p rin c ip a ls as having the h ighest value as evalua­ tiv e c r i t e r i a (N = 16). Standard Number 2-4422 Percentage Scores Low Value Neutral High Value Average Score 5.25 12.50 81.25 4.3 12.50 87.50 4.4 18.75 81.25 4.3 2-4424 2-4428 • • • 2-4431 6.25 18.75 75.00 4.1 2-4434 12.50 18.75 68.75 3.9 12.50 87.50 4.4 2-4435 i • * Three of the standards were rated as not having high value as evaluative c r i t e r i a fo r a prison academic education program. Table 6 .) (See These c r i t e r i a are as follow s: 2-4426 - Some educational programs are provided a t a time when the m ajority of inmates can take advantage of the oppor­ tu n ity . 2-4429 - Academic personnel p o lic ie s and p ra c tic e s are comparable to local j u r i s d i c t i o n s or o th er appropriate j u r i s d i c t i o n s . 2-4437 - The i n s t i t u t i o n uses community resources in developing academic programs fo r se le c te d inmates. 77 Table 6 . —American Correctional A ssociation standards most freq uently chosen by p rin c ip a ls as having the l e a s t value as ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a (N * 16). Standard Number Percentage Scores Low Value Neutral High Value Average Score 2-4426 56.25 6.25 37.50 2.3 2-4429 62.50 6.25 31.25 2.5 2-4437 68.75 25.00 6.25 1.9 Administrator in terv iew s. —Administrator interview s were con­ ducted on May 12 and May 25, 1982. To conceal the id e n t it y of the persons interviewed and to ensure c o n f i d e n t ia li t y , respondents are refe rre d to as A, B, C, o r D in the following discu ssio n . The interviewees were asked to respond to two questions r e l e ­ vant to the American Correctional Association c r i t e r i a : 1. Drawing upon your experience with the American Correctional A sso ciatio n 's standards on education, do you b eliev e t h a t the standards provide s u f f i c i e n t c r i t e r i a to adequately evaluate a c o rrectio n s school program? 2. What are some additional c r i t e r i a th a t you would recommend to be used in conjunction with the American Correctional Associa­ tion standards to evaluate a co rrectio n s school program? Respondent A: Question 1 : Respondent A s ta te d t h a t the American Correctional Association standards are adequate fo r the p resen t. He observed, however, th a t some o f the standards on education do not provide enough information or guidelines f o r the noneducator ev alu ato r. is Standard 2-4431, quoted below: An example 78 The educational program is supported by sp ecialized equipment, inclu din g, a t a minimum, classrooms, teaching c a r r e l s , audio­ visual m aterials and f a c i l i t i e s , chalkboards, and ad m inistra­ tiv e space. His opinion was th a t a noneducator would not know what s p e c ia liz e d equipment should be considered o r the q uantity th a t would be needed. "The c r i te r i o n does not speak to q u a lity or q u a n tity ." Question 2 : Respondent A did not believe additional c r i t e r i a should be added to the cu rren t standards a t t h i s time. He believed the cu rren t standards rep resent a f i r s t step in what w ill become a "quantum le a p ." There has been no coordination among s t a t e c o rre c ­ tio n s departments, according to Respondent A. He believed t h a t i f the standards were too oppressive, some s ta te s would not even tr y to become accred ited . Respondent A believed t h a t s ta t e s w ill work hard to main­ ta in t h e i r a c c r e d ita tio n , once they are accred ited . He believed th a t the standards w ill become le ss ambiguous and more involved. Respondent B: Question 1 : Respondent B thought t h a t the American Correc­ tio n al Association standards are adequate to evaluate a correctio ns education program. Question 2 : The respondent did not know o f any add ition al c r i t e r i a to be added to the cu rre n t standards. Respondent C Question 1 : Respondent C agreed t h a t th ere was some weakness in the cu rren t standards but believed th a t the standards are adequate fo r now. Respondent C f e l t t h a t the ev aluator should ta lk with 79 teachers and students to get a b e tte r perspective o f the i n s t i t u ­ t i o n 's programs. Question 2 : Respondent C did not know of any additional c r i te r i o n t h a t should be added to the American Correctional Associa­ tio n standards a t t h i s time. Respondent D: Question 1: Respondent D reported th a t he did not view the standards as being s p e c ific enough to t e l l one how to go about meet­ ing the standards. Question 2 : Respondent D did not believe the standards to be adequate, in and of themselves, but f e l t t h a t , with the addition of North Central a c c re d ita tio n and the goals of the Department of Correc­ tio n s policy d ire c tiv e on education, the department would have a complete evaluation system. Summary of adm in istrato r in terv iew s: The adm inistrators who were interviewed believed t h a t a l l of the Correctional Association standards were adequate fo r evaluating a correctio ns education pro­ gram. Research Question 2 To what extent are the Michigan Department of Corrections' education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the American Correctional Association education standards? Education c o n su lta n ts' r a t i n g s . —The Department of Corrections education consultants were asked to r a te the department's education programs r e la t iv e to t h e i r compliance with the American Correctional 80 Association education standards. The consultants were asked to respond to the following statement: Please ra te each o f the following American Correctional Association standards on academic education on a scale of one to f iv e , as to how well you believe the corrections schools, as a whole, are in compliance with each standard. A ra tin g of one would in d icate l i t t l e o r no compliance. A ra tin g of fiv e would in d icate compliance. The r e s u lts of t h is ra tin g are shown in Table 7. Summary o f education c o n s u lta n ts 1 r a t i n g s : Ratings by the Central Office education consultants indicated low compliance with the following three American Correctional Association standards by corrections schools: 2-4433 - There is a system whereby the academic programs are assessed against s ta te d objectives by q u a lifie d in d i ­ v idu als, professional groups, and trade as so c ia tio n s; th is assessment is done a t l e a s t every three y ears. 2-4437 - The i n s t i t u t i o n uses community resources in developing academic programs fo r selected inmates. 2-4438 - The educational program in coordination with other i n s t i t u t i o n a l services provides in stru c tio n in func­ tional social s k i l l s . The Central Office education consultants were neutral or undecided about correction s schools' compliance with the following fiv e standards: 2-4423 - The academic education programs are accredited by the s t a t e department o f education or a recognized a c c re d ita ­ tion a sso c ia tio n . Programs up to the completion of high school and/or GED are av a ila b le a t no cost to inmates. 2-4425 - There is a system fo r ensuring th a t the academic educa­ tion programs continue to meet the needs o f the inmate population. 81 Table 7 .—Department of Corrections education c o n s u lta n ts ' r a tin g s of how well they believe the Michigan Department o f Corrections schools are in compliance with the American Correctional Association standards on education (N = 16). Standard Number Rating Scale® Averages 2-4422 2-4423 3.0 2-4424 2-4425 2-4426 2-4427 2-4428 2-4429 2-4430 2-4431 2-4432 2-4433 2-4434 2-4435 2-4437 2-4438 2-4440 2-4441 A ra tin g o f 1 in d ic a te s l i t t l e or no compliance; a ra tin g o f 5 in d ic a te s compliance. The number in the u p p e r -le f t diagonal in each c e ll in d icates the number of responses in a given c e l l . The number in the low er-righ t diagonal rep resents the weighted value fo r the resp ec­ ti v e c e l l . This value was determined by m ultiplying the responses in a c e ll by the c e ll value. 82 2-4427 - There is a system atic approach to determine the personnel requirements fo r the academic programs to ensure a ll inmates access to s t a f f and s e rv ic e s . 2-4432 - The i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a f f and/or parent agency conducts an annual evaluation to assess the effectiv en ess o f the academic education program ag ain st s ta te d performance o b je c tiv e s. 2-4434 - Academic counseling i s provided so t h a t inmates are placed in th a t phase o f the educational program s u ite d to t h e i r needs and a b i l i t i e s . The average ra tin g s and the percentages fo r each standard receiving a low-compliance ra tin g are shown in Table 8. Table 9 shows the average r a tin g s and the percentages fo r each standard receiving a n eutral or undecided r a tin g . Table 8 . —American Correctional Association standards ra te d by Corrections Department education consultants as having low compliance by c o rrectio n s schools (N = 3) Standard Number Percentage Low Compliance Neutral or Undecided 2-4433 33 66 2-4437 66 2-4438 33 High Compliance 2.3 33 66 Average Rating 2.3 2.7 83 Table 9 . --American Correctional Association standards receiving neutral or undecided ra tin g s by Corrections Department education consultants in terms o f compliance by co rrec­ tio n s schools {N = 3). Standard Number Percentage Low Compliance Neutral o r Undecided High Compli ance Average Rating 2-4423 33 33 33 3.0 2-4425 • • 66 33 3.3 2-4427 • • 66 33 3.6 2-4432 33 33 33 3.3 66 33 3.3 2-4434 The Central Office education consultants were unanimous in ra tin g the Department of Corrections schools in high compliance with the following seven American Correctional Association standards: 2-4422 - There is a comprehensive education program a v a ila b le to a l l e l i g i b l e inmates t h a t extends from l i t e r a c y tr a in in g through high school and includes communication s k i l l s , mathematics, and so cial sciences. 2-4424 - There is a standardized competency-based curriculum supported by appropriate m aterials and classroom resources. 2-4428 - All academic education personnel are c e r t i f i e d by a s t a t e department of education or o ther comparable a u th o rity . 2-4429 - Academic personnel p o lic ie s and p ractices are comparable to local j u r i s d i c t i o n s o r o th er appropriate j u r i s d i c ­ tio n s . 2-4430 - Salary and b e n e fits fo r academic personnel are a t l e a s t the same as s t a t e minimums f o r teachers performing com­ parable work. 2-4431 - The educational program is supported by s p ecializ ed equipment, includ ing , a t a minimum, classrooms, teaching c a r r e l s , audiovisual m aterials and f a c i l i t i e s , chalk­ boards, and ad m in istrativ e space. 84 2-4440 - Written policy and procedures govern the maintenance and handling o f educational records. Table 10 shows the average r a tin g s and the percentages fo r each standard receiving a high-compliance r a tin g . Table 10.--American Correctional Association standards rated by Corrections Department education co nsu ltan ts as having high compliance by c o rrectio n s schools (N = 3). c. . . ^waiiuar Standardu Number Low Compli ance Percentage — High Neutral or Undecided Compliance Average Rating 2-4422 ■ • 100 4.7 2-4424 • • 100 4.7 2-4428 • * 100 5.0 2-4429 • 100 4.3 2-4430 • • 100 4.3 100 4.7 100 4.7 2-4431 2-4440 » • Material re s o u rc e s .—The m aterial resources re le v a n t to the American Correctional Association c r i t e r i a were taken from the Depart ment of Corrections policy d ire c tiv e s and procedures. Additional relev an t resources were gleaned from D ir e c to r's Office memos, l e t t e r s to wardens and sup erin tend en ts, and o th er miscellaneous documents. In t h i s s e c tio n , the American Correctional Association standard is s ta t e d , followed by the Department o f Corrections policy t h a t in d i ­ cates compliance with th e c r i t e r i o n . 85 Standard 2-4422 c a ll s fo r a comprehensive education program fo r e l i g i b l e inmates from l i t e r a c y tra in in g through high school com­ p le tio n , as follows: 2-4422 - There is a comprehensive education program a v a ila b le to a l l e l i g i b l e inmates th a t extends from l i t e r a c y tra in in g through high school and includes communication s k i l l s , mathematics, and so cial science. The Department o f Corrections policy d ir e c tiv e "Educational Programs f o r Prisoners" s t a t e s : All major i n s t i t u t i o n s w ill provide in s tr u c tio n in the areas o f reading, mathematics, and English f o r le v e ls "0" through GED t e s t completion.! Several of the Department of Corrections g o als, in Policy D irective PD-BCF-41.03, address t h i s is s u e . Goal 7 s t a t e s : Develop procedures to ensure th a t re sid e n ts who need education programming are c l a s s i f ie d to school. Residents not i n i t i a l l y en ro lled in school or not completing education assignments should be p e rio d ic a lly reconsidered f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n to s c h o o l.2 In ad dition to the g o a ls, one o f th e "considerations" o f the Michigan Department of Corrections Policy D irective on "Programs fo r R e h a b ilita tio n ," DD-DWA-40.01, emphasizes school attendance: Educational Preparedness: Offenders who are fu n c tio n a lly i l l i t e r a t e o r educationally re ta rd e d , sh a ll be strongly encouraged to remedy these d e f ic ie n c ie s . The fu n c tio n a lly i l l i t e r a t e should be provided with an opportunity to achieve a t l e a s t the s ix th grade reading l e v e l; those with average in t e l l ig e n c e , a high school equivalency.3 ^Michigan Department of C orrections, "Educational Programs fo r P ris o n e rs," Policy D irectiv e PD-BCF-41.03, June 1980, p. 2. 2Ibid. 3 Michigan Department of C o rrectio ns, "Programs f o r R eh ab ili­ t a t i o n , " Policy D irective PD-DWA-40.01, April 1975, p. 2. 86 Standard 2-4423 requ ires th a t academic programs be a c c re d ite d . The standard is as follows: 2-4423 - The academic education programs are accredited by the s t a t e department o f education or a recognized a c c re d i­ ta tio n a s so c ia tio n . Programs up to the completion of high school and/or GED are a v a ila b le a t no c o st to inmates. There is no Department o f Corrections policy on t h i s is s u e . The Michigan Department of Education does not a c c re d it educational programs. However, co rrectio n s schools are seeking North Central Association a c c r e d ita tio n . Standard 2-4424 c a ll s f o r a competency-based curriculum: 2-4424 - There i s a standardized competency-based curriculum supported by app rop riate m aterials and classroom resources. The Michigan Department o f Corrections educational programs have a l l been developed on a competency-based model. The following quotation was taken from the Department o f Corrections Education Management Manual: The Department o f Corrections has designed a l l education pro­ grams along the lin e s o f competency based i n s t r u c t i o n , a system which provides p riso n er-stu d en ts with a self-paced in s tr u c tio n a l format which includes d is c r e te learning o b je c tiv e s , c r i t e r i o n t e s t s , course maps, and s p e c i f i c a l l y designated reso u rces.! An ad ditio nal source o f evidence is a Department o f Correc­ tio n s procedure e s ta b lis h in g guidelines fo r assessing the implementa­ tio n o f the competency-based in s tr u c tio n a l model. The information sectio n of the procedure s t a t e s : ^Michigan Department o f C o rre c tio n s , " In tr o d u c tio n ," Education Management P la n , 1975, p. 2. 87 The education s t a f f involved w ill be assessing individual courses and/or learning la b o ra to rie s on the basis o f the following: A. B. C. D. E. Course map Performance o b jectives C rite rio n t e s t s Progress p l o t t e r s Resources! American Correctional Association Standard 2-4125 c a l l s fo r ensuring th a t programs meet inmate needs. I t requ ires t h a t : 2-4425 - There is a system fo r ensuring th a t the academic educa­ tio n programs continue to meet the needs o f the inmate population. Providing educational programs to meet the needs o f inmate students is inherent in the philosophy and goals o f the Department of Corrections policy d ir e c tiv e on education. The second paragraph of the philosophy s t a t e s : Educational programs must respond to the le g itim a te i n t e r e s t s and needs of p ris o n e rs. These needs and i n t e r e s t s should be r e fle c te d in programs which incorporate s p e c ific goals and ob jectiv es with measurable outcomes. P risoners often have long h i s t o r i e s o f academic and social f a i l u r e so i t is important t h a t education programs be conducted in a success-achievement o riented atmosphere.2 The recognition o f developing student needs i s s p e c ifie d in Goals 4 and 7, re sp e c tiv e ly : Goal Four—Design educational programs which recognize i n d i ­ vidual student needs, i n t e r e s t s , and learn in g s ty l e s . Goal Seven—Develop procedures to ensure t h a t re sid e n ts who need education programming are c l a s s i f i e d to s c h o o l . 3 ^Michigan Department o f C o rrection s, "CRI Assessment,'1 Pro­ cedure DP-BCF-41.01, November 1976, p. 1. ^Policy D irective PD-BCF-41.03, June 1980, p. 1. 3 I b i d . , p. 2. 88 Active teacher curriculum committees have been organized to help ensure the consideration o f student needs. The Department of Corrections policy d ir e c tiv e on education s t a t e s : Curricula and resource standards f o r each program w ill be recom­ mended by the Department Curriculum Committee fo r t h a t area and must be approved by the Corrections Education S u p erin ten d e n tJ A system has been developed to ensure t h a t a l l s t a f f members have an opportunity to e f f e c t program change. The Education Superin­ te n d e n t's Office Memorandum 1981-1 s t a t e s : Attached i s a copy of the e x is tin g CBI Revision Form. The form i s intended to be used fo r modifying and/or adding resources to e x is tin g curriculum l i s t s . 2 C rite rio n 2-4426 provides fo r the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f education fo r the m ajority of p riso n ers: 2-4426 - Some educational programs are provided a t a time when the m ajority of inmates can take advantage o f the opportunity. Education policy d ir e c tiv e Goal 7 provides f o r students who are in need of education. I t sta te s: Develop procedures to ensure t h a t re sid e n ts who need education programming are c l a s s i f ie d to school. Residents not i n i t i a l l y enro lled in school o r not completing education assignments should be p e rio d ic a lly reconsidered fo r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . 3 The im plication o f t h i s goal is th a t the m ajority of prisoners who wish to attend school may do so. Prisoners whose educational s k i l l s are below the eighth-grade level are strongly encouraged to ^Policy D irective PD-BCF-41.03, June 1980, p. 4. 2 Education Superintendent's Office Memorandum 1980-1, August 4, 1982. ■^Policy D ir e c tiv e PD-BCF-41.0 3 , June 1980, p. 2. 89 s k i l l s are below the eighth-grade level are strongly encouraged to attend school. The Michigan S tate In d u strie s allows educational leaves of absence fo r prisoners employed in i n d u s tr ie s . Following is a quota­ tio n from the Michigan Department of Corrections "Program C l a s s i f i c a ­ tio n Manual": "Educational Leaves o f Absence—Residents" (PD-BSI-40.01) per­ mits prisoners employed in in d u strie s to be assigned to school programming through GED achievement without f o r f e i t i n g longevity or s e n io r ity . I t gives assurance t h a t they may retu rn to the o rig in a l industry on an equal assignment d i r e c t l y , without being su b jec t to a w ait on the In d u stries l i s t J Standard 2-4427 mandates access to s t a f f and se rv ic e s: 2-4427 - There is a systematic approach to determine the person­ nel requirements fo r the academic programs to ensure a l l inmates access to s t a f f and s e rv ic e s. The Department of Corrections stu d en t-teach er r a t io is 25:2. The section in the Department of Corrections policy d ir e c tiv e on education s t a t e s : S taffin g fo r a standard twenty-five student classroom w ill con­ s i s t o f a c e r t i f i e d teacher and a c i v i l i a n aide or a c e r t i f i e d teacher and two re s id e n t t u t o r s . Any variances f o r cause from these standards must be approved by the i n s t i t u t i o n head and the departm ent's Corrections Education Superintendent.2 Item 5 under standards s ta t e s t h a t "six fifty -m in u te periods 3 of student con tact per day are required o f each te a c h e r." Teachers are required to work e ig h t hours per day. I t is believed th a t th is ^Michigan Department o f C orrections, "Program C la s s if ic a tio n Manual," p. 30. 2Policy D irective PD-BCF-41.03, June 1980, p. 5. 3I b i d . , p. 6. 90 work schedule with the nongraded learning concept should allow ample time f o r student access to s t a f f and s e rv ic e s . Compliance with Standard 2-4428 requires t h a t a ll teachers be c e r t i f i e d : 2-4428 - All academic education personnel are c e r t i f i e d by a s t a t e department o f education or oth er comparable a u th o rity . All teachers must hold cu rren t S ta te o f Michigan c e r t i f i c a t i o n . The Michigan Department o f Civil Service job s p e c ific a tio n f o r school teachers s p e c ifie s t h a t "an employee [ in t h is c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ] possess a b ach elo r's degree in a f i e l d o f education and possess ap propriate c e r t i f i c a t i o n by the Michigan Department o f Education."^ The Michigan Department o f Corrections policy d ir e c tiv e on education s ta te s in Item 6 under Standards, "Teachers and p rin c ip a ls 2 w ill maintain valid c e r t i f i c a t i o n . " 2-4429 - Academic personnel p o lic ie s and p ra c tic e s are comparable to local j u r i s d i c t i o n s or o th er ap p ro p riate j u r i s d i c t i o n . Civil Service wage scales and frin g e b e n e fits are determined by a statew ide sample. To a s c e rta in i f personnel p o lic ie s are approp­ r i a t e to local j u r i s d i c t i o n s , each school p rin cip al would be required to contact local school d i s t r i c t s to determine comparable f a c to r s . Standard 2-4430 requires t h a t teacher sala ry and b e n e fits be commensurate with s t a t e minimums, as follows: ^Michigan Department o f Civil S ervice, Job S p ecific atio n Manual, School Teachers, revised December 1979. 2P o lic y D ir e c tiv e PD-BCF-41.0 3 , June 1980, p. 6. 91 2-4430 - Salary and b e n e fits fo r academic personnel are a t l e a s t the same as s t a t e minimums fo r teachers per­ forming comparable work. Civil Service pay scales are determined on s t a t e averages. The m ajority o f Michigan c o rrectio n s teachers are a t pay lev els com­ parable to or b e t t e r than s t a t e minimums fo r public-school teach ers. Fringe b en efits are comparable to those of public-school teach ers. Standard 2-4431 mandates classrooms, s p ecializ ed equipment, and adequate resources: 2-4431 - The educational program is supported by s p e c ia liz e d equipment, inclu din g, a t a minimum, classrooms, teach ­ ing c a r r e l s , audiovisual m aterials and f a c i l i t i e s , chalkboards, and ad m in istrativ e space. All o f the teaching resources and f u rn itu r e are a v a ila b le in the co rrectio ns schools. Furnishings or the type o f f u r n itu r e in the classroom i s a teacher option. The audiovisual m ateria ls and equipment in the learning laboratory are determined by the teach er curriculum committees. There is no information from the Department o f Corrections mandating o r suggesting how a learning laboratory should be furnished. Standard 2-4432 recommends annual evaluations to assess the school system a g a in st s ta te d performance goals: 2-4432 - The i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a f f and/or parent agency conducts an annual evaluation to assess the e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f the academic education program a g a in st s ta te d performance o b je c tiv e s. Role 3 o f the Corrections Education Superintendent, as s p e c i­ fie d in the Michigan Department of Corrections policy d i r e c t iv e on education, s ta t e s : 92 Monitors [th e Corrections Education Superintendent], reviews and assesses in s t it u t io n a l educational programming for compliance with Corrections Department Education Policy, and works coopera­ tiv e ly with Program Bureau to ensure evaluation of educational programsJ To comply with th is mandate, the Department of Corrections cen tral o f f ic e education s t a f f formally assesses each educational pro­ gram every s ix months. The assessm en t-v isit objectives fo r the 1982 f is c a l year are as follows: School Program Assessment V is it Objectives *The Education Central Office s t a f f i s concerned with the Depart­ ment o f C orrections' e f f o r t s in try in g to conform with ACA s ta n ­ dards. As of January 1982, the major o bjectiv e w ill be compliance with the FY 81-82 school spending plans. During assessment v i s i t s , i t w ill most d e f in ite ly be necessary fo r students to be present during the classroom observations. I f several teachers w ill be absent on the planned assessment v i s i t d ate, then the school should n o tify the Education Central Office so th a t the date can be changed. We w ill also look a t the progress made in those areas fo r improve­ ment t h a t we agreed upon a t the l a s t post assessment conference. In a d d itio n , the following items w ill be considered and observed during the school assessment v i s i t s : 1. Teacher assessments completed by school ad m in istratio ns. 2. Compliance with safety p ra c tic e . 3. Transfer of records—what has come in —how and when did they come in. 4. Teacher records. 5. Proper use o f course modules. 6 . Proper use of reading m a te ria ls. 7. A v a ila b ility o f resources. 8 . Student enrollment fig u res. 9. Student attendance fig u re s. 10. Those f a c i l i t i e s t h a t have special education stu d en ts, we w ill review IEP forms, t r a n s f e r records and services pro­ vided. ^ P o licy D ir e c tiv e on E ducation, PD-BCF-41.0 3 , June 1980, p. 8 . 93 11. Those f a c i l i t i e s with college programs, we w ill review enrollment fig u re s. ♦PLEASE HAVE ALL PURCHASE ORDERS AVAILABLE IN ORDER TO SHOW COM­ PLIANCE WITH SCHOOL SPENDING PLANS.1 In addition to Central Office or local p rincipal assessments, Standard 2-4433 requires evaluation by professional groups ag ainst s ta te d o b jectiv es: 2-4433 - There is a system wehreby the academic programs are assessed against s ta te d ob jectiv es by q u a lifie d i n d i ­ v id u als, professional groups, and tra d e a s so c ia tio n s; t h i s assessment is done a t l e a s t every th ree y ears. An advisory team has been e s ta b lis h e d , as required by Standard 2-4433. Below is a copy of a form l e t t e r sen t to prospective a s s e s s ­ ment team members: Dear : The Department of Corrections is organizing an advisory team to review and assess our academic and vocational programs. The American Corrections A ssociation's (ACA) standards require t h a t th i s assessment must be performed by q u a lifie d p rofessionals rep resen tativ e of the various educational programs operated by the Department of Corrections. To a s s i s t the Department of Cor­ rection s in meeting the ACA standards, as well as our own in te rn a l assessment standards, the Department is requesting the services of professionals such as y o u rself to serve on the advisory team. You have been recommended to the Department as a professional who is concerned about education and who might be w illin g to serve as a member of the advisory team. I f you are able to serve on th is advisory team, or you can recom­ mend someone t h a t would be w illin g to serve on the advisory team, please respond to Dr. P atrick Williams, 3222 South Logan, Lansing, Michigan 48913, as soon as possible. Your a ssista n c e in t h is endeavor w ill be g reatly appreciated and b en eficial to our educa­ tio n al programs.2 ^Michigan Department of Corrections Assessment O bjectives, December 1981. 2 Directory Perry Johnson, l e t t e r in v itin g chosen professio nals to become members of the advisory team, November 17, 1981. 94 The f i r s t assessment conducted by the Department o f Correc­ t i o n s ' Advisory Team fo r Academic and Vocational Education Programs was of the Muskegon Correctional F a c i l i t y 's schoo 1-program. The assessment was conducted on May 11-12, 1982. Standard 2-4434 c a l l s fo r program placement s u ite d to student needs: 2-4434 - Academic counseling is provided so t h a t inmates are placed in t h a t phase o f the educational program su ited to t h e i r needs and a b i l i t i e s . Policy D irective PD-BCF-41.03, "Educational Programs fo r P riso n e rs," mandates: Each i n s t i t u t i o n w ill o f fe r education counseling services and w ill be a llo c a te d counselors based on the following: Average Daily Student Enrollment 150-300 300-400 400-500 P osition 1/2 Counselor 1 Counselor 1-1/2 Counselor Counselors sh all possess Michigan counseling c e r t i f i c a t i o n , or sh all meet North Central stan d ard s.! Flexible scheduling is required by Standard 2-4435: 2-4435 - The educational program allows f o r f le x ib l e scheduling th a t permits inmates to e n te r a t any time and to pro­ ceed a t t h e i r own learning pace. The Michigan Department o f C orrectio ns' educational programs are a l l in d iv id u a liz e d , self-paced programs t h a t students may e n te r a t any time. The following quotation was taken from the Department of C o rrection s' education management manual: ^Dr. P atrick Williams, l e t t e r to Superintendent Wells, Muskegon Correctional F a c i l i t y , April 29, 1982. 2Policy D irective PD-BCF-41.03, June 12, 1980, p. 6. 95 The Department o f Corrections has designed a l l education programs along the lin e s o f competency based i n s t r u c t io n , a system which provides p rison er-stud ents with a s e l f paced in s tr u c tio n a l fo rm a t.' The competency-based in s tr u c tio n format has made "open-ended" or " fle x ib le " scheduling a r e a l i t y . The following quotation is from a rep o rt to the D irector o f the Corrections Department: "Open ended scheduling" is allowing students to e n te r a program a t any time without th e r e s t r i c t i o n s of a time o r date when new c la sse s open fo r enrollm ents. As soon as a student has met the objectives o f the course, the student is e l i g i b l e to enro ll in the next level or enro ll in a d i f f e r e n t course. I t is not neces­ sary fo r the individual to wait fo r the end o f a term, or fo r the to t a l class to complete the c o u r s e . 2 To comply with Standard 2-4437, community resources should be used to develop programming fo r some stud en ts: 2-4437 - The i n s t i t u t i o n uses community resources in developing academic programs fo r sele cted inmates. Goal 9 o f the Department o f C o rrectio n s’ policy d ir e c tiv e on education, PD-BCF-41.03, s t a t e s : E stablish cooperative re la tio n s h ip s with community agencies for the u t i l i z a t i o n o f ad d ition al resources where f e a s i b l e . 3 Standard 2-4438 c a l l s fo r coordination between educational programs and other i n s t i t u t i o n a l serv ices providing in s tr u c tio n in social s k i l l s : 2-4438 - The educational program in coordination with o ther i n s t i t u t i o n a l serv ices provides in s tr u c tio n in func­ tio nal so cial s k i l l s . ^Michigan Department o f C orrections, Education Management P lan , 1975, p. 2. ? Wilburt Laubach, Report to the D irector on the Education Program, 1975, p. 10. ^Policy D irectiv e PD-BCF-41.03, June 12, 1980, p. 6. 96 Although the co rrectio n s schools are encouraged to coordinate with oth er i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e rv ic e s , policy and o ther material resources are s i l e n t on t h i s issu e . Standard 2-4440 requ ires the maintenance of educational records through w ritte n p o lic ie s and procedures: 2-4440 - Written policy and procedures govern the maintenance and handling of educational records. The o b jectiv e of the Department o f Corrections "Transfer of Educational Records," Procedure DP-BCF-23.02, i s : To provide a method to ensure the prompt and orderly t r a n s f e r of re s id e n t s tu d e n ts ' cumulative educational reco rds, and to ensure the co n tin u ity o f student programming, and to minimize the occurrence o f education program d ropout.' The information sectio n s t a t e s : For continuation of re s id e n t s tu d e n ts ' growth, both academic and vocatio nal, and the coordination of education programs, 2 student records w ill be reported on the Student Record Form. . . . Standard 2-4441 recommends recognition o f student achieve­ ments : 2-4441 - Provision is made f o r formal recognition of s p e c ific educational accomplishments. No Michigan Department o f Corrections policy o r o th er docu­ mentation provides fo r recognition o f s tu d e n ts ' educational accomp­ lishm ents. c a te s . The m ajority o f i n s t i t u t i o n s issue completion c e r t i f i ­ However, t h i s decision is l e f t to the d is c r e tio n o f the in stitu tio n s ta f f. ^Michigan Department o f C o rre c tio n s , Procedure DP-B CF-23.02, T ra n s fe r o f Education Records, December 1980, p. 1. 2 Ib id . 97 Summary o f m aterial reso u rc e s; Material resources relev an t to the American Correctional Association standards fo r co rrectio n s education provided evidence th a t the Michigan Department o f Correc­ tio n s i s in compliance with the m ajority of the standards. Conversely, f o r Standards 2-4437, 2-4438, and 2-4441, m aterial resource data are weak and in d ic a te questionable compliance. The th ree c r i t e r i a concern the use o f community resources fo r sele cted in d iv id u a ls, the coordination of the school program with o th er i n s t i ­ tu tio n a l service programs, and recognition of academic achievement, re sp e c tiv e ly . In these th re e in sta n c e s, compliance appears to be implied ra th e r than d i r e c t ly s ta t e d . Research Question 3 Are the ad ditio nal ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a reasonable/workable to augment the American Correctional Association c r i t e r i a ? Four add itio nal evalu ativ e c r i t e r i a were taken from the l i t ­ e ra tu re to augment the American Correctional A ssociation standards in areas the researchers believed to be lacking. The ad m in istrato rs and education consultants who p a r tic ip a te d in the study were asked to re a c t to the four c r i t e r i a l i s t e d below: 1. There is a plan fo r including te a c h e rs' and s tu d e n ts ' needs in the curriculum change process. 2. There is a plan fo r continuing curriculum improvement. 3. There is a plan fo r on-going education s t a f f development. 4. The education program is assessed through re g u la rly scheduled evaluations o f the prison education program by the p r in c ip a l. The evaluation should include: 98 a. b. c. d. Assessment o f teach er classroom performance, such as student o r ie n ta tio n to the program, use of CBI mod­ u le s , and recommended resources including audio­ visual ; Record keeping; General classroom appearance; and School f a c i l i t y c le a n lin e s s and maintenance. A dm inistrator in terv iew s. —Four ind iv idu als were interviewed concerning the importance o f the add ition al c r i t e r i a fo r ev alu ating a co rrectio n s school program. The D irector o f the Michigan Department o f C orrections, the Deputy D irector in charge of the Bureau of Cor­ re c tio n a l F a c i l i t i e s , the Superintendent o f the Muskegon Correctional F a c i l i t y , and the former principal o f the Muskegon Correctional F a c ility program were interview ed. To p ro te c t the c o n f i d e n tia li t y of the interview ees, they are re fe rre d to by l e t t e r desig natio ns. Respondent A: This respondent believed th a t a ll o f the evalua tiv e c r i t e r i a taken from the l i t e r a t u r e were important but th a t c r i ­ te r io n one, "a plan fo r including te a c h e rs ' and s tu d e n ts ' needs in the curriculum change pro cess," was the l e a s t important o f the four c rite ria . Respondent A believed t h a t the most important c r i t e r i o n was "a plan fo r re g u la rly scheduled evaluations of the school program by the p r in c ip a l." He also responded th a t c r i te r i o n th r e e , "a plan fo r on-going s t a f f development," was important but d i f f i c u l t to pro­ vide because o f the cost o f bringing teachers to g eth er and paying s u b s t i tu t e teach ers. Respondent B: Interviewee B did not believe t h a t the ad di­ tio n al evaluativ e c r i t e r i a were necessary. the c r i t e r i a were as follows; His reactio n s to each of 99 1. The American Correctional Association standard, quoted below, is s u f f i c i e n t : 2-2245 - There is a system fo r ensuring th a t the academic education programs continue to meet the needs of the inmate population.! According to th i s respondent, Standard 2-4425 provides fo r the in c lu ­ sion of teacher and student needs in the curriculum change process. 2. Respondent B f e l t t h a t several o f the standards, in com­ b in a tio n , ensure th a t "continuing curriculum improvement w ill take p la c e ." 3. The evaluative c r i t e r i o n , "a plan for on-going education s t a f f development," is mandated by the following American Corrections Association standards, according to th is interviewee: 2-4091 - Written policy and procedure provide t h a t a ll profes­ sional s p e c i a lis t s employees who have inmate contact receive an additional 40 hours o f tra in in g during t h e i r f i r s t year o f employment, and an additional 40 hours of tra in in g each subsequent year of employment. 2-4099 - Written policy and procedure encourage employees to continue t h e i r education. 2-4100 - The i n s t i t u t i o n encourages s t a f f p a r tic ip a tio n in criminal j u s t i c e and a l l i e d professional association s and a c t i v i t i e s on a local and national le v e l. 2-4101 - The i n s t i t u t i o n provides adm in istrative leave and/or reimbursement f o r employees attending approved pro­ fessio nal meetings, seminars and/or sim ilar workr e la te d a c t i v i t i e s . 2 4. Respondent B also believed t h a t the fourth additional evaluative c r i t e r i o n , "regu larly scheduled evaluation of the prison ^American C o rre c tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n , Standards fo r A d u lt Cor­ re c tio n a l In s t it u t io n s , 2nd e d ., January 1981, p. 109. 2 I b i d . , pp. 2 2 -2 5 . 100 education program by the p r in c ip a l," is e f f e c tiv e ly covered by the following standard: 2-4078 - Written policy and procedure provide fo r a w ritten annual performance review o f a l l employees, which i s based on defined c r i t e r i a and is reviewed and discussed with the employee.1 This interviewee believed th a t Standard 2-4078, as well as the cen tral o f f ic e education staff-assessm en t programs and the Department of Corrections Advisory Team on education programs, provides a "threeprong" ev alu ativ e approach th a t is more than adequate. He concluded t h a t the American Correctional A ssociation standards should be looked a t as a to t a l document, not in is o la te d s e c tio n s . Respondent C: Respondent C's opinion agreed in p a rt with t h a t of Respondent B on the four evaluative c r i t e r i a from the l i t e r a t u r e . He believed th a t c r i t e r i a one and t h r e e , "a plan fo r including te a c h e rs' and s tu d e n ts ' needs in the curriculum change process" and "the system's plan fo r on-going education s t a f f development," are d e f i n ite l y covered in the American Correctional Association s ta n ­ dards. Respondent C also concluded t h a t c r i t e r i o n two, "a plan fo r continuing curriculum improvement," is not represented in the s ta n ­ dards. He s ta te d t h a t c r i t e r i o n fo u r, "regu larly scheduled evaluation of the school program by the p r in c ip a l," is p a r t i a l l y covered in o th er standards. This respondent f e l t the standards do not adequately cover c r i te r i o n fo u r, but he concluded t h a t , to meet the American 1 I b i d . , p. 18. 101 Correctional Association stan dards, a p rincipal would need to implement the four c r i t e r i a in the process of c o lle c tin g his data. Respondent D: Respondent D's opinion was th a t a l l of the evaluative c r i t e r i a taken from the l i t e r a t u r e are needed to evaluate a school program but th a t c r i t e r i o n fo u r, "principal evaluations of the school program," is more important than the o th er th ree c r i t e r i a . This interviewee believed t h a t c r i t e r i o n two, "a plan fo r on-going curriculum improvement," is needed, but he f e l t th a t compliance would be d i f f i c u l t . This would be e s p e c ia lly t r u e , he thought, i f the plan called fo r a considerable amount of time out of the classroom. It would also be expensive, he concluded, because s u b s titu te s would be necessary, and the cost o f tra v el and lodging would be high because many of the teachers would need to trav el long distances to a cen tral lo catio n . Central Office education c o n s u lta n ts ' r a t i n g s . —The education consultants were asked to perform the following ta sk : Please r a t e each of the following c r i t e r i a taken from the l i t ­ e ra tu re as to t h e i r value fo r evaluating a co rrectio n s education program. (A ra tin g of one would in d ic a te l i t t l e value, and a r a tin g of fiv e would in d ic a te highly valu ab le.) 1. The system 's plan fo r including te a c h e r s ' and s tu d e n ts ' needs in the curriculum change process. 2. Plans fo r continuing curriculum improvement. 3. The system's plan fo r on-going education s t a f f development. 4. The system's plan fo r re g u la rly scheduled evaluation of the prison education program by the p r in c ip a l. This plan would include: a. b. Assessment of teacher classroom performance, such as student o r ie n ta tio n to the program, use of CBI modules, and recommended resources including a u d io -v isu a l; Record keeping; 102 c. d. General classroom appearance; and School f a c i l i t y clean lin ess and maintenance. The r e s u l t s o f the c o n s u lta n ts ' ra tin g s are shown in Table 11. Table 11.—Corrections Department education c o n s u lta n ts ' ra tin g s of the value of c r i t e r i a fo r evaluating a co rrectio n s education program. C riterio n Number Note: Rating Scale Total Average The number in the u p p e r -le f t diagonal in each c e ll in d icates the number of responses in a given c e l l . The number in the lowerr ig h t diagonal represents the weighted value fo r the resp ective c e l l . This value was determined by m ultiplying the responses in a ce ll by the c e ll value. Summary of a d m in is tr a to rs 'a n d education c o n s u lta n ts ' o p in io n s: A dm inistrator in te rv ie w s : There was not to ta l consensus among the persons interviewed concerning the value o f the four evaluative c r i t e r i a taken from the l i t e r a t u r e . Two o f the indiv idu als believed th a t i t i s not necessary to supplement the American Correctional Asso­ c ia tio n standards with the fo u r evaluative c r i t e r i a . They seemed to feel t h a t the Correctional Association stan dards, as a whole, address these iss u e s . The o th er two interviewees emphasized a need of a plan for p rin c ip a ls to perform an on-going evaluation of t h e i r resp ectiv e 103 prison school programs ( c r i t e r i o n f o u r) . These two individuals appeared to agree t h a t the o th er th ree ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a were important and needed, but these c r i t e r i a did not receive the p o s itiv e recognition c r i t e r i o n four did. Central Office education c o n s u lta n ts ' r a t i n g s : The Central Office education consultants rated the four evaluative c r i t e r i a taken from the l i t e r a t u r e in terms o f the value o f the c r i t e r i a fo r e v a lu a t­ ing a co rrectio n s education program. The data ind icated complete agreement among the th re e co nsu ltan ts about p rin cip al evaluation of the prison schools. On c r i t e r i a two and th ree th ere was strong agree­ ment among the co n su ltan ts. 4 .6 . The average score fo r each ra tin g was This average ra tin g score in d ic a te s strong agreement with the values of c r i t e r i a three and four. For ev aluative c r i t e r i o n one, two o f the consultants indicated strong agreement concerning i t s value as a c r i te r io n by which to evaluate co rrectio n s education programs. One co nsultant indicated a n eutral p o sitio n on c r i t e r i o n one. Two interviewees appeared to agree on the value o f a ll four of the c r i t e r i a taken from the l i t e r a t u r e . There was consensus between the adm inistrators and consultants concerning the need f o r a p r in c ip a l- d ir e c te d evaluation o f his sch o o l's program. Research Question 4 To what ex ten t are the Michigan Department of C orrections' education programs as a whole in compliance with the four ad ditio n al ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a ? 104 Data from m aterial reso u rces. —As noted b efo re, four ad di­ tio n al evaluativ e c r i t e r i a were taken from the l i t e r a t u r e to augment the American Correctional Association standards in areas the research ­ ers believed to be lacking. In t h is s e c tio n , each of the additional c r i t e r i a is r e s t a t e d , followed by data from the m aterial resources t h a t are re le v a n t to each c r i t e r i o n . Evaluative C rite rio n One: There is a plan f o r including te a c h e rs' and s tu d e n ts ' needs in the curriculum change process. The second paragraph of the Department o f Corrections educa­ tio n al philosophy addresses stu d e n ts ' educational needs: Education programs must respond to the le g itim a te i n t e r e s t s and needs o f p riso n ers. These needs and i n t e r e s t s should be re fle c te d in programs which incorporate s p e c ific goals and o b jectiv es with measurable outcomes.' The Department of C orrections' educational goals 4 and 7 also address s tu d e n ts ' needs. These goals are as follow s: Goal 4: Design educational programs which recognize individual stud ent needs, i n t e r e s t s , and learn in g s ty l e s . Goal 7: Develop procedures to ensure t h a t re sid e n ts who need education programming are c l a s s i f ie d to s c h o o l.2 To ensure th a t teachers have an avenue f o r input in to the system and t h a t both stu dent and teach er needs a re considered, a ctiv e teacher curriculum committees have been developed. The Department of Corrections policy d ir e c tiv e PD-BCF-41.03 s t a t e s : ^P o licy D ir e c tiv e PD-BCF-41.0 3 , June 1980, p. 1. 2 I b i d . , p. 2. 105 Curricula and resource standards fo r each program w ill be recommended by the Department Curriculum Committee fo r th a t area and must be approved by the Corrections Education S uperintendent.! Teachers are provided a means fo r continuous input in to the education system through the Competency-Based In s tru c tio n (CBI) re v isio n form. The Education Superintendent's Office Memorandum 1981-1 s ta te s : Attached i s a copy of the e x is tin g CBI Revision Form. The form is intended to be used f o r modifying and/or adding resources to e x is tin g curriculum l i s t s . 2 Evaluative C rite rio n Two: There is a plan fo r continuing curriculum improvement. The primary opportunity fo r education s t a f f to have input in to the curriculum change process is through the use o f the CBI Revision Form. The Education Superintendent's Office Memorandum is s u ­ ing the d ire c tio n to use the CBI Revision Form was quoted above. Although teach er curriculum committees have been organized, no reso urce-m aterials data e s ta b lis h teacher curriculum committees. Evaluative C rite rio n Three: There is a plan fo r on-going education s t a f f development. Policy d i r e c t iv e PD-BCF-41.03 s t a t e s : "Successful completion o f o r ie n ta tio n and on-going Department in -s e rv ic e tr a in in g w ill be conditions o f continued employment." This appears to be the only ^ I b i d . , p. 4. 2 Education S uperintendent's Office Memorandum 1981-1, August 4, 1981. 106 reference to s t a f f development in the m aterial resources relev an t to evaluative c r i t e r i o n th re e . Evaluative C rite rio n Four: The education program is assessed through reg u larly scheduled evaluations of the prison education program by the p r in c ip a l. The evaluation should include: 1. 2. 3.. 4. Assessment o f teacher classroom performance, such as student o r ie n ta tio n to the program, use of CBI modules, and recommended resources including a u d io -v isu a l; Record keeping; General classroom appearance; and School f a c i l i t y c le a n lin e s s and maintenance. A search o f the m aterial resource data re le v a n t to t h i s study did not reveal data p e rtin e n t to ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i o n four. Summary of m ateria l-reso u rces d a t a : M aterial-resources data supporting the Michigan Department of Corrections education programs' compliance with the four ad d itio n al ev aluative c r i t e r i a , which are believed by various researchers to be lacking in the American Correc­ tio n al A ssociation stan d a rd s, are not p resently a v a ila b le . The needs o f r e s id e n t students are covered in the Department o f Corrections policy d ir e c tiv e PD-BCF-41.03, "Educational Programs fo r P riso n e rs." Provisions fo r meeting teacher needs in the c u r ric u ­ lum change process a re not c le a r ly defined. Department o f Corrections p o lic ie s and procedures also appear to be s i l e n t in providing re le v a n t supportive data in d icatin g compli­ ance with ev alu ative c r i t e r i a two, t h r e e , and fo ur. Summary As a r e s u l t o f analyzing the d a ta , the following conclusions were drawn in r e la t io n to the research questions o f the study: 107 1. How adequate are the American Correctional Association standards as evaluative c r i t e r i a fo r a co rrectio n s edu­ c atio n program? The four Michigan Department o f Corrections adm in istrato rs who were interviewed expressed the opinion t h a t a l l o f the standards are good ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a f o r a correctio ns education program. However, the ratin g s completed by the co rrectio n s p rin c ip a ls indicated t h a t they strongly agreed on only eig h t of the American Correctional Association education standards. Opinions were divided on seven of the stand ards, and th ree of the standards were judged as having l i t t l e value as evaluative c r i t e r i a fo r a correctio ns education program. 2. To what ex ten t are the Michigan Department o f C o rrectio n s' education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the American Correctional Association education standards? Material resources re le v a n t to the Correctional Association standards f o r co rrection s provided documentary evidence t h a t the Michigan Department o f Corrections is in compliance with 15 o f the 18 standards considered appropriate fo r th is study. Conversely, regard­ ing Standards 2-4437, 2-4438, and 2-4441, m aterial resources appeared to be weak and ind icated questionable compliance. The Central Office education consultants did not believe th a t the correctio ns schools are in compliance with the th ree standards the p rin c ip a ls in dicated were not good evaluative c r i t e r i a . The consultants rated the schools, as a whole, in compliance with only 6 of the 18 standards. (See Table 12.) The data were not conclusive on fiv e o f the stan d a rd s, and the c o n s u lta n ts ' opinions were evenly d is tr ib u te d from th ree to fiv e on Standards 2-4426, 2-4435, and 2-4441. 108 Table 12.—Comparison of co rrectio n s school p r in c ip a ls ' r a tin g s of the value o f the American Correctional Association standards as c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate a prison education pro­ gram with Central Office education c o n s u lta n ts ' ra tin g s of how well the co rrectio n s schools are meeting the standards. Standard Number 2-4422 High Low High Low X 2-4425 X X X X X 2-4426 X X 2-4427 X X X X X 2-4429 Not D efinite X X 2-4424 X 2-4430 2-4431 Not D efinite X 2-4423 2-4428 Central Office Consultants P rin cip als X X X 2-4432 X 2-4433 X X X 2-4434 X X 2-4435 X X X X X X 2-4441 Total X X 2-4438 2-4440 X X 2-4437 8 3 6 6 3 9 109 A comparison o f the data c o lle c te d from the m aterial resources and the human resources revealed t h a t standards f o r which the m aterial data in dicated noncompliance received low or undecided ra tin g s from both the co rrectio n s p rin c ip a ls and the Central Office education con­ s u lt a n t s . 3. Are the four add itio nal ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a reasonable/ workable to augment the American Correctional Association c rite ria ? The four Corrections Department ad m in istrato rs were not in to ta l agreement on the value o f the add itio nal ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a . The two i n s t i t u t i o n ad m inistrators believed t h a t the add ition al s ta n ­ dards were not necessary. They thought th a t o th er American Correc­ tio nal Association stan dards, not id e n tif ie d as education stand ards, provide fo r the add itio nal c r i t e r i a . The Central Office ad m in istrato rs believed t h a t a l l o f the c r i t e r i a were important but p r i o r i t i z e d them, with "a plan fo r in clu d­ ing teachers and s tu d e n ts ' needs in the curriculum change process" being the l e a s t important and "principal evaluations o f the school program" being the most im portant. They also agreed t h a t c r i t e r i o n th re e , "on-going s t a f f development," was d e s ira b le but d i f f i c u l t to achieve because o f co st. The Central Office c o n s u lta n ts ' ra tin g s revealed t h a t the consultants agreed with the Central Office a d m in istra to rs , the D irector of the Department o f C orrections, and the Deputy D irector in charge of the Bureau o f Correctional F a c i l i t i e s . 110 4. To what ex ten t are the Michigan Department o f C orrectio ns' education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the four additional evaluativ e c r i t e r i a ? The needs o f students are addressed in policy d i r e c t iv e s ; however, provision f o r meeting teacher needs is not c le a r ly defined. In a d d itio n , th ere are no relev an t supportive data in d ic a tin g com­ p liance with ad dition al ev alu ative c r i t e r i a two, t h r e e , and fou r. Department o f Corrections documentation is not a v a ila b le to d i r e c t the prison schools to comply with the four add ition al evaluative c r i t e r i a t h a t were drawn from the education l i t e r a t u r e . In Chapter V, a summary o f the study is presented, conclusions are drawn from the d a ta , and recommendations are made fo r add ition s to the Department of Corrections p o lic ie s and procedures to ensure compliance with the American Correctional A ssociation standards and with the ad ditio nal ev alu ative c r i t e r i a . Suggested changes in the American Correctional Association standards are a lso d e lin e a te d . CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY This chapter contains a summary o f the study, conclusions drawn from the data a n a ly s is , recommendations fo r the Michigan Depart­ ment of Corrections relevant to program ev alu atio n , and suggestions for f u rth e r study. Summary of the Study The purpose of th is study was to consider the American Cor­ rectional Association education standards as they r e l a t e to the following research questions: 1. How adequate are the American Correctional Association education standards as evaluative c r i t e r i a fo r a co rrectio ns educa­ tion program? 2. To what ex tent are the Michigan Department of C orrections' education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the American Cor­ rectional Association education standards? 3. Are the four additional evaluative c r i t e r i a reasonable/ workable to augment the American Correctional Association c r i t e r i a ? 4. To what ex ten t are the Michigan Department of C orrections' education programs, as a whole, in compliance with the four additional evaluative c r i t e r i a ? Ill 112 The l i t e r a t u r e review included a h isto ry of education in the Michigan prison system, a look a t what is happening in c o rrectio n s education in gen eral, and a review of the educational l i t e r a t u r e relev an t to evaluative c r i t e r i a in use today. From the review o f the l i t e r a t u r e in education, four evalua­ t i v e c r i t e r i a t h a t are of special importance in evaluating an educa­ tio n a l program were sele cted fo r inclusion in t h i s study. These c r i t e r i a are : 1. There is a plan fo r including te a c h e rs ' and s tu d e n ts ' needs in the curriculum change process. 2. There is a plan f o r continuing curriculum improvement. 3. There is a plan fo r on-going education s t a f f development. 4. The education program is assessed through re g u la rly scheduled evaluations of the prison education program by the p rin c ip a l. The evaluation should include: a. b. c. d. Assessment o f teacher classroom performance, such as stud ent o r ie n ta tio n to the program, use o f CBI mod­ u le s , and recommended resources including audio­ visual ; Record keeping; General classroom appearance; and School f a c i l i t y c le a n lin e s s and maintenance. The review o f the l i t e r a t u r e revealed add ition al ev alu ative c r i t e r i a fo r educational programs r e l a t e to a sound philosophy and adequate goals and o b je c tiv e s. The educational philosophy and the goals and o b jectiv es of a program are high on the s cale of c r i t e r i a fo r evaluating an educational program. However, these c r i t e r i a were not included in t h i s study as c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate the Michigan Department o f C o rrection s' education programs. The Depart­ ment of Corrections policy d i r e c t iv e "Education Programs f o r P riso n ers, PD-BCF-41.03" includes the Michigan Department o f C orrection s' 113 philosophy o f education and the goals and ob jectiv es of the educa­ tio n al programs. This study also included a b r i e f h isto ry of education in Michigan co rrectio n s from the mid-1800s to the p resen t. Findings revealed th a t correctio ns education in Michigan experienced a slow evolution from i t s e arly beginnings as a church school to a standard* ra th e r conservative, high school program clo se ly embracing the te n e ts of the public school. The education programs in each i n s t i t u t i o n were autonomous, with l i t t l e or no attempt a t coordination. In 1974, the s t a f f p o sitio n o f D irector o f Education was created and f i l l e d . The f i r s t tasks o f the D irector of Education were (1) to coordinate the prison schools and (2) to develop stronger remedial programs. Since 1974, the Michigan Department of C orrections' education programs have not id e n tifie d with the public high school. Programs have departed s ig n i f i c a n t l y from the public high school model. The Department of Corrections teachers have endorsed the completion of the General Education Development examination as the terminal o b jective o f the co rrectio n s academic programs. Competency- based courses, which were developed by the te a c h e rs' curriculum com­ m itte e s , aid students in reaching the terminal o b jectiv e of s a t i s f a c ­ tory completion of the General Education Development examination. Some of the data fo r t h i s stud y, relev an t to the American Correctional Association standards on education and the four additional ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a chosen from the l i t e r a t u r e , were provided by human resources. These resources included th e D irector o f the Michigan Department o f C orrections, the Deputy D irector in charge o f the Bureau 114 of Correctional F a c i l i t i e s , the superintendent of a correctio nal i n s t i t u t i o n , and a former school p r in c ip a l. The prison school p rin ­ c ip a ls and the Central Office education consultants also provided data relev an t to the value o f the American Correctional Association standards as c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate an educational program. The Central Office education con sultan ts also provided data relev an t to the four add itio nal evalu ativ e c r i t e r i a as standards with which to evaluate an educational program. In addition to the data from the human reso urces, an in-depth analysis was made of the formal and informal documents o f the Michigan Department of Corrections fo r data th a t would in d ic a te Department of Corrections compliance with the American Correctional Association standards on correctio ns education and with the four ad ditio nal ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a . Conclusions As a r e s u l t of the data a n a ly s is , i t can be concluded th a t the m ajority o f the American Correctional Association standards are considered as adequate c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate the Michigan Department of C o rrectio n s’ educational programs. A small percentage o f the standards are believed to be inadequate c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate a co rrectio n s education program in Michigan p riso n s. Table 13.) (See They include c r i t e r i a dealing with the provision o f edu­ cational programs a t a time when the m ajority of inmates can attend school, the comparison o f co rrectio n s school personnel p o lic ie s to those of local public scho ols, and the use o f community resources to develop educational programs fo r sele cted stud ents. 115 Table 13.—Summary of data in d ic a tin g adequacy of compliance with American Correctional Association standards and additional c r i t e r i a (in p ercen t). Adequacy of Compliance Not Adequate Undecided Adequate The American Correctional Asso­ c ia tio n standards in general 16.0 17.2 66.8 Michigan Department of Correc­ tio n s compliance with Correc­ tio n al Association standards 12.5 20.8 66.6 0.0 10.0 90.0 75.0 25.0 0.0 Four ad ditio nal c r i t e r i a in general Michigan Department of Correc­ tio n s compliance with four additional c r i t e r i a Note: Table 13 was compiled from the data fo r the resp ectiv e l i s t e d conditions. Although the data ind icated t h a t the Department o f Corrections can meet the m ajority of the stan d a rd s, the combination o f those stand­ ards judged as not being adequate c r i t e r i a with which to evaluate a correctio ns education program and those fo r which the data were not conclusive present a ra th e r high percentage of standards with which compliance is c u rre n tly doubtful. The data d e f i n it e l y revealed t h a t the additional evaluative c r i t e r i a drawn from the educational l i t e r a t u r e are adequate c r i t e r i a to augment the American Correctional Association standards. Table 13.) (See The data also revealed t h a t the Michigan Department of 116 Corrections would have d i f f i c u l t y complying with the four ad ditio nal c r i t e r i a a t t h i s time. Recommendations Several recommendations might be offered to the Michigan Department o f Corrections and the American Correctional A ssociation. These are: 1. The American Correctional Association is encouraged to include as one o f i t s e s s e n tia l standards f o r a c o rrectio n s education program th a t i t be e s s e n tia l fo r an educational program to have a philosophy o f education and a well-developed s e t o f goals and objec­ t iv e s . 2. The Michigan Department o f C o rrection s' policy d ir e c tiv e PD-BCF-41.03, "Education Programs fo r P ris o n e rs," should be revised to provide the necessary d ire c tio n encouraging the individual cor­ rectio n s schools to work toward compliance with the American Correc­ tio n al Association standards and with the suggested add ition al ev alu ativ e c r i t e r i a th a t were included in t h i s study. 3. The rev isio n o f the Michigan Department o f C orrectio ns' Policy D irective on "Education Programs f o r Prisoners" should mandate the development o f procedures to implement the American Correctional Association standards. 4. To ensure compliance with th e t h i r d ad ditio nal evaluativ e c r i t e r i o n , a plan fo r on-going e d u c a tio n -s ta ff development should be in itia te d . I t is recommended t h a t th i s plan grow out o f the data gained from a comprehensive needs assessment. The needs of c o rrectio n s 117 school ad m in istrato rs, correction s teach ers, and teacher aides should be included in the staff-development plan. 5. The staff-development plan should contain a d e c e n tra liz a ­ tion component. This would allow a to ta l i n s t i t u t i o n s t a f f , or a sin g le s t a f f member, to p a r tic ip a te in staff-development a c t i v i t i e s ta ilo r e d to t h e i r individual needs. 6. The staff-development needs assessment and the ensuing staff-development plan should be contracted to an outside agency, the Department o f Education, a college or u n iv e rs ity , or consultants who s p e c ia liz e in education s t a f f tra in in g . This important p ro je c t should not be l e f t to an already overburdened Central Office education s ta ff. 7. The Michigan Department of Corrections should view the funding of the needs assessments and the staff-development programs as a necessary c o s t. They should budget fo r the tra in in g and seek a fixed lin e-item appropriation in the school budget for th is purpose. 8. To develop a more enlightened inm ate-tutor cadre in i n s t i ­ tu tio n s in which inmate tu to rs are used in the school program, i t is recommended t h a t a tra in in g program fo r tu to rs be developed and used. 9. A procedure should be developed to ensure compliance with the fourth ev aluative c r i te r i o n from the education l i t e r a t u r e , "assess ment of co rrectio ns school programs by the school p r in c ip a l." The procedure should include the recommended vehicle or instrument to be used in conducting the needs assessment, the number of times assess­ ments should be conducted each y e a r, the follow-up a c t i v i t i e s expected 118 as a r e s u l t o f the ev a lu a tio n , and the tr a in in g t h a t must be mastered by the princip al before conducting the teach er assessment. 10. The American Correctional Association should include standards f o r the minimal q u a lif ic a tio n o f a c o rrectio n s school a d m in istrato r. 11. The American Correctional Association should also include provisions in the standards fo r the continuous tra in in g o f the prison school p r in c ip a l. Suggestions fo r Further Study Several suggestions are offered f o r f u r th e r study: 1. Long-range changes in the co rrectio n s education program, as a r e s u l t o f continued compliance with the standards and evalu ativ e c r i t e r i a , should be stu d ied . 2. The e ffe c tiv e n e ss o f cu rren t staff-developm ent programs as a means o f inducing change in educational i n s t i t u t i o n s should be compared with o th er methods o f bringing about change. 3. A study comparing the s h o rt- and long-range r e s u lts of in -s e rv ic e education should be conducted. 4. A study would be useful to determine whether s t a f f members' a t t it u d e s toward the i n s t i t u t i o n and students change as a r e s u l t of in -s e rv ic e education. Reflections Corrections is a d i f f i c u l t arena in which to work. wrote: Bell 119 Correctional educators labor under e x tra o rd in a r ily d i f f i c u l t circum stances. Not only do they work in a grim environment, often with poor equipment and few reso u rces, but they a lso deal with people who have poor motivation and a record of f a i l u r e . However, with the to o ls fo r s u rv iv a l—basic read ing , w r itin g , arith m e tic and a marketable job s k i l l —a released inm ate's chances of not returning to crime are considerably increased. We must make sure t h a t in carcera tio n is a sentence to temporary loss o f freedom; not a sentence to life lo n g ignorance, unemploy­ ment, poverty, and crime. Correctional education can be the way o u t; we must give i t our s u p p o r t.* The review of the l i t e r a t u r e on co rrectio n s education revealed t h a t l i t t l e or no evaluation o f co rrectio n s education programs has been done. The probable reason i s t h a t co rrectio n s education has not developed a sound educational philosophy o f education o r comprehensive goals and o b je c tiv e s. In ad d itio n , co rrectio n s school ad m inistrators and teachers have not been well prepared fo r t h e i r task and do not appear to be receiving the necessary in -s e rv ic e t r a in i n g . In consid­ ering the Michigan Department of Corrections in p a r t i c u l a r , the f o l ­ lowing ideas are o ffered in an attem pt to improve c o rrectio n s education in Michigan: 1. The Michigan Department o f Corrections should employ additional s t a f f members in the Central Office education s e c tio n . The m u l t ip l ic i ty o f required task s is too overwhelming fo r the c u rren t number of Central Office education s t a f f to complete c o rre c tly and promptly. 2. When employing teachers and o th er professional s t a f f , the Department o f Corrections should employ ind iv idu als who possess 1T. H. B e ll, "Education: A Weapon Against Crime," a forum on education sponsored by the Corrections Program, U.S. Department of Education, March 1981, pp. 5-6. 120 well-rounded experience as well as a knowledge of a d u lt learning theory and experience in teaching a d u lts . 3. The Corrections Department's c h ie f ad m in istrato rs should understand t h a t th ere are no education programs l i k e the one th a t is c u rre n tly in operation in Michigan. Therefore, i t i s in the Depart­ ment's best i n t e r e s t to t r a i n a l l of the teachers and adm inistrators concerning what is expected and how they can function is a prison s e tt in g . 4. The Corrections Department should stop using the academic/ vocational budget as a t r u s t fund to "bail out" the i n s t i t u t i o n s when they are in fin a n c ia l tro u b le. Recently, t h i s p ra c tic e has been a detrim ent to and has discouraged the long-range planning fo r Michigan co rrectio n s education t h a t should be taking place. 5. Evaluators should con tinu ally evaluate the education programs with a goal o f improving educational programming when needed. Such research should not be conducted to j u s t i f y education fo r p riso n s, nor should i t be conducted fo r the so le purpose of determining i f the "act" of g e ttin g an education reduces recidivism . 6. The Corrections Department should study the f e a s i b i l i t y o f placing add itio nal com puter-assisted in s tr u c tio n as a major resource in a ll o f the c o rrectio n s schools. Computer term inals should be placed on i n s t i t u t i o n work assignments as well as in the school to allow students who are working to go to the computer a t t h e i r assigned times. 7. A D ire c to r's O ffice memo should be issu ed , d ire c tin g the Michigan co rrectio n s schools to seek North Central Association 121 a c c r e d ita tio n . This step should be taken before seeking the American Correctional Association a c c r e d ita tio n . 8. The Michigan Department o f Corrections should place the educational program on a level with co rrection s work assignments and as a f i r s t p r i o r i t y fo r those individuals who cannot read or who have not completed the equivalent of high school. Concluding Statement Although t h i s study d e a lt with a s in g le s t a t e ' s correction s department, th e p rin c ip le s and c r i t e r i a discussed in Chapter II and the recommendations offered in Chapter V could be ap p licab le to the m ajority of co rrection s education programs in the United S ta te s. The problems confronting educational programs in a co rrectio n al s e ttin g are not p ecu liar to the Michigan Department of Corrections. National s t a t i s t i c s reveal t h a t the educational le v e ls o f men and women en tering prisons across the nation are not d is s im ila r. The a t ti t u d e s of the public in general are well s ta te d in the following quotation: The p u b lic 's ambivalence about the dual purposes o f in c a rc e ra ­ t i o n , s e c u r ity , and r e h a b il ita t io n has been a major o bstacle to the development o f good educational programs in correction al i n s t i t u t i o n s . Americans usually hold one of the following a t t i ­ tudes toward the education and tr a in in g o f offen ders: (1) offend­ ers have by the commission of crime f o r f e ite d t h e i r r ig h t to e d u c a tio n /tra in in g ; (2) offenders have the r ig h t to education and t r a in i n g , and are thus more lik e ly to be su ccessfu lly r e h a b i l i ­ ta te d ; and (3) offenders and t h e i r needs are o f l i t t l e i n t e r e s t and concern to so cie ty a t l a r g e J The National Advisory Council on Vocational Education, Voca­ tion al Education in Corrections I n s t i t u t i o n s , Report to the President and Congress of the United S t a t e s , March 1981, p. 13. BIBLIOGRAPHY 122 BIBLIOGRAPHY American Bar A ssociation, Clearinghouse fo r Offender L iteracy Programs. Reading Program Resource Manual fo r Adult Basic Education. Washington, D.C.: American Bar A ssociation, 1974. American Correctional A ssociation. Standards fo r Adult Correctional I n s t i t u t i o n s . 2nd ed. College Park, Md.: American Correctional A ssociation, January 1981. Angle, Terry. "The Development o f Educational Programs in American Adult Prisons and Juvenile Reformatories During the Nineteenth Century." Journal of Correctional Education 33 (September 1982): 4-7. APL P ro jec t S ta f f , U niversity o f Texas. "Adult Performance Level Competency Based High School Diploma Program Offers A lte rn a tiv e ." Journal o f Correctional Education 28,3 (1976): 2-7. Auer, Michael. "Inmate Education a t the S tate Prison o f Southern Michigan: The L i t t l e Brick School House, 1949-1966." Term paper, July 1966. Bates, Gerald K. "Prison TV fo r Education." Corrections 21,1 (1967). American Journal of B elca stro , Frank P .; Cocha, Walter A.; and V alois, John A. "The Use o f Programmed In stru c tio n in United S tates Correctional I n s t i t u t i o n s . " Journal o f Correctional Education 22 (Winter 1970). B e ll, Raymond and a s s o c ia te s . A Model f o r the Evaluation o f Correc­ tio n a l Education Programs. National Correctional Education Evaluation P ro je c t, School o f Education, Lehigh U n iv ersity , August 1977. B e ll, Raymond, e t a l . National I n s t i t u t e of Law Enforcement and Criminal J u s t i c e , U.S. Department o f J u s t i c e . Correctional Education Programs fo r Inmates, National Evaluation Programs, Phase I . Washington, D.C.: Government P rin tin g O ffice, June 1979. B ell, T. H. "Education: A Weapon Against Crime." A forum on educa­ tio n sponsored by th e Corrections Program, U.S. Department of Education, March 1981. 123 124 Beto, George. The Houston P o st, December 29, 1979, p. 27C. Quoted by Conrad, John P. Adult Offender Education Programs. Mono­ graph prepared f o r the National I n s t i tu t i o n o f J u s t i c e , U.S. Department o f J u s t i c e , March 1981. Black, H artzel. "Innovation Key to Success." Region I I I Newsletter (Vienna, 111., Correctional Education Association) 6 (Winter 1982). Broudy, Harry S. "Uses of Cognitive Form." In Curriculum Development: Issues and In sig h ts. Edited by Donald E. Orlosky and Othanel B. Smith. Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Co., 1978. Brown, Mack. "Preparing Correction Educators to Teach Delinquents With Learning and Reading D i s a b i l i t i e s ." Journal o f Correctional Education 33 (March 1981). C alifornia Department of Education, Adult Education Field Service Unit. Competency Based Adult Education: A Process Model. Sacramento: Adult Education Field Services Unit, February 1979. C a r s e t t i , Janet K. L iteracy: Problems and Solutions. A Resource Handbook f o r Correctional Educators. Washington, D.C.: Amiri can Bar A ssociation, Clearinghouse fo r Offender Literacy Programs, 1975. ________ . Motivational A c tiv itie s fo r Reluctant Readers. Springs, Md.: READ, I n c ., 1979. S ilv e r Caswell, Hollis L ., and Campbell, Doak S. Curriculum Development. New York: American Book Company, 1935. Clark, Wayne W., and Clark, Nan E. Recent and Potential Developments in Adult Education. An Annotated Bibliographyi San Diego, C a l i f . : Information C ollection , Evaluation and Dissemination System, n.d. t Conrad, John P. Adult Offender Education Programs. Monograph prepared fo r the National I n s titu tio n of J u s t i c e , U.S. Department of Jus­ t i c e , March 1981. Cram, David. "Preparation and Use of In stru ctio n al Modules in Driver and Safety Education." Highway Users Federation fo r Safety and M obility, n.d. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education. "Education of Handicapped Children." Federal R e g is te r, Tuesday, August 23, 1977, P art I I , pp. 42477-42478. Gaither, Carl C. "Education Behind Bars: An Overview." Correctional Education 33 (June 1982): 19-22. Journal of 125 Gehering, Thom. "Zebulon Brockway of Elmira: 19th Century CE Hero." Journal o f Correctional Education 33 (March 1982): 4-7. Gywnn, Minor J . Curriculum P rincip les and Social Trends. The Macmillan Company, 1943. Hass, Glen. Curriculum Planning: A New Approach. Allyn and Bacon, 1980. New York: 3rd ed. Boston: H ilfik e r , Eugene E. "Implementation o f an Adult Basic Education Program in a Correctional S e ttin g ." In Education for Adults in Correctional Associations: A Book o f Readings, pp. 236-51. Edited by T. A. Ryan. Honolulu: University o f Hawaii, 1975. Horvath, Gerald J . of C o n flic t." 1982): 8-14. "Issues in Correctional Education: A Conundrum Journal o f Correctional Education 33 (September K ilty , Ted K. "A Study of the C h aracteristics o f Reading Programs in Federal, S tate and City-County Penal I n s t i t u t i o n s . " Kalamazoo: Western Michigan U niversity, School of Education, 1977. Drug, Edward A. Curriculum Planning. P ublishers, 1950. New York: Lane, Murray. "The School D i s tr i c t Concept." 1975): 358-60. Harper and Brothers Adult Leadership (June Laubach, Wilburt. "Report to the Director of Corrections on the Department of Correction Education Programs." Lucas, Geoffrey S. "Hints on Ind ivid ualizatio n in ABE and GED." Journal of Correctional Education 30,1 (1979): 9. MacCormick, Austin H. The Education o f Adult Offenders. National Society o f Penal Reformation, 1931. . Survey o f Michigan Penal I n s t i t u t i o n s . Osborne A ssociation, I n c ., 1940. New York: New York: The Mangano, Joseph, and Bosco, Joseph. "Redesigning Academic Curriculum." Journal of Correctional Education 28,1 (1976): 14-16. Maresh, A. L ., Education Coordinator, Minnesota Corrections Depart­ ment. December 1981. Marsh, John J . "Academia in Correctional Education: P artn e r, Patsy of Panacea." Journal o f Correctional Education 33 (June 1982): 23-25. 126 . "Correctional Educators—The Forgotten Professionals?" Journal o f Correctional Education 29,1 (1977): 6-9. . "GED Testing in S tate Penal I n s t i t u t i o n s . " Correctional Education 25,1 (1973): 13-23. Journal of , and Adams, S tu a rt N. "Prison Education Tomorrow." In ScFTool Behind Bars, pp. 97-110. Edited by Michael V. Reagen and Donald M. Stoughton. Metuchen, N .J.: The Scarecrow P ress, 1976. McCollum, Sylvia G. "A Look a t Correctional Education From the Federal Level." Journal o f Correctional Education 28,3 (1976): 11 - 1 2 . ________ . "New Designs fo r Correctional Education and Training Programs." Federal Probation, June 1973, pp. 6-11. Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction S ervice, ED 109 373, 1973. ________ . "Say, Have You Got Anything Around Here fo r a Durmny?" Federal 'Probation 35,3 (1971): 37-42. McKee, John M. "Hardware and Software fo r Adult Basic Education in C o rrection s." In Education fo r Adults in Correctional I n s t i t u ­ t i o n s , Vol. I I , pp. 556-69. Edited by T. R. Ryan. Honolulu: U niversity of Hawaii, 1975. , and o th e rs. Improving the Reading Level of Disadvantaged M i l t s . Elmore, Alabama: R e h a b ilitatio n Research Foundation, 1967. Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 015 117, 1967. McNeil, John D. Curriculum: A Comprehensive In tro d u c tio n . L i t t l e , Brown and Co., 1981. Boston: McPherson, Alfred Angus Murray. "An Analysis o f Selected Perceptions o f Curriculum Development as Expressed by Pupils and In stru c ­ tio n al Personnel in Manitoba." Ph.D. d i s s e r ta t i o n , Michigan S tate U niv ersity , 1976. Michigan. Annual Report o f the Inspectors of the S ta te P riso n, 1858. ________ . Annual Report o f the Inspectors o f the S tate P riso n, 1879. ________ . Annual Report o f the Inspection o f the S tate P rison , 1881. . Biennial Report o f the Board of Control and O fficers o f the Michigan S ta te P rison , June 30, 1904-1908. ________ . Biennial Report o f the Board of the S tate Commissioners o f C h aritab le, Penal, Pauper, and Reformatory I n s titu tio n s fo r the Two Years Ending June 30, 1874. 127 ________ . Corrections Education GED Completion Resource L i s t , 1979. Michigan Department o f Civil Service. "Job S p e c ific a tio n Manual: School Teachers." Revised December 1979. Michigan Department o f C orrections. Education Management P lan, 1975. . Education Superintendent Memorandum, "Corrections School Assessment O bjectives." ________ . Education Superintendent's Office Memorandum, August 1982. . "Educational Proqrams fo r P ris o n e rs," Policy D irective PD^BCF-41.03, June 1980. ________ . "Entry-Level Test Scores o f Male Felons f o r Year 1975. Computer P rin to u t, October 1976. ________ . "Transfer of Education Records," Procedure DP-BCF-23.02, December 1980. ________ . "CRI Assessment," Procedure DP-BCF-41.01, November 1976. ________ . "Program C la s s if ic a tio n Manual," 1982. ________ . "Programs fo r R e h a b ilita tio n ," PD-DWA-40.01, April 1975. ________ . The Michigan S tate P rison, 1837-1928. Michigan Department of Education. "The Adult Education A ct." Public Law 91-230, amended through November 1, 1978. Compilation by the Michigan Department of Education. Michigan Revised S ta tu te s o f 1846, Chapter 172, Section 50. Michigan S tate Conference o f the C harities and C orrection s, 1883. Murry, Lane. "The Role o f Federal Government in Adult Education." Journal o f Correctional Education 28,1 (1976): 2-3. National Advisory Council on Vocational Education. Vocational Educa­ tio n in Corrections I n s t i t u t i o n s . Report to the P resid en t and Congress o f the United S t a t e s , March 1981. National I n s t i t u t e o f Law Enforcement and Criminal J u s t i c e , U.S. Department of J u s tic e . Correctional Education Programs fo r Inmates, National Evaluation Program, Phase H Raymond B e l l , Elizabeth Conrad, Thomas Laffey, J . Gary Lutz, Paul Van Reed M ille r, C h ristine Simon, Ann E. Stakelon, Nancy Jean Wilson. Washington, D.C.: Government P rin tin g O ffice, Stock No. 281-3801/1608, June 1979. 128 Norde, Gerald. "Certain Sociological C h a ra c te ristic D ifferences in the Correctional Education Learners and the Public School Learners." Journal o f Offender Counseling and R e h a b ilita tio n 5,2 (1980-8lT:'"S5"-W: ________ . "Correctional Education Performance Competency Standards." Journal of Correctional Education 30,1 (1979): 13-15. North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. "P olicies and Standards f o r the Approval o f Optional Schools and Special Function Schools," n .d . Orlosky, Donald E ., and Smith, Othanel B. Curriculum Development: Issues and I n s ig h ts . Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Company, 1978. PLATO Correctional P ro jec t S ta f f . "Computer Based Education Has Been Introduced in Three I l l i n o i s P riso ns." American Journal of Cor­ re c tio n s 40,1 (1978): 6-7, 34-37. PLATO CMI Author's Guide. tio n , 1978. Minneapolis, Minn.: Control DataCorpora- P l a t t , John S .; Tunisk, Roy H.; and Wienke, Wilfred D. the Work and Life S k ills o f Handicapped Inmates." Today 44 (February 1982): 66-73. "Developing Corrections The P r e s id e n t's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration o f J u s tic e . Task Force Report: C orrectio ns. Washington, D.C.: Government P rin tin g O ffice, 1967. "Purpose of T it l e I Grants f o r Local Education." Federal 46, no. 12, 19 January 1982. Purves, John H. The Nightkeeper's Report. o f Southern Michigan, 1975. Jackson: Reagen, Michael V., and Stoughton, Donald M., eds. Metuchen, N .J.: The Scarecrow P ress, 1976. Reid, William A. Thinking About Curriculum. Kegan Paul, 1978. R egister The S ta te Prison School Behind Bars. Boston: Rutledge and Reynolds, Jean. "Incarcerated Students: Change and C o n flic t." Journal o f Correctional Education 33 (September 1982). Roberts, A lbert E ., ed. Readings in Prison Education.S p rin g fie ld , 111.: Charles C. Thomas, 1973. ________ . Sourcebook on Prison Education. Charies C. Thomas, 1971. S p rin g fie ld , 111.: 129 ________ , and Coffey, Osa D. A S ta te o f the Art Survey f o r a Correc­ tio n a l Education Network, Part I . College t*ark, Md.: American C orrectional A ssociation, 1976. ________ . A S tate o f the Art Survey fo r a Correctional Education Network, P art I I . College Park, Md.: American Correctional A ssociation, 1976. Roberts, Kathy. "The Professional Development o f Correctional Educators." Journal of Correctional Education 33 (March 1982): 20- 2 1 . Rocco, James. "Pluto Terminals Available in Corrections Education." S o u th field , Mich.: Control Data Corporation, March 1982. Romine, Stephen A. Building the High School Curriculum. The Ronald Press Co., 1954. New York: Ryan, T. A., ed. Correctional Education: A P rojection fo r the F u ture. Co1umbia: U niversity of South C arolina, 1977. . Education fo r Adults in Correctional I n s t i t u t i o n s : A Book o F R ead ing s, Volume I . Honolulu: U niversity o f Hawaii, 1975. ________ . Education fo r Adults in Correctional I n s t i t u t i o n s : A Book of Readings, Volume IT. Honolulu: U niversity o f Hawaii, 1975. ________ . "The Individualized Adult Life S k ills System." Correctional Education 33 (September 1982): 27-32. Journal of ________ . Paper presented a t a workshop fo r Michigan co rrectio ns te a c h e rs, 1974. ________ . " S tra te g ie s f o r Evaluating Adult Basic Education in Cor­ r e c tio n s ." Prepared fo r Regional Training Seminar on Adult Basic Education in C orrectio ns, S t. Paul, Minnesota, March 1971. ________ ; Clark, Dale W.; Hatrak, Robert S .; Hinders, Dean; Keeney, J . C. Verl; O resic, Joseph; O r r e l l , James B .; S essions, Arnold R.; S treed , James L .; and Wells, H. Gary. Model o f Adult Basic Edu­ cation in C o rrectio n s. Honolulu: U niversity of Hawaii, 1975. Ryan, T. A.; H artrak, Robert S .; Hinder, Dean; Keeney, J . C.; O resic, Joseph; O r r e ll , James B.; and Wells, H. Gary. Model of Adult Career Education in Corrections. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1975. Saylor, Galen J . ; Alexander, William M.; and Marconnit, George D. Contemporary Thought on Public School Curriculum: Readings. Dubuque, Iowa: W7 C. Brown and Co., P u b lish ers, 1968. 130 Short, Edmund C., and Marconnit, George 0. Contemporary Thought on Public School Curriculum: Readings. Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Drown and Co., P u blish ers, 1968. Stratemeyer, Florence B.; Forkner, Hamden L .; and Mekin, Margaret G. Developing a Curriculum f o r Modern Living. New York: Columbia University Press, 1947. Taylor, Ann, A ssista n t D irector o f the C alifo rn ia Department of Corrections. Interview, December 1981. Texas Department of Corrections. The Basics of Individualized In stru ctio n in Correctional Education. H untsville: Windham School D i s t r i c t , 1975. Udvari, Stephen S. "Hardware and Software fo r Adult Basic Education." In Education for Adults in Correctional I n s t i t u t i o n s , Vol. I I , pp. 530-4>. Edited by T. A. Ryan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1975. University o f Southern C a lifo rn ia , College of Continuing Education in Corrections. "The Assessment of Inmate Learning Needs: Research Methodology and Survey R esu lts." Los Angeles: Univer­ s i t y o f Southern C a lifo rn ia , College o f Continuing Education in C orrections, 1978. (Mimeographed.) University o f Texas a t Austin. The Adult Performance Level CompetencyBased High School Diploma Program. 4th ed. Austin: University of Texas, May 1978. ________ . Final Report: The Adult Performance Level Study. University o f Texas, 1977. Austin: U.S. Office of Education. Education Programs That Work. 5th ed. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory fo r Educational Research and Development, 1978. Watson, M. R., and Stump, E. S. "Predicting the General Education Development Test Score." Journal o f Correctional Education 26,1 (1974): 8-10. Williams, David C. "Rethinking Correctional S ta ff Development." Journal of Correctional Education 29,1 (1977): 14-16.