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University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 8324781 W yniem ko, Mary Louise AN ASSESSMENT OF THE GLOBAL INTERESTS, KNOWLEDGE, AND ATTITUDES OF FOURTH-, EIGHTH-, AND TWELFTH-GRADE STUDENTS IN THE INGHAM INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL DISTRICT Ph.D. Michigan State University University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 Copyright 1983 by Wyniemko, Mary Louise All Rights Reserved 1983 PLEASE NOTE: In all c a se s this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this docum ent have been identified here with a check mark V 1. Glossy photographs or p a g e s ______ 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print______ 3. Photographs with dark background______ 4. Illustrations are poor copy 5. Pages with black marks, not original 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sid es of page______ 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several p ag es 8. 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Other___________________________________________________________________ __ University Microfilms International AN ASSESSMENT OF THE GLOBAL INTERESTS, KNOWLEDGE, AND ATTITUDES OF FOURTH-, EIGHTH-, AND TWELFTH-GRADE STUDENTS IN THE INGHAM INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL DISTRICT By Mary Louise Wyniemko A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan S ta te U niversity in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e requirements f o r th e degree o f DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department o f Elementary Education 1983 ABSTRACT AN ASSESSMENT OF THE GLOBAL INTERESTS, KNOWLEDGE, AND ATTITUDES OF FOURTH-, EIGHTH-, AND TWELFTH-GRADE STUDENTS IN THE INGHAM INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL DISTRICT By Mary Louise Wyniemko This study was undertaken to determine the i n t e r e s t s , knowl­ edge, and a t t i t u d e s about o th e r peoples and c o u n trie s o f a se le c te d number o f f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts who attended school in the Ingham In term ediate School D i s t r i c t in Michigan during f a l l 1981. The study was an extension o f re se a rc h conducted in 1974 by th e Educational T esting Service (ETS) f o r th e U.S. Office o f Education, e n t i t l e d Other N ations, Other Peoples, A Survey o f Student I n t e r e s t , Knowledge, A t t it u d e s , and P erceptions (ONOP). The study sample was drawn from fo u r school d i s t r i c t s in the Ingham Interm ediate a re a . Three o f th e school d i s t r i c t s t h a t agreed to p a r t i c i p a t e were suburban; one was r u r a l . A t o t a l sample o f 53 te a c h e rs and 1,600 stu d e n ts p a r t i c i p a te d in th e study. The t e s t instrum ents were provided by ETS and included th re e s e t s o f b o o k le ts, which were p a r a l le l in c o n te n t and form. The i n s t r u ­ ments f o r fo u rth -g ra d e stu d e n ts and those f o r eig h th and tw e lf th grad­ e rs d if f e r e d in terms o f format and reading l e v e l , so t h a t th e measures were a p p ro p ria te f o r each grade l e v e l . Mary Louise Wyniemko Null hypotheses were formulated to analyze th e d ata on the Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s , th e reso u rces stu d e n ts employed to le a rn about o th e r coun­ t r i e s , and s tu d e n ts ' global knowledge, as measured by th e ONOP t e s t . The lev el o f s ig n if ic a n c e f o r a l l t e s t s was s e t a t .05. The r e s u l t s o f th e comparisons between th e 1981 Ingham I n t e r meidate study and th e 1974 n atio n al study in d ic a te d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s between c e r t a i n items in th e global-knowledge t e s t and in resources stu d e n ts se le c te d to le a rn about fo re ig n coun­ trie s. No s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s e x is te d between th e two s tu d ie s in terms o f stu d e n t i n t e r e s t in studying and in v i s i t i n g fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . D ifferences were noted in terms o f sex and grade lev e l in t h a t males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than females on th e global knowledge t e s t , and o ld er stu d e n ts answered a g r e a te r percentage o f questions c o r r e c t l y than did the younger s tu d e n ts . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s study w ill be used by th e Michigan Depart­ ment o f Education to improve M ichigan's so c ial s tu d ie s curriculum in th e area o f global education. To my f a t h e r and mother, Louis and Mary Wyniemko, who have i n s t i l l e d in me the m otivation and ambition to accomplish personal g o a ls. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study would not have been p o ss ib le w ithout th e guidance and a s s is ta n c e I have received during my educational program a t Michigan S ta te U n iv ersity from my c h a irp e rso n , a d v is o r, and f r i e n d , Dr. Lois Bader. I am g r a te f u l to her f o r having confidence in my a b i l i t y to succeed. I would l i k e to thank Dr. John Chapman f o r suggesting t h i s to p ic , which combines my love f o r tra v e l with my i n t e r e s t in educa­ tio n . The d i r e c ti o n and support he extended to me were in valu ab le in th e completion o f t h i s p r o je c t. A ppreciation i s extended to Drs. G loria Smith, James C o sta r, and Eugene Pernell f o r serving as members o f my doctoral committee. To th e s t a f f in th e Department o f Planning and Evaluation a t the USD, David Kazen, Dave B uell, Michael Ward, P a t r i c i a C o rn e ll, Ja ck ie Swab, and e s p e c ia lly Phil Babcock, I o f f e r my s in c e re thanks fo r t h e i r guidance, moral su p p o rt, i n t e r e s t , sense o f humor, and, most im portant, t h e i r f r ie n d s h ip . The memories and jo y s o f working with them w ill always be a p a r t o f my l i f e . The many hours o f e d itin g and typing by Sue Cooley a re g r e a t ly a p p re c ia te d . I am s in c e r e ly thankful to her fo r her time and i n t e r e s t in my d i s s e r t a t i o n . For easing the f r u s t r a t i o n s and brigh tening th e days o f t h i s p a st y e a r , I am g ra te fu l to my f r i e n d s , Cindy, Rob, Dave, and Sarah. I am indebted to my p arents and fam ily f o r the encouragement, i n s p i r a t i o n , and love they have always given me. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................... v ii Chapter I. II. III. IV. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY............................................................... 1 The Importance o f Global Education .................................. Purpose o f t h e Study ............................................................... R ationale ........................................................................................ Research Questions ................................................................... L im itations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Population and Sample ............................................................... D e fin itio n o f Terms ................................................................... Summary and Overview ............................................................... 1 5 6 8 10 10 10 11 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE........................................................... 12 Goals o f Global Education ....................................................... Elements o f Global Education .............................................. The Role o f Education in Promoting Global Awareness . D e fin itio n s o f Global Education .......................................... Research S tudies ....................................................................... The Role o f th e Media in Global Education ..................... Summary............................................................................................ 12 14 19 22 26 46 49 DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................... 51 The S c h o o l- D is tr ic t Sample .................................................. The Teacher S a m p l e ................................................................... The Student S a m p l e ................................................................... P r o c e d u r e s .................................................................................... Study D e s i g n ................................................................................ D escription o f Student Instrum ents .................................. Data-Analysis Procedures ....................................................... Hypotheses Tested ....................................................................... Summary............................................................................................ 51 59 60 65 66 67 71 72 73 DATA ANALYSIS.................................................................................... 75 Student I n t e r e s t in Studying Foreign Countries Student I n t e r e s t in V is itin g Foreign Countries v . . . . . . 76 78 Page Resources Used by Students to Learn About Other Countri e s ........................................................................................ The S ta tu s of Eighth- and Twelfth-Grade Ingham In term ed iate S tu d e n ts' Global Knowledge: Item A n a l y s i s ........................................................................................ Eighth and Twelfth G raders' Knowledge About th e United S ta te s ................................................................................ Eighth and Twelfth G raders' Knowledge About th e World and Five S elected Nations ........................................... The S ta tu s o f F o u rth -, E ig h th -, and Twelfth-Grade Ingham In term ed iate S tu d e n ts' Global Knowledge: Total Score A n a l y s i s ................................................................ Ingham Interm ediate S tu d e n ts' Knowledge T est R esults Across Grade Levels: Total Item Score A nalysis . . . The Knowledge T est: An Examination o f th e Areas o f S trength and Weakness—F o u rth -, E ig h th -, and Twelfth-Grade Ingham Interm ed iate Students ................. A Comparison Between Ingham Interm ediate S tu d e n ts' I n t e r e s t in V is itin g Foreign Countries and Their Knowledge o f Those Countries .............................................. A Comparison of Ingham Interm ediate S tu d en ts' I n t e r e s t in Studying Foreign Countries and Their Knowledge o f Those Countries .............................................. Teachers' Travel Experience ....................................................... Chapter Summary ................................................................................. 126 133 135 V. FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 138 Summary................................................................................................. Major R e s u l t s .................................................................................... Discussion and Im plications o f th e Findings ..................... P ro jected Outcomes o f th e Study .............................................. Recommendations f o r Future Study .......................................... 138 139 144 150 152 APPENDICES............................................................................................................. 155 A. LETTER OF SUPPORT BY PHILLIP E. RUNKEL, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, STATE OF MICHIGAN ............................... 156 B. C. 84 88 88 93 99 105 109 122 TABULATION OF STUDENT RESPONSES TO SELECTED ITEMS ON THE BACKGROUND AND INTEREST QUESTIONNAIRE AND KNOWLEDGE TEST RESULTS FOR THE 1981 AND 1974ST U D IE S............................ 158 COPY OF A LETTER OF PERMISSION GIVEN BY THE EDUCATIONAL TESTING SERVICE RELEASING THE TEST MATERIALS—OTHER NATIONS, OTHER PEOPLES ................................................................... 167 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... vi 170 LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 Page R acial/E th nic Count o f th e Four D i s t r i c t s on October 2, 1981 52 3.2 R acial/E th nic Composition o f th e Four D i s t r i c t s .................. 53 3.3 Student Background Information ........................................................ 61 3.4 Ethnic Composition o f Student Sample ........................................... 61 3.5 Foreign Languages Spoken by Parents and Students ................... 62 3 .6 Foreign Languages Studied by Eighth and Twelfth Graders 63 3.7 Class Standing o f Eighth and Twelfth Graders in th e Sampl e ..................................................................................................... 64 Subjects Studied by Eighth and Twelfth Graders in th e S a m p le ........................................................................................... 64 R esults o f Comparisons Between th e 1981 Sample and th e 1974 Sample in Terms o f S tu d e n ts' S e le c tio n s o f Countries to S t u d y ............................................................................ 78 R esults of Comparisons Between th e 1981 Sample and th e 1974 Sample in Terms o f S tu d e n ts' S e le c tio n s o f Countries to V i s i t ............................................................................ 80 Ingham Interm ediate S tu d e n ts' S e le c tio n s o f Countries to Study and to V i s i t ................................................................... 83 Rank Ordering o f Resources That Are I n f l u e n t ia l in Learning About Other C oun tries: Top Three Choices 86 3.8 4.1 4.2 4 .3 4 .4 4 .5 4.6 4.7 . . . . Percentage o f Ingham Interm ediate Students C o rrec tly Id e n tify in g Six Countries on a Map .......................................... 110 Comparison o f Knowledge T est R esults and I n t e r e s t in V is itin g Other C ountries—Fourth G r a d e r s .............................. 124 Comparison o f Knowledge T est R esults and I n t e r e s t in V is itin g Other C ountries—Eighth G r a d e r s .............................. 125 vii Page 4.8 Comparison o f Knowledge T est R esults and I n t e r e s t in V is itin g Other C ountries—Twelfth G r a d e r s ......................... 126 Comparison o f Knowledge Test R esults and I n t e r e s t in Studying Other C ountries—Fourth G r a d e r s ............................. 128 4.10 Comparison o f Knowledge Test R esults and I n t e r e s t in Studying Other C ountries—Eighth G r a d e r s ............................. 130 4.9 4.11 Comparison o f Knowledge Test R esults and I n t e r e s t in Studying Other C ountries—Twelfth Graders ......................... 131 B-l B irth p lace o f 1981 Ingham Interm ediate Sample Population . 159 B-2 Nations Students Would Like to S tu d y /V isit: 1981 Ingham Interm ediate Study ........................................................... 160 Ways of Learning About Other C ountries: Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate Study, 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 B-3 B-4 . . Knowledge Levels by Nation—Grade 4: Ingham Interm ediate Study, 1 9 8 1 ........................................................................................ 162 Knowledge Levels by Nation—Grade 8: Ingham Interm ediate Study, 1 9 8 1 ........................................................................................ 163 Knowledge Levels by Nation—Grade 12: Ingham Interm ediate Study, 1981 164 B-7 Knowledge Levels by Nation—Grade 8: ONOP Study, 1974 . . 165 B-8 Knowledge Levels by Nation—Grade 12: ONOP Study, 1974 . . 166 B-5 B-6 yiii CHAPTER I BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY The Importance o f Global Education In th e e a rly sta g es o f i t s h i s t o r y , th e United S ta te s was con­ cerned with domestic p o lic ie s and in te r n a l growth. A b e l i e f in th e philosophy o f is o la tio n is m , a concern f o r th e expansion o f th e n a t i o n 's b orders, and a d e s ir e t o o btain wealth and to a tte n d to a ra p id ly growing population c h a ra c te riz e d th e United S ta te s during i t s e a rly y ears o f development. Immigrants e n te rin g th e United S ta te s were expected to a s s im ila te themselves in to th e "American" c u l t u r e . As a r e s u l t o f World Wars I and I I , th e b i r t h o f th e United Nations, th e Vietnam War and the Iran ia n c r i s i s , and th e r i s e in i l l e g a l immigration, the United S ta te s has been forced to re e v a lu a te i t s p o lic ie s toward and r e l a ti o n s h i p s with o th e r c o u n tr ie s . Such f a c t o r s as world fin a n c e , population growth, nu clear power, and food shortages have been instrum ental in determining th e United S t a t e s ' world p o l i ­ c ie s during th e tw e n tie th century. Actions taken by the United S ta te s government a f f e c t not only U.S. c i t i z e n s , but o th e r peoples as w e ll. Economic p o l i c i e s , m i l i t a r y d istu rb an ces and questions o f disarmament, import and export i s s u e s , medical concerns, and th e United S t a t e s ' r e l a t i o n s with fo re ig n coun­ t r i e s a f f e c t people throughout th e world. 1 2 I f Americans a re to understand th e importance o f p re se n t and f u tu r e global r e a l i t i e s upon t h e i r own f o r tu n e s , and upon the fo rtu n e s o f t h e i r fello w human beings around th e w orld, and i f America i s to have both le a d e rs and follo w ers capable o f d e a l­ ing e f f e c t i v e l y w ith th e se complex m a tte r s , education f o r g lo ­ bal r e l a t i o n s must re c e iv e a new and su sta in e d natio n al p r i o r i t y and su pp ort. (American Council on Education, 1975, p. 5) Former S ecretary o f S ta te Henry K issinger (in Shaw, 1979) s t a t e d , "Unless we become aware o f our global interdependence, th e Western world as we know i t w ill not su rv iv e . . . . The natio n al i n t e r e s t can no longer be defined o r a tta in e d in i s o l a t i o n from global i n t e r e s t s " (p. 1 ). Nations throughout th e world a re now depending on one another f o r s u r v iv a l. Hutchins (in C o llin s , 1971) s t a t e d , The d o c trin e o f every man f o r him self or every n a tio n f o r i t s e l f lo se s i t s charm in an interdependent world. This d o c trin e has to give way before th e idea o f a world community. We have to understand and r e l y on our common humanity i f we a re to su rv iv e in any co nd itio n worthy to be c a lle d human, (p. 28) In 1974, Wood observed t h a t , d e s p ite a growing global i n t e r ­ dependence, Our schools tend to in c u lc a te in p upils a general outlook in which t h i s country forms th e hub o f th e world. This outlook leads to an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f events and s i t u a t i o n s in o th er p a rts o f th e world t h a t c e n te rs p rim a rily on how those p a rts o f the world in flu e n ce th e p o s itio n o f our own c oun try. Rarely do we ponder how th e a c tio n s o f Americans a f f e c t o th e r c o u n tr ie s . This narrow outlook tends to overvalue our own c u lt u r e and i n t e r e s t s as i t sim ultaneously undervalues th e c u ltu r e s and i n t e r e s t s of o th e r peoples. I t i s a ls o one o f th e basic o b sta c le s to world peace, (p. 664) Henderson ( in ASCD, 1973) held much th e same view: Much o f secondary school so c ial s t u d i e s , backed up by c o n sid e r­ a b le home c o n d itio n in g , s t i l l tends to convey th e impression t h a t th e west i s and always has been su p e rio r to a l l o th e r c i v i l i z a ­ t i o n s . The 19th centu ry p o s itio n o f dominance over the r e s t o f the world i s presented as n atu ral and i t s continuance in to the 3 f u t u r e as i n d e f i n i t e . Some o f th e most widely used textbooks s t i l l manage to imply t h a t , while c i v i l i z a t i o n may have s t a r t e d in some such u n lik e ly place as Mesopotamia, i t f a i l e d to improve man's l o t u n til the I s r a e l i t e s and th e Greeks took o v e r; they in tu rn passed i t on through th e Romans and C h ristia n s to th e n o r th ­ ern Europeans, who brought i t to North America and achieved the u ltim a te , (pp. 115-16) Kenworthy (1978) b e lie v e d , The g r e a t e s t m iracles today a re not space f l i g h t o r m icrobiology, but th e drawing to g e th e r o f peoples. Instead o f f e a r in g the o u ts id e world as complex and c h a o tic , boys and g i r l s should le a rn to perceive th e s e p a tte r n s o f change. They should a ls o be aware t h a t t h e i r a c t i o n s , th e way they choose t o l i v e , how they cooperate and r e s p e c t each o t h e r 's r i g h t s to develop in t h e i r own ways, and how they use th e e a r t h 's resources w ill a f f e c t th e kinds o f l i v e s people w ill be a b le to l i v e today and in the f u t u r e . These ideas and f e e lin g s about people and th e world a re very simple and b a s ic . . . . But they must become a p a r t o f a c h i l d 's a t t i t u d e s and values a t th e e a r l i e s t p o ss ib le age. (p . 1) There i s an increased need f o r people from a v a r i e ty o f c u l ­ t u r a l and natio n al backgrounds to accep t th e concept o f interd epen d­ ence as being v i t a l to th e e a r t h 's continued e x is te n c e . I t has become in c re a s in g ly c l e a r t h a t problems a r i s e because o f p e o p le 's misconcep­ t io n s and t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to recognize basic s i m i l a r i t i e s among a l l people. The n e c e s s ity f o r global education as a means o f f o s t e r i n g a p o s itiv e a t t i t u d e in c h ild re n toward o th e r n a tio n s and peoples p ro­ vides an i n i t i a l po in t o f d isc u ssio n f o r ed u ca to rs. Are schools meeting g lo b al-ed u c atio n needs through t r a d i t i o n a l educational c u r ­ riculum and i n s t r u c t i o n a l programs? Are th e media b e n e f ic ia l in promoting an increased global awareness? What a re th e knowledge le v e ls and a t t i t u d e s o f stu d e n ts toward d i f f e r e n t peoples and c u l ­ tures? These questio n s prompted th e re s e a rc h e r to ex plo re th e lev el o f global knowledge o f stu d e n ts w ithin th e Ingham In term ed iate School 4 D istric t. In 1974, the Educational T esting Service (ETS) in P rin c e to n , New J e rs e y , conducted a study t h a t sought to answer the qu estion regarding the e x te n t o f s tu d e n ts ' global awareness. The ETS found t h a t th e r e were gaps in the i n t e r e s t s , knowledge, a t t i t u d e s , and p e r­ c eptio ns o f randomly s e le c te d f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e American stu d e n ts in regard to o th e r n a tio n s and peop les. The p re se n t r e s e a r c h e r 's i n t e r e s t in o b tain in g data on a comparable group o f s t u ­ dents led to t h i s re s e a rc h . The in te rv en in g y e ars sin c e th e 1974 ETS study have brought curriculum m o d ific a tio n s , changes in u n i v e r s it y te a c h e r-p re p a ra tio n programs, th e r i s e o f th e b a c k -to -b a sic s movement, an emphasis on competency and a c c o u n ta b ility programs, m illag e c u tb ack s, changes in educational p r i o r i t i e s , school c lo s in g s , te a c h e r l a y o f f s , and a d e c lin e in public-school a tten d a n ce . Improvements in technology have brought "on -th e-spot" re p o rtin g and an o p p o rtu n ity f o r people to le a r n more about world events in a s h o r te r period o f tim e. Despite th ese occurrences and th e passage o f tim e , th e hypothe­ s i s s e t f o r t h by t h i s r e s e a r c h e r i s t h a t th e r e w ill be no a p p re c ia b le d iffe r e n c e between the stu d e n t r e s u l t s in th e 1974 study and those in the 1981 Ingham Interm ediate stud y. To v e r i f y t h i s o p in io n , the f o u r th , e ig h th , and tw e lf th grades were s e le c te d f o r t e s t i n g to d e t e r ­ mine th e e x te n t o f s t u d e n ts ' global knowledge in 1981 as compared to t h a t o f stu d e n ts t e s t e d in 1974. C ertain f a c t o r s must be considered when making comparisons between th e two s t u d i e s . Demographic c h a r­ a c t e r i s t i c s such as f in a n c ia l re s o u rc e s , geographic l o c a t i o n , and the e th n ic backgrounds o f th e 1981 sample produced a stu d e n t group 5 t h a t was d i f f e r e n t from the 1974 study group. That i s , th e stu d en ts in the 1981 Ingham Interm ediate study g e n e ra lly tended to be from more a f f l u e n t f a m ilie s and the o v e ra ll sample appeared t o be b e t t e r educated than th e 1974 sample. The number o f stu d e n ts included in each study was approxi­ mately the same, and a l l o f th e stu d en ts attended school in th e United S ta te s during th e time o f th e t e s t i n g . Both s tu d ie s employed th e same t e s t instru m en ts; in th e 1981 stu d y , c e r t a i n m o difications were made to update th e t e s t instrum ent. Purpose o f the Study This study was undertaken to determine th e i n t e r e s t s , knowl­ edge, and a t t i t u d e s about o th e r peoples and c o u n trie s o f a s e le c te d number of f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts who attended school in the Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t . The study i s an extension o f resea rch conducted in 1974 by th e ETS f o r th e U.S. Office o f Education. The o rig in a l study , e n t i t l e d Other N ations, Other Peoples, A Survey o f Student I n t e r e s t s , Knowledge, A t t it u d e s , and Perceptions (ONOP), was an attem pt to determine th e global-knowledge lev el o f randomly s e le c te d f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e s t u ­ dents in United S ta te s scho ols. A review o f the l i t e r a t u r e did not reveal any evidence to in d ic a te t h a t th e r e had been another r e p l i ­ c a tio n o f the ONOP study. The r e s u l t s and fin d in g s of th e Ingham Interm ediate study w ill be used to make recommendations f o r s o c i a l s tu d ie s curriculum improvement and staff-developm ent m o d ifica tio n s in th e Ingham Interm ed iate area and in o th e r school d i s t r i c t s in Michigan. 6 R ationale Robert Leestma, A ssociate Commissioner f o r I n s t i t u t i o n a l Development and I n te rn a tio n a l Education, expressed a need f o r f u r t h e r research in th e area o f global education. In th e f i n a l r e p o r t o f the 1974 n ational stu d y , he s t a te d : Hopefully, t h i s study i s th e f i r s t o f a s e r i e s . While only a beginning and modest in i t s dimensions, i t i s important in i t s own r i g h t f o r th e knowledge and in s ig h ts r e s u l ti n g from i t s q u e s tio n s , approaches, and sample; f o r the impetus i t provides f o r subsequent r e p l i c a t i o n o r ad ap tatio n in l o c a l , s t a t e , o r national c o n te x ts ; f o r th e cues and stim ulus to undertake r e l a te d research endeavors; and f o r i t s c o n trib u tio n to r a i s ­ ing th e level o f p ro fessio n al and public awareness about th e e x is tin g s t a tu s o f th e s u b je c t and serving as a general stim u­ lu s f o r strengthening in te rn a tio n a l education in th e schoo ls. (Pike & Barrows, 1979, p. xvi) Leestma suggested th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e p l i c a t in g th e 1974 study a t a l a t e r d a te and comparing th e r e s u l t s with those o f th e o rig in a l study. The d ata were c o lle c te d in th e f a l l o f 1974. I t would be i n te r e s ti n g to know what d iffe re n c e s might be found i f the study were r e p l i c a t e d in the f a l l of 1979. I t does n ot seem l i k e l y t h a t th e basic s i t u a t i o n r e f l e c t e d in t h i s study would have changed s i g n i f i c a n t l y in th e interv enin g y e a r s , although th e r e may be some improvement with re s p e c t to th e Middle East because o f t h a t r e g io n 's increased prominence in our nation al l i f e , and perhaps a ls o w ith regard to China and th e USSR, given th e e x te n t to which both c o u n trie s have continued to be in the news and th e re f o re may be re c eiv in g a d d itio n a l a t t e n t i o n in the curriculum over t h a t noted in the study. (Pike & Barrows, 1979, pp. iv-v ) Leestma recommended t h a t a d d itio n al research would help to expand and improve the in te r n a tio n a l dimensions o f United S ta te s edu­ c a tio n . He suggested t h a t lo ca l school d i s t r i c t s could use th e i n f o r ­ mation from the s tu d ie s as b a se lin e data f o r conducting needs-assessm ent and a c c o u n ta b ility programs. 7 John P o r te r , a former Superintendent o f Public I n s tr u c tio n in Michigan, expressed a need f o r data on Michigan c h i l d r e n 's knowl­ edge o f and fe e lin g s toward o th e r c o u n tr ie s . He f e l t t h a t b a selin e data on s tu d e n ts ' global knowledge a re important fo r e d u c a tio n a lprogram development and f o r the proper use and management o f funds. In a r e p o r t to th e P r e s i d e n t's Commission on Foreign Language and In te rn a tio n a l Studies in May 1979, P o rte r sa id : We have n o t, as of t h i s d a te , obtained adequate empirical b a se lin e d a ta on what Michigan c h ild re n know about o th e r coun­ t r i e s and how they and t h e i r tea ch e rs fe e l about o th e r c o u n tr ie s . I th in k i t i s very im p o rtan t, f o r two re a so n s, t h a t we proceed in gathering such inform ation: F i r s t , in an era o f heightened f i s c a l c r i s i s and a c c o u n ta b il i ty , performance o b je c tiv e s and competencies, th e p o lic y makers, l e g i s l a t o r s , and general public a re convinced by hard data and demand proof f o r funds being used f o r any programs. Moreover, they want to know i f what the money i s being used f o r , does indeed make a d if f e r e n c e . Second, i t is j u s t p la in reasonable in terms o f program development and implementation t h a t good ev alu atio n procedures should be followed and t h a t we should be accountable i f we a re to e f f e c t i v e l y in c o rp o ra te . . . in te r n a tio n a l s tu d ie s in to the curriculum , (pp. 10-11) P h i l l i p Runkel, Superintendent o f Public I n s tr u c tio n in Michi­ gan during th e time o f t h i s stu d y , expressed his support o f research on global education. In correspondence w ith th e re s e a r c h e r , he i n d i ­ cated t h a t schools need to provide o p p o rtu n itie s f o r a l l stu d e n ts to a cquire knowledge, s k i l l s , and p o s i t iv e a t t i t u d e s about th e global s o c ie ty t h a t w ill enable them to become e f f e c t i v e world c i t i z e n s . He s t a t e d , "The data which you w ill o b ta in w ill be o f p a r t i c u l a r use f o r curriculum c o o rd in a to rs , a d m in is tra to rs and tea ch e rs w ithin a la r g e number o f Michigan school d i s t r i c t s . " t h i s correspondence.) (See Appendix A f o r a copy o f 8 R ep resen tatives o f lo cal school d i s t r i c t s in th e Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate a rea met in sp rin g 1980 and in d ic a te d an i n t e r e s t in designing an educational program t h a t included an emphasis on global and m u lti­ c u ltu r a l knowledge. C e rta in d i s t r i c t s e x h ib ite d a w illin g n e ss to p a r t i c i p a t e in a study t h a t would provide inform ation on t h e i r s t u ­ d e n ts ' global knowledge and awareness l e v e l s . The r e s u l t s o f the study would be used to help d i s t r i c t s in th e Ingham Interm ediate area plan a glob al-ed u catio n curriculum . This stu d y , th e n , was conducted f o r th e purposes described above and was based on needs expressed by those re s p o n s ib le , in la rg e p a r t , f o r the o r ig in a l study: the Michigan Department o f Education and re p r e s e n ta tiv e school d i s t r i c t s in th e Ingham Interm ediate School D istrict. Research Questions The follow ing re se a rc h q u estions were c o n stru cted to guide the gath ering o f data f o r t h i s study. 1. Do f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to study d i f f e r from those o f s t u ­ dents in th e 1974 study? 2. Do f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to v i s i t d i f f e r from those o f s t u ­ dents in the 1974 study? 3. Do th e reso u rces f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts s e le c te d to le a rn about o th e r c o u n trie s d i f f e r from those o f s tu d e n ts in th e 1974 study? 9 4. Is th e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham In term ediate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about th e United S ta te s and stu d e n t knowledge in th e 1974 study? 5. Is th e re a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ed iate s t u d e n ts ' knowledge o f p a r t i c u ­ l a r nations o f th e world and stu d e n t knowledge in th e 1974 study? 6. Is th e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between the f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ed iate s tu d e n ts ' global knowledge and stu d e n t global knowledge in th e 1974 study? 7. Is th e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham In term ediate males and fem ales' global knowledge and th e global knowledge o f males and females in th e 1974 study? 8. Is th e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate males and fem ales' global knowledge? 9. Is th e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e acro ss th e f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth grade l e v e ls of stu d e n ts in the Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate study in terms o f global knowledge? 10. Is th e re a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g t h a t country? 11. Is th e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham In term ed iate s t u d e n ts ' knowledge about a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying t h a t country? 10 12. Have Ingham Interm ediate tea ch e rs tr a v e le d to a g r e a te r number o f fo re ig n c o u n trie s than te a c h e rs in th e 1974 study? 13. Have Ingham Interm ediate tea ch e rs spent a lo nger period o f time in fo re ig n c o u n trie s than te a c h e rs in th e 1974 study? L im itations The r e s u l t s o f t h i s study must be considered w ithin th e l i m i t s o f the population and procedures used in th e in v e s ti g a t i o n . The f i n d ­ ings may not be gen eralize d to school d i s t r i c t s o th e r than the ones examined in t h i s study. Population and Sample Ingham, Eaton, Io n ia , and Clinton Counties c o n s t i t u t e the Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t a re a . The study sample was drawn from four school d i s t r i c t s in th e Ingham Interm ediate a re a . Three o f th e school d i s t r i c t s t h a t agreed to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e study were suburban; one was r u r a l . A t o t a l sample o f 53 te a c h e rs and approximately 1,600 stu d e n ts p a r tic ip a te d in the study. D e fin itio n o f Terms The follow ing terms a re defined in th e c o n te x t in which they are used in t h i s study: Urbanized a re a —According to the U.S. Census Bureau, urbanized areas . . . g e n e ra lly c o n s i s t o f a c i t y , and i t s c lo s e ly s e t t l e d s u r ­ rounding t e r r i t o r y , f o r example, suburbs, population and popu­ l a t i o n d e n s ity , as shown in census-determined urban a r e a s ' boundaries which a re u s u a lly a ls o d iv id in g l i n e s between urban and ru ra l t e r r i t o r y . 11 An urbanized a rea comprises an incorporated place and a d ja ce n t densely s e t t l e d surrounding area t h a t to g e th e r have a minimum population o f 5000. . . (U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau o f Census, 1982). Rural a re a —An area o u tsid e o f th e urban a rea and o th e r urbanized places w ithin th e Standard M etropolitan S t a t i s t i c a l Area (SMSA) and having a population o f l e s s than 2,500. Global education—The Michigan Department of Education defin es t h i s term as th e l i f e - l o n g growth in understanding o f the world community and th e interdependence o f i t s peoples and systems. "A country you would l ik e to v i s i t 11—In t h i s stu d y , " v i s i t " was defined as l iv i n g in a country f o r a period o f a t l e a s t s ix months. Summary and Overview The problem, background, r a t i o n a l e , purpose, and research questions were presented in Chapter I . The l im i ta t io n s o f the study and d e f i n i ti o n s o f important terms were a lso s t a te d . In Chapter I I , l i t e r a t u r e r e l a te d to the meaning and component p a rts o f global e d u catio n , curriculum im p lic a tio n s , the development of stu d e n t a t t i t u d e s toward o th e r c o u n tr ie s , and th e importance o f the media in promoting global education i s reviewed. The study design and methodology a re explained in Chapter I I I . In Chapter IV, th e data gathered in the study a re r e p o r te d , analyzed, and disc u sse d . The summary, co n clu sio n s, and recommendations fo r f u r t h e r study a re presented in Chapter V. CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The review o f th e l i t e r a t u r e encompasses th re e a re a s : F irst, th e g o a ls , elem ents, and d e f i n i t i o n s o f global education a re d i s ­ cussed. Second, the w r i t e r p resen ts research on curriculum issu e s concerning c h i l d r e n 's a t t i t u d e development and rea d in ess f o r global e du cation, th e r o l e o f te a c h e rs and educators in planning a g lo b a leducation curriculum , and curriculum im p lic a tio n s . The t h i r d area i s a d e s c r ip tio n o f the in flu e n ce and e f f e c t o f th e media in global education. Goals o f Global Education I f people accept th e b e l i e f t h a t humanity has a common d e stin y and t h a t th e w o rld 's survival depends on p e o p le 's a b i l i t y to r e l a t e to one another in a c i v i l i z e d manner, then global education i s a necessary p a rt o f to d a y 's educational curriculum . Accepting the concept o f interdependence re q u ire s a change in the thought processes o f many people. I t i s up to educators to n u rtu re th e concept o f change in a p e rs o n 's l i f e and in th e world as in e v ita b le and p o s i t iv e . In C o llin s ' (1977) words, When viewed from th e p e rsp ec tiv e o f what needs to be done to equip c h ild re n and young people to l i v e c o n s tru c tiv e ly in th e a n tic ip a te d world of th e 21st c e n tu ry , th e re a re few grounds 12 13 f o r complacency. There i s much t h a t can and should be done to enhance th e q u a li t y o f in te r n a tio n a l education in th e n a ti o n 's elementary and secondary scho ols, (p. i i i ) Becker (1974) suggested t h a t one o f th e goals of global educa­ tio n is to provide a knowledge base t h a t might encompass i s o l a t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n , d i v e r s i t y and u n i ty , aggression and coop eration . In the p a s t , educational m a te ria ls emphasized th e d iff e r e n c e s among people—t h e i r r a c i a l , p h y s ic a l, c u l t u r a l , and l i n g u i s t i c d i v e r s i t i e s . Education needs to a ffirm the f a c t t h a t although d iffe re n c e s e x i s t , th e r e a re many commonalities among human beings t h a t should be empha­ siz e d . These s i m i l a r i t i e s should not be ign ored , nor should the d iffe re n c e s be overlooked. According to Becker, Students must be helped to form a c c u ra te perceptions o f prob­ lems t h a t transcend n atio n al boundaries. More im p o rtan tly , they must be given a whole new map o f th e world—one t h a t shows shared e th n ic and c u lt u r a l n atio nalism and c u ltu r a l i n t e r e s t s , ecological p e rs p e c tiv e s overlapping so cial and economic con­ c e rn s , as well as g e o p o litic a l c o n fig u ra tio n s , (p. 679) The need f o r stu d e n ts to possess global understanding has reached a c r i t i c a l p o in t. Educating c h ild re n to accept th e b e l i e f t h a t no one i s i s o l a t e d from a n o th e r 's a c tio n s in long overdue. Deci­ sions made today a f f e c t not only the p r e s e n t, but have im portant im p lica tio n s f o r the f u t u r e . "Education f o r resp o n sib le p a r t i c i p a ­ tio n in an interdepen dent world o r a global s o c ie ty has become a m ust," said Becker (1978, p. 11). Developing th e s k i l l s necessary to p a r t i c i p a t e resp o n sib ly in an interdependent world and to understand and know about t h a t world is a fu n ctio n o f global edu catio n. I t i s a ls o a means o f helping people 14 understand how t h e i r l i v e s a re shaped and a ffe c te d by world e v en ts. In t h i s re g a rd , Becker (1978) noted: I t seems c l e a r t h a t global education should seek to connect r a t h e r than d iv id e men, to make c l e a r t h e i r common humanity, and to emphasize t h e i r common f a t e . This does n o t , however, mean t h a t we can a ffo rd to ignore the d i v e r s i t y o f hum ankindcomposed of many n a tio n s unequally endowed with th e good th in g s o f th e e a r th and o f m ultitud es o f groups and in d iv id u a ls holding d i f f e r e n t ideas about s o c ie ty and having d i f f e r e n t v a lu e s. Global education should focus e q u a lly on th e u n ity and d i v e r s i t y o f th e g lob e, th e c o n tr a s tin g demands o f th e se two a sp e c ts o f one r e a l i t y , and th e c o n f l i c t between th e general n e c e s s i t i e s o f survival and th e p re s e rv a tio n o f j u s t i c e and d ig n ity and a ctual people and s o c i e t i e s , (p. 681) The U.S. Commissioner o f E du cation 's Task Force on Global Education (1979) spoke to th e need f o r global education by saying t h a t such knowledge helps in c re a s e th e lik e lih o o d o f having re sp o n sib le le a d e rs and b e tter-in fo rm e d c i t i z e n s . People need to be aware t h a t d e c isio n s in economics, s c ie n c e , and p o l i t i c s a f f e c t th e growth o f a country, t h e i r own employment, t h e i r standard o f l i v i n g , and t h e i r c o u n tr y 's s t a b i l i t y . Elements o f Global Education Leestma (1978) described f i v e components o f global edu catio n: 1. "Unity and D iv e rsity o f Mankind," which im plies t h a t s t u ­ dents need to understand t h a t no one c o u n tr y 's view o f th e world i s shared by a l l o th e r c o u n tr ie s . Global education i s concerned with the commonalities and th e d if fe r e n c e s among people. Leestma sa id th e e a r t h 's peoples a re a s in g le sp ecies endowed and enriched by d iv e rsity . One purpose o f global education i s t o c o r r e c t c u ltu r a l myopia and to reduce ethnocentrism . 15 2. " In te r n a tio n a l Human R ig h ts ," which Leestma described as follow s: Human r i g h t s a re b a sic to human d i g n it y , to th e maximum develop­ ment o f human p o t e n t i a l , and to th e "human use o f human b e in g s ." A proper concern f o r human r i g h t s a t home and abroad needs to become p a r t o f th e shared commitment in th e minds o f c i t i z e n s everywhere, (p. 7) 3. "Global Interdependence," which p o rtray s th e world as a p la n e ta ry system. Nations and peoples have become in terdependent econom ically, p o l i t i c a l l y , and environm entally. The su rviv al o f man i s now an o p e ra tio n a l problem, not a p h ilo so phical one. 4. " In te rn a tio n a l R e s p o n s ib ility ," which means t h a t each person has an o b lig a tio n to m aintain th e h e a lth o f th e p la n e t. 5. " In te rn a tio n a l C ooperation," which recognizes th e f a c t t h a t many problems in th e world a re common to numerous n a tio n s . tio n s can be reached i f they a re resolved worldwide. Solu­ According to Leestma, Global education helps stu d e n ts develop an understanding o f th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , o f mankind in o th e r s e t t i n g s , o f o th er ways o f being human, o f d i f f e r e n t views o f what th e w o rld 's f u tu r e should be l i k e and how i t should be shaped. By h e lp ­ ing c o rr e c t c u l t u r a l myopia and astigm atism , global education reduces ethnocentrism and thus b e t t e r prepares stu d e n ts to cope with th e complex r e a l i t i e s o f nationalism and c u ltu r a l d iffe re n c e s on an i n te r n a tio n a l s c a l e , (p. 7) Becker (1972) o u tlin e d fo u r requirem ents o f a g lo b al-ed u c atio n program. They a re as fo llo w s: 1. The need to break down sharp d i s t i n c t i o n s between the study o f American s o c ie ty and th e study o f o th e r c u l t u r e s . 2. The need to i n t e g r a t e th e t r a d i t i o n a l l y s e p a ra te d i s c i ­ p lin e s and concerns a s s o c ia te d with i n te r n a tio n a l r e l a t i o n s a t the high school as well as th e c o lle g e and u n iv e r s ity l e v e l s . 16 3. The need to h ig h lig h t the wholeness and interdependence of the modern w orld, w hile a t th e same time recognizing i t s g r e a t d i v e r s i t y and acknowledging th e i n d i v i d u a l 's attachm ent to se p ara te groups and c u l t u r e s . 4. Theneed to i n te g r a t e a concern with th e e a rth as a p la n e t and mankind as a sp ecies o f l i f e with a study o f th e in te r n a tio n a l system as such (p. 2 ). Kinghorn (1982) i d e n t i f i e d th e follow ing four themes f o r a g lo b al-ed u c atio n curriculum : 1. Children should be tau g h t th e value o f d i v e r s i t y through the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e b e l i e f s and l i f e s t y l e s . An appre­ c ia ti o n f o r u n fam ilia r c u lt u r a l s t y l e s and th e in flu e n ce o f d i f f e r e n t c u ltu r e s on o n e 's own can expand a g roup's viewpoints and r e p e r t o i r e o f choices when con fro n tin g is s u e s . 2. The second theme o f a g lob al-ed u catio n curriculum acknowl­ edges th e in terconn ected ness o f th e modern world. I n te rn a tio n a l resources such as o r g a n iz a tio n s , ag en cies, and programs op erate in conjunction with one another throughout the world. Communities and in d iv id u a ls a re a ffe c te d by world e v en ts. 3. The t h i r d theme i s the development o f an e f f e c t i v e working r e l a ti o n s h i p with o th e r s . This im plies th e need to develop in o n e 's s e l f th e a b i l i t y to accep t and comprehend a l t e r n a t i v e a t t i t u d e s , id e a s , and n e g o tia tio n and conf1ict-management s k i l l s . 4. The l a s t theme involves th e understanding o f world condi­ tio n s and t r e n d s . This can be accomplished by teaching stu d e n ts how 17 and where information regarding world c o n d itio n s may be obtained and how to recognize emerging world tre n d s (pp. 8 -1 2 ). A re c u rrin g theme in global education i s interdependence. Wood (1974) thought th e concept o f interdependence should be included in a l l g lo b al-ed u c atio n c o u rses. She f e l t t h a t such knowledge i s needed a t both th e a f f e c t i v e and c o g n itiv e le v e ls to develop a global consciousness. Wood believed t h a t behavioral o b je c tiv e s should be developed to r e f l e c t th e idea o f interdependence. Hanvey (1979) saw interdependence as p a rt o f th e more complex concept o f systems th e o ry . He wrote: The emergent global c o n d itio n c o n tr a s ts sharply with the p reg lo b a l. Long term consequences begin to be co nsidered. Link­ ages between events a re seen in the more complex l i g h t o f systems theo ry . Social goals and values a re made e x p l i c i t and vu ln erab le to c h alle n g e. And natio n s begin to note t h a t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s a re not separable from th e i n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s o f o th e r s . F u rth e r, system atic a t t e n t i o n i s given to problems t h a t transcend th e n a t i o n a l , r e g i o n a l , or c o a l i t i o n a l . (p. 25) Case (1979) i d e n t i f i e d f i v e themes f o r a g lob al-ed u catio n curriculum . 1. They a re : "Interdependence"—The people o f th e world should know t h a t they a re dependent on one another through th e use o f natu ral re s o u rc e s, through in d u stry and commerce, and through ecological stru c tu re s. 2. The "Systems Theory"—Complex problems can be solved by viewing th e immediate problem as connected with and p a r t o f a la rg e network o r system t h a t has i n t e r r e l a t e d p a r t s . 18 3. "Worldmindedness"—People should be aware t h a t they a re p a rt of a global s o c ie ty . They should know some meaningful asp ects o f t h a t so c ie ty . 4. " F in ite Resources"—The w o rld 's reso urces a re e x h a u stib le and lim ite d . 5. "A New Economic Order"—The economic s t r u c t u r e throughout the world w ill s h i f t and new p a tte r n s w ill form, i . e . , th e develop­ ment of wealthy c o u n trie s in th e Middle East (pp. 66-77). Anderson's (1978) g lo b al-ed u catio n philosophy was t h a t "Students should be educated about th e world as a system and tau g h t t h a t in d iv id u a ls a re p a r t i c i p a n ts in th e world system, and t h e i r com­ p eten cies should be c u ltiv a te d towards e f f e c t i v e and resp o n sib le p a r­ t i c i p a t i o n in th e world system" (p. 21 ). Anderson believed people need f iv e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to deal e f f e c t i v e l y with global ed ucatio n: 1. as members Acap a city to perceive o n e se lf and a l l o th e r in d iv id u a ls o f a s in g le species o f l i f e whose numbers sh are a common b io lo g ic a l s t a t u s , a standard way o f adapting to t h e i r n a tu ra l e n v i­ ronment, a common h i s t o r y , a common s e t o f b io lo g ic a l and psychologi­ cal needs, common e x i s t e n t i a l concerns, and s im ila r so c ial problems. 2. Acap a city to perceive o n e s e lf , th e group to which one belongs, and the human species as a whole as p a rt o f th e e a r t h 's eco­ system. 3. A c ap a c ity to perceive o n e s e lf and th e groups to which one belongs as p a r t i c i p a n ts in th e tra n s n a tio n a l so c ial o rd e r. 4. A c ap a city to perceive o n e 's s e l f , o n e 's community, o n e 's n a tio n , and o n e 's c i v i l i z a t i o n as both " c u ltu re borrowers" and 19 " c u ltu re d e p o sito rs" who both draw from and c o n tr ib u te t o a "global bank o f human c u ltu re " t h a t has been and continues to be fed by con­ t r i b u t i o n s from a l l peoples in a l l geographical reg io ns and through­ out a ll h i s t o r i c a l p e rio d s. 5. A c ap a c ity to perceive t h a t th e world system and i t s component elements a re o b je c ts o f p e rc e p tio n s, b e l i e f s , a t t i t u d e s , o p in io n s, v a lu e s, and assumptions on our p a r t as well as on th e p a rt o f o th ers (pp. 23-27). Anderson thought th ese c a p a c itie s would enable people t o make wise d e c is io n s . Separating judgments based on b e l i e f s and those founded on b iases i s important to promoting se lf-u n d e rsta n d in g and m u ltic u ltu ra l percep tio n . The Role o f Education in Promoting Global Awareness Education should assume a le a d e rs h ip r o l e in promoting global awareness and understanding. Morehouse (1978) s ta te d t h a t education is in h e re n tly co n serv ativ e and r i g i d . means o f achieving so c ial change. Yet education i s th e p rin c ip a l Brown (1972) w rote, For much o f mankind, i t i s the door in to th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , i t i s th e means to improving the q u a li t y o f l i f e , achieving so cial m o b ility and p a r t i c i p a ti n g in th e w o rld 's a f f a i r s . The educational system, broadly d e fin e d , must begin to provide th e individual with much more inform ation on th e r e l a ti o n s h i p between man and n a tu re . A l i b e r a l education in th e t r a d i t i o n a l sense continues to be im portant, but a basic understanding o f man's place in the e a r t h 's complex and th rea te n ed ecosystem w ill be a t l e a s t as e s s e n tia l in th e decades immediately ahead. (p. 115) Brown said t h a t education o f f e r s a way to improve human resources and to r a i s e p e o p le 's p r o d u c tiv ity . An i r r e l e v a n t education breeds d isc o n te n t and f r u s t r a t i o n in c o u n trie s o f a l l economic l e v e l s . 20 G r i f f in and Spence (.1970) s t a te d t h a t g lo b al-ed u c atio n pro­ grams should include i n s t r u c t i o n on th e fundamental changes t h a t a re occurring in th e w orld, which a f f e c t every c o u n try 's educational p la n s . Some o f th e s e changes a r e : 1. No la r g e group o f people w ill l i v e t h e i r l i v e s in i s o l a ­ tio n from o th e r peoples o f th e world. 2. Large groups o f people must not continue to l i v e in con­ d iti o n s o f p o v e rty , igno ran ce, d is e a s e , and hop elessness. 3. I t i s q u e stio n a b le to accep t th e idea t h a t c e r t a i n peoples a re d e stin e d to dominate o th e r s . 4. An a t t i t u d e o f r a c i a l and c u ltu r a l p rid e i s developing, which w ill no longer make i t b e lie v a b le t h a t c e r t a i n races a re s u p e rio r to o th e r s . 5. Programs o f a s s is ta n c e to "underdeveloped" n a tio n s can make a g r e a t e r c o n trib u tio n by coo perating w ith th e people o f th ese natio n s than by providing them with th e "answers." G r if f in and Spence f u r t h e r s ta te d t h a t no country has an e f f e c t i v e edu cation al program f o r modern tim e s. They believed t h a t education has n o t kept pace w ith th e changing needs o f th e world: The world s i t u a t i o n demands a more profound and e f f e c t i v e c o n trib u tio n from e d u catio n . . . . More and more re c o g n itio n i s being given t o education as th e means o f b ringing about changes in human i n s t i t u t i o n s , a t t i t u d e s , and processes necessary f o r developmental change. More o f th e same kind o f education is not th e answer. New programs must be q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t , and they must p ro ­ duce r e s u l t s on a broad sc a le in economic periods o f time i f they a re to meet th e challenge o f th e tim es. Education i s a main instrum ent f o r b uild in g and m aintaining a p p ro p ria te behaviors. New i n s i g h ts i n to human behavior, in c re a s in g ly re fin e d concepts o f so cial change, and in vention of new means o f 21 communicating, te a c h in g , and le a rn in g make p o ssib le and educa­ t io n v a s t l y s u p e r io r to c u r r e n t programs. Educational planning must become s o p h is tic a te d in making use o f th e se new t o o l s . (p. 6) G r if f in and Spence thought t h a t education could c o n tr ib u te to th e development of s o c i e t y , i f development i s conceived of as being broader and more fundamental than merely economic and technological advancement. According to th e s e w r i t e r s , th e concept o f development needs to be broadened. I t r e l a t e s to m atte rs o f human s p i r i t and w i l l , values and a s p i r a t i o n s , human r e l a t i o n s h i p s , ideas and ways o f th in k in g , le a d e rs h ip and planning a b i l i t i e s , awareness o f a l t e r n a t i v e s , so c ial con trol over science and technology, re c o g n itio n o f the ways o f o th e r p e op les, awareness o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in th e world community, and s e n s i t i v i t y to the s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l , and i n t e l l e c t u a l q u a l i t i e s necessary f o r organized and su sta in ed e f f o r t toward agreed-on g o a ls, (p. 7) G r iff in and Spence believed t h a t Cooperation among the people and natio n s o f the world holds promise o f a more c r e a t i v e and im aginative approach to answers. C ro ss-stim u latio n o f ideas from d i f f e r e n t c u ltu r e s and coopera­ t i v e searching fo r s o l u t io n s , not th e tr a n s p la n ta t io n o f p rac­ t i c e s across c u ltu r a l b o rd ers, may hold th e key to many problems. An im portant r e s u l t o f coo peratio n in educational planning can be re o r ie n te d tea ch in g in each country about th e h i s t o r y , c u l t u r e , s o c ie ty and people o f o th e r c o u n tr i e s , and about the world as a so c ia l system. In a re a l se n se , th e e f f e c t s o f c u r ­ r e n t c h a u v in is tic educational programs comprise a formidable o b s ta c le to e f f o r t s f o r cooperation and f o r world peace and harmony. Every country teaches th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f i t s way of l i f e and e i t h e r n e g le c ts o r d i s t o r t s what i s tau g h t about o th e r c o u n trie s and t h e i r ways o f l i f e . This has to change i f the world i s to su rv iv e as a harmonious u n i t in th e u n iv e rs e . (PP. 7-8) These two re s e a rc h e rs f e l t t h a t an education worth s t r i v i n g f o r must deal with a t t i t u d e s . Since education should be f u t u r e - o r ie n te d , a p p ro p ria te a t t i t u d e s must be developed. Because a t t i t u d e s a re a ffe c te d by a p e rs o n 's range o f e x p erien c es, educational planning 22 should ta k e i n to account th e in flu e n c e o f th e f a m ily , r e l i g i o n , r e c r e a t i o n , th e mass media, s c h o o l, and formal a g e n c ie s . Moyer (1970) s ta te d : The ta s k [ f o r global e d u c a tio n ] becomes one o f e d u ca tin g f o r a cceptance and u n d erstan d in g in an ever-w idening m ilie u o f s e l f , g ro ups, a g e s , c u l t u r e s , n a ti o n s . R e la tio n s h ip s w ith g ro u p s, a g e s , c u l t u r e s , and n a tio n s occur in a random r a t h e r than a s e q u e n tia l o r d e r . In r e a l i t y th e a re a s o v e rla p , and an a l l - i n c l u s i v e and comprehensive term human r e l a t i o n s edu­ c a tio n more a p t l y d e s c r ib e s th e p ro c e s s , (p. 5) D e f in itio n s o f Global Education A number o f term s have been used in th e l i t e r a t u r e to d e s c r ib e global e d u c a tio n . Some o f th e s e a r e : m u l t i c u l t u r a l aw areness, world c i t i z e n s h i p , e th n ic s t u d i e s , c u l t u r a l p l u r a l is m , c u l t u r a l p a r i t y , global v a lu e s , world a f f a i r s , and i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n . d e f i n i t i o n s f o r global e d u ca tio n have a ls o been o f f e r e d . Many There does not seem t o be a consensus r e g a rd in g any one term o r d e f i n i t i o n . In h is r e p o r t t o th e Council o f C hief S t a t e School O f f i c e r s , C o llin s (1977) c i t e d terms t h a t may be used when r e f e r r i n g to a s t r u c tu r e d l e a r n in g e x perien ce o r to formal coursework in g lo b al edu­ c atio n . These term s a r e : w o rld , c r o s s - c u l t u r a l , i n t e r n a t i o n a l , g l o b a l , and glob al c i t i z e n s h i p . f o r h is own p u rp o ses. C o llin s p r e f e r r e d two o f t h e term s These a re "global e d u c a tio n ," which d e s c r ib e s th e f i e l d in i t s b r o a d e s t, most u n iv e rs a l s e n s e , and "global s t u d i e s , " which d e s c r ib e s th o se a c t i v i t i e s and programs norm ally a s s o c ia te d with formal study in th e sc h o o ls . dom estic and f o r e ig n s tu d y . N e ith e r term im p lies a s e p a r a tio n between 23 A term t h a t i s no longer a p p ro p ria te and confuses th e meaning of global education i s " in te rn a tio n a l e d u ca tio n ." According to Becker and Mehlinger (1968), t h i s term , which has been used to d e sc rib e a c t i v i t i e s between n a tio n s , i s s u b je c t to c u ltu r a l l a g . These authors s ta te d t h a t important changes in th e essence o f r e l a ­ tio n s h ip s among in d iv id u a ls and n atio n s in the world a re o c c u rrin g . The term " i n t e r n a t i o n a l ," as used in d e scrib in g exchanges throughout th e world, i s outdated because th e r e a l i t y th e word d e scrib e s has changed v a s t ly . The authors would l i k e a new word to d e sc rib e th e t r a n s a c tio n s between n atio n s and c u ltu re s o r a change in the meaning o f th e word " i n t e r n a t i o n a l ." King (1970) compared the word " in te r n a tio n a l" to se p a ra te pieces o f real e s t a t e and a g ia n t tra s h c a n . " I t encompasses so much t h a t i t v i r t u a l l y means nothing a t a l l " (p. 16). Case (1979) d i f f e r e n t i a t e d between in te r n a tio n a l and global education. He saw in te r n a tio n a l education as a study o f a l l t h a t global education encompasses f o r th e purpose o f understanding the problems. Global education re q u ire s an interdependent p e rsp e c tiv e to the study and a development o f a sense of world community. Strasheim (1978) saw global education as an emerging philosophy whose d e f i n i t i v e r a t i o n a l e w ill not be w r itte n f o r some tim e. Marker (1977) described global education as a way o f th in k in g about the world, which i s c h a ra c te riz e d by th e notion o f "Spaceship E a rth ." He s t a t e d , "We a re a l l in t h i s th in g to g e th e r , and th e f a t e of some o f us i s quickly becoming th e f a t e o f a l l o f us" (p. 13). 24 G r if fin and Spence (.1970) used th e term " in te rn a tio n a l educa­ tio n " to r e f e r to a curriculum t h a t d eals with o th e r c o u n trie s and s o c i e t i e s , i n te r n a tio n a l r e l a t i o n s among c o u n tr i e s , exchange of stu d e n ts between c o u n tr ie s , a s s is ta n c e to o th er c o u n trie s f o r d ip lo ­ matic and o th e r in te rn a tio n a l work, c u l t u r a l - r e l a t i o n s programs between n a tio n s , and in te r n a tio n a l cooperation. The B r i ti s h use the term "world s tu d ie s " to d e scrib e global edu cation , whereas th e Canadians have se le c te d th e term "developmental s t u d i e s ." UNESCO p r e fe r s th e d e signation " in te r n a tio n a l e d u ca tio n ." C ollins (1977) sa id t h a t a l l o f th ese terms have a common problem: They can mean whatever anyone chooses. In i t s Guidelines fo r Global Education, th e Michigan Depart­ ment o f Education (1978) used th e term "global e d u ca tio n ," which i t defined as follow s: Global education i s the lif e lo n g growth in und erstand ing , through study and p a r t i c i p a t i o n , o f th e world community and th e i n t e r ­ dependency of i t s people and systems—s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l , r a c i a l , economic, l i n g u i s t i c , te c h n o lo g ic a l, and e c o lo g ic a l. Global education re q u ire s an understanding o f th e values and p r i o r i ­ t i e s o f th e many c u ltu r e s o f the world as well as th e a c q u i s i ­ tio n o f b asic concepts and p r in c ip le s r e l a te d t o th e world community. Global education leads to implementation and a p p l i ­ c atio n of the global p e rsp ec tiv e in s t r i v i n g f o r j u s t and peaceful s o lu tio n s to world problems, (p. 3) Hanvey (1979) described global education in terms o f s p e c if ic goals or dimensions. These a re an awareness o f th e s t a t e o f the e a r t h , knowledge o f global dynamics, awareness o f human c h o ic e s , p e rsp ec tiv e consciousness (recognizing t h a t o th e rs have views d i f f e r e n t from o n e 's own), and c r o s s - c u ltu r a l awareness. 25 Anderson (1968) argued t h a t global education i s based on th r e e p r i n c i p le s : t h a t stu d e n ts should be educated about the world in ways t h a t show th e world is a system, t h a t in d iv id u a ls a re p a r­ t i c i p a n t s in t h i s system, and t h a t stu d e n ts should be tau g h t in ways t h a t promote th e development o f competencies necessary to p a r t i c i p a t e e f f e c t i v e l y and resp o n sib ly in th e world system. Hickman and P ric e (1980) viewed global education as a new bandwagon. They f e l t advocates o f t h i s philosophy want a s h o rtc u t to a new o b j e c ti v e , global p e rs p e c tiv e . global awareness can be ta u g h t. These au th o rs did not b e lie v e They thought t h a t th e elements can be tau g h t but t h a t i t i s up to the in d iv id u a l to develop th e perspec­ tiv e . "We would be f o o lis h to assume we could teach a global problem, o r global awareness, o r global p e rs p e c tiv e w ithout re fe re n c e s to a t l e a s t a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e number o f i t s p a rts o r p ieces" (p. 209). Swift (1980) viewed global education from a t e a c h e r 's p o in t o f view. He sa id i t i s a philosophy o r an a t t i t u d e toward d a il y l i v i n g ; i t i s not a new c o u rse, program, or c o n te n t. He c o ntin ued, Global education c a l l s f o r a curriculum t h a t w ill involve s t u ­ dents in c u l t u r a l , s c i e n t i f i c , e co lo g ic al and economic issu e s t h a t a f f e c t everyone. I t promotes an understanding o f the values and p r i o r i t i e s o f th e many c u ltu r e s o f th e w orld, as well as th e basic concepts and p r in c ip le s r e l a t e d to world communities. I t can o f f e r a v i t a l combination o f language, l i t e r a t u r e and th e a r t s o f many c u l t u r e s . Global education aims to in cre ase s tu d e n t awareness o f th e c u l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic interdependence in th e world o f the p a s t , p re s e n t and f u t u r e , (p. 46) According to King (1970), global education i s "the so c ia l experience and th e le a rn in g process through which in d iv id u a ls a cq u ire and change t h e i r images o f th e world perceived as a t o t a l i t y and 26 t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n toward p a r t i c u l a r components o f th e world system" (p. 15). He a ls o s t a t e d , In education t h i s means t h a t schools must help c h ild re n to develop i n te r n a tio n a l understanding but not in th e t r a d i t i o n a l meaning o f th e word, a s o r t o f stra n g e lands and f r i e n d l y people approach. In ste ad th e im p lic a tio n i s t h a t stu d e n ts must be led toward an understanding o f the world as a s in g le u n i t . Schools w ill then be tr a n s m ittin g to th e next genera­ t i o n a r i c h image o f th e t o t a l e a r t h , (p. 1) Kenworthy (1967) in d ic a te d t h a t in te r n a tio n a l understanding is p rim a rily a p oin t o f view r a t h e r than a s u b j e c t . He s t a te d t h a t t h i s understanding must be in cu lc a te d in young c h ild re n while they are forming a t t i t u d e s and p o in ts o f view t h a t w ill have an in flu e n ce in t h e i r a d u lt l i v e s . From th e preceding d is c u s s io n , i t i s apparent t h a t th e r e i s no one view or d e f i n i t i o n o f global e du catio n. Leestma (1978) sa id t h a t because of th e complexity o f th e area o f concern, th e re can be no s in g le meaning f o r global edu catio n . In the p re s e n t stu d y , th e term "global education" i s used to d e scrib e th e a c t i v i t i e s and pro­ grams t h a t promote global understanding, as defined by th e Michigan Department o f Education. Research Studies Global Education During th e l a s t few y e a r s , an increased e f f o r t has been made to a s s e s s the knowledge, s k i l l s , and a t t i t u d e s o f u n iv e r s ity stu d e n ts toward c o u n trie s o th e r than t h e i r own (Barrows, K lein , & C lark , 1981). However, th e r e has been very l i t t l e concern with measuring th e a b i l ­ i t y o f c h ild re n in grades K-12 t o understand global i s s u e s . Research 27 i s lim ite d and few data have been accumulated on c h i l d r e n 's s t a t e of in te r n a tio n a l understanding. The follow ing i s a review o f th e major s tu d ie s t h a t have been conducted on a t t i t u d i n a l development in c h i l ­ dren. In the e a r ly 1970s, th e Educational T esting Service (ETS) developed a t e s t c a lle d Other N ations, Other Peoples, A Survey o f Student I n t e r e s t s , Knowledge, A t t it u d e s , and Perceptions (0N0P) to explore th e i n t e r e s t s , knowledge l e v e l , a t t i t u d e s , and p erception s o f American school c h ild re n toward o th e r c o u n trie s and peoples. The 0N0P study examined d a ta t o determine whether th e re were d iffe re n c e s based on geographic l o c a ti o n , grade l e v e l , o r sex. Background i n f o r ­ mation was c o lle c te d to examine r e l a ti o n s h i p s between stu d e n t knowl­ edge, a t t i t u d e s , community, fam ily , and in dividual stu d e n t v a r i a b le s . Fourth, e ig h th , and tw e lfth graders throughout th e United S ta te s were t e s te d in th e 0N0P survey. These grades were s e le c te d f o r study because i t was f e l t they "might reveal something about d i f ­ f e r e n t stag es o f development in such dimensions as le v e ls o f ego­ centrism and e x te n t o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n in a t t i t u d e s " (Pike & Barrows, 1979, p. i v ) . In f a l l 1974, d a ta were gathered from 550 to 600 stu d e n ts a t each grade l e v e l . The stu d e n ts were randomly s e le c te d from 55 to 60 schools f o r each o f th e grades and from 27 s t a t e s . was v o lu n ta ry . P a r t ic ip a t io n Inform ation was c o lle c te d on such v a ria b le s as la n ­ guages and n a tio n s s tu d ie d , sources in flu e n cin g s tu d e n ts ' views and a t t i t u d e s , natio n s stu d e n ts would l i k e to study o r v i s i t , s tu d e n ts ' knowledge o f s e le c te d c o u n tr i e s , and t h e i r a t t i t u d e s about and 28 percep tions o f various c o u n tr ie s . Data were also gathered on the s o c i a l - s t u d ie s te a c h e r s , concerning such a sp e c ts as c o u n trie s ta u g h t, experiences in flu e n cin g te a c h e r s ' c a re e r c h o ic e s, and te a c h e r s ' p er­ ception s o f f a c to r s t h a t might a f f e c t stu dent le a r n in g , i . e . , people, e v e n ts, and audio -v isu al m a te r ia ls . The study provided an opportu­ n ity f o r educators t o review th e sc h o o ls' c o n trib u tio n s to improving in te r n a tio n a l understanding. The 1974 study contained a Knowledge Test t h a t focused on s ix c o u n trie s and on th e world in g e n e ra l. The a t t i t u d e s and percep­ tio n s c h ild re n held toward th e se c o u n trie s and t h e i r peoples were t e s te d . The s i x c o u n trie s were chosen by th e Educational Testing Service according to t h e i r national s t a t u s , mass-media v i s i b i l i t y , h i s t o r i c a l importance, and geographical and c u ltu r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The items concerned geographic, c u l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l , and economic s u b je c ts . Responses to a q u e stio n n a ire were a ls o examined to d e t e r ­ mine the e f f e c t o f s tu d e n ts ' background and i n t e r e s t on t h e i r global understanding (Pike & Barrows, 1979, p. i v ) . The 1974 study r e s u l t s were q u ite d e ta ile d and e x te n siv e . An adequate review may be obtained by reading th e book Other N ations, Other Peoples by Pike and Barrows (1979). Summarizing b r i e f l y , in the Knowledge Test i t was found t h a t stu d en ts lacked knowledge o f geography, th e Middle E a st, A fric a , Western Europe, and American government. In th e m ap-location s e c t i o n , th e in v e s tig a to r s were not s a t i s f i e d with th e r e s u l t s a t th e e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g rad e l e v e l s . They noted t h a t eighth and tw e lfth graders su ffe red se rio u s gaps in t h e i r geographic knowledge. 29 R esults on th e Perceptions s e c tio n o f the t e s t in d ic a te d e v i ­ dence t h a t ethnocentrism diminished with age and schooling. Fourth graders se le c te d the United S ta te s as the most d e s ir a b le country. The o ld e r stu d e n ts made choices depending on t h e i r knowledge o f th e area and t h e i r r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t th e United S ta te s might not always be th e most d e s ir a b le answer. On th e Student I n t e r e s t Q uestionn aire, pu p ils rep o rte d t h a t they learned about o th e r c o u n trie s through t h e i r coursework, re a d in g , and t e l e v i s i o n . T elevision was ranked th e most i n f l u e n t i a l source o f inform ation o u tsid e o f schoolwork. This i n t e r e s t q u e stio n n a ire a ls o revealed inform ation about s tu d e n ts ' a t t i t u d e s toward studying and v i s i t i n g fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . Fourth graders d e sired to v i s i t Mexico and Canada and to study Mexico and Japan th e most o f any o f th e 15 p o ssib le c o u n trie s . Eighth graders s e le c te d England and Mexico to v i s i t and Canada and England to study. There was a g r e a te r d i f f e r ­ e n t i a t i o n in choices o f c o u n trie s to study a t th e eig h th -g rad e level than a t the fo u rth -g ra d e l e v e l . Twelfth graders chose England and Canada to v i s i t and th e USSR and Canada to study. Again, t w e lf th - g ra d e rs' responses evidenced d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between c o u n trie s se le c te d to study and t o v i s i t . Pike and Barrows (1979) wrote t h a t th e lev el o f in te r n a tio n a l understanding o f th e stu d e n ts in the 1974 study was not s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r "American stu d en ts and f u tu r e voting c i t i z e n s who face the in c r e a s ­ in g ly interdependent world o f th e p resen t and the fo re se e a b le fu tu re " (p. x x i ) . They f e l t t h a t th e r e i s enough time during a s t u d e n t's 12 y ears o f schooling to do a b e t t e r job o f teaching global a f f a i r s 30 than was r e f l e c t e d in th e 1974 study. The autho rs suggested a change in curriculum o r a p r i o r i t y p o lic y commitment to global programs, which would ensure a t t e n t i o n to th e i n t e r c u l t u r a l f a c t s o f l i f e . D irect comparisons between th e 1974 sample and th e Ingham Interm ediate sample on th e Knowledge Test and p a rts o f th e Student I n t e r e s t Q uestionnaire a re presented in Chapter IV o f t h i s paper. Shaw (1979) rep o rte d on a community-based g lo b al-ed u c atio n program in Findlay, Ohio, which was e s ta b lis h e d to develop p r a c t i c a l , high-impact programs a t th e community l e v e l . The p r o je c t was designed to i d e n t i f y , t r a i n , and renew le a d e rs with i n t e r e s t in i n te r n a tio n a l issu es and emphasized th e i n te r a c t io n o f people w ith in a community. The r e s u l t s in d ic a te d : What in d iv id u a ls fe e l and do with re s p e c t to world a f f a i r s i s , a t any moment in tim e , a consequence o f a complex process o f in te r a c t io n among the a t t i t u d e s , p e rc e p tio n s , and a c t i v i t i e s alread y p resen t in t h e i r environments. While a t t i t u d e s i n f l u ­ ence perceptio ns and behavior, they a r e , in t u r n , shaped by them. No s in g le f a c t o r alone accounts f o r in d ividual o r i e n ­ t a t i o n s regarding world a f f a i r s i s s u e s , (p. 22) Optimal Time to Begin Global Education Research has in d ic a te d t h a t c h ild re n between 8 and 13 y ears old a re a t an optimum age to le a rn about o th e r people and c o u n trie s o f th e world. Before th e age o f seven o r e i g h t , most c h ild re n do not possess the necessary c o g n itiv e c a p a c i t i e s , f o r example, to understand t h a t people have d i f f e r i n g views, depending on t h e i r n a tio n o f b i r t h . Children between 8 and 13 a re more open to global id e a s . A fter 14, many become d i s i n t e r e s t e d in people who a re d i f f e r e n t from them selves. In t h i s re g a rd , Torney ( n .d .) w rote, 31 The y ears from seven or e ig h t to 12 o r 13 a re id eal f o r te a c h ­ ing about our global s o c ie ty and our need to deal c o n s tr u c tiv e ly with i t s problem. . . . The lack o f r i g i d outlook a t age seven or e ig h t makes th e in d iv id u al more re c e p tiv e to an in te r n a tio n a l o r global view. M a terials about our c o n f l i c t - r i d d e n i n t e r ­ dependent globe should be introduced i n to elem entary sc h o o ls. Rather than dealin g with a n a t i o n 's own domestic problems th e s t r e s s ought to be th e global s o c i e t y ; domestic is s u e s should be d e a l t with as p a r t o f t h a t t o t a l i t y . Recent re se a rc h completely c o n tr a d ic ts th e erroneous b e l i e f t h a t c h ild re n under 12 o r 13 y e a rs o f age a re not y e t ready to le a rn about th e w orld, espe­ c i a l l y o u tsid e t h e i r own n a tio n . I t t e l l s us seven to 12 i s optimal both f o r education d ir e c te d toward a t t i t u d i n a l o b je c ­ t i v e s and f o r openness about th e world, (pp. 4-13) Morris (1979) c i t e d a number o f re se a rc h s tu d ie s t h a t supported the rea d in ess o f c h ild re n in th e e a r l y grades to have a more global curriculum r a t h e r than a ro u tin e and redundant s o c i a l - s t u d i e s c o n te n t. Learning about o th e r peoples and c o u n trie s i s a cumulative process. P iag et (in Torney & M orris, 1972) th e o riz e d t h a t most c h i l ­ dren, by seven o r e ig h t y ears o f ag e, achieve a new and d i f f e r e n t type o f c o g n itiv e fu n c tio n in g . At t h a t ag e, they begin to ta k e in to account p e rsp e c tiv e s o th e r than t h e i r own. This a b i l i t y may be p re ­ r e q u i s i t e to th e acceptance o f d i f f e r e n t or u n fa m ilia r c h a r a c t e r i s ­ t i c s o f o th e r s . The y e ars between 8 and 13 re p re s e n t a time before too many stereotyped p e rsp e c tiv e s dominate th e c h i l d 's view o f the world. P ia g et and h is follo w ers rep o rte d t h a t , as c h ild re n develop c o g n itiv e ly , they take on q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t ways o f looking a t th e world. The o ld e r c h il d has more inform ation and d i f f e r e n t ways o f looking a t , p ro ce ssin g , and t e s t i n g th e in form atio n. Torney and Morris (1972) cautioned t h a t , in c o nsidering P i a g e t 's t h e o r i e s , th e im portant th in g to remember i s th e o rd e r in which c h i l ­ dren p ro g re s s, r a t h e r than t h e i r age. Children can be tau g h t more 32 e f f e c t i v e l y i f m ateria l i s geared to t h e i r c u rre n t un derstanding, which is influenced by c o g n itiv e developmental a s p e c ts . Gilliom and Remy (1978) rep o rte d on s o c ia l- s c ie n c e r e s e a r c h , which has in d ic a te d : By th e time they reach th e inte rm e d iate g rad e s, c h ild re n have developed a sense o f n atio n al i d e n t i t y , a s e t o f a t t i ­ tu d e s , b e l i e f s , and values about t h e i r own and o th e r natio n s as in te r n a tio n a l a c to r s and about such in te r n a tio n a l processes as war and peace. What c h ild re n le a rn about th e world a t one a g e, b u ild s upon and i s influenced by what they have learned p re v io u s ly . Through a continuous process o f cumulative le a r n in g , a p o l i t i c a l s e l f develops, (p. 499) In a re c e n t summary o f research in in te r n a tio n a l s o c i a l i z a ­ t i o n , i t was concluded t h a t i n te r n a tio n a l lea rn in g begins e a r ly in l i f e and i s cum ulative. Grades th re e through e ig h t a re an im portant period in i n te r n a tio n a l le a r n in g . Each in div idu al stu d e n t brin g s h i s / h e r own p a r t i c u l a r c o n fig u ra tio n o f o r i e n t a t i o n s toward th e world. The mass media play an important r o le in i n te r n a tio n a l le a rn in g (Remy, Nathan, Becker, & Torney, 1975). Torney and Morris (1972) concurred w ith t h i s co n clu sio n . They s t a te d t h a t th e re was some evidence from s k i l l - and a t t i t u d i n a l development s tu d ie s to in d ic a te th e r e i s a prime time f o r educational i n te rv e n ti on. Children in th e e a r ly y ears have fewer preconceptions about th e world and a re not as l i k e l y to screen out inform ation c o n tra ry to t h e i r e v a lu a tio n s o r b e l i e f s . By th e time a c h ild has f i n ­ ished elementary sc h o o l, he i s l i k e l y to have developed a con­ s id e ra b ly more r i g i d p e rsp ec tiv e about h is own way o f doing t h in g s , h is own c u l t u r e , h is own country. An in d iv id u a l with such a perceptual screen may be l e s s re c e p tiv e to th e i n t e r ­ n atio n al world, (pp. 8-9) 33 The re s e a rc h e rs a ls o s t a t e d t h a t although stu d e n ts in th e e a r l y years a re more r e c e p tiv e to o th e r p eo ples, they have formed strong a t t a c h ­ ments to t h e i r own c o un try. They may not understand geography or p o l i t i c s , but they have a strong sense o f n a tio n al i d e n t i t y . A ttitu d e s Toward Other Nations and Peoples In 1962, a nationwide study o f 13,000 American school c h ild re n was undertaken to examine t h e i r a t t i t u d e s toward the United S ta te s and o th e r n a ti o n s , and to determine th e s tre n g th o f t h e i r attachm ent to th e United S t a t e s . Ninety percen t o f the c h ild re n who had reached th e t h i r d grade agreed with th e sta te m e n t, "America i s th e b e st country in th e w orld." The r e s u l t s o f th e survey in d ic a te d t h a t th e se c h ild re n e x h ib ite d a stro n g sense o f n ation al p r id e . Torney and Morris (1972) pointed o u t t h a t a p o s itiv e concept about o n e 's own n ation can lead to r e s p e c t f o r o th e r s : "A balanced p o s itiv e n ational f e e lin g can serve as th e b a sis f o r a flo u ris h in g in te rn a tio n a l o r ie n ­ ta t i o n " (p. 15). More than 30,000 preadolescent and ad o le sc en t stu d en ts in nine democratic c o u n trie s were surveyed in 1971 by th e I n te rn a tio n a l Asso­ c i a t i o n f o r th e Evaluation o f Educational Achievement. in th e s tre n g th o f n atio n al i d e n t i t y were found. V ariations United S ta te s s t u ­ dents ev aluated t h e i r government in a highly p o s itiv e manner. These stu d e n ts a ls o ranked f a i r l y high in terms o f d isc u ssio n s engaged in with p a r e n ts , f r i e n d s , and te a c h e rs on to p ic s o f c iv ic i n t e r e s t . As compared to p u p ils o f o th e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s , 14-year-old United S ta te s stu d e n ts e x h ib ited s u b s t a n t i a l l y l e s s i n t e r e s t in 34 in te rn a tio n a l p o l i t i c a l d is c u s s io n s . United S ta te s stu d e n ts scored higher on c o g n itiv e items concerning domestic p o l i t i c s than on those r e l a te d to in te r n a tio n a l p o l i t i c s . Adolescents in th e United S ta te s seemed to focus more on n a tio n a l than on in te r n a tio n a l concerns. The United S ta te s had th e l e a s t fo re ig n c o n ta c t in regard to film s and textbooks imported and in te r n a tio n a l mail and telephone s e r v ic e s . Figures on t e l e v i s i o n programs t h a t d e a l t with in te r n a tio n a l to p ic s a lso gave th e impression t h a t United S ta te s stu d e n ts had minimal exposure to i n te r n a tio n a l m atte rs (Abramowitz, Leighton, & Viederman, 1978). When attem pting to determine p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s , i n v e s tig a to r s sometimes include q u e stio n s concerning human r i g h t s in a democratic s o c ie ty . The focus i s u su a lly on r i g h ts p ro tec te d by n atio n al con­ s t i t u t i o n s or laws. Abramowitz e t a l . (1978) discovered t h a t American stu d e n ts thought only o f th e r i g h t s and freedoms guaranteed to c i t i ­ zens in p a r t i c u l a r documents such as th e United S ta te s C o n stitu tio n and the B ill of R ights. "For young c h ild re n democracy i s America and America i s democracy. . . . Other c o u n trie s may have t h i s democracy but f o r a v a rie ty o f i n a r t i c u l a b l e re a so n s, o th e r p e o p le 's democracy i s not as good as the American v ersion " (p. 152). Many young Americans th in k t h a t th e United S ta te s i s th e only country t h a t b e lie v e s in p ro te c tin g human r i g h t s . This mistaken impression leads stu d e n ts to conclude t h a t o th e r c o u n trie s do not care about having and p ro te c tin g such r i g h t s and freedoms. Many American stu d e n ts have d i f f i c u l t y accepting th e f a c t t h a t they may share a 35 b e l i e f in human r i g h t s with people who look and speak very d i f f e r e n t l y from themselves (Abramowitz e t a l . , 1978). Research has shown t h a t American c h ild re n seem to have many ste re o ty p e s about c e r t a i n c o u n tr ie s . The people whom c h ild re n r e j e c t o r see as being d i f f e r e n t from themselves come from c o u n trie s with customs t h a t a re perceived as being backward o r s tr a n g e , those r e c e n tly involved in a war, o r those t h a t speak a d i f f e r e n t language. Seventy percent o f American 6 to 12 y e ar o lds mentioned speaking a d i f f e r e n t language as a way in which c o u n trie s d i f f e r from the United S ta te s (Abramowitz e t a l . , 1978). In th e l a t e 1950s, Lambert and Klineberg (1967) c o lle c te d inform ation on th e a t t i t u d e s o f more than 3,000 c h il d r e n , ages 6 , 10, and 14, from 11 p a rts o f the world. Some o f the q u estion s in th e survey attem pted to determine whether c h ild re n saw a country as sim i­ l a r to o r d i f f e r e n t from t h e i r own, and in what ways. Groups i d e n t i ­ fie d as d i f f e r e n t by American c h ild re n were Chinese, Indians from In d ia , Russians, and A frican Negroes. D ifferences in c h i l d r e n 's responses were a r e s u l t o f sex, so c ial c l a s s , and th e most s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r , age. Younger c h ild re n were concerned with c lo t h i n g , physical f e a t u r e s , languages, and h a b its . Older c h ild re n were preoccupied with p e rs o n a lity t r a i t s , h a b i t s , p o l i t i c s , r e l i g i o n , and m aterial p ossessions. Lambert and Klineberg (in Torney & M orris, 1972) concluded t h a t " ch ild ren in c e r t a i n c u ltu r a l s e t t i n g s co n sid er themselves as m inority members o f a world community" (p. 18). In a review o f Lambert and K lin eb erg 's stu d y , Torney and Morris (1972) added: 36 "Children in many p a rts o f th e world a ls o c o n sid er c e r t a i n groups as m inority members o f th e world community. In p a r t i c u l a r , th e Chinese and African Negroes who were considered by c h ild re n in many coun­ t r i e s to be 'n o t l i k e u s " ' (p. 18). Another conclusion reached by Lambert and Klineberg was t h a t American c h ild re n a t a l l age le v e ls ranked high in t h e i r l i k i n g f o r A f o r e ig n e rs . However, c h ild r e n about ten y ears o f age were p a r t i c u ­ l a r l y re c e p tiv e to fo re ig n people and were i n te r e s te d in th ose seen as s im ila r and d i s s i m i l a r to them selves. By 14, they seemed l e s s open to p o s i t iv e opinions on fo re ig n n a tio n s (Torney & M orris, 1972). Lambert and Klineberg ( in Goodman, 1970) s a i d , "Children a p p aren tly come to th in k about fo re ig n peoples in an in c r e a s in g ly more s t e r e o ­ typed manner, between s ix and 14 y ears" (p. 58). The au th o rs a ls o s ta te d t h a t c u ltu r a l f a c t o r s could o v e rrid e age d i f f e r e n c e s . An im portant conclusion o f th e Lambert and Klineberg study i s t h a t educators need to ensure t h a t th e inform ation c h ild re n are tau g h t i s a c c u ra te and comprehensible. The inform ation should a ls o have a p o s itiv e a s s o c ia tio n f o r th e c h ild r e n . Because c h ild re n throughout th e world seem to be attu n ed to th e same a sp e c ts o f o t h e r s , educators may not be ab le t o do much to change t h i s fo c u s. They can, however, make sure th e inform ation being tau g h t about o th e r c u ltu r e s is c o rre c t. Goodman (1970) s t a t e d , "The c u lt u r e o f childhood i s le a rn e d , shared and tr a n s m itte d . c h ild re n from one a n o th e r. (p. 7 ). I t i s to some degree learn ed by Mainly, however, i t i s learned from a d u lts " 37 According to Goodman (1970), what c h ild re n know about c u ltu r e depends on t h e i r age, se x , i n t e l l i g e n c e , c u r i o s i t y , i n s i g h t , and amount o f formal and informal education . The so c ial c la s s and e th n ic p o s itio n o f t h e i r p a re n ts and o f o th e r people in t h e i r s o c ia l world a ls o a f f e c t c h i l d r e n 's development. She sa id t h a t "a c h i l d ’s c u l ­ t u r a l le a rn in g s w ill be lim ite d only by h is in h e re n t i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c itie s and h is c u ltu r a l exposures" (p. 1 2 ). Education must deal with a t t i t u d e s . Torney and Morris (1972) wrote t h a t improving a program o f i n te r n a tio n a l education re q u ire s a determ ination o f e x is ti n g a t t i t u d e s in c h ild re n and th e f a c t o r s impor­ t a n t in m aintaining or changing th e s e a t t i t u d e s . Morris (1974) saw global education as a chance to help a c h ild "see h im /h e rs e lf in r e l a ­ tio n to a l l o th e r people around th e globe and in r e l a t i o n to the e a rth i t s e l f " (p. 673). Educators must be aware o f th e process by which c h i l d r e n 's a t t i t u d e s and b e l i e f s develop and change. Teachers must view th e e a r th as a u n it and see t h e i r own c u lt u r e as on a con­ tinuum with o th e r c u l t u r e s . To make education a dynamic p ro ce ss, educators need an a c c u ra te percep tion o f c h i l d r e n 's a t t i t u d e s and an i n te r n a tio n a l view o f th e world. Torney and Morris (1972) s tr e s s e d th e need to deal w ith a t t i ­ tude form ation in young people: F i r s t , educators must have more awareness o f the process by which c h i l d r e n 's a t t i t u d e s , b e l i e f s , and values develop, a c l e a r e r view o f th e audience to which we speak; n e x t, an under­ standing o f th e process by which th ese a t t i t u d e s a r e changed or remain s ta b le as th ey a re influenced by vario u s f a c t o r s such as c o g n itiv e development and so c ia l circum stances (expansion o f technology, and c u r r e n t so c ia l issu e s in the a d u lt p o l i t i c a l w orld); and, f i n a l l y , a new p e r s p e c tiv e , a view o f th e e a r th as 38 a . u n i t and a view o f our own c u ltu r e as r e s t in g in a v a r i e ty of continua with th e c u lt u r e s o f th e r e s t o f th e world, a view which values d i v e r s i t y in th e human sp e cie s and i s conscious o f th e impact o f old assumptions about th e world on th e re a l mes­ sages c h ild re n re c e iv e from i n s t r u c t i o n . We need to move away from merely formal and r o t e teaching which expects c h ild re n to accep t on f a i t h , statem ents o f vague id e a ls about th e way we wish th e world to be, and toward a dynamic process o f education and s o c i a l i z a t i o n in which a l l elements o f s o c i e t y , not j u s t the s c h o o ls, p a r t i c i p a t e . For t h i s we need a c c u ra te p ercep tions of c h i l d r e n 's a t t i t u d e s , and a t r u l y in te r n a tio n a l view o f th e world, (p. 7) Teachers' Role in Global Education Teachers play a v i t a l r o l e in th e g lo b a l- s tu d ie s curriculum . To c a rry out t h i s r o l e p ro p e rly , they need t o be well informed. "Study and tr a v e l abroad, community programs and graduate resea rch c e n te rs a re among th e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a re v i t a l to develop an ade­ quate base o f knowledge and experiences" (U.S. Task Force, 1979, p. 8 ) . Gilliom and Remy (1978) wrote t h a t te a ch e r-ed u c atio n programs should include o p p o r tu n itie s f o r stu d e n t te a c h e rs to study and tra v e l abroad as p a r t o f t h e i r p ro fe ssio n a l program. They s a i d , Teachers themselves would n e c e s s a r ily be s e n s i t i v e to global issu e s and would view th e world from an in te rn a tio n a l p e r­ s p e c tiv e . They would serve t h e i r p u p ils as models o f th e g lo b a lly concerned person and in te r n a tio n a l re fe ren c es in t h e i r teaching would flow n a tu r a ll y from t h e i r personal e x p e ri­ ences. (p. 502) Stearns ( n .d .) r e i t e r a t e d th e importance o f r e l a t i n g t e a c h e r s ' personal experiences to t h e i r teaching o f global p e rs p e c tiv e s: Teachers have a unique op portu n ity to give youths th e kind of experiences t h a t w ill enable them to become world minded and i n t e l l i g e n t p a r t i c i p a n t s in world a f f a i r s . To be e f f e c t i v e exponents o f world-mindedness, i t goes w ithout say ing , te a c h e rs should be well informed on i n te r n a tio n a l a f f a i r s ; they should 39 know how to help c h ild re n th in k and work e f f e c t i v e l y , they should have an awareness o f s t r a t e g i e s t h a t can be shared in bringing about d e s ira b le changes in o th er c u lt u r e s as well as t h e i r own, and they should a ls o be a l e r t to p o ss ib le f u tu r e d ir e c tio n s f o r improving i n t e r c u l t u r a l and in te r n a tio n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , (p . 2) Concerning te a c h e r s ' r o l e in global ed u ca tio n , Wheeler (1979) w rote, " I t goes w ithout saying t h a t th e more e x p e r tis e a te a c h e r has regarding the c u ltu r e an d /o r country to be stu d ied th e b e tt e r " (p. 188). Teachers should understand they a re in te rm e d ia rie s between t h e i r s t u ­ dents and o th e r n a tio n s and peoples. Sw ift (1980) described global education from a t e a c h e r 's p o in t o f view: I t i s a new te a c h e r a t t i t u d e toward the p e rtin en c e o f study to l i f e in th e f u t u r e ; i t i s an emphasis f o r stu d en ts and te a c h ­ e rs on individual and group r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , on m u ltic u ltu r a l awareness in s id e and o u tsid e the c o n tin en ta l United S t a t e s , on the enormous human movement and commerce to and from th e U.S. t h a t i l l u s t r a t e th e notion o f global interdependence, on the newly r e a l iz e d world c u ltu r e in to which a l l natio n s plug; and i t i s a m u ltid is c ip lin a r y way o f r e l a t i n g knowledge, s k i l l s , a t t i t u d e s , and experiences to tomorrow's l iv i n g in a global community, (pp. 46-47) Curriculum Im plications Teaching t h a t th e world i s a dynamic system r a t h e r than a s t a t i c one should be th e focus o f global ed ucatio n. To understand th e successes and f a i l u r e s in teaching global s t u d i e s , th e methods o f i n s t r u c t i o n should be well organized and not haphazard. The assumptions t h a t c h ild re n make about t h e i r world must be understood, and glob al-ed u catio n should match th ese frames o f r e f e r ­ ence. The U.S. Commission on Education (1979) s t a te d t h a t because o f th e importance o f e a r ly l e a r n in g , the development of global p e rsp ec tiv e s should be given p r i o r i t y in th e sc h o o ls' c u r r i c u l a . 40 Education f o r global p e rsp e c tiv e occurs through lea rn in g e x p e ri­ ences, formal or in fo rm al, t h a t in c re a s e the in d iv i d u a l's a b i l i t y to understand h is o r her cond ition in th e community and the world. I t includes the study o f n a tio n s , c u l t u r e s , and peoples, with a focus on understanding how th e se a re i n t e r ­ connected, how they change, and what th e i n d i v i d u a l 's re s p o n si­ b i l i t y i s in t h i s p ro ce ss. I t provides th e o ppo rtu nity to develop r e a l i s t i c p e rs p e c tiv e s on world i s s u e s , problems, and p ro s p e c ts , an awareness o f th e r e l a ti o n s h i p s between s e l f i n t e r e s t and th e concerns o f people throughout th e w orld, and th e b asic knowledge and s k i l l s e s s e n tia l f o r l i f e in a global age. (p. 4) Morehouse (1978) believed t h a t a l l secondary-school stu d e n ts should re c e iv e a b a sic global e ducatio n. He s t a t e d , The education o f th e n a t i o n 's ad o lescen ts must be su p e rio r to t h a t o f t h e i r p a re n ts . P a rt o f t h i s s u p e r i o r i t y must be an enhanced sense o f th e globe as the human environment, and in s t r u c t i o n to t h i s end must r e f l e c t not only th e a n c ie n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e w orld, but emerging knowledge o f b io ­ lo g ic a l and social u n ity , (p. 17) Reischauer (1973) s ta te d t h a t education i s not moving quickly enough to produce th e knowledge about th e o u tsid e world and th e a t t i ­ tudes toward o th e r peoples t h a t may be e s s e n t ia l f o r human survival in th e t w e n t y - f i r s t c en tu ry . He believed t h a t world c it i z e n s h i p and the acceptance o f e th n ic d i v e r s i t y w ithin the United S ta te s a re "two sid es o f the same c o in . (p. 194). Both accent the u n i v e r s a l it y o f man" Reischauer proposed "a r e o r i e n ta ti o n o f education so as to give young people everywhere a sense of th e shared i n t e r e s t s and basic oneness o f mankind and to prepare them f o r e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a ti o n as members o f a world community" (p. 195). Many o th er in d iv id u a ls and groups have expressed concern t h a t education must develop human beings who a re rooted in t h e i r community, loyal to t h e i r c o u n try , and concerned about the w elfare o f o th e r people. Students should be prepared to e x i s t c o o p erativ ely with th e d iv erse 41 people o f th e world. Anderson and Becker (1968) s t a te d t h a t elem entary- school c h ild re n should be ab le to view themselves in r e l a t i o n to a l l o th e r peoples and to th e e a r t h . Children should le a r n t h a t people a re a s in g le species with common b asic needs and t h a t th e world i s a s in g le in te g ra te d system. A v a r ie ty o f people have adopted d i f f e r e n t viewpoints on th e s o c i a l - s t u d ie s curriculum and global edu cation . Wood (1974) did not b e liev e i t i s necessary to c re a t e a new course on global e ducatio n. She did th in k , however, t h a t new q uestio ns dealin g with i n te r n a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s , and not only lo cal o r n atio n al on es, should be r a i s e d . The to p ic s a r i s in g from th e se q uestio ns could be incorpo rated in to e x i s t ­ ing s o c i a l - s t u d ie s co urses. "Today's stu d e n ts must begin to develop an awareness o f global community, f o r w ith in another gen eratio n such an awareness may be e s s e n t ia l f o r human s u rv iv a l" (p. 664). Gilliom and Remy (1978) believed th e g lo b al-ed u c atio n c u r r i c u ­ lum should involve a l l a re as o f th e curriculum . I t should c a p i t a l i z e on the lo cal community and look beyond th e school f o r a re as o f i n t e r ­ n ational le a rn in g . I t should involve le a rn in g fo r something, r a t h e r than about something. F in a lly , th e g lo b al-ed u c atio n curriculum should be included in tea ch e r-ed u c atio n programs. Strasheim (1978) rep o rte d t h a t the consensus among most sup porters o f global education i s t h a t i t should be included in c u rr e n t s o c i a l - s t u d ie s programs. The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r teaching global edu­ c a tio n would l i e with th e s o c i a l - s t u d i e s departm ents. 42 In regard to th e s o c i a l - s t u d ie s curricu lum , Marker (1977) sta te d : The so c ial s tu d ie s curriculum i s a lre ad y crowded, but world development seems t o c l e a r l y in d ic a te t h a t humankind i s c o n fro n t­ ing a s i t u a t i o n which demands th e a t t e n t i o n o f everyone. . . . As e d u c a to rs , we have a p ro fessio n al o b lig a tio n to become f a m i li a r with th e arguments which surround global issu e s and to inform our s tu d e n ts o f them in a manner t h a t helps them fe e l they s t i l l have a voice in where th e world i s headed. . . . With school enrollm ents d e c lin in g and many school systems experiencing budgetary problems, t h i s i s not th e time to c a ll f o r a new so c ial s tu d ie s course. Such a course would su re ly be c a t e ­ gorized as an e l e c t i v e a t th e very time t h a t o th e r so c ial s tu d ie s e le c t i v e s a re being e lim in a te d . Instead i t seems more r e a l i s t i c to develop m a te r ia ls and to prepare tea ch e rs to add a global dimension to th e courses which a re a lre a d y in place in th e so c ial s tu d ie s curriculum , (pp. 18-19) In Michigan, th e S ta te Board o f Education and th e S t a te Depart­ ment o f Education have mandated t h a t every school d i s t r i c t in th e s t a t e should develop a program o f global e d u catio n . The Michigan Board o f Education has approved two p u b lic a tio n s , The Common Goals of Michigan Education and E ssential Performance O bjectives f o r Social S tu d ie s , which c a ll f o r Michigan schools to provide o p p o r tu n itie s f o r stu d en ts t h a t w ill enable them to a cq u ire th e knowledge, s k i l l s , and a t t i t u d e s needed f o r e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a p l u r a l i s t i c , i n t e r ­ dependent global s o c ie ty . E ssen tial Performance O bjectives f o r Social S tu dies 1i s t s s t u d e n ts 1 le a rn in g e x p ec ta tio n s f o r each grade lev el in regard to global is s u e s . The booklet provides a s e r i e s o f so cial s tu d ie s o b je c ­ t i v e stra n d s t h a t have been developed by th e S ta te Department o f Edu­ c a tio n . I t recommends t h a t schools e s t a b l i s h a K-12 curriculum t h a t would provide stu d en ts with th e o p p o rtu n ity to s tu d y , compare, and analyze th e w o rld 's c u lt u r e s . 43 The approach encouraged by th e S ta te o f Michigan i s i n t e r ­ d i s c i p l i n a r y , with people from various d i s c i p l i n e s sh aring t h e i r ideas and programs w ith each o th e r . P o rte r (in Strasheim , 1978) s a i d , "Michigan schools must c a r e f u l l y plan and c a rry o ut curriculum changes t h a t a re commensurate w ith th e r e a l i t i e s o f l i v i n g in an interd ep en d en t world" (p. 6 ) . The S ta te o f M ichigan's philosophy regarding so c ia l s tu d ie s i s as fo llo w s: The c e n tr a l purpose o f so c ia l s tu d ie s education i s th e develop­ ment o f c i t i z e n s h i p . The goal o f c i t i z e n s h i p , in t u r n , i s th e c o n stan t e f f o r t through d e cisio n s and a c tio n to f o s t e r j u s t r e l a t i o n s among people and i n s t i t u t i o n s . . . . Both personal and so c ia l w elfare re q u ir e education f o r c i t i z e n s h i p . Schools, t h e r e f o r e , must provide i t f o r a l l young people from k in d er­ g arten through high school. Many a reas o f school programs as well as o u t-of-schoo l l i f e c o n trib u te to the development of c i t i z e n s h i p . S t i l l i t i s so cial s tu d ie s education which focuses d i r e c t l y and s y s te m a tic a lly upon th ose le a rn in g s req u ire d f o r c i t i z e n s h i p . (M ille r , 1981, p. 1) S tearns ( n .d .) reviewed d i f f e r e n t g lo b al-ed u c atio n programs and concluded t h a t th e most promising ones contained th e elements o f knowledge, a p p r e c ia tio n , and s k i l l s . He defined "knowledge" as aware­ ness o f th e n a tu re o f th e world community, fo rc e s t h a t have shaped d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s , b a sic elements o f n a tio n a l and i n te r n a tio n a l p o l i c i e s , th e process by which changes a re made, and background i n f o r ­ mation on v ario u s c u l t u r e s ' languages, l i t e r a t u r e , a r t , and music. To S te a rn s , "a p p re cia tio n " meant a concern f o r a l l c u ltu r e s and peoples. I t was an acceptance o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c re a tin g i n t e r ­ n atio n al understanding and cooperation and a d e s i r e f o r more e f f e c ­ t i v e c r o s s - c u lt u r a l communication. " S k ills " were th e a b i l i t i e s to 44 r e l a t e to peo ple, t o work with i n t e r c u l t u r a l groups, and to use resources to develop new e v a lu a tiv e approaches. C ollin s (1977) reminded educators t h a t in an e ra o f accounta­ b i l i t y , global s tu d ie s should allow f o r e v a lu a tio n . He wrote: No one advocating global education has y e t developed measures to e v a lu a te th e " a c t i v i t i e s " o f i t s e f f o r t s . This i s not an easy t a s k , but . . . th e i n a b i l i t y o f global s tu d ie s to do more than s t a t e i t s case based only upon "good w i l l" and " f a i t h " is a se rio u s d e te r r e n t to moving th e f i e l d forward. . . . E v a l u a t i o n must become a c e n tra l concern. Without i t , global s tu d ie s w ill not be taken s e r io u s ly by th e s t a t e s , th e schools o r th e p u b lic , (p. 17) However, mere exposure to new inform ation o r to classroom m a te ria ls w ill not bring about classroom change. In th e words o f Abramowitz e t a l . (1978), E ffe c tiv e and l a s t i n g curriculum change occurs under c e r t a i n c o n d itio n s , innovations must be comprehensible and s e n s ib le to the managers o f th e school o r d i s t r i c t , tea ch e rs and admin­ i s t r a t o r s must be convinced o f th e need f o r change and th e relevance and u t i l i t y o f th e new methodologies used, th e s t r a te g y f o r in tro ducing th e innovation must be c o n s is te n t with the local reward system, and th e innovations contemplated must be l o c a ll y v e r i f i a b l e and m odifiable on th e classroom l e v e l . (P- 159) Morehouse (1978) l i s t e d s ix f a c t o r s he f e l t were necessary in bringing about a change in education and making i t b e t t e r prepared to deal w ith global interdependence: 1. I t i s im portant to develop a comprehensive, long-range s t r a te g y on th e r e a l i t i e s o f global interdependence t h a t can be accomplished through curriculum r e v i s io n , te a c h e r t r a i n i n g , and commu­ n i t y education. 2. I t i s necessary to develop p o lic y support a t th e n a tio n al and s t a t e l e v e ls f o r lo cal i n i t i a t i v e s in implementing changes. 45 P r i o r i t y must be given to a llo c a tin g e x is tin g funds to help promote th ese changes. 3. A stro n g e r knowledge base on issu e s o f interdependence i s v i t a l to b uilding p o l i t i c a l consensus and to s u s ta in in g p o l i t i c a l p o lic ie s f o r interdependence. 4. Data on th e world views o f Americans must be c o lle c te d and analyzed. Ways should then be found to reshape th ese views so they become more compatible with global interdependence. 5. Strengthening e x is tin g a c t i v i t i e s and developing new ones with educational communities throughout the world would enable Ameri­ cans and o th e rs to develop an understanding of interdependence. 6. A major e f f o r t to a s s i s t th e mass media i s im portant so they can deal with the r e a l i t i e s of global interdependence. A few examples o f glob al-ed u catio n programs t h a t have been developed a re th e follow ing: 1. In 1978, a g lo bal-ed ucation program was i n i t i a t e d a t Stevenson High School in Livonia, Michigan. d i s c ip l i n a r y sequences f o r a l l s tu d e n ts . I t o ffe re d th r e e m u lti­ P a r tic ip a tio n was v o lu n ta ry , and stu d e n ts could change programs a t the end o f sem esters. 2. In Chicago, I l l i n o i s , th e Louisa May A lco tt Elementary School implemented a g lo b al-ed u c atio n program t h a t involved a l l a reas o f th e school and followed the p r in c ip le s o f Gilliom and Remy, which have alread y been explained. 3. The United S ta te s began in 1970 to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e Associated Schools P r o j e c t , organized by UNESCO, with a small group 46 o f p i l o t scho ols. In 1974, i t s p a r t i c i p a t i o n was expanded to include six s t a t e s and 30 sch ools. 4. Becker described a model glob al-ed u catio n program in his book Schooling f o r a Global Age. In th e ch ap ter "A V i s i t to M iddleton's World-Centered S chools," Becker a s s e r te d th e need to e s t a b l is h a w orld-centered school. He a ls o discussed th e o rg an iz a ­ t i o n , curriculum , g o a ls , and procedures f o r promoting global p e r­ s p e c tiv e s . Global education has received support from the fed e ral govern­ ment and o th e r educational ag en cies. In October 1979, th e U.S. Task Force on Global Education rep o rted t h a t a t l e a s t 14 s t a t e s supported th e g lo b al-ed u c atio n movement. This support was seen in te a c h e r - t r a i n in g programs and p o lic y statem ents issued through educational agencies. The fed e ral government has been involved in promoting global education through th e In te rn a tio n a l Communication Agency, th e National Endowment f o r the Humanities, and the National Science Foundation. Funding f o r g lo b al-ed u c atio n programs was made a v a ila b le in 1979 under T i t l e VI o f th e National Defense Education Act, which provided g ran ts f o r p r o je c ts t h a t would in c re a se m u ltic u ltu r a l understanding. The Role o f th e Media in Global Education The mass media a re a major source o f inform ation and ideas through which Americans le a rn about th e r e s t of th e world. According to Hanvey (1979), th e media a re event c e n te re d , c u ltu r e bound, and c u ltu r e g e n eratin g . They r e f l e c t th e c u lt u r e and re in fo r c e i t . a re a ls o capable o f tu rn in g i t in new d i r e c t i o n s . They 47 The communications media, including t e l e v i s i o n , r a d io , news­ pap ers, magazines, and book-publishing companies, a re highly involved in education. "The media—t e l e v i s i o n , r a d i o , magazines, newspapers— and an in cre asin g number o f supplementary education p u b lic a tio n s a re beginning to c o n c e n tra te on the c r i s i s o f global resource s c a r c i t i e s and th e interdependence o f natio n s in sharing needed resources" (M orris, 1974, p. 675). Becker (1974) sa id t h a t th e media, e s p e c ia lly t e l e v i s i o n , play an important p a rt in c h i l d r e n 's in te r n a tio n a l le a r n in g . "Many, i f not most, young people look to the media as t h e i r major source o f inform ation and ideas about both nation al and in te r n a tio n a l events" (p. 679). He a ls o s ta te d t h a t the media o ften give national events p r i o r i t y over in te r n a tio n a l a f f a i r s in terms o f time and space. The in te r n a tio n a l news events t h a t a re covered a re u su a lly concerned with violence and m isfortune. " In te rn a tio n a l so c ie ty i s a l l too fre q u e n tly portrayed in the media as a s o c ie ty o f h o s t i l i t y , e x p losio n, and c a t a s ­ tro p h e , while domestic so c ie ty i s c h a ra c te riz e d by a range o f a c t i v i ­ t i e s from harmony to d is ru p tio n " (p. 679). A fter interview ing hundreds of c h ild r e n , Lambert and Klineberg (1967) found t h a t t e l e v i s i o n , movies, and, to a l e s s e r degree, parents c o n s t i t u t e th e major sources o f inform ation about fo reig n peoples fo r s i x y e a r o ld s . For ten y ear o l d s , t e l e v i s i o n and movies a re s t i l l im p ortan t, but so a re school sources. The e f f e c t o f th e media on the educational process i s immense. The media a re im portant le a rn in g and teaching t o o ls . Brown (1972) 48 s a i d , " In c r e a s in g ly , th e d i s t i n c t i o n between formal and informal education w ill become b lu r r e d , w ith th e r e l a t i v e importance o f the former dim inishing" (p. 130). Given the importance stu d e n ts a tt a c h to th e media, th e schools must become more a c t i v e in understanding and using t h i s re so u rc e . Hanvey ( in Morehouse, 1978) commented, "Schools a r e hard put t o match th e drama and appeal o f the mass media" (p. 17). th e f a c t s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f e v e n ts. The media provide Hanvey s a id t h a t th e media a re not concerned w ith th e processes o f change over tim e. R ather, they c o n ce n tra te on an event and ignore th e r e l a ti o n s h i p between occurrences and f a c t s . The framework in to which th e f a c t s and occur­ rences might be placed i s seldom covered by th e media. Therein l i e s th e r o l e o f th e school in educating young c i t i ­ zens f o r t h e i r f u t u r e r o le s in r e l a t i o n to i n te r n a tio n a l and global concerns. I t i s no t simply a m a tte r o f in c re a sin g th e number o f " f a c ts " which may c h a r a c te r iz e many e f f o r t s in th e s e a re a s today. In s te a d , i t i s a m atter o f providing l e a r n e r s with th e conceptual framework f o r a n a ly tic a l th in k in g about th e se myriad is s u e s . I t i s to a s s i s t th e le a r n e r in processing and organizing th e inform ation receiv ed from th e whole range of sources in s o c i e t y —fo rm a l, nonformal, and in fo rm al. (Abramowitz e t a l . , 1978, p. 161) The mass media a re so i n f l u e n t i a l in s t u d e n ts ' l i v e s t h a t the r o l e o f th e te a c h e r i s changing. A te a c h e r no lo n g er merely dispenses inform ation bu t guides stu d e n ts in to gaining a p e rs p e c tiv e on tren d s and events t h a t th e media p re s e n t in a s u p e r f ic i a l manner. The media do provide a v a s t amount o f inform ation about world a f f a i r s , and a t th e same time they in flu e n c e th e way world a f f a i r s a r e ta u g h t. C orrect use and understanding o f th e media in teaching and shaping viewpoints a re s k i l l s t h a t te a c h e rs and schools cannot ig n o re . 49 Summary Research on the development o f c h i l d r e n 's a t t i t u d e s toward o th e r natio n s and peoples has suggested t h a t c h ild re n a re ab le to p r o f i t from i n s t r u c t i o n in g lo b al-ed u c atio n concepts. Considering th e ideas conveyed in th e resea rch l i t e r a t u r e on th e development of a t t i t u d e s in c h ild re n and th e recommendations o f re s e a rc h e rs and th e Michigan Department o f Education toward g lo b al-ed u c atio n i s s u e s , i t seems f e a s i b l e and d e s ir a b le f o r educators to provide o p p o rtu n itie s t o develop global p e rs p e c tiv e s . This can be accomplished through a c t i v i t i e s and m a te r ia ls t h a t enable c h ild re n to form g e n e r a liz a tio n s a t t h e i r lev el o f understanding. M aterials should be presented to c h ild re n with a vocabulary and in a manner they can understand. The mass media a re an im portant teaching and le a rn in g device and should be used in teaching global understand in g. T e le v isio n , r a d io , newspapers, and p ublishing companies should be encouraged to promote p o s itiv e global a t t i t u d e s . They can be used to make c u r r i c u ­ lum dynamic and to r e f l e c t th e changes t h a t a re occurring in to d a y 's world. Children need t o become aware o f t h e i r own a c tio n s and the ways th e s e a c tio n s may a f f e c t o th e r s . Accepting r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the e f f e c t s o f in div id u al a c ts i s necessary f o r th e development of personal growth and global awareness. A u th o ritie s in global education b e lie v e t h a t c h ild re n should be a b le to see themselves in r e l a t i o n to o th e r peoples and to th e e a r t h . Once c h ild r e n begin to perceive t h e i r r e l a ti o n s h i p with o th e rs and t h e i r w orld, th e more re a l th e complex concept o f global interdependence can become f o r them. 50 The fin d in g s o f a v a ila b le resea rch on c h i l d r e n 's conceptions of fo re ig n e rs should in d ic a te to educators a need f o r global educa­ tio n . Stereotyped th in k in g appears to be th e norm. I t is nourished through th e emphasis people place on d iffe re n c e s between one an o th er; th e lack o f f i r s t - h a n d experiences with f o r e ig n e r s ; the comparison o f o th e r groups with o n e 's own, u su a lly to th e detrim ent o f th e o th e r group; and th e strong in flu e n c e o f th e media (Lambert & K lineberg, 1967). A summary o f th e importance o f global education f o r Americans may be found in B a ile y 's (in M orris, 1977) statem en t: I f Americans a re to understand th e impact o f p re se n t and f u tu r e in te r n a tio n a l r e a l i t i e s upon t h e i r own f o r tu n e s , and upon the fo rtu n e s o f t h e i r fello w human beings around th e w orld, and i f America i s to have both le a d e rs and follow ers capable o f d e a l­ ing e f f e c t i v e l y with th e s e complex m a tte r s , education f o r i n t e r ­ dependence must re c e iv e a new and su sta in ed n ation al p r i o r i t y and supp ort, (p. 38) CHAPTER I I I DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This ch ap ter co n tain s a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e s u b je c ts who par­ t i c i p a t e d in th e Ingham Interm ediate study and th e general population from which they were drawn. The t e s t instrum ents and procedures used to measure th e global knowledge o f th e stu d e n ts involved a re ex p la in e d , and the null hypotheses a re s t a t e d . The S c h o o l-D istric t Sample The study sample included f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d en ts drawn from th e follow ing fo u r c oun ties in c e n tra l Michigan: Ingham, which had a population of 272,437 people; Eaton, with a popu­ l a t i o n o f 88,337 people, C lin to n , with 55,893 people; and I o n ia , with 51,815 people. The t o t a l population o f t h i s census a r e a , as l i s t e d in th e 1980 census, was 478,482 people. The Standard M etropolitan S t a t i s t i c a l Area (SMSA) in the p resen t study surrounded th e core c i t y o f Lansing. I t included th re e school d i s t r i c t s from suburban a reas and one school d i s t r i c t from a ru ra l area lo ca te d approximately 40 m iles from Lansing and o u tsid e o f th e urbanized a re a . According to th e United S ta te s Census Bureau, any c i t y with a population o f 2,500 o r more w ithin th e SMSA i s con­ sidered urban. Rural a re a s a re lo c a tio n s o u tsid e o f an urbanized 51 52 a r e a , o r o th e r urban places w ith in th e SMSA, with a population o f l e s s than 2,500. Sections o f th e above-mentioned cou nties c o n s t i t u t e th e Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t (IISD) a re a . Four school d i s t r i c t s in th e IISD agreed to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s study. They were lab eled suburban o r r u r a l , according to th e d e f i n i ti o n given by th e United S ta te s Census Bureau. Most o f th e stu d e n ts in the fo u r p a r t i c i p a ti n g d i s t r i c t s were Caucasians. The m inority p o p u latio n , which included American In d ian , Afro-American, O r ie n ta l, and L atin American, ranged from .06% to 17% o f the t o t a l 1981 k in dergarten through tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n t population o f th e s e d i s t r i c t s . (See Tables 3.1 and 3 .2 .) Table 3.1 . —R a c ia l/e th n ic count o f th e four d i s t r i c t s on October 2, 1981. D istric t A,™ n O riental Caucasian Total A 15 361 198 164 3,715 4,453 B 4 198 39 164 3,134 3,539 C 10 64 64 103 4,172 4,413 D 5 8 7 53 1,960 2,013 53 Table 3 . 2 . —R a c ia l/e th n ic composition o f the fo u r d i s t r i c t s (in p e rc e n t). D istrict M inority Caucasian A 17% 83% B 12 C 6 6 D • 88 94 94 The socioeconomic s t a tu s o f the fo u r p a r t i c i p a ti n g d i s t r i c t s i s not being rep o rte d in t h i s paper, as per agreement w ith th e se d i s ­ tric ts . This agreement was reached before th e t e s t i n g o ccurred. To a s c e r t a i n c e r t a i n demographic inform ation regarding the communities and sc h o o ls, th e School and Community Q uestionnaire was se n t to th e p a r t i c i p a t i n g schoo ls. This survey sought inform ation about the community s i z e , stu d e n t e n ro llm e n t, community reso u rces used by th e sc h o o ls, th e s o c i a l - s t u d i e s curriculum , and stu d e n t and te a c h e r exchange programs. The school p rin c ip a l o r a designated s t a f f member completed the q u e s tio n n a ire . The retu rn ed q u e stio n n a ire s and the 1981 school census provided th e inform ation f o r th e follow ing r e p o r t on th e fo u r school d i s t r i c t s t h a t p a r t i c i p a te d in th e study. To m aintain t h e i r anonymity, th e p a r t i c i p a t i n g school d i s t r i c t s a re r e f e r r e d to as D i s t r i c t s A, B, C, and D. D istrict A According to th e 1981 school cen sus, D i s t r i c t A i s a suburb o f a medium-sized c i t y . In 1981, i t had a t o t a l stu d e n t population 54 o f 4,625. The fo u rth grade comprised 359 s tu d e n ts , the eig hth grade had an enrollm ent o f 345 s tu d e n ts , and th e tw e lfth grade had 355 s t u ­ d e n ts . The sample s e le c te d to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e study was drawn from nine elementary sc h o o ls, two middle sc h o o ls, and one high sch ool. The elementary schools had between 100 and 299 stu d e n ts per building and from 21 to 25 stu d e n ts per c l a s s . The j u n io r high had from 500 to 699 stu d e n ts per b u ild in g and between 26 and 30 stu d en ts per c l a s s . In th e high school th e r e were between 1,000 and 1,499 s tu d e n ts , with 26 to 30 stu d e n ts per c l a s s . From 91% to 100% o f the stu d e n ts in t h i s d i s t r i c t graduate from high sc h o o l, and 76% to 90% go on to c o lle g e . In D i s t r i c t A, 14 te a c h e rs from th e nine elementary sc h o o ls, s ix te a c h e rs from th e two middle sc h o o ls, and th r e e te a c h e rs from the high school p a r t i c i p a te d in th e study. The t o t a l t e s t e d stu d e n t sample numbered approximately 638. D i s t r i c t A made use o f many community re s o u rc e s. The most fre q u e n tly used re s o u r c e s , as determined by th e ten community surveys t h a t were r e tu r n e d , were as follow s: Seven o f th e schools used the public l i b r a r y and a fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e or u n i v e r s it y . Five schools had stu d e n ts who atten d ed a plan etarium , and fo u r schools went to an a r t museum, a park, and watched l i v e t h e a t e r . Students in th r e e schools observed a dance company; v i s i t e d b u ild in g s o f h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t , a community c o ll e g e , and a sp o rts stadium ; and attended a d u lt-e d u c a tio n co u rses. Students from two o f th e schools went to a zoo, a scien ce museum, a movie t h e a t e r , a symphony o r c h e s t r a , and a n a t u r a l - h i s t o r y museum. 55 The community surveys a ls o provided inform ation about the s o c i a l - s t u d ie s curriculum . D i s t r i c t A had a s o c i a l - s t u d ie s guide t h a t had been rev ised a t a l l grade le v e ls during 1980. The survey provided no inform ation about te a c h e r f l e x i b i l i t y in using th e guide. D i s t r i c t A was involved in a foreign-exchange program a t th e high school l e v e l . Foreign stu d e n ts from Europe, South America, and A u s tra lia attended th e high sch ool, whereas some stu d e n ts in the d i s t r i c t attended school in Germany and Mexico. The d i s t r i c t had employed tea ch e rs from o th e r c o u n tr ie s , such as Spain and Greece. Some o f th e tea ch e rs in D i s t r i c t A had taugh t in fo re ig n schools in Belgium, Greece, B r a z il, Spain, Puerto Rico, Japan, and England. D istrict B D i s t r i c t B i s a ls o a suburb o f a medium-sized c i t y . the d i s t r i c t e n ro lle d 3,644 s tu d e n ts . In 1981, Study p a r t i c i p a n ts were se le c te d from fo u r elementary sc h o o ls, two middle sc h o o ls, and one high school. The fo u rth grade had an enrollm ent o f 281; th e eighth grade, 302; and th e tw e lf th g rade, 347. The elementary-school build in g s v aried in s iz e from 100 t o 299 stu d en ts and from 300 to 499 s tu d e n ts , with 21 to 25 stu d e n ts per classroom. The ju n io r high had an enrollm ent o f 500 to 699 s tu d e n ts , with 21 to 25 stu d e n ts per c l a s s . In th e high school th e r e were between 700 and 999 s tu d e n ts , with 26 t o 30 stu d e n ts per c l a s s . From 76% to 90% o f the stu d e n ts in D i s t r i c t B graduate from high sc h o o l, and 26% to 50% a re c o lle g e bound. 56 In D i s t r i c t B, study p a r t i c i p a n ts were seven te a c h e rs from two elementary-school b u ild in g s , one te a c h e r from one o f th e middle s c h o o ls, and two te a c h e rs from th e high school. The t o t a l stu d e n t sample was approximately 276. This d i s t r i c t employed a v a r i e ty o f community re s o u rc e s , as in d ic a te d by th e fo u r retu rn e d community surveys. The respondents to a l l fo u r o f th ese surveys s t a te d t h a t th e stu d en ts in t h e i r schools attended the planetarium . C lasses from two o f the schools v i s i t e d th e public l i b r a r y , a n a t u r a l - h i s t o r y museum, a park, a sp o rts stadium , a l i v e t h e a t e r , a fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e o r u n i v e r s it y , a community c o lle g e , and b u ild in gs o f h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t . The D i s t r i c t B high school e n ro lle d fo re ig n stu d e n ts from Mexico, th e P h ilip p in e s , Japan, Yugoslavia, and Venezuela. Some teach ers in t h i s d i s t r i c t reported having tau g h t in Japan and Germany. D i s t r i c t B had a s o c i a l - s t u d i e s guide t h a t allowed elem entaryschool and ju n io r-h ig h te a c h e rs a moderate amount o f f l e x i b i l i t y . According to th e community su rv e y s, th e elementary-school s o c i a l - s t u d ie s guide was rev ised in 1979, and th e ju n io r high guide in 1978. s o c i a l - s t u d ie s guide f o r th e high school was re v ise d a n n u ally . The The guide perm itted a g r e a t deal o f te a c h e r f l e x i b i l i t y , except in the area o f government, which had a s tru c tu r e d curriculum . D istrict C D i s t r i c t C i s a suburb o f a medium-sized c i t y . stu d e n t population in 1981 was 4,573. Its to ta l There were 342 fo u rth g ra d e rs , 318 eig h th g ra d e rs, and 320 tw e lfth graders when t h i s study was 57 conducted. The d i s t r i c t has f i v e elementary b u ild in g s , a middle school, a ju n io r high sc h o o l, and a high school. The elementary schools had an enrollm ent o f between 300 and 499 stud ents per b u ild in g , with 21 to 25 stu d e n ts per room. The ju n io r high and middle school had 500 to 699 stu d e n ts per b u ild in g , with 26 to 30 stu d e n ts per c l a s s . The high school enrollm ent was 1,000 to 1,499 s tu d e n ts , with 26 t o 30 stu d e n ts per c l a s s . From 91% to 100% of th e stu d en ts in D i s t r i c t C graduate from high sc h o o l, and 26% to 50% a tte n d c o lle g e . In D i s t r i c t C, p a r t i c i p a n ts included seven te a c h e rs from th r e e elementary sc h o o ls, fo u r te a c h e rs from th e ju n io r high s c h o o l, and one te a c h e r from th e high school. The t o t a l number o f stu d en ts te s te d was approximately 340. D i s t r i c t C used many community re s o u rc e s. The fo u r retu rn ed community surveys in d ic a te d t h a t fo u r schools had stu d e n ts who attended a d u lt-e d u c a tio n c o u rs e s , and th re e o f the schools used th e public l i b r a r y . Students from two o f th e schools v i s i t e d a p lan e ­ tarium , a sp o rts stadium , and had access to both a fo u r-y e a r c o lle g e or u n iv e r s ity and a community c o lle g e . Students in one school v i s i t e d a park, a movie t h e a t e r , and b uild in g s o f h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t and hired a dance company f o r a school program. The high school had a stu d e n t foreign-exchange program, attended by fo re ig n stu d e n ts from France and South America. The d i s t r i c t had a ls o worked out a cooperative exchange plan w ith Germany, through which 15 stu d e n ts a re exchanged each y e a r . The returned 58 surveys in d ic a te d t h a t none o f th e te a c h e rs in D i s t r i c t C had been employed as a te a c h e r in a fo re ig n country. According to th e community surv eys, D i s t r i c t C had a moderately f l e x i b l e s o c i a l - s t u d ie s guide. In 1981, th e elementary guide was in th e process o f being r e v is e d . The ju n io r high guide had been rev ised in 1980, and th e high school guide had been rev ised in 1979. D istrict D D i s t r i c t D i s a ru ra l community. stu d e n t population o f 2,079. In 1981, th e d i s t r i c t had a Within th e d i s t r i c t a re th re e elemen­ t a r y sc h o o ls, one middle sc h o o l, and one high school. grade stu d e n t population numbered 162 s tu d e n ts . The fo u r th - In th e eig h th grade th e re were 135 s tu d e n ts , and th e tw e lf th grade had 126 s tu d e n ts . The th r e e elementary schools v aried in s iz e from 100 to 299 stu d en ts and from 300 to 499 stu d e n ts per b u ild in g , with 26 to 30 stu d e n ts per room. The j u n io r high had from 300 to 499 s tu d e n ts , with 26 to 30 stu d e n ts per classroom. The high school had 500 to 699 s tu d e n ts , with 26 to 30 stu d e n ts per c l a s s . From 76% to 90% o f th e stu d e n ts in D i s t r i c t D graduate from high sc h o o l, and 11% to 25% go on to a tte n d c o lle g e . The study p a r t i c i p a n t s from D i s t r i c t D included s ix tea ch e rs from the th re e elementary sc h o o ls, one te a c h e r from th e middle sch o o l, and one te a c h e r from th e high school. The t o t a l number o f stu d e n t p a r t i c i p a n ts was approxim ately 254. An examination o f th e f i v e community surveys retu rn ed in D i s t r i c t D revealed t h a t t h i s d i s t r i c t used fewer community resources 59 than did th e o th e r p a r t i c i p a ti n g d i s t r i c t s . This could be a r e s u l t o f th e d is ta n c e of D i s t r i c t D from th e core c i t y , Lansing. The most fre q u e n tly employed reso urces were th e p u b lic l i b r a r y and b u ild in g s o f h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t ; fo u r o f th e schools rep o rte d using these re s o u rc e s. Students in two schools v i s i t e d a park and a tten d e d a d u l t - education co u rses. One s c h o o l's stu d e n ts v i s i t e d a n a t u r a l - h i s t o r y museum, a movie t h e a t e r , and a community c o lle g e . The survey r e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t th e high school p a r t i c i p a te d in a foreign-exchange program with Spain. No te a c h e rs were rep o rte d to have had any teaching experience in overseas sc h o o ls. According to th e community survey q u e s tio n n a ir e , D i s t r i c t D had a s o c i a l - s t u d i e s guide t h a t allowed te a c h e rs moderate f l e x i b i l i t y . The elementary-school guide had been rev ised in 1980, and th e ju n io r high and high school guides had been re v is e d in 1979. The Teacher Sample A Teacher Background and I n t e r e s t Q uestionnaire was s e n t to a l l 53 te a c h e rs p a r t i c i p a ti n g in th e study. retu rn e d th e te a c h e r surveys. 29 were fem ales. Of th o se t e a c h e r s , 47 Eighteen respondents were m ales, and The respondents tau g h t grade l e v e ls from k in d e r­ g a rte n through tw e lfth grade; th e m a jo rity o f p a r t i c i p a n t s tau g h t f o u rth grade. F o rty -fo u r o f th e te a c h e rs had been born in th e United S t a t e s , two in Canada, and one in China. Fourth-grade te a c h e rs appeared to have t r a v e le d to more c o u n trie s than e ig h th - o r t w e lf th grade te a c h e rs . 60 According to th e survey resp o n se s, most o f the te a c h e rs enjoyed teaching about th e customs and l i f e s t y l e s o f o th e r c u l t u r e s . Many o f th e te a c h e r s , however, considered t h e i r educational t r a i n in g f o r teaching c u lt u r e s t o be only " f a i r . " S p e c i f i c a l l y , in D i s t r i c t A, 36.4% o f th e respondents thought they had a "strong" background. In D i s t r i c t B, 57.1% o f th e te a c h e rs considered t h e i r background to be " f a i r , " as did 60% o f th e te a c h e rs in D i s t r i c t C. In D i s t r i c t D, 40% se le c te d "moderate" as a d e s c r ip to r o f t h e i r educational t r a i n i n g in o th e r c u lt u r e s . The Student Sample The sample se le c te d f o r t h i s study included f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts from four school d i s t r i c t s in th e Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t a re a . The number o f stu d e n ts per grade lev el ranged from 50 to 300 per d i s t r i c t , depending on th e s i z e o f the school d i s t r i c t and th e d i s t r i c t ' s d e cisio n regarding how many s t u ­ dents to t e s t . The number o f stu d e n ts t e s te d was more than 1,600. The demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f stu d e n ts in th e th r e e grade le v e ls a re discussed in th e follow ing su b se c tio n s. Fourth Graders A m ajo rity (93.2%) o f th e fo u rth graders in t h i s study had been born in th e United S ta te s . A small percentage (8.5%) had liv e d o u tsid e o f th e United S ta te s f o r s ix months o r more (Table 3 . 3 ) . A m a jo rity (84.4%) o f th e f o u rth graders were Caucasians, followed by a small percentage o f O rie n ta ls (6.2%) and Blacks (4.7%). 61 This e th n ic composition was c o n s is te n t acro ss grade le v e ls as well as acro ss th e fo u r v o lu n te er d i s t r i c t s (Table 3 . 4 ) . Table 3 . 3 . --S tu d e n t background inform ation (in p e rc e n t) . Student Background Students born in U.S. Students liv in g o u tsid e U.S. 6 months o r more 4th Grade 8th Grade 12th Grade 93.2% 93.5% 94.7% 8 .5 11.7 9.3 • • • 68.1 81.5 Fathers born in U.S. 87.1 89.3 94.1 Mothers born in U.S. 90.7 90.5 91.7 Students liv in g in commu­ n i ty 5 years or more Table 3 . 4 . —Ethnic composition o f stu d e n t sample ( in p e rc e n t) . Ethnic Background American Indian 4th grade 1.3% 8th grade 3.3% 12th grade 2.5% 84.4 79.7 87.9 Hispanic 1.7 3.3 2.8 Black 4.7 4 .8 2.2 Asian 0.3 0.8 0.3 O riental 6.2 2.9 0.3 Other 0.5 5.4 4.0 White Some o f th e f o u rth graders could speak a fo re ig n language. Spanish was th e language spoken most f re q u e n tly (22.6%), followed by French (9.7%). Besides E n g lish, th e two major languages spoken by th e parents were a ls o Spanish (21.6%) and French (17.0%) (Table 3 .5 ) . 62 Table 3 . 5 . —Foreign languages spoken by parents and stu d e n ts (in p e rc e n t). 8th Grade 4th Grade Language Parent Student % % Chinese French 12th Grade Parent Student Parent 1.9% 0.9% 0.3% Student % 8.4 11.0 3.1 7.0 German 5.1 3.9 5.5 6.3 Greek 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.7 Ita lia n 1.3 0.9 1.0 1.8 Japanese 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.0 Polish 0.9 0.4 1.4 0.4 Russian 0.4 0.0 1.4 0 .0 7.9 8.1 7.9 12.9 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 95.6 85.5 97.2 86.8 8.4 5.1 5.8 9.1 9.7 22.6 Spanish Portuguese English Other Eighth Graders Almost 94% o f th e eig hth graders in th e sample had been born in th e United S ta te s . A m a jo rity (68.1%) o f them had liv e d in t h e i r community f o r f i v e y e a rs or more. A m in ority (11.7%) o f th e stu d e n ts had liv e d o u tsid e o f the United S ta te s f o r a t l e a s t six months (Table 3 .3 ) . The e ig h th -g rad e sample was composed p rim a rily o f Caucasians (79.7%). About 5% l i s t e d t h e i r e th n ic background as "O ther," and 4.8% were Black (Table 3 . 4 ) . A la rg e m a jo rity (85.5%) o f th e eighth graders spoke mainly English, but 11% a ls o spoke French, 8.1% Spanish, and 3.9% German. 63 The m ajo rity (95.6%) o f t h e i r paren ts were a lso p r o f i c i e n t in E n g lish, whereas 8.4% spoke French, 7.9% Spanish, and 5.1% German (Table 3 . 5 ) . Some o f th e eig h th -g rad e stu d e n ts had stu d ied a fo re ig n la n ­ guage, th e most popular being French (23.3%) and Spanish (22.7%) (Table 3 .6 ) . Table 3 . 6 . —Foreign languages stu d ied by eig h th and tw e lfth graders (in p e rc e n t). Foreign Language 8th Grade 12th Grade Spanish 22.7% 26.9% French 23.3 20.5 German 6.1 14.7 Russian 1.3 1.2 Latin 1.3 7.0 Other 9.3 2.8 About 29% o f th e eig h th -g rad e stu d e n ts described themselves as "A/B" stu d e n ts (Table 3 .7 ) . They had taken s o c i a l - s t u d ie s courses in school; U.S. h is to r y (91.4%) was th e major course stu d ied (Table 3 .8 ) . Twelfth Graders The m a jo rity (94.7%) o f th e p a r t i c i p a ti n g tw e lfth graders had been born in th e United S t a te s . Only 9.3% had liv e d o u tsid e o f the United S ta te s f o r s ix months o r more. Most o f th e stu d e n ts (81.5%) had liv e d in t h e i r community f o r f i v e y ears o r lon ger (Table 3 .3 ) . 64 Table 3 . 7 . —Class stand ing o f e ig h th and tw e lf th graders in th e sample (in p e rc e n t) . School Grades 8th Grade 12th Grade Mostly A's 16.6% 13.3% Half A 's / h a l f B's 28.6 21.6 Mostly B's 18.3 18.2 Half B 's / h a l f C's 21.3 25.3 Mostly C's 8.2 14.2 Half C’s / h a l f D's 5.0 6.2 Mostly D's 0.8 0.6 Mostly below D's 0.2 0.3 Ungraded system 1.1 0.3 Table 3 . 8 . —Subjects stu d ie d by eig h th and tw e lf th graders in th e sample (in p e rc e n t) . 8th Grade 12th Grade U.S. h is to ry 91.4% 98.5% European h is to r y 24.8 28.1 Asian h is to ry 16.6 16.2 African h is to r y 30.0 15.3 World h is to ry 44.7 67.0 Geography 38.9 43.4 Sociology 8 .4 11.0 Anthropology 0.2 4.6 Economi cs 16.9 53.8 Government 0.2 89.9 P o l i t i c a l systems 0.4 35.5 World problems 0.4 31.8 Subjects Studied 65 Most (87.9%) o f th e tw e lfth graders were Caucasians. The next h ig h e s t e thn ic-gro up l i s t i n g s were "Other" (4.0%) and Hispanic (2.8%) (Table 3 .4 ) . A number o f th e tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d en ts had stu d ied fo re ig n languages. Spanish (26.9%) and French (20.5%) were l i s t e d most f r e ­ quently as languages th e tw e lfth graders had stu d ied (Table 3 .6 ) . Some o f th e s tu d e n ts were a b le to speak French (7.0%), Spanish (12.9%), o r German (6.3%). The m ajo rity (97.2%) o f t h e i r p aren ts spoke mainly E n glish , but 7.9% did speak Spanish (Table 3 .5 ) . The tw e lfth g rad ers ra te d themselves as mostly "B/C" stu d e n ts (Table 3 . 7 ) . The tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts had completed more s o c i a l - s tu d ie s courses than th e eig h th g ra d e rs. Almost a l l o f them (98.5%) had taken U.S. h i s t o r y , and 89.9% had had a course in government (Table 3 .8 ) . A l i s t o f th e b ir th p la c e s o f th e f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and t w e lf th grade stu d e n ts in th e Ingham Interm ediate sample and t h e i r p a re n ts i s given in Appendix B, Table B - l . Procedures The p re se n t study was coordinated by th e re s e a rc h e r in coopera­ t io n w ith members o f th e Curriculum and Evaluation s t a f f s a t the Ingham Interm ediate D i s t r i c t o f f i c e . d i s t r i c t s adm inistered th e t e s t s . in f a l l 1981. Teachers in the p a r t i c i p a t i n g The t e s t i n g se ssio n s were conducted T raining o p p o r tu n itie s were made a v a ila b le f o r those schools t h a t d e sire d a d d itio n a l c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f the survey i n s t r u ­ ments and th e o rig in a l 1974 stu d y , and to answer r e l a t e d questions te a c h e rs might have had. 66 S c h o o l - d i s t r i c t p a r t i c i p a ti o n was v o lu n ta ry . D is tric t cur­ riculum c o o rd in a to rs s e le c te d th e school b u ild in g s in which th e survey would be conducted. would p a r t i c i p a t e . grade l e v e l . Building p r in c ip a ls s e le c te d th e te a c h e rs who Students were chosen according t o th e a p p ro p ria te In th e fo u rth g rade, e n t i r e c la s s e s were t e s t e d . In th e e ig h th and tw e lfth g rad e s, te a c h e rs chose t o t a l s o c i a l - s t u d i e s c la s s e s to be t e s t e d . Students were given th e option o f not p a r t i c i ­ pating in the t e s t i n g s e s s io n s . To a s s i s t te a c h e rs in a d m in isterin g th e t e s t s , th e stu d e n t answer sh eets were precoded w ith th e names and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n numbers of th e s tu d e n ts . C o n f id e n tia lity o f t e s t r e s u l t s was promised. Study Design Because t h i s study was an extension o f resea rch conducted in 1974, th e same instrum ents were used in both p r o j e c t s ; some m od ifica­ t io n s were made in th e instrum ent f o r the 1981 study . The Educational Testing Service perm itted th e Michigan Department o f Education to r e p l i c a t e th e ONOP study. The t e s t instrum ents were provided by th e Educational T esting Service and were v a lid a te d by t h a t agency. National norms were e s t a b l is h e d . (See Appendix C.) The instrum ents included th r e e s e t s o f survey b o o k le ts , which were p a r a l le l in c o n te n t and form at. The instrum ents f o r fo u rth -g ra d e stu d e n ts and those f o r eig h th and tw e lfth g rad ers d i f f e r e d in terms of form at and reading l e v e l , so t h a t th e measures were a p p ro p ria te f o r each grade le v e l. 67 All stu d e n t measures were designed f o r pen cil-and-p ap er admin­ istra tio n . The re s e a rc h e r and members o f th e Ingham Interm ediate e v alu atio n s t a f f rew rote th e a d m in istra tio n manuals so they would be a p p ro p ria te f o r Ingham Interm ediate te a c h e r s . The manuals were s e l f - e xp lanatory. D escription o f Student Instrum ents The o r ig in a l s e t o f instrum ents f o r fo u rth -g ra d e stu d en ts comprised fo u r s e p a ra te booklets re q u irin g 60 minutes f o r completion. Five instrum ents were included in th e s e b o o k lets: Student Background and I n t e r e s t s Q u e stio n n aire, Your I n t e r e s t in Foreign C o u n tries, Describing Nations, Knowledge T e s t, and Perception Measure. The s e t o f booklets f o r eig h th and tw e lfth graders required 80 minutes f o r com pletion. The instrum ents in th ese booklets were e n t i t l e d Student Background and I n t e r e s t s Q u estio n n aire, Describing Nations and Peoples, Knowledge T e s t, and P erception s. For th e purpose o f e f f ic ie n c y and to f a c i l i t a t e s c o rin g , th e fo u r se p ara te booklets were combined in to two b o o k le ts, A and B. Included in Booklet A, Fourth Grade, were th e measures Describing N ations, Your I n t e r e s t in Foreign C o u n trie s, and Student Background Q uestionnaire. Booklet B contained th e Perception Measure and the Knowledge T est. For eig h th and tw e lfth g ra d e rs , Booklet A contained Percep­ t i o n s , Describing Nations and Peoples, and th e Student Background and I n t e r e s t s Q uestionnaire. Booklet B contained th e Knowledge T est. 68 The stu d e n ts wrote t h e i r answers d i r e c t l y in Booklet A. These answers were then keypunched and analyzed by means o f a computer. Students used a s e p a ra te answer sh e et f o r Booklet B. These answers were computer scored. A few m o dificatio ns were made in th e t e s t instrum ent before i t was adm inistered. The f o i l f o r "P resid en t o f Egypt" was changed from Sadat to Mubarak because o f S a d a t's d e a th . S e n s itiv e q uestions regarding income and socioeconomic s t a tu s were d e le te d from the student-background q u e s tio n n a ire s , as had been arranged by th e volun­ te e rin g school d i s t r i c t s and th e Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t . The instrum ent comprised f i v e su b p a rts. Each s e c tio n i s b r i e f l y explained below, according to th e grade lev el f o r which th e t e s t i s intended and th e t e s t booklet in which i t i s lo c a te d . Booklet A, Fourth Grade The Describing Nations t e s t req u ire d 15 minutes o f in s t r u c t i o n and t e s t tim e. The stu d e n ts were asked to d e scrib e each o f te n coun­ t r i e s in terms o f such basic a d je c tiv e s as l a r g e , sm a ll, p e a c e fu l, w a rlik e , and so on, by drawing a c i r c l e around th e a d je c tiv e s they f e l t were a p p ro p ria te d e s c r ip to r s o f t h a t country. The Your I n t e r e s t in Foreign Countries se c tio n o f the i n s t r u ­ ment took about ten minutes to ad m in ister. The stu d e n ts were asked to c i r c l e the names of th e c o u n trie s they would most l i k e to stu d y , those they would most l i k e to v i s i t , and ways o th e r than re g u la r school work t h a t helped them most to le a rn about o th e r c o u n trie s ( i . e . , t e l e ­ v is io n , books, t r a v e l , and r e l a t i v e s ) . 69 The te a c h e r f i l l e d o u t th e Student Background Q u estio n n aire, which sought inform ation regarding th e s tu d e n ts ' b i r t h d a t e , se x , country o f b i r t h , amount o f tim e sp ent o u tsid e th e United S t a t e s , and languages spoken by the stu d e n ts and t h e i r p a re n ts . T ogether, the Your I n t e r e s t in Foreign Countries t e s t and th e Student Background Q uestionnaire provided d a ta on th e s tu d e n ts ' i n t e r e s t s and background t h a t might be r e l a te d to what they thought about o th e r n a tio n s and o th e r peoples. Booklet B, Fourth Grade The Perception Measure se c tio n o f the instrum ent took about 15 minutes to complete. In t h i s measure, ten c o u n trie s were p aired in d i f f e r e n t combinations. The stu d e n ts were asked t o mark how sim i­ l a r o r how d i f f e r e n t they thought th e c o u n trie s were from each o th e r . The Knowledge T est req u ired 15 minutes o f t e s t time and assessed the s tu d e n ts ' attain m en t o f b asic inform ation about s ix se le c te d n a tio n s and th e world. The t e s t emphasized inform ation t h a t stu d e n ts need to understand c u rr e n t e v en ts. read aloud to the s tu d e n ts . Each o f th e 26 items was The q uestio n s were c l a s s i f i e d according to the follow ing academic d i s c i p l i n e s : 12 geography ite m s, 3 c u l ­ t u r e item s, 4 p o l i t i c s ite m s, and 7 economics item s. Booklet A, Eighth and Twelfth Grades Perceptions req u ire d 13 minutes f o r in s t r u c t i o n and t e s t tim e. The e ig h th -g rad e Perceptions measure d if f e r e d from th e fo u rth -g ra d e one in t h a t i t l i s t e d 12 c o u n tr i e s , r a t h e r than 10, to be ra te d fo r degree o f s i m i l a r i t y o r d if f e r e n c e . 70 Describing Nations and Peoples req u ire d a t o t a l o f 25 minutes to a d m in iste r. This t e s t expanded on the fo u rth -g ra d e t e s t by in c lu d ­ ing 12 n a tio n s and in c re a s in g th e number o f d e s c r ip to r s f o r each n a tio n . The t e s t a lso included a Describing Peoples s e c t i o n , which was designed to determine i f s tu d e n ts viewed th e people o f a country d i f f e r e n t l y than they perceived th e country i t s e l f . Students were given ten minutes to complete th e Student Back­ ground and I n t e r e s t s Q uestion naire. This s e c tio n included the ques­ tio n s asked o f the fo u rth g ra d e rs , as well as qu estio n s about s o c i a l - s t u d i e s courses completed and languages s tu d ie d . Booklet B, Eighth and Twelfth Grades The Knowledge T est req u ire d 32 minutes o f t o t a l i n s t r u c t i o n and t e s t tim e. The q u e stio n s in t h i s t e s t were more d i f f i c u l t than tho se in the fo u rth -g ra d e t e s t . As in th e fo u rth -g ra d e t e s t , th e r e were q uestio n s in each academic d i s c i p l i n e . For th e eig h th grade, the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n included 16 geography item s, 12 c u lt u r e ite m s, 11 p o l i t i c s ite m s, and 13 economics ite m s, f o r a t o t a l o f 52 item s. For th e tw e lfth g rade, th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was 16 geography ite m s, 11 c u lt u r e ite m s, 12 p o l i t i c s ite m s, and 15 economics ite m s, f o r a t o t a l o f 54 item s. Individual items on th e Knowledge T est were id e n t i c a l a t more than one grade lev el whenever p o s s ib le . In some c a s e s , th e items were reworded s l i g h t l y to make them more a p p ro p ria te f o r the d i f f e r e n t grade l e v e ls . 71 Data-Analysi s Procedures In analyzing th e data f o r th e p re s e n t s tu d y , th e i n v e s ti g a t o r used th e same measures as th ose employed in th e 1974 ONOP s tu d y , where a p p ro p ria te , as well as o th e r s t a t i s t i c a l procedures. In the Student I n t e r e s t s Q u e stio n n aire, th e percentage o f c o u n trie s stu d e n ts s e le c te d to study and v i s i t was explored. Data were l i s t e d in terms o f percentage o f respondents choosing a p a r t i c u l a r c o untry. T-scores were used to analyze th e d a ta . The resources stu d e n ts se le c te d to help them le a rn about fo re ig n c o u n trie s were analyzed by Z-scores and c h i-s q u a re t e s t s to determine s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s . The Knowledge T est assessed th e s tu d e n ts ' a tta in m e n t o f basic inform ation about c u rr e n t e v en ts. Test r e s u l t s included average scores f o r males and females as well as f o r th e group as a whole. Item sco res were grouped by natio n s and included a mean and a standard d e v ia tio n . T -scores were used to analyze th e d a ta . A comparison between th e c o u n trie s stu d e n ts wanted to study and v i s i t and t h e i r knowledge o f those c o u n trie s was analyzed using a one-way a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e . The Ingham In term ed iate te a c h e r s ' tr a v e l experience was compared w ith t h a t o f th e 1974 n a tio n al te a c h e r sample, using the Kolomogorov-Smirnov t e s t . The lev e l o f s ig n if ic a n c e f o r a l l t e s t s was s e t a t .05. The r e s u l t s o f the d a ta analyses a re presented in Chapter IV. 72 Hypotheses Tested Null hypotheses were form ulated to analyze data on th e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g fo reig n c o u n tr ie s , th e reso u rces stu d e n ts employed t o le a rn about o th e r coun­ t r i e s , and s tu d e n ts ' global knowledge, as measured by the ONOP t e s t . The Ingham Interm ed iate s tu d e n ts ' t e s t r e s u l t s were compared to those o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 n atio n al stu d y , as well as acro ss grade le v e ls and between sexes in th e Ingham In term ediate stu d y . In Chapter IV, subhypotheses o f each major hypothesis a re s t a te d to r e f l e c t these compari so n s. Ho-.: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to study and those o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 study. Ho2 : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e between f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to v i s i t and th ose o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 study. Ho,: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham In term ed iate s tu d e n ts ' choices of resou rces to le a r n about fo re ig n c o u n trie s and th e resources chosen by stu d e n ts in th e 1974 study. Ho*: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge of th e United S ta te s and t h a t o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 study. Ho5 : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge o f th e world and f i v e s e le c te d n a tio n s —Egypt, th e USSR, China, France, and Mexico—and the knowledge o f the 1974 s tu d e n ts . Hog : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e t o t a l - i t e m Knowledge T est r e s u l t s o f f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth grade Ingham Interm ed iate stu d e n ts and th e t e s t r e s u l t s o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 study. 73 Ho 7: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e acro ss th e f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e le v e ls in th e Ingham Interm ediate stu dy, in terms o f s tu d e n ts ' Knowledge Test r e s u l t s . Hoa : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g rad e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g t h a t country. Hog : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying t h a t country. The tra v e l experience o f tea ch e rs in th e 1981 stu d y , as meas­ ured by th e Teacher Survey Q uestion naire, was compared with t h a t o f the tea ch e rs in the 1974 sample to determine i f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i ­ c an t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between the two groups. Hypotheses 10 and 11 were formulated to make t h i s comparison. Ho1q: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate tea ch e rs and te a c h e rs in th e 1974 study in terms o f the number o f c o u n trie s they have v i s i t e d . Ho-,-,: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe re n c e between the amount of time Ingham Interm ediate te a c h e rs have spent in fo re ig n c o u n trie s and the amount o f time spent by te a c h e rs in th e 1974 study. Summary The methodology used in conducting th e study was described in t h i s c h ap ter. The study sample comprised more than 1,600 f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d en ts who attended school in fo u r d i s t r i c t s in th e Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t , as well as 53 tea ch e rs from th e same d i s t r i c t s . The procedures f o r o btain in g the inform ation in t h i s study and the t e s t instrum ents were a ls o discussed in t h i s c h a p te r. The 74 s t a t i s t i c a l measures used to analyze th e data included t - t e s t s , ch i-sq u are t e s t s , Z -sc o re s, th e Kolomogrov-Smirnov t e s t , one-way a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e , and percentage comparisons. L a s t, th e null hypotheses, formulated f o r the study were p resen ted . In Chapter IV, th e d ata gathered in th e study a re presented and analyzed. CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS The purpose o f t h i s study was to explore th e e x te n t o f global i n t e r e s t s , knowledge, and a t t i t u d e s toward o th e r n atio n s and peoples among s e le c te d f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts in th e Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t . The data were obtained from s tu d e n ts ' responses to th e Educational Testing S e r v ic e 's in stru m e n t, Other N ations, Other Peoples: A Survey o f Student I n t e r e s t s , Knowledge, A ttitu d e s and Perceptions (ONOP). S tuden ts' r e s u l t s on th e global Knowledge T est and a t t i t u d e and i n t e r e s t inventory were compared with those o f th e 1974 natio n al sample surveyed by the Educational T esting S e rv ice . The r e s u l t s o f the 1981 Ingham In term ediate study and th e 1974 n ational study were ana­ lyzed to determine i f th e r e were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s between th e two groups. The 1981 Ingham In term ediate s tu d e n ts ' t e s t r e s u l t s were a lso compared i n t e r n a l l y on th e b a sis o f sex and grade 1e v e ! . Ingham In term ed iate s tu d e n ts ' global knowledge, t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g c e r t a i n fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s , and th e resources they used to le a r n about o th e r c o u n trie s were analyzed to determine whether any s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s e x is te d between th e 1981 and th e 1974 samples and between males and females in th e Ingham 75 76 Interm ediate sample. Ingham Interm ediate t e a c h e r s ' tra v e l e x p e r i­ ences were compared w ith those o f te a c h e rs in the 1974 sample to determine i f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s e x is te d between th e two te a c h e r groups. The procedure f o r c o ll e c t in g and analyzing th e d ata was described in Chapter I I I . The hypotheses were analyzed by means of t - t e s t s , c h i-s q u a r e , Kolomogrov-Smirnov t e s t , Z -sc o re s, and one-way a n a ly s is o f v arian ce (ANOVA) using th e S t a t i s t i c a l Package f o r the Social Sciences (SPSS) a t th e Data Processing Center o f th e Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t . This ch ap ter p re s e n ts th e r e s u l t s o f the s t a t i s t i c a l analyses as they r e l a t e to th e vario u s hypotheses and sub­ hypotheses. In th e follow ing d is c u s s io n , to avoid unnecessary rep e ­ t i t i o n , th e 1981 Ingham Interm ediate sample i s r e f e r r e d to as th e 1981 sample and th e 1974 n atio nal sample as simply th e 1974 sample. Student I n t e r e s t in Studying Foreign Countries The f i r s t major hypothesis s ta te d t h a t : Ho-.: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e between f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to study and those o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 study. Task D escription Given a l i s t o f 15 c o u n tr i e s , stu d e n ts were asked to s e l e c t a l l o f those they wished to study. The d a ta a re l i s t e d in terms o f the percentage o f th e t o t a l number o f c o u n trie s stu d e n ts s e le c te d to study . Each subhypothesis i s presented i n d iv i d u a ll y , followed by a p r e s e n ta tio n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the r e s u l t s f o r t h a t subhypothe­ sis. 77 Fourth Graders Ho-. : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e 1981 fo u rth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to study and th o se o f the 1974 fo u rth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts . R e s u lts : For th e scores f o r th e 1981 fo u rth -g ra d e sample and th e 1974 sample on th e qu estion of the number o f c o u n trie s stu d e n ts s e le c te d to s tu d y , th e t - s c o r e o f -1.0376 was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The d ata supported th e null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e re n c e between th e two groups (p > .0 5 ). Eighth Graders Hol b : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e 1981 e ig h th -g rad e s t u d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to study and tho se o f th e 1974 fo u rth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts . R e s u lts : For th e scores o f th e 1981 e ig h th -g ra d e rs and th e 1974 sample on th e qu estion o f th e number o f c o u n trie s stu d e n ts se le c te d to stu d y , th e t - s c o r e o f 1.3696 was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The d a ta supported th e null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e two groups (p > .0 5 ). Tw e lfth Graders Ho-, : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between the 1981 tw e lfth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to study and those o f th e 1974 tw e lfth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts . R e s u lts : For th e sco res of th e 1981 tw e lfth graders and the 1974 sample on th e q u e stio n o f th e number o f c o u n trie s stu d e n ts se le c te d 78 to stu dy, th e t - s c o r e o f 1.8103 was n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . T herefore, th e data supported th e null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e two groups (p > .0 5 ). The mean, standard d e v ia tio n , v a ria n c e , and t - s c o r e f o r each group a re presented in Table 4 .1 . The mean r e f e r s to th e percentage of the t o t a l number o f c o u n trie s stu d en ts se le c te d to study. Table 4.1 .-‘■-Results o f comparisons between th e 1981 sample and the 1974 sample in terms o f s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n o f c o u n trie s to study. Study Grade Mean S.D. Variance t-S c o re 1981 1974 4 4 44.40 40.27 9.46 12.19 89.53 148.50 1981 1974 8 8 17.12 20.13 7.01 4.84 49.20 23.41 , 1 1981 1974 12 12 20.72 22.53 7.92 7.03 62.72 49.41 , n, n, , n, 7A *UJ/0 Student I n t e r e s t in V is itin g Foreign Countries The second major hypothesis s t a te d t h a t : Ho2 : There is no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to v i s i t and tho se o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 study. Task D escription Given a l i s t o f 15 c o u n tr i e s , stu d e n ts were asked to s e l e c t a l l o f those they wished to v i s i t . The data a re l i s t e d in terms of th e percentage of th e t o t a l number o f c o u n trie s stu d e n ts se le c te d 79 to v i s i t . Each subhypothesis i s presented in d iv id u a lly , followed by a d isc u ssio n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e r e s u l t s f o r t h a t subhypothesis. Fourth Graders Ho2 a : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between th e 1981 fo u r th grade s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to v i s i t and those o f the 1974 fo u rth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts . R e s u lts : For th e scores o f th e 1981 fo u rth -g ra d e sample and th e 1974 sample on the questio n regarding th e s tu d e n ts ' s e l e c ti o n o f c o u n trie s to v i s i t , th e t - s c o r e o f -1.8705 was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . T herefore, th e d ata did support th e null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e re n c e (p > .0 5 ). Eighth Graders Ho2b: There is no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e 1981 e ig h th grade s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to v i s i t and those o f th e 1974 e ig h th -g rad e s tu d e n ts . R e s u lts : For the scores o f the 1981 eig h th -g rad e stu d e n t sample and the 1974 sample on th e question regarding th e s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n o f c o u n trie s to v i s i t , th e t - s c o r e o f 0.3918 was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n ific a n t. Hence the data did support th e null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e (p > .0 5 ). Twelfth Graders Ho2 : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between th e 1981 tw e lfth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to v i s i t and those o f th e 1974 tw e lfth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts . 80 R e s u lts : For th e scores o f th e 1981 tw e lfth -g ra d e sample and th e 1974 sample on the q uestio n regarding th e s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n o f c o u n trie s to v i s i t , th e t - s c o r e o f 0.2329 was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . T herefore, th e data supported th e null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e (p > .0 5 ). The mean, standard d e v ia tio n , v a ria n c e , and t - s c o r e f o r each group a re presented in Table 4 .2 . The mean r e f e r s to th e percentage o f the t o t a l number o f c o u n trie s stu d e n ts se le c te d to v i s i t . Table 4 . 2 . —R esults o f comparisons between th e 1981 sample and the 1974 sample in terms o f s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n o f c o u n trie s to v i s i t . Study Grade Mean S.D. 1981 1974 Variance t-S c o re 4 4 47.74 39.07 12.12 13.25 146.88 175.64 , fl7n, -i.o /u s 1981 1974 8 8 16.79 18.40 11.90 10.62 141.53 112.83 n , Q1Q 1981 1974 12 12 19.31 20.53 15.83 12.69 250.53 160.98 n D e sc rip tiv e Overview o f Student I n t e r e s t in Studying and V is itin g Foreign Countries In t h i s s e c tio n o f th e t e s t , stu d e n ts were asked to c i r c l e the names o f a l l th e c o u n trie s they would most l i k e to study. They were a ls o asked to in d ic a te th e c o u n trie s they would not l i k e to v i s i t , might l i k e to v i s i t , and would very much l i k e to v i s i t . 81 Fourth g r a d e r s . — In the s t u d y / v i s i t s e c tio n o f th e t e s t , fo u rth graders s e le c te d Mexico, France, England, and Japan as the c o u n trie s they would most l i k e t o study. The USSR, I s r a e l , and L ib eria were chosen l e a s t o ften as c o u n trie s to stu d y . England, Mexico, France, and Spain were s e le c te d most fre q u e n tly as places to v isit. The l e a s t - o f t e n - s e l e c t e d n a tio n s t o v i s i t were Taiwan, th e USSR, and L ib e ria . At th e fo u rth -g ra d e l e v e l , th e c o u n trie s stu d e n ts s e le c te d to study were e s s e n t i a l l y th e same as th e ones they wanted to v i s i t . In g e n e ra l, th e r e were no g r e a t d iff e re n c e s in th e rank ordering o f coun­ t r i e s chosen in th e study and v i s i t c a te g o r ie s . Eighth g ra d e r s . —Eighth g raders p re fe rre d t o study France, England, and Greece. China, I n d ia , and L iberia were s e le c te d l e s s f re q u e n tly as places t o study. France, and I t a l y . Eighth graders chose to v i s i t England, The l e a s t s e le c te d c o u n trie s to v i s i t were the USSR, In d ia , and L ib e ria . When comparing eig h th g r a d e r s ' s e le c tio n s of c o u n trie s to study and v i s i t , th e i n v e s ti g a t o r found th e g r e a t e s t d iffe re n c e s occurred in th e follow ing combinations: The USSR was ranked f i f t h f o r "would l i k e to study" and f i f t e e n t h fo r "would l i k e to v i s i t . " I t a l y was l i s t e d t h i r d in th e v i s i t category and seventh in th e study catego ry. Mexico was ranked s ix th f o r v i s i t and t h i r t e e n t h f o r study. Twelfth g r a d e r s .—An examination o f th e tw e lfth g ra d e r s ' r e s u l t s revealed t h a t th e se stu d e n ts ranked England as t h e i r f i r s t choice both to study and to v i s i t . The second-m ost-selected country 82 to study was th e USSR, although i t was l i s t e d as elev en th in th e v i s i t s e c tio n . France was t h e t h i r d choice in th e study category and second in th e v i s i t s e c tio n . Canada was ranked t h i r d in th e v i s i t s e c tio n and f o u rth in th e study s e c tio n . A corresponding r e l a t i o n s h i p was found between th e study and v i s i t c a te g o r ie s among most o f th e c o u n tr ie s . The g r e a t e s t d i f f e r ­ ences were noted in th e p o s itio n s o f th e USSR, which was second in " l ik e t o study" and elev en th in " lik e to v i s i t , " and Greece, which was f i f t h in " lik e to v i s i t " and eleventh in " lik e to stu d y ." I t appears t h a t f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts ranked England as t h e i r f i r s t choice o f country to v i s i t and ranked France as t h e i r second c hoice. Both England and France were a lso ranked in th e top th r e e p o s itio n s o f c o u n trie s s t u ­ dents would l i k e to stu d y . As stu d e n ts matured, t h e i r d e s i r e to study th e USSR increased n o tic e a b ly . However, th e r e was no sig n o f an in creased d e s ir e to v i s i t t h a t cou ntry . A summary o f th e th r e e c o u n tr ie s most and l e a s t fre q u e n tly se le c te d to study and v i s i t , as in d ic a te d by f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham In term ed iate s tu d e n ts , i s given in Table 4 .3 . A complete ta b u la tio n o f th e f ig u r e s f o r a l l c o u n tr ie s i s included in Table B.2, Appendix B. Conclusions on Countries Students Selected to Study and V i s i t In t h i s s e c tio n o f the t e s t , d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r e s u l t s appeared a t a l l grade l e v e l s , in t h a t s tu d e n ts chose d i f f e r e n t c o u n tr ie s to study and t o v i s i t . As th e grade lev e l in c re a s e d , th e tendency to 83 d is tin g u is h between c o u n trie s to study and to v i s i t became more pro­ nounced. Table 4 . 3 . —Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f c o u n trie s to study and to v i s i t . Fourth Graders Eighth Graders Twelfth Graders Three Most Frequently Selected Countries to Study Mexico France France England Greece England USSR France « • *England Three Least Frequently S elected Countries to Study USSR Isra e l L iberia China India L ib eria Taiwan India L iberia Three Most Frequently S elected Countries to V is it Engl and Mexico France England France Italy England France Canada Three Least Frequently Selected Countries to V i s i t USSR Taiwan L iberia USSR India L ib eria E. Germany China s India t i e L iberia The propensity to want to study and v i s i t a g r e a t e r number o f fo re ig n c o u n trie s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher in th e f o u rth grade than in th e eig h th and tw e lfth g rad es. in th e 1974 study. This r e s u l t was a ls o found Students in the f o u rth grade appeared to have a 84 p o s itiv e i n t e r e s t in lea rn in g about o th e r c o u n tr ie s . In terest declined in th e eig h th grade and increased again in th e tw e lfth grade. These r e s u l t s a re s im ila r to those o f th e 1974 study . The c o u n trie s chosen as being th e most d e s ir a b le to v i s i t were ones t h a t appeared to have c u ltu r e s s im ila r to t h a t o f th e United S t a te s . Canada and Western Europe were se le c te d more f r e ­ quently than A frica and Asia as being d e s ir a b le p laces to v i s i t . The th r e e major communist c o u n trie s in the study—China, th e USSR, and East Germany—were chosen by tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts as being appealing places to study but not to v i s i t . Eighth graders s e le c te d the USSR and East Germany as places they would l i k e to stu d y , but not as places they would l i k e to v i s i t . This fin d in g was a lso e v id e n t in the 1974 r e s u l t s . Resources Used by Students to Learn About Other Countries The t h i r d major hypothesis s ta te d t h a t : Ho3 : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e between f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' choices o f reso urces to le a rn about fo re ig n c o u n trie s and th e resources chosen by stu d e n ts in the 1974 study. Task D escription Given a l i s t o f re s o u rc e s, stu d e n ts se le c te d th e ones t h a t provided them with th e most inform ation about o th e r c o u n tr ie s . Z-scores and c h i-sq u a re t e s t s were used to determine whether s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between groups. In th e follow ing pages, each subhypothesis i s p re se n te d , followed by a d i s ­ cussion and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e r e s u l t s f o r t h a t subhypothesis. 85 Fourth Graders HOo- 1 There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e 1981 fo u rth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f resources f o r l e a r n ­ ing about o th e r c o u n trie s and those o f th e 1974 f o u rth grade s tu d e n ts . R e s u lts : For th e scores o f th e fo u rth -g ra d e 1981 sample and th e 1974 sample regarding the resources used by s tu d e n ts , th e c h i-s q u a re o f 20.22 was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . There was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t d if fe re n c e between the 1981 and th e 1974 groups; t h e r e f o r e , the data f a i l e d to support the hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). The Z-scores f o r fo u rth graders in d ic ate d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­ ferences (p > .05) between f iv e o f th e seven p o ssib le items in t h i s q u e stio n . S ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s were found f o r th e choices of r a d io , books, t r a v e l , museums, and fr ie n d s and r e l a t i v e s . A g r e a te r percentage o f 1981 fo u rth graders se le c te d th ese f i v e items as being more i n f l u e n t i a l in le a rn in g about o th e r c o u n trie s than did 1974 fo u rth g rad e rs. There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e between th e two samples f o r the resources o f t e l e v i s i o n , movies, and church groups. A rank ordering o f th e top th r e e re s o u rc e s, as seen by both th e 1981 and th e 1974 s tu d e n ts , is given in Table 4 .4 . Eighth Graders H°3b: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e between the 1981 e ig h th -g rad e s tu d e n ts ' s e le c tio n s o f resources f o r l e a r n ­ ing about o th e r c o u n trie s and those o f th e 1974 e ig h th grade s tu d e n ts . R e s u lts : A c h i-sq u a re o f 33.57 in d icated th e re was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e between th e 1981 and the 1974 eighth graders 86 regarding resources s e le c te d to le a rn about fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . The data did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Table 4 . 4 . —Rank ord ering o f resources t h a t a re i n f l u e n t i a l in le a rn in g about o th e r c o u n tr ie s : top th r e e c h o ic es. Grade Level 1974 Sample 1981 Sample 4th T elevision Books Travel Travel Books T elevision 8th T elevision Books Magazines, movies, te a c h e rs T elevision Magazines Books 12th T elev ision Magazines Books T elevision Magazines Books Z-scores were computed f o r th e 14 items to determine i f any s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d . S i g n if ic a n t d i f f e r ­ ences were found between th e item s: r a d i o , magazines, world f a i r s , and museums. A g r e a t e r percentage o f 1974 eig h th graders se le c te d world f a i r s and museums as being i n f lu e n ti a l items than did 1981 s tu d e n ts . A g r e a te r percentage o f 1981 eigh th graders se le c te d radio and magazines as i n f l u e n t i a l items than did 1974 s tu d e n ts . No s t a ­ t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s (p > .05) were evidenced on the remaining item s. Table 4 .4 shows th e th re e resources se le c te d most fre q u e n tly by both the 1981 and the 1974 eig h th -g rad e groups. 87 Twelfth Graders H°o ; There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e 1981 tw e lfth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts ' s e l e c ti o n s o f reso u rces f o r le a rn in g about o th e r c o u n trie s and tho se o f th e 1974 tw e lfth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts . R e s u lts : A c h i-sq u a re o f 87.70 in d ic a te d th e r e was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between tw e lfth graders in th e 1981 and th e 1974 surveys on t h i s item . Hence th e d ata did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Z-scores showed s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s between th e 1974 and 1981 groups f o r th e item s: world f a i r s and museums, p a r e n ts , n ation al e v e n ts , and i n te r n a tio n a l e v e n ts. A g r e a te r percentage o f 1974 s t u ­ dents s e le c te d world f a i r s and museums as being i n f l u e n t i a l items than did 1981 s tu d e n ts . A g r e a te r percentage o f 1981 tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts s e le c te d p a r e n ts , n a tio n a l e v e n ts , and in te r n a tio n a l events as i n f l u e n t i a l items than did t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts in th e 1974 study. No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s were evidenced f o r th e remaining item s. See Table 4 .4 f o r th e th r e e items s e le c te d most f re q u e n tly by tw e lfth graders in both s t u d i e s . Summary Both th e 1981 and 1974 e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e groups s e le c te d t e l e v i s i o n most f re q u e n tly as th e most i n f l u e n t i a l resource they used to le a r n about o th e r c o u n tr ie s . Magazines and books were the next most fr e q u e n tly s e le c te d reso u rce s f o r le a rn in g about o th e r c o u n tr ie s . Fourth g rad ers in both s tu d ie s d i f f e r e d only in th e rank 88 ordering of t h e i r choices o f re s o u rc e s. same: The items chosen were th e t e l e v i s i o n , books and t r a v e l . Table B.3, Appendix B, l i s t s th e responses o f th e f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts in th e 1981 sample t o th e item in th e i n t e r e s t q u e s tio n n a ire concerning ways stu d e n ts le a r n about o th e r c o u n tr ie s . The S tatu s o f Eighth- and Twelfth-Grade Ingham Interm ed iate : Students* Global Knowledge: Item A nalysis Task D escription The global Knowledge T est assessed th e s tu d e n ts ' a ttain m en t o f basic inform ation about th e world and s i x s e le c te d c o u n tr ie s . There were from th re e t o nine qu estio n s per c o u n try , depending on the s t u d e n t's grade l e v e l . In th e eig h th -g rad e t e s t , th e re were 52 item s; in the tw e lfth grade t e s t , th e r e were 54 item s. Item s c o r e s , which a re based on th e percentage o f c o r r e c t resp o n se s, a re grouped by natio n s and include a mean and a standard d e v ia tio n . T - t e s t s were performed to determine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e s e x is te d between stu d e n ts in the 1981 and 1974 samples and between males and females in th e Ingham Interm ediate stud y. Appendix Tables B.4 through B.8 l i s t th e r e s u l t s f o r th e indiv id u al grade l e v e ls in both th e 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s . Eighth and Twelfth G raders' Knowledge About th e United S ta te s The fo u rth major hypothesis s t a te d t h a t : Ho*: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham In term ed iate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge o f th e United S ta te s and t h a t o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 stu d y . 89 Task D escription The Knowledge T est included approximately e ig h t questio n s on various a sp ec ts o f th e United S t a te s . th e d a ta . T - te s t s were used to analyze The follow ing subhypotheses d e lin e a te th e secondary ques­ tio n s r e l a te d to th e major hypothesis regarding e ig h th - and tw e lf th grade s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about th e United S t a te s . s ta te d according to grade level and sex. a f t e r each subhypothesis. Subhypotheses a re The r e s u l t s a re presented A summary i s given a t th e end o f each grad e-level grouping o f subhypotheses. Eighth Graders H04 : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe re n c e between eig hth -grade males in th e 1981 sample and those in th e 1974 sample regarding t h e i r knowledge about th e United S t a te s . R esu lts: The Knowledge T est scores o f eig h th -g rad e males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples were analyzed t o determine i f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i ­ cant d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between them regarding t h e i r knowledge o f the United S ta te s . A t - s c o r e o f -4.2020 was a t t a i n e d . A sta tistic a lly s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e did e x i s t between the two samples o f e ig h th grade males. Those in th e 1981 study performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts in th e 1974 study on q uestio n s concerning th e United S t a te s . Thus the data did not support th e null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e (p > .0 5 ). Ho^.: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between eigh th -g rad e females in th e 1981 sample and those in th e 1974 sample regarding t h e i r knowledge about th e United S t a t e s . 90 R e s u lts : The Knowledge and 1974 samples were T est scores o f eigh th -grade females in th e 1981 analyzed to determine i f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i ­ c an t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between th e two groups. -4.4881 was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The t - s c o r e o f A s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e e x is te d between th e two samples o f eig h th -g rad e fem ales. The 1981 sample performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than did th e 1974 sample on qu estio n s concerning th e United S t a te s . Hence the data did n ot sup­ p o rt the null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e (p > .0 5 ). Ho- : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between e ig h th -g rad e males and females in th e 1981 sample regarding t h e i r knowledge about th e United S t a te s . Resul t s : The scores o f mediate th e eig h th -g rad e male and female Ingham I n t e r ­ stu d e n ts were analyzed to determine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between the two sexes. 1.9367 was o btained. A t-sc o re of There was no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­ ence between eig h th -g rad e males and females in the 1981 study in terms of t h e i r knowledge o f the United S t a te s . Thus th e d ata did support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Summary o f eig h th -g rad e r e s u l t s . —A comparison o f th e r e s u l t s on th e Knowledge T est f o r eig h th -g rad e males in th e 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s in d ic ate d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s between th e two groups. The 1981 males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than did the 1974 males on q uestio ns concerning th e United S t a te s . 91 A comparison o f the Knowledge Test r e s u l t s o f e ig hth-grade females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in d ic ate d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i ­ c ant d iffe re n c e s between th e two groups. The 1981 females performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on q uestion s concerning the United S ta te s than did the 1974 females. A comparison o f the 1981 m ales' and fem ales' Knowledge Test r e s u l t s in d ic a te d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between the two groups o f eig h th -g rad e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts . Twelfth Graders Ho4d: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between tw e lfth -g rad e males in th e 1981 sample and those in th e 1974 sample regarding t h e i r knowledge about th e United S ta te s . R e s u lts : The Knowledge T est scores o f tw e lfth -g ra d e males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples were compared to determine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between the two groups. o f -1.4591 was reached. A t-sc o re There was no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­ feren ce between th e tw elfth-grade-m ale samples. support th e null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t Thus the data did d iff e re n c e (p > .0 5 ). Ho. : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e between tw e lfth -g rad e females in th e 1981 sample and th o se in th e 1974 sample regarding t h e i r knowledge about th e United S t a te s . R esults: The Knowledge T est scores o f tw e lfth -g ra d e females from both samples were analyzed to determine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s e x is te d between the two groups. was reached. A t - s c o r e o f -2.2352 A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between 92 th e two groups o f tw e lfth -g ra d e fem ales. The 1981 females e x h ib ite d s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a te r knowledge about th e United S t a te s than did t h e i r 1974 c o u n te rp a rts . The d ata did not support th e nu ll hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Ho,f : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between tw e lfth -g ra d e males and females in th e 1981 sample regarding t h e i r knowledge about th e United S t a te s . R e s u lts ; The Knowledge T est sco res o f male and female tw e lfth -g ra d e rs in th e 1981 sample were analyzed to determine whether a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e e x is te d between th e two groups. 2.1345 was reached. A t-sc o re of A s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e did e x i s t between male and female tw e lfth graders concerning t h e i r knowledge about th e United S t a te s . Twelfth-grade males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than females on q u estions about th e United S t a t e s . Hence th e d ata did not support th e null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e (p > .0 5 ). Summary o f tw e lfth -g ra d e r e s u l t s . —A comparison o f t w e lf t h grade males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples regarding questio n s concern­ ing th e United S ta te s in d ic a te d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between th e two groups. A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between tw e lfth -g ra d e females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples concerning t h e i r knowledge about th e United S t a t e s . The 1981 females a tt a i n e d higher scores on questio n s concerning th e United S ta te s than did t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts in th e 1974 sample. 93 An a n a ly s is o f 1981 male and female tw e lfth g r a d e r s ' Knowledge Test scores in d ic a te d t h a t males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than females on questio n s concerning th e United S t a te s . Eighth and Twelfth Graders' Knowledge About th e World and Five S elected Nations The f i f t h major hypothesis s ta te d t h a t : Ho5 : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge o f the world and f i v e s e le c te d n a tio n s —Egypt, th e USSR, China, France, and Mexico—and th e knowledge o f the 1974 s tu d e n ts . Task D escription The Knowledge T est sampled approxim ately f iv e to nine qu estio n s per country. T - te s t s were used to analyze th e d a ta . The scores on the world and f i v e s e le c te d natio n s were examined to determ ine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e s e x is te d between th e 1981 and 1974 groups and between males and females in th e Ingham In term ed iate stu d y . The follow ing subhypotheses d e lin e a te th e secondary q u e stio n s r e l a te d to th e major hypothesis regarding the e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e s t u ­ d e n ts ' knowledge about th e world and f i v e se le c te d n a tio n s . Eighth Graders Hoc,: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between e ig h th -g rad e males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r knowledge about th e world and f i v e s e le c te d n a tio n s — Egypt, the USSR, China, France, and Mexico. R e s u lts : The Knowledge T est r e s u l t s of eig h th -g rad e males in th e 1981 and 1974 s t u d i e s , concerning th e world and f i v e s e le c te d n a ti o n s , 94 were analyzed to determine i f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between the two groups. T -scores were o b ta in e d , and the r e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t th e re were no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­ ferences between the two eighth-g rad e groups. The data did support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Ho5b: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between eig h th -g rad e females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r knowledge about th e world and f i v e s e le c te d n a tio n s — Egypt, th e USSR, China, France, and Mexico. R e s u lts : The Knowledge Test scores o f e ig h th -g rad e females in both the 1981 and 1974 samples on th e world and f iv e s e le c te d natio n s were analyzed to determine i f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between the two groups. The r e s u l t s were mixed. An a n a ly sis o f th e Knowledge Test scores on Egypt revealed a t - s c o r e o f -2.1129. This in d ic a te d a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­ feren ce between th e two groups. Eighth-grade females in th e 1981 sample performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on q uestio ns concerning Egypt than did t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts in th e 1974 sample. Hence th e d ata did not support the null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). An a n a ly s is o f th e Knowledge Test scores on th e world and the c o u n trie s o f Mexico, France, th e USSR, and China in d ic a te d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s between the two samples o f eig h th -g rad e fem ales. Thus the d ata did support th e null hypothesis in th e se a reas (p > .0 5 ). 95 H°c : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between e ig h th -g rad e males and females in th e 1981 sample in terms o f t h e i r knowledge about the world and f i v e s e le c te d n a tio n s — Egypt, th e USSR, China, France, and Mexico. R e s u lts : The Knowledge Test scores o f eig hth -grade males and females in th e 1981 study were analyzed to determine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between th e two groups. were mixed. The r e s u l t s T -scores in d ic a te d t h a t th e re were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s between the two groups on q uestio n s concerning the world (-3 .1 2 0 8 ), Egypt (3.015 2), the USSR (3 .7 2 2 7 ), China (3.643 2), and France (1.8453). The 1981 eighth-grad e males performed s i g n i f i ­ c a n tly b e t t e r in th ese a re a s than did th e fem ales. Hence th e d ata did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). The r e s u l t s o f th e a n a ly s is o f Knowledge Test scores on Mexico e x h ib ited no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between e ig h th -g rad e Ingham Interm ediate males and fem ales. The data f o r t h i s item did support the null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Summary o f e ig h th -g rad e r e s u l t s . —A comparison o f eighth-grad e males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in d ic ate d t h a t th e re were no s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e s between th e two groups. In comparing e ig h th -g rad e females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples, a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found between the two groups on Knowledge T est scores f o r Egypt; t h a t i s , 1981 females performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on questions concerning Egypt than did t h e i r 1974 c o u n te rp a r ts . The two groups e x h ib ited no s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s in r e s u l t s on th e remaining c o u n tr ie s . 96 A comparison o f th e male and female eighth graders in th e 1981 sample in d ic a te d t h a t males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than females on qu estio n s concerning the world, Egypt, th e USSR, China, and France. There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e in performance on qu estio n s concerning Mexico. Twelfth Graders H°5d: There 1S n0 s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between tw e lfth -g ra d e males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r knowledge about th e world and f i v e se le c te d n a tio n s — Egypt, th e USSR, China, France, and Mexico. R e s u lts : The Knowledge T est scores o f tw e lfth -g rad e males in th e 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s regarding th e world and f i v e se le c te d nation s were examined to determine i f s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between th e two samples. The r e s u l t s were mixed. T-scores in d ic a te d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s in Knowledge Test r e s u l t s f o r th e c o u n trie s o f France (-5.1669) and Egypt (-2 .0 5 2 5 ). Males in th e 1981 sample performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on questions concerning th ese coun­ t r i e s than did those in th e 1974 sample. Hence th e data did not sup­ p o rt th e null hypothesis f o r th e se items (p > .0 5 ). No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d f o r questions on th e world, the USSR, China, and Mexico. The d a ta did support th e null hypothesis f o r th e s e items (p > .0 5 ). HO[-p : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e re n c e between tw e lfth -g rad e females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r knowledge about th e world and f i v e se le c te d n a tio n s — Egypt, th e USSR, China, France, and Mexico. 97 R e s u lts : The Knowledge T est scores o f tw e lfth -g ra d e females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples were analyzed to determine i f s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between th e two groups. The r e s u l t s were mixed. T-scores in d ic a te d t h a t th e r e was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e two sam ples' knowledge about France (.-3.9368). Twelfth- grade females in the 1981 study performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on q uestion s concerning France than did those in th e 1974 sample. Thus the data did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). T -scores a ls o in d ic a te d s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s in knowledge about China (4.4363). In t h i s in s ta n c e , 1974 tw e lfth -g ra d e females performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than 1981 females on the Knowledge Test se c tio n p e rta in in g to China. The d ata did not support th e null hypothesis f o r t h i s item (p > .0 5 ). T-scores in d ic a te d no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e in Knowledge T est scores f o r th e USSR, Egypt, Mexico, and th e world. The data did support th e null hypothesis in th e s e cases (p > .0 5 ). H °sf: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between tw e lf th grade males and females in th e 1981 sample in terms o f t h e i r knowledge about the world and f iv e s e le c te d n a tio n s — Egypt, th e USSR, China, France, and Mexico. R e s u lts : The Knowledge T est sco res o f tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate males and females were analyzed to determine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s e x is te d between th e two groups. showed mixed r e s u l t s . The t - s c o r e s The t - s c o r e s in d ic a te d s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between the groups concerning t h e i r knowledge o f China 98 (2.3 288 ), France (3 .3 1 0 6 ), Mexico (3 .0 6 8 1 ), th e USSR (4 .8 3 3 5 ), and Egypt (3.7878). In each o f th e s e i n s ta n c e s , th e tw e lfth -g ra d e males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than did the fem ales. The d ata did not support th e null hypothesis f o r th ese items (p > .0 5 ). T -scores in d ic a te d no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between tw e lf th grade Ingham In term ed iate males and females regarding t h e i r knowledge o f the world. The d a ta did support th e null hypothesis f o r t h i s item (p > .0 5 ). Summary o f tw e lfth -g ra d e r e s u l t s . —A comparison o f th e Knowledge Test r e s u l t s o f tw e lfth -g ra d e males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in d ic a te d t h a t th e r e were two s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­ feren ces between the two groups. T w elfth-grade males in th e 1981 study performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on q u estions concerning France and Egypt than did th o se in the 1974 sample. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­ ences between th e two groups o f males were evid en t on q uestions con­ cerning th e world and th e remaining c o u n trie s examined. A comparison o f tw e lfth -g ra d e females in the 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s in d ic a te d some s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s between th e s e groups. Females in th e 1981 study performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on q u e stio n s regarding France than did those in th e 1974 stu d y . The 1974 group performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on questions concerning China than did th e 1981 group. No s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e s between th e se groups were e v id e n t on qu estio n s concerning th e remaining c o u n trie s and th e world. A comparison o f Knowledge T est scores o f tw e lfth -g ra d e males and females in th e 1981 study in d ic a te d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t 99 d iffe re n c e s between th e two groups. Males achieved s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher scores than females on q u estions concerning China, France, Mexico, th e USSR, and Egypt. No s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s e x is te d between the two groups on q uestio n s regarding th e world. The S ta tu s o f F o u rth -, E ig h th -, and Twelfth-Grade Ingham Interm ediate S tu d e n ts' Global Knowledge: Total Score Anatysfs The s ix th major hypothesis s t a te d t h a t : Hog : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between th e t o t a l - i t e m Knowledge T est r e s u l t s o f f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and t w e lf th grade Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts and th e t e s t r e s u l t s o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 study. Analysis D escription The r e s u l t s o f th e Knowledge T est can be examinedby an item a n aly sis, as in th e previous s e c t i o n , o r by a t o t a l - s c o r e a n a ly s is of a l l t e s t item s, as in t h i s s e c tio n . The number o f items in the Knowledge T est v a rie d according to th e s tu d e n ts ' grade l e v e l . The fo u rth -g ra d e Knowledge Test comprised 26 ite m s; th e e ig h th -g rad e t e s t , 52 item s; and th e tw e lfth -g ra d e t e s t , 54 item s. The t o t a l sco re was based on the percentage o f stu d e n ts responding c o r r e c t l y to th e q u e stio n s . Appendix Tables B.4 through B.8 l i s t th e r e s u l t s by in div id u al grade l e v e l s . T - te s t s were used to determine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e s e x is te d between groups in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l scores on th e Knowledge T e st. The 1981 s tu d e n ts ' responses were compared to th o se o f th e 1974 s tu d e n ts . In te rn a l comparisons based on sex and grade lev el were 100 made to determine i f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e s e x is te d between groups. The follow ing subhypotheses d e lin e a te th e secondary questio n s r e l a te d to th e major re s e a rc h hypothesis regarding th e global knowl­ edge of f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts . Fourth Graders H °6a: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between fo u rth -g ra d e males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est r e s u l t s . R e s u lts : The 26-item t o t a l Knowledge T est score o f fo u rth -g ra d e 1981 males was compared with t h a t o f 1974 males t o determine i f a s i g n i f i ­ cant d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between th e two groups. A t - s c o r e o f -5.2976 was a t t a i n e d , in d ic a tin g t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between the two fo urth-grade-m ale groups. Males in th e 1981 group achieved s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher scores on th e Knowledge T est than did those in the 1974 sample. The d a ta did not support th e nu ll hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e (p > .0 5 ). H°fih: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between fo u rth -g ra d e females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est r e s u l t s . R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge T est scores o f fo u rth -g ra d e females in both th e 1981 and 1974 samples were compared to determine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s e x is te d between th e two groups. 101 A t - s c o r e o f -4.8926 was a t t a i n e d , in d ic a tin g t h a t th e re was a s t a ­ t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e two fo u rth -g ra d e female samples. The 1981 group achieved s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher scores on th e Knowledge T est than did th e 1974 group. T herefore, th e d ata did not support the null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). H°g : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between fo u rth -g ra d e males and females in th e 1981 sample in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o re s . R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge Test scores o f fo u rth -g ra d e males and females in th e 1981 study were analyzed to determine whether a s t a ­ t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e e x is te d between th e two groups. A t - s c o r e o f 5.2758 was reached. This means th e r e was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e two groups o f s tu d e n ts . Fourth- grade males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on th e Knowledge T est than did t h e i r female c o u n te r p a r ts . The d ata did not support the null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Summary o f fo u rth -g ra d e r e s u l t s . —A comparison o f th e t o t a l Knowledge T est scores o f fo u rth -g ra d e males in the 1981 and 1974 groups in d ic a te d t h a t males in th e 1981 study had s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher scores on th e Knowledge Test than did those in th e 1974 study. A comparison o f th e t o t a l Knowledge T est scores o f fo u r th grade females in th e 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s in d ic a te d a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e e x is te d between th e two groups. The 1981 group performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on th e Knowledge Test than did the 1974 group. 102 An a n a ly s is o f th e scores of th e fo u rth -g ra d e males and females in the 1981 study in d ic a te d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between th e two groups. T-scores i l l u s t r a t e d t h a t f o u r th - grade males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than t h e i r female c o u n te r­ p a rts on th e Knowledge T est. Eighth Graders Hofid: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e between eig h th -g rad e males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge Test sc o re s . R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge T est scores o f th e e ig h th -g rad e males in the 1981 and 1974 samples were compared to determine whether a s t a ­ t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between the two groups. T-scores in d ic a te d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between the two male samples. Hence th e d ata did support th e null hypothe­ s i s (p > .0 5 ). Hofi : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe re n c e between eig h th -g rad e females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o re s . R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge Test scores o f e ig h th -g rad e females in the 1981 and 1974 samples were compared to determine i f a s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e e x is te d between th e two groups. T-scores in d ic a te d no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between th e two female groups. Thus th e data did support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). 103 There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between eig h th -g rad e males and females in th e 1981 sample in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est s c o re s . Resul t s : The t o t a l Knowledge T est scores o f e ig h th -g rad e males and females in th e 1981 sample were analyzed t o determine whether s i g n i f i ­ c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between th e two groups. was a tt a i n e d . A t - s c o r e o f 4.1834 There was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e males and females* Knowledge T est s c o r e s . s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than fem ales. Males performed The d ata did n o t support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Summary o f eig h th -g rad e r e s u l t s . —A comparison o f e ig h th grade males in the 1981 and 1974 samples in d ic a te d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e s e x is te d between the two groups in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o res. No s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e was found between eig h th -g rad e females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowl­ edge Test r e s u l t s . A comparison o f e ig h th -g rad e Ingham Interm ediate males and females in d ic a te d a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e two groups. The males achieved s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher scores on th e Knowledge Test than did the fem ales. Twelfth Graders H°fin: 9 There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between tw e lfth -g ra d e males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge Test sc o re s . 104 R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge Test scores o f tw e lfth -g ra d e males were analyzed to determine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s e x is te d between th e 1981 and 1974 samples. T -scores in d ic a te d no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e two groups. Hence th e d a ta did support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). H°6h: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between tw e lfth -g ra d e females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o re s . R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge T est scores f o r tw e lfth -g ra d e females were analyzed to determine i f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s e x is te d between the 1981 and 1974 groups. T-scores in d ic a te d no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e two female samples. Thus th e data did support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Hog.: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between tw e lfth -g ra d e males and females in th e 1981 sample in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o res. R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge T est scores o f tw e lfth -g ra d e males and females in th e 1981 sample were analyzed to determine whether s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s e x is te d between th e two groups. A t - s c o r e o f 5.5578 was a t t a i n e d , in d ic a tin g t h a t th e r e was a s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e males and fem ales. The males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on the Knowledge T est than did th e fem ales. s i s (p > .0 5 ). T h ere fo re , th e d a ta did not support th e null hypothe­ 105 Summary o f tw e lfth -g ra d e r e s u l t s . —A comparison o f t w e lf t h grade males in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in d ic a te d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e two groups in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge Test sc o re s . Likewise, no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found between th e tw e lfth -g ra d e females in th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o re s . A comparison o f tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate males and females in d ic a te d a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e groups in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o re s . The males achieved s i g n i f i c a n t l y hig h er scores on th e Knowledge Test than did th e fem a le s. Ingham Interm ediate S tu d e n ts' Knowledge Test Results Across Grade Levels: Total Item Score Analysis The seventh major hypothesis s ta te d t h a t : Ho7 : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e acro ss the f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e le v e ls in th e Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate s tu d y , in terms o f s tu d e n ts ' Knowledge T est re su lts. Analysis D escription The t o t a l Knowledge Test scores o f f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts were compared a c ro ss grade l e v e ls to determine whether s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e s e x is te d . T - t e s t s were used to analyze th e d a ta . The follow ing sub­ hypotheses d e lin e a te th e secondary resea rch questio n s r e l a t e d to th e major hypothesis concerning th e global knowledge o f Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts across grade l e v e l s . 106 H°7a: There 1S n0 s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate tw e lf t h - and eig h th -g rad e males in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge Test sc o res. R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge T est scores o f tw e lf th - and eig hth-grade Ingham Interm ediate male stu d e n ts were compared to determine i f s t a ­ t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s e x is te d between th e two groups. A t - s c o r e o f 5.5286 was reached, in d ic a tin g th e r e was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between th e two groups o f m ales. Twelfth graders performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on th e Knowledge T est than did eigh th g ra d e rs. Hence th e data did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Ho7b: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e re n c e between Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate tw e lf th - and fo u rth -g ra d e males in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o res. R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge T est scores o f Ingham Interm ediate t w e lf th - and fo u rth -g ra d e males were compared to determine i f s t a ­ t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e s e x is te d between th e two groups. A t - s c o r e o f 8.0906 was a t t a i n e d . A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t d i f ­ feren ce was found to e x i s t between th e two groups o f male s tu d e n ts . Twelfth graders achieved s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher scores on th e Knowledge Test than did fo u rth g ra d e rs. Thus th e data did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Ho, : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate e ig h th - and fo u rth -g ra d e males in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o res. 107 R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge Test scores o f e ig h th - and fo u rth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate males were compared to determine i f a s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e e x is te d between th e two groups. A t - s c o r e o f 3.1862 was o b ta in e d , in d ic a tin g t h a t th e re was a s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e e ig h th - and fo u rth -g ra d e m ales' performance on th e Knowledge T est. Eighth graders performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than fo u rth g rad e rs. The data did not support the null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Ho7d: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate tw e lf th - and eigh th -grade females in terms of t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge Test sc o re s . R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge Test scores o f tw e lf th - and eig h th -g rad e Ingham Interm ediate females were compared to determine whether a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between th e two groups. A t - s c o r e o f 3.9334 was reached, showing th e re was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between th e two groups o f fem ales. Twelfth graders performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on the Knowledge Test than did eighth g rad ers. The data did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Ho? : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e between Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate t w e lf th - and fo u rth -g ra d e females in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o re s . R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge Test scores o f tw e lf th - and fo u rth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate females were compared to determine i f a 108 s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between th e two groups. A t - s c o r e o f 7.6599 was reached. A s t a t i s t i c a l l y sig n ific a n t d if f e r ­ ence e x is te d between th e Knowledge Test scores o f tw e lf th - and f o u r th grade fem ales. Twelfth graders performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on th e Knowledge T est than did fo u rth g ra d e rs. The data did not support the null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Ho7 f : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e between Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate e ig h th - and fo u rth -g ra d e females in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o res. R e s u lts : The t o t a l Knowledge T est scores o f eig h th -g rad e Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate females were compared with those o f fo u rth -g ra d e females to determine i f a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e e x is te d between th e two groups. A t - s c o r e o f 4.2768 was reached, in d ic a tin g th e r e was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between the groups in terms o f t h e i r t o t a l Knowledge T est sc o re s . E ighth-graders performed s i g n i f i ­ c a n tly b e t t e r on th e Knowledge T est than did f o u rth g ra d e rs. The data did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Summary o f r e s u l t s acro ss grade l e v e l s . —The t o t a l Knowledge Test scores o f f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g rad e male Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate stu d e n ts were compared to determine i f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s e x is te d among stu d e n ts in the th re e grade l e v e l s . The r e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t th e r e were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­ feren ces a t a l l grade l e v e l s . Twelfth-grade males performed s i g n i f i ­ c a n tly b e t t e r on th e Knowledge T est than did e ig h th - and fo u rth -g ra d e males. Eighth-grade males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on the Knowledge T est than did t h e i r fo u rth -g ra d e c o u n te r p a r t s . 109 The t o t a l Knowledge T est scores o f f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e female Ingham Interm ed iate stu d e n ts were compared to determine i f s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s e x is te d among stu d e n ts in th e th r e e grade l e v e l s . The r e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t th e r e were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s a t a l l grade l e v e l s . Twelfth-grade females performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on th e Knowledge Test than did t h e i r e ig h th - and fo u rth -g ra d e c o u n te r p a r ts . Eighth- grade females performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than f o u rth graders on th e Knowledge T est. The r e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t th e higher th e grade l e v e l , th e b e t t e r th e s t u d e n t s ’ r e s u l t s on th e Knowledge T e st. Older stu d e n ts e x h ib ited more knowledge about the world than did younger s tu d e n ts . The Knowledge T est: An Examination o f th e Areas of Strength and Weakness—F o u rth -, E ig h th -, and Twelfth-Grade Ingham In term ediate S tudentsTask D escription The Knowledge T est assessed th e s tu d e n ts ' a ttain m en t o f basic inform ation concerning th e world and s ix s e le c te d n a tio n s . Each area o f th e Knowledge T est—map l o c a t i o n , th e w orld , and th e s ix se le c te d n a tio n s—was examined f o r s tr e n g th s and weaknesses as determined by c o r r e c t responses by th e f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts . T - t e s t s were used to analyze th e d a ta . Percentages o f stu d e n ts who answered th e m u ltip le -c h o ic e ques tio n s c o r r e c t l y were l i s t e d f o r each o f th e indiv id u al items a t each o f th e th re e grade l e v e l s . The 1981 r e s u l t s were compared w ith th e 1974 r e s u l t s to d isc o v er whether th e r e were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t 110 d iff e re n c e s between th e two groups. Ingham Interm ed iate males and females were compared to determine whether th e r e were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e s on th e b a s is o f sex. R esults Map l o c a t i o n . —Students were asked t o lo c a te s i x c o u n trie s on a world map. The s i x c o u n trie s and t h e i r item s t a t i s t i c s a re p re ­ sented in Table 4 .5 . The r e s u l t s a re presented in th e follow ing paragraphs by in div id u al grade l e v e l s . Table 4 . 5 . —Percentage o f Ingham In term ed iate stu d e n ts c o r r e c t l y i d e n tify in g s ix c o u n trie s on a map. Country Fourth Graders Eighth Graders United S ta te s 77.0% 88.6% 91.4% Mexi co 49.2 77.2 78.0 France 37.8 68.0 82.3 Russia/USSR 32.8 79.1 89.9 China 37.5 70.5 79.8 Egypt 27.7 59.3 63.9 Fourth g r a d e r s : Twelfth Graders The United S ta te s was c o r r e c t l y lo c a te d on a world map by 77% o f th e Ingham Interm ediate f o u rth g ra d e rs. Fewer than h a lf o f th e fo u rth -g ra d e stu d e n ts lo ca te d th e remaining coun­ t r i e s c o r r e c t l y , as fo llo w s: Mexico (49.2%), France (37.8%), China (37.5%), the USSR (32.8%), and Egypt (27.7%). There was no s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r map-1ocation s c o re s . Ill Eighth g r a d e r s ; Eighth graders scored r e l a t i v e l y higher on th e map-1ocation p a r t o f th e Knowledge T est than did f o u rth g ra d e rs . About 89% o f th e Ingham Interm ediate eig h th graders c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i ­ f ie d th e United S ta te s on a world map. More than h a l f o f th e eig h th graders c o r r e c t l y lo c a te d th e remaining f i v e c o u n tr ie s : th e USSR (79.1%), Mexico (77.2%), China (70.5%), France (68.0%), and Egypt (59.3%). No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e e x is te d between the 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r map-1ocation sc o re s . Twelfth g r a d e r s : More than 60% o f th e tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts could c o r r e c t l y lo c a te a l l s i x c o u n trie s on a world map. The United S ta te s was lo c a te d c o r r e c t l y by 91.4% o f the tw e lfth g ra d e rs , th e USSR by 89.9%, France by 82.3%, China by 79.8%, Mexico by 78.0%, and Egypt by 63.9%. No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was discovered between the 1981 and 1974 samples in terms o f t h e i r map-1ocation sc o re s . Summary: The r e s u l t s on th e map-1ocation se c tio n of the Knowledge T est in d ic a te d t h a t s tu d e n ts ' a b i l i t y to lo c a te p a r t i c u l a r nation s on a map in creased as th e stu d e n ts progressed through th e g rad es. In both th e 1981 and th e 1974 s t u d i e s , th e range o f c o r r e c t responses f o r id e n tif y in g fo re ig n c o u n trie s was lower a t the fo u r th grade level than a t th e e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e l e v e l s . A con sisten cy was apparent in th e types o f e r r o r s across th e t h r e e grade l e v e l s . The most fre q u e n tly s e le c te d d i s t r a c t o r f o r th e United S ta te s was Canada; f o r Mexico, Colombia; f o r France, Sweden; f o r th e USSR, China; and f o r Egypt, A lg e ria . The only exception to 112 t h i s p a tte rn was China, which was placed in India by fo u rth and tw e lfth graders and in Japan by eig h th g ra d e rs. The r e s u l t s were c o n s is te n t with those o f th e 1974 study . A comparison o f the 1981 and 1974 map-1ocation r e s u l t s did not in d ic a te any s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s in c o r r e c t re sp o n se s, except f o r th e eig h th g ra d e rs' lo c a tio n o f Egypt. A g r e a te r percentage o f 1981 eigh th graders c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d Egypt on a map than did those in the 1974 study. The scores o f th e 1981 f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts , in comparison with those o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 stu d y , did e x h ib it d iffe re n c e s in percentage p o in ts . This occurred f o r a l l o f the c o u n trie s except Mexico, in which a s l i g h t d ecrease was noted. The d if f e r e n c e was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . O v e ra ll, map- 1o catio n s k i l l s o f the stu d e n ts in th e 1981 study were b e t t e r than those o f stu d en ts in th e 1974 stu d y , but not to any s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t degree. The United S t a t e s . —The Knowledge T est included th re e q uestio ns on th e United S ta te s f o r fo u rth g ra d e rs , s i x f o r eig h th g ra d e rs , and seven f o r tw e lfth g ra d e rs. The r e s u l t s a re l i s t e d in the follow ing paragraphs in terms o f th e percentage o f stu d e n ts a t each grade level who answered th e questio n s c o r r e c t l y . Fourth g r a d e r s : Of the th r e e q u estion s on th e United S t a t e s , th e one a la rg e percentage (77.1%) o f th e 1981 fo u rth graders answered c o r r e c tly concerned th e r a i s in g o f revenue by the United S ta te s gov­ ernment through th e c o ll e c t io n o f ta x e s . Less than h a lf o f them (37.5%) 113 knew t h a t Congress makes th e law s, y e t s i g n i f i c a n t l y more stu d e n ts in the 1981 study responded c o r r e c t l y than did 1974 fo u rth graders (24.0%). More than h a lf (50.9%) o f the 1981 fo u rth -g ra d e stu d e n ts knew t h a t the people in th e United S ta te s speak th e same language as th e people in England. Eighth g r a d e r s : More than h a lf o f th e 1981 eig h th graders responded c o r r e c t l y to th e s ix q u estions on th e United S t a te s . Sig­ n i f i c a n t l y more 1981 e ig h th graders (64.5%) than 1974 eig h th graders (30.0%) recognized t h a t defense has been th e major source o f expendi­ tu r e s f o r th e United S t a te s . A la r g e percentage o f 1981 eig h th graders (82.1%) as well as 1974 e ig h th graders (82.0%) knew t h a t the United S ta te s c o ll e c t s most o f i t s money through ta x e s . Twelfth g r a d e r s : S i g n i f ic a n t l y more 1981 tw e lfth graders (64.8%) than those in the 1974 sample (46.0%) recognized defense as the major source o f United S ta te s e x p en d itu re s. Individual item analyses did not reveal any o th e r s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­ ences between tw e lfth graders in th e 1981 and 1974 groups. More than 60% o f the 1981 tw e lfth graders c o r r e c t l y answered th e seven q u estion s on th e United S t a t e s , w ith the exception o f th e question t h a t d e a l t with a u th o r ity in regional governments. About 35% o f th e studen ts thought th e USSR had th e most a u th o r ity in regional governments, as compared to 33% who c o r r e c t l y chose th e United S t a te s . Summary: Responses o f stu d e n ts in both th e 1981 and th e 1974 s tu d ie s in d ic a te d a lim ite d knowledge o f governmental fu n ctio n in g in th e United S t a te s . The major exception was th e rec o g n itio n o f defense 114 as a major source o f pub lic ex p en d itu re s. Eighth and tw e lfth grad ers in the 1981 study answered s i g n i f i c a n t l y more q uestio n s c o r r e c t l y than did t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts in th e 1974 stud y. Mexico. —The fo u rth -g ra d e form o f th e Knowledge T est contained two questions on Mexico; th e e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e forms each con­ ta in e d s ix q u e stio n s . The r e s u l t s a re l i s t e d in th e follow ing para­ graphs in terms o f th e percentage o f stu d e n ts a t each grade le v e l who answered th e qu estio n s c o r r e c t l y . Fourth g r a d e r s : More than 60% o f th e fo u rth -g ra d e stu d en ts in th e 1981 sample answered th e two q u e stio n s on Mexico c o r r e c t l y . Almost 70% knew th e peso i s Mexican money, and 75.2% knew t h a t Mexico has a warmer clim ate than Canada, England, and China. No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between th e t e s t r e s u l t s o f fo u rth graders in the 1981 and th e 1974 s t u d i e s . Eighth and tw e lfth g r a d e r s : A la rg e percentage o f both eig h th (88.8%) and tw e lfth (93.6%) graders in th e 1981 study knew Mexico has a warmer clim ate than Canada, England, and China and t h a t the peso i s th e term f o r Mexican money (eig h th g ra d e rs —89.2%; tw e lfth g ra d e rs—94.2%). The stu d e n ts did not do as well on th e remaining q u estion s on Mexico. Seventy p ercen t o f th e tw e lfth grad ers knew t h a t Mexico has an e le c te d p r e s id e n t, but only 44.1% o f th e eig h th graders were aware o f t h i s f a c t . N either eig h th (15.3%) nor tw e lfth (28.4%) graders r e a liz e d t h a t Mexico has had th e same p o l i t i c a l p a rty s in c e 1939. Eighth graders were a ls o i l l informed about th e predomi­ nant r e l i g io n o f Mexico. About 38% thought i t was Mayan, and 29% 115 s e le c te d Roman C a th o lic . F i f t y percent o f the tw e lfth g rad e rs se le c te d th e c o r r e c t answer—Roman C a th o lic. No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s e x is te d between th e sco res o f e ig h th and tw e lf th graders in th e 1981 and 1974 samples on t h i s p o rtio n o f th e Knowledge T e s t. Summary: The r e s u l t s in d ic a te d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e in knowledge about Mexico between stu d e n ts in th e 1981 and 1974 s t u d i e s . Climate and money appeared to be th e a re a s in which stu d e n ts knew th e most about Mexico. Government and r e l i g i o n were th e a re a s in which p u p ils demonstrated th e l e a s t knowledge. France. —The fo u rth -g ra d e form of th e Knowledge T est contained one q uestio n on France, th e e ig h th -g rad e t e s t included f i v e q u e s tio n s , and th e tw e lfth -g ra d e t e s t had f iv e item s. The r e s u l t s a re l i s t e d in th e follow ing paragraphs in terms o f th e percentage o f c o r r e c t responses a t each grade l e v e l . Fourth g r a d e r s : A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was noted between th e 1981 and 1974 f o u rth g ra d e r s ' response regarding th e major product o f France. About 34% o f th e 1981 f o u rth graders s e le c te d th e c o rr e c t f o i l , perfume, compared to 22% o f th e 1974 f o u rth g ra d e rs. Eighth and tw e lf th g r a d e r s : No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was evid en t between eig h th and tw e lfth g raders in th e 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s in terms o f t h e i r knowledge o f France. More o f th e tw e lf th grade stu d e n ts in th e 1981 sample (59.6%) knew th e c lim a tic c h a r a c t e r i s ­ t i c s o f France than did th e 1974 eig h th graders (36.4%); th e major product o f France ( t w e l f t h —79.5%; e ig h th —66.2%); and th e e a s te rn 116 boundary lo c a tio n with Germany (tw e lf th —45%; e ig h th —30.8%). How­ e v e r, a g r e a te r percentage o f 1981 e ig h th graders (20.2%) than tw e lf th graders (14.1%) knew t h a t th e head o f government in France i s th e P re sid e n t. Nearly 40% o f th e tw e lfth graders thought i t was P arliam en t, and 36.8% o f th e eig h th graders s e le c te d th e f o i l , Prime M in ister. Summary: No s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe re n c e e x is te d between e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts in th e 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s regarding t h e i r knowledge o f France. g ra d e r s ' responses. There was a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in th e eig h th However, th e r e s u l t s seemed to in d ic a te lim ite d knowledge about France on th e p a r t o f stu d e n ts a t a l l th r e e grade le v e ls in the Ingham Interm ediate study. The USSR. —The fo u rth -g ra d e form o f th e Knowledge T est con­ ta in e d two questions on the USSR; th e e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e forms both had e ig h t items on th e USSR. The r e s u l t s a re l i s t e d in the follow ing paragraphs according to th e percentage o f c o r r e c t responses by stu d e n ts a t each grade l e v e l. Fourth g r a d e r s : No s i g n i f i c a n t .d iffe re n c e e x is te d between fo u rth graders in th e 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s in terms o f knowledge about th e USSR. T hirty-tw o p e rc en t o f th e 1981 f o u rth graders knew t h a t th e USSR i s lo c a te d in th e c o n tin e n ts o f both Europe and A sia, and only 28.7% knew i t has a communist government. A m a jo rity (54.1%) o f them thought th e United S ta te s had a communist government. Eighth and tw e lfth g r a d e r s : A s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e was found between e ig h th graders in th e 1981 and 1974 samples on th e q u estion concerning th e USSR's fo re ig n t r a d e . F o rty -e ig h t p e rc en t o f 117 1981 eig h th graders knew the USSR's fo re ig n tra d e i s w ith communist c o u n tr i e s , as compared to 36% o f th e 1974 eig h th g ra d e rs . A g r e a te r percentage o f 1981 tw e lfth graders than eig h th graders answered ques­ t io n s c o r r e c t l y . Both groups were unsure o f th e c o r r e c t response regarding th e form ation o f th e re p u b lic s o f th e Soviet Union. A la rg e number o f eig h th (48.4%) and tw e lfth (40.7%) graders i n c o r r e c t ly answered t h a t p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s o f th e people form th e b a sis o f th e USSR's r e p u b lic s , r a t h e r than th e c o r r e c t response o f e th n ic groups (e ig h th —21.5%; t w e lf t h —22.6%). No s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x is te d between groups on th e remaining q uestions regarding th e USSR. Summary: Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about the USSR appeared to be lim ite d . A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e e x is te d between eighth graders in the 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s regarding t h e i r knowledge about th e USSR's fo re ig n t r a d e . However, th e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between 1981 fo u rth and tw e lfth graders and t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts in th e 1974 study in terms o f t h e i r knowledge about the USSR. China. —The fo u rth -g ra d e form o f th e Knowledge T est contained four q uestion s on China; th e e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e t e s t s each contained s ix items on China. The r e s u l t s a re rep o rted in th e follow ­ ing paragraphs in th e form o f percentage o f c o rr e c t responses by s t u ­ dents in each grade l e v e l . Fourth g r a d e r s : No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e e x is te d between th e 1974 fo u rth g ra d e r s ' r e s u l t s on China and th e 1981 s tu d e n ts ' r e s u l t s . A g r e a te r percentage o f 1981 f o u rth graders 118 (52.6%) thought th e United S ta te s had more people than China (15.5%). Only 40.9% knew th e United S ta te s is becoming f r i e n d l i e r with China, and 52.7% knew t h a t most o f th e Chinese people a re farm ers. About 30% chose th e c o r r e c t answer o f th e b ic y c le as th e primary means o f tr a n s p o r ta tio n in China, whereas 40.2% s e le c te d th e autom obile. Eighth and tw e lfth g r a d e r s : More than 50% o f th e Ingham Interm ediate eig h th and tw e lfth graders knew t h a t China has th e l a r g ­ e s t population (eig h th — 50.7%; t w e lf t h —64.5%). About 63% o f the eigh th graders knew t h a t th e United S ta te s i s becoming f r i e n d l i e r with China. This q uestio n was not asked in th e tw e lfth -g ra d e t e s t . About h a l f (51.8%) o f th e eig h th graders recognized t h a t th e Chinese a re mainly farm ers, and 52.3% knew t h a t th e b ic y c le i s th e main form o f tr a n s p o rta tio n in China. Of th e tw e lfth g r a d e r s , 66.2% knew t h a t b icy c le s a re th e main form o f t r a n s p o r t a ti o n in China, but only 46.8% knew t h a t th e Chinese a re p rim a rily farm ers. About o n e -th ird o f th e 1981 eig h th graders responded c o r r e c t l y to q uestio n s d e sc rib in g th e c u lt u r e o f China, which i s not a c a s te system (32.9%), and recognized t h a t th e language has many d i a l e c t s (30.3%). Thirty-tw o p ercen t o f the 1981 tw e lfth graders were informed about th e Chinese language, and 42.8% knew about the Chinese c u l t u r e . Only 10.4% were knowledge­ able about C hina's estab lish m en t o f "workers' c o ll e g e s ." O v e ra ll, no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e was noted between 1981 and 1974 eigh th and tw e lf th graders regarding t h e i r knowledge o f China. Summary; No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e was found between stu d e n ts in th e 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s in regard t o t h e i r 119 knowledge o f China. Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' r e s u l t s demon­ s t r a t e d a need fo r more inform ation on China. Egypt. —The fo u rth -g ra d e Knowledge T est contained th r e e ques­ tio n s on Egypt; th e e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e forms contained s ix and seven item s, r e s p e c tiv e ly . R esults a re rep o rte d in th e follow ing paragraphs in th e form o f percentage o f c o r r e c t responses by grade 1e v e l . Fourth g r a d e r s : More 1981 f o u rth graders (64.8%) than t h e i r 1974 c o u n te rp arts (52%) knew t h a t Egypt i s made up p rim a rily o f d e serts. groups. This in d ic a te d a s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between th e two Only 43.3% o f th e 1981 f o u rth graders knew t h a t Egypt i s an Arab country, and 18% knew t h a t co tto n i s an im portant product o f Egypt. Eighth and tw e lf th g r a d e r s : No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e e x is te d between eig h th and tw e lfth graders in the 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s on th e items about Egypt. A g r e a te r percentage o f Ingham Interm ediate tw e lf th g rad ers answered more q u e stio n s c o r r e c t l y than did eig h th g ra d e rs. Almost 74% o f th e 1981 eig h th graders knew t h a t Egypt i s made up o f d e s e r t s , and 80.7% o f th e tw e lf th g raders responded c o r r e c t l y to t h i s q u e stio n . Only 37.8% o f th e eig h th graders knew t h a t Egypt i s an Arab c o u n try , whereas 47.9% o f them thought Is re a l was an Arab country. Twelfth g ra d e rs ' responses in d ic a te d t h a t 37.3% thought t h a t Egypt was an Arab country and 49.8% thought Is r a e l was an Arab country. 120 The 1981 0N0P t e s t was given s h o r tly a f t e r P re sid e n t Sadat was a s s a s s in a te d . Only 19.4% o f th e eig h th grad ers and 30% o f th e tw e lfth graders knew th e new p re s id e n t o f Egypt was Mubarek. Eighth and tw e lfth graders were a ls o i l l informed about th e purpose o f th e Aswan Dam. Only 16.6% o f th e eig h th graders and 22.3% o f th e tw e lfth graders chose th e c o r r e c t response to t h i s q u e stio n . More than 55% o f th e tw e lfth graders thought Kuwait produced th e l e a s t crude o i l , compared to 27.5% s e le c tin g th e a p p ro p ria te respon se, which was Egypt. Summary: The r e s u l t s o f th e 1981 eig h th and tw e lf th graders did not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from those o f t h e i r 1974 c o u n te r p a rts . Despite th e Middle E a s t's increased exposure in th e media over th e l a s t e ig h t y e a r s , th e 1981 s tu d e n ts ' scores were s l i g h t l y lower than those o f the 1974 sample. The w orld. —Four q uestion s on the world were included in th e fo u rth -g ra d e Knowledge T e s t, and e ig h t in th e e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e te s ts . The r e s u l t s a re discussed in th e follow ing pages in terms o f the percentage o f c o r r e c t responses by grade l e v e l . Fourth g r a d e r s : More than 50% (56.3%) o f th e 1981 fo u rth graders knew t h a t a l l people have a language, and 72.1% knew t h a t most o f th e world is made up o f oceans. Nearly 45% knew th e purpose o f th e United N ations, and 74.4% knew t h a t th e United S ta te s and Russia had se n t ro ck e ts t o th e moon. Most fo u rth graders did no t know the number o f people in th e world; 70.6% s e le c te d a response t h a t in d ic a te d more people than th e r e a c t u a l l y a r e . No s t a t i s t i c a l l y 121 s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between th e 1981 and 1974 samples o f fo u rth graders on t h i s t e s t . Eighth and tw e lf th g r a d e r s : Ingham In term ed iate tw e lfth graders had a g r e a t e r percentage o f c o r r e c t responses on t h i s t e s t than did eig h th g ra d e rs. Questions t h a t stood out in importance concerned the members o f th e Common Market, th e number o f people in th e w orld, th e c o n tin e n t w ith th e most people per square m ile , and the reason f o r th e w o rld 's changing p o p u la tio n . Only 15.7% o f eig h th graders and 30% o f tw e lf th g rad ers knew t h a t England and France a re Common Market members. N either e ig h th nor tw e lfth graders could i d e n t i f y th e number o f people in th e world. C orrect responses to t h i s item were given by only 26.5% o f th e eig h th graders and 38.5% o f the tw e lfth g ra d e rs. About o n e -th ir d (32.9%) o f th e eig h th graders and 33.3% o f th e tw e lfth graders knew t h a t Europe has th e most people per square m ile. A g r e a t e r percentage o f stu d e n ts s e le c te d A sia. J u s t 13.8% o f th e eig h th graders and 31.2% o f th e tw e lf th grad ers thought a decreasing death r a t e accounted f o r a change in th e w o rld 's popula­ tio n . A g r e a te r percentage o f stu d e n ts i n c o r r e c t ly s e le c te d an in cre asin g b i r t h r a t e (eig h th g ra d e rs —66.4%; tw e lfth g ra d e rs—47.7%). Nearly a l l o f th e 1981 e ig h th and tw e lfth graders (93.6% and 98.2%, r e s p e c tiv e ly ) were aware t h a t th e United S ta te s and Russia had s e n t ro ck e ts to th e moon. In a d d it i o n , 76.1% o f th e eig h th graders and 84.1% o f th e tw e lfth grad ers knew t h a t th e world i s mainly made up o f oceans; and 67.9% o f th e eig h th graders and 82.6% o f th e tw e lfth graders recognized th e purpose o f th e United N ations. No s t a t i s t i c a l l y 122 s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe r e n c e s e x is te d between eig h th and tw e lf th graders in the 1981 and 1974 s tu d ie s on q u e stio n s concerning th e world. Summary: No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s were found between th e 1981 f o u r t h , e ig h th , and tw e lfth graders and t h e i r 1974 c o u n te rp a rts on q u e stio n s concerning th e world. The Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts e x h ib ite d th e most knowledge about th e make-up o f the e a r t h 's s u r f a c e , th e purpose o f th e United N ations, and th e c o u n trie s involved in space programs. T heir responses in d ic a te d they were not well informed about th e number o f people in th e w orld, where the l a r g e s t c o n ce n tra tio n s o f people a re lo c a te d , th e reason the number o f people in th e world has changed, o r t h e membership o f world o rg an iz atio n s such as th e Common Market. A Comparison Between Ingham In term ediate Students* " I n t e r e s t in V is itin g Foreign Countries and Their Knowledge of Those Countries The eig hth major hypothesis s t a te d t h a t : Ho«: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g t h a t country. Analysis D escription The f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts ' responses on the Knowledge T est were compared to t h e i r answers to the Student I n t e r e s t Q uestionnaire item regarding th e coun­ t r i e s they d e sire d to v i s i t . The Knowledge T est sampled from th r e e to nine q uestions f o r each o f th e f i v e c o u n tr ie s . The d ata from th ose items were compared w ith th e stu d e n t responses regarding t h e i r 123 i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g each o f those c o u n tr ie s . An ANOVA t e s t was p e r­ formed to determine whether th e r e was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r country and knowledge o f t h a t country. The following subhypotheses d e lin e a te th e secondary resea rch questions r e l a te d to th e major hypothesis concerning th e p o ss ib le r e l a ti o n s h i p between s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r d e s ir e to v i s i t t h a t country. The r e s u l t s f o r each grade lev el a re presented and in te r p r e t e d f o r s ig n if ic a n c e . Fourth Graders Ho«a : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between fo u rth g ra d e rs ' knowledge o f a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g t h a t country. R e s u lts ; No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p was found between fo u rth g ra d e rs ' knowledge about and i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g France, the Soviet Union, China, and Egypt. The data did support th e null hypothesis f o r th ese items (p > .0 5 ). A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p e x is te d between s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about and i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g Mexico. i t was an inverse r e l a t i o n s h i p . However, About 70% o f th e stu d e n ts who had c o rr e c t responses on th e Knowledge T est did not d e s i r e to v i s i t Mexico. The data f o r t h i s item did n o t support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). (See Table 4 . 6 . ) 124 Table 4 . 6 . —Comparison o f Knowledge T est r e s u l t s and i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g o th e r c o u n tr ie s —fo u rth g ra d e rs . Nation Percent Correct S.D. F-Ratio Mexico would not would 69.4 63.0 30.2 30.8 6.8 France would not would 34.0 38.1 35.9 38.3 1.8 Soviet Union would not would 55.8 54.8 24.5 25 0 0.2 China would not would 27.9 25.0 20.9 18.9 3.5 Egypt would not would 38.1 40.0 24.6 23.3 1.1 Eighth Graders H°gh: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between eighth g ra d e rs' knowledge o f a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g t h a t country. R e s u lts : No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p was found between e ig h th g ra d e rs ' knowledge o f and i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g Mexico, th e USSR, and Egypt. The data did support th e null hypothesis f o r th ese items (p > .0 5 ). A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p was found between s tu d e n ts ' knowledge o f and i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g France and China. About 51% o f th e stu d e n ts who c o r r e c t l y responded t o q uestions about France and about 60% o f tho se who c o r r e c t l y answered items on China s e le c te d "very much l i k e to v i s i t " on th e I n t e r e s t Inventory. There appeared to be a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between an 125 i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g th e s e two c o u n trie s and the s tu d e n ts ' knowledge of th e c o u n tr ie s . The d a ta f o r th e s e items did no t support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). (See Table 4 .7 .) Table 4 . 7 . —Comparison o f Knowledge T est r e s u l t s and i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g o th e r c o u n tr ie s —eig h th g rad e rs. Nation Percent Correct S.D. F-Ratio Mexico w ouldn't might l i k e to 56.6 59.1 53.7 18.9 17.4 21.5 2.5 France w ou ld n't might 1 i ke to 41.6 43.2 51.2 24.3 22.8 24.7 7.6 Soviet Union w ouldn't might l i k e to 51.6 48.7 53.1 18.0 19.8 23.9 0.7 China w ouldn't might l i k e to 50.6 53.1 60.9 23.1 23.0 24.2 3.4 Egypt w ouldn't might l i k e to 40.4 41.2 36.9 19.7 18.3 18.5 0.9 Twelfth Graders HOq ; There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between tw e lfth g ra d e rs ' knowledge o f a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g t h a t country. R esults: No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p e x is te d between any o f th e c o u n trie s tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts were i n te r e s te d in v i s i t i n g 126 and t h e i r knowledge o f th o se c o u n tr ie s . th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Hence th e d a ta did support (See Table 4 . 8 . ) Table 4 . 8 . —Comparison o f Knowledge T est r e s u l t s and i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g o th e r c o u n tr ie s —tw e lfth g ra d e rs . Nation Percent C orrect S.D. F-Ratio Mexico w o uldn't might l i k e to 67.2 68.8 70.1 20.1 19.2 22.0 0.4 France w o uld n't might l i k e to 57.8 64.4 69.3 28.2 29.1 25.1 3 .0 Soviet Union w ou ld n't might l i k e to 62.2 62.0 72.2 19.0 24.3 16.3 3.0 China w o uld n't might l i k e to 48.4 50.3 60.7 19.6 19.7 21.8 2.9 Egypt w o uld n't might l i k e to 47.9 49.9 53.3 25.3 23.3 22.8 0.7 A Comparison o f Ingham Interm ed iate S tu d e n ts 1 I n t e r e s t in Studying Foreign Countries and Their Knowledge o f Those Countries The n in th major hypothesis s t a te d t h a t : Hog : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ed iate s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying t h a t cou ntry. Analysis D escription Ingham Interm ediate f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts ' Knowledge T est scores on s e le c te d c o u n trie s were compared 127 w ith t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying those c o u n tr ie s . contained th r e e to nine q u e stio n s per country. The Knowledge Test The I n t e r e s t Inven­ to ry item requested th e stu d e n t to mark e i t h e r "would l i k e to " o r "would not l i k e to " study f o r each o f th e 15 c o u n trie s in the Inven­ to ry . The d ata from th e two t e s t s were analyzed by an ANOVA proce­ dure. The follow ing subhypotheses d e lin e a te th e secondary resea rch q u estion s r e l a te d to th e major hypothesis concerning th e p o ssib le r e l a ti o n s h i p between s tu d e n ts ' knowledge about a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r d e s ir e to study t h a t country. The r e s u l t s f o r each grade lev el a re presented and in te r p r e t e d f o r s ig n if ic a n c e . Fourth Graders H °g .* There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between fo u rth g r a d e rs ' knowledge o f a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying t h a t co untry . Resul t s : The r e s u l t s f o r fo u rth graders in d ic a te d a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between s tu d e n ts ' knowledge o f a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying t h a t co untry . Fourth g raders who responded t h a t they did not want to study Mexico averaged 69% on q u e stio n s concerning Mexico in th e Knowledge T e s t. A sta tistic a lly s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x is te d between knowledge and i n t e r e s t . However, i t was an in v erse r e l a t i o n s h i p . Fourth g raders who e x h ib ited g r e a t e r knowledge about Mexico showed l e s s i n t e r e s t in studying t h a t country. (p > .0 5 ). The d ata did not support th e null hypothesis f o r t h i s item 128 Fourth graders who wanted to study Egypt averaged 41.2% on th e Knowledge T est. This r e l a ti o n s h i p was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . Students who did not want to study Egypt averaged 24.9% bn the Knowl­ edge T est. In t h i s in s ta n c e , stu d e n ts who e x h ib ited more knowledge about Egypt a ls o showed a g r e a te r i n t e r e s t in studying t h a t c o untry. The d ata f o r t h i s item did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p e x is te d f o r France, the USSR, and China. hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). The data f o r th e s e items did support th e null (See Table 4 . 9 . ) Table 4 . 9 . — Comparison o f Knowledge T est r e s u l t s and i n t e r e s t in studying o th e r c o u n tr ie s —fo u rth g rad e rs. Nation Percent C orrect S.D. F-Ratio 7.10 Mexico would not would 69.0 62.6 30.6 30.5 France would not would 36.1 36.9 36.4 38.3 Soviet Union would not would 56.8 52.7 24.6 24.6 China would not would 26.5 27.0 20.6 19.3 Egypt would not would 37.1 41.2 24.9 22.9 Eighth Graders H°gb: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between eighth g ra d e rs ' knowledge o f a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying t h a t country. .072 3.80 .069 4.70 129 R e s u lts : A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p was found between eighth g ra d e rs' d e s ire to study Mexico, France, th e USSR, ,and China and t h e i r knowledge o f those c o u n tr ie s . In th ese c a s e s , th e data did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). An inverse r e l a ti o n s h i p e x is te d between s tu d e n ts ' knowledge o f and i n t e r e s t in studying Mexico. Eighth graders who did n ot want to study Mexico averaged 57.3% on th e Knowledge T e s t, whereas those who did want to study t h a t country averaged 50.4% on th e Knowledge T est. I t appeared t h a t stu d e n ts who demonstrated l e s s i n t e r e s t in studying Mexico e x h ib ited a g r e a te r knowledge o f t h a t country. The a n a ly s is o f responses f o r France, th e USSR, and China revealed the opp osite r e s u l t s . Students who averaged higher scores on th e Knowledge T est f o r th ese th r e e c o u n trie s (France—49.9%, th e USSR—56.4%, China—59.9%) showed a g r e a te r i n t e r e s t in studying the c o u n trie s . The data did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Egypt was th e only country f o r which no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i ­ cant r e l a ti o n s h i p was noted a t th e eig hth -grade l e v e l . In t h i s in s ta n c e , th e data did support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Table 4 .1 0 .) Twelfth Graders Hog : There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between tw e lfth g ra d e rs' knowledge o f a p a r t i c u l a r country and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying t h a t country. (See 130 Table 4 .1 0 . —Comparison o f Knowledge Test r e s u l t s and i n t e r e s t in studying o th e r c o u n tr ie s —eig h th g ra d e rs. Nation Percent C orrect S.D. F-Ratio Mexico d e s ir in g not d e s irin g 50.4 57.3 19.3 16.6 7.2 France d e s irin g not d e s irin g 49.9 43.8 23.2 24.8 7.3 Soviet Union d e s irin g not d e s irin g 56.4 49.4 19.2 18.2 12.4 China d e s irin g not d e s irin g 59.9 50.1 18.3 23.5 7.7 Egypt d e s irin g not d e s irin g 38.0 40.5 20.4 19.1 1.2 R e s u lts : Twelfth graders who d e sired t o study the USSR (67.3%), China (56.8%), and Egypt (56%) averaged higher scores on th e r e le v a n t Knowl­ edge Test items than those who were not in te r e s te d in studying those c o u n tr ie s . A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p was found between knowledge o f those c o u n trie s and an i n t e r e s t in studying them. Hence, the data did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). The a n a ly s is f o r Mexico and France e x h ib ite d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between knowledge and i n t e r e s t . item s, the data did support the null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Table 4 .1 1 .) For th e se (See 131 Table 4 . 1 1 . - ■Comparison o f Knowledge T est r e s u l t s and i n t e r e s t in studying o th e r c o u n tr ie s —tw e lf th g ra d e rs. Nation Percent C orrect S.D. F-Ratio Mexico d e s ir in g not d e s ir in g 68.6 67.6 22.6 19.7 0.12 France d e s ir in g not d e s irin g 66.6 65.4 24.6 27.7 0.11 Soviet Union d e s irin g not d e s ir in g 67.3 61.1 17.4 19.8 7.20 China d e s ir in g not d e s irin g 56.8 47.4 21.9 19.4 10.30 Egypt d e s ir in g not d e s irin g 56.0 47.8 25.7 23.9 4.70 Summary o f R e la tio n sh ip Between Know! edge o f a Country and' I n t e r e s t in Studying and V is itin g I t The p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between knowledge o f a p a r t i c u l a r country and i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g i t was explored. The data in d ic a te d mixed r e s u l t s . In some in s ta n c e s , th e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between knowledge o f a p a rtic u lja r country and stu d e n t i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g o r studying t h a t country. This was evid en t in the case o f f o u rth graders who c o r r e c t l y answered more q uestio ns on th e Knowledge Test about Egypt and who e x h ib ite d an i n t e r e s t in studying i t . A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between knowledge about a country and i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g th e country was a ls o ev id en t in eig h th graders who c o r r e c t l y answered more ques­ tio n s about France and China on the Knowledge T est and a ls o showed an 132 i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g and studying tho se c o u n tr ie s . Eighth graders who achieved higher sco res on th e Knowledge T est regarding th e USSR a ls o demonstrated an i n t e r e s t in studying t h a t country. Twelfth graders d isplayed an i n t e r e s t in studying th e c o u n trie s about which they were knowledgeable, s p e c i f i c a l l y , th e USSR, China, and Egypt. The a n a ly s is a ls o revealed t h a t an in v erse r e l a t i o n s h i p between knowledge o f a p a r t i c u l a r country and stu d e n t i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g o r studying i t was p o s s ib le . Fourth graders who c o r r e c t l y answered more qu estion s about Mexico on th e Knowledge Test chose n ot to study o r v isit it. Eighth g rad e rs who c o r r e c t l y answered more q uestio n s about Mexico chose not to study i t . I t was a ls o p o ss ib le f o r no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p to e x i s t between knowledge o f and i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g o r studying a p a r t i c u l a r country. Such a c o n d itio n was e v id e n t in th e fo u rth g r a d e r s ' responses f o r Egypt, th e USSR, and China. T heir i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g those c o u n trie s was not s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to t h e i r knowledge about the cou ntri e s . Eighth g r a d e rs ' r e s u l t s in d ic a te d no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between knowledge o f and i n t e r e s t in studying Mexico and France. No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was found between knowledge about and i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g Mexico, France, th e USSR, China, and Egypt. No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p e x is te d between th e tw e lfth graders knowledge o f and i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g th e USSR, China, Egypt, o r t h e i r knowledge o f and i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g Mexico and France. 133 Teachers' Travel Experience Task D escription The 53 Ingham Interm ediate te a c h e rs who p a r t i c i p a te d in the 1981 study were asked t o complete a Teacher Background and I n t e r e s t Q u estionn aire. These t e a c h e r s ' responses to one item reg arding th e e x te n t o f tra v e l to fo re ig n c o u n trie s were compared with those o f te a c h e rs in th e 1974 sample to determine i f a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between th e groups in terms o f th e number o f coun­ t r i e s v i s i t e d o r the len g th o f time spent in each c ou ntry . The Kolomogrov-Smirnov Test was performed to analyze th e d a ta . The Ingham Interm ediate t e a c h e r s ' tra v e l experiences were a ls o compared with th e f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts ' i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g fo re ig n c o u n trie s to determine whether a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p e x is te d between th e two f a c t o r s . The percentage o f stu d e n ts who d e sire d to study o r v i s i t a fo re ig n country and th e percentage o f te a c h e rs who had v i s i t e d a fo re ig n country were compared to determine i f a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p e x is te d . The te n th major hypothesis s t a te d t h a t : Ho10: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate te a c h e rs and te a c h e rs in th e 1974 study in terms o f th e number o f c o u n trie s they have v i s i t e d . R e s u lts : According to th e r e s u l t s o f th e Kolomogrov-Smirnov T e s t, th e re was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between th e 1981 and 1974 te a c h e r groups in terms o f th e number o f fo re ig n c o u n trie s to 134 which they had tr a v e le d . The 1981 te a c h e rs had tra v e le d to a s i g ­ n i f i c a n t l y g r e a te r number o f fo re ig n c o u n trie s than had te a c h e rs in th e 1974 sample. The d ata did not support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). The eleventh major hypothesis s t a te d t h a t : Ho-i".: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe r e n c e between th e amount of time Ingham In term ediate tea ch e rs have spent in fo re ig n c o u n trie s and th e amount of time spent by te a c h e rs in th e 1974 study. R e s u lts : According to th e r e s u l t s o f th e Kolomogrov-Smirnov T e s t, no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between th e 198.1 and th e 1974 tea ch e r groups in terms o f th e amount o f time te a c h e rs had spent t r a v e lin g in fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . The d ata did support th e null hypothesis (p > .0 5 ). Comparison o f T eachers' Travel Experience With S tu d e n ts' I n t e r e s t in Studying and V is itin g Foreign Countries The i n v e s ti g a t o r a ls o attem pted to determine whether a r e l a ­ tio n s h ip e x is te d between Ingham Interm ediate te a c h e r s ' tr a v e l experi ence and t h e i r s t u d e n ts ' i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g fo reig n c o u n tr ie s . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p was explored to determine whether te a c h e rs who had tr a v e le d to c e r t a i n c o u n trie s had stu d e n ts who would be i n te r e s te d in v i s i t i n g o r studying th ose coun­ trie s. The in v e s tig a tio n did not reveal any d i s c e r n ib le p a tte r n s between te a c h e r s ' tr a v e l experience and t h e i r s tu d e n ts ' i n t e r e s t in 135 studying o r v i s i t i n g th e same c o u n tr ie s . The d ata were not analyzed fu rth er. Summary o f Teachers* Travel Experience The 1981 te a c h e rs had tr a v e le d to a g r e a te r number o f fo re ig n c o u n trie s than had tea ch e rs in th e 1974 sample. No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e e x is te d between th e two te a c h e r groups in terms o f the length o f time they had spent in each fo reig n cou ntry. S tu ­ d e n ts ' i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g or studying fo re ig n c o u n trie s did not appear to be a ff e c te d by t h e i r te a c h e r s ' tra v e l experience to fo re ig n c o u n trie s . Students seemed to base t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying o r v i s i t i n g a fo reig n country on reasons o th e r than t h e i r te a c h e r s ' tra v e l experience. Chapter Summary Not a l l o f th e hypotheses c o n stru cted f o r comparing th e 1981 Ingham Interm ediate study and th e 1974 n atio n al study showed s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s . For example, no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­ ences e x is te d between th e two s tu d ie s in terms o f stu d e n t i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . The hypothesis c o n stru cted f o r comparing the 1981 and th e 1974 s t u d i e s , concerning th e reso urces stu d e n ts used to le a rn about fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s , did i n d ic a te s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e s among c e r t a i n items a t each o f th e th r e e grade l e v e l s . The most fre q u e n tly se le c te d items in a l l g rad e s, in both s t u d i e s , were t e l e v i s i o n , books, magazines, and t r a v e l . 136 In comparing f o u r t h , e ig h th , and tw e lfth graders in th e 1981 and th e 1974 s tu d ie s in terms o f t h e i r global knowledge, some s t a t i s ­ t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe r e n c e s were noted. E ighth-grade males and females in th e 1981 study performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than t h e i r 1974 c o u n te rp arts on th e p o rtio n o f th e Knowledge T est concerning th e United S t a te s . Ingham Interm ediate eig h th -g rad e females performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on items regarding Egypt than did 1974 fem ales. Twelfth-grade females in th e 1981 study performed s i g n i f i ­ c a n tly b e t t e r on items concerning th e United S ta te s and France than did 1974 fem ales. However, 1974 females performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on items about China than did 1981 fem ales. Twelfth-grade males in th e 1981 sample performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on q uestio ns concerning France and Egypt than did t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts in th e 1974 study. An a n a ly s is o f t o t a l scores on th e Knowledge T est in d ic a te d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s between f o u rth graders in th e 1981 and th e 1974 samples. The 1981 stu d e n ts performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than th e 1974 s tu d e n ts . No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­ ences were noted between eig h th and tw e lfth graders in th e two s t u d i e s . Males performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than females a t a l l grade l e v e l s . An a n a ly s is across grade le v e ls in d ic a te d t h a t o ld e r stu d e n ts p e r­ formed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than younger stu d e n ts on th e Knowledge T est. An examination o f a p o ssib le r e l a t i o n s h i p between stu d e n t i n t e r e s t in studying o r v i s i t i n g a fo reig n country and knowledge o f t h a t country y ield ed mixed r e s u l t s . At tim e s, a s t a t i s t i c a l l y 137 s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x is te d between i n t e r e s t in studying o r v i s i t i n g a fo re ig n country and knowledge about t h a t c o untry. Students who c o r r e c t l y answered more q uestio n s about a p a r t i c u l a r country did e x h ib i t an i n t e r e s t in studying o r v i s i t i n g i t . The a n a ly s is a ls o revealed t h a t in some cases an inv erse r e l a ti o n s h i p between i n t e r e s t and knowledge e x is te d . I t was shown t h a t stu d e n ts could be knowledge­ a b le about a country and y e t not d e s ir e to study or v i s i t i t . In c e r t a i n i n s ta n c e s , th e r e was no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between knowledge and i n t e r e s t . In comparing th e tr a v e l experiences o f te a c h e rs in th e 1981 and th e 1974 s t u d i e s , a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found in th e number o f c o u n trie s to which te a c h e rs had tr a v e le d . Ingham I n t e r ­ mediate te a c h e rs had tr a v e le d to a g r e a te r number o f c o u n tr ie s than had te a c h e rs in th e 1974 study. No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­ ence e x is te d between th e two te a c h e r groups in terms o f th e len g th o f time they had spent in each fo re ig n c o untry. Chapter V c o n ta in s a summary o f th e r e s e a r c h , fin d in g s and conclusions based on th e data gathered in th e s tu d y , and recommenda­ t io n s f o r f u tu r e re s e a rc h . CHAPTER V FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The purpose o f t h i s study was to o b t a i n , an alyze, and compare data regarding f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham In term ediate s tu d e n ts ' global knowledge as well as t h e i r a t t i t u d e s toward and i n t e r e s t in o th e r n a tio n s and o th e r peoples. The r e s u l t s o f th e study a re intended to help school d i s t r i c t s in th e Ingham Interm ediate area plan a g lo b al-ed u c atio n curriculum . Ingham, Eaton, Io n ia , and C linton Counties c o n s t i t u t e the Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t a re a . from fo u r school d i s t r i c t s in t h a t a re a . The study sample was drawn Three o f th e school d i s ­ t r i c t s t h a t volunteered to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e study were suburban; one was r u r a l . A t o t a l sample o f 53 te a c h e rs and approximately 1,600 stu d e n ts p a r t i c i p a te d in th e study . Previous c h a p te rs described th e background, r e l a te d re s e a r c h , s e t t i n g , p o p u la tio n , d a t a - c o l l e c t i o n in stru m e n ts, methodology, and s t a t i s t i c a l analyses o f th e hypotheses. In t h i s c h a p te r, th e major fin d in g s o f th e stu d y , d isc u ssio n and im p lica tio n s o f th e f i n d in g s , p ro je c te d outcomes o f th e stu d y , and recommendations f o r f u t u r e re se a rc h a re p re se n te d . 138 139 Major R esults In th e follow ing s e c t i o n s , th e major r e s u l t s o f th e study a re discu ssed w ith in th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e s e t t i n g , p o p u latio n , and methodology. Student I n t e r e s t in Studying and V is itin g Foreign Countries On t h i s s e c tio n o f the t e s t , d iv e rs e r e s u l t s appeared a t a ll grade l e v e l s , in t h a t stu d e n ts chose d i f f e r e n t c o u n trie s to study and to v i s i t . As th e grade level in c re a s e d , th e tendency to d is tin g u is h between c o u n trie s to study and to v i s i t became more pronounced. The p ro p en sity to want to study and to v i s i t a g r e a te r number o f fo re ig n c o u n trie s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher in the fo u rth grade than in th e eig h th and tw e lf th grades. in th e 1974 study. This r e s u l t was a ls o found Based on th e number o f c o u n trie s stu d e n ts in the fo u rth grade s e le c te d to study and to v i s i t , i t appeared t h a t they had a p o s i t iv e i n t e r e s t in le a rn in g about o th e r c o u n tr ie s . In tere st d eclined in th e eig h th grade and in creased again in th e tw e lfth grade. These r e s u l t s a re s i m il a r to those o f th e 1974.study. The c o u n trie s chosen as being th e most d e s ir a b le ones to v i s i t were ones t h a t appeared to have c u ltu r e s s im ila r to t h a t o f th e United S t a te s . Canada and Western Europe were s e le c te d more f re q u e n tly than A frica and Asia as being d e s ir a b le p laces to v i s i t . The th r e e major communist c o u n trie s in th e study—China, th e USSR, and East Germany—were chosen by tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d en ts as being appealing p laces to study but not to v i s i t . Eighth graders s e le c te d th e USSR and East Germany as places they would l i k e to stu d y , 140 but n ot as p laces they would l i k e to v i s i t . This fin d in g was also e v id e n t in th e 1974 study. Resources Selected to Learn About Other Countries The r e s u l t s o f th e study in d ic ate d t h a t stu d e n ts learned about o th e r c o u n trie s and world events la r g e ly through th e communica­ tio n s media. In the p re s e n t stu d y , th e most important sources of inform ation a t a l l th r e e grade le v e ls were t e l e v i s i o n , magazines, books, and t r a v e l . These fin d in g s were a ls o s im ila r to th e 1974 fin d in g s . According to th e Ingham Interm ediate f o u rth and eig hth g ra d e rs, the rad io appeared to be a more important means o f le a rn in g about o th e r c o u n trie s than was e v id e n t in th e 1974 study. In c o n t r a s t , world f a i r s and museums appeared to be more i n f lu e n ti a l in lea rn in g about o th er natio n s to 1974 stu d e n ts than to Ingham Interm ediate eig h th and tw e lfth graders. Knowledge Test R esults An examination o f the data revealed t h a t th e 1981 f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e s tu d e n ts ' Knowledge T est scores were s l i g h t l y higher than th o se o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 study. However, the only s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e occurred between the two fo u rth -g ra d e groups on t o t a l Knowledge T est s c o re s . The 1981 stu d e n ts performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than th e 1974 s tu d e n ts . No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s were noted between eig h th and tw e lf th graders in th e two s t u d i e s . 141 In comparing eig h th and tw e lf th graders in th e 1981 and the 1974 s tu d ie s in terms o f t h e i r global knowledge, some s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s were found. Eighth-grade males and females in the 1981 study performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on th e p o rtio n o f the Knowledge Test concerning th e United S ta te s than did t h e i r coun­ t e r p a r t s in the 1974 study . Females in the 1981 study performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on items concerning Egypt than did 1974 fem ales. Twelfth-grade 1981 females performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on items concerning th e United S ta te s and France than did th e 1974 fem ales. However, the 1974 females performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on items about China than did 1981 fem ales. Twelfth-grade males in the 1981 study performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on q u estions concerning France and Egypt than did t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts in th e 1974 study. Ingham Interm ed iate m ales' performance on the Knowledge T est was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f females a t a l l grade l e v e l s . Males achieved s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher sco res on th e Knowledge Test than did fem ales. This fin d in g was a ls o e v id e n t in th e 1974 study. An examination o f th e Knowledge T est r e s u l t s a cro ss grade le v e ls in d ic a te d t h a t as stu d e n ts progressed through th e g ra d e s, th e number o f c o r r e c t responses in cre ased . Twelfth-grade stu d e n ts appeared to have s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r knowledge o f world events than did eigh th o r fo u rth g ra d e r s . This fin d in g was a lso evid en t in th e 1974 study. The d ata provided evidence t h a t th e global knowledge th e Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts demonstrated was inadequate. The major gaps in global knowledge occurred a t a l l grade l e v e ls in th e areas 142 o f map lo c a ti o n , th e Middle E a s t, Western Europe, and American gov­ ernment. S im ilar a re a s o f weakness appeared in th e 1974 study . On map l o c a t i o n , stu d e n ts m is id e n tif ie d th e United S t a t e s , the USSR, Mexico, China, France, and Egypt on a world map. The range o f c o rr e c t responses f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f fo re ig n c o u n trie s and th e United S ta te s was higher in th e tw e lfth grade than in the fo u rth grade. This fin d in g was s im ila r to th e firidings o f th e 1974 study. Responses o f stu d e n ts in both th e 1981 and th e 1974 s tu d ie s in d ic a te d a lim ite d knowledge o f governmental fun ctio n in g in the United S t a te s . The major exception was the re c o g n itio n o f defense as a major source o f pu b lic e x p en d itu res. Eighth and tw e lf th graders in th e 1981 study answered s i g n i f i c a n t l y more questio n s c o r r e c t l y than did t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts in th e 1974 study. Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts e x h ib ite d a lack o f knowledge about th e Middle E a s t, d e s p ite i t s exposure in th e media over the l a s t few y e a rs . Students were i l l informed about who th e le a d e r o f Egypt was, which c o u n trie s were Arab n a tio n s , and which were o i l producing n a tio n s. Students rep o rte d a g re a t i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g Western Europe but a ls o demonstrated a lack o f knowledge about t h a t a re a . A m a jo rity o f th e stu d e n ts did not c o r r e c t l y answer q uestion s about th e p ro d u cts, c lim a te , l o c a ti o n , governmental l e a d e r s , and form o f government o f c o u n trie s in Western Europe. The USSR and China, both world le a d e rs and highly pub licized n a tio n s , were a ls o c o u n trie s about which stu d en ts showed a lack o f knowledge. The l o c a ti o n s , type o f government, and c u ltu r e s o f th e 143 two c o u n trie s were a re as in which stu d e n ts had d i f f i c u l t y answering qu estio n s c o r r e c t l y . Current e v e n ts, geography, and American government appeared to be th e a reas of weakness f o r f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e stu d e n ts in th e Ingham Interm ediate study. The lev el o f 1981 e ig h th - and tw e lfth -g ra d e s t u d e n t s ’ global knowledge was not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f stu d e n ts in th e 1974 stud y. An examination o f a p o ss ib le r e l a ti o n s h i p between stu d e n t i n t e r e s t in studying o r v i s i t i n g a fo re ig n country and knowledge o f t h a t country y ie ld e d mixed r e s u l t s . At tim e s, a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p e x is te d between i n t e r e s t in studying o r v i s i t ­ ing a fo re ig n country and knowledge about t h a t co untry . That i s , stu d e n ts who c o r r e c t l y answered more q u e stio n s about a p a r t i c u l a r country did e x h ib it an i n t e r e s t in studying or v i s i t i n g i t . The a n a ly sis a ls o revealed t h a t in some cases an in v e rs e r e l a ti o n s h i p e x is te d between i n t e r e s t and knowledge. I t was shown t h a t stu d e n ts could be knowledgeable about a country and y e t not d e s ir e to study or to v i s i t i t . In c e r t a i n in s ta n c e s , th e re was no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g ­ n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p between knowledge and i n t e r e s t . Teacher Travel Experience In comparing th e tr a v e l experience o f te a c h e rs in the 1981 and th e 1974 s t u d i e s , a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found in th e number o f c o u n trie s to which te a c h e rs had t r a v e le d . Ingham Interm ediate te a c h e rs had t r a v e le d to a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a te r number o f c o u n trie s than had te a c h e rs in th e 1974 sample. Fourth-grade 144 Ingham Interm ediate te a c h e rs had tra v e le d more e x te n siv e ly than e ig h th - o r tw e lfth -g ra d e te a c h e rs in th e same sample. No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e re n c e e x is te d between th e 1981 and th e 1974 te a c h e r groups in terms o f th e length o f time spent in each fo re ig n c o un try. D ifferences in te a c h e r tra v e l experience did not appear to a f f e c t stu d e n t i n t e r e s t in studying o r v i s i t i n g fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . Student i n t e r e s t in fo re ig n c o u n trie s appeared to have been in fluenced by f a c t o r s t h a t were not examined in t h i s study. Discussion and Im plications o f th e Findings Student I n t e r e s t in Other Nations and Other Peoples One o f th e im portant fin d in g s o f t h i s study was t h a t f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g ra d e Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts evidenced an i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g fo reig n c o u n tr ie s . This i n t e r e s t was s i g n i f i c a n t l y high er among f o u rth graders than among e ig h th and tw e lf th g ra d e rs. The c o u n trie s most fre q u e n tly s e le c te d by fo u rth graders to study were Mexico, th e Western European c o u n tr i e s , and Canada. Fourth graders a ls o d e sire d to v i s i t Japan as well as the aforementioned c o u n tr ie s . The fo u rth g ra d e rs ' range o f responses was v aried and u n lim ite d . This fin d in g was a ls o confirmed in o th e r research s t u d i e s . Torney and Morris (1972) wrote t h a t c h ild re n in the e a rly grades a re ready f o r a global curriculum . Lambert and Klineberg (1967) in d ic a te d t h a t c h i l ­ dren around te n y ears o f age a re p a r t i c u l a r l y r e c e p tiv e to fo re ig n people. Leestma (1974) corroborated t h i s fin d in g in th e Other N ations, 145 Other Peoples study. He s t a te d t h a t fo u rth graders a re i n te r e s te d in lea rn in g about o th e r natio n s and o th e r peoples. Besides t h e i r openness toward d i f f e r e n t p eo ples, fo u rth graders in t h i s study may have been a ff e c te d by t h e i r t e a c h e r s ' t r a v e l experience. Although no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a ti o n s h i p e x is te d between stu d e n t i n t e r e s t in p a r t i c u l a r fo reig n c o u n trie s and te a c h e r tra v e l experience to th o se c o u n tr i e s , i t may be noted t h a t the fo u r th grade tea ch e rs in th e sample were the most highly t r a v e le d . Perhaps th e te a c h e r s ' i n t e r e s t in d i f f e r e n t c o u n trie s stim u la te d an i n t e r e s t in t h e i r stu d en ts to study and v i s i t fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . Eighth graders in th e p resen t study were more s e l e c t i v e than fo u rth graders in t h e i r choices o f c o u n trie s to study and to v i s i t . They ranked the Western European c o u n tr ie s , Canada, Mexico, Japan, and I s ra e l in the top te n p o sitio n s as d e s ir a b le places to v i s i t . Eighth graders chose to study th e Western European c o u n tr i e s , Canada, the USSR, Egypt, and East Germany. The range o f responses was not as g r e a t f o r eig h th graders as i t was fo r fo u rth and tw e lf th g ra d e rs. in th e 1974 study. This fin d in g was a ls o evid en t A review o f Lambert and K lin eb erg 's study by Torney and Morris (1972) suggested t h a t , by th e age o f 14, stu d en ts appeared l e s s re c e p tiv e to p o s itiv e opinions about fo re ig n peoples and n a tio n s . In another research stu d y , conducted by the In te rn a tio n a l A ssociation f o r the Evaluation o f Educational Achievement (Abramowitz e t a l . , 1978), i t was rep o rte d t h a t 14 y e ar olds and a do lescents appeared more in te r e s te d in n ational than in te r n a tio n a l e v e n ts. 146 Twelfth graders in th e Ingham Interm ediate study a lso e le c te d to v i s i t th e Western European nation s more fre q u e n tly than th e o th e r natio n s l i s t e d in th e i n t e r e s t q u e stio n n a ire . ested in v i s i t i n g Japan, Mexico, and Egypt. They were a ls o i n t e r ­ The tw e lfth graders wanted to study th e Western European c o u n tr i e s , th e USSR, Japan, Mexico, and China. Twelfth graders displayed an i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t ­ ing more c o u n trie s with a wider range o f c u ltu r a l d iffe re n c e s than did eig h th g ra d e rs. They a lso e x h ib ited a more p o s i t iv e i n t e r e s t in studying and v i s i t i n g fo re ig n c o u n trie s than did eigh th g ra d e rs. All o f th e school d i s t r i c t s rep o rted having a stu d e n t exchange program in th e high school. They a ls o provided language courses and a v a r ie ty o f so c ial s tu d ie s o f f e r i n g s . These f a c t o r s might have influenced stu d e n t a t t i t u d e s toward o th e r n a tio n s and o th e r peoples and developed an i n t e r e s t in fo reig n c o u n tries in th e tw e lfth g ra d e rs. At th e time t h i s study was conducted, c e r t a i n newsworthy events occurred t h a t must be mentioned because they might be c o n sid ­ ered f a c t o r s t h a t could have influenced stu d e n t i n t e r e s t in c e r t a i n c o u n trie s . In th e summer o f 1981, England was highly pu blicized because o f th e m arriage o f Prince Charles and Lady Diana. Hence i t i s not s u rp r is in g t h a t England was subsequently chosen as th e f i r s t place f o u r t h - , e ig h t h - , and tw e lfth -g rad e Ingham Interm ediate stu d en ts se le c te d to v i s i t . I s ra e l and Egypt were a ls o in th e news, although not in as p o s itiv e a l i g h t as England. Research by Abramowitz e t a l . (1978) in d ic a te d t h a t American c h ild re n tend to r e j e c t people and c o u n trie s 147 t h a t have re c e n tly been involved in a war. The low rankings of I s r a e l and Egypt by th e Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts appeared to confirm t h i s a s s e r ti o n . Despite th e g r e a t amount o f p u b lic ity surrounding th e USSR and China, n e ith e r o f th e s e c o u n trie s appeared as places the stu d e n ts would most l i k e to v i s i t . However, th e USSR was r a te d as a place the o ld e r stu d e n ts would l i k e to study. Perhaps th e language d i f f e r ­ ences, the form o f government, the perceived d i f f e r e n t customs o f the people in th ese c o u n tr i e s , and th e type o f p re s e n ta tio n th e USSR and China re c e iv e in the media a re reasons f o r the s tu d e n ts ' lack o f i n t e r e s t in v i s i t i n g them. As a r e s u l t o f a study they conducted in th e 1950s, Lambert and Klineberg (1967) rep o rted t h a t American c h ild re n i d e n t i f i e d th e Chinese, Indians from In d ia , R ussians, and African Negroes as being d i f f e r e n t from them selves. I t appears t h a t many such a t t i t u d e s about fo reig n peoples a re s t i l l p rev a len t in th e United S ta te s and i n f l u ­ ence s tu d e n ts ' opinions o f people whom they perceive as being d i f f e r ­ e n t. Ingham In term ed iate stu d e n ts designated L ib e ria , I n d ia , Taiwan, China, East Germany, and Egypt as l o w - in te r e s t c o u n tr ie s . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s study in d ic a te d t h a t , 30 y ears a f t e r Lambert and K lineberg 's stu d y , c e r t a i n peoples a re s t i l l considered " d i f f e r e n t . " I n t e r e s t i n g l y , the Japanese seem to have broken through th e b a rrie rs of d is in te r e s t. Perhaps t h e i r in flu e n ce in th e high-technology world o f autom obiles, video games, and computers i s stro ng enough to remove c u ltu r a l b a r r i e r s o r a t l e a s t to awaken an i n t e r e s t in and acceptance o f another c u l t u r e . 148 The Influence o f the Media on Student Learning Another fin d in g in t h i s study concerned th e resources stu d e n ts used to le a rn about fo re ig n c o u n trie s and world e v e n ts. The communica­ ti o n s media—t e l e v i s i o n , magazines, and books—appeared to be th e most i n f lu e n ti a l sources o f knowledge f o r f o u r t h - , e i g h t h - , and tw e lf th grade Ingham Interm ediate s tu d e n ts . Travel was a ls o highly ra te d as an i n f l u e n t i a l resource f o r lea rn in g about fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . These fin d in g s were corroborated in th e 1974 natio n al study. Becker (1974) a ls o found t h a t t e l e v i s i o n was the major source o f information f o r young people. Lambert and Klineberg (1967) rep o rte d t h a t t e le v is io n was s e le c te d more fre q u e n tly as a major source o f inform ation about fo re ig n peoples than any o th e r reso u rce . Hanvey (in Morehouse, 1978) commented t h a t th e media co n ce n tra te on an event and ignore the r e l a ti o n s h i p between occurrences and f a c t s . The media provide a v a st amount o f inform ation about world a f f a i r s , and a t th e same time they in flu e n ce th e way world a f f a i r s a re ta u g h t. Educators need to examine th e p re s e n t use o f th e media and e i t h e r develop new ways o f using th e se powerful reso u rces o r r e f i n e and improve e x is tin g techniques and s t r a t e g i e s . Students must be a b le to d isc e rn th e d i f ­ feren ce between fa c tu a l inform ation and biased o p inio ns. Their c r i t i c a l - t h i n k i n g s k i l l s must be developed so they can form ulate unprejudiced viewpoints about o th e r natio n s and o th e r peoples. 149 An Examination o f Student Global Knowledge The r e s u l t s o f th e Knowledge T est rev ealed a number o f i n t e r ­ e s tin g fin d in g s . Males in th e 1981 study performed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r than females on th e Knowledge T e s t. p re s e n t in th e 1974 stu d y . This fin d in g was a ls o Males' Knowledge T est sc o res were s i g ­ n i f i c a n t l y hig her than tho se o f females across the th r e e grade l e v e l s . Educators and p aren ts need to r e f l e c t on an u n in te n tio n a l message they may be d e liv e r in g to c h ild r e n . Are males expected to perform b e t t e r than females in so c ia l s tu d ie s ? Are males given more o p p o rtu n itie s than females to develop map s k i l l s and an i n t e r e s t in c u rr e n t a f f a i r s ? Although the 1981 fem ales' sco res were s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher in c e r t a i n a re as on th e Knowledge T est in comparison to 1974 fem ales, th e re i s s t i l l room f o r improvement. Females need to a p p re c ia te th e importance o f being informed c i t i z e n s and a c tiv e p a r t i c i p a n t s in world even ts. Another fin d in g o f t h i s study was t h a t o ld e r stu d e n ts p e r ­ formed s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r on th e Knowledge T est than did younger s tu d e n ts . The p ro p en sity to answer c o r r e c t l y increased as th e s t u ­ dents progressed through th e g rad es. study. This was a ls o t r u e in th e 1974 I t i s re a ss u rin g t h a t tw e lfth graders a re b e t t e r informed about world events th an e ig h th o r fo u rth g ra d e rs. A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e e x is te d between fo u rth graders in th e 1981 and th e 1974 s tu d ie s on th e Knowledge T e s t. The 1981 stu d e n ts a tt a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher scores on th e Knowledge 150 Test than did t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts in the 1974 study. No s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe re n c e was found between th e eig hth g raders and th e tw e lf th graders in th e two study groups. Despite c u r r i c u l a r changes, rev ised so c ial s tu d ie s programs, and th e promotion of global and m u ltic u ltu r a l education in th e sc h o o ls, the Ingham Interm ediate stu d e n ts did not perform as well as expected o r d e s ir e d . Whether f u tu r e g enerations see more informed and b e t t e r prepared stu d e n ts and c i t i z e n s i s q u e stio n a b le . Educators and p arents need to assume a more a c t iv e r o le in p o s i t iv e l y in flu e n cin g c h i l d r e n 's a t t i t u d e s toward o th e r n a tio n s and o th e r peoples. Understanding, accep tance, and re c o g n itio n o f d iffe re n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s between c u ltu r e s and peoples a re v i t a l to world p ro s p e r ity and growth. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s study in d ic a te d t h a t th e r e i s a need f o r a renewed e f f o r t in s t r i v i n g toward the goal o f global understanding. P ro jected Outcomes o f the Study The r e s u l t s of th e d a ta a n a ly s is have been d isp e rsed to th e v o lu n te er school d i s t r i c t s t h a t p a r t i c i p a te d in th e study. According to Garry M ichaels, A s s is ta n t Superintendent f o r I n s t r u c t i o n , Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t , th e v o lu n te er d i s t r i c t s have been encouraged to use the d a ta in terms o f the follow ing fo u r q u e stio n s : 1. Within lim ite d terms o f re fe re n c e employed in th e measures, what i s i t t h a t stu d e n ts should know about o th e r natio n s and o th e r peoples? What qu estio n s were no t asked o r s u b je c ts not probed t h a t a re a t l e a s t eq u ally e s s e n t ia l? e s s e n t ia l? What was included t h a t was non- 151 2. As one moves beyond th e e a s i e r kinds involving a o f fa c tu a l q uestion s small number o f major natio n s and toward morecomplex world is s u e s , i t becomes cated frame apparent t h a t a broader o f refe re n c e than t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l l y schools i s required f o r le a rn in g about th e world. and mores o p h i s t i ­ employedin th e What a re th e b asics of global p e rsp ec tiv e s in th e im p lic a tio n s f o r various c u r r ic u ­ lum areas? 3. R ealizing t h a t knowledge of in d ividu al n a tio n s and p e oples, b i l a t e r a l r e l a t i o n s , regional r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and global problems and issu e s a re a l l involved in in te r n a tio n a l understanding, what i n t e r ­ national knowledge, s k i l l s , and s e n s i b i l i t i e s should every stu d e n t acq u ire as p a rt o f h i s / h e r basic p re p a ra tio n f o r American c i t i z e n ­ s h ip , and how can th ese b e st be taught? 4. What a re th e im p lica tio n s o f th e foregoing f o r coopera­ tio n between educational i n s t i t u t i o n s and th e community? The Division o f In s tr u c tio n a l Services and th e Department o f Planning and Evaluation in th e Ingham Interm ediate School D i s t r i c t have made themselves a v a ila b le to th e fo u r v o lu n te er school d i s t r i c t s as reso urces and a re prepared to a s s i s t the school d i s t r i c t s in any way p o ss ib le . The Michigan Department o f Education intends to examine the r e s u l t s of t h i s study in terms o f th e follow ing q u e stio n s : 1. How do th e global Knowledge T est r e s u l t s o f stu d en ts in the Ingham Interm ediate study compare with those of stu d e n ts in the 1974 n atio n al study? Are th e re s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s in the t e s t r e s u l t s between stu d e n ts in the two s tu d ie s ? 152 2. I f s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s e x i s t , i s th e re any evidence to in d ic a te t h a t th e se d iff e r e n c e s might be a t t r i b u t e d to th e Michi­ gan Department o f E ducation's global g u id e lin e s t h a t were adopted in 1977? 3. How do th e r e s u l t s o f th e 1981 study compare with those o f o th e r population ty p e s , such as stu d e n ts in m i l i t a r y and in te r n a tio n a l schools and in school d i s t r i c t s in o th e r p a rts o f Michigan? 4. Do s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe r e n c e s e x i s t between stu d e n ts in th e four vo lu n teer school d i s t r i c t s in t h i s stu d y , in terms o f the school d i s t r i c t s ' l o c a ti o n s , i . e . , suburban versus r u r a l ? 5. Was th e t e s t instrum ent adequate in terms o f i t s s u i t a ­ b i l i t y f o r the stu d e n ts in t h i s study? Are m o dification s o r r e v is io n s in th e instrum ent warranted? 6. What in - s e r v ic e programs o r t e a c h e r - tr a in in g a c t i v i t i e s a re d e s ir a b le f o r te a c h e rs in Michigan schools t h a t w ill improve t h e i r s k i l l s in th e area o f global education? Based on th e fin d in g s and conclusions o f t h i s stu d y , approp­ r i a t e measures w ill be designed to improve M ichigan's so c ial s tu d ie s curriculum in the area o f global education. Recommendations f o r Future Study 1. The p o s s i b i l i t y o f a r e l a ti o n s h i p between s tu d e n ts ' a t t i ­ tudes toward o th e r peoples and n a tio n s and t h e i r knowledge o f o th e r c o u n trie s should be in v e s tig a te d . Is i t important f o r educators to know how s tu d e n ts ' percep tio n s o f fo reig n peoples in flu e n ce t h e i r d e s ir e to stu d y , v i s i t , o r le a rn about fo re ig n peoples and n atio ns? I f i t i s , curriculum changes can be designed acco rdin gly. 153 2. More inform ation is. needed about th e study o f fo reig n languages and s tu d e n ts ' knowledge o f fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . I t would be i n t e r e s t i n g to explore th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a r e l a ti o n s h i p between s t u ­ d e n ts ' knowledge o f fo re ig n languages and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in and knowl­ edge o f fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s . 3. The study should be r e p lic a te d in a more heterogeneous school d i s t r i c t with a g r e a t e r percentage o f m inority stu d e n ts to determine whether a r e l a ti o n s h i p e x i s t s between s t u d e n ts ' e t h n i c i t y and t h e i r i n t e r e s t in studying o r v i s i t i n g fo re ig n c o u n trie s or t h e i r a t t i t u d e s toward fo reig n n a tio n s . 4. Would re se a rc h in th e area o f d i f f e r e n t curriculum pro­ grams determine what experiences would b e s t c o n tr ib u te t o c h i l d r e n 's global understanding? 5. This i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t might be explored. P ossible reasons f o r th e b e t t e r performance in social s tu d ie s o f males over females should be analyzed. An examination o f te a c h e r s ' a t t i t u d e s toward th e so cial s tu d ie s course c o n te n t and t h e i r ex p ectatio n s f o r male and female stu d e n ts in t h e i r c la s s e s i s a pos­ s i b l e to p ic f o r fu tu re re s e a rc h . 6. Parental and s o c ie ta l e x p ec ta tio n s o f males and fem ales' r o le s o u tsid e of school need to be explored. Dr. John Chapman, Social Studies S p e c i a l i s t with th e Michigan Department o f Education, sug­ gested t h a t perhaps boys a re more a p t than g i r l s to be given g lo b es, p u z zles, maps, h is to r y and geography books, and s u b s c rip tio n s to magazines such as National Geographic. Bestowing or not bestowing g i f t s such as th e s e conveys a message. This to p ic w arrants f u tu r e resea rch . 154 7. Programs t h a t expose paren ts and stu d e n ts to people o f d i f f e r e n t c u lt u r a l backgrounds should be developed. Research could then be conducted to determ ine whether i n t e r e s t in d i f f e r e n t c u ltu r e s a f f e c t s the knowledge and a t t i t u d e s toward th e s e c u l t u r e s . APPENDICES APPENDIX A LETTER OF SUPPORT BY PHILLIP E. RUNKEL, SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, STATE OF MICHIGAN 156 157 STATE OP MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Lansing, M ichigan 46909 PHILUF E. RUNKEL January 21, 1982 Superintendent of Public Inunction STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION BARBARA DUMOUCHELLE President DR. GUMECINDO SALAS Vice President SILVERENIA Q. KANOYTON Secretary NORMAN OTTO STOCKMEYER, SR. Treasurer DR. EDMUND F. VANDETTE N ASB E Delegate BARBARA ROBERTS MASON ANNETTA MILLER JOHN WATANEN, JR. GOV. WILLIAM G. MILLIKEN EX'OJJicio Ms. Mary Vyniemko 5848 Bole lie Haslett, Michigan 48840 Dear Ms. Wynlemko: This letter is a response to your December 19, 1981 request for a letter of support from me in regard to your doctoral research project. Unquestionably, it is of critical importance that all Michigan schools should, within their educational programs, give appropriate consideration to the topic of global education. Our schools must provide opportunities for all students to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes about the global society which will enable them to be effective world citizens both now and in the twenty-first century. I am pleased to learn of your cooperation with the Ingham Intermediate School District to assess Ingham area students' levels of global understanding. The data which you obtain, as well as your subsequent conclusions and recommendations, will be of particular use for curriculum coordinators, administrators and teachers within a large number of Michigan school districts. Also, the State Board of Education has recently approved revised objectives for social studies education within Michigan. The objectives included a special curriculum strand at each educational level in regard to global issues. Thus, the survey now being conducted at Ingham, including the methodology and survey instruments utilized, can be used by the state social studies specialist and other appropriate Department staff in their work with local school districts to enhance global education. Sincerely, Phillip E. Runkel APPENDIX B TABULATION OF STUDENT RESPONSES TO SELECTED ITEMS ON THE BACKGROUND AND INTEREST QUESTIONNAIRE AND KNOWLEDGE TEST RESULTS FOR THE 1981 AND 1974 STUDIES 158 Table B - l . —B irth p lace o f 1981 Ingham Interm ediate sample population (in p e rc e n t). Mother Father Student Country 4th Grade 8th Grade 12th Grade 4th Grade 8th Grade 12th Grade 4th Grade 8th Grade 12th Grade Canada 0.0% 0.4% 0.0% 0.8% 0.4% 0.3% 0.7% 0.6% 0.3% China 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.8 0.0 0.2 0.8 0.0 Colombia 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.6 Cuba 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.3 Dominican Republic 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 East Germany 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.0 England 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 Greece 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.0 Italy 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.0 Mexico 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.7 ! .7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 P hilip p in es 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.4 0.6 Poland 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Puerto Rico 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 Taiwan 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.9 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.3 United S ta te s 93.2 93.5 94.7 87.1 89.3 94.1 90.7 90.5 91.7 West Germany 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.4 0.0 0.5 0.6 1.2 Other 0.5 3.3 3.1 0.3 5.1 4.2 3.1 3.8 4 .4 4.3 Table B-2.—Nations students would lik e to s tu d y /v isit: 1981 Ingham Intermediate study (in percent and rank order). Country Twelfth Graders Eighth Graders Study V is it Fourth Graders V isit Study Study Rank P et. Order P et. Rank Order P et. Rank Order P et. Rank Order P et. Rank Order Greece 47.5* 6 47.2* 8 24.8* 3 24.6* 4 16.9* 11 Mexico 57.0 1 63.0 2 12.5 13.5 18.3 6 18.6 Canada 47.2 7 58.4 5 21.6 4 22.2 5 England 54.8 3.5 63.6 1 29.6 2 43.4 France 56.7 2 62.5 3 32.7 1 Spain 53.0 5 59.0 4 13.9 I ta ly 46.1 8 51.9 7 W. Germany 43.6 10 41.6 E. Germany 35.5 13.5 USSR 30.9 Taiwan V is it Rank P et. Order 26.2% 5 8 14.1 9 28.4 4 36.9 3 1 34.5 1 50.2 1 40.2 2 29.4 3 49.5 2 10 14.3 8 16.9 11 20.0 7 17.9 7 26.6 3 23.3 6 32.2 4 11 18.7 6 17.0 7 24.3 5 22.1 6 36.6 14 15.5 9 7.8 13 16.9 11 6.2 14 15 27.2 16 21.4 5 4.8 15 31.8 2 8 .4 11 39.5 11 35.5 15 13.7 11.5 9.9 12 11.1 15 8 .2 12 China 35.5 13.5 42.1 10 9.3 15 7.5 15 18.2 9 5.4 15 Japan 54.8 3.5 57.3 6 13.7 11.5 13.9 9 22.0 7 17.3 8 India 37.0 12 37.9 12 6.7 16 4.6 16 7.4 16 3.1 16.5 Israel 29.5 16 37.0 13 12.5 13.5 11.2 10 11.8 14 6.9 13 Egypt 44.9 9 42.5 9 17.1 8 10.1 11 16.2 13 9.2 10 Liberia 20.4 17 21.2 17 4.8 17 2.3 17 2.4 17 3.1 16.5 161 Table B -3.—Ways o f le a rn in g about o th e r c o u n tr ie s : Ingham Interm ediate Study, 1981 (in p e rc e n t) . Ways o f Learning 4th Grade 8 th Grade 12th Grade T elev ision 73.3% 46.5% 58.5% Radio 41.2 27.5 22.2 Movies 56.3 35.3 35.8 Books 80.3 39.6 44.0 • • 42.9 56.1 Travel 80.5 32.3 28.5 Fairs/museums 62.2 17.5 7.3 C o llectio n s 27.4 12.7 6.7 Shops • • 16.3 11.1 Parents • • 37.1 32.6 Teachers • • 34.8 35.3 71.5 36.7 29.1 National events • • 24.4 36.5 In te r n a tio n a l events • • 23.8 39.4 Local events • • 9.1 7.7 Church groups 17.1 9.9 7.6 School groups • • 9.1 7.7 School clubs • • 10.3 6.1 Magazines F rien d s/relativ es 162 Table B -4 .— Knowledge le v e ls by n a tio n — Grade 4: Ingham In term ed iate stu dy, 1981. Items Group by Nation: Subscore Female Male Group !“ er o f Items Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. USA 4 64.2 25.9 58.6 27.2 61.1 26.7 Mexico 3 68.3 30.4 62.8 30.7 65.4 30.7 France 2 40.1 37.0 33.0 37.4 36.5 37.4 USSR 3 58.0 25.9 53.3 23.4 55.5 24.6 China 5 28.9 21.2 24.4 28.8 26.7 20.2 Egypt 4 42.0 23.9 36.3 24.0 39.0 24.1 World 5 56.4 22.1 49.1 23.5 52.6 23.1 26 50.4 14.4 44.6 13.6 47.4 14.3 All Items: Total (N) 309 342 656 163 Table B -5 .— Knowledge le v e ls by n a tio n — Grade 8 : Ingham In term ed iate Study, 1981. Items Group by Nation: Male Female Group Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. USA 8 72.5 21.1 69.0 20.5 70.8 20.8 Mexico 7 58.0 18.9 55.2 19.2 56.5 19.1 France 5 47.8 25.1 43.9 23.5 45.7 24.5 USSR 9 53.7 19.1 47.8 17.3 50.8 18.6 China 7 54.5 23.3 47.3 22.5 51.0 23.2 Egypt 7 42.5 19.9 37.5 18.2 40.1 19.3 World 9 47.6 18.0 42.8 17.4 45.4 17.9 52 54.1 13.5 49.3 12.9 51.7 13.4 All Items: Total (N) 275 258 537 164 Table B-6.~Knowledge le v e ls by n a tio n — Grade 12: Ingham In term ed iate Study, 1981. Items Group by Nation: Subscore o f Items Male Female Group Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. USA 8 75.2 18.5 70.6 20.2 72.9 19.4 Mexi co 7 70.5 19.6 64.8 20.5 67.7 20.2 France 6 70.6 27.4 60.8 25.6 65.7 26.9 USSR 9 67.9 17.8 57.8 19.6 62.9 19.3 China 7 53.8 20.7 44.1 18.4 49.0 20.1 Egypt 8 53.9 25.1 43.8 22.6 49.0 24.3 World 9 56.3 17.9 52.6 18.9 54.5 18.5 54 61.6 14.0 54.4 12.9 58.1 13.9 All Items: Total (N) 163 162 327 165 Table B-7.—Knowledge le v e ls by n a tio n —Grade 8 : Items Group by Nation: Male ONOP stu d y , 1974. Female QfNumber ltQ m Mean S.D. Mean S.D. USA 8 5. 2 1. 7 4.9 1. 6 Mexico 7 4.1 1. 4 3.9 1. 3 France 5 2. 2 1.1 2. 2 1.1 USSR 9 4.5 1.8 4.2 1. 6 China 7 3.5 1.4 3. 3 1. 4 Egypt 7 2. 8 1.5 2.4 1. 3 World 9 4.1 1. 5 3.8 1. 5 Subscore subscore Note: No group score was lis t e d in Table 41 o f the ONOP book. 166 Table B-8.~Knowledge l e v e ls by n a tio n —Grade 12: ONOP s tu d y , 1974. Items Group by Nation: Subscore Male Number Female Mean S.D. Mean S.D. USA 8 5.8 1.5 5.3 1.5 Mexi co 7 5.1 1.3 4 .7 1.4 France 6 3.5 1.3 3.1 1.3 USSR 9 5.8 1.7 5.0 1.7 China 7 3.8 1.3 3.4 1.4 Egypt 8 3.9 2.0 3.2 1.5 World 9 5.2 1.4 4.7 1.5 Note: No group score was lis t e d in Table 43 o f th e ONOP book. APPENDIX C COPY OF A LETTER OF PERMISSION GIVEN BY THE EDUCATIONAL TESTING SERVICE RELEASING THE TEST MATERIALS—OTHER NATIONS, OTHER PEOPLES 167 168 EDUCATIONAL T E S T IN G SERV ICE P R I N C E T O N . N.J. 0 8 5 4 1 6 0 9 - Q i : -9 0 0 0 CABU-ZDUC TESTSV C July 2, 19S2 Dr. Lois Bader Dr. John M. Chapman State of Michigan Departmept of Education Lansing, Michigan 48909 Dear Dr. Bader and Dr. Chapman: Educational Testing Service is pleased to grant your request to use the test materials listed below for purposes of research studies described in your letter of May 21, 1982. The materials you wish to use are as follows: Parts of the instruments from Measures of Global Under­ standing, and parts of the Other Nations, Other Peoples survey instruments. Your use of these materials and any relevant documentation ETS may supply is subject to the following conditions: 1. Use of the materials is restricted to the research . purpose described in your request to ETS, and you will not provide or otherwise make them available to others without ETS'a express written permission. Where publi­ cation of your research findings requires reproduction of ETS authored items, acknowledgments similar to those below should be given. Please let us know when any such publication is planned. 2. You will assume responsibility for the analyses and conclusions of your study and, other than acknowledg­ ment that ETS supplied the test materials, you will not use ETS's or a test sponsor’s name in such a way as to imply participation in or responsibility for your study, nor may you use the materials for any commercial purposes. 3. Unless otherwise specified by ETS, the results of your study will be shared with ETS. Please send a copy of your findings directly to Dr. Thomas Barrows. 4. This permission is nonexclusive and royalty-free. 169 Dr. Bader and Dr. Chapman 5. - 2- July 2, 1982 Each reproduced copy of the Clobal Understanding instrument shall carry the following copyright notice: Copyright ® 1980 by Educational Testing Service. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission. The instrument containing Other Nations portions should carry appropriate'acknowledgment of ETS as the developer of the study and instruments, and of Office of Education (HEW) funding. If these arrangements are satisfactory, please sign both copies of this letter and return one copy to us. Sincerely, Helen C. Weidenmiller Rights and Permissions Administrator cc: Dr. Barrows ACCEPTED AND AGREED TO: Dr. Lois Bader fj apman Dr. John M. Cnap BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Abramowitz, Norman; L eighton, Andrew J . ; and Viederman, Stephen. A ssociation f o r Supervision and Curriculum Development 1978 Yearbook Committee. 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