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University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 8315496 Pierson, Maura Theresa AN EXPLORATION OF LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL ADULTS IN A SELF-HELP HOUSING PROGRAM Michigan State University University Microfilms International PH.D. 1983 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106 Copyright 1983 by Pierson, Maura T heresa All Rights R eserved AN EXPLORATION OF LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL ADULTS IN A SELF-HELP HOUSING PROGRAM By Maura Theresa Pierson A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan S t a t e U nive rs ity in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e requirements f o r th e degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department o f A dm inistration and Curriculum 1983 ABSTRACT AN EXPLORATION OF LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL ADULTS IN A SELF-HELP HOUSING PROGRAM By Maura Theresa Pierson The re s ea rc h i s a case study in le ar ni n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; of le ar n in g not only by th e use of t r a d i t i o n a l methods but o f le ar ni ng by doing and by ex pe ri en ci ng . The purpose o f t h e study i s to explore and de sc ri b e a sp e c ts o f th e l e a r n e r s t h a t include the le ar n in g scope, d e l i b e r a t e le ar nin g p r a c t i c e s , and th e le ar n in g environment o f 45 low-income ru ra l a d u l t s . The sample r e p r e s e n t s t h r e e i n t a c t groups in d i f f e r e n t st ag e s of c o n s tr u c ti o n in a s e l f - h e l p housing program in Coldwater, Michigan. Five broad areas o f in quir y guided the r e s e a r c h . included: They demographic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f psychosocial p r o f i l e , an in q u ir y i n t o a re as o f l e a r n in g i n t e r e s t s and p ro c e ss e s , an in s pec tio n o f methods used to org anize le a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s , and th e use o f reso urce s and an examination of the housing program as a l e a r n in g experience. The survey instrument was a one-hour in te rv ie w s t r u c t u r e d by a q u e s ti o n n a ir e in which dat a were c o l l e c t e d by both closed and openended q u e s t i o n s . A q u a l i t a t i v e methodology was used in the study. The data were presented in two p a r t s . F i r s t , p a r t i c i p a n t responses Maura Theresa Pierson were organized and pres ented as fr e q u e n c i e s . Second, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e statements by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s were organized in to the major a re as of in q u ir y and were pr es ent ed . Conclusions drawn from the data i n d ic a te d t h a t th e r u r a l a d u l t s in th e study were highly motivated by th e d e s i r e to house them­ sel ve s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s . As s e l f - d i r e c t e d l e a r n e r s , they were problem-centered in a wide v a r i e t y o f i n t e r e s t ar e as t h a t pra gm at ic ally cent er ed around t h e i r homes. Their approach t o le ar n in g a c t i v i t i e s was i n i t i a l l y accomplished by r e a d i n g , s tu dyin g, l i s t e n i n g , o r viewing. Once the le a r n in g p r o j e c t s were i n i t i a t e d , they continued to le a r n by doing. Concerns about working with and communicating with o t h e r a d u l t s in small groups were voiced as sources o f a n xi et y a t th e beginning of th e program. Conclusions drawn from the data in d ic a te d evidence o f a t r a n s ­ f e r of knowledge from the program to o t h e r a re a s in the p a r t i c i p a n t s ' lives. The m a jo r it y o f t h e r u r a l a d u l t s in the study (95%) had th e c a p a c it y to recognize and to r e l a t e th e ways in which t h e key areas o f focus o f the housing p r og r am - -b u si ne s s/ fi na nce , c o n s tr u c ti o n m a t e r i a l s and p r a c t i c e s , and communication and group p ro c e ss —were being t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e i r own l i v e s . To S el Every answer i s influenced by th e kinds o f que st io ns t h a t a r e asked. But, will an answer be found unle ss the qu e st io ns a r e r a is e d ? ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My s i n c e r e thanks and a p p r e c i a t i o n a re extended t o my a dv is or and committee chairman, S. Joseph Levine, and to committee members Margaret Bubolz, Howard Hickey, Jane Oyer, and Ted Ward. As mentors and f r i e n d s they have been an i n s p i r a t i o n because t h e i r d a i l y l i v e s bear witne ss to t h e f a c t t h a t they l i v e what they p r o f e s s . My s i n c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n t o John Carmichael and h is s t a f f a t B e t te r Branch County Living in Coldwater, Michigan, who supported and encouraged th e sampling of a r u r a l po pula tio n. Many th an ks, as w e l l , to Farmers Home A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s county s u p e r v i s o r , B il l Zurakowski, f o r his i n t e r e s t and encouragement. I am a l s o g r a t e f u l to Sue Welke f o r the hours and the d e di ca ­ t i o n in inte rvi ew ing t h e r u r a l a d u l t s about whom t h i s e x p lo ra tio n was made. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................... vi PREFACE ...................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter I. II. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY.................................................................... 4 Purpose o f th e Study .................................................................... Housing: I t s Place in th e F u lf il lm e n t o f Needs . . . . D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms ........................................................................ Overview of th e Housing Program ............................................... Previous Research and P re se nt Needs ...................................... A Q u a l i t a t i v e Focus ........................................................................ A s s u m p t i o n s ......................................................................................... Li m ita tio ns and G e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y ........................................... Summary o f Chapter I .................................................................... Organization o f the Remainder o f th e Study ..................... 4 5 6 9 11 12 13 14 14 15 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 17 Literature Literature Literature Summary o f III. on Adults as Learners ........................................... on Survey Research on Adults as Learners . . on Self- Hel p Housing ............................................... Chapter II .................................................................... 18 29 43 53 METHODOLOGY............................................................................................. 54 D e f i n i t i o n o f th e Population ................................................... The S a m p l e ......................................................................................... The P a r t i c i p a n t s ' Involvement in th e Housing Program . Q u a l i t a t i v e Research .................................................................... Precau tions Taken t o Minimize Threats t o V a l i d i t y and R e l i a b i l i t y ..................................................................................... The Survey Instrument .................................................................... Survey Methodology ........................................................................ Data Analysis ..................................................................................... Summary o f Chapter I I I ................................................................ 55 56 58 60 iv 62 64 67 73 75 P age IV. PRESENTATION OF THE D A T A ................................................................. 78 P a r t I : Q u a l i t a t i v e Data Expressed as Frequencies . . . P a r t I I : P r e s e n t a t i o n o f Q u a l i t a t i v e D a t a ............................ Summary of P a r t I ............................................................................ Summary o f P a r t I I ........................................................................ 80 110 120 126 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS..................................................................... 128 Summary o f Findings ........................................................................ C o n c l u s i o n s ......................................................................................... An Educational R o l e ........................................................................ The Housing Program as a F a c i l i t a t o r o f Learning . . . Im pl ic a tio ns ..................................................................................... Recommendations f o r Future Research....... ................................. Concluding Remarks ........................................................................ 129 136 149 150 151 153 155 APPENDICES.............................................................................................................. 157 A. COMMON QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON SELF-HELPHOUSING . . . . ................................. 163 ......................................................................... 167 ..................................................................... 183 .......................................................................................................... 197 B. SCHEDULE OF PRECONSTRUCTION C. SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE D. SURVEY DATA WORKSHEETS BIBLIOGRAPHY 158 v MEETINGS LIST OF TABUS Table Page 1. Derivation o f th e Sample From the Population ........................... 57 2. Membership in Each Group by Age ........................................................ 81 3. Sex and Marital S t a t u s of P a r t i c i p a n t s in Each Group 82 4. Membership in Each Group by Occupation 5. Membership in Each Group by Previous Schooling ...................... 84 6. Membership in Each Group by Areas o f I n t e r e s t o f P a r t i c i p a n t s ......................................................................................... 91 7. Group Membership by Learning Process in Areas o f I n t e r e s t . 92 8. Frequency and Percentage o f Times That Subjects in the Sample Used an Academic Process to Obtain Information in I n i t i a l and Later Stages of Learning by Ranked Areas o f I n t e r e s t ................................................................................ 94 Membership in Each Group by Special Area o f Learning I n t e r e s t ................................................................................................. 96 10. Membership in Each Group by Type o f Planner Used .................. 98 11. Membership in Each Group by Source o f A ssi st an ce in L e a r n i n g ................................................................................................. 99 Membership in Each Group by S i t e Chosen f o r Learning A c t i v i t y ............................................................................................ . 100 Membership in Each Group by D i f f i c u l t y o f the Decision t o Begin Learning A c t i v i t y ........................................................... 101 Membership in Each Group by Organization o f Time f o r Learning . . . . . 102 Membership in Each Group by th e Use o f Money as a R e s t r a i n t on Learning Resources ..................................................... 103 Membership in Each Group by D i f f i c u l t y in Understanding R e s o u r c e s ................................................................................................. 104 9. ....................................... . 12. . . . 13. 14. 15. 16. vi 83 Page 17. Membership in Each Group by Preference to Learn by O n e s e l f ..................................................................................................... 105 18. Group Membership by Areas of Current Involvement .................. 105 19. Membership in Each Group by Tr an s fe r o f S k i l l s to Other A r e a s ......................................................................................................... 106 Membership in Each Group by School as a P r epa ra tio n f o r L i f e ......................................................................................................... 109 Membership in Each Group by Perceived C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f L e a r n i n g ............................................................................................. 110 20. 21. v ii PREFACE Rapid te chn ol ogi cal and s oci a l changes have c r e a t e d th e need to renew e x i s t i n g a b i l i t i e s o r a cq uir e new p r o f i c i e n c i e s . Areas of e x p e r t i s e c o n t i n u a l l y need r e a s s e s s i n g in view o f th e obsolescence t h a t has been seen to encompass not only te ch nic a l processes and m a t e r i a l s but the a r e a s o f communication and group-process s k i l l s as well. Today's a d u l t appears caught between the human i n c l i n a t i o n to r e s i s t change and pe rvasive s o c i e t a l pre s su re s t h a t a re i n s i s t i n g on c onst a nt updating. Having made th e assessment t h a t t o change i s not an option but a n e c e s s i t y , a d u l t s in e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g numbers a re approaching a l l manner o f le ar nin g experiences in t h e i r a tte mp ts to seek information t h a t w il l a s s i s t them to keep pace with changing tech no lo g ies . With the i n f l u x o f a d u l t l e a r n e r s in th e p a s t 25 y e a r s , a d u l t educators have seen th e need t o understand more f u l l y th e complex dynamic of a d u l t growth and development and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to how adults learn. A body o f a d u l t education theo ry i s being developed t h a t i s based on th e ways in which a d u l t s d i f f e r from c h i l d r e n in t h e i r approach to l e a r n i n g . Malcolm Knowles has developed th e term "andragogy" t o de sc rib e the key c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f l e a r n in g a d u l t s . Adults t y p i c a l l y approach lea r n in g experiences determined t o control th e process in t h e i r search o f new information t h a t will lend i t s e l f t o th e s o l u t i o n of e x i s t i n g 2 problems. Unlike c h i l d r e n , a d u l t s with t h e i r wealth o f l i v i n g e x p e r i ­ ences, a r e l i k e l y to seek information t h a t will a s s i s t them t o seek p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n s t o problems t h a t f r e q u e n t l y r e l a t e to t h e i r own process of development in the l i f e cy cle . In his e f f o r t s t o expand th e d e f i n i t i o n o f a d u l t le ar n in g p r a c t i c e s , Allen Tough began hi s examination by studying a d u l t s in le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n s . His concern about the a c q u i s i t i o n o f f a i r l y s p e c i f i c s k i l l s or knowledge in highly d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t s to l e a r n led him to ask th e a d u l t s themselves about t h e i r reasons f o r l e a r n i n g , the nature of t h e i r le a r n in g p r o j e c t s , the l o c a t i o n o f the s i t e s a t which they chose to l e a r n , and the type o f a s s i s t a n c e the a d u l t most f r e ­ quently sought. Tough's a d u l t s were found to be amazingly involved in major lea rn in g p r o j e c t s t h a t occupied them an average o f 700 hours a y e a r . To gain information was th e primary motivation o f th e a d u l t s who s e t out t o a t t a i n f a i r l y s p e c i f i c knowledge o r s k i l l s in a wide range o f lea r n in g a r e a s . Tough (1971) found his a d u l t s t o be l a r g e l y d e l i b ­ e r a t e s e l f - l e a r n e r s who chose to l e a r n by themselves, seeking help from a v a r i e t y of human and nonhuman sou rces. The a r r a y o f le ar n in g p r o j e c t s were found to be as heterogeneous as t h e l e a r n e r s themselves. "Many le a r n in g p r o j e c t s a r e i n i t i a t e d f o r highly p r a c t i c a l rea son s: to make a good d e c i s i o n , build something, or c a r r y o u t some ta s k r e l a t e d to o n e 's j o b , home, f a m ily , s p o r t or hobby" (p. 1). Johnstone and R i v e r a ' s p r e d i c t i o n in 1965 t h a t th e 1980s would see an explosion of a d u l t l e a r n e r s i s being f u l f i l l e d . Penland's 1977 survey s u b s t a n t i a t e s on a n a tio na l s c a l e t h a t t o d a y ' s a d u l t no 3 longer f e e l s th e compunction to apologize f o r th e need t o know. Indeed, the times a r e demanding the continuing updating of l a r g e numbers of a d u l t s to meet changing needs. We a r e becoming a s o c i e t y of le arnin g a d u l t s . The attempt to bring a d u l t s and re so urc es to g e t h e r in an atmosphere of r e s p e c t and mutual l e a r n in g brings with i t th e challenge to expand e x i s t i n g le ar nin g th e or y. Adult ed ucators a re being c a l l e d upon to f in d d i f ­ f e r e n t and more promising ways o f l in k in g t o g e t h e r unique l e a r n e r s and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l re s ourc e s so t h a t a d u l t enthusiasm to expand, to s ea rc h , to develop, and to grow w ill be re in f o r c e d as a d u l t s continue t o le a r n in th e process o f knowing t h a t u l t i m a t e l y must enhance not only a d u l t l e a r n e r s but th e s o c i e t y as w e ll. CHAPTER I BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Purpose o f the Study The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s a case study in le a r n in g p a r t i c i p a ­ tion. As such, i t i s a study o f le a r n in g not only seen as being t r a d i t i o n a l i n i t s use o f methods such as s t udyin g, viewing, or r e a d in g , but i t i s a l s o a study of lear nin g-b y-d oin g and o f l e a r n i n g by-e xperiencing. The purpose o f the study i s to explore and to d e s c ri b e t h e le a r n in g a s p e c ts o f 45 low-income, r u r a l a d u l t s examining t h e i r l e a r n i n g scope, d e l i b e r a t e le a r n in g p r a c t i c e s , and t h e i r l e a r n ­ ing environments. The l e a r n e r s re pre se nte d t h r e e i n t a c t groups in th r e e d i f f e r e n t s ta g e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n in a mutual s e l f - h e l p housing program in Coldwater, Michigan. In an attem pt t o d e f i n e th e e x p l o r a t i o n , f i v e broad a re as of inq u ir y served to guide the p r e s e n t study. 1. They a re as fo ll o w s : Who a r e t h e s e r u r a l a d u l t l e a r n e r s and what i s t h e i r psychosocial p r o f i l e ? 2. What a r e t h e i r a re a s o f le a r n i n g i n t e r e s t and by what pro cesses do they l e a r n ? 3. How do the y org an ize t h e i r l e a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s ? 4. How do they use t h e i r re so urces f o r le ar ni ng ? 5. How and in what ways was th e housing program a l e a r n in g experience? 5 In an at tempt t o d is co ve r the p a t t e r n s of the l e a r n in g p r o ­ cess both i n s i d e and o u t s i d e o f the housing program, a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l survey has been designed in th e form o f an in te rv ie w t h a t was s t r u c ­ tu r e d by a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t h a t sought information from the p a r t i c i p a n t s themselves on th e t o p i c s o f m o ti v a ti o n , f u t u r e a s p i r a t i o n s , c u r r e n t le a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s , and the e x t e n t o f knowledge t r a n s f e r from the program t o o t h e r a re as in the p a r t i c i p a n t s ' l i v e s as well as s p e c i f i c le a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e se r u r a l a d u l t l e a r n e r s . Housing: I t s Place in the F u l f i l l m e n t of Needs Important to the pr e s e n t study i s an overview o f the b i o ­ l o g i c a l , psy ch o lo g i ca l, and s o c io l o g ic a l a s p e c t s of housing. This can be seen to f a c i l i t a t e an understanding o f th e moti va tio n of the 45 p a r t i c i p a n t s in the study whose g o a l s , beyond a l l e l s e , have been t o build a house. I t was while th e housing needs were in the process o f being s a t i s f i e d t h a t th e int e rv ie w s f o r th e study of the a d u l t s , who a r e le ar nin g-b y-d oin g and le a r n i n g - b y - e x p e r i e n c i n g , took p la ce . Whereas Maslow (1954, p. 43) spoke o f t h e needs o f food and s h e l t e r as basic t o human s u r v i v a l , Etzioni (1968, pp. 870-84) r e f e r r e d to those needs t h a t a r i s e or a re c u l t u r a l l y induced because, as humans, we do not l i v e in a vacuum, but to g e th e r with o t h e r s we i n t e r a c t s o c i a l l y in group l i f e . Housing, t h e n , r e f l e c t s both p h y s i­ cal and s o c ia l needs. Homeownership a s p i r a t i o n s a re a value t h a t has become deeply embedded in our c u l t u r e . Beyond th e f a c t t h a t housing provides s h e l t e r , i t a ls o provides both the p r o t e c t i o n and th e m il ie u in which th e b i o lo g ic a l and psychological processes o f family l i f e a re s u s t a i n e d . 6 Symbolizing t h e s t a t u s o f the family both t o th e community and to th e family i t s e l f , housing r e p r e s e n t s a v i s i b l e stat em en t o f family identity. "The motiv at ion t h a t prompts housing behavior i s not simply th e d e s i r e f o r s h e l t e r but the d e s i r e f o r th e r i g h t kind o f s h e l t e r (Morris, 1978, p. 5). The power o f th e home to mold c h a r a c t e r has become fi r m l y established. The home has been s ai d to e ducat e, to i n s p i r e l o v e , to buil d moral c h a r a c t e r , t o encourage t h r i f t y h a b i t s and f o s t e r domestic t r a n q u i l i t y , as well as to be the foundation f o r good c i t i z e n s h i p (Morris, 1978). While the U.S. government has openly encouraged th e type of independence t h a t has r e s u l t e d in homeownership, i t remained in the realm o f p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e u n t i l the housing c r i s i s t h a t became apparent a f t e r World War II and th e Great Depression. While p a t t e r n s of c o n s t r u c t i o n and financ ing have changed over t h e y e a r s , the family home as a c u l t u r a l norm remains strong . The family t h a t owned i t s own p r i v a t e home re p re se n te d the s o c i e t a l nucleus and soci al microcosm. Furthermore, th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f such a house i n d i c a t e d , as i t had f o r ge ner a­ t i o n s , th e s e r i o u s , sob er , hardworking l i f e o f th e fa m il y — money had to be earned and to be saved. And, f i n a l l y , the f a c t o f p r o p r i e t o r s h i p i t s e l f was supposed t o be th e s i n g l e most e f f i c i e n t co n se rv a ti z in g in fl ue nc e in th e American ex per ien ce . (Cohn, 1979, p. 154) D e fi n it io n o f Terms The terms t h a t a re a p p l i c a b l e t o s e l f - h e l p housing a r e thos e in c u r r e n t use by the United S t a t e s Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e , FmHA, 1981. 7 The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) i s an agency of the Department o f Housing and Urban Development (HUD). with implementing a broad range of housing programs. HUD i s charged The Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e , a c ti n g through FmHA, i s e n t r u s t e d to c a r r y out p r o ­ grams r e l a t i n g t o low-income f a m i l i e s . FmHA i s used to d e si g n a te Farmers Home Administration r a t h e r than Federal Housing Admini st ratio n. The l e g i s l a t i o n f o r the FmHA ru r a l housing programs comes from the T i t l e V amendment, August 1, 1968, o f the Housing Act o f 1949, Public Law 90-488. The ru ra l area de si g n a ti o n inc ludes a d ja c e n t densely s e t t l e d a re as t h a t a r e not a p a r t of or a s s o c i a t e d with an urban area and t h a t has a population of l e s s than 10,000 i f i t i s r u r a l in c h a r a c t e r . I t must a d d i t i o n a l l y have shown a s e r i o u s lack o f mortgage c r e d i t as determined by the Se c re tary of A g ri c u lt u re and the S e c re ta ry o f Housing and Urban Development. B e t t e r Branch County Living, Inc. (BBCL) i s one o f the 61 p r i v a t e and publi c n o n p ro f it o r g a n iz a ti o n s throughout th e country t h a t sponsor the organized mutual s e l f - h e l p housing programs funded by FmHA. With a d m i n i s t r a t i v e expenses funded by Se ction 523 Technical A ssi st a nce (TA) g r a n t s , BBCL provides c o n s t r u c t i o n t r a i n i n g and t e c h ­ n ic al s up er vis io n while the houses a re being c o n s t r u c t e d . BBCL works with p a r t i c i p a n t f a m i l i e s throughout a l l the phases of homeownership, from o r ig i n a l a p p l i c a t i o n t o f i n a l home i n s p e c t i o n . I t makes a r r a n g e ­ ments f o r th e a p p l i c a n t s to re c e iv e USDA FmHA 602 Rural Housing lo a ns . I n t e r e s t C r e d i t i s th e amount of f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e t h a t Farmers Home Administration may give the p a r t i c i p a n t in a s e l f - h e l p 8 housing program toward making the loan payment. I t i s a method by which the i n t e r e s t r a t e i s reduced from i t s p r e s e n t market r a t e to a le vel th e borrower can a f f o r d . This can be as low as 1% o f the loan. Most f a m i l i e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in s e l f - h e l p housing programs re c ei ve some level of i n t e r e s t c r e d i t . S e l f - h e l p housing i s a term t h a t i s used to mean housing t h a t i s c onst ru ct e d by low-income f a m i l i e s under the auspices o f BBCL and under the d i r e c t s up ervis ion of c o n s tr u c ti o n s u p e r v i s o r s . In th e s tu dy, an a d u l t i s considered t o be any man or woman over 18 y e ar s o f age who i s no longer engaged in f u l l - t i m e formal schooling. A le ar nin g p r o j e c t i s taken to mean a highly d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t to a cqu ir e c e r t a i n knowledge o r s k i l l . ..... Knowledge and s k i l l includes any p o s i t i v e or decided changes or improvement in a p e r s o n 's knowledge, unde rstan ding , awareness, comprehension, b e l i e f s , a b i l i t y to app ly, a b i l i t y to analyze and s y n t h e s i z e , a b i l i t y to e v a l u a t e , judgement, perceptual a t t i t u d e s , emotional r e a c ­ t i o n s , r e c a l l , awareness, s e n s i t i v i t y , i n s i g h t , confide nce , pa ti e n ce and s e l f - c o n t r o l , an d /o r some o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r­ a c t e r i s t i c , inner be havior, o r o v e r t behavior. I t i s a much broader d e f i n i t i o n than th e bare d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n i t i o n of th e se two nouns. These changes r e s u l t from e xper ie nc e —from what a person s e e s , h e a r s , f e e l s , th in ks and does. (Tough, 1971, p. 8) Time-span i s used to mean the d u r a ti o n o f a l e a r n in g p r o j e c t . I t r e f e r s t o a minimum o f e i g h t hours in th e p a s t 12 months t h a t has been spent on d e l i b e r a t e l e a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s t h a t have been considered by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s to have been t h e i r most important a re a s of i n t e r e s t . Self-planned le a r n in g i s a term t h a t i s used to r e f e r to the manner in which the l e a r n e r s have approached a l e a r n in g p r o j e c t . 9 Having decided to have acted as t h e i r own t e a c h e r , they must a ls o have assumed more than 51% of th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p l a n n in g , i n i t i a t i n g , and conducting t h e i r own l e a r n i n g . Overview o f the Housing Program The p re s en t study affo rde d an o p p o rt u n i ty to ex plore the com­ b in a ti o n o f unique l e a r n e r s and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l l e a r n in g re s o u r c e s . In t h i s c a s e , th e unique l e a r n e r s r e p r e s e n t the 45 hig hly motivated a d u l t s who r e f l e c t the c u l t u r a l value o f homeownership. The n o n tr a ­ d i t i o n a l le ar n in g resource has been a f e d e r a l l y funded mutual s e l f help housing program administered by B e t t e r Branch County Living in Coldwater, Michigan. A knowledge o f th e o p e ra ti o n a l procedures encompassed in th e program i s seen as e s s e n t i a l i f the p o t e n t i a l edu­ c a t i o n a l a sp e c ts of the program t h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e to r u r a l a d u l t l e a r n e r s are to be understood. B e t te r Branch County Living (BBCL) i s a n o n p r o f i t co rp o ra ti o n t h a t was organized in Coldwater in 1972 f o r the purpose of a s s i s t i n g low- and moderate-income f a m i l i e s to a c q u ir e s a f e , s a n i t a r y , and a f f o r d a b l e housing. Housing needs assessment s t u d i e s in Branch County pointed to th e f a c t t h a t a m a j o r i t y o f homes f o r s a l e were b u i l t before 1930. Local financ e p r a c t i c e s including s h o r t- te r m loans with high i n t e r e s t r a t e s in combination with land c o s t s , l a b o r , and mate ria l c o s t s suggested t h a t low- and moderate-income f a m i l i e s were o ft e n forced to l i v e in houses in which substandard c o n d it io n s p r e v a i l e d . BBCL i s committed to housing programs o p e ra ti n g w ith in FmHA's D i s t r i c t 5. As an o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e i r purpose has been to provide 10 family counseling on loan repayment, i n s u r a n c e , p ro pe rt y t a x e s , and home maintenance as well as t o give a s s i s t a n c e in o b ta in in g m a t e r i a l s and equipment. Families who have met Fanners Home Admini st ra tio n re c ru it m e n t require me nts , with the a i d o f BBCL, form an informal a s s o c i a t i o n and agree to help each o t h e r bui ld houses with t h e t e c h ­ n ic a l a s s i s t a n c e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n s u p e r v i s o r s . G e ner a ll y, s i x to ten f a m i l i e s make up a s e l f - h e l p housing group. The development o f th e a s s o c i a t i o n groups i s seen t o f o s t e r personal enhancement through t r a i n i n g in te c h n i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s k i l l s t h a t t h e group members r e c e iv e . The development of group process through group meetings i s seen as promoting a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f group s p i r i t and group a c t i v i t i e s t h a t , in t u r n , w ill seek s o l u t i o n s t o problems t h a t e x i s t in th e l a r g e r community. By making homeowner­ ship p o s s i b l e through s e l f - h e l p housing, BBCL works with th e a d u l t s as i t t r i e s t o i n s t i l l in th e p a r t i c i p a n t s th e concepts of community s t a b i l i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The b e n e f i t s o f t h e housing program a re intended to be e d u c a t i o n a l , s o c i a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l , and f i n a n c i a l . Mutual s e l f - h e l p housing i s a t h r e e -p h a s e program comprising th e lo a n- pr oc e ss in g (loan docket) s t a g e , t h e 13-week p r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n meetings, and a six-month c o n s t r u c t i o n pe rio d. year. The program in i t s e n t i r e t y covers a period o f about one Additional information on BBCL's goa ls and purposes may be found in Appendix A. I t i s to be noted t h a t , in the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , an ongoing s e l f - h e l p housing program i s explored in r e l a t i o n to i t s ed uca tiv e dimensions, though th e program was not designed s p e c i f i c a l l y as an 11 " e d u c a t i o n a l ” program. I t i s in terms o f the ed ucative aspe cts of BBCL t h a t the l e a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e r u r a l a d u l t p a r t i c i ­ pants have been explored. Previous Research and Present Needs The following survey r e s e a r c h has added a wealth o f informa­ t i o n about th e d i v e r s i t y o f personal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , m o t i v a t i o n s , and l e a r n in g h a b i t s of a d u l t s who have been, f o r th e most p a r t , urban and middle c l a s s . Scarcely i s mention made o f the d e l i b e r a t e , s e l f ­ d i r e c t e d l e a r n e r who i s low-income and r u r a l . In 1963, Houle's re s ea rc h de scribed a d u l t l e a r n e r s as having t h r e e major le a r n in g o r i e n t a t i o n s . Tough's 1971 s t u d i e s sought to d is co ve r t h e e x t e n t o f d e l i b e r a t e s e l f - l e a r n i n g engaged in by a d u l t s . The survey r e s e a rc h of both Houle and Tough was s t r u c t u r e d around in te rv ie w s t h a t were designed to e l i c i t information on the le ar n in g p r a c t i c e s o f a d u l t s who were both urban and m i d d l e - c l a s s . In 1975, Hiemstra interviewed a d u l t s over age 65 in an at tempt t o dis c e rn t h e i r p re fe re n c e s f o r e xp re ssi ve o r instrumental l e a r n i n g . He found t h a t more than 50% o f his s u b j e c t s p r e f e r r e d l e a r n in g f o r s e l f f u l f i l l m e n t ( i n s tr u m e n ta l) while fewer than 9% chose le a r n in g t o p i c s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d to c i v i c competence ( e x p r e s s i v e ) . Hie ms tr a's f i n d ­ ings a l s o r e f l e c t e d t h a t h i s s u b j e c t s were more highly educated and more urban than could have been expected in comparison with 1970 census d a ta (pp. 49-53). In 1963, London and his a s s o c i a t e s focused t h e i r a t t e n t i o n on the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a d u l t ed ucation and the c o n d it io n s o f the l e s s - s k i l l e d and l e s s -e d u c a te d groups in American 12 s o c i e t y with a major emphasis on responses to th e a d u l t education courses being o f f e r e d . Their sample was not only urban d w e l l e r s , but i t c o n s i s t e d o f 4,008 males (pp. 140-148). Research by Houle and Tough st u d ie d the o r i e n t a t i o n and the le a r n in g processes of m id dl e -c la ss urban a d u l t s . The purpose o f H ie m st ra's study was to atte mpt to d is c o v e r the le a r n i n g prefe re nce s o f both urban and r u r a l a d u l t s 65 y e a r s of age and o l d e r . London sampled male urban dwel ler s in his study o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a d u l t education and soci al c l a s s . Generally lacking in the l i t e r a ­ t u r e of a d u l t education a r e s t u d i e s t h a t concern themselves with the s e lf-d ire c ted rural adult learner. The pre s e n t study i s d i r e c t e d to a s s i s t in f u l f i l l i n g t h i s need. A Q u a l i t a t i v e Focus I t was purposeful in th e study t o focus on q u a l i t a t i v e ex p lo ra ­ t i o n s in ce th e a b i l i t y to q u a n t i f y was questioned because t h e r e appeared t o be i n s u f f i c i e n t a p r i o r i information about r u r a l a d u l t s as l e a r n e r s t o i d e n t i f y r e l e v a n t problems o r to formulate hypotheses. Pointing out t h a t r e a l i t y e x i s t s in th e world and not in the methods t h a t we choose t o measure i t , Skager (1978) sugg ested , "The f a c t t h a t information i s n o n - q u a n t i t a t i v e does not mean t h a t i t i s by d e f i n i t i o n i n v a l i d , nor i s information of l e s s e r importance because i t was not c o l l e c t e d in a c o n t r o l l e d experiment" (p. 135). Q u a l i t a t i v e methodology was adopted f o r use in t h e pr e s e n t study because i t , more than any o t h e r methodology, f i t s th e problem in t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , which i s to exp lor e t h e l e a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 13 of low-income, r u r a l a d u l t s . The conclusions drawn from th e re s ea rc h a re pres ented as a means of providing a t e n t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f r u r a l a d u l t le ar ni ng beh avi or s, which a r e then used to gen erate qu est io ns f o r f u r t h e r study. Assumptions Four assumptions a r e made in the study. The f i r s t assumption i s t h a t people have a n a tu ra l a b i l i t y t o le a r n and t h a t l e a r n in g is important to them. Because o f t h i s assumption, i t i s believed t h a t the r u r a l p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program a r e l e a r n in g a d u l t s and t h a t the continuing process o f in q u ir y c o n s t i t u t e s a pu r­ poseful p a r t of t h e i r l i v e s . The second assumption i s t h a t the s e l f - help housing program provides l e a r n in g o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r the p a r t i c i p a n t s who a re involved in buildin g each o t h e r ' s houses. This i s important to the study si nce i t i s believed t h a t the one-year involvement in th e program affo rde d an opp or tu n i ty f o r th e r e s e a r c h e r to observe th e 45 r u r a l a d u l t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in numerous a c t i v i t i e s in which l e a r n in g did take pla ce. Th i rd , i t i s assumed t h a t the r u r a l a d u l t s in th e study a r e a b le to pe rceive t h a t they a r e le a r n in g from t h e experiences o f f e r e d t o them in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program. This i s important t o th e study because th e v a l i d i t y o f t h e da ta c o l ­ l e c t e d in th e one-hour int er vie w s depends upon t h e a c c u r a t e per cep ­ t i o n of t h e i r l e a r n in g exp er ience s. F i n a l l y , i t i s assumed t h a t le a r n in g i s f r e q u e n t l y undertaken because o f pragmatic i n t e r e s t s and needs t h a t a re a s s o c i a t e d with l i f e - c y c l e development. This i s considered important in a study o f the l e a r n in g ex periences o f ru ra l 14 a d u l t s who a re involved in s a t i s f y i n g the needs a t t e n d a n t to housing by building houses f o r themselves and t h e i r f a m i l i e s . Li m ita tio ns and G e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y In re s ea rc h t h a t i s o f an e x p lo ra to ry n a t u r e , t h e major l i m i ­ t a t i o n i s the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s of the sample. The small number of a d u l t s in the sample f o r th e study i s li m it e d to a convenience sampling o f t h r e e i n t a c t groups of ru ra l a d u l t s in d i f f e r e n t stage s of c o n st r u c ­ t i o n in a s e l f - h e l p housing program. As such, they do not r e p r e s e n t an unbiased sample o f low-income r u r a l a d u l t s . An a d d i t i o n a l l i m i t a ­ ti o n can be seen to e x i s t because o f a la ck o f knowledge t h a t con­ t r i b u t e s to an incomplete framework f o r in te rvi ew procedures t h a t ar e a p p l i c a b l e to low-income r u r a l a d u l t s . A f u r t h e r l i m i t a t i o n was the e x t e n t o f data t h a t was p o s s i b l e to be c o l l e c t e d during a one-hour in te rv ie w . The study focused on qu e st io n s about why low-income a d u l t s l e a r n , what they l e a r n , and when they le a r n i t as they a r e involved in a s e l f - h e l p housing program. Summary of Chapter I The pr e s e n t study was conducted in an at tempt to explore the le a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , scope, and le ar n in g p r a c t i c e s o f ru r al a d u l t s who were a t th r e e d i f f e r e n t st ag e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n in a s e l f help housing program. I t was noted t h a t r u r a l a d u l t s r e p r e s e n t an understudied popu latio n. I t i s believed t h a t the r e s u l t s of the study w ill add to what i s p r e s e n t l y known about how a d u l t s l e a r n . A q u a l i t a t i v e approach to th e re s ea rc h was chosen because i t was seen to be the most s u i t e d to an e x p lo r a to r y i n q u i r y . I t was assumed t h a t 15 a d u l t s continue t o l e a r n in new and p r a c t i c a l ways. The s e l f - h e l p housing program was chosen as th e v e h i c l e f o r t h a t o b s e r v a ti o n . Organization o f th e Remainder o f the Study The following c h ap te rs a r e organized t o amplify va rio us a s p e c ts o f th e e x p lo r a to r y study. Chapter I I i s a l i t e r a t u r e review t h a t was drawn from th r e e primary sources. Learners. The f i r s t source was the L i t e r a t u r e on Adults as L i t e r a t u r e from t h i s source looks a t le a r n in g t h e o r i e s and concepts in a d u l t educa tio n. The second source from which the l i t e r a t u r e was drawn was th e L i t e r a t u r e nn Survey Research in Adult Education. I t i s presented in two p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t i s an attempt t o acq ua in t t h e re a de r with precedent survey methodology t h a t has used in te rv ie w s t h a t have been s t r u c t u r e d by a q u e s t i o n n a i r e as a r e s e a rc h t o o l . The second p a r t p re s e n ts fi n d i n g s from key surveys t h a t have used an in te rv ie w methodology. The t h i r d source from which th e l i t e r a t u r e review was drawn was L i t e r a t u r e on Self-Help Housing. I t i s intended t o provide t h e re a der with a b r i e f background and h i s t o r y o f fo r e ig n and domestic s e l f - h e l p housing programs and p o l i c i e s t h a t r e l a t e to th e housing program in which t h e r u r a l a d u l t s in th e study were involved. Chapter I I I i s an o u t l i n e o f th e methodology followed in the study. I t inc lud es a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the sample p o p u la ti o n , th e development o f th e in te rv ie w q u e s t i o n n a i r e , and th e methods employed to minimize t h r e a t s t o v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y in th e st udy. methods used f o r data c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s a re d e s c r ib e d . The 16 In Chapter IV th e data a re presented using two fo rm ats . The purpose o f t h e study i s t h e e x p lo r a ti o n of le ar nin g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of rural adults. In P a rt I of th e c h a p t e r , th e da ta obtained in the in te rv ie w s a re p r e s en te d. In P a r t II o f th e c h a p t e r , th e r e s u l t s of th e in te r v ie w qu e st io ns a r e f u r t h e r analyzed by an examination of stat emen ts made by the respondents during the in te r v ie w s . Chapter V i s a d i s c u s s io n o f the fi n d i n g s in th e s tu dy. Key f i n d i n g s t h a t r e l a t e t o th e le a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e 45 r u r a l a d u l t s in th e sample a re d is c u s s e d . a r e suggested. Im pl ica tio ns f o r a d u l t ed ucators Conclusions a r e drawn from the da ta and sugges tions a r e a l s o made f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of the study i s to explore th e le a r n in g c h a r ­ a c t e r i s t i c s o f 45 r u r a l a d u l t s in t h r e e d i f f e r e n t st ag e s in the process o f c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e i r own houses in a s e l f - h e l p housing pr o ­ gram. The review o f th e l i t e r a t u r e was drawn from t h r e e primary sources. The f i r s t source was the L i t e r a t u r e on Adults as Learners. Observations o f th e l e a r n in g a d u l t by e d u c a to r s , and the study of a d u l t s in the process of t h e i r l i f e - c y c l e by developmental psycholo­ g i s t s , led t o th e growth o f a body o f l i t e r a t u r e with d i r e c t a p p l i c a ­ t i o n to a d u l t s as l e a r n e r s . The concept o f andragogy, based on the d i f f e r e n c e s between a d u l t and c h i l d l e a r n i n g , i s presented t o provide th e r a t i o n a l e between th e in ne r d i r e c t i o n and th e e xt er na l e x p e r i ­ ence t h a t c o n t r i b u t e s to th e educational process as a d u l t s become lifelong, self-directed learners. The second source from which th e l i t e r a t u r e review was drawn i s th e L i t e r a t u r e on Survey Research on Adults as Le arners. s e c t i o n o f the review i s presented in two p a r t s . This In P a r t I , a b r i e f review o f L i t e r a t u r e on Survey Methodology of f i v e key s t u d i e s i s de s c r ib e d . In t h e second p a r t o f the l i t e r a t u r e on survey r e s e a r c h , l i t e r a t u r e on Findings from Surveys Using Interv iew Methodology i s p r e s en te d. Both p a r t s of t h i s s e c t i o n o f th e review o f l i t e r a t u r e 17 18 a re seen to be important. As th e p r e s e n t study looks a t r u r a l a d u l t s as l e a r n e r s , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o review precedent methodology t o see t h a t th e methodology in th e c u r r e n t study i s c o n s i s t e n t with precedent practices. The f i n d i n g s o f key s t u d i e s a re a l s o important as they provide information t h a t has incre ase d our understanding o f a d u l t s as l e a r n e r s . The t h i r d source from which th e review o f l i t e r a t u r e was drawn i s L i t e r a t u r e on Self-Help Housing. I t is presented, f i r s t , t o a cq ua in t the re ad er with th e background and t r a d i t i o n s of s e l f help housing. Second, i t i s included t o provide a frame o f re fe re n c e t o a s s i s t t h e re a de r in understanding th e procedures used by BBCL in o p e r a t i o n a l i z i n g t h e housing program in which th e p a r t i c i p a n t s are involved in the p r e s e n t study. L i t e r a t u r e on Adults as Learners Andragogy, th e a r t and scienc e o f helping a d u l t s t o l e a r n , i s a contemporary le a r n in g the ory t h a t proposes t h a t le a r n in g f o r a d u l t s i s a l i f e l o n g a c t i v i t y (Knowles, 1970, p. 38). As t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t s change with m a t u r i t y from dependence in ch ildhood, a d u l t s tend to d i s p l a y independence and s e l f - d i r e c t i o n as they ta k e th e r e s p o n s i ­ b i l i t y to le a r n in o r d e r to s a t i s f y immediate needs. They can openly d i s p l a y both p e r s i s t e n c e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y when l e a r n in g develops from t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s and d e s i r e s . The n a tu re o f t h e i r l i f e e x p e r i ­ ences shapes t h e i r concern f o r u t i l i t y and a p p l i c a t i o n . Their c u r i o s i t y and d e s i r e t o l e a r n can be seen in the i n t e r e s t they e x h i b i t about t h e i r 19 progr ession through th e l i f e cy cle and in t h e i r in q u ir y in to th e mean­ ing o f l i f e i t s e l f . The b a s i s f o r th e formation o f the assumptions t h a t comprise th e the ory of andragogy took shape in the e a r l y 1900s as educators began to look to the study o f th e a d u l t l e a r n in g pro ce ss. Where previous educational p r a c t i c e viewed education as a fu nc tio n of t r a n s f e r r i n g knowledge, Lindeman (1926) began to understand t h a t le ar n in g was in s te a d a p ro c e ss , a process o f e v a lu a ti n g experience. He came to see t h a t f o r a d u l t s , experience was a measure o f high va lue. "Experience i s the a d u l t l e a r n e r ' s textbook. we do" (p. 9 ) . We le a r n what For Lindeman, th e theme o f the experiencing a d u l t took th e form of a s tan ce t h a t he c a l l e d hi s basi c law. change u n t i l you do something. d o n ' t change by t a l k i n g . to your muscles. "You d o n ' t You d o n ' t change by l i s t e n i n g . You You a c t u a l l y change when something happens When you s tep o r move in a new way, then the change becomes r e a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t " (in Gessner, 1956, p. 235). Lindeman (1926), whose views on a d u l t education were i n f l u ­ enced by the Danish volkshochschulen (fol k-s cho ol f o r a d u l t s ) , pro ­ posed t h a t a d u l t s tend to be s e l f - d i r e c t e d , t h e i r s e l f - d i r e c t i o n becoming heterogeneously d i v e r s i f i e d as th e y change with age. He perceived t h a t th e sense o f ed u ca ti o n , t h a t must i n i t i a l l y come from w ith in a d u l t s , l a i d a foundation f o r a system of education t h a t l a s t s as long as l i f e i t s e l f . Adult e d u c a ti o n , he b e l i e v e d , "does not only change a person from i l l i t e r a c y to l i t e r a c y , i t r e b u i l d s th e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e o f l i f e ' s values" (p. x v i i i ) . 20 A contemporary o f Lindeman, Dewey (1938) sought t o introduce so cia l reform from the platform o f a democratic education in common scho ols. A c o n s ta n t theme in Dewey's w r i t i n g s i s th e need f o r a com­ bin a ti o n o f education and personal ex per ien ce , in th e s o c ia l c o n t e x t , i f experience i s to be seen as growth producing. Experience, in i t s e l f , was not seen by Dewey to be growth producing. Experience, i n s t e a d , was c l a s s i f i e d as educa tive o r miseducative along a continuum. Experience was seen as ed uca tiv e t o the e x t e n t t h a t i t enabled con­ tinued le ar ni ng in th e social mi lie u and miseducative to th e e x te n t t h a t i t s t u l t i f i e d , h a l t e d , or d i s t o r t e d f u t u r e growth in i n t e r a c t i o n with o t h e r s . To Dewey (1916), l e a r n in g t h a t i s re a l i s le a r n in g t h a t includes th e elements o f th e lo n g it u d in a l and h o r i z o n t a l , the h i s ­ t o r i c and t h e s o c i a l , and t h e o r d e r l y as well as t h e dynamic. Dewey would agree with Lindeman t h a t the a c q u i s i t i o n o f knowledge o r s k i l l i s a mutual e xper ien ce , not t h e imposition of j knowledge with l a t e r e v a lu a ti o n in conformity t o i t . In 1938, Dewey proposed t h a t th e education t h a t i s most l i k e l y to produce growth is an education t h a t f o s t e r s i n d i v i d u a l i t y , advocates le a r n in g by doing, i s pr e d ic at e d upon the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f immediate needs, and exempli­ f i e s le ar ni ng by a c t i v e involvement r a t h e r than by a s t a t i c imposition o f l e a r n in g techniques or procedures. Whereas the Freudians and b e h a v i o r a l i s t s , who proceeded him, looked a t psychology a n a l y t i c a l l y , Maslow sought a h o l i s t i c approach in h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f human n a t u r e . Maslow's i n q u i r i e s lend an important understanding o f a d u l t behavior t h a t led him to i n v e s t i ­ gat e th e motivation o f i n d i v i d u a l s t o assuage human needs. He 21 understood moti va tio n t o mean not an i s o l a t e d d r i v e , but an i n v o lv e ­ ment o f the whole being, t o bring about s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c desire. To Maslow, a s a t i s f i e d need i s not a m oti v a to r. Successive s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d t o him t h a t human n a tu re s t r i v e s , i n s t e a d , to a t t a i n needs not y e t r e a l i z e d . Basic to our e x is t e n c e a r e our needs f o r food and s h e l t e r , c l o s e n e s s , o r d e r , s a f e t y , and love. All o t h e r human needs were f e l t to r e s t in the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e s e s urv iva l r e q u i r e ­ ments. The physical and psychological needs f o r food and s h e l t e r a r e the most p r e p o r t a n t o f a l l human needs. There would be l i t t l e d e s i r e , Maslow s a i d , t o be c r e a t i v e l y productive or t o c o n t r i b u t e to s o c i e t y in a meaningful way i f th e s e needs were not a tt e n d e d . Maslow (1954) proposed t h a t survival needs being met, o t h e r needs a r i s e in th e ar ea o f s a f e t y , s t a b i l i t y , dependency, p r o t e c t i o n , freedom from f e a r , from a n x i e t y , and chaos. These r e p r e s e n t th e human need f o r s t r u c t u r e , o r d e r , law, and l i m i t s . Only t h e n , Maslow sug­ g e s t e d , do belongingness and love needs emerge. The human will then "hunger f o r a f f e c t i o n a t e r e l a t i o n s with people in g e n e r a l , namely f o r a place in his group or family and he will s t r i v e with g r e a t i n t e n ­ s i t y to achieve t h i s goal" (p. 43). Also e s s e n t i a l to th e human c on di tio n i s a d e s i r e f o r a s t a b l e , fi r m l y based, high e v a lu a ti o n o f ou rs el ve s in the form o f s e l f r e s p e c t o r s e lf - e s te e m and t h e esteem o f o t h e r s . Maslow (1954) pr o ­ posed t h a t th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f se lf -e st e e m needs "leads to f e e l i n g s o f s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , worth, s t r e n g t h , c a p a b i l i t y , adequacy, being useful and ne cessary to th e world" (p. 45). 22 The hig h e st and most r a r e l y a t t a i n e d need i s s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n . I t i s only met when a l l o t h e r needs a r e met. Maslow (1954) described t h i s as an i n n e r r e s t l e s s n e s s o f what an in div id ua l i s f i t t e d f o r —what we must do to be a t peace with o u r s e l v e s . I t i s what we must do to be t r u e to our in d i v i d u a l i z e d n a t u r e . I t r e f e r s to our d e s i r e f o r s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t —a tendency t o become a c t u a l i z e d in what we a r e p o t e n t i a l l y —to become everything t h a t we a r e capable of becoming, (p. 46) In l a t e r y e a r s , Maslow (1971) more f u l l y defined s e l f a c t u a l i z a t i o n as " fu ll humanness." He continued over the y e ar s o f his l i f e t o search th e depths o f human understanding and found from p e r ­ sonal experience t h a t "in becoming more f u l l y human, l i f e ex periences have been f a r more important than c l a s s e s , l i s t e n i n g to l e c t u r e s and memorizing" (p. 163). He believed t h a t educators could b e s t f a c i l i ­ t a t e t h e i r assessment o f the l e a r n e r ' s needs when they themselves e x p e r i e n t i a l l y understood th e s oci a l and psychological f a c t o r s t h a t combine to form the world in which th e l e a r n e r l i v e s . He f e l t t h a t a lea r n in g atmosphere t h a t r e f l e c t s s a f e t y , encouragement, and s e l f r e s p e c t i s l i k e l y to produce a s y n e r g i s t i c advantage to both i n d i ­ v id u a ls and t h e s o c i e t y . "With incre ase d personal r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o n e 's personal l i f e and with a r a t i o n a l s e t o f values to guide o n e 's choosing, people would begin t o a c t i v e l y change th e s o c i e t y in which they l i v e d " (p. 188). Like Maslow, Carl Rogers f e l t t h a t i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n i s most e f f e c t i v e l y accomplished in an atmosphere t h a t engenders a c r e a t i v e , a c t i v e , s e n s i t i v e , empathic, nonjudgmental, and l i s t e n i n g stance. These q u a l i t i e s can speak c l e a r l y to ed uc a to rs whether the 23 a d u l t p a r t i c i p a t e s in formally s t r u c t u r e d c l a s s e s , small informal groups, o r touches base with educa tors i n f r e q u e n t l y as r e s o u rc e s in s e l f - d i r e c t e d l e a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s . Malcolm Knowles (1973) observed that Both Maslow and Rogers acknowledge t h e i r a f f i n i t y with the work of Gordon All p o r t (1955, 1960, 1961) in d e f i n i n g growth not as a process o f "being shaped" but a process o f becoming. The essence o f t h e i r conception o f le ar n in g i s captured in t h i s b r i e f stat em en t by Rogers: "I should l i k e to p o i n t ou t one f i n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s as th e y s t r i v e to d is co ve r and become themselves. I t i s t h a t the in di vi du a l seems to become more c o nte nt to be a process r a t h e r than a pro d u c t. " (p. 42) Both Maslow and Rogers r e f l e c t e d th e humanistic approach to b ui ld in g an atmosphere where i n t e r a c t i o n ta kes p la ce in a s e t t i n g where a d u l t s ta ke r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r own a c t i o n s in terms o f t h e i r own choosing. Rogers (1980) mirrored the philo so phie s o f both Dewey and Lindeman, t h a t to be growth producing, l e a r n in g ta ke s pla ce with the knowledge o f the i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o th e community as a whole. This c e n t r a l premise i s summarized in t h e following s t a t e ­ ment: I have found t h a t i f I can help bring about a c l im a te marked by genu inen es s, p r i z i n g , and unde rs tan din g, then e x c i t i n g th in g s happen. Persons and groups in such a c li m a te move away from r i g i d i t y and toward f l e x i b i l i t y , away from s t a t i c l i v i n g toward process l i v i n g , away from dependence toward autonomy, away from defe nsi ve ne ss toward s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e , away from being p r e d i c t a b l e toward an u n p re d ic ta b l e c r e a t i v i t y . They e x h i b i t l i v i n g proof o f an a c t u a l i z i n g tendency, (p . 43-44) Rogers echoed Dewey, Lindeman, and Maslow in h i s b e l i e f t h a t a combination o f c o g n i t i v e and a f f e c t i v e personal experience le a d s to experiential learning. In a c lim a te o f s a f e t y and t r u s t , Rogers proposed a "person -ce ntered le a r n i n g " where f a c i l i t a t o r s l e a r n 24 t o g e t h e r with a d u l t s by providing le a r n i n g experiences t h a t f o s t e r le a r n in g in cooperation with o t h e r s in an atmosphere enriched by car ing feedback. Both Rogers and Maslow po s ite d t h a t i f t h e r e i s s a f e t y , then growth i s p o s s i b l e . Rogerian philosophy proposes t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s must have a voice in d e c is io n s t h a t a f f e c t t h e i r l i v e s . Rogers sees ch oices about l e a r n in g d e c is io n s r e f l e c t e d by experience in a d u l t l i v e s , t h a t a r e made in a c lim a te of a c ar ing community, as e s s e n t i a l i f a d u l t s a re to grow in a changing s o c i e t y . Havighurst (1952) de fined th e concept o f a developmental ta s k as being an age-graded t a s k t o be accomplished a t or about c e r t a i n st ag e s of development, successful completion o f which le ads to su cc e ss­ ful completion o f l a t e r developmental t a s k s . Failure to successfully complete a t a s k , Havighurst f e l t , was l i k e l y to c r e a t e d i f f i c u l t y with succ essive t a s k s and to evoke disapproval from the s o c ia l group. H a v ig h u rs t' s e a r l y r e s e a rc h has s in c e become expanded t o include the psychology o f a d u l t growth and development. Gould (1978), Levinson (1979), Neugarten (1969), and Sheehy (1976) have looked a t p r e d i c t a b l e crises patterns. The ir r e s e a r c h pointed t o th e f a c t t h a t periods o f s t r e s s a re a p t t o occur as c u l t u r a l l y both women and men at tempt to a d j u s t from a childhood t o an a d u l t consciousness in th e face of r o l e changes t h a t r e f l e c t t r a n s i t i o n s in a d u l t l i f e . Young a d u l t s face t a s k s o f m a ri ta l ad jus tm ent, t h e d e ci s io n t o have or no t t o have c h i l d r e n , t h e t a s k of providing adequate housing, th e d e c i s i o n to enhance job s k i l l s , and th e need to develop s k i l l s t h a t w ill f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r a b i l i t y to a c t on is s u e s o f social concern. The r e c o g n i t i o n o f a d u l t concern with t h e i r own development 25 has important i m p li c a ti o n s to a d u l t educators who t h e n , sensing a d u l t concerns, a re able to provide experiences d i r e c t e d toward f u l f i l l i n g t he se needs. Important to both humanistic ps ycho log is ts and t o edu­ c a t o r s in t h e i r awareness of l i f e - c y c l e development i s H a vi g hu rs t's concept o f "teachable moments." These were perceived to be oppor­ tune le ar n in g periods when an in div idu al i s comfortable with the ta sk s a s s o c i a t e d with one phase o f l i f e and developmentally not pressed i n to t a s k s a s s o c i a t e d with the next s t a g e . Teachable moments a re r e l e v a n t to educators because i t i s during th e se periods t h a t a d u l t s a r e l i k e l y t o pursue e p is o d i c l e a r n i n g . The Concept of Andragogy S e l f - c o n c e p t , e xp er ie nc e , re a din es s t o l e a r n , a concern about personal growth and development, and an o r i e n t a t i o n to le ar ni ng t h a t i s both problem cent ered and pragmatic a re concepts t h a t a r e c e n tr a l to the andragogical approach. The concept of andragogy, developed by Malcolm Knowles, i s pre d ic at e d upon the assumption t h a t the m a t u r i t y and experience o f a d u l t s predis pose them t o the need to be s e l f - d i r e c t i n g in t h e i r l e a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s and to be perceived as s e l f - d i r e c t i n g by o t h e r s . Building upon te aching theory and behavioral and humanistic psychology, Knowles proposed t h a t phy s i­ cal and psychological needs in t h e s e l f - d i r e c t e d l e a r n e r , combined with experience and a b i l i t y , c r e a t e an i n t e r i o r d i s p o s i t i o n t h a t i s r e c e p t i v e to continued le a r n i n g . Andragogy emphasizes t h e development o f an a t t i t u d e toward s e l f - d i r e c t e d in qu ir y in which the individual i s capable o f c r e a t i v i t y using l e a r n in g re s o ur ce s to s a t i s f y unique le a r n in g needs. 26 The t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t Knowles (1950) believed to be e s s e n t i a l to the le a r n in g process a re a d e s i r e to l e a r n , a w il li n g n e s s t o expend the e f f o r t needed to l e a r n , and a sense o f s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t i s rec eiv ed in t h e l e a r n in g pro ce ss. In th e se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , Knowles r e f l e c t e d Dewey's e a r l i e r summation of the processes of need, e f f o r t , and s a t i s f a c t i o n . Recognizing t h a t t h e r e a re numerous ways t o l e a r n , Knowles would agree with both Maslow and Rogers t h a t an understanding of l e a r n e r needs i s e s s e n t i a l and t h a t "successful pro­ grams s t a r t where people a r e " (p. 25). Andragogy as a l e a r n in g theory c e n t e r s about the concept t h a t s e l f - d i r e c t e d le a r n in g i s a p ro a c ti ve le a r n in g (Knowles, 1973). Pro­ a c t i v e l e a r n in g moves the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the i n i t i a t i v e and sense of disco ve ry from t h e t e a c h e r t o the l e a r n e r . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , peda­ gogy r e q u i r e s the l e a r n e r to r e a c t to te ac he r s t i m u l i . Reactive l e a r n in g has thus to be considered as a poor pre p a ra t io n f o r l i f e l o n g j le a r n i n g . The p r o a c ti v e approach i s begun by t h e l e a r n e r ' s attempt t o meet needs and to s a t i s f y goals (Knowles, 1973). I t i s Knowles' opinion t h a t experiences t h a t involve the ind ividual most d i r e c t l y in s e l f - d i r e c t e d in quir y a re a p t to produce the g r e a t e s t l e a r n i n g . In r e f l e c t i n g Dewey and Maslow, Knowles (1970) suggested t h a t s o c i e t a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l needs and goa ls w ill have to be congruent with the needs and goals o f i n d i v i d u a l s as atte mpt s a r e made to o f f e r l e a r n in g t h a t w ill enable s e l f - d i r e c t e d l e a r n e r s t o develop in d i r e c ­ t i o n s t h a t a r e b e n e f ic ia l to themselves and to th e s o c i e t y as a whole. Knowles would agree with Rogers t h a t i t i s most important to e s t a b ­ l i s h a cl im at e f o r l e a r n in g t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s t r u s t , i n f o r m a l i t y , 27 openness, mutual r e s p e c t , warmth, and c a r i n g . I t i s a l s o important t o engage t h e l e a r n e r s in diagnosing t h e i r own needs f o r l e a r n i n g . Knowles (1973) found success using a l e a r n in g c o n t r a c t t h a t allows th e s e l f - d i r e c t e d l e a r n e r to e s t a b l i s h needs on th e b a si s of a con­ temporary model. The l e a r n in g c o n t r a c t t h a t i s drawn up embodies l e a r n in g o b j e c t i v e s , l e a r n in g re s ourc e s and the s t r a t e g y f o r t h e i r use, evidence o f accomplishment, and, f i n a l l y , a c r i t e r i o n to be used as a means o f v a l i d a t i n g the le ar ni ng ex perience. In proposing andragogy to expand th e t h e o r e t i c a l concepts o f a d u l t l e a r n i n g , Knowles recognized t h a t an a d u l t brings m o ti v a ti o n s , g o a l s , e x p e c t a t i o n s , and experience to the le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n t h a t a re t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t from c h i l d r e n . He suggested t h a t a d u l t edu­ c a t o r s recognize not only these d i f f e r e n c e s but a l s o t h e a d u l t need to be s e l f - d i r e c t i n g in the quest f o r t h e development o f t h e i r own re s o u rc e s . Summary of L i t e r a t u r e on Adults as Learners Observations in t h e e a r l y 1900s led educators to propose t h a t a d u l t s were not only a b l e t o le a r n but t h a t they appeared t o enjoy the l e a r n in g process when c e r t a i n c o n d it io n s were met. They seemed t o le a r n most e f f e c t i v e l y when they lear ned by doing and by e x p er ie n c ­ ing th e le ar n in g process as they became involved in i t . Learning c o n d it io n s were perceived t o be most fa vo ra bl e when " te ach ers" were viewed as f a c i l i t a t o r s of knowledge who aided a d u l t s in an atmosphere o f mutual i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p . In such a m i l i e u , a d u l t s could see t h a t th e combination o f t h e i r l i f e e xp e r ie n c e s, seen in th e l i g h t of new 28 knowledge, could u n i t e to both promote and enhance t h e i r s oc ia l interaction. Viewing humans h o l i s t i c a l l y , developmental ps y c h o lo g i s ts have suggested t h a t th e t o t a l need o f the in div idu al be seen t o encompass the physical and t h e p s y ch ol og ic a l. The " t o t a l " need can be seen as a powerful mo tiv at or toward t h e f u l f i l l m e n t of needs t h a t have not y e t been met. Although t h e combination of an unmet need in an a d u l t can give r i s e to an e du ca ti ve o p p o r t u n i t y , t h i s i s not always the case. The atmosphere t h a t i s seen as most conducive to le a r n i n g i s seen as t h a t wherein a le a r n in g environment i s c r e a t e d t h a t f o s t e r s t h e s e l f - r e s p e c t of th e in div idu al as well as promotes mutual esteem of the o t h e r s involved in the le a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n . These q u a l i t i e s ar e most a p t to lead to ed uca tiv e ex periences t h a t enhance s e l f con fidence, s e l f - w o r t h , e g o - s t r e n g t h , a sense o f awareness, and a sense of u s e f u ln e s s in th e world. j Developmental psychology has proposed t h a t a d u l t l i f e i s composed o f growth s t a g e s . Inter im period s o f cycle t r a n q u i l i t y between periods of p r e d i c t a b l e c r i s e s can o f f e r period s of time t h a t a r e seen as fa v o ra b le tea c hi ng o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r those ed uca tor s who a re prepared t o l e a r n with a d u l t s as t o g e t h e r they meet developmental c h a ll e n g e s . Current a d u l t l e a r n in g th e o ry bu il d s uponthe assumption t h a t t o d a y ' s a d u l t s can be seen as ex pecting to become own l e a r n in g pro c e ss . involved in t h e i r Their s e l f - d i r e c t i o n borne of l i f e experiences le ads them to p r e f e r i n q u i r y o f a p r a c t i c a l n a t u r e . I t is th e ir na tu ra l i n c l i n a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , to d i s p l a y p e r s i s t e n c e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y 29 In t h e i r qu est o f both t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l re s ou rce s in t h e i r concern f o r u t i l i t y and a p p l i c a t i o n . L i t e r a t u r e on Survey Research on Adults as Learners The second source from which th e l i t e r a t u r e review was drawn i s presented in two p a r t s . In P a r t I , a b r i e f review o f l i t e r a t u r e on survey methodology i s p r e s en te d. Survey Methodology on Adults as Learners In an attem pt to add to information known about a d u l t l e a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , Houle (1963) used a re s ea rc h methodology t h a t employed an in te rv ie w p r o t o c o l . The 22 a d u l t s in t h e sample were e i t h e r known by Houle or were recommended t o him by a d u l t e d u ca to rs . The ins trum en t designed by Houle contained two p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t was a st atement o f th e purpose o f the re s ea rc h t h a t was s e n t to each j person t o be sampled, in advance o f t h e i n t e r v i e w . The second p a r t included 19 major qu e st i o n s and subquestions t h a t were used t o probe or t o amplify responses during th e in t e r v i e w s . In an attempt t o e s t a b l i s h an atmosphere t h a t was s o c i a b l e and r e l a x e d , th e respond­ e n t s were engaged in co nv er sa tio n before t h e i n te rv ie w began and a f t e r th e in te rv ie w was completed. Houle chose to use an i n te rv ie w procedure t h a t was as u n s t r u c ­ t u re d as p o s s i b l e . discursively." The s u b j e c t was encouraged "to t a l k f r e e l y and Houle r e p o r t e d , "The i n te rv ie w e r merely saw t o i t t h a t sometime during th e in te rv ie w a l l th e qu e st i o n s on th e i n s t r u ­ ment were d e a l t with" (p. 85 ). The int e rv ie w s ranged in d u ra ti o n 30 from 45 minutes to t h r e e and o n e - h a l f hours. time was two hours. The average le ngth of All cases were t r a n s c r i b e d and were read. themes f o r a n a l y s i s were i d e n t i f i e d . Major Data were coded and analyzed. In 1965, Johnstone and Rivera designed a study t h a t used an i n te rv ie w protocol in an atte mp t to focus on a d u l t le ar ni ng a c t i v i ­ t i e s and th e e x t e n t to which American a d u l t s used le a r n in g f a c i l i t i e s in ty p ic a l urban communities. Working with r e s e a r c h e r s a t Chicago's National Opinion Research Center (NORC), a highly s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r ­ view protocol was designed to probe a d u l t le ar ni ng p r a c t i c e s . P ri nt e d cards were used as vi su al a i d s to a s s i s t th e respondents to r e c a l l information t h a t would a i d in the depth of the data being probed. I n te rv ie w e rs were f a m i l i a r i z e d with th e purpose of the re s ea rc h and were t r a i n e d by NORC in th e procedures included in the in te rvi ew protocol. Using a na tiona l p r o b a b i l i t y sampling, Johnstone and R i v e r a ' s r e s e a r c h teams interviewed 23,950 a d u l t s in 11,957 house­ holds in t h r e e midwestern c i t i e s with populations between 100,000 and 300,000. In 1969, Tough devised a r e s e a rc h methodology t h a t combined an i n te rv ie w protocol and a small sample, as Houle had done before him. He used numerous p r i n t e d c a r d s , as Johnstone and Rivera had a l s o done, t o a i d respondents t o r e c a l l a s e r i e s o f t a s k s t h a t were believed by Tough to be involved with th e le a r n in g procedures employed by a d u l t s in th e process o f s e l f - t e a c h i n g t h a t was thought to have accom­ panied t h e i r l e a r n in g p r o j e c t s . In hi s attempt to d is c o v e r a d u l t le ar n in g procedure and the a s s i s t a n c e t h a t a d u l t s sought in the le a r n in g p r o c e s s , Tough s e le c te d 31 40 s u b j e c t s f o r h i s study who were s t u d e n t s , r e l a t i v e s , or f r i e n d s . Interviews took place in p r i v a t e homes where th e atmosphere o f the i n v e s t i g a t i o n could be q u i e t and undis tur be d. In a highly s t r u c t u r e d in te rv ie w t h a t l a s t e d from one and o n e -h a lf to t h r e e hours, Tough probed i n t e n s i v e l y in an attempt t o question each a d u l t about his le a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s in r e l a t i o n to the 12 d i f f e r e n t ta sk s t h a t Tough had devised to d e l i n e a t e th e s e l f - t e a c h i n g proc ess. Each o f the 12 t a s k s was assigne d a s e p a r a te q u e s ti o n n a ir e and memo sh ee ts f o r r e l e ­ vant q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a . Responses to the q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were recorded on one summary c h a r t f o r data a n a l y s i s . Again, in 1970, building upon the work of Houle and Johnstone and Ri vera, Tough designed an in te rv ie w protocol t o survey 66 a d u l t s regarding th e e x t e n t and th e importance they a tt a ch e d to t h e i r l e a r n ­ ing p r o j e c t s . The a d u l t s , who encompassed 10 s e p a ra te p o p u la ti o n s , were interviewed in t h e i r homes by th r e e in te rv ie w e r s who had been j t r a i n e d by Tough. Qu estionnaires f o r t h i s study were re p o rt e d by Tough (1971) to have been " i n t e n s i v e and highly s t r u c t u r e d " (p. 16). Data from the 66 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were coded in pre p a ra t io n f o r a n a l y s i s . In a study t h a t sampled th e e n t i r e U.S. po p u la ti o n , Penland (1977) used int e rv ie w s s t r u c t u r e d by a q u e s ti o n n a ir e to focus on the e x p lo ra ti o n o f th e le a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the average American adult. In an attempt to v a l i d a t e Tough's f in d i n g s on the number and th e scope o f a d u l t le ar n in g p r o j e c t s , Penland's in te rv ie w e r s ques­ tio ne d 1,501 a d u l t s . The qu est io ns in the survey instrument were s i m i l a r to those t h a t Houle and Tough included in t h e i r in te rv ie w pr o to c o ls . R e s t r i c t e d to one-hour i n t e r v i e w s , Penland, as Johnstone 32 and Rivera had done before him, organized th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o include high ly s t r u c t u r e d qu est io ns t h a t asked f o r closed and open-ended r e p l i e s from the respondents. A p r e f i n a l version of the instrument was p r e t e s t e d f o r respondent understanding and in te rv ie w er p ro c e s s ­ ing by the Opinion Research Center in P r in c e to n , N.J. "Trained i n te rv ie w e r s were o r ie n te d to the purpose, scope, and methods of the study and were guided by the protocol m a t e r i a l s as well as p r e c i s e i n s t r u c t i o n s of th e i n te rv ie w e r su pe r vis o r y personnel" (Penland, 1977, p. 23). Data handling, which included coding, o r g a n i z a t i o n , reduc­ t i o n , and d i s p l a y , was done a t the Center f o r Urban Research a t the U niv e rs it y of P it ts b u r g h . Summary o f survey methodology on a d u l t s as l e a r n e r s . Using s t u d i e s o f Houle, Johnstone and Rivera, Tough, and Penland as p r e c e ­ dent f o r methodological g u i d e l i n e s , the following ob s er va tio ns can be made: 1. Subjec ts in smal ler samples have ranged from 22 2. Smaller samples were g e n e r a l l y found to be conveni­ to 66. ence samples t h a t included respondents known t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r or who were suggested as s u i t a b l e inte rvi ew ees f o r th e purpose o f the research. 3. Data obtained in t h e int erv iew s were obtained by the use of q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . 4. The s t r u c t u r e o f the in te rv ie w depended upon the purpose o f th e in te rv ie w and th e use o f open-ended o r a combination o f closed and open-ended q u e s ti o n s . 33 5. The d u r a ti o n o f u ns tr uc tu re d int er vie w s was between one and t h r e e and o n e - h a l f hours. Those interv ie ws t h a t used a protocol combining closed and open-ended qu est io ns were completed in about one hour. 6. Tape r e c ord er s were used to record interv iew s in s t u d i e s where th e samples were small. In samples l a r g e and s m a l l, p ro v is io n s were made t o record information r e l e v a n t to the in te rvi ew t h a t could be e la b o r a te d upon by th e in te rv ie w e r a f t e r the in te rvi ew had been completed. 7. Pr in te d c ards were used to a s s i s t th e resp on de nts ' r e c a l l when probing was atte mptin g to a t t a i n in-depth information. 8. Attempts were made by the in te rv ie w e r to e s t a b l i s h a s o c ia b le c lim at e t h a t would be conducive to th e ease and comfort o f th e respondent. 9. In tervi ew er t r a i n i n g t h a t included f a m i l i a r i t y with the goals of th e re s ea rc h was a p a r t o f th e re s ea rc h methodology in each study. 10. A p i l o t study was run by the r e s e a r c h e r . 11. Data from the p i l o t study were i d e n t i f i e d , coded, and analyzed according t o th e methods to be employed in the l a r g e r s tu dy , and r e v i s i o n s were inc or po rat ed i n t o th e r e s e a r c h . Findings From Surveys Using Inter vie w Methodology In a pio neer study in 1963, Houle surveyed th e le ar ni ng behavior of a group o f a d u l t s who had been i d e n t i f i e d by t h e i r f r i e n d s and ed uca tor s as being conspicuously engaged in l e a r n i n g . All s u b je c ts 34 in t h e study were urban, middle c l a s s , and r e l a t i v e l y well educated. Data obtained from in -d e pth interview s r e l a t e d to Houle t h a t t h e d i f ­ f e re n c e s between l e a r n e r s were a ma tte r o f th e emphasis they tended t o pla ce on educa tio n. Houle proposed t h a t while not a l l a d u l t s appeared to be continuing l e a r n e r s , those in h is sample po pulation could be c a te g o ri z e d in to t h r e e d i s t i n c t groups. Those who were " g o a l - o r ie n te d " had a c l e a r view of what they expected to achie ve . Those who were " a c t i v i t y - o r i e n t e d " were o f t e n found t o ta ke p a r t in le a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s f o r reasons not o u t l i n e d in th e courses they had a tt e n d e d . The t h i r d group included those who were " l e a r n i n g - o r i e n t e d " and whose l i v e s were motivated by a strong d e s i r e to l e a r n . From data gained in his in te r v ie w s , Houle observed t h a t p a r ­ t i c i p a t i o n o f a d u l t s in education rose u n t i l age 50 and then s ha r ply declined. He a l s o noted t h a t t h e more highly educated th e a d u l t , th e more l i k e l y was the a d u l t t o p a r t i c i p a t e in s t r u c t u r e d l e a r n in g j activities. Houle's re s ea rc h convinced him t h a t the scope and com­ p l e x i t y of a d u l t le a r n in g as a t o p i c f o r f u r t h e r study must be brought t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f those o f f e r i n g educational e x p e r ie n c e s , who then "must not ask why but whys u n t i l t h e r e i s understanding o f how mature people approach th e t a s k s and t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f adulthood" (p . 81). In 1965, Johnstone and Rivera conducted re s ea rc h i n t e r v i e w ­ ing 23,950 a d u l t s in t h r e e midwestern c i t i e s in an attempt to add to the information t h a t was known about a d u l t le a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T he ir e x te n s iv e survey probed i n t o the educational ex periences of a d u l t s in th e United S t a t e s over a 12-month p e r i o d . Int erviews were s t r u c t u r e d by an instrument t h a t focused on how d i f f e r e n t segments 35 o f the sample popu lation perceived and ev aluated t h e i r le a r n i n g e x pe r ie nc e s. Also sought was information about th e number and kind o f l e a r n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t were l i k e l y to be found in t y p i c a l urban communities with pop ulation s between 100,000 and 300,000 inhabitants. Of s pec ial i n t e r e s t in t h e i r fi n d i n g s was th e f a c t t h a t , o f those sampled, p e r s i s t e n c e in continued le a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s was l i k e l y to be the product o f th e f a c t o r s of age and previous schoo li ng . Corroborating Houle's fi n d i n g s on a l a r g e r s c a l e , th e s u b j e c t ma tte r chosen by Johnstone and R i v e r a ' s respondents was a p t t o be approached with a pragmatic concern. P r o j e c t i o n s made esti ma te d t h a t 25 m i l l i o n a d u l t s throughout t h e country were a c t i v e in one type or a no th er of a d u l t l e a r n in g in t h e y e a r 1962. courses on a p a r t - t i m e b a s i s . Another 17 m i l l i o n were e n r o l l e d in Seemingly an almost s e r e n d i p i t o u s f i n d ­ ing o f t h e i r re s e a r c h was th e f a c t t h a t an esti mated nine m i l l i o n j a d u l t s were engaged in "independent s t u d y , " which was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by th e survey instrument as variou s forms o f s e l f - t e a c h i n g and s e l f help a c t i v i t i e s . On th e b a s i s o f t h e i r 1962 f i n d i n g s , Johnstone and Rivera a l e r t e d t h e ed ucation al community to t h e f a c t t h a t by 1982 t h e r e were l i k e l y t o be 57 m i l l i o n American a d u l t s involved in some form o f study through s e l f - 1 ear nin g. Tough's 1964 study o f c o l l e g e graduates sought t o expand the l e a r n in g the ory on s e l f - t e a c h i n g by asking a d u l t s themselves how they proceeded with t h e i r own s e l f - t e a c h i n g . Concerned with a s s e s s i n g and measuring the d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t s o f t h e respondents through t h e i r l e a r n in g p r o j e c t s , a d u l t s were asked t o s i n g l e o u t th os e as pe c ts 36 with which they had experienced d i f f i c u l t y or concern. They were then asked when, to whom, and to what e x t e n t they had turned to o t h e r s f o r assistance. Continued o b s er va tio n o f a d u l t s in the l e a r n in g process led Tough (1967) t o d e f i n e l e a r n in g experience atte m pt to le a r n some knowledge as "a highly d e l i b e r a t e or s k i l l " (p. 4 ) . He introduced a time frame o f r e fe re n c e by s p eci fyi ng t h a t a s e l f - t e a c h i n g p r o j e c t include a t year. l e a s t e i g h t hours o f time spent oni t within the p a st F u r th e r , the le a r n in g experience was q u a l i f i e d by Tough's c r i t e r i o n t h a t the respondent had assumed th e primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r pla nn in g, c o n t r o l , and s up ervis ion o f the e n t i r e p r o j e c t (1971, p. 6 ) . Tough's fi n d i n g s in 1963 in d ic a te d t h a t 98% o f t h e s u b j e c t s in h is sample were engaged in d e l i b e r a t e s e l f - t a u g h t l e a r n in g p r o j e c t s . He a l s o found a s u r p r i s i n g d i s p a r i t y between th e d i f f e r e n c e in what j a d u l t s thought they had l e a r n e d , compared t o what they had a c t u a l l y le a r n e d . These r e s u l t s led Tough to b e li e v e t h a t t h e r e was y e t much to be done t o e f f e c t i v e l y improve both the method and th e procedures in s e l f - t e a c h i n g in q u ir y . Tough's 1970 int er vie w s of a d u l t s from seven d i f f e r e n t popu­ l a t i o n s t h a t included p r o f e s s o r s , p o l i t i c i a n s , l o w e r - w h i t e - c o l l a r workers, t e a c h e r s , and mothers led to the discovery t h a t th e respond­ e n t s had sp ent an average o f 700 hours a y e a r on an average o f e i g h t projects. In view o f th e scope and th e number o f hours t h a t a d u l t s appeared t o involve themselves in s e lf - 1 e a r n in g , Tough (1971) f u r t h e r define d a le a r n in g p r o j e c t as "a s e r i e s of r e l a t e d episodes adding 37 up t o a t l e a s t seven hours where more than h a l f o f a pe rs ons' t o t a l mo tivation i s to gain and r e t a i n c e r t a i n f a i r l y c l e a r knowledge and s k i l l o r to produce a l a s t i n g change in himself" (p. 6 ) . Further s t u d i e s have r a i s e d a d d iti on a l que sti ons concerning a re a s o f a d u l t le a r n in g t h a t a r e s t i l l in need o f a m p l i f i c a t i o n . These ar eas include in q u ir y i n t o human and nonhuman resou rce s used f o r planning le a r n in g p r o j e c t s and th e v a r i e t y and r e l a t i o n s h i p o f those to whom s e l f - l e a r n i n g a d u l t s tu rn f o r a s s i s t a n c e . Tough (1971) proposed t h a t what i s known about d e l i b e r a t e s e l f - l e a r n i n g r e p r e s e n t s only the highly v i s i b l e a sp e c t of what y e t remains to be le a r n e d . He sug­ gested t h a t r e s e a rc h i s needed in s p e c i f i c geographic a re as including "a high p r i o r i t y need in some d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s of unmet needs concern­ ing peer s e l f - h e l p groups" (p. 199). London and his a s s o c i a t e s a ls o used survey re s ea rc h when they interviewed 2,500 org a n iz a ti o n s in an attempt to o b ta in information about a d u l t education being o f f e r e d in Oakland, C a l i f o r n i a , in 1963. A m u l t i s t a g e p r o b a b i l i t y sampling o f 4,008 males between t h e ages o f 20 and 59 ye ars was s o l i c i t e d through telephone in t e r v i e w s . Those who p a r t i c i p a t e d were then matched by age and occupation with an e q u iv a l e n t group o f n o n p a r t i c i p a n t s . A more a n a l y t i c survey o f 599 males was obtained through in -de pth int er vie w s t h a t were designed to focus on the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a d u l t education and the con di tio n o f th e le ss -e d u c at e d and l e s s - s k i l l e d groups in s o c i e t y . The study sought answers on th e r a t e o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a d u l t education by age, r a c e , and s oci a l c l a s s . 38 London's da ta corroborated r e s u l t s found by both Houle and Johnstone and Rivera. I t was seen t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a d u l t edu­ c a ti o n was most influenc ed by th e le vel of p re vi ou s ly achieved edu­ c a ti o n a l a tt a in m e n t . Young men who had j u s t completed t h e i r education were more l i k e l y to p a r t i c i p a t e in a d u l t educational c l a s s e s than o l d e r men. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a c t i v i t y and p a s s i v i t y of l e i s u r e ­ time a c t i v i t i e s i n d ic a te d t h a t those who enjoyed a c t i v e l e i s u r e were more l i k e l y to become involved in a d u l t ed ucation. That th e b e t t e r educated were w h i t e - c o l l a r and the l e s s educated were b l u e - c o l l a r employees could be seen to e x i s t only in a re as o f vocational educa­ tion. In o t h e r a r e a s , th e b e t t e r educated favored p u r s u i t s in a c a ­ demic a r e a s . P a r t i c i p a t i o n o f young black men was f a i r l y s i m i l a r , o v e r a l l , to young white men. Im pl ica tio ns o f London's re s ea rc h f o r a d u l t ed ucators included th e fin di ng t h a t program d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n in a d u l t education i s l i k e l y j to be voiced by m id d le -c la ss a d u l t s seeking to expand t h e i r a re as of interest. I t was suspected t h a t , lacki ng verbal s k i l l s t h a t would enable them to a r t i c u l a t e t h e i r grievances r e a d i l y , th e l e s s educated were more i n c l i n e d to lower attendance r a t e s o r ap athy. F a il in g to c o n t r o l , th e lower socioeconomic were seen to d i s c o n t in u e e n ro ll m e n t, or to drop o u t. London issued a caveat cau ti on in g a d u l t educators to be aware o f t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s to a d u l t l e a r n e r s in view of the d i v e r s i t y and complexity of t h e i r s oci a l backgrounds and th e numerous v a r i a b l e s evid ent in th e he te ro ge ne ity o f t h e i r psychological make-up. Although Hie ms tr a's sample population was small (Nfl 58), r e s u l t s of hi s survey re s ea rc h added another dimension t o our knowledge 39 of a d u l t l e a r n in g when age was considered as t h e deciding f a c t o r on what a d u l t s chose to l e a r n . Heimstra observed t h a t d e s p i t e the f a c t t h a t those over 65 c o n s t i t u t e the l a r g e s t m in o ri ty in t h e n a t i o n , only 2 % o f them in 1969 p a r t i c i p a t e d in a d u l t education as compared with 18% f o r those aged 18 t o 35. His 1975 re s ea rc h explored the f a c t o r s t h a t appeared to i n h i b i t o l d e r a d u l t p a r t i c i p a t i o n and f u r t h e r made in q u ir y i n t o the na tur e of aging a d u l t s ' s u b j e c t m a t t e r , whether of instrumental o r exp ressi ve o r i e n t a t i o n and the e x t e n t to which the le a r n in g took place in a given y e a r . As was th e case with th e younger a d u l t l e a r n e r s c i t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e , Hiemstra's o l d e r a d u l t l e a r n ­ e r s were pragmatic in t h e i r ov e ra ll approach t o le ar nin g p r o j e c t s . Thus, while t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n was toward u t i l i t y , t h e aged a d u l t s expressed a pre fe re nce f o r le a r n in g in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f personal s a t i s f a c t i o n and s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t in the a re a s of r e l i g i o n , r e c r e a ­ t i o n and c r a f t s including homemaking, he al th and fin a nc es r a t h e r j than a s t a t u s - s e e k i n g type o f pragmatism t h a t would have l e n t i t s e l f t o c i v i c o r so cia l competencies. In h i s sample o f urban and r u r a l a d u l t s , lack of money, h e a l t h , and th e l o c a t i o n o f re so urce s were seen as i n h i b i t i n g f a c t o r s to continued le ar ni ng with age. Additionally, Hiemstra (1975) found t h a t h is sample population included "more m in o r it y groups, higher educated people and more urban r e s i d e n t s than could be expected in comparison with 1970 Census d a ta " (p. 70) . In 1977, Penland used na tiona l survey methodology t o explore l e a r n e r a t t r i b u t e s toward s e l f - p l a n n e d education as seen not from what th e l e a r n e r s ai d but by what changes were produced in l e a r n e r behavior. Seeking to c o r r o b o ra te on a na tio na l s c a l e th e fi n d i n g s of more l i m i t e d s t u d i e s , Penland followed Havelock's 1970 disse min at ion and u t i l i z a t i o n model o f knowledge, pro du c tio n, d i s s e m in a ti o n , and utilization. I t was Havelock's assumption t h a t those involved in the process o f ob ta in in g information had plans to use i t to some le vel o r degree. In seeking t o f u r t h e r Houle's i n q u i r y i n t o how mature a d u l t s approach the t a s k s and the o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f ad ulthood, Penland used Tough's concepts t o measure th e le ar ni ng e f f o r t s o f a le ar ni ng project. The f in d i n g s in Penland's data t h a t may have th e g r e a t e s t im pl ic a ti o n to a d u l t educators may be t h a t a d u l t s p r e f e r r e d not to a tt e n d formal c l a s s e s because o f a la ck o f f l e x i b i l i t y in the le a r n in g strategies. On a na tio na l s c a l e , th e tendency f o r a d u l t s to seek control f o r a t l e a s t c e r t a i n asp e c ts of t h e i r l i v e s was seen to c a r r y over to a d u l t le a r n in g t o th e e x t e n t t h a t i f they were not allowed th e freedom to control in a formalized s e t t i n g , then th e American a d u l t expressed th e pre fere nce to remove h im /h e rs e lf from t h a t s e t t i n g in fa vor o f s e l f - 1 earning with autonomy. With a n a tio na l sampling, Penland's fi n d i n g s supported th e r e s u l t s t h a t Tough had found on a smaller s c a l e . Eighty p er cen t o f Americans over 18 y e ar s of age were seen to have been engaged in some form of le a r n in g a c t i v i t y in 1975. O v e r a l l, t h e r e i s an 80% proba­ b i l i t y t h a t t h e le a r n in g experiences in which the se Americans were involved were s e l f - i n i t i a t e d . Penland a l s o found t h a t 98% o f a d u l t l e a r n e r s p r e f e r r e d s e l f - l e a r n i n g , in a d d i t i o n to pacing, because o f an expressed concern t h a t was apparent in t h e i r responses to f e a r s about lacking a b i l i t i e s in r e l a t i o n t o group process s k i l l s . He f u r t h e r found t h a t a d u l t l e a r n e r s were g e n e r a l l y p e r c e p t i v e in t h e i r 41 a n a l y s i s o f both t h e fav ora bl e o p p o r t u n i t i e s and c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t l e a r n in g o p p o r t u n i t i e s were l i k e l y to provi de . As such, they a re ap t to choose thos e outcomes t h a t will have a p o s i t i v e e f f e c t both on the l e a r n e r and the l e a r n e r ' s environment. In 1977, Guglielmino's r e s e a rc h sought to e s t a b l i s h l e a r n e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s through th e design o f an instrument t h a t attempted to measure a s e l f - d i r e c t e d l e a r n i n g - r e a d i n e s s s c a l e . Using th e Delphi te ch n i q u e, 14 n a tio na l e x p e r ts in a d u l t education were canvassed to o b ta in t h e p r e f e r r e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a d u l t l e a r n e r s . The t r a i t s were perceived to be " i n i t i a t i v e ; independence and p e r s i s t e n c e in l e a r n i n g ; one who a cc e pts r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r his or her own le ar n in g and views problems as c h a l l e n g e , not o b s t a c l e s ; one who i s capable of s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e and has a high degree o f c u r i o s i t y ; one who i s ab le to use ba sic study s k i l l s , organize hi s o r her time and s e t an approp­ r i a t e pace f o r le a r n in g and t o develop a plan f o r completing work; one who enjoys le a r n in g and has a tendency to be g o a l - o r i e n t e d " (p. 73). These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s chosen by th e survey panel were borne out in response t o th e instrument when t e s t e d . Of importance t o educators in t h e f i e l d i s t h e r e c o g n it io n and need f o r development o f those a b i l i t i e s t h a t a re seen as e s s e n t i a l to le a r n in g r e a d i n e s s . Summary o f f i n d i n g s from surveys using in te rv ie w methodology. Surveys l a r g e and small have been used as re s ea rc h t o o l s t o gain information about t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p r a c t i c e s , and scope o f a d u l t learners. Populations have included n a tio na l samples as well as la r g e urban p o p u la ti o n s . Also re p r e s e n t i n g a la r g e sur ve y, London's a d u l t male sample attempted to seek information about a d u l t 42 p a r t i c i p a t i o n in education by th e use o f th e demographic v a r ia b le s o f age, r a c e , and so c ia l c l a s s . The incremental n a tu re o f re s e a rc h has been l e n t in s i g h t s from surveys conducted on a much sm aller s c a le than those j u s t c i t e d . Houle sought to c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y i d e n t i f y a d u lt le a r n e r o r i e n t a t i o n in approach to th e le a rn in g e x p erience. Tough's s tu d ie s using samples, o fte n small and t y p i c a l l y middle c l a s s , have explored th e le a rn in g behavior o f th o se a d u lts who f e l t a respon­ s i b i l i t y f o r orga n iz in g and conducting t h e i r own le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s . H ie m stra's a d u lts over age 65 were s t i l l l i k e l y to fa v o r th e prag­ m atic approach to t h e i r le a r n in g , although a s t h e i r y e ars increased they were in c lin e d to reduce th e e x te rn a l scope o f t h e i r le a rn in g in fa v o r o f th e p ro p e n s ity t o choose to p ic s t h a t were o f s a t i s f a c t i o n to themselves r a t h e r than o f c iv ic o r s o c ia l competence. P en la n d 's 1977 re s e a rc h looked to a n a tio n a l sample to g e n e r a liz e sm aller re s e a rc h in q u i r i e s on a n a tio n a l s c a l e . Examples o f survey re s e a rc h t h a t began in th e e a r ly 1960s have had marked r e s u l t s in in c re a s in g our understanding o f a d u lt le a rn in g th e o ry . From th e in te rv ie w surveys c i t e d , i t has been learn ed t h a t : 1. P e rs is te n c e in c o ntin uing education i s a p t to be depend­ e n t on age and y e a rs o f previous scho olin g. 2. Sub ject m a tte r f o r younger a d u lt le a r n e r s w ill l i k e l y be pragmatic in i t s o r i e n t a t i o n while o ld e r a d u lt le a r n e r s a r e a p t to tu rn to le a r n in g t h a t w ill f o s t e r enjoyment in t h e i r remaining y e a r s . 3. Eighty p e rc e n t o f Americans over 18 y e ars of age are l i k e l y to be involved in some form o f s e l f - i n i t i a t e d le a rn in g a c t i v i t y . C urrent e s tim a te s propose t h a t th e r e a r e in excess o f 50 m illio n 43 Americans involved in s e lf-p la n n e d le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s w ithin the period o f one y e a r. 4. There i s an 80% p r o b a b ility t h a t a d u lt le a rn in g w ill be both s e l f - i n i t i a t e d and s e l f - d i r e c t e d . 5. Americans, as a group, harbor f e a r s about group p ro c e ss. Admitting t h e i r a n x ie t ie s about communication s k i l l s , th ey c lin g to a o ne-to-one model o f le a rn in g or p r e f e r to le a rn by them selves. 6. Adult le a r n e r s appear to have become adept in analyzing both th e fa v o ra b le o p p o r tu n itie s and c o n s t r a i n t s involved in le a rn in g situ a tio n s. Because o f t h i s , they a re l i k e l y to make s e l e c tio n s t h a t w ill maximize outcomes t h a t w ill enhance s e lf-e ste e m o r fav o rab ly a f f e c t t h e i r surroundings. L i t e r a t u r e on Self-H elp Housing The t h i r d source from which th e review o f l i t e r a t u r e was drawn i s th e l i t e r a t u r e on s e l f - h e l p housing. A b r i e f background and h i s ­ to ry o f s e l f - h e l p housing i s d escribed to a id th e re a d e r in under­ stand in g th e housing program in th e p re s e n t study. The term " s e l f - h e l p housing" i s g e n e r a lly used to d e s c rib e a method o f c o n s tru c tio n in which members o f th e f a m ilie s t h a t w ill own and occupy a group o f houses a c t u a l l y help to build t h e i r own homes using t h e i r own and each o t h e r 's la b o r. In th e United S ta te s to d ay , t h i s method o f c o n s tru c tio n i s u s u a lly undertaken by groups o f fam i­ l i e s organized and a s s i s t e d by a sponsor o rg a n iz a tio n and a s s i s t e d by a " s e l f - h e l p " program in a given community o r geographic area (Department o f A g r ic u ltu r e , 1981). 44 Self-H elp Housing Outside th e United S ta te s S e lf- h e lp housing i s no t indigenous to th e United S t a t e s . It has been e f f e c t i v e l y in co rp o rated and e f f i c i e n t l y adm inistered in la rg e government housing programs in Greece, Venezuela, Columbia, and Sweden. The Swedish p r o je c t in 1927 t h a t became known as The Stockholm Plan appears to be th e e a r l i e s t known s e l f - h e l p housing program in th e world. I t s purpose was to provide low-income s e l f - h e l p housing to th e ill- h o u s e d r e s id e n ts o f Stockholm. The Greek government turned t o s e l f - h e l p housing methods in an attem p t to q u ick ly house almost one m illio n refugees a f t e r World War I I . Since t h a t tim e , between 70,000 and 90,000 houses have been b u ilt. S e lf - h e lp housing in Venezuela was a program supported by th e Venezuelan National Rural Housing Program and was i n s t i t u t e d f o r th e purpose o f providing s a n i t a r y , inexpensive housing f o r th o se people who had p re v io u sly liv e d in th e mountain are as but who had migrated to th e f e r t i l e lowlands. The Five-Year Plan c a ll e d f o r 94,000 homes to be b u i l t in a re a s with populations under 10,000. Faced w ith a housing shortage because th e low-income popula­ tio n had doubled between 1950 and 1960, th e government i n s t i t u t e d a s e l f - h e l p housing program in Columbia in 1960. In th e 1960s, 52,000 houses were produced with a governmental commitment to b u ild 10,000 homes a y e ar t h e r e a f t e r (HUD, 1969). In 1949, th e Social Programs A dm inistration o f th e Puerto Rican government i n s t i t u t e d a Community Action Plan based on methods 45 o f mutual s e l f - h e l p c o n s tru c tio n f o r low -cost housing f o r th e purpose o f r e s e t t l i n g Puerto Rican la b o re rs c lo s e to ru r a l communities. Between 1949 and June 1970, 37,778 houses had been b u i l t in 369 ru ra l corrmunities (HUD, 1971). S elf-H elp Housing in th e United S ta te s Long-range governmental p o lic y appears to be i n d e f i n i t e about i t s long-range housing g o a ls . A commitment t o housing f o r low-income fa m ilie s made in th e Housing Acts o f 1933, 1949, and l a t e r in 1961 was recognized by th e Housing and Urban Development Act o f 1969 as not having been r e a l i z e d . In Section 2 of th e 1949 a c t , th e Congress a ffirm s th e natio n a l go als o f "a decent home and a s u i t a b l e liv in g environment f o r every American fam ily" (Public Law, 1968). FHA Section 221 i s designed to a s s i s t p r iv a te in d u s try in supplying urban housing f o r low- and moderate-income f a m ilie s and j d is p la c e d f a m ilie s . The b asic l e g i s l a t i o n f o r th e v ario us FmHA r u r a l housing programs i s T i t l e V o f th e Housing Act o f 1949, which was amended to make homeownership loans to nonfarm r u r a l r e s i d e n t s . Section 523 a u th o riz ed FmHA to make te c h n i c a l- a s s is ta n c e g ra n ts to s e l f - h e l p housing groups in ru ra l a re a s and small towns w ith popula­ t i o n s under 10,000 r e s i d e n t s . S e lf- h e lp housing has been considered a way to a s s i s t f a m ilie s to a t t a i n adequate housing through th e enhancement o f s k i l l s t h a t a re used in th e b u ild in g process (D epart­ ment o f A g ric u ltu re , 1978). Federal government involvem ent. The National Housing Act was enacted "to encourage improvement in housing standards and c o n d itio n s , 46 to provide a system o f mutual mortgage in s u ra n c e , and f o r o th e r purposes" (The S ta tu te s a t Large o f the United S ta te s o f America, Vol. 48, P a rt 1, pp. 1246-1265). At th e n a tio n a l l e v e l , th e D epart­ ment o f Housing and Urban Development supports a broad range of housing programs. Before th e 1968 amendment o f th e Housing A ct, th re e fe d e ral agencies shared th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a d m in iste rin g s e l f - h e l p housing programs. These agencies included th e O ffice f o r Economic O pportunity, th e Bureau o f Indian A f f a i r s , and th e Public Health S e rv ic e . Since 1968, Farmers Home A dm inistration has been th e le a d e r in th e f i e l d o f fe d e ral agencies t h a t support organized mutual s e l f - h e l p housing a c t i v i t i e s . Loans made by FmHA under T i t l e V, Section 502 of th e Housing Act o f 1949, as amended, provide mortgage funds f o r s e l f - h e l p housing. Section 523 was amended in 1968 to provide funds f o r te c h n ic a l a s s is ta n c e to g ra n te e s . These funds were assigned to be used f o r a d m in is tr a tiv e a s s i s t a n c e , f o r payment o f fe e s f o r p re c o n s tru c tio n m eeting s, and f o r th e p ro v isio n and tr a i n i n g o f f a m ilie s as they c o n s tr u c t t h e i r houses (Mutual Self-H elp Housing, 1982). S ta te D ire c to rs o f FHA a re re s p o n sib le f o r implementing f e d ­ e ra l housing programs in accordance w ith Public Law 90-448 and i t s amendments. D ire c tiv e s a re c a r r ie d ou t by d i s t r i c t d i r e c t o r s and county s u p e r v is o r s . Section 523 c o n s t i t u t e s a very small program in th e range o f programs a dm inistered by FmHA. The t o t a l FY82 Rural Insurance Fund f o r low-income loans (Sec. 502) was $2.3 b i l l i o n . Of th e $2.3 b i l l i o n , mutual s e l f - h e l p housing was a l l o t t e d $3.95 m illio n in 1982. 47 C arry-over funds were a v a il a b le from previous y e a rs t h a t enabled the program to o p e ra te a t a le v e l o f $13.2 m illio n in 1982. The National Rural Housing C o a litio n re p o rte d on December 12, 1982, t h a t th e A gri­ c u l t u r a l A p propriations Act has been signed in to law by P re s id e n t Reagan a l l o c a t i n g $12.5 m illio n to s e l f - h e l p housing f o r 1983. This budget w ill allow th e housing program to produce approxim ately th e same number o f homes as were b u i l t in 1982. E arly s e l f - h e l p housing programs. S e lf - h e lp housing was f i r s t organized in th e United S ta te s in 1933 a t N o rv e lt, Pennsylvania. The p r o j e c t was i n i t i a t e d by th e Westmoreland County R e lie f Board to provide housing f o r unemployed coal m iners. The Penn-C raft Self-H elp Housing P r o je c t was d escrib ed as having begun in Pennsylvania in th e 1930s by the American Friends Serv ice Committee. This 50 -fam ily , tw o -sto ry sto ne house p r o je c t with c e n tr a l heating and in s id e plumbing p ro je c te d the concept o f q u a l i t y , j d u rable housing and e s ta b lis h e d th e fu tu r e p a tte r n f o r s e l f - h e l p housing in th e United S ta te s (M argolis, 1967). In th e United S ta te s to d ay , 61 s e l f - h e l p housing programs in 26 s t a t e s con tin ue t o provide housing f o r low- and moderate-income fa m ilie s as they have done s in c e World War I I . The f i r s t o f th e se was th e Flanner House P r o je c t in I n d ia n a p o lis , In d ia n a , which was begun in 1946 by a n o n p ro fit o rg a n iz a tio n whose purpose was th e redevelopment o f p ro p e rty t h a t once c o n s ti tu te d a slum a re a in which black r e s i d e n t s o f moderate income had been inadeq uately housed because o f c r e d i t d is c r im in a tio n . 48 S ix ty -fo u r houses had been completed by 1955 when Bauman made her study of th e communication networks of 48 f a m ilie s . The study observed th e formal and informal a c t i v i t i e s , h ob b ies, i n t e r e s t s , a t t i t u d e s , and openness in home neighborhoods. Also explored were th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith in and o u ts id e o f th e housing program as well as th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between th e fa m ilie s in th e housing program and those o u ts id e th e development. Bauman examined a group o f 21 f a m ilie s w ith a fo u r-y e a r te n u re and a second group o f f a m ilie s who had re s id e d in th e development f o r a p eriod o f two y e a r s . She sought to study not only th e i n t e r a c t i o n w ith in th e s e l f - h e l p groups but a ls o the gro up s' i n t e r a c t i o n w ith th e l a r g e r comnunity o f I n d ia n a p o lis . All o f th e data c o n sid e re d , th e f a c t o r showing th e most c o n s is te n t i n f l u ­ ence on fam ily i n t e r a c t i o n w ith in th e groups was th e le n g th of r e s i ­ dence. She found t h a t the homogeneity o f t h e i r backgrounds, work s t y l e , and l i v i n g c o n d itio n s led each fa m ily , however i n d i r e c t l y , to be r e l a t e d to every o th e r fam ily w ith a minimum development o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n or th e form ation o f c liq u e s . Bauman's study has im p lic a tio n s f o r so c ia l plann ers in s o fa r as th e a t t e n t i o n paid to so c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a f f e c t s th e members o f f u tu r e developments. She suggested t h a t f u tu r e housing planners put human needs and i n t e r e s t s ahead o f , i f not on a par w ith , f in a n ­ c i a l i n t e r e s t s i f a su ccessfu l combination o f urban planning and human i n t e r a c t i o n i s to be achieved. S e lf- h e lp housing in C a l i f o r n i a . No h i s t o r y of s e l f - h e l p housing in America would be complete w ithout some background on Self-H elp E n te rp ris e s (SHE) o f V i s a l i a , C a l i f o r n i a , which i s the 49 l a r g e s t s e l f - h e l p housing program in th e United S ta te s tod ay. The program, lo c a te d in th e San Joaquin V a lley , has e d u c a tiv e ly c a r r ie d ou t s e l f - h e l p housing programs b e n e f itin g 13,501 p a r t i c i p a n t s from 2,271 fa m ilie s s in c e 1964. Recognizing t h a t th e v a l l e y 's seven c o u n tie s contained housing t h a t was hazardous and ina d eq u a te , SHE used fe d e ra l funding to a s s i s t m igrant and farm la b o re rs to b u ild new homes. A d d itio n a lly , a Self-H elp R e h a b ilita tio n Program was designed using S e ctio ns 502 and 504 fu n d s, whereby r e s i d e n t s who owned t h e i r own homes could make them s a f e r pla ce s to l i v e w ith r e c o n s tr u c tio n accomp­ lis h e d by fam ily members who were supervised by SHE s t a f f . Over th e y e a r s , SHE has found i t s e l f to be in th e p o s itio n o f counselor as well as c a r p e n te r as groups o f 8 to 12 f a m ilie s come to g e th e r in th e s e l f - h e l p p ro c e ss. Group f r i c t i o n s can emerge as ra d ic a l changes in l i f e s t y l e s begin to ta k e p la c e . Personal je a l o u s i e s can f l a r e and d is p u te s w ith te c h n ic a l s t a f f over money and methods can and do a r i s e . Family s t r u c t u r e s can change and deaths o ccu r. Even when th e homes a re b u i l t and occupied, behavioral changes may occur because th e t r a n s i t i o n was too r a d ic a l f o r th e low-income r e s id e n ts to make th e necessary accommodations. F a m ilie s, on o c c a s io n , have f a i l e d to repay t h e i r c a p it a l c o s t , have f a l l e n in to d e f a u l t , fa c in g eventual fo r e c lo s u r e and e v i c t i o n . SHE g e n e r a lly i s seen to have enhanced th e s e lf-e ste e m o f th e in d iv id u a ls who, while housing them­ s e lv e s , increased s k i l l s in numerous o th e r a re a s as well (Unwin, 1974). Education and th e use o f new s k i l l s . The expansion o f SHE in to urban a re a s o f over 10,000 popu lation meant t h a t funds from the 50 O ffice o f Economic Opportunity (OEO) t h a t had been c a te g o riz e d fo r use f o r farm workers were n o t a v a il a b le in urban a r e a s . The fa m ilie s in th e urban a re a s would have to bear th e c o s t o f c o n s tr u c tio n s u p er­ v is io n . SHE experimented w ith o n - s i t e c o n s tru c tio n o f p re fa b ric a te d wall u n its and plumbing core systems. This did not provide th e expected sa v in g s, and in 1969, SHE e s ta b lis h e d th e f a c to r y component c a ll e d Bravo I n d u s t r i e s , which prototyped a t 8 ' x 8 ' e x t e r i o r wall t h a t re q u ire d only one day f o r th e e r e c tio n o f o n - s i t e w alls in c o n s tr a s t to c o n sid e ra b ly more time and expense when done by the s e l f - h e l p groups. As an e d u ca tiv e p a r t of s e l f - h e l p housing, Bravo has i n s t i ­ gated a one-year t r a i n i n g program t h a t has enabled la b o re rs with u n s k ille d farm backgrounds to develop " re ad in g , mathematics and the conceptual s k i l l s e s s e n t i a l f o r th e ta s k s r e l a t e d to both production and f i e l d o p e ra tio n s" (M arshall, 1972, p. 25). j Although s e l f - h e l p housing programs encompass numerous a sp e c ts in th e development o f t h e i r programming, e v a lu a tiv e s tu d ie s o f program e f f e c t iv e n e s s a re s p a rse . Two d i f f e r e n t a sp e c ts o f programs being conducted in two d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s w ill be c ite d in concluding the review o f s e l f - h e l p housing l i t e r a t u r e . S e lf- h e lp housing in Oregon. S e lf - h e lp housing in Oregon was organized in 1969 and p r i o r i t i z e d immediately a f t e r th e s t a t e ' s need f o r a d u lt e d ucation . The study o f Oregon's s e l f - h e l p housing program was c a r r i e d out by th e U n iv e rsity o f Oregon's Bureau o f Governmental Research and S erv ices f o r th e purpose o f e v a lu a tin g s e l f - h e l p housing in meeting th e needs o f th e ru r a l poor in th e Valley Migrant League, 51 whose r e s id e n ts were seasonal farm workers in W illamette V alley. An extrem ely small s tu d y , a group o f f i v e fa m ilie s and a group o f s ix fa m ilie s were followed through th e o r g a n iz a ti o n a l, lo a n -p ro c e ss in g , and c o n s tru c tio n of t h e i r homes. D espite th e ed u cativ e a s p e c ts , i t was noted t h a t sin c e prop­ e r t y ta x es were based upon re a l e s t a t e values t h a t f e l l on th e r ic h and th e poor, s e l f - h e l p housing, in e f f e c t , d e l i b e r a t e l y increased th e r e l a t i v e housing c o s ts o f low-income f a m ilie s . A d d itio n a lly , the need to c o n tr ib u te 30 hours a week o f labo r during th e p r o j e c t 's d u ra tio n was seen a s a hardship in f a m ilie s t h a t were a lre a d y involved in la b o r t h a t was p h y s ic a lly ex h au stin g . The program was a ls o c r i t i ­ cized because i t was s e t up to a t t r a c t a narrow margin o f fa m ilie s and continued to o p e ra te w ith in t h a t framework. D uplication a t various s i t e s was seen as c o s t l y , as th e program was not co ntin uo usly in o p e ra tio n and re q u ire d la rg e amounts o f s t a f f - t i m e spent in t r a in in g (Department o f Commerce, 1970). An Oklahoma stu d y . McMinn's (1974) study o f th r e e s e l f - h e l p housing programs in Oklahoma was undertaken in an e f f o r t to view s e l f - h e l p housing from an economic p o in t o f view. The in terv iew s of 73 p a r t i c i p a n t s in housing programs lo c ated in th r e e c o u n tie s covered a broad range o f f in a n c ia l to p ic s r e l a t i n g t o th e d if f e r e n c e s in c o s t between th e p a r t i c i p a n t 's c u r r e n t and previous household expenses. A t t i t u d i n a l l y , th e p a r t i c i p a n t s appeared pleased w ith th e changes t h a t s e l f - h e l p housing had brought i n to t h e i r l i v e s . t a t i o n throughout th e study was f i n a n c i a l . The a u t h o r 's o r ie n ­ He concluded t h a t s e l f - help housing o ffe re d b e n e f ic ia l r e tu r n s both to th e p a r t i c i p a n t s and 52 to th e c o u n tie s as in creased ta x bases r e s u lte d in th e a re a s in which th e c o n s tru c tio n took p la c e . McMinn proposed t h a t th e government not overlook th e f i s c a l advantages to th e p a r t i c i p a n t s as well as the o p p o rtu n ity to house i t s c i t i z e n r y a t a c o s t red u ctio n because o f s e l f - h e l p la b o r. Summary o f L i t e r a t u r e on Self-H elp Housing Seen as a c o s t - e f f e c t i v e way o f providing housing f o r the underhoused, th e governments o f Greece, Columbia, Venezuela, and Sweden preceded the United S ta te s in advocating s e l f - h e l p housing. S e lf- h e lp housing o ffe re d the r e s e t t l i n g o f la b o re rs while a t the same time providing them the means o f c o n s tr u c tin g low -cost housing. By n a tio n a l d e c re e , th e Housing Acts o f 1933 and 1949 affirm ed a "decent home" as a r i g h t o f every American. Governmental i n te r v e n ­ tio n sin ce World War I I , in th e form of funds s p e c if ie d f o r s e l f - h e l p housing, has m o n ita rily aided programs through th e y e a r s . To d a te , 61 programs e x i s t in 26 s t a t e s . Although v i r t u a l l y e x is t in g from c o a s t to c o a s t , s e l f - h e l p housing i s a small fe d e ral program. A sp arse body o f d a ta e x i s t s in th e form o f seemingly is o l a t e d s tu d ie s t h a t have attem pted to exp lore th e many f a c e t s o f th e program. both small and c r i t i c a l . Oregon's study o f 11 fa m ilie s was McMinn's o b se rv a tio n s in Oklahoma noted th e f in a n c ia l advantages to be gained by th e government in continued sup­ p o r t. Many o th e r a sp e c ts o f s e l f - h e l p housing y e t remain unexplored. 53 Summary o f Chapter II L i t e r a t u r e from th r e e primary sources was p resen ted in t h e o r e t i c support o f th e assumptions on which th e p re s e n t study was based. C urrent theory in a d u lt education b u ild s upon th e assumption t h a t to d a y 's a d u lts can be seen to expect to become involved in t h e i r own le a rn in g p ro cess. T heir s e l f - d i r e c t i o n borne o f l i f e ' s experiences le ad s them to p r e f e r in q u iry o f a p r a c t i c a l n a tu re . I t is th e ir i n c l i n a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , to d is p la y p e r s is te n c e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in t h e i r q u e st o f both t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n tra d itio n a l reso u rces in t h e i r concern f o r u t i l i t y and a p p lic a tio n . In t h e i r attem pts to add to what i s known about a d u lt l e a r n ­ ing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s tu d ie s have developed re s e a rc h methodologies using in te rv ie w s s tr u c tu r e d around q u e s tio n n a ir e s . Building i n c r e ­ m entally upon previous s t u d i e s , re sea rc h on a natio n a l s c a le has co rro b o ra te d th e fin d in g s o f small s t u d i e s , both in th e a re a s of le a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and th e le a rn in g p r a c tic e s o f a d u l t s , t h a t were f i r s t evidenced in s tu d ie s using small samples. F i r s t organized in 1933, s e l f - h e l p housing in th e United S ta te s today i s a small f e d e ra l program. I t i s seen as a c o s t - e f f e c t i v e way o f providing housing f o r th e underhoused in th e 61 pro ­ grams t h a t a re c u r r e n tly o p e ra tin g in 26 s t a t e s . s tu d ie s on s e l f - h e l p housing appear i s o l a t e d . to be explored. Data a re sp arse and Many a re a s y e t remain CHAPTER I I I METHODOLOGY The p re s e n t re s e a rc h was an e x p lo ra tio n o f th e le a rn in g c h a r­ a c te r is tic s of rural a d u lts. I t was a study not only of th e t r a d i ­ t i o n a l l y accepted methods o f le a rn in g such as re a d in g , stu d y in g , o r view ing, but i t a lso in v e s tig a te d th e process o f le arn ing -b y -d oin g and le a rn in g -b y -e x p e rie n c in g . I t s purpose was to d e sc rib e c e r t a i n a sp e c ts o f th e 45 r u r a l a d u lt l e a r n e r s , in clu din g th e scope o f t h e i r le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s , th e e x te n t o f t h e i r d e l i b e r a t e le a rn in g p ra c ­ t i c e s , and th e q u a l i t y o f t h e i r le a rn in g environments. In an attem pt to d e fin e th e p re s e n t e x p lo r a tio n , f iv e broad a re a s o f in q u iry served to guide th e p re s e n t study. They a re as fo llow s: 1. Who a re th e se a d u lt l e a r n e r s , and what i s t h e i r psycho­ so c ia l p r o f i l e ? 2. What a re t h e i r a re a s o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t , and by what pro cesses do they le arn ? 3. How do th ey o rg an ize t h e i r le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s ? 4. How do they use t h e i r re so u rce s f o r le arn in g ? 5. How and in what ways was th e housing program a le a rn in g ex perience? 54 55 The s u b je c ts o f th e se f i v e general a re a s o f in q u iry were 45 r u r a l a d u lts who re p re se n te d th r e e i n t a c t groups in varying s tag e s o f c o n s tr u c tio n in a s e l f - h e l p housing program. D e fin itio n o f th e Population The 106 a d u lts who c o n s t i t u t e d th e population f o r th e study were r e s id e n ts o f Coldwater, Michigan, and o u tly in g a re a s in Branch County. Coldwater, a c i t y o f 9,942 r e s i d e n t s , i s th e county s e a t of Branch County. S itu a te d in th e s o u th -c e n tr a l s e c to r o f Michigan bor­ d erin g In d ia n a , Branch County i s a r u r a l farming county with a popu­ l a t i o n o f 40,188. Of th e f a m ilie s in th e p o p u la tio n , th e m a jo rity of men and women who worked o u ts id e th e home were employed as blu ec o l l a r workers. An a d d itio n a l few were c l e r i c a l employees and medical o r te c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n t s . The fa m ilie s in th e p o p ulatio n were U.S. c i t i z e n s . They had met Farmers Home A d m in is tra tio n 's e l i g i b i l i t y requirem ents f o r entrance to s e l f - h e l p housing because they had p re v io u sly liv e d in accommoda­ tio n s t h a t were not deemed s t r u c t u r a l l y sound o r f u n c tio n a lly ade­ q uate enough to meet th e f a m ily 's immediate needs. E sse n tia l f o r FmHA's e l i g i b i l i t y re q u ire m e n ts, th e p a r t i c i p a t i n g fa m ilie s had to have incomes t h a t were estim ated to be s u b s ta n tia l enough to meet fam ily liv in g expenses, t a x e s , in s u ra n c e , maintenance c o s ts on e x i s t ­ ing debts includ in g th e proposed loans f o r t h e i r houses. The fa m ilie s a ls o needed to have a c r e d i t h i s t o r y t h a t in d ic a te d a reasonable a b i l i t y and w illin g n e s s to meet t h e i r o b lig a tio n s as they became due. The f a m i l i e s , a d d i t i o n a l l y , had to have th e a b i l i t y to fu r n is h 56 t h e i r sh are o f th e 950 hours o f la b o r t h a t was estim ated to be n eces­ sary to f i n i s h th e house—re g a rd le s s o f th e age o r sex o f the head o f th e household. The 106 a d u lts re p re se n te d a range o f th o se who had been in th e program f o r over th re e y e a r s , who had fin is h e d c o n s tru c ­ t io n and been liv in g in t h e i r houses from one to two y e a rs to those who had r e c e n tly f in is h e d th e loan processing and th e 13 weeks of p re c o n s tru c tio n meetings and who had j u s t begun c o n s tr u c tio n o f t h e i r houses (Department o f A g ric u ltu re , 1981). The Sample Since i t s beginning in 1972, e ig h t groups t h a t comprised between 7 and 18 a d u lts in each group had p a r t i c i p a t e d in BBCL's f e d e r a l l y funded s e l f - h e l p housing program. A convenience sample was obtained in which 45 in d iv id u a ls re p re se n te d th r e e d i f f e r e n t groups a t d i f f e r e n t stag e s in the c o n s tru c tio n pro cess. BBCL l e n t themselves to th re e major d iv is io n s . The e ig h t groups in These included those who had completed t h e i r houses and were liv in g in them, th o se who were f in i s h in g c o n s tr u c tio n and almost ready to occupy them, and th ose who were about to begin c o n s tr u c tio n . A l i s t o f names o f p a r t i c i p a t ­ ing fam ily members was obtained from BBCL. The names, a d d re s s e s , and telephone numbers o f th e members in th e th r e e groups were given to th e in te rv ie w e r , who began a t the top o f th e l i s t f o r th e names in each group and s e le c te d th e names o f p a r t i c i p a n t s u n t i l 15 members in each group agreed to be interv iew ed. Table 1. The da ta a re presented in 57 Table 1: D eriv atio n o f th e Sample From th e Population Group Total A B A vailable population 35 20 51 106 Total number from population asked to p a r t i c i p a t e 18 17 17 52 Number from pop ulation who declin ed to p a r t i c i p a t e 2 2 1 5 Number unable to be scheduled 1 1 2 15 45 15 Number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s in study 15 C Of th e 106 a d u lts who comprised th e e ig h t groups, 53 people were c o n tac te d . F o r ty - f iv e in d iv id u a ls agreed to be interview ed. Five d e c lin e d , and two people who were working f u l l - and p a rt-tim e jo b s as well as spending 32 hours a week b u ild in g t h e i r houses were unable to schedule a time to meet w ith th e in te rv ie w e r. The 45 s u b je c ts who agreed to be interview ed re p re se n te d 15 in d iv id u a ls in each o f th e th re e groups a t d i f f e r e n t s ta g e s in th e c o n s tru c tio n pro cess. For purposes o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in the re s e a r c h , th e 15 people in Group C were li v i n g in t h e i r houses. The 15 in Group B were completing c o n s tru c tio n and were in th e process o f moving in to t h e i r houses during th e six-week period in which i n t e r views f o r th e study took p la c e . The 15 in Group A were tho se who had j u s t begun th e c o n s tru c tio n pro cess. 58 The P a r t i c i p a n t s ' Involvement in th e Housing Program With funding provided by FmHA, BBCL adm inistered a Section 523 Technical A ssista n ce Grant. The TA g ra n ts funded th e a d m in is tr a tiv e expense involved in providing p re c o n s tru c tio n t r a i n i n g and te c h n ic a l s u p erv isio n w hile th e houses were being b u i l t . A pplicants f o r USDA FmHA 502 Rural Housing Loans, having a p p lied and having met th e l o a n 's f i n a n c i a l , employment, and c r e d i t e l i g i b i l i t y re q u ire m e n ts, proceeded through th e loan docket s ta g e o f th e s e l f - h e l p housing program with th e a s s is ta n c e o f BBCL's executive d i r e c t o r . During t h i s s t a g e , th e p ro p e rty was s e l e c t e d , house plan s were sub m itted , p l o t plans were approved, and t i t l e searches were completed. Fam ilies a ls o re c eiv e d a s s is ta n c e from BBCL in o b ta in in g c o s t e stim a te s f o r c o n s tr u c tio n m a te r ia ls and any su b co n trac tin g t h a t was re q u ire d . With th e loan dockets completed, th e a d u lt fam ily members who had signed a commit­ ment to work on th e c o n stru c tio n o f t h e i r houses moved to Stage I I o f th e program, th e p re c o n stru c tio n m eetings. To understand more f u l l y th e housing program process as groups moved from one stag e to a n o th e r , th e r e s e a rc h e r a tte n d ed th e 13-week p re c o n s tru c tio n meetings with a group who were about to begin c o n s tr u c tio n o f t h e i r houses. Each newly e s ta b lis h e d group formed an a s s o c i a t i o n , e le c tin g a p r e s id e n t, v ic e - p r e s i d e n t , and s e c r e t a r y tre a su re r. The s e c r e t a r y - t r e a s u r e r 's d u tie s included a weekly in s p e c ­ t i o n o f bank passbooks to a s s u re t h a t each fam ily had begun to save th e $25 a week to a s s i s t in th e payment o f th e f i r s t y e a r 's ta x e s and in su ra n ce . The members o f th e a s s o c ia ti o n lo o s e ly followed R o b e r t's Rules o f Order, a ssu rin g t h a t while th e m a jo rity of members could 59 sway an i s s u e , in d iv id u a l members knew t h a t t h e i r views were to be heard. Each fam ily was a llo c a te d one vote concerning scheduling weekly m eetings, a d d itio n a l meetings i f seen e s s e n t i a l , and th e times and p la c e s o f s o c ia l m eetings, i f voted. Compulsory attend an ce by a d u lt fam ily members who worked on th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e house was re q u ire d in the second stag e o f th e program, which was th e 13 in s t r u c t i o n a l u n its t h a t were held weekly a t th e a s s o c ia tio n m eetings. The schedule f o r th e i n s t r u c tio n a l s e c tio n o f th e housing program t h a t was covered during th e se weekly meetings can be found in Appendix B. During Stage II o f th e program, th e group o f fam ily members learn ed f u r t h e r d e t a i l s about th e mutual s e l f - h e l p housing program and th e sponsoring agency's r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s to th e f a m i l i e s . F u r th e r , th e im p lic a tio n s o f i n t e r e s t r e c a p tu r e , loan payment, p ro p e rty t a x e s , and insuran ce requirem ents in compliance with FmHA re g u la tio n s were c la rifie d . The e a r ly meetings i n s tr u c te d in methods o f c o n s tr u c ti o n , s a f e use and handling o f power t o o l s and equipment, and c o n stru c tio n schedu lin g. The f i n a l meetings included inform ation on lan d scap in g , home m aintenance, and f in a l in s p e c tio n requirem ents. During th e se 13 weeks, th e f a m ilie s not only le a rn e d th e lo c a l codes and c o n s tr u c ­ tio n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , but they a ls o began th e process involved in group i n t e r a c t i o n through which le a d e rs h ip emerged. The a c tu a l c o n s tru c tio n o f th e houses l a s t e d about s ix months. During t h i s t h i r d s ta g e , each fam ily c o n trib u te d as much la b o r as was necessary to complete a l l o f th e houses in th e group. In 60 Coldwater, 950 hours was seen to be th e average o f th e time needed f o r c o n s tr u c tio n . each week. Each fam ily was re q u ire d to c o n tr ib u te 32 hours Since most f a m ilie s involved in BBCL worked during the daytime a t t h e i r p laces o f employment, fam ily members were expected to work on each o t h e r 's houses in th e evening and on weekends u n t i l th e re q u ire d 32 hours o f la b o r each week had been a t t a i n e d . The la b o r requirem ents were i n s i s t e d upon, re g a rd le s s o f th e weather or th e season. The houses c o n stru c te d by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program were assessed by FmHA a t $35,690. This f ig u r e included th e c o s t o f m a te r ia ls and th e c o s t o f th e l o t on which th e house was b u ilt. Upon completion of the housing program, th e t o t a l appraised value estim ated by FmHA i s $46,490 to each p a r t i c i p a t i n g fa m ily . The r e s u l t i n g d if f e r e n c e i s due to th e e q u ity earned by s e l f - h e l p la b o r , which r e p r e s e n ts th e e q u iv a le n t o f th e down-payment. Q u a lita tiv e Research The d e c is io n to use q u a l i t a t i v e r a t h e r than q u a n t i t a t i v e methodology i s c o n s is te n t with re sea rc h t h a t i s of an e x p lo ra to ry n a tu re . The value o f e x p lo ra to ry study has been to in c re a s e under­ stand ing in a re a s in which e x is t in g re sea rc h i s e i t h e r sca n t o r non­ ex isten t. Unlike th e q u a n t i t a t i v e methods employed by deductive t h e o r i s t s , e x p lo ra to ry re s e a rc h makes in q u iry in to uncharted are as o f so c ia l phenomena. fo llo w s: Blumer (1970) a m p lified t h i s concept as 61 Because o f i t s f l e x i b l e n a tu re , e x p lo ra to ry re s e a rc h i s not pinned down to any p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f te c h n iq u e s. I t s g u id ­ ing maxim i s to use any e th ic a l procedure t h a t o f f e r s a pos­ s i b i l i t y o f re c e iv in g a c l e a r e r p i c tu r e o f what i s going on in th e a re a o f so c ia l l i f e . There i s no protocol to be followed in th e use o f any one procedure; th e procedure should be adapted to i t s c ircu m stan ces. Thus i t may involve d i r e c t o b s e r v a tio n , in te rv ie w in g o f peop le, l i s t e n i n g to t h e i r c o n v e r s a tio n s , s e c u r­ ing l i f e h i s t o r y a c c o u n ts, using l e t t e r s and d i a r i e s , co n su ltin g p u b lic re c o r d s , arran g in g f o r group d is c u s s io n s and making counts o f an item i f t h i s appears worthwhile. There i s no protocol to be followed in th e use o f any one o f th e s e p ro cedu res; th e p ro ­ cedure should be adapted to i t s circum stance and guided by ju dg e­ ment o f i t s p r o p r ie ty and f r u i t f u l n e s s , (p. 33) The p re s e n t e x p lo ra to ry re s e a rc h was undertaken from the p e r­ s p e c tiv e o f an in fo rm a tio n -g a th e rin g p ro c e ss. This form of in q u iry d e p a rts from th e dominant formal re s e a rc h paradigms because th e n a tu re of th e re s e a rc h i t s e l f lends i t to personal h i s t o r i e s , anecdotal r e p o r t s , and th e use o f d e s c r i p t i v e m ate ria l o r d a ta . Skager (1978) suggested t h a t w hile formal re s e a rc h can be seen as a method o f in v e s ­ t i g a t i o n , i t i s not th e only method o f in q u ir y . The primary re s e a rc h tool used to g a th e r d a ta in an e x p lo ra ­ to ry study i s th e in te rv ie w procedure. Q u a lita tiv e s tu d ie s using in te rv ie w s to g a th e r data a re s u b je c t to concerns about both v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y . In an a ttem p t to s a t i s f y th e se c o n ce rn s, a t t e n t i o n was paid to th e follow ing a re a s in th e p re s e n t re s e a rc h . Bruyn (1966) c i t e d s ix in d ic e s o f s u b je c tiv e adequacy. Applied to th e p re s e n t s tu d y , they a re as fo llo w s: 1. TIME: The more time t h a t i s sp ent w ith those being s tu d ie d , th e more a c c u ra te th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f so c ia l meanings i s l i k e l y to be. 2. PLACE: The more c lo s e ly th e i n q u ir e r works in th e geographic locus o f tho se being s t u d ie d , th e more a c c u ra te th e i n t e r p r e ­ t a t i o n i s l i k e l y to be. 62 3. SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCE: The more th e i n q u ir e r can r e l a t e to th e s u b j e c t s , th e more a c c u ra te th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a re l i k e l y to be. 4. LANGUAGE: The more f a m i l i a r th e in q u ir e r i s w ith th e s u b j e c t s ' language, th e more a c c u ra te th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a re l i k e l y to be. 5. INTIMACY: The g r e a t e r th e degree o f intim acy obtained w ith the s u b j e c t s , th e more a c c u ra te th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e i r remarks i s l i k e l y to be. 6. CONSENSUS OF CONFIRMATION IN THE CONTEXT: The more th e i n q u ir e r r e i t e r a t e s o r r e c a p i t u l a t e s th e meanings o f what i s s a i d , the more a c c u ra te th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f them i s l i k e l y to be. (pp. 180-185) To the e x te n t t h a t th e in te rv ie w s f o r th e study averaged about one hour, time was a c r i t i c a l index o f v a l i d i t y . The s h o r t e s t i n t e r ­ view was 45 m inutes; th e lo n g e st was one hour and45 m inutes. In te r­ views f o r th e 15 p a r t i c i p a n t s in Group C were held in t h e i r homes. Those in te rv ie w s in Groups A and B t h a t were not conducted in the p a r t i c i p a n t s ' p re sen t re sid en c e s were conducted a t t h e i r c o n stru c tio n site s. The p a r t i c i p a n t s in the s tu d y , the r e s e a r c h e r , and th e i n t e r ­ viewer shared a local Branch County environment. P recautions Taken to Minimize T hreats to V a lid ity and R e l i a b i l i t y F a c e -to -fa c e in te rv ie w in g can pose a t h r e a t to response v alid ity . This can occur because "personal c o n ta c t engages general norms about s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n t h a t may cause respondents to d i s t o r t t h e i r answers in the d i r e c t i o n o f making a more fa v o ra b le impression on th e in te rv ie w e r" (Bradburn, 1979, p. 166). Germane to an in te rv ie w procedure using a q u e stio n n a ire to e l i c i t responses was an awareness o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f respondent a n x ie ty . Whether th e to p ic o f a d u lt le a rn in g was seen as th re a te n in g 63 was d i f f i c u l t to ju dg e. I t i s to be noted t h a t th e s u b je c t m a tte r does no t have to be contranorm ative to be seen as th r e a t e n i n g ; th e re s p o n d e n t's preconception o f th e in te rv ie w procedure i t s e l f may su ffic e . I t was e stim ate d t h a t low-income ru r a l a d u lts may have been sampled i n f r e q u e n t l y , i f e v e r. The protocol in th e p re s e n t study took t h e p o te n tia l f o r respondent a n x ie ty in to account to th e e x te n t t h a t th e in te rv ie w format was re la x ed and informal and th e q u e stio n s probed l e s s than would have been d e s ir e d . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h r e a t to th e study by b ia s e s intro du ced by in te rv ie w e r behavior was c o n tr o lle d to th e e x te n t t h a t one person conducted th e in te rv ie w s . In terview ing in th e presence o f o th e rs was seen as an a d d itio n a l way in which inform ation could have been d i s ­ to r t e d . I t was f e l t , however, t h a t s in c e e f f o r t s to secu re p rivacy o fte n le ad to a re f u s a l to be in te rv ie w e d , u n lim ited t h i r d - p a r t y in te r v e n tio n was to be n o ted , and i t s s e v e r i t y , as judged by th e in te r v ie w e r , was to be considered a c r i t e r i o n f o r withdrawal o f data from th e stud y . Of th e 45 in te rv ie w s , nine were randomly taped in an attem pt to allow th e r e s e a r c h e r th e o p p o rtu n ity to confirm t h a t th e p re s c rib e d in te rv ie w protocol was being follow ed. The nine taped in te rv ie w s showed t h a t th e proto co l was being follow ed. A tte n tio n was a ls o given to th e concern f o r language. Payne (1951) c au tio ned t h a t "q u estio n s ta p an i n d i v i d u a l 's m o tiv e s, h is e x p e rie n c e , h is e x p e c ta n c ie s , h is unique e x p e r ie n c e s , h is whole range o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s and l o y a l t i e s . In s h o r t , th ey a re t r y i n g to d i s ­ cover c e r t a i n p a r ts o f what we might c a l l an i n d i v i d u a l 's assumptive 64 world" (p. 9 ) . Heeding Payne's advice t h a t "the quintamensional design reminds us o f th e elements o f o p in io n —aw areness, general o p in io n , s p e c i f i c o p in io n , reasons and i n t e n s i t y , " v a l i d i t y o f response was sought to th e e x te n t t h a t th e q u e s tio n n a ire provided a l a t i t u d e o f response p o s s i b i l i t i e s as th e ru r a l a d u lts were asked about t h e i r le a rn in g p r a c tic e s (pp. 232-233). The problem o f p re c is io n o f word usage was a tten d ed both in th e wording used in th e q u e stio n s and the s e le c tio n o f option s t h a t were o ff e re d in th e L ik e rt-ty p e s c a l e s . The Survey Instrument The survey instrum ent i s a s e m i-s tru c tu re d in te rv ie w t h a t was organized around a f i v e - p a r t q u e s tio n n a ir e . open-ended q u e stio n s. I t included c lo sed and The q u e stio n s asked during th e in te rv ie w were designed to o b ta in s p e c i f i c inform ation on th e to p ic s o f broad in q u iry t h a t served to guide th e p re s e n t stu dy . The broad a re a s o f i n v e s t i ­ g a tio n were a m p lified as fo llow s: I. Who a r e th e se ru ra l a d u lt le a r n e r s ? A. B. Demographics 1. Age 2. Sex and m a rita l s t a t u s 3. Occupation 4. Income 5. Schooling Psychosocial p r o f i l e 1. What were th e m o tiv a tio n s expressed by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e housing program f o r b u ild in g a house? 65 2. What were th e a n x i e t i e s expressed a t th e beginning o f th e program? 3. What b e n e f its did th e r u r a l a d u lts expect to d e riv e from p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e program? 4. How and in what ways was th e program d i f f e r e n t than th e p a r t i c i p a n t s had imagined? 5. How and in what ways did th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program b e lie v e t h a t s k i l l s developed in th e program could be t r a n s f e r r e d to o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s o u ts id e th e program? II. What a re th e a re a s o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t ? 1. What a re th e a re a s o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t in which the p a r t i c i p a n t s obtained inform ation during the p a s t year? 2. What pro cesses a re used to o b ta in inform ation on th e se a re a s o f i n t e r e s t during th e p a s t year? 3. What to p ic i s seen as a sp ec ia l a re a o f i n t e r e s t during th e p a s t year? a. What process i s used to i n i t i a t e le a rn in g ? b. What process o f le a rn in g i s used a f t e r th e a c t i v i t y i s begun? III. Howandin what ways a re le a rn in g experiences organized? 1. Who has th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r planning le a rn in g a c tiv itie s? 2. From whom was a s s is ta n c e sought during le a rn in g ? 3. What s i t e was chosen to c a r ry out le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s ? 66 4. What i s th e degree o f d i f f i c u l t y expressed by th e ru r a l a d u lts in making th e d e c is io n to begin th e study o f th e to p ic chosen as th e sp e c ia l are a o f i n t e r e s t ? IV. How were resou rces used in le arn in g ? 1. Is a rrang ing time to le a rn a problem? 2. To be able to le a r n in an are a o f i n t e r e s t , i s money a problem? 3. Are re so u rce s (peop le, books, e t c . ) d i f f i c u l t to fin d in Coldwater? V. 4. Are re so u rce s d i f f i c u l t to understand? 5. Do you p r e f e r to le a rn by y o u rs e lf? How and in what ways in the housing program a le a rn in g experience? A. In what ways a r e you c u r r e n tly involved in 1. Areas o f business and finance? 2. Areas o f c o n s tr u c tio n m a te ria ls and p r a c tic e s ? 3. B. Areas o f communication and group process? In what ways can s k i l l s developed in th e housing program be used in o th e r a re a s o f your l i f e o u ts id e th e program? C. 1. Areas o f b usin ess and finance? 2. Areas o f c o n s tr u c tio n and group process? 3. Areas o f communication and group process? What c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s do th e ru r a l a d u lts in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program a t t r i b u t e to "schooling" and to "le arn in g "? 1. How i s previous scooling perceived as a p re p a ra tio n f o r l i f e ? 2. How i s th e concept o f "le a rn in g " perceived by th e a d u lts in th e study? 67 Survey Methodology In an a tte m p t to understand th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e housing program, P a rt I o f th e survey q u e s tio n n a ire asked open-ended q u e stio n s about th e f a c t o r s t h a t led th e p a r t i c i p a n t s to become involved in the program. The f i v e major q u e stio n s and subquestions in P a rt I o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e were phrased d i f f e r e n t l y f o r each group o f p a r t i c i p a n t s , s in c e Groups A, B, and C re p re se n te d groups a t th r e e d i f f e r e n t places in th e c o n s tr u c tio n process in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program. In e f f e c t , th r e e d i f f e r e n t q u e s tio n n a ir e s were used as survey in stru m e n ts. P a rt I , which c o n s is te d o f Questions 1 through 5 , was d i f f e r e n t f o r members o f each group. P a rts II through V, which c o n s is te d o f Ques­ t i o n s 6 through 50, were th e same f o r each group. In a d d itio n to q u e stio n s t h a t asked about th e m otiv atin g f a c ­ t o r s t h a t led th e p a r t i c i p a n t s to become involved in th e program, P a rt I included major q u e stio n s and subquestions p e r ta in in g to a n x ie ­ t i e s o r concerns t h a t were f e l t by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s a t th e beginning o f th e program. S u b je c ts in a l l th r e e groups were asked to am plify th e ways they f e l t t h a t s k i l l s developed in th e program could be a p p lie d to o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s . Members o f Groups B and C were asked to am plify th e ways in which they f e l t th e program was d i f f e r e n t than they thought i t would be. The members o f Group A who had j u s t become involved w ith th e housing program were asked what b e n e f its they f e l t would be forthcoming in th e program. Members in Groups B and C were asked what new p r o je c ts had come to mind sin ce th e completion o f t h e i r houses. 68 The purpose o f Questions 18 through 30 in th e q u e stio n n a ire was to attem p t to d isco v er th e a re a s o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t on which th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e housing program obtained inform ation during the p a s t y e a r. No c o n d itio n s were placed on th e a p p l i c a n t s ' resp on ses. A fte r several probes and s u i t a b l e pauses, a p rin te d card was handed to th e respondent with to p ic s t h a t were c ate g o riz e d in 12 broad a re a s of in te re st. The p rin te d card was used to aid the respondent in remembering a d d itio n a l i n t e r e s t a r e a s . This was f e l t im p o rtan t, as a purpose of th e study was to attem p t to d isco v e r th e scope o f th e le a rn in g i n t e r e s t s o f th e r u r a l a d u lts in th e sample. Question 31 in th e survey was open-ended and asked th e 45 members in th e sample to d e sc rib e th e methods by which they f i r s t obtained inform ation in t h e i r a re a s of i n t e r e s t . The members were then asked to d e sc rib e th e methods t h a t were l a t e r used to o b ta in in fo rm atio n , i f i t was found necessary to do so. The in te rv ie w e r was in s tr u c te d to record t h e i r process in o b ta in in g inform ation as "academic" when th e inform ation was o btain ed by re a d in g , stu d y in g , l i s t e n i n g , o r viewing. Inform ation t h a t was obtained by experience or learn in g-b y-do ing was recorded as "doing." Question 32 in th e survey asked th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e study to s e l e c t one are a t h a t th ey considered to haye been th e most mean­ in g fu l from th e m u ltip le a re a s o f i n t e r e s t on which th ey obtained inform ation during th e p a s t y e a r . To be considered as an important area f o r th e p re sen t r e s e a r c h , th r e e c r i t e r i a were imposed. F irst, th e p a r t i c i p a n t had to have a f a i r l y s p e c i f i c idea about what was to be le a rn e d . Second, p a r t i c i p a n t s had to have taken th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y 69 f o r planning and c o n tr o llin g t h e i r le a rn in g (over 51% o f th e tim e ). F i n a l l y , the p a r t i c i p a n t s had to have spent a t l e a s t e ig h t hours on t h i s to p ic during th e p a st y e a r . Questions 33 through 35, which p e rta in e d to th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f le arn in g e x p erien c e s, asked t h a t responses from th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program be given w ith in a s tr u c tu r e d framework. Included w ithin th e se q u e stio n s was inform ation about th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r planning le a rn in g e x p erien c e s, tho se from whom a s s is ta n c e was sought, th e s i t e chosen to c a r ry out le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s , and th e degree o f d i f f i c u l t y experienced in making th e d e c is io n to begin le a r n in g . Also s tru c tu re d were Questions 36 through 41, which p e rta in e d to use o f reso u rces in le a rn in g . Responses to Questions 33 through 41 were s tr u c tu r e d by a f i v e - p o i n t L ik e rt-ty p e s c a le . Three d i f f e r e n t copies o f P a rt I o f th e survey q u e s tio n n a ir e , p e rta in in g to th e th r e e d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f q u e stio n s asked o f Groups A, B, and C ( f o r Questions 1 through 5 ) , and a copy o f Questions 6 through 50, which were asked o f a l l groups, a re lo c ated in Appendix C. Open Versus Closed Questions The n a tu re o f an e x p lo ra to ry study o f a d u lt le a rn in g c h a r­ a c t e r i s t i c s appeared to d i c t a t e th e use o f a m ixture o f closed and open-ended q u e stion s t h a t were o rie n te d to seeking responses t h a t were in fo rm a tio n a lly broad. This approach appeared to allow the respondent co nsid e ra b le freedom to determine th e n a tu re and th e amount o f th e inform ation given. The s u b je c ts were thus a b le to v o lu n te e r 70 frames o f re fe re n c e and a t t i t u d e s t h a t closed q u e stio n s alone might have missed (Denzin, 1970, pp. 123-143). While posing l i t t l e t h r e a t to th e interview ee and supplying inform ation t h a t o fte n had not been asked, open-ended q u e stio n s a re not w ithout t h e i r d isad vantages. Stewart and Cash (1974) suggested th a t: 1. Open-ended q u e stio n s r e q u ire an in te rv ie w e r who has s k i l l in asking th e q u e stio n s and i s a b le to c o ntrol th e in te rv ie w . Essen­ t i a l , to o , th e in te rv ie w e r must be a b le t o r e d i r e c t responses w ithout c re a tin g re p e rc u s s io n s in the thought flow t h a t could dampen the enthusiasm o f th e responses t h a t follow . 2. The most s i g n i f i c a n t disadvantage o f open-ended q u e stio n s may be th e tim e, e f f o r t , and money involved with co d ify in g and con­ v e rtin g th e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' responses in to raw d a ta o r ob serv atio n s t h a t a re meaningful (pp. 47-67). I t was seen a s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e re s e a rc h e r to attem p t to overcome th e se two "disad v a n ta g es." cedures were implemented. To do t h i s , th e follow ing p ro ­ F i r s t , th e use o f an in te rv ie w protocol was implemented t h a t was s tra ig h tfo rw a rd but r e la x e d . Second, an in te r v ie w e r - tr a in in g plan was undertaken to i n s t r u c t in th e philosophy underlying th e re s e a rc h and th e reason f o r using q u a l i t a t i v e method­ ology. F i n a l l y , a plan f o r data a n a ly s is was formulated t h a t enabled coding o f both the in d ic e s o f c o n te n t and demographic n a tu re o f the responses. 71 A P i l o t o f th e Study An e a r l i e r v e rsio n of th e instrum ent was p r e te s te d before th e p i l o t study began. Five area r e s id e n ts ranging in age from 21 to 42 y e a rs o f ag e, whose e d u c a tio n a l, f i n a n c i a l , and occupational backgrounds were estim ated to have been comparable to those whom th e study expected to sample, were interview ed by th e re s e a rc h e r . An e f f o r t was made to reduce th e average le n g th o f th e in te rv ie w from one and o n e -h a lf hours to a one-hour period by combining q uestion s and c l a r i f y i n g wording. An attem pt was a ls o made to reduce t e r ­ minology w ithout being condescending o r r e d u c t i o n i s t i c in an e f f o r t to make th e respondents com fortable during th e in te rv ie w . Payne (1951) suggested t h a t i f r i g o r i s to be e x e r c is e d , a l l q u e stio n s w ill endeavor in every p o s s ib le way to embrace a l l l e v e l s o f un derstan din g. To do t h i s , he proposed t h a t "the q u e stio n e r must adapt th e wording to th e lowest educational le v e l s w ithout p a tro n iz in g o r ta lk in g down to them and w ithout s a c r i f i c i n g c l a r i t y " (p. 115). Two people from each o f th e th r e e groups t h a t c o n s ti tu te d th e population were interview ed by th e re s e a rc h e r in a p i l o t study six weeks b efore th e main study was scheduled to begin. The responses were analyzed and coded, and th e raw data were ta b u la te d using p ro ce­ dures id e n tic a l to those t h a t were expected to be employed in th e la rg e study. Revisions were implemented. Interv iew Protocol Following an in te rv ie w protocol s im ila r to t h a t adopted by Schmoll (1981), th e in te rv ie w e r was i n s tr u c te d to engage the 72 p a r t i c i p a n t s in casual c o n versation a t th e beginning o f each i n t e r ­ view. Once a f r ie n d ly clim a te had been e s t a b l i s h e d , th e in te rv ie w e r was i n s tr u c te d to implement th e follow ing procedures: 1. To a c q u a in t th e in d iv idu al w ith th e n a tu re o f th e r e s e a r c h , informing th e respondent t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e in te rv ie w was v o l­ u n ta ry . 2. To a ss u re th e respondent t h a t complete c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y would be m aintained. 3. To mention t h a t a copy o f th e re s e a rc h would be a v a il a b le l o c a l l y f o r th ose who were in t e r e s t e d in reading th e outcomes o f th e study. In terv iew T raining Nine two-hour tr a i n i n g s e s sio n s were sp ent by th e re s e a rc h e r w ith th e in te r v ie w e r , acqu a in tin g th e in te rv ie w e r w ith th e purpose o f th e p re s e n t r e s e a rc h . The in te rv ie w e r had a background in p o l i t i c a l canvassing and in terv iew in g and had known and worked w ith th e r e s i ­ dents o f Branch County f o r th e p a s t 15 y e a r s . Used as a b a s is f o r th e in te rv ie w t r a i n i n g were Borg and G a l l 's (1979) methods and t o o ls o f survey r e s e a rc h . S p e c ific a t t e n t i o n was paid to : 1. The in te rv ie w as a re s e a rc h t o o l . 2. Advantages and disadvantages o f th e in te rv ie w in r e s e a rc h . 3. The in te rv ie w guide and reco rd ing th e in te rv ie w . 4. E ffe c tiv e communication in in te rv ie w s . 5. The re sp o n d e n ts' frame o f r e fe re n c e . 73 Also o f a s s is ta n c e in t r a i n i n g th e in te rv ie w e r was F i l s t e a d 's Q u a lita tiv e Methodology: F irsth a n d Involvement w ith th e Social VJorld (1970). Helpful to th e novice in te rv ie w e r t r a i n e r was inform ation on i n t e r p r e t i n g th e p r o j e c t , th e in te rv ie w c o n v e rs a tio n , problems o f p o te n tia l b i a s , cross-ch ecking and v a lid a tin g in fo rm atio n , and F i l s t e a d 's su gg estio ns f o r probing f o r depth. P r a c tic e s o f in te rv ie w q u e stio n s were held. Since i t was expected t h a t some p a r t i c i p a n t s would v o lu n te e r more inform ation than o th e rs in response to th e open-ended q u e s tio n s , a range of probes was p repared. These sample probes were used f o r a l l in te rv ie w s to th e degree t h a t they were seen to be n ecessary. Since th e purpose o f th e study was an e x p lo ra tio n o f the le a rn in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f ru r a l a d u l t s , th e process o f n o te -ta k in g was touched upon a t a l l in te rv ie w e r tr a i n i n g s e s s io n s . The i n t e r ­ viewer was in s tr u c te d to record o b servances, c i t e q u o ta tio n s , and w rite memoranda t h a t could be completed a f t e r th e in te rv ie w was t e r ­ minated. Data A nalysis Coding and da ta a n a ly s is were begun as soon as th e in te rv ie w s were completed. Tapes o f th e in terv iew s were p la y ed , and inform ation was tr a n s c r ib e d from th e survey q u e s tio n n a ir e s . All cases were re a d , and major themes f o r a n a ly s is were i d e n t i f i e d . In an a ttem p t to document a l l of th e in te rv ie w inform ation vo lun teered by a l l o f th e respondents to each open-ended q u e s tio n , a frequency count a tta c h in g th e re sp o n d en ts' importance to main and subthemes was prepared. Charts o f t h e frequency o f response o r 74 p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r each of th e q u e stion s in th e in te rv ie w can be found in Appendix D. In a d d itio n to th e frequency count provided by the raw d a t a , q u a l i t a t i v e data were c o lle c te d both from th e interview s t h a t were taped and from d i r e c t q u o ta tio n s and remarks noted during th e in te rv ie w . These data were not s t a t i s t i c a l l y analyzed. If a la r g e r study were conducted, th e s t a t i s t i c most promising would have been th e nonparametric c h i - s q u a r e J The r e s t r i c t i o n s placed on the use o f th e c h i-s q u a re t e s t to a s c e r ta in s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f the data in frequency form led th e re s e a rc h e r to make th e d e cisio n to adopt a q u a l i t a t i v e re s e a rc h methodology. The q u a l i t a t i v e data were coded in to a re a s p e rta in in g to s u b je c t m a tte r and a re presented in Chapter IV. Led by th e e x p lo ra to ry n a tu re o f th e s tu d y , the re s e a rc h e r f e l t th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p re s e n tin g both frequency counts and c l a s s i f i e d q u a l i t a t i v e data to th e re a d e r. The d a ta a re presented to enable th e re a d e r s u f f i c i e n t o p p o rtu n ity to make judgments as to th e v a l i d i t y and the degree o f confidence assigned to the c o n clusion s. Becker (1970) r e f e r r e d to t h i s procedure in th e following statem en t: Q u a lita tiv e re s e a rc h has not been systemized as t h a t found in q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d ie s . The d ata does no t lend i t s e l f to such ready summary. In view o f t h i s f a c t , evidence i s Terrace and Parker (1971) advised t h a t "The c h i-s q u a re t e s t can be used to t e s t th e correspondence o f c ate g o riz e d data to any hypo t h e t i c a l frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n . For t h i s reason t h i s procedure i s sometimes c a ll e d a t e s t f o r ' g o o d n e s s - o f - f i t . 1 There a r e only a few r e s t r i c t i o n s on i t s use. The t e s t should not be used when more than 20 % o f th e c e l l s a re l e s s than 5. The c h i-s q u a re t e s t should not be used when any c e ll i s l e s s than 1" (Unit 12, p. 16). The authors s ta t e d f u r t h e r than "a c h i-s q u a re t e s t i s not p e rm issib le when th e t o t a l N i s l e s s than 20. All expected freq u e n cies must be g r e a te r than 5" (Unit 12, p. 33 ). 75 assessed a s the s u b s ta n tiv e a n a ly s is i s p re sen te d . This i s t o t a l l y based on th e f a c t t h a t th e re a d e r i s given g r e a t e r access to th e da ta and procedures on which th e conclusions a re based, (p. 199) F i n a l l y , th e degree o f r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f e x p lo ra ­ to ry re s e a rc h depends to a la rg e e x te n t on th e r e s e a rc h e r . R e lia b ility depends on th e degree o f c o n siste n cy in th e data c o lle c tio n and th e p re c is io n and i n s i g h t employed in both coding and d ata a n a l y s i s . The v a l i d i t y o f th e re s e a rc h depends on th e e x te n t to which d e ta i le d events a re i d e n t i f i e d and c l a s s i f i e d . Summary o f Chapter I I I The p re sen t study i s an e x p lo ra tio n o f the le arn in g c h a r a c te r ­ i s t i c s of rural a d u lts. Three i n t a c t groups o f p a r t i c i p a n t s in a s e l f - h e l p housing program were s e le c te d according to t h e i r placement in th e program 's c o n s tru c tio n p rocess. From a population o f 106 ru ra l a d u l t s , 45 p a r t i c i p a n t s were interview ed who a re b l u e - c o l l a r workers in a r u r a l county in Michigan. The housing program in which th e p a r­ t i c i p a n t s a re involved i s a th r e e - s ta g e program t h a t in clud es loan d ocket, p re c o n s tr u c tio n , and c o n s tru c tio n s ta g e s . The p re s e n t re s e a rc h used a q u a l i t a t i v e methodology because o f i t s e x p lo ra to ry n a tu re and th e f a c t t h a t s u f f i c i e n t a p r i o r i inform ation was lackin g from which to r a i s e q u e stio n s o r s t a t e hypothe­ ses. T h reats to v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y in the study were recognized, and in an a ttem pt to c o u n te ra c t them th e follow ing measures were taken : 1. The in te rv ie w e r was chosen because o f previous in te rv ie w e x p erien c e , and having liv e d in Branch County f o r 15 y e a r s , the 76 in te rv ie w e r was f a m ilia r with th e language and customs f o r Branch County r e s i d e n t s . 2. The s e t t i n g f o r th e in terv iew s was chosen f o r th e con­ venience o f th e re sp on den ts. An attem pt was made to a s s u re a s o c ia b le , informal atmosphere t h a t was both convenient and com fortable f o r the respo n den ts. 3. A tte n tio n was paid to the p re c is io n o f th e language used in th e q u e s tio n n a ire in an attem pt to a ss u re comprehension w ithout the lo s s of c l a r i t y . 4. Nine two-hour tr a i n i n g sessio n s were used by th e re s e a rc h e r to f a m i l i a r i z e th e in te rv ie w e r w ith th e purposes o f the s tu d y , the methodology being used, and th e in te rv ie w protocol t h a t was to be used. 5. The p i l o t study f o r th e re sea rc h was p re te s te d by th e re s e a rc h e r and re v is io n s were made in the survey in stru m en t. o f the study was run by th e r e s e a rc h e r . A p ilo t Data were i d e n t i f i e d , coded, and analyzed f o r p re s e n ta tio n using th e procedures to be employed in the study. Coding and a n a ly s is r e v is io n s were in c o rp orated in to th e p re s e n t re s e a rc h . The survey instrum ent designed f o r th e p re s e n t re s e a rc h i s a f i v e - p a r t q u e stio n n a ire t h a t uses a combination o f closed and openended q u e s tio n s . Since th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e study re p re s e n t groups chosen because they were a t th r e e d i f f e r e n t stag e s in th e c o n stru c tio n p ro c e ss , th e f i v e q u e stio n s and subquestions t h a t a re used to probe and am plify responses to P a rt I o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e , which attem pts to d e sc rib e th e psychosocial p r o f i l e o f th e r u r a l a d u l t s , a re d i f f e r e n t 77 f o r each group. Questions 6 through 50 a re th e same f o r a l l th re e groups. To a cq u a in t th e re a d e r w ith th e th re e sta g e s o f th e housing program and th e p ro cesses involving th e ru r a l a d u lts p a r t i c i p a t i n g in i t from loan c le a ra n c e through c o n s tr u c ti o n , a b r i e f d e s c r ip tio n of BBCL's o peratin g procedure was included in th e c h a p te r. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF THE DATA The p re s e n t study was conducted to explo re th e le a rn in g c h a r­ a c t e r i s t i c s o f ru r a l a d u l t s in a s e l f - h e l p housing program. In t h i s c h a p te r, th e data c o lle c te d by a survey q u e s tio n n a ir e a re presented in two p a r t s . In P a rt I , th e q u a l i t a t i v e d a ta a re i d e n t i f i e d and expressed as fre q u e n c ie s . The freq u e n cies a re organized and are d isp lay ed around components and p a tte r n s o f le a rn in g experiences t h a t th e in strum en t was designed to re c o rd . In P a rt I o f t h i s c h a p te r , th e follow ing a re a s a re addressed: QUALITATIVE DATA EXPRESSED AS FREQUENCIES I. Demographics and psychosocial p r o f i l e A. B. Demographics 1. Age 2. Sex and m a rita l s t a t u s 3. Occupation 4. Income 5. Schooling Psychosocial p r o f i l e 1. M otivation expressed f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e program 2. A n x ieties expressed by p a r t i c i p a n t s a t beginning o f program 3. T ra n sfe r o f s k i l l s t o a re a s o u ts id e th e program 4. P a r t i c i p a n t s ' p e rc ep tio n o f program a f t e r c o n stru c tio n 5. New p r o je c ts planned by p a r t i c i p a n t s 78 79 II. III. IV. V. Areas o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t 1. Areas o f le a r n in g i n t e r e s t in which inform ation was obtained during th e p a s t y e a r 2. The processes used to o b ta in inform ation on a re a s o f i n t e r e s t during th e p a s t y e ar 3. The to p ic seen as a sp e c ia l area o f i n t e r e s t during th e p a s t y e a r by p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program O rganization o f le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s 1. R e s p o n s ib ility f o r le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s 2. Those from whom a s s is ta n c e was sought in le a rn in g 3. S it e chosen to c a r ry o u t le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s 4. Degree o f d i f f i c u l t y expressed by p a r t i c i p a n t s in making th e d e c is io n to begin th e study o f sp ec ia l area of i n t e r e s t Use o f resou rces 1. The use o f time as a resource 2. The use o f money as a reso urce 3. Finding reso u rces f o r sp e c ia l area o f i n t e r e s t 4. Understanding re so u rce s f o r sp e c ia l a re a o f i n t e r e s t 5. S e lf as a re s o u rc e : th e p re fe re n ce to le a r n by o n e s e lf The s e l f - h e l p housing program as a le a r n in g experience A. B. C. Current involvement 1. Areas o f b usin ess and fin a n c e 2. Areas o f c o n s tr u c tio n 3. Areas o f communication and group process m a te r ia ls and p r a c tic e s T ran sfe r o f s k i l l s 1. Areas o f b u siness and fin a n c e 2. Areas o f c o n s tr u c tio n 3. Areas o f communication and group process m a te r ia ls and p r a c tic e s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f "schooling" and "le a rn in g " a s perceived by th e ru r a l a d u lts p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program 1. School as a p re p a ra tio n f o r l i f e 2. The concept o f " le a rn in g " expressed by a d u lts in the study 80 In P a rt II o f Chapter IV, th e q u a l i t a t i v e data a re presented in th e form o f d i r e c t q u o ta tio n s t h a t were made by p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e housing program. T heir responses were organized in to fo u r major a re a s f o r convenience in p r e s e n ta tio n . These are as a re psychosocial p r o f i l e , t r a n s f e r of s k i l l s , changes rep o rted in s e lf - c o n c e p t, and th e housing program as a le a rn in g ex perience. The p re s e n ta tio n of th e data in t h i s c h a p te r follow s th e above o u t l i n e . In several a r e a s , t a b l e s o f organized freq u e n cies a re p resen ted to a s s i s t th e re a d e r. To p re s e n t raw frequency d a ta on th e a re a s t h a t have been e xp lored , a method o f s ta n d a rd iz a tio n was seen as e s s e n t i a l . An a r b i t r a r y c r i t e r i o n was e s ta b lis h e d by th e re s e a rc h e r t h a t i s used in th e follow ing d is c u s s io n . In r e f e r r i n g to frequency o f o b serv atio n in th e d a t a , a fig u r e o f 75% and above i s regarded as a strong i n d i c a t o r . F if ty to 75% i s considered moderate. Below 50%, while seen as being o f i n t e r e s t , i s to be considered a weak measure. P a rt I: Q u a lita tiv e Data Expressed as Frequencies Demographics The p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e housing program were asked to supply inform ation about t h e i r a g e , m a rita l s t a t u s , o c cu p a tio n , income, and sch oo ling . The follow ing d is c u s s io n p re s e n ts an o rg a n iz a tio n o f t h e i r r e p l i e s by t o p i c . In th e program, Group A had j u s t begun con­ s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r houses. Those in Group B had j u s t fin is h e d con­ s t r u c t i o n and were in th e process o f moving in to t h e i r houses during th e period o f time when th e in terv iew s took p la c e . The members in Group C had re s id e d in t h e i r houses between one and two y e a r s . 81 Age. There was a la rg e degree o f s i m i l a r i t y in th e ages o f th e members in a l l th re e groups. from 20 to 45 y e a r s . Table 2. The ages o f th e 45 s u b je c ts ranged Table 2 shows th e membership o f each group by age. Membership in Each Group by Age Group Age A (N=15) 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 3 1 1 1 Total B (N=15) C (N-15) 1 1 Total - - - 2 3 3 1 10 7 3 7 3 1 2 - - - 1 - 1 2 - - - - 1 - - 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 3 2 1 - 6 2 - - - 3 5 2 3 - - 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - 1 - - - - - 1 - 1 15 15 ii 45 As Table 2 shows, th e l a r g e s t c lu s t e r i n g i s a t age 23, w ith 10 (22%) o f th e t o t a l sample in t h i s age group. The second l a r g e s t c lu s t e r i n g 82 o f ages i s seen a t ages 24 and 26, with both groups having seven s u b je c ts in each c ate g o ry . Sex and m a rita l s t a t u s . There were e ig h t females and seven males in each o f th e th r e e groups. th e t o t a l sample were m arried . T h irty -fo u r o f th e 45 s u b je c ts in The remaining 11 included six who were s in g le and f i v e who were s in g le heads o f households. Of th ese 11 p a r ­ t i c i p a n t s in the program who were not m a rrie d , th re e were in Group A, f iv e were in Group B, and th re e were in Group C. Table 3 shows th e sex and m a rita l s t a t u s of s u b je c ts by group. Table 3. Sex and M arital S ta tu s o f P a r ti c ip a n ts in Each Group Group (N=15) Married A S ingle Single Head o f Household M F M F 12 1 1 1 B 10 1 2 1 C 12 1 - Total 15 1 15 2 15 Total 45 O ccupation. The members in th e th re e groups comprised m e d ic a l/te c h n ic a l occupations a s well as a v a r ie ty o f b l u e - c o lla r w orkers. The l a r g e s t c o n c e n tra tio n o f occupations occurred in Group A, with seven in d iv id u a ls employed as fa c to r y workers. Group B had the w idest range o f o c cu p a tio n s, with i t s members employed in 10 o f th e 14 occupations t h a t re p re se n te d th e t o t a l sample. Group C was th e only group to have members with occupations in th e m e d ic al/tec h n ic al f i e l d s . Group C had th r e e members whose occupations included lic e n se d p r a c tic a l 83 nurses and a d ay-care aid e a t a lo c a l medical f a c i l i t y . in th e sample r e f l e c t e d th e lo c a l economy. The s u b je c ts One f a c to ry worker in Group A, a plumber and a p a i n t e r in Group B, and a r e s i d e n t i a l day-care aid e and f a c to ry worker in Group C re p o rte d to th e in te rv ie w e r t h a t t h e i r employment had been te rm in a te d . These f iv e cases rep resen ted f iv e f a m ilie s whose major income s u p p o rte rs had been l a i d o f f i n d e f i ­ n i t e l y from t h e i r p laces o f employment. These data a re shown in Table 4. Table 4. Membership in Each Group by Occupation Group Occupation A (N=15) B (N=15) C (N=15) Total M edical/techn ical C le ric a l Mason D rafting Weider Truck d r iv e r Plumber P a in te r M ille r Mechanic Bartender C onstruction Homemaker Factory worker . 2 2 3 2 1 3 6 1 1 1 Total Income. - - - - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - 5 7 15 - 1 - - 4 2 1 2 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 14 15 15 45 - Federal e l i g i b i l i t y c o n s id e ra tio n s f o r loans made under T i t l e V, Section 502 o f th e Housing Act before January 1982 s p e c ifie d an a d ju sted fam ily income o f l e s s than $11,200 a y e a r . This f ig u r e was reached by a d ju s tin g th e t o t a l fam ily income, l e s s 5%, le s s 84 $300 f o r each dependent c h i l d . Adherence to t h i s f i n a n c i a l - e l i g i b i l i t y requirem ent i s e s s e n t i a l i f a p p lic a n ts in th e program expect to apply to re c e iv e i n t e r e s t c r e d i t . A r e v is io n o f th e e l i g i b i l i t y requirem ent was made in January 1982, allow ing th e a d ju s te d t o t a l fam ily income to a f ig u r e l e s s than $18,000 a y e a r . Members in Group C became e l i g i b l e f o r th e housing program with an a d ju s te d annual fam ily income o f $11,200 a y e a r . Because o f th e re v is io n in 1982, th e members o f Groups A and B became e l i g i b l e with th e annual a d ju ste d income o f $18,000 a y e a r . The mean a d ju ste d fam ily income f o r th e p a r t i c i p a n t s who comprised th e t o t a l sample was about $14,000 a y e a r. Schooling. Table 5 shows th e frequency o f responses made by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program when asked about previous sch oo lin g . Table 5. Membership in Each Group by Previous Schooling Group Schooling Less than high school High school graduate Vocational t r a i n i n g beyond high school One y e a r o f c o lle g e Two y e a rs o f c o lle g e Total A ( %) (N=15) B { %) (N=15) 4(27) 7(47) 1 6(40) . 4(27) - 15 2 5(33) 1 15 c ( %) Total (N=15) _ 10(67) 5 23 1 1 3 3 10 4 15 45 Four (27%) of Group A had a tta in e d l e s s than high school com­ p l e t i o n , and an equal number had a tta in e d c o lle g e f o r a t l e a s t a p a r t 85 o f one y e a r . Group B e x h ib ite d th e w idest range o f educational e x p e rie n c e s , with e ig h t (53%) o f i t s members having had c o lle g e o r v ocatio nal experien ces beyond high school. were high school g ra d u a te s . All 15 members o f Group C Fourteen o f th e 45 members in a l l th re e groups a tte n d e d c o lle g e between one and two y e a r s . Seventeen (38%) o f th e 45 members in th e t o t a l sample had schooling beyond high school in th e form o f v o catio nal t r a i n i n g o r c o lle g e course work. Psychosocial P r o f ile In an a ttem p t to understand th e r u r a l a d u lts in th e sample, P a rt I o f th e survey q u e s tio n n a ir e asked open-ended q u e stio n s about th e f a c t o r s t h a t led th e p a r t i c i p a n t s to become involved in th e p ro ­ gram. The f i v e major q u e stio n s and subquestions in P a rt I o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e were phrased d i f f e r e n t l y f o r each group s in c e Groups A, B, and C re p re se n te d groups a t th r e e d i f f e r e n t p laces along a con­ s t r u c t i o n continuum in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program. In a d d itio n to the q u e stio n s t h a t asked about th e m otivating f a c t o r s t h a t led th e p a r t i c i p a n t s to become involved in th e program were major q u e stio n s and subquestions p e rta in in g to a n x ie ty o r con­ cern s a t th e beginning of th e program. The s u b je c ts were a ls o asked to am plify th e ways they f e l t t h a t s k i l l s developed in th e program could be a p p lie d to o th e r are as of t h e i r l i v e s . The 30 members in Groups B and C were asked to d is c u s s t h e i r views about th e housing program now t h a t t h e i r houses had been completed, and a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s were asked to d is c u s s any a d d itio n a l p r o je c ts t h a t had come to mind. 86 The frequency o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' responses to th e f iv e q u e stio n s in P a rt I o f th e survey q u e s tio n n a ir e i s d iscu ssed in th e follow ing o rd e r: m o tiv a tio n , a n x ie ty , t r a n s f e r o f s k i l l s , views about th e program, and new p r o je c ts . M o tiv a tio n . When asked to give th e reasons f o r t h e i r in v o lv e ­ ment in the program, 12 members (80%) o f those in Group A, who had j u s t s t a r t e d c o n s tru c tio n o f t h e i r houses, re p o rte d t h a t th e d e s i r e to own a home was th e g r e a t e s t m otiv atio n al f a c t o r f o r t h e i r involvement with BBCL. In t h i s group, 10 (67%) o f th e responses a d d i t i o n a l l y noted the f in a n c ia l in c e n tiv e t h a t e x is te d w ithin th e program t h a t allowed la b o r to be used in l i e u o f a cash down-payment. Eight (53%) o f those in Group A a lso re p o rte d th e d e s ir e to belong, to s ta y in one p la c e , and to have neighbors. Five (33%) o f Group A’s responses in d ic a te d the wish to f i n a l l y control t h e i r own p ro p e rty as a reason f o r wanting to b u ild and to own t h e i r own homes. When tho se in Group A were asked waht they f e l t th e housing program would do f o r them, 13 (87%) o f t h e i r responses in d ic a te d t h a t in a d d itio n to a cq u irin g a home, BBCL a ls o affo rd ed them th e o p p o rtu n ity to le a rn new s k i l l s as they were bu ild in g t h e i r houses. Members in Group B were in th e f in a l s ta g e s o f c o n s tru c tio n as th e survey began, and i t s members moved in to t h e i r houses as th e study was completed. T h irteen members (87%) o f tho se in Group B in d ic a te d t h a t t h e i r s tr o n g e s t reason f o r a ttend ance in th e program was t h e i r d e s ir e to own a home. An a d d itio n a l nine (60%) o f t h e i r r e p l i e s in d ic a te d t h a t la b o r f o r down-payment was a ls o a strong in c e n tiv e . 87 Looking back to t h e i r e n tran ce in to th e housing program in 1979, a l l 15 members o f Group C re p o rte d becoming involved with BBCL because th e y , to o , f e l t t h a t i t o ff e re d them th e o p p o rtu n ity t o build and to own a new home. Eleven (73%) o f those in Group C a ls o f e l t t h a t th e f a c t t h a t th e program a ls o allowed la b o r to be used f o r a down-payment was a ls o an im portant f a c t o r in t h e i r d e c is io n to e n te r th e program. A nxiety. When asked to am plify any w o rries o r concerns about th e program, fo u r (27%) o f tho se in Group A re p o rte d having f e a r s about a lack o f c o n s tru c tio n a b i l i t i e s . Ten (67%) o f th e members in Group B expressed no w o rries o r fe a r s about t h e i r a b i l i t i e s when they f i r s t began c o n s tru c tio n o f t h e i r houses. Of th e f iv e who were a n xio us, two re p o rte d being unsure o f t h e i r c o n s tru c tio n a b i l i t i e s , and two in d iv id u a ls expressed concerns about personal stam ina. When th e respondents in Group B were asked how th ey f e l t about t h e i r a n x ie t ie s a f t e r th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f t h e i r houses had been completed, 10 (67%) re p o rte d f e e lin g no a d d itio n a l confidence than before they began th e program. Three (20%) o f those in Group B re p o rte d f e e lin g very c o n fid e n t o f t h e i r a b i l i t i e s . Of the th r e e g roups, Group C most fr e q u e n tly expressed f e a r s about t h e i r a b i l i t i e s a t th e beginning o f th e program, w ith nine (60%) o f th e 15 members re p o rtin g t h i s concern, compared to fo u r people (27%) o f those in Group A and f i v e (33%) o f those in Group B. Three members (20%) o f Group B re p o rte d f e e lin g very c o n fid e n t o f t h e i r a b i l i t i e s now than t h e i r houses were completed. The program was a 88 marked confidence b u ild e r f o r those in Group C, w ith nine (60%) re p o rtin g themselves very c o n fid e n t about t h e i r a b i l i t i e s . T ra n sfe r o f s k i l l s . When they were asked to am plify th e ways in which th ey f e l t t h a t s k i l l s developed in th e program could be used in o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s , f i v e (33%) o f th o se in Group A expressed th e b e l i e f t h a t newly le arn ed s k i l l s re p re se n te d an enhance­ ment f o r jo b o p p o r tu n itie s . As did Group A, th e members o f Group B re p o rte d seeing th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f knowledge t r a n s f e r to o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s . Eight members re p re se n tin g 53% o f Group B re p o rte d f e e lin g t h a t jo b s k i l l s would be in c re a se d . Six (40%) o f Group B 's members a ls o saw a p p lic a tio n o f s k i l l s f o r fu tu r e buildin g and f o r home r e p a i r . Fourteen (93%) o f those in Group C a ls o agreed with Groups A and B t h a t developed s k i l l s could be useful in o th e r a r e a s . Six (40%) o f tho se in Group C saw t h e i r enhanced s k i l l s as re s p o n sib le f o r t h e i r in creased confidence in them selves. This f a c t o r was not mentioned by those members in e i t h e r Group A o r Group B. Views about th e program. Members in both Group B and Group C were asked i f th e program, upon i t s com pletion, was d i f f e r e n t than they had imagined i t to be when they f i r s t began c o n s tru c tio n o f t h e i r houses. Ten (67%) o f tho se in Group B re p o rte d f e e lin g t h a t th e program was d i f f e r e n t than they a t f i r s t thought t h a t i t would be. These d if f e r e n c e s were seen by f iv e (33%) to have included more d i f ­ f i c u l t i e s in both working with and communicating w ith o th e r s than they had o r i g i n a l l y imagined th e re would have been. Nine members (60%) o f Group C a d d itio n a lly f e l t t h a t th e program was d i f f e r e n t than 89 they expected i t would be. Five people (33$) re p o rte d t h a t th ey had experienced more d i f f i c u l t y in working with and g e ttin g along w ith o th e rs in t h e i r group. An a d d itio n a l fo u r (27%) f e l t t h a t th e r e had been more work and longer hours than they had, a t f i r s t , b e lie v e d . New p r o j e c t s . The members in Groups B and C were asked what new p r o je c ts had come to mind upon th e completion o f t h e i r houses. Having j u s t fin is h e d c o n s tr u c ti o n , a l l 15 members in Group B re p o rte d t h a t th ey could see continuing involvement with h o u s e -re la te d p r o j e c t s . ’ Eleven (73%) planned immediate p r o je c ts t h a t in some way involved f in i s h in g t h e i r basements. Nine members (60%) saw t h e i r e f f o r t s d ir e c te d toward completion o f deck, porch, fe n c e , or p a tio . As did the members o f Group B, a l l 15 members in Group C re p o rte d involvement with new p r o je c ts t h a t in some way were connected with t h e i r homes, and l i k e th e members in Group B, nine members re p ­ re s e n tin g 60% o f th ose in Group C included deck, porch, fe n c e , o r p a tio in th e p r o je c ts t h a t th ey named. A d d itio n a lly , fo u r members in Group C re p o rte d th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a g a ra g e, and fo u r re p o rte d th e in te n tio n to b uild an a d d itio n a l room. Four members in Group C re p o rte d fe e lin g t h a t they had learned enough about house c o n s tr u c tio n through t h e i r a s s o c ia tio n with BBCL to bu ild an other house. Areas o f Learning I n t e r e s t Areas o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t in which inform ation was obtained during th e p a s t y e a r . The purpose o f Questions 18 through 30 in P a rt II o f th e q u e s tio n n a ire was to d isco v er th e a re a s o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t on which p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program obtained inform ation 90 during th e p a s t y e a r . re sp o n se s. No c o n d itio n s were placed on th e a p p l i c a n t 's A fte r sev eral probes and s u i t a b l e pauses which allowed th e in te rv ie w e r to check re s p o n se s, a p rin te d card was handed to th e respondent with to p ic s t h a t were c ate g o riz e d in 12 broad a re a s o f in te re st. The purpose o f th e p rin te d card was to a id th e respondent in remembering a d d itio n a l a re a s on which inform ation was obtained during th e p a s t y e a r. The 45 people in the t o t a l sample re p o rte d t h a t they had obtained inform ation on 269 to p ic s in 12 general a re a s o f i n t e r e s t . (See Table 6 . ) The l a r g e s t number o f responses were made by the members in Group B, who re p o rte d 96 i n t e r e s t a r e a s . re p o rte d 91, and members in Group A 82. Group C 's members The a re a s o f i n t e r e s t t h a t members o f a l l th r e e groups re p o rte d most fr e q u e n tly were woodworking and home p r o je c ts (84%), business and finance (82%), and yard care (78%). Areas o f i n t e r e s t re p o rte d by th e th re e groups l e s s f r e q u e n tly were homemaking (73%) and consumerism (62%). F ifty -o n e p e rc en t o f members in a l l th r e e groups re p o rte d o b tain in g inform ation on both jo b s k i l l s and hobbies during th e p a s t y e a r . Table 6 shows th e r e l a ­ tio n s h ip s between th e members in each group and t h e i r a re a s o f i n t e r e s t . The a re a s o f i n t e r e s t most fr e q u e n tly re p o rte d by members in Group A were woodworking and home p r o je c ts and business and fin a n c e . All members o f Group B i d e n t i f i e d woodworking and home p r o je c ts and yard c a re as a re a s o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t in which they had o btained i n f o r ­ mation during th e p a s t y e a r . The a re a s of i n t e r e s t most f r e q u e n tly re p o rte d by members in Group C were homemaking, m arriage and fa m ily , b u sin ess and f in a n c e , hobbies, consumerism, and academics. 91 Table 6. Membership in Each Group by Areas o f I n t e r e s t o f P a r ti c ip a n ts General Areas of Learning I n t e r e s t Homemaking Woodworking and home p r o je c ts Marriage and fam ily Physical a c t i v i t i e s and s p o rts Business and fin a n c e Job s k i l l s Hobbies R eligion Academics Consumerism Yard care Other No general are a o f i n t e r e s t Total Group All Groups A (N=15) B (N=15) C (N=15) 10 13 5 6 12 8 7 1 2 9 9 11 15 7 6 12 9 6 3 3 9 15 33 38 20 16 37 23 23 5 10 28 35 1 0 269 - - 0 0 12 10 8 4 13 6 10 1 5 10 11 1 0 82 96 91 N % 73 84 44 36 82 51 51 11 22 62 78 2 0 Process used to o b ta in inform ation on a re a s o f i n t e r e s t . Question 31 in th e survey asked th e 45 members in th e sample to d e sc rib e th e methods by which th e y f i r s t obtained inform ation in t h e i r a re a s o f i n t e r e s t . The members were then asked to d e s c rib e th e methods t h a t were used t o o b ta in a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n , i f i t was found n eces­ sary to do s o , a f t e r a c t i v i t i e s in th e a re a o f i n t e r e s t had begun. The in te rv ie w e r was i n s tr u c te d to record t h e i r process o f o b ta in in g inform ation as "academic" when inform ation was o b ta in e d by re a d in g , s tu d y in g , l i s t e n i n g , o r viewing. Inform ation t h a t was obtained by experiencing o r in le arn in g -b y -d o in g was recorded as "doing." To s im p lify th e re cord ing process f o r th e in te r v ie w e r , th e symbol "Ac" was used to r e f e r t o th e academic approach, and th e symbol "Do" was used to mean le a rn in g -b y -d o in g . Table 7 shows th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between Table 7. Group Membership by Learning Process in Areas o f I n t e r e s t Learning Process3 General I n t e r e s t Area Group A (N=15) Group B (N=15) Group C (N=15) F irst L a te r F irst L a te r F irst L a te r Ac Do Ac Do Ac Do Ac Do Ac Do Ac Do 9 1 10 5 6 _ 11 6 6 1 11 12 1 - 13 14 1 - 15 4 6 2 8 Marriage and fam ily 4 1 - 5 4 3 1 6 2 6 - 8 Physical a c t i v i t i e s / s p o r t s - 6 - 6 4 2 - 6 - 4 1 3 12 - - 12 12 - - 12 9 4 - 13 Homemaking Woodworking/home p r o j e c t s Business and fin a n c e Job s k i l l s 7 1 - 8 6 3 - 9 3 3 - 6 Hobbies 1 6 - 7 2 4 - 6 2 8 2 8 R eligio n 1 - - 1 2 1 1 2 1 - - 1 Academics 2 - 2 - 3 - 2 1 5 - - 5 Consumerism 8 1 - 9 8 1 - 9 5 5 1 9 Yard c a re 7 2 - 9 12 3 - 15 6 5 - 11 Other - - - - - - - - 1 - 1 - F i r s t = Type o f le a r n in g p ro c e ss used to i n i t i a t e le a r n in g a c t i v i t y . L a te r = Type o f le a r n in g p rocess used a f t e r a c t i v i t y had been s t a r t e d . Ac = Learning by s tu d y in g , r e a d in g , o r view ing. Do = Learning by doing o r e x p e rie n c in g . 93 th e p rocesses used by p a r t i c i p a n t s in each group to o b ta in informa­ tio n and th e a re a s of i n t e r e s t . Of th e th r e e groups, Groups A and B appear most a l i k e in th e approach they used to o b ta in inform ation in t h e i r a re a s o f i n t e r e s t . Members in Group A and Group B re p o rte d t h a t they most f r e q u e n tly used an academic approach before becoming involved in woodworking and home p r o j e c t s , business and fin a n c e , yard c a r e , and consumerism. The members in Group B re p o rte d t h a t they most f r e q u e n tly used an academic approach to gaining inform ation in th e l a t e r s ta g e s o f inform ation seeking on th e to p ic s o f m arriage and fa m ily , r e l i g i o n , and academics. As seen in Table 7 , members in Group C re p o rte d t h a t in o b ta in in g inform ation in are as o f i n t e r e s t , 50% o f th e time they used an academic approach and 50% o f th e time th e y learn ed by doing. This i s seen in the a re a s o f homemaking, jo b s k i l l s , consumerism, and yard care. In Group C, o f th e te n members whose a re a o f i n t e r e s t was wood­ working and home p r o j e c t s , fo ur began by using an academic approach. Two members l a t e r turned to an academic approach before proceeding with t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . One o f th e fo u r members in Group C whose are a o f i n t e r e s t was s p o rts and physical a c t i v i t i e s became academ ically involved in o b ta in in g inform ation in l a t e r s tag e s o f th e a c t i v i t y . A s im ila r occurrence i s seen where two o f th e te n members in Group C whose i n t e r e s t s were hobbies began t h e i r process o f o b ta in in g i n f o r ­ mation by a process o f le arnin g-b y-do in g and l a t e r re p o rte d tu rn in g to academic in q u iry . This i s a ls o seen to be th e case where o f the ten members in Group C whose i n t e r e s t area was consumerism, one member 94 turned to academic involvement in l a t e r s ta g e s o f a c t i v i t y in t h i s a re a . Table 8 shows th e frequency with which th e members o f th e t o t a l sample used th e academic process to o b ta in inform ation in i n i t i a l and in l a t e r s t a g e s , by a re a s o f i n t e r e s t t h a t a re ranked in o rd er o f p a r t i c i p a n t involvement. Data f o r Table 8 were o btained from inform ation drawn from Tables 5 and 6. Table 8. Frequency and Percentage o f Times That Subjects in th e Sample Used an Academic Process to Obtain Information in I n i t i a l and L ater Stages o f Learning by Ranked Areas of In terest Ac First® General Areas o f Learning I n t e r e s t by Rank N 1. Woodworking/home p ro je c ts 38 30 2. Business and fin ance 37 3. Yard care Ac L a te r N % 79 2 5 33 89 - - 35 25 71 - - 4. Homemaking 33 20 61 1 3 5. Consumerism 28 21 75 1 4 , 23 23 16 5 70 22 2 9 7. Marriage and fam ily 20 10 50 1 5 8. Physical a c t i v i t i e s / s p o r t s 16 4 25 1 6 9. Academics 10 10 100 4 40 5 4 80 1 20 Job s k i l l s Hobbies 10. Religion N % F i r s t = Type o f le a rn in g process used to i n i t i a t e le arn in g a c tiv ity . Ac = Learning by stu d y in g , re a d in g , o r viewing. 95 Academic involvement t h a t included re a d in g , stu d y in g , l i s t e n ­ in g , o r viewing was used in an a ttem pt to gain inform ation on are as o f i n t e r e s t before th e a c t i v i t y was begun by 30 (79%) o f th e 38 members in th e t o t a l sample who chose woodworking and home p r o j e c t s . This was a ls o seen to be th e case where 33 (89%) o f th e 37 members whose i n t e r e s t was in th e area o f business and fin a n c e . Twenty-one (75%) of the 28 members i n t e r e s t e d in o b ta in in g inform ation on consumerism a lso re p o rte d academic involvement in t h e i r i n i t i a l s tag e s o f le a r n in g . In th e se th re e a re a s of i n t e r e s t ( a l l re p o rte d w ith freq u e n cies beyond 75%), two in d iv id u a ls who chose woodworking and home p r o je c ts and one who chose consumerism re p o rte d tu rn in g to f u r t h e r academic involvement in l a t e r stag e s o f involvement in t h e i r a re a s o f i n t e r e s t . Fewer p a r t i c i p a n t s re p o rte d th e a re a s of yard c a r e , jo b s k i l l s , homemaking, and marriage and fa m ily , and th e frequency o f t h e i r responses was weak regarding any i n t e r e s t in academ ically pursuing inform ation on th e se to p ic s a f t e r th e i n i t i a l attem p ts to le a rn were made. Academic s u b je c ts were o f i n t e r e s t to only a small number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program. Of the f i v e people who s e le c te d r e l i ­ gion as a to p ic on which inform ation was obtained during th e p a st y e a r , one person continued to become academ ically involved in l a t e r stag e s o f i n t e r e s t in th e to p ic . Areas o f sp ec ia l i n t e r e s t . Question 32 in th e survey asked th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program to s e l e c t one area t h a t they co n sid ­ ered to have been th e most meaningful from th e m u ltip le are as of i n t e r e s t on which they had obtained inform ation during th e p a s t y e a r. To be considered as an im portant are a f o r th e c u rre n t r e s e a r c h , th re e 96 c r i t e r i a were imposed. F i r s t , th e p a r t i c i p a n t had to have had a f a i r l y s p e c i f i c idea about what was to be le a rn e d . Second, p a r t i c i p a n t s had to have taken th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r planning and c o n tr o llin g t h e i r own le a rn in g (over 51% o f th e tim e ). F in a lly , the p a r t i c i p a n t s had to have spent a t l e a s t e ig h t hours on t h i s to p ic during th e p a st y e a r . Table 9 shows th e s in g le area o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t f o r each member of each group by categ o ry o f i n t e r e s t . Table 9. Membership in Each Group by Special Area o f Learning I n t e r e s t Special Area o f Learning I n t e r e s t Homemaking Woodworking/home p r o je c ts Marriage and fam ily Physical a c t i v i t i e s / s p o r t s Business and fin a n c e Job s k i l l s Hobbies R eligion Academics Consumeri sm Yard c a re Other Total Group A (N=15) All Groups B (N=15) C (N=15) 10 9 - - 1 2 3 - 1 1 2 2 - - - 3 1 1 N 1 21 3 1 6 3 1 % 2 47 7 2 13 7 2 - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - 4 - - 1 1 2 2 5 2 15 45 15 15 4 11 4 The l a r g e s t area o f c o n c e n tra tio n in th e s p ec ia l a re a s of le a rn in g i n t e r e s t f o r a l l th r e e groups was woodworking and home p r o j e c t s , w ith 21 (47%) o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s making t h i s c h o ic e . o f th e se members were in Group A and nine were in Group B. Ten The second l a r g e s t are a o f s p ec ia l i n t e r e s t was found in Group B, w ith fo u r (27%) o f th e g ro u p 's members involved in th e area of yard c a r e . Of the 97 th re e groups, Group C expressed th e w idest d i v e r s i t y with sp ec ia l a re a s o f i n t e r e s t in nine o f th e 12 c a te g o r ie s . In comparison with th e general a re a s o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t , o f th e 12 c a t e g o r i e s , e ig h t were s e le c te d as sp ec ia l a re a s f o r le a r n in g . Missing were th e are as o f physical a c t i v i t i e s and s p o r t s , r e l i g i o n , and academics. As can be seen in Table 9, Groups A and B shared an i n t e r e s t f o r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n in th e area o f woodworking and home p r o j e c t s , while members in Group C in d ic a te d a wide range o f d i v e r s i t y by s e le c tin g nine o f a p o s s ib le 12 c a te g o r ie s . O rganization o f Learning A c t i v i t i e s The follow ing a re a s p e r ta in to th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f a c t i v i t i e s surrounding th e one to p ic t h a t the p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program d escribed as th e s in g le most meaningful to p ic on which inform ation was ob tain ed during th e p a s t y e a r. Included in t h i s s e c tio n a re ques­ tio n s t h a t asked th e s u b je c ts f o r responses w ith in a s tr u c tu r e d frame­ work. To be covered in p re s e n tin g th e d ata in t h i s s e c tio n a re the follow ing a re a s : th e a re a s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r planning le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s , tho se from whom a s s i s t a n c e was sought during le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s , th e s i t e chosen to c a r ry o u t le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s , and the degree o f d i f f i c u l t y expressed by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in making th e d e c is io n to begin th e sp ecial are a o f i n t e r e s t . M ultip le responses were o fte n given in answer to q u e stio n s on th e above a r e a s . R e s p o n s ib ility f o r planning le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s . Table 10 shows th e types o f plann ers used f o r le a rn in g in th e s u b j e c t s ' sp ec ia l a re a s o f i n t e r e s t . 98 Table 10. Membership in Each Group by Type o f Planner Used Group Type o f Planner Used S e lf C la ss/in stru c tio n One-to-one (someone considered experienced) Nonhuman re so u rce s All Groups A (N=15) B (N=15) C (Nf15) 15 15 13 43 96 8 7 1 16 36 13 14 6 33 73 3 4 7 14 31 Question 33 in th e survey asked th e p a r t i c i p a n t s : you go about planning your sp ec ia l a re a o f i n t e r e s t ? " N % "How did N in ety -six percen t (43) o f th e responses from th e ru r a l a d u lts in d ic a te d t h a t they planned t h e i r own approach to o b ta in in g inform ation on t h e i r sp ec ia l a re a s o f i n t e r e s t . T h i r ty - th r e e (73%) o f those in a l l th re e groups re p o rte d tu rn in g to an o th er person f o r a s s is ta n c e in planning t h e i r sp ec ia l le a rn in g a c t i v i t y . As can be seen in Table 10, th e responses o f Groups A and B to t h i s q u e stio n were very s i m i l a r . While tho se in Group C expressed a marked p re fe re n ce f o r s e l f - p l a n n i n g , the responses from Group C in d ic a te d t h a t i t s members were l e s s l i k e l y to tu rn to e i t h e r a c la s s o r some form o f i n s t r u c t i o n o r to seek a s s i s t ­ ance in planning from an oth er person as was th e case with members in Groups A and B. A d d itio n a lly , th o se in Group C were more a p t to tu rn to nonhuman re so u rce s in planning t h e i r sp e c ia l le a rn in g a c t i v i t y than e i t h e r th o se in Group A o r Group B. A s s is ta n c e . Question 34 in th e survey asked th e p a r t i c i p a n t s : "When you needed a s s is ta n c e w ith your s p e c ia l le a rn in g a c t i v i t y , where 99 did you tu rn f o r help?" The source o f help from whom those in th e th re e groups sought a s s is ta n c e i s presented in Table 11. Table 11. Membership in Each Group by Source o f A ssistance in Learning Groups Sources of Help All Groups A (N=15) B (N=15) C (N=15) 11 11 7 29 64 - 5 5 11 10 13 10 33 73 Nonhuman reso u rces 2 5 8 15 33 Small group 8 7 - 15 33 In tim ates Acquiantances - E x p e rts /p ro f e s s io n a ls N % T h i r ty - th r e e (73%) o f the responses from the th re e groups i n d i ­ cated t h a t th e ru ra l a d u lts turned to someone they considered to be an e x p ert o r p ro fessio n al when a s s is ta n c e was needed. Twenty-nine (64%) re p o rte d tu rn in g to in tim a te s ( p a r e n ts , b r o th e r s , s i s t e r s , spouse, or c lo s e f r i e n d ) . T h i r ty - th r e e p ercen t o f th e responses i n d i ­ cated t h a t members o f a l l th r e e groups turned to e i t h e r nonhuman re so u rce s o r small groups when help was needed. Responses in d ic a te d t h a t those in Group C were more l i k e l y to tu rn to acquaintances than in tim a te s when they needed a s s i s t a n c e . The members in Group C were more a p t to tu rn to nonhuman re so u rce s f o r a s s is ta n c e than members in e i t h e r Group A o r Group B. S i t e chosen to c a r ry out le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s . th e survey asked th e respondents: Question 35 in "Where did you c a r ry o u t th e 100 le a rn in g experience f o r your sp e c ia l area o f i n t e r e s t ? " Forty (89%) o f the responses from members in a l l th re e groups in d ic a te d t h a t th e r u r a l a d u lts in th e sample p re fe rre d to le a rn a t home. The freq u en ­ c ie s o f p re fe re n ce f o r le a rn in g s i t e s a re presented in Table 12. Seven (47%) o f the respondents in Group A a d d i t i o n a l l y named the bu ild in g s i t e as a p re fe rre d lo c a tio n f o r th e le a rn in g involving t h e i r sp ec ia l are as o f i n t e r e s t . Members in Group C expressed p re fe re n ce s f o r th e g r e a t e s t number o f lo c a tio n s a t which to le a r n . Table 12. Membership in Each Group by S i t e Chosen f o r Learning A c tiv ity Group All Groups A (N=15) B (N=15) C (N=l5) 12 15 13 40 89 School 1 1 3 5 11 Public l i b r a r y - 3 4 7 16 Employment 2 - 2 4 9 Other - - 2 2 4 At b u ild in g s i t e 7 3 - 10 22 Chosen Location f o r Learning Home The d e c is io n t o b e g in . respo n den ts: N % Question 36 in th e survey asked th e "Did you have any d i f f i c u l t y making th e d e cisio n to begin your le a rn in g on th e to p ic o f your sp ec ia l area o f i n t e r e s t ? " The respondents were asked to s t r u c t u r e t h e i r answers around a f i v e p o in t L ik e rt-ty p e s c a le t h a t recorded r e p l i e s t h a t ranged from "almost always" to " r a r e l y . " Table 13. The d ata f o r t h i s q u e stio n a re presented in T h i r ty - s ix (80%) o f th e responses from th e 45 a d u lts in 101 a l l th r e e groups in d ic a te d t h a t they r a r e l y found d i f f i c u l t y in making th e d e cisio n to begin. Three people (20%) o f th o se in Group B re p o rte d t h a t making the d e c is io n to begin was a problem. Table 13. Membership in Each Group by D i f f i c u l t y o f th e Decision to Begin Learning A c tiv ity All Groups Group LO * * D i f f i c u l t y Making Decision to Begin Learning A c tiv ity B (N=15) C (N=15) N % 5 Almost always ~ - - - - 4 - 3 1 4 9 i 2 2 5 3 Sometimes n O L 1 Rarely 14 10 12 36 80 Total 15 15 15 45 100 Use of Resources Use o f time a s a re s o u rc e . re sp on den ts: Question 37 in th e survey asked the "Was arranging time to le a rn a problem?" The s u b je c ts were asked to s t r u c t u r e t h e i r answers around a f i v e - p o i n t L ik e rt-ty p e sc a le t h a t recorded r e p l i e s in a range from "almost always" to " r a r e l y ." The d a ta f o r t h i s q u e stio n are p resen ted in Table 14. Scheduling time f o r th e are a o f special i n t e r e s t was r a r e l y seen to be a problem fo r 32 (71%) people in th e t o t a l sample. Twelve people re p re se n tin g 27% o f th e sample did f in d scheduling a d i f f i c u l t y . One person in Group A and two in Group B found th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f time a problem to be con­ sid ered very f r e q u e n tly . 102 Table 14. Membership in Each Group by O rganization o f Time f o r Learning 5 B (N=15) 1 2 - 1 2 C (N=15) % 3 7 - 1 2 3 4 8 18 1 - - 1 2 Rarely 11 9 12 32 71 Total 15 15 15 45 100 Almost always Sometimes 2 1 A (N=15) N 4 3 All Groups Group O rganization of Time f o r Learning The use o f money as a r e s o u r c e . asked th e respondents: Question 38 in th e survey "To be a b le to le a r n about your sp ec ia l area of i n t e r e s t was money a problem?" The s u b je c ts were asked to s t r u c ­ tu r e t h e i r r e p l i e s on a f i v e - p o i n t L ik e rt-ty p e s c a le t h a t recorded r e p l i e s from "almost always" to " r a r e l y . " a re presen ted in Table 15. The d a ta f o r t h i s q u e stion As th e t a b l e i n d i c a t e s , th e use o f money as a r e s t r a i n t on le a rn in g reso u rces was not seen to be a problem fo r 36 (80%) o f th e t o t a l sample. very s i m i l a r re sp o n se s. The members in Groups A and B gave Group C e x h ib ite d th e w idest range of responses o f th e th r e e groups. Finding re s o u r c e s . N in e ty -e ig h t p e rc e n t (44) o f th e members in th e th r e e groups re p o rte d fin d in g no d i f f i c u l t i e s in lo c a tin g reso u rces in response to Question 39 in th e survey. R eplies to t h i s q u e stio n were a ls o s tr u c tu r e d on a f i v e - p o i n t L ik e rt-ty p e s c a le . 103 Table 15. Membership in Each Group by th e Use o f Money as a R e s tr a in t on Learning Resources All Groups Group Money Seen as a Problem A (N=15( B (N=15) C (N=15) N % 5 Almost always - - 1 1 2 3 Sometimes 2 - 4 6 13 - 1 1 2 5 2 1 Rarely 13 14 9 36 80 Total 15 15 15 45 100 Understanding r e s o u r c e s . Question 39 asked th e respondents i f re so u rce s were d i f f i c u l t to understand. R eplies to t h i s q u e stio n were a ls o s tr u c tu r e d on th e f iv e - p o i n t L ik e rt-ty p e s c a le t h a t recorded responses from "almost always" to " r a r e l y . " T h irty people in th e th r e e groups re p re s e n tin g 67% o f th e members in th e sample re p o rte d having no d i f f i c u l t y w ith comprehension. T hirty-o ne p e rc e n t (14) in the sample in d ic a te d t h a t they had had d i f f i c u l t y in t h i s a r e a . responses from tho se in Groups A and B were very s i m i l a r . The The members in Group B expressed th e w idest range o f responses and re p o rte d hav­ ing had th e most d i f f i c u l t y in fin d in g u nd erstandable re s o u rc e s . The d ata a re included in Table 16. S e lf a s a r e s o u r c e . Included in a group o f q u e stio n s t h a t asked f o r s tr u c tu r e d responses about th e use o f human and nonhuman r e s o u r c e s , th e study asked th e members o f th e th r e e groups: p r e f e r to le a r n by y o u rs e lf? " "Do you The da ta from th e r e p l i e s a r e shown in 104 Table 16. Membership in Each Group by D i f f i c u l t y in Understanding Resources D i f f i c u l t y in Understanding Resources 5 Almost always A (N=15) B (N=15) All Groups C (N=15) N % — - - • - 1 - 1 2 5 6 3 14 31 Rarely 10 8 12 30 67 Total 15 15 15 45 100 4 3 Group Sometimes o 1 Table 17. Twenty-four people re p re s e n tin g 53% o f th e t o t a l sample r e p lie d t h a t a t times they p re fe rre d to le a r n by them selves. The responses from the th re e groups were very s i m i l a r f o r th e 11 (24%) who in d ic a te d t h a t they almost always p re fe rre d to le a r n by them selves. Members o f Group A, more than Groups B and C, in d ic a te d from t h e i r responses t h a t they r a r e l y enjoy le a rn in g by them selves. The Self-H elp Housing Program as a Learning Experience Current involvement. The d ata t h a t were obtained from the q u e stio n s in th e study t h a t asked about c u r r e n t involvement in th e housing program were obtained from open-ended q u e s tio n s . Table 18 p re s e n ts th e freq u e n cies o f th e responses by each member o f each group in th e a re a s o f business and f in a n c e , c o n s tr u c tio n m a te ria ls and p r a c t i c e s , and communication and group p ro c e ss . 105 Table 17. Membership in Each Group by Preference to Learn by Oneself All Groups Group P re fe r to Learn by Oneself 5 Almost always 4 3 Sometimes 2 1 Rarely Total Table 18. A (N=15) B (N=15) C (N=15) 4 3 4 11 25 1 1 2 4 9 6 10 8 24 53 1 - - 1 2 3 1 1 5 11 15 15 15 45 100 N % Group Membership by Areas o f C urrent Involvement All Groups Group Current Involvement A (N=15) B (N=15) C (N=15) N % Business and fin an ce Budgeting Checking, sa v in g s, mortgages, loans Taxes and insurance 15 15 15 45 100 15 15 15 15 15 15 45 45 100 100 C o nstructi on m a t e r i a l s / p r a c t i ces 15 14 12 41 91 14 14 12 40 89 13 14 7 34 76 Communication/group process Working and i n t e r a c t i n g in small groups Discussing common i n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s As shown in Table 18, a l l 45 members o f th e th r e e groups re p o rte d being c u r r e n tly involved in each phase o f th e f in a n c ia l a s p e c t o f the housing program. Ninety-one p e rc en t o f th e sample 106 r e p re s e n tin g 41 p a r t i c i p a n t s in d ic a te d c u rre n t involvement with some a s p e c t o f c o n s tr u c tio n . Forty people (89%) in d ic a te d t h a t they were working and i n t e r a c t i n g in small groups. Groups A and B were s im ila r in t h e i r responses concerning d iscu ssio n in small groups. Group C 's seven responses re p re se n te d 50% l e s s - f r e q u e n t d is c u s s io n in small groups than those re p o rte d by e i t h e r Group A o r Group B. T ra n s fe r o f s k i l l s to o th e r a r e a s . The data t h a t were obtained from q u e stio n s in th e study t h a t asked about the t r a n s f e r o f s k i l l s to o th e r a re a s were obtained from open-ended q u e s tio n s . Table 19 p re s e n ts th e freq u e n cies o f th e responses by each member o f each group in th e a re a s o f business and f in a n c e , c o n stru c tio n m a te ria ls and p r a c t i c e s , and communication and group process. Table 19. Membership in Each Group by T ran sfer o f S k i l l s to Other Areas T ran sfe r o f S k i l l s to Other Areas Group All Groups A (N=15) B (N=15) C (Nf=l 5) 12 12 12 13 14 7 13 14 12 38 40 31 84 89 69 15 14 15 44 98 13 12 12 10 12 7 37 29 82 64 N % Business and Finance Budgeting Mortgage, loans Taxes and insurance C onstruction m ate ria l s / p r a c t i c e s Communication/group process Working w ith o th e rs D iscussing w ith o th e rs 107 Forty p a r t i c i p a n t s re p re s e n tin g 89% o f th e t o t a l sample i n d i ­ cated in t h e i r responses t h a t inform ation obtained in th e housing program in th e a re a s o f mortgage procedures and th e fin an cin g o f loans was t r a n s f e r a b l e to o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s o u ts id e th e program. T h i r ty - e ig h t (84%) in d ic a te d t h a t the procedures developed in budget­ ing in BBCL would have a p p lic a tio n elsew here. While 12 members in Groups A and C in d ic a te d t h a t inform ation gained in BBCL about taxes and in surance would be o f use in o th e r a r e a s , seven members in Group B saw th e a p p lic a tio n o f the inform ation in a re a s o u ts id e o f th e housing program. F o rty -fo u r (98%) o f th e t o t a l sample re p o rte d t h a t inform ation on c o n s tru c tio n m a te r ia ls and p r a c tic e s t h a t was obtained in BBCL would be o f use in o th e r a re a s . In th e area o f communication and group p ro c e s s , 37 (82%) of th e respondents in d ic a te d t h a t th e s k i l l s developed in BBCL in working with o th e rs would have uses in o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s . In the e n t i r e a re a o f t r a n s f e r o f s k i l l s , th e g r e a t e s t d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n in th e th r e e groups was evidenced in t h e i r r e p l i e s to q u e stio n s concern­ ing communication w ith o th e r s . Twenty-nine p a r t i c i p a n t s o f th e 45 (64%) in th e t o t a l sample re p o rte d f e e lin g t h a t communication s k i l l s developed in BBCL would have a p p lic a tio n in o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s . Of Group C, who had been in th e program between two and th re e y e a r s , seven people o f th e 15 in th e group saw th e t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y o f com­ munication s k i l l s . Of Group B, who had been involved in th e housing program one and o n e -h a lf y e a r s , 10 o f th e g ro u p 's 15 members rep o rted t h a t they could see a use f o r th e communication s k i l l s developed in 108 th e program. Twelve o f Group A 's 15 members re p o rte d t h a t they f e l t communication s k i l l s could be used in o th e r areas o f t h e i r l i v e s away from th e housing program. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f "schooling" and " le a r n i n g 11 expressed by a d u lts. Question 42 in th e survey was s tr u c tu r e d in asking f o r a response to the q u e stio n : "How well do you th in k t h a t your previous schooling prepared you f o r a d u lt l i f e ? " A f iv e - p o i n t L ik e rt-ty p e s c a le was used to measure responses in a q u a l i t y o f schooling from "poorly" to " w e ll." The fre q u e n c ie s o f th e responses of th e i n d i ­ v id u a ls in each group a re p resented in Table 20. Twenty-five p e o p le, re p re s e n tin g 56% o f th e t o t a l sample, in d ic a te d by t h e i r r e p l i e s t h a t they thought previous schooling had moderately equipped them in p re p a ra ­ tio n f o r a d u lt l i f e . T h irty -n in e respondents (87%) in a l l th re e groups in d ic a te d t h a t they f e l t previous schooling had equipped them f o r a d u lt l i f e to a degree t h a t was f e l t to be re p re se n te d between "moderately" and " w e ll." The viewpoint t h a t previous schooling had prepared them "moderately" to "poorly" f o r a d u lt l i f e was re p o rte d by 31 in d iv id u a ls who re p re se n te d 69% o f th e 45 members in th e th r e e groups. a re presented in Table 20. The da ta The n in e people in Group A and te n in Group C who f e l t t h a t previous schooling had provided a moderate p re p a ra tio n f o r l i f e re p re se n te d th e l a r g e s t p ercentages o f response on a s in g le measure in th e f i v e - p o i n t s c a le . With two people and th r e e pe o p le, r e s p e c t i v e l y , Groups A and B were s im ila r in t h e i r responses regarding previous schooling as a poor p re p a ra tio n f o r a d u lt l i f e . 109 Table 20. Membership in Each Group by School as a P rep a ra tio n fo r Life School as a P re p a ra tio n f o r L ife 5 4 Well 3 Moderately 2 1 Poorly Total Group All Groups A (N=15) B (N=15) C (N=15) 1 3 2 4 3 1 9 6 - N % 6 1 3 - i1 8 18 87% 10 25 - 1 1 56—!1 2 69% | 2 3 - 5 11 -' 15 15 15 100 45 When asked to th in k o f a word t h a t s u c c in c tly expressed "le arn in g " experiences f o r them, th e open-ended responses from the p a r t i c i p a n t s f e l l in to th r e e fo c i t h a t were c ate g o riz e d by th e r e s e a r c h e r as being p o s i t i v e , n e g a tiv e , and those t h a t appeared to express a q u a l i t y o f l i f e . When chosen as being p o s i t i v e , le a rn in g was seen as being i n t e r e s t i n g , fu n , ad v en tu re, f u l f i l l m e n t , o r b rin g ­ ing s a t i s f a c t i o n . When chosen as being n e g a tiv e , le a rn in g was seen to ta k e tim e , to be hard or d i f f i c u l t , to r e q u ire p e r f e c t i o n , o r to be f o r c in g . When chosen to r e f l e c t a q u a l i t y o f human l i f e , le a rn in g was seen by th e r u r a l a d u lts in th e housing program as re p re s e n tin g e x p e rie n c e , knowledge, u n d erstan din g , communication, and ch allen g e t h a t was re p re se n te d in everyday l i f e through working, d o in g , and liv in g . The data f o r t h i s q u e stio n a re p resen ted in Table 21. "Experience" was th e d e s c r i p t o r c i t e d most f r e q u e n tly . It was used by fo u r members in Group C, th r e e members in Group B, and 110 one member in Group A. The d e s c r ip to r used with th e second g r e a t e s t frequency was " d i f f i c u l t . " I t was used by th r e e members in Group A and no members in Groups B o r C. Group A gave 12 d i f f e r e n t d e s c r i p ­ t o r s , which was th e w idest range o f responses f o r th e th r e e groups in th e sample. Table 21. Membership in Each Group by Perceived C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Learning Perceived C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Learning Groups All Groups A (N=15) B (N=15) C (N=15) P o s itiv e 6 7 2 15 33 Negative 4 2 3 9 20 Q u ality o f l i f e 5 6 10 21 47 15 15 15 45 100 Total N % P a rt I I : P re s e n ta tio n o f Q u a lita tiv e Data In t h i s p a r t o f th e c h a p te r , th e q u a l i t a t i v e da ta gathered during th e in te rv ie w s f o r th e study a re presented in th e form of d i r e c t q u o ta tio n s t h a t were made by p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program. T heir responses a re organized in fo u r major a re a s f o r convenience in p r e s e n t a t i o n , a s fo llow s: I. Psychosocial p r o f i l e A. M otivation f o r involvement in th e program B. A n x ie tie s about a b i l i t i e s before th e program and during th e program's c o n tin u a tio n Ill II. T ra n s fe r o f s k i l l s to o th e r a re a s A. Areas o f b usin ess and fin an ce B. C onstruction m a te r ia ls and p r a c tic e s C. Communication and group process III. Changes in s e lf - c o n c e p t expressed by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e study IV. The s e l f - h e l p housing program as a le a rn in g experience Psychosocial P r o f i l e The respondents gave a v a r i e t y o f reasons f o r wanting to become involved in BBCL. T heir most fre q u e n t reasons made re fe re n c e to wanting to own a home. The follow ing q u o ta tio n s a re r e p r e s e n ta ­ t i v e o f th e m otivational f a c t o r s t h a t led th e p a r t i c i p a n t s to the program. M otivation f o r involvement in th e program. I 'v e re n te d a l l my l i f e . . . . I never had anything t h a t I could say was my own. I 'v e paid a l l t h a t money o u t f o r y e a r s — in r e n t and i t ' s a l l gone. Now I want to own my own home. The p rid e o f owning your own home. I wanted a home f o r th e kids and I . To have a new house t o l i v e i n . . . . This i s th e only way t h a t I could g e t one. I t i s a challeng e to have a p lace o f my own—something t h a t I 'v e worked f o r . I r e a l l y wanted to b u ild my own home, m yself. To b u ild our own home. I was e x c ite d in s te a d o f a run-down apartm ent. about a brand newhouse— I wanted a house o f my own f o r th e k id s . I am t i r e d o f liv in g in p la ce s l i k e t h i s [ t r a i l e r ] with poor s e p ti c and e v ery th in g . 112 We c o u l d n 't a ffo rd down-payments. We a re sick o f liv in g in apartm ents. We've liv e d in fo u r o r f i v e d i f f e r e n t pla ce s since we have been m arried . We want a steady p lace where th e kids can go to th e same s c h o o l. We wanted to g e t ou t o f a t r a i l e r and in to a house and have real neighbors and fr ie n d s who know you. A nx ieties about a b i l i t i e s . The respondents re p o rte d a v a r ie ty o f concerns t h a t in d ic a te d w orries about lacking c o n s tru c tio n capa­ b ilitie s. a c tio n . Also re p o rte d were apprehensions about small-group i n t e r ­ The following q u o ta tio n s a re r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f t h e i r concerns. I never even pounded a n a il before and a l l o f a sudden I'm doing w iring and plumbing. I was scared to death a t f i r s t —but I'm doing re a l f i n e . I had f e a r s about not being ab le to see i t through. I have had a bad back and I was a f r a i d i t would ta k e too much. Then I made up my mindto t r y i t . I t was a c h a lle n g e --b u t I d id i t . I was in a group where I d i d n ' t know anybody. a t f i r s t but I did f i n e . I d id n 't lik e i t I was w orried—j u s t wondering i f we would make i t through the program. Now, because of BBCL, I have c o n s tru c tio n as a t r a d e . I'm not worried about th e program. I am very c o n fid e n t t h a t we w ill g e t a l l th e help t h a t we w ill need. I was worried about g e ttin g along with s tr a n g e r s . Being a woman and coming out here w ith a l l th e se guys, I was scared to d e a th —but I did OK. I was a f r a i d to use power t o o l s . g e t along w ith the o th e r people. I a ls o d i d n ' t know how we would I worked in a group where I d i d n ' t know anybody e l s e . s ca ry . I t was The f i r s t day I was scared to d e ath . I d i d n ' t know how to wire o r do plumbing. When we were shown how to do something, I had to ask them to r e p e a t i t over and over a g a in —but I f i n a l l y got the hang o f i t . 113 T ra n s fe r o f S k i l l s to Other Areas Areas o f business and f in a n c e . The respondents were asked in what manner the f in a n c ia l s k i l l s t h a t were used in th e housing program might be a p p lic a b le to o th e r areas o f t h e i r l i v e s . The following q u o ta tio n s a re r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f t h e i r p e rc ep tio n s o f th e t r a n s f e r o f knowledge in t h i s a re a . The d a ta were organized by th e re s e a rc h e r according t o th e degree o f th e t r a n s f e r expressed by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s . The o rd erin g i s as fo llo w s: F i r s t , th ose responses where the p a r t i c i ­ pants e a s i l y saw th e t r a n s f e r o f knowledge a re p re s e n te d ; second, those responses a re p resented t h a t in d ic a te d t h a t th e p re s e n t study had opened up th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a t r a n s f e r o f knowledge to th e p a r­ t i c i p a n t s ; and f i n a l l y , tho se responses a re presented t h a t did not appear to see a use f o r th e knowledge in o th e r a r e a s . T ran sfer o f knowledge e a s i l y seen by p a r t i c i p a n t s : With th e budget t r a i n i n g t h a t we g o t, now, with my day-care b u s in e s s , I am a b le to th in k about allowances f o r e x t r a s . I found t h a t I d i d n ' t r e a l l y know how to budget befo re we did t h i s house. I can plan th in g s more than I used to be ab le t o . I have a savings acc o u n t, now, f o r th e f i r s t time in my whole l i f e . I am much more c o n fid e n t about fin a n c es now. I fe e l t h a t I have more f in a n c ia l worth and more value than I ever r e a liz e d . Now t h a t w e 're in t h i s house, w e 're saving to buy th e th in g s t h a t we need. I f we want something, we save u n t i l we can a ffo rd to go o u t and buy i t . We had to save $25 each week f o r th e f i r s t y e ar to help us to pay f o r our in suran ce and ta x e s when we g o t in to th e house. That made us continue to save—even when we d i d n ' t have t o . Now t h a t I 'v e saved and worked to bu ild t h i s house, someday I plan to buy a farm—and a f t e r t h i s house, I knowt h a t I can do i t . I 'v e always wanted to do t h a t . 114 Well y e s , we probably w ill continue to use some o f th e th in g s we've learn ed l i k e saving to pay f o r ta x e s and l i k e t h a t , but as f a r as being heavy b u d g e ters—w e 're n o t. Now I know where my money goes . . . to p o l i c e , to roads and to people who g e t 1a i d - o f f . I t has helped me to understand. I am going to q u e stio n more what t h e y 'r e using our ta x e s f o r . T h a t's MY money t h e y 'l l be u sing. I co n tacted th e C ity O ffice th e o th e r day about th e ta x s t a t e ­ ment t h a t I re c e iv e d . I wanted to know more what i t was a l l about. We're now concerned about ta x es and in su ra n ce . You le a rn to plan ahead. We d o n 't throw away mileage brochures t h a t come in th e m a il, anymore. We look a t them because now they a f f e c t us. The p o s s i b i l i t y o f t r a n s f e r o f knowledge seen by p a r t i c i p a n t s : No, I ' d never r e a l l y thought about i t —but I guess you could use some o f th e se th in g s l a t e r on. I have been so busy bu ild in g th e house t h a t I h a v e n 't had time to th in k about i t . I suppose t h a t somewhere down th e li n e I ' l l have to give i t some thought. No, I h a d n 't thought about i t - - b u t I can see where c e r t a i n th in g s might c a r ry over i n to your l i f e , though. No appearance of t r a n s f e r o f knowledge to o th e r a r e a s : Well, maybe, but I ' d never r e a l l y thought about using any o f t h i s f in a n c ia l s t u f f once we got th e house b u i l t . No, I d o n 't imagine t h a t I ' l l become involved in any kind o f banking a g a in —now t h a t I 'v e got th e house. No—I never did much b e lie v e in budgets. Areas o f c o n s tr u c tio n m a te r ia ls and p r a c t i c e s . The follow ing responses are r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e answers t h a t were given by the respondents concerning th e p o te n tia l use o f c o n s tr u c tio n s k i l l s in a re a s o u ts id e o f th e program. The m a jo rity o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s could 115 r e a d i l y see th e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f c o n s tr u c tio n s k i l l s . The d a ta were organized by th e re s e a rc h e r according to th e t r a n s f e r expressed by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s . The o rd erin g i s as fo llo w s : F i r s t , th o se responses where th e p a r t i c i p a n t s e a s i l y saw th e t r a n s f e r o f knowledge a re re p o rte d ; second, those responses a re p resented t h a t in d ic a te d t h a t th e p re s e n t study had opened up th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a t r a n s f e r o f knowledge; and f i n a l l y , tho se responses a re p resented t h a t did not appear to see a use f o r th e knowledge in o th e r a r e a s . T ra n s fe r o f knowledge e a s i l y seen by p a r t i c i p a n t s : I 'v e learn ed more here in th e p a s t few months than I ever thought I would and a b u i l t a house, to o . I ' l l j u s t b e t t h a t I could b u ild o th e r th in g s . Our eleven y e ar old helped us to work on th e house. There i s nothing he c a n ' t do now. He i s s t i l l helping people we know to b u ild t h e i r garages. He's r e a l l y le arn ed a l o t t h a t h e ' l l probably use in h is whole l i f e . Everything I 'v e le arn ed i s because o f th e experience with th e house. I h a d n 't any experience in any a re a s o f c o n s tr u c tio n b e fo re . Now I know t h a t I w ill be a b le to r e p a i r th in g s in th e house when they go wrong. This p a s t w inter I took a jo b in c o n s tr u c tio n t h a t I w o uldn 't have g o tte n o th e rw ise . I d i d n ' t have th e s e lf -c o n fid e n c e to go ahead and do i t b e fo re . Now, I 'v e done th e house and I can do i t ag ain . My seventeen y ear old son worked w ith me on th e house. H e's almost as capable a s though he was in th e program. He could almost b u ild a house on h is own because o f h is working with me. I h a v e n 't had to c a l l a repairman s in c e Imoved i n . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f knowledge t r a n s f e r seen by p a r t i c i p a n t s : No, I h a d n 't thought about i t . But I can see where i t ' d probably come in handy fix in g th in g s . 116 No appearance o f t r a n s f e r o f knowledge to o th e r a r e a s ; No, I c a n ' t see where i t ' d h e lp . th e house i s f in i s h e d . Once yo u 'v e b u i l t th e house, No, why would you want to do any o f t h i s again? Areas o f communication and group p r o c e s s . The follow ing responses a re r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f the answers t h a t were given by th e respondents concerning th e p o te n tia l use o f communication s k i l l s t h a t were developed in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program. The m a jo rity o f the p a r t i c i p a n t s could r e a d i l y see th e a p p lic a tio n o f th e se s k i l l s to o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s . Very few p a r t i c i p a n t s re p o rte d seeing no c o ntin u in g use f o r th e communication s k i l l s a f t e r t h e i r houses were completed. To a s s i s t th e r e a d e r , th e re s e a rc h e r organized th e p a r ­ t i c i p a n t responses in to tho se a re a s where the t r a n s f e r o f knowledge was e a s i l y seen by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s , tho se a re a s where th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a knowledge t r a n s f e r was seen by th e re sp o n d en ts, and f i n a l l y , th o se a re a s where th e r e appeared to be no appearance o f a t r a n s f e r of knowledge to a re a s o u ts id e th e program. T ra n s fe r o f knowledge e a s i l y seen b.y th e p a r t i c i p a n t s : The problems t h a t we've had w ith pe o p le, h e re , worked out and we've grown c lo se and can communicate and share th in g s . I j u s t know t h a t t h i s w ill work in o th e r p a r ts o f our l i v e s , to o . I was put in a group o f people I d i d n ' t know well and we learned to work o u t our problems and g e t th e jo b done. I f I can do i t w ith them—I can do i t w ith anybody. I le arn ed how to g e t along and cope with o th e r peo ple—and b e lie v e me, t h a t ' s something new f o r me. I'm planning to use i t r i g h t along. We've learn ed to share a l o t o f inform ation t h a t we learn ed here w ith our f r i e n d s . I imagine w e 'll keep r i g h t on doing i t . 117 Now I am more comf o rta b l e meeti ng w ith and g e ttin g used to o th e r people in groups than I ever was b e fo re . I am hoping t h a t t h i s keeps up w ith o th e r people and not j u s t those we know through b u ild in g th e house. You g e t to know t h a t o th e r people have ideas and opinions about how to do th in g s and you le a rn t h a t you have to give a l i t t l e . This could be h e lp fu l in l o t s o f o th e r ways. I used to have a hard time ta lk in g to people. Now, a f t e r th e house, I 'v e learn ed t h a t you have to communicate. This could help me a t home with my fam ily and a t my jo b . Having to g e t along w ith people you never knew b e fo re , you had to b u ild up c o o p eratio n . We worked a t i t , had arguments—but i t a l l panned out and we made i t th rough, to g e th e r . I b e lie v e I can keep on doing t h i s . I'm a lead-man a t th e fa c to r y where I work. The program has sure helped. A fte r te n months experience with BBCL i t i s e a s i e r to work w ith problems a t work—and in o th e r p la c e s . I'm working w ith a small group o f people and I c a n ' t pull rank l i k e I did in th e s e r v ic e . You've got to work to g e th e r , to give and take and l i s t e n to o p in io n s. This has helped me with my k id s. I have le a rn e d to deal w ith p eople. I j u s t learn ed t h a t watch­ ing p e o p le 's f a c i a l e x p re ssio n s helps when y o u 're dealin g with them. Right from th e s t a r t we had o ur A ssociation Meetings where we could stand up and share our id e a s . I t r e a l l y helped me to say what I want to when our fam ily g e ts to g e th e r. Five y e a rs ago I was re a l shy. With t h i s p r o je c t and my jo b , now I am a b le to speak up a t work to my foreman. I t has r e a l l y helped me a t my jo b . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f knowledge t r a n s f e r seen by p a r t i c i p a n t s : I 'v e always been a lo n e —never been w ith o th e rs in groups. Maybe i t i s because t h i s was my f i r s t ex p erien c e —but I'm more le e r y now. I'm not as t r u s t i n g . Iguess I'm more d isap po inted and more anxious o f working w ith o th e rs sin ce I b u i l t th e house. I guess I ' d have to say I never thought o f i t in t h a t l i g h t b efore. No, I h a d n 't r e a l l y thought about i t but I can see where g e t ­ t i n g along w ith l o t s o f d i f f e r e n t people would h elp . 118 No appearance o f t r a n s f e r o f knowledge to o th e r a r e a s : No—not r e a l l y . I never thought about i t b efo re. Changes in Self-Concept Expressed by P a r ti c ip a n ts in th e Study The follow ing statem ents were made by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in the study and a re r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e responses t h a t were made p e r t a i n ­ ing to t h e i r perceived changes in ego s tr e n g th , s e lf-a w a re n e s s , and s e lf-id e n tity . I came in to t h i s program w ithout knowing an y th in g . I sp ent more time than I thought I would but I DID IT ALL MYSELF. I d i d n 't have anybody helping me. I spent most o f th e hours m yself. I'm real proud. I fe e l a l o t more c o n fid e n t in bu ild in g an o th er house. me fe e l t h a t I did something worthwhile. I t makes I ta c k le d something t h a t I d i d n ' t know i f I would make i t or n o t—but I did i t . I t has given me more confidence as a woman. I did i t a l l by myself! I t ' s an accomplishment t h a t you made y o u r s e lf . The house i s something t h a t you mold, y o u r s e l f , as y o u 'r e b u ild in g i t . Now I have more confidence. I used to be extremely shy. A fte r b u ilding th e house I KNOW I can do th in g s . I d o n 't fe e l shy any more. The Self-H elp Housing Program as a Learning Experience All 45 p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e housing program re p o rte d seeing BBCL as a le a rn in g exp erien ce. The follow ing q u o ta tio n s a re r e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e o f th e ways in which t h e i r experiences were p e rs o n a lly a p p lic a b le . Now t h a t I ' v e b u i l t t h i s house, I want to take n ig h t c l a s s e s in d r a f tin g so t h a t I can put down on paper what I know in my head. 119 BBCL and b u ild in g t h i s house has ta u g h t me t h a t when you want something in l i f e i t i s not going to be handed to you. You have to work hard f o r i t and a ccep t th e f in a n c ia l burden t h a t comes along with anything t h a t you want. I have more o f a sense o f having ro o ts and belonging in th e com­ munity. I pay a t t e n t i o n to ta x e s . I am soon going to be a r e g i s t e r e d v o te r f o r th e f i r s t time in my l i f e . I 'v e always wanted to be an i n t e r i o r d e c o ra to r. A fter b u ild ing th e house I 'v e decided . . . someday I'm going to c o lle g e . My knowledge i s broader now. I have people coming t o me and a sk ­ ing me q u e s tio n s . Mr. C. to ld us t h a t would happen, but I d i d n ' t b e lie v e him. They should change th e program. You should punch a clock f o r th e time you spend a t th e b u ild in g s i t e . That would be f a i r f o r everyone . . . a t l e a s t i t would keep tr a c k o f th e hours spent by tho se who worked. I am a l i t t l e nervous about th e le a rn in g ahead—but I th in k t h a t o th e rs must be as nervous as me. I'm r e a l l y e x c it e d . I'm j u s t w aiting to g e t in th e r e and g e t s t a r t e d . I t ' s going to be hard— but i t ' s going to be a fun -h ard. I guess t h a t I 'v e always been lucky because i t was always easy f o r me to le a r n . I 'v e always wondered why schools seemed to give kids so much s t u f f you c a n ' t use when y o u 're o ld e r . The le a rn in g in th e program has r e a l l y been im portant to me. J u s t th in k o f i t — w e 're not only g e ttin g a house, but a NEW house! How many o th e r young people can say th a t? I j u s t c a n ' t w a it to s t a r t le a rn in g d i f f e r e n t th in g s about b u ild ­ ing th e house and I c a n ' t w ait f o r th e day to move i n . Those are two days t h a t I have been liv in g f o r sin ce I f i r s t heard of BBCL. I c a n ' t b e lie v e t h i s i s r e a l l y happening to us. I b e lie v e t h a t s e l f - h e l p bu ild in g i s im portant to anyone s t a r t i n g o u t. Cooperation i s th e key. Mr. C ., h e 's th e i n s t i g a t o r o f th e whole th in g . You have to have someone to do t h a t . You place a ll your t r u s t in him to do the b e st job f o r you. He's th e c e n te r p o in t . . . and th e whole program rev olves around him. I th in k t h a t i t i s a f a n t a s t i c idea! We probably w ouldn't have had a house u n til we were in our f o r t i e s . Now, here we a re in our e a r l y tw e n tie s and we have a house t h a t we've worked f o r and we have something to show f o r our work. I t was well worth th e blood, sweat and g u ts involved in the p r o j e c t . I t was hard work but I'm glad we did i t . 120 I t i s probably one o f th e b e t t e r th in g s I 'v e ever done. I would never have a house otherw ise w ith th e economy th e way i t i s . I learn ed a l o t and I could probably do i t again by myself i f I had to . I'm sure glad I did i t . I t ' s not been easy. There've been times where I f e l t discouraged and wanted to drop o u t. Those were th e times when th e r e were l u l l s in g e ttin g b u ild in g m a te r ia ls . But now t h a t i t ' s almost t h e r e , you g e t more e x c ite d about moving i n . I t ' s r e a l l y your home. I would never do i t ag ain . I th in k t h a t i t i s a very good program. A f a n t a s t i c experience! The time went f a s t because th e people in th e group got along so w e ll. There were hardly any m isunderstandings in th e group. I am proud o f what I 'v e accomplished but under th e same circum­ stan c e s I would never go through i t a g ain . No m a tte r what they t e l l you, i t ' s going to be harder than you th in k . I t r e a l l y is ! John s a t th e r e and to ld us t h a t i t w a sn 't going to be easy . . . i t w a sn 't going to be e a s y , and you fin d out t h a t i t ' s not! You a ls o fin d ou t t h a t i f you want something bad enough y o u 'r e going to work f o r i t . I t ' s e x c itin g ! I know who my neighbors a re going to be and t h a t w e 're working to g e th e r f o r th e same th in g . We're a l l th e same age with young f a m ilie s . I hope t h a t we can work to g e th e r —as a group in th e community. I d o n 't th in k t h a t they could have thought o f anything b e t t e r f o r low-income people in Coldwater. I was immensely pleased with th e whole experien ce. Our group has been a b le to grow, l i k e a fa m ily , in our neighborhood. We have backyard p ic n ic s and we remember each o th e r in sp e c ia l ways on b irth d a y s and holidays and most e s p e c ia ll y a t Christmas. Summary o f P a rt I For ease in re a d in g , th e c h a p te r summarization follow s the headings t h a t were p resented in th e body o f th e c h a p te r. Demographics The fin d in g s o f th e study based on inform ation gathered during one-hour in te rv ie w s in d ic a te d t h a t a l l th r e e groups in th e sample 121 pop u latio n were s im i l a r in age, w ith th e g r e a t e s t c l u s t e r o f ages to be seen a t age 23. The th r e e groups were id e n tic a l in t h e i r male/ female r a t i o as well as th e number o f s u b je c ts in each group who were married or s i n g l e . O c c u p a tio n a lly , th e sample comprised b l u e - c o l l a r w orkers, w ith 14 (31%) f a c to r y workers forming th e l a r g e s t s in g le occupational cate g o ry . The combined a d ju ste d fam ily income f o r th e sample averaged $14,000 a y e a r . High school g ra d u a tes formed th e l a r g e s t educational c a te g o ry in an edu cation al range t h a t extended from l e s s than high school to two y e a rs o f c o lle g e . Psychosocial P r o f i l e All th r e e groups in th e sample responded most f r e q u e n tly t h a t t h e i r involvement in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program was a r e s u l t o f t h e i r m o tivatio n to own a house. Mentioned almost as f r e q u e n tly was th e f a c t t h a t th e program allowed la b o r to be used as a down-payment. Also evidenced was th e d e s ir e " to belong" as well as to become a p a r t o f a community while having th e o p p o rtu n ity to le a r n new s k i l l s w hile b u ild in g a house. P a r t i c i p a n t s in a l l th r e e groups expressed concerns about c o n s tru c tio n a b i l i t i e s and communicating w ith o th e r s in small groups as th e program began. Of th e th r e e g ro u p s, th e members in Group C re p o rte d th e s e concerns th e most f r e q u e n tly , y e t th o se in Group C expressed th e most confidence in themselves a f t e r t h e i r houses had been completed. 122 Areas o f I n t e r e s t Woodworking and home p r o je c ts (84%), busin ess and fin an ce (82%), yard c a re (78%), and consumerism (62%) were th e a re a s most f r e q u e n tly chosen by th e members in th e th re e groups a s a re a s of i n t e r e s t on which inform ation had been o btained during th e p a s t y e a r . Learning p ro c e s s . Members o f the th r e e groups re p o rte d t h a t they obtained inform ation by re a d in g , s tu d y in g , l i s t e n i n g , o r viewing before becoming involved in le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s in a re a s o f general in te re st. The members in Group C, more than those in Group A or Group B, in d ic a te d t h a t t h e i r approach to le a rn in g in general a re a s o f i n t e r e s t was one o f le arn in g -b y -d o in g o r le a rn in g -b y -e x p e rie n c in g . Once th e process o f o b ta in in g inform ation on an area o f i n t e r e s t had begun, th e members o f Group C were more l i k e l y than th ose in Groups A o r B to monitor t h e i r own pro gress and tu rn to an academic in v o lv e ­ ment when f u r t h e r a s s is ta n c e was needed. The members in Group A were le s s l i k e l y than th e members in Groups B and C to become a ca ­ dem ically involved by seeking inform ation by re a d in g , s tu d y in g , l i s t e n i n g , o r view ing, once a p r o j e c t had begun. Areas o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t . Twenty-one (47%) o f th e members o f a l l th r e e groups focused t h e i r le a rn in g p r o je c ts in th e a re a o f woodworking and home p r o j e c t s . The second are a most f r e q u e n tly chosen was yard c a r e , with f i v e s u b je c ts (11%) choosing t h i s area as a to p ic o f study as a sp e c ia l a re a o f i n t e r e s t . 123 O rganization o f Learning Experiences R e s p o n s ib ility f o r planning le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s . F o rty -th re e (96%) o f a l l th re e groups re p o rte d t h a t th ey planned t h e i r le arn in g a ctiv itie s. T h ir ty - th r e e (73%) a d d i t i o n a l l y re p o rte d t h a t th ey had sought a s s is ta n c e in planning from an o th er person whom they c o n sid ­ ered experienced in a p a r t i c u l a r a re a o f i n t e r e s t . Sixteen people re p re se n tin g 36% o f th e t o t a l sample in d ic a te d t h a t th ey had turned to an organized c l a s s f o r a s s is ta n c e in planning t h e i r le arn in g a c tiv itie s. A ssista n ce sought in le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s . T h i r ty - th r e e (73%) o f th e members in a l l th re e groups in d ic a te d t h a t when a s s is ta n c e was needed f o r le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s , they turned to someone whom they considered e x p ert o r p r o f e s s io n a l. Twenty-nine (64%) a ls o in d ic a te d t h a t in tim a te s ( p a r e n ts , s i b l i n g s , c lo s e f r i e n d , o r spouse) were sources whose a s s is ta n c e they fr e q u e n tly asked. The members in Group C turned l e s s fre q u e n tly to in tim a te s f o r a s s is ta n c e than did th e members o f Groups A and B. The members in Group C turned to non­ human reso u rces f o r a s s is ta n c e more fr e q u e n tly than did th e members of e i t h e r Group A o r Group B. S it e chosen to c a r ry o u t le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s . Forty (89%) o f th e 45 ru r a l a d u lts sampled in d ic a te d t h a t they c a r r i e d out t h e i r le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s a t home. The d e c is io n to b e g in . T h i r ty - s ix members (80%) o f th e t o t a l sample in d ic a te d t h a t they r a r e l y found d i f f i c u l t i e s in making th e 124 d e c is io n to begin le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s in th e s p e c i a l - i n t e r e s t are as chosen f o r le a rn in g p r o j e c t s . Use o f Resources Scheduling time f o r le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s was r a r e l y found to be a problem f o r 32 (71%) o f th e members in a l l th re e groups. T h irty - s ix (80%) in d ic a te d t h a t money was r a r e l y seen as a problem in l e a r n ­ ing a c t i v i t i e s involving s p e c i a l - i n t e r e s t a re a s . F o rty -fo u r (98%) o f th e members in a l l th re e groups re p o rte d fin d in g no d i f f i c u l t i e s in lo c a tin g resou rces needed f o r le a rn in g in s p ec ia l a re a s o f i n t e r e s t . D i f f i c u l t y in understanding reso u rces was r a r e l y seen as a problem f o r 30 (67%) o f th e members in a ll th re e groups. I t was sometimes seen as a problem f o r 14 (31%) o f th e members in th e th r e e groups. Twenty- fo u r (53%) o f th e t o t a l sample re p lie d t h a t a t times they p re fe rre d to le a rn by them selves. Responses from the th re e groups in d ic a te d t h a t 11 (24%) members almost always p re fe rre d to le a r n by them selves. The Self-H elp Housing Program as a Learning Experience C urrent involvement. All 45 members in th e th re e groups re p o rte d c u r r e n t involvement in the f in a n c ia l a sp e c ts o f th e housing program. Ninety-one p e rc en t o f th e sample re p re s e n tin g 41 p a r t i c i p a n t s in d ic a te d c u rre n t involvement in some area o f c o n s tr u c tio n . Forty (89%) members in a l l th r e e groups in d ic a te d i n t e r a c t i o n in small groups. T h irty -fo u r members (76%) re p o rte d t h a t they were c u r r e n tly d is c u s s in g c u rre n t i n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s . Of th e se 34 members, 13 members were in Group A, 14 members were in Group B, and 7 members were in Group C. 125 T ran sfer o f s k i l l s . F o rty -fo u r (98%) members o f th e t o t a l sample in d ic a te d by t h e i r responses t h a t inform ation on c o n stru c tio n m a te ria ls and p r a c tic e s used in th e housing program would have a p p l i ­ c a tio n in o th e r are as o f t h e i r l i v e s . T h ir ty - e ig h t (84%) members in Groups A, B, and C in d ic a te d t h a t th e procedures developed in budget­ ing in th e housing program would have a p p lic a tio n elsew here. In the area o f communication and group p ro c e ss , 37 (82%) of th e respondents in d ic a te d t h a t s k i l l s developed in BBCL in working with o th e rs would have uses in o th e r areas o f t h e i r l i v e s . Twenty-nine (64%) o f the 45 members in th e sample rep o rted seeing a use f o r the communication s k i l l s developed in th e housing program in o th e r a re a s of t h e i r liv e s. C h a r a c te r is tic s o f "schooling" and "le arn in g " expressed by a d u lts. Twenty-five (55%) members in Groups A, B, and C re p o rte d t h a t they f e l t t h a t previous schooling had moderately prepared them f o r a d u lt l i f e . Six o f th e 45 members (13%) in d ic a te d t h a t previous schooling had prepared them well f o r a d u lt l i f e . Five members in th e t o t a l sample (11%) in d ic a te d t h a t they f e l t previous schooling had been a poor p re p a ra tio n f o r a d u lt l i f e . When asked to use a word t h a t d escribed "le arn in g " e x p e rie n c e s, th e 45 members o f th e th r e e groups re p o rte d 22 d i f f e r e n t d e s c r ip to r s t h a t appeared to have th re e major f o c i . When c ate g o riz e d by the re s e a rc h e r as being " p o s i t i v e , " " n e g a tiv e ," and " q u a lity o f l i f e , " 15 (33%) were chosen as being p o s i t i v e , 9 (20%) as being n e g a tiv e , and 21 (47%) as seen to r e f l e c t q u a l i t y - o f - l i f e e x p e rie n c e s. ence" was th e d e s c r ip to r most f r e q u e n tly c i t e d . "Experi­ I t was used by fo u r 126 members in Group C, th r e e members in Group B, and one member in Group A. The d e s c r i p t o r used with the second g r e a t e s t frequency was " d iffic u lt." I t was used by th re e members in Group A and was no t used by any members in e i t h e r Group B or Group C. Group A 's responses in d ic a te d 12 d i f f e r e n t d e s c r i p t o r s , which was th e w idest range o f responses f o r th e th re e groups in the sample. Summary of P a rt II Psychosocial P r o f ile M o tiv atio n. The respondents gave a v a r i e t y o f reasons f o r wanting to become involved in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program. The most freq u e n t responses included re fe re n c e s to wanting to own a home, to belong, and to become p a r t o f an e s ta b lis h e d neighborhood. The members o f th e th r e e groups a ls o in d ic a te d t h a t a strong m otiv a to r was th e f a c t t h a t th e housing program o ffe re d the o p p o rtu n ity f o r p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program to use la b o r in li e u o f a cash down­ payment f o r t h e i r houses. A n x ie tie s . Many o f th e responses o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in the program in d ic a te d concerns about lacking c o n s tru c tio n c a p a b i l i t i e s . Also re p o rte d were apprehensions about working with and communicating w ith o th e rs in small-group s e t t i n g s . T ra n sfe r o f S k i l l s to Other Areas Budgeting appeared to be th e most e a s i l y recognized a sp e c t o f th e are a o f f in a n c ia l s k i l l s t h a t could be t r a n s f e r a b l e to o th e r a re a s o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' l i v e s o u ts id e th e housing program. Other e v i ­ dences in d ic a tin g t h a t a t r a n s f e r o f knowledge was takin g place 127 included th e p a r t i c i p a n t 's a t t e n t i o n to sa v in g s , ta x e s , in s u ra n c e , p u rc h a se s, and a re c o g n itio n o f o v e ra ll f in a n c ia l worth. C onstru ctio n m a te r ia ls and p r a c tic e s was an area in th e program where most o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s could r e a d i l y see th e a p p lic a ­ b i l i t y o f s k i l l s learned in th e program in o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s . A very small number re p o rte d seeing no use f o r th e s e s k i l l s a f t e r t h e i r houses were b u i l t . In th e a re a s o f communication and group p ro c e ss , more members o f th e th re e groups re p o rte d being able to see a fu tu r e use f o r th e a b i l i t y to work w ith o th e rs than saw a use f o r th e a b i l i t y to communicate e f f e c t i v e l y with o th e r s in small groups o u ts id e th e program. Changes in Self-C oncept Expressed by P a r t i c i p a n t s in th e Study The p a r t i c i p a n t s in the program spoke o f t h e i r accomplishments w ith a sense o f p rid e and enthusiasm o f which they had not b efore been aware. Statem ents r e f l e c t i n g s e lf-c o n fid e n c e and s e l f - i d e n t i t y were re p o rte d in a s s o c ia ti o n w ith a sense o f accomplishment t h a t accom­ panied th e b u ild in g o f t h e i r houses. The Self-H elp Housing Program as a Learning Experience All 45 p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e housing program re p o rte d seeing BBCL as a le a r n in g ex p erien c e . With th e confidence gained by b u ild in g t h e i r own houses, many p a r t i c i p a n t s had begun le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s in a v a rie ty of in te r e s t areas. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The p re s e n t study was conducted f o r th e purpose o f exp loring le a rn in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f ru r a l a d u l t s . For t h i s purpose, th re e i n t a c t groups were interview ed who were involved in varying stag e s o f a s e l f - h e l p housing program. The f iv e major a re a s t h a t were chosen to d i r e c t th e in q u iry a re as fo llo w s: 1. Who a re th e se ru r a l a d u lt l e a r n e r s , and what i s t h e i r psychosocial p r o f i l e ? 2. What a re t h e i r a re a s o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t , and by what p rocesses do th e y le a rn ? 3. How do they org an ize t h e i r le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s ? 4. How do th ey use t h e i r re so u rce s f o r le a rn in g ? 5. How and in what ways was th e housing program a le a rn in g experience? Chapter V p re s e n ts a summary o f fin d in g s and th e conclusions t h a t were drawn from f in d in g s in d ata obtained in one-hour in te rv ie w s o f 45 r u r a l a d u lts involved in a s e l f - h e l p housing program. f in d in g s a r e f i r s t p resen ted in b r i e f . The T heir p re s e n ta tio n follow s th e f i v e major a re a s t h a t were chosen to d i r e c t th e stud y. Conclu­ sio n s a re then p re sen te d r e l a t i v e to t h e i r im p lic a tio n s f o r a d u lt e d u c a to rs . Recommendations f o r f u t u r e re s e a rc h and concluding remarks complete th e c h a p te r. 128 129 Summary o f Findings Area 1 : Who a r e th e se ru r a l a d u lt l e a r n e r s , and what i s t h e i r psychosocial p r o f i l e ? 1.1 The p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e study were younger than might have been imagined, with th e g r e a t e s t c l u s t e r o f ages to be seen a t age 23. 1.2 T h ir ty - f o u r o f th e 45 a d u lts p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e housing program were m arried and 11 were s i n g l e . f iv e were s in g le heads o f households. female. Of th e 11 who were s i n g l e , Two were male and th r e e were F i f t y - t h r e e p e rc en t o f th e pop ulatio n were fem ale. 1.3 O c cup ation ally , th e sample comprised a v a r i e t y o f b lue- c o l l a r workers, w ith 14 (31%) f a c to r y workers forming th e l a r g e s t s in g le occupational cate g o ry . 1.4 The combined fam ily income o f in d iv id u a ls p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e housing program averaged $14,000 per y e a r. 1.5 Forty (89%) o f th e 45 p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program had graduated from high school o r had t r a i n i n g beyond high sch oo l. th r e e (51%) were high school g ra d u a te s . Twenty- Seventeen (38%) had between one and two y e ars o f t r a i n i n g beyond high school t h a t included voca­ tio n a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o r between one and two y e a rs o f c o lle g e co u rsework. 1.6 The reasons most f r e q u e n tly c i t e d by p a r t i c i p a n t s fo r involvement in th e program were to own a house f o r themselves and t h e i r f a m i l i e s , to "belong," and to become a p a r t o f th e community. Mentioned almost as fr e q u e n tly a s a m o tiv a tio n a l f a c t o r was th e f a c t t h a t th e housing program a ffo rd e d th e o p p o rtu n ity to use la b o r in lie u o f a down-payment f o r th e houses. 130 1.7 A n x ieties expressed a t th e beginning o f th e program included concerns about a lack o f c o n s tru c tio n a b i l i t i e s . Also in d ic a te d were f e a r s about working w ith and communicating with o th e rs in sm all-group i n t e r a c t i o n . Area 2 : What a re t h e i r a re a s o f le a rn in g i n t e r e s t , and by what processes do they le a rn ? 2.1 Areas o f i n t e r e s t in which a l l 45 p a r t i c i p a n t s in the program had obtained inform ation during th e p a s t y e a r were woodwork­ ing and home p r o j e c t s , 38 (84%); business and fin a n c e , 37 (82%); yard c a r e , 35 (78%); and consumerism, 28 (62%). 2.2 The s u b je c ts in th e study re p o rte d t h a t ob tain in g i n f o r ­ mation was accomplished before th e le a rn in g p r o je c t began, by an academic process in t h e i r approach to 86% o f th e c a te g o r ie s in 12 broad a re a s o f i n t e r e s t . A fte r th e le a rn in g p r o je c t had begun, th e i n i t i a l academic process o f in q u iry was changed to become one o f learn in g -b y -d o in g in t h e i r approach to 92% o f th e i n t e r e s t a re a s in th e 12 general c a te g o r ie s . 2 .3 Twenty-one (47%) o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in the study focused t h e i r s p ec ia l le a rn in g a c t i v i t y during th e p a s t y ear on wood­ working and home p r o j e c t s . The second area most f r e q u e n tly chosen was yard c a r e , with fiv e (11%) members making t h i s choice as a sp ecial area o f study. Area 3 : How do they o rg an ize t h e i r le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s ? 3.1 F o rty -th re e (96%) o f th e members o f a l l th r e e groups re p o rte d t h a t th ey planned t h e i r own le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s during the past year. When a s s is ta n c e was needed in p la n n in g , 33 o f th e 45 (73%) 131 re p o rte d seeking help from an o th er person whom they considered e x p e r i­ enced in a p a r t i c u l a r a re a o f i n t e r e s t . 3.2 re p o rte d T h ir ty - th r e e (73%) o f th e members in a l l th re e groups tu rn in g f o r a s s is ta n c e in le a rn in g to someone whom they con­ sid e re d e x p e rt o r p r o f e s s i o n a l. Twenty-nine (64%) re p o rte d t h a t th e "expert" who was s e le c te d was l i k e l y to be an in tim a te ( p a r e n ts , s i b l i n g , c lo se f r i e n d , o r spouse). 3.3 Forty (89%) re p o rte d t h a t they c a r r i e d ou t t h e i r le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s a t home. 3.4 T h i r ty - s ix (80%) r a r e l y found d i f f i c u l t y in making th e d e c is io n to begin le a rn in g in th e area o f i n t e r e s t chosen as th e most meaningful le a rn in g a c t i v i t y undertaken in th e p a s t y e a r . Area 4 ; 4.1 How do they use t h e i r re so u rce s f o r le a rn in g ? T hirty-tw o (71%) o f the p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program in d ic a te d t h a t scheduling time to le a rn was r a r e l y a problem. 4 .2 T h i r ty - s ix (80%) o f the s u b je c ts in a l l th re e groups in d ic a te d t h a t money was r a r e l y among th e r e s t r a i n t s to le arn in g re so u rce s. 4 .3 D i f f i c u l t y understanding reso u rces was r a r e l y seen as a problem f o r 30 (67%) o f th e members in th e sample. Understanding reso u rces was sometimes seen as a problem by 14 (31%) o f th e p a r t i c i ­ pants in th e study. 4 .4 Twenty-four in d iv id u a ls (53%) in th e sample r e p lie d t h a t a t times they p re fe rre d to le a rn by them selves. Eleven (24%) i n d i ­ cated t h a t they always p re fe rre d to le a r n by them selves. 132 Area 5 ; 5.1 How and in what ways was th e housing program a le arn in g experience? All 45 p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e program re p o rte d c u rre n t involvement in th e fin a n c ia l a sp e c ts o f th e housing program. 5.2 Forty-one (91%) o f th e members in a l l th re e groups i n d i ­ cated c u rre n t involvement in some are a o f c o n s tr u c tio n . 5.3 Forty (89%) o f th e members in th e sample in d ic a te d t h a t they were involved in i n t e r a c t i o n in small groups. T h ir ty - f o u r (76%) o f th e members re p o rte d d is c u ssin g c u rre n t i n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s . 5.4 T h ir ty - e ig h t (84%) o f th e members in th e th re e groups in d ic a te d t h a t they believed t h a t f in a n c ia l procedures t h a t were developed in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program would have a p p lic a tio n in o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s . 5.5 F o rty -fo u r (98%) o f th e members in th e t o t a l sample in d ic a te d t h a t they believed t h a t knowledge about c o n s tr u c tio n mate­ r i a l s and p r a c tic e s t h a t was developed in th e housing program would have a p p lic a tio n o u ts id e th e program. 5.6 In th e a re a s o f communication and group p ro c e ss , 37 (82%) o f th e members in a l l th r e e groups in d ic a te d t h a t they believed t h a t s k i l l s developed in working to g e th e r in th e program would have uses in o th e r a r e a s . Twenty-nine (64%) o f th e 45 members re p o rte d seeing a use f o r th e communication s k i l l s developed in th e housing program in o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s . 133 Summary o f S i m i l a r i t i e s and D iffere n c es in th e Three Groups Learning c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th r e e i n t a c t groups o f r u r a l a d u lts were explored a t th r e e d i f f e r e n t s ta g e s in th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f t h e i r houses in a s e l f - h e l p housing program. In th e many a re a s o f in q u ir y , s i m i l a r i t i e s and d if f e r e n c e s in th e groups were found. D ifferen ces in th e th re e g ro up s. The members in Group C d i f ­ fe re d from those in Groups A and B in 13 a re a s o f in q u ir y . Members in Group B d if f e r e d from those in Groups A and C in nine a r e a s . Members in Group A d if f e r e d from th e members in Groups B and C in s ix a re a s o f in q u iry . The la rg e d if f e r e n c e between Group C and th e o th e r two groups was examined. The members in Group C had fin is h e d c o n s tr u c tio n and had been liv in g in t h e i r houses between one and o n e -h a lf and two y ears when th e c u r r e n t study was begun. They had a lower annual a d ju sted fam ily income than th e members in Groups A o r B. An FmHA f in a n c ia l e l i g i b i l i t y r e v is io n in 1981 increased th e a d ju ste d fam ily income f o r Sec. 502 r u r a l housing loans from $11,200 a y e ar to $18,000 a y e a r . The members o f Groups A and B e n tered th e s e l f - h e l p housing program under th e re v is e d e l i g i b i l i t y requ irem en ts. This meant t h a t th e annual a d ju ste d income f o r th e members o f Group C was l e s s than th e a d ju s te d fam ily incomes f o r th e members o f Groups A and B. The mem­ b ers o f Group C a ls o d if f e r e d from those in Groups A o r B in t h a t they f e l l in th e middle range in th e number o f y e a rs o f sch o o lin g . Group A, w ith fo u r o f i t s members who were not high school g ra d u a te s , had th e l e a s t sch o o lin g ; Group B, w ith e ig h t o f i t s members having one to two 134 y e a rs o f t r a i n i n g beyond high s c h o o l, had th e most scho oling . The members in Group C re p o rte d themselves to be involved in a g r e a te r number o f new le a r n in g p r o je c ts during th e p a s t y e a r than members in Groups A and 6. The members in Group C expressed most f r e q u e n tly t h e i r concern about working w ith and communicating w ith o th e rs a t th e o u ts e t of the program. As th e f i r s t group o f fa m ilie s in Coldwater to b u ild t h e i r homes in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program, th e members o f Group C encountered d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t th e o th e r groups d id not meet. members in Group C " s t i c k - b u i l t " t h e i r own houses. The Financial con­ s i d e r a t i o n s have sin ce led th e program d i r e c t o r to implement a p o lic y by which th e fo u nd atio ns o f framing o f th e houses f o r su ccessiv e groups were p r o f e s s i o n a lly c o n tra c te d by BBCL. This p o lic y allowed th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in Groups A and B to begin th e program in a house whose fo un dation s had been poured and whose w a lls were framed. Having stru g g le d through th e se procedures them selves, th e members in Group C expressed personal s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith t h e i r accomplishments more f r e ­ q u e n tly than did th e members in Groups A o r B. The members in Group C expressed th e w id est range in a re a s o f general le a r n in g i n t e r e s t during th e p a s t y e a r. They re p o rte d them­ s e l v e s , l e s s f r e q u e n tly than did th e members in Groups A o r B, to approach le a r n in g p r o je c ts by re a d in g , s tu d y in g , view ing, or l i s t e n i n g b efore becoming involved in th e p r o j e c t . More than did th e members o f Groups A o r B, th o se in Group C turned to an academic approach in t h e i r le a rn in g p r o je c ts a f t e r th e le a rn in g p r o j e c t had begun. Those in Group C turn ed to an acquaintance o r a nonhuman reso u rce (books, 135 e t c . ) more fr e q u e n tly than did th e members in Groups A o r B when a s s is ta n c e was needed w ith a le a rn in g p r o j e c t . The use o f money as a r e s t r a i n t on le a rn in g re so u rce s was most o fte n expressed by members in Group C. The members in Group C re p o rte d being c u r r e n t l y l e s s involved than th e members in th e o th e r two groups in c o n tin uin g to communicate with o th e rs in small groups about i n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i ­ t i e s t h a t a f f e c te d members in th e group. S i m i l a r i t i e s in th e th r e e g ro up s. Demographically, th e th re e groups were id e n tic a l in th e number o f males and females in each group. All th r e e groups concurred t h a t t h e i r primary reason f o r involvement in BBCL was, f i r s t , th e d e s ir e to o b ta in a house f o r them­ s e lv e s and t h e i r f a m ilie s and second, th e f a c t t h a t th e program allowed th e use of t h e i r la b o r as a down-payment f o r t h e i r homes. In a l l th re e groups, th e members re p o rte d t h a t t h e i r le a rn in g p r o je c ts were s e lf -p la n n e d . When a s s is ta n c e was needed, a l l 45 mem­ bers sought help in le a rn in g from someone whom they considered e x p ert o r p r o f e s s i o n a l. The members in th e th r e e groups were a l i k e in t h a t they p re fe rre d t o le a rn a t home and re p o rte d r a r e l y f in d in g d i f f i ­ c u l t y o rg an izin g to begin t h e i r le a rn in g p r o j e c t s . L ittle d iffic u lty was expressed e i t h e r in lo c a tin g o r in understanding le a rn in g re so u rce s in Coldwater. The members o f a l l th r e e groups were a l i k e in re p o rtin g high c u r r e n t involvement in th e a re a s o f business and f in a n c e , c o n s tru c tio n m a te r ia ls and p r a c t i c e s , and working w ith o th e r s in small groups. Regarding th e t r a n s f e r o f s k i l l s developed in th e program to o th e r 136 a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s , 95% o f th e membership in a l l th r e e groups repo rted seeing continued uses f o r s k i l l s learned in th e program. The enthusiasm f o r th e program expressed by members in a l l th r e e groups was high. Those who were in Group A expressed eagerness in t h e i r a n t i c i p a t i o n to begin c o n s tr u c tio n . The members in Group B, who had j u s t fin is h e d c o n s tr u c tio n , expressed enthusiasm a t th e prospect o f moving in to th e homes t h a t they had worked so hard to complete. The members in Group C evidenced h ap pin ess, s a t i s f a c t i o n , and p rid e o f ownership a f t e r having liv e d in t h e i r homes between one and o n e -h a lf and two y e a r s . Conclusions The follow ing conclusions a re presented in an o rd e r t h a t follows th e f i v e major a re a s t h a t were chosen to d i r e c t th e study. Demographics and Psychosocial P r o f i l e Demographics. The d e s c r ip ti v e knowledge gained from i n t e r ­ viewing th e 45 r u r a l a d u lts involved in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program suggests t h a t th e r u r a l a d u lts in the population from which th e sample was drawn a r e in an age group where ages a re h e av ily c o n centrated between 20 and 32 y e a r s . S e v e n ty -fiv e p e rc en t o f th e se young a d u lts a re l i k e l y to be m a rrie d , and o n e -h a lf o f th e 25% who a r e s in g le are l i k e l y to be s in g le heads o f households. The r u r a l a d u lts in th e population a r e l i k e l y to re p re s e n t a v a r i e t y of b l u e - c o l l a r occup atio n s. F ifty -o n e p e rc e n t o f th e population w ill be high school g ra d u a te s , and 38% a re a p t to have between one and two years o f s p e c ia liz e d education 137 beyond high school t h a t w ill inclu de vocational t r a in in g and c o lle g e coursework. Incomes a re l i k e l y to f a l l w ithin th e range o f between $11,000 and $18,000 per y e a r , with an average income estim ated to be $14,000 p e r y e a r . Psychosocial p r o f i l e . The reasons most fr e q u e n tly c ite d by th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e study f o r involvement in th e housing program were to own a house f o r themselves and t h e i r fa m ily , to "belong," and to become p a r t o f th e community. While th e m otivation to home owner­ sh ip has most g e n e r a lly been a sc rib e d to those who a re m a rrie d , the ru r a l a d u lts in th e population f o r th e p re s e n t study may be r e f l e c t ­ ing th e c u rre n t tre n d to a l t e r n a t i v e l i f e s t y l e s . Although 34 o f the s u b je c ts in th e sample were m a rrie d , 11 in d iv id u a ls re p o rte d themselves as s in g le o r s in g le heads o f households. Included in th e se 11 people were s ix females and f iv e males who took upon themselves th e s o le r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to f u l f i l l th e e stim ated 950 hours t h a t were needed to complete th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f t h e i r houses. From th e responses o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in the s tu d y , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t th e members o f th e population echoed housing l i t e r a t u r e regarding th e sociology o f land te n u re in th e strong f e e lin g s they atta c h e d to th e so c ia l im p lic a tio n s o f homeownership. i s a powerful m o tiv a to r. Homeownership The power o f th e home in America today i s s t i l l to be seen as a c u ltu r a l norm symbolizing both th e p r o te c tiv e a sp e c t and th e m ilie u t h a t f o s t e r s both physical and s p i r i t u a l growth. As a so c ia l microcosm, th e fam ily home i s seen to educate and to build th e moral c h a r a c te r t h a t i s a t t r i b u t e d as a b a s is f o r good c i t i z e n s h i p . 138 As such, homeownership i s an espoused personal goal t h a t i s c o n tin u a lly s o c i e t a l l y re in fo r c e d . R ecalling Maslov/'s o b serv atio n t h a t a f u l f i l l e d need i s not a m o tivato r and t h a t m o tiv ato rs re p re s e n t needs not y e t f u l f i l l e d , i t i s suggested t h a t th e p ervasive c u ltu r a l value o f homeownership was one o f th e most powerful fo rc e s t h a t led th e r u r a l a d u lts to the housing program and continued to s u s ta in them throughout th e long b u ild in g p ro c e ss. In so doing, th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e study exempli­ f ie d th e f u l f i l l m e n t o f c r i t e r i a e s s e n tia l t o th e le a rn in g process held by Lindeman and Dewey, namely, need, e f f o r t , and s a t i s f a c t i o n . Tough's re se a rc h on why people le a rn f u r t h e r d e lin e a te d s a t i s ­ f a c tio n in to th r e e a s p e c ts . p le a s u re . The f i r s t , i n t e r i o r to s e l f , was seen as I t took th e form o f th e jo y and d e l i g h t t h a t one f e e l s . Second, a ls o i n t e r i o r to s e l f , i s th e s a t i s f a c t i o n included in th e s e lf-e ste e m w ith emphasis on th e enhancement o f s e lf-im a g e . F in a lly , th e re i s th e esteem o f s e l f , perceived e x t e r n a l l y , in th e form o f a high regard o f s e l f as seen by o th e r s . The so cial reinforcem ent o f th e motives o f th e 45 s u b je c ts in th e sample suggests th a t those in th e population from which th e sample was drawn underwent s i m i l a r processes from th e concept o f homeowner­ ship to th e p r a c t i c a l outcome o f a house s u c c e s s fu lly c o n s tr u c te d . I t i s suggested t h a t d a ta c o lle c te d in th e p re s e n t study a re a p p lic a b le to th e 106 r u r a l a d u lts who c o n s ti tu te d th e popu latio n and t h a t th e follow ing o b serv atio n s from th e study r e l a t e to m o tiv a tio n s t h a t were re in fo r c e d among th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e study. 139 1. The le a r n in g outcomes in th e housing program were th e r e s u l t o f unmet needs in which th e re was congruence between th e p e r ­ sonal goals o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s and s o c ie ta l g o a ls. 2. The unmet needs o f th e ru r a l a d u lts in th e housing program were f e l t s tro n g ly enough t h a t th e p a r t i c i p a n t s recognized th e d i s ­ p a r i t y between not knowing and th e d e s ir e to a cq u ire c e r t a i n s k i l l s . 3. The r u r a l a d u lts in th e housing program were s tro n g ly m otivated to own a home, and they were w illin g to put f o r t h th e e f f o r t needed in th e a tta in m e n t of t h a t go al. 4. The process o f le a rn in g involved in b u ild ing a house was re p o rte d by th e a d u lts to be s a t i s f y i n g p h y s ic a lly , p s y c h o lo g ic a lly , and s o c i a l l y . 5. Continued p o s i t i v e feedback e x iste d between th ose in BBCL and th e ru r a l a d u lts r e l a t i v e to l e a r n e r p ro g re s s. Areas o f Learning I n t e r e s t The r u r a l a d u l t s in th e study were pragmatic in t h e i r approach to both general a re a s o f i n t e r e s t and t h e i r s p e c if ic i n t e r e s t in t h e i r le a rn in g p r o j e c t s . T heir i n t e n t i o n to apply u s e f u lly what they had learned was th e s tr o n g e s t m o tiv atio n f o r th e m a jo rity o f t h e i r l e a r n ­ ing p r o j e c t s . As r e f l e c t e d in s tu d ie s by Johnstone and Rivera (1965), Penland (1977), and Tough (1971), a tten d an ce a t academic c la s s e s t h a t were form ally s tr u c tu r e d in t e r e s t e d only a minute percentage o f r u r a l ad u lts. As w ith o th e r a d u lts c i t e d in th e l i t e r a t u r e , th o se in th e sample took a p ro a c tiv e stan c e toward t h e i r in q u i r i e s t h a t was 14 0 r e f l e c t e d by t h e i r s e l f - d i r e c t i o n , which appeared to re p re s e n t t h e i r need to take c o n tro l o f t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e i r l i v e s . Each o f th e a d u lts sampled was involved in seeking inform a­ tio n on an a rra y o f to p i c s . The 45 a d u lts expressed i n t e r e s t in 268 a re a s o f general in q u iry on which they had d e l i b e r a t e l y s e t out to gain and m aintain f a i r l y s p e c i f i c inform ation during th e previous year. Areas o f in q u iry in o rd e r o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t to th e a d u lts were woodworking and home p r o j e c t s , b u s in e s s /f in a n c e , yard c a r e , homemaking, and consumerism. The scope o f t h e i r le a rn in g i s seen as noteworthy sin ce 66% o f th e a d u l t s were involved in c o n s tru c tin g t h e i r houses 32 hours each week in a d d itio n to t h e i r f u l l - t i m e employment during th e period of th e y e a r about which t h i s q u e stio n was asked. The scope and th e pragmatic n a tu re o f th e in q u iry in th e a re a s o f i n t e r e s t o f th e 45 s u b je c ts in th e study sample a re c h a r ­ a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a r e l i k e l y to e x i s t in th e pop ulatio n o f r u r a l a d u lts from whom th e sample was drawn. Learning p r o c e s s . Data from th e study in d ic a te d t h a t th e 45 a d u lts in th e sample f i r s t approached a to p ic t h a t they wanted to exp lo re by using an academic approach to le a rn in g t h a t included re a d ­ in g , s tu d y in g , l i s t e n i n g , o r viewing. A fte r g a in ing th e amount of inform ation t h a t was estim ated to be necessary to pursue a le a rn in g p r o j e c t in a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a , th e approach t h a t th e r u r a l a d u lt had used f o r th e f i r s t encounter w ith an are a o f i n t e r e s t was changed to one o f le arn in g -b y -d o in g o r le a rn in g -th ro u g h -e x p e rie n c in g . T h irte en (29%) o f th e 45 a d u lts re p o rte d le a r n in g by th e use o f an academic process a f t e r th e p r o je c t had begun. I t can be 141 suggested t h a t the a d u lts in th e study were su cc e ssfu l in a p p ra isin g what i t was t h a t they wanted to know b efore a le a rn in g p r o je c t was begun. Once th e le a r n in g a c t i v i t y had begun, progress in 711 o f th e a re as approached was monitored in le a r n in g by a hands-on p ro c e s s , w hile in 29% o f th e o th e r a r e a s , th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e housing program academ ically continued to search f o r a d d itio n a l in fo rm atio n . O rganization o f Learning A c t i v i t i e s In response to th e ex periences t h a t they encountered in b u ild ­ ing each o t h e r 's houses, th e r u r a l a d u l t s in th e study g e n e ra lly evidenced c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t were s i m i l a r t o th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a n a tio n a l panel o f a d u lt ed ucators f e l t were " l i k e l y to d e sc rib e th e h ig h ly s e l f - d i r e c t e d le a r n e r " (G uglielm ino, 1977, p. 7 3 ). These le a r n in g t r a i t s included c o n fid e n ce , an a b i l i t y t o comprehend, i n i ­ t i a t i v e , o r g a n iz a tio n , p e r s i s t e n c e , and a d riv e f o r autonomy as seen in th e d e s i r e to plan and co n tro l t h e i r own le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s . P la n n in g . N in e ty -fiv e p e rc e n t o f th e responses in th e study in d ic a te d t h a t th e ru ra l a d u l t s p r e f e r r e d to plan t h e i r own le a rn in g p ro je c ts. T h e ir d e c is io n to le a r n in s i t u a t i o n s involving a one-to-one i n t e r a c t i o n w ith someone considered an e x p e rt was mentioned in 73% o f th e r e p l i e s . These f i g u r e s a re comparable to th e 95% found in Tough's study (1967, p. 41) and higher than P enlan d's n a tio n a l survey (1977, p. 9 9 ), in which 76% o f th e e n t i r e U.S. popu lation was seen to view themselves as s e l f - p la n n e r s in a t l e a s t one o r more major l e a r n ­ ing p r o j e c t s in th e perio d o f a y e a r . The high frequency of response in fa v o r o f s e lf -p la n n in g in th e Coldwater study may be a r e s u l t o f 142 th e f a c t t h a t 77% o f th e a re a s chosen f o r s e l f - s tu d y p e rta in e d to some a s p e c t t h a t r e l a t e s d i r e c t l y to th e re sp o n d e n t's involvement with housing. Few o p p o r tu n itie s e x i s t in Coldwater t h a t would in clud e in s t r u c t i o n planned by o th e rs in an area t h i s s p e c ia liz e d . The l i m i t a t i o n s on th e amount o f inform ation t h a t could be o btained in a one-hour in te rv ie w prevented an in -d ep th approach to th e to p ic o f th e d e c is io n to begin th e le a rn in g a c t i v i t y . Tough's (1971) re s e a rc h in t h i s area d e lin e a te d a t l e a s t 60 c o n ce p tu a lly d i s ­ t i n c t s te p s in th e pro cess. Although 80% o f those in th e th re e groups re p o rte d r a r e l y encountering d i f f i c u l t y in s t a r t i n g a le a rn in g p r o j e c t , in -d e p th re s e a rc h in t h i s are a w ill be needed to a s c e r t a i n whether being low-income and ru r a l a re f a c t o r s t h a t weigh h e av ily enough to r e s t r i c t d e c is io n making to a "yes" o r "no" process. A s s is ta n c e . S ev en ty -th ree p e rc en t o f th e responses o f th e t o t a l sample in th e c u r r e n t study in d ic a te d t h a t th e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e housing program turned to in tim a te s ( p a r e n ts , s i b l i n g s , spouse, o r personal f r ie n d s ) f o r a s s is ta n c e w ith le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s , while 59% o f th e s u b je c ts in th e Penland study did so. N in e ty -fiv e p e rc en t o f th e r e p l i e s in th e p re s e n t study in d ic a te d a p re fe re n ce f o r seeking a s s is ta n c e in le a rn in g on a one-to-one b a sis from someone seen as a p r o f e s s i o n a l. The respondents in th e Penland study in d ic a te d by t h e i r r e p l i e s t h a t 49% sought a s s is ta n c e from another person. A d d itio n a lly , 89% o f th e s u b je c ts in th e p re s e n t study in d ic a te d th e d e s ir e to c a rry o u t le a rn in g a c t i v i t i e s in t h e i r own homes. These fin d in g s in th e p re s e n t study may be r e l a t e d t o th e a n x i e t i e s expressed by members in th e study concerning group i n t e r a c t i o n . 143 The a n x ie t ie s most f r e q u e n tly expressed a t th e beginning o f the program included concerns about a la ck o f c o n s tru c tio n c a p a b i l i ­ tie s. Also in d ic a te d were fe a r s about working with and communicating with o th e rs in small-group i n t e r a c t i o n . I t i s suggested t h a t th e concerns re p o rte d from th e 45 a d u lts who c o n s t i t u t e th e sample in the study a re r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of th e concerns o f th e 106 a d u lts who c o n s t i ­ t u t e th e population f o r th e study. Sidney H arris (1982) r e c e n tly wrote o f th e c o n f l i c t t h a t can occur between th e in d ivid ual and th e group. to th e p re sen t study. His remarks a re germane In comparing Americans and those in o th e r c u l t u r e s , he s a id : I sometimes wonder whether Americans e s p e c ia ll y have not paid too much t r i b u t e to th e c u l t o f " in d iv id u a lis m ," a t th e expense o f o th e r d riv e s and m otives. "Getting ahead" as an ind iv id u a l may have come to ta k e too much precedence over " g e ttin g along" as a member o f a c l o s e l y - k n i t group with common aims. A func­ tio n in g s o c ie ty , i t seems to me, r e q u ire s a d e l i c a t e balance between th e le g itim a te a s p i r a t i o n s o f th e person and th e basic needs o f th e group, (p. 17) A stro n g p referen ce f o r in d iv idu alism may a ls o r e l a t e to th e a d u l t ' s remembrance o f a t i g h t l y s tr u c tu r e d system o f classroom le a rn in g t h a t l e f t few o p tion s f o r personal c o n t r o l . For a number o f re a so n s, a d u lt le a r n e r s show a marked p re fe re n ce f o r in d iv id u a liz e d study where le a rn in g i s lim ite d to an exchange with an o th er person o r the use o f nonhuman reso u rces in l i e u o f group i n t e r a c t i o n . S im ila r r e s u l t s were found by Penland (1977). Seen lack ing a re g r o u p - in te r a c tio n s k i l l s t h a t have in h ib ite d not only outlook about group process but a ls o have c o n trib u te d to th e a t t i t u d e t h a t e f f e c t i v e group p a r t i c i p a t i o n was not even to be atte m p ted . In 144 r e f e r r i n g to th e f e a r t h a t American le a r n e r s have o f th e group p ro c e ss , Penland noted i t s importance to educators and those who a r e in a p o s itio n t o t r y and change a t t i t u d e s t h a t would fav or p a r t i c i p a t i o n in informal groups. The need f o r American a d u lts to develop s k i l l s t h a t would a s s i s t them to express themselves in in te rp e rs o n a l i n t e r a c ­ tio n to t h e i r educational advantage was s ta t e d by Penland as fo llo w s: The t a lk in g o u t o f o n e 's id e as about a s i t u a t i o n , a personal d ia g ­ n o sis o r even r e t r i e v e d in form ativ e data appears to be a necessary s te p in th e le a rn in g process f o r most people. But o f equal or even g r e a te r importance i s th e d e e p - f e l t need to p re serv e th e " r ig h t" to s e t o n e 's own le a rn in g s t y l e and pace. U n fo rtu n a te ly , s te r e o ty p e s about the group l i m i t th e range o f e x p lo ra tio n in th e minds o f many people to an o th er person or th in g (non-human planner) over which one can e x e r t personal and immediate in flu e n c e , (p. 98) The e x p lo ra tiv e atmosphere t h a t educators recognize as con­ t r i b u t o r y to e x p re ssiv e le a r n in g , through th e use o f i n t e r a c t i o n s k i l l s , i s th e m ilie u proposed by Maslow and Rogers. They r e f l e c t th e humanistic approach o f a c r e a tiv e le arn in g environment wherein group-process s k i l l s can be learn ed in an atmosphere o f s a f e ty t h a t is conducive to growth. Educational i n t e r a c t i o n appears to ta k e place to b e s t advantage in a s e t t i n g where a d u lts take th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r own a c tio n s in terms o f t h e i r own choosing. Such an atmosphere engenders a c r e a t i v e , a c t i v e , s e n s i t i v e , em pathic, and nonjudgmental s ta n c e . The Use o f Resources Because o f i t s e x p lo ra to ry n a tu re , th e p re s e n t re sea rc h was lim ite d in i t s approach in c e r t a i n a re a s to no more than a b r i e f exam ination. The use o f r e s o u rc e s , as in -d e p th s tu d ie s on th e s u b je c t by Tough have i n d ic a te d , i s such an a r e a . The members o f th e th re e 145 groups sampled re p o rte d r a r e l y fin d in g th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f time a problem in a tte n d in g t h e i r le a rn in g p r o j e c t s . Money was more f r e ­ qu en tly re p o rte d a concern f o r members in Group C than f o r those in Group A o r Group B. This may be r e la te d to th e f a c t t h a t having liv e d in t h e i r houses between one and two y e a r s , le a rn in g p r o je c ts f o r t h i s group may have been forced to compete with house ta x e s and insurance payments f o r t h e i r fin a n c ia l sup p ort. The Self-H elp Housing Program as a Learning Experience Two p a r ts o f th e s e l f - h e l p housing program a re highly v i s i b l e . An im portant p a r t o f th e program i s th e development o f s k i l l s in th e a re a s o f c o n s tr u c tio n m a te ria ls and p r a c tic e s t h a t a re used to b u ild a house. Also n ecessary a re s k i l l s t h a t a re needed to understand loan pro cedu res, i n t e r e s t , ta x e s , and budgeting. I t becomes ap parent to p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e housing program t h a t a knowledge o f consumer goods i s a ls o e s s e n tia l because o f th e numerous d e c is io n s t h a t must be made regarding th e q u a l i t y and th e c o s t o f equipping a new home. P a rtici­ pants in th e program soon r e a l i z e t h a t knowledge i s a ls o needed in th e a re a s o f yard c a re and home r e p a i r . T ran sfe r o f Knowledge Conclusions drawn from th e d a ta in d ic a te d evidence o f a t r a n s ­ f e r o f knowledge developed in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program to o th e r a re a s of th e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' l i v e s . N in e ty -fiv e p e rc en t o f th e r u r a l a d u lts had th e c a p a c ity to recognize and to r e l a t e th e ways in which th e t r a n s f e r was being made in th e a re a s o f business and fin a n c e and 146 c o n s tr u c tio n m a te ria ls and p r a c t i c e s . Less apparent to th e p a r t i c i ­ pants themselves were th e communication and group-process s k i l l s t h a t were developed in o rd e r to be a b le to work and communicate e f f e c t i v e l y with o th e rs in small groups. In th e program, th e development o f s k i l l s t h a t f a c i l i t a t e d in te rp e rs o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n became a p r a c tic a l n e c e s s i t y , a t l e a s t during th e period o f time when th e houses were being c o n s tru c te d . The respondents re p o rte d t h a t they were n o t as aware o f th e t r a n s f e r o f communication and group-process s k i l l s to o th e r a re a s o f t h e i r l i v e s as they were o f s k i l l s developed in f i n a n ­ c i a l o r c o n s tru c tio n a r e a s . Adult le a r n e r s can be unaware o f what has been happening to them, o r they may no t p e rc eiv e th e p rocesses in which they were involved on a d a ily b a s is . Tough (1967) c r e d ite d f u r t h e r examination o f s e lf - te a c h in g to h is own s u r p r is e in d isco v e rin g t h a t he had followed th e se s te p s during a s e lf - te a c h in g p r o je c t "although a t th e time he had not been aware t h a t he had been doing so" (p. 1 ). I t i s believed t h a t in d iv id u a ls behave in terms o f what i s re a l. This n e c e s s i t a t e s th e e v a lu a tio n o f th e i n t e g r a t i o n o f what i s perceived as re a l in r e l a t i o n to o n e s e lf a t th e moment o f th e a c t i o n . L earning, th e n , can be s a id to be a process o f d isco v e rin g o n e 's r e l a ­ tio n s h ip to peop le, th i n g s , and id e a s . This r e s u l t s in th e a b i l i t y o f th e a d u lt to d is c e rn f a c t s , c irc u m stan c es, o r ex periences t h a t a re ap p arent to th e senses. When, w ith continued exposure to ob serv able e v e n ts , a d iscrepancy i s found to e x i s t , th e l e a r n e r can make th e needed changes. These changes w ill n o t be made u n le ss th e a d u lt p e rc eiv e s o r i s a s s i s t e d by someone who can a id in f a c i l i t a t i n g th e 147 process ( P itte n g e r & Gooding, 1971). Adult ed u cato rs can a s s i s t in th is ro le . Habermas (1971) and Mezirow (1981) proposed t h a t c o g n itiv e fu n c tio n can be seen to e x i s t in a t l e a s t th r e e d i s t i n c t domains: man­ i p u l a t i o n , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and em an c ip a tio n /p e rsp ec tiv e tra n s fo rm a tio n . Manipulation i s a domain w ith which educators a re a lre a d y f a m i l i a r . Adult behavior in t h i s area i s measured by change t h a t i s seen as r e l a t i v e to a p r i o r i behavioral o b je c t iv e s . I t i s th e second and t h i r d a re a s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and emancipation to which Mezirow would draw our a t t e n t i o n and which have sp ecial relev ance to t h i s r e s e a rc h . In th e se a re a s o f le a rn in g domains, le a rn in g i s seen not as an under­ standing o f meaning by o b serv atio n but "as an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the ways they and o th e rs with whom th ey a r e involved c o n s tr u c t meanings, ty p i f y and la b el o th e rs and what th ey do and say as we i n t e r a c t with them" (p. 18). Emancipation as a c o g n itiv e knowledge. domain involves a f r e e in g o f s e l f - A knowledge o f s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n r e le a s e s us from th e co n tro l over our l i v e s t h a t has been taken f o r granted as being beyond our c o n t r o l . This development o f a c r i t i c a l awareness t h a t customs t h a t have been i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d in th e p a s t need not co ntinu e to be so i s what F r e ir e (1970) c a ll e d " c o n s c ie n t iz a tio n ." C r i t i c a l aware­ n e s s , c a ll e d "emancipation" by Habermas (1971) and "p e rsp e c tiv e tra n s fo rm a tio n " by Mezirow (1981), can be r e a liz e d by sudden i n s i g h t o r a t t a i n e d by th e slow process of a r e v is io n o f assum ptions, a p o stu re t h a t was held by Gould (1978). 148 In h is p r e s e n ta tio n o f A C r i t i c a l Theory o f Adult Learning and Education, Mezirow (1981) proposed t h a t educators have not only f a i l e d to recognize th e c ru c ia l d i s t i n c t i o n among th e th r e e domains but they co n tinu e to a s s e s s educational p rog ressio n through measurement o f learn ed s k i l l s o r competencies from behavioral o b je c t iv e s . This p ro ­ c ed u re, when a p p lie d to th e i n t e r p r e t i v e or emancipatory domains, i s seen as i n e f f e c t i v e . In s te a d , Mezerow suggested t h a t so cia l i n t e r ­ a c tio n c a l l s f o r an educatio n al approach t h a t focuses on he!ping o th e rs i n t e r p r e t th e way they and o th e rs i n t e r a c t . P e rsp e ctiv e t r a n s ­ formation (emancipation) was seen by Mezirow as needing "an emphasis on helping th e l e a r n e r i d e n t i f y re a l problems in volving r e i f i e d power r e l a t i o n s h i p s rooted in i n s t i t u t i o n a l id e o lo g ie s which one has i n t e r ­ n a liz e d in o n e 's psychological h is to r y " (p. 18). Educators who are aware o f th e a p p ro p ria te and thus the most e f f e c t i v e approach to each domain a re then in a p o s itio n to f a c i l i ­ t a t e c o g n itiv e growth as a d u lt le a r n e r s develop a c r i t i c a l co nsciou s­ ness through t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and subsequent in tr o s p e c tio n o f th e s o c ia l m ilie u . The f a c t t h a t th e ru ra l a d u l t s in th e study were not always aware o f th e t r a n s f e r fu n c tio n does not mean t h a t they were not using i t . They may simply have been unaware o f th e process in which they were involved o r unable to give th e se p rocesses a name. A lerted to t h i s , ed ucators can a id them in th e expansion o f t h e i r human awareness toward th e enrichment o f t h e i r c o g n itiv e fu n c tio n in g . This can be seen as e s s e n t i a l i f a d u lt edu cato rs a ttem pt to f u l f i l l t h e i r commitment to a s s i s t i n g a d u lts in a c q u irin g th e p h y s ic a l, p sy c h o lo g ic a l, 149 and so c ia l s k i l l s seen necessary f o r su rv iv a l in times o f rapid change. An Educational Role A r o l e f o r a d u lt edu cato rs in to d a y 's s o c ie ty should be to focus a t t e n t i o n on th e educational components o fte n in h e re n t in s o c ia l a c tio n programs y e t u s u a lly ignored. A ssistan ce by educators in a program's re c o g n itio n o f i t s educational p e r s p e c tiv e s , where an underemphasis now e x i s t s , can be seen to a id in e s ta b lis h in g p r i o r i ­ t i e s t h a t would re a lig n a program's reso u rces to inclu de a re c o g n itio n o f i t s educational r o le . As an example, th e Housing Act of 1949 was l e g i s l a t e d to a l l o c a t e funds f o r th e c o n s tru c tio n o f "adequate" dw ellings f o r th e underhoused. Although th e s t a t u t e does not s p e c ify an educational fo c u s , i t i s p o s s ib le to view i t as having in h e re n t educational dimen­ sions (U.S. Department o f A g ric u ltu re , FmHA, Acts o f Congress, 1982, pp. b l-b 7 3 ). The ed u cativ e i n t e n t o f th e law can be seen to be imple­ mented to th e degree t h a t the U.S. Department o f A g r ic u ltu r e 's d i r e c ­ ti v e s (through Farmers Home A dm inistration) f o r " a s s is t a n c e ," "tech n ic a l s u p e r v is io n ," " co u n se lin g ," " t r a i n i n g , " and th e 13 weeks o f p re c o n stru c tio n meetings in th e mutual s e l f - h e l p housing program a re in te r p r e te d as educational by personnel from th e n a tio n a l to th e lo c al l e v e l . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and p r a c tic a l a p p lic a tio n o f th e law by Farmers Home A dm inistration has r e s u lte d in Mutual Self-H elp Housing G uidelines (FmHA I n s tr u c tio n 1944-A, E xhibits A-G, WSDC, re v is e d 150 Dec. 1981). These g u id e li n e s i n d i c a t e the d i r e c t i o n t h a t the housing programs will ta k e a t the local l e v e l . These g u id e li n e s a re i n c o r ­ porated in to o p e ra ti o n s manuals t h a t , in t u r n , s p e c if y local proce­ dures. Although s e l f - h e l p housing programs follow FmHA's g u i d e l i n e s , lo c al i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f procedures vary from county t o county and from s t a t e to s t a t e . ing houses. BBCL in Coldwater i s in th e business of b u i l d ­ I t s p o l i c i e s and procedures, however, i n d i c a t e an aware­ ness o f an educational dimension i n h e r e n t in a l l t h r e e s ta g e s of i t s program. The Housing Program as a F a c i l i t a t o r of Learning Examination o f BBCL leads the re s e a r c h e r t o b e li e v e t h a t the program f u l f i l l s the l i t e r a t u r e ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f an e nr ic hi ng a d u l t le a r n in g experience within the concepts of the andragogic approach. The r u r a l a d u l t s in th e study were seen t o approach th e program volun­ tarily. They came with backgrounds d i v e r s e in l i f e experiences including a r ic h n e s s o f a p t i t u d e s and a b i l i t i e s . Their concern f o r adequate housing f o r themselves and t h e i r f a m i l i e s was r e a l . Not i n c l i n e d t o the t h e o r e t i c , t h e i r approach was pragmatic and problem c e n t e r e d , evolving from circumstances seen t o surround needs a p p l i ­ cab le to t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s tag e o f l i f e - c y c l e development. The program off e re d educative l e a r n in g experiences to the r u r a l a d u l t s in a w e l l - s e l e c t e d v a r i e t y of l e a r n in g m o d a l i t i e s . These optio ns in various st ag e s o f the program's s t r u c t u r e gave a d u l t s the o p p o rt u n i ty t o le a r n 1. proc ess . Alone—using both an academic and an e x p e r i e n t i a l 151 2. On a one-to-one b a s i s in i n t e r a c t i o n with the d i r e c t o r , c o n s tr u c ti o n s u p e r v i s o r s , and each o t h e r . 3. Through social i n t e r a c t i o n in th e small-group process both a t the p re c o n s tr u c ti o n meetings and a t th e s i t e as the r u r a l a d u l t s mutually a s s i s t e d in the buildin g o f one a n o t h e r ' s houses. Imp li cat ion s The p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program r e f l e c t e d the r u r a l a d u l t s in the population from which th e sample was drawn. The r u r a l a d u l t s in the po p u la ti o n , t h e n , a r e young a d u l t s in t h e i r e a r l y tw e n ti e s and t h i r t i e s who a r e l i k e l y t o be married and paren ts of young f a m i l i e s . Young a d u l t s face t a s k s of m a ri ta l a dju st ment, the de cis ion to enhance job s k i l l s , and the need to develop new s k i l l s t h a t will f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r a b i l i t y to a c t on is s u e s of s oc ia l concern. The r e c o g n i t i o n o f a d u l t concern with t h e i r own development has important i m p li c a ti o n s to a d u l t ed ucators who can then attempt to provide a range o f experiences d i r e c t e d to f u l f i l l i n g th e s e needs. The young a d u l t s in th e population a r e highly s e l f - d i r e c t e d in l i f e . They expect the cont rol f o r th e decision-making p r o c e s s , which they d a i l y e x e r t over t h e i r own a f f a i r s , t o be c a r r i e d over in t o t h e i r l e a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s . The awareness t h a t a d u l t s a r e p r o a c t i v e l e a r n e r s who acce pt th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e i n i t i a t i v e and th e w i l l i n g n e s s to expend t h e needed e f f o r t in th e a tt a in m en t o f unmet goals has im p li c a ti o n s f o r a d u l t e d uca to rs . I t then becomes the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e e duc at or t o f a c i l i t a t e le a r n i n g t h a t will enable s e l f - d i r e c t e d l e a r n e r s t o develop in d i r e c t i o n s t h a t a r e b e n e f i c i a l to themselves and t o th e s o c i e t y as a whole. 152 Through background and t r a i n i n g , th e s u b j e c t s in the popula­ t i o n bring a v a r i e t y of l i f e ' s experiences t o t h e i r l e a r n in g a c t i v i ­ ties. With th e s e experiences they a l s o bring a need f o r a f f e c t i o n , f o r s e l f - r e s p e c t and s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e . An awareness of th e needs of th e r u r a l a d u l t l e a r n e r has im pl ic a ti o n s f o r th e a d u l t educa tor who, understanding th e social and psychological f a c t o r s t h a t combine to form f u l l humanness, endeavors to f a c i l i t a t e in the c r e a t i o n o f a le a r n in g atmosphere t h a t r e f l e c t s th e s a f e t y and encouragement t h a t u l t i m a t e l y encourages growth. The r u r a l a d u l t s in the population a re l i k e l y to be pragmatic and d i s p l a y both i n i t i a t i v e and p e r s i s t e n c e . They have i n d i c a t e d an a b i l i t y to organize t h e i r le a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s by c ar efu l management of t h e i r re s o u rc e s . They have a ls o expressed th e d e s i r e to l e a r n in a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r e s t a re a s t h a t , in a d d i t i o n to the pragmatic, encompass a r e a s o f personal s a t i s f a c t i o n and s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t t h a t inc lude r e c r e a t i o n , c r a f t s , hobbies, and l e i s u r e - t i m e a c t i v i t i e s . The a d u l t s in the population re por te d apprehensions about i n t e r a c t i o n in small groups. to le a r n a lon e. Aware t h a t they lack communication s k i l l s , many p r e f e r The r e c o g n it io n o f a d u l t concern f o r the development of communication s k i l l s has important i m p l i c a t i o n s to a d u l t educa tors who then can at tempt t o provide a humanistic approach to a c r e a t i v e le a r n i n g environment wherein e xp ressi ve le a r n in g through th e develop­ ment of i n t e r a c t i o n s k i l l s can ta ke place in an atmosphere t h a t i s a c t i v e , s e n s i t i v e , empathic, and nonjudgmental. 153 Recommendations f o r Future Research The p r e s e n t re s ea rc h has brought t o l i g h t some o f the l e a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e x i s t i n g in a small sample o f low-income a d u l t s involved in a s p e c i f i c s e l f - h e l p housing program. The sample was not intended t o provide an unbiased sample o f r u r a l a d u l t s . As an e x p l o r a ­ t o r y s tu dy , i t has r a i s e d que sti ons in numerous a r e a s . 1. What are th e l e a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and how do a d u l t s le a r n in s e l f - h e l p housing programs in o t h e r ar e as ? California? In Wisconsin? In Are BBCL l e a r n e r s unique or are they r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l l low-income r u r a l a d u l t l e a r n e r s ? 2. Were the p o s i t i v e le ar ni ng ex periences re p o rt e d by the p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e s e l f - h e l p housing program in th e p r e s e n t study a r e s u l t o f a powerful bond between th e a d u l t l e a r n e r s and BBCL's director? 3. Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - d i r e c t e d l e a r n in g and s e l f - h e l p housing programs? How d i f f e r e n t l y do ru r al a d u l t s l e a r n who a re not involved in a program o f t h i s type? involved in BBCL was extremely high. The mo tivation o f those What motiv ate s o t h e r r u r a l a d u l t s to le ar n? 4. Does the process o f le a r n in g employed by r u r a l a d u l t s vary with thos e in d i f f e r e n t socioeconomic c l a s s e s ? To what e x t e n t does income c u r t a i l or enhance le ar nin g? 5. Is t h e r e a d i f f e r e n c e in l e a r n in g p r a c t i c e s between ru ra l and urban a d u l t s ? 6. How can a d u l t s be aided in th e development of t h e i r re c o g n i ­ t i o n of the t r a n s f e r o f knowledge to o t h e r asp e c ts o f t h e i r l i v e s ? 154 7. Will t h e r e be a d i f f e r e n c e in t h e s e l e c t i o n o f le ar ni ng p r o j e c t s and the processes o f l e a r n in g between a group o f a d u l t s who have been made aware o f s k i l l t r a n s f e r and those who have not? 8. An i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e s e l f - h e l p housing program i s indiv idu al p a r t i c i p a n t development in the a r e a s o f communication and group pro c e ss . Future re s ea rc h may c on si de r s t u d i e s to explore the e x t e n t t o which th e s e s k i l l s a r e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c a l l y or p a r t i c u ­ lar! s ti call y oriented. Do members o f s e l f - h e l p housing programs become involved in community bu ild ing through c i v i c and s oci a l i n t e r ­ a c t i o n in th e l a r g e r community a f t e r t h e i r houses a r e c onst ru ct e d? Future re s ea rc h may co ns id e r a follow-up of th e a d u l t s in th e p r e s e n t study. The following q u e st i o n s a re p resented f o r con­ sideration. 1. Will th e enthusiasm of th e r u r a l a d u l t p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e study continue t o endure in th e d i r e c t i o n of s e l f - d i r e c t e d le a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s ? Has th e p o s i t i v e reinforcement of th e c u l t u r a l value of homeownership aided them toward becoming confirmed a d u l t learners? 2. Will t h e i r le a r n in g p r o j e c t s continue t o expand to encom­ pass the community? 3. What e f f e c t has p a r t i c i p a t i o n in BBCL had on husband/wife relationships? 4. The so ci e ty ? On family r e l a t i o n s h i p s ? Did p a r t i c i p a t i n g in BBCL have an e f f e c t on th e lear n in g a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e c h i l d r e n o f those involved in t h e program? a d u l t f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s ? Their 155 5. Has t h e r e been a change in th e a t t i t u d e s of perceived s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n of thos e who have been involved t h a t has been o f an enduring nature? How has t h i s change manifested i t s e l f in ob ser v­ a b l e behavior? Concluding Remarks R esu lts o f th e study have r a i s e d qu e st io n s about th e le ar n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , scope, and le ar n in g p r a c t i c e s o f low-income ru ra l adults. They a re believed to be a segment o f th e p o p u la tio n, though la r g e in number, t h a t has h e re to fo re been r e l a t i v e l y unattended r e g a r d ­ ing the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s they c o n t r i b u t e to the ov e ra ll p r o f i l e o f the adult learner. The r u r a l a d u l t s in the study were seen to be highly moti­ vated by the d e s i r e to house themselves and t h e i r f a m i l i e s . They were seen to be s e l f - d i r e c t e d l e a r n e r s who were problem-centered in t h e i r involvement in a. wide v a r i e t y o f i n t e r e s t ar e as t h a t pra gm at ically cente red on the c o n s tr u c ti o n o f t h e i r homes. T he ir approach to the le a r n in g p r o j e c t s on which they sought information involved a le ar nin g process t h a t was i n i t i a l l y found to be academic in t h a t i t encompassed r e a d in g , s tu dyin g, l i s t e n i n g , o r viewing before the a c t i v i t y began. Once i n i t i a t e d , however, t h e i r le a r n i n g assumed a po st ure t h a t was seen to monitor i t s e l f in a hands-on st ance o f le ar ni n g- by-d oi ng . Concerns about working with and communicating with o t h e r a d u l t s in small groups were voiced as a source o f a n x ie t y a t th e beginning of th e program. 156 In a d d i t i o n to i n s i g h t s i n t o the lear n in g processes employed by th e ru ra l a d u l t s and t h e i r concerns about communication and groupprocess s k i l l s , o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t to th e r e s e a r c h e r was t h e i r apparent lack of awareness of th e c o g n i t i v e - t r a n s f e r fu nc tio n of s k i l l s newly lear ned or developed in the program. Findings in the se t h r e e a re a s may have im p lic a tio n to educators who a r e concerned about t h e i r a b i l i t y to recognize the uniqueness o f a d u l t l e a r n e r s and the d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t occur not only p h y s i c a l l y and c h ro n o lo g ic a l ly but a l s o in th e a b i l i t y o f the a d u l t to e xper ie nc e , to t h i n k , to re aso n, and to l e a r n . BBCL has of f e re d the o p po rtu nit y to observe an i n t e r a c t i o n between unique a d u l t l e a r n e r s and a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l le a r n in g model. Early in the 1900s, Dewey proposed t h a t , to be t r u e to i t s e l f , educa­ t i o n must embryonically r e f l e c t s o c i e t y . In 1970, I l l i c h noted t h a t to a g r e a t e x t e n t t h i s concept of Dewey's philosophy had not y e t been implemented nor , I l l i c h suggested, i s i t l i k e l y to be u n t i l the walls of classrooms a re pushed out to include a d d i t i o n a l unique l e a r n e r s and more n o n t r a d i t i o n a l resources with the goal of transforming the e n t i r e c u l t u r e in to a mili eu where l e a r n in g continues t o be a p a r t of everyday l i f e . APPENDICES APPENDIX A COMMON QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON SELF-HELP HOUSING 158 APPENDIX A COMMON QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON SELF-HELP HOUSING 1. What i s s e l f - h e l p housing? S e l f - h e l p housing i s a method by which f a m i l i e s can achieve home ownership. Families form an informal a s s o c i a t i o n , e l e c t o f f i c e r s , and agree to help each o t h e r build houses with te ch n i ca l a s s i s t ­ ance provided by a competent c o n s t r u c t i o n s u p e r v is o r . 2. How does a s e l f - h e l p housing program work? Three elements a r e ne cessary to make s e l f - h e l p housing work: a . Technical a s s i s t a n c e b. Mortgage loans c. Families who want homes o f t h e i r own, and a r e w i l l i n g t o do p a r t o f the work in build ing t h e i r homes 3. How many f a m i l i e s must t h e r e be in a s e l f - h e l p housing group? G e ner a lly , 8 to 10 f a m i l i e s make up a s e l f - h e l p housing building group ( a s s o c i a t i o n ) . 4. How many hours o f la b o r does each family c o n t r i b u t e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a l l the houses in th e group? to the Each family c o n t r i b u t e s as much labor as i s re qui re d to complete a l l th e houses in th e group. Generally about 1,200 hours o f lab or per family i s r e q u i r e d , with each family c o n t r i b u t i n g about 32 hours eacn week. "Family" hours include th e l a b o r o f the husband, w if e , and any c h i l d 16 ye ars o f age and o v e r , and f r i e n d s . 5. When a re th e houses b u i l t ? Since most o f th e f a m i l i e s in a s e l f - h e l p housing program must work during th e day, most o f th e work on the houses i s done in th e evenings and on weekends. I f a family i s not w i l l i n g to give up many of t h e i r f r e e evenings and weekends during t h e c o n s t r u c ­ t i o n o f th e houses, they should not j o i n a s e l f - h e l p group. 6. How la r g e can a s e l f - h e l p house be? The s i z e and number o f bedrooms in a s e l f - h e l p house a re d e t e r ­ mined by th e number o f people in the family and th e amount of loan i t can a f f o r d t o repay—two, t h r e e , f o u r , and f i v e bedrooms, depending on th e s i z e o f the family. 159 160 7. I f the head o f th e household i s a woman, can she p a r t i c i p a t e in a housing program? Yes. However, th e groups should seek assurances t h a t s u f f i c i e n t la bor w il l be provided by her and her family. 8. What i s te c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e ? Technical a s s i s t a n c e i s the process o f organizing and su per vising groups o f f a m i l i e s in the b uild in g o f t h e i r own homes. I t i s u s u a ll y provided by a n o n - p r o f i t sponsor and may includ e the f o l ­ lowing f u n c t i o n s : a. Recruiting f a m i l i e s who a r e i n t e r e s t e d in sharing la b o r in the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f each o t h e r ' s homes. b. A s s is ti n g a t weekly meetings o f the f a m i l i e s a t which the s e l f help program and s u b j e c t s r e l a t e d to home ownership, such as ta xes and in s u ra n c e , a r e explained and d is cu s s ed . c . A ss is ti n g f a m i l i e s in l o c a t i n g s u i t a b l e buildin g s i t e s . d. A s s i s t i n g f a m i l i e s in s e l e c t i n g house plans which meet t h e i r needs and a re with in t h e i r a b i l i t y to repay. e. A ss is ti n g f a m i l i e s in ob ta in in g c o s t e s ti m a te s f o r c o n s t r u c ­ t i o n m a t e r i a l s andany su bco ntr act ing t h a t w ill be r e q u ir e d . f . Providing a s s i s t a n c e in th e p re p a ra t io n o f a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r land and c o n s t r u c t i o n m a te ri a l loa ns. g. Supervising and t r a i n i n g o f f a m i l i e s in the proper c o n s t r u c ­ t i o n o f t h e i r homes. 9. Who provides t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e ? The s t a f f o f BETTER BRANCH COUNTY LIVING, INC., which i s a non­ p r o f i t c o r p o r a ti o n r e c e iv in g g r a n t funds from the FARMERS HOME ADMINISTRATION (FmHA). 10. Do the s e l f - h e l p p a r t i c i p a n t s pay f o r te ch nic a l a s s i s t a n c e ? No. This s e r v i c e i s provided without charge by BETTER BRANCH COUNTY LIVING, INC. 11. Who provides t h e house plans? BETTER BRANCH COUNTY LIVING, INC., has a v a r i e t y o f house plans which f a m i l i e s may choose from. 12. Who provides the loan money f o r t h e l a n d , c o n s tr u c ti o n m a t e r i a l s , and any su b co n tr ac ti n g t h a t may be re qu ire d in r u r a l areas? FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE: The Farmers Home Administration us ual ly provides the loans f o r the l a n d , c o n s tr u c ti o n m a t e r i a l s , and any s ub co ntr ac tin g t h a t may be r e q u ir e d . 161 13. Who can q u a l i f y f o r a s e l f - h e l p housing loan from the Fanners Home Administration? To q u a l i f y f o r a s e l f - h e l p housing loan from t h e Fanners Home A d m in is tra tio n, a family must: a. Plan to build t h e i r house in a community of 10,000 people or less. b. Be without adequate housing. c. Have a reasonably good c r e d i t r a t i n g . d. Have an a b i l i t y to repay a loan. e. Be a b le and w i l l i n g to work on the houses. f . Have a gross a d ju s t e d income o f l e s s than $15,600 d o l l a r s a year. 14. Can a family b u ild t h e i r home in any community of 10,000 or l e s s ? No. Each Farmers Home Administration s t a t e o f f i c e has a l i s t o f the communities o f 10,000 o r l e s s where homes can be b u i l t with Farmers Home Administration lo a ns. 15. Can a family t h a t works and l i v e s in a c i t y ob tain a loan to build a house in th e country i f th e family plans to continue working in the c i t y ? Yes. 16. What a r e the terms o f FmHA s e l f - h e l p loans? The loans a re f o r up to 33 y e a r s . The i n t e r e s t r a t e i s 11 perc ent (as o f March, 1980), but s u b s id ie s can be provided t h a t will bring the i n t e r e s t c o s t t o as low as 1 p e r c e n t , depending on th e family income and s i z e . 17. What c o s t s can be included in an FmHA s e l f - h e l p housing loan? The following items can be included in a Farmers Home s e l f - h e l p housing loan: a . Land. b. Land pre p a ra t io n c o s t s , inc luding f i l l d i r t . c. T i t l e c le ar an ce (in cl udin g insurance where a p p l i c a b l e ) . d. Recording f e e s . e . Tool r e n t a l . f . Building m a t e r i a l s . g. Subcontracting s e r v i c e s . h. Water well (or hookup to c e n t r a l system). i . S e ptic tank (or sewer hookup). j . Stove (range and oven i f i t becomes rea l e s t a t e upon i n s t a l lation). k. Kitchen c a b i n e t s . 1. Driveway and c u l v e r t . m. Landscaping (gr ass and foundation s h ru bs ) . 162 n. o. 18. I n i t i a l loan i n s t a l l m e n t s . Fence when money i s l e f t over a f t e r a l l c o n s tr u c ti o n i s completed. What a re some o f the items t h a t cannot be included in the loan? Some o f th e items t h a t cannot be included in th e loan a r e : a . Property ta xes unle ss p a s t due a t the time of loan c l o s i n g . b. Fi re insura nce . c. U t i l i t i e s . 19. When i s the f i r s t monthly payment on an FmHA s e l f - h e l p housing loan due? When a loan docket i s completed, an est im ate i s made o f how long th e period o f c o n s t r u c t i o n w ill be and th e amount of payments t h a t w i l l be due during t h i s p e rio d. I f t h e borrower i s unable t o meet th e s e payments with personal fun d s, the payments may be included in the loan. When the loan i s closed t h i s amount i s immediately paid back to FmHA. The p a r t i c i p a n t must begin making f u l l monthly payments no l a t e r than one month following th e completion of the house. 20. Do wel fare payments count as p a r t of annual income? Welfare payments a re included as p a r t of annual income when com­ puting th e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s e l i g i b i l i t y f o r an FmHA s e l f - h e l p loan inc ludin g i n t e r e s t c r e d i t . APPENDIX B SCHEDULE OF PRECONSTRUCTION MEETINGS 163 APPENDIX B SCHEDULE OF PRECONSTRUCTION MEETINGS Meeting #1 A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. What i s Self-Help Housing Sponsoring Agency How to q u a l i f y f o r program Where the money comes from Requirements f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n Length o f program Family la bo r Cost o f c o n s t r u c t i o n Meeting #2 A. B. C. D. E. USDA FmHA 502 loans Loan Processing I n t e r e s t C re dit House Payments Loan Servicing from FmHA Meeting #3 A. B. C. D. Color scheme Optional Changes Items Not Allowed Minimum Prop erty Standards Meeting #4 A. B. C. D. E. F. Membership Agreement and El ec ti o n o f O f f i c e r s Promissory Note Assoc ia tio n Name Mandatory Group Savings (t a x e s and f i r e insurance) El ect ion of O ff i c e rs Weekly A sso ci at ion Dues Meeting #5 A. B. C. D. Review o f f a m i l i e s loan package Cost e s ti m a te s Loan docket forms Sign at ur es 164 165 Meeting #6 A. B. C. D. E. Property ta xes Due da tes f o r ta xes Saving f o r ta x payments Insurance Claims Meeting #7 A. B. C. Methods o f c o n s tr u c ti o n Credit ratings Budgeting f o r house payments Meeting #8 A. B. C. D. E. F. Methods of c o n s t r u c t i o n Construction terms Construction m a t e r i a l s Use of hand t o o l s Sa fe ty General phases of c o n s tr u c ti o n Meeting #9 A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. Use o f power t o o l s and equipment Building m a t e r i a l s Construction schedule FmHA in s p e c t i o n s Clean job s i t e City bu ild ing in s p e c t i o n s Material handling Records kept by su p er v is o r What s u p e r v is o r expects Meeting #10 A. B. C. D. Purchase o f m a t e r i a l s Family la bo r schedules I d e n t i f i c a t i o n signs Plans f o r i n i t i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s Meeting #11 A. B. C. D. E. F. G. Role o f the t i t l e company or a b s t r a c t o r Escrow accounts Closing statement Fees paid by family Checking account Insurance Appointments f o r loan c lo s i n g s 166 Meeting #12 A. B. C. D. Loan money f o r landscaping Shrubs Yard maintenance Local re so urc es f o r landscaping Meeting #13 A. B. C. Home maintenance FmHA requirements FmHA f i n a l ins pe c tio n APPENDIX C SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE 167 APPENDIX C SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE GROUP A: Starting Construction TIME INTERVIEW STARTED __________ TIME INTERVIEW ENDED LENGTH OF INTERVIEW NUMBER DATE Hello. My name is . 1 made an appointment with you earlier this week to interview you to gather information about HOW ADULTS LEARN. This study is being carried out to examine self-help housing as a learn­ ing process. We are interested in the sorts of things people learn. Everyone learns, but different people learn different tilings, and in different ways. There are no "right" or "wrong" answers. It is YOUR experience and opinions that are important. No name will appear on the infoimation that we collect. You have been assigned a number to protect your identity. Your name will not be associated with the responses that you will make to the questions being asked. As self-help housing programs develop throughout the country, it would be helpful to understand why you wanted to become involved in BBCL . 1. What are your reasons for wanting to become involved in BBCL ? P 1. Why did you want to become involved in a self-help housing program ? P 2. What other reasons can you think of ? 2. Why do you want to own your own home ? P 1. What are the reasons that this is important to you ? P 2. Do any other reasons come to mind ? 168 169 GROUP A 3. What do you feel that BBCL will do for you ? P 1. What do you feel that you will gain from the program ? P 2. What other advantages can you think of ? 4. Do you have any worries or fears about your abilities as you start construction on your house ? Yes N o ____ If yes: P 1. What kinds of worries or fears do you feel ? P 2. What other kinds of concerns can you think of ? 5. Have you considered that the skills that you will be learning in BBCL can be used in other areas of vour life ? Yes No If yes: P 1. What are some of the ways that you think that these abilities can be used ? P 2. Do any other uses for these skills come to mind ? 170 GROUP B: FINISHING CONSTRUCTION AND MOVING INTO HOUSE TIME INTERVIEW STARTED TIME INTERVIEW ENDED LENGTH OF INTERVIEW ' NUMBER DATE Hello, My name is , I made an appointment with you earlier this week to interview you to gather information about HOW ADULTS LEARN. This survey is being carried out to examine self-help housing as a learn­ ing process. We are interested in the sorts of things people learn. Everyone learns, but different people learn different things, and in different ways. There are no "right" or •'wrong" answers. It is YOUR experience and opinions that are important. No name will appear on the information that we collect. You have been assigned a number to protect your identity. Your name will not be associated with the responses that you will make to the questions being asked. As self-help housing programs develop throughout the country, it would be helpful to understand why you wanted to become involved in BBCL. 1. What were your reasons for wanting to become involved in BBCL ? P 1. Why did you want to become involved in the program ? P 2. What other reasons can you think of ? 2. Now that you have been in the program, was the program different than you thought that it would be ? Yes __ N o _____ If yes: P 1. In what ways was it different than you had expected that it would be ? P 2. Can you think of other ways it may have been different than you first thought that it would be ? 171 GROUP B 3A. Did you have any worries or fears about your abilities when you started construction on your house ? Yes No ___ If yes: P 1. What were your concerns ? P 2. Can you remember any other concerns that might have worried you when you first became involved in the program ? 3B. Now that you have built your house, do you feel more confident about these things ? Yes No ____ 4. Now that you have built your house, have any new projects come to mind ? Yes _____ N o ____ If yes: P 1. What are some of the new projects with which you have become involved ? P 2. Do any other projects cone to mind ? 5. Have you considered that you will be using financial, construction and communications skills that you have learned in BBCL in other areas of your life after the program has been completed ? Yes ____ N o ____ If yes: In what areas do you see yourself using these skills ? P 2. Can you think of other ways that these skills might be used outside of the program ? 172 GROUP C: LIVING IN HOUSE 1% to 2 YEARS TIME INTERVIEW STARTED _ _ _ _ _ TIME INTERVIEW ENDED LENGTH OF INTERVIEW NUMBER DATE Hello. My name i s ______ . I made an appointment with you earlier this week to interview you to gather infoimation about HOW ADULTS LEARN. The survey is being carried out to examine self-help housing as a learn­ ing process. We are interested in the sorts of things people learn. Everybody learns, but different people learn different things, and in different ways. There are no '’right*' or "wrong" answers. It is YOUR experience and opinions that are important. No name will appear on the information that we collect. You have been assigned a number to protect your identity. Your name will not be associated with the responses that you will make to the questions being asked. As self-help housing programs develop throughout the country, it would be helpful to understand why you wanted to become involved with BBCL. 1. What were your reasons for wanting to become involved in BBCL ? P 1. Why did you want to become involved in the program ? P 2. What other reasons can you think of ? 2. Now that you have built your house, was the program different than you thought that it would be ? Yes No If yes: PI. In what ways was it different than you expected it to be ? P 2. Can you recall any other ways that you felt that the program was different than you had imagined it would be ? Did you have any worries or fears about your abilities when you started construction of your house ? Yes No If yes: P 1. What kinds of things were you concerned about ? P 2. Can you recall any other concerns that you might have had before the program began ? Now that you have built your house, how do you feel about your ability to do these things ? Now that you have finished your house and have been living in it for some time, have any new projects come to mind ? Yes N o ____ If yes. P 1. What other new projects have you become involved with ? P 2. Do any other projects come to mind ? Have you considered that you will be using the financial, const­ ruction and ccmmmications skills that you have learned in the program in other areas of your life when the program ended ? Yes N o ____ If yes: P 1. What are same examplesof areas where you believe that these skills can be used ? P 2. Can you think of otheruses for these skills ? 174 The following activities are often engaged in by adults FINANCIAL 6. Adults often prepare budgets. Are you doing this now ? Yes No Is this something that youwould have been doing 3 years ago ? Yes, or Yes, but not to the same extent No ___ Do you believe that you are more capable in this area now ? Yes N O ____ If yes: Why do you feel that you are more capable in this area now ? 7. Have you considered that budgetking skills can be carried over to other areas of your life ? Yes N o ____ If yes: PI. In what other areas of your life do you see yourself using budgeting skills ? P 2. How do you see yourself using your ability to budget after the program is finished 8. Many adults establish checking and savings accounts, arrange mortgages and loans. Are you doing this now ? Yes or Yes, but not to the same extent No ___ ____ Is thissomething that you would have been doing 3 years ago ? Yes No Do you feel more confident in these areas now ? Yes No Why do you feel more confident ? “ 175 9. Have you considered that you will be using the financial that you have gained in BBCL in other areas of your life Yes N o ____ If yes: P 1. In what other ways do you see yourself using these P 2. What other uses for these financial skills come to skills ? skills ? mind ? 10. Owning a house often means obtaining information about taxes and insurance. Are you doing this now ? Yes or yes, but not to the same extent No Do you feel more confident in these areas now ? Y e s N o __ If yes: P 1. Why do you believe you are more confident ? P 2. What do you think brought about the change ? 11. Have you considered that the knowledge you've gained in BBCL about taxes and insurance could be useful in other areas of your life ? Yes N o ____ If yes: PI. In what other areas of your life do you see yourself using this knowledge ? P 2. Do any other situations come to mind where you believe that these skills could be used to advantage ? 176 CONSTRUCTION 12. Often there is a need to become involved in some tpye of const­ ruction such as roofing, siding, electrical, rough plumbing, sheetrock/drywall, rough heating, pouring cement, hanging cup­ boards, decorating or painting. Are you doing any of these things now ? Yes , or yes, but not to the same extent No _____ Do you feel more confident now Yes No P 1. Why do you feel more confident now ? P 2. What has happened to make you feel more confident now ? 13. Had you thought about the fact that these could be used in other areas of your life Yes No If yes: P 1. How do you see yourself using these P 2. In what other ways do you see these to other parts of your life ? construction skills outside of the program ? construction skills ? skills carrying over GROUP PROCESS 14. Many people share equipment and interact with each other in groups. Are you doing this now ? Yes No ---If yes: Is this something that you would have been doing 3 years ago ? Yes, or yes, but not to the same extent No ' ---Do you now feel more confident in this area now ? Yes __ N o _____ If yes: P 1. What do you feel has caused this change ? P 2. What other reasons can you think of that would cause you to feel more capable in this area now ? 177 15. Have you considered that while working with others in BBCL, conmunication skills can be d e v e lo p e d t h a t can he used in other areas of your life ? Yes No If yes: PI. In what other areas of your life do you see increased skills in working with others to be an advantage ? P 2. Do other situations cane to mind where the ability to work with others would be helpful ? 16. Adults often meet in groups to discuss common interests and activities. Are you doing this now ? Y e s ____ No Is this something that you would have been doing 3 years ago ? Yes or ves, but not to the same extent No _ Do you feel more capable now about expressing your opinions ? What do you think contributed to the change ? 17. Have you considered that the skills that you have gained discussing in groups while building your house can be carried over to other areas of your life ? Yes No ' If yes: P 1. How do you see yourself using increased skills to communicate? P 2. Where else do you see y ourself using these skills ? 173 INTERVIEWER INSTRUCTIONS FOR QUESTIONS 18 THROUGH 32 These instructions pertain to GENERAL AREAS OF LEARNING INTEREST (quest­ ions 18 through 31) and SPECIAL AREA OF LEARNING INTEREST (question 32). Areas of learning interest will be looked at three separate times in an effort to obtain information for different questions. THE FIRST TIME that it is approached, an attempt will be made to discover the overall or general areas of learner interest. Answers to responses will be checked in SECTION I (questions 18 through 30) on page THE SECOND TIME, an attempt will be made to discover the learning process and its sequence by asking whether the topics were approached in an acad­ emic or hands-on procedure. The respondent will then be asked which method was used to initiate the learning process and xdiich was implemen­ ted after the learning had begun. Answers to responses will be in SECTION II. THE THIRD TIME, the respondent will be asked to single out the ONE specific area considered to have been the most important learning exper­ ience during the past year. The answer will pertain to question 32 on page The following probes are given to help you elicit responses from the participants in the housing program about their general areas of interest during the past year. P 1. Try to think back over the past 12 months. We are interested in any deliberate effort you made to learn anything at all. Anything can be included, regardless of whether it was easy or hard, big or little, important or trivial, serious or fun. (PAUSE — CHECK ANY TOPIC MENTIONED BESIDE APPROPRIATE CATEGORY) P 2. It doesn't matter when your effort started, as long as you have spent some time at it during the last year. We want to get as complete a list as possible, because we think that people make far more attempts to learn than anyone realizes. We can include any sort of information, skill or understanding that you deliberately tried to gain -- just as long as some number of hours were spent at it during the past year. Can you recall any other areas of general interest ? (HAND RESPONDENT CARD ON WHICH CATEGORIES 18 THROUGH 30 ARE PRINTED) P 3. Here is alist of some of the things that people learn. It may help to remind you of other areas in which you have obtained information during the past year. Read the list and try to remember whether you have tried to learn something similar. TAKE BACK PRINTED CARD GENERAL AREAS OF LEARNING INTEREST SECTION II SECTION I LEARNING PROCEDURE INITIAL LATER APPROACH APPROACH HOMEMAKING; sewing, cooking, gardening, canning decorating 19. WOODWORKING, home construction projects, refinishing furniture, 20. MARRIAGE AND FAMILY: child development, personal development, communication skills, mental health 21. PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES AND SPORTS: healthcare, running swimming, etc. 22. BUSINESS AND FINANCE, taxes, insurance, abstracts, liens, titles 23. JOB SKILLS, mechanics, machine shop, electronics, radio, sterio, typing, bookkeeping. New skills for present job or skills for new job. 24. HOBBIES: art, photography, etc. SPECIFY RELIGION: scripture study, church classes 26. academics: English, Science, Mathematics, Psychology,etc. 27 CONSIMERISM: information about items to be/were purchased 28 YARD-CARE, landscaping 29 OTHER AREAS OF SKILL OR KNOWLEDGE 50. NO GENERAL AREA OF INTEREST .in N> 18. 180 INTERVIEWER INSTRUCTIONS FOR SECTION II OF QUESTIONNAIRE, p. Use Ac to designate learning by reading, studying,viewing or listening. Use Do to designate learning by doing- by experiencing. 31. LEARNING PROCESS: Of those areas that you have selected as having obtained information, how did you go about the process of learn­ ing the information that you wanted to know ? Was the knowledge obtai.® ned by reading, studying, viewing or listening or did you learn what you wanted to know about a topic as you went along ? Which process did you use to start learning about your topics of general interest ? What learning process did you use after the initial learning experience had begun ? 32. Of the areas of general interest that were just mentioned, which ONE TOPIC do you feel was most important to you ? NOTE: To be considered important, this is an area that 1. You had to have had a fairly specific idea about what you wanted to learn 2. YOU took the responsibility for planning and controlling your own learning ( over 51% of the time) 3. You spent AT LEAST EIGHT HOURS on this topic during the past year MOST IMPORTANT AREA OF INTEREST NOTE: The following information being asked about organization of learning activities and use of resources pertains the ONE special area of interest chosen by the respondent. 33. How did you go about planning your special area of interest ? Self-planned ? Class or sane type ol instruction ? ^ _____ One-to-one (you found someone who knew about the area) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Nonhuman resources (books, tapes, records,etc.)? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 34. When you needed assistance with your learning, where did you turn for help ? Intimates (parents, brother, sister, spouse, close friend) ____ Acquaintances ( friends, relatives not named in above) ________ Experts, professionals ? Small group working together ? ~ 35. Where did you carry out your learning experience ? Home School Church ______ Public library Other: Specify _______ 181 We are still talking about the special learning area that you felt was most important to you during the past year. Use this scale to measure your responses on the following questions. 5 4 3 Almost always Sometimes 2 1 Rarely 36. Did you have difficulty making the decision to start your learning on the topic of your special interest area ? __________ 37. Was arranging time to learn a problem ? ____________ 38. To be able to learn about your area of interest was money a problem ? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 39. Were resources ( people, books, etc.) difficult to find in Coldwater ? _____________ __ 40. Were resources difficult to understand ? 41. Do you prefer to learn . by yourself ?____________ Use the following scale on this question 5 4 3 Well Moderately 2 1 Poorly 42. How well do you think that your previous schooling prepared you for adult life ? 43. Can you give me a word (ONE WORD) that would descrive "leamingM for you ? DEMOGRAPHICS 44. Age __ 45. Sex 182 46. Schooling Less than high school graduation ____ High school graduate __________ Vocational training beyond high school Up to one year of college __________ Up to two years of college __________ College graduate _________________ 47. Occupation ________________ 48. Married _________________ 49. Single head of household 50. Single • ADDITIONAL REMARKS OR COMMENTS BY RESPONDENTS APPENDIX D SURVEY DATA WORKSHEETS 183 APPENDIX D SURVEY DATA WORKSHEETS PART I PSYCHOSOCIAL PROFILE GROUP A: STARTING CONSTRUCTION 1. 2. 3. 4. f 5. N= 15 What are your reasons for wanting to becomeinvolved in BBCL ?' a. To build a house b. Program allowed labor for down-payment c. To add to financial worth d. Building a house is a worthwhile venture Why a. b. c. d. e. do you want to own your own home ? The desire to belong, stay in one place, have neighbors To have a home and a yard that I can fix as I choose Better atmosphere for raising a family A house is a financial investment The pride of owning a home What do you feel that BBCL will do for you ? a. To learn skills while building a house b. To own a home c. Work with other young people d. A sense of accomplishment Do you have any worries or fears about yourabilities as you start construction of y our house ? Yes No If yes: What kinds of anxieties do you feel ? a. Not sure of construction capabilities Have you considered that the skills that you will be in BBCL can be used in other areas of your life ? Yes No If yes: What are sane of the ways that you think that these abilities can be used ? a. Use of skills in home repair b. Increasing job skills c. More confidence in ability to handle responsibility d. To assist family, friends 184 12 10 3 1 8 5 2 2 1 13 8 3 1 4 11 4 15 0 10 5 3 1 185 GRCUP B: FINISHING CONSTRUCTION-MOVING INTO HTCJ5E N= 15 1. 2. 3A. 3B. 4. What were vour reasons for wanting to become involved in BBCL ? a. To build a house b. Program allowed labor for down-payment c. Improve/learn new skills d. Add to financial worth Now that you are in the program, was it different than you had thought ? Yes No If yes: In what ways was it different than expected ? a. Difficulty getting along/working with others b. More work c. Longer hours d. Easier e. More responsibility thanI had expected Did you have any worries or fears about your abilities when you started construction of your house ? Yes No If yes: What were your concerns ? a. Not sure of construction skills b. Concerns about physical stamina c. Concer about getting along/working with others Now that you have built your house, how do you feel about these things ? a. Somewhat more confident b. Much more confident c. Very confident Now that you have built your house, have any new projects come to mind ? Yes No If yes: What projects have you considered ? a. Finish basement b. Deck/porch/fence/patio c. Landscaping d. Driveway e. Sliding glass doors f. Small storage building g . Garage h. Minor improvements 13 9 1 1 10 5 4 2 2 2 1 5 10 2 2 1 2 10 3 15 0 11 9 2 2 2 1 1 1 186 5. Have youconsidered that you will be using financial, construction and communications skills that you have in BBCL in other areas of your life after the program has been completed ? Yes No If yes: In what other areas do you see yourself using these skills ? a. Increasing job skills b . Use of skills in home repair c. Increasing communication skills d. Assisting family or friends GRCUP C: 1. 2. 3A. 3B. 4. LIVING IN HOUSES 1-2 YEARS 14 1 8 6 3 1 N= 15 What were your reasons for wanting to become involved in BBCL ? a. To build a house b. Program allowed labor for down-payment c. Improve/learn new skills whilebuilding a house Now that you have built your house was the program different than you had expected that it would be ? Yes No If yes: In what ways was it different ? a. Difficulties getting along/workingwith others b. More work c. Longer hours d. Difficulties acquiring skills Did you have worries or fears about your abilities when you started construction of your house ? Yes. No If yes What kinds of concerns did you have ? a. Lack of construction abilities b. Concern about personal stamina Now that you have finished your house, how do you feel about these things ? a. Somewhat more confident b. Much more confident c. Very confident Now that you are living in your house, have any new projects come to mind ? Yes No 15 11 1 9 6 5 4 4 2 9 6 7 2 2 4 9 15 0 187 If yes: What projects have you considered ? a. Finish basement b. Deck/porch/fence/patio c. Garage d. Build another house e. Add a room f. Build a small storage building g. Landscaping h. Minor improvements 5. 6 4 4 4 3 2 2 1 Have you considered that you will be using the financial, construction and communications skills that you have in the program in other areas of your life- now that the program has ended ? Yes No If yes: In what ways do you see yourself using these skills ? a. Increased confidence in self b. Use of skills for home repair c. Increasing job skills d. Greater understanding of people e. Increased ability to manage personal affairs f. Increased ability to communicate g. To build another house 14 1 6 4 3 3 2 1 1 PART II CURRENT ACTIVITIES FINANCIAL 6.Many adults prepare budgets, are you doing this now ? Yes No Is this something that you would have been doing 3 years ago ? Yes, or Yes, but not to thesame extent No Do you believe that you are more capable now? Yes No Why do you feel that you are more capable now ? a. Building the house b. A combination of building the house and training received outside of theprogram A 15 0 B C 15 0 15 0 8 5 7 10 11 4 15 0 12 3 12 3 13 10 10 2 2 2 188 B 8. 10. Many adults establish checking and savings accounts, arrange mortgages and loans. Are you doing these things now ? Yes No Is this something that you would have been doing 3 years ago ? Yes, or Yes, but not to the same extent No . Do you feel more confident in these areas now ? Yes No If yes: Why do you feel more confident ? a. Building the house b. Combination of building the house and training outside of the program c. Confidence in ability to handle personal affairs Many adults obtain information about taxes and insurance. Are you doing this now ? Yes No Were you doing this 3 years ago ? Yes, or ves, but not to the same extent No Do you feel more capable in these areas now ? Yes No What do you think brought about the change ? a. Building the house b. A combination of building the house and experiences outside of the program c. Don't know 15 0 15 0 15 0 6 9 7 8 8 7 15 14 1 13 2 12 13 13 2 1 1 15 0 15 0 15 0 1 14 3 12 3 12 15 14 1 0 15 0 14 13 1 1 1 15 CONSTRUCTION SKILLS 12. Many adults throughout some part of their lives become involved in construction (roofing, siding, electrical, rough plumbing, sheetrock/drywall, rough heating, pouring cement, hanging cupboards, decorating and painting). Are you doing this now ? 15 14 Yes 0 1 No Is this something that you would have been doing 3 years ago ? 5 3 Yes or yes, but not to the same extent 12 10 No 12 3 5 10 189 Do you feel more capable now ? Yes No What do you think brought about the change ? a. Building the house b. A combination of building the house and experiences outside of the program A B C IS 0 15 0 15 0 15 14 15 1 COMMUNICATION AND GROUP PROCESS 14. 16. Many adults share equipment and interact with other adults in groups. Are you doing this now ? Yes No Is this something that you would have been doing 3 years ago ? Yes, or yes, but not to the same extent No Do you feel more capable in this area now ? Yes No If yes: What do you think brought about the change ? a. Building the house b. A combination of building the house and experiences outside of the program 14 14 1 1 2 13 12 3 8 7 6 9 14 11 4 1 13 2 15 11 13 4 2 14 1 7 8 4 11 3 12 14 1 15 0 13 15 2 0 Many adults meet in groups to discuss conmon interests and activities. Are you doing this now ? ’ 13 Yes 2 No Is this something that you would have been doing 3 years ago ? 1 Yes, or yes, but not to the same extent 14 No Do you feel more capable in this area now ? 15 Yes 0 No What do you think contributed to the change ? 14 a. Building the house b. A combination of building the house and 1 experiences outside of the program 190 PART III TRANSFERENCE OF SKILLS TO EVERYDAY LIFE A B C 7. 9. 11. Have you considered that the budgeting skills that you have in the program can be carried over to other areas of your life outside of the program ? Yes 12 No 3 If yes: In what ways do you see yourself continuing to use these skills ? a. Moreconfidence in handling money 7 b. Greater awareness when buying new products orappliances 7 c. Skills for employment d. More confidence in handling personal affairs 2 e. More capable at job f. Don't know Have you considered that the financial skills (knowledge of loan procedures,etc.) that you have used in the program can be used in other areas of your life ? Yes No If yes: In what other areas of your life do you see yourself using these skills ? a. Establishing a pattern of saving b. Becoming established at a financial institution c. Greater ability to manage personal affairs d. Addint to future employment skills e. Greater confidence in self 13 2 13 2 9 7 4 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 12 14 14 3 1 1 2 2 5 8 3 6 5 1 1 3 5 1 7 8 12 3 1 4 3 1 Have you considered that the knowledge that you have gained in BBCL about taxes, liens and insurance can be useful in other areas of your life ? Yes 12 No 3 If yes: In what other areas do you see yourself using these skills ? a. Teaching my children about finance b. Talking tofriends andrelatives/others 9 c. An increase in ability to manage personal affairs 4 d. Increasing job skills e. Greater sense ofself-confidence 1 2 8 1 CONSTRUCTION SKILLS 13. Have you considered that the skills that you have used while building your house can be used in other areas of your life ? Yes No If yes: In what other areas do you see yourself using these skills ? a. Increasing job skills b. Helping friends and relatives c. Part-time employment opportunities d. Building another house-someday e. Using skills for home repair COMMUNICATION AND GROUP PROCESS 15. Have you considered that the skills that you have used when working with others while building your house can be used in other areas of your life ? Yes No If yes: In what areas do you see yourself using these skills ? a. Spouse/children b. Job c. Greater understanding of others 17. Have you considered that the skills that you have used when discussing in groups while building your house can be used in other areas of your life ? Yes No If yes: In what other areas do you see yourself using these skills ? a. Spouse/children b. Job c. Relatives and friends d. Better understanding of working with others e. More confidence in self f. Increased understanding of others g. Increased ability to communicate 192 PART IV AREAS OF LEARNING INTEREST, ORGANIZATION OF LEARNING ACTIVIT­ IES AND USE OF RESOURCES AREAS OF GENERAL INTEREST IN WHICH INFORMATION HAS BEEN OBTAINED DURING THE PAST YEAR 18. 19. A B C 10 11 12 13 15 5 7 6 6 12 12 8 9 7 6 1 3 2 3 9 9 Q 15 10 8 4 13 6 10 1 5 10 11 1 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Homemaking Woodworking, refinishing home construction projects Marriage and the family Physical activities and sports Business and finance Job skills Hobbies Religion Academics Consumerism Yard-care Other No general area of interest 31. Ac* learning by studying, reading, viewing LEARNING P R O C E Do* SS, • u j • . . learning bv doing, experiencing GENERAL AREAS OF INTEREST Homemaking Woodworking Marriage and Family c FIRST LATER FIRST LATER BFIRST LAIper Ac Do Ac Do Ac Do Ac DollAc Do Ac Dp 9 1 10 5 6 11 6 6 1 11 12 1 13 14 1 15 4 2 4 1 5 4 3 6 6 4 2 Physical activities/sports "business and Finance I £ A 12 1 L2 12 6 8 6 2 6 6 4 12 9 4 13 6 8 1 3 Job skills 7 1 8 6 3 9 3 3 Hobbies 1 6 7 2 4 6 Religion 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 Academics 2 3 2 1 5 S Consumerism 8 1 9 8 1 9 5 5 Yard-care 7 2 9 12 3 15 6 5 11 1 1 Other 2 2 8 2 1 8 9 193 32. Special areas of interest by group Homemaking Woodworking Marriage and Family Physical activities/snorts Business and Finance Job skills Hobbies Religion Academics Consumerism Yard-care Other 33. 1 2 2 9 1 2 3 1 3 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 15 8 13 3 13 13 7 1 14 6 4 7 11 11 10 2 8 7 5 13 10 5 8 7 Where carry out learning experience Home School Public library Employment At buildint site Other 36. 10 C Where do you turn for help Intimates Acquaintances Experts/professionals Nonhuman resources Snail group 35. B How Planned Self Class/instruction One-to-one Nonhuman resources 34. A 12 15 13 1 1 3 3 4 2 2 7 3 2 Difficulty starting learning project 5 Almost always 4 3 Sometimes 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 Rarely 14 10 12 Was time a problem 5 Almost alwavs 4 3 Sometimes 2 1 Rarely Was money a problem 5 Almost alwavs 4 3 Sometimes 2 1 Rarely Resources difficult to find 5 Almost always 4 3 Sometimes 2 1 Rarely Resources difficult to understand 5 Almost always 4 3 Sometimes 2 1 Rarely Prefer to learn by self 5 Almost always 4 3 Sometimes 2 1 Rarely School as a preparation for life 5 Well 4 3 Moderately 2 1 Poorly 195 43. Learning is characterized as Interesting Time Experience Knowledge Understanding Job Doing Living Enjoyment/fun Hard/difficult Adventure Working Great Helpful Fulfillment/satisfaction Forcing Challenge Everyday Easy Communication Perfection PART V 44. A B C 3 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 DEMOGRAPHICS AGE 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 3 1 1 1 1 3 2 3 5 6 2 2 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 196 A 45. 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